Rethinking Organizational and Managerial Communication from Feminist Perspectives [1 ed.] 9781452262161, 9780761912798

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Rethinking Organizational fy Managerial Communication From Feminist Perspectives

Rethinking

Organizational

fy Managerial

Communication

From Feminist

Perspectives

Patrice M. Buzzanell Editor

Sage Publications, Inc.

' International Educational and Professional Publisher Thousand Oaks • London • New Delhi

Copyright €> 2000 by Sage Publications, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and re­ trieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

For

information: Sage Publications, Inc.

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Thousand Oaks, California 91320

E-mail: [email protected]

Sage Publications Ltd.

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London EC2A 4PU

United Kingdom

Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd.

M-32 Market

Greater Kailash I

New Delhi 110 048 India

Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication

Data

Main entry under title: Rethinking organizational and managerial communication from feminist perspectives / [edited by] Patrice M. Buzzanell. p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and indexes.

Rev. papers presented at the 1996 National Communication Association

conference, held in San Diego, Calif. ISBN 0-7619-1278-9 (cloth: alk. paper) — ISBN 0-7619-1279-7 (pbk.: alk. paper) 1. Communication in organization—Congresses. 2. Communication in management—Congresses. 3. Feminist theory—Congresses. 4. Women in communication—Congresses. 5. Women—Communication—Congresses. 6. Communication—Sex differences—Congresses. I. Buzzanell, Patrice M. HD30.3 .R475 2000 658.4'5'082—dc21 00

01

02

03

Acquiring Editor: Editorial Assistant: Production Editor: Editorial Assistant: Typesetter: Indexer: Cover Designer:

04

00-008077 05

06

7

Margaret H. Seawell Sandra Krumholz Astrid Virding Victoria Cheng Tina Hill Cristina Haley Candice Harman

6

5

4

3

2

1

To my parents, Francis G. and Marie J. Buzzanell,

and my siblings, Charles A. Buzzanell, M.D.,

and Doreen Buzzanell Koehler.

Contents

Preface Patrice

ix

M.

Buzzanell

Introduction: In Medias Patrice

M.

Res

Buzzanell

xiii



PART I: CONFRONTING OUR PAST

1. C o m m u n i c a t i o n , O r g a n i z a t i o n , and t h e P u b l i c S p h e r e :

A Feminist Perspective Dennis

K.

Mumby

2 . B e t w e e n t h e G e n e r a l i z e d a n d the C o n c r e t e O t h e r :

Approaching Organizational Ethics From Feminist Perspectives Tanni Haas and Stanley

Bullis and Karen Rohrbauck

and Deborah

M.

47

Stout

4 . R e t h i n k i n g N e g o t i a t i o n : F e m i n i s t V i e w s of C o m m u n i c a t i o n

and E x c h a n g e Linda L. Putnam

24

Deetz

3 . O r g a n i z a t i o n a l S o c i a l i z a t i o n : A F e m i n i s t S t a n d p o i n t A p p r o a c h Connie

3

Kolb

76

PART II: RETHINKING PRESENT PROCESSES

5. R e v i s i o n i n g C o n t r o l : A F e m i n i s t C r i t i q u e of D i s c i p l i n e d B o d i e s Angela



Trethewey

6. W a l k i n g t h e H i g h W i r e : L e a d e r s h i p T h e o r i z i n g , D a i l y A c t s ,

and Tensions Marlene

107

G. Fine and Patrice

M.

128

Buzzanell

1. A F e m i n i s t R e f r a m i n g of S t r e s s : R o s e ' s Story Marifran Mattson, Robin Patric Clair,

Pamela A. Chapman Sanger, and Adrianne

Dennis

157

Kunkel



PART III: AUTHORING OUR FUTURE

8. " L e a r n i n g the R o p e s " : A B l a c k F e m i n i s t S t a n d p o i n t A n a l y s i s Brenda

J. Allen

9. T h e P r o m i s e a n d P r a c t i c e of the N e w C a r e e r and S o c i a l

C o n t r a c t : I l l u s i o n s E x p o s e d and S u g g e s t i o n s for R e f o r m Patrice

177

M.

Buzzanell

10. C h a o s T h e o r y and the G l a s s C e i l i n g Cindy Reuther

209

and Gail T.

236

Fairhurst

CONCLUDING CHAPTER 11. D i a l o g u i n g . . . Patrice

M.

257 Buzzanell

References

265

Index

305

A b o u t the Contributors

323



Preface

Patrice M . Buzzanell

This edited book began with an invitation to submit a b o o k prospectus o n organizational c o m m u n i c a t i o n for a possible feminist series with S a g e . Sonja F o s s r e q u e s t e d w o r k s that c o u l d c o n t r i b u t e t o a m o r e h o l i s t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f specific areas within c o m m u n i c a t i o n through feminist analyses. H e r invita­ tion p r o m p t e d m e to begin a discussion with several feminist organizational c o m m u n i c a t i o n scholars about h o w different theories, research, and practices could be reconsidered from multiple feminisms. These scholars enthusiasti­ cally r e s p o n d e d to m y request that they participate in a 1996 N a t i o n a l C o m ­ munication Association ( N C A ; then called the Speech C o m m u n i c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n ) c o n f e r e n c e p a n e l h e l d in S a n D i e g o , C a l i f o r n i a . T h e y e a c h i d e n ­ tified a n a r e a in o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a n d m a n a g e r i a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s t u d i e s t h a t they believed could be enhanced through feminist analyses. O u r N C A panel was a well-attended (beyond our expectations) and very encouraging begin­ ning to this edited v o l u m e . After the conference, t h e authors revised their conference presentations i n t o draft c h a p t e r s t h a t w e r e t h e n r e v i e w e d b y f e m i n i s t r e s e a r c h e r s , n o n feminist organizational and managerial communication experts, a n d myself. W h a t e m e r g e d is a n e d i t e d v o l u m e t h a t offers a c o u n t e r p o i n t t o t h e o r ­ d i n a r y w a y s in w h i c h o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a n d m a n a g e r i a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e ­ searchers have approached topics such as socialization, ethics, a n d negotia­ t i o n . A s s u c h , o u r c h a p t e r s in Rethinking Organizational and Managerial Communication From Feminist Perspectives intend to critique a n d supple­ ix

X

COMMUNICATION FROM FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES

ment existing approaches with alternative insights, practices, and research agendas. O u r c h a p t e r s are not as m u c h a b o u t " w o m e n ' s i s s u e s " as a b o u t t h e w a y s that c o n v e n t i o n a l a p p r o a c h e s often e x c l u d e t h e c o n c e r n s , v a l u e s , a n d life e x p e r i e n c e s v o i c e d b y m e m b e r s of t r a d i t i o n a l l y u n d e r r e p r e s e n t e d g r o u p s . O u r h o p e is that, w i t h i n this v o l u m e , t h e r e a n a l y s i s of s o m e a s p e c t s of o r g a n i z a ­ t i o n a l a n d m a n a g e r i a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n will s t i m u l a t e g r e a t e r t h i n k i n g a b o u t h o w o r g a n i z i n g itself c a n b e g e n d e r e d a n d e x c l u s i o n a r y a n d a b o u t h o w w e ( a s researchers and organization members) can prompt continued c h a n g e toward g r e a t e r e q u a l i t y , d i g n i t y , a n d j u s t i c e for w o m e n a n d for m e n ( B u z z a n e l l , 1 9 9 5 , 1 9 9 9 ) . A s M . G. F i n e ( 1 9 9 3 ) a r g u e s , A feminist perspective tells us why we study organizational communication—to create organizations that allow all people to express fully their human potential, and that allow them a genuine and free voice rather than a voice constrained by false ideology. A feminist perspective rejects research that is intended to further the economic goals of the organization without regard to the well-being of the peo­ ple who constitute the organization, (p. 132) In s h o r t , f e m i n i s t a p p r o a c h e s to o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a n d m a n a g e r i a l c o m m u n i c a ­ tion a r e g r o u n d e d in t h e b e l i e f that w e c a n c r e a t e an e q u i t a b l e a n d e t h i c a l v i s i o n for o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l i v e s a n d p r o c e s s e s . Rethinking Organizational and Managerial Communication From Femi­ nist Perspectives c o n t i n u e s the o n g o i n g f e m i n i s t c r i t i q u e o f t r a d i t i o n a l o r g a ­ nizational and organizational communication theory and research (e.g., B u l l i s , 1 9 9 3 ; B u z z a n e l l , 1994, 1 9 9 9 ; C a l £ s & S m i r c i c h , 1 9 9 6 ; F i n e , 1 9 9 3 ; M a r s h a l l , 1 9 9 3 ; M u m b y , 1 9 9 6 , 1 9 9 8 ) . A s o u r field h a s p r o g r e s s e d f r o m a v a r i ­ a b l e a n a l y t i c s e x / g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e a p p r o a c h to a m o r e c o m p l e x a n d s i t u a t e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g of g e n d e r e d p r o c e s s e s , w e h a v e s e e n f e m i n i s t r e a n a l y s e s o f p h e n o m e n a such as diversity (e.g., Allen, 1995a), b o u n d e d rationality/ emotionality (e.g., M u m b y & Putnam, 1992), ethics (Mattson & B u z z a n e l l , 1 9 9 9 ) , a n d p a y for ( h o u s e ) w o r k ( e . g . , C l a i r & T h o m p s o n , 1 9 9 6 ) . J u s t as t h e s e t r e n d s h a v e e m e r g e d in g e n d e r e d o r g a n i z i n g , w e c a n s e e r e l a t e d t h e m e s r e f l e c t e d in this v o l u m e . T h e first c o m m o n a l i t y a m o n g t h e c h a p t e r a u t h o r s is t h e i r d e s i r e to suffuse, r a t h e r t h a n i n s e r t , in t h e i r w r i t i n g s w h a t h a s b e e n e x c l u d e d from t r a d i t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a n d m a n a g e r i a l c o m ­ m u n i c a t i o n : n a m e l y , the c o m p l e x i t i e s o f sex a n d g e n d e r , r a c e a n d e t h n i c i t y , c l a s s , a n d s e x u a l - s o c i a l o r i e n t a t i o n . In t h i s w a y , t h e y d e l v e i n t o t a k e n - f o r ­ g r a n t e d a s s u m p t i o n s that e x p o s e i n v i s i b l e g e n d e r e d r e l a t i o n s . S e c o n d , t h e a u t h o r s g r o u n d t h e i r f e m i n i s t a n a l y s e s in p r o c e s s e s r a t h e r t h a n in s i n g u l a r a s p e c t s of o r g a n i z i n g , s e n s e m a k i n g , a n d c o m m u n i c a t i n g . N o t o n l y d o t h e y f o c u s o n s i t e s w h e r e m u l t i p l e f e m i n i s m s offer d i s t i n c t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o k n o w l e d g e a n d p r a c t i c e , but t h e y a l s o n o t e w h e r e a n d h o w c h a n g e c a n b e

Preface

xi

enacted. Third, the authors retain the centrality of c o m m u n i c a t i o n as the fun­ d a m e n t a l o r g a n i z i n g p r o c e s s that p r o d u c e s a n d r e p r o d u c e s b o t h i n e q u i t y a n d j u s t i c e in d a i l y life. In all c a s e s , t h e a u t h o r s e s c h e w t h e m e t a p h o r o f o r g a n i z a ­ tion as c o n t a i n e r b y b l e n d i n g c o n c e r n s of w o r k a n d f a m i l y , o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d environment, public and private, and inclusion and exclusion (see P u t n a m , P h i l l i p s , & C h a p m a n , 1 9 9 6 , for an o v e r v i e w of m e t a p h o r s ) . F i n a l l y , t h e a u t h o r s e n v i s i o n t h e i r c h a p t e r s as w o r k s in p r o g r e s s . T h e y m a y v a r y in s t y l e , but each chapter explores and stimulates dialogue on s o m e c o n c e r n s rather t h a n p r o v i d i n g a c o m p r e h e n s i v e o r b e s t a n a l y s i s of i s s u e s . T h e s e t h e m e s of f e m i n i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s c h o l a r s h i p a n d of Rethinking Organizational and Managerial Communication From Femi­ nist Perspectives h a v e h e l p e d us c r e a t e a b o o k t h a t c a n s e r v e b o t h r e s e a r c h a n d p e d a g o g i c a l p u r p o s e s . Rethinking Organizational and Managerial Communi­ cation From Feminist Perspectives p r o v i d e s c r i t i c a l a n d h e u r i s t i c a n a l y s e s of organization by o utstanding researchers. A s a research tool, this b o o k c a n a s s i s t g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s a n d p r o f e s s o r s in o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a n d m a n a g e r i a l c o m ­ munication, w o m e n ' s studies, organizational behavior, organization theory, a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s o c i o l o g y . T h e s e m a t e r i a l s c a n b e u s e d for r e f e r e n c e o r b e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o c l a s s r o o m s ( e . g . , as t h e m a i n t e x t , a s p e c i a l t o p i c s c o u r s e r e a d i n g , o r a s u p p l e m e n t a r y text t h a t e x t e n d s — a n d often c o u n t e r s — t h e t e a c h ­ i n g s of t r a d i t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a n d m a n a g e r i a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n t e x t b o o k s ) , p a r t i c u l a r l y in g r a d u a t e s e m i n a r s o r u p p e r - d i v i s i o n u n d e r g r a d u a t e c o u r s e s . A t p r e s e n t , t h e r e is n o o t h e r e d i t e d or a u t h o r e d f e m i n i s t b o o k t h a t c a n b e u s e d as a c o m p a n i o n to a d v a n c e d u n d e r g r a d u a t e a n d g r a d u a t e t e x t s a n d h a n d b o o k s of organizational communication. B e c a u s e of our research and teaching goals, most c h a p t e r s b e g i n with e i t h e r r e f e r e n c e s to o r c r i t i q u e s of l i t e r a t u r e in s p e c i f i c a r e a s of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a n d m a n a g e r i a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n , s u c h as c h a o s t h e o r y , l e a d e r s h i p , o r c a r e e r s . S o m e t i m e s t h i s o v e r v i e w is r e l a t i v e l y brief, b u t r e a d e r s w i l l find t h a t t h e i n i ­ tial c o m b i n a t i o n of m a i n s t r e a m a n d a l t e r n a t i v e t h i n k i n g a b o u t p a r t i c u l a r c o m ­ m u n i c a t i o n p h e n o m e n a e n a b l e s a u t h o r s a n d r e a d e r s to r e v i s i t i s s u e s , e x a m i n e c h a n g e s in s c h o l a r s h i p a n d p r a c t i c e , a n d offer f e m i n i s t a n a l y s e s a n d c h a n g e i n i t i a t i v e s . R e a d e r s a l s o will n o t e that t h e r e h a s b e e n n o a t t e m p t t o c o v e r all p o s s i b l e t o p i c s o r to u s e e v e r y f e m i n i s t p e r s p e c t i v e . T h e r e h a v e b e e n r e c e n t o v e r v i e w s of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n : J a b l i n a n d P u t n a m ' s (in p r e s s ) The New Handbook of Organizational Communication and P u t n a m et a l . ' s ( 1 9 9 6 ) c h a p t e r in The Handbook of Organizational Studies, T h e r e h a v e a l s o been refereed articles and yearbook chapters that have provided broad femi­ n i s t o v e r v i e w s of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n t h e o r y (e.g., Bullis, 1993; Buzzanell, 1994, 1999; Calds & Smircich, 1996; Fine, 1993; Marshall, 1993; M u m b y , 1996). Rather than publish another broad o v e r v i e w o r i n c l u d e all f e m i n i s m s , w e i n t e n d e d t o p r o v i d e a n i n - d e p t h f e m i ­ nist t r e a t m e n t of s o m e m a j o r i s s u e s .

xii

COMMUNICATION FROM FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES

T h e r e a r e m a n y i n d i v i d u a l s w h o d e s e r v e a c k n o w l e d g m e n t in t h i s p r e f a c e . E a c h c h a p t e r lists r e v i e w e r s w h o c o m m e n t e d on e a r l i e r d r a f t s . I h a v e not r e p e a t e d t h e i r n a m e s h e r e b u t they d e s e r v e ( a n d h a v e ) m y u n d y i n g g r a t i t u d e . T h e i r e n t h u s i a s m for this p r o j e c t a n d d e t a i l e d c o m m e n t s for i n d i v i d u a l c h a p ­ t e r s a r e g r e a t l y a p p r e c i a t e d . In a d d i t i o n , I w o u l d l i k e to t h a n k S o n j a F o s s , J u l i a W o o d , a n d L i n d a P u t n a m , a n d the m e m b e r s of t h e O r g a n i z a t i o n for t h e S t u d y of C o m m u n i c a t i o n , L a n g u a g e , and G e n d e r ( O S C L G ) for t h e i r s u p p o r t a n d i n s i g h t s o v e r t h e y e a r s . In a d d i t i o n , Erin S m i t h a n d J u d i D a l l i n g e r h e l p e d w i t h t e x t - r e f e r e n c e c h e c k s — J u d i and I sat on t h e a i r p o r t floor b e f o r e o u r flight from an O S C L G c o n f e r e n c e in M a i n e c h e c k i n g off r e f e r e n c e s . I a l s o t h a n k the f a b u l o u s e d i t o r s and p r o d u c t i o n staff at S a g e , p a r t i c u l a r l y Margaret Seawell and Marquita F l e m m i n g w h o s e h u m o r and w a r m t h have m a d e this p r o c e s s a n d j o u r n a l e d i t i n g so very e n j o y a b l e . F i n a l l y , I w o u l d like to t h a n k m y p a r t n e r ( S t e v e W i l s o n ) a n d m y six c h i l ­ d r e n ( B r e n d a n C. S h e a h a n , S h e r i d a n A . S h e a h a n , A s h l e e M . S h e a h a n , L i s e t t e M . S h e a h a n , A n n i e G r a c e S h e a h a n , and R o b y n F . W i l s o n ) for t h e i r l o v e a n d a b i l i t y to a l w a y s d r a w m e b a c k to w h a t m a t t e r s m o s t in life. T h i s b o o k is d e d i c a t e d to my p a r e n t s , F r a n c i s G. a n d M a r i e J. B u z z a n e l l , and my siblings, Charles A. Buzzanell, M D and Doreen Buzzanell Koehler.

Introduction:

In Medias Res

Patrice M . Buzzanell

O u r first c h a p t e r b e g i n s " i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h i n g s . " T h e c h a p t e r s in t h i s b o o k c o n t i n u e the current trend of rethinking organizational a n d m a n a g e r i a l c o m ­ munication from critical, particularly feminist, approaches. In 1993, Sheryl Transforming Perlmutter Bowen and Nancy Wyatt published an edited book, Visions: Feminist Critiques in Communication Studies, t h a t f o c u s e d o n h o w feminisms could prompt scholars to pose research questions and use methods d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h o s e c o n v e n t i o n a l l y e m p l o y e d in t h e p r i m a r y a r e a s o f t h e c o m ­ munication discipline (e.g., performance studies, interpersonal c o m m u n i c a ­ Organizational t i o n , a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n ) . U n t i l Rethinking and Managerial Communication From Feminist Perspectives, there h a s not been a single organizational communication volume similar to B o w e n a n d W y a t t ' s ( 1 9 9 3 ) p r o j e c t . Rethinking Organizational and Managerial Commu­ nication From Feminist Perspectives is d e s i g n e d t o fill t h i s g a p a n d is e x p e c t e d t o r o u g h l y c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f The New Handbook of Organizational Communication (Jablin & P u t n a m , in press). Rethinking Organizational and Managerial Communication From Femi­ nist Perspectives focuses attention on feminist approaches to some organiza­ t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n i s s u e s . A s s u c h , it b e g i n s in medias res a n d c o n t r i b u t e s to t h e o n g o i n g d i a l o g u e a b o u t r e f r a m i n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n t o b e t t e r i n c o r p o r a t e d i v e r s e p e r s p e c t i v e s a n d m e m b e r s . T h i s e d i t e d b o o k is n o t i n t e n d e d t o b e a xiii

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c o m p r e h e n s i v e t r e a t m e n t of c u r r e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n i s s u e s . Rather, our chapters delve into specific topics and provide f r a m e w o r k s and a n a l y s e s that c o u l d b e useful for a d d i t i o n a l f e m i n i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i ­ c a t i o n c r i t i q u e s . I s e e t h e s e c h a p t e r s as i l l u m i n a t i n g t r a d i t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and managerial communication work. Like Western medieval religious docu­ m e n t s in w h i c h t h e p i c t u r e s told s t o r i e s b o t h s e p a r a t e f r o m a n d c o i n c i d i n g w i t h t h e w o r d s , o u r c h a p t e r s a d d to t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l t e x t b y h i g h l i g h t i n g e m o t i o n s , e m b o d i e d e x p e r i e n c e , a n d s t a n d p o i n t s of t r a d i t i o n a l l y u n d e r ­ r e p r e s e n t e d g r o u p s . O u r w o r k d o e s not i n t e n d to d i s m a n t l e t h e p a s t b u t t o a u g ­ m e n t t h e r i c h s c h o l a r l y t r a d i t i o n of o u r d i s c i p l i n e . T h e r e a r e t h r e e m a i n s e c t i o n s in Rethinking Organizational and Manage­ rial Communication From Feminist Perspectives: P a r t I, " C o n f r o n t i n g O u r P a s t " ; P a r t II, " R e t h i n k i n g P r e s e n t P r o c e s s e s " ; a n d P a r t I I I , " A u t h o r i n g O u r F u t u r e . " The sections progress from theoretical analyses that r e c o n c e p t u a l i z e a n d e x t e n d b o u n d a r i e s in o u r t h i n k i n g a b o u t w o r k a n d o r g a n i z i n g p r o c e s s e s ; t h r o u g h t h e u s e of m a r g i n a l i z e d v o i c e s to q u e s t i o n o r d i n a r y a c t s , i d e n t i t i e s , a n d c r i t i q u e s of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t s ; to t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n of d i f f e r e n c e in s u c h a w a y that q u e s t i o n s a n d p r o p o s e s c o n c r e t e r e m e d i e s for t h o s e m i c r o p r a c t i c e s a n d s t r u c t u r e s that ( r e ) c o n s t r u c t i n j u s t i c e . E a c h c h a p t e r w i t h i n t h e s e t h r e e p a r t s is a s e l f - c o n t a i n e d f e m i n i s t a n a l y s i s of s o m e a s p e c t of o r g a n i ­ z a t i o n a l life.

PARTI T h e f o u r c h a p t e r s in Part I, " C o n f r o n t i n g O u r P a s t , " d i s c u s s t h e m e s o f b i n a r y o p p o s i t i o n s , e x c l u s i o n , c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , a n d p o w e r in o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a n d m a n a g e r i a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n l i t e r a t u r e . E a c h p r o p o s e s an a l t e r n a t i v e v i e w o f public-private discourse, stakeholder ethics, socialization processes, or nego­ tiation by contrasting traditional approaches with feminist values. In C h a p t e r 1, " C o m m u n i c a t i o n , O r g a n i z a t i o n , a n d t h e P u b l i c S p h e r e : A F e m i n i s t P e r s p e c t i v e , " M u m b y r e t u r n s to s o m e o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n s of t h e field to d e s c r i b e t h e w a y s in w h i c h t r a d i t i o n a l c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s o f t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e in d e m o c r a t i c i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e l i n k e d to i n d i v i d u a l s ' r h e t o r i c a l e f f e c ­ t i v e n e s s a n d i d e n t i t i e s . M u m b y p r o p o s e s that t h e p u b l i c - p r i v a t e i s s u e s f r o m a c r i t i c a l f e m i n i s t a p p r o a c h a r e h o w t h e relationship between the public and pri­ v a t e s p h e r e s is a r t i c u l a t e d d i s c u r s i v e l y a n d h o w t h i s articulation process ( r e ) p r o d u c e s p o w e r i m b a l a n c e s a n d / o r c r e a t e s o p p o r t u n i t i e s for r e s i s t a n c e a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . O p p o r t u n i t i e s for i n d i v i d u a l s to m a k e t h e i r a r g u m e n t s public depend on availability, resources, and ideological associations. T h e s e o p p o r t u n i t i e s a s s u m e a reified s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e in w h i c h m e m b e r s of m a r g i n ­ a l i z e d g r o u p s are r e s t r i c t e d b e c a u s e t h e y v o i c e c o m p e t i n g i n t e r e s t s a n d n e e d s .

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M u m b y d e f i n e s t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e as " a d i s c u r s i v e l y c o n s t r u c t e d s p a c e for a r g u m e n t in w h i c h d i f f e r e n t i n t e r e s t g r o u p s c o m p e t e t o a r t i c u l a t e c o n f l i c t i n g w o r l d v i e w s , " a n d h e a r g u e s for a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f o v e r l a p p i n g p u b l i c s p h e r e s . B y u s i n g f e m i n i s t a n a l y s i s to c r i t i q u e b i n a r y t h i n k i n g a n d t o p r o p o s e a c t i o n t h a t c a n e l i m i n a t e t h e o p p r e s s i o n of w o m e n ( a n d o t h e r s ) , M u m b y i l l u m i n a t e s t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s w i t h i n a n d b e t w e e n s p h e r e s . If p u b l i c s p h e r e s a r e c o n t e s t e d sites, then organizational and managerial c o m m u n i c a t i o n researchers can r e f r a m e t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e to o p e n p o s s i b i l i t i e s for p a r t i c i p a t o r y e x c h a n g e s . T h i s m e a n s t h a t f o r m s of d i s c o u r s e a n d k n o w l e d g e t r a d i t i o n a l l y a s s o c i a t e d with different spheres (e.g., the private sphere and personal opinion, and the public sphere and social knowledge) can no longer be considered legitimate, can no longer serve dominant interests, and can no longer limit possibilities for d i s s e n t a n d a l t e r n a t i v e v i e w s . A f e m i n i s t a r t i c u l a t i o n of p a r t i c i p a t o r y d e m o c r a c y r e q u i r e s : a d m i s s i o n of s o c i a l i n e q u i t i e s ; f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t of d i s c u r s i v e s p a c e s in w h i c h w o m e n r e n e g o t i a t e i d e n t i t i e s ( i . e . , s p a c e s to for­ m u l a t e " o p p o s i t i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e i r i d e n t i t i e s , i n t e r e s t s , a n d n e e d s " ; Fraser, 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 1 , p . 67); and problematizing w h a t " c o u n t s " as public and p r i v a t e m a t t e r s . T h r o u g h a c r i t i c a l f e m i n i s t a n a l y s i s of p u b l i c - p r i v a t e r e l a ­ tionships, M u m b y e x p o s e s the "contradictions b e t w e e n the rhetoric of d e m o c ­ r a c y a n d e n f r a n c h i s e m e n t , o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d t h e r e a l i t y of s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , and e c o n o m i c inequality, on the other." H a a s and Deetz also e x a m i n e conditions necessary for participatory e x c h a n g e . In C h a p t e r 2, " B e t w e e n t h e G e n e r a l i z e d a n d t h e C o n c r e t e O t h e r : Approaching Organizational Ethics From Feminist Perspectives," they claim that multiple-stakeholder models can address the complexities of varied polit­ ical i n t e r e s t s a n d v a l u e s t h a t n e e d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n in i n t e r n a l c o r p o r a t e d e c i ­ sion m a k i n g . T h e y a d d r e s s t w o e t h i c a l c o n c e r n s : t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f p r o c e d u r e s to i d e n t i f y s t a k e h o l d e r s ' i n t e r e s t s a n d v a l u e s , a n d t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of p r o c e ­ d u r e s t o e n s u r e t h a t s t a k e h o l d e r s ' i n t e r e s t s a n d v a l u e s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d in c o r ­ porate decision-making processes. They use B e n h a b i b ' s (1985, 1986, 1987, 1990, 1992) feminist perspective on ethics to extend H a b e r m a s ' s ( 1 9 7 3 , 1 9 8 4 , 1 9 8 7 , 1 9 9 0 , 1 9 9 3 ) t h e o r y of c o m m u n i c a t i v e a c t i o n , d i s c o u r s e e t h i c s , a n d h i s d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e i d e a l s p e e c h s i t u a t i o n . S p e c i f i c a l l y , B e n h a b i b c o n t e n d s t h a t g e n e r a l i z e d a n d c o n c r e t e o t h e r s t a n d p o i n t s o p e r a t e as m o r a l o r i e n t a t i o n s t h a t reflect binary thinking (e.g., a u t o n o m y / n u r t u r a n c e , public/private, i n d e p e n d ­ ence/interdependence, commonality/individuality, impartiality/connection, universalistic norms/contextually sensitive criteria, and "ethic of j u s t i c e and r i g h t s " / " e t h i c of c a r e a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y " ) . B e n h a b i b ( 1 9 9 2 ) r e q u i r e s t h e u s e of b o t h s t a n d p o i n t s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y in m o r a l c o n v e r s a t i o n t o t r a n s c e n d d u a l i ­ t i e s . T h e o b j e c t i v e o f m o r a l c o n v e r s a t i o n is t h e w i l l i n g n e s s to e n g a g e in d i s ­ c u s s i o n t h a t c a n affect u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d , p e r h a p s , c o n s e n s u s .

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A l t h o u g h B e n h a b i b ( 1 9 9 2 ) a r g u e s that m o r a l c o n v e r s a t i o n d o e s n o t r e q u i r e c o p r e s e n c e b e c a u s e i n d i v i d u a l s c a n h a v e an " i m a g i n a r y d i a l o g u e " w i t h o t h ­ e r s , H a a s a n d D e e t z b e l i e v e that an " a c t u a l d i a l o g u e " a m o n g p a r t i c i p a n t s — e v e n if p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e not in the s a m e s p a t i o t e m p o r a l l o c a t i o n — i s n e c e s s a r y for an e t h i c a l s t a k e h o l d e r m o d e l of i n t e r n a l c o r p o r a t e d e c i s i o n m a k i n g . T h e i r r e a s o n i n g is that m a n a g e m e n t often is so i s o l a t e d from c o r p o r a t e s t a k e h o l d e r s that it l a c k s t h e i m a g i n a r y r e s o u r c e s to a d e q u a t e l y r e p r e s e n t d i v e r g e n t i n t e r ­ e s t s . T h e y s u g g e s t s o m e p r e l i m i n a r y a p p l i c a t i o n s of t h e i r t h e o r i z i n g t o c o r ­ p o r a t e d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s but c a u t i o n that t h e i r e t h i c a l i d e a l m a y b e difficult to p u r s u e in p r a c t i c e . C h a p t e r 3 a l s o a d d r e s s e s w a y s to i n c l u d e m a r g i n a l i z e d v o i c e s in o u r t h e o r i z i n g . R a t h e r t h a n r e f r a m i n g p u b l i c - p r i v a t e to i n c o r p o r a t e d i s c o u r s e p r e ­ v i o u s l y b e l o n g i n g e x c l u s i v e l y to o n e s p h e r e ( M u m b y ) o r e s t a b l i s h i n g c o n d i ­ t i o n s n e c e s s a r y for t h e i n c l u s i o n of d i s p a r a t e s t a k e h o l d e r i n t e r e s t s t h r o u g h t h e use of concrete and generalized others (Haas & Deetz), Bullis and Stout argue that g r e a t e r a t t e n t i o n to c l a s s a n d r a c e ( " B o t h g o u n m e n t i o n e d a n d a r e t h e r e b y erased"), among other contextualizing processes and outcomes, can help r e s e a r c h e r s b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d o p p r e s s i o n , r e s i s t a n c e , a n d c h a n g e . In " O r g a n i ­ zational Socialization: A Feminist Standpoint A p p r o a c h , " they critique the u s u a l s o c i a l i z a t i o n a s s u m p t i o n s to d e m o n s t r a t e h o w f e m i n i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and managerial c o m m u n i c a t i o n researchers can enlarge traditional e m p h a s e s . In g e n e r a l , r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e m o s t often s t u d i e d s o c i a l i z a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s a n d tactics, n e w c o m e r s ' sense-making and information-seeking strategies, and c o m m u n i c a t i o n processes. Bullis and Stout position standpoint feminisms as a m e a n s of a d v o c a t i n g " o p p o s i t i o n a l , p o l i t i c a l l y c o n s c i o u s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s with the h o p e that s u c h u n d e r s t a n d i n g s p r o v i d e r e s o u r c e s for a c r i t i q u e of d o m i n a t i o n as w e l l as c h a n g e . " B u l l i s a n d S t o u t s u g g e s t s e v e r a l p o s s i b l e l i n e s of i n q u i r y . F i r s t , c o m m u n i ­ c a t i o n r e s e a r c h e r s c a n e x p l o r e the m e a n i n g s of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s a n d the w a y s in w h i c h c o n t a i n m e n t m e t a p h o r s m a i n t a i n d o m i n a n t / s u b o r d i n a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s . S e c o n d , by f o c u s i n g on t h e v a r i a b i l i t y of e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t a r e i n a d e q u a t e l y r e p r e s e n t e d by p h a s e m o d e l s a n d t r a j e c t o r i e s , f e m i n i s t s c h o l a r s m a y b e t t e r d e p i c t t h e e x p e r i e n c e s of t h o s e w h o o t h e r w i s e m i g h t b e c o n s i d e r e d " o u t l i e r s . " F i n a l l y , r e s e a r c h e r s c a n q u e s t i o n the a s s u m p t i o n t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s and organizations mutually influence each other. They c o n c l u d e with a review of p u b l i s h e d w o r k that c a n s e r v e as e x e m p l a r s for h o w o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a n d managerial c o m m u n i c a t i o n theory and m e t h o d s can be c h a n g e d . T h e final c h a p t e r in P a r t I d i s p l a y s h o w n e g o t i a t i o n a n d b a r g a i n i n g c a n b e c h a n g e d . In C h a p t e r 4 , " R e t h i n k i n g N e g o t i a t i o n : F e m i n i s t V i e w s o f C o m m u ­ n i c a t i o n a n d E x c h a n g e , " P u t n a m a n d K o l b a r g u e that d i s t r i b u t i v e , i n t e g r a t i v e , a n d p r i n c i p l e d n e g o t i a t i o n a n d b a r g a i n i n g are g e n d e r e d b e c a u s e t h e y p r i v i ­ l e g e m a s c u l i n e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of e x c h a n g e o v e r f e m i n i n e q u a l i t i e s o f c o n n e c t e d n e s s a n d c o - c o n s t r u c t i o n . T o d e v e l o p an a l t e r n a t i v e a p p r o a c h , t h e y

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h i g h l i g h t n o r m a t i v e a s p e c t s of t h e n o r m a t i v e n e g o t i a t i o n m o d e l a n d c o n t r a s t t h e s e w i t h p a r a l l e l b u t f e m i n i s t p r o c e s s e s . In t h i s w a y , t h e y e x p l o r e t h e a s s u m p t i o n s a n d c o m m u n i c a t i v e i m p l i c a t i o n s of c o n v e n t i o n a l n e g o t i a t i o n d i m e n s i o n s (i.e., e x c h a n g e , instrumental goals and optimal settlements, and independent parties). Through contrastive analyses, they advocate: co­ construction (mutual inquiry that encourages expansive thinking and con­ t e x t u a l i z a t i o n of i s s u e s w i t h i n a c o m m u n a l a p p r o a c h ) ; g o a l s o f self- a n d m u t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d j o i n t l y d e v e l o p e d c o u r s e s of a c t i o n ; a n d r e l a t i o n a l interdependence that emerges during bargaining processes and reflects trust, empathy, and shared emotional expressions. L i k e t h e o t h e r a u t h o r s in P a r t I, P u t n a m a n d K o l b e x p a n d o u r c o n c e p t u a l ­ i z a t i o n s of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a n d m a n a g e r i a l a p p r o a c h e s . T h e y e x p l o r e w h a t t h e s e f e m i n i s t d i m e n s i o n s w o u l d m e a n for b a r g a i n i n g p r o c e s s e s . R a t h e r t h a n exchanging proposals, generating options, and exchanging concessions, n e g o t i a t o r s in t h e a l t e r n a t i v e a p p r o a c h w o u l d r e f r a m e t h e w a y s m u l t i p l e p a r ­ t i e s u n d e r s t a n d t h e s i t u a t i o n . T h e y w o u l d u s e d i a l o g u e as a p r o c e s s o f c o ­ l e a r n i n g a n d i n q u i r y , r a t h e r t h a n as p r o b l e m s o l v i n g for o p t i o n g e n e r a t i o n . I n s t e a d of c o n v e r g i n g o n d e b a t e a n d p e r s u a s i o n as c o r e p r o c e s s e s , n e g o t i a t o r s in t h e a l t e r n a t i v e p e r s p e c t i v e w o u l d c e n t e r on i n v i t a t i o n a l r h e t o r i c a n d c i r c u ­ lar q u e s t i o n i n g as f u n d a m e n t a l s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n p r o c e s s e s . I n v i t a t i o n a l r h e t ­ oric "urges participants to m o v e beyond the h e r e - a n d - n o w issues and raise q u e s t i o n s a b o u t p e a k e x p e r i e n c e s , t i m e s of e x c e p t i o n a l p e r f o r m a n c e , a n d what people value most about their lives, careers, and w o r k . " Circular q u e s ­ t i o n i n g is a s e r i e s of q u e r i e s that b e g i n s w i t h p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e a n d a s s e s s e s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . T h i s i n q u i r y c y c l e s b a c k to n a r r a t i v e d e t a i l s a b o u t t h e s h a r e d personal e x p e r i e n c e so that the original experiences are d e s t a b i l i z e d and, thus, open to alternative interpretations. By critiquing, then e x t e n d i n g current negotiation models, P u t n a m and Kolb develop an alternative m o d e l guided by feminist thinking.

PART II W h e r e a s t h e a u t h o r s in P a r t I lay s o m e c o n c e p t u a l g r o u n d w o r k a b o u t exclusionary discourse, interests, and e x p e r i e n c e s , the a u t h o r s of the three c h a p t e r s in P a r t II, " R e t h i n k i n g P r e s e n t P r o c e s s e s , " p r e s e n t ( m o s t l y w h i t e ) w o m e n ' s voices through interview excerpts, poems, diary entries, stories, and personal involvement with these constructs. T h e y explore the w a y s in w h i c h t h e s e c o n c r e t e d e t a i l s of o r d i n a r y l i v e s r e p r e s e n t m i s s i n g f a c e t s a n d n u a n c e s of o u r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a n d m a n a g e r i a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n w o r k . T h e s e c h a p t e r s a r e t h e l e a s t " f i n i s h e d " b e c a u s e all t h e a u t h o r s r a i s e i s s u e s t h a t d e f y c l o s u r e . E a c h o f t h e i r o v e r v i e w s a n d f e m i n i s t r e a n a l y s e s a c t s a s a s p r i n g b o a r d for a d d i ­ tional research.

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In h e r w o r k o n e m b o d i e d e x p e r i e n c e , T r e t h e w e y l i n k s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s o p h i s t i c a t e d c o n t r o l m e c h a n i s m s w i t h t h e w a y s in w h i c h w o m e n ' s b o d i e s a r e d i s c i p l i n e d b y t h e m s e l v e s a n d o t h e r s . In C h a p t e r 5 , " R e v i s i o n i n g C o n t r o l : A F e m i n i s t C r i t i q u e of D i s c i p l i n e d B o d i e s , " T r e t h e w e y d e v e l o p s F o u c a u l d i a n and poststructuralist analyses of female w o r k e r s ' bodies as sites of p o w e r and r e s i s t a n c e . W o m e n ' s e m b o d i e d e x p e r i e n c e s e n a b l e a n d c o n s t r a i n t h e i r selfi d e n t i t i e s a n d m a t e r i a l r e s u l t s (i.e., c o m p e t e n c e e v a l u a t i o n s a n d o u t c o m e s ) t o s u c h an e x t e n t that t h e t e r m s female bodies a n d professional bodies a p p e a r c o n t r a d i c t o r y . T h r o u g h a n a l y s e s of h e r i n t e r v i e w d a t a o n ( p r i m a r i l y w h i t e h e t ­ erosexual) professional w o m e n ' s e m b o d i e d experiences, she finds that w o m e n ' s d i s c o u r s e r e p e a t e d l y p o r t r a y s p r o f e s s i o n a l w o m e n ' s b o d i e s a s fit, a s t o o l s t o e m i t i n t e n t i o n a l m e s s a g e s , a n d a s e x c e s s i v e . U n a b l e to m e e t t h e m a s ­ c u l i n e i d e a l o f a p r o f e s s i o n a l b o d y d e s p i t e self- a n d o t h e r - d i s c i p l i n a r y a c t i o n , w o m e n ' s bodies m a r k t h e m as "other." T r e t h e w e y a d m i t s t h a t h e r a n a l y s e s d o n o t a c c o u n t for t h e w a y s t h a t m a n y w o m e n celebrate and resist disciplinary m e c h a n i s m s . S h e argues that greater a t t e n t i o n to t h e s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n of w o m e n ' s e m b o d i e d i d e n t i t i e s c o u l d i l l u ­ m i n a t e t h e k i n d s of r e s i s t a n c e that c a n l e a d to o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a n g e a n d i n n o ­ vative organizational (and managerial) communication research programs. In C h a p t e r 6, " W a l k i n g t h e H i g h W i r e : L e a d e r s h i p T h e o r i z i n g , D a i l y A c t s , and Tensions," Fine and Buzzanell use a revisionist/revalorist feminist analy­ sis to c r e a t e a v i s i o n o f l e a d e r s h i p , a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , a n d m a n a g e m e n t a s s e r v ­ i n g . T h i s v i s i o n e x p o s e s t h e d e f i c i e n c i e s of b o t h m a i n s t r e a m a n d a l t e r n a t i v e v i e w s of l e a d e r s h i p . F i n e a n d B u z z a n e l l first e x p l o r e h o w t r a d i t i o n a l ( a d a p ­ tive, transformational, and self-leadership and superleadership) a n d alter­ native (gendered and servant) leadership and m a n a g e m e n t aspects are exclusionary and/or incomplete. By using feminist epistemological and meth­ o d o l o g i c a l c o m m i t m e n t s (i.e., w o m e n ' s w a y s o f k n o w i n g , f e m i n i s t p r o b l e ­ matics, feminist synalytics, and revolutionary pragmatism; see Fine, 1993), t h e y b r i n g t o g e t h e r t h e i r o w n life e x p e r i e n c e s (in t h e f o r m of d i a r y e n t r i e s ) a n d t h e o r y in s u c h a w a y that t e n s i o n s a m o n g d i f f e r i n g v a l u e s a n d a p p r o a c h e s are exposed and sustained. T h e y find that f o u r m a i n p a r a d o x e s e m e r g e w h e n servant, leadership, and feminine are e x a m i n e d simultaneously. W h e n w o m e n lead by serving, they face d o u b l e b i n d s b e c a u s e (a) t h e j u x t a p o s i t i o n s of s u b o r d i n a t e / s e r v a n t a n d s u p e r o r d i n a t e / s e r v e d g a i n p o w e r for m a l e s b u t fulfill t r a d i t i o n a l ( u n v a l u e d ) r o l e s for w o m e n ; ( b ) t h e q u a l i t i e s b u i l t i n t o t h e s e r v a n t l e a d e r s h i p r o l e a r e evaluated according to their instrumental worth, m a k i n g most feminine w a y s of e n a c t i n g a n d d e s c r i b i n g s e r v a n t l e a d e r s h i p d e v a l u e d ; ( c ) t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s t h a t l e a d e r s c a n c h a n g e s t y l e s e a s i l y t o suit s i t u a t i o n s d o n o t r e s t e a s i l y w i t h " s e r v i n g " as a l i f e l o n g e t h i c a l p r o c e s s ; a n d ( d ) w o m e n w h o s e r v e t h r e a t e n t h e s t a t u s q u o . T o r e v i s i o n serving a s a f e m i n i s t f o r m o f l e a d e r s h i p , F i n e a n d B u z z a n e l l s i t u a t e s e r v i n g as a f o r m of r e s i s t a n c e . W o m e n w h o s e r v e r e s i s t

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o t h e r s * d e f i n i t i o n s o f w h a t t h e y s h o u l d d o a n d h o w t h e y s h o u l d d o it. T h e y resist j u d g m e n t s of selfishness and unfemininity that often o c c u r w h e n w o m e n p r i o r i t i z e s e r v i c e b y a n d for t h e m s e l v e s as highly as s e r v i c e for o t h e r s . A n d they resist static notions of serving by constantly r e e v a l u a t i n g w h e t h e r t h e i r s e r v i n g is e t h i c a l ( i . e . , w h e t h e r s e r v i n g e m p o w e r s o r m a k e s d i f f e r e n t stakeholders vulnerable and whether serving creates a more equitable world for w h i t e w o m e n a n d m e m b e r s o f o t h e r t r a d i t i o n a l l y u n d e r r e p r e s e n t e d groups). S e r v i n g e m b o d i e s t h e s t r u g g l e to m o v e t o w a r d f e m i n i s t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . S e r v i n g is t r a n s f o r m a t i v e a n d e m a n c i p a t o r y b e c a u s e it p r o v i d e s f r e e d o m to c o n f r o n t o n e s e l f a n d to a c t for t h e b e t t e r m e n t of w o m e n a n d m e n . S e r v i n g c h a l l e n g e s c o m m u n i t y - d i m i n i s h i n g n o r m s b y its v e r y e x i s t e n c e . H o w e v e r , s e r v i n g a l s o c a n l e a d t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of s t r a t e g i e s a n d p r a c t i c e s t h a t i n i ­ tiate " m i c r o e m a n c i p a t i o n " (Alvesson & Wilmott, 1992) within the organi­ z a t i o n b e c a u s e of t h e s e l f - r e f l e x i v i t y t h a t s e r v i n g p r o m p t s in o t h e r s a n d in organizations. In t h e final c h a p t e r of P a r t II, M a t t s o n , C l a i r , S a n g e r , a n d K u n k e l u s e t h e s t o r y t e l l i n g of n a r r a t i v e s a n d p o e m s to d r a w r e a d e r s i n t o a r e f r a m i n g of w h a t s t r e s s m e a n s in o u r e v e r y d a y l i v e s a n d w h y t h o s e m e a n i n g s d o n o t r e f l e c t t h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f w o m e n . In C h a p t e r 7 , " A F e m i n i s t R e f r a m i n g of S t r e s s : R o s e ' s S t o r y , " t h e y o b s e r v e t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h h a s r e s u l t e d in p r e s c r i p t i v e m e a ­ s u r e s for r e d u c i n g s t r e s s ; h o w e v e r , none of the prescriptive measures suggest altering the way we do business so that we do not have "high-pressure deadlines" . . . [or altering the] onus for change [that] is placed on the individual rather than on the way we organize our work practices. M o r e o v e r , s t r e s s t y p i c a l l y is d e s c r i b e d a s n e g a t i v e . P o p u l a r w r i t i n g s a b o u t time m a n a g e m e n t are presented as ways of m a n a g i n g deadlines, d e m a n d s , and o u t c o m e s o f b u r n o u t . M o d e l s that i n c o r p o r a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n a s a m e a n s o f a l l e v i a t i n g s t r e s s p r o p o s e e i t h e r that s o c i a l s u p p o r t o p e r a t e s a s a b u f f e r a g a i n s t t h e h a r m f u l effects o f stressful life e v e n t s o r t h a t e m o t i o n a l c o m m u n i ­ cation c a n lessen the i m p a c t of stress on burnout. O t h e r lines of r e s e a r c h c o n ­ n e c t i n t e r p e r s o n a l l i n k a g e s a n d a t t r i b u t e s of w o r k e r s w i t h d i f f e r e n t s t r e s s levels. T o r e f r a m e s t r e s s , M a t t s o n et ai. r e c o m m e n d t h a t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a n d m a n a ­ g e r i a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e s e a r c h e r s b e " o p e n to t h e s e q u e s t e r e d s t o r i e s , t h e m a r g i n a l i z e d s t o r i e s , o r t h e s t o r i e s of s t r e s s t h a t a r e l a b e l e d a s c a t e g o r i e s o t h e r than stress." As o n e e x a m p l e , they recount H a z e l i ' s ( 1 9 9 7 ) narrative of a call to a r a d i o t a l k s h o w in w h i c h R o s e , a y o u n g m o t h e r w i t h f i v e c h i l d r e n u n d e r t h e a g e o f 3 , p l e a d e d for h e l p after s o c i a l s e r v i c e s h a d r e j e c t e d h e r a p p e a l s . M a t t s o n et al. p o i n t o u t t h a t p o p u l a r a n d a c a d e m i c r e p o r t s w o u l d n o t c a t e g o ­

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r i z e t h e s t o r y a s s t r e s s , w o r k , or p u b l i c p o l i c y b u t as " d o m e s t i c . " T h i s f r a m i n g d o e s n o t q u e s t i o n w h o a s s i g n s m e a n i n g to a n e v e n t o r h o w p o w e r i m b a l a n c e s c a n b e m a d e v i s i b l e s o that f r a m e s c a n b e c h a l l e n g e d , r e s i s t e d , a n d o p e n e d t o c h a n g e . T h e m o r e t h a t f r a m e s a r e a c c e p t e d as t a k e n for g r a n t e d , t h e m o r e t h e y b e c o m e r e i f i e d . T h e i r c o m m u n i c a t i v e p o t e n t i a l for c r e a t i n g a n d p e r s u a d i n g self a n d o t h e r s a b o u t r e a l i t i e s b e c o m e s l e s s o b v i o u s . M a t t s o n et al. d r a w from c o r e f e m i n i s t c o n c e r n s r a t h e r t h a n s i n g l e f e m i n i s t approaches. They endeavor to highlight stressful situations that may not have received the same legitimation as current "workplace" conceptualizations of stress; to advance a more holistic understanding of stress as a sociopolitical phenomenon; to point out the discursive as well as the material aspects of stress; and to expose the ways in which women's work-related stress is far too often privatized. Each story lines point

of t h e s e " r e f r a m i n g s " is e l a b o r a t e d o n b u t a l s o is c o n n e c t e d to R o s e ' s a n d t h e s t o r i e s of o t h e r s w h o s e t o l e r a n c e for l i f e ' s d e m a n d s a n d d e a d ­ is e x c e e d e d . T h e y r e c o m m e n d that t h e s e f o u r a r e a s p r o v i d e a c o u n t e r ­ for t r a d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h .

PART 3 Part III, "Authoring O u r Future," contains three chapters that rewrite o r g a n i ­ zational and managerial communication constructs. These chapters not only offer a l t e r n a t i v e r e c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s b u t a l s o s u g g e s t s p e c i f i c t a c t i c s a n d long-term strategies derived from feminisms to revise organizational and managerial communication processes and practices. These chapters deal with i n t e r s e c t i o n s of sex a n d g e n d e r , r a c e a n d e t h n i c i t y , a n d c l a s s n o t b y a d d i n g p h r a s e s l i k e " a n d p e o p l e of c o l o r " b u t b y d e l v i n g i n t o c o n c e r n s r a i s e d w h e n w o m e n and men of color and economically d i s a d v a n t a g e d g r o u p s are excluded from organizational and managerial c o m m u n i c a t i o n theory, re­ s e a r c h , a n d p r a c t i c e . T h e s e c h a p t e r s lay b a r e — w i t h n o e x c u s e s — h o w l i m i t e d o u r v i e w s of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l life h a v e b e e n . I n d e e d , b y f a i l i n g t o t h i n k a b o u t difference holistically, we have unwittingly perpetuated exclusionary think­ ing, micropractices, and macrostructures. T h e s e chapters question our taken­ f o r - g r a n t e d a s s u m p t i o n s in t h e o r i z i n g a n d p r a c t i c e s a n d find o u r p r i o r w o r k l a c k i n g . T h e y a r e m o s t e x p l i c i t in t h e i r r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for t h e t r a n s f o r m a ­ tion of d a i l y p r a c t i c e s a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s . A s A l l e n e x p l a i n s in C h a p t e r 8, " ' L e a r n i n g t h e R o p e s ' : A B l a c k F e m i n i s t S t a n d p o i n t A n a l y s i s , " s h e c a n offer a p e r s o n a l i z e d a n d c o n t e x t u a l i z e d a c ­ c o u n t of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s o c i a l i z a t i o n by d e s c r i b i n g a n d c r i t i q u i n g h e r e x p e r i ­ e n c e a s an " o u t s i d e r w i t h i n " (i.e., a b l a c k w o m a n in t h e U . S . w h i t e m a l e a c a ­ d e m e ; see Allen, 1998a; Collins, 1991). A l t h o u g h the c o m m u n i c a t i v e content

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and work-related communication may differ, Allen's standpoint analysis is applicable to nonacademic organizations and to members of other mar­ ginalized groups. Allen weaves theory, research, and routine practices with reflections about her own experiences. She identifies her role and role-set members, her treatment as a newcomer, the ways in which role-set members often communicate based on stereotypes of black women (e.g., mammy and matriarch) and on token status, and how others often make insensitive or patronizing comments and requests. She voices the constant inner struggles that black women feel as they (re)live the power dynamics that mark them as outsiders and that make sense making different from those experiences and emotions portrayed in socialization literature. She uses her '"outsider within' status to help create black feminist thought," resist marginalization (and build a supportive community), and "infuse elements of my black woman cultural experience into my work" through examples of positive black experiences, "call and response" teaching styles, and concern for others. As Allen summa­ rizes her strategies, she remarks, "I engage in a variety of activities that allow me to honor and nurture many facets of my multicultural identity." Based on her experiences, Allen offers suggestions for those interacting with members of traditionally marginalized groups and for newcomers. She encourages sensitivity to newcomers, self-reflexivity, and self-challenges to transform academe (and society) in ways that could benefit all newcomers. She recommends that black female academicians be proactive in their social­ ization processes and in their solicitation of feedback about their work. If these women know what they want, keep these priorities in mind, and main­ tain a varied support network, they can resist their own complicity and others' inclinations to disempower them and other newcomers. Allen primarily describes detailed micropractices to question taken-for­ granted assumptions and to revise theory and organizational practice. In Chapter 9, Buzzanell shifts between micro and macro issues but focuses mostly on macrolevel concerns in "The Promise and Practice of the New Career and Social Contract: Illusions Exposed and Suggestions for Reform." In this second chapter in Part III, Buzzanell challenges our acceptance of new career forms (i.e., series of work contracts over the course of a lifetime) and related social contracts (i.e., normative expectations for employee-employer exchange relationships) and psychological contracts (i.e., temporary terms of exchange stipulated in specific employee-employer agreements). Through a poststructuralist feminist analysis, she exposes the illusions that the new career and contracts are more realistic, more just, and less paternalistic than older career and contract forms. Buzzanell contrasts the career and contract discourse and discursive prac­ tices found in writings by managerial, organizational, and career researchers and practitioners with data produced by government documents (e.g., U.S. Department of Labor reports and projections), PBS focus group transcripts,

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and research on the effects of career insecurity, unemployment, displacement, underemployment, and lack of work on individual, organizational, societal, and global levels. Buzzanell displays how the discourse actually disen­ franchises workforce members, benefits managerial ideology, and curtails discussions of underlying premises and alternative solutions. When inequi­ ties, particularly unfair treatment and outcomes for individuals and workforce cohorts most vulnerable in our society, are made visible, then the potential to create change is realized. Buzzanell advocates four avenues of change organized according to the organizational communication problematics outlined by Mumby and Stohl (1996). The rationality problematic suggests that management and organiza­ tional communication researchers and practitioners devise and educate others about career models, definitions, and language that systematically promote feminine/feminist values of relationship, interconnectedness, collaboration, and long-term focus. The problematic of voice demands publication of the ways the new career and social contract disadvantage white women, people of color, the lower class, and less educated members of the workforce who are both female and male. The problematic of organization mandates the authoring of new texts that explicitly promote values of fairness, inter­ relationships, and community support within and beyond sites of employ­ ment. The problematic of organization-society relationships requires that we find ways to treat all stakeholders as legitimate contributors to dialogue about blurred boundaries and moral responses to corporate environments and com­ munity concerns. Finally, in Chapter 10, "Chaos Theory and the Glass Ceiling," Reuther and Fairhurst display how a system's inherent order suggested by some organiza­ tional chaos theorists may perpetuate gender and/or race ideologies that can lead to glass-ceiling processes and effects. Although the glass ceiling is often defined as the disproportionate representation of white women and people of color in top organizational levels, they focus on "ideologies, language pat­ terns, and organizing practices [particularly racist ideologies and practices] that establish and reify this invisible barrier." Reuther and Fairhurst believe that insights from the new sciences may better account for the complexities in language and social interaction that undergird discriminatory glass-ceiling effects. The experiences of white males are replicated, while different identities are suppressed (strange­ attractor branch of chaos theory). Organizational members can devise means for disrupting or resisting ("unlearning") discriminatory practices (order-out­ of-chaos branch of chaos theory). Through different feminist transformation processes, organizational members and organizational and managerial com­ munication researchers can educate others in feminist principles, use praxis, and employ deconstruction of oppositions to affect change. On a daily level, members and researchers can challenge thinking that precludes avenues for

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c h a n g e , c a n e n g a g e in m i c r o p r a c t i c e s t h a t r e s i s t p a t r i a r c h a l s y s t e m s in s m a l l (but incremental and unforeseeable) w a y s , and can initiate m o r e m a c r o efforts t o w a r d reform that address the c o m p l e x i t i e s of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s y s t e m s . T h r o u g h action and reflection, m e m b e r s can resist the replication of d i s c r i m i ­ natory patterns. For researchers, Reuther and Fairhurst suggest a research agenda that not only devises possible interventions but also creates the poten­ tial for r a d i c a l s e l f - o r g a n i z i n g .

CONCLUDING CHAPTER T h e final c h a p t e r , " D i a l o g u i n g . . . , " d r a w s t o g e t h e r s e v e r a l t h e m e s o c c u r r i n g t h r o u g h o u t Rethinking Organizational and Managerial Communication From Feminist Perspectives and e n c o u r a g e s a c o n t i n u a t i o n of c h a p t e r a u t h o r s ' c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h r e a d e r s . In t h i s c o n c l u d i n g c h a p t e r , f e m i n i s t c o n ­ cerns articulated by the authors are positioned within o n g o i n g feminist (including third-wave feminist) discussion. Rather than concluding this e d i t e d b o o k , o u r final c h a p t e r e n c o u r a g e s e x t e n s i o n a n d c r i t i q u e o f t h e i s s u e s r a i s e d t h r o u g h o u t Rethinking Organizational and Managerial Communica­ tion From Feminist Perspectives.

PART I

CONFRONTING OUR PAST

1

Communication, Organization, and the Public Sphere A Feminist Perspective Dennis K. M u m b y

With the e m e r g e n c e in recent years of a g r o w i n g body of feminist theory a n d research devoted to organization studies, critical scholars h a v e to take seri­ ously the idea that organizations are the site of g e n d e r e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n p r a c ­ tices (Acker, 1990; Buzzanell, 1994, 1995; Calds & Smircich, 1992; M u m b y , 1996). In contrast to much previous research, this critical w o r k c o n c e i v e s of gender not as an a d d e n d u m to already established structures and practices but, rather, as a constitutive feature of organizing processes. In A c k e r ' s (1990) terms,

To say that an organization... is gendered means that advantage and disadvantage, exploitation and coercion, action and emotion, meaning and identity, are patterned through and in terms of a distinction between male and female, masculine and fem­ inine. Gender is not an addition to ongoing processes, conceived as gender neutral. Rather, it is an integral part of those processes, which cannot be properly under­ stood without an analysis of gender, (p. 146) AUTHOR'S NOTE: I would like to thank Patrice Buzzanell, George Cheney, and Karen Foss for their extremely helpful feedback on an earlier draft of this chapter.

3

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COMMUNICATION FROM FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES

Put a n o t h e r w a y , o r g a n i z a t i o n m e m b e r s " d o g e n d e r " ( W e s t & Z i m m e r m a n , 1987) in t h e c o u r s e of t h e i r m u n d a n e , e v e r y d a y o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s . W h e t h e r in f o r m a l m e e t i n g s or t a l k i n g i n f o r m a l l y by t h e w a t e r c o o l e r , s o c i a l a c t o r s are c o n s t a n t l y e n g a g e d in t h e p r o c e s s of e n a c t i n g s y s t e m s of m e a n i n g that c o n s t r u c t i d e n t i t i e s in a g e n d e r e d m a n n e r . In this s e n s e , g e n d e r is n o t an i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of d i s c r e t e o r g a n i z a t i o n m e m b e r s b u t is b o t h a m e ­ d i u m a n d an o u t c o m e ( G i d d e n s , 1 9 7 9 ) of s t r u c t u r e d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s . T h e r e c o g n i t i o n that o r g a n i z i n g is e n a c t e d t h r o u g h g e n d e r e d s o c i a l p r a c ­ tices h a s a r i s e n s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h a b o d y of w o r k that f o c u s e s o n o r g a n i z a ­ t i o n s as i m p o r t a n t sites of p a r t i c i p a t o r y d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s ( C h e n e y , 1 9 9 5 ; D e e t z , 1 9 9 2 , 1 9 9 5 b ; T . H a r r i s o n , 1 9 9 4 ) . T h e m a j o r t h r u s t of s u c h r e ­ s e a r c h lies in d e v e l o p i n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n - b a s e d m o d e l s of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l d e m o c r a c y that p r e m i s e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l d e c i s i o n m a k i n g a n d s t r u c t u r e s o n t h e b a s i s of e m p o w e r m e n t a n d e m a n c i p a t i o n from c a p i t a l i s t s y s t e m s of c o n t r o l . F o r e x a m p l e , D e e t z ( 1 9 9 2 ) a r g u e s that c o m m u n i c a t i o n as afield traditionally h a s b e e n r o o t e d in e f f e c t i v e n e s s m o d e l s that p r i v i l e g e c o n c e p t i o n s of t h e i n d i ­ v i d u a l as u n i t a r y a n d u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d , a c o n t r o l o r i e n t a t i o n t o w a r d h u m a n i n t e r a c t i o n , a n d e f f i c i e n c y - b a s e d d e f i n i t i o n s of s u c c e s s f u l c o m m u n i c a t i o n . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , D e e t z ( 1 9 9 2 ) d e v e l o p s a p a r t i c i p a t o r y m o d e l of c o m m u ­ n i c a t i o n r o o t e d in d i a l o g u e , m u t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a n d a m o v e t o w a r d o v e r ­ c o m i n g any fixed s e n s e of s u b j e c t i v i t y . T h u s , " t h e m o r a l f o u n d a t i o n for d e m o c r a c y is in the d a i l y p r a c t i c e s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n , t h e p r e s u m p t i o n s that e a c h of us m a k e s as w e talk with e a c h o t h e r " ( p p . 3 5 0 - 3 5 1 ) . S u c h a m o d e l of c o m m u n i c a t i v e d e m o c r a c y is a r t i c u l a t e d in the c o n t e x t of a c r i t i q u e of t h e c o r ­ p o r a t e c o l o n i z a t i o n of t h e life w o r l d a n d an a p p e a l for a n e e d to r e c l a i m the w o r k p l a c e as an i m p o r t a n t p o l i t i c a l site of p a r t i c i p a t o r y d e c i s i o n m a k i n g a n d identity formation. M u c h of this c r i t i c a l w o r k , p a r t i c u l a r l y D e e t z * s , is r o o t e d p a r t l y in r e n ­ d e r i n g p r o b l e m a t i c the t r a d i t i o n a l n o t i o n s of t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e of d e c i s i o n m a k i n g a n d a r g u m e n t a t i o n . R a t h e r t h a n v i e w i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s as p r i v a t e , c o r ­ p o r a t e i n d i v i d u a l s , it is a r g u e d i n s t e a d that o r g a n i z a t i o n s m u s t b e r e c o n ­ c e p t u a l i z e d as i m p o r t a n t p u b l i c s p h e r e s in w h i c h i d e n t i t i e s a n d w o r l d v i e w s are f u n d a m e n t a l l y s h a p e d . In o t h e r w o r d s , o r g a n i z a t i o n s p l a y an i m p o r t a n t r o l e in the d i s c u r s i v e f o r m a t i o n of c o r e s o c i e t a l v a l u e s t h r o u g h t h e g e n e r a t i o n of s h a r e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g a b o u t w h a t is g o o d , r i g h t , a n d true ( P h i l l i p s , 1 9 9 6 ) . C e r t a i n l y , f e m i n i s t r e s e a r c h h a s c o n t r i b u t e d h e a v i l y to t h i s v i e w , p a r t i c u l a r l y the r e s e a r c h i n t o a l t e r n a t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l f o r m s . A l t h o u g h m o s t of t h i s r e ­ s e a r c h h a s o c c u r r e d o u t s i d e the field of c o m m u n i c a t i o n , it r e f l e c t s a d e e p r o o t e d c o n c e r n that e x t a n t i n s t i t u t i o n a l f o r m s p r o d u c e a n d r e p r o d u c e c o m ­ m u n i c a t i o n p r a c t i c e s a n d f o r m s of r a t i o n a l i t y that a r e p a t r i a r c h a l . A s s u c h , a l t e r n a t i v e f o r m s of o r g a n i z i n g a r e s e e n as an i m p o r t a n t m e a n s b y w h i c h to a r t i c u l a t e n o n p a t r i a r c h a l , n o n c a p i t a l i s t f o r m s of m e a n i n g a n d i d e n t i t y (Ferguson, 1984; Ferree & Martin, 1995; Martin, 1990).

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O n e i s s u e that h a s o n l y r e c e n t l y b e e n a d d r e s s e d d i r e c t l y a n d t h e m a t i c a l l y in t h e c r i t i c a l f e m i n i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n l i t e r a t u r e is t h e rela­ tionship b e t w e e n t h e p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e s p h e r e s of h u m a n i n t e r a c t i o n ( e . g . , M u r p h y , 1998) and, m o r e specifically, the p r o c e s s e s t h r o u g h w h i c h this r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p is c o n s t i t u t e d . In t h i s c h a p t e r , I a r g u e t h a t f e m i n i s t s t u d i e s h a v e p r o v i d e d w a y s for us to r a d i c a l l y r e t h i n k e x t a n t n o t i o n s of o r g a n i z i n g b y r e f r a m i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e " p u b l i c " a n d " p r i v a t e " s p h e r e s . In p a r t i c u l a r , a c r i t i ­ cal feminist framework suggests h o w corporate o r g a n i z a t i o n s — a s i mp o r ­ t a n t s i t e s of m e a n i n g f o r m a t i o n in c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i e t y — o p e r a t e o n a l i m i t e d a n d p r o b l e m a t i c c o n c e p t i o n of t h e s e s p h e r e s . B y s h o w i n g h o w c r i t i c a l f e m i n i s t t h e o r y is a b l e to c r i t i q u e this d o m i n a n t c o n c e p t i o n , w e c a n m o v e t o w a r d a m o r e d e m o c r a t i c , p a r t i c i p a t o r y , a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n - b a s e d n o t i o n of community. T h i s c h a p t e r is c o n s t r u c t e d in t h e f o l l o w i n g m a n n e r : F i r s t , I p r o v i d e a b r i e f c r i t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n of p r e v a i l i n g c o n c e p t i o n s of t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e . S e c o n d , I s u g g e s t h o w c r i t i c a l f e m i n i s t t h o u g h t c a n p r o v i d e a m o r e fruitful a n d c o m p e l ­ ling u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e s p h e r e s of d i s c o u r s e . F i n a l l y , t h r o u g h s e v e r a l e x a m p l e s , I p r o v i d e a n a n a l y s i s t h a t demonstrates h o w critical feminism can deconstruct and rearticulate the rela­ tionships between organizations and these spheres.

CONCEPTIONS OF THE PUBLIC SPHERE: A CRITICAL APPRAISAL In t h e field of c o m m u n i c a t i o n , w e a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t e d in t h e r o l e of t h e p u b l i c r e a l m in t h e g r o w t h of d e m o c r a t i c i n s t i t u t i o n s . Q u i n t i l l i a n ' s ( 1 9 2 2 ) n o t i o n of t h e o r a t o r as " a g o o d m a n , s k i l l e d in s p e a k i n g " s i t u a t e s c o m m u n i c a ­ tion at t h e c e n t e r of a r h e t o r i c a l m o d e l in w h i c h t h e e t h i c a l a n d p u b l i c d i m e n ­ s i o n s of life a r e e q u a t e d w i t h e a c h o t h e r . A s a field, t h e r e f o r e , w e h a v e l o n g b e e n i n t e r e s t e d in p r o m o t i n g a p u b l i c c o n c e p t i o n of c o m m u n i c a t i o n in w h i c h a c c e s s t o t h e d e m o c r a t i c p r o c e s s is d i c t a t e d , at l e a s t in p a r t , b y t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s r h e t o r i c a l s k i l l s . In r e c e n t y e a r s , s c h o l a r s in t h e a r e a of r h e t o r i c a l s t u d i e s h a v e i n c r e a s i n g l y r e c o g n i z e d t h e c o m p l e x i t y of t h e i s s u e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d e v e l o p ­ i n g useful c o n c e p t i o n s of t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e ( B i t z e r , 1 9 8 7 ; G o o d n i g h t , 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 8 7 ; H a u s e r , 1 9 9 7 ; P h i l l i p s , 1 9 9 6 ) . In t h i s s e c t i o n , I p r o v i d e a r e v i e w a n d c r i ­ t i q u e of s o m e of t h e s e c o n c e p t i o n s a n d s u g g e s t h o w c r i t i c a l f e m i n i s m c a n e x t e n d t h i s w o r k t h r o u g h a m o r e n u a n c e d r e a d i n g of t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the public sphere and democracy. M o r e specifically, I suggest that critical feminism can increase o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of this c o n n e c t i o n by p r o b l e m a ­ t i z i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e s p h e r e s of s o c i e t y — a r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t , I a r g u e , h a s b e e n g i v e n s h o r t shrift b y r h e t o r i c a l s c h o l a r s in t h e field of c o m m u n i c a t i o n . F r a s e r ( 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 1 ) a p p e a r s t o s h a r e t h i s p o s i t i o n :

6

COMMUNICATION FROM FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES In general, critical theory needs to take a harder, more critical look at the terms "private" and "public/* These terms . . . are not simply straightforward des­ ignations of societal spheres; they are cultural classifications and rhetorical labels. In political discourse, they are powerful terms that are frequently de­ ployed to delegitimate some interests, views, and topics and to valorize others, (p. 73)

In o t h e r w o r d s , w h a t " c o u n t s " as " p u b l i c " o r " p r i v a t e " is t h e p r o d u c t o f d i s ­ c u r s i v e p r a c t i c e s that s h a p e o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of w h o w e a r e as b o t h c i t i z e n s a n d i n d i v i d u a l s . M o r e o v e r , c o n c e p t i o n s of p u b l i c c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e f r e q u e n t l y a d o p t a d e facto b i f u r c a t i o n of t h e p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e r e a l m s of d i s c o u r s e , w i t h little r e f l e c t i o n g i v e n to w h y c e r t a i n i s s u e s a r e a s s i g n e d to o n e d o m a i n o r t h e o t h e r . T h e i m p o r t a n c e of c r i t i c a l f e m i n i s t t h e ­ ory lies in its a b i l i t y to d e c o n s t r u c t t h e d i s c u r s i v e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f t h e p u b l i c p r i v a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p a n d to d e m o n s t r a t e t h e w a y s in w h i c h d i f f e r e n t c o n c e p ­ t i o n s of this r e l a t i o n s h i p s e r v e different i n t e r e s t s . A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n l y g e n d e r e d d i m e n s i o n s to t h e p u b l i c - p r i v a t e d i c h o t o m y , it is n o t m y i n t e n t to a r g u e t h a t t h i s d i c h o t o m y is a l w a y s i n i m i c a l to w o m e n a n d d i s e m p o w e r e d m i n o r i t y g r o u p s . I n d e e d , it c o u l d b e a r g u e d t h a t , o n t h e o n e h a n d , t h e s i t u a t i n g of p a r t i c u l a r i s s u e s in t h e p r i v a t e r e a l m s e r v e s t h e i n t e r e s t s of w o m e n a n d m i n o r i t i e s a n d c r e a t e s p o s s i b i l i t i e s for r e s i s t a n c e (e.g., M u r p h y , 1998; Scott, 1990; T r e t h e w e y , 1997c), while, on the other h a n d , the b l u r r i n g of t h e t w o s p h e r e s s e r v e s c o r p o r a t e i n t e r e s t s a n d i n c r e a s e s i n s t i t u t i o n a l l i m i t a t i o n s of p e o p l e ' s r i g h t s ( e . g . , i n c r e a s i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n a l sur­ v e i l l a n c e a n d m o n i t o r i n g of e m p l o y e e h e a l t h i s s u e s ) . T h e c e n t r a l i s s u e s f r o m a c r i t i c a l f e m i n i s t p e r s p e c t i v e a r e How does the relationship between the pub­ lic and private spheres get discursively articulated, and how does this articu­ lation process function to produce and reproduce extant power relations and/ or create possibilities for resistance and transformation? T w o brief e x a m p l e s f r o m c r i t i c a l f e m i n i s t r e s e a r c h h e l p to i l l u s t r a t e t h i s p o i n t . T r e t h e w e y * s ( 1 9 9 7 c ) f e m i n i s t a n a l y s i s of c l i e n t r e s i s t a n c e in a h u m a n s e r v ­ ice o r g a n i z a t i o n ( w h o s e p u r p o s e is to e n a b l e l o w - i n c o m e , u n e m p l o y e d p a r ­ e n t s to b e c o m e s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t ) p r o v i d e s an i n t e r e s t i n g e x a m p l e o f h o w c l i e n t s c a n i n v o k e p r i v a c y i s s u e s as a w a y to s u b v e r t t h e d i s c u r s i v e a r t i c u l a t i o n of t h e i r i d e n t i t i e s as o p e n to b u r e a u c r a t i c s c r u t i n y a n d d e f i n i t i o n . T r e t h e w e y p r o ­ v i d e s an e x a m p l e of a c l i e n t w h o r e f u s e d to a n s w e r h e r q u e s t i o n s w h e n s h e a c c o m p a n i e d t h e c a s e w o r k e r o n a h o m e visit:

During the course of the home visit, Allyson [the client] made it exceedingly clear that she resented having to confess her life story to strangers, including social workers and researchers like me Allyson also let her social worker know, in no uncertain terms, how displeased she was that Fern assumed she would be willing to discuss her life with a researcher she did not know. (p. 290)

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T r e t h e w e y s h o w s h o w this client resists the p e r c e i v e d i n v a s i o n of p r i v a c y and s i m u l t a n e o u s l y n e g a t e s " t h e s o c i a l w o r k e r ' s a t t e m p t s t o p o s i t i o n h e r as a c l i ­ ent w h o unquestioningly and passively confessed to k n o w i n g e x p e r t s " ( p . 2 9 0 ) . O n the contrary, Allyson discursively situates herself as the " k n o w ­ i n g s u b j e c t " w h o c o n t r o l s t h e f o r m a n d c o n t e n t of c o n f e s s i o n a l p r a c t i c e s . In this e x a m p l e , the female client refuses the discursive c o n s t r u c t i o n of h e r iden­ tity a s o p e n t o p u b l i c s c r u t i n y , a s s e s s m e n t , a n d d e f i n i t i o n . A s s u c h , s h e i n ­ v o k e s t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e s p h e r e s a s a m e a n s to r e s i s t w h a t s h e p e r c e i v e s a s a n i n a p p r o p r i a t e s c r u t i n y of h e r life. T h e s e c o n d e x a m p l e illustrates h o w this invocation of a separation of spheres can lead to precisely the opposite result. C l a i r ' s (1993b) feminist analysis of w o m e n ' s narratives about w o r k p l a c e sexual h a r a s s m e n t reveals h o w s o m e t i m e s w o m e n e n g a g e in d i s c u r s i v e p r a c t i c e s t h a t s e q u e s t e r t h e i r experiences of harassment. For instance, Clair shows h o w s o m e w o m e n dis­ c u r s i v e l y a d d r e s s h a r a s s m e n t b y s i t u a t i n g it a s p a r t o f t h e i r p r i v a t e l i v e s , " t h u s d i s m i s s i n g it a s a n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r o b l e m a n d r e l e g a t i n g it t o t h e p r i v a t e d o m a i n " ( p . 1 2 1 ) . In o n e s i t u a t i o n , a w o m a n r e s p o n d e d to u n w e l c o m e s e x u a l a d v a n c e s by bringing her boyfriend to the w o r k p l a c e to d i s c o u r a g e the o f f e n d e r . In o t h e r s i t u a t i o n s , w o m e n d i s c u r s i v e l y s e q u e s t e r e d s e x u a l h a r a s s ­ m e n t e x p e r i e n c e s b y f r a m i n g t h e m as t o o e m b a r r a s s i n g to t a l k a b o u t ; in s u c h i n s t a n c e s , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f p u b l i c , o r g a n i z a t i o n - l e v e l a c t i o n is f o r e c l o s e d . Here, then, w e have an e x a m p l e of an organizational c o m m u n i c a t i o n context in w h i c h t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f s p h e r e s s e r v e s to r e p r o d u c e t h e p a t r i a r c h a l i d e o l ­ ogy and furthers w o m e n ' s subordination. M y p o i n t , t h e n , is t h a t a s u f f i c i e n t l y n u a n c e d c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p b e t w e e n t h e p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e s p h e r e s r e q u i r e s a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e complex relations among discourse, power, gender, and identity. By view­ i n g t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e a s a c o n t e s t e d d i s c u r s i v e s p a c e t h a t is i t s e l f s u b j e c t c o n s t a n t l y t o r e f i n e m e n t a n d c h a n g e , w e a r e l e s s l i k e l y t o reify it in a w a y t h a t l i m i t s p o s s i b i l i t i e s for p a r t i c i p a t o r y f o r m s of d e m o c r a c y . G i v e n t h i s c o n t e x t , t h e r e m a i n d e r of t h i s s e c t i o n p r o v i d e s a b r i e f o v e r v i e w of s o m e of t h e p r i n c i ­ pal a r g u m e n t s r e g a r d i n g t h e r o l e a n d f u n c t i o n o f t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e . J a s i n s k i ( 1 9 8 7 ) n o t e s t h a t " t h e t a s k of p u b l i c c o m m u n i c a t i o n s c h o l a r s h i p is to i d e n t i f y a n d a n a l y z e t h e c o n s t i t u e n t f e a t u r e s a n d r e c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e s of t h e public s p h e r e " (p. 424). I would modify this statement s o m e w h a t and suggest t h a t , in a d d i t i o n , p u b l i c c o m m u n i c a t i o n s h o u l d b e c o n c e r n e d w i t h i d e n t i f y i n g a n d c r i t i q u i n g t h e relationship between the public and private spheres. Such a shift in f o c u s a l l o w s o n e to e x a m i n e m o r e c l o s e l y t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f c a t e g o r i z ­ i n g s o m e d i s c o u r s e s a s p u b l i c ( a n d t h e r e f o r e w o r t h y of a n a l y s i s ) a n d s o m e a s private (and therefore not as worthy). Below, I e x a m i n e s o m e of the constitu­ ent features of the public sphere and suggest h o w certain extant notions a s s o ­ c i a t e d w i t h its f r a m i n g l i m i t o u r c o n c e p t i o n s of d e m o c r a c y in c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i e t y . L e t m e b e g i n b y p r o v i d i n g s o m e c u r r e n t l y e s p o u s e d d e f i n i t i o n s of t h e public sphere.

8

COMMUNICATION FROM FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES

G o o d n i g h t ( 1 9 8 7 ) u n d e r s t a n d s t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e to b e " t h a t d o m a i n of d i s ­ c u r s i v e p r a c t i c e s o p e n to t h o s e w h o s e o p i n i o n s c o u n t in c o n t e s t i n g a d e c i s i o n of c o n s e q u e n c e to a c o m m u n i t y " ( p . 4 3 1 ) . A t t a c h e d to t h i s d e f i n i t i o n a r e f o u r h y p o t h e s e s : (a) P u b l i c d i s c o u r s e is in p r i n c i p l e c o n t r o v e r s i a l ; ( b ) p u b l i c d i s ­ c o u r s e o c c u r s in f o r u m s that a l l o w c o m m u n i c a t i o n p r o c e s s e s to b e i n s p e c t e d ; (c) p u b l i c d i s c o u r s e b o t h e m e r g e s f r o m a n d s h a p e s t i m e a n d s p a c e ; a n d (d) p u b l i c d i s c o u r s e a d d r e s s e s an a u d i e n c e w h o s e c o n s e n t is r e q u e s t e d a n d o p t i ­ m a l l y p r o v i d e s k n o w l e d g e for i n f o r m e d d e c i s i o n s b y t h o s e p e o p l e u r g e d to act (pp. 430-431). In a d d i t i o n , G o o d n i g h t ( 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 8 7 ) s i t u a t e s t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e b y j u x t a p o s ­ i n g it a g a i n s t w h a t h e refers to as t h e p e r s o n a l s p h e r e ( c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y p r i v a t e conversation involving open-ended language use, with consequences mainly for t h e i n t e r l o c u t o r s ) a n d t h e t e c h n i c a l s p h e r e ( c o n s t i t u t e d t h r o u g h f o r m a l codes and the production of technical k n o w l e d g e ) . A s S c h i a p p a (1989) has i n d i c a t e d , s u c h a t r i p a r t i t e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n s p h e r e s of d i s c o u r s e a n d k n o w l e d g e is c l e a r l y in t h e c l a s s i c l i b e r a l t r a d i t i o n , w h i c h c a r e f u l l y s e p a r a t e s t h e p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e r e a l m s . T h e l o g i c of t h i s l i b e r a l " d i s t i n c t s p h e r e s " a p p r o a c h is tied u p w i t h t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s , in t h e s e n s e t h a t it is p r e m i s e d o n t h e r i g h t to p r i v a c y , t h r o u g h w h i c h c e r t a i n i s s u e s a r e e x ­ c l u d e d from p u b l i c d e b a t e a n d c o n t e s t a t i o n . In g e n e r a l , t h e p r i v a t e s p h e r e is d e e m e d to e n c o m p a s s t h e d o m e s t i c / f a m i l i a l r e a l m a s w e l l a s c e r t a i n d i m e n ­ s i o n s of t h e e c o n o m i c r e a l m , s u c h as r i g h t s of o w n e r s h i p a n d t h e r i g h t to m a k e a profit. A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e p u b l i c r e a l m is s e e n i d e a l l y as c o n s i s t i n g of i n ­ d i v i d u a l s w h o , r e g a r d l e s s of t h e i r p o s i t i o n in t h e s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y , a r e a b l e to c o m e t o g e t h e r to d e l i b e r a t e o v e r c o n t e s t e d i s s u e s . In t h i s s e n s e , t h e b o u r g e o i s l i b e r a l c o n c e p t i o n of t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e is p r e m i s e d o n t h e b a s i s o f a sovereign subject. In G o o d n i g h t ' s d i s t i n c t i o n a m o n g s p h e r e s , w e c a n a l s o s e e a n a t t e m p t to d i f f e r e n t i a t e v a r i o u s e p i s t e m i c p r o d u c t s ( S c h i a p p a , 1 9 8 9 ) . T h a t i s , e a c h of G o o d n i g h t ' s s p h e r e s is d e e m e d to p r o d u c e l a r g e l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d f o r m s of knowledge. The private sphere produces private opinion, the technical sphere produces technical k n o w l e d g e , and the public sphere produces social k n o w l ­ e d g e . T h e r e s u l t of this careful s e p a r a t i o n of k n o w l e d g e i n t o d i f f e r e n t r e a l m s ( s p h e r e s of a r g u m e n t ) is t h a t d i s c o u r s e is d e e m e d l e g i t i m a t e o n l y to t h e e x t e n t that it is a r t i c u l a t e d w i t h i n the a p p r o p r i a t e s p h e r e . F o r e x a m p l e , t e c h n i c a l k n o w l e d g e r e q u i r e s s p e c i a l i z e d d i s c u r s i v e p r a c t i c e s a n d is t h e r e f o r e n o t u s u ­ ally o p e n to p u b l i c d e b a t e . A l t h o u g h t h i s s e p a r a t i o n of s p h e r e s m a y p r o v i d e a s y s t e m of c h e c k s a n d b a l a n c e s in s o c i e t y , s u c h a p o s i t i o n s e t s u p d i c h o t o m o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n f o r m s of k n o w l e d g e a n d , b y e x t e n s i o n , f o r m s of d i s ­ c o u r s e that p o t e n t i a l l y m a k e r e l a t i v e l y a r b i t r a r y j u d g m e n t s a b o u t t h e l e g i t i ­ m a c y of i s s u e s o p e n to p u b l i c d e b a t e . I w o u l d a r g u e t h a t a m o r e i m p o r t a n t a n d m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l q u e s t i o n than " I n w h i c h s p h e r e of a r g u m e n t d o e s t h i s i s s u e b e l o n g ? " is the q u e s t i o n By what set of criteria and in whose interests is it to

Communication,

Organization,

Public

Sphere

9

structure the respective spheres so that only specific issues are deemed admis­ sible? T h i s l a t t e r q u e s t i o n i m p l i e s a m u c h m o r e r a d i c a l - c r i t i c a l c o n c e p t i o n of t h e p u b l i c - p r i v a t e d i c h o t o m y . It s u g g e s t s t h a t , r a t h e r t h a n f u n c t i o n i n g as a s t r u c ­ t u r e in w h i c h b o t h i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s a n d t h e p u b l i c g o o d a r e e n s u r e d , t h i s d i c h o t o m y is r o o t e d in s p e c i f i c i d e o l o g i c a l p r a c t i c e s t h a t p r i v i l e g e c e r t a i n f o r m s of a r g u m e n t a n d m o d e s of k n o w l e d g e o v e r o t h e r s . P h i l l i p s ( 1 9 9 6 ) m a k e s a s i m i l a r c a s e w h e n h e a r g u e s that t h e d o m i n a n t c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e p u b ­ lic s p h e r e is r o o t e d in a c o m m u n i c a t i o n m o d e l of c o n s e n s u s t h a t l i m i t s p o s s i ­ b i l i t i e s for d i s s e n s i o n a n d a l t e r n a t i v e w o r l d v i e w s . F o r e x a m p l e , h e s u g g e s t s t h a t , a l t h o u g h t h e c o n s e n s u s m o d e l o p e r a t e s u n d e r a p r e s u m p t i o n of o p e n n e s s , t h e r e a l i t y is t h a t " t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e b e c o m e s m e r e l y a n o t h e r d i s c u r s i v e s i t e w i t h its o w n u n i q u e f o r m s of e x c l u s i o n , c o e r c i o n , a n d j u d g m e n t " ( p . 2 3 8 ) . S i m i l a r l y , b y m a i n t a i n i n g a strict s e p a r a t i o n of s p h e r e s , t h e c o n s e n s u s m o d e l a p p e a r s to f o r e c l o s e d i s c u s s i o n of t h e r e l e v a n c e for p u b l i c d e b a t e of d i s ­ c o u r s e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m a r g i n a l i z e d g r o u p s s u c h as w o m e n a n d m i n o r i t i e s . T h o u g h it c a n b e a r g u e d t h a t P h i l l i p s o v e r s t a t e s t h e o p p r e s s i v e , c o n s e n s u s d r i v e n q u a l i t i e s of t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e a n d its n e g a t i n g o f p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r d i s ­ s e n t ( G o o d n i g h t , 1 9 9 7 ; H a u s e r , 1 9 9 7 ) , h i s e s s a y d o e s p o i n t to t h e n e e d to c o n ­ ceptualize the relationship b e t w e e n the public and private r e a l m s as essen­ tially c o n t e s t e d a n d i d e o l o g i c a l . O n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t t h e o r i s t s o f t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e is H a b e r m a s ( 1 9 7 4 , 1 9 8 9 ) . H a b e r m a s a r g u e s that, o r i g i n a l l y , t h e b o u r g e o i s i e c o n c e i v e d t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e as t h e r e a l m t h a t m e d i a t e d b e t w e e n s o c i e t y a n d t h e s t a t e . In o t h e r w o r d s , it e m b o d i e s " t h e p r i n c i p l e o f i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h o n c e h a d to b e f o u g h t for a g a i n s t t h e a r c a n e p o l i c i e s o f m o n a r c h i e s a n d w h i c h s i n c e t h a t t i m e h a s m a d e p o s s i b l e t h e d e m o c r a t i c c o n t r o l of s t a t e a c t i v i t i e s " ( H a b e r m a s , 1974, p. 50). H o w e v e r , H a b e r m a s also argues that, although this liberal m o d e l is still in p r i n c i p l e an i n s t r u c t i v e o n e (in t e r m s of its a b i l i t y t o c r i t i q u e s t a t e p o w e r ) , it c a n n o l o n g e r b e a p p l i e d to t h e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t c u r r e n t l y o p e r a t e in late c a p i t a l i s t , w e l f a r e - s t a t e m a s s d e m o c r a c y . T h e p u b l i c s p h e r e h a s b y a n d l a r g e l o s t its i m p o r t a n c e as an i n s t r u m e n t of p o l i t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n , n o t b e c a u s e t h e r o l e of t h e c i t i z e n is l e s s i m p o r t a n t b u t b e c a u s e o f t h e o v e r l a p p i n g of s t a t e and society:

With the interweaving of the public and private realm, not only do the political authorities assume certain functions in the sphere of commodity exchange and social labor, but conversely social powers now assume political functions. This leads to a kind of "refeudalization" of the public sphere. Large organizations strive for political compromises with the state and with each other, excluding the public sphere whenever possible. But at the same time the large organizations must assure themselves of at least plebiscitary support from the mass of the population through an apparent display of openness. (Habermas, 1974, p. 54)

10

COMMUNICATION FROM FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES

In t h i s s e n s e , a n y n o t i o n of a c r i t i c a l p u b l i c s p h e r e is c h i m e r i c a l b e c a u s e " t h e p r o c e s s of m a k i n g p u b l i c s i m p l y s e r v e s t h e a r c a n e p o l i c i e s of s p e c i a l i n t e r ­ e s t s ; in the f o r m of ' p u b l i c i t y * it w i n s p u b l i c p r e s t i g e for p e o p l e o r a f f a i r s , t h u s m a k i n g t h e m w o r t h y of a c c l a m a t i o n in a c l i m a t e of n o n - p u b l i c o p i n i o n " (1974, p. 55). H a b e r m a s t h u s e n a b l e s u s to s e e h o w a n y p o s s i b i l i t y for m e a n i n g f u l d e b a t e w i t h i n t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e is e f f e c t i v e l y u n d e r m i n e d b e c a u s e of c o m b i n e d s t a t e a n d c o r p o r a t e i n t e r e s t s w i t h i n the s o c i a l r e a l m a n d t h e e c o n o m y . B y a n d l a r g e , t h o s e m a j o r d e c i s i o n s of p o t e n t i a l l y p u b l i c s i g n i f i c a n c e " s h o r t c i r c u i t " t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e a n d a r e p r e s e n t e d as a "fait a c c o m p l i " to t h e c i t i z e n r y . H a b e r m a s ' s c r i t i q u e of t h e l i b e r a l m o d e l of t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e is i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e it a l l o w s u s to s e e h o w a still l a r g e l y a c c e p t e d d i c h o t o m y b e t w e e n p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e h a s b e e n t r a n s f o r m e d in late c a p i t a l i s m . T o a r g u e for an u n p r o b l e m a t i c d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e s p h e r e s is e s s e n ­ tially to o v e r l o o k n o t o n l y the e x t e n t to w h i c h t h e t w o r e a l m s i n t e r t w i n e b u t a l s o t h e e x t e n t to w h i c h t h e c i t i z e n as the s o v e r e i g n s u b j e c t of r a t i o n a l i t y h a s b e e n u n d e r m i n e d a n d d i s e m p o w e r e d . T h e o p p o r t u n i t y for t h e " p r i v a t e " c i t i ­ zen to m a k e h i s or h e r c a s e in a d i s c u r s i v e p u b l i c s p a c e is l a r g e l y n e g a t e d b e c a u s e (a) the i n s t i t u t i o n of t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e is not e q u a l l y a v a i l a b l e to e v e r y o n e ; (b) t h o s e w i t h t h e r e s o u r c e s to m a k e u s e of t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e a l s o h a v e t h e r e s o u r c e s to c o n t r o l t h e w a y s in w h i c h d i f f e r e n t a n d c o m p e t i n g i n t e r ­ e s t s , n e e d s , a n d b e l i e f s are i n t e r p r e t e d ; a n d (c) t h e p u b l i c - p r i v a t e d i c h o t o m y s t r u c t u r a l l y a n d i d e o l o g i c a l l y d i s e m p o w e r s c e r t a i n s o c i a l g r o u p s b e c a u s e it r e g u l a t e s a d m i s s i o n of i s s u e s i n t o the p u b l i c s p h e r e , t h u s d e t e r m i n i n g t h e e x t e n t to w h i c h s u c h i s s u e s a r e " o p e n to c o n t e s t a t i o n . " H a b e r m a s m a i n t a i n s t h a t s o m e t h i n g like t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e is i n d i s p e n s a b l e to t h e r a t i o n a l c o n t e s t a t i o n of i s s u e s of p u b l i c w e l f a r e , b u t at t h e s a m e t i m e h e offers an i m p o r t a n t c r i t i q u e of w h y t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e , as c u r r e n t l y c o n s t i t u t e d , is u n a b l e to function in its a p p r o p r i a t e c r i t i c a l , m e d i a t o r y r o l e . H o w e v e r , w h i l e h e r e c o g n i z e s the a p o r i a in t h e l i b e r a l b o u r g e o i s m o d e l , h e is u n a b l e t o a p p r o p r i a t e l y p r o b l e m a t i z e the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e p r i v a t e a n d p u b l i c r e a l m s . It is t h i s p r o b l e m a t i c that t h e l i b e r a l b o u r g e o i s m o d e l s p e c i f i c a l l y i g n o r e s a n d that, I w o u l d a r g u e , m u s t be m o r e c l o s e l y e x a m i n e d if w e a r e to a r t i c u l a t e a m o r e d e m o c r a t i c c o n c e p t i o n of p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s e s . A t this p o i n t , it w o u l d b e helpful to p r o v i d e a w o r k i n g d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e p u b ­ lic s p h e r e a s a c o n t e x t for m y d i s c u s s i o n of c r i t i c a l f e m i n i s m a n d its i m p l i c a ­ t i o n s for the p u b l i c - p r i v a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p . I v i e w t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e a s a d i s c u r ­ s i v e l y c o n s t r u c t e d s p a c e for a r g u m e n t in w h i c h d i f f e r e n t i n t e r e s t g r o u p s c o m p e t e to a r t i c u l a t e c o n f l i c t i n g w o r l d v i e w s . T h e b o u n d a r i e s of t h e p u b l i c sphere are both conventional (i.e., h u m a n l y constructed) and p e r m e a b l e , so the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e s p h e r e s is c o n t i n u o u s l y o p e n to c o n t e s t a t i o n . F u r t h e r m o r e , f o l l o w i n g F r a s e r ( 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 1 ) , I r e j e c t t h e n o t i o n of a s i n g l e p u b l i c s p h e r e in f a v o r of a m u l t i p l i c i t y of s p h e r e s t h a t

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i m p i n g e in d i f f e r e n t w a y s o n s o c i e t y . T h e s e s p h e r e s a r e i n t e r r e l a t e d , d r a w i n g o n a c o m p l e x s y s t e m of o v e r l a p p i n g d i s c u r s i v e c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t h a v e v a r y ­ i n g d e g r e e s of c u l t u r a l , e c o n o m i c , a n d p o l i t i c a l c a p i t a l . For example, large multinational corporations clearly possess greater political, cultural, and economic resources than, say, w o m e n ' s and gay rights g r o u p s , a n d , as s u c h , t h e y a r e a b l e to m a r s h a l t h e s e r e s o u r c e s in w a y s t h a t heavily influence public debate and policy. At the same time, relatively p o w ­ e r l e s s g r o u p s c a n h a v e an i m p a c t o n p u b l i c d i s c o u r s e a n d d e b a t e ; w i t n e s s , for i n s t a n c e , D i s n e y ' s e x t e n s i o n of its h e a l t h c a r e p l a n to i n c l u d e d o m e s t i c p a r t ­ n e r s of e m p l o y e e s r e g a r d l e s s of s e x u a l o r i e n t a t i o n . S u c h a p o l i c y c h a n g e , it m i g h t b e a r g u e d , w o u l d b e u n t h i n k a b l e w i t h o u t t h e i m p o r t a n t r o l e of t h e g a y c o m m u n i t y in s h i f t i n g t h e p a r a m e t e r s of p u b l i c d e b a t e o v e r h o m o s e x u a l rights. On the other hand, D i s n e y ' s new policy triggered a response from con­ s e r v a t i v e g r o u p s s u c h as F o c u s o n t h e F a m i l y , l e a d i n g to a b o y c o t t — a l b e i t unsuccessful—of Disney products. T o complicate matters further, D i s n e y has b e e n a f r e q u e n t t a r g e t of leftist c r i t i c s , p a r t i c u l a r l y f e m i n i s t s , b e c a u s e of its c u l t u r a l i m p e r i a l i s m a n d its m a s s m a r k e t i n g of c o n s e r v a t i v e v a l u e s a n d g e n ­ der identities. W h a t w e s e e in t h i s e x a m p l e is an i n c r e d i b l y c o m p l e x a n d f r e q u e n t l y c o n ­ tradictory picture of the relations a m o n g discourse, publics, and individual a n d g r o u p r i g h t s . S o m e of t h e i s s u e s r e l e v a n t t o t h i s e x a m p l e i n c l u d e c o m p e t ­ i n g d e f i n i t i o n s of " t h e f a m i l y , " t h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n t h e p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e s p h e r e s (Is t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f c e r t a i n f o r m s of s e x u a l i t y o p e n t o p u b l i c d e b a t e o r n o t ? ) , a n d t h e r o l e of t h e m o d e r n c o r p o r a t i o n in s h a p i n g c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t i e s a n d v a l u e s . M y p o i n t is t h a t a n y a t t e m p t t o c h a r a c t e r i z e " t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e " in monolithic terms and, c o n c o m i t a n t l y , to posit a straightforward and fixed r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e s p h e r e s fails t o d o j u s t i c e t o t h e c o m p l e x i t y of t h e s p h e r e s a n d t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p to e a c h o t h e r . In t h e n e x t s e c ­ t i o n , I e x p l o r e t h e r o l e of c r i t i c a l f e m i n i s t t h e o r y in a t t e m p t i n g t o d e v e l o p a m o r e n u a n c e d c o n c e p t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e r e a l m s of d i s c o u r s e . F o l l o w i n g t h i s , I s u g g e s t h o w s u c h a c o n c e p t i o n c a n p r o ­ vide greater insight into the relations a m o n g the public and private spheres, organizations, and democracy.

THE PUBLIC-PRIVATE DICHOTOMY: A FEMINIST CRITIQUE It is b o t h i m p o s s i b l e a n d u n d e s i r a b l e to p r o v i d e an a c c u r a t e a n d i n c l u s i v e d e s c r i p t i o n of " t h e f e m i n i s t p r o j e c t " g i v e n t h e m a n y a n d d i v e r s e i n t e l l e c t u a l c u r r e n t s that h a v e e m e r g e d o v e r t h e last 2 0 y e a r s o r s o . H o w e v e r , in t h e c o n ­ text of this c h a p t e r a n d in t e r m s of t h e t y p e of a n a l y s i s I w i s h t o c o n d u c t , w e c a n t h i n k of f e m i n i s m in its b r o a d e s t s e n s e as t h e c r i t i q u e of b i n a r y t h i n k i n g

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(Fox-Genovese, 1991; Fraser, 1989; Gergen, 1988; M u m b y & Putnam, 1992; Nicholson, 1990; Nielsen, 1990). T h i s t y p e o f c r i t i q u e falls i n t o t w o a n a l y t i c a l l y d i s t i n c t b u t r e l a t e d d o m a i n s . First, f e m i n i s t t h e o r y h a s c o n s i s t e n t l y a d d r e s s e d a n d c r i t i q u e d t h e b i n a r y assumptions associated with traditional Western, patriarchal epistemology. T h u s , a p p a r e n t l y n a t u r a l o p p o s i t i o n s s u c h as r a t i o n a l / i r r a t i o n a l , c u l t u r e / n a t u r e , a n d m i n d / b o d y (in w h i c h t h e first, m a l e , t e r m in e a c h d i c h o t o m y is privileged over the second, female, term) are shown by m a n y feminists to be a r b i t r a r y c o n s t r u c t i o n s that m a i n t a i n a n d r e p r o d u c e m e n ' s d o m i n a n c e o v e r w o m e n (Flax, 1990; H e k m a n , 1990). For example, the "rational/irrational" o p p o s i t i o n is s h o w n to b e an i d e o l o g i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l l y h a s j u s t i f i e d w o m e n ' s e x c l u s i o n from t h e r e a l m of i d e a s a n d t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e of r a t i o n a l a r g u m e n t ( H e k m a n , 1 9 9 0 , p p . 1 0 - 6 1 ) . R e l a t e d to t h i s , t h e t e n d e n c y of t r a d i t i o n a l s c i e n c e to d i c h o t o m i z e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e r e s e a r c h e r a n d t h e o b j e c t of s t u d y ( g e n e r i c a l l y t e r m e d t h e " s u b j e c t / o b j e c t s p l i t " ) h a s b e e n c r i t i q u e d b y m a n y f e m i n i s t s as i n a p p r o p r i a t e l y r e i f y i n g a n d s e p a r a t i n g e l e ­ m e n t s that a r e i n t e r d e p e n d e n t in i m p o r t a n t w a y s — o n t o l o g i c a l l y , e p i s t e m o ­ l o g i c a l l y , p o l i t i c a l l y , a n d s o o n . F e m i n i s t r e s e a r c h e r s s u c h as O a k l e y ( 1 9 8 1 ) , for e x a m p l e , h a v e s h o w n h o w k n o w l e d g e c l a i m s a r e c o p r o d u c e d b y t h e r e ­ s e a r c h e r a n d i n f o r m a n t s a n d a r e v e r y m u c h tied u p w i t h t h e p o l i t i c a l c h o i c e s m a d e by t h e f o r m e r . A s s u c h , f e m i n i s t s e s c h e w t h e n o t i o n of o b j e c t i v e , p o l i t i ­ c a l - n e u t r a l k n o w l e d g e , a r g u i n g that all k n o w l e d g e a r i s e s o u t o f t h e s t a n d p o i n t one assumes (Allen, 1996; Collins, 1991; H e k m a n , 1997). S e c o n d , f e m i n i s m as a s o c i a l m o v e m e n t h a s f o c u s e d a t t e n t i o n o n t h e v a r i ­ o u s w a y s in w h i c h s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l p r a c t i c e s s y s t e m a t i c a l l y s u b o r d i n a t e w o m e n (Buzzanell, 1995; Clair, 1993b; Ferguson, 1984). By drawing atten­ tion to t h e g e n d e r e d f e a t u r e s of s o c i e t a l i n e q u a l i t y , f e m i n i s m h a s p r o v i d e d a c o n t e x t for b o t h d e b a t e a n d a c t i o n . It h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e differences b e t w e e n social groups are not natural and inevitable but, rather, are shaped by the production and reproduction of specific s e m a n t i c , political, a n d e c o n o m i c s y s t e m s . In t h i s s e n s e , f e m i n i s m h a s c r i t i q u e d t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a b i n a r y s y s t e m of d i f f e r e n c e in c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i e t y . In t h e c o n t e x t of t h i s c h a p t e r , t h e f e m i n i s t c r i t i q u e of b o t h p a t r i a r c h a l w a y s of k n o w i n g a n d g e n d e r e d s y s t e m s of o p p r e s s i o n p r o v i d e s a f r a m e w o r k for t h e a n a l y s i s of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e s p h e r e s . F i r s t , in e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l t e r m s , f e m i n i s t t h e o r y h a s s h o w n that " t h e r u l i n g p a r a d i g m s o r t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k s in s o c i a l s c i e n c e a r e f l a w e d b y a m a s c u l i n i s t b i a s w h i c h is i n d i c a t e d in an a r b i t r a r y p r i v i l e g i n g of t h e p u b l i c a s p e c t of s o c i a l e x ­ i s t e n c e " ( Y e a t m a n , 1 9 8 7 , p . 159). T h e e r s t w h i l e p r i v i l e g i n g in r h e t o r i c a l s t u d ­ ies of " g r e a t s p e a k e r s " is o n e m a n i f e s t a t i o n of t h i s b i a s . W h i l e w o m e n m a y b e v i e w e d as a l e g i t i m a t e o b j e c t of s t u d y for s o c i a l s c i e n c e , t h e t e n d e n c y h a s b e e n to t r e a t g e n d e r as a v a r i a b l e r a t h e r t h a n as a c e n t r a l c o n s t r u c t for t h e m a t i z i n g s o c i a l i s s u e s ( s e e S p i t z a c k & C a r t e r , 1 9 8 7 , for a c r i t i q u e of t h i s

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t e n d e n c y ) . In F o u c a u l t ' s ( 1 9 7 9 ) t e r m s , it m i g h t b e s a i d t h a t w o m e n t r a d i t i o n ­ ally h a v e b e e n " t h e o b j e c t of i n f o r m a t i o n , n e v e r a s u b j e c t in c o m m u n i c a t i o n " ( p . 2 0 0 ) . In a d d i t i o n , a l t h o u g h w o m e n m a y b e a c c o m m o d a t e d in t r a d i t i o n a l f o r m s of s o c i a l s c i e n c e , t h e y g e n e r a l l y a r e a s s u m e d t o h a v e a " d i s t i n c t i v e " r o l e in t h e d o m e s t i c r e a l m — a r e a l m t h a t is d e f i n e d a s t h e l e s s e r d i m e n s i o n of t h e d u a l o r d e r i n g ( p u b l i c / p r i v a t e ) o f s o c i a l life. S e c o n d , t h e m a s c u l i n i s t b i a s in s o c i a l t h e o r y a n d r e s e a r c h m i r r o r s ( a n d is m i r r o r e d b y ) t h e g e n d e r e d c h a r a c t e r of t h e " c i t i z e n " r o l e . T h e l i b e r a l b o u r ­ g e o i s c o n c e p t of t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e is g e n d e r e d in t e r m s o f its p r i v i l e g i n g of masculinist speech styles, forms of association, and so forth. I n d e e d , Fraser ( 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 1 , p . 5 8 ) e v e n p o i n t s to t h e e t y m o l o g i c a l c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n " t e s t i ­ m o n y " a n d " t e s t i c l e " as an i n d i c a t o r of h o w t h o r o u g h l y p a t r i a r c h a l o u r c o n ­ c e p t i o n of t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e i s . B u t as s e v e r a l f e m i n i s t s h a v e p o i n t e d o u t , t h i s s t r u c t u r i n g of a m a l e - o r i e n t e d p u b l i c d o m a i n is d e p e n d e n t o n t h e a b i l i t y to a r t i c u l a t e a d o m e s t i c ( i . e . , p r i v a t e ) r e a l m t h a t s u p p o r t s it. T h i s g e n d e r e d s p l i t b e t w e e n t h e p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e r e a l m s t h u s b e c o m e s t h e f o u n d a t i o n for s o c i a l o r d e r . In h e r a n a l y s i s of t h e m u t u a l d e v e l o p m e n t of c a p i t a l i s m a n d i n d i v i d u a l ­ ism, F o x - G e n o v e s e (1991) notes,

Individualism, rationalism, and universalism were all interpreted in strictly male terms. Worse, in some measure, they all rested upon a more or less explicit repudia­ tion of women as the opposite of the desired male norm and the celebration of them as the emotional anchor necessary to the functioning of that norm under conditions of intense competition. Having rejected dependency in favor of autonomy, the dominant male culture nonetheless itself depended, in the lives of individual men, upon a repressed domestic sphere that was represented as custodian of all the qual­ ities the public sphere could not tolerate, (pp. 16-17)

F e m i n i s t t h e o r y , t h e n , a l l o w s u s to p r o b l e m a t i z e a n d d e c o n s t r u c t t h e " i d e ­ ology of separate s p h e r e s " ( F o x - G e n o v e s e , 1 9 9 1 , p. 22) and to d e m o n s t r a t e t h e e x t e n t to w h i c h t h e c l e a v a g e b e t w e e n t h e p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e r e a l m s is c o n ­ s t r u c t e d v i a t h e p r i v i l e g i n g o f a s p e c i f i c a l l y g e n d e r - p o l i t i c a l s o c i a l s y s t e m . In e s s e n c e , it c a n b e a r g u e d t h a t t h e c e n t r a l c o n s t r u c t a r o u n d w h i c h t h i s d e c o n s ­ t r u c t i o n p r o c e s s r e v o l v e s is t h a t o f " p o w e r . " H e r e , I d o n o t m e a n " p o w e r " in a simply c o e r c i v e sense but, rather, as the process through w h i c h a certain c o n s t e l l a t i o n of i n t e r e s t s is s t r u c t u r e d s o that t h e n e e d s o f c e r t a i n g r o u p s t a k e p r e c e d e n c e o v e r t h e n e e d s of o t h e r g r o u p s . In a G r a m s c i a n ( 1 9 7 1 ) s e n s e , w e can say that the currently articulated relationship between the public and pri­ v a t e s p h e r e s p r o v i d e s t h e f o u n d a t i o n for a h e g e m o n i c s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e in which certain groups (particularly w o m e n and minorities) are denied access to t h e d o m i n a n t " m e a n s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n ( M I C ) " ( F r a s e r , 1989, p. 164).

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F o r e x a m p l e , t h e d e b a t e o v e r " w e l f a r e " t e n d s to b e s o d o m i n a t e d b y c o n s e r ­ v a t i v e p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s that the t e r m welfare mother i m m e d i a t e l y c o n j u r e s u p , in m a n y p e o p l e ' s m i n d s , the i m a g e of a s i n g l e , m i n o r i t y ( p r o b a b l y c r a c k u s i n g ) m o t h e r w h o g e t s p r e g n a n t for the s o l e p u r p o s e of i n c r e a s i n g h e r w e l ­ fare p a y m e n t s . In this d e f i n i t i o n a l s t r u g g l e , " w e l f a r e " b e c o m e s t h e s i g n i f i e r for t h e f a i l u r e of a s p e c i f i c c l a s s of i n d i v i d u a l s r a t h e r t h a n for a n e c o n o m i c system that creates h u g e e c o n o m i c and political disparities b e t w e e n the " h a v e s " and "have nots." F r a s e r ' s ( 1 9 8 9 , 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 1 ) a n a l y s i s of t h e p u b l i c - p r i v a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p is w o r t h e x a m i n i n g at l e n g t h b e c a u s e it p r o v i d e s an i m p o r t a n t m e a n s of m o v i n g b e y o n d t h e t e n d e n c y to treat that r e l a t i o n s h i p as l a r g e l y r e i f i e d . S p e c i f i c a l l y , F r a s e r ( 1 9 8 9 ) p r o v i d e s w h a t s h e t e r m s a " d i s c u r s i v e - p o l i t i c a l " m o d e l of " n e e d s t a l k . " H e r e , " n e e d s t a l k " refers to t h o s e i s s u e s t h a t c o m e to c o n s t i t u t e w h a t is g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e a n d a b o u t w h i c h t h e r e is d e b a t e a m o n g different interest groups. H o w e v e r , Fraser argues that such n e e d s talk c a n n o t b e t a k e n at f a c e v a l u e but m u s t i n s t e a d b e c o n t e x t u a l i z e d in t e r m s of the s t r u g g l e o v e r h o w s u c h n e e d s s h o u l d b e d e f i n e d a n d i n t e r p r e t e d . O n e w a y to clarify this o r i e n t a t i o n is to c o n t r a s t t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of h e r " t h i c k " m o d e l of n e e d s talk w i t h t h e " t h i n " a p p r o a c h that s h e a t t r i b u t e s to m o s t t r a d i t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t s of p u b l i c l y d e c l a r e d n e e d s . A c c o r d i n g to F r a s e r ( 1 9 8 9 ) , t r a d i t i o n a l a p p r o a c h e s a r e s u b j e c t to t h e f o l l o w i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s : (a) " T h e y t a k e t h e i n t e r ­ p r e t a t i o n of p e o p l e ' s n e e d s as s i m p l y g i v e n a n d u n p r o b l e m a t i c " ; ( b ) it is a s s u m e d that w h o i n t e r p r e t s the n e e d s a n d in l i g h t of w h a t i n t e r e s t s is u n i m ­ p o r t a n t ; (c) it is t a k e n for g r a n t e d that t h e c u r r e n t l y a u t h o r i z e d p u b l i c d i s ­ c o u r s e a v a i l a b l e for n e e d s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is a d e q u a t e a n d fair; a n d ( d ) s u c h a p p r o a c h e s "fail to p r o b l e m a t i z e t h e s o c i a l a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l l o g i c of p r o c e s s e s of n e e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n " ( p . 164). In c o n t r a s t , F r a s e r ( 1 9 8 9 ) p r o p o s e s a more politically critical, discourse-oriented alternative. I take the politics of needs to comprise three moments that are analytically distinct but interrelated in practice. The first is the struggle to establish or deny the political status of a given need, the struggle to validate the need as a matter of legitimate political concern or to enclave it as a nonpolitical matter. The second is the struggle over the interpreta­ tion of the need, the struggle for the power to define it and, so, to determine what would satisfy it. The third moment is the struggle over the satisfaction of the need, the struggle to secure or withhold provision, (p. 164) F r a s e r c o n t e x t u a l i z e s this m o d e l of t h e p o l i t i c s of n e e d s w i t h i n a m o d e l o f s o c i a l d i s c o u r s e ( h e r M I C ) . S u c h a m o d e l is n o t s i m p l y a m e a n s o f s t r e s s i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e c o m m u n i c a t i v e p r o c e s s in t h e e x p r e s s i o n a n d r e p r e s e n ­ t a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l a n d g r o u p n e e d s . R a t h e r , it t h e m a t i z e s t h e e x t e n t to w h i c h

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d i s c u r s i v e p r a c t i c e s a r e i n t e g r a l t o t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n of i d e n t i t y — b o t h i n d i v i d ­ ual and g r o u p . Fraser (1989) suggests the following discursive r e s o u r c e s that m e m b e r s of a g i v e n s o c i a l g r o u p h a v e a v a i l a b l e in a r t i c u l a t i n g t h e i r n e e d s in opposition to other groups:

1. The officially recognized idioms in which one can press claims; for example, needs talk, rights talk, interests talk 2. The vocabularies available for instantiating claims in these recognized idi­ oms . . . ; for example, therapeutic vocabularies, administrative vocabularies, . . . feminist vocabularies 3. The paradigms of argumentation accepted as authoritative in adjudicating conflicting claims [e.g., appeals to scientific experts, to majority rule, etc.] 4. The narrative conventions available for constructing the individual and col­ lective stories that are constitutive of people's social identities 5. Modes of subjectification; the ways in which various discourses position the people to whom they are addressed as specific sorts of subjects . . . as "nor­ mal" or "deviant," . . . as victims or as potential activists, (pp. 163-165)

O n t h e b a s i s of F r a s e r ' s ( 1 9 8 9 ) m o d e l of " n e e d s t a l k , " w e a r e a b l e to e x p l i c ­ itly p r o b l e m a t i z e t h e p r o c e s s b y w h i c h c e r t a i n s y s t e m s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d m o d e s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c o m e to c o n s t i t u t e t h e s p h e r e o f p u b l i c d i s c o u r s e . In e s s e n c e , t h e p r o b l e m is o n e of e x a m i n i n g t h e w a y s in w h i c h d i s c o u r s e s a r e p o l i t i c i z e d o r s e q u e s t e r e d a s n o n p o l i t i c a l . In o t h e r w o r d s , to w h a t e x t e n t is an issue contested across different social groups that o c c u p y different discursive arenas? Based on the discursive-political model that Fraser develops, the rela­ tionship between the public and private realms can be e x a m i n e d by exploring the various discursive practices that ideologically situate specific issues e i t h e r as o p e n to p u b l i c c o n t e s t a t i o n o r as r e s t r i c t e d to s p e c i f i c , " n o n p o l i t i c a l " arenas. F r o m a c r i t i c a l f e m i n i s t p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e p r e v a i l i n g t e n d e n c y in p a t r i a r c h a l , liberal bourgeois society is—discursively and ideologically—to establish a tripartite relationship a m o n g the political, e c o n o m i c , and domestic/private spheres (Fraser, 1989, p. 168). By definition, then, both the e c o n o m i c and domestic/private realms are characterized by discursive practices that restrict s p e c i f i c i s s u e s to t h o s e a r e n a s a n d t h u s d e e m t h e m " n o n p o l i t i c a l . " T h u s , t h e m e r i t s of c a p i t a l i s m as an e c o n o m i c s y s t e m a r e — f o r t h e m o s t p a r t — n o t o p e n to d e b a t e , a n d c o r p o r a t i o n s a r e free to p u r s u e t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n of c a p i t a l as l o n g as t h e y d o n o t b r e a k t h e l a w (or at l e a s t as l o n g a s t h e y a r e n o t c a u g h t b r e a k i n g t h e l a w ) . In t h i s s e n s e , e v e n t h o u g h v a r i o u s g r o u p s m a y d e b a t e t h e e t h i c s of c e r t a i n e c o n o m i c p r a c t i c e s ( e . g . , m o v i n g p r o d u c t i o n t o T h i r d W o r l d c o u n t r i e s to d e c r e a s e l a b o r c o s t s o r to e s c a p e " d r a c o n i a n " e n v i r o n m e n t a l p o l i ­

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c i e s ) , the r i g h t of c o r p o r a t i o n s to v i g o r o u s l y p u r s u e a w i d e p r o f i t m a r g i n is v i e w e d as a n o n p a r t i s a n , n o n p o l i t i c a l i s s u e . S i m i l a r l y , in t h e d o m e s t i c s p h e r e , c e r t a i n i s s u e s a r e d i s c u r s i v e l y s i t u a t e d as " p r i v a t e " m a t t e r s a n d t h e r e f o r e b e y o n d p u b l i c c o n t e s t a t i o n . A s a c a s e in p o i n t , t h e s e q u e s t e r i n g of s p o u s e a b u s e w i t h i n t h e d o m e s t i c r e a l m is v i e w e d b y f e m i ­ n i s t s a s o n e w a y that p a t r i a r c h a l s o c i e t y d e p o l i t i c i z e s a p o l i t i c a l i s s u e . T h e s u b o r d i n a t i o n of w o m e n is r e p r o d u c e d b y t h e m a l e - d o m i n a t e d e s t a b l i s h ­ m e n t ' s a b i l i t y to c o n t r o l t h e f o r m s of d i s c o u r s e t h a t a r t i c u l a t e t h e q u e s t i o n of s p o u s e a b u s e . T h u s , if t h i s i s s u e is d i s c u r s i v e l y c o n s t i t u t e d as a p e r s o n a l , p r i ­ v a t e , d o m e s t i c m a t t e r that t a k e s p l a c e b e t w e e n s p e c i f i c i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n a f a m i l y s i t u a t i o n , then it c a n b e p o t e n t i a l l y a d d r e s s e d b y e x p e r t d i s c o u r s e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s o c i a l w o r k , f a m i l y l a w , c l i n i c a l p s y c h o l o g y , a n d s o forth. F r a s e r ( 1 9 8 9 , p . 174) w o u l d a r g u e that s u c h e x p e r t d i s c o u r s e s a r e d e p o l i t i c i z i n g in that t h e y p o s i t i o n p e o p l e as " c a s e s " r a t h e r t h a n a s b e l o n g i n g to a specific social group or m o v e m e n t . Furthermore, "they are rendered pas­ s i v e , p o s i t i o n e d as p o t e n t i a l r e c i p i e n t s of p r e d e f i n e d s e r v i c e s r a t h e r t h a n as a g e n t s i n v o l v e d in i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e i r n e e d s a n d s h a p i n g t h e i r life c o n d i t i o n s " ( F r a s e r , 1 9 8 9 , p . 174). Of course, feminists have long struggled against this t e n d e n c y t o w a r d d e p o l i t i c i z a t i o n by c o n s t i t u t i n g o p p o s i t i o n a l d i s c o u r s e s t h a t d e c l a r e t h e " p e r ­ s o n a l as p o l i t i c a l " a n d that d e m o n s t r a t e t h e e x t e n t to w h i c h d o m e s t i c v i o l e n c e is r o o t e d in c o m p l e x s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m i c , a n d g e n d e r e d s t r u c t u r e s of d o m i n a t i o n . A s s u c h , it is a r g u e d that the liberal b o u r g e o i s n o t i o n of t h e r i g h t to p r i v a c y , as m a n i f e s t e d in t h e d i c h o t o m o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e p u b l i c and p r i v a t e s p h e r e s , is f o u n d e d on the s u p p r e s s i o n a n d t r i v i a l i z i n g of t h e p r i ­ v a t e s p h e r e a n d the s i m u l t a n e o u s v a l o r i z a t i o n of a ( m o n o l i t h i c ) p u b l i c s p h e r e as t h e o n l y r e a l m in w h i c h i s s u e s a r e p o l i t i c a l l y c o n t e s t e d . T h e f e m i n i s t d e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e p u b l i c - p r i v a t e d i c h o t o m y c a n b e s u m ­ m a r i z e d by s u g g e s t i n g s e v e r a l l i n e s of c r i t i q u e that t h e o r i s t s p u r s u e ( F o x Genovese, 1991; Fraser, 1989; Pateman, 1983; Pateman & Gross, 1987). First, feminists expose as chimerical the notion that the liberal bourgeois pub­ lic sphere is accessible to a wide variety of interest groups, regardless of social inequalities. I n s t e a d of b r a c k e t i n g s u c h i n e q u a l i t i e s , f e m i n i s t t h e o r i s t s a r g u e for t h e i r t h e m a t i z a t i o n to e x a m i n e t h e v a r i o u s w a y s in w h i c h d i s c u r s i v e p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s f u n c t i o n to p r o d u c e a n d r e p r o d u c e e x c l u s i o n a r y s t r u c t u r e s of d o m i n a t i o n . P a r t i c i p a t o r y d e m o c r a c y , it is a r g u e d , c a n n e v e r f l o u r i s h as l o n g a s it is a s s u m e d that s o c i a l i n e q u a l i t y is n o t an i m p e d i m e n t t o a c c e s s to the p u b l i c s p h e r e . S u c h a p e r s p e c t i v e r e p r e s e n t s a d i r e c t c r i t i q u e of t h e l i b e r a l , p l u r a l i s t m o d e l of p o w e r a n d r i g h t s as a d v o c a t e d b y t h e o r i s t s s u c h a s D a h l ( 1 9 6 1 ) a n d H u n t e r ( 1 9 5 3 ) , w h o a r g u e t h a t — f a r f r o m b e i n g m o n o p o l i z e d b y an elite f e w — p o w e r is w i d e l y d i s p e r s e d in U . S . s o c i e t y . A s L u k e s ( 1 9 7 4 ) a n d o t h e r s h a v e p o i n t e d o u t , h o w e v e r , this p l u r a l i s t m o d e l f o c u s e s e x c l u s i v e l y on v i s i b l e , v o c a l i n t e r e s t g r o u p s , t h u s o v e r l o o k i n g t h e fact t h a t c e r t a i n v o i c e s c a n

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be silenced through sequestration—precisely the issue with which critical feminists such as Fraser are c o n c e r n e d . S e c o n d , the development of feminist counterpublics over the last two decades has provided the context for discursive spaces in which women can renegotiate and reinterpret identities imposed on them by a male-dominated social structure. As such, feminist theorists have critiqued the basic liberal b o u r g e o i s n o t i o n of t h e e x i s t e n c e of a s i n g l e , u n i f i e d p u b l i c s p h e r e . I n d e e d , s c h o l a r s s u c h as F r a s e r ( 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 1 ) h a v e a r g u e d t h a t , w i t h i n a n o n e g a l i t a r i a n s o c i e t y s u c h as t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , a p l u r a l i t y of p u b l i c s b e t t e r a d d r e s s e s t h e n e e d s a n d c o n c e r n s of s u b o r d i n a t e d g r o u p s . S u c h a p l u r a l i t y d o e s n o t r e p r e ­ s e n t t h e k i n d of p l u r a l i s t m o d e l a d v o c a t e d b y D a h l ( 1 9 6 1 ) b u t is m o r e c o n s i s ­ tent w i t h a F o u c a u l d i a n ( 1 9 7 9 , 1 9 8 0 ) m o d e l of p o w e r in w h i c h v a r i o u s s u b a l ­ tern v o i c e s c o n s t a n t l y a p p e a r o n t h e m a r g i n s of t h e e s t a b l i s h e d o r d e r in a t t e m p t s to r e d e f i n e t h e t e r r a i n of l e g i t i m a t e p u b l i c d e b a t e . I n t h i s c o n t e x t , F r a s e r s t r e s s e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of " s u b a l t e r n c o u n t e r ­ p u b l i c s " — t h a t is, "parallel discursive arenas w h e r e m e m b e r s of s u b o r d i n a t e d s o c i a l g r o u p s i n v e n t a n d c i r c u l a t e c o u n t e r d i s c o u r s e s , w h i c h in t u r n p e r m i t t h e m to f o r m u l a t e o p p o s i t i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e i r i d e n t i t i e s , i n t e r e s t s , a n d n e e d s " ( F r a s e r , 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 1 , p . 6 7 ) . A n e x a m p l e o f t h i s p r o c e s s in o p e r a ­ t i o n is d i s c u s s e d in t h e c a s e of t h e w o m e n ' s s h e l t e r ( M a g u i r e & M o h t a r , 1 9 9 4 ) p r e s e n t e d in t h e n e x t s e c t i o n . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n i n t o t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c c o n s c i o u s n e s s of t e r m s s u c h a s sexual harassment, date rape, a n d sex­ ism s u g g e s t s t h e e x t e n t to w h i c h t h e a b i l i t y to " s p e a k in o n e ' s o w n v o i c e " a n d a r t i c u l a t e an o p p o s i t i o n a l v i e w of s o c i a l r e a l i t y c a n i n f l u e n c e t h e w i d e r p u b l i c sphere and, hence, reframe social relations. T h i r d , a n d p e r h a p s m o s t i m p o r t a n t , feminist theorists have made a strong case for fundamentally problematizing what, under the bourgeois liberal model, is to count as a public versus a private matter. A s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , c r i t i c a l t h e o r y in g e n e r a l a n d f e m i n i s t t h e o r y in p a r t i c u l a r h a v e c h a l l e n g e d t h e notion that these terms simply designate a concrete, objectively existing s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . I n s t e a d , t h e y a r e v i e w e d as d i s c u r s i v e l y c o n s t r u c t e d s p h e r e s t h a t f u n c t i o n i d e o l o g i c a l l y to l e g i t i m a t e a n d d e l e g i t i m a t e v a r i o u s i n t e r e s t s , b e l i e f s , a n d w o r l d v i e w s . T h u s , t h e f u n d a m e n t a l c o n c e r n is n o t w i t h t h e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of a n i s s u e as e i t h e r p u b l i c o r p r i v a t e ( a l t h o u g h c l e a r l y t h i s r e m a i n s an i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n ) b u t w i t h h o w it is t h a t c e r t a i n issues c o m e to be situated as one or the other. In a F o u c a u l d i a n ( 1 9 7 6 / 1 9 9 0 , 1 9 7 9 ) s e n s e , w e c a n a r g u e t h a t d e f i n i t i o n s of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e p u b ­ lic a n d p r i v a t e r e a l m s a r e s t r u c t u r e d a c c o r d i n g t o a set of p o w e r - k n o w l e d g e relations that articulate oppositions between different groups. F r o m a feminist perspective, such oppositions discursively and rhetorically situate w o m e n as " o t h e r , " that is, as s u b o r d i n a t e d , d o m e s t i c a t e d , p r i v a t i z e d , a n d d i s e m p o w e r e d in r e l a t i o n t o a v a l o r i z e d m a l e n o r m of p u b l i c i t y a n d e m p o w e r m e n t . B y r e c o g ­ n i z i n g , for e x a m p l e , that t h e l i b e r a l b o u r g e o i s g e n d e r e d d i s c o u r s e of d o m e s t i c

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p r i v a c y s e e k s to e x c l u d e i s s u e s s u c h as d o m e s t i c v i o l e n c e f r o m t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e b y p e r s o n a l i z i n g a n d / o r f a m i l i a l i z i n g t h e m , w e c a n c o m e to a p p r e c i ­ ate t h e e x t e n t to w h i c h t h e p u b l i c - p r i v a t e d i c h o t o m y is i d e o l o g i c a l a n d discursive-political rather than objectively founded. In t h e final s e c t i o n , I s h o w h o w t h e s e i s s u e s c a n b e a p p l i e d t o t h e a n a l y s i s of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a m o n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s , c o m m u n i t y , i d e n t i t y , a n d r e s i s ­ t a n c e . S p e c i f i c a l l y , I e x a m i n e t h r e e i n s t a n c e s of r e s i s t a n c e a m o n g m e m b e r s of t h r e e d i f f e r e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n s . M y p o i n t is to i l l u s t r a t e t h e i m p o r t a n c e of d e v e l ­ oping a gendered understanding of the public and private spheres and their r e l a t i o n s h i p to i s s u e s of c o m m u n i t y a n d d e m o c r a c y .

GENDERING ORGANIZATIONAL HEGEMONY: IDENTITY AND RESISTANCE IN THE WORKPLACE G r a m s c i ' s ( 1 9 7 1 ) c o n c e p t of h e g e m o n y p r o v i d e s an i m p o r t a n t m e a n s b y w h i c h to e x a m i n e p r o c e s s e s of c o n t r o l a n d r e s i s t a n c e in o r g a n i z a t i o n s . F o r G r a m s c i , h e g e m o n y refers n o t to c o n t r o l t h r o u g h c o e r c i o n b u t to " t h e ' s p o n ­ t a n e o u s ' c o n s e n t g i v e n b y t h e g r e a t m a s s e s of t h e p o p u l a t i o n to t h e g e n e r a l d i r e c t i o n i m p o s e d o n s o c i a l life by t h e d o m i n a n t f u n d a m e n t a l g r o u p " ( p . 12). I m p o r t a n t to m y a r g u m e n t , G r a m s c i v i e w s h e g e m o n y as e x e r c i s e d p r i m a r i l y in t h e r e a l m o f c i v i l s o c i e t y — t h a t is, t h o s e i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t f u n c t i o n a s e l e ­ m e n t s of t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e ( e . g . , t h e m a s s m e d i a , t h e e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m , a n d r e l i g i o u s o r g a n i z a t i o n s ) a n d that f u n c t i o n i d e o l o g i c a l l y to s h a p e e x p e r i e n c e , knowledge, and identity. A l t h o u g h G r a m s c i d o e s n o t d i r e c t l y d i s c u s s t h e c o r p o r a t e f o r m as p a r t of civil s o c i e t y , it c a n b e a r g u e d that t h e m o d e r n c o r p o r a t i o n h a s a l a r g e i m p a c t on i s s u e s of k n o w l e d g e p r o d u c t i o n a n d i d e n t i t y f o r m a t i o n ( D e e t z , 1 9 9 2 ; M u m b y , 1 9 9 7 ) . A s s u c h , t h e m o d e r n c o r p o r a t i o n is d i r e c t l y i m p l i c a t e d in t h e s h a p i n g of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e s p h e r e s . T w o important studies that assess the impact of gender on h o w h e g e m o n y "is p r o ­ d u c e d at t h e p o i n t of p r o d u c t i o n " ( B u r a w o y , 1 9 7 9 , p . x i i ) a r e B e n s o n ' s ( 1 9 9 2 ) a n a l y s i s of t h e " c l e r k i n g s i s t e r h o o d " a n d C o l l i n s o n ' s ( 1 9 8 8 , 1 9 9 2 ) s t u d y of m a s c u l i n i t y a n d h u m o r in t h e c o m p o n e n t s d i v i s i o n of a t r u c k f a c t o r y . B o t h s t u d i e s , in v e r y d i f f e r e n t w a y s , a s s e s s t h e r e l a t i o n s a m o n g g e n d e r , i d e n t i t y , c o m m u n i t y , a n d r e s i s t a n c e in t h e w o r k p l a c e . E x a m i n i n g t h e w o r k o f s a l e s ­ w o m e n in U . S . d e p a r t m e n t s t o r e s b e t w e e n 1 8 9 0 a n d 1 9 6 0 , B e n s o n ( 1 9 9 2 ) d e m o n s t r a t e s that At least in this major women's occupation, the effect of changes in management practice in the twentieth century was, ironically, to increase the level of workers' skill and thus inadvertently to permit the development of a powerful and enduring work culture, (p. 168)

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T h u s , in c o n t r a s t to B r a v e r m a n ' s ( 1 9 7 4 ) g e n e r a l i z e d " d e s k i l l i n g " t h e s i s , Benson s h o w s that the "clerking sisterhood" developed strong informal work g r o u p s that r e s i s t e d m a n a g e m e n t i n t e r v e n t i o n a n d a s s i s t e d in t h e e n r i c h m e n t of j o b s t h r o u g h s h a r i n g e x p e r t i s e , h e l p i n g f e l l o w w o r k e r s , a n d s o f o r t h . In a d d i t i o n , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a s t r o n g w o r k c u l t u r e e n a b l e d t h e f e m a l e c l e r k s to w o r k a g a i n s t m a n a g e m e n t i n t e r e s t s b y r e s i s t i n g a t t e m p t s to i n c r e a s e o u t p u t b y a d o p t i n g an i n f o r m a l q u o t a a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s a n d b y c o l l e c t i v e l y r e s i s t i n g management-fostered intradepartmental competition. As a result, Benson (1992) notes, Social interaction on the selling floor was friendly and supportive. The tendency of saleswomen to "huddle" or "congregate" on the floor was the aspect of their behav­ ior most frequently remarked by managers and customers a l i k e — Saleswomen in the more solitary departments shared stockwork and paperwork even when it was assigned to individuals, and reinforced day-to-day contact with parties, both on the job and after hours. They integrated the rituals of women's culture into their work culture; showers and parties to commemorate engagements, marriages, and births . . . are reported in employee newspapers by the score, (p. 176) B e n s o n ' s s t u d y is s i g n i f i c a n t in its a r t i c u l a t i o n of a g e n d e r e d r e s p o n s e t o t h e t h e s i s of d e s k i l l i n g . W h i l e it is t r u e t h a t , in an u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d s e n s e , t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f c o n c e p t i o n f r o m e x e c u t i o n o f l a b o r is a p e r v a s i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e w o r k p l a c e , B e n s o n p r o v i d e s a s u b t l e r r e a d i n g of t h i s s t r u g g l e for c o n ­ trol of t h e l a b o r p r o c e s s t h r o u g h a g e n d e r e d a n a l y s i s of w o r k . J u s t a s s i g n i f i ­ c a n t , h o w e v e r , is h e r r e a d i n g of t h e w a y s in w h i c h w o r k e r r e s i s t a n c e , i d e n t i t y , a n d s e n s e of c o m m u n i t y a r e d e r i v e d f r o m a f u n d a m e n t a l b l u r r i n g of t h e r e l a ­ t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e p r i v a t e a n d p u b l i c s p h e r e s of life. T h e f e m a l e c l e r k s ' r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e d e s k i l l i n g p r o c e s s a n d to m a n a g e m e n t e f f o r t s to c a r e f u l l y c o n t r o l t h e s e l l i n g p r o c e s s is s u c c e s s f u l b e c a u s e of a s e n s e of s o l i d a r i t y that a r i s e s f r o m a " w o m e n ' s c u l t u r e " t r a d i t i o n a l l y s e q u e s t e r e d in t h e p r i v a t e , d o m e s t i c r e a l m . In t h i s s e n s e , t h e w o m e n a r e a b l e to c o l l e c t i v e l y ( a n d o n l y c o l l e c t i v e l y ) r e f u s e t h e l o g i c of a m a n a g e r i a l r a t i o n a l i t y t h a t d i c t a t e s a w o r k ­ p l a c e e n v i r o n m e n t r o o t e d in t h e p r i v i l e g i n g of t e c h n i c a l , i n s t r u m e n t a l f o r m s of k n o w l e d g e . T h i s i s s u e b e c o m e s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t w h e n c o n t r a s t e d w i t h C o l l i n s o n ' s ( 1 9 8 8 , 1 9 9 2 ) s t u d y of w o r k p l a c e r e s i s t a n c e . C o l l i n s o n ' s s t u d y is s i g n i f i c a n t for t w o r e a s o n s . F i r s t , it p r o v i d e s i m p o r t a n t i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e e v e r y d a y c o m m u n i c a t i v e p r a c t i c e s of w o r k e r s , a d d r e s s i n g the relationships a m o n g communication, identity, power, and resistance. Sec­ o n d , a s a g e n d e r e d a n a l y s i s , it f o c u s e s e x p l i c i t l y o n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of mascu­ line w o r k p l a c e i d e n t i t y . A l t h o u g h n o t u n i q u e ( e . g . , W i l l i s , 1 9 7 7 ) , s u c h an a n a l y s i s is u n u s u a l in its p r o b l e m a t i z i n g of m a s c u l i n i t y a s a s o c i a l l y c o n ­ s t r u c t e d p h e n o m e n o n . C o l l i n s o n f o c u s e s o n t h e u s e of h u m o r in t h e w o r k ­ p l a c e , a r g u i n g t h a t h u m o r f u n c t i o n s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a s a m e a n s of r e s i s t i n g

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b o r e d o m a n d m a n a g e m e n t c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s , as a w a y of e x e r t i n g s o c i a l p r e s ­ s u r e to c o n f o r m to w o r k i n g - c l a s s d e f i n i t i o n s of m a s c u l i n i t y , a n d a s a m e a n s o f c o n t r o l l i n g t h o s e w o r k e r s p e r c e i v e d to b e n o t " p u l l i n g t h e i r w e i g h t . " T h e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g d i m e n s i o n of t h i s s t u d y , h o w e v e r , is t h a t , c o n t r a r y t o W i l l i s ' s (1977) view of working-class resistance and solidarity, C o l l i n s o n finds soli­ d a r i t y a m o n g t h e w o r k e r s to b e r a t h e r w e a k a n d s u p e r f i c i a l , c o m p r o m i s e d b y a m a s c u l i n e i d e n t i t y t h a t f o c u s e s o n " h a v i n g a l a f f ' a n d m a x i m i z i n g w a g e s to p r o v i d e for d e p e n d e n t s . T h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n w o r k e r s o l i d a r i t y a n d s t r o n g m a s c u l i n e ( s e x u a l ) i d e n t i t y is c a p t u r e d w e l l in t h e f o l l o w i n g :

One male self-identity, as sexually rampant, was superceded by another, that of the responsible family breadwinner. In both cases, however, shop-floor workers were expected to subscribe to the masculine assumptions of the joking culture. Yet these demands to conform inevitably generated a form of reluctant compliance from some workers which rendered shop-floor unity at best precarious and fragile. The oppositional values of personal freedom, masculine independence and autonomy, enshrined in the breadwinner role, contributed to these divisions, in particular, by compounding the separation between the "public" sphere of work and the "pri­ vate" world of home. The collective experience of shared masculinity at work often contradicted the individualistic orientation to life outside. (Collinson, 1988, p. 192) It is i n t e r e s t i n g t o c o m p a r e B e n s o n ' s ( 1 9 9 2 ) d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e c l o s e c o n ­ n e c t i o n s a m o n g w o m e n c l e r k s ' s e n s e of i d e n t i t y , c o m m u n i t y , a n d r e s i s t a n c e with C o l l i n s o n ' s claim that working-class m a s c u l i n e identity, c o m m u n i t y , a n d r e s i s t a n c e a r e , in s o m e r e s p e c t s , i n i m i c a l to e a c h o t h e r . T h e c a r e f u l m a l e w o r k i n g - c l a s s s e p a r a t i o n of t h e p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e r e a l m s r e s u l t s in a v e r y dif­ f e r e n t s e n s e of c o m m u n i t y a n d i d e n t i t y from t h a t of t h e f e m a l e c l e r k s in B e n s o n ' s s t u d y . I n d e e d , o n e c o u l d a r g u e that, for t h e e n g i n e e r s , i d e n t i t y ( " t h e c o l l e c t i v e e x p e r i e n c e of s h a r e d m a s c u l i n i t y " ) is s t r o n g l y r o o t e d in a c o m p e t i ­ tive i n d i v i d u a l i s m that c o n s t r u c t s t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n of o n e ' s s e x u a l p r o w e s s and b r e a d w i n n e r status as superseding collective resistance to m a n a g e m e n t . In fact, e v e n t h o u g h t h e m a s c u l i n e c u l t u r e of t h e w o r k p l a c e is c l e a r l y s t r o n g , it f u n c t i o n s — a t l e a s t in p a r t — a s a v e h i c l e for t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l i d e n ­ tity. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e m a s c u l i n i s t r e i f i c a t i o n of t h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n t h e p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e s p h e r e s a c t u a l l y h e l p s to m a i n t a i n a n d r e p r o d u c e a m a n a g e ­ rial s y s t e m of l o g i c b e c a u s e w o r k e r s a r e d e f i n e d ( a n d d e f i n e t h e m s e l v e s ) a s e l e m e n t s in t h e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s w h o m u s t p e r f o r m t o a p a r t i c u l a r l e v e l to be effective. A n o t h e r w a y of s i t u a t i n g this c r i t i q u e is to a r g u e t h a t , w i t h i n t h e i d e o l o g y of l i b e r a l i s m , t h e e n g i n e e r s in C o l l i n s o n ' s s t u d y a r e c o n s t r u c t e d a s s u b j e c t s t h r o u g h t w o different, a n d c o n t r a d i c t o r y , d i s c o u r s e s : F i r s t , t h e y a r e s i t u a t e d as free, a u t o n o m o u s , s e l f - c o n s t i t u t i n g c i t i z e n s , a n d , s e c o n d , t h e y a r e c o n ­

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s t r u c t e d a s a l i e n a t e d l a b o r , s u b j e c t to t h e a u t o c r a t i c a n d c a p r i c i o u s l o g i c of capitalism and m a n a g e r i a l rationality. H o w e v e r , the logic of l i b e r a l i s m hides t h e c o n t r a d i c t o r y n a t u r e of t h e s e t w o f o r m s o f s u b j e c t i v i t y — i n d e p e n d e n t agency and e c o n o m i c subjugation—by stressing a different "truth" associated w i t h e a c h : a p o l i t i c a l t r u t h w i t h t h e f o r m e r a n d a n e c o n o m i c t r u t h w i t h t h e lat­ ter ( H u s p e k , 1 9 9 4 ) . T h e i d e o l o g y of l i b e r a l i s m h o l d s s w a y b y k e e p i n g t h e political and e c o n o m i c spheres distinct. T h e engineers r e p r o d u c e these dis­ c o u r s e s of t r u t h by e n g a g i n g in c o m m u n i c a t i v e p r a c t i c e s ( h u m o r ) t h a t p o s i ­ tion t h e m as a u t o n o m o u s , f r e e - w i l l e d i n d i v i d u a l s w h o s e i d e n t i t i e s a r e d e f i n e d e c o n o m i c a l l y a n d s e x u a l l y . I n d e e d , o n e c o u l d a r g u e t h a t t h e w o r k e r s ' selfi d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h a g g r e s s i v e s e x u a l i t y is p a r t l y a r e s p o n s e t o t h e i r r e c ­ o g n i t i o n o f t h e m s e l v e s as a l i e n a t e d , d i s e n f r a n c h i s e d l a b o r w i t h i n c a p i t a l i s t e c o n o m i c r e l a t i o n s . B y d i s c u r s i v e l y c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e m s e l v e s as s e x u a l l y a c t i v e , t h e y r e s i s t — a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l l e v e l — t h e e v e r y d a y o p p r e s s i o n s of t h e w o r k p l a c e . H o w e v e r , t h i s f o r m of r e s i s t a n c e m e r e l y c a n s e r v e t o r e p r o d u c e t h e l i b e r a l s e p a r a t i o n of s p h e r e s b y r e d u c i n g w o r k e r r e s i s t a n c e to i n d i v i d u ­ ated, noncollective acts. In s u m , t h e t e n d e n c y of t h e m a l e w o r k e r s to m a i n t a i n a r i g i d b i f u r c a t i o n of the public and private spheres serves to d i s e m p o w e r t h e m by articulating a s e n s e of c o m m u n i t y a n d i d e n t i t y t h a t f u r t h e r s t h e i n t e r e s t s of c a p i t a l , r e n d e r ­ ing r e s i s t a n c e to m a n a g e r i a l l o g i c i n e f f e c t u a l a n d l a r g e l y s y m b o l i c in f o r m . On the other hand, the female c l e r k s ' reframing of the w o r k p l a c e as an exten­ s i o n of t h e p r i v a t e r e a l m of h o m e a n d s i s t e r h o o d c r e a t e s p o s s i b i l i t i e s for e m p o w e r m e n t a n d a c o l l e c t i v e m e a n s of r e s i s t i n g m a n a g e r i a l l y i m p o s e d l i m i ­ t a t i o n s o n w h a t is c o n s i d e r e d a p p r o p r i a t e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v i o r . S u c h f i n d ­ i n g s p r o v i d e i n s i g h t i n t o t h e g e n d e r e d c o n s t r u c t i o n of i d e n t i t y a n d s u g g e s t t h e i m p o r t a n c e of a v o i d i n g b l a n k e t a n d t o t a l i z i n g c l a i m s a b o u t r e l a t i o n s h i p s a m o n g d i s c o u r s e , p o w e r , i d e n t i t y , a n d r e s i s t a n c e in o r g a n i z a t i o n s . O n e final e x a m p l e of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n g e n d e r , i d e n t i t y , c o m m u ­ n i t y , a n d t h e p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e s p h e r e s h e l p s to p o i n t o u t t h e c o n s t i t u t i v e r o l e of d i s c o u r s e in c r e a t i n g " s u b a l t e r n c o u n t e r p u b l i c s " ( F r a s e r , 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 1 ) . I n d e e d , o n e c o u l d e v e n m a k e t h e c a s e t h a t , in a d d i t i o n t o h a v i n g d i f f e r e n t structures and decision-making processes, feminist alternative organizations are best characterized as alternative discourse (or speech) c o m m u n i t i e s . A s s u c h , t h e y p r o v i d e c o n t e x t s for t h e e x p r e s s i o n of n e e d s a n d i n t e r e s t s t h a t a r e t r a d i t i o n a l l y " o r g a n i z e d " o u t s i d e of p u b l i c d i s c o u r s e . T h u s , as F r a s e r ( 1 9 9 0 ­ 1 9 9 1 ) a r g u e s , " t h e i d e a o f an e g a l i t a r i a n , m u l t i - c u l t u r a l s o c i e t y o n l y m a k e s s e n s e if w e s u p p o s e a p l u r a l i t y of p u b l i c a r e n a s in w h i c h g r o u p s w i t h d i v e r s e values and rhetorics participate. By definition, such a society must contain a m u l t i p l i c i t y of p u b l i c s " ( p . 6 9 ) . W h a t issues " c o u n t " as public versus private are, as w e h a v e discussed, open to discursive contestation. Fraser argues that various feminist counterp u b l i c s h a v e p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t r o l e in r e c o n f i g u r i n g t h e w a y s in w h i c h

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i s s u e s a r e f r a m e d as e i t h e r p r i v a t e / d o m e s t i c o r p u b l i c / p o l i t i c a l . M a n y f e m i ­ nist o r g a n i z a t i o n s c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d as s u b a l t e r n c o u n t e r p u b l i c s t h a t d i s c u r ­ s i v e l y c h a l l e n g e p r e v a i l i n g u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of t h e w a y s in w h i c h g e n d e r , i d e n ­ tity, p o w e r , a n d p o l i t i c s i n t e r s e c t . O n e e x a m p l e of a s t u d y that d i r e c t l y t a k e s up F r a s e r ' s c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k is M a g u i r e a n d M o h t a r ' s ( 1 9 9 4 ) s t u d y of t h e c o u n t e r d i s c o u r s e s of a w o m e n ' s c e n t e r . A l t h o u g h t h e c e n t e r e x p e r i e n c e d t h e u s u a l t e n s i o n s b e t w e e n t h e n e e d for h i e r a r c h i c a l s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e d e v e l o p ­ m e n t of e g a l i t a r i a n r e l a t i o n s h i p s , the m e m b e r s a l s o d e f i n e d t h e m s e l v e s in t e r m s of t h r e e d i s c u r s i v e m o v e s that f u n c t i o n e d to s i t u a t e t h e m in an o p p o s i t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p to the m a i n s t r e a m c u l t u r e : In the first move they identify the common practice of hierarchically structured state-run social service agencies as incompetent and point to the systematic dys­ function of those agencies Their praise for the Center as a positive alternative is exemplified in two phrases heard throughout the script/interviews: "The Women's Center is non-racist, non-sexist, and non-homophobic" and "our goal is to help women help themselves". . . In a second discursive strategy they attempt to re­ educate these members of the dominant public [police department, hospital staff, state agencies, etc.] about survivor/victim assistance and the dynamics of domes­ tic violence and sexual assault. In a third discursive move, members of the community identify the scorn, deri­ sion, false assumptions, and stereotypes generated about them by members of the dominant public. The verbal attacks the community has suffered over the years act to position them as outsiders, at the same time the community members retell these stories. In this way, both the attacks and the responses to the attacks reinforce their outsider status. (Maguire & Mohtar, 1994, pp. 241-242) T h e i m p o r t a n c e of this s t u d y lies in its c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of an o r g a n i z a ­ t i o n a l c o m m u n i t y n o t in t e r m s of its s t r u c t u r e s , r o l e s , a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s b u t in t e r m s of a set of d i s c u r s i v e p r o c e s s e s that p r o v i d e c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s w i t h a set of i n t e r p r e t i v e p r o c e d u r e s by w h i c h to c o n s t r u c t t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p to o t h e r m a i n s t r e a m o r g a n i z a t i o n s . T h e d e f i n i n g of t h i s c o m m u n i t y as a c o n s t e l ­ lation of d i s c u r s i v e m o m e n t s m e a n s that the r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e r e a l m s b e c o m e s p r o b l e m a t i z e d . T h e m e m b e r s of t h i s c o m m u n i t y b l u r the b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n t h e e c o n o m i c , p o l i t i c a l , a n d d o m e s t i c r e a l m s , d i s c u r ­ s i v e l y p o s i t i o n i n g t h e m s e l v e s as c h a l l e n g i n g a n d r e s i s t i n g l i b e r a l c o n c e p t i o n s of w h a t " c o u n t s " as a p p r o p r i a t e i s s u e s for p u b l i c d e b a t e . T h u s , t h e m e m b e r s of t h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n b r i n g t o g e t h e r a f o c u s o n c o m m u ­ nity a n d c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n a n d a c o n c e r n w i t h " t h e o t h e r " a n d e n g a g e m e n t in r e s i s t a n c e t h r o u g h d i s c u r s i v e s t r a t e g i e s . T h i s p r o c e s s is e x e m p l i f i e d t h r o u g h a t e n s i o n b e t w e e n , o n t h e o n e h a n d , t h e r e c o g n i t i o n that t h e c o l l e c t i v e a r t i c u l a ­ tion of an a l t e r n a t i v e w a y of b e i n g a n d d o i n g is p o s s i b l e a n d , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , the a w a r e n e s s that s u c h an a l t e r n a t i v e is t e n u o u s , p r e c a r i o u s , a n d f o u n d e d p r i m a r i l y in the g r o u p ' s a b i l i t y to a r t i c u l a t e its m a r g i n a l i t y in t h e face

Communication,

Organization,

Public

Sphere

23

of p o w e r f u l d i s c u r s i v e a n d n o n d i s c u r s i v e h e g e m o n i c f o r c e s t h a t s h a p e t h e " w i l l to t r u t h " a n d d e f i n i t i o n s of w h a t c o u n t s as p u b l i c l y c o n t e s t a b l e i s s u e s .

CONCLUSION T h i s c h a p t e r h a s a t t e m p t e d to o u t l i n e s o m e of t h e i s s u e s a n d p r o b l e m s a s s o c i ­ a t e d w i t h t h e w i d e l y a c c e p t e d l i b e r a l b o u r g e o i s c o n c e p t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e s p h e r e s of d i s c o u r s e a n d its i m p l i c a t i o n s for o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s t u d i e s . In p a r t i c u l a r , I h a v e t r i e d t o s h o w h o w these t w o spheres are not objectively given but, rather, are c o n s t r u c t e d t h r o u g h t h e d i s c u r s i v e a r t i c u l a t i o n of c e r t a i n s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , a n d e c o n o m i c i n t e r e s t s . T h e a d o p t i o n of a c r i t i c a l f e m i n i s t f r a m e w o r k to c o n d u c t s u c h a n a n a l y s i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y c o m p e l l i n g b e c a u s e it c a n b e a r g u e d t h a t t h e p u b l i c p r i v a t e d i s t i n c t i o n is l a r g e l y c o n v e n t i o n a l a n d is s t r u c t u r e d a r o u n d t h e i n t e r ­ e s t s of d o m i n a n t g r o u p s . A c r i t i c a l f e m i n i s t a n a l y s i s of t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n p r o ­ v i d e s i n s i g h t i n t o h o w a m a l e - c e n t e r e d c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e p u b l i c r e a l m is dependent on a complementary and subordinated domestic/private realm. T h i s i d e o l o g y of s e p a r a t e s p h e r e s p r o v i d e s t h e f o u n d a t i o n for s o c i a l o r d e r a n d f u n c t i o n s to p e r p e t u a t e s o c i a l i n e q u i t i e s . T h i s c r i t i c a l f e m i n i s t a n a l y s i s of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e s p h e r e s a l s o e n a b l e s us to r e t h i n k i s s u e s of o r g a n i z a t i o n , i d e n t i t y , a n d r e s i s t a n c e . T h r o u g h an e x a m i n a t i o n of s p e c i f i c i n s t a n c e s of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l life, w e g a i n i n s i g h t i n t o h o w p r o b l e m a t i z i n g t h e l i b e r a l c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e s e s p h e r e s c r e a t e s p o s s i b i l i t i e s for t r a n s f o r m i n g t h a t w h i c h c o u n t s as p o l i t i c a l . B y f o c u s i n g o n t h e w a y s in w h i c h t h e p u b l i c - p r i v a t e d i c h o t o m y is d i s c u r ­ s i v e l y c o n s t r u c t e d , w e c a n c o m e to a m o r e n u a n c e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e p r o ­ c e s s e s i n v o l v e d in t h e l e g i t i m a t i o n of s o m e v i e w s o f t h e w o r l d a n d t h e m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n of o t h e r s . F e m i n i s t t h e o r y p l a y s a p i v o t a l r o l e in e x p o s i n g t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e r h e t o r i c of d e m o c r a c y a n d e n f r a n c h i s e m e n t , o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d t h e r e a l i t y of s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , a n d e c o n o m i c i n e q u a l i t y , o n the other.

2

Between the Generalized and the Concrete Other Approaching Organizational Ethics From Feminist Perspectives Tanni Haas

Stanley Deetz

O u r o b j e c t i v e is t o a p p l y f e m i n i s t t h e o r i z i n g o n e t h i c s t o d i s c u s s i o n s a b o u t h o w t h e c o r p o r a t i o n m a y a d d r e s s its t w o p r i m a r y " e t h i c a l " c o n c e r n s in r e ­ l a t i o n t o its v a r i o u s s t a k e h o l d e r s . T h e s e e t h i c a l c o n c e r n s a r e ( a ) t h e i m p l e ­ mentation of ethical procedures for identifying which stakeholders h a v e l e g i t i m a t e v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s in n e e d o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d for i d e n ­ tifying t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h o s e v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s , a n d ( b ) t h e i m p l e ­ m e n t a t i o n o f e t h i c a l p r o c e d u r e s that e n s u r e t h a t s t a k e h o l d e r v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s , o n c e i d e n t i f i e d , a r e a d e q u a t e l y r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e c o r p o r a tion's internal decision-making processes. T h e p l u r a l perspectives w a s i n t e n t i o n a l in t h e title. N o s i m p l e u n i t a r y f e m i ­ nist p e r s p e c t i v e e x i s t s , a n d f e m i n i s t t h e o r i z i n g o n e t h i c s m a y c o n t r i b u t e t o o r g a n i z a t i o n a l e t h i c s in m u l t i p l e w a y s . W e h a v e c h o s e n o n e w a y f r o m t h o s e available. T h e feminist writings of interest here have provided two important

AUTHORS' NOTE: We would like to thank Richard L. Johannesen for his thoughtful comments.

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Ethics From Feminist

Perspectives

25

c o n t r i b u t i o n s to t h e s t u d y of c o r p o r a t i o n s . F i r s t , t h e y h a v e t h o r o u g h l y c r i t i q u e d t h e e x c l u s i v i t y of t h e c o n s e n s u s - b a s e d r a t i o n a l / e c o n o m i c m o d e l of c o r p o r a t i o n s , t h e r e b y a i d i n g t h e c o n c e p t u a l d e v e l o p m e n t of w h a t w e m o r e g e n e r a l l y r e f e r to as c o n f l i c t - b a s e d s t a k e h o l d e r m o d e l s . A n d , s e c o n d , t h e y h a v e e n r i c h e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e c o n c e p t a n d p r a c t i c e of e t h i c a l d e c i s i o n m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s in c o r p o r a t i o n s b y f o c u s i n g o n t h e n o t i o n s o f c a r e a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . A s a f u r t h e r l i m i t to t h i s e s s a y , w e f o c u s p r i m a r i l y o n t h i s s e c ­ o n d c o n t r i b u t i o n t h r o u g h t h e w o r k s of B e n h a b i b ( 1 9 8 5 , 1 9 8 6 , 1 9 8 7 , 1 9 9 0 , 1992). T h e two contributions are not independent, h o w e v e r . W e agree with Burton a n d D u n n ( 1 9 9 6 ) t h a t " s t a k e h o l d e r t h e o r y . . . m u s t b e g r o u n d e d b y a t h e o r y of e t h i c s " a n d t h a t " t r a d i t i o n a l e t h i c s of j u s t i c e a n d r i g h t s c a n n o t c o m p l e t e l y ground the t h e o r y " ( p . 133). A feminist theory of ethical d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g pro­ c e s s e s is i m p o r t a n t to s t a k e h o l d e r t h e o r y g e n e r a l l y . T h e c o n c e p t i o n o f c o r p o ­ r a t i o n s in r e l a t i o n t o s t a k e h o l d e r s a n d t h e p r a c t i c e of e t h i c a l d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g processes are intertwined. T h e relations are c o m p l e x , and the feminist writ­ i n g s of i n t e r e s t h e r e p r o v i d e an i m p o r t a n t p a r t , b u t n o t t h e w h o l e , of t h e r e l a ­ tion. W e argue that a d y n a m i c tension exists b e t w e e n stakeholder theory mor­ ally g u i d e d b y e t h i c a l t h e o r i e s a r i s i n g f r o m a r g u m e n t a t i o n , c o m p e t i t i o n , a n d justice/rights and ethical theories arising from conversation, cooperation, and care/responsibility. Rather than resolving this tension with feminist theories, w e r e f l e c t o n t h e w a y s c e r t a i n f e m i n i s t t h e o r i s t s k e e p it a l i v e . T h e chapter develops the a r g u m e n t as follows. First, w e discuss recent d e v e l o p m e n t s in s t a k e h o l d e r t h e o r y b y d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n an " e c o n o m i c m o d e l " a n d a " m u l t i p l e - s t a k e h o l d e r m o d e l " of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e c o r p o r a t i o n a n d its v a r i o u s s t a k e h o l d e r s ( s e e D e e t z , 1 9 9 5 a , 1 9 9 5 b ; F r e e m a n & G i l b e r t , 1 9 9 2 ) . W e a r g u e t h a t t h e e c o n o m i c m o d e l p r o v i d e s an i n h e r e n t l y p r o b l e m a t i c c o n c e p t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e c o r p o r a t i o n a n d its v a r i o u s s t a k e h o l d e r s . In c o n t r a s t , t h e m u l t i p l e - s t a k e h o l d e r m o d e l p r o v i d e s a n o r m a t i v e i d e a l of h o w t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p o u g h t to b e c o n c e p t u a l i z e d . N e x t , w e a r g u e that t h e f u r t h e r c o n c e p t u a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f s t a k e h o l d e r t h e o r y m a y b e n ­ efit c o n s i d e r a b l y f r o m a t t e n d i n g to r e c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t s in f e m i n i s t t h e o r i z ­ ing o n e t h i c s . S e c o n d , w e d i s c u s s d i s c o u r s e e t h i c s a s a g u i d e to t h e t y p e s o f e t h i c a l d e c i ­ s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s n e c e s s a r y for a m u l t i p l e - s t a k e h o l d e r m o d e l to f u n c ­ t i o n in p r a c t i c e . I n i t i a l l y , w e d i s c u s s t h e w a y H a b e r m a s ' s ( 1 9 8 4 , 1 9 8 7 , 1 9 9 0 , 1993) theory of c o m m u n i c a t i v e action and discourse ethics, and especially his d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e " i d e a l s p e e c h s i t u a t i o n " ( H a b e r m a s , 1 9 7 3 ) , h a v e s e r v e d as a n o r m a t i v e h e u r i s t i c for t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f e t h i c a l d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s within corporations. Next, we discuss how certain feminist theorists have built o n a n d t r a n s f o r m e d H a b e r m a s ' s a n a l y s i s . In p a r t i c u l a r , t h e f e m i n i s t p e r ­ s p e c t i v e o n e t h i c s d e v e l o p e d by B e n h a b i b ( 1 9 8 5 , 1 9 8 6 , 1 9 8 7 , 1 9 9 0 , 1 9 9 2 ) p r o v i d e s a b a s i s o n w h i c h it m a y b e p o s s i b l e to a n a l y z e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e ­

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tween m a n a g e m e n t and the corporation's stakeholders and provide tentative a n s w e r s a b o u t h o w m a n a g e m e n t a n d o t h e r s t a k e h o l d e r s m a y e n g a g e in e t h i c a l d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s . T h i s t h e o r e t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e is p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e ­ v a n t n o t o n l y b e c a u s e of its o w n i n t r i n s i c m e r i t s b u t b e c a u s e it p r o v i d e s u s e f u l c o n c e p t u a l d i s t i n c t i o n s to d i s c u s s t h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n an " e t h i c of j u s t i c e a n d r i g h t s " a n d an " e t h i c of c a r e a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . " T h i r d , w e a r g u e t h a t m a n a g e m e n t o u g h t to a s s u m e t h e s t a n d p o i n t of w h a t B e n h a b i b h a s t e r m e d t h e " g e n e r a l i z e d o t h e r " (a la H a b e r m a s ) a n d t h e " c o n ­ c r e t e o t h e r " (as c a r e / r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ) s i m u l t a n e o u s l y d u r i n g t h e i n i t i a l i d e n t i f i ­ c a t i o n of w h i c h s t a k e h o l d e r s o u g h t to b e r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s i n t e r n a l d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s a n d d u r i n g t h e i n i t i a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e i r v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s . R e l a t e d t o t h i s , w e a r g u e that m a n a g e m e n t o u g h t to e n g a g e in w h a t B e n h a b i b h a s t e r m e d t h e " m o r a l c o n v e r ­ sation" during the actual representation of stakeholder values and political interests within the corporation's internal decision-making processes. Finally, we discuss some important practical problems associated with a s s u m i n g t h e s t a n d p o i n t of t h e c o n c r e t e o t h e r d u r i n g i n s t a n c e s of c o m m u n i c a ­ t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n in w h i c h m a n a g e m e n t a n d t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s a r e s i t u a t e d in d i f f e r e n t s p a t i o t e m p o r a l c o n t e x t s . A l t h o u g h t h e a s s u m p t i o n of t h e s t a n d p o i n t of the c o n c r e t e o t h e r i d e a l l y r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s b e s i t u ­ ated in t h e c o n t e x t of s p a t i o t e m p o r a l c o p r e s e n c e , c o m m u n i c a t i n g t h r o u g h f a c e - t o - f a c e i n t e r a c t i o n , m a n a g e m e n t often m a y b e f o r c e d to a p p l y e i t h e r "mediated interaction" or "mediated quasi-interaction" instead (see T h o m p ­ s o n , 1 9 9 5 ) . W e a r g u e that, a l t h o u g h b o t h t y p e s of c o m m u n i c a t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n a r e i n h e r e n t l y p r o b l e m a t i c f r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t of c o n c e r n w i t h t h e c o n c r e t e o t h e r , t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of m e d i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n p r o v i d e s t h e m o s t p o t e n t i a l for a s s u m i n g this s t a n d p o i n t b e c a u s e it e n t a i l s a " d i a l o g i c a l " m o d e o f c o m m u n i ­ c a t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n a i m e d at " s p e c i f i c o t h e r s . " In s u m , t h i s c h a p t e r p r o v i d e s a d i s c u s s i o n of h o w B e n h a b i b ' s f e m i n i s t p e r ­ s p e c t i v e o n e t h i c s m a y i n f o r m a c o n c e p t u a l shift f r o m a n e c o n o m i c m o d e l to a m u l t i p l e - s t a k e h o l d e r m o d e l of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e c o r p o r a t i o n a n d its v a r i o u s s t a k e h o l d e r s . S p e c i f i c a l l y , w e d i s c u s s h o w t h e c o n c e p t u a l d i s t i n c ­ tion B e n h a b i b d r a w s b e t w e e n a s s u m i n g t h e s t a n d p o i n t of t h e g e n e r a l i z e d a n d t h e c o n c r e t e o t h e r in t e r m s of a m o r a l c o n v e r s a t i o n p r o v i d e s a b a s i s for d e l i n e a t i n g h o w t h e c o r p o r a t i o n m a y a d d r e s s its t w o p r i m a r y e t h i c a l c o n ­ c e r n s in t e r m s of t h e c o n c e p t u a l l o g i c of t h e m u l t i p l e - s t a k e h o l d e r m o d e l . T h e s e e t h i c a l c o n c e r n s a r e (a) the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of e t h i c a l p r o c e d u r e s for identifying which stakeholders have legitimate values and political interests in n e e d of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d for t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h o s e v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s , a n d (b) t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of e t h i c a l p r o c e ­ dures that ensure that stakeholder values and political interests, once identi­ fied, a r e a d e q u a t e l y r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s i n t e r n a l d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g processes.

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THE ECONOMIC AND THE MULTIPLE-STAKEHOLDER MODELS The relationship between management and the corporation's internal and e x t e r n a l c o n s t i t u e n c i e s ( o r " s t a k e h o l d e r s " ) m a y b e a t t e n d e d t o in t e r m s of t w o conceptually distinct models: the economic model and the multiple-stake­ holder model, respectively (Deetz, 1995a, 1995b). F u n d a m e n t a l l y , the e c o ­ n o m i c m o d e l c o n c e p t u a l i z e s c o r p o r a t i o n s as " e c o n o m i c " institutions f u n c t i o n i n g to satisfy t h e ( p r i m a r i l y e c o n o m i c ) o b j e c t i v e s of t h e i r o w n e r s a n d stockholders, and the multiple-stakeholder model conceptualizes corpora­ t i o n s as " s o c i a l " i n s t i t u t i o n s f u n c t i o n i n g to a c c o m p l i s h m u l t i p l e s o c i a l o b j e c ­ t i v e s for a v a r i e t y of s o c i e t a l g r o u p s w h o h a v e a s t a k e in t h e m . W h e r e a s t h e e c o n o m i c m o d e l c o n s t i t u t e s an i d e a l - t y p i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of h o w c o r p o r a ­ tions have traditionally conceptualized their relationships with others, the m u l t i p l e - s t a k e h o l d e r m o d e l c o n s t i t u t e s an i d e a l - t y p i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of h o w corporations are increasingly conceptualizing their relationships with others.

The Economic Model T r a d i t i o n a l l y , t h e c o r p o r a t i o n h a s b e e n c o n c e p t u a l i z e d a s c o n s i s t i n g of m a n a g e m e n t , w i t h all o t h e r s t a k e h o l d e r s b e i n g s i t u a t e d e x t e r n a l to t h e c o r p o ­ ration and controlled by managerial strategic actions. By conceptually sepa­ r a t i n g m a n a g e m e n t f r o m all o t h e r s t a k e h o l d e r s , t h e i n t e r e s t s of o t h e r s t a k e ­ h o l d e r s a r e c o n s i d e r e d to b e p o t e n t i a l c o s t s to t h e c o r p o r a t i o n , a n d c o n t r o l is j u s t i f i e d as " c o s t c o n t a i n m e n t . " P o t e n t i a l p o l i t i c a l c o n f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t a m o n g s o c i e t a l g r o u p s w i t h a s t a k e in c o r p o r a t e d e c i s i o n s a r e r e d u c e d t o e c o n o m i c c a l c u l a t i o n s ( P o w e r , 1 9 9 2 ) . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e c o r p o r a t i o n a n d its s t a k e h o l d e r s is t h e r e f o r e n o t c o n s i d e r e d to b e b a s e d o n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n r i g h t s of t h e s t a k e h o l d e r s w i t h i n t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s i n t e r n a l d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o ­ c e s s e s b u t , r a t h e r , is t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a c o s t - c o n t a i n m e n t a c t i v i t y . E c o n o m i c r a t i o n a l i t y a n d m a n a g e m e n t ' s d e s i r e for c o n t r o l m e r g e in t h i s m o d e l . T h i s c o n t r o l - o r i e n t e d e c o n o m i c r a t i o n a l i t y l e g i t i m i z e s m a n a g e m e n t ' s a t t e m p t s to "colonize" other stakeholders (Deetz, 1992; Habermas, 1987). Feminist theo­ rists f r o m F e r g u s o n ( 1 9 8 4 ) o n w a r d h a v e t h o r o u g h l y c r i t i q u e d t h e p a t r i a r c h a l w o r l d v i e w p r e s e n t in t h i s m o d e l , t h e n a r r o w c o n c e p t of m a s c u l i n e r a t i o n a l i t y , t h e m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n of t h e b o d y , e m o t i o n s a n d t h e f e m i n i n e , a n d t h e e v e r p r e s ­ ence of bureaucratic and unobtrusive control processes. Furthermore, the conceptual distinction drawn between the corporation, e m b o d i e d b y m a n a g e m e n t , a n d o t h e r s t a k e h o l d e r s is b a s e d o n t h e c l a s s i c a l liberal democratic distinction between the "private s p h e r e " and the "public s p h e r e . " W i t h i n this c o n c e p t u a l l o g i c , c o r p o r a t e d e c i s i o n s a r e c o n c e p t u a l i z e d as t a k i n g p l a c e w i t h i n t h e p r i v a t e s p h e r e a n d as b e i n g p r i m a r i l y o f e c o n o m i c c h a r a c t e r . T h e p r i m a r y o b j e c t i v e of t h e c o r p o r a t i o n is to c r e a t e p r o f i t , a n d t h e

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r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of m a n a g e m e n t is to be a c c o u n t a b l e to t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s o w n ­ e r s / s t o c k h o l d e r s . R e p r e s e n t a t i o n r i g h t s of the c o r p o r a t i o n ' s v a r i o u s o t h e r s t a k e h o l d e r s are s u s p e n d e d b e c a u s e of a c c e p t e d c o n t r a c t u a l r e l a t i o n s of s u b ­ o r d i n a t i o n a n d the p r i m a c y of p r o p e r t y r i g h t s . T h e c o n c e p t u a l d i s t i n c t i o n d r a w n b e t w e e n the p r i v a t e s p h e r e a n d t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e is p r o b l e m a t i c , h o w e v e r , b e c a u s e t h e c o r p o r a t i o n is i n c r e a s i n g l y m a k ­ ing d e c i s i o n s a f f e c t i n g v a r i o u s s o c i e t a l g r o u p s that p r e v i o u s l y h a v e b e e n m a d e t h r o u g h d e m o c r a t i c s t a t e p r o c e s s e s . T h i s c o n c e p t u a l d i s t i n c t i o n is t h e r e ­ fore p o l i t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t b e c a u s e it d e f i n e s t h e s p a c e for p o l i t i c a l d e b a t e s o u t s i d e t h e p r i v a t e s p h e r e by s i t u a t i n g t h e c o r p o r a t i o n as an e x t e n s i o n of p r i ­ vate p r o p e r t y c o n c e p t u a l l y , a n d often l e g a l l y , o u t s i d e t h e s p h e r e o f d e m o ­ c r a t i c s t a t e p r o c e s s e s . T h e a s s u m p t i o n that the c o r p o r a t i o n r e p r e s e n t s o n l y an e c o n o m i c i n s t i t u t i o n a l s o n e g l e c t s to a c c o u n t for t h e p r e s e n c e of e x t r a r a t i o n a l a n d e x t r a e c o n o m i c m a n a g e r i a l v a l u e s w i t h i n the c o r p o r a t i o n ' s i n t e r n a l d e c i ­ sion-making processes. The economic imperative therefore represents a value-laden but presumably impartial and neutral system of conflict resolu­ tion that d i s t o r t s t h e e x p r e s s i o n of v a l u e s a n d s u p p r e s s e s a w a r e n e s s of p o t e n ­ tially s i g n i f i c a n t p o l i t i c a l c o n f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t w i t h i n t h e c o r p o r a t i o n . T h e conceptual distinction drawn between the private sphere and the public sphere is t h e r e f o r e not v a l u e n e u t r a l . It is m a i n t a i n e d for t h e a d v a n c e m e n t o f c e r t a i n (often m a n a g e r i a l ) v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s , s u c h as t h e p r e v e n t i o n o f public intrusion into the c o r p o r a t i o n ' s internal d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s . A g a i n , f e m i n i s t t h e o r i s t s h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d m u c h to o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of h o w t h e p r i v a t e - p u b l i c d i c h o t o m y h a s not o n l y s u p p o r t e d t h e e c o n o m i c d o m i n a ­ tion of s t a k e h o l d e r s by c o r p o r a t i o n s but h a s a l s o m a r g i n a l i z e d w o m e n as a d i s t i n c t s t a k e h o l d e r g r o u p in v a r i o u s w a y s ( e . g . , B a r r e n t i n e , 1 9 9 3 ; E a s t l a n d , 1 9 9 1 ; I a n n e l l o , 1993). T h e p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d with d r a w i n g a c o n c e p t u a l d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e p r i v a t e s p h e r e a n d the p u b l i c s p h e r e finally a r e e x a c e r b a t e d b y t h e fact that t h e c o n t r o l of t h e c o r p o r a t i o n h a s i n c r e a s i n g l y shifted f r o m p r i m a r i l y p r o f i t - o r i e n t e d o w n e r s / s t o c k h o l d e r s to p r i m a r i l y c a r e e r - o r i e n t e d m a n a g e r s . W h e r e a s for t h e o w n e r s / s t o c k h o l d e r s , the c o r p o r a t i o n r e p r e s e n t s p r i m a r i l y a m e a n s to profit, m a n a g e m e n t is p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e l o n g - t e r m s t a b i l ­ ity a n d g r o w t h of t h e c o r p o r a t i o n , w h i c h a n u m b e r of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l t h e o r i s t s have termed " m a n a g e r i a l i s m " (e.g., Edwards, 1979; Ingersoll & A d a m s , 1 9 8 6 ; P i t e l i s & S u g d e n , 1 9 8 6 ; S c o t t , 1 9 8 5 ) . M a n a g e m e n t t h e r e f o r e often f u n c t i o n s as an i n d e p e n d e n t e n t i t y w i t h i n the c o r p o r a t i o n , a t t e m p t i n g to p u r ­ s u e p a r t i c u l a r v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s of its o w n .

The Multiple-Stakeholder Model In r e c e n t y e a r s , an i m p o r t a n t t h e o r e t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e h a s e m e r g e d w i t h i n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t u d i e s u n d e r the n a m e of " s t a k e h o l d e r t h e o r y " ( e . g . , C a r r o l l ,

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1989; F r e e m a n , 1984; F r e e m a n & Gilbert, 1988). Central to this theoretical p e r s p e c t i v e is t h e r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t t h e c o r p o r a t i o n is i n c r e a s i n g l y m a k i n g decisions affecting various societal groups that previously h a v e been m a d e t h r o u g h d e m o c r a t i c s t a t e p r o c e s s e s ( s e e D e e t z , 1 9 9 2 ) . It h a s t h e r e f o r e b e e n a r g u e d t h a t a m u l t i p l i c i t y of s t a k e h o l d e r s o t h e r t h a n t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s m a n ­ a g e m e n t a n d o w n e r s / s t o c k h o l d e r s h a v e v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s in n e e d of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n in t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s i n t e r n a l d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s . T h e r e is a l s o c o n s i d e r a b l e e v i d e n c e t h a t c o r p o r a t i o n s t h a t h a v e a c t i v e a n d ongoing interactions with multiple stakeholders are m o r e adaptive, efficient, and profitable (e.g., Cotton, 1993; Lawler, 1986; Miller & M o n g e , 1985; Rubinstein, Bennett, & Kochan, 1993). Ironically, the e c o n o m i c model may b e i n c r e a s i n g l y d e t r i m e n t a l to t h e e c o n o m i c w e l l - b e i n g of c o r p o r a t i o n s in a t i m e of g e n e r a l e n v i r o n m e n t a l t u r b u l e n c e , i n c l u d i n g e c o l o g i c a l t r a d e o f f s , fickle c o n s u m e r s , and k n o w l e d g e - i n t e n s i v e product production. T h e c o r p o r a t i o n m a y b e c o n c e p t u a l i z e d m o r e a c c u r a t e l y as a c o m p l e x " p o l i t i c a l " site in b o t h p r o c e s s a n d o u t c o m e . It r e p r e s e n t s a s p a c e in w h i c h v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s a r e e m b o d i e d a n d a r t i c u l a t e d w i t h i n its i n t e r n a l decision-making processes. The corporation may be conceptualized more a c c u r a t e l y a s h a v i n g a m u l t i p l i c i t y of s t a k e h o l d e r s w i t h d i f f e r e n t a n d p o t e n ­ tially c o n f l i c t i n g , y e t l e g i t i m a t e , v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s in n e e d of r e p ­ resentation. T h e feminist emphasis on "relational c o n n e c t e d n e s s " rather than " c o m p e t i t i v e i n d i v i d u a l i s m " directs this recognition t o w a r d c o o p e r a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n t h e c o r p o r a t i o n a n d its v a r i o u s s t a k e h o l d e r s . T o r e c o g n i z e t h e e x i s t e n c e of a m u l t i p l i c i t y of s t a k e h o l d e r s is n o t t o m a k e t h e c o r p o r a t i o n m o r e p o l i t i c a l b u t , r a t h e r , to r e c o g n i z e t h e v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l interests that already are present. This dimension has been denied or o b s c u r e d in t h e t r a d i t i o n a l e c o n o m i c m o d e l b e c a u s e of its c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s i n t e r n a l d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s as b e i n g p u r e l y e c o n o m i c rather than inherently value-laden (Gorz, 1987; Schmookler, 1993). A c c o r d i n g to t h e m u l t i p l e - s t a k e h o l d e r m o d e l , t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f m a n ­ a g e m e n t is n o t p r i m a r i l y to c r e a t e profit o n b e h a l f of t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s o w n ­ e r s / s t o c k h o l d e r s b u t to f a c i l i t a t e t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n of t h e p o t e n t i a l l y c o n f l i c t i n g v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s of a m u l t i p l i c i t y of s t a k e h o l d e r s w i t h i n t h e c o r poration's internal decision-making processes. Under many circumstances, t h i s m a y r e q u i r e m a n a g e m e n t to act as a d i s i n t e r e s t e d f a c i l i t a t o r of c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n p r o c e s s e s r a t h e r t h a n a s an i n t e r e s t e d p a r t y . M a n a g e m e n t ' s r e s p o n ­ s i b i l i t y is to o p t i m a l l y c o o r d i n a t e t h e m e e t i n g o f all s t a k e h o l d e r v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s as if t h e s e v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s w e r e t h o s e of t h e c o r p o r a t i o n itself. M a n a g e m e n t therefore needs to increase stakeholder representation within the corporation's internal decision-making processes by determining which s t a k e h o l d e r s h a v e l e g i t i m a t e v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s in n e e d o f r e p r e s e n ­ tation and by d e t e r m i n i n g the character of those values and political interests. I d e a l l y , s t a k e h o l d e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o u g h t to b e p a r t of t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s i n t e r ­

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nal d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s s o t h a t the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i ­ cal interests takes place inside the corporation rather than m a n a g e m e n t a t t e m p t i n g to e n f o r c e t h e m from t h e o u t s i d e . W i t h i n t h e c o n c e p t u a l l o g i c of the m u l t i p l e - s t a k e h o l d e r m o d e l , m a n a g e ­ m e n t t h e r e f o r e h a s t w o p r i m a r y " e t h i c a l " c o n c e r n s in r e l a t i o n t o t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s v a r i o u s s t a k e h o l d e r s : (a) the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of e t h i c a l p r o c e d u r e s for identifying which stakeholders have legitimate values and political interests in n e e d of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d for i d e n t i f y i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h o s e v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s , a n d (b) t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of e t h i c a l p r o c e d u r e s t h a t e n s u r e that s t a k e h o l d e r v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s , o n c e i d e n t i f i e d , a r e a d e ­ quately represented within the corporation's internal d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g pro­ cesses. W h a t guidance may m a n a g e m e n t and others derive from c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h e o r y to h e l p d e v i s e s u c h e t h i c a l p r o c e d u r e s ? G e n e r a l l y , f e m i n i s t t h e o r i z i n g h a s c o n t r i b u t e d m u c h to a n s w e r i n g t h i s q u e s t i o n . F e m i n i s m c a n d e v e l o p s t a k e h o l d e r t h e o r y m o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y b y e m p h a s i z i n g t h e d i s t i n c t i n t e r e s t s of w o m e n as a s t a k e h o l d e r g r o u p in c o r p o r a t e d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s , b y i d e n t i f y i n g t h e o v e r l y r a t i o n a l / e c o n o m i c a n d c o n s e n s u s - b a s e d c h a r a c t e r of m o s t s t a k e h o l d e r m o d e l s , a n d by d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e c o m p l e x a n d i n t e r n a l l y conflictual nature of stakeholder groups and g r o u p values and political inter­ e s t s . R a t h e r t h a n g e t t i n g i n t o t h e full c o m p l e x i t y of t h e s e i s s u e s , w e t u r n in o n e d i r e c t i o n t h a t o n e m i g h t t a k e in t h e s e e t h i c a l c o n c e r n s b y h i g h l i g h t i n g c o m ­ m u n i c a t i o n t h e o r e t i c a l r e f o r m u l a t i o n s a r i s i n g from f e m i n i s t t h e o r i z i n g o n ethics.

FROM RESPONSIBILITY TO RESPONSIVENESS: BENHABIB'S CRITIQUE OF THE THEORY OF COMMUNICATIVE ACTION AND DISCOURSE ETHICS I n i t i a l l y , s t a k e h o l d e r t h e o r y s i t u a t e d its o w n m o r a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n in t h e t h e o r y a n d l a n g u a g e of l e g a l " r i g h t s a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s " a n d h a d a r a t h e r n a i v e t h e ­ o r y of c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d of t h e w o r k i n g s of p o w e r in c o r p o r a t i o n s . M u c h like t h e m o r e g e n e r a l t h e o r y of l i b e r a l d e m o c r a c y a n d c o r p o r a t e s o c i a l r e s p o n ­ s i b i l i t y , t h e a s s u m p t i o n w a s that t h e p r i m a r y t a s k w a s o n e of j u s t i f y i n g t h e " r i g h t s " of s t a k e h o l d e r s a n d t h e " r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s " of c o r p o r a t i o n s . T h e a s s u m p t i o n w a s that, if t h e r i g h t s of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e ­ holders within the c o r p o r a t i o n ' s internal d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s were assured, normal c o m m u n i c a t i o n processes would facilitate the d e v e l o p m e n t of e t h i c a l d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s . T h i s o v e r l o o k e d b o t h t h e w i d e s o c i e t a l r e j e c t i o n of f o u n d a t i o n a l e t h i c s a n d t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of l i b e r a l d e m o c r a c y as b a s e d o n an i n a d e q u a t e t h e o r y of l a n g u a g e , c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d p o w e r . H a b e r m a s ' s (1984, 1987, 1990, 1993) theory of c o m m u n i c a t i v e action and

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d i s c o u r s e e t h i c s , a n d e s p e c i a l l y h i s d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e " i d e a l s p e e c h s i t u a t i o n " ( H a b e r m a s , 1973), offered a viable alternative d e v e l o p m e n t . B e c a u s e H a b e r m a s ' s w o r k p r o v i d e s an i m p o r t a n t t u r n in t h e c o n c e p t u a l d e v e l o p m e n t of s t a k e h o l d e r t h e o r y a n d s e r v e s as a p o i n t of d e p a r t u r e for B e n h a b i b ' s f e m i ­ nist c r i t i q u e , w e d i s c u s s a n u m b e r o f k e y c o n c e p t s ( s e e D e e t z , 1 9 9 2 ) .

The Theory of Communicative Action and Discourse Ethics H a b e r m a s (1984, 1987) has argued that every "speech act" functions dur­ i n g i n s t a n c e s o f c o m m u n i c a t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n o n l y by v i r t u e of c e r t a i n " p r e s u p ­ positions" m a d e by the participants. E v e n when these presuppositions are not h o n o r e d b y t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s , t h e y s e r v e as t h e b a s i s of a p p e a l , for f a i l e d i n s t a n c e s o f c o m m u n i c a t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n t u r n to " r a t i o n a l - c r i t i c a l d i s c o u r s e " concerning the disputed "validity c l a i m s . " T h e basic presuppositions and v a l i d i t y c l a i m s a r i s e o u t of four d o m a i n s of r e a l i t y : t h e e x t e r n a l w o r l d , h u m a n r e l a t i o n s , t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s i n t e r n a l w o r l d , a n d l a n g u a g e . T h e c l a i m s r a i s e d in each validity claim are truth, correctness, sincerity, and intelligibility, respec­ tively. Every instance of c o m m u n i c a t i v e interaction therefore p r e s u p p o s e s t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of facts ( t h e e x t e r n a l w o r l d ) , e s t a b l i s h e s l e g i t i m a t e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s ( h u m a n r e l a t i o n s ) , d i s c l o s e s t h e s p e a k e r ' s p o i n t of v i e w ( t h e i n d i v i d ­ u a l ' s i n t e r n a l w o r l d ) , a n d is u n d e r s t a n d a b l e ( l a n g u a g e ) . A n y v a l i d i t y c l a i m that m a y b e d i s p u t e d b y t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s s e r v e s as a b a s i s for w h a t H a b e r m a s (1970) has described as "systematically distorted c o m m u n i c a t i o n . " A c o m ­ m u n i c a t i o n s i t u a t i o n in w h i c h t h e s e v a l i d i t y c l a i m s a r e h o n o r e d b y t h e p a r t i c i ­ p a n t s , h o w e v e r , is t e r m e d an " i d e a l s p e e c h s i t u a t i o n " ( H a b e r m a s , 1 9 7 3 ) , o r what H a b e r m a s (1990) has subsequently termed the "universal and necessary c o m m u n i c a t i v e presuppositions of a r g u m e n t a t i v e s p e e c h . " T h e i d e a l s p e e c h s i t u a t i o n t h e r e f o r e s i g n i f i e s a c o m m u n i c a t i o n s i t u a t i o n in w h i c h p o t e n t i a l c o n f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t a m o n g t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e r a t i o n a l l y r e s o l v e d t h r o u g h a m o d e o f c o m m u n i c a t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n t h a t is " f r e e o f m a n i p ­ u l a t i o n " a n d in w h i c h o n l y " t h e f o r c e o f t h e b e t t e r a r g u m e n t " p r e v a i l s . T h e p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e g u a r a n t e e d t h e " r e c i p r o c a l " a n d " s y m m e t r i c " o p p o r t u n i t y to a p p l y all t y p e s of s p e e c h a c t s d u r i n g c o m m u n i c a t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n . T h e r e d e m p t i o n of t h e s e f o u r v a l i d i t y c l a i m s m a y s e r v e a s a b a s i s for d e l i n ­ e a t i n g h o w m a n a g e m e n t m a y e n s u r e t h a t its c o m m u n i c a t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s a r e c o n d u c t e d in an e t h i c a l m a n n e r . F i r s t , t h e p u r s u i t of a r a t i o n a l l y m o t i v a t e d c o n s e n s u s p r e s u p p o s e s t h e r e c i p r o c a l a n d s y m m e t r i c d i s t r i b u t i o n of o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o c h o o s e a n d a p p l y v a r i o u s t y p e s o f s p e e c h a c t s . T h i s e n t a i l s t h e m i n i m a l c o n d i t i o n s of s k i l l s a n d o p p o r t u n i t i e s for expression, including access to a d e q u a t e forums and m e a n s of c o m m u n i c a ­ t i o n . W h e n t h e s e o p p o r t u n i t i e s a r e e x t e n d e d to a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e a p p l i e d m e a n s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n , t h e f o c u s o u g h t to b e o n t h e p r o v i s i o n o f e q u a l

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a c c e s s , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t r a i n i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s , a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of m e a n s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h a t m a y b e a p p l i e d to e x p r e s s a v a r i e t y of h u m a n experiences. Such a principle argues against privileged expression forms or r o u t i n e s a n d r u l e s that a d v a n t a g e c e r t a i n e x p e r i e n c e s o r e x p r e s s i o n s . S e c o n d , t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e e x t e r n a l w o r l d o u g h t to b e freed f r o m p r i v i l e g e d p r e c o n c e p t i o n s in t h e s o c i a l d e v e l o p m e n t of t r u t h . T h e p a r t i c i p a n t s o u g h t to b e p r o v i d e d w i t h o p p o r t u n i t i e s to e x p r e s s e x p l a n a ­ t i o n s a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of c o n f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t t h a t a r e r e s o l v e d in r e c i p r o c a l claims and counterclaims without privileging certain epistemologies or forms of d a t a . T h e f r e e d o m from p r i v i l e g e d p r e c o n c e p t i o n s in t h e s o c i a l d e v e l o p ­ m e n t of t r u t h e n t a i l s an e x a m i n a t i o n of v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s t h a t m a y p r i v i l e g e c e r t a i n m o d e s of d i s c o u r s e , d i s q u a l i f y c e r t a i n p a r t i c i p a n t s , a n d u n i ­ v e r s a l i z e s e c t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s . T h e a p p l i e d m e a n s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n o u g h t to b e e x a m i n e d for h o w t h e y f u n c t i o n i d e o l o g i c a l l y to p r i v i l e g e c e r t a i n e p i s t e m o ­ l o g i e s o r f o r m s of d a t a . T h i r d , t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s o u g h t to b e p r o v i d e d w i t h o p p o r t u n i t i e s to e s t a b ­ lish l e g i t i m a t e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s a n d n o r m s for c o m m u n i c a t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n . T h e r i g h t s a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s s h o u l d n o t b e g i v e n in a d v a n c e b y n a t u r e o r b y a p r i v i l e g e d u n i v e r s a l v a l u e s t r u c t u r e . R a t h e r , t h e s e o u g h t to b e n e g o t i a t e d t h r o u g h c o m m u n i c a t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n . T h e r e i f i c a t i o n of o r g a ­ nizational structures and their maintenance without questioning and the p r e s e n c e of m a n a g e r i a l p r e r o g a t i v e s are e x a m p l e s of p o t e n t i a l l y i l l e g i t i m a t e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s . A c c e p t a n c e of v i e w s b e c a u s e of a p a r t i c i p a n t ' s p r i v i l e g e o r a u t h o r i t y o r b e c a u s e of t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e a p p l i e d m e a n s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n a l s o r e p r e s e n t s a p o t e n t i a l l y i l l e g i t i m a t e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n . A u t h o r i t y is l e g i t i ­ m a t e o n l y if it is r e d e e m a b l e by a p p e a l to an o p e n i n t e r a c t i o n a l f o r m a t i o n of s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s freed f r o m t h e a p p e a l to o t h e r ( a n d h i g h e r ) a u t h o r i t i e s . T o t h e e x t e n t that the a p p l i e d m e a n s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n e m b o d y v a l u e s a n d p o ­ litical i n t e r e s t s , h i d e a u t h o r i t y r e l a t i o n s , o r reify s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s , t h e y t h e r e ­ fore p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of s y s t e m a t i c a l l y d i s t o r t e d c o m m u n i ­ cation. F i n a l l y , t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s o u g h t to b e p r o v i d e d w i t h o p p o r t u n i t i e s to e x p r e s s their own authentic interests, needs, and feelings. This entails freedom from various coercive and ideological processes by which the participants are u n a b l e to f o r m e x p e r i e n c e s o p e n l y , to d e v e l o p a n d m a i n t a i n c o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r ­ e s t s , a n d to f o r m e x p r e s s i o n s that a d e q u a t e l y r e p r e s e n t t h e i r i n t e r e s t s . C e r t a i n m e a n s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n m a y p r o d u c e p a r t i c u l a r i m a g i s t i c r e l a t i o n s a n d e s ­ t a b l i s h a t y p e of d i s t a n c e that r e d u c e s t h e f o r m a t i o n of o t h e r n e s s a n d i n t e r r o ­ g a t i o n of t h e self. In this s e n s e , t h e y f u n c t i o n u n e t h i c a l l y . A n e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e a p p l i e d m e a n s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n in t h e i r s t r u c t u r i n g of t h e i n t e r i o r is i m p o r t a n t for r e c o g n i z i n g t h e i r p o t e n t i a l effects o n t h e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t of such ethical ideals.

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Benhabib's Feminist Perspective on Ethics B e n h a b i b ' s (1992) perspective on ethics represents what she has termed " a n a n t i c i p a t o r y - u t o p i a n c r i t i q u e of u n i v e r s a l i s t i c m o r a l t h e o r y f r o m a f e m i ­ nist p e r s p e c t i v e " ( p . 1 5 2 ) . S h e a r g u e s t h a t , h i s t o r i c a l l y , t h e p r e d o m i n a n t c o n ­ c e p t i o n of t h e m o r a l d o m a i n a n d t h e i d e a l s of m o r a l i m p a r t i a l i t y / n e u t r a l i t y , o f f e r e d b y m o r a l p h i l o s o p h e r s f r o m H o b b e s to R a w l s , l e d t o t h e p r i v a t i z a t i o n of w o m e n ' s e x p e r i e n c e s a n d t h e e x c l u s i o n of t h e i r c o n s i d e r a t i o n f r o m t h e m o r a l p o i n t of v i e w . In t h i s h i s t o r i c a l t r a d i t i o n , t h e m o r a l self w a s c o n c e p t u a l ­ i z e d as d i s e m b e d d e d a n d d i s e m b o d i e d , a n d m o r a l i m p a r t i a l i t y / n e u t r a l i t y i m p l i e d t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l l e a r n e d h o w to r e c o g n i z e t h e c l a i m s of t h e o t h e r w h o w a s s i m i l a r to h i m s e l f o r herself. T h e r e f o r e s h e s h o w s w h y it is n e c e s s a r y to d e v e l o p a u n i v e r s a l i s t i c p e r s p e c t i v e o n m o r a l t h e o r y t h a t d e f i n e s t h e m o r a l p o i n t of v i e w in l i g h t of t h e r e v e r s i b i l i t y of p e r s p e c t i v e s a n d an " e n l a r g e d m e n t a l i t y " (a t e r m o r i g i n a t i n g w i t h A r e n d t , 1 9 6 1 ) . S u c h a u n i v e r s a l i s t i c p e r ­ spective on moral theory, she contends, ought to be "interactive not legisla­ t i v e , c o g n i z a n t of g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s n o t g e n d e r b l i n d , c o n t e x t u a l l y s e n s i t i v e and not situation indifferent" (p. 3).

The Generalized and the Concrete Other Inspired by the influential debate b e t w e e n K o h l b e r g ( 1 9 8 1 , 1984) and Gilligan (1982; M u r p h y & Gilligan, 1980) concerning cognitive d e v e l o p m e n ­ tal m o r a l p s y c h o l o g y , B e n h a b i b ( 1 9 9 2 ) a r g u e s t h a t a b r o a d e n e d c o n c e p t i o n of t h e m o r a l p o i n t of v i e w m a y b e d e v e l o p e d b y a t t e n d i n g t o t w o d i s t i n c t c o n c e p ­ t i o n s of s e l f - o t h e r r e l a t i o n s t h a t d e l i n e a t e b o t h m o r a l p e r s p e c t i v e s a n d c o m ­ m u n i c a t i v e s t r u c t u r e s : t h e s t a n d p o i n t of t h e " g e n e r a l i z e d o t h e r " (a t e r m o r i g i ­ nating with M e a d , 1934, and applied by H a b e r m a s ) and the " c o n c r e t e o t h e r " ( s e e M a n n i n g , 1 9 9 2 ; N o d d i n g s , 1 9 8 4 ; W o o d , 1 9 9 4 , for a s i m i l a r e m p h a s i s o n t h e o t h e r as a c o n c r e t e o t h e r ) . B e n h a b i b a r g u e s t h a t t h e s e t w o m o r a l o r i e n ­ tations reflect traditional d i c h o t o m i e s b e t w e e n a u t o n o m y and n u r t u r a n c e , i n d e p e n d e n c e and b o n d i n g , the public and private spheres, and, m o r e broadly, b e t w e e n n o r m a t i v e i s s u e s o f j u s t i c e a n d r i g h t s a n d e v a l u a t i v e i s s u e s of t h e g o o d life. F o r B e n h a b i b ( 1 9 9 2 ) , to a s s u m e t h e s t a n d p o i n t of t h e g e n e r a l i z e d other requires us to view each and every individual as a rational being entitled to the same rights and duties we would want to ascribe to ourselves. In assuming this standpoint, we abstract from the individuality and concrete identity of the other. We assume that the other, like ourselves, is a being who has concrete needs, desires and affects, but that what constitutes his or her moral dignity is not what differenti­ ates us from each other, but rather what we, as speaking and acting rational agents,

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COMMUNICATION FROM FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES have in common. Our relation to the other is governed by the norms of formal equality and reciprocity: each is entitled to expect and to assume from us what we can expect and assume from him or her. The norms of our interactions are primarily public and institutional ones. (pp. 158-159)

T o a s s u m e t h e s t a n d p o i n t of t h e c o n c r e t e o t h e r , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , requires us to view each and every rational being as an individual with a concrete history, identity and affective-emotional constitution. In assuming this standpoint, we abstract from what constitutes our commonality, and focus on individuality. We seek to comprehend the needs of the other, his or her motivations, what s/he searches for, and what s/he desires. Our relation to the other is governed by the norms of equity and complementary reciprocity: each is entitled to expect and to assume from the other forms of behavior through which the other feels recognized and confirmed as a concrete, individual being with specific needs, talents and capacities. Our differences in this case complement rather than exclude one another. The norms of our interaction are usually, although not exclusively, pri­ vate, non-institutional ones. (p. 159) T h e problem associated with only assuming the morally impartial and neu­ tral s t a n d p o i n t of t h e g e n e r a l i z e d o t h e r is that it e n t a i l s a c o n c e p t i o n o f selfo t h e r r e l a t i o n s that m a k e s it difficult to i n d i v i d u a t e a m o n g d i f f e r e n t s e l v e s . T h e o t h e r as d i s t i n c t from t h e self, or t h e " o t h e r n e s s of t h e o t h e r , " is l i k e l y to d i s a p p e a r . B e n h a b i b ( 1 9 9 2 ) a r g u e s that n e i t h e r t h e c o n c r e t e n e s s n o r t h e o t h e r ­ n e s s o f t h e o t h e r m a y b e r e c o g n i z e d in t h e a b s e n c e o f t h e " v o i c e " o f t h e o t h e r . T h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e c o n c r e t e o t h e r e m e r g e as d i s t i n c t o n l y a s t h e r e s u l t of " s e l f - d e f i n i t i o n " o n t h e p a r t of t h e o t h e r . It s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d that B e n h a b i b ' s ( 1 9 9 2 ) c o n c e p t i o n of s e l f - o t h e r r e l a t i o n s h a s b e e n c r i t i q u e d b y a n u m b e r of ( e s p e c i a l l y p o s t m o d e r n - i n s p i r e d ) f e m i n i s t t h e o r i s t s . Y o u n g ( 1 9 9 0 a ) , for e x a m p l e , h a s a r g u e d t h a t a s s u m i n g t h e s t a n d p o i n t of t h e c o n c r e t e o t h e r r e p r e s e n t s a p r o b l e m a t i c " i d e a l o f s h a r e d s u b ­ j e c t i v i t y , o r t h e t r a n s p a r e n c y of s u b j e c t s to o n e a n o t h e r , [that] d e n i e s differ­ e n c e in the s e n s e o f t h e b a s i c a s y m m e t r y of s u b j e c t s " ( p . 3 0 9 ) . T h i s c r i t i q u e , w h i c h is b a s e d o n w h a t D e r r i d a ( 1 9 7 6 ) h a s t e r m e d a " m e t a p h y s i c s of p r e s ­ e n c e " a n d A d o r n o ( 1 9 7 3 ) h a s t e r m e d a " l o g i c of i d e n t i t y , " is u n f o u n d e d , h o w ­ e v e r . T o a s s u m e t h e s t a n d p o i n t of t h e c o n c r e t e o t h e r d o e s n o t p r e s u p p o s e a t r a n s p a r e n c y b e t w e e n self a n d o t h e r . R a t h e r , as w e s u b s e q u e n t l y d i s c u s s in f u r t h e r d e t a i l , it o n l y e n t a i l s that o n e a t t e m p t t o c o m p r e h e n d a n d t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n d i v i d u a t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e o t h e r a s d e f i n e d b y h i m - o r h e r s e l f to b e b e t t e r a b l e to i n t e r a c t w i t h t h e o t h e r in an e t h i c a l m a n n e r . T h e c o n c e p t i o n of t h e self i m p l i e d by t h e c o n c e p t of t h e g e n e r a l i z e d o t h e r is, a s B e n h a b i b ( 1 9 9 2 ) a r g u e s , i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e c r i t e r i a o f r e v e r s i b i l i t y of p e r s p e c t i v e s a n d u n i v e r s a l i z a b i l i t y a d v o c a t e d b y u n i v e r s a l i s t i c m o r a l p h i ­ l o s o p h e r s , s u c h as H a b e r m a s ' s ( 1 9 9 0 , 1 9 9 3 ) a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f t h e M e a d i a n

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( 1 9 3 4 ) c o n c e p t of " i d e a l r o l e - t a k i n g " o r R a w l s ' s ( 1 9 7 1 ) c o n c e p t of t h e " v e i l of i g n o r a n c e " in t e r m s of an " o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n . " B e n h a b i b a r g u e s t h a t " o n e c o n s e q u e n c e of l i m i t i n g p r o c e d u r e s of u n i v e r s a l i z a b i l i t y to t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f t h e g e n e r a l i z e d o t h e r h a s b e e n t h a t t h e o t h e r as d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e self h a s d i s a p ­ p e a r e d in u n i v e r s a l i z i n g m o r a l d i s c o u r s e " ( p . 10). It s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t H a b e r m a s ( 1 9 9 3 ) h a s r e s p o n d e d d i r e c t l y to B e n h a b i b ' s ( 1 9 9 2 ) c o n t e n t i o n t h a t to a s s u m e t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f t h e c o n c r e t e o t h e r b e c o m e s difficult. In a r e c e n t i n t e r v i e w , H a b e r m a s ( 1 9 9 3 ) a r g u e d that t h e i m p r e s s i o n that h i s d i s c o u r s e e t h i c s r e n d e r s t h e a s s u m p t i o n of t h e s t a n d p o i n t of t h e c o n c r e t e o t h e r difficult is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a o n e - s i d e d p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h q u e s t i o n s of j u s t i f i c a t i o n : " T h e u n i q u e d i s p o s i t i o n of a p a r t i c u l a r c a s e that c a l l s for r e g u l a t i o n , a n d t h e c o n c r e t e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e p e o p l e i n v o l v e d , c o m e i n t o v i e w o n l y after p r o b l e m s of j u s t i f i c a t i o n h a v e been resolved" (pp. 153-154). Therefore, Habermas (1993) argues, "[Moral­ p r a c t i c a l ] r e a s o n is n o t fully r e a l i z e d in d i s c o u r s e s of j u s t i f i c a t i o n . W h e r e a s in j u s t i f y i n g n o r m s [ m o r a l - p r a c t i c a l ] r e a s o n finds e x p r e s s i o n in t h e p r i n c i p l e o f u n i v e r s a l i z a t i o n , in t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of n o r m s it t a k e s t h e f o r m o f a p r i n c i p l e o f a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s " ( p . 154). The conceptual distinction Habermas (1993) draws between a "universal­ i s t i c " j u s t i f i c a t i o n of n o r m s a n d a " c o n t e x t u a l l y s e n s i t i v e " a p p l i c a t i o n of n o r m s d o e s not a d e q u a t e l y r e s o l v e t h e i s s u e , h o w e v e r . T o a s s u m e t h e s t a n d ­ p o i n t of t h e c o n c r e t e o t h e r r e q u i r e s t h a t o n e t h e m a t i z e i n d i v i d u a t i n g c h a r a c ­ t e r i s t i c s of t h e o t h e r r i g h t f r o m t h e o u t s e t r a t h e r t h a n i n t r o d u c e t h e i r t h e m a t i z a t i o n d u r i n g t h e s u b s e q u e n t d e c i s i o n o n h o w to i n t e r a c t w i t h t h e o t h e r in an e t h i c a l m a n n e r . In c o n t r a s t , H a b e r m a s ' s ( 1 9 9 3 ) a p p r o a c h e n t a i l s an i n i ­ tial b r a c k e t i n g of i n d i v i d u a t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e o t h e r ( d u r i n g t h e j u s t i f i ­ c a t i o n of n o r m s ) that m a k e s it d i f f i c u l t to i n t r o d u c e t h e i r s u b s e q u e n t t h e m a t i z a t i o n ( d u r i n g t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of n o r m s ) . In t h i s i m p o r t a n t r e s p e c t , H a b e r m a s ' s ( 1 9 9 3 ) a p p r o a c h is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e p r o b l e m a t i c c o n t e n t i o n that o n e i n i t i a l l y o u g h t to a s s u m e t h e ( u n i v e r s a l i s t i c ) s t a n d p o i n t of t h e g e n e r ­ a l i z e d o t h e r , f o l l o w e d b y t h e a s s u m p t i o n of t h e ( c o n t e x t u a l l y s e n s i t i v e ) s t a n d ­ p o i n t of t h e c o n c r e t e o t h e r . In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e r e is a p r o b l e m a t i c t w o - s t e p p r o c e s s : " I n j u s t i f i c a t o r y d i s c o u r s e s it is n e c e s s a r y t o a b s t r a c t f r o m t h e c o n t i n ­ g e n t c o n t e x t u a l e m b e d d e d n e s s of a p r o p o s e d n o r m o n l y to e n s u r e t h a t t h e n o r m , a s s u m i n g it w i t h s t a n d s t h e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n test, is s u f f i c i e n t l y o p e n t o context-sensitive application" (p. 58).

The Moral Conversation F o r B e n h a b i b ( 1 9 9 2 ) , a b r o a d e n e d c o n c e p t i o n of t h e m o r a l p o i n t of v i e w r e q u i r e s t h a t o n e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a s s u m e t h e s t a n d p o i n t of t h e g e n e r a l i z e d o t h e r a n d t h e c o n c r e t e o t h e r , w h i c h e n t a i l s a shift f r o m a " s u b s t a n t i a l i s t i c " to a

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" d i s c u r s i v e " c o n c e p t i o n of r a t i o n a l i t y . T h i s m a y b e a c c o m p l i s h e d b y e n g a g ­ i n g in a n o p e n - e n d e d " m o r a l c o n v e r s a t i o n " that r e q u i r e s (1) that we recognize the rights of all beings capable of speech and action to be par­ ticipants in the moral conversation—I will call this the principle of universal moral respect; (2) these conditions further stipulate that within such conversations each has the same symmetrical rights to various speech acts, to initiate new topics, to ask for reflection about the presuppositions of the conversation, etc. Let me call this the principle of egalitarian reciprocity. (Benhabib, 1992, p. 29) T h e p u r p o s e of e n g a g i n g in t h e m o r a l c o n v e r s a t i o n , B e n h a b i b ( 1 9 9 2 ) a r g u e s in a c r i t i q u e of H a b e r m a s ' s ( 1 9 9 0 , 1 9 9 3 ) d i s c o u r s e e t h i c s , is n o t to reach a rationally motivated consensus concerning the respective values and p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s of t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s . R a t h e r , t h e o b j e c t i v e o u g h t to b e " t h e a n t i c i p a t e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h o t h e r s w i t h w h o m [ o n e ] m u s t f i n a l l y c o m e to s o m e a g r e e m e n t " ( p . 9 ) . T h e r e f o r e , to e n g a g e in t h e m o r a l c o n v e r s a t i o n d o e s n o t g u a r a n t e e that a r a t i o n a l l y m o t i v a t e d c o n s e n s u s m a y u l t i m a t e l y b e r e a c h e d a m o n g t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s . I n s t e a d , to e n g a g e in t h e m o r a l c o n v e r s a t i o n " d e m o n ­ s t r a t e s t h e will a n d r e a d i n e s s to s e e k u n d e r s t a n d i n g w i t h t h e o t h e r a n d t o r e a c h s o m e r e a s o n a b l e a g r e e m e n t " ( p . 9 ) . A m o r a l c o n v e r s a t i o n t h a t is g e n u i n e l y o p e n a n d r e f l e x i v e a n d d o e s not o p e r a t e o n t h e b a s i s of a n y e p i s t e m i c l i m i t a ­ t i o n s m a y t h e r e f o r e l e a d to a m u t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of o t h e r n e s s . It a c t u a l i z e s a moral dialogue b e t w e e n different selves w h o are considered to be both gen­ e r a l i z e d o t h e r s , in t h e s e n s e of e q u a l m o r a l a g e n t s , a n d c o n c r e t e o t h e r s , in t h e s e n s e of i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i r r e d u c i b l e d i f f e r e n c e s . T o e n g a g e in t h e m o r a l c o n v e r s a t i o n d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e q u i r e t h e a c t u a l p r e s e n c e of t h e o t h e r : To think from the perspective of everyone else is to know how to listen to what the other is saying, or when the voices of others are absent, to imagine to oneself a con­ versation with the other as [the] dialogue partner. (Benhabib, 1992, p. 137) B e n h a b i b ' s ( 1 9 9 2 ) c o n t e n t i o n that t h e m o r a l c o n v e r s a t i o n m a y a l s o t a k e t h e f o r m of an " i m a g i n a r y d i a l o g u e " b e t w e e n t h e self a n d t h e o t h e r r e p r e s e n t s an i m p l i c i t c r i t i q u e of H a b e r m a s ( 1 9 9 0 , 1 9 9 3 ) , w h o r e p e a t e d l y a r g u e s t h a t t h e m o r a l c o n v e r s a t i o n m a y t a k e the f o r m o n l y of an " a c t u a l d i a l o g u e " b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t s e l v e s . In t h i s r e s p e c t , B e n h a b i b ( 1 9 9 2 ) a d h e r e s to t h e K a n t i a n c a t e ­ g o r i c a l i m p e r a t i v e t h a t a s s e r t s that t h e m e a n i n g of m o r a l v a l i d i t y m a y b e a d e ­ q u a t e l y g r a s p e d f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of an i n d i v i d u a l r e f l e c t i n g o n h i s o r h e r m o t i v e s of a c t i o n . H o w e v e r , o n l y a m o r a l c o n v e r s a t i o n c o n c e p t u a l i z e d as an " a c t u a l d i a l o g u e " b e t w e e n t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n v o l v e d r e p r e s e n t s an e t h i c a l s o l u t i o n o f h o w to e n s u r e a d e q u a t e s t a k e h o l d e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n w i t h i n t h e c o r poration's internal decision-making processes.

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F o r B e n h a b i b ( 1 9 9 2 ) , t h i s w a y of c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g t h e m o r a l c o n v e r s a t i o n r e p r e s e n t s a t r a n s c e n d e n c e of t h e c l a s s i c a l m o r a l p h i l o s o p h i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n an " e t h i c of j u s t i c e a n d r i g h t s " a n d a n " e t h i c of c a r e a n d r e s p o n s i ­ bility": If in discourses the agenda of the conversation is radically open, if participants can bring any and all matters under critical scrutiny and questioning, then there is no way to predefine the nature of the issues discussed as being public ones of justice versus private ones of the good life. Distinctions such as between justice and the good life are subsequent and not prior to the process of discursive will formation, (p. 110) F r a s e r ( 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 1 ) h a s l e v e l e d a s i m i l a r a r g u m e n t in a c r i t i q u e of t h e c o n c e p ­ tual d i s t i n c t i o n H a b e r m a s ( 1 9 8 9 ) d r a w s b e t w e e n w h a t o u g h t t o c o u n t a s i s s u e s o f p r i v a t e a n d p u b l i c i n t e r e s t — a n d t h e r e b y t h e a p p r o p r i a t e m o d e of c o m m u n i ­ c a t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n in t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e . S p e c i f i c a l l y , F r a s e r a r g u e s t h a t w h a t o u g h t to c o u n t as i s s u e s of p u b l i c i n t e r e s t s h o u l d b e d e c i d e d t h r o u g h c o m m u ­ nicative interaction between the participants themselves rather than being d e t e r m i n e d in a d v a n c e . T h u s conceptualized, B e n h a b i b ' s (1992) a r g u m e n t that the moral c o n v e r ­ s a t i o n r e p r e s e n t s a t r a n s c e n d e n c e of t h e c l a s s i c a l m o r a l p h i l o s o p h i c a l d i s t i n c ­ tion b e t w e e n an e t h i c of j u s t i c e a n d r i g h t s a n d an e t h i c o f c a r e a n d r e s p o n s i b i l ­ ity is a c r i t i q u e of a n u m b e r of i n f l u e n t i a l f e m i n i s t s a s w e l l as n o n f e m i n i s t ethical theorists w h o have argued that these are not c o m p l e m e n t a r y but repre­ sent contrasting moral orientations (e.g., Gilligan, 1982; H a b e r m a s , 1990, 1993; Kohlberg, 1981, 1984; N o d d i n g s , 1984; Ruddick, 1989).

Feminist Ethics and the Multiple-Stakeholder Model B e n h a b i b ' s (1992) feminist perspective on ethics provides a useful basis for d i s c u s s i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n m a n a g e m e n t a n d t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s a n d for p r o v i d i n g t e n t a t i v e a n s w e r s a b o u t h o w m a n a g e m e n t m a y c o n c e p t u a l i z e a n d i n t e r a c t w i t h t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s in a n e t h i c a l m a n n e r (in t e r m s of t h e c o n c e p t u a l l o g i c of t h e m u l t i p l e - s t a k e h o l d e r m o d e l ) . F o r r e a s o n s of c o n c e p t u a l c l a r i t y , w e first d i s c u s s h o w m a n a g e m e n t m a y i m p l e m e n t e t h i c a l p r o c e d u r e s for i d e n t i f y i n g w h i c h s t a k e h o l d e r s h a v e l e g i t i ­ m a t e v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s in n e e d of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d for i d e n t i f y ­ ing t h e c h a r a c t e r o f their v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s . S e c o n d , w e d i s c u s s how m a n a g e m e n t may implement ethical procedures that ensure the adequate r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of s t a k e h o l d e r v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s w i t h i n t h e c o r p o r a ­ tion' s internal decision-making processes. A l t h o u g h the conceptual distinction d r a w n b e t w e e n the "identification" a n d " r e p r e s e n t a t i o n " of s t a k e h o l d e r v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s is u s e f u l for

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t h e p u r p o s e s of t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n , it m a y b e difficult t o m a i n t a i n t h i s c o n c e p t u a l d i s t i n c t i o n in p r a c t i c e . T h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f s t a k e h o l d e r v a l u e s and political interests within the corporation's internal d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g pro­ c e s s e s o u g h t t o e n t a i l a p e r p e t u a l r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n of e n t r e n c h e d v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s in o r d e r to r e c o v e r g e n u i n e c o n f l i c t s o f i n t e r e s t .

The Identification of Stakeholder Values and Political Interests W h e n m a n a g e m e n t identifies which stakeholders h a v e legitimate values a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s in n e e d of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n w i t h i n t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s i n t e r ­ nal d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s a n d t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e i r v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s , it is i m p o r t a n t t h a t m a n a g e m e n t n o t a s s u m e o n l y t h e s t a n d p o i n t of t h e g e n e r a l i z e d o t h e r . T h e s t a n d p o i n t of t h e g e n e r a l i z e d o t h e r i s , a s p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d , a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a s t a n c e of m o r a l i m p a r t i a l i t y a n d n e u t r a l i t y . M a n ­ a g e m e n t m a y n e v e r a s s u m e a s t a n d p o i n t of a b s o l u t e m o r a l i m p a r t i a l i t y a n d n e u t r a l i t y in r e l a t i o n to t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s . A s t h e c o r p o r a t e e n t i t y r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e o v e r a l l f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e c o r p o r a t i o n , m a n a g e m e n t is i n e v i t a b l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h w h e t h e r t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of s t a k e h o l d e r v a l u e s a n d political interests into the c o r p o r a t i o n ' s internal d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s m a y b e b e n e f i c i a l o r d e t r i m e n t a l to t h e o v e r a l l f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e c o r p o r a t i o n . T h e p u r s u i t of m o r a l i m p a r t i a l i t y a n d n e u t r a l i t y o n t h e p a r t of m a n a g e m e n t is t h e r e f o r e l i k e l y to l e a d to w h a t a n u m b e r of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l t h e o r i s t s h a v e t e r m e d " m a n a g e r i a l i s m . " B y n o t r e c o g n i z i n g that it i n e v i t a b l y w i l l a t t e m p t t o f u r t h e r c e r t a i n i n t e r e s t s of its o w n , m a n a g e m e n t ' s i d e a l s o f m o r a l i m p a r t i a l i t y a n d n e u t r a l i t y a r e l i k e l y to s u p p r e s s the c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s ' a w a r e ­ n e s s of t h o s e v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s a n d t h e i r g e n u i n e d i s c u s s i o n s thereof. M a n a g e m e n t o u g h t to a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t it d o e s n o t r e p r e s e n t a m o r ­ ally i m p a r t i a l a n d n e u t r a l e n t i t y w i t h i n t h e c o r p o r a t i o n a n d that t h e v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s p u r s u e d i n e v i t a b l y will i n f l u e n c e its v a l o r i z a t i o n of t h o s e of t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s . It m a y b e b e n e f i c i a l for m a n a g e m e n t to r e f l e c t o n w h a t B e r n s t e i n ( 1 9 8 3 ) , f o l l o w i n g G a d a m e r ( 1 9 7 5 ) , h a s t e r m e d its " p r e j u ­ d i c e s " (in this c a s e , v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s ) in o r d e r to b e a b l e to d i s t i n ­ g u i s h t h o s e t h a t a r e " b l i n d " from t h o s e t h a t a r e " e n a b l i n g . " In t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e x t , b l i n d p r e j u d i c e s m a y b e c o n c e p t u a l i z e d as t h o s e t h a t m a k e it difficult for m a n a g e m e n t to r e c o g n i z e that t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s a r e l i k e l y to have different and potentially conflicting, yet legitimate, values and political i n t e r e s t s in n e e d of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . E n a b l i n g p r e j u d i c e s m a y b e c o n c e p t u a l ­ i z e d a s t h o s e that m a k e it p o s s i b l e for m a n a g e m e n t to r e c o g n i z e t h o s e s t a k e ­ h o l d e r v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s that a r e a r g u a b l y l e g i t i m a t e a n d in n e e d o f representation within the c o r p o r a t i o n ' s internal d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s .

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R e l a t e d t o t h i s , it is i m p o r t a n t t h a t m a n a g e m e n t n o t a s s u m e o n l y t h e s t a n d ­ p o i n t of t h e g e n e r a l i z e d o t h e r , b e c a u s e t h i s s t a n d p o i n t w o u l d l e a d t o t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t w h a t m a n a g e m e n t s h a r e s in c o m m o n w i t h t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s is m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n w h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e m f r o m o n e another. By focusing on commonalities rather than differences, m a n a g e m e n t m a y b e in d a n g e r of a s s u m i n g a " c o n s e n s u a l " r a t h e r t h a n " c o n f l i c t u a l " o r i e n ­ t a t i o n t o w a r d t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s . In d o i n g s o , m a n a g e m e n t is l i k e l y to d e p r i v e itself of r e c o g n i z i n g g e n u i n e c o n f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t b o t h in its r e l a t i o n s h i p s to t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s a n d a m o n g t h e d i f f e r e n t s t a k e ­ h o l d e r g r o u p s i n t e r n a l l y . In t h e v o c a b u l a r y of B e n h a b i b ( 1 9 9 2 ) , a n u n d u e e m p h a s i s o n " c o m m o n a l i t i e s " r a t h e r t h a n " d i f f e r e n c e s " is l i k e l y t o l e a d t o a c o n c e p t i o n o f s e l f - o t h e r r e l a t i o n s t h a t m a k e s it difficult to i n d i v i d u a t e a m o n g d i f f e r e n t s e l v e s . T h e o t h e r as d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e self, o r t h e " o t h e r n e s s o f t h e o t h e r , " is l i k e l y to d i s a p p e a r b e c a u s e t h i s t u r n l a c k s t h e c r i t e r i a f o r i n d i v i d u a t ­ i n g a m o n g d i f f e r e n t s e l v e s . T o o n l y a s s u m e t h e s t a n d p o i n t of t h e g e n e r a l i z e d o t h e r is n o t o n l y e t h i c a l l y p r o b l e m a t i c b u t m a y a l s o b e d e t r i m e n t a l t o t h e o v e r ­ all f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e c o r p o r a t i o n . If m a n a g e m e n t o n l y a s s u m e s t h e s t a n d p o i n t of t h e g e n e r a l i z e d o t h e r in r e l a t i o n t o t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s , it is a l s o l i k e l y t o a d h e r e , i n t e n t i o n ­ ally o r u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y , to t h e e c o n o m i c m o d e l r a t h e r t h a n t h e m u l t i p l e - s t a k e ­ h o l d e r m o d e l . T h e e m p h a s i s o n c o m m o n a l i t i e s r a t h e r t h a n d i f f e r e n c e s is l i k e l y t o l e a d to a s i t u a t i o n in w h i c h m a n a g e m e n t " c o l o n i z e s " t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s in t e r m s of e c o n o m i c i m p e r a t i v e s . N e e d i n g a s e e m i n g l y i m p a r t i a l a n d n e u t r a l m e a n s of c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n , m a n a g e m e n t is l i k e l y t o e v a l u a t e t h e v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s of t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s in t e r m s of an e c o n o m i c l o g i c . T h i s m a y b e d e t r i m e n t a l t o t h e t r a n s c e n d e n c e of the classical liberal democratic distinction between the "private s p h e r e " and the "public s p h e r e " implied by the multiple-stakeholder m o d e l . M a n a g e m e n t is l i k e l y to a t t e n d t o t h e e c o n o m i c i n t e r e s t s of t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s (which pertain to the private sphere) rather than to their various n o n e c o n o m i c interests (which pertain to the public sphere). T h e n o n e c o n o m i c interests of t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s , w h i c h to B e n h a b i b ( 1 9 9 2 ) r e p r e s e n t " e v a l u ­ a t i v e i s s u e s o f t h e g o o d l i f e , " a r e l i k e l y to b e p e r c e i v e d b y m a n a g e m e n t as b e i n g b a s e d o n i r r e d u c i b l e d i f f e r e n c e s . T h e s e p e r c e i v e d d i f f e r e n c e s m a k e it difficult t o i d e n t i f y c o m m o n a l i t i e s b o t h b e t w e e n m a n a g e m e n t a n d t h e c o r p o ­ r a t i o n ' s stakeholders and a m o n g the different stakeholder g r o u p s internally. M a n a g e m e n t m a y find it b e n e f i c i a l to a s s u m e t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f t h e g e n e r a l ­ ized and the concrete other simultaneously by " t h e m a t i z i n g " rather than " b r a c k e t i n g " differences a m o n g the values and political interests of the c o r p o ­ ration's stakeholders. Thematizing entails conceptualizing each stakeholder g r o u p a s a c o n c r e t e o t h e r w i t h i r r e d u c i b l e , y e t l e g i t i m a t e , d i f f e r e n c e s a n d at the s a m e time conceptualizing the individual m e m b e r s of a s t a k e h o l d e r g r o u p

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as g e n e r a l i z e d o t h e r s ( i . e . , as i d e n t i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of a s t a k e h o l d e r g r o u p ) . A l t h o u g h it m a y b e e t h i c a l l y a n d i d e a l l y w o r t h w h i l e to a s s u m e t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f the c o n c r e t e o t h e r t o w a r d t h e i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r s of a s t a k e ­ h o l d e r g r o u p , it c l e a r l y is difficult to d o so in p r a c t i c e . S t a k e h o l d e r g r o u p s often c o m p r i s e s o m a n y m e m b e r s that it b e c o m e s p r a c t i c a l l y u n f e a s i b l e to a t t e n d to s a l i e n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n the i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r s . B y a s s u m i n g t h e s t a n d p o i n t of t h e g e n e r a l i z e d a n d the c o n c r e t e o t h e r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , m a n ­ a g e m e n t m a y be a b l e to r e c o g n i z e that the v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s of t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s stakeholders may be radically different from and potentially c o n f l i c t i n g w i t h its o w n , y e t l e g i t i m a t e a n d w o r t h y of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n w i t h i n the c o r p o r a t i o n ' s i n t e r n a l d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s .

The Representation of Stakeholder Values and Political Interests M a n a g e m e n t s h o u l d not o n l y i m p l e m e n t e t h i c a l p r o c e d u r e s for i d e n t i f y i n g w h i c h of t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s a r e in n e e d of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n w i t h i n the c o r p o r a t i o n ' s i n t e r n a l d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s a n d i d e n t i f y i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e i r v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s . It s h o u l d a l s o e n s u r e t h a t , o n c e they a r e i d e n t i f i e d , t h e y a r e r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h i n t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s i n t e r n a l d e c i ­ s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s in an e t h i c a l m a n n e r . In t h i n k i n g a b o u t h o w t h e c o r p o ­ r a t i o n ' s stakeholders may be represented within the c o r p o r a t i o n ' s internal d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s in an e t h i c a l m a n n e r , t h e c o n c e p t of t h e m o r a l c o n ­ v e r s a t i o n is of m u c h r e l e v a n c e . M a n y c o m p a n i e s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e e n g a g e d in e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y s e n s i t i v e a r e a s a n d / o r w h o s e a c t i v i t i e s p l a c e the p u b l i c at r i s k , p r o v i d e f o r u m s for s t a k e h o l d e r r e s p o n s e . M o s t of t h e s e " p u b l i c " m e e t i n g s e n c o u r a g e v e n t i n g m o r e than c r e a t i v e d e c i s i o n m a k i n g . T h e y often a r e b a s e d o n d a t e d " l i b e r a l d e m o c r a t i c " c o n c e p t i o n s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n that r a r e l y e n h a n c e v o i c e a n d m a y s e r v e p r i m a r i l y as p l a c e s for c o m p a n y officials to r e a f f i r m t h e i r p o s i t i o n s (see D e e t z , 1 9 9 5 a , 1 9 9 5 b ) . A m u c h s t r o n g e r c o n c e p t i o n of c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d m e e t i n g s is n e c e s s a r y to g u i d e t h e s e p r a c t i c e s in p r o d u c t i v e a n d e t h i c a l directions (see Pearce & Littlejohn, 1997). B e n h a b i b ( 1 9 9 2 ) c o n c e p t u a l i z e s t h e p u r s u i t of t h e m o r a l c o n v e r s a t i o n in t w o d i s t i n c t w a y s that initially c a n p r o v i d e g u i d a n c e for t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of b e t t e r p r a c t i c e s . S h e s h o w s that t h e m o r a l c o n v e r s a t i o n m a y (a) t a k e t h e f o r m of an " a c t u a l d i a l o g u e " b e t w e e n different s e l v e s w h o a r e c o n s i d e r e d to b e b o t h g e n e r a l i z e d o t h e r s , in the s e n s e of e q u a l m o r a l a g e n t s , a n d c o n c r e t e o t h e r s , in the s e n s e of i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i r r e d u c i b l e d i f f e r e n c e s , o r (b) " w h e n t h e v o i c e s of o t h e r s a r e a b s e n t , [one m a y ] i m a g i n e to o n e s e l f a c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h t h e o t h e r as [the] d i a l o g u e p a r t n e r " ( p . 137).

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T h e c o n c e p t u a l d i s t i n c t i o n d r a w n b e t w e e n t h e m o r a l c o n v e r s a t i o n a s an " a c t u a l d i a l o g u e " a n d an " i m a g i n a r y d i a l o g u e " is i m p o r t a n t f o r t h i n k i n g a b o u t how the corporation's stakeholders m a y be represented within the corporat i o n ' s i n t e r n a l d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s in an e t h i c a l m a n n e r . W h e r e a s t h e first w a y of c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g t h e m o r a l c o n v e r s a t i o n r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s a r e p r o v i d e d w i t h o p p o r t u n i t i e s to a c t i v e l y " p a r t i c i p a t e " within the corporation's internal decision-making processes, the second way r e q u i r e s o n l y that m a n a g e m e n t is in a p o s i t i o n t o a d e q u a t e l y " r e p r e s e n t " t h e v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s of t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s w i t h i n t h e c o r poration's internal decision-making processes. Although the conceptual dis­ tinction d r a w n b e t w e e n the participation and representation of the c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s m a y b e useful for c o n c e p t u a l p u r p o s e s , w e b e l i e v e t h a t o n l y t h e a c t i v e a n d o n g o i n g p a r t i c i p a t i o n of t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s w i t h i n the c o r p o r a t i o n ' s i n t e r n a l d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s is a d e q u a t e . B e c a u s e m a n a g e m e n t is often s i t u a t e d at a c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e s t a k e h o l d e r s w i t h w h i c h t h e c o r p o r a t i o n i n t e r a c t s o r o u g h t t o i n t e r a c t , it is u n l i k e l y t h a t m a n a g e m e n t w i l l b e a b l e to e x h i b i t t h e " m o r a l i m a g i n a t i o n " n e c ­ e s s a r y to r e p r e s e n t t h e v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s of t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e ­ h o l d e r s as w e l l as t h o s e a r t i c u l a t e d b y t h e s t a k e h o l d e r s t h e m s e l v e s . O f t e n , m a n a g e r s a s s u m e t h a t p u r c h a s i n g p a t t e r n s a r e in fact an a d e q u a t e w a y for w i d e r p u b l i c v a l u e s to b e r e p r e s e n t e d . F e w r e c o g n i z e t h e i m p l i c i t v a l u e s y s ­ t e m a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n d i s t o r t i o n s i n h e r e n t in a m a r k e t e c o n o m y ( s e e Schmookler, 1993). Most do not recognize that political (citizen) and e c o ­ n o m i c ( c o n s u m e r ) c h o i c e s m a y differ g r e a t l y ( e . g . , p e o p l e m a y w a t c h t h e v i o ­ lent p r o g r a m s o n t e l e v i s i o n t h a t t h e y as c i t i z e n s w o u l d w i s h to p r o h i b i t ) . F u r ­ t h e r m o r e , m a n y m a n a g e r s h a v e u s e d t h e i r w e a l t h to f u n d a m e n t a l l y s e p a r a t e t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e i r f a m i l i e s f r o m t h e o r d i n a r y life c o n d i t i o n s of o t h e r s o c i ­ etal m e m b e r s . M a n a g e r s a r e t h u s o n l y r a r e l y in a p o s i t i o n to a d e q u a t e l y r e p r e ­ s e n t t h e v a l u e s a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s of t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s in t h e a b s e n c e of t h e s t a k e h o l d e r s t h e m s e l v e s . A s B e n h a b i b ( 1 9 9 2 ) a r g u e s , t h e c h a r ­ a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e c o n c r e t e o t h e r e m e r g e a s d i s t i n c t o n l y as t h e r e s u l t o f "self­ d e f i n i t i o n " o n t h e p a r t of t h e o t h e r . It is t h e o t h e r w h o m a k e s o n e a w a r e of h i s or her concreteness and otherness. T w o e x c e l l e n t e x a m p l e s c o m e f r o m t h e e a r l y d a y s of t h e S a t u r n a u t o m o b i l e c o m p a n y . In b o t h c a s e s , t h e u n i q u e s t r u c t u r a l g u a r a n t e e of its m a n a g e m e n t a n d its e m p l o y e e p a r t i c i p a t i o n (a p a r t i a l s t a k e h o l d e r m o d e l ) r e q u i r e d a d i s c u s ­ s i o n of t h e i s s u e s a n d led to c r e a t i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e d e c i s i o n s . In t h e first c a s e , S a t u r n m a n a g e r s d i s c o v e r e d that t h e p l a n t c o u l d n o t p r o d u c e t h e n e w c a r at t h e d e s i r e d p r i c e a n d q u a l i t y if it r e l i e d o n U . S . p a r t s m a n u f a c t u r e r s . O n b e h a l f ( a s t h e y s a w it) of t h e c o m p a n y a n d t h e e c o n o m i c h e a l t h of t h e S a t u r n w o r k f o r c e , t h e m a n a g e r s a r g u e d for o v e r s e a s p u r c h a s e s . T h e e m p l o y e e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , using a different value system, insisted on b u y i n g " A m e r i c a n . " T h e result of

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r e p r e s e n t i n g b o t h i n t e r e s t s l e d to a " q u a l i t y " t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m for A m e r i c a n parts manufacturers that enabled high-quality, less-expensive A m e r i c a n parts to b e a v a i l a b l e , as w e l l as o t h e r s o c i a l b e n e f i t s . In t h e s e c o n d c a s e , S a t u r n c o u l d n o t k e e p u p w i t h t h e d e m a n d for its c a r s . Its m a n a g e r s a r g u e d for r e d u c ­ i n g q u a l i t y , w h i l e its e m p l o y e e s a r g u e d t h a t p o o r q u a l i t y — n o t p r i c e — h a d hurt A m e r i c a n car companies. T h e result was a reengineering of the car that e n a b l e d h i g h e r q u a l i t y at faster p r o d u c t i o n s p e e d s . In e a c h c a s e , t h e m a n a g e r s thought they were representing employee interests, but they were so guided by their o w n decision premises and by their desire to overlook w h a t they s a w as " p o l i t i c a l " i s s u e s t h a t t h e y m a d e b a d d e c i s i o n s for i n v e s t o r s a n d w o r k e r s . O n l y t h e d i r e c t e m p l o y e e i n v o l v e m e n t in d e c i s i o n m a k i n g p r o d u c e d b e n e f i ­ cial s o l u t i o n s . If o u r a r g u m e n t is c o r r e c t , t h e n a d e q u a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e v a l u e s a n d political interests of the corporation's stakeholders requires that stakeholders b e p r o v i d e d w i t h o p p o r t u n i t i e s to p a r t i c i p a t e a c t i v e l y in t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s i n t e r n a l d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s as e q u a l p a r t i c i p a n t s a l o n g s i d e m a n a g e ­ ment and the corporation's owners/stockholders. B e n h a b i b (1992) argues that t h e m o r a l c o n v e r s a t i o n , c o n c e p t u a l i z e d a s an a c t u a l d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n differ­ e n t s e l v e s , r e q u i r e s t h e a d h e r e n c e to t w o f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n c i p l e s t h a t s h e t e r m e d t h e p r i n c i p l e of u n i v e r s a l m o r a l r e s p e c t ( i . e . , t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e r i g h t s of all b e i n g s c a p a b l e o f s p e e c h a n d a c t i o n t o b e p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e m o r a l c o n v e r s a t i o n ) a n d t h e p r i n c i p l e of e g a l i t a r i a n r e c i p r o c i t y ( i . e . , t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e r i g h t s of all p a r t i c i p a n t s to t h e s a m e s y m m e t r i c a l r i g h t s , i n c l u d i n g r i g h t s to v a r i o u s s p e e c h a c t s , to i n i t i a t e n e w t o p i c s , a n d to a s k for r e f l e c t i o n a b o u t t h e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s of t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n ) . T h e s e p r i n c i p l e s a r e d e r i v e d , of c o u r s e , f r o m H a b e r m a s ' s ( 1 9 9 0 , 1 9 9 3 ) d i s c o u r s e e t h i c s , b u t t h e a p p r o a c h is n o l o n g e r g e n e r a l a n d u n i v e r s a l i s t i c but c o n c r e t e a n d c o n t e x t u a l l y s e n s i t i v e .

THE CONCRETE OTHER AND THE PROBLEM OF SPATIOTEMPORAL DISTANCIATION In t h e p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n s , w e h a v e a r g u e d that to a s s u m e t h e s t a n d p o i n t of what B e n h a b i b (1992) has termed the generalized and the concrete other s i m u l t a n e o u s l y o u g h t to b e c o n s i d e r e d t h e e t h i c a l i d e a l for c o m m u n i c a t i v e interaction b e t w e e n m a n a g e m e n t and the c o r p o r a t i o n ' s stakeholders. Al­ t h o u g h t h i s e t h i c a l i d e a l is w o r t h y of c o n s i d e r a t i o n , it m a y b e d i f f i c u l t t o p u r ­ s u e in p r a c t i c e . T o a s s u m e t h e s t a n d p o i n t of t h e c o n c r e t e o t h e r r e q u i r e s t h a t p a r t i c i p a n t s b e s i t u a t e d in t h e c o n t e x t of s p a t i o t e m p o r a l c o p r e s e n c e , c o m m u ­ nicating through face-to-face interaction. W i t h o u t the context of spatio­ t e m p o r a l c o p r e s e n c e , it is a r g u a b l y difficult to a c h i e v e a r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e o t h e r in all of h i s o r h e r c o m p l e x i t y .

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T h e m o d e r n c o r p o r a t i o n is i n c r e a s i n g l y s t r u c t u r e d in s u c h a w a y t h a t m a n ­ a g e m e n t is s i t u a t e d at a d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s ( i . e . , t h e transnational or international corporation), maintaining c o m m u n i c a t i v e rela­ tionships with t h e m through the application of different technical m e a n s of communication. T h e basis on which the corporation's stakeholders m a y par­ ticipate actively within the c o r p o r a t i o n ' s internal d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g processes is t h e r e f o r e i n c r e a s i n g l y b a s e d l e s s o n s p a t i o t e m p o r a l c o p r e s e n c e b u t , r a t h e r , on " s p a t i o t e m p o r a l distanciation" (see T h o m p s o n , 1995).

Mediated Interaction and Mediated Quasi-Interaction T h e i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n , t h e n , is w h e t h e r c o m m u n i c a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b a s e d o n t h e s p a t i o t e m p o r a l d i s t a n c i a t i o n of t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s p r o v i d e t h e c o n ­ d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h m a n a g e m e n t m a y a s s u m e t h e s t a n d p o i n t of t h e c o n c r e t e o t h e r in r e l a t i o n t o t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s . T o s h e d f u r t h e r l i g h t o n t h i s q u e s t i o n , it m a y b e u s e f u l to d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t w o c o n c e p t u a l l y d i s ­ t i n c t m o d e s of c o m m u n i c a t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n . M e d i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n s i g n i f i e s a " d i a l o g i c a l " m o d e of c o m m u n i c a t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n f a c i l i t a t e d b y a t e c h n i c a l m e d i u m t h a t p e r m i t s m e s s a g e s to b e t r a n s m i t t e d b e t w e e n c o m m u n i c a t o r s w h o a r e s i t u a t e d in d i f f e r e n t s p a t i o t e m p o r a l c o n t e x t s ( e . g . , l e t t e r w r i t i n g o r t e l e ­ p h o n e c o n v e r s a t i o n s ; T h o m p s o n , 1 9 9 5 ) . T h i s m o d e of c o m m u n i c a t i o n is o r i ­ ented toward "specific others." Mediated quasi-interaction, on the other hand, signifies a " m o n o l o g i c a l " m o d e of c o m m u n i c a t i v e interaction facilitated by m e d i a of m a s s c o m m u n i c a t i o n ( e . g . , n e w s p a p e r s , r a d i o , a n d t e l e v i s i o n ; T h o m p s o n , 1 9 9 5 ) . T h i s m o d e of c o m m u n i c a t i o n is o r i e n t e d t o w a r d an " i n d e f i ­ nite r a n g e o f p o t e n t i a l r e c e i v e r s . " The conceptual distinction between communicative interaction based on mediated interaction and mediated quasi-interaction provides a useful basis for d i s c u s s i n g w h e t h e r it m a y b e p o s s i b l e to a s s u m e t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f t h e c o n ­ c r e t e o t h e r w h e n t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e s i t u a t e d in d i f f e r e n t s p a t i o t e m p o r a l contexts. A l t h o u g h both m o d e s of c o m m u n i c a t i v e interaction are inherently p r o b l e m a t i c b e c a u s e t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e n o t s i t u a t e d in t h e c o n t e x t o f s p a t i o ­ t e m p o r a l c o p r e s e n c e , m e d i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n p r o v i d e s t h e m o s t p o t e n t i a l for a s s u m i n g t h e s t a n d p o i n t of t h e c o n c r e t e o t h e r . T h i s m o d e o f c o m m u n i c a t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n is b o t h d i a l o g i c a l in c h a r a c t e r , p e r m i t t i n g t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s t o e n g a g e in a c t u a l d i a l o g u e , a n d d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s p e c i f i c o t h e r s , p e r m i t t i n g a r e c o g n i t i o n of i n d i v i d u a t i n g d i f f e r e n c e s . M e d i a t e d q u a s i - i n t e r a c t i o n is i n ­ h e r e n t l y p r o b l e m a t i c . T h i s m o d e of c o m m u n i c a t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n is b o t h m o n o l o g i c a l in c h a r a c t e r a n d o r i e n t e d t o w a r d an i n d e f i n i t e r a n g e o f p o t e n t i a l r e c e i v e r s , s o it b e c o m e s difficult to a s s u m e t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f t h e c o n c r e t e other.

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Direct and Indirect Social Relationships T h e application of mediated interaction, rather than m e d i a t e d q u a s i i n t e r a c t i o n , m a y a l s o p e r m i t m a n a g e m e n t to e s t a b l i s h r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s stakeholders, conceptualized as " s o c i a l " relationships, that r e s e m b l e what Calhoun ( 1 9 9 5 ; see also 1986, 1988, 1 9 9 1 , 1992) has termed "direct" rather than "indirect" social relationships. C a l h o u n argues that a con­ ceptual distinction may be drawn between the experiences gleaned from "non­ mediated interpersonal relationships" (direct social relationships) and " m e d i ­ ated mass c o m m u n i c a t i o n a l relationships" (indirect social relationships) that a r e e s t a b l i s h e d w h e n s o c i a l a c t i o n s affect o t h e r s t h r o u g h t h e m e d i a t i o n o f m a s s m e d i a of c o m m u n i c a t i o n , i n t e r p e r s o n a l m a r k e t s , o r c o m p l e x o r g a n i z a ­ tions. W h e n social relationships are mediated, u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of others are b a s e d n o t o n a r e c o g n i t i o n of the c h a r a c t e r of t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o o n e s e l f b u t on categorical differences. Although these categories m a y imply certain con­ c r e t e m o d e s of c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g o t h e r s , t h e a b s t r a c t c a t e g o r y is l i k e l y t o t a k e precedence. T h e s e i n s i g h t s p o i n t to o n e of t h e i m p o r t a n t p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a s s u m i n g t h e s t a n d p o i n t of t h e c o n c r e t e o t h e r d u r i n g i n s t a n c e s of m e d i a t e d q u a s i - i n t e r a c t i o n . A l t h o u g h it m a y b e p o s s i b l e t o c o n c e p t u a l i z e a n d i n t e r a c t w i t h o t h e r s as c o n c r e t e o t h e r s t h r o u g h t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of m e d i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n ( d i r e c t s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s ) , it is difficult t o c o n c e p t u a l i z e a n d i n t e r a c t w i t h o t h e r s as c o n c r e t e o t h e r s t h r o u g h t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of m e d i a t e d q u a s i - i n t e r a c ­ tion ( i n d i r e c t s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s ) . I n d i r e c t s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e l i k e l y to b e b a s e d o n c a t e g o r i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s (or s t e r e o t y p e s ) in w h i c h o t h e r s a r e c o n ­ ceptualized as abstract representatives.

CONCLUSION F u r t h e r c o n c e p t u a l d e v e l o p m e n t of s t a k e h o l d e r t h e o r y m a y b e n e f i t c o n s i d e r ­ a b l y f r o m a t t e n d i n g to r e c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t s in f e m i n i s t t h e o r i z i n g o n e t h i c s . B e n h a b i b ' s c r i t i q u e of H a b e r m a s ' s t h e o r y of c o m m u n i c a t i v e a c t i o n a n d d i s ­ c o u r s e e t h i c s is p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v a n t b e c a u s e it d r a w s an i m p o r t a n t c o n c e p t u a l d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n a s s u m i n g t h e s t a n d p o i n t of t h e g e n e r a l i z e d a n d t h e c o n ­ c r e t e o t h e r a n d b e c a u s e it p r o v i d e s a useful d e l i n e a t i o n of t h e p r i n c i p l e s u n d e r l y i n g t h e m o r a l c o n v e r s a t i o n . T h e p u r s u i t of t h e m u l t i p l e - s t a k e h o l d e r m o d e l m a y b e a i d e d if m a n a g e m e n t a s s u m e s t h e s t a n d p o i n t of t h e g e n e r a l i z e d a n d t h e c o n c r e t e o t h e r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a n d if m a n a g e m e n t a d h e r e s to t h e p r i n ­ c i p l e s of t h e m o r a l c o n v e r s a t i o n d u r i n g c o m m u n i c a t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s . O u r d i s c u s s i o n i n d i c a t e s , h o w e v e r , t h a t if m a n ­ a g e m e n t a s s u m e s o n l y t h e s t a n d p o i n t of t h e g e n e r a l i z e d o t h e r a n d / o r b r e a c h e s t h e p r i n c i p l e s of t h e m o r a l c o n v e r s a t i o n , m a n a g e m e n t n o t o n l y b e h a v e s u n e t h ­

Ethics From Feminist

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i c a l l y t o w a r d t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s b u t , e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t , is in d a n ­ g e r of a d h e r i n g to t h e c o n c e p t u a l l o g i c of t h e e c o n o m i c m o d e l r a t h e r t h a n t h e multiple-stakeholder model. A l t h o u g h a s s u m i n g t h e s t a n d p o i n t of t h e g e n e r a l i z e d a n d t h e c o n c r e t e o t h e r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a n d a d h e r i n g to t h e p r i n c i p l e s of t h e m o r a l c o n v e r s a t i o n o u g h t to b e c o n s i d e r e d t h e e t h i c a l i d e a l for c o m m u n i c a t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n m a n a g e m e n t a n d t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s , it m a y b e d i f f i c u l t t o p u r s u e t h e s e e t h i c a l i d e a l s in p r a c t i c e . B e c a u s e m a n a g e m e n t a n d t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s often a r e s i t u a t e d in d i f f e r e n t s p a t i o t e m p o r a l c o n t e x t s , it is diffi­ c u l t for m a n a g e m e n t to a s s u m e t h e s t a n d p o i n t of t h e c o n c r e t e o t h e r . M a n a g e ­ m e n t m a y b e f o r c e d to u s e e i t h e r m e d i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n o r m e d i a t e d q u a s i - i n t e r ­ a c t i o n i n s t e a d of f a c e - t o - f a c e c o m m u n i c a t i o n . A l t h o u g h b o t h m o d e s o f c o m m u n i c a t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n a r e i n h e r e n t l y p r o b l e m a t i c f r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t of c o n c e r n w i t h t h e c o n c r e t e o t h e r , m e d i a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n offers t h e m o s t p o t e n ­ tial for a s s u m i n g t h i s s t a n d p o i n t b e c a u s e it e n t a i l s a d i a l o g i c a l m o d e o f c o m ­ m u n i c a t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n a i m e d at s p e c i f i c o t h e r s . E v e n t h o u g h it m a y b e difficult for m a n a g e m e n t t o a s s u m e t h e s t a n d p o i n t of t h e g e n e r a l i z e d a n d t h e c o n c r e t e o t h e r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y in a n i d e a l s e n s e , t h e r e is m u c h t h a t m a n a g e m e n t c a n d o o n a d a y - t o - d a y b a s i s t o a p p r o x i m a t e this i d e a l . M a n a g e m e n t c a n c h a l l e n g e its o w n e n t r e n c h e d w a y s o f c o n c e p t u a l ­ izing and interacting with the corporation's various stakeholders. F u n d a m e n ­ tal to s u c h a r e o r i e n t a t i o n is t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of a d i f f e r e n t w a y of u n d e r ­ s t a n d i n g t h e p u r p o s e of e n g a g i n g in c o m m u n i c a t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s . R a t h e r t h a n c o n s i d e r i n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n to b e p r i ­ m a r i l y a m e a n s for s u c c e s s f u l " s e l f - e x p r e s s i o n , " m a n a g e m e n t m a y f i n d it u s e ­ ful to c o n s i d e r c o m m u n i c a t i o n as a m e a n s for s u c c e s s f u l " s e l f - d e s t r u c t i o n . " By c o m m u n i c a t i o n as self-destruction, m a n a g e m e n t m a y a t t e m p t to o v e r c o m e fixed w a y s o f c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g its o w n r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a s a n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l e n t i t y a n d m a y o v e r c o m e f i x e d w a y s of c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g its r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s . In p r a c t i c a l t e r m s , c o m m u n i c a t i o n a s selfd e s t r u c t i o n r e q u i r e s t h a t m a n a g e m e n t e n g a g e in a t t e m p t s t o " d e n a t u r a l i z e " a n d " d e n e u t r a l i z e " t h e w a y s it t r a d i t i o n a l l y h a s c o n c e p t u a l i z e d its o w n r e ­ s p o n s i b i l i t i e s as an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l e n t i t y a n d its r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s stakeholders. Rather than considering these relations to be natural, in t h e s e n s e of b e i n g g i v e n b y n a t u r e , a n d n e u t r a l , in t h e s e n s e o f b e i n g free of underlying values and political interests, m a n a g e m e n t should a c k n o w l e d g e that t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s m a y m o r e a c c u r a t e l y b e c o n c e p t u a l i z e d as b e i n g t h e r e s u l t s of n u m e r o u s ( v a l u e - l a d e n ) m i c r o i n t e r a c t i o n s o c c u r r i n g o n a d a y - t o ­ day basis. B y o p e n i n g itself u p to t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s a n d b y p r o v i d i n g t h e m w i t h o p p o r t u n i t i e s to c h a l l e n g e e n t r e n c h e d w a y s of c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s , m a n a g e m e n t c a n e n g a g e in i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h t h e s t a k e ­

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h o l d e r s that m a y , o v e r t i m e , b e c o m e " p r o d u c t i v e " r a t h e r t h a n " r e p r o d u c t i v e " in c h a r a c t e r . B y p r o d u c t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n s , w e m e a n i n t e r a c t i o n s t h a t e n a b l e m a n a g e m e n t a n d the c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t a k e h o l d e r s to p e r p e t u a l l y p r o d u c e n e w and m o r e mutually satisfying relationships together rather than old and unsatisfying ones.

3

Organizational Socialization A Feminist Standpoint Approach Connie Bullis

Karen Rohrbauck Stout

Organizational socialization has been examined by organizational and mana­ g e r i a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e s e a r c h e r s f o r at l e a s t t h e p a s t t w o d e c a d e s . T h e i n ­ creased focus on organizational socialization b y c o m m u n i c a t i o n researchers seems to temporally parallel the trend toward viewing organizations as cul­ tures. As organizational communication scholars turned toward conceptualiz­ i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s a s c u l t u r e s ( P a c a n o w s k y & O ' D o n n e l l - T r u j i l l o , 1 9 8 2 ) , it was sensible to turn increased attention to h o w n e w c o m e r s learn to participate in u n i q u e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c u l t u r e s . S i m i l a r l y , t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n o f p e o p l e i n t o particular cultural roles is associated with h o w cultures m a i n t a i n a n d r e p r o ­ duce themselves.' M o r e recently, with the e m e r g e n c e of feminist per­ spectives, organizational cultures have been criticized as male dominated (Marshall, 1993; Sheppard, 1989). As theorizing continues to produce more varied understandings of organi­ zational communication, w e need to both maintain and reconsider past con-

AUTHORS' NOTE: We would like to thank Betsy Wackemagel Bach. Patrice Buzzanell, Kathleen Krone, and Eileen Berlin Ray for their thoughtful comments on and critique of an earlier version of this chapter.

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c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s w h i l e w e c o n s i d e r w h a t future c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s a r e p o s s i b l e ( B u l l i s , 1 9 9 3 ) . T h e f e m i n i s t t h e o r i z i n g d e v e l o p e d in t h i s b o o k p r o v i d e s o n e s u c h set of p e r s p e c t i v e s . A v a r i e t y of s u c h t h e o r i e s a r e n e e d e d ( s e e C a l a s & S m i r c i c h , 1 9 9 6 ; F i n e , 1994) " t o c r e a t e t h e o r y a n d r e s e a r c h w h i c h e n a b l e us to think about h o w we recreate gender relations" (Buzzanell, 1994, p. 339) and to "offer a c o m p r e h e n s i v e v i e w o n w h y a n d h o w w o m e n ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n s to o r g a n i z a t i o n a l life a r e d e v a l u e d c o n s c i o u s l y , a n d u n c o n s c i o u s l y , b y b o t h m e n a n d w o m e n " ( B u z z a n e l l , p . 3 4 0 ) . It is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e t h a t f e m i n i s t t h e o r i e s begin with these assumptions, whereas traditional organizational socializa­ tion w o r k b e g i n s f r o m d i f f e r e n t a s s u m p t i o n s . In o t h e r w o r d s , w e n e e d t o c r i t i ­ c i z e t r a d i t i o n a l w o r k in o r d e r to d e f i n e its l i m i t s a n d d o m a i n s o t h a t w e s e e a l t e r n a t i v e s . H o w e v e r , in d o i n g s o , w e a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t w e v i e w p a s t w o r k a s s u m p t i o n s for t h e i r f a i l u r e to d e a l a d e q u a t e l y w i t h g e n d e r r e l a t i o n s — a t a s k they were never designed to accomplish. A s conversations e v o l v e , w e antici­ p a t e a c o n t i n u e d a d a p t a t i o n , r a t h e r t h a n a d i s m a n t l i n g , of e x i s t i n g a s s u m p ­ tions and approaches. In t h i s c h a p t e r , w e f o c u s s p e c i f i c a l l y o n f e m i n i s t s t a n d p o i n t t h e o r y . F e m i ­ nist s t a n d p o i n t t h e o r y is a p p r o p r i a t e b e c a u s e it a s s u m e s t h a t , b y s t a r t i n g w i t h t h e e x p e r i e n c e s a n d k n o w l e d g e s of t h e s u b o r d i n a t e d , w e c a n b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d h o w d o m i n a t i o n s occur. Although she did not explicitly r e c o m m e n d social­ i z a t i o n as a t o p i c of i n q u i r y , B u z z a n e l l ( 1 9 9 4 ) d e s c r i b e d t h e v a l u e of t h i s a p p r o a c h ( a m o n g o t h e r s ) a n d c o m m e n t e d on t h e i m p o r t a n c e of s o c i a l i z a ­ tion p r o c e s s e s in r e p r o d u c i n g g e n d e r e d r e l a t i o n s . W e a d d r e s s w a y s in w h i c h f e m i n i s t s t a n d p o i n t t h e o r y m a y b e helpful in r e c o n s i d e r i n g a n d e x p a n d i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s o c i a l i z a t i o n t h e o r i z i n g a n d r e s e a r c h . W e first i d e n t i f y c o m ­ m o n a s s u m p t i o n s that h a v e g u i d e d s o c i a l i z a t i o n r e s e a r c h a n d t h e n r e v i e w some specific questions and findings that e m a n a t e from those a s s u m p t i o n s . S e c o n d , w e s u m m a r i z e s t a n d p o i n t f e m i n i s m as a p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t offers an a l t e r n a t i v e set of a s s u m p t i o n s . T h i r d , w e i l l u s t r a t e t h e p o t e n t i a l v a l u e o f f e m i ­ nist s t a n d p o i n t t h e o r y b y u s i n g it to r e v i e w a n d c r i t i q u e e x t a n t w o r k . W e f o c u s o n r e f r a m i n g a s s u m p t i o n s , e x a m i n i n g e x i s t i n g r e s e a r c h b y i d e n t i f y i n g its e x c l u s i o n s a n d t r a d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h p r o c e s s e s , a n d e x a m i n e o n e e x e m p l a r of r e s e a r c h in d e t a i l to i l l u s t r a t e t h e k i n d of c r i t i q u e f e m i n i s t s t a n d p o i n t t h e o r y c a n g e n e r a t e . F i n a l l y , w e s u m m a r i z e t h e s u g g e s t i o n s for f u t u r e w o r k e m b e d ­ d e d in o u r d i s c u s s i o n . W e l o c a t e o u r s e l v e s as s c h o l a r s i n t e r e s t e d in o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a ­ tion as it p e r t a i n s to o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s o c i a l i z a t i o n . W e c o n s i d e r o u r s e l v e s to b e p a r t i c i p a n t s in an o n g o i n g s c h o l a r l y c o n v e r s a t i o n a n d h a v e p a r t i c i p a t e d as " t r a d i t i o n a l " t h i n k e r s a n d r e s e a r c h e r s , as f e m i n i s t c r i t i c s , a n d ( r e g a r d l e s s of theoretical approaches adopted) as white, heterosexual, First W o r l d , m i d d l e c l a s s w o m e n i n t e r e s t e d in u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o c i a l i z a t i o n . H e r e , w e a d o p t f e m i ­ nist s t a n d p o i n t v i e w s . 2

Organizational

Socialization

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ORGANIZATIONAL SOCIALIZATION When organizational and managerial communication scholars consider orga­ n i z a t i o n a l s o c i a l i z a t i o n s c h o l a r s h i p , w e t y p i c a l l y t u r n to J a b l i n ' s w o r k ( 1 9 8 2 , 1984, 1987; Jablin & Krone, 1987) as providing the most c o m p r e h e n s i v e reviews and guiding frameworks. His reviews incorporate studies and a p p r o a c h e s derived from older managerial m o d e l s . H o w e v e r , they h a v e been at l e a s t as v a l u a b l e for i n f o r m i n g o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s o c i a l ­ i z a t i o n in c a s e s in w h i c h o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e a s s u m e d t o b e c u l t u r e s a s t h e y h a v e b e e n in c a s e s in w h i c h o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e v i e w e d as c o n t a i n e r s , m a c h i n e s , o r o r g a n i s m s . In g e n e r a l , t h e b a s i c c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of s o c i a l i z a t i o n is t h a t it is a p r o c e s s in w h i c h o r g a n i z a t i o n a l " o u t s i d e r s " b e c o m e " i n s i d e r s . " T h r e e m a i n a s s u m p t i o n s are considered here. First, socialization scholarship a s s u m e s that organizations are bounded entities. Second, individuals enter, are socialized ( o r e n c u l t u r a t e d o r a s s i m i l a t e d ) i n t o , a d o p t r o l e s in, b e c o m e m e m b e r s of, a n d leave these entities through general stages. Third, these processes occur t h r o u g h i n t e r a c t i o n s e n g a g e d in b y i n d i v i d u a l s a s a c t i v e a g e n t s . A f t e r s u m m a ­ rizing these assumptions, we summarize socialization research, illustrating h o w it is t y p i c a l l y a i m e d at e x a m i n i n g p r o c e s s e s t h a t l e a d to s o c i a l i z a t i o n o u t ­ c o m e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m o u t s i d e r to i n s i d e r .

Assumptions Guiding Socialization Research Organizations Are Bounded Entities T o a d o p t an a s s u m p t i o n t h a t o u t s i d e r s b e c o m e i n s i d e r s , w e a s s u m e t h a t organizations have boundaries through which individuals cross. Organiza­ tional c o m m u n i c a t i o n research has imported this a s s u m p t i o n from m a n a g e ­ ment theory. Perhaps S c h e i n ' s model (1970, 1971) most clearly clarifies the b o u n d a r i e s . It i l l u s t r a t e s t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n as a s t a b l e , h i e r a r c h i c a l l y s h a p e d cone. A r r o w s depict the individuals' m o v e m e n t over time across barriers. T h e first b a r r i e r t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s c r o s s is t h e b o u n d a r y s e p a r a t i n g t h e i n s i d e f r o m the outside. Later, individuals are depicted as m o v i n g t o w a r d the center and top of the organization. This assumption shapes socialization research so that it s e e k s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e p r o c e s s e s , s t r a t e g i e s , a n d c o m m u n i c a t i v e p a t t e r n s through which these boundary crossings are negotiated. Research has sought to i d e n t i f y w h i c h p r o c e s s e s a r e m o s t s u c c e s s f u l .

Socialization Occurs Through Phases I n d i v i d u a l s a r e a s s u m e d t o c r o s s b o u n d a r i e s in p h a s e s . I n d i v i d u a l organization relationships develop over time, and several stages mark the

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i n c r e a s i n g d e g r e e to w h i c h t h e i n d i v i d u a l is p o s i t i o n e d as i n s i d e t h e o r g a n i z a ­ tion ( s e e B u c h a n a n , 1 9 7 4 ; F e l d m a n , 1 9 7 6 ; J a b l i n , 1 9 8 7 ; P o r t e r , L a w l e r , & Hackman, 1975; Schein, 1978; Van Maanen, 1978; W a n o u s , 1980). These m o d e l s often i d e n t i f y t h r e e o r four s t a g e s . J a b l i n ' s ( 1 9 8 7 ) m o d e l is a b r o a d d e s c r i p t i v e m o d e l that is u s e d to i n t e g r a t e p a s t s o c i a l i z a t i o n r e s e a r c h i n t o an o v e r a l l h e u r i s t i c v i e w of t h e c y c l i c a l p h a s e s of a n t i c i p a t o r y s o c i a l i z a t i o n , e n c o u n t e r , m e t a m o r p h o s i s , a n d e x i t t h r o u g h w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s m o v e as t h e y anticipate, enter, and eventually exit specific organizations. T h e initial e n t r y p r o c e s s , a n t i c i p a t o r y s o c i a l i z a t i o n , i n c l u d e s v o c a t i o n a l anticipatory socialization, during which individuals intentionally and unin­ t e n t i o n a l l y g a t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g o c c u p a t i o n s f r o m a v a r i e t y of s o u r c e s . T h e y c o m p a r e that i n f o r m a t i o n to t h e i r s e l f - c o n c e p t s a n d w e i g h it accordingly. Anticipatory socialization also includes organizational anticipa­ tory s o c i a l i z a t i o n , d u r i n g w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s g a t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m o r g a n i ­ z a t i o n a l s o u r c e s that affects t h e i r e x p e c t a t i o n s a b o u t t h e j o b a n d t h e o r g a n i z a ­ t i o n . D u r i n g t h i s p h a s e , e x p e c t a t i o n s are r e f i n e d . E x p e c t a t i o n s a b o u t t h e organization, the work, o n e ' s role, and the c o m m u n i c a t i o n e n v i r o n m e n t that m a y p e r v a d e t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n r e s u l t from t h i s p h a s e ( J a b l i n , 1 9 8 7 ) . J a b l i n d e s c r i b e s t h e e n c o u n t e r p h a s e as s i m i l a r to V a n M a a n e n ' s ( 1 9 7 5 ) d e s c r i p t i o n of the " b r e a k i n g i n " p e r i o d . D u r i n g t h i s p h a s e , n e w c o m e r s l e a r n the r e q u i r e m e n t s of their roles, organizational e x p e c t a t i o n s , and n o r m s . Expectations are tested and may or may not be met. N e w c o m e r s e n c o u n t e r v a r i e d e x p e r i e n c e s s u c h as s u r p r i s e ( L o u i s , 1 9 8 0 ) a n d r o l e s h o c k ( H u g h e s , 1958; Minkler & Biller, 1979). O n c e encounter has occurred, organizational a s s i m i l a t i o n , t h e p r o c e s s of t h e n e w c o m e r ' s i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o t h e c u l t u r e o r " r e a l i t y " of t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n , o c c u r s ( J a b l i n , 1 9 8 2 ) . T h i s is a r e c i p r o c a l p r o ­ c e s s d u r i n g w h i c h t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a t t e m p t s to s o c i a l i z e n e w c o m e r s to t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n ' s n e e d s a n d v a l u e s w h i l e , at t h e s a m e t i m e , n e w c o m e r s a t t e m p t to i n d i v i d u a l i z e or c r e a t e a n d d e v e l o p t h e i r o w n r o l e s in t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . M e t a m o r p h o s i s is an i m p o r t a n t p a r t of this p r o c e s s ; i n d i v i d u a l s g r a d u a l l y internalize organizational expectations by modifying their attitudes and behaviors so that they are m o r e compatible with the o r g a n i z a t i o n ' s expecta­ t i o n s . E v e n t u a l l y , i n d i v i d u a l s i n t e r n a l i z e t h e r u l e s that g o v e r n e v e r y d a y i n t e r ­ action and construct meaning within the organization. Finally, exit occurs. For various reasons and through various processes, individuals leave organi­ z a t i o n s . T h i s p h a s e i s , p e r h a p s , t h e least s t u d i e d . F o r e a c h p h a s e , J a b l i n ( 1 9 8 7 ) d e s c r i b e s s p e c i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n s o u r c e s , dif­ f e r e n t t y p e s of i n f o r m a t i o n e x c h a n g e d , a n d s t r a t e g i e s e m p l o y e d . H e p r o ­ v i d e s a t h o r o u g h r e v i e w of s t a g e r e s e a r c h that w e d o n o t r e i t e r a t e h e r e . In g e n e r a l , r e s e a r c h r e p o r t s d e p i c t o r g a n i z a t i o n s as s t a b l e w h i l e i n d i v i d u a l s m o v e t h r o u g h t h e s t a g e s in s y s t e m a t i c a n d s e q u e n t i a l p a t t e r n s ( s e e J a b l i n , 1987).

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Individuals as Well as Organizations Are Active Agents Early socialization research typically a s s u m e d that organizations or orga­ n i z a t i o n a l a g e n t s s o c i a l i z e i n d i v i d u a l s . S o c i a l i z a t i o n in t h i s v i e w w a s s e e n a s a o n e - w a y r e l a t i o n s h i p , w i t h o r g a n i z a t i o n s as a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t s a n d n e w ­ c o m e r s as p a s s i v e r e c i p i e n t s . B u c h a n a n ( 1 9 7 4 ) p e r h a p s m o s t c l e a r l y a r t i c u ­ lated this a s s u m p t i o n w h e n he labeled n e w c o m e r s "tabula rasa." M o r e recently, researchers have typically agreed that socialization relationships are mutually defined by individuals and organizations or organizational agents (e.g., Falcione & Wilson, 1988; Hess, 1993; Jablin, 1987; J o r g e n s e n - E a r p & Staton, 1993; Staton-Spicer & Darling, 1986). For example, supervisors and n e w c o m e r s e n g a g e in e x c h a n g e s in w h i c h n e w c o m e r s s e e k i n f o r m a t i o n a n d s u p e r v i s o r s a d a p t to n e w c o m e r s . J a b l i n ( 1 9 8 7 ) s p e c i f i c a l l y a d o p t e d an u n u s u a l m e a n i n g for t h e t e r m assimilation to i n c l u d e b o t h t h e p r o c e s s e s t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a t t e m p t s to s o c i a l i z e t h e i n d i v i d u a l n e w c o m e r and the processes through which the individual n e w c o m e r personalizes the r o l e t a k e n in t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . U n c e r t a i n t y r e d u c t i o n is f r e q u e n t l y a s s u m e d to s t i m u l a t e n e w c o m e r a c t i v i t y . A s n e w c o m e r s s e e k to r e d u c e u n c e r t a i n t y i n h e r ­ e n t in b o u n d a r y c r o s s i n g , t h e y a c t i v e l y s e e k i n f o r m a t i o n ( s e e K r a m e r , 1 9 9 3 ) .

Socialization Research:

The Study of Socialization Processes and Outcomes

G u i d e d b y t h e a s s u m p t i o n s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , t h e b u l k of t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n research examines linkages between communication processes and social­ i z a t i o n o u t c o m e s ( s e e M o w d a y , P o r t e r , & S t e e r s , 1 9 8 2 ) . A s a c o m m u n i t y of s c h o l a r s , w e h a v e t y p i c a l l y a s s u m e d t h a t s o c i a l i z a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f a p r o c e s s in which outsiders b e c o m e insiders. W e have assumed that these outsiders cross boundaries, becoming enculturated through several general phases, and mutu­ ally n e g o t i a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d r o l e s . It is o n l y s e n s i b l e t h a t c o m m u n i c a t i o n s c h o l a r s w o u l d f o c u s a t t e n t i o n o n a v a r i e t y of c o m m u n i c a t i o n p r o c e s s e s through which this socialization process occurs. M o r e o v e r , c o m m u n i c a t i o n scholars naturally h a v e focused on the socialization o u t c o m e s associated with t h e s e p r o c e s s e s . G i v e n t h a t s c h o l a r s a r e i n t e r e s t e d in i d e n t i f y i n g p r o c e s s e s t h a t a r e s u c c e s s f u l , w e r e v i e w s o m e of t h i s r e s e a r c h to p r o v i d e a n u n d e r s t a n d ­ i n g o f t h e s p e c i f i c k i n d s of q u e s t i o n s a n d f i n d i n g s t h a t a r e g e n e r a t e d b y t h e assumptions summarized above.

Organizational Socialization Strategies S o c i a l i z a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s a n d t a c t i c s h a v e b e e n s t u d i e d as o n e i m p o r t a n t p r o ­ cess. T h i s process has been related to role-taking styles as an i m p o r t a n t social­

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ization o u t c o m e (Allen & Meyer, 1990; Hart, 1991; Jones, 1986; Van M a a n e n & Schein, 1979). S o m e m o r e formalized types of organizational strategies have been associated with more passive role-taking styles, while other m o r e i n f o r m a l a n d i n d i v i d u a l i z e d t y p e s of s t r a t e g i e s h a v e b e e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h more active, innovative role-taking styles. Crow and Glascock (1995) e x a m ­ i n e d a n o n t r a d i t i o n a l p r i n c i p a l t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m a n d f o u n d t h a t , in a d d i t i o n to t h e f o r m a l p r o g r a m , t h e p r i n c i p a l s ' c o h o r t s p l a y e d a v e r y i m p o r t a n t r o l e in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e f o r m a l t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m in e n a b l i n g i n n o v a t i v e r o l e adoption. D i S a n z a (1993) described framing, reinforcing, and q u o t a setting as s t r a t e g i e s u s e d to train t e l l e r s to c a r r y o u t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l d u t i e s . P r i b b l e ( 1 9 9 0 ) e x a m i n e d t h e f o r m a l s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s of o r i e n t a t i o n p r o g r a m s as a r h e t o r i c a l p r o c e s s t h a t b o t h r e v e a l s an o r g a n i z a t i o n ' s o b j e c t i v e s a n d w o r k s to shape a n e w c o m e r ' s ethical conduct. T h e orientation c o m m u n i c a t e s what the o r g a n i z a t i o n v i e w s as an i d e a l e m p l o y e e . T h r o u g h i d e n t i f i c a t i o n r h e t o r i c , o r g a n i z a t i o n a l v e t e r a n s a t t e m p t to i n f l u e n c e n e w c o m e r s i n t o a c c e p t i n g t h e i r e t h i c a l s t a n c e . S t r a t e g i e s to i n d u c e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w e r e i d e n t i f i e d b y C h e n e y ( 1 9 8 3 b ) in c o r p o r a t e h o u s e o r g a n s . T h e s e i n c l u d e c o m m o n g r o u n d , u n i f y i n g s y m b o l s , i d e n t i f i c a t i o n by a n t i t h e s i s , a n d t h e a s s u m e d " w e . "

Newcomers' Experiences and Strategies A s m o r e e m p h a s i s w a s p l a c e d on i n d i v i d u a l s as a c t i v e a g e n t s , r e s e a r c h f o c u s e d o n i n d i v i d u a l s to b a l a n c e out t h e f o c u s o n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r a t e g i e s . L o u i s ' s ( 1 9 8 0 ) c l a s s i c w o r k d e s c r i b e d n e w c o m e r e x p e r i e n c e s a n d w a y s in w h i c h t h e y m a k e s e n s e of n e w s i t u a t i o n s to r e d u c e t h e u n c e r t a i n t y a n d s u r ­ prise they experience. I n f o r m a t i o n - s e e k i n g b e h a v i o r s w e r e e x a m i n e d in r e l a t i o n t o s e v e r a l o u t ­ c o m e s . M i l l e r a n d J a b l i n ( 1 9 9 1 ) i d e n t i f i e d t y p e s of f e e d b a c k , m e t h o d s of e l i c ­ iting f e e d b a c k , a n d s o u r c e s of f e e d b a c k that n e w c o m e r s e m p l o y t o r e d u c e uncertainty. Kramer, Callister, and Turban (1995) found that unsolicited i n f o r m a t i o n r e c e i v i n g w a s p o s i t i v e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n t e n t i o n to q u i t . I n f o r ­ m a t i o n g i v i n g t h r o u g h m o d e l i n g w a s n e g a t i v e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n t e n t i o n to q u i t . T e b o u l ( 1 9 9 7 ) s t u d i e d t h e c o n t e n t l e a r n e d b y n e w c o m e r s in t h e i r p r o a c t i v e efforts to c o p e w i t h u n c e r t a i n t y . F o r e x a m p l e , n e w c o m e r s r e p o r t e d l e a r n i n g that t h e y c o u l d a s k q u e s t i o n s o r l e a r n i d i o s y n c r a t i c r u l e s . M o r e o v e r , n e w c o m e r s g e n e r a l l y r e p o r t e d u s i n g w h a t t h e y h a d l e a r n e d in l a t e r s i t u a t i o n s . B a c h ( 1 9 9 0 b ) d e s c r i b e d h o w p l e d g e s to a s o r o r i t y c o p e d w i t h t h e i r e n t r y e x ­ p e r i e n c e s . T h e i r s o c i a l i z a t i o n w a s e n a c t e d in t h e i r talk. T h e i r t a l k n o t o n l y helped them m a k e sense of their new m e m b e r s h i p but also helped reveal the c u l t u r a l m e a n i n g o f their i n t e r a c t i o n s as well as d e m o n s t r a t e t h e i r m e m b e r ­ s h i p to t h e m s e l v e s , o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l m e m b e r s , a n d o u t s i d e r s . S e v e r a l s t u d i e s f o c u s e d on h o w n e w c o m e r s ' t u r n i n g p o i n t s a f f e c t e d o r g a ­ nizational c o m m i t m e n t or identification. Bullis and Bach (1989a, 1989b)

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identified turning points reported by graduate students and identified those m o r e a n d l e s s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . T h e y a l s o f o u n d t h a t , for n e w ­ c o m e r s w h o reported strong identification with their m e n t o r s , identification d i d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t r a n s l a t e to t h e l a r g e r o r g a n i z a t i o n . K i r k a n d T o d d M a n c i l l a s ( 1 9 9 1 ) e x t e n d e d t h e e x a m i n a t i o n of g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t t u r n i n g p o i n t s to g a i n an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h o w n e g a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e s r e p o r t e d b y w o m e n a n d m i n o r i t i e s m i g h t n e g a t i v e l y affect t h e s e s t u d e n t s ' i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e g r a d u a t e p r o g r a m t o s u c h an e x t e n t t h a t t h e y w o u l d c h o o s e n o t t o e n t e r a c a ­ d e m e as a c a r e e r . T h e y e x p r e s s e d c o n c e r n t h a t s u c h c h o i c e s w o u l d r e p r o d u c e t h e u n e q u a l g e n d e r a n d r a c e / e t h n i c i t y n a t u r e of h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . T e b o u l ( 1 9 9 5 ) e x t e n d e d t h e e x a m i n a t i o n of i n f o r m a t i o n s e e k i n g b y c o m ­ bining into a single study the individual, relational, and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l - l e v e l factors that predict n e w c o m e r information-seeking b e h a v i o r s and c h o i c e of sources.

Communication Processes A n u m b e r of c o m m u n i c a t i o n p r o c e s s e s h a v e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d in s i n g l e s t u d ­ ies a n d h a v e b e e n e x a m i n e d for t h e i r i m p a c t o n s o c i a l i z a t i o n o u t c o m e s . O n e s u c h s t u d y w a s c o n d u c t e d b y R e i c h e r s ( 1 9 8 7 ) . It m a y b e i n s t r u c t i v e t o n o t e that, a l t h o u g h R e i c h e r s w a s n o t a c o m m u n i c a t i o n s c h o l a r , h e n e v e r t h e l e s s p o s i t e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e of c o m m u n i c a t i o n t o t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s . T h e study focused on the a m o u n t of interaction without specifying particular k i n d s of i n t e r a c t i o n o r c o m m u n i c a t i v e p r o c e s s e s . H o w e v e r , a m o u n t o f i n t e r ­ action was associated with successful socialization. C o m m u n i c a t i o n scholars typically specify c o m m u n i c a t i o n p r o c e s s e s with much greater detail. Stohl (1986) studied m e m o r a b l e m e s s a g e s that n e w c o m ­ ers receive. T h r o u g h these messages, organizational veterans c o m m u n i c a t e d n o r m s , values, and expected behaviors to individual n e w c o m e r s . S h e c o n ­ c l u d e d that t h e s e m e s s a g e s h a d a l a s t i n g i m p a c t o n r e c e i v e r s ' b e h a v i o r a n d work lives. Brown (1985) studied h o w organizational stories told by veterans f u n c t i o n to s o c i a l i z e n e w c o m e r s . D i S a n z a ( 1 9 9 5 ) d e s c r i b e d b a n k t e l l e r s o c i a l ­ i z a t i o n p r o c e s s e s , i n c l u d i n g s t r e s s as a m e a n i n g f u l r e s u l t . K r a m e r ( 1 9 8 9 ) i d e n t i f i e d p a t t e r n s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n in a s p e c i f i c t y p e o f b a r r i e r c r o s s i n g . H e e x a m i n e d c o m m u n i c a i o n in l o o s e n i n g , t r a n s i t i o n a l , a n d t i g h t e n i n g p h a s e s of j o b transfers.

Socialization Relationships G i v e n t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h r o u g h w h i c h s o c i a l i z a t i o n is a s s u m e d t o o c c u r , it is n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e e x a m i n e d t y p e s o f s o c i a l i z a t i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p s to d i s c o v e r w h a t t y p e s a r e m o s t h e l p f u l . B e c a u s e t h e " o r g a n i z a t i o n " is a fairly a b s t r a c t a c t o r , r e s e a r c h t y p i c a l l y a s s u m e s t h a t

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i d e n t i f i a b l e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a g e n t s s u c h as s u p e r v i s o r s a n d p e e r s p r o v i d e t h e relational partners through which socialization occurs. Kramer (1994) found that f e e d b a c k a n d c l o s e r c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p s p r e d i c t e d a d j u s t m e n t . Drawing on the leader-member exchange model, K r a m e r (1995) found that s u p e r v i s o r - s u b o r d i n a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s that w e r e n e i t h e r c l o s e p a r t n e r s h i p s n o r strong overseer relationships were associated with the most positive n e w ­ comer adjustment. N e w c o m e r s , then, thrived when they negotiated relation­ s h i p s w i t h t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r s that w e r e n o t o v e r l y e g a l i t a r i a n o r o v e r l y d i r e c ­ tive. In a n o t h e r s t u d y u s i n g K r a m a n d I s a b e l l a ' s ( 1 9 8 5 ) p e e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s t y p o l o g y to s t u d y b o t h s u p e r v i s o r y a n d p e e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s , K r a m e r f o u n d that r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h s u p e r v i s o r s c h a r a c t e r i z e d as c o l l e g i a l o r s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p s l e d to m o r e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of r e l e v a n t k n o w l e d g e t h a n d i d m o r e d i s t a n t informational relationships. Adjustments were most positive when there were h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n s of c l o s e r p e e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d l o w e r p r o p o r t i o n s of p e e r i n f o r m a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . J a b l i n ( 1 9 8 4 ) , t o o , f o u n d t h a t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of closer relationships was associated with better adjustment. Bullis and Bach ( 1 9 9 1 ) f o u n d that m u l t i p l e x r e l a t i o n s h i p s w e r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h h i g h e r o r g a n i ­ zational identification.

Summary T h i s b r i e f r e v i e w i l l u s t r a t e s that t h e a s s u m p t i o n s a d o p t e d a b o u t s o c i a l i z a ­ tion h a v e g u i d e d s o c i a l i z a t i o n r e s e a r c h . M u c h s o c i a l i z a t i o n r e s e a r c h h a s f o c u s e d o n i d e n t i f y i n g a v a r i e t y of p r o c e s s e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p o s i t i v e s o c i a l ­ ization o u t c o m e s . S o m e research focuses on organizational strategies, w h e r e a s o t h e r r e s e a r c h f o c u s e s m o r e o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l as t h e a c t i v e a g e n t e n g a g i n g in a c t i v i t i e s t h a t l e a d to s o c i a l i z a t i o n o u t c o m e s . Still o t h e r r e s e a r c h focuses on mutual communicative patterns, and other studies e x a m i n e the t y p e s of r e l a t i o n s h i p s that l e a d to p o s i t i v e o u t c o m e s . F i n a l l y , s t u d i e s o f o r g a ­ n i z a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n s d e s c r i b e s u c c e s s in a s p e c i f i c k i n d o f b a r r i e r c r o s s i n g . In g e n e r a l , t h e s e s t u d i e s h a v e e m a n a t e d from t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s e n t e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s , are s o c i a l i z e d b y t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n , a c t i v e l y p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e p r o c e s s of b e c o m i n g i n s i d e r s , a n d f o r m r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t a r e m o r e o r l e s s c o n d u c i v e to s u c c e s s f u l s o c i a l i z a t i o n . T h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s h a v e b e e n p a r t i c u ­ larly useful w h e n o r g a n i z a t i o n s w e r e v i e w e d as m a c h i n e s , o r g a n i s m s , o r c u l ­ tures. A s n e w m e t a p h o r s of o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n e m e r g e ( s e e P u t n a m , P h i l l i p s , & C h a p m a n , 1 9 9 6 ) , o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of s o c i a l i z a t i o n e v o l v e as w e l l . O n e e m e r g i n g v i e w c o n s i d e r s o r g a n i z a t i o n s as n o d e s in l a r g e r , d e e p l y g e n d e r e d , c l a s s e d , a n d r a c e d , r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e d i s c u r ­ s i v e f o r m a t i o n s . W h e n t h i s v i e w of o r g a n i z a t i o n s is a d o p t e d , a l t e r n a t i v e a p p r o a c h e s to u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o c i a l i z a t i o n are u s e f u l . W e t u r n n o w to s t a n d ­

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p o i n t f e m i n i s m to p r o v i d e a c r i t i c a l a l t e r n a t i v e p e r s p e c t i v e f r o m w h i c h s o c i a l ­ ization scholarship may be reconsidered.

STANDPOINT FEMINISM S t a n d p o i n t f e m i n i s m is o n e o f a n u m b e r o f s p e c i f i c v i e w s t h a t h a v e e m e r g e d as c r i t i c a l a n d f e m i n i s t a p p r o a c h e s h a v e g a i n e d i n c r e a s i n g a t t e n t i o n in o r g a n i ­ z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n ( s e e B u z z a n e l l , 1 9 9 4 ) . S o m e of t h e g e n e r a l t h e m e s p r e v a l e n t in s t a n d p o i n t f e m i n i s m a r e s h a r e d b y c o n t e m p o r a r y c r i t i c a l t h e o ­ r i e s . H o w e v e r , as r e v i e w s ( B u z z a n e l l , 1 9 9 4 ; P u t n a m , 1 9 9 0 a ) h a v e i l l u s t r a t e d , standpoint feminism also provides a unique contribution. W o o d (1992a) has s p e c i f i c a l l y a d v o c a t e d t h e u s e o f s t a n d p o i n t f e m i n i s m in c o m m u n i c a t i o n t o e n c o u r a g e q u e s t i o n s that s t a r t f r o m w o m e n ' s s t a n d p o i n t s . 3

Positioning of Locations and Voices As we have commented elsewhere (Bullis, 1993; Bullis & Bach, 1996), s t a n d p o i n t f e m i n i s m m a y b e v i e w e d a s b e i n g p o s i t i o n e d in b e t w e e n l i b e r a l a n d p o s t m o d e r n f e m i n i s t v o i c e s . L i b e r a l f e m i n i s m a d v o c a t e s t h e i n c l u s i o n of w o m e n into current arrangements so that they may participate equally with men (and/or " d o m i n a n t s " or "insiders"), whereas postmodern feminism prac­ tices the deconstruction and interrogation of g e n d e r e d a r r a n g e m e n t s (see Calds & Smircich, 1996; M u m b y & Putnam, 1992). Put simply, standpoint f e m i n i s m a s s u m e s that, through social processes and institutional a r r a n g e ­ m e n t s , s o m e v o i c e s a r e p o s i t i o n e d as d o m i n a n t o r m a s t e r v o i c e s w h i l e o t h e r s a r e p o s i t i o n e d a s m a r g i n a l i z e d , e x c l u d e d , o r s e r v a n t v o i c e s . W h e n a p p l i e d to p e o p l e , t h i s a s s u m p t i o n is v e r y s i m i l a r t o H e g e l ' s ( 1 8 0 7 / 1 9 6 7 ) m a s t e r - b o n d s ­ m a n r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h e " o t h e r , " o r b o n d s m a n , is t h a t t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e " s e l f is d e f i n e d . T h e " o t h e r " is, in l a r g e p a r t , w h a t t h e self is n o t a n d w h a t t h e self d e f i n e s itself a g a i n s t . In H e g e l ' s e x a m p l e , t h e m a s t e r ' s d e f i n i t i o n o f self a s s u b j e c t is d e p e n d e n t o n d e f i n i n g t h e b o n d s m a n a s " o t h e r , " o r o b j e c t . H e g e l suggests that both relational participants are locked into oppression. Clearly, h o w e v e r , the oppressions are not equal. T h e possibilities o p e n to the m a s t e r and b o n d s m a n are neither identical nor equal. H o w e v e r , by e x a m i n i n g the relationship and the " o t h e r , " a m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of social life a n d a m o r e c o m p l e t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e self a r e p o s s i b l e . M o r e o v e r , a l t e r n a t i v e s b e c o m e v i s i b l e . T h e " s e l f is a p e r v a s i v e a s s u m p t i o n o f W e s t e r n life, a s is its n e c e s s a r y b u t u n d e r e x a m i n e d c o u n t e r p a r t , t h e " o t h e r " ( s e e H e g e l , 1807/1967; Sartre, 1943/1956). As a critical theory, standpoint feminism a d v o c a t e s t h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g for t h e p u r p o s e o f r e v e a l i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t need to be transformed.

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S t a n d p o i n t s , t h e n , t y p i c a l l y refer first to t h e l o c a t i o n s of t h e m a r g i n a l i z e d , or t h e " o t h e r s . " If w e c o n s i d e r t h e s e r v a n t as t h e m o s t o v e r t c a s e , w e t o u c h o n t h e h i s t o r y of s t a n d p o i n t f e m i n i s m . D r a w i n g o n M a r x , " t h e " w o m a n ' s s t a n d ­ p o i n t w a s s o u g h t as a c r i t i c a l , t r a n s f o r m a t i v e , p o s i t i o n e d v o i c e . T h i s w o m a n ' s s t a n d p o i n t w a s b a s e d o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n of a c o m m o n l o c a t i o n of w o m e n . S p e ­ c i f i c a l l y , t h e y w e r e l o c a t e d in p o s i t i o n s to p r o v i d e w o r k t h a t w a s v a l u a b l e for its " u s e " r a t h e r t h a n its " e x c h a n g e " v a l u e . F o r e x a m p l e , S m i t h ( 1 9 8 7 a ) d e ­ s c r i b e s w o m e n ' s p r o v i s i o n of w o r k in s u p p o r t of t h e s c h o o l s y s t e m in t h e i r r o l e of h e l p i n g c h i l d r e n w i t h h o m e w o r k . T h i s w o r k is h i d d e n , u n p a i d , d e v a l ­ u e d , a n d e s s e n t i a l to t h e s m o o t h f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e s c h o o l s y s t e m . U l t i m a t e l y , w o m e n ' s r o l e in h e l p i n g c h i l d r e n w i t h h o m e w o r k s u p p o r t s c a p i t a l i s m b y p r o ­ v i d i n g c o m p e t e n t l a b o r . Y e t it r e m a i n s i n v i s i b l e . T h e p r o t o t y p i c a l e x a m p l e of this t y p e of w o r k is t h e w o r k t h a t w o m e n h a v e b e e n a s s i g n e d in c a r i n g for m e n a n d in r e p r o d u c i n g l a b o r e r s . In o t h e r w o r d s , w o m e n ' s w o r k w a s to s e r v e t h e c a p i t a l i s t s y s t e m in n e c e s s a r y b u t i n v i s i b l e w a y s . A d a m s ( 1 9 9 0 ) , in h e r i n s i g h t f u l a n a l y s i s of a n i m a l e a t i n g , h a s d e v e l o p e d t h e " a b s e n t r e f e r e n t " as a useful a n a l y t i c t o o l . F o r e x a m p l e , e a t i n g a n i m a l s relies on killing and d i s m e m b e r i n g animal bodies. Yet by invisible institu­ t i o n a l a n d d i s c u r s i v e p r a c t i c e s , t h e k i l l i n g a n d d i s m e m b e r i n g is i g n o r e d , o r a b s e n c e d . A n i m a l e a t i n g is d i v o r c e d from t h e a n i m a l b o d i e s o n w h i c h it i n h e r ­ e n t l y d e p e n d s . I n s t e a d , w e p u r c h a s e " f o o d " from t h e s t o r e a n d e a t " m e a t " o r " p r o t e i n . " A d a m s ( 1 9 9 7 ) i l l u s t r a t e s h o w t h e m i s t r e a t m e n t of t e r m i n a l a n i m a l s ( t h o s e r a i s e d to b e k i l l e d ) , in g e n e r a l , a n d t h e p r a c t i c e of f e e d i n g a n i m a l r e m a i n s to o t h e r a n i m a l s , in p a r t i c u l a r , w e r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h " m a d c o w " d i s ­ e a s e . In t h i s c a s e , t h e u s e of a n i m a l s as a b s e n t r e f e r e n t s v i s i b l y c y c l e d b a c k to h u r t t h e o p p r e s s o r , as p e o p l e c o n t r a c t e d d i s e a s e f r o m t h e a n i m a l s — a r e l a t i o n ­ ship w e thought impossible. Similarly, w o m e n ' s reproductive w o r k serves as an a b s e n t r e f e r e n t to c a p i t a l i s m . E m o t i o n a l w o r k in o r g a n i z a t i o n a l life is n e c ­ essary but unvalued. H i s t o r i c a l l y , w o m e n , b y f u n c t i o n i n g in s u c h p o s i t i o n s , w e r e d e n i e d p o l i t i ­ cal a n d e c o n o m i c v o i c e s . W o m e n w e r e a l i e n a t e d f r o m t h e p r o d u c t i v e s y s t e m s a n d w e r e i s o l a t e d in p r i v a t e l o c a t i o n s . W h e n w o m e n w o r k e d «for e x c h a n g e v a l u e , t h e y w e r e t y p i c a l l y a s s i g n e d to i n v i s i b l e , s e r v a n t l i k e p o s i t i o n s o f c a r ­ ing for m e n , s u c h as t h e s e c r e t a r y , office p e a c e m a k e r ( K o l b , 1 9 9 2 , as c i t e d in B u z z a n e l l , 1 9 9 4 ) , o r the office w i f e w h o c a r e s for o t h e r s ' n e e d s (Huff, 1 9 9 0 , as c i t e d in B u z z a n e l l , 1 9 9 4 ) . B o t h in t h e s e p o s i t i o n s a n d b y f u n c t i o n i n g as h o m e m a k e r s in m e n ' s h o m e s , w o m e n l e a r n e d to a d o p t u n d e r s t a n d i n g s a s s o c i ­ a t e d w i t h t h e " o u t s i d e r w i t h i n " ( C o l l i n s , 1 9 8 6 ) l o c a t i o n . B y f u n c t i o n i n g in s u c h s e r v a n t r o l e s , w o m e n l e a r n e d to u n d e r s t a n d m e n , c u r r e n t s o c i e t a l a r r a n g e m e n t s , a n d u n e q u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s as m e a n s of s u r v i v a l . M e n , h o w e v e r , h a d n o c o m p a r a b l e n e e d to u n d e r s t a n d w o m e n . W o m e n ' s d o u b l e u n d e r s t a n d ­ i n g s , t h e n , m u c h l i k e M a r x ' s p r o l e t a r i a t u n d e r s t a n d i n g s , c o u l d s e r v e as a c r i ­

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t i q u e of p a t r i a r c h a l i n s t i t u t i o n s ( H a r t s o c k , 1 9 8 7 ) a n d as v a l u a b l e r e s o u r c e s for bringing about change. S t a n d p o i n t f e m i n i s m ' s i n i t i a l i m p u l s e of d e f i n i n g a s i n g l e w o m a n ' s s t a n d ­ p o i n t w a s l a r g e l y d i s m a n t l e d as f e m i n i s t s of c o l o r c r i t i c i z e d t h e p r o j e c t for its r a c i a l a n d c l a s s i s t b i a s e s . R e f u s i n g a c c o u n t s of t h e " w o m a n ' s " s t a n d p o i n t generated by middle-class, First W o r l d white w o m e n , w o m e n of color pointed o u t t h e m u l t i p l e a x e s of d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g w o m e n ( s e e L o n g i n o , 1 9 9 3 ) F e m i ­ n i s t s s u c h a s bell h o o k s ( 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 8 4 , 1 9 8 9 ) a n d P a t r i c i a H i l l C o l l i n s ( 1 9 9 1 ) h a v e s u c c e s s f u l l y i n s i s t e d o n a f e m i n i s t r e s p e c t for d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g w o m e n . I n s t e a d of d e v e l o p i n g a u n i f i e d s i n g u l a r " w o m a n ' s " v o i c e , s t a n d p o i n t feminism has more recently focused on revealing the conditions, experiences, a n d v o i c e s of a w i d e v a r i e t y of w o m e n . F o r e x a m p l e , D i a m o n d ( 1 9 9 4 ) h a s i l l u s t r a t e d h o w t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of r e p r o d u c t i v e t e c h n o l o g y f u n c t i o n s t o c r e a t e r e p r o d u c t i v e f r e e d o m for w o m e n l o c a t e d in F i r s t W o r l d c o u n t r i e s , f u n c t i o n s to e n a b l e a d d i t i o n a l s t a t e i n t r u s i o n for s o m e w o m e n in s o m e T h i r d W o r l d c o u n t r i e s , a n d is d e n i e d to o t h e r s . F o r s o m e N a t i v e A m e r i c a n w o m e n in t h e United States, forced sterilization (attempted genocide) was practiced (and absenced from public discussion). Shiva (1989, 1991) has detailed the d e v a s ­ t a t i o n s f o i s t e d o n l o c a l l a n d s , c o m m u n i t i e s , a n d w o m e n ' s l i v e s in a v a r i e t y o f s i t u a t i o n s in I n d i a a s a r e s u l t of t h a t n a t i o n ' s p a r t i c i p a t i o n in i n t e r n a t i o n a l development. S t a n d p o i n t f e m i n i s m , t h e n , h a s e v o l v e d f r o m a M a r x i s t n o t i o n of a u n i f i e d " w o m a n ' s " s t a n d p o i n t to a f o c u s o n d i f f e r e n c e s a n d m u l t i p l e w o m e n ' s s t a n d ­ p o i n t s . B e c a u s e m u l t i p l e a n d v a r i o u s l y o v e r l a p p i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s of d o m i n a ­ tion p o s i t i o n w o m e n in a v a r i e t y o f m a r g i n a l l o c a t i o n s , it is i m p o r t a n t to u n ­ derstand such relationships and standpoints without assuming uniformity. H o w e v e r , another concern e m e r g e d with the evolution toward focusing on m u l t i p l e s t a n d p o i n t s . T h e d a n g e r in i d e n t i f y i n g m u l t i p l e s u b o r d i n a t i o n s is that t h e h o p e of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is d i f f i c u l t to r e t a i n . In o t h e r w o r d s , if t a k e n t o o far, t h e t r e n d t o w a r d c h a m p i o n i n g d i f f e r e n c e m e a n s t h a t t h e p o l i t i c a l p o t e n t i a l for c h a n g e is d e c r e a s e d b e c a u s e g r o u p s d o n o t r e c o g n i z e t h e p o s s i ­ bility for c o a l i t i o n f o r m a t i o n w i t h t h o s e w h o o c c u p y d i f f e r e n t s t a n d p o i n t s . L a C l a u a n d M o u f f e ( 1 9 8 5 ) p r o v i d e an u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t s e r v e s t o fill t h i s n e e d . T h e y clarify h o w v a r i e d o p p o s i t i o n a l s t a n d p o i n t s c a n f o r m r e s i s t i n g a n d t r a n s f o r m i n g v o i c e s t h r o u g h s o l i d a r i t y r a t h e r t h a n u n i t y . T h e p r o c e s s of c r e a t ­ ing and maintaining a d o m i n a n t discourse simultaneously creates and m a i n ­ t a i n s d i f f e r e n t , b u t n o t i s o l a t e d , p o s i t i o n s of m a r g i n a l i t y . F o r e x a m p l e , if white, First W o r l d , middle-class w o m e n see t h e m s e l v e s as different from T h i r d W o r l d w o m e n a n d N a t i v e A m e r i c a n w o m e n w h o a r e p o s i t i o n e d differ­ e n t l y v i s - a - v i s r e p r o d u c t i v e t e c h n o l o g y , o p p o r t u n i t i e s for c h a n g e - o r i e n t e d coalitions are minimized. C h a n g e that relies on understandings of oppressions that link w o m e n and nature ( A d a m s , 1990; Shiva, 1989) or s l a u g h t e r h o u s e

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w o r k e r s a n d t h e a n i m a l s t h e y t o r t u r e ( E i s n i t z , 1 9 9 7 ) is u n t h i n k a b l e . Y e t t h e s e a r e t h e l i n k a g e s n e c e s s a r y to t r a n s f o r m d o m i n a n t - s u b m i s s i v e r e l a t i o n s . L a C l a u a n d M o u f f e ( 1 9 8 5 ) u s e t h e i m a g e of a c h a i n of l i n k a g e s t h a t m a y b e f o r m e d a m o n g v a r i e d m a r g i n a l i z e d s t a n d p o i n t s . In o t h e r w o r d s , a l t h o u g h t h e marginalized are positioned and oppressed differently and do not share identi­ cal s t a n d p o i n t s , b e c a u s e d i f f e r e n t o p p r e s s i o n s i n t e r s e c t , g r o u p s m a y j o i n t o g e t h e r to f o c u s o n r e s i s t a n c e a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w h i l e still m a i n t a i n i n g dif­ f e r e n c e s . A f e m i n i s t o v e r e m p h a s i s on d i f f e r e n c e s a n d u n d e r e m p h a s i s o n potential linkages politically neutralizes feminist transformative potential. F r o m o u r d i s c u s s i o n t h u s far, o n e m i g h t d r a w t w o m i s l e a d i n g c o n c l u s i o n s : (a) that f e m i n i s t s t a n d p o i n t t h e o r y a d d r e s s e s o n l y w o m e n , a n d ( b ) s t a n d p o i n t s a r e m e r e l y l o c a t e d p o s i t i o n s . W e turn to a m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e d i s c u s s i o n of s t a n d p o i n t s to p o i n t o u t that this t h e o r y p e r t a i n s t o r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f d o m i n a n c e rather than solely to biological w o m e n and that standpoints are m o r e than located positions.

Standpoints as Expressions and Achievements Standpoints include experiences and the locations, c o n d i t i o n s , relation­ s h i p s , a n d p r o c e s s e s that p r o d u c e t h o s e e x p e r i e n c e s ( H a r t s o c k , 1 9 8 3 b ; S m i t h , 1 9 8 7 a , 1 9 9 3 ) . H o w e v e r , t h e y a l s o i n c l u d e a r e f l e x i v e a w a r e n e s s t h a t r e s u l t s in a p o l i t i c a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s . S e l l s ( 1 9 9 7 ) p o i n t s o u t that s t a n d p o i n t s a r e a c h i e v e ­ m e n t s r a t h e r t h a n p e r s p e c t i v e s . T h e y a r e a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h s t r u g g l e . In o t h e r w o r d s , whereas locations and perspectives are created through processes and conditions, standpoints are achieved through reflexive struggle. T h e y entail an a w a r e n e s s of t h e p o l i t i c s of d o m i n a t i o n . S i m i l a r l y , C o l l i n s ( 1 9 9 1 , p p . 2 5 ­ 28) insists that standpoints must be "self-defined." T h e s t r u g g l e n e e d e d to a c h i e v e s e l f - i d e n t i f i e d s t a n d p o i n t s is d i f f i c u l t b e c a u s e the p r o c e s s e s a n d c o n d i t i o n s that e n c o u r a g e p a r t i c u l a r p e r s p e c t i v e s often a r e n o t o b v i o u s to p e o p l e . R a t h e r , p e o p l e a r e s o c i a l i z e d t o a c c e p t t h e d o m i n a n t p e r s p e c t i v e s . F o r e x a m p l e , as p s y c h o l o g i s t M i l l e r ( 1 9 7 6 ) , a m o n g o t h e r s , p o i n t s o u t , o n e d y n a m i c of o p p r e s s i o n is that t h o s e w h o a r e o p p r e s s e d m a y a c c e p t t h e d e f i n i t i o n s of t h e m s e l v e s as d e f i n e d b y d o m i n a t o r s . In o t h e r w o r d s , they often a c c e p t t h e i r l o c a t i o n s as m a r g i n a l a n d s u b o r d i n a t e , o r " o t h e r . " T h e i r s u b o r d i n a t i o n is a c c e p t e d as n a t u r a l . F o r e x a m p l e , w o r d s f r o m a p o p u l a r s o n g in t h e 1 9 6 0 s p r o c l a i m , "I w a s b o r n to b e s t e p p e d o n , l i e d t o , c h e a t e d o n a n d t r e a t e d like d i r t . . . . I w a s b o r n a w o m a n , d i d n ' t h a v e n o s a y , I w a s b o r n a w o m a n , I ' m g l a d it h a p p e n e d that w a y . " S o m e w r i t e r s a d v o c a t e t h e p r o c e s s of r e c o v e r i n g d e n i e d e x p e r i e n c e s a s a w a y to b e g i n to d e v e l o p s t a n d p o i n t s . C o l l i n s ( 1 9 9 1 ) n o t e s t h a t r e s i s t a n c e d e p e n d s o n t h e o p p r e s s e d s ' a b i l i t y to s h a r e t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h e a c h o t h e r . W h e n these experiences are articulated, personal experiences are transformed into c o l l e c t i v e v o i c e s that a r e m o r e p r o n e to s t i m u l a t e a c t s o f r e s i s t a n c e o r

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c h a n g e . B e c a u s e the recovery and articulation of such e x p e r i e n c e s form the b a s i s for u n d e r s t a n d i n g s t a n d p o i n t s , s t a n d p o i n t s c h o l a r s n e e d t o c o n s i d e r w a y s to p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e r e c o v e r y p r o c e s s . Standpoint feminism, then, a s s u m e s that d o m i n a n t patterns function to c r e a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s of d o m i n a n c e a n d s u b o r d i n a t i o n a n d t o m a s k t h e s e relationships so that the subordinated accept the relationships, invisibly p r o ­ v i d i n g t h e n e c e s s a r y r e s o u r c e s to m a i n t a i n a n d n a t u r a l i z e t h e d o m i n a n t a r r a n g e m e n t s . Standpoint f e m i n i s m advocates the a c h i e v e m e n t of s t a n d p o i n t s as oppositional, politically conscious understandings with the h o p e that such u n d e r s t a n d i n g s p r o v i d e r e s o u r c e s for a c r i t i q u e of d o m i n a t i o n as w e l l a s change. B a s i c e n l i g h t e n m e n t i n s t i t u t i o n s s u c h as s c i e n c e , l a w , a c a d e m i c s , a n d t h e p r o f e s s i o n s a d d to t h e difficulty of a c h i e v i n g s t a n d p o i n t s ( s e e C o d e , 1 9 9 1 ; H a r d i n g , 1 9 8 6 , 1 9 9 1 ) b y a d o p t i n g t h e a s s u m p t i o n of t h e n e u t r a l , r a t i o n a l o b ­ s e r v e r . A s H a r t s o c k ( 1 9 9 7 ) p o i n t s o u t , w o m e n h a v e n e v e r b e e n t h e s u b j e c t s of e n l i g h t e n m e n t t h e o r i e s . T h e y a l s o h a v e n o t b e e n t h e s u b j e c t s of e n l i g h t e n ­ ment institutions. T h e observer, from a distanced position, o b s e r v e s the object to e x p l a i n , p r e d i c t , a n d c o n t r o l w h a t t h e o b j e c t is u n a b l e t o m a n a g e f r o m its o w n e m b e d d e d p o s i t i o n . A u t h o r i t y o v e r p e r s o n a l d e c i s i o n m a k i n g , t h e n , is r e t a i n e d in t h e " e x p e r t " a n d r e m o v e d f r o m t h e i n d i v i d u a l . T h i s is a p a r t i c u ­ larly r e l e v a n t c o n c e r n for t h o s e of us i n t e r e s t e d in p r o d u c i n g k n o w l e d g e a b o u t s o c i a l i z a t i o n b e c a u s e it i n v i t e s us to c o n s i d e r o u r o w n r o l e s a n d a s s u m p t i o n s as s c h o l a r s .

A STANDPOINT FEMINIST REVIEW OF SOCIALIZATION A standpoint feminist perspective e n c o u r a g e s careful c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t a r e t a k e n for g r a n t e d in s o c i a l i z a t i o n s c h o l a r s h i p . H e r e , w e first f o c u s o n w h y s o c i a l i z a t i o n is a useful p l a c e to d r a w o n f e m i n i s t s t a n d ­ point analyses. S o c i a l i z a t i o n is a s i t e , o r a c u l t u r a l l y d e f i n e d s e t o f p r o c e s s e s t h a t o c c u r in identifiable locations, where the conditions, relationships, identities, and pro­ c e s s e s of i n t e r e s t t o s t a n d p o i n t f e m i n i s m a r e p r o d u c e d a n d r e p r o d u c e d . S p e ­ c i f i c a l l y , s o c i a l i z a t i o n is a set o f c o m m u n i c a t i v e p r o c e s s e s t h a t p r o d u c e and reproduce relationships through which domination, subordination, and m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n o c c u r . S i n c e g e n d e r e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e p e r v a s i v e in o r g a n i ­ z a t i o n a l life ( F e r g u s o n , 1 9 8 4 ; M a r s h a l l , 1 9 9 3 ) a n d in g e n e r a l s o c i a l a n d i n s t i ­ tutional relations, the organizational and more fundamental general socializa­ tion practices through w h i c h these gendered relations are reinscribed m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d ( B u z z a n e l l , 1 9 9 4 ) . F r o m a f e m i n i s t s t a n d p o i n t v i e w in w h i c h t h e a w a r e n e s s o f e x p e r i e n c e s is i m p o r t a n t a n d difficult, s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r o v i d e s a

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site w h e r e t h e i n c r e a s e d a w a r e n e s s i n v o l v e d in a p p r o a c h i n g , j o i n i n g , a n d leaving organizations should be helpful. Not only are p e o p l e m o r e alert to t h e i r o w n e x p e r i e n c e s d u r i n g s o c i a l i z a t i o n , b u t t h e y a r e i n v o l v e d in a s e n s e m a k i n g p r o c e s s ( L o u i s , 1 9 8 0 ) in w h i c h t h e y c o n n e c t t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s to t h e c o n t e x t s a r o u n d t h e m as t h e y a t t e m p t to u n d e r s t a n d t h e i r s i t u a t i o n . S i m i l a r l y , v e t e r a n s e n c o u n t e r i n g n e w c o m e r s a n d e x i t i n g m e m b e r s s h o u l d e x h i b i t an e n h a n c e d a w a r e n e s s as t h e y a t t e m p t to s o c i a l i z e n e w c o m e r s , t o u n d e r s t a n d h o w t h e y t h e m s e l v e s a r e p o s i t i o n e d v i s - a - v i s n e w c o m e r s , a n d , as w e s h a l l s e e , to e x c l u d e n e w c o m e r s . T h e r e f o r e , f e m i n i s t s t a n d p o i n t t h e o r y is a p p r o p r i a t e l y a p p l i e d to o r g a n i z a ­ t i o n a l s o c i a l i z a t i o n . T o e n g a g e this a n a l y s i s , w e r e c o n s i d e r t h e a s s u m p t i o n s of socialization scholarship that w e identified earlier. W e simultaneously rely o n a n d q u e s t i o n t h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s . W e t h e n t u r n to a r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n r e s e a r c h that h a s e m a n a t e d from t h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s , f o c u s i n g o n exclusions (ignored or absenced groups and processes) and feminist concerns with typical research processes. Finally, we illustrate a m o r e detailed analysis by f o c u s i n g on a s p e c i f i c s t u d y .

Socialization Assumptions From Boundaries to Containers A l t h o u g h t h e y d o n o t c l a i m to u s e a f e m i n i s t a n a l y s i s , S m i t h a n d T u r n e r ( 1 9 9 5 ) first a r t i c u l a t e d t h e f o r m u l a i c a s s u m p t i o n s u n d e r g i r d i n g s o c i a l i z a ­ tion r e s e a r c h w h e n t h e y i d e n t i f i e d c o n t a i n m e n t a s a r o o t m e t a p h o r g u i d i n g o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of s o c i a l i z a t i o n . T h e y p o i n t o u t that t h e f o r m u l a , i n i t i a l l y a r t i c u l a t e d b y J a b l i n ( 1 9 8 7 ) a n d e v i d e n t in s o c i a l i z a t i o n r e s e a r c h , a s s u m e s that s o c i a l i z a t i o n ( a c t i o n s of the o r g a n i z a t i o n o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l ) p l u s i n d i v i d u ­ a l i z a t i o n ( a c t i o n s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l o n t h e r o l e ) s e r v e to t r a n s f o r m o u t s i d e r s i n t o i n s i d e r s . S m i t h a n d T u r n e r ' s w o r k c l a r i f i e s t h e d u a l i s m i n h e r e n t in t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e r e is an o u t s i d e a n d an i n s i d e m a r k e d b y an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l boundary. W h e r e a s traditional socialization research has used this a s s u m p ­ tion to g u i d e its f o c u s o n b o u n d a r y c r o s s i n g , a n d s t a n d p o i n t f e m i n i s m s i m i ­ larly relies on boundaries that m a r k marginal, insider, and outsider within locations, Smith and Turner enable a reconsideration by proposing the notion of c o n t a i n m e n t . S o c i a l i z a t i o n s c h o l a r s , t h e n , c a n c o n s i d e r t h e o p p r e s s i o n of t h e " m a s t e r " o r " i n s i d e r " as w e l l as t h e s u b o r d i n a t e d . S e v e r a l a d d i t i o n a l q u e s ­ tions e m e r g e from a feminist standpoint view. M o s t o b v i o u s l y a n d d i r e c t l y , in c o n t r a s t to t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n w o r k r e v i e w e d e a r l i e r in t h i s c h a p t e r , f e m i n i s t s t a n d p o i n t p e r s p e c t i v e s t u r n a t t e n t i o n to t h e o u t s i d e a s t h e a b s e n t r e f e r e n t to e x a m i n e . J u s t a s s o c i a l i z a t i o n f o c u s e s o n h o w p e o p l e e n t e r a n d s u c c e s s f u l l y b e c o m e m e m b e r s of an o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h e b o u n d ­

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ary a s s u m p t i o n a l s o i n h e r e n t l y r e l i e s o n an o u t s i d e . T h e n o t i o n of an o r g a n i z a ­ tional m e m b e r inherently relies on a n o n m e m b e r . By considering only those w h o t r a n s i t i o n to " i n s i d e r s , " s o c i a l i z a t i o n s c h o l a r s h i p i g n o r e s t h e p e o p l e , d i s ­ courses, and institutional a r r a n g e m e n t s that p r o d u c e and sustain " o u t s i d e r s . " " O u t s i d e r s , " then, serve as the invisible but necessary r e s o u r c e that sustains the notion of " i n s i d e r s . " Second, the c o m m o n l y accepted pyramid shape (Schein, 1970, 1971) inherently m e a n s that e v e r y o n e " i n s i d e " the boundary cannot m o v e to the cen­ t e r a n d t o p . T h e r e is m o r e s p a c e a r o u n d t h e p e r i m e t e r a n d at t h e b o t t o m . N o o n e c a n i n h a b i t t h e t o p c e n t e r of t h e p y r a m i d u n l e s s o t h e r s i n h a b i t t h e b o t t o m p e r i p h e r y . In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e t o p i n h e r e n t l y d e p e n d s o n t h e b o t t o m . T h i s assumption may well be associated with the "outsider w i t h i n " (Collins, 1986). Although people successfully enter the organization, most cannot also suc­ cessfully cross the m a n y internal barriers. Yet, as Buzzanell and G o l d z w i g (1991) illustrate, career literature e n c o u r a g e s an expectation of p r o g r e s s i n g up the ladder through o n e ' s career. T h e y point out that we d o not have lan­ g u a g e to a d e q u a t e l y e x p r e s s t h e a l t e r n a t i v e c a r e e r p a t h s t h a t m o s t p e o p l e f o l l o w . In a s t u d y o f a p r o f e s s i o n a l b u r e a u c r a c y , o n e o f u s ( B u l l i s , 1 9 8 4 ) i d e n ­ tified a " c a d r e of t h e m a l c o n t e n t " in f e e d b a c k p r o v i d e d t o t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . T h e s e e m p l o y e e s — o f t e n p o s i t i o n e d in m a r g i n a l i z e d , f e m i n i z e d p r o f e s ­ s i o n s — s a w n o a l t e r n a t i v e to t h e i r e m p l o y m e n t a n d n o f u t u r e a d v a n c e m e n t in the b u r e a u c r a c y . W h e n presented with the feedback, organizational leaders c o m m e n t e d o n t h e n u m b e r of " g r a v e y a r d " p o s i t i o n s w i t h n o p o t e n t i a l for i n t e r n a l m o v e m e n t . T h e l e a d e r s g e n e r a t e d w a y s to r e w a r d t h e s e e m p l o y e e s b e c a u s e t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n n e e d e d t h e i r full p a r t i c i p a t i o n . In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e leaders were implicitly uncomfortable with the outsider within and the p o w e r of t h e " p a s s i v e r e s i s t a n c e " that t h e y h a d e n c o u n t e r e d f r o m s u c h l o c a t i o n s . Y e t t h e y w e r e a w a r e o f t h e c o n s t r a i n t s p r o d u c i n g t h e m a l c o n t e n t p o s i t i o n . In Hegel's terms, both leaders and the malcontent were locked into oppression. T h i s f i n d i n g w a s n o t i n c l u d e d in t h e a c a d e m i c r e s e a r c h r e p o r t b e c a u s e t h e f i n d i n g w a s " o u t s i d e " t h e b o u n d s of t h e t h e o r y o f i n t e r e s t . A f e m i n i s t s t a n d ­ point analysis would e x a m i n e these subject (or object) positions as sociali­ zation outcomes and draw on the experiences to provide a stronger analysis of t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e r e l a t e d d i s c o u r s e s t h a t p r o d u c e a n d s u s t a i n t h e p o s i t i o n . R e p o r t s of r e s i s t a n c e s t r a t e g i e s ( e . g . , s t o c k p i l i n g o l d e r v e r s i o n s of f o r m s s o t h a t t h e o l d e r v e r s i o n c o u l d b e u s e d l o n g e r in t h e f a c e o f a less desirable n e w e r version) and their implications w o u l d be the focus of s u c h a n a l y s e s . W e c o u l d a s k , H o w is it t h a t s o m e s o c i a l i z a t i o n e x p e r i ­ e n c e s r e s u l t in t h e s e o u t s i d e r s w i t h i n ? H o w a r e t h e i r r e s i s t a n c e s t r a n s f o r m a ­ tive? T h i r d , a n a l y s e s of t h e p r o c e s s e s t h a t s u s t a i n t h e c o n t a i n e r a n d t h e b o u n d ­ aries should be examined. For example, Stout's (1995) study serendipit­ ously identified exclusionary practices that served to maintain both internal­

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e x t e r n a l b o u n d a r i e s a n d b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n t h e p e r i p h e r y a n d c e n t e r of an organization. Buzzanell (1994) also suggests that organizational discourse and structure exclude w o m e n through socialization practices and organiza­ tional opportunities, respectively. Buzzanell and G o l d z w i g (1991) identified s t r a t e g i e s s u c h as m y t h i c a l a l t e r n a t i v e c a r e e r t r a c k s t h r o u g h w h i c h i n t e r n a l barriers are maintained. Considerable literatures on e m p l o y m e n t interviewing ( J a b l i n , 1987) a n d c a r e e r d e v e l o p m e n t ( B u z z a n e l l & G o l d z w i g , 1 9 9 1 ) e x i s t , y e t v e r y little r e s e a r c h e x a m i n e s i n t e r v i e w i n g a n d c a r e e r d e v e l o p m e n t as boundary maintenance. 4

Finally, by identifying this implicit assumption, alternatives can be consid­ e r e d in t h e f u t u r e . S o c i a l i z a t i o n s c h o l a r s m a y p u r s u e a d e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e containment assumption. Forward and Scheerhorn (1996) suggest that con­ s i d e r i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s as " t h i n g s " e n c o u r a g e s t h e a b s e n c i n g of c h a n g e s in t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d e n v i r o n m e n t as w e l l as i g n o r i n g t h e i d e n t i t y n e g o t i a t i o n p r o ­ c e s s e s i n h e r e n t in s o c i a l i z a t i o n . S t a n d p o i n t f e m i n i s m e n c o u r a g e s a l e n s t h a t f o c u s e s o n t h e p a t t e r n e d d i s c o u r s e (or d i s c u r s i v e f o r m a t i o n s ) , i n s t i t u t i o n s , and institutional arrangements (relationships between h o m e and work) through which power relations maintain dominant-subordinate relationships. B y f o c u s i n g s o l e l y o n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s , t h e s e l a r g e r d i s c u r s i v e for­ m a t i o n s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t s that m a i n t a i n d o m i n a n t - s u b o r d i n a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d s u b j e c t l o c a t i o n s a r e n o t as o b v i o u s as t h e y a r e w h e n c o n ­ tainers are not visible. W e can understand h o w analytically relying on bounded entities submerges larger dynamics. For example, whiteness (e.g., Friedman, 1995; N a k a y a m a & Krizek, 1995), the market (e.g., M a n d e r & Goldsmith, 1996), and discourses about work (Clair, 1996) transcend orga­ n i z a t i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s a n d f u n c t i o n to m a i n t a i n d o m i n a n t - s u b o r d i n a t e r e l a ­ tionships. Although these dynamics operate within particular organizations, neither their existence nor their important impacts on c o n t e m p o r a r y contexts are evident when socialization research focuses primarily on organizational boundaries. B y f o c u s i n g o n t h e s e l a r g e r d y n a m i c s , it is p o s s i b l e to d i f f e r e n t i a t e b e ­ t w e e n " o u t s i d e r s " w h o d o n o t m a k e it i n t o o n e p a r t i c u l a r o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d t h o s e w h o n e v e r s u c c e s s f u l l y w o r k o r p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e m a r k e t . W e a r e a b l e to identify t h o s e w h o a r e m o r e p e r m a n e n t l y s o c i a l i z e d to i n h a b i t o b j e c t p o s i ­ tions and their oppositional resistances. For e x a m p l e , migrant w o r k e r s are e s s e n t i a l to t h e c u r r e n t m a r k e t a r r a n g e m e n t s , b u t w h e n o p p o s i t i o n a l c o n ­ s c i o u s n e s s is g e n e r a t e d , s t r u g g l e e n s u e s . S e g u r a ( 1 9 9 4 ) t r a c k e d t h e s o c i a l i z a ­ tion of C h i c a n a a n d M e x i c a n i m m i g r a n t w o m e n as t h e y w e r e c h a n n e l e d t h r o u g h t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s i n t o t h e l o w e s t - l e v e l j o b s in t e r m s of b o t h p a y a n d s t a t u s . T h e g l o b a l p r a c t i c e s of e x p u n g i n g i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e , a n i m a l s p e c i e s , a n d t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d in t h e n a m e of d e v e l o p m e n t a n d t h e m a r k e t a r e n o t w i t h i n t h e p u r v i e w of j o i n i n g p a r t i c u l a r o r g a n i z a t i o n s . Y e t an u n d e r s t a n d i n g

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of h o w s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s e s p r o d u c e s u b j e c t s w h o a r e w i l l i n g p a r t i c i p a n t s in s u c h p r a c t i c e s is w i t h i n t h e " b o u n d a r i e s " o f s o c i a l i z a t i o n r e s e a r c h .

From Phase Models to Linear, Universal Trajectories Researchers from a feminist standpoint identify three p r i m a r y c o n c e r n s with phase models. First and foremost, the " u n i v e r s a l i z i n g " a s s u m p t i o n that s p e c i f i c , l i n e a r , m a l e p a t t e r n s p e r t a i n g e n e r a l l y to t h e p o p u l a t i o n is p r o b l e m ­ atic. Phases that describe trajectories through w h i c h s o m e p e o p l e pass are a s s u m e d to be such g o o d descriptions of m o s t p e o p l e ' s e x p e r i e n c e s that alter­ native trajectories are not considered. Second, phases are overly abstract and d o n o t d e r i v e d i r e c t l y f r o m l i v e d e x p e r i e n c e s . T h i r d , t h e y a r e a s s u m e d to b e neutral, objective, and apolitical phenomena. Jablin (1987) contends that, Although variability certainly exists, it is probably reasonable to estimate that most people spend between thirty and forty years of their lives working in occupa­ tions within some form of organizational s e t t i n g . . . . The experience of entering, becoming assimilated into, and exiting work organizations is a quite common phe­ nomenon in our society, (p. 679) In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e r e is an a s s u m p t i o n t h a t b e c a u s e " m o s t " p e o p l e in " o u r " s o c i e t y a r e i n v o l v e d in t h i s p h e n o m e n o n , it is w o r t h y o f o u r a t t e n t i o n . T h o s e w h o differ a r e s i m p l y i r r e l e v a n t to t h i s m o d e l . B y s u p e r f i c i a l l y c o n s i d e r i n g w h o m i g h t be irrelevant here, w e see that the e x c l u d e d " v a r i a b i l i t y " is often m a d e u p of s u b o r d i n a t e d g r o u p s a n d p r o c e s s e s . T r a d i t i o n a l w o m e n ' s w o r k (i.e., p e r f o r m e d for u s e r a t h e r t h a n e x c h a n g e ) is e x c l u d e d . H o m e w o r k e r s in cottage industries are excluded. Presumably, volunteer organizations, c o m ­ m u n i t y efforts s u c h a s m u t u a l d a y c a r e g r o u p s , a n d p e o p l e a n d " o t h e r " s o c i e t ­ ies a r e r e n d e r e d i n v i s i b l e b y b e i n g s u b s u m e d in t h e p h r a s e " c e r t a i n l y , variability exists." Clearly, no one model can " s e e " every society, process, g r o u p , o r t y p e of o r g a n i z a t i o n , b u t w e p o i n t o u t t h a t f e m i n i s t v i e w s f o c u s o n p h e n o m e n a that are invisible from traditional views. W h e n the absent referent is e m p l o y e d , t h e s e p h e n o m e n a a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t to r e v e a l . F e m i n i s t s h a v e p r i m a r i l y a d d r e s s e d t h e m o d e l f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e s of white middle-class w o r k i n g w o m e n w h o are m e m b e r s of " o u r s o c i e t y . " Bateson (1989) depicts middle-class w o m e n ' s lives as frequently upended a n d o u t of t h e i r c o n t r o l w h e n t h e y e x p e r i e n c e d i s r u p t i o n s b e c a u s e of t h e i r h u s ­ band' s career changes. These w o m e n , then, would not expect to follow devel­ opmental patterns because they are positioned differently than m e n are. T h e l i n e a r i t y i n h e r e n t in t h i s m o d e l h a s b e e n i d e n t i f i e d as o n e t h a t e x c l u d e s t h e f e m i n i n e a n d p o s i t i o n s w o m e n in d o u b l e b i n d s ( B u z z a n e l l , 1 9 9 4 ) .

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Englebrecht (1994) succinctly s u m m a r i z e s phase a s s u m p t i o n s from a femi­ nist s t a n d p o i n t p e r s p e c t i v e w h e n s h e c l a i m s that " t h e m o d e l u s e d t o d e p i c t t h e w o m a n ' s e x p e r i e n c e is a m a l e - b a s e d m o d e l " ( p . 6 ) . W o m e n ' s e x p e r i e n c e s , s h e i l l u s t r a t e s , are n o t r e p r e s e n t e d in s o c i a l i z a t i o n p h a s e m o d e l s . E n g l e b r e c h t s h o w s that, e v e n for w o m e n w h o d o e n t e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s as w o r k e r s , t h e s o c i a l ­ i z a t i o n p r o c e s s m a y b e t t e r b e d e s c r i b e d as a g a m e of " b l i n d m a n ' s b l u f f ' ( p . 7 ) in w h i c h w o m e n a r e w e a r i n g b l i n d f o l d s a n d e a r p l u g s . In t h i s g a m e , t h e c l e a r l y d e f i n e d s t e p s of s t a g e m o d e l s are n o t v i s i b l e , a n d c l u e s a r e n o t d e r i v e d from o t h e r p l a y e r s . E n g l e b r e c h t ( 1 9 9 4 ) c l a i m s that m a n y w o m e n s i m p l y d o n o t m o v e t h r o u g h s o c i a l i z a t i o n s t a g e s . I n s t e a d , t h e y m o v e t h r o u g h a c o n t i n u o u s p r o c e s s of b e i n g m a r k e d as o t h e r a n d e x c l u d e d . E n g l e b r e c h t t r a c e s t h i s e x c l u s i o n a r y p r o ­ cess through anticipatory socialization, organizational assimilation, meta­ m o r p h o s i s , a n d e x i t . W o m e n l e a r n to e x p e c t to e n g a g e in w o m e n ' s w o r k throughout their childhood and adolescence. As they enter organizations, they are p o s i t i o n e d as o r g a n i z a t i o n a l w i v e s (Huff, 1 9 9 0 , as c i t e d in B u z z a n e l l , 1994) a n d faced w i t h s e x u a l h a r a s s m e n t ( e . g . , W o o d , 1 9 9 2 b ) , g l a s s c e i l i n g s ( e . g . , B u z z a n e l l , 1 9 9 5 ) , a n d m u l t i p l e , less o v e r t e x c l u s i o n s . W o m e n a r e often n e v e r fully a s s i m i l a t e d . I n s t e a d , t h e y l e a r n t o c o p e a n d sometimes develop standpoints. W o m e n ' s s u b m e r g e d discussions of the u n d i s c u s s a b l e function to h e l p w o m e n l e a r n to o p e r a t e as " o u t s i d e r s w i t h i n . " F o r e x a m p l e , p r o f e s s i o n a l w o m e n a r e often d i s c o u r a g e d f r o m d i s c u s s i n g t h e i r c h i l d r e n . In this w a y , w o m e n ' s r e p r o d u c t i v e r o l e s a n d i m p o r t a n t life e x p e r i ­ ences are dismissed and remain invisible and devalued. Englebrecht (1994) a d v o c a t e s t h e o p e n i n g of this c o n v e r s a t i o n to c r e a t e c h a n g e . T h e h i s t o r y of s e x u a l h a r a s s m e n t s i m i l a r l y i n c l u d e s t h e s h a r i n g of e x p e r i e n c e s , t h e d e v e l o p ­ m e n t of o p p o s i t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a n d t h e c o l l e c t i v e p r e s s u r e t o c r e a t e l e g a l and policy c h a n g e s (Cornelius, 1998). M a r s h a l l ( 1 9 9 3 ) a n d M i l w i d ( 1 9 9 2 ) , like E n g l e b r e c h t , d e s c r i b e h o w t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s from m a r g i n a l i z e d p o s i t i o n s as p r o f e s s i o n a l w h i t e w o m e n w i t h i n institutions contradict and challenge the universal stage assumptions. M a r s h a l l ( 1 9 9 3 ) i n t e r r o g a t e d an e s t a b l i s h e d n o t i o n of E a s t e r n a n d W e s t e r n c u l t u r e s a s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , d e n s e a n d thin from h e r s t a n d p o i n t a s a w o m a n in a W e s t e r n a c a d e m i c c u l t u r e . S h e i l l u s t r a t e d that, f r o m h e r s t a n d p o i n t , t h i s s u p ­ p o s e d l y thin c u l t u r e w a s v e r y d e n s e . S i m i l a r l y , M i l w i d ( 1 9 9 2 ) d e s c r i b e d h e r o w n as w e l l a s o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l w o m e n ' s s t o r i e s a b o u t w o r k i n g w i t h m e n . B y l i s t e n i n g to s t o r i e s from 125 p r o f e s s i o n a l w o m e n , s h e i d e n t i f i e d a n d d e ­ s c r i b e d s u b t l e p r o c e s s e s that s e r v e d to k e e p w o m e n as p e r p e t u a l o u t s i d e r s . S t o r i e s i n c l u d e d e a r l y g e n d e r s o c i a l i z a t i o n , l a c k of t r a i n i n g , i n f o r m a l n e t ­ works, sexual harassment, and power dynamics. By revealing these patterns, s h e w a s a b l e to offer a d v i c e t o w o m e n w h o s e e k t o o v e r c o m e t h e s e m a r ­ ginalized positions (Stout, 1997). Allen (1995a, 1996, 1998a, this v o l u m e ) d e s c r i b e s h e r e x p e r i e n c e s as a b l a c k w o m a n , s h o w i n g that r a c e i n t e r s e c t s w i t h

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g e n d e r to p r o d u c e u n i q u e e x p e r i e n c e s . T h e s e a u t h o r s c o n t r a d i c t a n d c h a l ­ lenge the universal stage assumptions. F r o m these voices, previously unex­ a m i n e d m a r g i n a l i z e d " o t h e r s " e m e r g e a s r e l e v a n t to s o c i a l i z a t i o n r e s e a r c h . E n g l e b r e c h t ( 1 9 9 4 ) c l a i m s t h a t , "It s e e m s a l m o s t a b s u r d t o d i s c u s s o r g a n i ­ zational exit from w o m e n ' s perspectives, because w o m e n m a y never c o m ­ p l e t e l y g e t a s s i m i l a t e d t o an o r g a n i z a t i o n " ( p . 14). I n s t e a d , w o m e n o f t e n b e c o m e disillusioned with accepted organizational practices and leave or " m o v e o n " to c r e a t e a l t e r n a t i v e w o r k s i t u a t i o n s ( M a r s h a l l , 1 9 9 5 ) . H o w e v e r , v e r y little r e s e a r c h h a s f o c u s e d o n t h e l e a v i n g p r o c e s s . It is a s t h o u g h w e , a s a c o m m u n i t y of s c h o l a r s , p r e f e r to a d o p t a " h a p p i l y e v e r a f t e r " m y t h , s u g g e s t ­ i n g t h a t p e o p l e e n t e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d s t a y w i t h t h e m for " f u l l " c a r e e r s ( i . e . , c a r e e r s that i n c l u d e r e t i r e m e n t ) . W e s h o u l d p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e m o d e l e n c o u r ­ a g e s t h e s t u d y of t h e e x i t p r o c e s s b y i n c l u d i n g e x i t as an e x p l i c i t p r o c e s s . Y e t t h e b o d y of r e s e a r c h u s i n g t h e m o d e l h a s t y p i c a l l y i g n o r e d t h i s s t a g e . 5

T h e h i g h l e v e l o f a b s t r a c t i o n is a f u r t h e r , r e l a t e d o b s e r v a t i o n . T h e p h a s e s a r e a b s t r a c t e n o u g h that t h e i r d e s c r i p t i o n s n e c e s s a r i l y o b s c u r e s p e c i f i c s i t u ­ a t e d l i v e d e x p e r i e n c e s . E x p e r i e n c e s of t h e l o w e r c l a s s e s , p e o p l e of c o l o r , a n d w o m e n may be particularly poorly represented (see Allen, 1996). W a r i n g ( 1 9 8 8 ) , in h e r a n a l y s i s of w o m e n ' s i n v i s i b i l i t y in t h e g l o b a l e c o n o m i c s y s t e m , d e s c r i b e s t h e w o r k l i v e s of w o m e n ( a n d g i r l s ) in p a r t i c u l a r s u b s i s t e n c e e c o n o ­ m i e s in w h i c h w o r k d o e s n o t e n t a i l a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h an e m p l o y i n g o r g a n i z a ­ tion. She begins her book with a descriptive contrast of m e n ' s and w o m e n ' s w o r k . S h e d e s c r i b e s a m a n w h o s e ( p a i d ) " w o r k " is to sit in a m i s s i l e s i l o for 8 h o u r s e a c h d a y a n d a y o u n g t e e n a g e w o m a n w h o is d e f i n e d as " n o t " w o r k i n g as s h e s p e n d s 16 h o u r s e a c h d a y w a l k i n g to r e t r i e v e w o o d , w a t e r , a n d f o o d t h a t s h e u s e s to c o o k a n d c l e a n to s u s t a i n h e r f a m i l y . H o w e v e r , it is i m p o r t a n t to a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t e x c l u s i o n s v a r y b y c o n t e x t . E x c l u s i o n s a r e often d i r e c t e d at t h e f e m i n i n e r a t h e r t h a n at b i o l o g i c a l f e m a l e s . F o r e x a m p l e , b i o l o g i s t s in t h e f o r e s t e r - d o m i n a t e d U . S . F o r e s t S e r v i c e h a v e l o n g b e e n m a r g i n a l i z e d . B e c a u s e of t h e i r e m p h a s i s o n " b i o t i c c o m m u n i t i e s " a n d " w e b s of l i f e , " t h e i r v o i c e s r e p r e s e n t e d u n w e l c o m e c r i t i c i s m s of t h e m o r e traditional (patriarchal) practices of "tree h a r v e s t i n g . " W h e n "tree f a r m s " are g r o w n for h a r v e s t i n g , f o r e s t r y is a r a t i o n a l p r a c t i c e in w h i c h p l a n n i n g a n d technology produce predetermined results. W h e n the c o m p l e x ecological sys­ t e m s that s u s t a i n t r e e s , a n i m a l s , c l e a n air, h e a l t h y s o i l s , a n d w a t e r s h e d s a r e m a d e v i s i b l e , t h e h a r m f u l u n d e r s i d e of p a t r i a r c h a l f o r e s t r y p r a c t i c e is e x p o s e d a n d t h e i r r a t i o n a l i t y of t h e h i s t o r i c a l p r a c t i c e s b e c o m e s e v i d e n t . T h e p r e s u m e d u n i v e r s a l i t y a n d t h e a b s t r a c t l e v e l of d e s c r i p t i o n a r e r e l a t e d to p h a s e a s s u m p t i o n s of n e u t r a l i t y . T h e p h a s e s a r e p r e s e n t e d a s t h o u g h t h e y are simply neutral, objective descriptions derived from a neutral o b s e r v a t i o n . H o w e v e r , as B u z z a n e l l ( 1 9 9 4 ) p o i n t s o u t , n o t h e o r i z i n g is n e u t r a l . I n s t e a d , t h e p r e s u m e d n e u t r a l i t y s e r v e s to m a s k t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f m a s c u l i n e , p a t r i a r c h a l a s s u m p t i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , as w e s u m m a r i z e d a b o v e , p h a s e m o d e l s e x c l u d e

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w o m e n ' s d e v e l o p m e n t a l t r a j e c t o r i e s a n d a r e t h e r e b y of p o l i t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e . Phase model assumptions, then, preserve patriarchal arrangements and ignore subordinated lives. T h u s , from a feminist standpoint view, m u c h of what n e e d s to b e e x a m i n e d is i g n o r e d .

From Newcomers' Experiences and

Strategies to Newcomers' Complicity

F e m i n i s t s t a n d p o i n t t h e o r y q u e s t i o n s t h e facile a s s u m p t i o n t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s and organizations mutually influence one another. A s this assumption e v o l v e d , s c h o l a r s b e g a n to e x a m i n e i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r i e n c e s in g r e a t e r d e t a i l . W e d e s c r i b e d t h i s t r e n d e a r l i e r in t h i s c h a p t e r . A l t h o u g h t h i s e x a m i n a t i o n w a s v i e w e d as an e q u a l i z i n g m o v e in s e e k i n g to u n d e r s t a n d t h e i n d i v i d u a l a s w e l l as t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h e f o c u s o n i n d i v i d u a l a g e n c y d r e w a t t e n t i o n a w a y f r o m the unequal relationships inherent between organizations and individuals (Forward & Scheerhorn, 1996; T o m p k i n s & Cheney, 1985) and between d o m i n a n t s a n d n o n d o m i n a n t s . S e e k i n g to identify t h e w a y s in w h i c h s u c h relationships are reproduced and/or challenged through socialization, stand­ p o i n t f e m i n i s m e n c o u r a g e s l i n k i n g e x p e r i e n c e s a n d s t r a t e g i e s to t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s in w h i c h t h e y a r e e m b e d d e d . T h i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t for the increasing proportion of temporary workers (see O ' C o n n e l l & L o u i s , 1997) w h o m a y b e m a r g i n a l i z e d p e r s i s t e n t l y . H o w e v e r , s o m e t e m p o r a r y w o r k e r s , m a k i n g l e m o n a d e o u t of l e m o n s , f o c u s o n m a n a g i n g t h e i r o w n c a r e e r s r a t h e r t h a n r e m a i n i n g c o m p l i c i t in t h e i r m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n . T h e e x a m i ­ n a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l a g e n c y m a y b e s h a p e d to e n c o u r a g e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l s t a n d p o i n t s r a t h e r t h a n to s i m p l y r e i n s c r i b e u n e x a m i n e d a s s u m p t i o n s of i n d i v i d u a l a g e n c y .

Socialization Research A s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , t h e b u l k of t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n r e s e a r c h is g r o u n d e d in t h e a s s u m p t i o n s w e h a v e d i s c u s s e d a n d is d e s i g n e d to i d e n t i f y l i n k a g e s b e ­ tween socialization processes and o u t c o m e s . F r o m a traditional view, this re­ s e a r c h h a s s e r v e d to i n c r e a s e o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of w h a t k i n d s of p r o c e s s e s a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a v a r i e t y of b e t t e r s o c i a l i z a t i o n o u t c o m e s , o r w h a t w e m i g h t m o s t g e n e r a l l y c a l l p e r s o n - o r g a n i z a t i o n fit ( H e s s , 1 9 9 3 ) . O u r e a r l i e r s a m p l i n g of t h i s b o d y of r e s e a r c h i l l u s t r a t e d t h i s a p p r o a c h a n d t h e k n o w l e d g e g e n e r a t e d f r o m its a p p l i c a t i o n to e x p a n d o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f r o m o u t s i d e r to i n s i d e r . H e r e w e t u r n to a s t a n d p o i n t f e m i n i s t p e r s p e c t i v e to p r o ­ vide some contrast. F r o m a s t a n d p o i n t p e r s p e c t i v e , t h i s b o d y of w o r k is c r i t i c i z e d in t w o p r i ­ m a r y w a y s . F i r s t , it is i n t e r p r e t e d for its e x c l u s i o n s . S e c o n d , it is e x a m i n e d for

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its a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t k n o w l e d g e a n d k n o w l e d g e p r o d u c t i o n . A f t e r s u m m a ­ rizing these standpoint critiques, we e x a m i n e a particular research case by w a y of i l l u s t r a t i o n .

Exclusions T o i d e n t i f y a w i d e r r a n g e of s t a n d p o i n t s , m o r e fully u n d e r s t a n d t h e s o c i a l ­ i z a t i o n c o n t e x t s that p r o d u c e s u b j e c t i v i t i e s , a n d e x a m i n e t h e p o l i t i c a l n a t u r e of s o c i a l i z a t i o n , w e n e e d to i d e n t i f y a b s e n c e s . H e r e , w e f o c u s o n l y o n t h e m o s t o b v i o u s a b s e n c e s . W e turn first to a b s e n c e d g r o u p s o f p e o p l e , c o n s i d e r ­ ing r a c e , c l a s s , a n d g e n d e r . N e x t , w e t u r n to t h e p r o c e s s e s o f e x c l u s i o n a n d resistance. Finally, w e briefly return to the kinds of g r o u p s and " w o r k " that a r e i g n o r e d . A t its m o s t b a s i c l e v e l , t h i s is a s t r a t e g y o f " m e r e " a d d i n g ( i . e . , considering g r o u p s and processes that have not yet been c o n s i d e r e d but con­ sidering t h e m through the same concepts that have traditionally been studied). H o w e v e r , j u s t as the addition of " o t h e r s " can c h a n g e o r g a n i z a t i o n s (Bach, 1990a), such additions can reformulate our u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of socialization given that their locations, e x p e r i e n c e s , and standpoints m a y differ from those in p a s t s t u d i e s . For the most part, class and race are not reported, considered, or theorized in s o c i a l i z a t i o n r e s e a r c h ( s e e A n d e r s o n & T h o m a s , 1 9 9 6 ; F a l c i o n e & W i l s o n , 1988; Feldman, 1989; Forward & S c h e e r h o m , 1996; Jablin, 1987). Both go u n m e n t i o n e d a n d a r e t h e r e b y e r a s e d . C l a s s is t y p i c a l l y i g n o r e d e x c e p t in r a r e treatments of specific occupations. S o m e occupations and types of o r g a n i z a ­ tions may implicitly index class. H o w e v e r , a s a m p l i n g of the literature illustrates that o c c u p a t i o n s and orga­ n i z a t i o n s a r e often r e p o r t e d b u t n o t f u r t h e r i n t e r p r e t e d o r c o n s i d e r e d ( B a r k e r & T o m p k i n s , 1994; DiSanza, 1995; Ferraris, Carveth, & Parrish-Sprowl, 1 9 9 3 ; P r i b b l e , 1 9 9 0 ; S t o h l , 1 9 8 6 ) . I n s t e a d , t h e o c c u p a t i o n is t r e a t e d a s an obligatory and unexamined demographic variable. Interpretations are not o c c u p a t i o n a l l y s p e c i f i c . R a t h e r , o c c u p a t i o n is i m p l i c i t l y a s s u m e d t o h a v e n o effect o n m o r e u n i v e r s a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s o c i a l i z a t i o n p a t t e r n s ( s e e A l l e n & Meyer, 1990; Hackett, Bycio, & Hausdorf, 1994; Jablin, 1984; Jones, 1986; O s t r o f f & K o z l o w s k i , 1 9 9 2 , 1 9 9 3 ; S a s s & C a n a r y , 1 9 9 1 ) . T h i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y t r o u b l i n g w h e n t h e t y p e of o c c u p a t i o n is u n i q u e at face v a l u e , s u c h a s g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s as a n o r g a n i z a t i o n ( B u l l i s & B a c h , 1 9 8 9 b ) . 6

O c c a s i o n a l l y , r a c e is r e p o r t e d b u t n o t t h e o r i z e d b e c a u s e r a c e is n o t s p e c i f i ­ c a l l y e x a m i n e d for t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h e s t u d y ( s e e B a r k e r & T o m p k i n s , 1 9 9 4 ; D i S a n z a , 1 9 9 3 , 1 9 9 5 ) . A l l e n a n d S a n d i n e ( 1 9 9 6 ) a r e a n e x c e p t i o n to t h i s . T h e y treat race as a key question, focusing on the sense m a k i n g and experi­ e n c e s t h a t s t u d e n t s of c o l o r h a d d u r i n g t h e i r c o l l e g e c a r e e r s . T h e y p o s i t t h a t understanding these m e m b e r s ' socialization processes may assist a c a d e m y

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m e m b e r s in h e l p i n g t h e s e s t u d e n t s c o m p l e t e t h e i r c o l l e g e c a r e e r s . S u c h k n o w l e d g e c o u l d h e l p us c r e a t e o r i e n t a t i o n p r o g r a m s as w e l l as a d d to o u r r e ­ s e a r c h . T e b o u l ( 1 9 9 5 ) c a l l s for careful e x a m i n a t i o n s of t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n s of gender, race, and socialization. Jackson, Stone, and Alvarez (1992) recognize that o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e offers little g u i d a n c e for " m a n a g i n g d i v e r s i t y " w h e n c o n c e r n s a b o u t w o m e n ' s a n d m i n o r i t i e s ' e x p e r i e n c e s in t h e w o r k p l a c e a r e i n c r e a s i n g . T h e a u t h o r s p r o v i d e a f r a m e w o r k for s t u d y i n g s o c i a l i z a t i o n in d i v e r s e p o p u l a t i o n s . T h e " d e m o g r a p h i c " v a r i a b l e s affect t h e b e h a v i o r a l , a f f e c t i v e , a n d c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s t h a t a r e a p a r t of s o c i a l i z a t i o n . L o v e l a c e a n d R o s e n ( 1 9 9 6 ) f u r t h e r p r o b e r a c e by e x a m i n i n g d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g d i v e r s e managers. S i m i l a r l y , s e x a n d g e n d e r a r e often n o t r e p o r t e d . M o r e o f t e n t h a n c l a s s a n d r a c e , b i o l o g i c a l sex is r e p o r t e d as a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of p a r t i c i p a n t s ( e . g . , C h a o , O ' L e a r y - K e l l y , Wolf, Klein, & Gardner, 1994; Clark & C o r c o r a n , 1986; C r o w & G l a s c o c k , 1 9 9 5 ; H a c k e t t et al., 1 9 9 4 ; J a b l i n , 1 9 8 4 ; J o r g e n s e n - E a r p & Staton, 1993;Ostroff & K o z l o w s k i , 1993; Sass & Canary, 1991;Stohl, 1986). H o w e v e r , g e n d e r is n o t c o n s i d e r e d , t h e o r i z e d , o r i n t e r p r e t e d a s an i n t e g r a l a s p e c t of s o c i a l i z a t i o n in m o s t s o c i a l i z a t i o n s t u d i e s . In t h i s w a y , g e n d e r is s e e m i n g l y a c k n o w l e d g e d b u t o n l y as it is s t e r e o t y p i c a l l y i d e n t i f i e d w i t h s e x , a n d , e v e n t h e n , it is n o t c o n s i d e r e d as m o r e t h a n a d e m o g r a p h i c v a r i a b l e . I r o n i c a l l y , sex a n d g e n d e r a r e e r a s e d w h e n sex is r e p o r t e d . A f e w s t u d i e s s p e c i f i c a l l y e x a m i n e g e n d e r as a v a r i a b l e . W h i l e t h i s is c o m ­ m o n l y e s c h e w e d b y p o s t m o d e r n p e r s p e c t i v e s ( M u m b y , 1 9 9 6 ) , it is o n e w a y in w h i c h t r a d i t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e s a r e a d a p t e d t o " s e e " (if n o t " h e a r " ) w o m e n . M a s o n a n d M u d r a c k ( 1 9 9 6 ) d i s c o v e r e d g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s in e t h i c a l o r i e n t a ­ tion a m o n g e m p l o y e d p e o p l e , w i t h w o m e n a p p e a r i n g " m o r e e t h i c a l . " C o n ­ trary to e x p e c t a t i o n s , t h e r e w e r e n o g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g t h o s e n o t employed. Reynolds (1992) focused on h o w gender affected the experiences of j u n i o r f a c u l t y . R e y n o l d s a r g u e s that " g e n d e r i z a t i o n " e n c o u r a g e s m a l e s a n d f e m a l e s to h a v e different w o r l d v i e w s of s o c i a l i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e a n d t h a t t h i s d i f f e r e n c e affects t h e i r s o c i a l i z a t i o n e x p e r i e n c e s . T h r o u g h a s e r i e s of five c a s e s t u d i e s , R e y n o l d s f o u n d that w o r l d v i e w t y p e m o r e c l o s e l y g o v e r n e d socialization experiences than gender did. H o w e v e r , she does argue that gen­ der may shape newcomer experiences, with w o m e n reflecting m o r e on accul­ t u r a t i o n e x p e r i e n c e s t h a n m e n d o . In e s s e n c e , this f i n d i n g s u g g e s t s t h a t w h i t e m e n e x p e c t to b e fully i n t e g r a t e d as they j o i n o r g a n i z a t i o n s , w h e r e a s w h i t e w o m e n a n d p e o p l e of c o l o r e x p e c t to b e m a r g i n a l i z e d — t h e r e f o r e t h e y m o r e c a r e f u l l y m a k e s e n s e of t h e i r s o c i a l i z a t i o n e x p e r i e n c e s . S o m e p r o c e s s e s a r e a l s o i g n o r e d in f a v o r of o t h e r s . A l t h o u g h p r o c e s s e s t h a t are t h e o r e t i c a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s u c c e s s f u l s o c i a l i z a t i o n a r e e x a m i n e d , o r g a ­ n i z a t i o n s a l s o e n g a g e in e x c l u s i o n a r y p r o c e s s e s to e n s u r e t h a t s u c c e s s f u l socialization does not take place (Stout, 1995, 1997; T a k a h a s h i , 1997). Other less i n t e n t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s m a y s e r v e to s i m i l a r l y e x c l u d e . M o r e o v e r , t h e u n i n ­

Organizational

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tentional and intentional strategies and processes through which people resist s o c i a l i z a t i o n a r e i g n o r e d in s o c i a l i z a t i o n r e s e a r c h . M o r e subtly, the processes examined may be those from which w o m e n are excluded. For example, Milwid (1992), Marshall (1993), and B u o n o and K a m m ( 1 9 8 3 ) i l l u s t r a t e t h a t w o m e n a r e often e x c l u d e d f r o m i n f o r m a l n e t ­ w o r k s e v e n t h o u g h s u c h n e t w o r k s p r o v i d e a c c e s s to i m p o r t a n t s o c i a l i z a t i o n through informal peer interaction. Exclusion from these networks m a y pre­ c l u d e p a r t i c i p a t i o n in m a n y o t h e r s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s e s s u c h a s i n f o r m a t i o n seeking, informal socialization strategies, and relationship development. I b a r r a ( 1 9 9 2 , 1 9 9 5 ) f o u n d t h a t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d s t r u c t u r e of m a n a g e r i a l n e t w o r k s a r e i n f l u e n c e d b y g e n d e r a n d r a c e . N e t w o r k c o n f i g u r a t i o n s in t u r n affect c a r e e r b e n e f i t s . G e n d e r a n d r a c i a l d i f f e r e n c e s in n e t w o r k c o n f i g u r a ­ t i o n s r e s u l t in t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l a l l o c a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l a n d p o s i t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s t h a t w o r k to c r e a t e a n d r e i n f o r c e g e n d e r a n d r a c i a l i n e q u a l i t i e s in t h e o r g a n i ­ z a t i o n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of p o w e r . P e r h a p s m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l , in an effort to i d e n t i f y t h o s e p r o c e s s e s a n d practices associated with successful socialization, the concepts and m e t h o d s e m p l o y e d i n h e r e n t l y rely o n a b s e n t r e f e r e n t s . T h e e m p h a s i s o n s u c c e s s f u l processes and outcomes necessarily implies unsuccessful processes and out­ c o m e s . For e x a m p l e , w h e n studies s h o w that a particular set of socialization s t r a t e g i e s is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s u c c e s s f u l o u t c o m e s , t h e s t u d i e s h a v e m e a s u r e d o u t c o m e s t h a t a r e b o t h s u c c e s s f u l a n d u n s u c c e s s f u l . Y e t t h e l a c k of s u c c e s s and the concomitant less-socialized newcomers are not interpreted and dis­ c u s s e d . I n s t e a d , l i k e t h o s e w h o r e m a i n o n t h e " o u t s i d e , " t h e y a r e n e c e s s a r y to t h e c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n , m e a s u r e m e n t , a n d c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t w h a t is s u c c e s s ­ ful b u t g o u n a c k n o w l e d g e d . I n c r e a s e d a t t e n t i o n to o u t c o m e s s u c h a s a l i e n ­ ation and a n o m i e (Hess, 1993) and stress (DiSanza, 1995; Tetrick & L a R o c c o , 1 9 8 7 ) is w a r r a n t e d . M o r e o v e r , t h e s t u d y o f c r i t i c a l s t a n d p o i n t s s h o u l d s e r v e to b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d o p p r e s s i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s as w e l l as r e s i s t a n c e a n d c h a n g e . In s u m , b y i g n o r i n g r a c e , c l a s s , g e n d e r , o c c u p a t i o n , t y p e o f o r g a n i z a t i o n , context, exclusionary processes, and m a n y o u t c o m e s , the particulars and a s s o c i a t e d p o l i t i c s of h u m a n a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l life a r e e r a s e d in f a v o r of a u n i v e r s a l , a b s t r a c t e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g of " t h e " n e w c o m e r b e i n g s o c i a l i z e d i n t o " t h e " o r g a n i z a t i o n . C o n t e x t u a l f a c t o r s that d i f f e r e n t i a t e e x p e r i e n c e s a n d s t a n d p o i n t s a r e a b s e n c e d . F o r e x a m p l e , p a y , l e v e l of b o r e d o m , c o n t r o l , s a f e t y , health, m e a n i n g , and general working conditions are ignored. F r o m a feminist s t a n d p o i n t p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e f r e q u e n t e x c l u s i o n of c o n t e x t u a l i z e d h u m a n e x p e ­ r i e n c e s in f a v o r of t h e m e a s u r e m e n t of r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n v a r i a b l e s m e a n s that it is t y p i c a l l y difficult to u n d e r s t a n d t h e e x p e r i e n c e s , c o n t e x t s , a n d d i s ­ c o u r s e s that p r o d u c e t h e e x p e r i e n c e s a n d t h e s t a n d p o i n t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e x p e r i e n c e s . In o t h e r w o r d s , p o l i t i c s a r e s e e m i n g l y a b s e n c e d . W e t u r n n o w to a f e m i n i s t s t a n d p o i n t p e r s p e c t i v e o n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e to a d d r e s s this s e c o n d m a j o r p o i n t . 7

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A Feminist Standpoint Critique of Research Processes In g e n e r a l , r e s e a r c h p r o c e s s e s a r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h r e s e a r c h e r s ' a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t t h e k i n d s of k n o w l e d g e s o u g h t . A f e m i n i s t c r i t i q u e of s o c i a l s c i e n c e r e ­ s e a r c h in g e n e r a l is r e l e v a n t to t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n t h e o r y a n d r e s e a r c h w e h a v e d i s c u s s e d in t h i s c h a p t e r . H o w e v e r , s t a n d p o i n t f e m i n i s m i n s i s t s that t h e k i n d of t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i a l s c i e n c e r e s e a r c h w e h a v e r e v i e w e d h e r e is p r o b l e m a t i c in s e v e r a l w a y s . First, t h e s e a r c h for g e n e r a l , u n i v e r s a l p a t t e r n s is c o n s i d e r e d n o t o n l y futile b u t a w a y of i g n o r i n g i m p o r t a n t u n i q u e p a t t e r n s a n d c o n t e x t s . F o r e x a m p l e , w h i c h g e n e r a l s o c i a l i z a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s lead to w h i c h r o l e o r i e n t a ­ t i o n s is an i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n in s o c i a l i z a t i o n r e s e a r c h . H o w e v e r , f r o m a s t a n d p o i n t f e m i n i s t p e r s p e c t i v e , t h i s k i n d of q u e s t i o n b e g i n s w i t h a s s u m p ­ t i o n s that n o t o n l y a r e o v e r l y a b s t r a c t e d b u t a l s o p e r p e t u a t e i n t e r e s t s of m a n ­ a g e m e n t a n d s c i e n c e . R e l a t e d to t h i s , t h e u s e of b r o a d a b s t r a c t c o n c e p t s t h a t are n e c e s s a r y to c o n s i d e r t h e s e g e n e r a l , u n i v e r s a l p a t t e r n s ( e . g . , t h e g e n e r a l p h a s e m o d e l s d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r ) is a l s o p r o b l e m a t i c . S e c o n d , f e m i n i s t s e s c h e w the a s s u m p t i o n of o b j e c t i v e k n o w l e d g e p r o ­ d u c e d from t h e p o s i t i o n of a n e u t r a l r e s e a r c h e r o r o b s e r v e r . In o t h e r w o r d s , for standpoint feminists, researchers are located within particular contexts and t h e y a p p r o a c h r e s e a r c h w i t h p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t s . S o c i a l i z a t i o n r e s e a r c h is a s p o l i t i c a l l y e m b e d d e d as is s o c i a l i z a t i o n itself. B y a s s u m i n g that k n o w l e d g e is o b j e c t i v e a n d n e u t r a l l y p r o d u c e d , s o c i a l i z a t i o n r e s e a r c h is c l e a r l y l o c a t e d w i t h i n this p r o b l e m a t i c t r a d i t i o n . T h i r d , s t a n d p o i n t f e m i n i s t r e s e a r c h u s e s a c c o u n t s of p e r s o n a l e x p e r i ­ e n c e as d a t a ( S m i t h , 1 9 8 7 a ) . A c c o u n t s a r e a n a l y z e d a n d o r g a n i z e d u s i n g r e l ­ e v a n t t h e o r i e s to a c c o u n t for t h e e x p e r i e n c e s r e p o r t e d ( F o s s & F o s s , 1 9 9 4 ) . F o r f e m i n i s t s t a n d p o i n t s c h o l a r s , r e s e a r c h n e e d s to s e e k t h e a c c o u n t s o f p e r ­ s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s g i v e n by p e o p l e in m a r g i n a l p o s i t i o n s , s u c h a s t h e o u t s i d e r within, providing the essential but invisible resources that sustain the system. F o u r t h , f e m i n i s t s insist o n r e f l e x i v i t y in s c h o l a r s h i p ( F o s s & F o s s , 1 9 9 4 ) . Scholars, then, need to consider their o w n perspectives, interests, and position v i s - a - v i s t h e p a r t i c u l a r s t u d i e s , b u t c o n t i n u e d r e f l e x i v e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of t h e e v o l v i n g b o d i e s of r e s e a r c h a n d t h e o r y a r e a l s o e s s e n t i a l . T r a d i t i o n a l l y , t h i s r e f l e x i v e q u e s t i o n i n g is n o t c o m m o n . F i n a l l y , r e s e a r c h is c o n d u c t e d t o i m p r o v e w o m e n ' s l i v e s b y e n a b l i n g t h e m to m a k e a c t i v e c h o i c e s a b o u t h o w they e n c o u n t e r t h e i r w o r l d s ( F o s s & F o s s , 1 9 9 4 ; S m i t h , 1 9 8 7 b ) . F o s s a n d F o s s p o i n t o u t that t h e r e s e a r c h p r o c e s s itself is e n a b l i n g in that w o m e n h a v e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o s p e a k a b o u t a n d r e f l e c t o n t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s . T h r o u g h i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h f e m i n i s t s c h o l a r s , t h i s selfr e f l e x i v i t y in itself o p e r a t e s to d e v e l o p c r i t i c a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s .

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A c c o r d i n g to t h e s e f e m i n i s t s t a n d a r d s , e x t a n t s o c i a l i z a t i o n r e s e a r c h c l e a r l y is n o t f e m i n i s t in n a t u r e . A l t h o u g h s o m e m e t h o d s o f s t u d y a n d p r e s e n t a t i o n do carefully consider individuals' lives (e.g., Bach, 1990b; D i S a n z a , 1993, 1995), the descriptive/interpretive theories applied typically do not account for t h e s u b j e c t i v i t i e s o r s t a n d p o i n t s d e s c r i b e d o r d e t a i l r e s i s t a n c e . In s u m , a l t h o u g h e x c l u s i o n s a r e an i m p o r t a n t c o n c e r n , a n o t h e r c o n c e r n is t h e p r o d u c ­ t i o n of k n o w l e d g e . W e t u r n n o w t o a m o r e s p e c i f i c c r i t i q u e .

A Standpoint Critique of Turning-Point Research In t h i s s e c t i o n , w e a n a l y z e o n e e x e m p l a r of t h i s r e s e a r c h , o u r o w n t u r n i n g point work, from a standpoint perspective. W e select this particular w o r k for t w o r e a s o n s : (a) Its m e t h o d o l o g y e n a b l e d an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h standpoint theory, though such an interpretation was not developed origi­ n a l l y , a n d ( b ) w e p r e f e r to c r i t i q u e o u r o w n w o r k to p e r s o n a l i z e t h e r e f l e x i v i t y espoused by feminism. 8

In t h e first t u r n i n g - p o i n t s t u d y ( B u l l i s & B a c h , 1 9 8 9 b ) , w e i n t e r v i e w e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s , a s k i n g t h e m to i d e n t i f y t u r n i n g p o i n t s in t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e i r g r a d u a t e d e p a r t m e n t s t h a t l e d t h e m to feel m o r e or less identified with their departments. W e defined identification as feelings of s i m i l a r i t y , m e m b e r s h i p , a n d b e l o n g i n g ( C h e n e y , 1 9 8 3 a ) . W e l i s t e n e d t o full a c c o u n t s of n e w c o m e r s ' r e l a t i o n s h i p s , f o c u s e d o n t h e i r d e t a i l e d e x p r e s ­ sions about each turning point, and heard their narratives linking the individ­ ual t u r n i n g p o i n t s t o g e t h e r i n t o c o m p l e t e s t o r i e s . W e t h e n i d e n t i f i e d a t y p o l o g y of t u r n i n g p o i n t s a n d f o u n d t h a t s o m e w e r e m o r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i m ­ m e d i a t e c h a n g e in i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a n d o t h e r s w i t h l o n g - t e r m c h a n g e in i d e n t i f i ­ c a t i o n . W e t h e n r e p l i c a t e d t h e s t u d y to s e e w h e t h e r m e m b e r s i d e n t i f i e d d i f f e r ­ e n t t u r n i n g p o i n t s in v a r i e d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n t e x t s ( C l a r k & B u l l i s , 1 9 9 2 ; Stout & Bullis, 1997). After c o m p a r i n g turning points described by insurance employees, government agents, and medical students, we identified a m o r e general typology and examined the relationships between turning-point types and identification across organizations. T h e first s t u d y a d o p t e d all t h r e e t r a d i t i o n a l a s s u m p t i o n s . W e p u r p o r t e d to study the boundary crossings from outsider to insider, e x a m i n e d the partici­ p a n t a c c o u n t s at t h r e e d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s , a n d a s s u m e d t h a t i n d i v i d u a l a g e n c y and voice were central. Like most studies w e discussed, w e ignored gender, r a c e , c l a s s , a n d t y p e of o r g a n i z a t i o n . A l t h o u g h e x p e r i e n c e s of e x c l u s i o n w e r e r e p o r t e d , t h e y w e r e n o t i n t e r p r e t e d as s u c h . W e p u r p o s i v e l y u n i v e r s a l i z e d , a r g u i n g that g r a d u a t e d e p a r t m e n t s ( a n d g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s ) a r e s i m i l a r t o o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s ( a n d all n e w c o m e r s ) . A l t h o u g h w e w e r e c l e a r l y a n d d i r e c t l y e m b e d d e d a n d l o c a t e d w i t h i n t h e r e s e a r c h c o n t e x t s ( t h o u g h in v a r y i n g p o s i ­

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t i o n s in t h e different s t u d i e s ) , w e i g n o r e d o u r r e s e a r c h e r p o s i t i o n , i m p l y i n g a n e u t r a l , o b j e c t i v e l o c a t i o n in all t h r e e s t u d i e s . Moreover, our methodology, although based on listening to participant v o i c e s , i n c l u d e d t h e i m p o s i t i o n of c o n c e p t s s u c h as n e w c o m e r , t u r n i n g p o i n t s , a n d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . In this r e s e a r c h , w e i g n o r e d v o i c e s of p a r t i c i p a n t s w h o left, c o u n t i n g t h e m as " s u b j e c t m o r t a l i t y . " W e a b s t r a c t e d f r o m t h e a c c o u n t s b y c a t ­ e g o r i z i n g t u r n i n g p o i n t s a c c o r d i n g to o u r i m p o s e d r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s . T h e initial a c c o u n t s a n d l o c a t i o n s f r o m w h i c h t h e y w e r e o f f e r e d , t h e n , w e r e left b e h i n d in f a v o r of a b s t r a c t e d c a t e g o r i e s a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p s a m o n g t h e s e abstracted categories. Rather than honoring lived e x p e r i e n c e s and d r a w i n g on t h e o r i e s to a c c o u n t for t h e e x p e r i e n c e s , w e s o u g h t r e l a t i o n s h i p s a m o n g v a r i ­ a b l e s to b e t t e r l i n k i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l y i m p o r t a n t outcome. However, the political interests went u n a c k n o w l e d g e d , despite our g r o u n d i n g in T o m p k i n s a n d C h e n e y ' s ( 1 9 8 5 ) t h e o r y of c o n t r o l . O u r work does not e x a m i n e h o w experiences are linked with b r o a d e r insti­ tutional relations and discursive formations. Rather, organizations are treated as i s o l a t e d , a u t o n o m o u s c o n t a i n e d e n t i t i e s . F o r e x a m p l e , l e n g t h y d e s c r i p t i o n s a b o u t h o w p e o p l e c h o s e to a t t e n d g r a d u a t e s c h o o l s a n d a t t e n d p a r t i c u l a r i n s t i ­ t u t i o n s w e r e t r e a t e d as o p p o r t u n i t i e s to b u i l d r a p p o r t b u t w e r e i g n o r e d in t h e analyses. Turning-point descriptions that e m p h a s i z e d " o u t s i d e " institutions s u c h as c o m m u n i t y , f a m i l y , r e l i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s , o r t h e " f i e l d " w e r e c a t e g o ­ r i z e d as " o t h e r " a n d o m i t t e d f r o m a n a l y s i s . T u r n i n g - p o i n t r e p o r t s t h a t c o u l d h a v e b e e n i n t e r p r e t e d as i d e n t i f y i n g c r i t i c a l , o p p o s i t i o n a l s t a n d p o i n t s w e r e neutralized by the categorizing, abstracting process. Neither p e o p l e nor their experiences nor the institutions involved were positioned within the broader society. A l t h o u g h p o t e n t i a l l y e m p o w e r i n g for p a r t i c i p a n t s ( F o s s & F o s s , 1 9 9 4 ) , s i m p l y l i s t e n i n g to p e o p l e ' s s t o r i e s d o e s n o t c o n s t i t u t e f e m i n i s t w o r k . T h e c a r e f u l l i s t e n i n g in o u r p a s t r e s e a r c h w a s c o u p l e d w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l , n o n feminist interpretations to create a prototypical study that ignored feminist concerns. For example, the method and data enabled traditional feminist t h e m e s s u c h as e m o t i o n a l i t y a n d n o n l i n e a r i t y ( B u z z a n e l l , 1 9 9 4 ) . I n t e r p r e t a ­ t i o n s a b s e n c e d t h e s e t h e m e s . In o t h e r w o r d s , t h r o u g h o u r u n a c k n o w l e d g e d c o m m i t m e n t to t r a d i t i o n a l a s s u m p t i o n s , o u r p a s t w o r k r e p r o d u c e d p a t r i a r c h a l a r r a n g e m e n t s t h r o u g h its a s s u m p t i o n s a n d a n a l y s i s .

TOWARD FEMINIST STANDPOINT RESEARCH W e h a v e p o i n t e d to m a n y f e m i n i s t s t a n d p o i n t p o s s i b i l i t i e s t h r o u g h o u t t h i s c h a p t e r a n d h e r e s u m m a r i z e t h e k i n d s of foci i m p l i e d b y f e m i n i s t s t a n d p o i n t c o n c e r n s . W e first m e n t i o n t h o s e t h a t are r e l a t e d m o s t d i r e c t l y t o e x t a n t w o r k a n d f o l l o w w i t h t h o s e that a r e m o r e d i s t a n t . T h r e e s p e c i f i c a r e a s of i n q u i r y

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p r o m o t e d b y s t a n d p o i n t f e m i n i s m a r e o f f e r e d : (a) S o c i a l i z a t i o n s c h o l a r s h i p should be e x p a n d e d so that the absent referents, outsiders within, and m a r g i n a l i z e d p e o p l e , p r o c e s s e s , o u t c o m e s , a n d c o n t e x t s a r e c o n s i d e r e d ; (b) scholarship should incorporate the located contextualized positions of schol­ ars a n d t h o s e s t u d i e d t h r o u g h a p p r o a c h e s , m e t h o d s , a n d a n a l y s e s t h a t d e v e l o p a n d r e v e a l s t a n d p o i n t s ; a n d (c) r e s e a r c h s h o u l d b o t h e x a m i n e i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d p r o c e s s e s b e y o n d c o n t a i n e d o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d c o n t i n u e c r i t i c a l a n a l y s e s of our collective scholarly work. T h e k i n d s o f q u e s t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h an e x p a n s i o n of c u r r e n t i n q u i r i e s focus on identifying patterns that sustain d o m i n a n t - s u b o r d i n a t e relationships in o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s o c i a l i z a t i o n . H o w d o e s s o c i a l i z a t i o n f u n c t i o n to m a r ­ ginalize as well as socialize? E x c l u d e as well as include? C r e a t e and maintain " o t h e r s " s u c h as o u t s i d e r s a n d " o u t s i d e r s w i t h i n " a s w e l l a s i n s i d e r s ? E n c o u r ­ a g e p a r t i c u l a r i d e n t i t i e s for p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p s ? H o w d o r e s i s t a n c e a n d c h a n g e o c c u r ? W h a t a r e t h e r o l e s o f t h e m a r g i n a l i z e d in t h e s e p r o c e s s e s ? W h a t c o m ­ municative processes are involved? W h a t processes, roles, and groups are m a d e invisible, and h o w ? Through such work, experiences and the processes by w h i c h e x c l u s i o n o c c u r s b e c o m e a v a i l a b l e for f u r t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . H o w are g e n d e r e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s r e p r o d u c e d a n d / o r t r a n s f o r m e d t h r o u g h s o c i a l i z a ­ tion p r o c e s s e s ? T o a n s w e r t h e s e k i n d s of q u e s t i o n s , f e m i n i s t m e t h o d o l o g i e s a r e n e e d e d . W e find S m i t h ' s ( 1 9 8 7 a ) i n s t i t u t i o n a l e t h n o g r a p h y to b e p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l . T h i s m e t h o d s t a r t s w i t h i d e n t i f y i n g a c c o u n t s of i n d i v i d u a l s p o s i t i o n e d in a b s e n t r e f e r e n t r o l e s o r t h o s e w h o a r e in l o c a t i o n s i d e n t i f y i n g c o m m u n i c a t i v e p r o c e s s e s t h a t a r e i n v i s i b l e . W o r k i n g w i t h t h e s e initial a c c o u n t s , i n s t i t u t i o n a l e t h n o g r a p h y t r a c e s c o n n e c t i o n s i n d i c a t e d in t h e a c c o u n t s a n d s e e k s a c c o u n t s f r o m p e o p l e w h o a r e m e n t i o n e d in t h e initial a c c o u n t s . T h e p r o c e s s o p e r a t e s i n d u c t i v e l y to identify m u l t i p l e c o n n e c t e d a c c o u n t s . In t h i s w a y , r e s e a r c h e r s can track the institutional and discursive relationships that create the kinds of accounts offered. Invisible relationships are revealed, and critical c o n s c i o u s ­ n e s s is d e v e l o p e d . T h e r e s e a r c h s e t t i n g b e c o m e s a p o i n t of t r a n s f o r m a ­ t i o n . T h r o u g h this a p p r o a c h , s c h o l a r s h i p i n t e r s e c t s m o r e c l o s e l y w i t h t h o s e studied. A n o t h e r i m p l i c a t i o n of t h i s a p p r o a c h is t h e n e e d for c o n t i n u e d r e f l e x i v e m o n i t o r i n g of d o m i n a n t - s u b o r d i n a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t t r a n s c e n d p a r t i c u l a r o r g a n i z a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g o u r o w n s o c i a l i z a t i o n s c h o l a r s h i p . W e n e e d to f o c u s o n a w a r e n e s s of w h a t is r e v e a l e d a n d c o n c e a l e d t h r o u g h s o c i a l i z a t i o n t h e o ­ r i e s , q u e s t i o n s , a n d m e t h o d s as w e l l as w h a t k n o w l e d g e is p r o d u c e d . T h e b e s t e x a m p l e of t h i s k i n d of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n w o r k of which we are aware has been produced by Brenda Allen. Her most recent pub­ lished report focuses on the "outsider within," feminist standpoint m e t h o d s and analyses, and scholarly reflexivity (Allen, 1998a). She provides a descrip­ tion o f h e r e x p e r i e n c e s a s a b l a c k w o m a n in a c a d e m i a . R a t h e r t h a n s t o p p i n g

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with this description, she describes resistance strategies, c h a m p i o n s her s t a n d p o i n t as s h e c l a i m s that s h e is b o t h " b l e s s e d a n d a b l e s s i n g , " a n d u s e s h e r s t a n d p o i n t as a r e s o u r c e for t r a n s f o r m a t i o n as s h e p r o f f e r s h e l p f u l a d v i c e to the dominant from her standpoint. M u r p h y ' s ( 1 9 9 8 ) s t u d y of flight a t t e n d a n t s , t h o u g h n o t d r a w i n g e x p l i c i t l y on standpoint theory, also illustrates the d e v e l o p m e n t of critical transfor­ m a t i o n a l s t a n d p o i n t s . A s flight a t t e n d a n t s s h a r e d t h e i r c o m m o n e x p e r i e n c e s of m e e t i n g an a i r l i n e ' s a p p e a r a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s t h r o u g h h i d d e n t r a n s c r i p t s ( S c o t t , 1 9 9 0 ) , t h e y d e t e r m i n e d to c o l l e c t i v e l y c h a l l e n g e a i r l i n e p o l i c i e s a n d , in o n e c a s e , n e g o t i a t e d a p o l i c y c h a n g e . A n i m p o r t a n t e x t e n s i o n i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e f u r t h e r p o t e n t i a l of s t a n d p o i n t t h e ­ o r y is p r o v i d e d by D a n i e l s o n ' s ( 1 9 9 7 ) w o r k . R a t h e r t h a n l o c a t i n g h e r w o r k within a particular organization, she visited marginal workers w h o were a t t e m p t i n g to l e a v e w e l f a r e s i t u a t i o n s a n d e n t e r t h e l a b o r f o r c e . H e r l o c a t e d , l e n g t h y i n t e r v i e w s p r o v i d e i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e s e " o t h e r s ' " e x p e r i e n c e s as t h e y a t t e m p t to b e c o m e " w o r k e r s " ; s h e l i n k s t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s t o t h e k n o w l e d g e s u s e d to m a k e c h o i c e s as t h e y n e g o t i a t e m a r g i n a l p o s i t i o n s . T h r o u g h h e r s t u d y , w e g a i n a b r o a d e r v i e w of h o w i n s t i t u t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s ( " w o r k " a n d " w e l f a r e " ) o p e r a t e to m a i n t a i n s u b o r d i n a t e d a n d r e s i s t a n t " o t h e r s . " S h i v a ( 1 9 8 9 ) , after d e t a i l i n g t h e m a n y w a y s in w h i c h w o m e n ' s l o c a l , s u r ­ v i v a l k n o w l e d g e s a r e b e i n g d e s t r o y e d in I n d i a , s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of s t a n d p o i n t t h e o r y a r e r e l e v a n t b e y o n d o u r a b i l i t y to v a l u e t h e s u b o r d i n a t e d . T h e d o m i n a n t a n d s u b o r d i n a t e suffer t o g e t h e r w h e n t h e n a t u r a l e c o s y s t e m s o n which h u m a n societies depend are destroyed. Shiva s h o w s that, by revaluing w o m e n ' s k n o w l e d g e s ( e . g . , h o w to i n t e r a c t w i t h t h e l a n d t o e n h a n c e l o n g - t e r m l o c a l s u s t e n a n c e r a t h e r t h a n d e p l e t i n g t h e l a n d to p r o d u c e s h o r t - t e r m e x p o r t s ) , t h e p o t e n t i a l for h u m a n s u r v i v a l m a y y e t b e r e c o v e r e d . W i t h t h e s e e x e m p l a r s , w e l o o k f o r w a r d to t h e c o n t i n u e d e v o l u t i o n o f f e m i ­ nist a p p r o a c h e s , i n c l u d i n g f e m i n i s t s t a n d p o i n t t h e o r y , for t h e y c a n p r o d u c e alternative, transformative k n o w l e d g e s . As P. Collins (1997) c o m m e n t s , " O p p r e s s i o n is n o t a g a m e , n o r is it s o l e l y a b o u t l a n g u a g e — f o r m a n y o f u s , it still r e m a i n s p r o f o u n d l y r e a l " ( p . 3 8 1 ) .

NOTES 1. We use the general term socialization in this chapter and do not examine differ­ ences among the three terms. For a consideration of differences between socialization and assimilation as defined by Jablin, see Jablin (1987). 2. We acknowledge that there are multiple feminist standpoint theories but adopt the singular term because we are focused on illustrating the potential of feminist standpoint theories as unique compared with the wider variety of feminist and critical theories. 3. As Wood (1992a) assumes, and we imply above by our equating of men with dominants or insiders, feminism is not related solely to biological women. Instead, stand­

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point feminism, as we employ it here, focuses on voices and processes that are mar­ ginalized or absenced. As Marshall (1993) indicated, in organizational communication research, qualities traditionally associated with the feminine, such as emotion and rela­ tionships, have been ignored and excluded. Many "other" voices (typically listed as those related to race, class, and sexual preference) also have been relegated to the margins and ignored or hidden. Kanter (1977) illustrates how processes of marginalization function in organizations. Her description would pertain as easily to any underrepresented group as to white women and women of color. Moreover, she describes how powerlessness, rather than sex, best theorizes women's organizational marginalization. 4. For exceptions, see Baron (1989) and Ralston and Kirkwood (1995). 5. Although we say that socialization research typically has ignored leaving pro­ cesses, there are exceptions to this claim (e.g., Cox, 1997; Egdorf, 1994; Jablin, Grady, & Parker, 1994; Mattson & Buzzanell, 1999; Phillips & Bach, 1992). Cox and Kramer (1995) point out that leaving can be more complex than simply voluntary or involuntary exit. Instead, organizations may induce or encourage leaving. Yet the ways in which exclusionary processes occur communicatively are rarely considered. 6. Jablin (1984) offers one exception to the statement that unique occupational types are not considered. He examines teachers attending classes at a university and considers this to be vocational organizational socialization. Similarly, Van Maanen (1975) focuses specifically on the police occupation in his interpretations. Hartmann (1997) addresses socialization relating to volunteers for nonprofit organizations. 7. Allen (1995a, 1996, 1998a) provides the clearest, strongest exception by describ­ ing her personal experiences from her own standpoint. 8. It is important to note that we are not including the turning-point study by Kirk and Todd-Mancillas (1991) in this critique. Their work is not implicated in all of the concerns we raise here.

4

Rethinking Negotiation Feminist Views of Communication and Exchange Linda L. Putnam

Deborah M . Kolb

O n e t y p e of s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n that h a s b e c o m e a n e s s e n t i a l skill f o r a l l w a l k s of life is n e g o t i a t i o n . A t o n e t i m e , n e g o t i a t i o n w a s v i e w e d a s a s o r d i d affair associated with haggling, bartering, and back-room deal mak i n g (Kolb & P u t n a m , 1 9 9 7 ) . It is n o w a u b i q u i t o u s a c t i v i t y u s e d in s o l v i n g p r o b l e m s , s h a r ­ ing r e s o u r c e s , a n d m a k i n g d e c i s i o n s in m u l t i p l e s e t t i n g s , i n c l u d i n g f a m i l y a n d w o r k e n v i r o n m e n t s . In t h e w o r k s e t t i n g , n e g o t i a t i o n is o f t e n t h e p r i m a r y f o r m of i n t e r a c t i o n f o r h i r i n g , m a k i n g w o r k a s s i g n m e n t s , d e l i b e r a t i n g o n b u d g e t s , a n d e n a c t i n g g r o u p d e c i s i o n s . It is n o t o n l y c e n t r a l t o l a b o r - m a n a g e m e n t r e l a ­ t i o n s h i p s b u t is a l s o t h e m e c h a n i s m for d e v e l o p i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n t r a c t s a n d t r a d e a g r e e m e n t s . In a n e r a c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y c o r p o r a t e m e r g e r s a n d n e w o r g a n i z a t i o n a l f o r m s ( M c P h e e & P o o l e , in p r e s s ) , n e g o t i a t i o n is c l e a r l y a n e s s e n t i a l a n d c o m p l e x c o m m u n i c a t i o n skill. N e g o t i a t i o n is a l s o a s p e c i a l t y p e of s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n , o n e t h a t differs f r o m g r o u p d e c i s i o n m a k i n g ( P u t n a m & Roloff, 1 9 9 2 ) . T h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s s t e m from t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f p e r c e i v e d i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y , i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e b e AUTHORS' NOTE: We would like to thank Steve Wilson for his comments on this chapter.

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tween parties, and simultaneous cooperative and competitive relationships. S o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n s in t r a d i t i o n a l n e g o t i a t i o n s , t h e n , r e l y o n e x c h a n g e s o f p r o ­ p o s a l s a n d c o u n t e r p r o p o s a l s , m a k i n g a r g u m e n t s for p r e f e r r e d o u t c o m e s , a n d developing strategies and tactics to obtain desired e n d s . T h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s and characteristics contribute to the c o n c e p t i o n of bar­ g a i n i n g as a " s c r i p t e d a c t i v i t y " ( O ' C o n n o r & A d a m s , 1 9 9 6 ) . T h a t i s , i n d i v i d u ­ als e n t e r a n e g o t i a t i o n w i t h a p r o t o t y p e of s t a n d a r d a c t i o n s . T h e s e s c r i p t e d activities include m a k i n g offers, defending and refuting positions, d i s c u s s i n g i s s u e s , e x c h a n g i n g c o m p r o m i s e s , a n d r e a c h i n g an a g r e e m e n t . In g e n e r a l , t h e n , p e o p l e s h a r e a c o n c e p t u a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n t h a t n e g o t i a t i o n is c o m p e t i t i v e a n d i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c , is d e f i n e d by t r a d e s o r e x c h a n g e s , a n d o f t e n r e s u l t s in a n i m p a s s e . E v e n y o u n g c h i l d r e n l e a r n t h i s s c r i p t a n d a r e s k i l l e d at t a k i n g p o s i ­ t i o n s a n d e n g a g i n g in t r a d e o f f s to r e a c h a s e t t l e m e n t ( S h e l d o n , 1 9 9 2 ; S h e l d o n & Johnson, 1994). T h i s c h a p t e r u n d e r t a k e s a r e v i s i o n of n e g o t i a t i o n a s a s c r i p t e d s o c i a l i n t e r ­ a c t i o n . In p a r t i c u l a r , w e a d o p t a f e m i n i s t p e r s p e c t i v e t o r e v i e w a n d c r i t i q u e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l s of n e g o t i a t i o n b y f o c u s i n g o n " e x c h a n g e " as t h e c e n t r a l e l e m e n t of b a r g a i n i n g . T h r o u g h an e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e w a y t h a t e x c h a n g e u n d e r l i e s t h e e s s e n c e of n e g o t i a t i o n , t h e g o a l s a n d o u t c o m e s , t h e n a t u r e o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a n d t h e p r o c e s s e s , w e set forth an a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l — o n e r o o t e d in f e m i n i s t a s s u m p t i o n s of c o n n e c t e d n e s s a n d c o - c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e p r o c e s s . W e c o n t e n d that, in t r a d i t i o n a l a p p r o a c h e s to n e g o t i a t i o n , r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p a n d c o n n e c t i o n d i s a p p e a r as t h e f u n d a m e n t a l w a y s in w h i c h p e o p l e s e e a n d d e f i n e t h e i r s i t u a t i o n s . B y f o c u s i n g o n t r a d e s , n e g o t i a t i o n is c o n c e r n e d w i t h g e t t i n g to s e t t l e m e n t s r a t h e r t h a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g s i t u a t i o n s . C o m m u n i c a ­ tion w i t h i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l t y p i c a l l y s e r v e s as i n f o r m a t i o n e x c h a n g e a n d t h e e x e c u t i o n of b a r g a i n i n g t a c t i c s to f o s t e r t h e p u r s u i t of a s e t t l e m e n t . W e b e g i n t h i s c h a p t e r w i t h an o v e r v i e w of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l s o f n e g o t i ­ a t i o n a n d t h e r o l e of e x c h a n g e in t h e s e a p p r o a c h e s . T h e n w e p r e s e n t f e m i n i s t c r i t i q u e s of e x c h a n g e a n d p o s i t i o n o u r a n a l y s i s w i t h i n t h i s l i t e r a t u r e . T h e lat­ ter p a r t of t h e c h a p t e r s e t s u p t h e r u d i m e n t a r y e l e m e n t s o f an a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l by c o m p a r i n g t h e e s s e n c e , g o a l s a n d o u t c o m e s , r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a n d p r o c e s s e s of t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e w i t h a p r o t o t y p e of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l s . W e u s e a n e g o t i ­ ation case to exemplify these com parisons. This chapter c o n c l u d e s with a s u m m a r y a n d d i s c u s s i o n of t h e s i t u a t i o n s in w h i c h t h i s a l t e r n a t i v e m i g h t b e u s e d as a v i a b l e o p t i o n to t r a d i t i o n a l a p p r o a c h e s to n e g o t i a t i o n .

TRADITIONAL MODELS OF NEGOTIATION T r a d i t i o n a l s t u d i e s in n e g o t i a t i o n fall i n t o t h e a r e n a k n o w n as n e g o t i a t i o n a n a l y s i s . T h i s w o r k is b a s e d o n t h e b e l i e f t h a t d e s c r i p t i o n s of n e g o t i a t i o n g r o u n d e d in e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h c a n a s s i s t b a r g a i n e r s in a n t i c i p a t i n g t h e o t h e r

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side's behaviors. Negotiation analysts provide prescriptive or normative a d v i c e b a s e d o n p r o j e c t i o n s of h o w t h e o t h e r p a r t y is l i k e l y to b e h a v e (Sebenius, 1992). T h i s t r a d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h e m a n a t e s f r o m t h r e e g e n e r a l t y p e s of m o d e l s : game theory, distributive and integrative bargaining, and principled negotia­ tion. G a m e theory d r a w s from e c o n o m i c principles and centers on m a x i m i z ­ ing g a i n s , m i n i m i z i n g l o s s e s , a s s e s s i n g u t i l i t i e s of o p t i o n s , a n d r e a c h i n g o p t i ­ m a l o u t c o m e s . B y a p p l y i n g e c o n o m i c r a t i o n a l i t y to d e c i s i o n m a k i n g , t h i s a p p r o a c h f o c u s e s o n a s c e r t a i n i n g a l t e r n a t i v e c o u r s e s of a c t i o n a n d s h a p i n g r a t i o n a l c h o i c e ( L u c e & Raiffa, 1 9 5 7 ; Raiffa, 1 9 8 2 ) . D i s t r i b u t i v e a n d i n t e g r a t i v e m o d e l s of n e g o t i a t i o n d r a w f r o m a n d r e a c t to n o t i o n s of e c o n o m i c r a t i o n a l i t y . D i s t r i b u t i v e n e g o t i a t i o n , a l s o c a l l e d z e r o s u m b a r g a i n i n g , c o n c e n t r a t e s o n m a x i m i z i n g i n d i v i d u a l p a y o f f s in s i t u a t i o n s in w h i c h o n e p e r s o n ' s g a i n is t h e o t h e r p e r s o n ' s l o s s . N e g o t i a t o r s t y p i c a l l y set t a r g e t p o i n t s for w h a t e a c h p e r s o n w a n t s a n d r e s i s t a n c e p o i n t s for e a c h i n d i ­ v i d u a l ' s b o t t o m l i n e . F o r i n s t a n c e , in t h e s a l e of a h o u s e , b o t h t h e b u y e r a n d seller set t a r g e t a n d r e s i s t a n c e p o i n t s . T h e t a r g e t p o i n t s r e f e r to b o t h b a r g a i n ­ e r s ' p r e f e r r e d p r i c e s , a n d t h e r e s i s t a n c e p o i n t s refer to t h e e n d a m o u n t s to w h i c h p a r t i e s will n o l o n g e r c o n c e d e . In t h e d i s t r i b u t i v e m o d e l , b a r g a i n i n g b e c o m e s t h e p r o c e s s of r e a c h i n g a s e t t l e m e n t b e t w e e n t h e t a r g e t a n d r e s i s ­ t a n c e p o i n t s . E a c h p a r t y a i m s to c a p t u r e as m u c h of t h e b a r g a i n i n g r a n g e as p o s s i b l e ( L e w i c k i & L i t t e r e r , 1 9 8 5 ) . N e g o t i a t i o n as a d i s t r i b u t i v e p r o c e s s , t h e n , is p r i m a r i l y a f o r m of c o n f l i c t m a n a g e m e n t a i m e d at c o m p r o m i s e . S u c ­ c e s s f u l n e g o t i a t o r s s t a r t h i g h , c o n c e d e s l o w l y , e x a g g e r a t e t h e v a l u e of c o n c e s ­ sions, m i n i m i z e the other p a r t y ' s concessions, conceal information, argue f o r c e f u l l y , a n d c a p t u r e m o r e of t h e b a r g a i n i n g z o n e ( L a x & S e b e n i u s , 1 9 8 6 ) . In c o n t r a s t , an i n t e g r a t i v e a p p r o a c h to n e g o t i a t i o n p r e s u m e s t h a t t h e g o a l s of t h e p a r t i e s a r e n o t m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e ; h e n c e , it is p o s s i b l e for p a r t i c i p a n t s to a c h i e v e j o i n t g a i n s . T h u s , t h r o u g h n e g o t i a t i o n , i n d i v i d u a l s find w a y s to c o m b i n e t h e i r d i v e r s e g o a l s i n t o a c o l l e c t i v e effort ( L e w i c k i & L i t t e r e r , 1 9 8 5 ) . P a r t i e s start f r o m p r e s e t p o s i t i o n s , b u t t h r o u g h s h a r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n a n d c r e ­ ative problem solving, they make trades based on c o m p l e m e n t a r y interests that i n c r e a s e t h e s i z e of j o i n t g a i n s for b o t h i n d i v i d u a l s ( P r u i t t , 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 8 3 ) . The relationship between integrative and distributive bargaining remains u n c l e a r . In s o m e w a y s , t h e t w o a p p r o a c h e s a r e i n t e r d e p e n d e n t p r o c e s s e s of t h e s a m e m o d e l , a n d in o t h e r w a y s , they a r e d i s t i n c t p e r s p e c t i v e s o n n e g o t i a ­ tion ( P u t n a m , 1 9 9 0 b ) . A l t h o u g h W a l t o n a n d M c K e r s i e ( 1 9 6 5 ) d e p i c t t h e s e p r o c e s s e s as d e s c r i p t i v e m o d e l s , t h e y h a v e s u r f a c e d in t h e field as n o r m a t i v e a p p r o a c h e s a i m e d at d e v e l o p i n g p r i n c i p l e s to g u i d e e f f e c t i v e n e g o t i a t i o n (Lewicki, W e i s s , & Lewin, 1992). P r i n c i p l e d n e g o t i a t i o n d r a w s f r o m i n t e g r a t i v e b a r g a i n i n g a n d s e t s forth g u i d e l i n e s for r e a c h i n g j o i n t g a i n or w i n - w i n s e t t l e m e n t s . C r i t i c a l of p o s i ­ t i o n a l b a r g a i n i n g that t y p i f i e s t h e d i s t r i b u t i v e p r o c e s s , p r i n c i p l e d n e g o t i a t i o n

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u r g e s b a r g a i n e r s to f o c u s o n i n t e r e s t s , n o t p o s i t i o n s ; t o s e p a r a t e p e o p l e f r o m t h e p r o b l e m ; t o i n v e n t o p t i o n s for m u t u a l g a i n ; a n d t o u s e o b j e c t i v e c r i t e r i a t o r e a c h s e t t l e m e n t s ( F i s h e r , U r y , & P a t t o n , 1 9 9 1 ) . P o p u l a r in p r a c t i c e , t h i s p e r ­ s p e c t i v e h a s r e v a m p e d t h e t r a i n i n g of n e g o t i a t o r s a n d s p a w n e d m a j o r p r o ­ grams on mutual gains bargaining (Cutcher-Gershenfeld, 1994; CutcherGershenfeld, M c K e r s i e , & Walton, 1995). H o w e v e r , there are barriers to reaching integrative agreements, including overconfidence about obtaining desired outcomes, framing positive and negative outcomes differently, and r e l i a n c e o n p r o c e s s e s r o o t e d in s p l i t t i n g t h e p i e ( N e a l e & B a z e r m a n , 1 9 9 1 ) . O n t h e p r e s c r i p t i v e l e v e l , r e s e a r c h e r s c o n t i n u e to offer a d v i c e b a s e d o n t h e m a n a g e m e n t of e x c h a n g e s ( e . g . , t y p e s o f o p e n i n g offers a n d r e s p o n s e s , s t r a t e ­ g i e s a n d t a c t i c s to u s e o r a v o i d , w a y s of a s c e r t a i n i n g i n t e r e s t s a n d n e e d s , a n d w a y s t o o v e r c o m e b a r r i e r s in r e a c h i n g m u t u a l g a i n s a g r e e m e n t s ; F r i e d ­ man, 1992; Heckscher & Hall, 1994). E a c h of t h e s e p e r s p e c t i v e s e m b r a c e s e x c h a n g e a s t h e e s s e n c e o f n e g o t i a ­ t i o n . G u l l i v e r ( 1 9 7 9 ) e v e n d e f i n e s b a r g a i n i n g as " t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d e x c h a n g e o f s p e c i f i c p r o p o s a l s for t e r m s o f a g r e e m e n t o n i s s u e s " ( p . 7 1 ) . In t h e d i s t r i b u t i v e a p p r o a c h , t h e e x c h a n g e o f p r o p o s a l s is t y p i c a l l y v i e w e d a s t h e v e h i c l e o r r e c o m m e n d e d s t r a t e g y for s e t t l i n g w i t h i n t h e b a r g a i n i n g z o n e . E x c h a n g e begins with both parties stating their asking prices or initial offers. O p e n i n g o f f e r s s e t t h e t o n e for t r a d i n g c o n c e s s i o n s , in w h i c h t h e b a r g a i n e r s m o v e c l o s e r to e a c h o t h e r b y e x c h a n g i n g i n c r e m e n t a l m o v e s . E x c h a n g e is a l s o t h e e s s e n c e of i n t e g r a t i v e a n d p r i n c i p l e d n e g o t i a t i o n . In t h i s a p p r o a c h , b a r g a i n e r s e x c h a n g e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e i r n e e d s , w a y s of r e a c h i n g a s e t t l e m e n t , a n d c r i t e r i a for a s s e s s i n g o p t i o n s . E x c h a n g e b e c o m e s t h e p r i m a r y w a y t h a t p a r t i e s c r e a t e v a l u e a n d d i s c o v e r a r e n a s for j o i n t g a i n ( L a x & S e b e n i u s , 1 9 8 6 ) . In i n t e g r a t i v e n e g o t i a t i o n , e x c h a n g e is t h e m e a n s through which bargainers learn and alter their perceptions about options a v a i l a b l e for j o i n t g a i n ( L e w i c k i & L i t t e r e r , 1 9 8 5 ) . In e a c h o f t h e s e t h r e e m o d e l s , e x c h a n g e is t h e m o d u s o p e r a n d i a n d t h e v e r y h e a r t of n e g o t i a t i o n ( L e w i c k i & L i t t e r e r , 1 9 8 5 ) . It is t h e m e a n s b y w h i c h b a r ­ g a i n e r s g a i n a c o m p e t i t i v e e d g e , t h e w a y t h e p r o c e s s is e n a c t e d , t h e b a s i s for r e a c h i n g o u t c o m e s , a n d t h e w a y in w h i c h b a r g a i n e r s l e a r n a b o u t t h e o p t i o n s available to them ( T h o m p s o n , 1998).

EXCHANGE AND NEGOTIATION AS GENDERED ACTIVITIES E x c h a n g e , a s it f u n c t i o n s in t h e s e t h r e e p e r s p e c t i v e s , is a g e n d e r e d a c t i v i t y . W h a t d o e s it m e a n to s a y t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r p r a c t i c e l i k e e x c h a n g e is g e n d e r e d ? A p r a c t i c e is s e e n a s g e n d e r e d if its a t t r i b u t e s a r e m o r e c o m m o n l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h o n e g e n d e r t h a n t h e o t h e r , t h u s m a k i n g d i m e n s i o n s l i n k e d to t h e o t h e r

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g e n d e r l e s s v a l u e d . P a r e n t i n g , for e x a m p l e , e n t a i l s n u r t u r a n c e a n d t h e g i v i n g of c a r e , p r a c t i c e s l i n k e d to m o t h e r i n g . A c t s of f a t h e r i n g , t h e n , o f t e n r e m a i n h i d d e n a n d d e v a l u e d in t h e p r o c e s s . In t h i s c h a p t e r , w e c o n t e n d t h a t b o t h e x c h a n g e a n d n e g o t i a t i o n a r e g e n d e r e d a c t i v i t i e s b e c a u s e of t h e w a y s t h a t t r a d e s g r o w o u t of i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c n e e d s , b e c o m e r e d u c e d t o c o m m o d i t i e s , a n d e m e r g e as i n s t r u m e n t a l a c t i v i t i e s t h a t d e f i n e t h e n a t u r e of o u t c o m e s . O t h e r feminist scholars have presented critiques of social e x c h a n g e ( H o w a r d & Hollander, 1997), e x c h a n g e theory (Hartsock, 1985), and utility c o m p a r i s o n s (Ferber & Nelson, 1993; Strober, 1994). O u r chapter d r a w s from t h e s e c r i t i q u e s b u t differs f r o m t h e m in s e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t w a y s . F i r s t , w e v i e w e x c h a n g e as t h e e s s e n c e of t h e n e g o t i a t i o n p r o c e s s ; h e n c e , e x c h a n g e o c c u r s w i t h i n a n d a i d s in d e f i n i n g a p a r t i c u l a r a c t i v i t y , b a r g a i n i n g . S e c o n d , o u r c r i ­ t i q u e of e x c h a n g e in n e g o t i a t i o n s is n e s t e d in s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n in t h e m a r k e t p l a c e as an i n s t i t u t i o n ( H a r t s o c k , 1 9 8 5 ) . M o r e o v e r , u n l i k e H a r t s o c k , w h o adopts a feminist standpoint view, our critique and r e f r a m i n g of e x c h a n g e d o e s n o t g r o w o u t of an e s s e n t i a l i s t v i e w of w o m e n ' s a c t i v i t y o r t h e p o s i t i o n i n g of e x c h a n g e as a m a t e r i a l i s t i c p h e n o m e n o n . B y a n a l y z i n g t h e t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d o p p o s i t i o n s e m b e d d e d in t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l of b a r g a i n ­ i n g , w e d e c o n s t r u c t n e g o t i a t i o n as a g e n d e r e d a c t i v i t y a n d set f o r t h an a l t e r n a ­ tive m o d e l , o n e r o o t e d in c o - c o n s t r u c t i o n r a t h e r t h a n in e x c h a n g e . T h u s , w e a d o p t a f e m i n i s t p o s t s t r u c t u r a l s t a n c e to c r i t i q u e n e g o t i a t i o n a n d offer a n alternative model. N e g o t i a t i o n , as w e h a v e p r e v i o u s l y a r g u e d , is a l s o a g e n d e r e d a c t i v i t y ( K o l b & P u t n a m , 1 9 9 7 ) . It is g e n d e r e d in t h a t t h e q u a l i t i e s o f e f f e c t i v e b a r ­ gainers (e.g., individuality and independence, competition, objectivity, ana­ lytic r a t i o n a l i t y , i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y , r e a s o n i n g f r o m u n i v e r s a l p r i n c i p l e s , a n d s t r a t e g i c t h i n k i n g ) a r e l i n k e d to m a s c u l i n i t y . T h o s e a t t r i b u t e s t y p i c a l l y l a b e l e d as f e m i n i n e ( e . g . , c o m m u n i t y , s u b j e c t i v i t y , i n t u i t i o n , e m o t i o n a l i t y , expressiveness, reasoning from particulars, and ad hoc thinking) are less val­ u e d . N e g o t i a t i o n is a l s o g e n d e r e d b e c a u s e of its e m p h a s i s o n t h e f r a m i n g of i s s u e s , t h e e x e r c i s e of p o w e r in t h e legal s y s t e m ( G r a y , 1 9 9 4 ) , a n d t h e w a y w o m e n l a c k v o i c e a n d a s e n s e of p l a c e at t h e b a r g a i n i n g t a b l e ( K o l b & C o o l i d g e , 1 9 9 1 ) . F r o m a f e m i n i s t s t a n d p o i n t , t h e e x p e r i e n c e s of w o m e n a r e typically excluded from negotiation theories and research. F u r t h e r m o r e , stud­ ies o n g e n d e r a n d n e g o t i a t i o n t y p i c a l l y graft w o m e n o n t o t h e e x i s t i n g s t r u c ­ t u r e of b a r g a i n i n g ( G r a y , 1 9 9 4 ) . T h i s c h a p t e r e x t e n d s this c r i t i q u e b y f o c u s i n g o n t h e c e n t r a l i t y of e x c h a n g e in n e g o t i a t i o n a n d b y s e t t i n g forth an a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l — o n e r o o t e d in f e m i ­ nist v a l u e s a n d a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n . J u s t a s e c o n o m i c s f o r m s t h e f o u n d a t i o n for t r a d i t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e s , f e m i n i s t t h i n k i n g g u i d e s t h e t h e o ­ r e t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t of an a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l . T h i s a l t e r n a t i v e is n o t s i m p l y a m i n o r r e p a i r t o e x i s t i n g p e r s p e c t i v e s o r a c h a n g e in s t y l e i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e

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d o m i n a n t f r a m e w o r k . R a t h e r , it r e p r e s e n t s a shift in t h e f u n d a m e n t a l t h i n k i n g t h a t u n d e r l i e s t h e n a t u r e a n d p r o c e s s of n e g o t i a t i o n . A t first b l u s h , t h e a l t e r n a t i v e a p p r o a c h m a y s e e m n a i v e , s i m p l e , o r u n n a t u ­ ral w h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l . H o w e v e r , a n y o p t i o n t h a t s t a n d s in c o m p a r i s o n to t h e d o m i n a n t d i s c o u r s e w i l l l i k e l y a p p e a r d e f i c i e n t , d e v a l u e d , a n d i n a d e q u a t e s i n c e t h e s t a n d a r d s of t r a d i t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e s h a v e s h a p e d o u r v e r y k n o w l e d g e of a p a r t i c u l a r p h e n o m e n o n . F r o m a p o l i t i c a l stance, the traditional model surfaces as h e g e m o n i c . T h e temptation, w h e n e x p o s e d to " d i f f e r a n c e , " is to c r i t i q u e t h e a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l u s i n g t h e a s s u m p ­ t i o n s a n d c r i t e r i a of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a p p r o a c h . T h u s , a r e a d e r m i g h t c r i t i c i z e this alternative by arguing that "negotiators w o n ' t play by the rules or will use g o a l s a n d s t r a t e g i e s of t h e a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l to e x p l o i t t h e i r o p p o n e n t . " T h i s criticism, h o w e v e r , d r a w s from and functions within the status q u o . In m a n y w a y s , it s e r v e s to r e i n s t a t e t h e d o m i n a n t s t a n c e of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l r a t h e r t h a n t o c r i t i q u e its a l t e r n a t i v e . T h e a l t e r n a t i v e a p p r o a c h p r e s e n t e d in t h i s c h a p t e r m u s t a n d s h o u l d b e c r i t i q u e d , b u t it n e e d s to b e e x a m i n e d f r o m a n e w set of c r i t e r i a a n d q u e s t i o n s , o n e s that d e v e l o p f r o m w i t h i n a n d a r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e p e r s p e c t i v e a d v o c a t e d in t h i s c h a p t e r . T h i s c h a p t e r , t h e n , a i m s to r e c a p t u r e m a n y of t h e f e a t u r e s d e e m e d a b s e n t o r m a r g i n a l i z e d in t r a d i t i o n a l a p p r o a c h e s to n e g o t i a t i o n : n a m e l y , r e l a t i o n s h i p , c o n n e c t i o n , u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a n d d i a l o g u e . W e p r e s e n t t h i s m o d e l a s an o p t i o n , n o t a s a r e p l a c e m e n t o r p a n a c e a for p r o b l e m s w i t h e x i s t i n g a p p r o a c h e s .

COMMODITY AS THE METAPHOR FOR EXCHANGE E x c h a n g e , a s n o t e d p r e v i o u s l y , is t h e h e a r t of n e g o t i a t i o n . A s t h e e s s e n c e of b a r g a i n i n g , it n o t o n l y i n f l u e n c e s t h e u s e o f c o n c e s s i o n s , s t r a t e g i e s , a n d t a c ­ t i c s , b u t a l s o u n d e r l i e s t h e f u n d a m e n t a l i m a g e of t h e p r o c e s s . T h e d o m i n a n t m e t a p h o r in u n d e r s t a n d i n g e x c h a n g e is c o m m o d i t y ( H o w a r d & H o l l a n d e r , 1997). Even though bargaining centers on symbolic costs and rewards, the c o m m o d i t y m e t a p h o r r e m a i n s d o m i n a n t in t r a d i t i o n a l v i e w s o f n e g o t i a t i o n . S o c i a l p r o c e s s e s in b a r g a i n i n g a r e c o n v e r t e d t o e c o n o m i c l a n g u a g e a n d a s s i g n e d w e i g h t s a n d m e a s u r e s ; t h u s , t h e v a l u e o f a p a r t i c u l a r o f f e r is g i v e n a numerical weight that complies with patriarchal assumptions of objectivity ( H o w a r d & H o l l a n d e r , 1 9 9 7 ) . T r e a t i n g b a r g a i n i n g a s t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of resources also reinforces the commodity metaphor by presuming clear divi­ s i o n s b e t w e e n c o s t s a n d b e n e f i t s ( H a r t s o c k , 1 9 8 5 ) . B y c o n c e i v i n g of an e x c h a n g e as a c o m m o d i t y , n e g o t i a t o r s m e a s u r e t h e i r a c h i e v e m e n t s f r o m t h e c r i t e r i a of w h e t h e r t h e y m a d e " a g o o d d e a l . " T h e y s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t r a n s f e r a s p e c t s of t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s u c h a s e m o t i o n a l s u p p o r t , l o y a l t y , a n d u n d e r ­ s t a n d i n g t o p r o c e s s e s t h a t c a n b e e x c h a n g e d ; for e x a m p l e , " i f y o u g i v e m e a

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COMMUNICATION FROM FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES

good deal, I will be loyal to y o u " (Strober, 1994). T h e c o m m o d i t y metaphor, t h e n , s e t s forth a l a n g u a g e s y s t e m of r e w a r d s , c o s t s , r e s o u r c e s , u t i l i t i e s , a n d t r a d e s that p e r v a d e s t h e n e g o t i a t i o n l i t e r a t u r e a n d is r o o t e d in p a t r i a r c h a l v a l ­ u e s . T h i s m e t a p h o r g r o u n d s i n t e r a c t i o n s in m a t e r i a l r e s o u r c e s t h a t s h o v e i d e n ­ tity a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n t o t h e s h a d o w of n e g o t i a t i o n ( K o l b & W i l l i a m s , 1 9 9 9 ) . A f e m i n i s t l e n s h i g h l i g h t s e l e m e n t s of n e g o t i a t i o n t h a t a r e t y p i c a l l y m a r g i n a l i z e d in or m i s s i n g from e x c h a n g e - b a s e d m o d e l s , s u c h a s c o n ­ n e c t e d n e s s , c o l l a b o r a t i o n , e x p r e s s i v e n e s s , a n d e q u a l i t y . T a b l e 4.1 c o n t r a s t s the traditional and the alternative models based on four d i m e n s i o n s : the e s s e n c e of t h e a c t i v i t y , t h e g o a l s a n d o u t c o m e s of b a r g a i n i n g , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e n e g o t i a t o r s , a n d t h e n e g o t i a t i o n p r o c e s s .

A COMPARISON OF THE TRADITIONAL AND THE ALTERNATIVE PERSPECTIVES In t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l s , e x c h a n g e a n d t r a d e s f o r m t h e e s s e n c e o f t h e p r o c e s s . B o t h are l i m i t e d by r e d u c i n g t h e p r a c t i c e of b a r g a i n i n g to i n d i v i d u a l n e e d s , t h e u s e of a c o m m o d i t y m e t a p h o r , a n d r e l i a n c e o n a l a n g u a g e s y s t e m of r e w a r d s a n d c o s t s . B o t h of t h e m p r i v i l e g e p a t r i a r c h a l v a l u e s — n a m e l y , o b j e c ­ tivity a n d m a t e r i a l i s m — a s w a y s of d e p i c t i n g s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s . T h e r e is n o t h ­ ing i n h e r e n t in t h e p a r t i c u l a r s of a n e g o t i a t i o n that w o u l d s u g g e s t t h a t o n e m o d e l of n e g o t i a t i o n w o u l d d o m i n a t e in a g i v e n s i t u a t i o n . H o w e v e r , t h e p r o ­ c e s s e s that i n d i v i d u a l s e x p e r i e n c e in t h e b a r g a i n i n g e n t a i l v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h e s . T h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e of a n e g o t i a t i o n d e m o n s t r a t e s h o w g o a l s , r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a n d o u t c o m e s differ w h e n w e c o m p a r e a n d c o n t r a s t t h e t r a d i ­ tional and the alternative m o d e l s . T h i s n e g o t i a t i o n d e a l s with a fee a r r a n g e m e n t b e t w e e n S t r a t e g i c I n f o r m a ­ tion T e c h n o l o g y I n s t i t u t e ( S I T I ) , a c o n s u l t i n g firm, a n d B r o w n e A s s o c i a t e s . K a r e n D a v e n p o r t , t h e d i r e c t o r of p r o g r a m m i n g at S I T I , is in c h a r g e of t h e e d u ­ c a t i o n a l p r o g r a m s that t h e c o m p a n y offers to i n f o r m a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y p r o f e s ­ sionals and general managers. S I T F s basic 3-day educational seminar, Strate­ g i c M o d e l s in D i s t r i b u t i v e S y s t e m s , h a s b e e n h i g h l y s u c c e s s f u l . O n t h e b a s i s of this s u c c e s s , D a v e n p o r t h a s d e v e l o p e d an a d v a n c e d s e m i n a r for p r o f e s s i o n ­ als w h o h a v e c o m p l e t e d t h e b a s i c c o u r s e . S i n c e S I T I d o e s n o t h a v e t h e r e ­ s o u r c e s to run t h e s e p r o g r a m s , the c o m p a n y s u b c o n t r a c t s t h e m a r k e t i n g o p e r ­ a t i o n s of t h e c o u r s e to B r o w n e A s s o c i a t e s , a m a r k e t i n g a n d m a n a g e m e n t f i r m . Several years ago, Davenport's predecessor negotiated a successful con­ tract for m a r k e t i n g the b a s i c m o d e l s c o u r s e . B a s i c a l l y , B r o w n e A s s o c i a t e s i n c u r s all t h e c o s t s to a d v e r t i s e a n d m a n a g e t h e p r o g r a m , r e t a i n s t h e r e v e n u e s g e n e r a t e d , a n d p a y s a g u a r a n t e e d fixed fee to S I T I for d e l i v e r y of e a c h c o u r s e . T h e a d v a n c e d c o u r s e p r o m i s e s to b e a g o o d d e a l for b o t h S I T I a n d B r o w n e A s s o c i a t e s . S I T I c a n use it to d e v e l o p l o n g - t e r m r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h c o m p a n i e s

Feminist T A B L E 4.1

Views of

Communication

83

A Comparison of Negotiation Models

Traditional Model

Alternative

Exchange Trades Reciprocity Balance Equity Transaction Goals Enlightened self-interest Mutual gain Outcomes Settlement Agreements Win-lose, win-win, lose-lose Relationships Other as distant Interdependence through desired ends Extrinsic Instrumental Cooperative/competitive motivation Trust/distrust Rational Process as Activity Proposals/counterproposals Making concessions Problem solving Process as Social Interaction Debate Information exchange Strategies and tactics

Model

Co-Construction Mutual inquiry

Integration

Blended

Equality

Collaboration

Self-knowledge

Mutual understanding

Transformation

Jointly developed actions

Changing conflict

Other as approachable

Interdependence through connectedness

Intrinsic

Expressive

Motivated through mutual recognition

Empathy

Emotional

Offering perspectives

Re-sourcement/reframing

Dialogue

Deliberation and invitational rhetoric

Sharing experiences

Expressions and circular questions

and to e n h a n c e future consulting j o b s . H a v i n g a n o t h e r c o u r s e to m a r k e t m e a n s a d d i t i o n a l r e v e n u e for B r o w n e A s s o c i a t e s . Karen Davenport, S I T T s programming director, and S a m B r o w n e , the founder and p r e s i d e n t of B r o w n e

A s s o c i a t e s , m e e t to n e g o t i a t e

the

revenue-sharing

a r r a n g e m e n t for t h e a d v a n c e d c o u r s e . A l t h o u g h o f f e r i n g t h e a d v a n c e d

seminars

appeals to both parties, the negotiations d o not begin on an a u s p i c i o u s note. A s Karen describes,

We meet at our usual place for breakfast. Sam hands me his proposal, I am shocked. It is clear that the fee structure that Sam proposes is considerably less than the one that SITI receives for the basic course. SITI cannot afford to deliver the program with this loss of revenue.

84

COMMUNICATION FROM FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES

T h e t a s k of d e v e l o p i n g a m u t u a l l y a c c e p t a b l e fee a r r a n g e m e n t is t h e g o a l of t h e n e g o t i a t i o n . Y e t t h e k i n d of p r o c e s s that f o l l o w s a n d t h e t y p e of a g r e e m e n t r e a c h e d a r e n o t p r e d e t e r m i n e d . T h i s n e g o t i a t i o n c o u l d g o in s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s . It c o u l d f o l l o w t h e t r a d i t i o n a l d i s t r i b u t i v e o r i n t e g r a t i v e p a t h , o r it c o u l d b e w o r k e d o u t t h r o u g h an a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l of c o - c o n s t r u c t i o n . W e d e v e l o p t h e s e a l t e r n a t i v e s b y d e s c r i b i n g h o w t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a p p r o a c h e s differ from t h e a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l in e n a c t i n g t h e e s s e n c e of t h e p r o c e s s — e x c h a n g e versus co-construction.

Exchange Versus Co-Construction A s T a b l e 4.1 i l l u s t r a t e s , t h e t r a d i t i o n a l v i e w s o f n e g o t i a t i o n a r e r o o t e d in p r a c t i c e s of e x c h a n g e , w i t h t r a d i n g , r e c i p r o c i t y , b a l a n c e , e q u i t y , a n d t r a n s ­ a c t i o n a s t h e k e y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . T h e a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l , in c o n t r a s t , is s i t u a t e d in c o - c o n s t r u c t i o n , w i t h m u t u a l i n q u i r y , p r o m o t i n g i n t e g r a t i o n , b l e n d i n g p r o ­ p o s a l s , f a c i l i t a t i n g e q u a l i t y , a n d p r o d u c i n g c o l l a b o r a t i o n as t h e c e n t r a l a c t i v i ­ ties of b a r g a i n i n g . In t r a d i t i o n a l n e g o t i a t i o n , p r o g r e s s t o w a r d a s e t t l e m e n t is t y p i c a l l y m e a s u r e d t h r o u g h f r e q u e n t e x c h a n g e s a n d t h e u s e of r e c i p r o c a l c o n ­ c e s s i o n s . T h e t e r m reciprocal concessions r e f e r s to e a c h p a r t y ' s r e s p o n s e to his or her o p p o n e n t ' s c o m p r o m i s e with a counterproposal that c o n c e d e s on i s s u e s . In b a r g a i n i n g , g i v i n g t r a d e s or e x c h a n g e s e n t a i l s a l t e r i n g o r i g i n a l p r o ­ p o s a l s a n d m o v i n g c l o s e r t o t h e o t h e r s i d e . A s p a r t of t h e u n s t a t e d s c r i p t of b a r g a i n i n g , r e c i p r o c i t y a i m s to e q u a l i z e b a r g a i n i n g c o n t r o l . H o w e v e r , it often s u r f a c e s in a c t u a l n e g o t i a t i o n s a s a s t r a t e g y to p r o m o t e o n e s i d e ' s i n s t r u m e n ­ tal g a i n . R e c i p r o c i t y of m o v e s d e m o n s t r a t e s g o o d faith b a r g a i n i n g a n d k e e p s t h e n e g o t i a t i o n m o v i n g t o w a r d a s e t t l e m e n t . R e f u s a l to r e c i p r o c a t e c a n l e a d to a s t a l e m a t e that s l o w s d o w n or e v e n s t o p s t h e n e g o t i a t i o n p r o c e s s ( R a i f f a , 1982). A s an a l t e r n a t i v e to e x c h a n g e , c o - c o n s t r u c t i o n o c c u r s t h r o u g h c o n n e c t i n g a n d c r e a t i n g m u t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g . In c o - c o n s t r u c t i o n , n e g o t i a t o r s d e v e l o p j o i n t a c t i o n s from m u t u a l i n q u i r y r a t h e r t h a n t r a d e s . M u t u a l i n q u i r y differs from t r a d e s by c e n t e r i n g o n t h e r e c u r s i v e n a t u r e in w h i c h n e g o t i a t i n g g e n e r ­ a t e s m e a n i n g s o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of e v e n t s . I n q u i r y p u s h e s p a r t i e s to q u e s t i o n c o m m o n l y h e l d d e f i n i t i o n s , to d i s p u t e t h e n a m i n g o r l a b e l i n g of i s s u e s , a n d to challenge the status q u o by expanding and envisioning alternatives. Rather t h a n u s i n g t r a d e s to g e n e r a t e j o i n t g a i n , m u t u a l i n q u i r y e n c o u r a g e s e x p a n s i v e t h i n k i n g a n d e n v i s i o n s w h a t m i g h t b e in t h e f u t u r e . R a t h e r t h a n m o v i n g f r o m counterproposals and reciprocal concessions, mutual inquiry uncovers seeds of c h a n g e t h r o u g h j o i n t l e a r n i n g . H e n c e , c o - c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d m u t u a l i n q u i r y , a c t i v i t i e s that a r e s h o v e d i n t o the b a c k g r o u n d in t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l s , m o v e to t h e f o r e f r o n t in t h e p r o p o s e d a l t e r n a t i v e v i e w of n e g o t i a t i o n . C o n c o m i t a n t l y , a t t r i b u t e s of c o n n e c t i o n a n d c o m m u n i t y l i n k e d to f e m i n i s t t h i n k i n g b e c o m e c e n t r a l r a t h e r t h a n m a r g i n a l in t h e a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l .

Feminist

Views of

Communication

85

In t h e a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l , p r o g r e s s o r f o r w a r d m o v e m e n t e m a n a t e s f r o m i n t e g r a t i n g n e g o t i a t e d i s s u e s i n t o t h e l a r g e r s y s t e m in w h i c h t h e y o c c u r . T h a t is, n e g o t i a t i o n i n t e r a c t i o n m o v e s f r o m d e l i b e r a t i o n s a b o u t p a r t i c u l a r s ( e . g . , i s s u e s , p o s i t i o n s , a n d f a c t s ) to d i s c u s s i o n s a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n a l a n d o r g a n i z a ­ tional systems (e.g., definitions, background, lines of authority, and coher­ ence within the system). Integration, then, b e c o m e s a way of m o v i n g negotia­ t i o n "forward,** n o t t h r o u g h s t a g e s o r s t e p s b u t t h r o u g h s i t u a t i n g p o s i t i o n s a n d issues within the larger context of the participants. T h r o u g h integration, par­ ties c a n d e s c r i b e p a r t i c u l a r m o m e n t s in w h i c h a s y s t e m f u n c t i o n s e f f e c t i v e l y a n d c a n e n t e r t a i n n e w o p t i o n s b y a p p r e c i a t i n g t h e c o m p l e x i t y a n d s c o p e of t h e situation. O t h e r c o n t r a s t i n g f e a t u r e s of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a n d a l t e r n a t i v e a p p r o a c h e s a r e equity versus equality and balanced versus blended. T h e traditional models c a s t t h e act of t r a d i n g a s a b a l a n c e d o r e q u i t a b l e p r o c e s s ( R u b i n & B r o w n , 1 9 7 5 ) . R e p e a t e d e x c h a n g e s of r e w a r d s a n d c o s t s p r o v i d e n e g o t i a t o r s w i t h w a y s " t o l e v e l t h e p l a y i n g field.'* R e c i p r o c a l c o n c e s s i o n s a n d m a t c h i n g p a t ­ t e r n s s u c h a s tit for tat a i m to b a l a n c e r e s o u r c e s a n d m i n i m i z e p o w e r differ­ e n c e s ( R u b i n , P r u i t t , & K i m , 1 9 9 4 ) . T h i s n o t i o n of e q u i t y , h o w e v e r , r o o t s p o w e r in t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o n t r o l of r e s o u r c e s . N e g o t i a t o r s w h o e s p o u s e t h i s b e l i e f often fail to r e c o g n i z e h o w e q u i v a l e n c y is d i f f e r e n t w h e n it s u r f a c e s a s equal numbers, equal ratio, equitable division, or distribution based on contri­ b u t i o n s to t h e g r o u p ( H o w a r d & H o l l a n d e r , 1 9 9 7 ) . T h u s , t h e e x c h a n g e p r o c e s s that is s o f u n d a m e n t a l to n e g o t i a t i o n e m b o d i e s a n o t i o n o f j u s t i c e r o o t e d in t h e a g e n t i c g o a l s of e q u i t y r a t h e r t h a n in t h e c o m m u n a l g o a l s of e q u a l i t y . T h e a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l , in c o n t r a s t , r e l i e s o n c o m m u n a l g o a l s r o o t e d in f e m ­ inist thinking. Based on intimacy, mutuality, and c a m a r a d e r i e , equality arises f r o m t h e c a l i b e r o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n f r o m b a l a n c i n g p o w e r differ­ e n c e s . It e m a n a t e s f r o m i n t e r a c t i o n t h a t is r e s p o n s i v e t o m u l t i p l e a n d e m e r ­ gent voices, that allows participants a c h a n c e to speak and be heard, and that legitimates discussion of new vistas and directions (Foss & Griffin, 1995). P r o p o s a l s in t h i s m o d e l a r e b l e n d e d t h r o u g h o p e n d e l i b e r a t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n balanced through the use of reciprocal trades. A n o t h e r c o n t r a s t i n g f e a t u r e b e t w e e n t h e t w o a p p r o a c h e s is t r a n s a c t i o n v e r ­ s u s c o l l a b o r a t i o n . T r a d i t i o n a l b a r g a i n i n g is o f t e n c a l l e d t r a n s a c t i o n a l n e g o t i a ­ t i o n , r e f e r r i n g to a b u y e r - s e l l e r t r a n s a c t i o n . T h e c o n c e p t of t r a n s a c t i o n , h o w ­ ever, implies transfers, calculated exchanges, and mutually rewarding trades. In n e g o t i a t i o n , t h e s e t r a n s f e r s r e p r e s e n t c a l c u l a t i o n s b a s e d o n u t i l i t y f u n c ­ tions and decisions derived from anticipating the o p p o n e n t ' s b e h a v i o r (Gray, 1 9 9 4 ) . T h e c o n c e p t o f t r a n s a c t i o n , t h e n , r e a f f i r m s t h e v i e w t h a t n e g o t i a t i o n is a s e r i e s of s t r a t e g i c e x c h a n g e s t h a t c a n b e a r r a n g e d a n d r e a r r a n g e d to a c h i e v e t h e m o s t b e n e f i c i a l c o m b i n a t i o n . C o m m u n i c a t i o n in t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l a l s o a p p e a r s a s a t r a n s a c t i o n , o n e in w h i c h i n f o r m a t i o n a n d t a c t i c a l b e h a v i o r s a r e t r a n s f e r r e d b a c k a n d forth t h r o u g h a g i v e - a n d - t a k e p r o c e s s .

COMMUNICATION FROM FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES

86

Unlike the traditional model, the alternative approach draws on a c o m ­ m u n a l p e r s p e c t i v e to c a s t n e g o t i a t i o n as a c o l l a b o r a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n a s a t r a n s ­ action. Consistent with feminist thinking, collaboration relies on joint ex­ p e r i e n c e s a n d t r e a t s c o m m u n i c a t i o n as a f o r u m for o n g o i n g a n d a c t i v e d e l i b e r a t i o n s t h a t l e a d to a d i a l o g u e a b o u t d i v e r s e p e r s p e c t i v e s . C o l l a b o r a t i o n is a t y p e of c o m m u n i c a t i v e c o m p e t e n c e in w h i c h p a r t i c i p a n t s b u i l d o n e a c h o t h e r ' s p o s i t i o n s to find o p p o r t u n i t i e s for j o i n t a c t i o n s a n d s h a r e d e x p e r i e n c e s (Barrett, 1995). T h u s , a f e m i n i s t c r i t i q u e a n d r e v i s i o n of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l of n e g o t i a ­ tion h i g h l i g h t s d i f f e r e n t a n d often m a r g i n a l i z e d e l e m e n t s of t h e p r o c e s s . T h e e s s e n c e of n e g o t i a t i o n in t h i s a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l is c o - c o n s t r u c t i o n r a t h e r t h a n e x c h a n g e . C o - c o n s t r u c t i o n e m a n a t e s f r o m m u t u a l i n q u i r y , i n t e g r a t i o n of i d e a s , e q u a l i t y of v o i c e , a n d c o l l a b o r a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n f r o m t h e t r a d i t i o n a l e l e ­ ments of trades, reciprocity, equity, and transaction. L e t ' s r e t u r n to t h e e x a m p l e of K a r e n D a v e n p o r t to c o n s i d e r h o w t h e t h r e e different r o u t e s m i g h t f u n c t i o n d i f f e r e n t l y for t h e s a m e b a r g a i n i n g s i t u a t i o n .

Traditional

Model

1: Distributive Exchange

In t h e d i s t r i b u t i v e m o d e l , n e g o t i a t i o n o c c u r s t h r o u g h t h e e x c h a n g e of a s e r i e s of p r o p o s a l s a n d c o u n t e r p r o p o s a l s . S a m c l a i m s t h a t h i s c o s t s for m a r ­ keting and managing the advanced course are high and that he would be taking all t h e r i s k s ; t h e r e f o r e , h e d e s e r v e s a g r e a t e r s h a r e o f t h e r e v e n u e s . K a r e n , w h o clearly wants this course, realizes that SITI needs B r o w n e A s s o c i a t e s m o r e t h a n it d o e s t h e n e w c o u r s e . S h e l o o k s at S a m ' s n u m b e r s a n d m a k e s a c o u n t e r p r o p o s a l b y g i v i n g in o n h e r initial r e v e n u e d e m a n d for S I T I . S a m r e i n f o r c e s his p o s i t i o n b y a r g u i n g h o w m u c h r i s k is i n v o l v e d a n d h o w h e m u s t c o v e r t h e c o s t s for t h e s e r i s k s . K a r e n r e a s o n s t h a t , in t h e e a r l y y e a r s , n o o n e i m a g i n e d t h a t t h e b a s i c c o u r s e w o u l d b e s o s u c c e s s f u l . T h e c o s t s a n d t h e r i s k s w e r e e q u a l l y h i g h for b o t h p a r ­ ties. S a m was getting a good deal from the basic course s e m i n a r s . T h e n e w c o u r s e w o u l d p r o b a b l y h a v e t h e s a m e life c y c l e , a n d S a m s h o u l d c o n t i n u e to c o m p r o m i s e o n t h e p r o p o s e d fee t h a t h e will h a v e to p a y S I T I for t h e c o u r s e delivery. A s t h e n e g o t i a t i o n p r o g r e s s e s , K a r e n a r g u e s t h a t t h i s p r o g r a m is g o i n g to b e a real m o n e y m a k e r for B r o w n e A s s o c i a t e s , j u s t as t h e b a s i c m o d e l s c o u r s e h a s been. She then proposes her bottom line—the s a m e r e v e n u e a r r a n g e m e n t that t h e y c u r r e n t l y h a v e for t h e b a s i c c o u r s e . S h e i m p l i e s t h a t if S I T I c a n n o t g e t this a r r a n g e m e n t , t h e n t h e w h o l e i d e a of an a d v a n c e d c o u r s e w i l l b e off t h e table. T h e negotiation proceeds with Karen and S a m going back and forth— S a m m o a n i n g a b o u t t h e c o s t s a n d r i s k s to B r o w n e A s s o c i a t e s a n d K a r e n claiming that S a m ' s c o m p a n y has minimal risks and has fared well from the o r i g i n a l d e a l . In t h e e n d , b o t h p a r t i e s r e a c h a c o m p r o m i s e s e t t l e m e n t . S a m

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p a y s a l o w e r fee to S I T I for t h e a d v a n c e d c o u r s e t h a n h e d o e s f o r t h e b a s i c s e m i n a r , b u t it is m o r e t h a n h e o r i g i n a l l y p r o p o s e d . B o t h p a r t i e s feel d i s s a t i s ­ fied w i t h t h e p r o c e s s , a n d b o t h a g r e e t o r e o p e n t h e n e g o t i a t i o n n e x t y e a r .

Traditional Model 2: Integrative Exchange In t h e i n t e g r a t i v e m o d e l , r a t h e r t h a n w o r k i n g f r o m p o s i t i o n s , b o t h p a r t i e s try t o d e c i p h e r e a c h o t h e r ' s i n t e r e s t s a n d m a k e p r o p o s a l s t o d o v e t a i l t h e s e dif­ f e r e n t i n t e r e s t s . T h e i n t e g r a t i v e b a r g a i n i n g m i g h t p r o c e e d in t h i s f a s h i o n . A f t e r K a r e n r e c o v e r s f r o m h e r s h o c k r e g a r d i n g t h e l o w fee t h a t S a m p r o p o s e s to p a y , s h e r e a l i z e s t h a t s h e n e e d s t o k n o w m o r e a b o u t B r o w n e ' s i n t e r e s t s in this a r r a n g e m e n t a n d w h a t is d r i v i n g S a m ' s p r o p o s a l . S o K a r e n a s k s S a m w h y t h e r e v e n u e - s h a r i n g s c h e m e for t h e n e w p r o g r a m is s o s k e w e d in h i s f a v o r . H i s e x p l a n a t i o n is s i m p l e . T h e b a s i c m o d e l s c o u r s e is a p r e r e q u i s i t e for t h e a d v a n c e d seminar; h e n c e , S a m m u s t recruit participants from the pool of a p p l i c a n t s w h o h a v e a l r e a d y t a k e n t h e b a s i c c o u r s e , w h i c h is o n l y a b o u t 10,000 people. His risks are high b e c a u s e he fears that the yield will be low, and his c o m p a n y will not sign on the n u m b e r s needed to m a k e this venture profitable. W h a t c a t c h e s K a r e n ' s a t t e n t i o n is t h e r i s k p r o f i l e t h a t S a m p r e s e n t s . T h e n e w a d v a n c e d p r o g r a m is m o r e r i s k y t h a n t h e b a s i c o f f e r i n g . If S a m ' s e n t i r e p o o l of p o s s i b l e a t t e n d e e s for t h e a d v a n c e d c o u r s e is l i m i t e d , B r o w n e A s s o c i ­ a t e s h a s n o f l e x i b i l i t y in m a r k e t i n g . T h e c o m p a n y c o u l d n o t r e c r u i t m o r e attendees simply by sending out another direct-mail c a m p a i g n . Instead, B r o w n e A s s o c i a t e s m u s t t a r g e t t h e i r m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g i e s to a s e l e c t g r o u p . K a r e n r e a l i z e s t h a t s h e n e e d s an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t p r o p o s a l a n d t h a t s h e s h o u l d n o t s i m p l y e n g a g e in a s e r i e s of t r a d e o f f s o n t h e a m o u n t of r e v e n u e . S h e s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e y m e e t l a t e r , after s h e h a s h a d t i m e to d e v e l o p a l t e r n a ­ t i v e s . T h e n e x t d a y s h e g i v e s S a m an a l t e r n a t i v e p r o p o s a l . S i n c e S a m is c o n ­ c e r n e d a b o u t t h e r i s k f a c t o r of t h e n e w p r o g r a m , K a r e n p r o p o s e s t h a t S I T I ' s fee start l o w b u t r a t c h e t u p as t h e n u m b e r of s e m i n a r p a r t i c i p a n t s i n c r e a s e s . W h e n e n r o l l m e n t s r e a c h t h e n u m b e r t h a t p a r a l l e l s t h o s e in t h e b a s i c c o u r s e , S I T I w i l l r e c e i v e a h i g h e r fee p e r a t t e n d e e t h a n it c u r r e n t l y d o e s for t h e b a s i c c o u r s e . T h i s p r o r a t e d fee c o m p e n s a t e s for S I T I ' s r e v e n u e l o s s d u r i n g t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y p e r i o d of t h e c o u r s e w h e n it is p a i d a l o w f e e . A l t h o u g h S a m r e s p o n d s p o s i t i v e l y to t h e i d e a , h e b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e i n c r e ­ m e n t a l i n c r e a s e in f e e s is t o o s t e e p . H e p r e f e r s a s l o w p h a s e - i n of t h e h i g h e r fee. H o w e v e r , after t i n k e r i n g w i t h t h e r e v e n u e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e n u m b e r s , K a r e n a n d S a m r e a c h a n a g r e e m e n t . T h e s e t t l e m e n t is a g a i n f o r b o t h s i d e s . B y l i n k i n g r e v e n u e s to t h e n u m b e r of a t t e n d e e s , t h e n e w c o u r s e w i l l m o v e for­ w a r d . A l t h o u g h t h e d e a l d o e s n o t r e t u r n a s m u c h r e v e n u e as K a r e n h a d h o p e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h e e a r l y s t a g e s , it w i l l g e n e r a t e c o n s i d e r a b l e c a s h f l o w in t h e f u t u r e — f o r S I T I a n d for B r o w n e A s s o c i a t e s .

88

COMMUNICATION FROM FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES

An Alternative Model:

Mutual Inquiry and Co-Construction

W h e n S a m h a n d s K a r e n h i s p r o p o s a l , s h e is s h o c k e d . S I T I is a m a j o r c l i e n t for B r o w n e , a n d t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p h a s y i e l d e d o t h e r w o r k for h i s c o m p a n y . It d o e s n o t m a k e s e n s e that S a m w o u l d try to t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f S I T I , e v e n t h o u g h t h e p r o p o s a l l o o k s like it. K a r e n s a y s to herself, " I ' m m i s s i n g s o m e ­ thing here. W e h a v e n ' t talked enough. I d o n ' t understand w h a t ' s going on. S a m is r e a l l y u p s e t a n d n o t j u s t a b o u t the r e v e n u e . M a y b e I d o n o t fully u n d e r ­ stand his b u s i n e s s . " K a r e n a s k s S a m t o talk a b o u t h i s b u s i n e s s in m o r e d e t a i l . S a m tells K a r e n h i s s i t u a t i o n . T o r e c o v e r h i s c o s t s , i n c l u d i n g S I T I ' s fixed fee, B r o w n e n e e d s to r e c r u i t 105 a t t e n d e e s for e a c h a d v a n c e d c o u r s e . At t h e start of a m a i l i n g c y c l e , S a m c a n n e v e r p r e d i c t t h e y i e l d . If t h e n u m b e r s l o o k l o w , h e s e n d s o u t m o r e d i r e c t m a i l . U s i n g a f o r m u l a of 1 a t t e n d e e p e r 1,000 m a i l a n n o u n c e ­ m e n t s , S a m k n o w s that h e c a n fill t h e s e m i n a r if B r o w n e s e n d s o u t e n o u g h m a i l . K a r e n t h e n r e a l i z e s that s h e h a s n e v e r u n d e r s t o o d S a m ' s o p e r a t i o n s . H i s p r o b l e m s a r e n ' t j u s t a b o u t t h e fee s t r u c t u r e . In t h i s n e w a r r a n g e m e n t , h e c a n ' t use a d i r e c t - m a i l c a m p a i g n to fill t h e a d v a n c e d c o u r s e b e c a u s e h e c a n a p ­ p r o a c h o n l y p r e v i o u s p a r t i c i p a n t s . If not e n o u g h p e o p l e s i g n u p for t h e c o u r s e , t h e n h e is o u t of p o c k e t . T h i s m o m e n t s e r v e s as a t u r n i n g p o i n t to p u r s u e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p as a b a s i s for n e g o t i a t i o n . K a r e n m e n t i o n s t o S a m that s h e is o n l y b e g i n n i n g to s e e h o w r i s k y t h e a d ­ v a n c e d p r o g r a m is for h i m . T h a t c o m m e n t o p e n s t h e d o o r for S a m to b e c o m e m o r e e x p r e s s i v e a n d to a p p r o a c h K a r e n in a n e w l i g h t . H e b e g i n s to t a l k a b o u t the r i s k s of h i s b u s i n e s s a n d that h e feels h e h a s a l w a y s b o r n e all t h e r i s k s in their joint ventures. " W h e n we started," he remarks, " n o b o d y k n e w the pro­ grams would be so successful. I underwrote them. N o w that the p r o g r a m s are s u c c e s s f u l , t h e i n s t i t u t e is not o n l y u n a p p r e c i a t i v e , b u t y o u w a n t m o r e . " S a m ' s u n g u a r d e d r e m a r k s r a i s e a c r i t i c a l e l e m e n t that is d r i v i n g t h e n e g o t i ­ ation. Both parties consider the other c o m p a n y greedy, and each interprets the a c t i o n s of t h e o t h e r t h r o u g h this s c r e e n . K a r e n shifts t h e n e g o t i a t i o n a w a y from c o m p e t i t i o n to m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n b y a f f i r m i n g S a m . K a r e n t a l k s a b o u t h o w m u c h SITI values the work of B r o w n e and his team, and S a m points out how much Browne Associates appreciates S I T I ' s contributions to m a k i n g the seminars successful and effective. This affirmation m a k e s both parties m o r e a p p r o a c h a b l e a n d b u i l d s c o n n e c t e d n e s s in g o a l s . As Karen inquires m o r e deeply into S a m ' s b u s i n e s s — n o t j u s t about the n u t s a n d b o l t s but w h y h e h a s to m a k e the d e c i s i o n s h e d o e s — b o t h p a r t i e s s u r ­ face p a s t r e s e n t m e n t s , r e n e w trust, a n d g a i n a n e w u n d e r s t a n d i n g of e a c h o t h e r . T h i s n e w u n d e r s t a n d i n g a l t e r s the d e f i n i t i o n a n d d i r e c t i o n of t h e c o n ­ flict. It t r a n s f o r m s t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s of p a s t b e h a v i o r s a n d e n a b l e s t h e m t o s e e

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Views of

Communication

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t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p in a n e w light. T h r o u g h t h i s m o d e of n e g o t i a t i o n , K a r e n a n d S a m d i s c o v e r t h e i r real i n c e n t i v e s for w o r k i n g t o g e t h e r . T h e i r d i s c u s s i o n l e a d s t h e m to set a s i d e t h e fee a r r a n g e m e n t s a n d b u i l d t h e i r i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e a n d c o n n e c t e d n e s s b y t h i n k i n g of w a y s t o fill t h e a d v a n c e d c l a s s e s a n d t o e x p a n d t h e p o o l of r e c r u i t s . K a r e n p u r s u e s i d e a s r e l a t e d t o t h e s e q u e n c e of t h e courses, and Sam questions why the courses need to be offered sequentially. T h e n t h e y b o t h d e v e l o p t h e i d e a to offer t h e t w o c o u r s e s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , thereby giving people the prerequisites while recruiting them into the a d v a n c e d c o u r s e . T h u s , i n s t e a d of p r o m o t i n g t h e n e w c o u r s e as a s t a n d - a l o n e o f f e r i n g , t h e y c o u l d c o u p l e it w i t h t h e b a s i c c o u r s e ; p a r t i c i p a n t s c o u l d r e m a i n for t h e 2 - d a y a d v a n c e d p r o g r a m after t h e y c o m p l e t e t h e b a s i c c o u r s e . T h i s w a y , S a m c a n a p p r o a c h t h e 1 0 , 0 0 0 e x i s t i n g a l u m n i a n d , at t h e s a m e t i m e , p r o s p e c t for n e w a t t e n d e e s for t h e b a s i c c o u r s e . W h a t is i m p o r t a n t to K a r e n a n d S a m , h o w e v e r , is n o t t h e o u t c o m e o r s o l u ­ tion to t h e p r o b l e m ; r a t h e r , it is t h e c o n n e c t e d n e s s t h a t f o r m s in j o i n t l y d e v e l ­ o p i n g t h e i r c o u r s e of a c t i o n a n d in b u i l d i n g a n e w s e n s e o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e i r s i t u a t i o n . In effect, t h e y t r a n s f o r m t h e n a t u r e of t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p b y p r o ­ moting expressiveness, appreciative inquiry, mutual recognition, and collab­ orative actions. Their relationship has changed because they have built a new f o u n d a t i o n for f u t u r e i n t e r a c t i o n s , o n e t h a t r e d u c e s s u s p i c i o n a n d d i s t r u s t , b u i l d s o n c o m m o n g r o u n d , a n d e n g a g e s in a p r o c e s s of c o l l a b o r a t i o n . T h e s e three scenarios illustrate h o w the e l e m e n t s of negotiation function d i f f e r e n t l y in e a c h m o d e l . In t h e first t w o s c e n a r i o s , e x c h a n g e s u r f a c e s as t h e f u n d a m e n t a l a c t i v i t y of n e g o t i a t i n g . In b o t h t h e d i s t r i b u t i v e a n d i n t e g r a t i v e models, Karen and S a m concentrate on their o w n rewards and costs and on balancing risks and revenues. Balance and reciprocity drive the way that each p e r s o n w e i g h s t h e o t h e r p a r t y ' s c o n c e s s i o n s , a n d t h e y i n f l u e n c e t h e b a s i s of t h e i n t e g r a t i v e a g r e e m e n t as S a m a n d K a r e n h a g g l e o v e r t h e r e v e n u e f i g u r e s l i n k e d to t h e n u m b e r of a t t e n d e e s . In t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s c e n a r i o , K a r e n e n g a g e s in m u t u a l i n q u i r y r a t h e r t h a n t r a d i n g by a s k i n g S a m to e x p l a i n h i s b u s i n e s s . T h i s i n q u i r y , r o o t e d in e x p a n ­ s i v e t h i n k i n g , a l l o w s t h e p a r t i e s to r a i s e i s s u e s a b o u t t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p a n d t o integrate the particulars of the m o m e n t into the larger o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s y s t e m that c o n n e c t s t h e p a r t i e s . T h e n e g o t i a t o r s c o l l a b o r a t e n o t o n l y in d e v e l o p i n g a c r e a t i v e s o l u t i o n but a l s o in s u r f a c i n g t h e i r s u s p i c i o n s a n d f e a r s a b o u t e a c h o t h e r a n d in d e v e l o p i n g a s e n s e of r e c o g n i t i o n a n d a n e w u n d e r s t a n d i n g of e a c h o t h e r . A s t h e y i n c r e a s e t h e i r a p p r e c i a t i o n for e a c h o t h e r a n d t h e i r i n t e r d e ­ pendence, they voice their concerns, develop c o m m u n a l goals, and jointly c o n s t r u c t an o u t c o m e . N e g o t i a t i o n , t h e n , b e c o m e s a c o - c o n s t r u c t i o n r a t h e r t h a n an e x c h a n g e . T h e s e s c e n a r i o s s e r v e as e x e m p l a r s t o c o m p a r e t h e g o a l s a n d o u t c o m e s , r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a n d p r o c e s s e s of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a n d t h e a l t e r n a ­ tive a p p r o a c h e s .

90

COMMUNICATION FROM FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES

Goals and Outcomes G o a l s a n d o u t c o m e s in t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l s a r e i n f u s e d w i t h t h e r e s i d u e of e x c h a n g e . D i s t r i b u t i v e b a r g a i n e r s r e l y o n e x c h a n g e s t o m a x i m i z e i n d i v i d ­ ual p a y o f f s a n d to a c h i e v e s e t t l e m e n t s c l o s e to t h e i r o p p o n e n t s ' r e s i s t a n c e p o i n t . M u t u a l g a i n s n e g o t i a t o r s c a s t t h e s e g o a l s as j o i n t p r o f i t s a n d s t r i v e to o p t i m i z e g a i n s for b o t h p a r t i e s . C o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e m u t u a l g a i n s m o d e l , b a r ­ g a i n e r s a i m to a c h i e v e t h e b e s t o p t i m a l s e t t l e m e n t w h i l e r e a l i z i n g t h a t t h e o t h e r p a r t y is s t r i v i n g to e n h a n c e h i s o r h e r p o s i t i o n . E v e n t h o u g h t h e g o a l s of i n t e g r a t i v e b a r g a i n i n g i n c l u d e b o t h self a n d o t h e r , t h e p r i m a r y c o n c e r n of e n l i g h t e n e d s e l f - i n t e r e s t r e m a i n s for t h e i n d i v i d u a l w h o s e p a y o f f s a r e i n c r e a s e d b e c a u s e j o i n t g a i n is o p t i m a l . T o r e t u r n t o o u r e x a m p l e , w h e n K a r e n and Sam negotiate under the traditional models, their objectives are c l e a r — t o g e t t h e b e s t d e a l t h a t e a c h p e r s o n c a n . W h a t differs b e t w e e n t h e d i s t r i b u t i v e a n d i n t e g r a t i v e v e r s i o n s is t h e o p e r a t i o n of e n l i g h t e n e d s e l f - i n t e r e s t . In t h e i n t e g r a t i v e v e r s i o n of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l , K a r e n f a s h i o n s an a g r e e m e n t t h a t takes S a m ' s interest—in this case, risk—into account. T h e patriarchal value of i n d i v i d u a l i s m , t h e n , r e m a i n s p r i m a r y in t h e s e a p p r o a c h e s to n e g o t i a t i o n . T h e a l t e r n a t i v e v i e w of b a r g a i n i n g s t r i v e s for s e l f - k n o w l e d g e a n d m u t u a l understanding rather than enlightened self-interest and mutual gain (see Table 4 . 1 ) . S e l f - k n o w l e d g e differs f r o m s e l f - i n t e r e s t in t h e w a y t h a t n e g o t i a t o r s a r e p o s i t i o n e d in t h e p r o c e s s . E n l i g h t e n e d s e l f - i n t e r e s t p r e s u m e s t h a t b o t h p a r t i e s a r e p u r s u i n g p a t h s t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e in t h e s i t u a t i o n . Selfk n o w l e d g e , h o w e v e r , f o c u s e s o n t h e w a y that c o - c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e p r o c e s s e n l i g h t e n s or i n f o r m s b o t h p a r t i e s of t h e i r t r u e n e e d s , c a p a b i l i t i e s , a n d m o t i v a ­ tions. W h e n Karen and S a m open up the negotiations and begin to h e a r about t h e e x p e r i e n c e s of t h e o t h e r , e a c h l e a r n s s o m e t h i n g n e w a b o u t t h e o t h e r as w e l l as a b o u t t h e i r o w n c a s e . T h r o u g h t h e i r c o l l a b o r a t i o n , t h e y c o m e t o s e e t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l i n t e r e s t s in a d i f f e r e n t l i g h t a n d c o m e to d e f i n e a n d u n d e r ­ s t a n d t h e i r m u t u a l i n t e r e s t s in h o w e a c h p e r s o n e x p e r i e n c e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h e co-constructed model p r e s u m e s that parties can learn from negotiation a n d b e c o m e a w a r e of t h e i r o w n i n t e r e s t s as a r e s u l t of e n g a g i n g in t h e b a r g a i n ­ i n g . T h e m a j o r g o a l of t h e a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l is n o t m u t u a l g a i n b u t , r a t h e r , mutual understanding through generating new insights, creating alternative meanings, and expanding horizons. These goals, then, e m b r a c e the feminist quality of learning through connectedness. In t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l , t h e o u t c o m e of n e g o t i a t i o n is c l o s e l y tied to t h e g o a l s of t h e p r o c e s s . T h e u l t i m a t e r e s o l u t i o n of b a r g a i n i n g is a m u t u a l l y s a t i s ­ f a c t o r y s e t t l e m e n t , p a r t i c u l a r l y an o p t i m a l o n e in w h i c h " n e i t h e r p a r t y c a n d o b e t t e r in an a l t e r n a t i v e a g r e e m e n t u n l e s s t h e o t h e r p a r t y d o e s w o r s e " ( P r u i t t & C a r n e v a l e , 1 9 9 3 , p . 8 3 ) . A m a j o r l i m i t a t i o n to t r e a t i n g a g r e e m e n t a s t h e u l ­ t i m a t e o u t c o m e o f b a r g a i n i n g is t h e w a y this e n d d r i v e s o t h e r f e a t u r e s of t h e p r o c e s s . N e g o t i a t i o n , t h e n , as a c o m p l e x p r o c e s s o f s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n ,

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b e c o m e s a n i n s t r u m e n t for a t t a i n i n g a g r e e m e n t . I n t e r d e p e n d e n c e o c c u r s a r o u n d t h e t a s k , n o t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p . In a n i n t e r e s t i n g i r o n y , w h e n i n t e r d e p e n ­ d e n c e is r o o t e d in t h e t a s k , t h e v e r y k i n d s o f c r e a t i v e o p t i o n s t h a t m i g h t e m e r g e as s o l u t i o n s a r e n o t r e a l i z e d b e c a u s e t h e p a r t i e s c o n c e n t r a t e o n o u t ­ c o m e s a n d t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l n a t u r e of t h e i r t a l k . T h u s , in T r a d i t i o n a l M o d e l 2 , w h e n K a r e n p r o p o s e s a d e a l that t a k e s S a m ' s r i s k i n t o a c c o u n t , S a m r e m a i n s suspicious and c o n c e r n e d that the terms of this a g r e e m e n t will favor SITI. T h e e m p h a s i s on reaching an a g r e e m e n t and on different types of o u t c o m e s , such as w i n - l o s e , l o s e - l o s e , o r w i n - w i n , s u p p o r t s t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l n a t u r e of t h e process. R a t h e r t h a n s t r i v i n g for o p t i m a l s e t t l e m e n t s , a m o d e l o f n e g o t i a t i o n b a s e d o n f e m i n i s t t h i n k i n g a i m s for o u t c o m e s r o o t e d in j o i n t l y d e v e l o p e d c o u r s e s o f a c t i o n that h a v e t h e p o t e n t i a l t o t r a n s f o r m t h e s i t u a t i o n . T r a n s f o r m a t i o n i m p l i e s a d i s j u n c t i o n o r b r e a k in p r e c o n c e i v e d w a y s o f t h i n k i n g a b o u t i s s u e s , positions, and relationships (Putnam, 1994). A negotiation that works through t h e c h a n g e s that o c c u r in u n d e r s t a n d i n g s a n d m e a n i n g s a b o u t i s s u e s , r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p s , a n d f u t u r e a c t i o n s h a s t h e p o t e n t i a l to b e c o m e d i f f e r e n t f r o m its o r i g i n a l c o n c e p t i o n . O u t c o m e s in t h e a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l a r e n o t s i m p l y p r e f i g u r e d i n p u t s that h a v e b e e n e x c h a n g e d , r e a r r a n g e d , a n d r e p a c k a g e d . R a t h e r , t h e y a r i s e f r o m c h a n g e s in t h e f u n d a m e n t a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n a n d t h e participants. In t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s c e n a r i o , w h e n K a r e n a n d S a m j o i n t l y d e v e l o p a d e f i n i ­ t i o n of a n d s o l u t i o n t o t h e p r o b l e m , it r e p r e s e n t s a n e w c o - c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l v i e w s of t h e s i t u a t i o n . E v e n t h o u g h t h e i n i t i a l p u r p o s e of t h e i r m e e t i n g is t o n e g o t i a t e S I T I ' s fee for t h e a d v a n c e d c o u r s e s , t h e y c o - c o n s t r u c t a n e w u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d r e w o r k t h e p r o b l e m . T h i s p r o c e s s , in t u r n , l e a d s t o s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f e e l i n g s a b o u t t h e a g r e e m e n t . It is n o t t h e n a t u r e of t h e o u t c o m e itself that is r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t in t h e a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l . ( C l e a r l y , t h e s o l u t i o n of o f f e r i n g b o t h c o u r s e s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y c o u l d h a v e e m e r g e d f r o m i n t e g r a t i v e o r p r i n c i p l e d n e g o t i a t i o n . ) R a t h e r , it is t h e j o i n t o r c o l l a b o r a t i v e d i s c o v e r y o f d e v e l o p i n g t h e s o l u t i o n that a r i s e s f r o m c h a n g e s in t h e r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p a n d in t h e w a y s that p a r t i e s w o r k t h r o u g h t h e i r c o n f l i c t . T r a n s f o r m a t i v e o u t c o m e s a r e i n e x t r i c a b l y t i e d to h o w a d i s p u t e is d e f i n e d a n d e n a c t e d . S p e c i f i c a l l y , t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e w a y a c o n f l i c t is l a b e l e d o r n a m e d , t h e p r o c e s s o f b l a m e a n d a c c u s a t i o n t i e d to t h e d i s p u t e , a n d t h e o w n e r s h i p of t h e c o n f l i c t ( M a t h e r & Y n g v e s s o n , 1 9 8 0 / 1 9 8 1 ) . T h r o u g h n e g o t i a t i o n , p a r t i e s in a d i s p u t e m a y c o m e to f r a m e o r l a b e l t h e c o n ­ flict d i f f e r e n t l y . W h a t w a s i n i t i a l l y d e f i n e d a s a c o n f l i c t a b o u t e m p l o y e r c o n ­ tributions to health insurance might e m e r g e from the interaction as a p r o b l e m w i t h t h e h e a l t h c a r e p r o v i d e r o r t h e n a t u r e of t h e h e a l t h c a r e p a c k a g e . A c o n ­ flict a b o u t t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of t r a i n i n g a n d d i v e r s i t y p r o g r a m s in a n o r g a n i ­ z a t i o n m i g h t t r a n s f o r m i n t o c o n c e r n s a b o u t f u n d a m e n t a l v a l u e s in t h e c o m ­ pany culture.

92

COMMUNICATION FROM FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES

O t h e r l e v e l s of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a d d r e s s t h e b l a m i n g a n d c l a i m i n g o f a c o n ­ flict. P a r t i e s often a p p r o a c h a d i s p u t e b y b l a m i n g o t h e r p e o p l e f o r t h e p r o b ­ lem. S o m e t i m e s the conflict interaction focuses on w h o caused this p r o b l e m o r w h o h a s c o n t r i b u t e d to t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s . M o v i n g f r o m b l a m i n g o t h e r s to o w n i n g t h e c a u s e s a n d effects of a s i t u a t i o n i l l u s t r a t e s a t r a n s f o r m a t i v e m o m e n t in t h e d i s p u t e . W h e n S a m a n d K a r e n n e g o t i a t e a b o u t t h e f e e s , t h e y still h o l d m u t u a l a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t t h e g r e e d a n d e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e o t h e r . In t h e b a c k g r o u n d , t h e s e f e e l i n g s affect t h e k i n d of d e a l t h a t c a n be m a d e . W h e n they w o r k through these feelings and r e c o g n i z e the contribu­ tion that e a c h p e r s o n m a k e s to t h e s i t u a t i o n , t h e i r i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e p r o b l e m c h a n g e , a n d t h e i r c o l l e c t i v e a b i l i t y to c r e a t e o p t i o n s c h a n g e s as w e l l . T h r o u g h d e l i b e r a t i o n a n d r e f l e c t i o n , t h e p a r t i e s c l a i m o r o w n t h e p r o b l e m in n e w w a y s ; t h e o u t c o m e s , t h e n , e v o l v e f r o m e x p l a n a t i o n s a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of t h e s i t u a ­ tion that a r e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h o s e that t h e p a r t i e s o r i g i n a l l y h e l d . Transformation also occurs when parties realize h o w the p r o b l e m s are r o o t e d in t h e s o c i a l s y s t e m s in w h i c h b o t h d i s p u t a n t s a r e e m b e d d e d . In t h e alternative approach, the solution that Karen and S a m collectively g e n e r a t e c o m e s from m o v i n g a w a y from proposals and thinking about the larger social s y s t e m t h a t t h e y a r e d e v e l o p i n g . T h u s , r a t h e r t h a n a i m i n g for w i n - w i n o r w i n l o s e o u t c o m e s , n e g o t i a t o r s in t h e a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l s e e k an e n r i c h e d u n d e r ­ s t a n d i n g of t h e v e r y s i t u a t i o n t h e y a r e c o n s t r u c t i n g . J o i n t l y d e v e l o p e d a c t i o n s , t h e n , e m a n a t e from c h a n g e s in e x p e c t a t i o n s , e x p l a n a t i o n s , a n d u n d e r s t a n d ­ i n g s of t h e c o n f l i c t . T h e y g r o w o u t of t h e i n t e r a c t i o n d u r i n g t h e n e g o t i a t i o n rather than initiating the process through goals brought into the dispute. C h a n g e a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n are o u t g r o w t h s of t h e p r o c e s s of d i s c o v e r y a n d m u t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g r a t h e r t h a n t h e c u l m i n a t i o n of e x c h a n g e s . T h u s , t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y n a t u r e of t h e c o n f l i c t m a y l e a d to t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , b u t t r a n s f o r ­ m a t i o n c a n n o t b e i m p o s e d o n the c o n f l i c t . T h e s y n e r g y of t h e p r o c e s s p r o ­ d u c e s a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , n o t t h e s u p e r i o r i t y of a r g u m e n t s , t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t r a d e s , o r t h e o p t i m a l n a t u r e of the s e t t l e m e n t . Relationships O n e primary difference between the traditional and the alternative m o d e l s of n e g o t i a t i o n is t h e r o l e of r e l a t i o n s h i p s . In t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l , e x c h a n g e a n d o u t c o m e s f u n c t i o n as t h e foci, w h i l e in t h e a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l , r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p s a n d p r o c e s s m o v e to c e n t e r s t a g e . In t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l , r e l a t i o n s h i p s s e r v e i n s t r u m e n t a l e n d s b y h e l p i n g b a r g a i n e r s r e a c h an o p t i m a l s o l u t i o n . S a m B r o w n e is a b u s i n e s s m a n , a n d K a r e n D a v e n p o r t r e p r e s e n t s an i m p o r t a n t c l i ­ e n t . T h e y h a v e a m u t u a l i n t e r e s t in c o n t i n u i n g t h a t l u c r a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p . C o n ­ sistent with patriarchal assumptions, negotiators are distant, independent, and a u t o n o m o u s . T h e " o t h e r " p e r s o n in t h i s m o d e l c o n s t i t u t e s a b u n d l e o f i n t e r ­ e s t s , n e e d s , a n d g o a l s that a r e d i s c r e t e a n d d i s t a n t f r o m o n e ' s o w n n e e d s . In

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b o t h t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l s , K a r e n t a k e s t h e l e a d in t r y i n g t o f i g u r e o u t w h a t S a m needs, and she proposes solutions based on her assumptions about these needs. T h e a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l , in c o n t r a s t , a d o p t s t h e f e m i n i s t g o a l of c o n n e c t i n g a s t h e b a s i s o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s ( F l e t c h e r , 1 9 9 8 ) . T h e o t h e r p e r s o n is n o t s i m p l y a b u n d l e of i n t e r e s t s , g o a l s , a n d n e e d s ; t h i s p e r s o n is s o m e o n e t o j o i n w i t h , l e a r n from, and create a unique experience with. H e n c e , bargainers c o n n e c t with the o t h e r p e r s o n t o f o r m a r e l a t i o n s h i p t h r o u g h t h e p r o c e s s o f n e g o t i a t i n g . In t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s c e n a r i o , K a r e n o p e n s u p t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of e x a m i n i n g t h e r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p w h e n s h e i n q u i r e s a b o u t S a m ' s p a s t e x p e r i e n c e s a n d f r u s t r a t i o n s in i m p l e m e n t i n g t h e c o u r s e s . T h r o u g h t h e n e g o t i a t i o n , t h e y s t a r t t o s h a p e a dif­ f e r e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p — i t is still r o o t e d in b u s i n e s s , b u t it b e c o m e s d e f i n e d as a c o l l a b o r a t i v e p a r t n e r s h i p r a t h e r t h a n an i n s t r u m e n t a l c o n n e c t i o n . B y a t t e n d ­ i n g to t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p , b a r g a i n e r s b e c o m e a t t u n e d t o w a y s of n u r t u r i n g e a c h other. C l e a r l y , s e l f - d i s c l o s u r e a n d e x p r e s s i v e n e s s h a v e t h e p o t e n t i a l t o r e s u l t in c o n f l i c t e s c a l a t i o n . A l t h o u g h a fine l i n e e x i s t s b e t w e e n e x p r e s s i v e n e s s a n d d e f e n s i v e n e s s , a t t e n d i n g t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p p l a c e s n e g o t i a t o r s in a p o s i t i o n t o p r o m o t e i n q u i r y a n d p r o b e t h e i r j o i n t s i t u a t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , if K a r e n h a d r e s p o n d e d to S a m ' s c o m m e n t w i t h d e f e n s i v e n e s s r a t h e r t h a n s e n s i n g S a m ' s needs and frustrations, the conflict might h a v e escalated w h e n S a m said, " T h e i n s t i t u t e is n o t o n l y u n a p p r e c i a t i v e b u t w a n t s m o r e . " B y a t t e n d i n g t o t h e r e l a ­ t i o n s h i p , K a r e n s e e k s t o m o v e t h e c o n f l i c t in a d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n , o n e t h a t m a y n o t w o r k in all s i t u a t i o n s . K a r e n , h o w e v e r , is n o t t a k i n g a m a j o r r i s k to p u r s u e a r e l a t i o n a l a p p r o a c h first. In t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l , i n d i v i d u a l s act i n d e p e n d e n t l y in m a k i n g d e ­ c i s i o n s , b u t t h e y d e p e n d o n t h e o t h e r p a r t y to a c h i e v e t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e g o a l s . I n t e r d e p e n d e n c e , t h e n , is p r e d e t e r m i n e d a n d i n s t r u m e n t a l , d e r i v e d e x t r i n s i ­ c a l l y f r o m m u t u a l efforts t o w a r d i n t e r r e l a t e d g o a l s ( B l a u , 1 9 6 4 ) . In t h e t r a d i ­ tional scenarios, even though Sam and Karen talk about their mutual depend­ e n c e , it is a d e p e n d e n c e b a s e d o n t h e e x i g e n c i e s of t h e s i t u a t i o n . I n d e e d , u n d e r these m o d e l s , negotiation strategists might advise Karen to d e v e l o p alterna­ t i v e w a y s to d e l i v e r S I T I ' s p r o g r a m s so t h a t S I T I w o u l d n o t b e t o t a l l y d e p e n d ­ ent on B r o w n e Associates. C o n t r a r y to t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l s , i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e f o r m s t h e b o n d for b u i l d i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s in t h e a l t e r n a t i v e v i e w . R a t h e r t h a n b e i n g p r e d e t e r ­ m i n e d a n d d e f i n e d i n s t r u m e n t a l l y , i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e is c o - c o n s t r u c t e d a n d e m e r g e n t t h r o u g h t h e p r o c e s s of b a r g a i n i n g ( s e e T a b l e 4 . 1 ) . S a m a n d K a r e n get to see h o w their mutual actions implicate the other c o m p a n y and create the c o n d i t i o n s of d i s t a n c e a n d m i s t r u s t in t h e i r b u s i n e s s r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h e s e d i s ­ c l o s u r e s l e a d to a r e f r a m i n g of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p ; t h e t w o p a r t i e s b e g i n to s e e each o t h e r differently. By p r o b i n g unde r lying r e a s o n s for actions, K a r e n and S a m m e e t e a c h o t h e r o n n e w g r o u n d w i t h d e e p e r l e v e l s of i n q u i r y a b o u t t h e i r

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s i t u a t i o n ( B a k h t i n , 1 9 8 1 ) . C o n s i s t e n t w i t h a f e m i n i s t o r i e n t a t i o n , in t h e a l t e r ­ n a t i v e m o d e l , r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e d e f i n e d i n t r i n s i c a l l y as p a r t i e s a c q u i r e n e w u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of e a c h o t h e r a n d t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s i t u a t i o n s . R a t h e r t h a n b e i n g d r i v e n b y i n s t r u m e n t a l g o a l s , b o t h p a r t i e s a r e e x p r e s s i v e a n d o p e n to t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of l e a r n i n g s o m e t h i n g that t h e y d o n o t a l r e a d y k n o w . In a like m a n n e r , i s s u e s of trust differ b e t w e e n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a n d a l t e r n a ­ tive m o d e l s of n e g o t i a t i o n . In t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l s , t r u s t a n d d i s t r u s t f u n c ­ tion t h r o u g h a c o o p e r a t i v e / c o m p e t i t i v e l e n s . M o t i v a t i o n s to c o o p e r a t e s t e m from s h a r i n g a c o m m o n fate; m o t i v a t i o n s t o c o m p e t e e m a n a t e f r o m t h e d e s i r e for m a x i m u m g a i n ( R u b i n & B r o w n , 1 9 7 5 ) . In t h i s s i t u a t i o n , t r u s t d e v e l o p s t h r o u g h o p e n i n g m o v e s that set t h e t o n e for c o o p e r a t i o n : m a k i n g c o n c e s s i o n s d u r i n g t h e p r o c e s s , d e m o n s t r a t i n g s i m i l a r i t i e s to t h e o t h e r p a r t y , a n d a c c e p t ­ ing t h e o t h e r p a r t i e s ' i d e a s a n d s u g g e s t i o n s ( M i c h e l i n i , 1 9 7 1 ; S w i n t h , 1 9 6 7 ) . B y r o o t i n g trust in c o o p e r a t i v e / c o m p e t i t i v e o r i e n t a t i o n s , n e g o t i a t o r s ad­ h e r e to a v i e w of s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s d e f i n e d by c o m m o d i t y e x c h a n g e ( H a r t s o c k , 1 9 8 5 ) . T h e b a r g a i n e r s a r e i s o l a t e d i n d i v i d u a l s w h o m e e t in an initial a t m o s ­ p h e r e of s u s p i c i o n for the p u r p o s e of e n h a n c i n g s e l f - g a i n . T h e y m o v e t o w a r d c o o p e r a t i o n to a c h i e v e t h e b e s t b a r g a i n a n d to m a i n t a i n t h e i r m u t u a l a s s o c i a ­ tion. A l t h o u g h the i n d i v i d u a l s o s c i l l a t e b e t w e e n c o o p e r a t i o n a n d c o m p e t i t i o n , t h e c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e p a r t i e s are i n s t r u m e n t a l a n d a r e d e f i n e d b y d o m i ­ n a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n b y a s e n s e of c o m m u n i t y ( H a r t s o c k , 1 9 8 5 ) . A l t h o u g h i n t e g r a t i v e b a r g a i n i n g is d e s i g n e d to b u i l d t r u s t , n e g o t i a t o r s s h a r e i n f o r m a t i o n a n d e n g a g e in j o i n t p r o b l e m s o l v i n g to s e r v e i n s t r u m e n t a l e n d s . T r u s t , if it c a n r e a l l y be said to e x i s t , b e c o m e s a t o o l to g r e a s e t h e s k i d of e x c h a n g e ( G r a y , 1 9 9 4 ) . N e g o t i a t o r s m a y t a k e r i s k s to e n g a g e in j o i n t p r o b l e m s o l v i n g , b u t t h i s a c t i v i t y p l a c e s trust in t h e t a s k a n d t h e i n c r e m e n t a l m o v e s of b a r g a i n i n g r a t h e r t h a n in t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p ( F i s h e r et al., 1 9 9 1 ; L a x & S e b e n i u s , 1 9 8 6 ) . In t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l s , m u t u a l d i s t r u s t c h a r a c t e r i z e s S a m a n d K a r e n ' s i n t e r a c t i o n s . E a c h n e g o t i a t o r t h i n k s t h e o t h e r p e r s o n w o r k s o n l y for h i s o r h e r o w n c o m p a n y a n d is o u t to m a k e a d e a l at the o t h e r p a r t y ' s e x p e n s e . T h e y c o o p e r a t e to m a k e a d e a l , b u t t h e n a t u r e of their i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e r e m a i n s fun­ damentally unchanged. F e m i n i s t t h e o r y w o u l d s u g g e s t an a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l of s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s , o n e r o o t e d in c o n n e c t i o n a n d e m p a t h y . In t h i s m o d e l , trust e m a n a t e s f r o m c o n f i ­ d e n c e in t h e p r o c e s s , o n e t h a t g r o w s from a s h a r e d c o m m i t m e n t t o t h e i n t e r a c ­ t i o n . T r u s t b u i l d i n g o c c u r s from c o m i n g t o g e t h e r , d i s c o v e r i n g n e w u n d e r ­ standing, rejecting stereotypes and prejudices, and forming c o m m o n ground through co-constructed meanings (LeBaron & Carstarphen, 1997; Notter, 1 9 9 5 ) . T h e s e e d s of e m p a t h y a r e p l a n t e d in t h e p r o c e s s of c o n n e c t i n g a n d in b e i n g o p e n to the m u t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g that b o t h c o u l d c r e a t e . In t h e a l t e r n a ­ tive m o d e l , K a r e n l e g i t i m a t e s S a m ' s f e e l i n g s a b o u t h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e s u c c e s s of t h e i r j o i n t e n t e r p r i s e . N u r t u r i n g h i s f e e l i n g s of b e i n g m i s u n d e r ­ s t o o d , h e r i n q u i r y a n d d e s i r e to h e a r a b o u t his e x p e r i e n c e s e n c o u r a g e h i m to

Feminist

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be forthcoming. T h e negotiators internalize the other party's interpretations of i s s u e s a n d e v e n t s a n d g e n e r a t e d i f f e r e n t i d e a s f r o m t h e w a y e a c h p e r s o n c o m e s to u n d e r s t a n d t h e i s s u e s ( B e c k e r , C h a s i n , C h a s i n , H e r a i z , & R o t h , 1 9 9 5 ) . A s e m p a t h y d e v e l o p s , n e g o t i a t o r s o p e r a t e f r o m a m o d e of i n q u i r y r o o t e d in a p p r e c i a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n s u s p i c i o n ( B a r r e t t & C o o p e r r i d e r , 1 9 9 0 ) . T h u s , t h e p a r t i e s m o v e f r o m d i s t r u s t to t r u s t b y b u i l d i n g a c o n n e c t e d r e l a t i o n ­ ship and a shared reality rather than by oscillating b e t w e e n c o m p e t i t i o n and cooperation. T h e traditional m o d e l s also cast relationships as rational. E m o t i o n a l or expressive goals are either devalued within b a r g a i n i n g relationships or serve i n s t r u m e n t a l e n d s . B a r g a i n e r s a r e a d v i s e d to r e m a i n d e t a c h e d f r o m t h e i r o p p o n e n t , t o g e t b e y o n d f e e l i n g s , a n d to s e p a r a t e p e o p l e f r o m t h e p r o b l e m ( F i s h e r e t a l . , 1 9 9 1 ; N i e r e n b e r g , 1 9 7 3 ) . E m o t i o n a l e x p r e s s i o n s in t r a d i t i o n a l b a r g a i n i n g b l o c k c l e a r t h i n k i n g a n d m a k e it difficult for a n e g o t i a t o r t o p r o ­ c e s s i n f o r m a t i o n e f f e c t i v e l y ( D a l y , 1 9 9 1 ; F i s h e r et al., 1 9 9 1 ) . W h e n e m o t i o n s enter into the traditional m o d e l s , they often serve instrumental e n d s . Positive affect b e c o m e s v a l u e d in n e g o t i a t i o n n o t b e c a u s e it g r o w s o u t of r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p s b u t b e c a u s e it i n f l u e n c e s c r e a t i v e p r o b l e m s o l v i n g , l o w e r s c o n t e n t i o u s tactics, and increases cooperative behaviors (Carnevale & Isen, 1986; Isen, Daubman, & Nowicki, 1987; T h o m p s o n , 1998). In c o n t r a s t , in t h e a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l , s h a r i n g f e e l i n g s a n d e x p e r i e n c e s is an important factor that contributes to effective negotiation. A feminist lens w o u l d s u g g e s t that u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d m u t u a l i n q u i r y e m a n a t e f r o m e x p e r i e n ­ tial a n d a f f e c t i v e d i m e n s i o n s of c o n f l i c t ( K o l b & C o o l i d g e , 1 9 9 1 ) . R a t h e r t h a n b e i n g t h e o p p o s i t e of r e a s o n , e m o t i o n s a r e w a y s in w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s k n o w t h e w o r l d , r e f l e c t o n a n d e v a l u a t e it, a n d c h a n g e t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s a b o u t it ( B u z z a n e l l , 1 9 9 4 ; F e r g u s o n , 1 9 8 4 ) . E m o t i o n a l m o m e n t s in n e g o t i a t i o n m a y r e p r e s e n t t u r n i n g p o i n t s o r shifts in t h e n a t u r e of a c o n f l i c t . F o r S a m a n d K a r e n in t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s c e n a r i o , s h a r i n g f e e l i n g s o p e n e d u p t h e p r o c e s s . F o r t h e first t i m e , t h e y c o u l d a p p r e c i a t e t h e p e r s p e c t i v e s t h a t e a c h p e r s o n b r o u g h t t o t h e t a b l e . T h e s e m o m e n t s of r e c o g n i t i o n f o r m t h e g r o u n d w o r k for p e r i o d s of a m b i v a l e n c e in w h i c h p a r t i e s c a n p u r s u e n e w u n d e r s t a n d i n g s a n d j o i n t c o u r s e s of a c t i o n ( P u t n a m , 1 9 9 4 ) . In s u m m a r y , r e l a t i o n s h i p s in t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l s t a k e a b a c k s e a t t o instrumental goals and outcomes. Negotiators remain distant from one a n o t h e r a n d act a s a u t o n o m o u s d e c i s i o n m a k e r s . T h e y a p p r o a c h e a c h o t h e r w i t h s u s p i c i o n a n d v a c i l l a t e b e t w e e n c o m p e t i t i o n a n d c o o p e r a t i o n in t h e i r s e a r c h for m u t u a l g a i n . B a r g a i n i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s , t h e n , a r e r a t i o n a l a n d d e f i n e d e x t r i n s i c a l l y b y t h e n e e d t o r e a c h a m u t u a l l y d e p e n d e n t e n d . In c o n ­ trast, t h e a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l , r o o t e d in f e m i n i s t t h i n k i n g , p l a c e s r e l a t i o n s h i p s at t h e c e n t e r of t h e p r o c e s s . B a r g a i n e r s e n a c t t h e i r i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e b y c o n n e c t ­ ing w i t h e a c h o t h e r , b u i l d i n g t r u s t f r o m c o - c o n s t r u c t e d m e a n i n g s , a n d d i s ­ c o v e r i n g n e w i n s i g h t s as a r e s u l t of e m p a t h y a n d a p p r e c i a t i o n . F e e l i n g s a n d

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s h a r e d e x p e r i e n c e s a r e w a y s that n e g o t i a t o r s l e a r n a b o u t e a c h o t h e r a n d t h e i r s i t u a t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g u s e d i n s t r u m e n t a l l y as a p a t h to d e s i r e d e n d s .

Negotiation Process T h e p r o c e s s of n e g o t i a t i o n h a s a d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e o n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s , g o a l s , a n d o u t c o m e s o f this a c t i v i t y . In t h e n e g o t i a t i o n l i t e r a t u r e , p r o c e s s sur­ faces in t w o w a y s : as b a r g a i n i n g a c t i v i t y a n d as t h e s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n t h a t enacts negotiation. This section compares traditional and alternative models in e a c h of t h e s e t w o a r e a s .

As Bargaining Activity T h r e e t y p e s of a c t i v i t i e s c h a r a c t e r i z e p r o c e s s in t r a d i t i o n a l b a r g a i n i n g models: exchanging proposals and counterproposals, giving concessions, and e n g a g i n g in p r o b l e m s o l v i n g . T h e e x c h a n g e p r o c e s s e s t h a t d o m i n a t e t r a d i ­ t i o n a l m o d e l s of n e g o t i a t i o n i n f l u e n c e h o w p r o p o s a l s a r e d e v e l o p e d , i n i t i a t e d , a c c e p t e d , a n d r e j e c t e d . P r o p o s a l s refer to t h e p o s i t i o n s that p a r t i e s h o l d o n i s s u e s o r t h e i r r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for a c t i o n . B a s i c a l l y , p r o p o s a l s a r e p l a c e d o n t h e t a b l e as offers t h a t d e l i m i t t h e s c o p e a n d n a t u r e of c o u n t e r o f f e r s . In t h e d i s ­ tributive scenario, Karen and S a m confine their negotiation to trading offers a n d c o u n t e r o f f e r s of t h e fee that S I T I will r e c e i v e f r o m t h e a d v a n c e d c o u r s e . S a m p r e s e n t s K a r e n w i t h an offer, to w h i c h s h e r e s p o n d s w i t h a c o u n t e r o f f e r . T h e i r n e g o t i a t i o n c e n t e r s o n the j u s t i f i c a t i o n s of e a c h p a r t y ' s p o s i t i o n s . S a m c o n t e n d s t h a t t h i s p r o g r a m is different, m o r e r i s k y t h a n t h e b a s i c c o u r s e ; t h e r e f o r e , h e n e e d s to c o v e r h i s p o t e n t i a l l o s s e s b y r e t a i n i n g a l a r g e s h a r e of t h e r e v e n u e s . In t u r n , K a r e n r e j e c t s this i d e a a n d sets forth a p r o p o s a l of h e r o w n . T h e a c t i v i t y of b a r g a i n i n g in t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l s is c o n f i n e d to a n a r ­ r o w b a n d of i d e a s a n d c o n c e p t s ; e s s e n t i a l l y , it c e n t e r s o n t h e c o m m o d i t y u n ­ der discussion. D i s p u t a n t s in t h e a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l offer p e r s p e c t i v e s o r a l t e r n a t i v e u n d e r ­ standings rather than proposals and counterproposals (see Table 4.1). Rooted in f e m i n i s t t h i n k i n g , t h e g i v i n g of p e r s p e c t i v e s t r e a t s i d e a s as t h e e x p r e s s i o n of v i e w p o i n t s ( F o s s & Griffin, 1 9 9 5 ) . U n l i k e p r o p o s a l s , p e r s p e c t i v e s a r e t e n ­ t a t i v e n o t i o n s that r e p r e s e n t w o r k s in p r o g r e s s . A p e r s p e c t i v e is o n e o f m a n y l e g i t i m a t e v i e w p o i n t s e x p r e s s e d ; it is t h e o f f e r i n g of an i d e a , w h i c h is differ­ e n t f r o m a d v o c a t i n g o r s e e k i n g s u p p o r t for it. T h e o f f e r i n g o f a p e r s o n a l e x p e ­ r i e n c e o r s t o r y , t h e n , is n o t u s e d a s e v i d e n c e to s u p p o r t a p o s i t i o n — i t is s i m p l y t h e g i v i n g of a p e r s p e c t i v e . T h e s h a r i n g of s t o r i e s in t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s c e n a r i o r e v e a l s d i f f e r e n t i n f o r m a t i o n t h a n t h a t e x c h a n g e d in t h e m o n e t a r y p r o p o s a l s a n d j u s t i f i c a t i o n s for t h e m . S a m ' s s t o r y a b o u t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h S I T I r e v e a l s to K a r e n h o w a n d w h y h e is a p p r o a c h i n g t h e n e g o t i a t i o n in t h i s m a n ­

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n e r a n d t h e i s s u e s t h a t f o r m t h e r o o t s of h i s c o n c e r n s . L i k e w i s e , S a m is a b l e t o understand K a r e n ' s perspective and why SITI needs to explore proposals that l o o k b e y o n d t h e s h o r t r u n . B o t h p a r t i e s c o m e to u n d e r s t a n d t h a t a n y d e a l h a s t o r e c o g n i z e t h e life c y c l e o f t h e s e m i n a r s , t h e w a y t h a t b o t h c o m p a n i e s d o b u s i ­ n e s s , a n d t h e i r m u t u a l g o a l s of filling t h e c l a s s e s . S i m i l a r l y , r a t h e r t h a n e x c h a n g i n g c o n c e s s i o n s , n e g o t i a t o r s in t h e a l t e r n a ­ tive model respond through a process of re-sourcement, or d r a w i n g energy f r o m a d i f f e r e n t f r a m e o r s o u r c e t h a n t h e o n e in w h i c h t h e i n i t i a l p r o p o s a l s w e r e m a d e ( G e a r h a r t , 1 9 8 2 ) . P a r t i e s in t h e a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l s w i t c h " f r a m e ­ works, a s s u m p t i o n s , and principles" from those suggested by their previous m e s s a g e s (Foss & Griffin, 1995, p. 9 ) . For conflict s c h o l a r s , this process r e s e m b l e s reframing or the act of altering fields of vision, interpretive s c h e m e s , a n d w a y s t h a t p a r t i e s c o m e to u n d e r s t a n d t h e i r s i t u a t i o n ( B a r t u n e k , 1 9 8 8 ; P u t n a m & H o l m e r , 1 9 9 2 ) . It e n t a i l s a c q u i r i n g n e w i n s i g h t s , l e a r n i n g n e w p r e m i s e s , a n d a l t e r i n g c u e s in t h e s o c i a l c o n t e x t ( B a t e s o n , 1 9 7 2 ) . B y responding with re-sourcement rather than concessions, parties expand the o p t i o n s a v a i l a b l e t o t h e m a n d e n v i s i o n p o s s i b i l i t i e s n e v e r r e a l i z e d in e n a c t ­ ing t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l s of n e g o t i a t i o n . A n o t h e r a d v a n t a g e of e n g a g i n g in r e ­ s o u r c e m e n t is f r e e i n g t h e p a r t i e s f r o m face c o n c e r n s l i n k e d to c o n c e s s i o n m a k i n g in t r a d i t i o n a l n e g o t i a t i o n . In t h e a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l , K a r e n a n d S a m shift t h e i r c o n v e r s a t i o n f r o m p r o p o s a l s t o t h e p r o b l e m s o f r i s k a n d m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g y . A s t h e y d r a w o n t h i s n e w s o u r c e o r f r a m e , t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e problem c h a n g e s . T h e y are not simply splitting revenues or e x p a n d i n g the pie; r a t h e r , t h e y r e f r a m e t h e i r t a s k , r e d e f i n e t h e i r m u t u a l p r o b l e m , a n d shift t h e f o c u s of t h e i r n e g o t i a t i o n . A n o t h e r d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a n d a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l s is t h e n o t i o n of p r o b l e m s o l v i n g ( s e e T a b l e 4 . 1 ) . A s t h e f u n d a m e n t a l a c t i v i t y of i n t e ­ grative bargaining, problem solving fosters brainstorming and bridging solu­ t i o n s , a d d r e s s e s t h e n e e d s of b o t h s i d e s , a n d f a c i l i t a t e s c r e a t i v e s o l u t i o n s ( L e w i c k i & L i t t e r e r , 1 9 8 5 ) . A l t h o u g h p r o b l e m s o l v i n g is n o t t y p i c a l l y r e ­ g a r d e d a s a g e n d e r e d a c t i v i t y , m a n y a s p e c t s of t h i s p r o c e s s p a r a l l e l p a t r i a r c h a l values of rationality: namely, the isolation of p r o b l e m s into discrete parts, the use of sequential or linear steps, and the defense of particular solutions (Barrett, 1995). T h e discrete parts of p r o b l e m solving typically i n c l u d e defin­ ing t h e p r o b l e m , s e a r c h i n g for c a u s e s , b r a i n s t o r m i n g s o l u t i o n s , g e n e r a t i n g criteria, and selecting the best solution. Critics contend that, by isolating c o m ­ ponents into parts, problem solving ignores the systemic and interactive n a t u r e of i s s u e s , c o n s e q u e n t l y d i s t a n c i n g p r o b l e m s f r o m t h e i r c o n t e x t in t i m e and space ( B a r u c h B u s h & Folger, 1994). T h i s s e g m e n t a t i o n of steps also pro­ m o t e s a l i n e a r r a t h e r t h a n h o l i s t i c a p p r o a c h to a n a l y z i n g s i t u a t i o n s . M o r e o v e r , d w e l l i n g o n p r o b l e m s o f t e n c l o s e s off e x p l o r a t i o n b y r e d u c i n g the discussion to c o n c e r n s that h a v e been labeled as p r o b l e m s . T h e s e deficien­ c i e s s u g g e s t t h a t p r o b l e m s o l v i n g a s a m o d e o f i n q u i r y is l i m i t e d in p r o d u c i n g

98

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t h e k n o w l e d g e that is n e c e s s a r y for f u n d a m e n t a l c h a n g e ( B a r r e t t , 1 9 9 5 ) . In t h e i n t e g r a t i v e s c e n a r i o , K a r e n a n d S a m e n g a g e in p r o b l e m s o l v i n g . T h e y i n t e r a c t r e g a r d i n g S a m ' s p r o b l e m of r i s k a n d p r o p o s e a s o l u t i o n t h a t l i n k s t h e fee c o m ­ p e n s a t i o n to t h e n u m b e r of p a r t i c i p a n t s . T h i s i n t e g r a t i v e s o l u t i o n r e p r e s e n t s a c o s t - c o m p e n s a t i o n a p p r o a c h that a p p e a r s to b e a g o o d p a c k a g e for b o t h b a r ­ g a i n e r s . H o w e v e r , t h e n e g o t i a t i o n t h e n s w i t c h e s f r o m t h e a c t i v i t y to t h e s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n t h a t will m a k e t h e d e a l a c c e p t a b l e to b o t h p a r t i e s . B e c a u s e S a m a n d K a r e n r e m a i n in a t u g of w a r a b o u t t h e s h a r i n g of r e v e n u e s , K a r e n i n i t i a t e s a n d o w n s t h e d e a l , l e a v i n g S a m s u s p i c i o u s of w h e t h e r h i s i n t e r e s t s a r e t r u l y s e r v e d in t h e p r o c e s s . A l t h o u g h t h e d e a l m e e t s m u t u a l i n t e r e s t s , t h e b a r g a i n ­ ing p r o c e s s r e v o l v e s a r o u n d r e v e n u e s h a r i n g . T h e a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l of n e g o t i a t i o n r e l i e s on d i a l o g u e r a t h e r t h a n p r o b l e m s o l v i n g for g e n e r a t i n g o p t i o n s . D i a l o g u e a i m s to j o i n w i t h t h e o t h e r p e r s o n in c o n n e c t i v e t h i n k i n g a n d e n v i s i o n i n g a l t e r n a t i v e c o u r s e s of a c t i o n ( B o h m , 1 9 9 6 ) . It is a j o i n t e n t e r p r i s e o r a g e n u i n e m e e t i n g in w h i c h p e o p l e c o d e v e l o p explanations and options by probing underlying a s s u m p t i o n s and r e a s o n s w h y t h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s o p e r a t e as t h e y d o . D i a l o g u e a i m s to t r a n s f o r m t h e c o n v e r ­ s a t i o n b y f o c u s i n g o n p r e s u m p t i o n s t h a t p e o p l e b r i n g to s i t u a t i o n s a n d b y c r e ­ ating something additive that never existed before (Isaacs, 1993; J o h a n n e s e n , 1 9 7 1 ) . A s a p r o c e s s o f i n t e r a c t i o n , d i a l o g u e f o c u s e s o n t h e s y s t e m as a w h o l e t h r o u g h a t y p e of s y n e r g y c r e a t e d f r o m t h e c o l l e c t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e p a r ­ ties ( E v e r e d & T a n n e n b a u m , 1 9 9 2 ) . In t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s c e n a r i o , K a r e n a n d S a m e n g a g e in a c o n n e c t e d d i a l o g u e that b r o a d e n s t h e n a t u r e of t h e i r c o n ­ versation. T h e y begin with the situation, m o v e to the relationship, and then a d v a n c e to a r e d e f i n i t i o n of t h e p r o b l e m . A s e a c h tries to u n d e r s t a n d t h e p r o b ­ lem from the other p a r t y ' s perspective, they acquire a m o r e detailed under­ s t a n d i n g of t h e i r s i t u a t i o n a n d shift t h e i r foci o n t h e p r o b l e m . T h e i r n e w p r o b ­ l e m , a s t h e y n o w m u t u a l l y d e f i n e a n d o w n it, is n o t h o w to s p l i t t h e r e v e n u e s from t h e a d v a n c e d c o u r s e b u t h o w t o i n c r e a s e t h e m a r k e t i n g b a s e s o t h a t t h e i r shared risk can be reduced. A d i a l o g i c m o d e l of n e g o t i a t i o n m a y s e e m l i k e an o x y m o r o n in t h a t d i a ­ l o g u e , in o n e s e n s e , i n v o l v e s m u t u a l o p e n n e s s , h i g h l e v e l s of t r u s t a n d d i s c l o ­ sure, and empathetic listening (Buber, 1923/1958), elements that rarely enter into highly conflictual situations. H o w e v e r , another approach to dialogue, not n e c e s s a r i l y a i m e d at o p e n n e s s , g r o w s o u t of c o n f l i c t i n g v i e w p o i n t s a n d e v e n adversarial relationships. This approach treats dialogue as a process of cool­ ing d o w n , suspending views, mutual learning, and appreciating (Ellinor & Gerard, 1998; Isaacs, 1993; Johannesen, 1996; LeBaron & Carstarphen, 1 9 9 7 ) . L o g i c a l l y , in a t r a d i t i o n a l n e g o t i a t i o n , S a m a n d K a r e n w o u l d n o t d i s ­ c u s s i s s u e s t h a t t h r e a t e n t h e i r c r e d i b i l i t y in t h e o t h e r p a r t y ' s e y e s . In t h e a l t e r ­ native m o d e l , dialogue, then, unites with the feminist processes of c o n n e c t i n g a n d o f f e r i n g p e r s p e c t i v e s to alter t h e v e r y n a t u r e a n d d i r e c t i o n of n e g o t i a t i o n . Collective actions and joint proposals typically e m e r g e from dialogue, but

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t h e s e e n d e a v o r s a r e n o t t h e e n d s t h a t d r i v e t h e p r o c e s s . E n g a g i n g in d i a l o g u e b e c o m e s both the m e a n s and the e n d s of the activity.

As Social Interaction S i m i l a r l y , t h e t w o m o d e l s of n e g o t i a t i o n differ in t h e f o r m o f s o c i a l i n t e r a c ­ tion that characterizes each approach. D e b a t e , the type of d i s c o u r s e that typi­ fies t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l , c o n s i s t s of p r o a n d c o n a r g u m e n t s a n d r e b u t t a l s a i m e d at r e i n f o r c i n g o n e ' s o w n p o s i t i o n a n d r e f u t i n g t h e o p p o n e n t ' s c l a i m s (Keough, 1992; Putnam & Geist, 1985; Putnam, Wilson, & Turner, 1990). W i t h t h e a v o w e d p u r p o s e o f w i n n i n g , d e b a t e t e n d s to c l o s e off i n t e r a c t i o n b y e n c o u r a g i n g p a r t i e s to d e f e n d t h e i r p o s i t i o n s a n d s u p p r e s s d o u b t s a b o u t t h e v a l i d i t y of t h e i r v i e w s . A s a m o d e of d i s c o u r s e in t r a d i t i o n a l n e g o t i a t i o n , debate may increase competition when parties match attack and defense pat­ t e r n s ( P u t n a m & J o n e s , 1 9 8 2 ) . H e n c e , as t h e d o m i n a n t d i s c o u r s e in n e g o t i a ­ t i o n , d e b a t e m a y b e p r o b l e m a t i c as a v e n u e for f u n d a m e n t a l c h a n g e . T h e i n t e r ­ a c t i o n of K a r e n a n d S a m in t h e first t w o e x a m p l e s r e l i e s h e a v i l y o n a r g u m e n t a t i o n a n d d e b a t e . E a c h n e g o t i a t o r tries to c o n v i n c e t h e o t h e r of t h e v e r a c i t y of h i s o r h e r p o s i t i o n . In t h e d i s t r i b u t i v e m o d e l , b o t h p a r t i e s a r g u e t h a t t h e i r v i e w o n t h e fee a l l o c a t i o n is r i g h t , fair, a n d a p p r o p r i a t e . In t h e i n t e ­ grative model, Karen attacks S a m ' s position and strives to win h i m over to her perspective. T h e alternative m o d e l posits a different process as a m o d e of social interac­ t i o n for n e g o t i a t i o n : d e l i b e r a t i o n ( s e e T a b l e 4 . 1 ) . D e l i b e r a t i o n is a p r e c u r s o r to d i a l o g u e in t h a t a s p a r t i e s b e g i n to d i s c u s s t h e i r n e e d s , t h e y " w e i g h o u t " their views by sorting out the ones with which they can agree and disagree. T h i s " w e i g h i n g o u t , " h o w e v e r , differs f r o m t h e d i s c o u r s e of " a t t a c k - d e f e n d " that c h a r a c t e r i z e s d e b a t e ( I s a a c s , 1 9 9 3 ) . D e l i b e r a t i o n o p e n s u p t h o u g h t s for r e f l e c t i o n . It a l s o p r o m o t e s i n v i t a t i o n a l r h e t o r i c , a p r o c e s s g r o u n d e d in f e m i ­ nist p r i n c i p l e s that f o c u s e s o n s h a r i n g k n o w l e d g e , t h i n k i n g c r i t i c a l l y a b o u t ideas, and creating understanding (Foss & Griffin, 1995). Parties are invited to e n t e r e a c h o t h e r ' s w o r l d s a n d to b r i n g a n e w s e n s e of a w a r e n e s s to t h e s i t u a ­ tion. By appreciating multiple perspectives, parties validate the c o m m u n i ­ c a t i o n p r o c e s s , e v e n if t h e y d i s a g r e e o n i s s u e s . I n v i t a t i o n a l r h e t o r i c a l s o expands thinking through appreciative inquiry. This approach urges partici­ pants to m o v e beyond the here-and-now issues and raise questions about peak e x p e r i e n c e s , t i m e s of e x c e p t i o n a l p e r f o r m a n c e , a n d w h a t p e o p l e v a l u e m o s t about their lives, careers, and work (Barrett, 1995; Barrett & Cooperrider, 1990). In t h e a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l , S a m v o i c e s h i s c o n c e r n a b o u t t a k i n g all t h e r i s k s a n d b e i n g in c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h S I T I for r e v e n u e s , a n d K a r e n e x p r e s s e s h e r feelings that B r o w n e Associates gets m o r e than the l i o n ' s share of the profits.

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T h e p r o c e s s of a p p r e c i a t i v e i n q u i r y is c r i t i c a l in c h a n g i n g t h e s e p e r c e p t i o n s . By asking questions about S a m ' s business, Karen can begin to understand h o w a n d w h y S a m m i g h t feel that S I T I h a s t a k e n a d v a n t a g e of h i m . K a r e n c a n s h a r e h e r a p p r e c i a t i o n for S a m ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n s w h i l e s h e d i s c l o s e s h e r s u s p i ­ c i o n s a b o u t S a m a n d h e r c o n c e r n for c o v e r i n g t h e c o s t s of d e l i v e r i n g t h e c o u r s e . A s t h e y talk, S a m a n d K a r e n d e v e l o p a n e w a w a r e n e s s o f t h e i r s i t u a ­ t i o n . K a r e n g a i n s a n e w a p p r e c i a t i o n for S a m a n d t h e r o l e of B r o w n e A s s o c i ­ a t e s in t h e b a s i c c o u r s e s e m i n a r s , a n d S a m b e g i n s to u n d e r s t a n d w h y K a r e n m i g h t t h i n k h e is t a k i n g a d v a n t a g e of S I T I . T h e a l t e r n a t i v e p e r s p e c t i v e c h a l l e n g e s t w o a d d i t i o n a l f e a t u r e s of n e g o t i a ­ t i o n : i n f o r m a t i o n e x c h a n g e a n d t h e u s e of s t r a t e g i e s a n d t a c t i c s ( s e e T a b l e 4 . 1 ) . I n f o r m a t i o n e x c h a n g e in t r a d i t i o n a l b a r g a i n i n g f o c u s e s o n t h e a m o u n t of i n f o r m a t i o n s h a r e d , t h e t r u t h f u l n e s s or c o m p l e t e n e s s o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n , a n d t h e w a y s for g l e a n i n g i n f o r m a t i o n from o n e ' s o p p o n e n t ( P u t n a m & J o n e s , 1 9 8 2 ) . I n f o r m a t i o n is s h a r e d in b o t h tacit a n d e x p l i c i t w a y s , a n d p a r t i e s d i s t i n ­ g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e g i v i n g a n d t h e s e e k i n g of i n f o r m a t i o n in n e g o t i a t i o n s . T h e f e m i n i s t c r i t i q u e of e x c h a n g e a p p l i e s to i n f o r m a t i o n m a n a g e m e n t in b a r g a i n ­ i n g . In t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l s , i n f o r m a t i o n f u n c t i o n s as a c o m m o d i t y o r a m a t e r i a l g o o d that b a r g a i n e r s a c q u i r e a n d o w n . T h e n e g o t i a t o r ' s a b i l i t y to a c c u m u l a t e m o r e facts a n d m a n i p u l a t e t h e i n f o r m a t i o n e n v i r o n m e n t is often an i n d e x of b a r g a i n i n g s u c c e s s ( D o n o h u e & D i e z , 1 9 8 5 ) . E v e n t h o u g h h o n e s t d i s c l o s u r e of i n f o r m a t i o n is vital to t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of i n t e g r a t i v e b a r g a i n ­ i n g , i n f o r m a t i o n is t r e a t e d p r i m a r i l y as a t r a n s a c t i o n ; d a t a a r e t r a n s m i t t e d to enhance enlightened self-interest or mutual gains. In t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l s , b a r g a i n i n g s t r a t e g i e s a n d t a c t i c s a r e a l s o t r a d e d , reciprocated, and matched (Brett, Shapiro, & Lytle, 1998; D o n o h u e , Diez, & H a m i l t o n , 1 9 8 4 ) . A s t r a t e g y refers to a b r o a d p l a n o r an o v e r a l l a p p r o a c h that a n e g o t i a t o r p u r s u e s . S t r a t e g y is l i n k e d to e x c h a n g e in t h a t it d i r e c t s t h e p a t t e r n s of offers a n d c o u n t e r o f f e r s , it i n f l u e n c e s t h e u s e of p e r s u a s i v e a p p e a l s , a n d it affects c o n c e s s i o n m a k i n g . F o r e x a m p l e , a s t r a t e g y of t o u g h n e s s in n e g o t i a ­ tion e n t a i l s the e x c h a n g e of e x t r e m e o p e n i n g offers, s m a l l c o n c e s s i o n s , h i g h e x p e c t a t i o n s , a n d an u n y i e l d i n g p o s t u r e ( B a r t o s , 1 9 7 0 ) . B a r g a i n e r s a l s o e x c h a n g e t a c t i c s that i n f l u e n c e an o p p o n e n t ' s p e r c e p t i o n s of t a r g e t a n d r e s i s ­ t a n c e p o i n t s ( e . g . , t h e u s e of t h r e a t s , c o m m i t m e n t s t a t e m e n t s , a n d d e m a n d s ) . T h e s e e x c h a n g e s foster t h e g o a l s of c o m p e t i t i o n a n d c o n t r o l b y p r o m o t i n g t h e r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e of o n e n e g o t i a t o r o v e r t h e o t h e r . S a m a n d K a r e n p l a y t h i s g a m e in b o t h t r a d i t i o n a l v e r s i o n s of t h e i r n e g o t i a t i o n . N e i t h e r t r u s t s t h e o t h e r , a n d b o t h a r e o u t to get a l a r g e r s h a r e of t h e p i e . T h e p a t r i a r c h a l n a t u r e of s t r a t e g i e s a n d t a c t i c s is a l s o e v i d e n t in t h e i r l i n ­ g u i s t i c ties to m i l i t a r y m e t a p h o r s ( G r a y , 1 9 9 4 ) . In m i l i t a r y v e r n a c u l a r , s t r a t e ­ g i e s a n d t a c t i c s a r e m a n e u v e r s or g a m e p l a n s that n e g o t i a t o r s d e v e l o p to i m p r o v e t h e i r p o s i t i o n s for a t t a c k or d e f e n s e . T h e y a r e d e s i g n e d to l e v e r a g e the o p p o n e n t a n d b r i n g n e g o t i a t i o n s t r e n g t h to b e a r at t h e r i g h t t i m e ( R u b i n &

Feminist

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B r o w n , 1 9 7 5 ) . T h e l a n g u a g e of c o n q u e s t p e r m e a t e s t r a d i t i o n a l b a r g a i n i n g lit­ e r a t u r e w i t h p h r a s e s s u c h as " w e a k e n t h e o p p o n e n t ' s s t a n d , " " s t o c k p i l e resources," "tacit warnings," "aggressive and nonaggressive tactics," and " c o e r c i v e m a n e u v e r s " (Wall, 1985). T h i s integration of military i m a g e s into t h e e x c h a n g e p r o c e s s c o n t i n u e s t o r o o t n e g o t i a t i o n in a m a s c u l i n e e n v i r o n ­ m e n t in w h i c h t h e a t t a c k / d e f e n d m o d e l o f s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n is t h e d o m i n a n t discourse. A n a l t e r n a t i v e s o c i a l p r o c e s s h i g h l i g h t s w h a t is o f t e n m a r g i n a l i z e d in t r a d i ­ t i o n a l m o d e l s of n e g o t i a t i o n : s h a r i n g e x p e r i e n c e s ( s e e T a b l e 4 . 1 ) . S h a r i n g e x p e r i e n c e s e n t a i l s t h e u s e of p e r s o n a l n a r r a t i v e s , d e s c r i p t i o n s of i n c i d e n t s and events, and discussions about personal feelings (Foss & Griffin, 1995). S h a r i n g life s t o r i e s c o n n e c t s p e o p l e b y r e v e a l i n g c o m m o n v a l u e s , b e l i e f s , a n d e m o t i o n s . In t h i s a p p r o a c h , e x p e r i e n c e s a r e n o t s h a r e d s i m p l y to fortify p o s i ­ t i o n s o r p r o v i d e e v i d e n c e for a c l a i m . E a c h p e r s p e c t i v e in s t o r y t e l l i n g is u n i q u e ; t h u s , s h a r i n g e x p e r i e n c e s is n o t s u b j e c t e d to a r g u m e n t o r a g r e e m e n t / d i s a g r e e m e n t ( L e B a r o n & Carstarphen, 1997). T h e goal of sharing experi­ e n c e s , t h e n , is n o t t o c o n v e r t s o m e o n e to a n o t h e r p o s i t i o n b u t t o c o m e t o a n e w understanding by extending each o t h e r ' s ideas. Rather than exchanging strategies and tactics, the alternative m o d e l sets forth a p r o c e s s k n o w n a s c i r c u l a r q u e s t i o n i n g ( C o b b , 1 9 9 3 ; F l e u r i d a s , N e l s o n , & Rosenthal, 1986). D r a w n from therapeutic discourse, circular q u e s t i o n i n g involves a series of queries that collectively create i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e . T h i s d i s ­ c o u r s e m o v e s f r o m p e r s o n a l n a r r a t i v e s a n d e x p e r i e n c e s to an a n a l y s i s of s i t u a ­ t i o n s in a w a y t h a t r e m o v e s b l a m e f r o m t h e p r o c e s s . Q u e s t i o n s i n c l u d e t h e f o l ­ lowing: H o w did a p r o b l e m begin? W h a t h a p p e n e d before? and W h e n did you n o t i c e t h i s d i f f i c u l t y ? T h u s , t h e i n t e r a c t i o n m o v e s in a c i r c u l a r f a s h i o n t o i n q u i r e a b o u t e v e n t s , a c t o r s , t h e m e s , a n d t i m e f a c t o r s in t h e s h a r i n g of e x p e r i ­ e n c e s . S t o r i e s b e g i n to b r e a k t h e i r o r i g i n a l s t r u c t u r e a n d c o h e r e n c e w h e n p a r ­ ticipants collectively ask questions that alter time frames, c h a r a c t e r s , and p l o t s of s i t u a t i o n s ( C o b b , 1 9 9 3 ) . K a r e n u s e s a s t r a t e g y o f c i r c u l a r q u e s t i o n i n g w h e n s h e n e g o t i a t e s in t h e alternative m o d e l . First, she asks questions about S a m ' s business, and then she reinforces what she learns about his work. A s he shares his e x p e r i e n c e s , s h e a c k n o w l e d g e s h i s risk a n d t h e w a y t h a t it f u n c t i o n s w i t h S I T I . H e t e l l s a s t o r y t h a t p l a c e s B r o w n e A s s o c i a t e s as t h e v i c t i m in t h e i r j o i n t v e n t u r e s . S a m ' s s t o r y g i v e s K a r e n a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o tell S I T I ' s v e r s i o n o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p , a n d t o g e t h e r t h e y c o m e to a p p r e c i a t e n o t o n l y t h e i r m u t u a l i n t e r e s t s b u t a l s o t h e i r c o m m i t m e n t to s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m a n d i m p r o v e t h e t r u s t in t h e i r r e l a ­ tionship. Questions such as what people value, what they want to learn from t h e s i t u a t i o n , a n d h o w t h i s s i t u a t i o n r e l a t e s to t h e l a r g e r s y s t e m in w h i c h t h e y function combine circular questioning with promoting appreciative inquiry. C i r c u l a r q u e s t i o n s a i d in k e e p i n g e a c h p e r s o n ' s s t o r y o p e n to a l t e r n a t i v e i n t e r ­ pretations (Cobb, 1994).

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N e g o t i a t i o n as a r i t u a l i s t i c p r o c e s s is s o f a m i l i a r that t h e o r i s t s o f t e n r e f e r to it as a " c o n f l i c t rite" a " d a n c e , " o r a " g a m e of c h e s s " ( H o c k e r & W i l m o t , 1 9 9 5 ) . T h e p r o c e s s is so a u t o m a t i c t h a t few p e o p l e q u e s t i o n t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f d e b a t e as t h e f o r m of s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n t h a t d o m i n a t e s t h e p r o c e s s . S i m i l a r l y , nearly every textbook on negotiation includes sections on strategies and tac­ tics a n d t h e r o l e of i n f o r m a t i o n e x c h a n g e in r e a c h i n g i n t e g r a t i v e a g r e e m e n t s . T h e s e p r o c e s s e s , h o w e v e r , a r e w e d d e d to a set of a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t a r e l i m i t e d b y a v i e w of n e g o t i a t i o n a s an e x c h a n g e . T h e e n a c t m e n t of a n a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l m u s t r e l y o n a r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t f o r m of s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n . T h a t f o r m of i n t e r a c t i o n is r o o t e d in d i a l o g u e a n d f o c u s e s o n d e l i b e r a t i o n , i n v i t a t i o n a l r h e t o r i c , s h a r i n g e x p e r i e n c e s , s t o r y t e l l i n g , a n d c i r c u l a r q u e s t i o n i n g as t h e f u n d a m e n t a l p a t t e r n s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h e s o l u t i o n that K a r e n a n d S a m g e n e r a t e c a n n o t b e s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e p r o c e s s of n e g o t i a t i n g . T h e y r e a c h an a g r e e m e n t t h r o u g h m u t u a l u n d e r s t a n d ­ ing a n d j o i n t l y d e v e l o p i n g a s o l u t i o n , not t h r o u g h i n c r e m e n t a l c o n c e s s i o n s o r finding a mutual gains deal. As S a m shares his experiences and his feelings about the relationship, Karen opens up about S I T F s resentment over the exist­ ing fee a r r a n g e m e n t . A s t h e y b e g i n s h a r i n g , t h e y set a s i d e t h e i r s u s p i c i o n s , lis­ ten to e a c h o t h e r , a n d l e a r n f r o m e a c h o t h e r . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l s of n e g o t i a ­ tion g i v e lip s e r v i c e to t h e n o t i o n of p a r t n e r s h i p . In t h e a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l , S a m a n d K a r e n a c t u a l l y e x p e r i e n c e t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p as p a r t n e r s w h o a r e j o i n t l y defining and developing their mutual project.

CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION N e g o t i a t i o n is n o t s i m p l y t h e p r o c e s s of m a k i n g t r a d e s . It is an a c t i v i t y in w h i c h c o n f l i c t i n g i d e a s f o r m t h e b a s i s for q u e s t i o n i n g , i n t e g r a t i n g i s s u e s into the larger system, representing multiple voices, and p r o d u c i n g j o i n t a c t i o n . T h i s a l t e r n a t i v e for t h i n k i n g a b o u t n e g o t i a t i o n s t a n d s in c o n t r a s t to traditional approaches. E x c h a n g e forms the foundation that underlies tradi­ tional b a r g a i n i n g — t h e goals and o u t c o m e s , relationships, activity, and social interaction. W e c o n t e n d that e x c h a n g e a n d n e g o t i a t i o n a r e g e n d e r e d a c t i v i t i e s in t h a t both processes privilege attributes typically identified with patriarchal val­ ues. Specifically, exchange casts c o m m o d i t y , cost-benefit ratios, and utilities as r a t i o n a l , m a t e r i a l i s t i c , a n d o b j e c t i v e a p p r o a c h e s to d e c i s i o n m a k i n g . T h e p r i n c i p l e s that u n d e r l i e e x c h a n g e s u c h as r e c i p r o c i t y , b a l a n c e , e q u i t y , a n d transaction also reflect a gender bias by relying on agentic goals and reason­ i n g f r o m u n i v e r s a l p r i n c i p l e s . T h e g o a l s a n d o u t c o m e s of b a r g a i n i n g h i g h ­ light t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y of a c o n t i n u a l d r i v e to r e a c h a m u t u a l l y s a t i s f a c t o r y settlement.

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R e l a t i o n s h i p s in t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l s r e a f f i r m t h i s g e n d e r b i a s t h r o u g h a n emphasis on distance, instrumentality, and rationality. Bargainers are treated as a u t o n o m o u s d e c i s i o n m a k e r s w h o d e v e l o p i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e e x t r i n s i c a l l y by vacillating b e t w e e n competition and cooperation. E m o t i o n s and feelings are either o v e r p o w e r e d by rational processes o r c o o p t e d to serve instrumental e n d s . E x c h a n g i n g p r o p o s a l s a n d c o n c e s s i o n s f u n c t i o n s f r o m t h e p r i n c i p l e s of r e c i p r o c i t y a n d b a l a n c e . P r o b l e m s o l v i n g in i n t e g r a t i v e n e g o t i a t i o n p r i v i l e g e s r a t i o n a l i t y a n d t h e s e p a r a t i o n of i n t e r r e l a t e d i s s u e s i n t o i s o l a t e d s e g m e n t s . T h e a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l of n e g o t i a t i o n , i n f l u e n c e d b y f e m i n i s t t h i n k i n g , a c c e n t u a t e s t h o s e f e a t u r e s t h a t a r e m a r g i n a l i z e d in t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l s . Treating negotiation as co-construction elevates relationships to the center s t a g e . E m p l o y i n g d i a l o g u e as p r i m a r y g r o u n d s n e g o t i a t i o n i n t e r a c t i o n in c o m ­ munity, mutual understanding, and connectedness. T h e alternative model o p e r a t e s f r o m t h e p r i n c i p l e of e q u a l i t y t o s t r i v e for i n t e g r a t i o n , c o l l a b o r a t i o n , a n d m u t u a l i n q u i r y a m o n g d i v e r s e v o i c e s . N e g o t i a t i o n b e c o m e s t h e p r o c e s s of b u i l d i n g a r e l a t i o n s h i p , o n e t h a t s t r i v e s for m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n a n d e m p a t h y . T h e t y p e s of i n t e r a c t i o n s t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l a r e s h a r i n g experiences, offering perspectives, deliberating about ideas, telling personal n a r r a t i v e s , e n g a g i n g in c i r c u l a r q u e s t i o n i n g , a n d e n v i s i o n i n g t h r o u g h r e ­ s o u r c e m e n t and refraining. T h e s e forms of social interaction support the femi­ nist p r a c t i c e s o f i n t u i t i o n , e x p r e s s i v e n e s s , a n d s h a r e d f e e l i n g s t h a t a r e t y p i ­ c a l l y a b s e n t in t r a d i t i o n a l a p p r o a c h e s . T h i s c o m p a r i s o n of t r a d i t i o n a l a n d a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l s s t e m s f r o m p r o t o ­ types, that is, from coherent and isomorphic views of each c a t e g o r y . D e v i a ­ tions from these prototypes are m o r e likely the rule rather than the e x c e p t i o n . T h e d i c h o t o m o u s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of e a c h e x a g g e r a t e s t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n them. This analysis, however, uncovers marginalized and unappreciated a s p e c t s o f n e g o t i a t i o n , o n e s t h a t a r e often i g n o r e d in t h e t r a d i t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e . T h u s , t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a n d a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l s a r e p r e s e n t e d a s e x t r e m e s to dif­ ferentiate b e t w e e n the t w o a p p r o a c h e s , even though the traditional m o d e l s v a r y in f o r m a n d f u n c t i o n a c r o s s t y p e s o f b a r g a i n i n g . F o r s o m e s c h o l a r s , t h e a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l of n e g o t i a t i o n m a y a p p e a r to b e an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t f o r m o f s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n ( e . g . , t h e r a p e u t i c d i s c o u r s e , social support interaction, or personal conversation). T h e p r o p o s e d alterna­ tive, h o w e v e r , d o e s not a b a n d o n the fundamental features of n e g o t i a t i o n — perceived incompatible goals, interdependence, expressed struggle, mixed m o t i v e n a t u r e , a n d p o t e n t i a l i n t e r f e r e n c e in a c h i e v i n g o n e ' s g o a l ( H o c k e r & W i l m o t , 1 9 9 5 ) . T h e s e f e a t u r e s e n t e r i n t o t h e a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l b u t f u n c t i o n in d i f f e r e n t w a y s t h a n t h e y d o in t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l s . C o - c o n s t r u c t i o n a s an a l t e r n a t i v e v i e w o f n e g o t i a t i o n is n o t an a p p r o a c h t h a t r e p l a c e s t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l s ; it a l s o c a n n o t b e u s e d in e v e r y b a r g a i n i n g e n c o u n t e r . S o m e s i t u a t i o n s t h a t s e e m p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p r o p r i a t e for u s i n g t h i s

104

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m o d e l i n c l u d e i n f o r m a l w o r k n e g o t i a t i o n s , b a r g a i n i n g in l o n g - t e r m r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p s , r o l e n e g o t i a t i o n s , a n d e v e n i n t r a c t a b l e d i s p u t e s . In a n y n e g o t i a t i o n , p a r ­ ties c a n b e g i n f r o m a p o i n t of m u t u a l i t y . In s o m e a n d p e r h a p s m a n y c a s e s , t h e o t h e r p e r s o n will c o n n e c t by p u r s u i n g g o a l s , s t r a t e g i e s , a n d p r o c e s s e s t h a t dif­ fer f r o m t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l s . H o w e v e r , if t h e o t h e r p e r s o n r e f u s e s t o e n g a g e , to p u r s u e m u t u a l i n q u i r y , a n d to s h a r e m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n , a n e g o t i a t o r c a n r e s o r t to t r a d i t i o n a l o p t i o n s . M u t u a l i n q u i r y m e a n s t h a t b o t h p a r t i e s m u s t t a k e r i s k s to e n g a g e in a r e l a t i o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n to n e g o t i a t i o n . E v e n t h o u g h the a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l m a y s e e m u n c o n v e n t i o n a l a n d farreaching, other theorists have presented similar perspectives on mediation (Baruch Bush & Folger, 1994), legal negotiations ( M e n k e l - M e a d o w , 1994; Williams, 1996), and workplace dispute resolution ( G w a r t n e y - G i b b s & Lach, 1 9 9 4 ) . T h e s e p e r s p e c t i v e s e x p l o r e t h e l i m i t a t i o n s of p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g m e d i a ­ t i o n ; t h e l i n k s b e t w e e n n e g o t i a t i o n a n d t h e h e a l i n g p r o c e s s ; a n d t h e n e e d to e x a m i n e i n s t i t u t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s that c o n t r i b u t e to d i s p u t e m a n a g e m e n t p r a c ­ t i c e s . T h i s c r i t i q u e of t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l s of n e g o t i a t i o n a d d s t o a g r o w i n g b o d y of l i t e r a t u r e a i m e d at d e v e l o p i n g o p t i o n s a n d p o s s i b i l i t i e s that a r e n o t e a s i l y c o o p t e d i n t o t h e d o m i n a n t o r i e n t a t i o n . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a t r u l y a l t e r ­ n a t i v e m o d e l of n e g o t i a t i o n , o n e t h a t is r o o t e d in n o n p a t r i a r c h a l v a l u e s , is e s s e n t i a l to e n h a n c i n g t h e d i s c i p l i n e ' s a b i l i t y to e x p l a i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n in c o n f l i c t m a n a g e m e n t . T h i s c h a p t e r t a k e s a n o t h e r s t e p f o r w a r d in a d v a n c i n g this g o a l by p r e s e n t i n g an a l t e r n a t i v e to t h e d o m i n a n t t h e o r i e s of n e g o t i a t i o n , o n e r o o t e d in f e m i n i s t t h i n k i n g a n d p r i n c i p l e s .

PART II

RETHINKING PRESENT PROCESSES

5

Ifevisioning Control A Feminist Critique of Disciplined Bodies

Angela Trethewey

In t h i s c h a p t e r , I e x t e n d e x t a n t c o n c e p t i o n s of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n t r o l b y l a y i n g a foundation for feminist analyses of the body as a site of p o w e r / r e s i s t a n c e d i a l e c t i c s i n c o n t e m p o r a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n a l life. I a p p r o p r i a t e t h e w o r k o f Foucault ( 1 9 7 6 / 1 9 9 0 , 1979, 1980) and a variety of poststructuralist feminists (Balsamo, 1996; Bartky, 1988; Bordo, 1989, 1993; Butler, 1990; Deveaux, 1994; M c N a y , 1992; Sawicki, 1991) to revision traditional notions of control. I a r g u e t h a t c o m m u n i c a t i o n is an a g e n c y o f d i s c i p l i n a r y f o r c e a n d d e m o n s t r a t e how particular communicative practices enable and constrain gendered, embodied subject positions. M o r e specifically, I argue that organizational dis­ courses and their attendant disciplinary practices are, in a very real and m a t e ­ rial s e n s e , i n s c r i b e d o n f e m a l e e m p l o y e e s ' b o d i e s i n w a y s t h a t m a y n a r r o w t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r w o m e n ' s e m b o d i e d a g e n c y in o r g a n i z a t i o n a l life.

AUTHOR'S NOTE: I would like to thank Patty Sotirin and Patrice Buzzanell for their insightful and helpful suggestions.

107

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COMMUNICATION FROM FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES

TRADITIONAL TO CONTEMPORARY CONCEPTIONS OF CONTROL AND DISCIPLINE H i s t o r i c a l l y , o r g a n i z a t i o n a l t h e o r i s t s h a v e b e e n p l a g u e d w i t h t h e p r o b l e m of c o n t r o l . T h e q u e s t i o n that o r g a n i z a t i o n a l t h e o r i s t s , f r o m M a x W e b e r ( 1 9 4 7 ) to Frederick Taylor (1903) to Chester Barnard (1938/1968) to H e r b S i m o n ( 1 9 4 5 ) to T o m P e t e r s a n d B o b W a t e r m a n ( 1 9 8 2 ) , h a v e t r i e d to a n s w e r i s , H o w c a n o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d / o r m a n a g e r s i n d u c e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l m e m b e r s to d i r e c t t h e i r efforts t o w a r d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l g o a l s a n d e n d s ? A l t h o u g h n o s i n g l e a n s w e r h a s p r e v a i l e d , w e d o h a v e a w e a l t h of t h e o r e t i c a l t o o l s to d r a w o n t h a t h e l p u s e x p l a i n w h y w o r k e r s w o r k as h a r d a s t h e y d o ( B u r a w o y , 1 9 7 9 ) . In t h e f o l l o w ­ ing p a r a g r a p h s , I first s k e t c h , in b r o a d s t r o k e s , t h e h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t of c o n t r o l m o d e l s , b e g i n n i n g w i t h s i m p l e c o n t r o l to t h e m o r e c o n t e m p o r a r y n o t i o n s of u n o b t r u s i v e o r c o n c e r t i v e c o n t r o l . S e c o n d , I a d d r e s s a r e c e n t m o d e l of d i s c i p l i n a r y c o n t r o l as it is m a n i f e s t in c o n t e m p o r a r y p a n o p t i c a l o r g a n i z a ­ t i o n s ( F o u c a u l t , 1 9 7 9 ) . F i n a l l y , I s u g g e s t t h a t w h a t is m i s s i n g in t h e o r g a n i z a ­ t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n l i t e r a t u r e is an e x p l i c i t u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d a n a l y s i s of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n t r o l as e m b o d i e d a n d of d i s c i p l i n a r y p r a c t i c e s t h a t h a v e m a t e r i a l a n d i d e a t i o n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s for g e n d e r e d i d e n t i t i e s .

Overt Control: From Simple to Bureaucratic Forms T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e m o d e r n o r g a n i z a t i o n h a s c r e a t e d t h e n e e d for i n c r e a s i n g l y c o m p l e x f o r m s of c o n t r o l . S i m p l e c o n t r o l , in w h i c h c a p i t a l i s t s o r t h e i r a p p o i n t e e s c a n d i r e c t l y o v e r s e e a n d i n t e r v e n e in e m p l o y e e s ' w o r k p r o ­ c e s s e s , is b e c o m i n g l e s s p r o n o u n c e d in o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n c r e a s i n g l y c h a r a c t e r ­ i z e d b y s p a t i a l a n d t e m p o r a l d i s t a n c i a t i o n ( E d w a r d s , 1 9 7 9 ) . S i m p l e f o r m s of c o n t r o l a r e ill e q u i p p e d for l a r g e , c o m p l e x o r g a n i z a t i o n s , a l t h o u g h t h o s e m o r e p e r s o n a l a n d d i r e c t f o r m s of c o n t r o l still p e r s i s t t o d a y in o r g a n i z a t i o n s s u c h as s m a l l b u s i n e s s e s . I n d e e d , s i m p l e c o n t r o l , p a r t i c u l a r l y w h e n it is u s e d in t h e context of e x p a n d i n g , geographically disparate organizational forms, has b e e n s u b j e c t to e m p l o y e e r e s i s t a n c e . W o r k e r s r e s i s t e d t h e i r t y r a n n i c a l b o s s e s ' and supervisors' speed-ups and arbitrary rules m o r e successfully as organiza­ tions grew because workers b e c a m e more concentrated, and thus m o r e power­ ful, t h r o u g h t h e v e r y g r o w t h of e n t e r p r i s e ( E d w a r d s , 1 9 7 9 ) . As simple control waned, technical control e m e r g e d as a m o r e appropriate f o r m for l a r g e r , h i e r a r c h i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s ( E d w a r d s , 1 9 7 9 ) . T e c h n i c a l c o n ­ trol is e p i t o m i z e d b y t h e a s s e m b l y l i n e , b u t s i n c e its a d v e n t , a w i d e v a r i e t y of t a s k s h a v e b e e n d e s i g n e d s o that c o n t r o l m e c h a n i s m s a r e b u i l t in to t h e a c t u a l work processes. B r a v e r m a n (1974) convincingly argues that technical con­ trol, o r " T a y l o r i s m , " h a s b e c o m e a b e d r o c k p r i n c i p l e for t h e d e s i g n of w o r k . T h e seemingly m o r e h u m a n e h u m a n relations approaches to w o r k processes are s i m p l y s t r a t e g i e s to " a d j u s t the w o r k e r to t h e o n g o i n g p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s

A Feminist

Critique of Disciplined

Bodies

109

as t h a t p r o c e s s is d e s i g n e d b y t h e i n d u s t r i a l e n g i n e e r " ( B r a v e r m a n , 1 9 7 4 , p . 8 7 ) , T e c h n i c a l c o n t r o l is n o t i n f a l l i b l e , h o w e v e r , a n d is a l s o s u b j e c t t o worker resistance. Early on, workers quickly learned that a small group could effectively cripple an entire operation, as e v i d e n c e d by the 1936 s i t - d o w n s t r i k e at t h e G e n e r a l M o t o r s p l a n t in F l i n t , M i c h i g a n ( E d w a r d s , 1 9 7 9 ) . W h i l e t e c h n i c a l c o n t r o l c o n t i n u e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h e d e s i g n o f t a s k s , it b e c a m e c l e a r that a n e w s y s t e m w a s n e e d e d to c o n t r o l u n r u l y l a b o r e r s . B u r e a u c r a t i c c o n t r o l f i n d s its l o c u s in t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e o r g a n i z a ­ tion r a t h e r t h a n in t h e p r o c e s s e s of p r o d u c t i o n . E d w a r d s ( 1 9 7 9 ) a r g u e s t h a t " b u r e a u c r a t i c c o n t r o l e s t a b l i s h e s t h e i m p e r s o n a l f o r c e of ' c o m p a n y r u l e s ' o r ' c o m p a n y p o l i c y ' a s t h e b a s i s for c o n t r o l . . . [ a n d ] is b u i l t i n t o j o b c a t e g o r i e s , w o r k r u l e s , d i s c i p l i n e , w a g e s c a l e s , d e f i n i t i o n s of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a n d t h e l i k e " (p. 131). Bureaucratic control relies heavily on c o m p l i a n c e with i m p e r s o n a l r u l e s , p o s i t i v e i n c e n t i v e s , a n d t h e c r e a t i o n o f an i m a g e of t h e " ' g o o d ' w o r k e r " to w h i c h m e m b e r s c a n a s p i r e a n d l e s s o n t h e e m p l o y e e s ' a c t u a l w o r k o u t p u t s ( E d w a r d s , 1 9 7 9 , p . 147). In t h i s s c e n a r i o , " w o r k e r s o w e n o t o n l y a h a r d d a y ' s w o r k to t h e c o r p o r a t i o n , b u t a l s o t h e i r d e m e a n o r a n d a f f e c t i o n s " ( E d w a r d s , 1 9 7 9 , p . 1 4 8 ) . Y e t this f o r m , l i k e its e a r l i e r c o u n t e r p a r t s , a l s o f a i l e d t o r e s o l v e the control p r o b l e m . E d w a r d s argues that bureaucratic c o n t r o l ' s e m p h a s i s on " t h e r u l e of c o r p o r a t e l a w " shifted t h e l o c u s o f r e s i s t a n c e f r o m u n i o n s a n d internal grievance m e c h a n i s m s to m o r e public, legislative conflicts over the r i g h t s of w o r k e r s a n d t h e n a t u r e o f w o r k . T h u s , t h e E q u a l E m p l o y m e n t O p p o r ­ tunity C o m m i s s i o n , the Civil Rights C o m m i s s i o n , the Occupational Safety a n d H e a l t h A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , a n d o t h e r s h a v e s t e p p e d in to s h a p e , d i c t a t e , a n d a m e n d the rules of bureaucratic control ( E d w a r d s , 1979). Increasingly, h o w ­ e v e r , g o v e r n m e n t a l b o d i e s ' p o w e r to i n t e r v e n e o n b e h a l f of e m p l o y e e s s e e m s to b e o n t h e w a n e , a s d o e s t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c ' s faith in g o v e r n m e n t a l r e g u l a ­ t o r y efforts ( D e e t z , 1 9 9 5 b ) . A l t h o u g h the p r e c e d i n g discussion separated these three forms of control for a n a l y t i c p u r p o s e s , t h e s e f o r m s h a v e n o t d e v e l o p e d in a s i m p l e , l i n e a r f a s h ­ ion o v e r t i m e . R e m n a n t s of all t h r e e f o r m s o f c o n t r o l r e m a i n in t h e m o d e r n w o r k p l a c e . B u t , i n c r e a s i n g l y , m o r e s u b t l e f o r m s of c o n t r o l a r e b e g i n n i n g t o e m e r g e , a n d I t u r n to t h e s e in t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n .

Identification and Concertive Control According to Deetz (1995b), organizations h a v e m o v e d a w a y from a "rhet­ o r i c of p e r s u a s i o n , " w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e d e a r l i e r f o r m s o f c o n t r o l , t o a " r h e t o ­ ric of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n ( o f a t t a c h m e n t a n d i d e n t i t y i n v e s t m e n t in t h e c o r p o r a ­ tion)" (p. 118). T o m p k i n s and C h e n e y ' s (1985) articulation of "concertive c o n t r o l " c l e a r l y l a y s o u t t h i s n e w e r f o r m o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n t r o l . In o r g a n i ­ zations characterized by concertive control, m e m b e r s m a k e " g o o d " decisions

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because they identify with the organization and a c c e p t — i n d e e d , p u r s u e — organizational decision premises. M o r e specifically, m e m b e r s draw conclu­ s i o n s " f r o m t h e p r e m i s e s ( b e l i e f s , v a l u e s , e x p e c t a t i o n s ) i n c u l c a t e d in t h e d e c i ­ s i o n m a k e r ( s ) b y c o n t r o l l i n g m e m b e r s of t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . . . [ a n d ] o r g a n i z a ­ t i o n s offer i n d u c e m e n t s to t h e i n d i v i d u a l in e x c h a n g e for a c c e p t i n g its d e c i s i o n p r e m i s e s as c o n t r o l l i n g h i s / h e r d e c i s i o n s " ( T o m p k i n s & C h e n e y , 1985, pp. 188-189). Flexibility, teamwork, innovation, and value consensus are c e n t r a l t h e m e s in t h e s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s . O r g a n i z a t i o n s in w h i c h c o n c e r t i v e c o n t r o l a p p e a r s to b e p a r t i c u l a r l y e f f e c t i v e , a n d p o t e n t i a l l y d a n g e r o u s ( B a r k e r , 1 9 9 3 ; K u n d a , 1 9 9 2 ) , m i g h t b e d e s c r i b e d as h a v i n g s t r o n g c u l t u r e s (Deal & Kennedy, 1982). K u n d a ' s ( 1 9 9 2 ) a n a l y s i s o f o n e s u c h s t r o n g c u l t u r e p o i n t s to t h e p o w e r o f c o n c e r t i v e c o n t r o l at w o r k ( p l a c e s ) a n d its e n c r o a c h m e n t o n i n d i v i d u a l s ' p r o ­ c e s s e s of i d e n t i t y c o n s t r u c t i o n . A c c o r d i n g to K u n d a , u n d e r n o r m a t i v e ( i . e . , c o n c e r t i v e ) c o n t r o l , m e m b e r s act in t h e b e s t i n t e r e s t of t h e c o m p a n y b e c a u s e t h e y a r e d r i v e n by a s t r o n g i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h c o m p a n y g o a l s , c o m m i t m e n t , a n d an i n t r i n s i c s a t i s f a c t i o n f r o m w o r k . In t h i s c o n t e x t , " a m e m b e r r o l e is fashioned and imposed that includes not only behavioral rules but articulated g u i d e l i n e s for e x p e r i e n c e . In s h o r t , u n d e r n o r m a t i v e c o n t r o l it is t h e e m ­ p l o y e e ' s self . . . t h a t is c l a i m e d in t h e n a m e of c o r p o r a t e i n t e r e s t " ( K u n d a , 1 9 9 2 , p . 11). T h e s e n e w e r f o r m s of " i n t e r n a l " c o n t r o l h a v e b e e n h e r a l d e d as " m o r e e f f e c t i v e " t h a n t h e m o r e d i r e c t or e x p l i c i t s t r a t e g i e s of t h e p a s t ( T o m p k i n s & C h e n e y , 1 9 8 5 , p . 1 9 4 ) . W i t h t h e m , t h e p r e s s i n g n e e d for r e s i s t a n c e to w o r k ­ p l a c e ( e x p l i c i t a n d e x t e r n a l ) c o n t r o l s s e e m s to b e d i m i n i s h e d ( D e e t z , 1 9 9 2 ) . Yet, when w e begin to fashion our o w n decision-making practices and identi­ ties in t h e s h a d o w of t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h e s p a c e for a l t e r n a t i v e i d e n t i t y c o n ­ s t r u c t i o n n a r r o w s a n d b e c o m e s m o r e c o n s t r i c t i n g ( K u n d a , 1 9 9 2 ) . It is w h e n c o r p o r a t e c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s c o m e to t a k e o n t h e m a n t l e of t h e n o r m a l a n d a r e r e i n f o r c e d by t h e v e r y m e m b e r s t h e y a r e d e s i g n e d to c o n t r o l t h a t r e s i s t a n c e becomes, perhaps, most crucial. T h e n o t i o n of c o n c e r t i v e c o n t r o l h a s p r o v i d e d a useful f r a m e w o r k for m a n y c o m p e l l i n g e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s that h e l p us to u n d e r s t a n d t h e c o m m u n i c a t i v e p r a c t i c e s t h a t h a r n e s s e m p l o y e e s ' a t t i t u d e s a n d d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s in f a v o r of t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n ( e . g . , A d l e r & T o m p k i n s , 1 9 9 7 ; B u l l i s , 1 9 9 1 ; P a p a , A u w a l , & S i n g h a l , 1 9 9 7 ) . H o w e v e r , t h e s e s t u d i e s l i m i t o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of c o n t r o l by f r a m i n g it a s o p e r a t i n g o n o u r c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s e x c l u s i v e l y , w i t h little a t t e n t i o n g i v e n to t h e w a y s in w h i c h m e m b e r s ' m a t e r i a l b o d i e s a r e s i m i ­ larly h a r n e s s e d for i n s t r u m e n t a l p u r p o s e s . A s a r e s u l t , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y for r e s i s ­ t a n c e to c o n c e r t i v e c o n t r o l s e e m s to b e l o c a t e d in t h e " a u t o n o m o u s r a t i o n a l " a g e n t , w h o is l a r g e l y a s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d fiction ( D e e t z , 1 9 9 5 b ) , r a t h e r t h a n in e m b o d i e d ( m i c r o ) p r a c t i c e s .

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Discipline, the Panopticon, and Self-Surveillance C o n t r o l , in its m o s t i n s i d i o u s f o r m — d i s c i p l i n e — o p e r a t e s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y on employee minds and bodies. Organizational communication or discourse (in a F o u c a u l d i a n s e n s e ) a r t i c u l a t e s m e a n i n g s , v a l u e s , a n d m o d e s o f b e i n g ; discourse steers the n o r m a t i v e body of ideas and the c o r p o r e a l b o d i e s of e m p l o y e e s . W h i l e , c e r t a i n l y , e a r l y m o d e l s o f c o n t r o l w e r e i n t e r e s t e d in r e g u ­ l a t i n g t h e b o d y , p a r t i c u l a r l y in r e l a t i o n t o w o r k t a s k s , c o n t e m p o r a r y m o d e l s of c o n t r o l ( d i s c i p l i n e ) c o l o n i z e m e m b e r s ' b o d i e s in w a y s t h a t g o b e y o n d s c i ­ entific m a n a g e m e n t strategies. W h e r e a s concertive control w o r k s on m e m ­ bers' attitudes, beliefs, and identification processes, discipline operates, quite literally, on the body. Foucault (1980) contends that " p o w e r seeps into the very grain of individuals, reaches right into their bodies, permeates their ges­ t u r e s , t h e i r p o s t u r e , w h a t t h e y s a y , h o w t h e y l e a r n to l i v e a n d w o r k w i t h o t h e r p e o p l e " ( a s c i t e d in M a r t i n , 1 9 8 8 , p . 6 ) . O r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s c h o l ­ ars h a v e y e t to s y s t e m a t i c a l l y a d d r e s s h o w c o n t r o l f u n c t i o n s a s e m b o d i e d p r a c t i c e . F o l l o w i n g F o u c a u l t , I a r g u e t h a t w h a t is p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t a b o u t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n is its effects o n i n d i v i d u a l s ' e m b o d i e d i d e n t i ­ t i e s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e is a p a u c i t y of r e s e a r c h in t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n field that e x p l i c i t l y a d d r e s s e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n s p e c i f i c e v e r y d a y o r m u n ­ dane discursive practices and m e m b e r s ' , particularly w o m e n ' s , e m b o d i e d i d e n t i t i e s (for an e x c e p t i o n , s e e C o r e y , 1 9 9 6 ) . 1

2

F o u c a u l t ' s ( 1 9 7 9 ) d i s c u s s i o n of t h e P a n o p t i c o n p r o v i d e s a f r a m e w o r k for e x a m i n i n g the ideational and material/bodily c o n s e q u e n c e s of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l d i s c o u r s e o n m e m b e r s ' i d e n t i t i e s . T h e P a n o p t i c o n is a n a r c h i t e c t u r a l s t r u c t u r e t h a t c r e a t e s a s i t u a t i o n o f p e r p e t u a l v i s i b i l i t y f o r its i n h a b i t a n t s . F o u c a u l t ( 1 9 7 9 ) c a p t u r e s t h e e s s e n c e of c o n t e m p o r a r y d i s c i p l i n a r y s o c i e t i e s w h e n h e s u g g e s t s t h a t m o d e r n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l f o r m s o p e r a t e in m u c h t h e s a m e w a y t h a t penal institutions d o when they create e m b o d i e d identities by differentiating b e t w e e n their delinquent and law-abiding subjects. T h e effect of the P a n o p t i ­ c o n is to induce in the inmate a state of conscious and permanent visibility that assures the automatic functioning of power. So to arrange things that the surveillance is permanent in its effects, even if it is discontinuous in its a c t i o n . . . [establishes a sit­ uation in which] the inmates should be caught up in a power situation of which they themselves are the bearers. (Foucault, 1979, p. 201) T o d a y , o r g a n i z a t i o n a l m e m b e r s a r e r o u t i n e l y s u b j e c t e d to p a n o p t i c s u r ­ veillance by themselves and others. Indeed, Botan (1996) argues that a "sur­ v e i l l a n c e c u l t u r e h a s e m e r g e d in t h e A m e r i c a n w o r k p l a c e " ( p . 2 9 5 ) . T e a m b a s e d w o r k g r o u p s , for e x a m p l e , e x h i b i t g r o w i n g l e v e l s o f s u r v e i l l a n c e in

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which m e m b e r s monitor o n e another's behavior m o r e closely than their s u p e r i o r s m i g h t , t h u s r e d u c i n g t h e n e e d for d i r e c t s u p e r v i s i o n a n d f u r t h e r t i g h t e n i n g t h e " i r o n c a g e " of c o n t r o l ( B a r k e r , 1 9 9 3 ; B a r k e r & C h e n e y , 1 9 9 4 ) . E l e c t r o n i c s u r v e i l l a n c e t e c h n o l o g y , s u c h a s e l e c t r o n i c c a s h r e g i s t e r s that m o n i t o r g r o c e r y c l e r k s a n d retail s a l e s p e r s o n s , k e y b o a r d m o n i t o r i n g s y s t e m s , a n d e l e c t r o n i c s e n s o r b a d g e s that c a n t r a c k m e m b e r s ' m o v e m e n t s , w a s p r e ­ d i c t e d to m o n i t o r u p to 4 0 m i l l i o n w o r k e r s b y t h e y e a r 2 0 0 0 ( A d l e r & T o m p k i n s , 1997; Botan, 1996). This technology has panoptic effects b e c a u s e it r e n d e r s t h e s u r v e i l l e r i n v i s i b l e a n d t h e s u r v e i l l e d v i s i b l e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e i m p a c t of e l e c t r o n i c s u r v e i l l a n c e affects w o m e n , w h o a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d in s e r v i c e p o s i t i o n s , d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y . In 1 9 9 0 , 8 5 % of m o n i t o r e d w o r k e r s were w o m e n (Botan, 1996). Botan (1996) suggests that surveilled w o r k e r s suffer four e f f e c t s : a r e d u c e d s e n s e of p r i v a c y , i n c r e a s e d u n c e r t a i n t y , r e d u c e d communication, and, possibly, lowered self-esteem. Panoptic surveillance, w h e n it is p r a c t i c e d b y t h o s e in c o n t r o l , i n d u c e s d i s c i p l i n e a n d h a s real e f f e c t s on m e m b e r s ' i d e n t i t i e s . W h a t is p e r h a p s m o s t d i s c o n c e r t i n g a b o u t s u r v e i l l a n c e a n d d i s c i p l i n e is that t h e y a r e often s e l f - i m p o s e d . M o s t e m p l o y e e s t o d a y c o n d u c t t h e i r o w n s e l f - a s s e s s m e n t s by b r i n g i n g t h e i r o w n h o p e s , d r e a m s , a s p i r a t i o n s , i n d e e d , their very identities under their o w n "private public e y e " (Deetz, 1992, p . 2 5 7 ) . D e e t z ' s ( 1 9 9 5 a ) s t u d y of a l a r g e m u l t i n a t i o n a l t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s c o r p o r a t i o n s u g g e s t s that d i s c i p l i n e a n d s e l f - s u r v e i l l a n c e a r e t i g h t l y c o n ­ nected to m e m b e r s ' identities ( p . 4 ) . He argues that organizational discourses are l i t e r a l l y i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e self: " I n t h i s l o g i c , w o r k is n o t s u p p o s e d t o b e for b o d y s u s t e n a n c e a n d s u p p o r t of e x t e r n a l r e l a t i o n s . R a t h e r t h e r e v e r s e : t h e b o d y a n d s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s a r e p o s i t i v e o n l y in s o far a s t h e y s u p p o r t w o r k " ( D e e t z , 1 9 9 5 a , p . 18). M o r e p r e c i s e l y , D e e t z ( 1 9 9 5 a ) w r i t e s , The body is medicated (with caffeine, cold and stomach medications) to mask the symptoms of stress and fatigue, and the heart and home are replaced with the con­ sumption and hope of what we will have. All other institutions and their demands are conceptualized as constraints on employees' work s u c c e s s . . . . The employee colonizes the [body], home, community, educational institutions, state and church. The managers in the name of the corporation need not do so. (pp. 18-19) D e e t z ' s s t u d y h i g h l i g h t s t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y p o w e r of d i s c i p l i n e a n d t h e almost frightening degree to which employees willingly control and monitor t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e i r b o d i e s in t h e n a m e o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . " T h e self," s a y s D e e t z ( 1 9 9 5 a ) , " i s s e e n as a c o n f u s e d , i m p e r f e c t r e n d i t i o n o f t h e [ o r g a n i z a ­ t i o n a l ] m o d e l . Effort is p u t n o t i n t o m a i n t a i n i n g a front, b u t i n t o s e l f - s u r v e i l ­ l a n c e a n d s o c i a l t e c h n o l o g i e s of c o n t r o l in o r d e r t o g e t t h e self t o b e h a v e " ( p . 2 2 ) . A s will b e d i s c u s s e d further in later s e c t i o n s , t h i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e for w o m e n w h o s t r u g g l e t o p e r f o r m a n d e m b o d y p r o f e s s i o n a l i d e n t i t i e s that

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a r e n e a r l y i m p o s s i b l e to a c h i e v e — y e t still d e m a n d a n d i n s p i r e c o n s t a n t v i g i ­ l a n c e . F e m a l e p r o f e s s i o n a l s i n v e s t a g r e a t d e a l of t i m e , e n e r g y , a n d m a t e r i a l r e s o u r c e s in efforts to g e t t h e i r s e e m i n g l y u n d i s c i p l i n e d a n d l e a k y b o d i e s u n ­ d e r c o n t r o l a n d in l i n e w i t h n o r m a t i v e i d e a l s ( N a d e s a n & T r e t h e w e y , 1 9 9 8 ; Trethewey, 1997a, 1999). T h e a b i l i t y of t h e s u b j e c t to f o r m h i s o r h e r i d e n t i t y t h r o u g h a l t e r n a t i v e d i s ­ c o u r s e s is c o n s t r a i n e d w h e n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l d i s c o u r s e c o n s t i t u t e s t h e s u b j e c t in t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s i m a g e . D i s c i p l i n a r y c o n t r o l m a y u n d e r m i n e t h e f o u n d a ­ t i o n s of c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n w h e n m e m b e r s r e s p o n d to f a m i l y , c o m m u n i t y , a n d t h e b o d y p o l i t i c in t h e w a y t h a t c o r p o r a t e d i s c o u r s e d e m a n d s . W i t h o u t a l t e r n a ­ tive d i s c o u r s e s in w h i c h m e m b e r s c a n c h o o s e v a r i o u s s u b j e c t p o s i t i o n s , d i s c i ­ plinary power may ultimately "narrow the h u m a n character" (Deetz, 1992, p. 4 3 ) . 3

UN/COVERING THE BODY: A POSTSTRUCTURALIST FEMINIST RETHINKING OF CONTROL AS EMBODIED PRACTICE A l t h o u g h F o u c a u l t p r o v i d e d us w i t h an i m p o r t a n t c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k for e x a m i n i n g t h e e f f e c t s o f c o n t r o l in c o n t e m p o r a r y life, h e f a i l e d t o fully a r t i c u ­ late t h e g e n d e r e d c h a r a c t e r of so m a n y c o n t e m p o r a r y d i s c i p l i n a r y t e c h n i q u e s . F o r t u n a t e l y , p o s t s t r u c t u r a l i s t f e m i n i s t s , in p a r t i c u l a r , a r e b e g i n n i n g t o p r o ­ v i d e a c c o u n t s of h o w w o m e n ' s b o d i e s a r e d i s c i p l i n e d a n d , o f t e n , m a d e d o c i l e in c u l t u r a l l y a n d h i s t o r i c a l l y s p e c i f i c w a y s ( B a l s a m o , 1 9 9 6 ; B o r d o , 1 9 9 3 ; M c N a y , 1 9 9 2 ; S a w i c k i , 1 9 9 1 ; T r e t h e w e y , 1 9 9 7 a , 1 9 9 9 ) . It is i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e h e r e t h a t t h e b o d y is a s o c i a l , h i s t o r i c a l , a n d c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n . It is " a r e a l i t y c o n s t a n t l y p r o d u c e d , an effect of t e c h n i q u e s p r o m o t i n g s p e c i f i c g e s ­ tures and postures, sensations and feelings" (Balsamo, 1996, p. 3). Further­ m o r e , t h e b o d y is b o t h a p r o d u c t a n d a p r o c e s s . B a l s a m o ( 1 9 9 6 ) a r g u e s , As a product, it is the material embodiment of ethnic, racial, and gender identities, as well as a staged performance of personal identity, of beauty, of health (among other things). As a process, it is a way of knowing and marking the world, as well as a way of knowing and marking a "self." (p. 3) A s b o t h p r o d u c t a n d p r o c e s s , t h e b o d y is a l o c u s of s o c i a l c o n t r o l . T h i s l o c u s b e c o m e s e x c e e d i n g l y evident w h e n the disciplinary t e c h n i q u e s of g e n d e r are examined critically.

Disciplinary Techniques of Femininity and Gendered Identity G e n d e r e d w a y s of p e r f o r m i n g i d e n t i t i e s — w a l k i n g , w o r k i n g , s i t t i n g , c o m ­ portment, and dressing—

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are regimes of the body which seek to subjectify in terms of a certain truth of gen­ der, inscribing a particular relation to oneself in a corporeal regime: prescribed, rationalized, and taught in manuals of advice, etiquette and manners and enjoined by sanctions as well as seductions. (Rose, 1996, p. 137) P e r h a p s n o w h e r e is t h i s m o r e t r u e t h a n in t h e c o n t e x t of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l life. W o m e n l e a r n to d i s c i p l i n e t h e i r b o d i e s w e l l b e f o r e t h e y b e g i n t h e i r p r o f e s ­ s i o n a l l i v e s . Y o u n g ( 1 9 9 0 b ) a r g u e s t h a t w o m e n l e a r n t o c o n t r o l t h e i r b o d i e s in d i s t i n c t l y " f e m i n i n e " w a y s as y o u n g c h i l d r e n . N o t o n l y d o w o m e n l e a r n to " t h r o w l i k e a g i r l , " t h e y a l s o learn to sit, s t a n d , w a l k , tilt t h e i r h e a d s , g e s t u r e , c a r r y o b j e c t s , a n d c o m p o r t t h e m s e l v e s l i k e a girl. G i r l s ' b o d i e s a r e s o c i a l i z e d i n t o m o v i n g in a f e m i n i n e a n d t h u s m o r e c o n s t r a i n e d m a n n e r t h a n t h e i r m a l e c o u n t e r p a r t s . Y o u n g ( 1 9 9 0 b ) e x p l a i n s that t h e " m o r e a girl a s s u m e s h e r s t a t u s as f e m i n i n e , t h e m o r e s h e t a k e s h e r s e l f to b e fragile a n d i m m o b i l e a n d t h e more she actively enacts her own body inhibition" (p. 154). M o r e o v e r , y o u n g w o m e n l e a r n to e x p e r i e n c e t h e i r b o d i e s as an o b j e c t , a t h i n g : " T h e o b j e c t i f i e d b o d i l y e x i s t e n c e a c c o u n t s for t h e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s of t h e f e m i n i n e in r e l a ­ tion to h e r b o d y a n d t h e r e s u l t i n g d i s t a n c e s h e t a k e s f r o m h e r b o d y " ( Y o u n g , 1 9 9 0 b , p . 1 5 5 ) . In a d d i t i o n t o t h e o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n w o m e n e x p e r i e n c e in s e x i s t s o c i e t i e s , w o m e n a l s o live w i t h t h e t h r e a t of i n v a s i o n of t h e i r b o d i e s , t h e m o s t e x t r e m e f o r m of w h i c h is r a p e . T h u s , to o p e n h e r b o d y in a free, a c t i v e , o p e n ( r e a d m a s c u l i n e ) f a s h i o n is to i n v i t e o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n a n d i n v a s i o n . 4

Bartky (1988) extends Y o u n g ' s (1990b) phenomenological analysis by explaining how (white, middle-class) w o m e n ' s bodies are controlled and o r d e r e d w i t h i n c o n t e m p o r a r y d i s c i p l i n a r y r e g i m e s of f e m i n i n i t y . S h e d e ­ s c r i b e s t h r e e d i s c i p l i n a r y p r a c t i c e s that c o n t r i b u t e to c u r r e n t s o c i a l / h i s t o r i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s of f e m i n i n i t y . First, diet a n d e x e r c i s e r e g i m e s a r e d e s i g n e d to attain t h e i d e a l f e m a l e b o d y s i z e a n d c o n f i g u r a t i o n ( B o r d o , 1 9 9 3 ; T r e t h e w e y , 1997a, 1999; W o o d , 1999). For e x a m p l e , w o m e n are increasingly recasting t h e n a t u r a l w e i g h t of h e a l t h y , n o r m a l w o m e n as " t h e e x i s t e n t i a l f e m a l e d i l e m m a " (Wolf, 1 9 9 1 , p . 6 7 ) . S e c o n d , w o m e n p a y c l o s e a t t e n t i o n to c o m p o r t ­ ment, gestures, m o v e m e n t s , and other nonverbal behaviors. Finally, w o m e n e m p l o y t e c h n i q u e s , s u c h as t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of m a k e u p , t h a t d i s p l a y t h e f e m a l e b o d y as an o r n a m e n t a l s u r f a c e , e s p e c i a l l y in p r o f e s s i o n a l c o n t e x t s ( M u r p h y , 1 9 9 8 ; Wolf, 1 9 9 1 ) . O u r n o t i o n s of p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m a r e t h u s i n t i m a t e l y a n d i n e x t r i c a b l y c o n n e c t e d t o a p a r t i c u l a r t y p e of e m b o d i e d a n d d i s c i p l i n e d f e m i ­ ninity. B a r t k y ( 1 9 8 8 ) c l a i m s that t h e s e d i s c i p l i n a r y p r a c t i c e s a r e n o t s i m p l y i n d i ­ v i d u a l , a e s t h e t i c c h o i c e s for w o m e n ; r a t h e r , t h e y a r e p a r t of t h e p r o c e s s b y w h i c h t h e " i d e a l " b o d y o f f e m i n i n i t y is c o n s t r u c t e d a g a i n s t a p e r v a s i v e s e n s e of b o d i l y d e f i c i e n c y . T h i s ideal b o d y is t h e o r g a n i z i n g f u l c r u m a m o n g t h e v a r ­ i o u s d i s c i p l i n a r y r e g i m e s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e t h e d i s c u r s i v e p o w e r of (a s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d ) f e m i n i n i t y . W o m e n e n g a g e in s e l f - s u r v e i l l a n c e a n d d i s c i p l i n a r y

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p r a c t i c e s u n d e r t h e o n u s o f a s e n s e of d e f i c i e n c y a n d a b n o r m a l i t y . C h e r n i k ( 1 9 9 5 ) a r t i c u l a t e s t h e s e l f - t a l k t h a t m a n y w o m e n e m p l o y in t h e s e r v i c e of selfsurveillance: When our bodies take up more space than a size eight (as most of our bodies do), we say too big. When our appetites demand more than a Lean Cuisine, we say too much. When we want a piece of a friend's birthday cake, we say too bad. Don't eat too much, don't talk too loudly, don't take up too much space . . . don't seem hun­ gry, (p. 83) Certainly, these self-disciplining practices have consequences beyond w o m e n ' s self-image and self-esteem; they distract w o m e n from sociopolitical c o n c e r n s . B o r d o ( 1 9 8 9 ) m a i n t a i n s that, t h r o u g h t h e d i s c i p l i n a r y t e c h n i q u e s of d i e t , m a k e u p , a n d d r e s s , w o m e n ' s b o d i e s h a v e b e c o m e d o c i l e , m e a n i n g t h a t w o m e n " a r e r e n d e r e d l e s s s o c i a l l y o r i e n t e d " a n d m o r e f o c u s e d o n "self­ m o d i f i c a t i o n " ( p . 14). W o m e n ' s c o n c e r n s w i t h d i e t , w e i g h t , e x e r c i s e , m a k e u p , a n d b o d i l y c o m p o r t m e n t a r e political c o n c e r n s , not m e d i c a l o n e s . T a v r i s ( 1 9 8 7 ) p o i n t s o u t t h a t " i t is p o l i t i c a l b e c a u s e it k e e p s w o m e n a t t e n d i n g to t h e i r l o o k s i n s t e a d of t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s of t h e i r l i v e s , it p i t s w o m a n a g a i n s t w o m a n a g a i n s t w o m a n , it d e s t r o y s p h y s i c a l f i t n e s s a n d e n e r g y " a n d d r a i n s r e s o u r c e s , i n c l u d i n g t i m e a n d m o n e y ( p . 1 1 4 ) . In brief, m y a r g u m e n t is n o t t h a t w o m e n a r e " d o c i l e b o d i e s " b u t t h a t t h e p o l i t i c s of d i s c i p l i n a r y t e c h n i q u e s u l t i m a t e l y n a r r o w s t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s for w o m e n ' s e m b o d i e d a g e n c y . T h i s ( p r i ­ m a r i l y ) p o s t s t r u c t u r a l i s t a c c o u n t m a k e s c l e a r t h a t t h e " b o d y is p o l i t i c a l " a n d d e m a n d s active(ist) feminist inquiry.

Women's Bodies and Professional Bodies: A Contradiction in Terms? T h e p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e s a r o u n d w o m e n ' s b o d i e s a r e f u r t h e r e d in o r g a n i z a ­ t i o n a l c o n t e x t s in w h i c h t h e f e m i n i z e d b o d y is b o t h m a r g i n a l i z e d a n d d i s c i ­ plined (Hearn, Sheppard, Tancred-Sheriff, & Burrell, 1989; Marshall, 1993; M u m b y & Putnam, 1992; Sheppard, 1989). Organizational c o m m u n i c a t i o n s c h o l a r s a r g u e that t h e p r e v a i l i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n t e x t in w h i c h w o m e n a n d m e n c o m m u n i c a t e is d o m i n a t e d b y m a s c u l i n e v a l u e s a n d f o r m s . O r g a n i z a ­ tional discourses valorize traits and characteristics that are stereotypically masculine, including an e m p h a s i s on rationality, assertiveness, and the drive for i n d i v i d u a l s u c c e s s . In c o n t r a s t , t h e t r a i t s t y p i c a l l y a t t r i b u t e d t o w o m e n , such as an e m p h a s i s on feeling or e m o t i o n , an orientation toward affiliative r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a n d c o n n e c t e d n e s s , a r e o f t e n d e n i e d l e g i t i m a c y in o r g a n i z a ­ t i o n a l life ( F i n e , 1 9 9 3 ; H e a r n et a l . , 1 9 8 9 ; M u m b y & P u t n a m , 1 9 9 2 ) . T h u s , enacting and embodying a feminine gender becomes particularly problematic for w o m e n in m a s c u l i n e o r g a n i z a t i o n s . I n d e e d , S h e p p a r d ( 1 9 8 9 ) a r g u e s t h a t

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w o m e n " s h a r e a p e r c e p t i o n of g e n d e r as a managed status: b e i n g a w o m a n in m a l e - d o m i n a t e d e n v i r o n m e n t s d e m a n d s h a n d l i n g o n e ' s g e n d e r in p a r t i c u l a r w a y s a n d this p r o c e s s is d o n e w i t h r e f e r e n c e to o n e ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of p r e v a i l ­ i n g p o w e r s t r u c t u r e s in t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n " ( p . 145). F o r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l w o m e n , m a n a g i n g g e n d e r i n v o l v e s c o n t a i n i n g o r d i s p l a y i n g an a p p r o p r i a t e s e x u a l i t y a n d p r e s e n t i n g an a p p r o p r i a t e p r o f e s s i o n a l i m a g e t h r o u g h v e r b a l a n d n o n ­ verbal communication. T h e t a s k of m a n a g i n g " f e m a l e n e s s " is difficult g i v e n a m a s c u l i n e c o n t e x t , a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l w o m e n a r e often c a u g h t in d o u b l e b i n d s ( J a m i e s o n , 1 9 9 5 ) . T h e f e m a l e b o d y is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s u c h as n u r t u r a n c e , dependence, passivity, and incompetence, whereas the m a l e b o d y c o n n o t e s strength, ability, and intelligence. Therefore, w o m e n w h o want to b e per­ c e i v e d as c o m p e t e n t m u s t l o o k less f e m i n i n e a n d m o r e " m a l e - i s h " ( T a v r i s , 1 9 9 2 , p . 3 1 ) . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , h o w e v e r , t h e r e a r e n e g a t i v e c o n s e q u e n c e s for w o m e n if t h e y l o o k o r d r e s s in w a y s that a r e t o o m a s c u l i n e ( G a r b e r , 1 9 9 2 ) . Bordo (1989) suggests, "Upwardly mobile" women today continue to be taught traditionally "feminine" virtues, to the degree that the professional arena has opened up to them, they must also learn to embody [italics added] the "masculine" language and values of that arena—self-control, determination, cool emotional discipline, mastery, and so on. Female bodies now speak symbolically of this necessity in their slender spare shapes [Women] are also becoming more and more practiced at the "male" val­ ues of control and self-mastery, (p. 19) L e a r n i n g to n a v i g a t e o n e ' s b o d y t h r o u g h t h e s e c o m p l e x , a m b i g u o u s , a n d p r e ­ carious " i n - b e t w e e n s " (e.g., masculinity and femininity, revealing and hiding o n e ' s body, conservative and fashionable dress, social conformity and indi­ vidual creativity, and sexuality and asexuality) b e c o m e s a tantamount con­ c e r n , a s w e l l a s a p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e , for w o m e n in t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n a l l i v e s . Although dress, appearance, and image may appear to be rather i n n o c u o u s a n d e v e n f r i v o l o u s c o n c e r n s for w o m e n in t h e w o r k p l a c e g i v e n m o r e s e e m ­ i n g l y p r e s s i n g i s s u e s s u c h as c u r r e n t w a g e d i s p a r i t i e s b e t w e e n m e n a n d w o m e n ( L a a b s , 1 9 9 6 ) , i n c r e a s e d i n c i d e n t s of s e x u a l h a r a s s m e n t , a n d t h e p e r ­ s i s t e n c e o f t h e g l a s s c e i l i n g a n d w a l l s ( W o o d , 1 9 9 9 ) , t h e w a y in w h i c h w o m e n display and present their professional bodies has very real, material c o n s e ­ q u e n c e s for w o m e n . F o r e x a m p l e , d r e s s i n f l u e n c e s j u d g m e n t s a b o u t a w o m a n ' s c h a n c e s for s u c c e s s a n d p r o m o t i o n in b u s i n e s s e n v i r o n m e n t s ( K i m l e & D a m h o r s t , 1 9 9 7 ) . W o m e n ' s c o m p e t e n c e c o n t i n u e s to b e e v a l u a t e d b a s e d in part on dress and appearance, and wearing " a p p r o p r i a t e " dress m a k e s w o m e n more role-confident (Bartlett, 1994). In a d d i t i o n , in o r g a n i z a t i o n a l life, " t h o s e w h o fail to d o t h e i r g e n d e r r i g h t are r e g u l a r l y p u n i s h e d " ( B u t l e r , 1 9 8 8 , p . 5 2 2 ) . T h e r e a r e n e g a t i v e r e p e r c u s ­

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s i o n s in t e r m s of j o b o p p o r t u n i t i e s a n d p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r w o m e n w h o fail t o d i s c i p l i n e t h e i r o w n b o d i e s . F o r i n s t a n c e , n o n v e r b a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e ­ search suggests that physically "attractive" individuals are m o r e likely to be h i r e d t h a n t h o s e w i t h l o w e r l e v e l s of a t t r a c t i v e n e s s ( M a n u s o v & B i l l i n g s l e y , 1 9 9 7 ) . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , h o w e v e r , t h e d e s i r e to c o n t r o l o n e ' s b o d y , t o d o " g e n ­ d e r r i g h t , " c a n l e a d to s e v e r e p r o b l e m s for p r o f e s s i o n a l w o m e n . W o m e n w h o value a c h i e v e m e n t and professional careers are especially likely to be o b s e s s e d w i t h t h i n n e s s a n d to suffer f r o m e a t i n g d i s o r d e r s ( B o r d o , 1 9 9 3 ; Tavris, 1992). Organizational discourses, then, have very real c o n s e q u e n c e s for t h e w o m e n w h o try a n d feel c o m p e l l e d t o e m b o d y t h e m .

Struggling With Their Bodies: Professional Women Speak An empirical example may highlight h o w w o m e n ' s e m b o d i e d selves are c o n t r o l l e d in a n d t h r o u g h o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a n d g e n d e r e d d i s c o u r s e s at w o r k . M y research with professional w o m e n suggests that they do struggle with e m b o d y i n g a n " a p p r o p r i a t e " p r o f e s s i o n a l i d e n t i t y in t h e w o r k p l a c e , a n d t h e y f i r m l y b e l i e v e t h a t t h e i r b o d i l y p r e s e n t a t i o n of self h a s v e r y r e a l c o n s e q u e n c e s for t h e i r o w n a n d o t h e r s ' s u c c e s s o r f a i l u r e ( N a d e s a n & T r e t h e w e y , 1 9 9 8 ; Trethewey, 1999). Moreover, the professional w o m e n I interviewed invested t i m e a n d e n e r g y in d i s c i p l i n i n g t h e i r o w n a n d o t h e r w o m e n ' s , s o m e t i m e s u n ­ controllable, bodies. These w o m e n articulate three themes that characterize how w o m e n experience, present, and display a professional e m b o d i e d iden­ tity: (a) A p r o f e s s i o n a l b o d y is a fit b o d y ; (b) a p r o f e s s i o n a l b o d y ( p u r p o s e ­ fully) e m i t s s i g n s a n d m e s s a g e s t h r o u g h b o d i l y c o m p o r t m e n t , n o n v e r b a l b e h a v i o r s , a n d p e r f o r m a n c e s ( t h u s , t h e b o d y is c o n c e i v e d a s a t e x t t o b e r e a d ) ; a n d (c) a p r o f e s s i o n a l w o m a n ' s b o d y is e x c e s s i v e . T h e t a s k of c o n t r o l l i n g t h e f e m a l e b o d y is m a d e m o r e difficult b e c a u s e t h e f e m a l e b o d y h a s a t e n d e n c y t o l e a k . T h e u n d i s c i p l i n e d b o d y a l s o p o i n t s t o t h e f e m a l e b o d y ' s o t h e r n e s s in a masculine context. These three themes indicate how professional w o m e n ' s b o d i e s a r e n o r m a l i z e d a n d m a d e d o c i l e in o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n t e x t s . F i n a l l y , these w o m e n imply that both men and w o m e n are disciplinarians. 5

Professional Body as "Fit" Body W h e n asked "What does a professional body look like?" m a n y w o m e n d e s c r i b e d it a s " f i t . " B e t h , a m a n a g e m e n t c o m m u n i c a t i o n c o n s u l t a n t , s a i d without hesitation, I think the new standard is fit. With our young people, it is And I've seen more and more pressure to be fit in the workplace than I've ever seen before. Yeah, yeah, that's how I would define [a professional body].

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L a t e r in t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n , B e t h e m p h a s i z e d that b e i n g fit " m e a n s c o n t r o l . T h a t w o u l d v e r y , v e r y m u c h b e s o . " S u n s h i n e , a 5 0 - s o m e t h i n g o w n e r of a c o n s u l t ­ ing firm, n o t e d that t h e i n c r e a s e d p r e s s u r e for e m p l o y e e s ' b o d i e s t o c o n f o r m to p a r t i c u l a r s t a n d a r d s is a r e l a t i v e l y r e c e n t h i s t o r i c a l p h e n o m e n o n : We've always had standards, but I don't think we've ever put them on body types. And I think we're doing that more now. We're looking for people that exemplify those healthier lifestyles . . . as pictures of what we'd want our company to look like. That's why so many young people are brought into quasi-management posi­ tions, because they exude that look of youth and vitality that they want the corpo­ rate culture to look like. F i n a l l y , K i m s t a t e d , " I n o r d e r for y o u t o b e s u c c e s s f u l , y o u h a v e t o b e fit, p h y s i c a l l y a n d e m o t i o n a l l y , a n d that g i v e s y o u t h e a b i l i t y to b e m o r e p r o d u c ­ tive a n d m o r e efficient a n d m o r e in c o n t r o l , m o r e m a c h i n e - l i k e . " F o r m a n y of t h e i n t e r v i e w e e s , t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m a n d a ( p a r t i c u l a r s o c i o h i s t o r i c a l ) n o t i o n of f i t n e s s w a s a l m o s t t a k e n for g r a n t e d . T h e p a r t i c i p a n t s s e e m e d to p r o v i d e at least t w o r e a s o n s for w h y f i t n e s s is an a p p r o p r i a t e i n d i c a t o r of p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m . First, a fit (as o p p o s e d to fat) b o d y q u i t e l i t e r a l l y i n d i c a t e s that a w o m a n is d i s c i p l i n e d a n d in c o n t r o l . T h e " f i r m , d e v e l o p e d b o d y h a s b e c o m e a s y m b o l of t h e c o r r e c t attitude; it m e a n s t h a t o n e ' c a r e s ' a b o u t o n e s e l f a n d h o w o n e a p p e a r s to o t h e r s , s u g g e s t i n g w i l l p o w e r , energy, control over infantile impulses, the ability to ' s h a p e y o u r l i f e ' " (Bordo, 1993, p. 195). For e x a m p l e , Success argued, "If you can control your­ self [and y o u r w e i g h t ] , I k n o w that y o u a r e g o i n g to t a k e c a r e of m e . If y o u c a n ' t d o that for yourself, h o w a m I to trust in w h a t e v e r y o u ' r e g o n n a d o for m e ? " S e c o n d , a fit b o d y is b e t t e r a b l e to p e r f o r m t h e d u t i e s r e q u i r e d o f a p r o ­ f e s s i o n a l w o m a n . N a n c l a i m s that having a body that is an appropriate size gives you lots of energy, and it takes a lot of energy to be a professional, especially a professional woman. Because you have to do all that makeup and stuff. Takes time! W o m e n n e e d to b e fit, in p a r t , b e c a u s e t h e d i s c i p l i n a r y r e g i m e s of f e m i n i n i t y a r e t i m e a n d l a b o r i n t e n s i v e . In a d d i t i o n to n e e d i n g e n d u r a n c e t o w o r k , w o m e n n e e d e n d u r a n c e to w o r k at b e i n g w o m e n . S i m i l a r l y , M a n y H a t s c o m p l a i n e d that o n e of h e r b i g g e s t s t r u g g l e s is " p u s h i n g h e r b o d y to w o r k as m a n y h o u r s as I n e e d to w i t h o u t b u r n i n g it o u t , t h a t ' s the b i g o n e r i g h t n o w . " T o a c c o m p l i s h that g o a l , M a n y H a t s i n s t a l l e d a r e f r i g e r a t o r and a s m a l l c a b i n e t to s t o r e food in h e r office at a l a w f i r m . H e r c o l l e a g u e s a n d r e c e p t i o n i s t h a v e to r e m i n d h e r to eat. In an e r a of i n c r e a s i n g time pressures (Hochschild, 1997; Schor, 1991), many w o m e n recognize the utility of a fit b o d y . W h a t t h e s e w o m e n fail to r e c o g n i z e , o r at l e a s t a r t i c u l a t e ,

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is t h a t n o t o n l y a r e h o m e a n d h e a r t h c o l o n i z e d b y c o r p o r a t e d e m a n d s , b u t t h e i r v e r y b o d i e s a r e b e i n g h a r n e s s e d in n o r m a l i z i n g w a y s .

Professional Bodily Displays In a d d i t i o n to " f i t n e s s , " t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s u s e d c o m p o r t m e n t , n o n v e r b a l b e h a v i o r s , a n d p e r f o r m a n c e s as s t r a t e g i e s for c r e a t i n g a n d m a i n t a i n i n g p r o ­ fessional identities. M o r e specifically, the interviewees discussed their, s o m e t i m e s d e l i b e r a t e , s t r a t e g i e s for p r e s e n t i n g , d i s p l a y i n g , a n d u l t i m a t e l y c o n t r o l l i n g t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n a l b o d i e s . F o r S u c c e s s , t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l b o d y is o n e t h a t e m i t s a p p r o p r i a t e s i g n s . S h e s a y s , " B o d y l a n g u a g e is v e r y , v e r y i m p o r t a n t . I w a n t p e o p l e to r e a d m e a s b e i n g c o n f i d e n t . U m , t h e y c a n r e a d m e , h o p e f u l l y , t h r o u g h b o d y l a n g u a g e . " E v e n s i t t i n g in a p a r t i c u l a r w a y is a s i g n of p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m . S u c c e s s e x p l a i n s t h a t if s h e w a n t s t o s h o w s o m e b o d y s h e is v e r y i n t e r e s t e d in c o m m u n i c a t i n g w i t h t h e m , t h e n h e r " b o d y l a n g u a g e w i l l c o m e u p f o r w a r d . " H o w e v e r , if s h e is r e l a x e d , " t h e n I ' m s i t t i n g b a c k . B a s i c a l l y , t h e w a y I c r o s s m y l e g s o r d o n ' t c r o s s m y l e g s " is a n e x t e r n a l , e m b o d i e d s i g n of h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m for h e r a u d i e n c e . F o r S u c c e s s , a p p r o p r i ­ ate n o n v e r b a l b e h a v i o r d e m o n s t r a t e s to o t h e r s t h a t s h e is a f o r c e to b e r e c k ­ o n e d w i t h a n d t a k e n s e r i o u s l y . T h e c o n s e q u e n c e of i n a p p r o p r i a t e n o n v e r b a l s i g n a l s is a l o s s of c r e d i b i l i t y . I n a p p r o p r i a t e n o n v e r b a l s i g n a l s s e n d a " m e s ­ s a g e to t h e o t h e r p a r t y t h a t t h e r e m a y b e a w a y a r o u n d t h i s p e r s o n , t h a t s o m e ­ body can take a d v a n t a g e of t h e m , " says S u c c e s s . S u z a n n e , an i m a g e c o n s u l t a n t , a l s o b e l i e v e s t h a t p r o f e s s i o n a l s h o u l d l e a r n to d i s p l a y a p p r o p r i a t e n o n v e r b a l s i g n s :

women

I always recommend to my clients that, even though we are not the stronger [sex] and we do not have to be the stronger, we still need to have that firm handshake, but don't overdo it If we want to display confidence, then we need to have a confi­ dent posture. . . . I know that women fidget more than men, and I am definitely guilty of that. And men get nervous when women are fidgeting.

S u z a n n e s u g g e s t s that w o m e n m u s t b e s t r o n g a n d c o n f i d e n t , b u t n o t t o o strong and confident. Likewise, Sunshine believes that w o m e n must not pres­ e n t a " t h r e a t e n i n g " b o d y : " I w a s v e r y c h a l l e n g i n g a n d t h r e a t e n i n g to m e n , s o I got softer." Sunshine "got softer" through her nonverbal behaviors. She explains,

I would sit in a very female position with my legs crossed over, or I would relax into a chair instead of sitting real straight in a chair, or I would lean towards them when I talked to them instead of leaning back in my chair.

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W o m e n , it s e e m s , m u s t a d o p t j u s t t h e r i g h t c o m b i n a t i o n of " m a s c u l i n e " a n d "feminine" nonverbal behaviors. F o r S u n s h i n e , S u z a n n e , a n d S u c c e s s , t h e r e a r e s p e c i f i c a n d l e a r n e d w a y s of m o v i n g (or n o t m o v i n g ) o n e ' s b o d y that c o n v e y p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m to an a u d i ­ e n c e of b o d y r e a d e r s . If w o m e n a r e to b e s u c c e s s f u l , t h e y m u s t l e a r n to e m b o d y a p a r t i c u l a r set of p r o f e s s i o n a l s i g n a l s . I n d e e d , S u c c e s s s u g g e s t s that w o m e n d o w h a t e v e r t h e y c a n to d e v e l o p p r o f e s s i o n a l c o m p o r t m e n t s k i l l s : " I d o n ' t c a r e w h e t h e r i t ' s t a k i n g a m o d e l i n g c l a s s , l e a r n i n g t o w a l k , [or] l e a r n i n g to sit, [but w o m e n s h o u l d ] try to b u i l d s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e a n d s e l f - e s t e e m " t h r o u g h m a n a g i n g t h e i r b o d i e s . In a d d i t i o n to l e a r n i n g t h e r u l e s , t h e r o p e s , a n d t h e i n t r i c a c i e s of t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n s , p r o f e s s i o n a l w o m e n m u s t a l s o c o n s t a n t l y a t t e n d to t h e d e t a i l s o f s i t t i n g , w a l k i n g , a n d m o v i n g p r o f e s s i o n a l l y .

Female Body as Excess T h e t a s k of c o n t r o l l i n g a n d d i s c i p l i n i n g t h e f e m a l e b o d y is m a d e e v e n m o r e difficult a n d c o m p l i c a t e d for w o m e n b e c a u s e t h e f e m a l e b o d y h a s a t e n d e n c y to l e a k . W o m e n n e v e r k n o w w h e n t h e i r b o d i e s m a y d i s p l a y m e s s a g e s a n d m e a n i n g s t h a t w e r e n o t i n t e n d e d . T h u s , m a n y i n t e r v i e w e e s s e e m t o l i v e in fear of l o s i n g h a r d - f o u g h t c r e d i b i l i t y as a r e s u l t of t h e i r e x c e s s i v e o r u n d i s c i p l i n e d b o d i e s . In m a n y w a y s , t h e f e m a l e p r o f e s s i o n a l s d e s c r i b e d t h e i r o w n b o d i e s a n d t h e b o d i e s of o t h e r w o m e n in t e r m s of s p i l l a g e , s l i p s , l e a k s , a n d e x c e s s . N a n , for e x a m p l e , s a i d t h a t t h e t h o u g h t of p u t t i n g h e r f o r m e r l y 2 0 0 - p o u n d b o d y o n " d i s p l a y " at p r o f e s s i o n a l b u s i n e s s g a t h e r i n g s w a s " u n t h i n k a b l e . " N o w that s h e h a s b e g u n a r e g u l a r e x e r c i s e r e g i m e n , s h e feels m o r e c o m f o r t ­ a b l e in p u b l i c p e r f o r m a n c e s . A n o v e r w e i g h t b o d y , for N a n , is s i m p l y t o o e x c e s s i v e to b e in t h e p u b l i c e y e . A n e x c e s s i v e b o d y , h o w e v e r , is n o t j u s t an overweight body; w o m e n ' s bodies may leak out through unruly clothing, m e n s t r u a l b l e e d i n g , p r e g n a n c y , or e m o t i o n a l d i s p l a y s . T h e e x c e s s i v e o r u n ­ d i s c i p l i n e d b o d y d r a w s a t t e n t i o n to t h e o t h e r n e s s of t h e f e m a l e , p r i v a t e b o d y in t h e m a s c u l i n e , p u b l i c s p h e r e of w o r k . 6

O n e s t o r y is p a r t i c u l a r l y t e l l i n g in t h i s r e g a r d . P e r h a p s in c o n t e m p o r a r y W e s t e r n c u l t u r e , t h e m o s t e x c e s s i v e d i s p l a y of a w o m a n ' s " f e m a l e n e s s " is m e n s t r u a l b l e e d i n g . D u r i n g t h e " e m b a r r a s s i n g s t o r i e s " p o r t i o n of a c o n f e r ­ ence and trade show I attended with the participants, one w o m a n provided a h o r r i f i c a c c o u n t of b l e e d i n g in front of a p o t e n t i a l c l i e n t . T h i s y o u n g s a l e s ­ w o m a n d e s c r i b e d h o w s h e w a s w o o i n g a m u l t i m i l l i o n - d o l l a r a c c o u n t for h e r firm. T h e s a l e s w o m a n a n d h e r p o t e n t i a l c l i e n t w e r e o u t to l u n c h w h e n " t h a t p a r t i c u l a r t i m e of t h e m o n t h " c a m e e a r l y . S h e w a s w e a r i n g a c r e a m - c o l o r e d skirt. U p o n h e r d i s c o v e r y , s h e w a s f o r c e d to a s k h e r c l i e n t if s h e c o u l d b o r r o w h i s suit c o a t to c o v e r h e r s e l f w h i l e s h e w e n t to " c l e a n u p . " T h e p o t e n t i a l c l i e n t 7

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r e s p o n d e d b y s a y i n g , " I f I ' m g o i n g to let y o u b o r r o w m y s u i t c o a t , y o u h a v e t o s h o w m e t h e p r o b l e m . " T h e s a l e s w o m a n t o l d t h e c l i e n t t h a t h e w a s a w i t n e s s to t h e m o s t e m b a r r a s s i n g d a y of h e r life. D e s p i t e t h i s h o r r i b l e e x p e r i e n c e , s h e did end up getting the account. While the young salesperson told her story, the w o m e n in t h e a u d i e n c e w e r e at o n c e s y m p a t h e t i c a n d u n c o m f o r t a b l e . T h e y r e s p o n d e d w i t h s y m p a t h e t i c g r o a n s a n d h o o d e d g l a n c e s of d i s g u s t o r s h o c k at their neighbors. T h i s s t o r y m a y b e i n t e r p r e t e d as r e v e l a t o r y o f t h e w a y t h a t p a t r i a r c h a l c u l ­ t u r e r e s p o n d s to f e m a l e d e s i r e in g e n e r a l a n d v a g i n a s in p a r t i c u l a r . P a t r i a r c h a l c u l t u r e a t t e m p t s t o o r d e r o r d i s c i p l i n e f e m a l e d e s i r e b y h a r n e s s i n g it for m a l e c o n s u m p t i o n (Turner, 1984). Within this troubling, largely visual o r " s c o p i c " l o g i c , a r g u e s I r i g a r a y ( 1 9 9 1 ) , a w o m a n ' s b o d y " f i n d s itself t h u s e r o t i c i z e d , a n d c a l l e d to a d o u b l e m o v e m e n t o f e x h i b i t i o n a n d c h a s t e r e t r e a t in o r d e r to s t i m u l a t e t h e [ v i s u a l l y s t i m u l a t e d ] d r i v e s of t h e [ m a l e ] ' s u b j e c t ' " ( p . 3 5 2 ) . In a p a t r i a r c h a l c u l t u r e , w o m e n ' s g e n i t a l i a r e p r e s e n t a b s e n c e o r " t h e horror of nothing to see" ( p . 3 5 3 ) . M e n s t r u a l b l o o d , h o w e v e r , p o i n t s d i r e c t l y to t h e v a g i n a , m a k i n g it a v a i l a b l e to s e e . In s o d o i n g , s a y s I r i g a r a y , it r e m i n d s u s o f t h e p l u r a l i t y a n d m u l t i p l i c i t y of w o m e n ' s s e x o r g a n s a n d d e s i r e ( C i x o u s , 1 9 9 1 ; I r i g a r a y , 1 9 9 1 ) : "[A] woman has sex organs, more or less, everywhere. . . . T h e g e o g r a p h y o f h e r p l e a s u r e is far m o r e d i v e r s i f i e d , m o r e m u l t i p l e in its d i f f e r e n c e s , m o r e c o m p l e x , m o r e s u b t l e t h a n is c o m m o n l y i m a g i n e d " ( p . 3 5 3 ) . Y e t p a t r i a r c h a l c u l t u r e r e j e c t s a n d r e p r e s s e s t h i s v i e w of f e m a l e desire and female bodies. As a result, a w o m a n "experiences herself only f r a g m e n t a r i l y . . . a s w a s t e , o r e x c e s s " ( I r i g a r a y , 1 9 9 1 , p . 3 5 4 ) . T h e n a r r a t o r of t h e " b l o o d y " s t o r y a p p e a r s to e x p e r i e n c e h e r s e l f a n d h e r b o d y a s e x c e s s i v e l y female, as d o those around her. S o m e w o m e n later responded to her story by s a y i n g that it w a s n o t o n e that s h o u l d b e t o l d in p u b l i c . M a k i n g w o m e n ' s e x c e s s i v e b o d i e s a v a i l a b l e to t h e p u b l i c , w h e t h e r it is t h r o u g h b l o o d o r n a r r a ­ t i v e s , is t r o u b l e s o m e a c c o r d i n g to t h e s e p r o f e s s i o n a l w o m e n . O t h e r i n d i c a t o r s of w o m e n ' s e x c e s s i v e b o d i e s w e r e c r y i n g in p u b l i c , e m b o d y i n g p r e g n a n c y , and wearing revealing clothing. F o r t h e s e i n t e r v i e w e e s , t h e f e m a l e b o d y is a l w a y s a p o t e n t i a l p r o f e s s i o n a l l i a b i l i t y . T h e r e s p o n s e , t h e r e f o r e , is to k e e p t h e b o d y in c h e c k , to p r e v e n t l e a k s , in s h o r t , to d i s c i p l i n e a n d c o n t r o l t h e b o d y . A l t h o u g h t h e w o m e n in t h i s s t u d y d i d n o t u s e t h e t e r m discipline to describe their o w n a p p r o a c h e s and r e s p o n s e s t o b o d i e s , t h e t e r m is c e r t a i n l y fitting. W o m e n g o to g r e a t l e n g t h s to a v o i d a p p e a r i n g o u t of c o n t r o l o r u n d i s c i p l i n e d . W o m e n m a k e v e r y c a r e f u l and considered choices regarding dress. S o m e w o m e n delay or avoid having c h i l d r e n . O t h e r s g u a r d t h e i r f e e l i n g s c a r e f u l l y a n d s t r a t e g i c a l l y . In s h o r t , w o m e n d i s c i p l i n e t h e i r c o r p o r e a l s e l v e s in t h e n a m e o f p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m ( B a r t k y , 1 9 8 8 ; F o u c a u l t , 1 9 7 6 / 1 9 9 0 , 1 9 7 9 ) . If o n e c a n c o n t r o l h e r o w n b o d y a n d self, d e s p i t e its l e a k y a n d d i f f i c u l t - t o - c o n t r o l " n a t u r e , " t h e n o n e m a y b e

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w e l l o n t h e p a t h to p r o f e s s i o n a l s u c c e s s . T h e a s s u m p t i o n for t h e s e w o m e n s e e m s to b e t h a t " c o n t r o l of t h e self c a n l e a d to c o n t r o l of t h e w o r l d " ( G a r s t e n & G r a y , 1997, p. 218).

T h e Body's Disciplinarians B a r t k y ( 1 9 8 8 ) a r g u e s that w o m e n i n t e r n a l i z e t h e p a n o p t i c g a z e o f t h e m a l e c o n n o i s s e u r . A s a r e s u l t , w o m e n l i v e t h e i r b o d i e s a s " s e e n b y a n o t h e r , b y an anonymous patriarchal Other" (p. 72). That "other" disciplinarian can be either male or female. M a n y interviewees described the constant pressure t h e y felt f r o m t h e m a l e g a z e . T h e y d e s c r i b e d t h e f e e l i n g s o f d i s c o m f o r t w h e n m e n in p r o f e s s i o n a l s e t t i n g s s t a r e d at t h e i r b r e a s t s , c o m m e n t e d o n t h e i r c l o t h ­ i n g , t o u c h e d t h e m in i n a p p r o p r i a t e w a y s , o r d i s c u s s e d o t h e r w o m e n in e x p l i c ­ itly s e x u a l t e r m s . M o r e o v e r , t h e s e w o m e n e x p r e s s e d t h e b e l i e f t h a t a m a l e a u d i e n c e r e q u i r e s h e i g h t e n e d v i g i l a n c e a n d a t t e n t i o n to b o d i l y p r e s e n t a t i o n s of self. S u z a n n e e x p l a i n e d that, w h e n w o m e n a r e in t h e p r e s e n c e of a m a l e a u d i e n c e , " y o u h a v e t o b e a little m o r e d r e s s e d u p . Y o u h a v e t o b e a little m o r e careful of t h e d e t a i l s . . . . M e n j u s t s e e m to b e v e r y a w a r e , s o y o u h a v e to b e r e a l l y c a r e f u l of t h a t . " S u z a n n e d i d n o t d e s c r i b e t h e p o w e r f u l m a l e g a z e as a p r o b l e m a t i c p h e n o m e n a ; r a t h e r , it is s i m p l y a p a r t of a w o m a n ' s p r o f e s s i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t to w h i c h s h e m u s t a d a p t . C a s s i e , a n a u t o b o d y s h o p o w n e r , c l a i m e d , " W h e n y o u ' r e w i t h a lot of m e n , i t ' s m o r e i m p o r t a n t to l o o k g o o d . I d o n ' t k n o w w h y , b u t I j u s t a l w a y s feel t h a t w a y , l i k e I a m a l w a y s b e i n g j u d g e d . " T h e m a l e g a z e r e q u i r e s w o m e n to b e c a r e f u l a n d r e m i n d s t h e m t h a t they are always being evaluated. H o w e v e r , n o t all t h e i n t e r v i e w e e s s i m p l y a c c e p t e d t h e m a l e g a z e as " n o r ­ mal." Lana, a saleswoman, was quite perturbed when a male colleague chided h e r for p u r c h a s i n g a c a n d y b a r . I know that if I were a man and I'm at the gift shop and I'm buying a Snickers bar that no one would walk up to me and say, "You're gonna get fat." Well, I don't care, you know. What's the difference? I want a Snickers bar. L a n a i n d i c a t e d that m e n b e l i e v e that t h e y a r e in t h e r i g h t f u l p o s i t i o n t o c o m ­ m e n t o n w o m e n ' s b o d i e s a n d to d i s c i p l i n e w o m e n w h e n t h e y t h i n k t h e y n e e d it. M a n y w o m e n d o e x p e c t m e n to b e p a r t i c u l a r l y j u d g m e n t a l a n d a r e w i l l i n g to " i n t e r n a l i z e t h e p a n o p t i c a l g a z e of t h e m a l e c o n n o i s s e u r " ( B a r t k y , 1 9 8 8 , p. 72). T h e interviewees are generally not surprised w h e n m e n act as discipli­ n a r i a n s . W h a t b o t h e r s t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s is w h e n f e m a l e c o l l e a g u e s a n d p e e r s a c t as d i s c i p l i n a r i a n s . T h e f e m a l e g a z e is an e q u a l l y p o w e r f u l ( a n d c o m p l i c i t o u s ) n o r m a l i z i n g f o r c e , a c c o r d i n g to t h e i n t e r v i e w e e s . B e t h c o n t e n d s t h a t " w o m e n are m u c h harsher on other w o m e n than m e n are." N a n notices that " w o m e n

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j u d g e e a c h o t h e r a lot, l i k e at t h e [ w o m e n ' s a s s o c i a t i o n ] m e e t i n g . I c a n t e l l . " C h r i s s a y s t h a t , w h e n w o m e n a r e in t h e c o m p a n y of o t h e r w o m e n , they think they might be able to let their guards down, but I think women, um, are looked at [by women], and it all leads to the same thing. So even when we least expect it, you know, I do notice that women make comments about other women. S u s a n s u g g e s t s t h a t s h e t r i e s to k e e p h e r f e m a l e c u s t o m e r s h a p p y b y a p p e a r i n g p r o f e s s i o n a l . " B u t , " s h e s a y s , "if y o u w a l k in t h e r e a n d e v e r y t h i n g is h a n g i n g o u t , s h e a i n ' t g o n n a b e h a p p y . S h e ' s g o i n g to t h i n k , ' W e l l , y o u ' r e a l i t t l e s l u t . ' You k n o w h o w w o m e n are." Finally, Katie argues that w o m e n are m o r e j u d g ­ mental than m e n are. She says that, w h e n she attends w o m e n ' s association m e e t i n g s a n d is d r e s s e d a little more flamboyant, I've felt the social pressure that I wasn't one of the group. It makes me sad, too. That's why I resist it. That's why I continue to not conform. But you have to force yourself not to. I find it real discouraging when women are judgmental of other women. You know, I think there's enough that we have to think about, [being concerned about how other women are judging you] shouldn't have to be a part of it. W o m e n actively discipline other w o m e n , perhaps even m o r e so than m e n d o , a c c o r d i n g to t h e i n t e r v i e w e e s . W h e n w o m e n e v a l u a t e a n d j u d g e o t h e r w o m e n u s i n g t h e p r o b l e m a t i c s t a n d a r d s of m a s c u l i n e p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m , t h e r e are m a n y potential flaws to be noticed, m a n y potential m i s t a k e s to b e e x a m ­ ined. Rather than resisting patriarchal gendered and organizational dis­ c o u r s e s , w o m e n ' s m o r e c o m m o n r e s p o n s e is to a c t i v e l y p a r t i c i p a t e in a n d perpetuate those normalizing discourses (Ashcraft & Pacanowsky, 1996; Buzzanell, 1994; M u m b y , 1997; Trethewey, 1999). Poststructuralist feminist a c c o u n t s of t h e b o d y , l i k e t h i s o n e , m a k e it c l e a r t h a t w o m e n e x p e r i e n c e t h e i r b o d i e s as o n d i s p l a y , as a v a i l a b l e t o t h e g a z e of b o t h m a l e a n d f e m a l e d i s c i p l i n a r i a n s . It is n o t s u r p r i s i n g , t h e n , t h a t w o m e n r o u t i n e l y e n g a g e in selfs u r v e i l l a n c e a n d w o r k h a r d at g e t t i n g t h e i r o w n b o d i e s t o b e h a v e b y c o n ­ f o r m i n g to t h e c o n t r a d i c t o r y ( a n d s e e m i n g l y i m p o s s i b l e ) d i c t a t e s of b o t h professionalism and femininity. The preceding discussion highlights the disciplinary techniques, including dress, nonverbal c o m p o r t m e n t , fitness, and other forms of b o d i l y control, that c o n s t i t u t e , e n a b l e , a n d c o n s t r a i n w o m e n ' s b o d i e s at w o r k . It is i m p o r t a n t to r e m e m b e r that w o m e n ' s bodies are not mere facticities but discursive con­ structions. Organizational bodies, their topographies and boundaries, are con­ structed through subjects' identifications with normative and patriarchal n o t i o n s of g e n d e r t h a t c a n , f i n a l l y , n e v e r b e a c h i e v e d . T h e e n d l e s s p u r s u i t of this n o r m a t i v e and n o r m a l i z i n g ideal ultimately inhibits w o m e n ' s collective

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p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n a n d a d d s yet a n o t h e r " s h i f t " to w o r k i n g w o m e n ' s a l r e a d y diffi­ cult l i v e s ( N a d e s a n & T r e t h e w e y , 1 9 9 8 ) .

Experiencing, Enacting, and Resisting Embodied Identities T h e p r e c e d i n g F o u c a u l d i a n f e m i n i s t c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of w o m e n ' s p r o f e s ­ s i o n a l b o d i e s , h o w e v e r p r o v o c a t i v e , fails to a c c o u n t for t h e w a y s t h a t differ­ ent w o m e n ( w o m e n of c o l o r , l e s b i a n w o m e n , a g i n g w o m e n , o r m a t e r n a l w o m e n ) experience, celebrate, and resist professional and g e n d e r discourses t h r o u g h t h e i r o w n b o d i e s . F o u c a u l t h i m s e l f r e c o g n i z e d t h e s h o r t c o m i n g s of c o n c e i v i n g of t h e b o d y as s i m p l y a p a s s i v e s u r f a c e o n w h i c h t h e d i s c o u r s e s of p o w e r a r e w r i t t e n . T h e g e n d e r e d b o d y s h o u l d not be u n d e r s t o o d o n l y as t h e p r i m a r y t a r g e t of t h e t e c h n i q u e s of d i s c i p l i n a r y p o w e r , b u t a l s o as t h e p o i n t at w h i c h t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s are r e s i s t e d a n d t h w a r t e d ( M c N a y , 1 9 9 2 ) . T h e b o d y is, after a l l , a site of s t r u g g l e . F o l l o w i n g D e v e a u x ( 1 9 9 4 ) , I a r g u e that w e s h o u l d c o n c e p t u a l i z e w o m e n ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p s to t h e i r b o d i e s as a r e f l e c t i o n of b o t h s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s and t h e i r o w n r e s p o n s e s to ( a n d m e d i a t i o n of) the c u l t u r a l i d e a l s of f e m i n i n i t y . A c c o r d i n g to M c N a y ( 1 9 9 2 ) , " C h o o s i n g o n e ' s g e n d e r , t h e n , is a p r o c e s s , n o t w h o l l y c o n s c i o u s , b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s a c c e s s i b l e to c o n s c i o u s n e s s . It is a c e r t a i n w a y of e x i s t i n g in o n e ' s o w n b o d y w h i c h i n v o l v e s t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s i d i o s y n ­ c r a t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d c o r p o r e a l s t y l e s " ( p . 7 2 ) . In o t h e r w o r d s , i n d i v i d u a l w o m e n c a n c h o o s e to e m b o d y a n d p e r f o r m p a r t i c u l a r s u b ­ j e c t p o s i t i o n s via c o r p o r e a l s t y l e s . A l t h o u g h t h e s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d " i d e a l b o d y " is an o r g a n i z i n g e l e m e n t , w o m e n m a y , in fact, a d o p t a l t e r n a t i v e c o r p o ­ real s t y l e s or e m b o d i e d i d e n t i t i e s in w a y s that p r o d u c e a b r o a d e r r a n g e of s u b ­ j e c t p o s i t i o n s for w o m e n . D e s p i t e t h e fact that t h e r e a r e s t r u c t u r e s of d o m i n a ­ tion a n d p a r t i c u l a r c o n s t r u c t i o n s of g e n d e r that c o n t r i b u t e to t h e s u b o r d i n a t e p o s i t i o n of w o m e n in s o c i e t y , w e m u s t n o t be b l i n d to t h e w a y s that w o m e n r e s i s t t h e i r s u b o r d i n a t i o n a n d act as a g e n t s in t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a n d life worlds. M e l i a ' s ( 1 9 9 5 ) s t u d y of l e s b i a n r e s i s t a n c e as e m b o d i e d p r a c t i c e , t h o u g h not n e c e s s a r i l y w r i t t e n from an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e , d o e s s u g g e s t t h a t w o m e n can resist gendered, heterosexist discourse through bodily displays, namely through appearance and personal style. Lesbian w o m e n "use a con­ s c i o u s c o l l a g e of b o d i l y s i g n i f i e r s to r e s i s t t h e d i s c o u r s e of c o m p u l s o r y ( h e t ­ e r o ) s e x u a l i t y " ( M e l i a , 1 9 9 5 , p . 5 4 7 ) . A l t h o u g h l e s b i a n w o m e n m a y find it u n a c c e p t a b l e to d i s p l a y t h e i r s e x u a l i t y as Q u e e r a c t i v i s t s in o r g a n i z a t i o n s , s o m e l e s b i a n s d o p l a y w i t h c o n v e n t i o n s a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s in t h e i r o r g a n i z a ­ t i o n a l l i v e s . F o r e x a m p l e , w h e n F a y w a s " f o r c e d " to w e a r a d r e s s , s h e d i d s o w i t h o u t s h a v i n g h e r a r m p i t s . S i m i l a r l y , if D i a n e g o e s to a m e e t i n g at w o r k w h e r e s h e is t h e o n l y w o m a n , s h e t e n d s to d r e s s in m o r e " m a n n i s h " a n d

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" s t r o p p y " w a y s . For the w o m e n M e l i a (1995) interviewed, " p l a y i n g with expectations and conventions, even whilst 'passing' within a heterosexual c o n t e x t w a s a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t of l e s b i a n i d e n t i t y " ( p . 5 5 3 ) . B y " p l a y i n g w i t h " c o n v e n t i o n s , t h e s e w o m e n b e g i n to r e v i s i o n n o r m a t i v e e x p e c t a t i o n s for gendered identity. M u r p h y ' s ( 1 9 9 8 ) a n a l y s i s of flight a t t e n d a n t s ' f o r m s of r e s i s t a n c e in t h e f a c e of d i s c i p l i n i n g d i s c o u r s e s is p r e c i s e l y t h e s o r t of a n a l y s i s t h a t u n d e r ­ s c o r e s t h e b o d y p o l i t i c s of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l life. A i r l i n e f l i g h t a t t e n d a n t s w o r k u n d e r p a n o p t i c c o n d i t i o n s in w h i c h p r o f e s s i o n a l a p p e a r a n c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y for t h e f e m a l e e m p l o y e e s , is q u i t e l i t e r a l l y r e g u l a t e d . T h e s e w o m e n a r e s u r v e i l l e d by o r g a n i z a t i o n a l d i s c i p l i n a r i a n s , c u s t o m e r s , a n d t h e m s e l v e s . S p e c i f i c a l l y , f e m a l e flight a t t e n d a n t s a r e r e q u i r e d to w e a r m a k e u p a n d h i g h h e e l s a n d t o c o n f o r m to a i r l i n e w e i g h t p o l i c i e s . H o w e v e r , flight a t t e n d a n t s find a v a r i e t y o f " p r i v a t e " strategies to resist these constraining requirements. For e x a m p l e , o n e flight a t t e n d a n t w e a r s t h e " r e q u i r e d " m a k e u p o n l y d u r i n g a n n u a l " a p p e a r ­ ance c h e c k s " (Murphy, 1998, p. 521). Flight attendants h a v e also d i s c o v e r e d " h i g h - r i s k a r e a s " w h e r e t h e y a r e m o r e s u s c e p t i b l e to c o n t r o l a n d m a y b e d i s c i ­ p l i n e d for b r e a k i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r u l e s . T h e y " p a s s t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n o n t o o t h e r flight a t t e n d a n t s t h r o u g h t h e i r h i d d e n t r a n s c r i p t s , l i m i t i n g t h e p o w e r o f t h e p a n o p t i c g a z e " ( p . 5 2 2 ) . T h u s , a t t e n d a n t s k n o w to w e a r t h e i r h i g h - h e e l e d s h o e s o n l y w h e n t h e y fly t h r o u g h a c i t y in w h i c h s u p e r v i s o r s a r e l o c a t e d . Finally, while m a n y attendants appreciate and are compliant with the airlines' w e i g h t r e s t r i c t i o n s — b e c a u s e , as o n e w o m a n e x p l a i n e d , " w i t h o u t t h e m I m i g h t b l o w u p l i k e a b a l l o o n " — o t h e r s h a v e l e a r n e d h o w to " b e a t " t h e s y s t e m by l o s i n g w e i g h t t e m p o r a r i l y b y i n g e s t i n g l a x a t i v e s a n d d i u r e t i c s . T h e h a r m ­ ful c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h i s last r e s i s t a n c e s t r a t e g y n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , t h e s e w o m e n h a v e f o u n d " p r i v a t e " w a y s to r e s i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l g e n d e r e d d i s ­ c o u r s e s a n d a d o p t a l t e r n a t i v e e m b o d i e d i d e n t i t i e s . In s o d o i n g , " t h e y e n a c t f a n t a s i e s of r e v e r s a l s , g a i n s o c i a l s u p p o r t , a n d p r e p a r e t h e m s e l v e s f o r p o s s i ­ ble entrance into the public r e a l m " ( p . 525). Indeed, the flight a t t e n d a n t s ' r e s i s t a n c e u l t i m a t e l y led to a p u b l i c c h a l l e n g e t o a n d c h a n g e in t h e a i r l i n e ' s weight standard policy. M u r p h y ' s analysis suggests that e m b o d i e d resistance p r a c t i c e s c a n c r e a t e a w i d e r a n d b r o a d e r r a n g e of s u b j e c t p o s i t i o n s a v a i l a b l e t o professional women.

CONCLUSION T h i s c h a p t e r i n d i c a t e s t h a t "I v i e w o u r b o d i e s a s a s i t e o f s t r u g g l e w h e r e w e m u s t w o r k t o k e e p o u r d a i l y p r a c t i c e s in t h e s e r v i c e o f r e s i s t a n c e t o g e n d e r d o m i n a t i o n , n o t in t h e s e r v i c e of ' d o c i l i t y ' a n d g e n d e r n o r m a l i z a t i o n " ( B o r d o , 1 9 8 9 , p . 2 8 ) . A p o s t s t r u c t u r a l i s t f e m i n i s t a n a l y s i s of w o m e n ' s e m b o d i e d i d e n ­ tities in o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n t e x t s w o r k s t o w a r d t h a t g o a l b y d r a w i n g a t t e n t i o n

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to t h e w a y s in w h i c h w o m e n ' s b o d i e s a r e i n s c r i b e d w i t h t h e o f t e n c o n t r a d i c ­ tory d i s c o u r s e s of g e n d e r a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m . W o m e n ' s p r o f e s s i o n a l b o d i e s a r e a r i c h site at w h i c h i m p o r t a n t i d e n t i t y - f o r m i n g y e t c o n t r a d i c t o r y e x p e r i ­ e n c e s o c c u r . A l t h o u g h w o m e n ' s b o d i e s a r e often s u b o r d i n a t e d a n d d e v a l u e d , i n d i v i d u a l w o m e n , t h r o u g h t h e a p p r o p r i a t i o n of d r e s s , s t y l e , a n d o t h e r s i g ­ n i f y i n g p r a c t i c e s , c a n a n d d o e m b o d y r e s i s t a n c e to c o n t r o l , d i s c i p l i n e , a n d n o r m a l i z a t i o n . H o w w o m e n t a k e u p a n d r e s i s t e m b o d i e d i d e n t i t i e s in o r g a n i ­ z a t i o n a l c o n t e x t s is a n e m p i r i c a l q u e s t i o n t h a t d e m a n d s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . T h u s , t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s for o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a n d m a n a g e r i a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e s e a r c h ­ ers are clear: W e must empirically e x a m i n e h o w w o m e n both take up and r e s i s t g e n d e r e d a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l d i s c o u r s e s in e v e r y d a y o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r a c ­ t i c e s , a n d w e m u s t d e s c r i b e t h e c o n s t r a i n i n g a n d e n a b l i n g e f f e c t s of t h o s e b o d i l y d i s p l a y s for o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a c t o r s . A f t e r a l l , it is o n l y w i t h a " k n o w l ­ e d g e of t h e c o m p l e x p o l i t i c a l d i m e n s i o n s of d i s c u r s i v e p r a c t i c e s t h a t w e a r e able to cope with, understand, and facilitate our public and private lives" (Wendt, 1995, p. 292). P o s t s t r u c t u r a l i s t f e m i n i s t e m p i r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of w o m e n ' s e m b o d i e d i d e n t i t i e s a n d t h e d i s c i p l i n a r y r e g i m e s t h a t a t t e m p t to c o n t a i n a n d c o n t r o l t h e m w o u l d c o n t r i b u t e to o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a n d m a n a g e r i a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s c h o l a r s h i p in t h r e e w a y s . First, s u c h s t u d i e s w o u l d a r t i c u l a t e t h e w a y s in which the specific relationships between organizational discourses and their a t t e n d a n t m i c r o p r a c t i c e s c r e a t e p r o f e s s i o n a l w o m e n ' s e m b o d i e d i d e n t i t i e s as a m e a n s of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n t r o l a n d p r o d u c t i v i t y ( M u m b y , 1 9 9 3 a ) . S e c o n d , t h e y m a y s u g g e s t h o w w o m e n r e s i s t g e n d e r e d d i s c o u r s e s in p r o f e s s i o n a l c o n ­ t e x t s a n d , in s o d o i n g , offer a l t e r n a t i v e i d e n t i t y c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f t h e " p r o f e s ­ s i o n a l w o m a n . " T h i r d , t h e y w o u l d c o n t r i b u t e to an i m p o r t a n t b o d y of w o r k in o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n that e x a m i n e s w o m e n ' s p r o b l e m a t i c s f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of w o m e n ' s e x p e r i e n c e s ( F i n e , 1 9 9 3 ) . E m p i r i c a l w o r k is s o r e l y n e e d e d in t h i s a r e a , a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s c h o l a r s a r e w e l l p o s i t i o n e d to a d d r e s s t h e d i s c i p l i n a r y t e c h n i q u e s of f e m i n i n i t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y in o r g a n i z a ­ t i o n a l c o n t e x t s . P e r h a p s it is t i m e for o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a n d m a n a g e r i a l c o m m u ­ n i c a t i o n s c h o l a r s w h o a r e i n t e r e s t e d in a n d c o n c e r n e d a b o u t c o n t e m p o r a r y f o r m s of c o n t r o l to w o r k a n d s t r u g g l e a r o u n d a ( r e v i s e d ) f e m i n i s t r a l l y i n g c r y : " T h e b o d y is p o l i t i c a l . " 8

NOTES 1. Although certainly male bodies have long been the assumed "substance" on which control operates, the gendered implications of those forms of control have not often been explored. 2. Disciplinary practices operate on the body, but not exclusively so. The "body" is not, nor can it ever be, separated from the "mind." Indeed, the two are mutually constitu­ tive. The disciplined body pulls the subject in its wake.

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Critique of Disciplined

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3. Despite these dangers, the relationship between the body and disciplinary power should not be conceived as simply a negative or repressive one. Rather, power (articu­ lated in and through discourse) renders the body useful, productive, and "docile" (Foucault, 1979, p. 138). The assembly line and the many contemporary organizational practices it spawned is an example of a disciplinary technique that calls for a regulated, efficient body. Historically, the assembly line extended the "collective bodies' capacity to produce. But it was also a new kind of tool. Rather than being subject to the body's rule, it subjugated the body into an extension of itself—a docile, useful body" (Deetz, 1992, p. 254). It is clear, then, that disciplinary power produces a particular kind of organiza­ tional identity, an always already embodied identity. 4. Though Young's (1990b) analysis is not a poststructuralist one, she does call for Foucauldian analyses of women's embodied practices that pay particular attention to the disciplinary regimes that position women's subjectivities in particular ways. 5. The 20 participants represented a variety of professions, including management consulting, mediation, auto repair, sales, banking, and human resources. All the women described themselves as professional. Nearly all the participants were Caucasian, with the exception of two Latina participants. Their ages ranged from early 20s to early 60s. The participants chose their own pseudonyms. 6. For a more complete discussion on women's "leakages," see Trethewey (1999). 7. I recognize that "femaleness" is a discursive construction. Femaleness or feminin­ ity has long been discursively linked with the body and nature. It is on biological differ­ ences, such as menstruation and reproductive labor, that the "edifice of gender inequality is built and legitimized" (McNay, 1992, p. 17). 8. The previous discussion has focused on women's embodied identities exclusively. I contend that the pressures to achieve and display the ideal gendered body affect women in more profound ways than the pressures that affect men. Although it is beyond the scope of this chapter, it is important to recognize that men's bodies are disciplined as well. In­ deed, we see increasing evidence that marketers are making a deliberate effort to translate concern for personal appearance into a directly masculine context (in advertisements for skin creams, hair treatments, and even penile extensions). Success, achievement, physi­ cal fitness, efficiency, competition, and managing and controlling one's self-presentation are all themes used to make personal appearance a significant component of masculinity in advertisements for men's cosmetic products. To feel good about oneself, soon it will not be enough to be a successful achiever. A man will also have to look young, energetic, and healthy. What man will not find himself lacking when he measures himself against these new role models?

6

Walking the High Wire Leadership Theorizing, Daily Acts, and Tensions Marlene G. Fine Patrice M . Buzzanell

Marlene's

Final

Diary

Entry

I've accepted the new position. It's a wonderful opportunity for me-recognition of my academic work, a chance to spend more time at home with the boys (without giving up my salary and benefits), and a culture that values people. So why do I feel so conflicted? I think because I believe I failed here. I tried to lead by serving-and I failed. Failed-not to serve. I think I served well. But I failed to convince those above me that I was exercising leadership. I remained invisible to those above me. And, at the same time, I think I scared them. I suppose because they couldn't comprehend my way of leading-or, more accurately, my way of being. Powerless and powerful. The paradox of leadership as serving. Especially if you're a woman. AUTHORS' NOTE: We would like to thank Beth Haslett and Marlene's reading group (Isolde Anderson, Lisa Cuklanz, Valeria Fabj, Lynn O'Brien Hallstein, Mary Marcel, and Anne Mattina) for their comments on this chapter.

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C u r r e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e , b o t h p o p u l a r a n d a c a d e m i c , is rife w i t h n e w c o n c e p t i o n s of l e a d e r s h i p . A l t h o u g h m u c h of w h a t is c a l l e d n e w is s i m p l y o l d i d e a s p r e s e n t e d in n e w l a n g u a g e , s e v e r a l o f t h e s e c u r r e n t c o n c e p t i o n s d o r e f l e c t a n e w v i s i o n of l e a d e r s h i p , o n e t h a t e x p a n d s t h e l e a d e r ' s r o l e b e y o n d a c h i e v i n g t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l g o a l s of t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n t o a c h i e v i n g i n d i v i d u a l a n d / o r c o m m u n i t y s o c i a l e n d s . E a c h of t h e s e n e w c o n c e p t i o n s c o n t a i n s e l e ­ m e n t s of l e a d e r s h i p as s e r v i n g . In t h i s c h a p t e r , w e d e s c r i b e a n d c r i t i q u e s o m e c u r r e n t c o n c e p t i o n s of l e a d ­ e r s h i p , offer a f e m i n i s t r e v i s i o n i n g of l e a d e r s h i p as s e r v i n g , a n d e x p l o r e t h e t e n s i o n s i n h e r e n t in e n a c t i n g l e a d e r s h i p t h r o u g h s e r v i n g o t h e r s . O u r a n a l y s i s is b a s e d o n o u r o w n e x p e r i e n c e s a s a c a d e m i c a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , m a n a g e r s , e d i ­ t o r s , a n d f a c u l t y m e m b e r s a n d is s u p p o r t e d b y d i a r y e n t r i e s t h a t c h r o n i c l e o u r d a i l y l i v e s . T h e s e d i a r y e n t r i e s r e f l e c t t h e e s s e n c e r a t h e r t h a n t h e d e t a i l s of o u r lives; people and events have been altered. W e do not believe, however, that t h o s e a l t e r a t i o n s m a t e r i a l l y affect o u r a n a l y s i s . T h e d i a r y e n t r i e s m a y n o t be t r u e , b u t t h e y tell t h e t r u t h . T h e o r i g i n a l i m p e t u s for o u r a n a l y s i s w a s M a r l e n e ' s r e c e n t e x p e r i e n c e a s an a c a d e m i c a d m i n i s t r a t o r . O u r a n a l y s i s , t h e r e f o r e , f o c u s e s o n t h e e x e r c i s e of l e a d e r s h i p in an a c a d e m i c s e t t i n g . A l t h o u g h t h e p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n s a n d r o l e s v a r y in o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s e t t i n g s , w e b e l i e v e t h a t t h e f e m i n i s t r e v i s i o n i n g w e offer a n d t h e p a r a d o x e s i n h e r e n t in it a r e a p p l i c a b l e a c r o s s m a l e - d e f i n e d organizations.

DEFINING LEADERSHIP T r a d i t i o n a l l y , l e a d e r s h i p , m a n a g e m e n t , a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a r e d e f i n e d in m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e w a y s : Leadership is t h e p r o c e s s of e x t e r n a l l y a r t i c u l a t i n g v i s i o n s t h a t c h a l l e n g e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y a n d c h a n g e ; management is w h a t t r a n s l a t e s t h a t v i s i o n i n t e r n a l l y ; a n d administration is t h e s c i e n c e o f d e v e l o p i n g s t a n d a r d i z e d a n d r o u t i n e p r a c t i c e s a n d c o n s t r u c t s a p p l i c a b l e to all m e m b e r s in e v e r y o r g a n i z a t i o n ( B r y m a n , 1 9 9 6 ; C l e g g & H a r d y , 1 9 9 6 ; F r i c k & Spears, 1996; Kotter, 1990; Yukl, 1989; Zaleznik, 1977). Such role divi­ sions are found throughout organizational literature, with the most telling division b e i n g that w h i c h bifurcates those w h o h a v e the formal a n d / o r infor­ mal p o w e r to lead, m a n a g e , and administer from those w h o do not. T h e con­ v e n t i o n a l r o l e o f m a n a g e r s , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , a n d s u p e r v i s o r s is t o e n s u r e c o n f o r m a n c e to e s t a b l i s h e d m o d e s of d o i n g w o r k . T h o s e w h o e n a c t t h i s r o l e a r e n a m e d " e n f o r c e r s of r u l e s , " a n d r o u t i n e b e h a v i o r is m a d e i n t o " a p o w e r g a m e " in w h i c h v a r i o u s p l a y e r s a n d i n f l u e n c e r s s e e k t o c o n t r o l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l decisions and acts (Mintzberg, 1983), with adversarial interactions c o m m o n ­ place (Buzzanell, 1994). Leadership literature also has replicated divisive­

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n e s s in o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s by i d e n t i f y i n g l e a d e r s a n d f o l l o w e r s , t h e n c o n c e n t r a t i n g r e s e a r c h on t h e f o r m e r ( B u r n s , 1 9 7 8 ; S i m s & M a n z , 1 9 9 6 ) . Marlene's

Diary

Entry:

February

15

Budget time again. I've decided to ask for a new budget line to provide internal grants for faculty development. I've had so many requests over the last two years, and there's no source of funding available on campus. Marlene's

Diary

Entry:

March

15

Met with Y to talk about my budget. I'm shocked-he approved most of what I requested. He didn't approve the faculty development funds, however. He's not opposed to having a pool of money available for faculty development projects. He just doesn't wont to offer the funds. He said faculty development funds ore a bargaining unit issue; let the faculty bargain for them-and, of course, give up something else in return. It's all a gome to see how much control he (actually "we I think he thought he was instructing me on how to be a good administrator) can exert over the faculty. And I naively thought we were driven by our mission to educate students. tt

N u m e r o u s a u t h o r s h a v e d e s c r i b e d the g e n d e r e d n a t u r e o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s , organizational roles, and organizing processes (e.g., Acker, 1990, 1992; Buzzanell, 1994; Court, 1997; Ferguson, 1984; Fondas, 1997; Kanter, 1977; M i l l s & T a n c r e d , 1 9 9 2 ) . T h e s e d e s c r i p t i o n s p o i n t to t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c ­ t u r e s a n d p r a c t i c e s that n o t o n l y h i g h l i g h t m e n a n d m a r g i n a l i z e w o m e n b u t a l s o v a l u e m a l e m o d e s of t h i n k i n g , f e e l i n g , a c t i n g , a n d f o r m i n g i d e n t i t i e s while devaluing their female counterparts (Buzzanell, 1995; Fine, 1993; K a n t e r , 1 9 7 7 ; M a r s h a l l , 1 9 9 3 ) . T h e s e g e n d e r i d e n t i t i e s a r e c o n s t r u c t e d o u t of a c o m p l e x m i x of e x p e r i e n c e s in t h e p h y s i c a l w o r l d , s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d a c t i v i t i e s in w h i c h m e n a n d w o m e n a r e e n g a g e d , a n d c u l t u r a l s t e r e o t y p e s t h a t a r e s o c i a l l y i m p o s e d a n d p e r s o n a l l y i n t e r n a l i z e d . T h e r e s e a r c h l i t e r a t u r e is d i v i d e d o n w h e t h e r e a c h g e n d e r c o n s t i t u t e s its o w n c u l t u r e ( a n d s p e e c h c o m ­ m u n i t y ) , w i t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c m o d e s of t h i n k i n g , f e e l i n g , a n d b e h a v i n g (Gilligan, 1982; Johnson, 1989; Tannen, 1990, 1994; W o o d , 1999), or w h e t h e r p e o p l e f o r m r e l a t i o n s h i p s in w h i c h t h e y , often u n c o n s c i o u s l y , r e p l i ­ cate societal power struggles and gendered workplace interactions (Ashcraft, 1 9 9 8 ; A s h c r a f t & P a c a n o w s k y , 1 9 9 6 ) . R e g a r d l e s s of c a u s e o r r a t i o n a l e , h o w ­ e v e r , h i e r a r c h i c a l p a t t e r n s of a c c o m p l i s h i n g w o r k a r e r e p l i c a t e d a n d v a l u e d in

Leadership

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Theorizing

organizational communication and managerial constructs and practices such as m a n a g e m e n t , a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , a n d l e a d e r s h i p . Although many writers distinguish among the terms, the boundaries be­ tween leadership, management, and administration have been blurred (Clegg & H a r d y , 1 9 9 6 ) . B e c a u s e t h e r e is o v e r l a p a m o n g t h e t e r m s , w e u s e l e a d e r s h i p , m a n a g e m e n t , and administration synonymously throughout this chapter but r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n c e s in c o m m u n i c a t i v e p r i o r i t i e s a m o n g t h e s e processes. O u r g o a l is to r e v i s i o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , m a n a g e m e n t , a n d l e a d e r s h i p a s s e r v ­ i n g t h r o u g h a r e v i s i o n i s t / r e v a l o r i s t f e m i n i s t a n a l y s i s t h a t r e c o g n i z e s t h a t both feminine (e.g., care, nurture, interdependence, relationship, inclusion) and masculine (e.g., agency, autonomy, separation, instrumentality) approaches and w a y s of k n o w i n g have value d e p e n d i n g on a given situation ( B u z z a n e l l , 1994; Marshall, 1993). Revisionist and poststructuralist feminists often rewrite traditional m a s c u l i n e passages to incorporate the missing half so that rationality, organizational goals, and autonomy do not supersede emotional­ ity, r e l a t i o n a l p r i o r i t i e s , a n d c o n n e c t i o n ( e . g . , C a l £ s & S m i r c i c h , 1 9 9 2 ) . I n t h e s e a n a l y s e s , w a y s of m a i n t a i n i n g t e n s i o n s a m o n g d i f f e r i n g v a l u e s a n d a p p r o a c h e s c a n b e b r o u g h t to t h e f o r e f r o n t of t h e o r i z i n g a n d p r a c t i c e . W e s u g g e s t t h a t t h e r o l e of t h e a c a d e m i c a d m i n i s t r a t o r ( o r m a n a g e r ) is m o r e p r o d u c t i v e l y c o n c e i v e d of as s e r v i n g t h e f a c u l t y a n d s t u d e n t s ( o r m u l t i ­ ple stakeholders, particularly employees). On the most basic level, serving m e a n s d o i n g t h i n g s for o t h e r s that e n a b l e t h e m to d o t h e i r j o b s ; s e r v i n g m e a n s t a k i n g o b s t a c l e s o u t of e m p l o y e e s ' w a y r a t h e r t h a n p u t t i n g t h e m u p . Marlene's

Diary

Entry:

August

15

J just returned from a conference in D.C. He met a FIPSE

(Fund for Post Secondary Education) funder who loved our

digital culture project; he said FIPSE has a call out

for proposals for training projects related to the use of technology. The deadline is in one month. Don't know if we can pull something together that fast, but we'll try. Marlene's

Diary

Entry:

August

20

Me spent the last week brainstorming some ideas for a faculty development project that would complement the digital culture project. We've come up with an approach, but J is traveling over the next two weeks-presenting papers at two conferences and trying to finish his book manuscript. I'm going to do the first draft of the proposal, and we'll work on editing via e-mail.

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Diary

Entry:

August

22

Went to talk with Y to tell him about the proposal and alert him that we'd need him to review it. I brought the budget for him to look at so we could see if we had any financial problems that we needed to work out before doing the final revisions. Y hit the ceiling. Wanted to know why we waited so long to get the proposal ready. I tried to explain that we just found out about the call for proposals, and we were working as quickly as we could to get it together. He refused to listen. Said he couldn't take the time on such short notice to review anything for us. I'm fuming. Marlene's

Diary

Entry:

I've been stewing over Y's refusal to review the That means he won't sign off on it either. Don't to do-it's a terrific idea and we need faculty funds for new technology. Marlene's

Diary

Entry:

August

24

proposal. know what development

August

27

Have made an executive decision. I've reconfigured the budget so that nothing in it requires institutional support. Since I have the authority to sign off on grants that don't affect the institution's budget, I'm going to sign the proposal and not have Y review it. I'd much rather have everyone knowledgeable about the proposal-and I'd like to know that what we're proposing fits the institution's priorities-but I'm not going to let someone's attitude about hierarchy and deadlines stand in our way. S e r v i n g m e a n s m o r e t h a n j u s t e n a b l i n g o t h e r s ; it is a l s o an e t h i c a l v i s i o n t h a t c r e a t e s w h a t is w o r t h y in life, d e v e l o p s a v e n u e s for l i v i n g t h e v i s i o n , a n d revisits this core vision continuously (see H a n e y , 1994; M a t t s o n & B u z z a n e l l , 1999). Like corporate visions, feminist organizational c o m m u n i c a t i o n v i s i o n s a r e i m a g e s o r i d e a s of m o r e a t t r a c t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l f u t u r e s ( N a n u s , 1 9 9 2 ) . A s s u c h , s e r v i n g e n c o m p a s s e s d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f c h a n g e : first o r d e r (incremental), second order (cognitive framework and shared s c h e m a s that g i v e m e a n i n g to a c t i v i t i e s ) , a n d t h i r d o r d e r ( t r a n s c o n c e p t u a l m o d e of u n d e r ­ s t a n d i n g in w h i c h s c h e m a s are i n n o v a t e d a n d d e v e l o p e d c o n t i n u o u s l y ; s e e Bartunek & M o c h , 1994). By e n c o m p a s s i n g these three orders of c h a n g e , s e r v i n g p r o v i d e s a w a y to b l u r t h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n l e a d e r s h i p , m a n a g e ­

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m e n t , a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . T o s e r v e is t o a r t i c u l a t e , t r a n s l a t e , a n d i m p l e m e n t organizational visions that challenge the gendered organizational

values,

b e l i e f s , a n d b e h a v i o r s t h a t p e r v a d e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l life. T o r e v i s i o n l e a d e r s h i p a s s e r v i n g , w e first d i s c u s s o u r f e m i n i s t c o m m i t ­ m e n t s a n d a n a l y t i c m e t h o d , t h e n p r o v i d e an o v e r v i e w o f s o m e l e a d e r s h i p theories that incorporate different notions of serving, and finally offer o u r f e m i n i s t r e v i s i o n i n g a s o n e ( n o t t h e o n l y ) m e a n s of a c c o m p l i s h i n g transformational change and guiding leadership action.

FEMINIST COMMITMENTS AND ANALYTIC METHOD Although feminisms vary along ideological positions and across academic disciplines, they share particular epistemological and methodological c o m ­ m i t m e n t s : (a) w a y s of k n o w i n g , ( b ) f e m i n i s t p r o b l e m a t i c s , ( c ) f e m i n i s t synalytics, and (d) revolutionary pragmatism (see Fine, 1993). N u m e r o u s feminist scholars have argued that w o m e n (and s o m e m e n ) c o m e to under­ s t a n d t h e w o r l d in w a y s t h a t a r e d i s t i n c t f r o m t r a d i t i o n a l ways of knowing (Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, & Tarule, 1986; Gilligan, 1982; Goldberger, T a r u l e , C l i n c h y , & B e l e n k y , 1 9 9 6 ; K e l l e r , 1 9 8 5 ) . O n e of t h e m o s t o f t e n a c k n o w l e d g e d w a y s of k n o w i n g for w o m e n is s u b j e c t i v e k n o w l e d g e , w h i c h locates the place of truth within the individual and e q u a t e s the scientific with t h e p e r s o n a l . R a t h e r t h a n l o o k i n g t o a u t h o r i t y o r t h e o r y for u n d e r s t a n d i n g , w o m e n learn through direct experience, personal relationships, subjectivity, a n d p a s s i o n ( B e l e n k y et a l . , 1 9 8 6 ) . W o m e n ' s w a y s of k n o w i n g , p a r t i c u l a r l y s u b j e c t i v e k n o w i n g , o f t e n a r e at o d d s w i t h t h e r a t i o n a l i s t i c a p p r o a c h to u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d d e c i s i o n m a k i n g that f o r m s t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f U.S. m a n a g e m e n t t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e . W e u s e t h e t e r m rationalistic r a t h e r t h a n rational b e c a u s e t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t m a n a g e ­ m e n t t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e a r e r a t i o n a l ( i . e . , t h a t t h e e x e r c i s e of r e a s o n p r o v i d e s t h e o n l y v a l i d b a s i s for a c t i o n o r b e l i e f ) is n o t a l w a y s r e a l i z e d . D e c i s i o n s m a y b e e n a c t e d in a r a t i o n a l s t y l e ( e . g . , i m p e r s o n a l , d i s t a n t , o r d i s p a s s i o n a t e ) , c o n ­ v e y e d in r a t i o n a l o r b u r e a u c r a t i c f o r m s ( e . g . , a r g u m e n t a t i v e d i s c o u r s e t h a t p r o v i d e s a r a t i o n a l e for t h e d e c i s i o n o r s t a n d a r d i z e d w r i t t e n m e m o s ) , o r p r o ­ vided through expert or technical discourse (e.g., statistics or expert testi­ m o n y ) , b u t t h e s e d e c i s i o n s still m a y n o t b e r a t i o n a l w h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h m e m b e r s ' lived experiences and values (see Clair, 1993a). P e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e in o r g a n i z a t i o n s , t h e r e f o r e , b e c o m e s v a l i d a n d a d m i s ­ s i b l e d a t a to u s e in u n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w o r g a n i z i n g h a p p e n s . D a t a c a n b e p r e ­ s e n t e d in t h e f o r m of a d i a r y ( i . e . , p e r s o n a l r e c o l l e c t i o n s of p e o p l e , e v e n t s , feelings, and actions), as w e do here. T h e epistolary form has long b e e n asso­ c i a t e d w i t h w o m e n ' s w r i t i n g a n d h i s t o r i c a l l y h a s b e e n m a r g i n a l i z e d as p r i v a t e

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musings rather than public rhetoric (Foss & Foss, 1 9 9 1 ; W e r t h e i m e r , 1997). W e c h o s e t h i s f o r m a t to p r e s e n t o u r d a t a to u n d e r s c o r e t h e f e m i n i s t n a t u r e of our inquiry. B e s i d e s w a y s of k n o w i n g , f e m i n i s t r e s e a r c h a l s o differs f r o m o t h e r c r i t i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s b y g e n e r a t i n g its problematics—conceptual schemes orga­ n i z e d a r o u n d c e n t r a l i d e a s — f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of w o m e n ' s e x p e r i e n c e s ( H a r d i n g , 1 9 8 7 ) . P r o b l e m a t i c s p r o v i d e c o h e r e n c e in t h a t r e s e a r c h e r s w o r k o n specific issues within core problems (Reed, 1992), such as w o m e n ' s t r i v i a l i z a t i o n a n d s u b o r d i n a t i o n in t h e w o r k p l a c e . F e m i n i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h e o r y s t r i v e s to u n d e r s t a n d h o w g e n d e r is c o n s t r u c t e d t h r o u g h d i s c o u r s e a n d p r a c t i c e s so that t r a d i t i o n a l g e n d e r d y n a m i c s r e m a i n u n c h a n g e d w i t h i n c o n t e x t s of m e s s a g e s , s t r u c t u r e s , p o l i c i e s , a n d p r o c e d u r e s (i.e., t h e c o n t e x t s in w h i c h g e n d e r is s o c i a l l y n e g o t i a t e d ; B u z z a n e l l , 1 9 9 4 ) . M a r l e n e ' s entries chronicle her dissatisfaction with administrators' re­ s p o n s e s to f a c u l t y a n d s t u d e n t n e e d s , h e r p r e s u m e d r o l e a s e n f o r c e r o f r u l e s , a n d f a c u l t y ' s a n d s t u d e n t s ' v i e w s that s h e s h o u l d b e a s o l v e r of p r o b l e m s ( i . e . , that s h e s h o u l d find w a y s to n e g o t i a t e t h e r u l e s — a n d s o m e t i m e s b e n d o r s k i r t t h e m — t o a c c o m p l i s h t h e i r g o a l s ) . S h e finds it m o r e s a t i s f y i n g to h e l p p e o p l e s o l v e t h e i r p r o b l e m s a n d b e l i e v e s that t h e u n i v e r s i t y m i s s i o n is b e t t e r m e t w h e n s h e s o l v e s p r o b l e m s r a t h e r t h a n e n f o r c e s r u l e s w i t h o u t r e g a r d to t h e p a r ­ t i c u l a r e n d s t h a t s t u d e n t s a n d faculty w e r e t r y i n g t o a c h i e v e . Marlene's

Diary

Entry:

November

10

T, a grad student who was awarded a prestigious fellowship when she was accepted, came by to see me yesterday. Apparently, she was led to believe by her department chair that the fellowship would pay her entire tuition for the length of her program. The financial aid office has informed her that the award is capped at a fixed amount each year; they've sent her a bill for $2,000. She doesn't have the money to pay it. If she doesn't pay immediately, they've threatened to withdraw her for nonpayment of fees. She's very upset. I promised to look into the situation. Marlene's

Diary

Entry:

November

11

As usual, no one has any answers. Financial aid says they got their instructions from the development office. The development office has no description of the fellowship available for students or faculty. They did promise to send me the legal documents that set up the endowment. I also talked with R, the department chair, who insists that the

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student is correct. The chair knew the individual who donated the money and said he intended to pay the full amount of the tuition. In any case, the chair confirmed that the student was told orally when she received the award, and before she decided to accept our offer, that her tuition would be fully paid. Marlene's

Diary

Entry:

November

13

T came by with a copy of a short note that R sent to financial aid when T was admitted. It does seem to imply that she was to receive full tuition. Of course, no one sent her an official award letter, so she has no direct evidence to support her allegation. I also received the legal documents from the development office today. What a jumbled mess. I don't have any idea what the donor intended or what the development office agreed to. My bottom line, however, is that the student shouldn't be penalized for our confusion and misinformation. Marlene's

Diary

Entry:

November

15

I've sent a memo to R and to President Z explaining the situation and saying that the student should not be penalized. I asked I to have student accounts erase the bill so that the student's status would not be at risk. Then we could figure out who should cover the shortfall-the department or the development office. Of course, this is all complicated by the fact that Z and R can't stand each other.

No answer

from

Marlene's

Diary

Entry:

November

17

Marlene's

Diary

Entry:

November

23

anyone.

T came by again. She received another bill from student accounts. I called over to the student accounts office and talked with the director. Asked him to clear her account and explained that the president and I would find a way to cover the shortfall. He refused. Said he couldn't take the risk; his accounts had to balance. I sent another e-mail to Z asking for help.

136

COMMUNICATION FROM FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES Marlene's

Still

no

Diary

Entry:

November

25

response. Marlene's

Diary

Entry:

December

5

Z came storming into my office today and shut the door. Wanted to know why I was supporting T against the institution; said T was out to get something from the college. 1 is convinced that T and R are conspiring. I assured Z that T was an excellent student who appeared entirely trustworthy; I also said that T's story was plausible and the evidence she had, although not absolutely clear, did strongly suggest that her interpretation was warranted. Besides, weren't we supposed to serve students? Z was furious with me. Marlene's Still no resolution. her diploma unless

T is about this situation Marlene

Diary

Entry:

to graduate; she is resolved. 's Diary

Entry:

December won't

December

10 get

11

I called the director of student accounts today. Told him to if Z or R doesn't pay, I'll transfer the clear T's bill; money from my office and worry about the consequences later. What a ridiculous waste of time and effort. And we all look so foolish and inept to the student and her parents. M a r l e n e ' s d i a r y a l s o c o n v e y s h e r s e n s e of u n e a s e w i t h t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t , to be s u c c e s s f u l , w o m e n n e e d to c o n f o r m to m a s c u l i n e n o r m s o f b e h a v i o r in their p r o f e s s i o n a l l i v e s . Marlene's

Diary

Entry:

September

15

I was listening to a radio interview with the screen-writer and producer of GI Jane this morning. She was asked about the character played by Anne Bancroft in the film-a seniorranking senator who does an abrupt about-face on her support for women in the Navy SEALS. In response to a question about whether a woman would behove as the character did, the screenwriter said that successful women hove to ploy

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hardball. She later commented that women who want to join the special forces should be held to the same performance standards as men and be expected to endure the same training. But that presumes that playing hardball and enduring physical, verbal, and mental abuse are the way that we want to conduct our lives. I don't want to play hardball-at least not in the metaphorical sense-I enjoy playing when I have my bat and glove. Patrice experienced similar conflicts and tensions about her purpose and t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s for e n a c t i n g h e r r o l e w h e n s h e w a s a c r e d i t m a n a g e r . Patrice's

Diary

Entry:

June

13

I'm reading Marlene's diary entries about contradictions, ambivalences, doing something meaningful, wanting to be recognized but also wanting to work behind the scenes by helping others, believing that my work is teaching whether I am acting as an editor, adviser, manager, or consultant. I remember my work as a credit manager. I remember hearing that I wouldn't make money on the collection desk even when I had tracked down "deadbeats" and hod a persistent debt collection style. I was too nice, I didn't raise my voice, I wasn't supposed to help "them." This was a business, and I should get my head out of the clouds and down to real life. But I viewed my work as twofold-I was supposed to collect debts and I was supposed to listen and develop connections with debtors and explain credit, collection listings, finances, and credit bureau reports. I thought I was supposed to assist and educate them. So no one expected my desk to bring in money. I got a lot of pleasure when reading my stats. But I felt ambivalence because my work educating our customers should have been valued whether or not it brought in money on a short-term basis. There was something dissatisfying about demanding payment when these people didn't have money for food and didn't know how to dig themselves out of a bad financial situation. No one said anything about my stats-I hadn't achieved these results the "right" way. T h e a m b i v a l e n c e s , t e n s i o n s , a n d p a r a d o x e s of t r y i n g t o m e e t s t a k e h o l d e r n e e d s , e s p e c i a l l y in b u r e a u c r a c i e s , a r e r e f l e c t e d in o u r w o r k e x p e r i e n c e s a n d

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conversations. Marlene has shared her frustrations with other female senior a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a n d h a s f o u n d that t h e y , t o o , feel s i m i l a r l y c o n s t r a i n e d . In a d d i t i o n to w o m e n ' s w a y s of k n o w i n g a n d p r o b l e m a t i c s , o u r c h a p t e r is g u i d e d b y feminist synalytics, t h e c o m b i n i n g of a n a l y s i s a n d s y n t h e s i s t o c r e ­ ate n e w u n d e r s t a n d i n g s a n d v i s i o n s of p h e n o m e n a t h a t c a n r e p l a c e t r a d i t i o n a l definitions (Fine, 1993). This m o v e m e n t from analysis t h r o u g h synthesis b r i n g s t o g e t h e r t h e p e r s o n a l a n d t h e p o l i t i c a l . F e m i n i s t s y n a l y t i c s l o o k s for t h e c o n n e c t i o n s in w o m e n ' s e x p e r i e n c e s a n d b r e a k s t h e a r t i f i c i a l b o u n d a r i e s a r o u n d p e r s o n a l , o r g a n i z a t i o n a l , a n d c u l t u r a l life. O r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i ­ cation behaviors are analyzed and synthesized not just within the organization b u t w i t h i n a s o c i o p o l i t i c a l f r a m e w o r k that is e x t e r n a l to t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . In o u r c a s e , p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s in o r g a n i z a t i o n s n o t o n l y s e r v e a s t h e d a t a o n w h i c h t h e a n a l y s e s of o r g a n i z a t i o n s r e s t ; t h e y a r e a l s o c o n t e x t u a l i z e d in t h e l a r g e r w o r l d o u t s i d e of t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . In o t h e r w o r d s , t h i s a n a l y t i c a l f r a m e extends b e y o n d the structural and behavioral e l e m e n t s of the particular orga­ n i z a t i o n s in w h i c h w e h a v e w o r k e d to t h e s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , a n d e c o n o m i c a r r a n g e m e n t s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e t h e c u l t u r a l w o r l d in w h i c h o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e sit­ u a t e d . K e y to u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e p o w e r of u s i n g t h e m e t a p h o r of s e r v i n g to ( r e ) d e f i n e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n is r e c o g n i z i n g t h e g e n d e r e d n a t u r e of o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d t h e w a y s in w h i c h w o r k p l a c e g e n d e r r e l a t i o n s b o t h r e p r e s e n t a n d r e p r o ­ d u c e g e n d e r d y n a m i c s a n d p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n s in t h e c u l t u r e g e n e r a l l y . T h e final f e m i n i s t c o m m i t m e n t that u n d e r l i e s o u r a n a l y s i s is revolutionary pragmatism. Feminist researchers study organizations so that they can create o r g a n i z a t i o n s that a l l o w all p e o p l e to fully e x p r e s s t h e i r h u m a n p o t e n t i a l . F e m i n i s m s a r e c o m m i t t e d to u n d e r s t a n d i n g w o m e n ' s s u b o r d i n a t i o n s o t h a t t h e y c a n f i g u r e o u t h o w to c h a n g e it ( G o r d o n , 1 9 7 9 ) . O u r c o m m i t m e n t is r e v o ­ l u t i o n a r y b e c a u s e it is a b o u t f u n d a m e n t a l s o c i a l c h a n g e ; o u r c o m m i t m e n t is p r a g m a t i c b e c a u s e t h o s e c h a n g e s a r e t h e e v e r y d a y p r a c t i c e s of o u r l i v e s . F e m ­ inist o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s t u d i e s a c h i e v e r e v o l u t i o n a r y p r a g m a ­ t i s m t h r o u g h p r a x i s , t h e s y n t h e s i s of t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e in w a y s t h a t t r a n s ­ form personal experience and consciousness ( M u m b y & Stohl, 1996). R e f r a m i n g a d m i n i s t r a t i o n as s e r v i n g is i n t e n d e d to r e d e f i n e a n o r g a n i z a ­ t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t in a w a y that h a s i m m e d i a t e , c o n c r e t e , a n d p o s i t i v e c o n s e ­ q u e n c e s for p e o p l e in a c a d e m i c i n s t i t u t i o n s . A l t h o u g h w e u s e t h e c o n t e x t of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n in h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n , t h e i m a g e of s e r v i n g c u t s a c r o s s o r g a n i z a ­ t i o n a l t y p e s a n d is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h c o n t e m p o r a r y m a n a g e m e n t w r i t i n g s o n l e a d e r s h i p , m a n a g e m e n t , t e a m s , a n d c h a n g e that e n c o u r a g e c o a c h i n g , i n t e r d e ­ p e n d e n c e , a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r m a t i o n as w a y s of a c c o m p l i s h i n g w o r k a n d a c h i e v i n g m u l t i p l e - s t a k e h o l d e r g o a l s ( F o n d a s , 1 9 9 7 ) . A f t e r p r o v i d i n g an o v e r v i e w of l e a d e r s h i p a p p r o a c h e s t h a t c o n t a i n t h e i d e a of s e r v i n g , w e d e m ­ o n s t r a t e t h e l i m i t s of t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l s of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , m a n a g e m e n t , a n d l e a d e r s h i p to u n c o v e r t h e p r o d u c t i v e p o w e r of a f e m i n i s t v i s i o n of s e r v i n g .

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OVERVIEW OF CURRENT APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP AND SERVING T h e i d e a of s e r v i n g o t h e r s is e m b e d d e d in s e v e r a l c u r r e n t t h e o r i e s o f l e a d e r ­ s h i p , b o t h m a i n s t r e a m a n d a l t e r n a t i v e . In t h i s s e c t i o n , w e b r i e f l y o u t l i n e a n d c r i t i q u e s e v e r a l e x a m p l e s of e a c h . A l t h o u g h s o m e of t h e s e p e r s p e c t i v e s , e s p e ­ cially gendered leadership and G r e e n l e a f s (1977) servant leadership, approx­ i m a t e o u r f e m i n i s t i m a g e of l e a d e r s h i p , n o n e fulfills it. N o p e r s p e c t i v e d e a l s a d e q u a t e l y w i t h t h e e t h i c a l i s s u e s t h a t p r o m p t w o m e n ( a n d m e n ) to i n f u s e t h e i r c a r e e r s a n d l i v e s w i t h i m a g e s of s e r v i n g . W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of d i s c u s ­ sions about d o u b l e binds and p a r a d o x e s e x p e r i e n c e d by w o m e n leaders and female organizing processes (e.g., Jamieson, 1995; Sullivan & Turner, 1996; W o o d & Conrad, 1983), these approaches cannot describe or resolve the con­ t r a d i c t i o n s , a m b i v a l e n c e , a n d t e n s i o n s f o u n d in a f e m i n i s t r e v i s i o n i n g of serving.

Current Mainstream Approaches to Leadership T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l s t r e a m s of c u r r e n t t h e o r y a n d r e s e a r c h t h a t c o n t a i n a s p e c t s of l e a d e r s h i p as s e r v i n g . In t h i s s e c t i o n , w e s u m m a r i z e t h e t h r e e t h a t s e e m m o s t c o n s i s t e n t w i t h n o t i o n s of s e r v i n g o t h e r s : (a) a d a p t i v e l e a d e r s h i p , (b) t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p , a n d (c) s e l f - l e a d e r s h i p a n d S u p e r L e a d e r s h i p .

Adaptive Leadership In a d a p t i v e l e a d e r s h i p , l e a d e r s s e r v e f o l l o w e r s b y a s s i s t i n g t h e m t h r o u g h difficult t i m e s ( H e i f e t z , 1 9 9 4 ; H e i f e t z & L a u r i e , 1 9 9 7 ) . T h e a d a p t i v e c h a l ­ l e n g e is to k e e p f o l l o w e r s f o c u s e d o n k e y i s s u e s w h i l e r e g u l a t i n g s t r e s s s o that followers experience distress and uncertainty within bearable limits. Ulti­ m a t e l y , l e a d e r s shift r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to f o l l o w e r s a n d o t h e r s t a k e h o l d e r s . T h e p r i m a r y q u e s t i o n t h a t d r i v e s a l e a d e r to a s s u m e a d a p t i v e l e a d e r s h i p is ''Does making progress on this problem require changes in people's values, attitudes, or habits of behavior?" (Heifetz, 1994, p. 87). Instead of providing s o l u t i o n s , l e a d e r s m a n a g e t e n s i o n s s o t h a t f o l l o w e r s r e a l i z e t h a t t h e y n e e d to adopt new roles, values, and approaches. These leaders are not omniscient and r e q u i r e a s s i s t a n c e a n d s u p p o r t in m a k i n g s e n s e of c o m p l e x s i t u a t i o n s ( W e i c k , 1 9 9 5 ) . A s its n a m e s u g g e s t s , a d a p t i v e l e a d e r s h i p f o c u s e s o n l e a d e r s ' a b i l i t i e s a n d c a r e in a d a p t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n to s p e c i f i c c o n t e x t s . A d a p t i v e l e a d e r s h i p a s s u m e s t h a t l e a d e r s k n o w w h a t is b e s t for f o l l o w e r s , r e g u l a t e i n f o r m a t i o n f l o w , a n d c a n b e e v a l u a t e d o n w h e t h e r i n t e r v e n t i o n s r e s u l t in m o r e e f f e c t i v e p r o c e s s e s a n d o u t c o m e s . In a d a p t i v e l e a d e r s h i p , l e a d e r s " s e r v e " f o l l o w e r s b y m a n a g i n g t e n s i o n s a n d p o t e n t i a l s t r e s s o r s for f o l l o w e r s w h i l e b u i l d i n g c o m ­

140

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p e t e n c i e s in t h e m so that t h e y c a n d i r e c t t h e i r o w n l i v e s in t h e f u t u r e . T h i s " s e r v i n g " is p r o b l e m - a n d i n f o r m a t i o n - c e n t e r e d .

Transformational Leadership T r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p is s i m i l a r to a d a p t i v e l e a d e r s h i p in t h a t it is p r o b l e m o r i e n t e d . H o w e v e r , it f o c u s e s o n t h e a c t i o n s of l e a d e r s h i p t h a t c r e a t e c o m m o n aspirations geared toward performance enhancement (Bryman, 1 9 9 6 ) . T r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p d e v e l o p s self a n d o t h e r s in t h a t it looks for potential motives in followers, seeks to satisfy higher needs, and engages the full person of the follower. The result of transforming leadership is a relation­ ship of mutual stimulation and elevation that converts followers into leaders and may convert leaders into moral agents. (Burns, 1978, p. 4) Transformational leaders generally are charismatic, inspiring, stimulating, a n d c o n s i d e r a t e ( s e e B a r g e , 1 9 9 4 ; B r y m a n , 1 9 9 6 ) . B e c a u s e of t h e s e p e r s o n a l qualities, the transformational leader-follower relationship can be enabling or e m p o w e r i n g b e c a u s e it c a p i t a l i z e s o n e n t h u s i a s m for w o r k a n d shifts w i s d o m , d i r e c t i o n , r i s k t a k i n g , i n n o v a t i o n , a n d i n v o l v e m e n t to f o l l o w e r s ( M a n z & S i m s , 1 9 8 9 ; S i m s & M a n z , 1 9 9 6 ) . E m p o w e r m e n t m e a n s t h a t f o l l o w e r s feel a s t h o u g h t h e y a r e d o i n g s o m e t h i n g of s i g n i f i c a n c e , a r e d e v e l o p i n g c o m p e t e n ­ c i e s , a n d a r e j o i n e d w i t h a c o m m u n i t y of o t h e r s t h r o u g h a c o m m o n p u r p o s e ( B e n n i s & N a n u s , 1 9 8 5 ) . H o w e v e r , " e m p o w e r m e n t " is still i n f l u e n c e d b y l e a d e r s w h o u s e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p as a m e a n s of g a i n i n g g r e a t e r p r o d u c t i v i t y a n d of p r o d u c i n g i n n o v a t i v e i d e a s . A l t h o u g h w o r k e r s ' i n t r i n s i c r e w a r d s a r e d e v e l o p e d b y l e a d e r s w h o s e r v e t h e m , t h e v i s i o n is o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l y d r i v e n , not inner-, value-, or community-directed.

Self-Leadership and SuperLeadership B u i l d i n g o n i d e a s of l e a d e r - f o l l o w e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t e m p o w e r f o l l o w e r s , S i m s a n d M a n z ( 1 9 9 6 ) d e v e l o p e d f o l l o w e r - c e n t e r e d a p p r o a c h e s in t h e i r selfl e a d e r s h i p a n d S u p e r L e a d e r s h i p c o n s t r u c t s . S e l f - l e a d e r s h i p is b o t h a p h i l o s o ­ p h y a n d a s y s t e m a t i c set of b e h a v i o r a l a n d c o g n i t i v e s t r a t e g i e s for l e a d i n g o n e s e l f to h i g h e r p e r f o r m a n c e . E f f e c t i v e l e a d e r s d i r e c t t h e w a y s t h a t t h e y a n d o t h e r s i n f l u e n c e t h e m s e l v e s s o that b o t h c a n shift f r o m d e p e n d e n c y o n l e a d e r ­ s h i p to d e p e n d e n c y o n self a n d o t h e r s . In o t h e r w o r d s , s e l f - l e a d e r s s e r v e t h e m ­ s e l v e s a n d o t h e r s b y a d v o c a t i n g that f o l l o w e r s b e c o m e r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e i r a c t i o n s a n d d e p e n d e n t o n o t h e r s o n l y for a s s i s t a n c e in t h e i r p r o b l e m s o l v i n g . S u p e r L e a d e r s t e a c h o r d i n a r y p e o p l e to b e s e l f - l e a d e r s t h r o u g h a set of skills f o r i n f l u e n c i n g b e h a v i o r a n d t h o u g h t a n d for s t r u c t u r i n g s i t u a t i o n s a n d r e w a r d s so t h a t o p t i m a l p e r f o r m a n c e c a n b e a c h i e v e d ( S i m s & M a n z , 1 9 9 6 ) .

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" S u p e r " m e a n s b o t h t h a t l e a d e r s p o s s e s s t h e s t r e n g t h a n d w i s d o m of m a n y a n d that they oversee organizing processes (Sims & M a n z , 1996). S u p e r L e a d e r s c a p i t a l i z e o n e a c h p e r s o n ' s p o t e n t i a l a n d " d e v o t e s i g n i f i c a n t effort t o d e l i b ­ e r a t e l y o r c h e s t r a t e a n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c u l t u r e for h i g h p e r f o r m a n c e a n d d e v e l ­ o p m e n t of p e o p l e " ( M a n z & S i m s , 1 9 8 9 , p . 1 6 7 ) . A s a r e o t h e r m a n a g e r i a l a p p r o x i m a t i o n s of " s e r v i n g , " s e l f - l e a d e r s h i p a n d S u p e r L e a d e r s h i p a r e g e a r e d toward organizational ends, with leaders guiding others through processes that p r o m i s e greater effectiveness.

Alternative Approaches to Leadership In c o n t r a s t to t r a d i t i o n a l a p p r o a c h e s , a l t e r n a t i v e a p p r o a c h e s t h a t i n c o r p o ­ r a t e n o t i o n s of s e r v i n g e i t h e r offer a g e n d e r - b a s e d l e a d e r s h i p a p p r o a c h o r f o c u s o n t h e s o l i t a r y j o u r n e y t o w a r d o n e ' s s p i r i t u a l i t y in t h e w o r k p l a c e ( a s w e l l as w a y s to g u i d e o t h e r s in t h e i r s e a r c h for w h o l e n e s s ) . N e i t h e r a p p r o a c h e n c o u r a g e s r e s i s t a n c e to o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s n o r m a n a g e r i a l o u t c o m e s ( s e e B u z z a n e l l et al., 1 9 9 7 , for d i s c u s s i o n a n d c a s e s o n a l t e r n a t i v e l e a d e r ­ s h i p ) . I n s t e a d , t h e y s u g g e s t c h o i c e s in w a y s to l e a d ( g e n d e r e d l e a d e r s h i p ) a n d work toward a more caring society (servant leadership).

Gendered Leadership G e n d e r e d l e a d e r s h i p f o c u s e s o n l e a d e r s h i p s t y l e s in t e r m s of f e m i n i n e a n d m a s c u l i n e s t e r e o t y p i c a l e x p e c t a t i o n s . B e c a u s e m a s c u l i n e is s y n o n y m o u s w i t h l e a d e r s h i p ( i . e . , q u a l i t i e s of b e i n g d i r e c t , a s s e r t i v e , c o m m a n d i n g , a n d p o w e r ­ ful), d i s c u s s i o n s a b o u t g e n d e r e d l e a d e r s h i p often d e s c r i b e f e m i n i n e l e a d e r ­ s h i p a n d h o w t h i s s t y l e c o n t r a s t s w i t h n o r m a t i v e l e a d e r s h i p . T h e o r i e s of g e n d e r e d l e a d e r s h i p e m e r g e d o u t of e a r l y r e s e a r c h o n g e n d e r a n d l a n g u a g e ( e . g . , Lakoff, 1 9 7 5 ; S p e n d e r , 1 9 8 0 ; T h o r n e , K r a m a r a e , & H e n l e y , 1 9 8 3 ) . T h i s e a r l y w o r k i d e n t i f i e d l i n g u i s t i c i n d i c a t o r s ( e . g . , t a g q u e s t i o n s , t h e u s e of h e d g e s , i n c l u s i o n a r y p h r a s i n g , a n d i n d i r e c t r e q u e s t s ) t h a t s e e m e d to c h a r a c ­ terize (white, middle-class) w o m e n ' s speech. T h e s e characteristics were j u d g e d w e a k e r than male linguistic patterns, and w o m e n w h o w e r e in, or aspired to, managerial positions were encouraged to e m u l a t e the m a s c u l i n e b u s i n e s s s t y l e of d i r e c t a n d d e c i s i v e s p e e c h ( H a r r a g a n , 1 9 7 7 ) . L i k e w i s e , in leadership contexts, the preferred behavioral style has b e e n masculine. W h e n the business world b e c a m e recognized as global, multicultural, and team structured, however, feminine speech c o m m u n i t y characteristics offered a n o t h e r t o o l for a c c o m p l i s h i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n a l g o a l s . F e m i n i n e s p e e c h c o m ­ munity characteristics included support displays, conversational maintenance w o r k , r e l a t i o n a l p r i o r i t i z a t i o n , i n c l u s i v i t y , a n d i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f d e t a i l s (for a s u m m a r y , see W o o d , 1999). T h e s e characteristics translated into leadership

142

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s t y l e s k n o w n as f e m i n i n e l e a d e r s h i p ( R o s e n e r , 1 9 9 0 ) a n d w o m e n ' s s t y l e s of leadership (Helgesen, 1990; see also Borisoff & Merrill, 1998). In f e m i n i n e l e a d e r s h i p , l e a d e r s see t h e m s e l v e s [as c e n t r a l l y p o s i t i o n e d ] a n d o t h e r s o p e r a t i n g in a c o m m u n i c a t i v e w e b ( H e l g e s e n , 1 9 9 0 ) . T h e w e b m e t ­ a p h o r i m p l i e s that t h e s e l e a d e r s c r e a t e s t r u c t u r e s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h e e m b e d d e d n e s s of w o r k a n d life a s p e c t s , s p o n t a n e i t y , e m o t i o n e x p r e s s i o n , a n d i n c l u s i o n . L e a d e r s s i t u a t e t h e m s e l v e s at t h e h e a r t of t h e a c t i v i t y r a t h e r t h a n at t h e t o p , a n d t h e y v i e w t h e i r s t r e n g t h as b e i n g d e r i v e d f r o m c o n n e c t i o n a n d information sharing.

Servant Leadership A s w i t h g e n d e r e d l e a d e r s h i p , a s p e c t s of s e r v i n g a r e a l s o l o c a t e d in G r e e n l e a f s ( 1 9 7 7 ; see a l s o F r a k e r & S p e a r s , 1 9 9 6 ; F r i c k & S p e a r s , 1 9 9 6 ) s e r v a n t leadership. Greenleaf defines leadership broadly: Everyone who feels responsible, who feels some obligation to help some part of society function a little better, or whose own creative urges prompt him or her to want to build something anew, is a l e a d e r . . . . The leader is one who goes out ahead to show the way. (as cited in Fraker & Spears, 1996, p. 96) P e o p l e lead b e c a u s e failure to d o so w h e n t h e r e is an o p p o r t u n i t y d e n i e s w h o l e n e s s a n d c r e a t i v e fulfillment. G r e e n l e a f b e l i e v e s t h a t s e r v a n t l e a d e r s m u s t b e g i n as s e r v a n t s ; o t h e r w i s e , t h e i r m o t i v e s for b e c o m i n g s e r v a n t l e a d e r s h a v e l e s s to d o w i t h s e r v i c e a n d m o r e to d o w i t h o t h e r s ' e x p e c t a t i o n s . G r e e n l e a f c a l l s l e a d e r s to start w i t h t h e i r s o u l s — t o t a k e an i n n e r j o u r n e y that c a n lead to u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e l i v e s of t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s t h e y l e a d a n d t h e m e m b e r s w h o w o r k in t h e m ( F r a k e r & S p e a r s , 1 9 9 6 ) . S e r v a n t l e a d e r s h i p e m b o d i e s t h e s e a r c h for m e a n i n g in life. T h i s j o u r n e y is a s p i r i t u a l j o u r n e y that b e g i n s w i t h o n e s e l f a n d is m a r k e d b y i n c r e a s i n g a u t o n o m y ( F r a k e r & S p e a r s , 1 9 9 6 ) . T h e q u e s t for a u t o n o m y , w i s d o m , a n d a u t h e n t i c i t y d r i v e s s e r ­ v a n t l e a d e r s to t r a n s f o r m s o c i e t y ; that t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , h o w e v e r , b e g i n s at t h e level of e v e r y d a y p r a c t i c e s . G r e e n l e a f d o e s not a t t e m p t t o p e r s u a d e o t h e r s to b e c o m e s e r v a n t l e a d e r s . H e b e l i e v e s that, if t h e y a r e p e r s u a d e d in t h e i r o w n h e a r t s a b o u t t h e v a l u e of c h a n g e , t h e y c a n b e t t e r s e r v e t h e c o m m u n i t y a n d c r e ­ ate a m o r e c a r i n g future ( F r a k e r & S p e a r s , 1 9 9 6 ; F r i c k & S p e a r s , 1 9 9 6 ; G r e e n leaf, 1 9 7 7 ) . In s h o r t , s e r v a n t l e a d e r s h i p o c c u r s w h e n a b l e , a u t h e n t i c i n d i v i d u a l s o r i n s t i t u t i o n s t a k e t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of n u r t u r i n g o t h e r s to c r e a t e a m o r e h u m a n e s o c i e t y ( F r i c k & S p e a r s , 1 9 9 6 ) . S e r v a n t l e a d e r s a r e a u t o n o m o u s a n d a n s w e r to t h e i r c o n v i c t i o n s . B o t h l e a d e r s a n d f o l l o w e r s s h a r e in t h e e v e r - p r e s e n t a n d l o n e l y s e a r c h for w h o l e n e s s . T h e a l o n e n e s s of t h e j o u r n e y to t h e h u m a n e s o c i ­ ety a n d to v i s i o n c r e a t i o n is e x p r e s s e d in G r e e n l e a f s d i a r i e s a n d e s s a y s : " T h e

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s e a r c h is a l o n e l y affair. B e y o n d t h e f e w w i t h w h o m I s h a r e i n d i v i d u a l l y , I h a v e f o u n d it s o " ( a s c i t e d in F r a k e r & S p e a r s , 1 9 9 6 , p . 2 9 1 ) . T h i s s e n s e of a l o n e n e s s a l s o is e v i d e n t in m a n a g e m e n t w r i t i n g s o n s p i r i t u a l i t y a n d t r a n s c o n c e p t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g in t h e w o r k p l a c e ( s e e B a r t u n e k & M o c h , 1 9 9 4 ; Ettore, 1996; Laabs, 1995; Mirvis, 1997; Neal, 1997).

Critique of Mainstream and Alternative Approaches to Leadership as "Serving" A l t h o u g h e a c h of t h e s e a p p r o a c h e s r e p r e s e n t s , in s o m e c r i t i c a l w a y , a d e p a r t u r e f r o m p r e v i o u s t h e o r i e s of l e a d e r s h i p , e a c h r e m a i n s p r i m a r i l y m a l e c e n t e r e d . E a c h p e r s p e c t i v e c h a r a c t e r i z e s l e a d e r s as a g e n t s d i r e c t i n g a c t i o n t o w a r d i n s t r u m e n t a l g o a l s ( e . g . , to e n h a n c e p r o d u c t i v i t y , to i n c r e a s e f o l l o w ­ e r s ' s k i l l s o r p o t e n t i a l , to s h a r e i n f o r m a t i o n for t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e i n d i ­ v i d u a l a n d / o r p r o j e c t , a n d to a c t u a l i z e c o r p o r a t e o r s o c i e t a l v i s i o n s t h a t l e a d ­ e r s c r e a t e ) . E v e n in f e m i n i n e l e a d e r s h i p , i n s t r u m e n t a l o u t c o m e s p r i m a r i l y d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s a n d u s e f u l n e s s of t h e l e a d e r s h i p s t y l e ; r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p m a i n t e n a n c e is a s e c o n d a r y g o a l . E a c h a p p r o a c h a l s o f o c u s e s o n t h e r e l a ­ t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n l e a d e r a n d f o l l o w e r a s t h e n e c e s s a r y l i n k for e f f e c t i n g c h a n g e . W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of g e n d e r e d l e a d e r s h i p , t h e s e a p p r o a c h e s i n d i c a t e that leaders m o v e followers (and themselves) from d e p e n d e n c e on l e a d e r s h i p to g r e a t e r a u t o n o m y u n d e r t h e g u i d a n c e o f a n d in t h e d i r e c t i o n a d v o c a t e d b y leaders. T h e l e a d e r s h i p a p p r o a c h e s s u m m a r i z e d in t h i s c h a p t e r a r e " m a n s t o r i e s " ( s e e G e r g e n , 1 9 9 0 ; M a r s h a l l , 1 9 8 9 ) ; t h e y i n v o l v e o f t e n s o l i t a r y s e a r c h e s for f u l f i l l m e n t a n d u s e s e r v i c e to o t h e r s as a m e a n s of d e v e l o p i n g f o l l o w e r s w h o c a n a s s i s t in a c h i e v i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n a l o r s o c i e t a l g o a l s . A g a i n , f e m i n i n e l e a d ­ e r s h i p is t h e e x c e p t i o n h e r e . It d o e s n o t p r e s e n t a s o l i t a r y s e a r c h , a l t h o u g h t h e l e a d e r d o e s g u i d e i n f o r m a t i o n s h a r i n g . In all of t h e s e a p p r o a c h e s , t h e l e a d e r is a n y o n e w i l l i n g a n d a b l e to a c c e p t t h e l e a d e r s h i p c h a l l e n g e . T h e s e a p p r o a c h e s a l s o g l o s s o v e r i s s u e s of g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of g e n d e r e d l e a d e r s h i p ) . F o r e x a m p l e , G r e e n l e a f ( 1 9 7 7 ) u n i v e r s a l ­ i z e s t h e e x p e r i e n c e of s e e k e r , m a i n t a i n s o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s , a n d n e v e r q u e s t i o n s t h e w a y s in w h i c h g e n d e r r e l a t i o n s m a y m a k e s e r v a n t l e a d e r s h i p a v e r y d i f f e r e n t p r o c e s s for w o m e n a n d for m e n . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a l t h o u g h g e n d e r e d l e a d e r s h i p a c k n o w l e d g e s g e n d e r a s c e n t r a l to u n d e r s t a n d i n g l e a d e r ­ s h i p , it e s s e n t i a l i z e s w o m e n ( i . e . , p r e s c r i b e s b e h a v i o r s a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s for all m e m b e r s ) b y i m p l y i n g t h a t all w o m e n w o u l d u s e f e m i n i n e l e a d e r s h i p approaches similarly (see W o o d , 1999). Furthermore, gendered leadership discussions revolve around equality (i.e., females and m a l e s are m o r e similar than different; f e m a l e s and m a l e s s h o u l d b e t r e a t e d s i m i l a r l y ) o r d i f f e r e n c e ( i . e . , f e m a l e s a n d m a l e s h a v e differ­ e n t s t y l e s , v a l u e s , a n d a p p r o a c h e s t h a t often s e e m t o o p e r a t e a s t w o s e p a r a t e

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cultures; females and males should be treated differently; Calds & Smircich, 1993; Lorber, 1994; Scott, 1988; W o o d , 1999). G e n d e r e d leadership dis­ c u s s i o n s d o d e t a i l t h e difficulties t h a t w o m e n h a v e in n a v i g a t i n g t h e c o n t r a ­ dictory directives imposed by others' (and, perhaps, their o w n ) expectations, stereotypes, and j u d g m e n t s (e.g., Borisoff & Merrill, 1998; Haslett, Geis, & C a r t e r , 1 9 9 3 ) . B y b e i n g tied to f e m i n i n e v a l u e s a n d c a u g h t in e q u a l i t y d i f f e r e n c e d u a l i s m s , h o w e v e r , f e m i n i n e l e a d e r s h i p l a c k s d i r e c t i o n for t h e t e n ­ s i o n s , d o u b l e b i n d s , a n d p a r a d o x e s that w o m e n l e a d e r s f a c e a n d t h a t a r e d e s c r i b e d in M a r l e n e ' s a n d P a t r i c e ' s d i a r y e n t r i e s . T h e g e n d e r e d l e a d e r s h i p a p p r o a c h f o c u s e s o n w o m e n ' s p r o b l e m a t i c s b u t c a n n o t offer a p r a g m a t i c a p p r o a c h for d e a l i n g w i t h t h o s e p r o b l e m a t i c s . G r e e n l e a f ( 1 9 7 7 ) a l s o a c k n o w l ­ e d g e s t e n s i o n s , a l b e i t t e n s i o n s that a p p e a r to g r o w o u t of m a l e r a t h e r t h a n female experience. He describes choices about whether and how to search and t h e b e l i e f s in o n e s e l f t h a t p r o v i d e c o u r a g e in t i m e s of d o u b t ; h e r e f l e c t s o n t h e c e r t a i n t y that g r o w s t h r o u g h r e f l e c t i o n a n d t h e g r o w t h in v a l u e s a n d s k i l l s s u c h as c a r i n g , s e l f - d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d l i s t e n i n g ( F r a k e r & S p e a r s , 1 9 9 6 ) . S e r v a n t l e a d e r s h i p a n d f e m i n i n e l e a d e r s h i p a l s o fail t o m e e t f e m i n i s t c o m ­ m i t m e n t s in that b o t h h a v e p o l i t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s b u t a r e n o t a c t i v i s t in t h e s e n s e of a f e m i n i s t l e a d e r s h i p a p p r o a c h . F e m i n i n e l e a d e r s h i p p r o m o t e s s t e ­ r e o t y p i c a l f e m a l e v a l u e s a n d w a y s of d o i n g w o r k as s u p e r i o r t o m o r e t r a d i ­ t i o n a l v a l u e s a n d b e h a v i o r s , b u t it d o e s n o t u r g e c h a n g e for t h e b e t t e r m e n t of w o m e n ( a n d m e m b e r s of o t h e r t r a d i t i o n a l l y u n d e r r e p r e s e n t e d g r o u p s ) as a feminist leadership approach would advocate. Similarly, servant leadership d o e s n o t p o s i t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n as a g o a l . I n s t e a d , G r e e n l e a f (as c i t e d in F r a k e r & S p e a r s , 1996) d e f i n e s t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of s e r v a n t l e a d e r s h i p in t e r m s of t h e s e r v a n t l e a d e r ' s ability to w o r k w i t h i n i n s t i t u t i o n s as t h e y a r e :

The effectiveness of servants in nurturing the human spirit will be determined by how well they manage their lives and their serving under the constraints and oppor­ tunities of life in institutions as they are—all kinds and qualities of institutions. In order to serve, most of us will need to contend with bureaucratic inertia, as I did all of my active life. Yet on balance, I believe I was able to serve more effectively, working through institutions as they are, than if I had functioned alone and without such support as I had from the institutions through which I worked, (p. 186)

In s u m , a l t h o u g h e a c h of t h e l e a d e r s h i p a p p r o a c h e s w e h a v e d e s c r i b e d , to a g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r d e g r e e , c o n t a i n s s o m e e l e m e n t s of t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f l e a d e r ­ s h i p e m b o d i e d in P a t r i c e ' s a n d M a r l e n e ' s e x p e r i e n c e s a n d r e f l e c t i o n s , n o n e c o m p l e t e l y c a p t u r e s it. In o u r f e m i n i s t r e v i s i o n i n g of l e a d e r s h i p as s e r v i n g , w e u s e p r e v i o u s w r i t i n g s as s t a r t i n g p o i n t s a n d e x p a n d t h e i r b o u n d a r i e s . W e first u n c o v e r t h e t e n s i o n s i n h e r e n t in a f e m i n i s t r e v i s i o n i n g a n d t h e n u s e t h e s e t e n s i o n s to c r e a t e a v i s i o n of l e a d e r s h i p t h a t h a s t h e p o t e n t i a l for r a d i c a l o r g a ­

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nizational c h a n g e that can benefit w o m e n and m e m b e r s of o t h e r m a r g i n a l i z e d groups.

FEMINIST REVISIONING OF SERVING Marshall ( 1 9 8 9 ) describes revisioning as "not rejecting the heritage w e h a v e b u t l o o k i n g for t h e f u n c t i o n s a n d c r e a t i v e p o t e n t i a l of f e m a l e a n d m a l e p a t ­ t e r n s of b e i n g , e s p e c i a l l y d r a w i n g f r o m a r c h e t y p a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g to g o b e y o n d t h e l i m i t s of s o c i a l s t e r e o t y p e s " ( p . 2 7 7 ) . R e v i s i o n i n g b e g i n s w i t h a c r i t i q u e of e x c l u s i o n a r y u n d e r p i n n i n g s a n d m a l e - c e n t e r e d a s s u m p t i o n s w i t h i n an a p p r o a c h , s u c h as l e a d e r s h i p as s e r v i n g . It t h e n r e t h i n k s c o n s t r u c t s a n d linkages a m o n g c o n c e p t u a l e l e m e n t s by respecting aspects of w o m e n ' s lives that d o n o t c o n f o r m to t r a d i t i o n a l p a t t e r n s a n d b y a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h e " p o t e n ­ tially d e s t r u c t i v e e l e m e n t s of t h e f e m a l e p r i n c i p l e " ( M a r s h a l l , 1 9 8 9 , p . 2 7 8 ) . In r e v i s i o n i n g , n o n t r a d i t i o n a l v a l u e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d e q u a l l y a s i m p o r t a n t a s s o m e t r a d i t i o n a l v a l u e s , so t h e o r i s t s c o u l d , for e x a m p l e , i n c o r p o r a t e c o n ­ nectedness and individualism, caring and self-interest, intuition and reason, a n d f e m a l e a n d m a l e w i t h i n a l e a d e r s h i p a p p r o a c h . In r e v i s i o n i n g , t h e l i m i t i n g n a t u r e of t r a d i t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t s a n d t h e o r i e s is c h a l l e n g e d b y r e d r a w i n g b o u n d a r i e s — b y enlarging, enriching, and complicating t e r m s — i n w a y s that a d h e r e to v i s i o n s g r o u n d e d in f e m i n i s t e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l a n d m e t h o d o l o g i c a l c o m m i t m e n t s ( i . e . , w a y s of k n o w i n g , f e m i n i s t p r o b l e m a t i c s , f e m i n i s t synalytics, and revolutionary pragmatism). Through feminist visions, femi­ nist r e v i s i o n i s t s l o o k a n e w at p h e n o m e n a a n d r e f u s e t o a c c e p t t h e d e s t r u c t i v e n a t u r e of m a l e - c e n t e r e d a p p r o a c h e s ( R i c h , 1 9 7 9 ; S u l l i v a n & T u r n e r , 1 9 9 6 ) . T o r e v i s i o n l e a d e r s h i p as s e r v i n g , w e r e o p e n a d i s c u s s i o n o f c o n v e n t i o n a l a n d a l t e r n a t i v e a p p r o a c h e s to l e a d e r s h i p . W e s c r u t i n i z e t h e s e p e r s p e c t i v e s to lay b a r e t h e w a y s that c o n s t r u c t s a n d r o l e s s u c h a s s e r v a n t , l e a d e r s h i p , a n d feminine restrict and enable behaviors. W e transcend d u a l i s m s (either/or) that d e v a l u e t h e f e m a l e c o m p o n e n t a n d p o s e p a r a d o x i c a l s i t u a t i o n s for w o m e n in management, administration, and leadership.

Servant, Leadership, and Feminine A t first g l a n c e , t h e m e t a p h o r o f s e r v i n g d o e s n o t a p p e a r p a r t i c u l a r l y f e m i ­ nist. In fact, it a p p e a r s o x y m o r o n i c to f e m i n i s m . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary ( 1 9 7 1 ) , serve m e a n s to b e a s e r v a n t o r a s l a v e , t o p e r f o r m a t e r m of s e r v i c e u n d e r a m a s t e r , t o w a i t o n , to b e a ser­ v a n t of G o d , to offer p r a i s e a n d p r a y e r t o , to g r a t i f y , t o l a b o r for, t o b e n e f i t , t o b e s u b o r d i n a t e , to b e u s e d b y , to b e a m e a n s t o , t o h e l p fulfill, t o p r o m p t , to set f o o d b e f o r e , to g i v e a l m s t o , t o s u p p o r t s o m e t h i n g r e q u i s i t e . T h i s list is p r o b ­ l e m a t i c . F i r s t , t h e d e f i n i t i o n s p o i n t to a h i e r a r c h i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p — t o p e r f o r m

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u n d e r a m a s t e r , to b e s u b o r d i n a t e , to be u s e d b y , a n d to b e a s e r v a n t o r a s l a v e . H i e r a r c h y is a n t i t h e t i c a l to f e m i n i s t b e l i e f s ; it is l i n k e d t o w o m e n ' s o p p r e s ­ s i o n in p a t r i a r c h a l s o c i e t y ( e . g . , F e r g u s o n , 1 9 8 4 ) . S e c o n d , t h e d e f i n i t i o n s r e v e a l a c o n s t e l l a t i o n of " f e m i n i n e " b e h a v i o r s : to w a i t o n , to m i n i s t e r t o t h e c o m f o r t of, to l a b o r for, to b e u s e d b y , a n d to g r a t i f y . A l t h o u g h t h e s e b e h a v ­ i o r s reflect m a n y w o m e n ' s r e a l e x p e r i e n c e s as m o t h e r s a n d p a r t n e r s , t h e y a l s o a r e p a r t of a s t e r e o t y p i c v i s i o n of w o m e n , a v i s i o n c r e a t e d b y a p a t r i a r c h a l s o c i e t y that h e l p s s u s t a i n its s o c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s . A f e m i n i s t a n a l y s i s of servant, leadership, a n d feminine reveals that these t e r m s a r e p a r a d o x i c a l for w o m e n . P a r a d o x i c a l m e s s a g e s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y p r o ­ h i b i t a c t i o n , c o m m e n t v e r b a l l y a n d / o r n o n v e r b a l l y to n e g a t e o r c o n t r a d i c t t h a t prohibition, and preclude the receiver from leaving the situation either psy­ chologically or physically (Wood & Conrad, 1983). F e m i n i n e servant leader­ ship contains four central p a r a d o x e s : (a) j u x t a p o s i t i o n s of s u b o r d i n a t e / s e r v a n t a n d s u p e r o r d i n a t e / s e r v e d g a i n p o w e r for m a l e s b u t fulfill t r a d i t i o n a l ( u n v a l u e d ) r o l e s for w o m e n ; (b) q u a l i t i e s b u i l t i n t o t h e s e r v a n t l e a d e r s h i p r o l e a r e e v a l u a t e d a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r i n s t r u m e n t a l w o r t h , m a k i n g m o s t f e m i n i n e w a y s of e n a c t i n g s e r v a n t l e a d e r s h i p d e v a l u e d ; (c) i m p l i c a t i o n s t h a t l e a d e r s c a n c h a n g e s t y l e s e a s i l y to suit s i t u a t i o n s d o n o t fit w i t h t h e c o m m i t m e n t to " s e r v i n g " as a l i f e l o n g e t h i c a l p r o c e s s ; a n d ( d ) w o m e n w h o s u c c e s s f u l l y e n a c t l e a d e r s h i p as " s e r v i n g " t h r e a t e n t h e s t a t u s q u o .

Paradox 1 T h e m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l w a y thztfeminine servant leadership is p a r a d o x i c a l is that t h e s e t e r m s b u i l d o n juxtapositions of subordinate/servant and superordinate/served that gain power for males but fulfill traditional (deval­ ued) roles for white women and women of color. S e r v a n t l e a d e r s p u t t h e i r fol­ l o w e r s ' n e e d s first. S e r v a n t l e a d e r s p e r f o r m d u t i e s for t h e s e r v e d , w h o a r e t h e n freed to p u r s u e m o r e w o r t h y a c t i v i t i e s . In t h e c a s e o f a c a d e m i c i n s t i t u ­ tions, administrators w h o serve clear away bureaucratic clutter, leaving fac­ ulty free to m a k e c u r r i c u l a r d e c i s i o n s , p u r s u e t h e i r r e s e a r c h a g e n d a s , t e a c h their classes, and control their discretionary time. Paradoxically, therefore, w o m e n w h o a t t e m p t to e n a c t l e a d e r s h i p b y s e r v i n g a r e a c t i n g in w a y s t h a t a r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h s t e r e o t y p i c w o m e n ' s r o l e s . In a d d i t i o n , t h e i r r o l e e n a c t m e n t d o w n p l a y s a s p e c t s of p o w e r g e n e r a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h l e a d e r s h i p . F o r e x a m ­ p l e , in t r a d i t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n s of l e a d e r s h i p , l e a d e r s h a v e s u p e r i o r q u a l i t i e s a n d h i e r a r c h i c a l p o s i t i o n that g i v e t h e i r g o a l s p r i o r i t y o v e r t h e g o a l s o f o t h e r s . Thus, w o m e n servant leaders reinforce traditional feminine stereotypes through both the actions they choose and those they e s c h e w . T h i s p a r a d o x p r e s e n t s a true d o u b l e b i n d for w o m e n ( W o o d & C o n r a d , 1 9 8 3 ) . W o m e n w h o act as t r a d i t i o n a l l e a d e r s a r e often p e r c e i v e d u n f a v o r a b l y

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b e c a u s e they violate o t h e r s ' gendered expectations of t h e m (e.g., w o m e n w h o act t o u g h a r e b i t c h e s ) o r b e c a u s e t h e i r b e h a v i o r s , w h i c h a r e s i m i l a r o r i d e n t i ­ c a l to m e n ' s b e h a v i o r s , a r e e v a l u a t e d d i f f e r e n t l y b e c a u s e of t h e i r s e x ( e . g . , h e ' s a s s e r t i v e a n d s h e ' s a g g r e s s i v e ; B o r i s o f f & M e r r i l l , 1 9 9 8 ; H a s l e t t et a l . , 1 9 9 3 ; S u l l i v a n & T u r n e r , 1 9 9 6 ) . B y r e i n f o r c i n g t h e q u a l i t i e s of s e r v a n t in w o m e n ' s organizational roles, servant leadership functions within conven­ t i o n a l g e n d e r e d w o r k ( w o r k d e l e g a t e d to w o m e n ) a n d g e n d e r w o r k ( w o r k c o n ­ firming beliefs about w o m e n ' s natural tendencies and abilities) that affirm g e n d e r i d e o l o g i e s ( b e l i e f s y s t e m s a b o u t w h a t is n a t u r a l a n d n o r m a l for t h e sexes; R a k o w , 1992). O n the other hand, m e n w h o lead by serving violate g e n d e r e x p e c t a t i o n s and disavow gender ideologies. Yet, by standing apart from the malestream, t h e y i r o n i c a l l y f u n c t i o n to s t r e n g t h e n m a l e p o w e r . In s h o r t , f o r a m a l e b u s i ­ n e s s p e r s o n , s u c h a s G r e e n l e a f , s e r v a n t l e a d e r s h i p s e e m s to offer a " l e g i t i ­ m a t e " o p p o r t u n i t y to e n g a g e in c a r i n g b e h a v i o r s a n d to r e c o m m e n d o r g a n i z a ­ t i o n a l c o u r s e s of a c t i o n , b u t for a w o m a n , e n a c t i n g s e r v a n t l e a d e r s h i p is u n r e m a r k a b l e . S h e is f e m i n i n e a n d c a r i n g (i.e., n o t c o m p e t e n t ) ; s h e is s i l e n t o r u n a s s e r t i v e a b o u t h e r o w n s e l f - i n t e r e s t s ( i . e . , n o t selfish o r p r o m o t a b l e to c r i t ­ ical p o s i t i o n s ; s e e d o u b l e b i n d s a n d w o m e n ' s r o l e s : J a m i e s o n , 1 9 9 5 ; K a n t e r , 1977; W o o d , 1994). Analogous figures to Greenleaf's (1977) servant leader are Jesus Christ or G h a n d i ; analogous figures to female servant leaders are traditional wives and mothers.

Paradox 2 T h e s e c o n d p a r a d o x is t h a t only those stereotypical qualities useful for organizations are built into a servant leadership approach while other (femi­ nine) ways of enacting servant leadership are devalued. Qualities that are use­ ful a r e t h o s e t h a t b u i l d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l m e m b e r s ' c o m p e t e n c i e s a n d f u r t h e r t h e c o r p o r a t e v i s i o n ; f e m i n i n e q u a l i t i e s a r e t o l e r a t e d if t h e y e n h a n c e ( o r d o n o t detract from) the organizational mission (see Cal£s & Smircich, 1993). Greenleaf (1977) may be nurturing and caring, but he assists the corporation in d e v e l o p i n g a c o h e r e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l v i s i o n . G r e e n l e a f still is t h e e x p e r t in t h e l e a d e r - f o l l o w e r r e l a t i o n s h i p for h e fulfills t h e r o l e of t h e p e r s o n w h o enables because he himself has started on his quest to achieve wholeness. W h e n he experiences doubt, he can appeal to a higher k n o w l e d g e s o u r c e — t h e Christian God. Unlike feminist works that prioritize personal k n o w l e d g e , contradictions, a n d d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s a s t h e e v e r y d a y e l e m e n t s of w o m e n ' s l i v e s t h a t g i v e m e a n ­ ing and c o h e r e n c e to their lives (Marshall, 1989, 1995), G r e e n l e a f (1977) regrets that his theory derives from intuition and contradiction rather than from logical processes:

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I am faced with two problems. First, I did not get the notion of the servant as leader from conscious logic. Rather it came to me as an intuitive i n s i g h t — [Second,] just as there may be a real contradiction in the servant as leader, so my perceptual world is full of contradictions My good society will have strong individualism amidst community. It will have elitism along with populism. . . . Reason and intuition, each in its own way, both comfort and dismay me. (pp. 12-13) G r e e n l e a f s e e s e x p e r t a n d p e r s o n a l w a y s of k n o w i n g as o p p o s i t i o n s t h a t " c o m f o r t a n d d i s m a y " h i m . A l t h o u g h he q u e s t i o n s h i m s e l f , h e d o e s n o t d i s ­ p l a y t h e s e t e n s i o n s to o t h e r s : " I n o t h e r w o r d s , I h a v e k e p t m y s e l f u n d e r t i g h t r e i n " (as c i t e d in F r a k e r & S p e a r s , 1 9 9 6 , p p . 2 8 1 - 2 8 2 ) . F o r m a n y w o m e n , e x p r e s s i n g c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , t e n s i o n s , a n d e m o t i o n s to t h e m s e l v e s a n d o t h e r s is t h e v e r y w a y that t h e y g r o w a n d c h a l l e n g e t r a d i t i o n a l n o t i o n s . Marlene's I attended a dinner before a campus dinner surrounded by members of the their friends, I found myself stepping observing the interaction. I realized engaged in lively conversation with largely invisible in the gathering. periphery of the stage because I've who features others. Marlene's

Diary

Entry:

October

event. As I sat at the board of trustees and outside of myself and that, even though I was several people, I was I've stayed on the defined my role as one

Diary

Entry:

April

The deans have been asked to write up our ideas about future of higher education; it's for an article in the magazine. One week turnaround. I don't have to do this, if something does get published, it will be the first that I've been mentioned. It will be nice to get some recognition. Marlene's

26

Diary

Entry:

April

8

the alumni but time

15

I have a "photo shoot" tomorrow-candid shots to accompany the alumni magazine article. I guess this means they plan to quote me. I hove such a love/hate relationship with this. I don't want to spend time doing it and I'm kind of embarrassed (I don't want to see the pictures!), but I'm also attracted to the idea of being featured in a story, of being recognized for my role on the campus.

Leadership

Theorizing

149 Marlene's

Diary

Entry:

July

3

I live with a constant tension between my desire to serve and my desire to have others serve me, between wanting to play my role on the margins and wanting to be the center of attention, between denying my place in the organizational hierarchy and being resentful when students, secretaries, and strangers presume to call me by my first name. T h e tensions we experience are not either/or d i l e m m a s or insecurities with decision m a k i n g . Rather, they are the times w h e n w e confront the " d a r k " p l a c e s of o u r s o u l s a n d t h i n k t h r o u g h p o s s i b i l i t i e s in o u r l i v e s . T h e s e t e n s i o n s or dark places are the s h a d o w s that reveal o n e ' s true soul, "a quality b r o u g h t into being w h e n w e must face the s o m e t i m e s painful and contradictory nature of o u r o w n e x p e r i e n c e " ( B r i s k i n , 1 9 9 8 , p . 1 7 4 ) . In u n c e r t a i n t i m e s , i n d i v i d u ­ als s e e k m e a n i n g ( B r i s k i n , 1 9 9 8 ; G r e e n l e a f , 1 9 7 7 ) . In o u r p r e s e n t a g e , w h e n m o s t of us s p e n d m o r e h o u r s at w o r k t h a n at a n y w h e r e e l s e a n d m a n y of u s i d e n t i f y o u r p r i m a r y i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s in t h e w o r k p l a c e , w e s e e k m e a n i n g through our work. Briskin (1998) argues that the m e a n i n g w e seek, w e find in o u r s o u l s . F i n d i n g s o u l , h o w e v e r , r e q u i r e s c o n f r o n t i n g t h e s h a d o w in e a c h of u s : We learn that we can be both this and that, tyrannical and empowering, just and unjust, altruistic and controlling, compassionate and cruel. The experience of onedimensionality can give way to a creative polarity that provides the tension neces­ sary for new learning and new approaches to living a more differentiated and psy­ chologically richer life. The confrontation with shadow is the first tentative step we make toward reclaiming wholeness, (pp. 58-59) In s h o r t , s e r v a n t l e a d e r s h i p d o e s n o t a d e q u a t e l y v a l u e a n d i n c o r p o r a t e both reason and intuition, thinking and emotions, masculine and feminine, and p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e . G r e e n l e a f s s u s p i c i o n of " f e m i n i n e " s i d e s o f d u a l i s m s d o e s n o t s e e m to h a v e b e e n fully r e s o l v e d o v e r h i s l i f e t i m e , a l t h o u g h h e d o e s a p p r o a c h d i a l e c t i c ( b o t h / a n d ) p o s s i b i l i t i e s c l o s e r t o t h e e n d o f h i s l o n g life ( F r a k e r & S p e a r s , 1 9 9 6 ; F r i c k & S p e a r s , 1 9 9 6 ) . H o w e v e r , m u c h of h i s s e r v a n t l e a d e r s h i p b i f u r c a t e s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s s o t h a t a s p e c t s of w o m e n ' s e x p e r i e n c e s still a r e t r i v i a l i z e d .

Paradox 3 T h e t h i r d p a r a d o x is t h a t m o s t l e a d e r s h i p a p p r o a c h e s t h a t c o n t a i n e l e m e n t s of s e r v i n g a l s o c a r r y at l e a s t i m p l i c i t n o t i o n s t h a t leaders can change a style to suit a situation, but serving is a way of life that is not easily discarded or modi­

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fied. O n e c a n l e a r n t o b e c o m e a s e l f - l e a d e r a n d S u p e r L e a d e r b y f o l l o w i n g s t e p s s u p p o s e d l y a p p l i c a b l e to all p o t e n t i a l l e a d e r s ( s e e M a n z & S i m s , 1 9 8 7 , 1989; Sims & M a n z , 1996). W o m e n are cautioned to be careful about using f e m i n i n e ( a n d m a s c u l i n e ) s t y l e s ( s e e H a s l e t t et a l . , 1 9 9 3 ) . B u t l e a d e r s h i p a s s e r v i n g in G r e e n l e a f s w o r k a n d in a f e m i n i s t r e v i s i o n i n g is a w a y o f life that c a n n o t b e s o e a s i l y d i s c a r d e d . S e r v i n g is a c o n v i c t i o n t h a t o n e p e r s o n c a n m a k e a d i f f e r e n c e in t h e w o r l d a n d that e v e r y d a y offers o p p o r t u n i t i e s for g r o w t h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t of self a n d c o m m u n i t y . Marlene's

Diary

Entry:

March

11

Talked with Patrice today. She says I sound as if I'm trying to find a comfortable, stable definition of myself in my role as an administrator. But she also said it's not the definition I'm really having trouble with; it's the struggle inherent in defining myself. Patrice's

Diary

Entry:

March

11

Talked with Marlene on the phone today. She seems to be struggling with the desire to do what is worthy in life and what is recognized by others as worthy of acclaim. I think she's arguing that this uneasy tension between selfand other needs cannot be resolved simplistically but is an ongoing confrontation of the self. Besides, serving is worthwhile, despite the pejorative connotations to many white, middle-class feminists. If we do not serve others, then we expect that those lesser than we will serve. If we do not serve others, we lose the joy of doing something for its own sake, for ourselves. We become self-absorbed and less communityand other-focused. We also lose the relational connections that con save us in times of self-doubt and career trouble. Why should they serve or give of themselves in our times of need when we couldn't do so for them? Patrice's

Letter

to Marlene:

March

12

I see your way of administrating as a form of resistance. And this is very feminist!!! You are challenging what we consider to be a worthy life, a good use of our time and energy, and a legacy. As we confront what is of value in life, we probably need to conclude that much of what we do is not of value. It is in caring, serving, developing others, enabling their

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growth, standing beside them to assist their maturation that we achieve our own immortality. This is a lifelong perspective that doesn't hit some people until they are in midlife and doesn't mesh well with the immediate

gratifications, me-orientation, and merit procedures in most universities. But it certainly fits within many

women's moral and life development.







Paradox 4 T h e final p a r a d o x is t h a t women who successfully enact leadership as "serving " are threatening to the status quo. T h e y g u a r d t h e i r s e l v e s a n d t h e i r i n t e g r i t y — d e s p i t e k n o w l e d g e t h a t s e l f i s h n e s s is " a c a r d i n a l sin g i v e n p r e v a i l ­ i n g i m a g e s of w o m e n " ( W o o d , 1 9 9 4 , p . 2 5 ) — a n d a r e w i l l i n g t o l i v e w i t h t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s . T h e y c h o o s e to serve and accept the possibility that their call­ ing to h i g h e r s e r v i c e ( " s e r v i n g " t h e c o m m u n i t y ) m a y b e a n t i t h e t i c a l t o p o s i ­ tion security; they are threatening b e c a u s e the organization has n o hold over t h e m . T h e y h a v e t h e p e a c e of m i n d a n d c o n n e c t i o n s t o o t h e r s t h a t c a n s u s t a i n them during times when they realize that they must leave either their positions o r u n h e a l t h y r e l a t i o n s h i p s . A s M a r s h a l l ( 1 9 9 5 ) f o u n d r e p e a t e d l y in h e r i n t e r ­ v i e w s w i t h w o m e n m a n a g e r s , t h e act o f " l e a v i n g , " " r e s i g n i n g , " o r " f a i l i n g " is r e f r a m e d a s " m o v i n g o n , " o r as a c t i o n s t a k e n w i t h t h e a w a r e n e s s t h a t t h o s e w h o m o v e o n c a n n o l o n g e r f u n c t i o n in an e n v i r o n m e n t t h a t d o e s n o t h o n o r w h o t h e y a r e a n d w h o t h e y w i s h to b e . W o m e n w h o l e a d b y " s e r v i n g " a r e t h r e a t e n i n g b e c a u s e t h e y a r e w i l l i n g to s u b v e r t t h e " n o r m a l " g e n d e r e d s o c i a l order and to live with the daily tensions and self-questioning that are inherent in a life led f r o m f e m i n i s t e t h i c a l p r i n c i p l e s ( s e e M a t t s o n & B u z z a n e l l , 1 9 9 9 ) . Marlene's

Final

Diary

Entry:

At the farewell party for me, one of my male colleagues he admired my courage in recognizing when it was time leave. He made me realize that I'm at peace with my And even though I continue to struggle with my doubts contradictions, I'm at peace with who I am.

Continued said to decision. and

In s u m , f o u r m a i n p a r a d o x e s b e c o m e a p p a r e n t w h e n w e e x a m i n e servant, leadership, a n d feminine together. These double binds occur: when w o m e n a t t e m p t to fulfill t h e r o l e s o f s e r v a n t a n d s e r v e d in c o n t e m p o r a r y s e r v a n t l e a d ­ e r s h i p w r i t i n g s ; w h e n w o m e n r e a l i z e t h a t t h e i r h o p e t h a t f e m i n i n e q u a l i t i e s in s e r v a n t l e a d e r s h i p r o l e s w i l l b e v a l u e d for t h e m s e l v e s a n d n o t for t h e i r i n s t r u ­ m e n t a l w o r t h is i l l u s i o n a r y ; w h e n w o m e n r e a l i z e t h a t t h e n o t i o n o f f e m i n i n e

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s t y l e a s e a s i l y c h a n g e d (i.e., t a k e n o n a n d off) to s u i t s i t u a t i o n a l n e e d s is n o t i s o m o r p h i c w i t h t h e i r o w n e x p e r i e n c e s of " s e r v i n g " a s a l i f e l o n g p r o c e s s a n d g o a l ; a n d w h e n w o m e n r e c o g n i z e t h e p o w e r of " s e r v i n g " t o t h r e a t e n t h e s t a t u s q u o b y l i v i n g t h e d a i l y c o n f r o n t a t i o n s w i t h t h e s h a d o w ( t h e h i d d e n r e c e s s e s of e v e r y o n e ' s s o u l s ) . T h e c o m m u n i t y in w h i c h t h e y find t h e c o u r a g e t o c o n f r o n t t h e s h a d o w is a d i a l e c t i c p r o c e s s of v a l u i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d m e e t i n g selfand other needs simultaneously (Buzzanell, 1995).

Feminist "Serving" A s w e r e c l a i m serving a s a f e m i n i s t t e r m , w e a r e " w e b s t e r s " : w o m e n w h o s e w o r k is to w e a v e — w e a v e r s of w o r l d s a n d w o r l d - w e b s ( D a l y , 1 9 8 7 , p . x i i i ) . In a d i f f e r e n t c o n s t e l l a t i o n of m e a n i n g s , s e r v i c e is a n h o n o r a b l e t e r m t h a t s u g ­ g e s t s p r o v i d i n g gifts f r o m t h e self a n d g i v i n g of o n e s e l f f o r t h e g o o d of o t h e r s in t h e service of s o m e g r e a t e r g o o d . U s i n g t h e G r e e k r o o t w o r d for s e r v i c e , diakoneo, w h i c h i n c l u d e s t h e office of h e l p e r and h e l p e d a s a g e n t , w e i n v e s t serving or service with the accoutrements of both agent and agency to displace the harmful feminine characteristics. T h o s e w h o serve are no longer servants o r s l a v e s bereft of t h e f r e e d o m to c h o o s e w h a t t h e y d o . J u s t a s h o o k s ( 1 9 9 0 ) p o s i t i o n s h o u s e w o r k a s a s o u r c e a n d m a n i f e s t a t i o n of g i v i n g , p r i d e , a n d selfs u f f i c i e n c y , w e s e e s e r v i n g a s a gift to self a n d o t h e r s . Marlene s 1

Diary

Entry:

September

26

I feel brain-dead because all I ever do is push paper and talk to people about processing their forms. I don't have intellectual connections. This is the hardest part of the transition from faculty to administration-the intellectual loneliness. Marlene's

Diary

Entry:

October

26

I've decided to ask faculty to come join me for an informal lunch once a month and just talk to me. I sent a memo about this lunch-they can come and talk about last night's football scores or the latest paper they are working on. I'm going to call this "food for thought." I guess that's kind of corny. F u r t h e r m o r e , w e e n v i s i o n serving as a f o r m o f r e s i s t a n c e t h a t o p e r a t e s t h r o u g h d i a l e c t i c p r o c e s s e s to c r e a t i v e l y i n c o r p o r a t e t h e m u l t i p l e c o m m i t ­ m e n t s to self, o t h e r s , c o m m u n i t y , a n d p r i n c i p l e s s o t h a t w e s e r v e ourselves with and through our connections with others. T h e tensions within this form

Leadership

153

Theorizing

of r e s i s t a n c e i n c l u d e : r e a s s e s s i n g w h o s e n e e d s a r e s e r v e d , r e c o n s i d e r i n g whether serving e m p o w e r s or m a k e s different stakeholders vulnerable, and r e t h i n k i n g w h e t h e r a c t i o n s c r e a t e a m o r e e q u i t a b l e w o r l d for w o m e n . M a n a g e r s , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , a n d l e a d e r s w h o s e r v e in o u r f e m i n i s t r e v i s i o n i n g of s e r v i c e find t h e m s e l v e s filled w i t h t h e u n e a s y a n d e x c i t i n g t e n ­ s i o n s of h o p e f u l n e s s (for f u n d a m e n t a l c h a n g e ) , s t r e n g t h (in t h e f e m i n i s t v i s i o n ) , w a t c h f u l n e s s (lest s e r v i c e b e c o m e s e r v i t u d e ) , h u m b l e n e s s ( i n k n o w l ­ e d g e t h a t t h e s e r v e r is an i n s t r u m e n t of c h a n g e ) , a n d w o n d e r m e n t (at t h e p a s ­ s a g e s of self, o t h e r , c o m m u n i t y , a n d p r i n c i p l e g r o w t h ) . S e r v i n g b e c o m e s a n a c t i v e p r o c e s s of e n g a g e m e n t in w h i c h all w h o c h o o s e t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s e n a c t coserving w i t h m u t u a l r e s p e c t a n d c h o i c e . S e r v i n g d o e s not e m b o d y t h e i d e a of b a l a n c i n g c o m p e t i n g n e e d s ( w h i c h c a n f o c u s u s i n w a r d ; s e e F o n d a s , 1995) but of sustaining the healthy c o m p e t i t i o n a m o n g n e e d s , a p p r o a c h e s , a n d v a l u e s . D i a l e c t i c a p p r o a c h e s s u b s c r i b e to t h e b e l i e f t h a t " s o c i a l life is a d y n a m i c k n o t of c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , a ceaseless interplay between contrary or opposing tendencies" (Baxter & M o n t g o m e r y , 1996, p. 3; see also Fairhurst, in p r e s s ) . S t r a t e g i c r e s p o n s e s to c o n t r a d i c t i o n s w i t h i n s e r v i n g s u s t a i n i n t e r ­ sections b e t w e e n poles (e.g., served and server) and reframe serving (as a v e r b ) to t r a n s c e n d d u a l i s m s w i t h i n p o t e n t i a l p o w e r i m b a l a n c e s ( s e e B a x t e r , 1988; Baxter & Montgomery, 1996; Weick, 1995). As we revision serving, we accept our own (and others') h u m a n n e s s . W e r e c o g n i z e t h a t it is u n e t h i c a l not to b e e n g a g e d in s e r v i n g . If w e t u r n a w a y f r o m t h e s i l e n c i n g , t r i v i a l i z i n g , a n d w e a r i n g a w a y of t h e p o t e n t i a l of w o m e n ( a n d m e n ) , f r o m t h e v i o l e n c e a g a i n s t t h e m , f r o m t h e i r r e m o v a l of d i g n i t y a n d t h e d i m i n i s h i n g of t h e i r c o m m u n i t y , t h e n w e a c t u n e t h i c a l l y ( s e e M a t t s o n & B u z z a n e l l , 1 9 9 9 ) . If w e d o not e n g a g e in d e c i s i o n m a k i n g a b o u t o u r s e r v i c e t h a t c o n s i d e r s t h e v u l n e r a b i l i t i e s of m u l t i p l e s t a k e h o l d e r s — t h e g e n e r a l i z e d and the concrete "others" and those m a d e invisible by our language and busi­ n e s s p r i o r i t i e s ( s e e H a a s & D e e t z , t h i s v o l u m e ) — t h e n w e a c t u n e t h i c a l l y . If w e fail to c o n s i d e r o u r s e l v e s w o r t h y of t h e v e r y s e r v i c e w e g i v e to o t h e r s , t h e n w e a c t u n e t h i c a l l y . If w e d o not act a g a i n s t t h e p r i v i l e g e t h a t m a n y w h i t e w o m e n e x p e r i e n c e in c h o o s i n g w h o m ( a n d w h e n ) t o s e r v e a n d d o n o t m a k e v i s i b l e t h e d o u b l e b i n d s a n d p a r a d o x e s t h a t w o m e n of c o l o r e x p e r i e n c e in serving (see Bell, Denton, & N k o m o , 1993; Calds, 1992; W i l l i a m s , 1991), t h e n w e act u n e t h i c a l l y . S e r v i n g m e a n s t h a t w e l a y c l a i m to o u r l i v e s . Patrice's

Diary

Entry:

October

12

(Columbus

Day)

I feel very torn. I have hidden away from others-I have not picked up voice mail, e-mail, or snail mail for days. I have not gone into my office-and I can manage to do so because of my Tuesday-Thursday teaching schedule, with meetings on

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Tuesdays, Wednesdays, and Thursdays. So I am working on the journal I edit and on this book. Yet I also feel as though I should be accessible to my students and colleagues. I find great enjoyment and pride in helping my students develop and find their career paths. I could lose myself in service to them, my university, my profession, my family, and my community. So I feel guilty about pulling back-but I feel awful when my other (solitary) work isn't done and when I am not doing things for me. As I am writing, I hear Lisette's friends and the twins (Sheridan and Ashlee) in the background. Annie wants one of her first-grade friends to come and play. I'm trying to talk to Marlene on the phone about our chapter while Teddy is barking outside (why won't someone else let him in?) and Stanley and Trevor are meowing at me for attention and treats. Thank God that Robyn is at day care, Steve commuted to Northwestern today, and Brendan skipped out of the house. In a few minutes, I'll do another load of laundry and make sure that Lisette cleaned out Leon's cage (gerbil). Call waiting beeps-a grod student needs help on her research project. . . . I say a quick goodbye to Marlene and talk to my graduate student, . . . then I shut my bedroom-office door. But I don't return to the passage I am writing. Instead, I sit and reflect for a long time about whether I am doing enough with my life in service to others . . . not just to my family, students, colleagues, and profession. . .but to others whose voices ore silenced through assaults on their bodies, talk, and dignity. . . . I can't close my door on these thoughts. A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , m a n a g e m e n t , a n d l e a d e r s h i p as s e r v i n g is an u n s e t t l i n g t e n s i o n b e t w e e n self- a n d o t h e r n e e d s that c a n n o t b e r e s o l v e d s i m p l i s t i ­ c a l l y . W e c a n n o t s i m p l y a s s e r t that s e r v i n g is w o r t h y a n d t h e r e f o r e w e e n g a g e in t h e s e a c t i o n s ( K o l b , 1 9 9 2 ) , n o r c a n w e r e s o l v e o u r d i l e m m a s b y d e c i d i n g t o act in a n o n s e r v i n g / c a r i n g / r e l a t i o n a l m o d e b e c a u s e it is a n t i t h e t i c a l t o g a i n i n g r e c o g n i t i o n a n d j o b s e c u r i t y (Huff, 1 9 9 0 ) . S e r v i n g is a s t r u g g l e a n d o n g o i n g c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h o n e s e l f to m o v e t o w a r d f e m i n i s t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n .

Leadership

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Theorizing

Marlene's and Patrice's Joint Diary Entry: Meeting During the October Conference for the Organization for the Study of Communication, Language, and Gender We feel like such hypocrites. Here we are trying to talk about ethical "serving," and we both feel as though we fall so short of these ideals. Me can't be everything to everyone. Me have to moke decisions that will help us as individuals. Me are not saints-definitely not!!! Me both feel ail-too­ human tensions, ambivalences, and resentments about our roles. How hard we struggle with "serving" in our lives. But even though we can't achieve the ideal, it is worth the struggle. How else could we face ourselves? How else could we be at peace with our decisions and be certain that the people we care about will be proud of those decisions? Perhaps that is all any of us can hope to achieve in our lives. And that's not a bad legacy to leave our children.

CONCLUSION R i c h ( 1 9 7 9 ) w r i t e s t h a t r e v i s i o n i n g is " t h e act o f l o o k i n g b a c k , of s e e i n g w i t h fresh e y e s , of e n t e r i n g a n o l d t e x t f r o m a n e w c r i t i c a l d i r e c t i o n " ( p . 3 5 ) . R e v i s i o n i n g is f u n d a m e n t a l in w o m e n ' s l i v e s as w o m e n ( r e ) w r i t e t h e i r h i s t o ­ ries and d e v e l o p theories from their o w n lives. Rich continues by saying that revisioning is an act of survival. Until we can understand the assumptions in which we are drenched we cannot know ourselves. And this drive to self-knowledge, for women, is more than a search for identity: it is part of our refusal of the self-destructiveness of male-dominated society, (p. 35) S e r v i n g e m b o d i e s t h e s e a r c h for p e r s o n a l m e a n i n g . T h e s e a r c h for p e r s o n a l m e a n i n g h o l d s a s i g n i f i c a n c e b e y o n d t h e i n d i v i d u a l ; r e c e n t w o r k in t h e l i t e r a ­ t u r e o n l e a d e r s h i p s u g g e s t s a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n s o u l a n d t h e e f f i c a c y of leadership. Daft and Lengel (1998) ask whether leaders act from a c o m m i t ­ m e n t to t h e g o o d of t h e c o m m u n i t y o r f r o m t h e i r o w n " a n g e r , g r e e d , j e a l o u s y , i n s e c u r i t y , o r fear of f a i l u r e " ( p . 1 8 8 ) . T h e y c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e a n s w e r is l e s s i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e s e l f - a w a r e n e s s of t h e i n t e r n a l c o n f l i c t :

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Self-awareness brings out higher potential in both the leader and the led. Becom­ ing whole means uniting with your essential self, which enables you to touch the higher potential in others. Associates then trust the vision, love what they do, think independently, express their creativity, and maintain the highest standards of hon­ esty. They and the organization thrive, (pp. 188-189) T h o s e w h o s e r v e infuse t h e i r w o r k w i t h s p i r i t u a l i t y , w i t h d e s i r e s to c r e a t e w h o l e n e s s a n d a b e t t e r life for all ( s e e M i r v i s , 1 9 9 7 ) . S e r v i n g is t r a n s ­ f o r m a t i v e in that t h e c o m m u n i c a t i v e p r o c e s s s e e k s to c o n t i n u o u s l y q u e s t i o n t h e v e r y f r a m e w o r k s o r s c h e m a s t h a t g u i d e o u r l i v e s . E a c h m o v e m e n t in understanding destroys past partial illusions and insights to enlarge a w o r l d v i e w that c a n e n c o m p a s s c o n t r a d i c t i o n s b y s u g g e s t i n g an o v e r a r c h i n g unity (see Bartunek & M o c h , 1994). B r i s k i n ( 1 9 9 8 ) s a y s that " i n s e r v i n g , t h e r e lies d u a l p u r p o s e : to offer h e l p to a n o t h e r a n d a t t e n d to o u r o w n n e e d for l e a r n i n g a n d g r o w t h " ( p . 2 6 9 ) . T h r o u g h s e r v i n g , w e affect t h e l i v e s o f t h e p e o p l e w i t h w h o m w e w o r k — s t u ­ d e n t s , f a c u l t y , staff, t h e u n i v e r s i t y c o m m u n i t y , a n d o t h e r s . In t h i s w a y , t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s in o u r o w n m i c r o p r a c t i c e s c a n l e a d to t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s in t h e m i c r o p r a c t i c e s of o t h e r s . O u r r e s i s t a n c e t o p r e v a i l i n g ( c o m p e t i t i v e a n d c o m ­ m u n i t y - d i m i n i s h i n g ) n o r m s of b e h a v i o r in o r g a n i z a t i o n s l e a d s to r e s i s t a n c e b y o t h e r s a n d , t h u s , to a w e a k e n i n g of t h o s e n o r m s . F u r t h e r m o r e , o u r p u b l i c self-reflections about organizational micropractices, both inside and outside t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n , h a v e t h e p o t e n t i a l to l e a d to s e l f - r e f l e c t i o n b y o t h e r s . Selfr e f l e c t i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n c r e a t e s an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s ­ n e s s r a i s i n g that c a n e v e n m o r e d i r e c t l y c h a l l e n g e t h e p r e v a i l i n g n o r m s a n d lead t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of s t r a t e g i e s a n d p r a c t i c e s t h a t i n i t i a t e " m i c r o ­ e m a n c i p a t i o n " (Alvesson & Wilmott, 1992) within the organization. A s f e m i n i s t s , w e w a n t t o c o n t r o l t h e w a y in w h i c h serving is u s e d a n d r e f r a m e t h e t e r m to m e a n w h a t w e w a n t . W e w a n t to e l i m i n a t e t h e selfd e s t r u c t i v e h i e r a r c h i c a l n a t u r e of l e a d e r s h i p a n d t h e s e l f - v i c t i m i z i n g n a t u r e of "caring for" others. W e revision leadership, management, and administration as " s e r v i n g " t o e n l a r g e t h e b o u n d a r i e s of p o s s i b i l i t i e s , t o c o m p l i c a t e o u r l a n ­ g u a g e , a n d to r e p a i n t a l a n d s c a p e c o n d u c i v e to w o m e n ' s d e v e l o p m e n t a n d t e n ­ dencies to blur boundaries between female and male, heart and mind, and intu­ ition a n d r a t i o n a l i t y .

7

A Feminist of Stress

Refraining

Rose's Story Marifran Mattson

Robin Patric Clair

Pamela A. Chapman Sanger Adrianne Dennis Kunkel

Shinji Masami worked as a design engineer at Hino Motors. He was responsible for making sure that all the auto parts fit together properly during final assembly of trucks produced by Toyota. The pressing deadlines caused Masami to work . . . 2 5 % above the average hours worked in Japan and 4 2 % above the hours in the United States. Typically, Masami would leave his home before 7 a.m. and return home around midnight. Although he complained of severe headaches and stomach pains, he forced himself to go to work. At age 37, he died of a brain hemorrhage at his office. (Steers & Black, 1994, p. 599)

Stories of stress, like the one above, have drawn the attention of scholars, w h o h a v e i n i t i a t e d r i g o r o u s r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m s to e x p l o r e t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f w o r k AUTHORS' NOTE: We would like to thank Beth Ellis and an anonymous reviewer for their feedback on this chapter.

157

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COMMUNICATION FROM FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES

p l a c e s t r e s s in o u r e v e r y d a y l i v e s . T h e s e r e s e a r c h e n d e a v o r s h a v e led t o t h e d i s c o v e r y of i n t r i g u i n g f i n d i n g s that in turn g i v e w a y to p r e s c r i p t i v e m e a s u r e s for r e d u c i n g s t r e s s . F o r e x a m p l e , a r e c e n t s t u d y c o n d u c t e d b y M i t t l e m a n (as c i t e d in H a n e y , 1 9 9 8 ) a n d p r e s e n t e d to t h e A m e r i c a n H e a r t A s s o c i a t i o n c o n ­ c l u d e d that b o s s e s w h o m u s t m e e t c r i t i c a l d e a d l i n e s o r w h o h a v e to fire s u b o r ­ d i n a t e s d o u b l e t h e i r r i s k of e x p e r i e n c i n g a h e a r t a t t a c k . In t u r n , t h e p r e s c r i p t i o n s for r e d u c i n g t h e c h a n c e s of h a v i n g a h e a r t a t t a c k m e n t i o n e d c o n ­ trolling weight, blood pressure, and cholesterol; getting enough exercise; and n o t s m o k i n g ( H a n e y , 1 9 9 8 ) . A l t h o u g h t h e s e p r e s c r i p t i o n s a r e all l o g i c a l b i t s of a d v i c e , t h e y d o n o t f o l l o w d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e f i n d i n g s of t h e s t u d y . T h a t i s , n o n e of t h e p r e s c r i p t i v e m e a s u r e s s u g g e s t s a l t e r i n g t h e w a y w e " d o b u s i n e s s " so that w e d o n o t h a v e " h i g h - p r e s s u r e d e a d l i n e s , " w h i c h e v i d e n c e d t h e s t r o n ­ g e s t effect in t h e s t u d y (as c i t e d in H a n e y , 1 9 9 8 , p . A l ) . In a d d i t i o n , t h e r e w e r e n o s u g g e s t i o n s for c h a n g i n g t h e h i r i n g a n d firing p r a c t i c e s that a r e s o c o m m o n to A m e r i c a n - b a s e d o r g a n i z a t i o n s ( b u t a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t h e c a s e w o r l d w i d e o r c o m m o n to all A m e r i c a n c o m p a n i e s ) . 1

In an e q u a l l y a l a r m i n g r e p o r t , R e s t a k (as c i t e d in P e t e r s o n , 1 9 9 8 ) c l a i m s that t h e strain of s t r e s s literally c a u s e s b r a i n d a m a g e . H e a r g u e s t h a t t h e h i p p o ­ c a m p u s r e g i o n of t h e b r a i n that d e a l s w i t h m e m o r y a n d l e a r n i n g c a n b e d a m ­ a g e d as a r e s u l t of h i g h - s t r e s s l i v i n g . T h e p r e s c r i p t i o n s t h a t f o l l o w f r o m t h i s s t u d y i n c l u d e r e f r a m i n g s t r e s s so that t o u g h s i t u a t i o n s a r e s e e n m o r e as c h a l ­ l e n g e s . O n c e a g a i n , t h e o n u s for c h a n g e is p l a c e d o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l r a t h e r t h a n o n t h e w a y w e o r g a n i z e o u r w o r k p r a c t i c e s . H a n k ( 1 9 9 7 ) n o t e s t h e t e n d e n c y of o r g a n i z a t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e m e d i c a l c o m m u n i t y , to f r a m e t h e s o l u t i o n for ill­ n e s s as l a r g e l y p a t i e n t - o r i e n t e d . In h e r s t u d y of b r e a s t c a n c e r a d v e r t i s i n g p r o ­ g r a m s , H a n k f o u n d that r e s p o n s i b i l i t y w a s p l a c e d s q u a r e l y o n t h e s h o u l d e r s of the w o m e n w h o h a d b e e n d i a g n o s e d w i t h b r e a s t c a n c e r . L i t t l e , if a n y , a t t e n ­ tion w a s g i v e n to t h e e c o n o m i c , p o l i t i c a l , a n d s o c i a l c o n t i n g e n c i e s t h a t p l a c e m a n y w o m e n in s i t u a t i o n s of stress that c o n t r i b u t e to h e a l t h r i s k s . Stressful situations cannot always be controlled by rethinking t h e m as challenges. Stressful situations also cannot necessarily b e altered by exercise a n d h e a l t h y d i e t . F u r t h e r m o r e , n o t all s t r e s s - r e l a t e d s i t u a t i o n s c a n b e c o n ­ n e c t e d to w h a t is g e n e r a l l y d e s c r i b e d as " t h e w o r k p l a c e , " w h i c h t e n d s to s e p a ­ r a t e t h e p r i v a t e from t h e p u b l i c a n d to m a r g i n a l i z e w o r k a c t i v i t i e s t h a t d o n o t fit n e a t l y i n t o t h e s t e r e o t y p i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n of w o r k ( s e e C l a i r , 1 9 9 6 ) . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e f o l l o w i n g p o e m s p e a k s of t h e stressful i n t e r r u p t i o n s of t h e w o r k of mothering o n t h e w o r k of writing: a child with untamable curly blond hair, i call her kia, pine nut person, & her eyes so open as she watches me try to capture her, as I try to name her. . . . . .what of the lonely 7 year old {IVi mommy!) watching tv in the front room? what of her?

A Feminist Reframing

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what of yesterday when she chased the baby into my room & I screamed O U T OUT GET OUT & she ran right out but the baby stayed, unafraid, what is it like to have a child afraid of you, your own child, your first child, the one who must forgive you if either of you are to survive. . . & how right is it to shut her out of the room so I can write about her? how human, how loving? how can I even try to : name her. Alta's Momma: A Start on All the Untold Stories, 1971 (as cited in Olsen, 1965/1978) T h e s t r e s s w r i t t e n a b o u t in t h i s p o e m s p e a k s v o l u m e s . T h e i n t e r r u p t i o n s a n d d e m a n d s of m o t h e r i n g w h e n j u x t a p o s e d w i t h a s e c o n d e n d e a v o r , s u c h a s w r i t ­ i n g , all t o o o f t e n r e s u l t in a f r u s t r a t i n g t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o . T h e p o e t struggles with the stress, and so does her daughter. T h e child faces a m o t h e r w h o both reaches out and pushes her away. T h e stress b e c o m e s relational, no l o n g e r an i s o l a t e d , i n d i v i d u a l p h e n o m e n o n . C e r t a i n l y , t h i s w o m a n is n o t a l o n e . O t h e r s h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d s i m i l a r s t r e s s . A n d h a v i n g c h i l d r e n is n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a p r e r e q u i s i t e for b e i n g i n t e r r u p t e d o r h a v i n g to d e a l w i t h s t r e s s . W o m e n , in g e n e r a l , f a c e t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f c o n ­ s t a n t i n t e r r u p t i o n s , m a n y of w h i c h e v i d e n c e a d i r e c t i m p a c t o n w o m e n ' s l i v e s . As Katherine Anne Porter wrote, You're brought up with the curious idea of feminine availability in all spiritual ways, and in giving service to anyone who demands it. And I suppose that's why it has taken me twenty years to write this novel; it's been interrupted by just [about] anyone who could jimmy his way into my life, (as cited in Olsen, 1965/1978, p. 216) S t o r i e s of s t r e s s s h o u l d n o t b e i s o l a t e d as t h e s t o r i e s o f m a l e m a n a g e r s at a u t o b o d y p l a n t s . W o m e n ' s s t o r i e s a r e far t o o o f t e n n e g l e c t e d b y r e s e a r c h e r s , or, if t h e y a r e i n c l u d e d , t h e f o c u s is u s u a l l y o n w o m e n at " w o r k , " w h e r e w o r k m e a n s a p a y i n g j o b . If w e a r e to r e f r a m e s t r e s s , t h e n w e m u s t r e f r a m e w o r k and w e need to be open to the sequestered stories, the marginalized stories, or t h e s t o r i e s of s t r e s s t h a t a r e l a b e l e d as c a t e g o r i e s o t h e r t h a n s t r e s s . F o r e x a m ­ p l e , H a z e l l ( 1 9 9 7 ) p r o v i d e s a g r i p p i n g n a r r a t i v e in h i s A s s o c i a t e d P r e s s r e l e a s e t h a t h i g h l i g h t s t h e s t r e s s of m o t h e r i n g u n d e r a d v e r s e c o n d i t i o n s . A l t h o u g h it b e c a m e a p u b l i c s t o r y , it w a s n e v e r d i s c u s s e d as a s t o r y of s t r e s s . This narrative represents one w o m a n ' s struggles with m o t h e r h o o d that led her to t h e b r i n k of s u i c i d e .

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A CALL FOR HELP A d e s p e r a t e " q u i v e r i n g v o i c e " sent c h i l l s i n t o the h o m e s of t h e N e w Y o r k e r s w h o h a d t u n e d in to listen to W C B S r a d i o ' s Ask the Mayor c a l l - i n r a d i o p r o ­ g r a m . T h e a u d i e n c e w a s e x p e c t i n g to h e a r t h e u s u a l d i s c u s s i o n s of s u c h fairly m u n d a n e m a t t e r s as the s i z e of " p o t h o l e s . " I n s t e a d , to t h e i r s u r p r i s e , t h e y l i s ­ t e n e d as the d i s t r a u g h t v o i c e of a y o u n g m o t h e r p l e a d e d for h e l p . R o s e , the m o t h e r of 2 - y e a r - o l d t w i n s , h a d r e c e n t l y g i v e n b i r t h to a set o f t r i p l e t s . N o w with five c h i l d r e n u n d e r the a g e of 3 , s h e h a s h a d b a r e l y e n o u g h s l e e p to f u n c t i o n . S h e e x p l a i n s that h e r h u s b a n d , a t e a c h e r , h a s b e e n w o r k i n g 1 6 - h o u r d a y s to s u p p o r t the family a n d that s h e is left w i t h t h e c h i l d c a r e — a n enormous undertaking. "I c a n ' t t a k e t h e k i d s to g e t s o m e . . . , " R o s e s a i d , briefly c h o k i n g u p . " T h e y h a v e to get s h o t s . I c a n ' t e v e n t a k e t h e m to the d o c t o r . " H o w could she? H o w could she even hold three infants and two toddlers? The desperation with which she lived escalated daily. T h e simplest chores w e r e n o w b e y o n d h e r c a p a b i l i t i e s . S h e h a d tried to g e t h e l p f r o m city a g e n c i e s b u t h a d failed, s h e told M a y o r G i u l i a n i . S o c i a l s e r v i c e s , for w h a t e v e r r e a s o n , w e r e u n a b l e to h e l p her. "Sometimes I do feel like I'm going tojump off a bridge," she told the mayor. "No, no you're not going to jump off a bridge," Giuliani responded emphatically. "We're going to help you. OK? Do you believe me? Hello? Answer me back. Do you believe me?" After a few seconds of s i l e n c e , . . . Rose responded, "If you say you're going to help me . . . " "I'm going to help you," insisted G i u l i a n i . . . . "We're going to make sure that you have the help that you need. You know, I have children myself," [Mayor Giuliani assured her.] Within a half hour, members of Giuliani's community assis­ tance team arrived at the woman's home. Neighbors who had heard the broadcast were already there. (Hazell, 1997) T h i s s t o r y ran u n d e r the s u b j e c t h e a d i n g of " d o m e s t i c " — n o t s t r e s s , n o t s u i ­ c i d e , not s o c i a l s e r v i c e s , not p u b l i c p o l i c y , a n d m o s t c e r t a i n l y n o t w o r k ( H a z e l l , 1 9 9 7 ) . It r e c e i v e d brief a t t e n t i o n from USA Today a n d o t h e r m e d i a s o u r c e s . It c a p t u r e s o u r a t t e n t i o n : five c h i l d r e n u n d e r t h e a g e of 3 ; a y o u n g w o m a n t h r e a t e n i n g t o j u m p off a b r i d g e ; t h e m a y o r to t h e r e s c u e ; a n d a c o m ­ m u n i t y that r e s p o n d s . B u t , g e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , a c a d e m i c r e s e a r c h o n t h e t o p i c of s t r e s s w o u l d p r o b a b l y not label this i n c i d e n t as w o r k - r e l a t e d s t r e s s . T h i s w o m a n ' s s t o r y p r o b a b l y w o u l d b e l a b e l e d a domestic issue, an interpersonal issue, or a women's issue, as it w a s by t h e A s s o c i a t e d P r e s s . T h e r e a s o n s for t h i s l a b e l i n g m a y , in l a r g e p a r t , b e t h e r e s u l t of t r a d i t i o n a l f r a m i n g s of s t r e s s a s " w o r k " r e l a t e d , as an i n d i v i d u a l p r o b l e m , a n d a s an o u t ­ c o m e v a r i a b l e of c e r t a i n s i t u a t i o n s a n d / o r c e r t a i n t y p e s or s t y l e s of c o m m u ­ n i c a t i o n . T o e x p a n d o u r c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s of s t r e s s , w e n e e d to r e c o g n i z e

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s t r e s s as a s o c i o p o l i t i c a l c o n c e r n , as a d i s c u r s i v e a n d m a t e r i a l p r a c t i c e , a n d a s a p h e n o m e n o n that transcends the public-versus-private d i c h o t o m y . H o w ­ e v e r , b e f o r e w e r e f r a m e s t r e s s , w e p r o v i d e an o v e r v i e w of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a p p r o a c h e s to t h e s t u d y of s t r e s s .

TRADITIONAL OVERVIEW OF STRESS Traditionally, stress has been equated with physical and/or emotional strain. Left u n c h e c k e d , s t r e s s l e a d s to b u r n o u t o r t h e wearing out of t h e i n d i v i d u a l o v e r t i m e ( F r e u d e n b e r g e r , 1 9 7 4 ) . T h e American Heritage Dictionary (1992) p r o v i d e s t h e f o l l o w i n g d e f i n i t i o n of s t r e s s : A mentally or emotionally disruptive or upsetting condition occurring in response to adverse external influences and capable of affecting physical health, usually characterized by increased heart rate, a rise in blood pressure, muscular tension, irritability, and depression. A stimulus or circumstance causing such a condition. A state of extreme difficulty, pressure, or strain. T h i s d e n o t a t i o n of s t r e s s c a p t u r e s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l e m p h a s e s o f s t r e s s l i t e r a t u r e — t h e i n d i v i d u a l i z e d e x p e r i e n c e of s t r e s s a n d t h e p h y s i c a l a n d m e n t a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of t o o m u c h s t r e s s . T h i s p e r s p e c t i v e a l s o i m p l i e s a c o n t i n u u m of s t r e s s , w i t h o n e e x t r e m e r e p r e s e n t i n g a n o p t i m a l l e v e l of s t r e s s t h a t is p o s i ­ tive a n d m o t i v a t i n g a n d t h e o t h e r e x t r e m e r e p r e s e n t i n g t o o m u c h s t r e s s , w h i c h c a u s e s h a r m . O r g a n i z a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e o n s t r e s s t e n d s t o b e g r o u n d e d in t h i s t r a d i t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e of s t r e s s . A l t h o u g h o n e o f t h e few r e s e a r c h e r s w i t h a p o s i t i v e v i e w o f s t r e s s in t h e w o r k p l a c e , O w e n s ( 1 9 8 7 ) a r g u e s that t h e s t r e s s i m p o s e d b y d e a d l i n e s is n e c ­ e s s a r y a n d i n v i g o r a t i n g to t h e w o r k p l a c e . S h e s t a t e s t h a t d e a d l i n e s s e r v e t h e f o l l o w i n g p u r p o s e s : " T h e y p r o v i d e an o b j e c t i v e m e a s u r e m e n t o f a c c o m p l i s h ­ m e n t s ; t h e y p r o m o t e e x c i t e m e n t a n d c o o p e r a t i o n ; t h e y a d d z e s t to e n d l e s s tasks; they give m a n a g e m e n t greater control; and they e n c o u r a g e a u t o n o m y a n d d e l e g a t i o n " ( p . 16). W h e n i n t e r v i e w i n g m a n a g e r s w h o w e r e r e q u i r e d t o " m a n a g e f a s t e r " b e c a u s e of d o w n s i z i n g , S o b k o w s k i ( 1 9 9 4 ) f o u n d t h a t s e t t i n g d e a d l i n e s a n d i m p o s i n g s t r e s s w e r e c r i t i c a l to efforts d e s i g n e d to c u r b w a s t e d time. M o r e often, h o w e v e r , business and m a n a g e m e n t research c o n c e p t u a l i z e s s t r e s s as an o u t c o m e v a r i a b l e to b e a v o i d e d in t h e w o r k p l a c e . O r g a n i z a t i o n s will n o t b e p r o d u c t i v e a n d f i n a n c i a l l y s u c c e s s f u l if e m p l o y e e s a r e s u b j e c t e d t o s t r e s s t h a t l e a d s to d y s f u n c t i o n a l w o r k p e r f o r m a n c e a n d / o r j o b t u r n o v e r (Cordes & Dougherty, 1993; Guaspari, 1995; Krinsky, 1984). Therefore, the l i t e r a t u r e e m p h a s i z e s h o w to m a n a g e e m p l o y e e s t o a c h i e v e m a x i m u m o u t ­ p u t w h i l e m i n i m i z i n g t h e i r f e e l i n g s of s t r e s s ( G o l e m b i e w s k i , M u n z e n r i d e r , & Stevenson, 1986; Lee, 1993; Markels, 1996; Quick, 1984; Sutton, 1991).

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A c k n o w l e d g i n g t h a t p r o l o n g e d s t r e s s often g i v e s r i s e to a n u m b e r of c o u n t e r ­ productive behaviors, including turnover, absenteeism, alcoholism, drug a b u s e , a g g r e s s i o n , a n d s a b o t a g e , m a n a g e r i a l l i t e r a t u r e often s u g g e s t s c r e a t i n g a n d p r o m o t i n g " m o d e r a t o r v a r i a b l e s t h a t b u f f e r t h e e f f e c t s of p o t e n t i a l s t r e s s ­ o r s on i n d i v i d u a l s " ( S t e e r s & B l a c k , 1 9 9 4 , p . 6 0 6 ) . T h e s e b u f f e r s a r e i n t e n d e d to r e d u c e t h e i n c i d e n c e of t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d c o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e b e h a v i o r s b y r e d u c i n g p e r c e i v e d s t r e s s . A l t h o u g h i m p l i c a t i n g t h e r o l e of t h e i n d i v i d u a l e m p l o y e e in r e d u c i n g s t r e s s ( t h r o u g h t h e u s e of s u c h s t r a t e g i e s a s t i m e m a n ­ agement, developing outside interests, increasing physical exercise, and adopting new cognitive perspectives), the current business perspective tends to e m p h a s i z e t h e r o l e of m a n a g e m e n t in r e d u c i n g w o r k - r e l a t e d s t r e s s . In a d d i t i o n , o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e i d e n t i f i e d s e v e r a l a n t e c e d e n t f a c t o r s that affect e m p l o y e e s t r e s s t h r o u g h t h e i m p o s i t i o n of d e m a n d s a n d d e a d l i n e s . Specifically, role overload, role conflict, and role ambiguity are frequently identified workplace stressors (Miller, Ellis, Z o o k , & Lyles, 1990) that i n v o l v e d e m a n d s a n d d e a d l i n e s that h a v e b e c o m e a m b i g u o u s , o v e r w h e l m i n g , a n d p r o b l e m a t i c . F o r e x a m p l e , role overload t y p i c a l l y is d e f i n e d as a " c o n d i ­ tion in w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s feel t h e y a r e b e i n g a s k e d to d o m o r e t h a n t i m e o r a b i l i t y p e r m i t s " ( S t e e r s & B l a c k , 1 9 9 4 , p . 5 9 7 ) . I m p l i c i t in t h i s d e f i n i t i o n is that o v e r l o a d r e s u l t s w h e n r o l e s or t a s k s " p l a c e c o m p e t i n g demands [italics added] on available money, time, information, goods, and skills" (Kaufman, L a n e , & L i n d q u i s t , 1 9 9 1 , p . 3 9 3 ) . S t e e r s a n d B l a c k ( 1 9 9 4 ) d e f i n e role conflict as " t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s o c c u r r e n c e of t w o ( o r m o r e ) s e t s of p r e s s u r e s o r e x ­ p e c t a t i o n s " a n d c o n t i n u e w i t h an e x a m p l e : " A s e c r e t a r y w h o r e p o r t s to s e v e r a l s u p e r v i s o r s m a y face a c o n f l i c t o v e r w h o s e w o r k to d o f i r s t " ( p . 5 9 6 ) . L i k e r o l e c o n f l i c t , r o l e a m b i g u i t y in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h d e m a n d s a n d d e a d l i n e s m a y r e s u l t in a stressful s i t u a t i o n . M a t t e s o n a n d I v a n c e v i c h ( 1 9 8 2 ) d e f i n e role ambiguity as e x i s t i n g w h e n t h e r e is u n c e r t a i n t y r e g a r d i n g w o r k r e q u i r e m e n t s o r e x p e c t a t i o n s . T h u s , j u s t as t o o m a n y d e m a n d s o n an e m p l o y e e c a n c a u s e stress through overload, d e m a n d s that are unclear (i.e., role conflict and role ambiguity) can also cause stress.

Stress: Demands and Deadlines Demands a r e r e l a t e d to deadlines in t h a t d e a d l i n e s a r e t r e a t e d a s o b j e c t i v e l i m i t s o n t h e t i m e in w h i c h t h e d e m a n d m a y b e c o m p l e t e d . In t h i s w a y , d e a d ­ l i n e s b e c o m e d e m a n d s b e c a u s e d e a d l i n e s s e r v e as t i m e r e q u i r e m e n t s t h a t m u s t b e m e t . T h e s e t i m e l i m i t s , f r a m e d as d e a d l i n e s , b e c o m e y e t a n o t h e r f a c t o r a f f e c t i n g t h e l e v e l s of s t r e s s e x p e r i e n c e d b y e m p l o y e e s . B e c a u s e d e a d l i n e s are c o m m o n a n d b e c a u s e of t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e i r i m p a c t o n s t r e s s l e v e l s , t h e y are often t h o u g h t of as real p h e n o m e n a t h a t m u s t b e s a t i s f i e d . F o r e x a m p l e , operations researchers Posner (1985) and Tautenhahn (1994) present algo­ r i t h m s d e s i g n e d to a l l o w for t h e e f f e c t i v e c o m p l e t i o n of m a n u f a c t u r i n g j o b s

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w h e n a s p e c i f i c n u m b e r of j o b s n e e d t o b e p r o c e s s e d o n a g i v e n n u m b e r of machines by a certain deadline. Deadlines are treated as objective features that constrain the manufacturing process by requiring that w o r k b e a c c o m ­ p l i s h e d in a l i m i t e d a m o u n t o f t i m e . In a d d i t i o n t o h o w d e a d l i n e s affect t h e w o r k p r o c e s s , r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e a l s o e x p l o r e d t h e w a y s in w h i c h d e a d l i n e s affect g r o u p d e v e l o p m e n t . L i m a n d M u r n i n g h a n ( 1 9 9 4 ) test four m o d e l s o f g r o u p d e v e l o p m e n t , e a c h o f w h i c h p o s i t s v a r i o u s w a y s that g r o u p m e m b e r s a t t e m p t to c o m p l e t e a t a s k in a f i x e d a m o u n t of t i m e . U s i n g a b a r g a i n i n g t a s k , t h e a u t h o r s ' l a b o r a t o r y e x p e r i m e n t s c o n c l u d e t h a t i m p e n d i n g d e a d l i n e s in m i x e d - m o t i v e t a s k s ( i . e . , t a s k s c h a r a c ­ terized by both individualistic and cooperative e l e m e n t s , actions, and goals) l e a d to i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c , as o p p o s e d to g r o u p , a c t i o n p r i o r t o t h e d e a d l i n e . C o n ­ s i s t e n t w i t h t h e s t u d i e s of m a n u f a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s , t h i s r e s e a r c h o n g r o u p d e v e l o p m e n t assumes and perpetuates the notion that organizational m e m b e r s r e c o g n i z e d e a d l i n e s a s real d e m a n d s o n t h e i r t i m e a n d a l l o w d e a d l i n e s to shape activity. C u r r e n t l y , t h e r e is p o p u l a r i n t e r e s t in i n d i v i d u a l i z e d s t r a t e g i e s for m e e t i n g d e m a n d s a n d d e a d l i n e s b a s e d o n t h e i d e a that m e e t i n g d e m a n d s a n d d e a d l i n e s will b u f f e r t h e p o t e n t i a l for o r a l l e v i a t e i n d u c e d s t r e s s . T h i s b o d y o f l i t e r a t u r e f r o m s c h o l a r s a n d p r a c t i t i o n e r s , k n o w n b r o a d l y as time management, is r o o t e d in t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t d e a d l i n e s a r e o b j e c t i v e facts of life a n d t h a t t i m e c a n b e m a n a g e d a n d p l a n n e d to satisfy s u c h d e a d l i n e s ( W h e e l e r , 1 9 9 4 ) . P o l l o c k (1991) c h a m p i o n s a c o m m o n belief about satisfying deadlines: " P e o p l e with a future i n v a r i a b l y h a v e a h e a l t h y r e s p e c t for the t i m e at t h e i r d i s p o s a l . T h e y a r e o r g a n i z e d , h a v e d e v i s e d r o u t i n e w a y s to d i s p o s e of r o u t i n e c h o r e s a n d a l m o s t n e v e r m i s s a d e a d l i n e " ( p . 2 4 ) . M e e t i n g d e a d l i n e s is e q u a t e d w i t h " h a v i n g a f u t u r e , " s o it is n o s u r p r i s e that H a r t l e y ( 1 9 9 1 ) c l a i m s , " W e all w a n t to b e o r g a n i z e d . W e all w a n t t o b e a b l e to r e m e m b e r e v e r y d e a d l i n e , e v e r y p a y m e n t date, and every meeting" (p. 40). Recent technological advances have yielded a s l e w of c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s a n d h a n d h e l d o r g a n i z e r s to f a c i l i t a t e t h i s i d e a l (Harris, 1994; Hartley, 1991). A review of a survey of e x e c u t i v e s indicates t h a t , in a d d i t i o n t o c o m p u t e r o r g a n i z e r s , t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l w a y s t h a t e x e c u t i v e s c a n m a n a g e a n d keep track of their t i m e : T h e y c a n u s e t r a d i t i o n a l a n d c o n t e m ­ p o r a r y c a l e n d a r s , d a t e b o o k s , a n d w r i t t e n n o t e s o r e m p l o y s o m e o n e a s a time manager ( C r i s p e l l , 1 9 9 5 ) . O w e n s ( 1 9 8 7 ) s u g g e s t s that d e a d l i n e s c a n b e s t b e m e t by " d i v i d i n g t h e p r o ­ ject into subtasks with mini-deadlines [that] not only relieves stress, but a l l o w s for t i m e d e l a y s " ( p . 16). In c o n t r a s t to a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t d e a d l i n e s l e a d to s t r e s s , t h i s s t r a t e g y of c r e a t i n g m a n y s m a l l e r d e a d l i n e s is p o s i t e d a s a m e a n s of a l l e v i a t i n g s t r e s s . S i m i l a r l y , D o u g l a s s a n d D o u g l a s s ( 1 9 9 4 ) a d v i s e t h a t t h e first s t e p in c o m p l e t i n g a p r o j e c t s h o u l d b e e s t a b l i s h i n g a s t e p - b y - s t e p timeline. T h e y suggest that, "by k n o w i n g h o w long an activity will take and w h e n it h a s t o b e f i n i s h e d , w e c a n c a l c u l a t e w h e n it h a s t o b e g i n " ( p . 7 ) . F u r ­ t h e r m o r e , t h e s e a u t h o r s offer t h e i d e a of c r e a t i n g a " t i c k l e r f i l e " :

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a set of 43 file folders: one for each day of the month and one for each month of the year. . . . We file each highlighted activity sheet in the tickler file under the date when the activity must be started. This ensures that no key activity will ever be for­ gotten, (p. 7) L i k e w i s e , P o l l o c k ( 1 9 9 2 ) , T o w l e r ( 1 9 9 1 ) , a n d W r i g h t ( 1 9 8 5 ) offer w a y s of s e l f - o r g a n i z i n g that i n c l u d e m a k i n g p l a n s a n d lists of t a s k s to a c c o m p l i s h in s p e c i f i c t i m e p e r i o d s . I m p l i c i t in s u c h a p p r o a c h e s is t h e n o t i o n t h a t d e a d l i n e s i m p o s e d b y o t h e r s a r e e f f e c t i v e l y m e t w h e n t i m e is c o m p a r t m e n t a l i z e d i n t o finite b l o c k s d e f i n e d by mini deadlines that a r e s e l f - c r e a t e d . A l t h o u g h t h e s e s t r a t e g i e s f o c u s on i n d i v i d u a l e m p l o y e e b e h a v i o r s , t h e y a r e o f t e n m a n d a t e d b y o r g a n i z a t i o n s . In a d d i t i o n to t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l i z e d a p p r o a c h e s to s t r e s s reduction, the m a n a g e m e n t literature discusses both the importance of and p r o c e d u r e s for m a n a g i n g e m p l o y e e s to r e d u c e s t r e s s . R e d u c i n g e m p l o y e e s t r e s s is a b o t t o m - l i n e i s s u e for m a n y c o r p o r a t i o n s . T h i s fact is h e i g h t e n e d in tight l a b o r m a r k e t s , w h e r e r e c r u i t i n g a n d r e t a i n i n g s k i l l e d e m p l o y e e s c a n b e i n c r e a s i n g l y difficult. A c c o r d i n g to S t e e r s a n d B l a c k ( 1 9 9 4 ) , s o m e of t h e m a n a g e r i a l i m p e r a t i v e s s u g g e s t e d t o r e d u c e t h e effects o f s t r e s s a r e p e r s o n n e l s e l e c t i o n a n d p l a c e m e n t d e s i g n e d t o e n s u r e t h a t e m p l o y e e s a r e p r e p a r e d to m e e t t h e d e m a n d s of t h e i r j o b s ; s k i l l s t r a i n i n g ; j o b redesign (Hackman & Oldham, 1976); company-sponsored counseling pro­ grams; increased personal control and participation; improved c o m m u n i c a ­ tion; and health promotion programs (Roberts & Harris, 1989). E v e n though a n u m b e r of t h e s e efforts r e q u i r e a v a r i e t y of c o r p o r a t e c o m m i t m e n t s , i n c l u d i n g financial support, m a n y companies see a return on their investments because of i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i v i t y a n d r e d u c e d a b s e n t e e i s m a n d s t r e s s - r e l a t e d i l l n e s s (Roberts & Harris, 1989).

Stress: Social Interaction and Social Support O u t s i d e of b u s i n e s s , m a n a g e m e n t , a n d p o p u l a r l i t e r a t u r e , s c h o l a r s in s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y a r e a l s o s t u d y i n g s t r e s s a n d its c o n c o m i t a n t e f f e c t s . M a s l a c h ( 1 9 8 2 ) a n d M a s l a c h a n d J a c k s o n ( 1 9 8 2 ) w e r e a m o n g t h e first r e s e a r c h e r s to r e c o g n i z e that b e i n g o v e r w h e l m e d b y s t r e s s is n o t s i m p l y a r e s u l t o f j o b d e s i g n . M o r e t h a n a d e c a d e a g o , t h e y s u g g e s t e d t h a t b u r n o u t is e s p e c i a l l y a c u t e a m o n g h u m a n s e r v i c e w o r k e r s b e c a u s e of t h e i r c o n s t a n t c o n t a c t o r i n t e r ­ a c t i o n w i t h p e o p l e . S t r e s s from p r o l o n g e d i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t c a n l e a d to b u r n o u t . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e a u t h o r s d e l i n e a t e d t h e o u t c o m e v a r i a b l e s of e m o ­ t i o n a l e x h a u s t i o n , d e p e r s o n a l i z a t i o n , a n d a r e d u c e d s e n s e of p e r s o n a l a c c o m ­ p l i s h m e n t . Emotional exhaustion refers to a d e p l e t i o n of e m o t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s a n d t h e f e e l i n g that o n e h a s n o t h i n g left to g i v e to t h o s e w h o m a k e d e m a n d s in the w o r k p l a c e . B a s e d o n this s e n s e of e m o t i o n a l e x h a u s t i o n , depersonaliza­ tion, o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a c a l l o u s a n d n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e a b o u t t h e p e o p l e with w h o m o n e works, can ensue. Another psychological aspect of stress and

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b u r n o u t is a p e r c e i v e d s e n s e of reduced personal accomplishment, w h i c h is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a f e e l i n g t h a t a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s fall s h o r t o f e x p e c t a t i o n s . T h e s e t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s of s t r e s s a n d b u r n o u t c a n u l t i m a t e l y l e a d t o d e c r e a s e d q u a l i t y of w o r k , j o b d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n , p e r s o n a l d y s f u n c t i o n , a n d e m p l o y e e t u r n ­ over ( M a s l a c h , 1982; M a s l a c h & J a c k s o n , 1982). H e r e , the o u t c o m e s of stress a r e s e e n a s s p e c i f i c t o t h e e m p l o y e e r a t h e r t h a n a s d e t r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s for t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of e m p l o y e e t u r n o v e r , w h i c h m a y b e s e e n in e i t h e r w a y ) . O t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s in s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e w a y s t h a t s t r e s s is m a n a g e d t h r o u g h s o c i a l s u p p o r t . C a s s e l ( 1 9 7 4 ) p r o p o s e d t h e s t r e s s buffering hypothesis, which has been widely tested (Cohen & Wills, 1985; L i n , W o e l f e l , & L i g h t , 1 9 8 6 ; W i l c o x , 1 9 8 1 ) . T h i s h y p o t h e s i s is b a s e d o n t h e assumption that social support operates as a buffer against the harmful effects of stressful life e v e n t s . S o c i a l s u p p o r t c a n i n t e r v e n e b e t w e e n t h e s t r e s s o r a n d t h e s t r e s s r e s p o n s e in o n e of t w o w a y s . F i r s t , s u p p o r t m a y i n t e r c e d e b e t w e e n the stressful event and the distressed r e s p o n s e by d i m i n i s h i n g or p r e v e n t i n g the stress reaction (see also C u t r o n a & Russell, 1990, for a d i s c u s s i o n of their r e l a t e d m o d e l of o p t i m a l m a t c h i n g b e t w e e n s t r e s s a n d s o c i a l s u p p o r t ) . In o t h e r words, support by others redefines and decreases the potentially harmful i m p a c t of t h e s t r e s s o r o r b o l s t e r s o n e ' s a b i l i t y t o c o p e , t h u s d e c r e a s i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e e v e n t is p e r c e i v e d as s t r e s s f u l . S e c o n d , s o c i a l s u p p o r t m a y m e d i a t e b e t w e e n t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e s t r e s s f u l e v e n t a n d t h e o n s e t of p a t h o l ­ o g y b y e l i m i n a t i n g t h e stressful s i t u a t i o n o r i n f l u e n c i n g a p o s i t i v e p s y c h o l o g i ­ cal o r p h y s i c a l r e s p o n s e t o t h e stressful e v e n t . T h i s p e r s p e c t i v e c o n c e p t u a l ­ i z e s s o c i a l s u p p o r t a s h a v i n g a b u f f e r i n g i n f l u e n c e , r a t h e r t h a n a m a i n effect, o n t h e s t r a i n of an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r e s s o r .

Stress: Communication and Connectedness Organizational and managerial c o m m u n i c a t i o n scholars w h o e m p l o y a tra­ ditional perspective focus on the idea that working conditions, including envi­ ronmental factors and interaction with others, can c a u s e stress and burnout. F o r e x a m p l e , K. M i l l e r a n d h e r c o l l e a g u e s ( M i l l e r , B i r k h o l t , S c o t t , & S t a g e , 1 9 9 5 ; M i l l e r et al. 1 9 9 0 ; M i l l e r , Stiff, & E l l i s , 1 9 8 8 ; M i l l e r , Z o o k , & E l l i s , 1 9 8 9 ) f o u n d t h a t c e r t a i n f o r m s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n m e d i a t e o r offset t h e i m p a c t of s t r e s s o n b u r n o u t . In a d d i t i o n , M i l l e r e t al. ( 1 9 8 8 ) p r o p o s e d a n d t e s t e d t h e e m p a t h i c c o m m u n i c a t i o n m o d e l of burnout. T h i s f r a m e w o r k specifies d i m e n ­ s i o n s of e m o t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d f r o m t h e s e d i m e n s i o n s p r e d i c t s e m p l o y e e l e v e l s of c o m m u n i c a t i v e r e s p o n s i v e n e s s . T w o d i m e n s i o n s o f emotional c o m m u n i c a t i o n are suggested: emotional contagion and e m p a t h i c c o n c e r n . Emotional contagion r e f e r s to a p a r a l l e l r e s p o n s e t o t h e s u p p o r t r e c i p i e n t o r feeling with a n o t h e r , w h e r e a s empathic concern r e f e r s t o a g e n ­ e r a l c o n c e r n for t h e w e l f a r e of a n o t h e r o r feeling for a n o t h e r ( s e e a l s o P i n e s , 1982). Although the term, empathic concern, generally denotes feeling with

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the o t h e r p e r s o n , t h e s e a u t h o r s use a different c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n — m o r e a l o n g t h e l i n e s of s y m p a t h y r a t h e r t h a n e m p a t h y . M i l l e r et al. ( 1 9 8 8 ) s u g g e s t t h a t e m p a t h i c c o n c e r n s h o u l d b e the c o m m u n i c a t i v e r e s p o n s e of c h o i c e to a v o i d s t r e s s a n d b u r n o u t . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , the a u t h o r s p o i n t o u t t h a t , w h e n n e g a ­ t i v e l y v a l a n c e d in t h e d i r e c t i o n of e m o t i o n a l c o n t a g i o n , c o m m u n i c a t i v e r e s p o n s i v e n e s s c a n lead to e m o t i o n a l e x h a u s t i o n , d e p e r s o n a l i z a t i o n , a n d reduced personal accomplishment. S i n c e its initial c o n c e p t i o n , this g e n e r a l e m p a t h i c m o d e l of c o m m u n i c a ­ t i o n , s t r e s s , a n d b u r n o u t h a s b e e n r e f i n e d to i n c l u d e o t h e r a s p e c t s of t h e w o r k environment, including role stress and workload. Recent research (Miller e t a l . , 1990; Miller e t a l . , 1989; Starnaman & Miller, 1992) reveals that partic­ i p a t i o n in d e c i s i o n m a k i n g a n d s o c i a l s u p p o r t f r o m s u p e r v i s o r s a n d c o w o r k e r s h a v e an i n v e r s e i m p a c t on s t r e s s a n d b u r n o u t , a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n , a n d c o m m i t m e n t to t h e j o b for b o t h h u m a n s e r v i c e w o r k e r s a n d s u p p o r t staff. S e v e r a l r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e e x t e n d e d the i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d stress by exploring interpersonal connectedness. For e x a m p l e , R a y ( 1 9 9 1 ; see a l s o R a y , 1 9 8 7 ) e x a m i n e d t h e r o l e of i n f o r m a l n e t w o r k s in t h e a l l e v i a t i o n of j o b stress and burnout through supportive c o m m u n i c a t i o n . Each role within the n e t w o r k e x p e r i e n c e d a different l e v e l of s t r e s s . I s o l a t e s , for e x a m p l e , r e p o r t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y less s t r e s s a n d b u r n o u t t h a n d y a d m e m b e r s , g r o u p m e m ­ b e r s , a n d n e t w o r k l i n k e r s (for a n o t a b l e e x c e p t i o n , s e e R a y , 1 9 9 0 ) . O t h e r s t u d ­ ies s u g g e s t that g r o u p m e m b e r s r e p o r t s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s b u r n o u t t h a n n e t w o r k l i n k e r s ( e . g . , A l b r e c h t , I r e y , & M u n d y , 1 9 8 2 ) . In a d d i t i o n , S t a r n a m a n a n d M i l l e r ( 1 9 9 2 ) f o u n d that s t r u c t u r a l v a r i a b l e s a n d p e r c e p t i o n s of s o c i a l s u p p o r t in the w o r k p l a c e i n f l u e n c e l e v e l s of s t r e s s a n d b u r n o u t . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of this r e s e a r c h s u g g e s t not o n l y that t h e e x i s t e n c e of s u p p o r t i v e c o m m u n i c a t i o n is i m p o r t a n t ( T h o i t s , 1 9 9 5 ; Z i m m e r m a n n & A p p l e g a t e , 1 9 9 4 ) b u t t h a t t h e d e p t h , b r e a d t h , a n d s h a r e d d e f i n i t i o n of n e t w o r k r o l e s a r e k e y to u n d e r s t a n d ­ ing t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n n e t w o r k p o s i t i o n s a n d s t r e s s a n d b u r n o u t . V a r i o u s a t t r i b u t e s of w o r k e r s h a v e a l s o b e e n e x a m i n e d in m o d e l s of s t r e s s and b u r n o u t . Ellis a n d M i l l e r ( 1 9 9 3 , 1 9 9 4 ) p r o p o s e d a n d t e s t e d a m o d e l of w o r k e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n in w h i c h n u r s e s ' i n v o l v e m e n t a n d c o m m u n i c a t i v e a s s e r ­ t i v e n e s s w e r e p r e d i c t o r v a r i a b l e s of t h e o u t c o m e v a r i a b l e s of e m o t i o n a l e x h a u s t i o n , j o b c o m m i t m e n t , a n d i n t e n t to r e m a i n w i t h t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . P e r ­ s o n a l c o n t r o l w a s u s e d as t h e m o d e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e that p r e d i c t e d t h e o u t c o m e v a r i a b l e s . R e s u l t s of this r e s e a r c h s u g g e s t that p e r s o n a l c o n t r o l in t h e w o r k ­ p l a c e is an i m p o r t a n t factor to c o n s i d e r in a d d i t i o n to o t h e r a s p e c t s of o r g a n i ­ zational structure and working conditions. On the basis of the p r e v i o u s m o d ­ e l s , M i l l e r et al. ( 1 9 9 5 ) r e c e n t l y d e v e l o p e d a n d t e s t e d an i n t e g r a t e d m o d e l of s t r e s s a n d b u r n o u t that i n c l u d e s t h e f a c t o r s of j o b i n v o l v e m e n t , o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r o l e s , a n d a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s e r v i c e r e c i p i e n t s (i.e., c l i e n t s a n d c u s t o m e r s ) as p r e d i c t o r s of s t r e s s , b u r n o u t , a n d r e l a t e d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l o u t c o m e s . T h e r e v i s e d m o d e l r e p l i c a t e d e a r l i e r f i n d i n g s that e m p h a s i z e t h e i n f l u e n c e of c o n ­

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textual variables, such as workload, j o b i n v o l v e m e n t , role conflict, and role a m b i g u i t y , o n m o d e r a t i n g t h e p r o c e s s e s of b u r n o u t a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m ­ m i t m e n t . H o w e v e r , t h e s e a u t h o r s c a l l for f u r t h e r s t u d i e s t h a t a d d r e s s t h e c o m ­ p l i c a t e d n a t u r e of s t r e s s in o r g a n i z a t i o n s . A l t h o u g h w e h a v e learned a great deal from these traditional studies of s t r e s s , m u c h r e m a i n s to b e e x p l o r e d . In t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n , w e s u g g e s t t h a t , b y r e t h i n k i n g o r r e f r a m i n g a p h e n o m e n o n , an a l t e r n a t i v e p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t c a n f u r t h e r i l l u m i n a t e t h e s u b j e c t of s t u d y m a y s u r f a c e . F u r t h e r m o r e , a n d m o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y , w e b e l i e v e t h a t a f e m i n i s t a p p r o a c h h a s m u c h t o offer o n t h e t o p i c of s t r e s s .

RETHINKING AND REFRAMING F r a m i n g is a w e l l - d e v e l o p e d c o n c e p t t h a t r e f e r s t o h o w p e o p l e o r g a n i z e a n d interpret communicative behavior. Anthropologist Gregory Bateson has been c r e d i t e d w i t h the d e v e l o p m e n t of f r a m i n g ( G o f f m a n , 1 9 7 4 ) . In t u r n , B a t e s o n ( 1 9 7 2 ) c r e d i t s s u c h r e n o w n e d s c h o l a r s a s W h i t e h e a d , R u s s e l l , a n d W h o r f for i n f l u e n c i n g h i s d e v e l o p m e n t of f r a m i n g . B a t e s o n c o n c e i v e d o f t h e f r a m e a s a f o r m of metacommunication. S p e c i f i c a l l y , for B a t e s o n ( 1 9 7 2 ) , " T h e f r a m e is i n v o l v e d in t h e e v a l u a t i o n of t h e m e s s a g e . . . . A s s u c h t h e f r a m e is m e t a c o m m u n i c a t i v e " (p. 188). Simply put, w e c o m m u n i c a t e about our c o m ­ m u n i c a t i o n in t h e a c t of c o m m u n i c a t i n g . T h u s , as c o m m u n i c a t i o n c o m m u n i ­ c a t e s a b o u t itself, b e it in a s u b t l e o r o b v i o u s m a n n e r , a m e t a l e v e l o f m e a n i n g s a p p e a r s . D r a w i n g an e x a m p l e f r o m B a t e s o n ' s w o r k m i g h t m a k e t h i s p h i l o s o ­ p h y of f r a m i n g m o r e c l e a r . B a t e s o n ' s o b s e r v a t i o n s o f a n i m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s u g g e s t that a n i m a l s i n i t i a t e p l a y f u l f i g h t i n g w i t h e a c h o t h e r t h a t c a n b e d i s ­ tinguished from aggressive fighting. This observation led Bateson to surmise t h a t h u m a n s h o l d an e q u a l or m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d a b i l i t y t o c o m m e n t o n t h e i r o w n c o m m u n i c a t i v e a c t s . T h i s c o m m e n t a r y is c a l l e d metacommunication, a n d t h e v a r i e t y of w a y s t h a t w e c o m m e n t o n o u r c o m m u n i c a t i o n is c a l l e d framing. D e f i n i t i o n s of f r a m i n g a r e m u l t i p l e a n d d i v e r s e , y e t t h e y c a r r y w i t h i n t h e m Bateson's original premise. For example, Goffman (1974) purports,

My point is to try to isolate some of the basic frameworks of understanding avail­ able in our society for making sense out of events and to analyze the special vulner­ abilities to which these frames of reference are subject. I start with the fact that from an individual's particular point of view, while one thing may momentarily appear to be what is really going on, in fact what is actually happening is plainly a joke, or a dream, or an accident, or a mistake, or a misunderstanding, or a decep­ tion, or a theatrical performance, and so forth. And attention will be directed to what it is about our sense of what is going on that makes it so vulnerable to the need of these various readings, (p. 10)

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T h e v u l n e r a b i l i t y t h a t G o f f m a n d i s c u s s e s c r e a t e s a s p a c e for a s p e c i f i c r e a d ­ ing of t h e e v e n t s . A c c o r d i n g to G o f f m a n , i n t e r a c t i o n s a r e o r g a n i z e d t h r o u g h f r a m e s , w h i c h h e l p p e o p l e to m a k e s e n s e of t h e w o r l d . O t h e r s c h o l a r s c o n c e p ­ t u a l i z e f r a m e s as r h e t o r i c a l p r a c t i c e s . F o r e x a m p l e , b o t h S t a h l ( 1 9 8 9 ) a n d C l a i r ( 1 9 9 1 , 1 9 9 3 b ) r e l y o n t h e d i s c u r s i v e a n d r h e t o r i c a l a s p e c t s of n a r r a t i v e to g r o u n d t h e i r d e f i n i t i o n s o f f r a m i n g . S p e c i f i c a l l y , C l a i r ( 1 9 9 3 b ) c o n c e i v e s of f r a m e s as p e r s u a s i v e " d e v i c e s [that] a r e r h e t o r i c a l / d i s c u r s i v e p r a c t i c e s that d e f i n e o r a s s i g n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n to t h e s o c i a l e v e n t " ( p . 1 1 8 ) . P u t n a m a n d H o l m e r ( 1 9 9 2 ) c o n t r i b u t e to t h e r h e t o r i c a l a n d p e r s u a s i o n f o c u s o n f r a m i n g b y e x p l o r i n g c o n f l i c t a n d n e g o t i a t i o n e p i s o d e s as w a y s of e s t a b l i s h i n g l i n e s of argument concerning boundaries around issues that occur during interaction. S i m i l a r l y , F a i r h u r s t a n d S a r r ( 1 9 9 6 ) d e f i n e f r a m i n g in l e a d e r s h i p as " a q u a l i t y of c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h a t c a u s e s o t h e r s to a c c e p t o n e m e a n i n g o v e r a n o t h e r " ( p . x i ) . T h u s , r e s e a r c h e r s often c o n c e i v e of f r a m e s as r h e t o r i c a l l y p e r s u a s i v e c o m m e n t a r i e s , w i t h i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o p e n to d e b a t e . H o w e v e r , j u s t h o w o p e n this d e b a t e is r a i s e s q u e s t i o n s a b o u t p o w e r , o p p r e s s i o n , r e s i s t a n c e , c h a l l e n g e , a n d t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s for c h a n g e . W h o a s s i g n s m e a n i n g t o an e v e n t o r h o w a f r a m e c o m e s to h o l d s u a s i o n is not so e a s i l y d e t e r m i n e d . A s s u c h , f r a m i n g o r reframing constitutes a sociopolitical practice that defines reality and assigns m e a n i n g ( s ) to o u r s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s . T h e p e r s u a s i v e n e s s of a f r a m e m a y r a n g e f r o m b e i n g so s t r o n g t h a t o n e w o u l d n e v e r t h i n k to q u e s t i o n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of e v e n t s to b e i n g an o b v i o u s d e c o y for o t h e r i n t e n t i o n s . W h e n a f r a m e is s o l i d i f i e d b y s o c i e t y , it is d e e m e d reified. R e i f i e d or n o t , f r a m e s , as d i s c u r s i v e p r a c t i c e s , a r e o p e n to c h a l l e n g e a n d d e b a t e , e v e n t h o u g h , at t i m e s , t h e y s e e m i m m u t a b l e . A t o t h e r t i m e s , t h e y may be openly accepted while they are being secretly c h a l l e n g e d . For e x a m ­ p l e , C l a i r ( 1 9 9 3 b , 1 9 9 8 ) p r o v i d e s s e v e r a l e x a m p l e s r e l a t e d to s e x u a l h a r a s s ­ m e n t in w h i c h w o m e n say that m e n w a n t t h e m to t h i n k of it a s a j o k e ; t h e w o m e n m a y l a u g h a n d " b l o w it off," but t h e y a l s o r e p o r t k n o w i n g t h a t it is n o t a joke. O v e r t h e y e a r s , r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e e m p l o y e d t h e c o n c e p t of f r a m i n g a c r o s s a v a r i e t y of s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s . S e v e r a l s c h o l a r s h a v e t a k e n a d v a n t a g e of t h e p r e ­ c e p t t h a t d i s c o u r s e s a r e c h a l l e n g e a b l e b y p r o v i d i n g a l t e r n a t i v e f r a m e s to u n ­ derstand social practices. As Clair (1993b) points out, Several scholars have used the concept of framing to understand such concepts as interpersonal relations (Rawlins, 1987), leader-member exchange (Fairhurst & Chandler, 1989), conflict and negotiation (Putnam & Holmer, 1992), the paradox of professional women (Wood & Conrad, 1983), and sexual harassment (Clair, 1991, 1993[b]; Clair, McGoun, & Spirek, 1993). (p. 151) S t u d i e s t h a t e m p l o y f r a m i n g as a w a y of u n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s are created and sustained, or challenged and c h a n g e d , help to shed light on

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p r o b l e m s t h a t p e o p l e f a c e e v e r y d a y . In a d d i t i o n to b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d r h e t o r i ­ cal p o l i t i c a l p r a c t i c e s , f r a m e s c a n b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s b o t h a n a c t i v e p r a c t i c e a n d an o u t c o m e . T h e f o l l o w i n g a r t i s t i c a n a l o g y is i n t e n d e d t o p r o v i d e c l a r i f i ­ c a t i o n of t h i s p o s i t i o n . I m a g i n e an a r t i s t w h o is s t a n d i n g b e f o r e a c o l l e c t i o n o f o b j e c t s ( e . g . , a p i t c h e r , a f e w w o o d e n s p o o n s , a n d a v a r i e t y of fruits) t h a t a r e c u s h i o n e d in t h e f o l d s of a soft t e r r y c l o t h t o w e l o n t o p o f a t a b l e . A n a r t i s t m i g h t s t a n d b e f o r e a still life s u c h as t h i s w i t h t w o s m a l l c a r d b o a r d p i e c e s , e a c h c u t i n t o t h e s h a p e of a n " L . " H e o r s h e m i g h t u s e t h e L s h a p e s to c r e a t e a f r a m e a r o u n d t h e still life. B y p l a c i n g t h e L s t o g e t h e r , t h e a r t i s t c a n e l o n g a t e t h e f r a m e , m o v e t h e f r a m e f r o m left t o r i g h t o r r i g h t to left, c r o p o u t t h e t a b l e l e g s f r o m v i e w , o r r e d u c e t h e a m o u n t of b a c k g r o u n d t h a t is v i s i b l e . T h e L h e l p s t o f r a m e t h e still life in t h e a r t i s t ' s i m a g e b e f o r e p a i n t i n g b e g i n s . S o m e artists throw a w a y the L shapes altogether; instead, they look inside t h e p i t c h e r , t a s t e t h e fruit, lift t h e w o o d e n s p o o n s , o r t o u c h t h e t o w e l b e f o r e e m b a r k i n g o n an a r t i s t i c r e n d e r i n g t h a t m a y b e m o r e s u r r e a l i s t i c t h a n r e a l i s t i c . T h e w a y t h e y frame t h e c o m p o s i t i o n m a y b e d r a s t i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m an a r t ­ ist w h o u s e s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l L s h a p e . A p p r o a c h e s t o p a i n t i n g a still life m a y range from realistic renderings to surreal illusions, from impressionist state­ m e n t s to a b s t r a c t c u b i s t c o m m e n t a r i e s . In o u r m e t a p h o r i c a l i m a g e of f r a m i n g , w e r e m o v e t h e t e r m frame f r o m its m o r e c o m m o n r e f e r e n t a s t h e m a t e r i a l p i e c e s t h a t a r e fitted a r o u n d a f i n i s h e d p r o d u c t ( e . g . , a p a i n t i n g , p h o t o g r a p h , o r b a s relief) t o g i v e it b o r d e r s a n d t o l i m i t its m e a n i n g to a c e r t a i n s p a c e ; i n s t e a d , w e d r a w o n t h e a c t i v e f r a m i n g an a r t i s t e n a c t s as p a r t of t h e c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s . In s h o r t , w e r e f r a m e d t h e c o n c e p t of f r a m i n g . F r a m i n g c o n t r i b u t e s to t h e w a y s in w h i c h t h e s t a t e m e n t s will b e c r e a t e d a n d v i e w e d in t h e a b o v e e x a m p l e : O n e is m o r e d i r e c t l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e final p r o d u c t , a n d t h e o t h e r is m o r e r e l a t e d to t h e p r o c e s s . E a c h f r a m e c o n t r i b u t e s to t h e w a y that w e s e e t h i n g s a n d c o m e t o k n o w t h e w o r l d . F r a m e s a r e p e r s u a s i v e . F r a m i n g c a n b e a p o w e r f u l m e a n s of c r e a t i n g a n d i n t e r p r e t i n g r e a l i t y . F u r t h e r m o r e , a r e a l i s t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e still life is n o m o r e c o r ­ rect than the abstract or surrealist interpretation. T h e y are p e r s u a s i o n s , dis­ c o u r s e s , a n d r e n d e r i n g s ( s e e C l a i r , 1 9 9 8 , for a d i s c u s s i o n o f a e s t h e t i c t h e o r y and organizational communication). H o w e v e r , t h i s is n o t t o say t h a t t h e p a i n t i n g s o r f r a m i n g s a r e v a l u e free. B i a s is i n h e r e n t l y a part of the picture w h e t h e r o n e is r e f e r r i n g t o a r t o r r e ­ s e a r c h o r b o t h : " E v e r y w a y o f s e e i n g is a w a y of n o t s e e i n g " ( B u r k e , 1 9 3 5 , p . 7 0 ) . A s L a n g e r ( 1 9 5 1 ) p o i n t s o u t , t h e w a y s of s e e i n g i n f l u e n c e b o t h t h e questions w e ask and the answers we derive. Every representation has impli­ c a t i o n s . A t t i m e s , t h o s e i m p l i c a t i o n s m a y b e m o s t p r o f o u n d for w o m e n . A s Flax suggests, " H o w gender relations are constituted and e x p e r i e n c e d and h o w we think or, equally important, do not think about them m a y h a v e a pro­ f o u n d i m p a c t o n o u r l i v e s " ( a s c i t e d in B u z z a n e l l , 1 9 9 4 , p . 3 4 1 ) .

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COMMUNICATION FROM FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES

In t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s o f this c h a p t e r , w e r e f r a m e s t r e s s b y d i s c u s s i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s for a f e m i n i s t f r a m i n g o f t h e p h e n o m e n o n . B y p l a c i n g w o m e n ' s n e e d s at t h e c e n t e r of o u r d i s c u s s i o n , w e h o p e to h i g h l i g h t s o m e a s p e c t s of s t r e s s that h a v e r e c e i v e d l e s s a t t e n t i o n f r o m s c h o l a r s . B u t first w e p r e s e n t an o v e r v i e w o f w h a t is m e a n t b y a f e m i n i s t f r a m i n g .

A FEMINIST FRAMING OF STRESS T o s u g g e s t t h a t a f r a m i n g c a n b e f e m i n i s t is to s u g g e s t t h a t f e m i n i s m c a n b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y c e r t a i n p r i n c i p l e s . In g e n e r a l , t h i s m a y b e t r u e , b u t b e c a u s e various feminist theories exist (see Buzzanell, 1993, 1994; T o n g , 1989), both complementary and competing feminist views could color any interpretation of s t r e s s . R a t h e r t h a n s i n g l e o u t a s p e c i f i c f e m i n i s t t h e o r y , w e d r a w f r o m t h e g e n e r a l t e n e t s of f e m i n i s m t h a t a r g u e t h a t " w o m e n ' s i s s u e s " h a v e b e e n marginalized, devalued, and sequestered to the private realm. F u r t h e r m o r e , w h a t c o n s t i t u t e s " w o m e n ' s i s s u e s " a r e l i k e l y t o b e i s s u e s of c o n c e r n to s o c i e t y as a w h o l e , e v e n t h o u g h t h e y h a v e b e e n d i s g u i s e d a s s o l e l y w o m e n ' s c o n ­ c e r n s . W i t h r e g a r d to s t r e s s , a c o m p l i c a t e d s e t of c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s l e a d s t o a deception that perpetuates the current sociopolitical a r r a n g e m e n t . A feminist r e t h i n k i n g or r e f r a m i n g of s t r e s s h o l d s a n u m b e r o f h o p e s for o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and managerial c o m m u n i c a t i o n scholars: to highlight stressful situations that m a y n o t h a v e r e c e i v e d t h e s a m e l e g i t i m a t i o n as c u r r e n t " w o r k p l a c e " c o n c e p ­ t u a l i z a t i o n s of s t r e s s ; to a d v a n c e a m o r e h o l i s t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s t r e s s as a s o c i o p o l i t i c a l p h e n o m e n o n ; to p o i n t o u t t h e d i s c u r s i v e a s w e l l as t h e m a t e r i a l a s p e c t s o f s t r e s s ; a n d to e x p o s e t h e w a y s in w h i c h w o m e n ' s w o r k - r e l a t e d s t r e s s is far t o o often p r i v a t i z e d . W e d i s c u s s e a c h o f t h e s e " r e f r a m i n g s " in t h e s u b s e q u e n t f o u r s e c t i o n s of this c h a p t e r .

Legitimating Marginalized Forms of Stress I m a g e s of s t r e s s t h a t h i g h l i g h t o v e r w o r k e d m a n a g e r s w h o a r e s t r u g g l i n g t o m e e t c o r p o r a t e d e a d l i n e s l e g i t i m i z e a s p e c i f i c c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f s t r e s s . In d o i n g s o , i m a g e s of s t r e s s b e c o m e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c e r t a i n p e o p l e o r p a r t i c u l a r j o b s . R e s e a r c h t h a t d r a w s its s u b j e c t p o o l f r o m a w i d e r a r r a y o f p o s s i b i l i t i e s (of b o t h p e o p l e a n d j o b s ) c o n t r i b u t e s to a m o r e b a l a n c e d c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of s t r e s s . F o r e x a m p l e , R a y ( 1 9 9 1 ) s t u d i e s e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l t e a c h e r s ; K. M i l l e r a n d h e r c o l l e a g u e s ( M i l l e r et al., 1 9 8 8 , 1 9 9 5 ) s t u d y h u m a n s e r v i c e w o r k e r s ; and Albrecht and R o p p (1982) and Ellis and Miller ( 1 9 9 3 , 1994) o b s e r v e n u r s e s . E a c h o f t h e s e s t u d i e s c o n t r i b u t e s to a f e m i n i s t r e t h i n k i n g o f s t r e s s b y including w o m e n and occupations that are female d o m i n a t e d and by explor­ i n g w o r k p l a c e s that are g e n e r a l l y i g n o r e d b e c a u s e t h e y l a c k b i g - b u s i n e s s interests.

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T h e s t o r y of R o s e ( w h i c h a p p e a r s e a r l i e r in t h i s c h a p t e r ) , t h e m o t h e r o f five c h i l d r e n u n d e r t h e a g e of 3 , p r o v i d e s a n o t h e r a v e n u e for e x t e n d i n g o u r s t u d i e s of s t r e s s . R o s e ' s w o r k a s a m o t h e r a n d h o m e m a k e r h a s b e e n d e l e g i t i m a t e d in s o c i e t y b y c a p i t a l i s t s t a n d a r d s . W h a t to d o a b o u t t h i s k i n d o f d e l e g i t i m a t i o n has been debated by n u m e r o u s feminists (e.g., Clair & T h o m p s o n , 1996; D e l p h y , 1984; L o p a t e , 1974; M a c K i n n o n , 1989). N e v e r t h e l e s s , little attention h a s b e e n g i v e n t o m o t h e r i n g a n d h o m e m a k i n g as l e g i t i m a t e s o u r c e s o f w o r k r e l a t e d s t r e s s . T h u s , e v e n l e s s a t t e n t i o n h a s b e e n g i v e n to h o w t h i s f o r m of s t r e s s is r e l a t e d t o t h e m a c r o o r g a n i z a t i o n of s o c i e t y . T h e w o r k i t s e l f m u s t b e l e g i t i m a t e d as v a l u a b l e in o r d e r for t h e r e l a t e d s t r e s s to b e g i v e n s e r i o u s a t t e n ­ t i o n . T o o o f t e n , m a r g i n a l i z e d j o b s a r e p e r c e i v e d as supporting real work r a t h e r t h a n being r e a l w o r k ( s e e C l a i r , 1 9 9 6 ) . T h e s t u d y of s t r e s s r e l a t e d t o u n d e r v a l u e d j o b s ( e . g . , s u p p o r t staff, s e r v e r s , s e r v i c e p e r s o n n e l , p a r t - t i m e a n d t e m p o r a r y w o r k e r s , o r m a r g i n a l i z e d j o b s s u c h as b a b y - s i t t i n g , d a y c a r e , o r u n s k i l l e d l a b o r ) is d e s e r v i n g of f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h .

Stress as a Sociopolitical Concern Although studying individual-level stress based on work-related d e m a n d s a n d d e a d l i n e s ( e . g . , S h i n j i M a s a m i ' s s t o r y of s t r e s s t h a t w a s p r e s e n t e d at t h e o p e n i n g of t h i s c h a p t e r ) is i m p o r t a n t , it c a n n o t p r o v i d e a full p i c t u r e o f s t r e s s in s o c i e t y . F i r s t , s o m e j o b s ( e . g . , m o t h e r i n g ) a r e s o m a r g i n a l i z e d t h a t t h e y a r e n o t e v e n g r a n t e d t h e l e g i t i m a c y t o b e i n c l u d e d in s t u d i e s o f w o r k - r e l a t e d stress. Second, the focus on individual outcomes isolates the relational a s p e c t s of s t r e s s . F i n a l l y , b y f o c u s i n g o n j o b d e m a n d s a n d s t r e s s f u l o u t c o m e s at t h e m i c r o l e v e l , r e s e a r c h e r s n e g l e c t to s e e t h a t t h e m i c r o is t h e m a c r o ( s e e G i d d e n s , 1 9 7 9 , 1 9 8 4 ) o r t h a t o n e w o m a n ' s s t o r y is an a r t i c u l a t i o n of t h e g e n ­ d e r s t r u c t u r i n g of s o c i e t y . T r a d i t i o n a l v i e w s o f s t r e s s far t o o o f t e n l e a v e t h e s o c i o p o l i t i c a l a s p e c t s o f stress u n m e n t i o n e d and unchallenged. T o incorporate a microlevel and m a c r o l e v e l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of s t r e s s , w e as r e s e a r c h e r s n e e d t o r e t h i n k a n d r e f r a m e d e f i n i t i o n s a n d c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s of s t r e s s . W e n e e d t o e x p l o r e i n d i ­ v i d u a l s as m o r e t h a n w o r k e r s ; w e n e e d to i n v e s t i g a t e t h e c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n a m a r g i n a l i z e d s t a t u s a n d s t r e s s at w o r k ; w e n e e d t o r e d e f i n e w h a t c o n s t i t u t e s " w o r k " ; a n d w e n e e d to q u e s t i o n h o w " l e g i t i m a t e " o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n t e r a c t w i t h e a c h o t h e r to s e c u r e a " w o r k f o r c e " t h a t r a r e l y c h a l l e n g e s t h e e v e r y d a y o r g a n i ­ z a t i o n of s o c i e t y o r t h e s t r e s s t h a t u n d e r g i r d s t h e c u r r e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n o f s o c i ­ e t y . W e n e e d t o a s k q u e s t i o n s : W h y is s t r e s s t r e a t e d as t h o u g h o n l y t h e i n d i ­ vidual can r e m e d y the situation (see Hank, 1997)? W h y are certain issues r e l e g a t e d to t h e p e r s o n a l w h e n t h e y a r e p o l i t i c a l ? W h e n w i l l w e a l l o w t h e s e m i c r o m a n a g e d problems to be addressed by social thought and p o l i c y ? T h e e x i s t e n c e of a n u n d e r c u r r e n t of s t r e s s in o u r s o c i e t y n e e d s t o b e explored, not just as a " w o r k - r e l a t e d " p h e n o m e n o n but as w a v e s that spread

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o u t w a r d e n g a g i n g a b r o a d e r a n d m o r e c o m p l e x life e x p e r i e n c e . R o s e ' s t e l e ­ p h o n e call for h e l p n o t o n l y c a m e f r o m t h e p e r s o n a l s t r e s s e x p e r i e n c e o f h e r i n d i v i d u a l s i t u a t i o n ; it w a s a call r o o t e d in s o c i o p o l i t i c a l t e n s i o n s . R o s e ' s stress s p a w n e d not o n l y from h e r w o r k as t h e m o t h e r , w i f e , a n d c a r e t a k e r of the h o m e a n d f a m i l y but a l s o from h e r p o s i t i o n as a p o l i t i c a l l y m a r g i n a l i z e d a n d i s o l a t e d w o m a n in s o c i e t y b e c a u s e of h e r w o r k . A l t h o u g h e a r l i e r o n s h e s o u g h t h e l p to r e l i e v e h e r s t r e s s t h r o u g h s o c i a l s e r v i c e a g e n c i e s , t h e d o m i n a n t p o l i t i c a l p o w e r s t h a t o r g a n i z e s o c i e t y d e n i e d t h e v e r y e x i s t e n c e of h e r s t r e s s a n d r e f u s e d h e r t h e m u c h - n e e d e d a s s i s t a n c e that s h e r e q u e s t e d . In t h i s w a y , her microlevel stress experience speaks to larger, macrolevel societal struc­ t u r e s that d e n i e d h e r a s s i s t a n c e . W a s it b e c a u s e t h e s o u r c e of h e r s t r e s s w a s n o t seen as l e g i t i m a t e ? W a s h e r p o s i t i o n in s o c i e t y n o t s e e n a s d e s e r v i n g ? N o t until s h e c a l l e d t h e m a y o r a n d c h a l l e n g e d t h e s y s t e m in a p r o f o u n d l y d r a m a t i c way did she receive p r o m p t attention. W h e t h e r intentional or not, the call m a k e s an o v e r t l y p o l i t i c a l s t a t e m e n t . A l t h o u g h t h e m a y o r ' s i m m e d i a t e r e ­ s p o n s e c u r b e d o n e w o m a n ' s e x p e r i e n c e of s t r e s s , it d i d n o t b e g i n to c h a m p i o n s o c i a l r e f o r m that w o u l d r e c o g n i z e the g e n d e r a n d w o r k b i a s e s t h a t l i m i t o u r n o t i o n s of s t r e s s in g e n e r a l . O n the w h o l e , s t r e s s is s e e n a s an i n d i v i d u a l c o n ­ cern rather than a sociopolitical one. I r o n i c a l l y , o n c e t h e i s s u e is s u p p o s e d l y r e m e d i e d , y e t a n o t h e r c o n c e r n s u r ­ r o u n d i n g s t r e s s is r a i s e d . T h e v e r y p e o p l e w h o a r e a s s i g n e d the s o c i a l t a s k of a s s i s t i n g R o s e suffer i n c r e d i b l y h i g h l e v e l s of s t r e s s t h e m s e l v e s . S o c i a l w o r k is a f e m a l e - d o m i n a t e d o c c u p a t i o n , w h i c h is g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d l o w s t a t u s ( A l d r i d g e , 1 9 9 0 ; D a v e n p o r t & D a v e n p o r t , 1997) a n d is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y l o w p a y ( G i b e l m a n & S c h e r v i s h , 1 9 9 7 ; U . S . D e p a r t m e n t of L a b o r , 1 9 9 8 ) a n d a h i g h r a t e of b u r n o u t ( G u m m e r , 1 9 9 6 ; P o u l i n & W a l t e r , 1 9 9 3 ; S i e f e r t , J a y a r a t n e , & C h e s s , 1 9 9 1 ; S o d e r f e l d t , S o d e r f e l d t , & W a r g , 1 9 9 5 ) . In a d d i t i o n , t h e s e m a r g i n a l i z e d m e m b e r s of s o c i e t y a r e p l a c e d in t h e u n c o m f o r t a b l e p o s i ­ tion of e i t h e r c o n t r o l l i n g o r c a r i n g for o t h e r m a r g i n a l i z e d m e m b e r s o f s o c i e t y ( T a n c r e d - S h e r i f f , 1 9 8 9 ) . In e s s e n c e , t h o s e w h o a r e u n d e r s t r e s s a r e c a l l e d o n to c a r e for o t h e r s w h o a r e s t r e s s e d . S t r e s s h a s a r i p p l i n g effect.

Stress as a Discursive and Material Practice A l t h o u g h s t u d y i n g s t r e s s as an o u t c o m e v a r i a b l e h a s g e n e r a t e d i m p o r t a n t s t u d i e s a n d useful f i n d i n g s , this a p p r o a c h d o e s not d e v e l o p t h e c o m m u n i ­ c a t i v e a s p e c t s of s t r e s s itself. S t r e s s is an e x p r e s s i o n of t h e s o c i o p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of s o c i e t y . S t r e s s a r t i c u l a t e s the t e n s i o n s c r e a t e d b y a c a p i t a l i s t p a t r i a r c h a l o r d e r . It a n n o u n c e s t h e a n g e r a n d t h e f r u s t r a t i o n s p e o p l e find t h e m s e l v e s w i t h w h e n t r y i n g to live an i m p o s s i b l e r e a l i t y . A n d y e t t h i s a r t i c u ­ l a t i o n e b b s a n d f l o w s , it w a x e s a n d w a n e s . Life c a n n o t b e i m p o s s i b l e at all t i m e s o r p e o p l e w o u l d g i v e u p . T h e r e m u s t b e j u s t e n o u g h " g i v e " in t h e s y s t e m to a l l o w for t h e e x p r e s s i o n of a c c o m p l i s h m e n t , of a j o b w e l l d o n e , of t h e j o y s of c r e a t i o n , a n d t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n of s u c c e s s . F u r t h e r m o r e , s t r e s s a s a d i s c u r s i v e

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practice that p r o m o t e s the current capitalist and patriarchal characteristics of s o c i e t y m u s t n a m e itself a s a n o r m a l i z e d f u n c t i o n . It is to b e e x p e c t e d . J u s t a s d e a d l i n e s a r e to b e e x p e c t e d ( s e e C l a i r & K u n k e l , 1 9 9 8 ) , s t r e s s is n o r m a l i z e d to m a i n t a i n a n d e v e n e s c a l a t e p r o d u c t i o n a n d p r i v i l e g e . F r o m s t u d e n t s t o m a n ­ a g e r s , p e o p l e a r e e x p e c t e d to b e stressed out. N o r m a l i z a t i o n o r r e i f i c a t i o n o f a n y p h e n o m e n o n is a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h d i s c u r s i v e p r a c t i c e s ( F o u c a u l t , 1 9 7 6 / 1 9 9 0 ; s e e a l s o G i d d e n s , 1 9 7 9 , 1 9 8 4 ; M a c K i n n o n , 1 9 8 9 ) . S t r e s s is n o e x c e p ­ t i o n ; s t r e s s is a d i s c u r s i v e p r a c t i c e . H o w e v e r , s t r e s s is a l s o a m a t e r i a l p r a c t i c e . S t r e s s is p h y s i c a l l y p e r f o r m e d . It a c t s o n t h e b o d y . A n d t h e b o d y r e a c t s . T o f o r g e t t h e m a t e r i a l i t y of s t r e s s w o u l d c r e a t e a p o s t m o d e r n f i c t i o n . I n d e e d , t h e fiction d o e s e x i s t . S t r e s s is c r e a t e d for u s a n d b y u s . S t r e s s is a n a r r a t i v e b y w h i c h w e often l i v e , b u t t h a t n a r r a t i v e h a s p h y s i c a l i t y . 2

T h e s t o r y of R o s e d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e d i s c u r s i v e a n d m a t e r i a l a s p e c t s of s t r e s s . R o s e b o t h tells a s t o r y a n d is a s t o r y . H e r o w n s t o r y d e p i c t s t h e i n t e n s e e m o t i o n a l a n d p h y s i c a l a s p e c t s of s t r e s s t h a t d r i v e h e r t o t h e b r i n k of suicide. At the s a m e time, her story b e c o m e s a collective n a r r a t i v e — a story that s p e a k s o n b e h a l f of a w h o l e g r o u p o f p e o p l e ( R i c h a r d s o n , 1 9 9 5 ) . In t h i s case, parents—and more specifically, m o t h e r s — w i t h few resources available to t h e m a r e t h e c o l l e c t i v e b e i n g n a m e d . W h a t m o t h e r w o u l d n o t feel t h a t s h e h a d l i v e d at l e a s t a s m a l l p o r t i o n of R o s e ' s n a r r a t i v e ? A l l m o t h e r s b e c o m e c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n R o s e ' s n a r r a t i v e . T h e i r s t r e s s is c a p t u r e d a n d r e f l e c t e d in h e r s t r e s s . M o r e t h a n a c o l l e c t i v e n a r r a t i v e , R o s e ' s s t o r y is a n o p e n s e c r e t l i k e s o m a n y stories that w o m e n live. R o s e ' s experiences are sequestered, u n n a m e d , and virtually invisible. Sequestered stories deserve critical feminist attention ( C l a i r , 1 9 9 3 b ) . R e s e a r c h e r s n e e d to e x p l o r e t h e t u r n i n g p o i n t in t h e n a r r a t i v e s that f o r c e t h e s e q u e s t e r e d s t o r y i n t o p u b l i c v i e w as w e l l as t h e w a y s in w h i c h t h e s t o r i e s a r e s i l e n c e d . S t r e s s , t h e n , is b o t h an o u t c o m e a n d a n e x p r e s s i o n , b o t h p h y s i c a l a n d d i s c u r s i v e , b o t h o p p r e s s i o n a n d r e s i s t a n c e . S t r e s s is t h e body screaming out the silence.

Stress Transcends the Public-Versus-Private Dichotomy M a r x i s t f e m i n i s t s p r o v i d e d a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n in t h e i r e f f o r t s t o revive and revise Fredrich E n g e l ' s work on the private labor of w o m e n (see T o n g , 1989). Although m u c h has been d o n e to highlight " w o m e n ' s w o r k " o v e r t h e last few d e c a d e s , m o r e n e e d s to b e d o n e . W o m e n still o c c u p y t h e l a r g e s t p e r c e n t a g e of e m p l o y e e s in t h e l o w e s t - p a y i n g j o b s ( s e e C l a i r & T h o m p s o n , 1 9 9 6 ) . T h e i r w o r k as m o t h e r s , b a b y - s i t t e r s , a n d t h e g e n e r a l c a r e ­ g i v e r s ( W o o d , 1 9 9 4 ) is o f t e n m a r g i n a l i z e d as u n i m p o r t a n t t o a c a p i t a l i s t p a t r i ­ a r c h a l s o c i e t y a n d is r e l e g a t e d to a p r i v a t e , i n d i v i d u a l c o n c e r n . F r a s e r ( 1 9 8 9 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t p r i v a t i z i n g i s s u e s i m p r i n t s t h e m w i t h an i m a g e o f i n c o n t e s t a b i l ­ ity. If an i s s u e is n o t c o n t e s t a b l e , t h e n it is u n l i k e l y t o r e a c h t h e p u b l i c f o r u m . This effectively keeps the issue from being addressed through public policy.

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R o s e ' s story dramatically demonstrates a m o m e n t when a once-privatized c o n c e r n is f o r c e d i n t o a p u b l i c a r e n a . B y c a l l i n g t h e m a y o r ' s r a d i o t a l k s h o w , R o s e e f f e c t i v e l y q u e s t i o n s t h e w a y in w h i c h s o c i e t y h a s r e l e g a t e d h e r c o n ­ c e r n s to a p r i v a t e m a t t e r . S h e is q u i c k l y a s s i s t e d by p u b l i c s o c i a l s e r v i c e a g e n ­ c i e s as well as by h e r c o n c e r n e d n e i g h b o r s (i.e., b o t h p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e s o u r c e s of h e l p ) . B u t will p u b l i c p o l i c y c h a n g e ? T h e r e a s o n s R o s e c o u l d not g e t p u b l i c a s s i s t a n c e e a r l i e r a r e not c l e a r , b u t it is c l e a r t h a t s h e w a s in d e s p e r ­ ate n e e d . H e r story as a p u b l i c s t o r y will h e l p to d e p r i v a t i z e t h e s t r e s s a s s o c i ­ a t e d w i t h m o t h e r i n g a n d m a y c o n t r i b u t e to p u b l i c p o l i c y c h a n g e .

REFLECTING ON A FEMINIST REFRAMING OF STRESS Stress, a serious social concern, has received attention from scholars repre­ s e n t i n g a v a r i e t y of d i s c i p l i n e s . H o w e v e r , a f e m i n i s t f r a m i n g of s t r e s s h a s not b e e n w e l l d e v e l o p e d in past l i t e r a t u r e . In t h i s c h a p t e r , o u r g o a l w a s to i n t r o ­ d u c e t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of a f e m i n i s t r e f r a m i n g of s t r e s s . W e r e c o g n i z e t h a t it is still in n e e d o f f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t . N e v e r t h e l e s s , after r e v i e w i n g t r a d i t i o n a l a p p r o a c h e s to t h e s t u d y of s t r e s s , w e s u g g e s t e d that f o u r a r e a s w e r e in s p e c i f i c n e e d of a t t e n t i o n . F i r s t , u n d e r v a l u e d j o b s n e e d t o b e l e g i t i m a t e d in o r d e r to b r i n g to light s t r e s s t h a t h a s b e e n h i d d e n from p u b l i c v i e w . S e c o n d , s t r e s s n e e d s to be c o n c e p t u a l i z e d as a s o c i o p o l i t i c a l c o n c e r n t h a t h a s an i m p a c t on b o t h m i c r o - a n d m a c r o l e v e l s of s o c i e t y . T h i r d , t h e s t u d y of t h e d i s c u r s i v e a n d m a t e r i a l a s p e c t s of s t r e s s s h o u l d p r o v i d e n e w i n s i g h t s r e g a r d i n g t h e p h y s i c a l , p o l i t i c a l , a n d social c o n s t r u c t i o n of r e a l i t y . F o u r t h , t r a n s c e n d i n g t h e bifur­ c a t e d v i e w of p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e i s s u e s w o u l d a l l o w for a f e m i n i s t r e f r a m i n g of s t r e s s as a m o r e h o l i s t i c c o n c e r n . It w a s R o s e ' s s t o r y that h e l p e d us to s e e s t r e s s in a n e w light. A n d it is s t o ­ r i e s like h e r s that d e s e r v e t h e a t t e n t i o n of further s t u d y .

NOTES 1. The stress of being fired was not directly investigated in the study because the num­ ber of patients admitted to the emergency room who reported having been fired the previ­ ous day was not high enough to make statistical generalizations. Although we report that having to fire someone is stressful, it also should be noted that being fired is greatly, if not more, stressful. 2. According to Clair and Kunkel (1995), The origin of deadline has been traced to the Civil War practice of drawing a line around an area partitioned off to contain prisoners of war. Any prisoner crossing the line was shot. We would like to thank Susan Whalen for pointing out the origin of the term deadline to us. This historical definition can be found in the Oxford English Dictionary, (p. 34)

PART III

AUTHORING

OUR FUTURE

"Learning the Ropes" A Black Feminist Standpoint Analysis Brenda J. Allen

A n y o n e w h o h a s a s s u m e d a n e w r o l e in a n o r g a n i z a t i o n h a s e x p e r i e n c e d o r g a ­ nizational socialization, the process by which an individual enters a n d becomes integrated into organizational settings. Often referred to as "learning the ropes," socialization is an inherently c o m m u n i c a t i v e process b e c a u s e n e w c o m e r s rely on formal a n d informal communication to help t h e m m a k e sense of their j o b and their work environment (Jablin, 1987). T o r e d u c e uncer­ tainty about their role, n e w c o m e r s acquire information a n d insight from numerous sources (e.g., supervisors, coworkers, orientation p r o g r a m s , e m ­ p l o y e e m a n u a l s , c l i e n t s , m a n a g e r s , t r a i n i n g s e s s i o n s , a n d staff) w i t h i n t h e organization. Studies o n these information sources and socialization in general date back to t h e 1 9 5 0 s w h e n r e s e a r c h e r s s t u d i e d w a y s t o t r a n s f o r m a n e w e m p l o y e e i n t o a responsible organizational citizen (e.g., Berlew & Hall, 1966; H u g h e s , 1958; V a n M a a n e n , 1976). M o s t of these w o r k s reflect a strong m a n a g e r i a l as well as patriarchal bias because they sought to predict and control e m p l o y e e s ' behaviors for the sake of the organization. T h e following quote captures this sentiment: "Put bluntly, n e w members must b e taught to see the organizaAUTHOR'S NOTE: I would like to express my appreciation to Connie Bullis and Karen Dace, who reviewed an earlier draft of this chapter.

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t i o n a l w o r l d as d o t h e i r m o r e e x p e r i e n c e d c o l l e a g u e s if t h e t r a d i t i o n s of t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a r e to s u r v i v e " ( V a n M a a n e n & S c h e i n , 1 9 7 9 , p . 2 1 1 ) . W h e n c o m m u n i c a t i o n s c h o l a r s b e g a n to s t u d y s o c i a l i z a t i o n , t h e y a l s o w o r k e d for t h e b e n e f i t of the o r g a n i z a t i o n . S i m i l a r to o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s c i e n ­ tists, t h e y s o u g h t to e x p l a i n h o w t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n c o u l d m o l d o r t r a n s f o r m i n d i v i d u a l s to m e e t t h e n e e d s of t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n ( B u l l i s , 1 9 9 3 ; D e e t z , 1 9 9 2 ; J a b l i n , 1 9 8 7 ) . A l t h o u g h t h i s b o d y of r e s e a r c h h i g h l i g h t s c o m m u n i c a t i o n a s a f u n d a m e n t a l a s p e c t of s o c i a l i z a t i o n , s o m e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s c h o l a r s b e l i e v e that w e h a v e yet to r e n d e r a c o m p l e t e , a u t h e n t i c p i c t u r e of s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s e s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e y cite a n e e d f o r m o r e p r o j e c t s t h a t s t u d y p r o c e s s i n s t e a d of f o c u s i n g on o u t c o m e s ; that e x a m i n e s o c i a l i z a t i o n from n e w c o m e r s ' p e r s p e c t i v e s r a t h e r t h a n from t h e v i e w p o i n t of o r g a n i z a ­ t i o n s a n d m a n a g e r s ; a n d t h a t a b a n d o n t h e t e n d e n c y to v i e w s o c i a l i z a t i o n a s linear and rational (e.g., B. Allen, 1996; Bullis, 1993; C h e n e y , 1 9 9 1 ; Clair, 1 9 9 6 ; D e e t z , 1 9 9 2 ; L o u i s , 1 9 8 0 ; M c P h e e , 1 9 8 6 ) . R e s e a r c h t h a t a t t e n d s to t h e s e i s s u e s will h e l p o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s c h o l a r s to d e v e l o p m o r e holistic theories about socialization and c o m m u n i c a t i o n . Equally as impor­ tant, w e m i g h t offer p r a c t i c a l g u i d a n c e to m e m b e r s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s w h o n o t o n l y face t h e p e r s i s t e n t d e m a n d s of s o c i a l i z i n g n e w e m p l o y e e s b u t a l s o m u s t c o n t e n d w i t h c o n t e m p o r a r y c h a l l e n g e s s u c h as a m u l t i c u l t u r a l w o r k f o r c e , globalization, teams, temporary workers, downsizing, mergers, and tele­ commuting. T h e p u r p o s e of this c h a p t e r is to a p p l y a b l a c k f e m i n i s t s t a n d p o i n t a p p r o a c h to a n a l y z i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s e s a n d to offer s u g g e s t i o n s for p r a c t i c e that t h e a n a l y s i s i m p l i e s . First, I b r i e f l y e x p l a i n f e m i n i s t s t a n d ­ p o i n t t h e o r y a n d offer a r a t i o n a l e for w h y it is a p p r o p r i a t e for r e a s s e s s i n g " l e a r n i n g t h e r o p e s " p r a c t i c e s . N e x t , I p r o v i d e an o v e r v i e w of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s o c i a l i z a t i o n r e s e a r c h . T h e n , I offer d e e p e r o r a l t e r n a t i v e p e r s p e c t i v e s o n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s o c i a l i z a t i o n , b a s e d p r i m a r i l y o n e x p e r i e n c e s of b l a c k w o m e n . I f o c u s m a i n l y on U . S . a c a d e m e , a l t h o u g h I b e l i e v e that t h e a n a l y s e s a n d d i s ­ c u s s i o n a p p l y to n u m e r o u s o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n t e x t s ( e . g . , c o r p o r a t i o n s , n o n ­ profit a g e n c i e s , a n d m a n u f a c t u r i n g c o m p a n i e s ) . I c o n c l u d e w i t h i m p l i c a t i o n s for r e s e a r c h a n d p r a c t i c e .

FEMINIST STANDPOINT THEORY S t a n d p o i n t t h e o r y is b a s e d o n t h e i d e a that t h e w o r l d l o o k s d i f f e r e n t d e p e n d ­ ing o n o n e ' s s o c i a l l o c a t i o n . S o c i a l i s t f e m i n i s t s b o r r o w e d t h i s c o n c e p t f r o m M a r x i a n w o r k o n t h e s t a n d p o i n t of the p r o l e t a r i a t ( s e e P . C o l l i n s , 1 9 9 1 , 1 9 9 7 ; Flax, 1990; Harding, 1991, 1997; Hartsock, 1983a, 1997; H e k m a n , 1997; Hennesey, 1993; Rose, 1983; Smith, 1987a, 1997; W o o d , 1992a). T h e s e writ­ e r s c o n t e n d that w o m e n ' s l i v e s in W e s t e r n c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y p r o v i d e v a l u a b l e

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r e s o u r c e s for c r i t i c i z i n g p r e v a i l i n g k n o w l e d g e c l a i m s , w h i c h t e n d t o b e b a s e d o n t h e l i v e s of m e n in d o m i n a n t r a c e s , c l a s s e s , a n d c u l t u r e s ( H a r d i n g , 1 9 9 1 , 1997; Rixecker, 1994). These knowledge claims usually depict w o m e n and o t h e r m a r g i n a l i z e d p e r s o n s ( e . g . , m e n of c o l o r ) as " o t h e r " o r " o u t s i d e r . " F e m i n i s t s t a n d p o i n t t h e o r y e n d o r s e s a l l o w i n g w o m e n , as " o t h e r s , " t o s p e a k f r o m a n d a b o u t t h e i r e v e r y d a y e x p e r i e n c e s in o r d e r to d i s c o v e r a s p e c t s of t h e s o c i a l o r d e r t h a t h a v e n o t b e e n b r o u g h t to l i g h t . L i k e all f e m i n i s t e f f o r t s , standpoint theory d e m a n d s that w e identify instances of d o m i n a t i o n a n d patri­ a r c h y . F o r e x a m p l e , w e c a n s c r u t i n i z e w o m e n ' s l i v e s for i n s t a n c e s o f o p p r e s ­ sion and exploitation. W e then can see h o w h e g e m o n y p e r v a d e s social rela­ t i o n s , a n d w e c a n m a k e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for c h a n g i n g t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s . H e g e m o n y r e f e r s to t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d s o c i e t a l a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t l e a d p e o p l e to b e l i e v e t h a t h i e r a r c h i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e n o r m a l a n d n a t u r a l ( C o n r a d & Poole, 1998). Conrad and Poole explain,

As people internalize the values and assumptions of their societies they also inter­ nalize its class, race, gender, and ethnicity-based hierarchical relationships. In contemporary Western societies educated Anglo, middle- and upper-class men traditionally have been (and often still are) assumed to be superior to everyone else. (p. 349)

M e m b e r s of o r g a n i z a t i o n s ( i n c l u d i n g t h o s e w h o a r e o p p r e s s e d a n d e x p l o i t e d ) t e n d t o b e h a v e ( c o n s c i o u s l y a n d u n c o n s c i o u s l y ) in w a y s t h a t p e r p e t u a t e t h e s e patriarchal assumptions and hierarchies. Feminist standpoint theory d o e s not essentialize the category " w o m a n . " R a t h e r , it a d v o c a t e s i n c o r p o r a t i n g v i e w p o i n t s of a v a r i e t y of w o m e n a c r o s s t h e m u l t i p l e c o n t e x t s that w o m e n o c c u p y o r e n c o u n t e r ( H a r d i n g , 1 9 9 1 ) . T h u s , it r e s p o n d s p o s i t i v e l y to l i n g e r i n g c r i t i c i s m s t h a t f e m i n i s t p r o j e c t s f o c u s mainly on white, middle-class w o m e n without considering other w o m e n ' s e x p e r i e n c e s . M o r e o v e r , s t a n d p o i n t t h e o r y p l a c e s p r i m a c y o n t h e r o l e of c o n ­ t e x t in b u i l d i n g t h e o r y : " C o n t e x t m a t t e r s b e c a u s e it s h a p e s t h e w a y w e c o n ­ s t r u c t r e a l i t y " ( R i x e c k e r , 1 9 9 4 , p . 124). T h e r e f o r e , as t h e y c o n s t r u c t t h e o r y , r e s e a r c h e r s s h o u l d c o n s i d e r t h e i m p a c t of p o l i t i c a l a n d h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t s b e c a u s e efforts to c r e a t e k n o w l e d g e a r e n e v e r a p o l i t i c a l o r a h i s t o r i c a l . F o r i n s t a n c e , as R i x e c k e r ( 1 9 9 4 ) p o i n t s o u t , " R a c e , s e x , g e n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n , c l a s s , a n d s e x u a l i t y all p l a y a r o l e in t h e c r e a t i o n o f e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l [ w a y s of k n o w i n g ] stances" (p. 128). S t a n d p o i n t t h e o r y " r e f e r s to h i s t o r i c a l l y s h a r e d , group e x p e r i e n c e s . . . [ a n d ] p l a c e s less e m p h a s i s o n i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h i n s o c i a l l y c o n ­ structed groups than on the social conditions that construct such g r o u p s " ( P . C o l l i n s , 1 9 9 7 , p . 3 7 5 ; s e e a l s o W o o d , 1 9 9 2 a ) . A s it r e q u i r e s r e s e a r c h e r s t o s e e k w o m e n ' s a c c o u n t s o f t h e i r e v e r y d a y l i v e s , it c o m p e l s t h e m to c o n ­

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t e x t u a l i z e t h e i r s t u d i e s a n d to s e e k c o m m o n a l i t i e s a m o n g g r o u p m e m b e r s ' experiences. F e m i n i s t s t a n d p o i n t h e l p s us to a c c o m p l i s h f e m i n i s t g o a l s o f e m a n c i p a t i o n a n d s o c i a l c h a n g e . F o r e x a m p l e , w e c a n identify a c t s o f r e s i s t a n c e . A s w e s t u d y w o m e n ' s w a y s of k n o w i n g a n d b e i n g , w e c a n p r o v i d e i n s i g h t for w h e r e , w h a t , a n d h o w to c h a n g e e x i s t i n g p r a c t i c e s . E q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t , t h i s t y p e of w o r k v a l i d a t e s e x p e r i e n c e s a n d f e e l i n g s of s i m i l a r " o t h e r s . " W h e n w e i n v i t e m a r g i n a l i z e d o t h e r s t o tell t h e i r s t o r i e s , w e c a n h e l p t h e m to free t h e m s e l v e s , to r a i s e t h e i r c o n s c i o u s n e s s . I f o c u s o n t h e s t a n d p o i n t of b l a c k w o m e n . H o w e v e r , I a d v o c a t e s t u d y i n g a n y g r o u p of p e r s o n s that s o c i e t y t e n d s to m a r g i n a l i z e . I c o n c e n t r a t e o n b l a c k w o m e n b e c a u s e I a m a m e m b e r of that g r o u p a n d t h e r e f o r e c a n offer p e r s o n a l r e f l e c t i o n s . I b e l i e v e that w e n e e d to d e t e c t d i s t i n c t i o n s a m o n g v a r i o u s r a c i a l a n d e t h n i c g r o u p s of w o m e n , as o p p o s e d to v i e w i n g t h e m as m o n o l i t h i c . B e c a u s e t h e y a r e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y m e m b e r s of t w o t r a d i t i o n a l l y d i s e n f r a n ­ c h i s e d g r o u p s , b l a c k w o m e n m a y e n a c t t h e r o l e of " o u t s i d e r " d i f f e r e n t l y t h a n white w o m e n (Bell, 1992; Higginbotham & Weber, 1992; hooks, 1989, H o u s ­ ton, 1997). T h e y m a y experience p o w e r and domination based on their gen­ d e r , t h e i r r a c e , o r b o t h of t h e s e s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d a s p e c t s of t h e i r i d e n t i t y . T h e i r u n i q u e s o c i a l p o s i t i o n a l l o w s t h e m to identify p a t t e r n s a n d b e h a v i o r s that d o m i n a n t m e m b e r s c a n n o t r e a d i l y d i s c e r n ( B . A l l e n , 1 9 9 6 ) . A s m o r e w o m e n a n d m e n of c o l o r a n d w h i t e w o m e n e n t e r t h e w o r k f o r c e a n d a s c e n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r a n k s , w e n e e d t o s t u d y h o w t h e y l e a r n t h e r o p e s in o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d w h a t s u c c e e d s a n d w h a t fails. S t u d y i n g b l a c k w o m e n in a c a d e m e m i g h t p r o v i d e i n s i g h t a b o u t h o w to d e v e l o p p r a c t i c e s t h a t w e l c o m e p e r s o n s of c o l o r a n d e m p o w e r t h e m a n d v a l u e t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n s . W e a l s o c a n p r o v i d e e x a m p l e s of r e s i s t a n c e a n d e m a n c i p a t i o n to b l a c k w o m e n a n d o t h e r marginalized persons.

ORGANIZATIONAL SOCIALIZATION In t h i s s e c t i o n , I p r o v i d e a h i s t o r i c a l o v e r v i e w of l i t e r a t u r e o n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s o c i a l i z a t i o n . B e c a u s e this a r e a of s t u d y a b o u n d s w i t h e s s a y s a n d r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s , I c a n n o t offer a c o m p r e h e n s i v e r e v i e w ( s e e J a b l i n , 1 9 8 7 ) . R a t h e r , I h i g h l i g h t w o r k t h a t r e l a t e s e x p l i c i t l y to t h i s c h a p t e r . A s I n o t e d e a r l i e r , r e s e a r c h a b o u t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s o c i a l i z a t i o n o r i g i n a t e d in the organizational sciences when investigators studied h o w organizations could transform n e w c o m e r s into productive e m p l o y e e s (e.g., V a n M a a n e n & S c h e i n , 1 9 7 9 ) . T h e s e p r o j e c t s t e n d e d to v i e w n e w c o m e r s as p a s s i v e , b l a n k slates on w h o m organizations could write whatever script they desired. T h e y r e l i e d o n an a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l m o d e l that a n a l y z e d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l n e w c o m e r s s i m i l a r l y to h o w o n e m i g h t s t u d y i n f a n t s in s o c i e t i e s ( B u l l i s & B a c h , 1 9 8 9 b ) .

A Black Feminist Standpoint

Analysis

181

T h e y viewed socialization as a linear, o n e - w a y transfer of information from the organization to the e m p l o y e e . M o r e o v e r , they concentrated on socializa­ tion o u t c o m e s , such as e m p l o y e e c o m m i t m e n t , c o m m u n i c a t i o n c o m p e t e n c e , j o b satisfaction, absenteeism, and turnover. T h u s , early investigations tended to b e p r e s c r i p t i v e a n d b i a s e d t o w a r d m a n a g e m e n t . Jablin (1987) presents an overview of socialization literature that focuses on c o m m u n i c a t i o n . H e portrays socialization as a d e v e l o p m e n t a l , o n g o i n g p r o c e s s . F o l l o w i n g t h e t r a d i t i o n of e a r l y w r i t e r s , h e d i v i d e s t h e p r o c e s s i n t o stages that he labels anticipatory socialization, assimilation, and exit (Bullis, 1 9 9 3 ) . A c c o r d i n g to t h i s m o d e l , v o c a t i o n a l a n t i c i p a t o r y s o c i a l i z a t i o n o c c u r s t h r o u g h o u t c h i l d h o o d as w e r e c e i v e m e s s a g e s a b o u t o c c u p a t i o n s a n d c a r e e r s from various sources (e.g., family m e m b e r s , teachers, peers, and the media). The next stage, organizational anticipatory socialization, occurs immediately p r i o r to a s s u m i n g a n e w o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r o l e a n d i n c l u d e s r e c r u i t m e n t a n d interviewing. Within the assimilation stage, Jablin distinguishes between socialization (i.e., how the organization attempts to influence n e w c o m e r s ) and individualization (i.e., w a y s that n e w c o m e r s adapt to their roles). A c c o r d i n g to the literature, upon entry into a new role, a n e w c o m e r experi­ ences an encounter, or "breaking in," period and " m e t a m o r p h o s i s " (Jablin, 1987). During the encounter period, incumbent m e m b e r s send the n e w c o m e r ambient (implicit, indirect) and discretionary (explicit, direct) messages a b o u t j o b - r e l a t e d r o l e s k i l l s as w e l l a s o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a n d g r o u p n o r m s a n d v a l u e s ( C o m e r , 1 9 9 1 ; J a b l i n , 1 9 8 7 ; L o u i s , 1 9 8 0 ) . In a d d i t i o n , t h e n e w c o m e r seeks information or feedback about his or her performance or about unclear o r a m b i g u o u s i n f o r m a t i o n o r e v e n t s . T h e n e w c o m e r m a y e n c o u n t e r s u r p r i s e if h i s o r h e r e x p e c t a t i o n s fail to c o r r e s p o n d w i t h r e a l i t y ( L o u i s , 1 9 8 0 ) . H e o r s h e may also experience role ambiguity (i.e., confusion about j o b r e q u i r e m e n t s or lack of information regarding his or her role; Katz, 1977). T h e literature characterizes metamorphosis as a time w h e n the individual tries to b e c o m e an accepted, participating m e m b e r of the organization. T h e newcomer "acquires organizationally 'appropriate* attitudes and behaviors, resolves intra- and extra-organizational role conflicts, an d c o m m e n c e s efforts to i n d i v i d u a l i z e h i s o r h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r o l e " ( J a b l i n , 1 9 8 7 , p . 6 9 4 ) . H e o r she begins to use, accept, and internalize organizational rules and norms. Dur­ i n g t h i s t i m e , a n e w c o m e r m a y try to m o d i f y o t h e r s ' e x p e c t a t i o n s o f h i m o r h e r . In a d d i t i o n , t h e n e w c o m e r m a y a t t e m p t t o c h a n g e i n f o r m a l l y a c c e p t e d values and norms (Jablin, 1987; Miller & Jablin, 1991). M a n y s c h o l a r s h a v e c r i t i c i z e d a s p e c t s of J a b l i n ' s m o d e l a n d t h e w o r k that he reviews (e.g., B . Allen, 1996; Bullis, 1993; Bullis & Stout, 1996; Clair, 1996; Smith & Turner, 1995). For instance, the literature tends to a s s u m e a u n i v e r s a l e x p e r i e n c e of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s o c i a l i z a t i o n . A s B u l l i s a n d S t o u t ( 1 9 9 6 ) o b s e r v e , t h i s act o f u n i v e r s a l i z i n g p r i v i l e g e s w h i t e m e n ' s e x p e r i e n c e s a n d p o s i t i o n s . J a b l i n ' s m o d e l a l s o i m p l i e s that all n e w c o m e r s h a v e a c c e s s to

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similar information sources. O n the contrary, w o m e n and other m a r g i n a l i z e d p e r s o n s often a r e e x c l u d e d f r o m f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l n e t w o r k s t h a t c o m p r i s e important, powerful socialization resources. C r i t i c s a l s o n o t e that t h e l i t e r a t u r e c o n t i n u e s to b e b i a s e d t o w a r d o r g a n i z a ­ tions (B. Allen, 1996; Bullis & Bach, 1989b; Clair, 1996; M c P h e e , 1986; S m i t h & T u r n e r , 1 9 9 5 ) . C o n s e q u e n t l y , a l t h o u g h p r o j e c t s i n c r e a s i n g l y t u r n to n e w c o m e r s for i n s i g h t a b o u t s o c i a l i z a t i o n , a n e e d p e r s i s t s t o e x a m i n e s o c i a l ­ ization from the individual's perspective. Organizational socialization litera­ t u r e a l s o is b i a s e d t o w a r d d o m i n a n t c u l t u r a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f r e a l i t y . T h e liter­ ature does not explicitly acknowledge the inherent h e g e m o n y that pervades s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s e s ( B . A l l e n , 1 9 9 6 ; M c P h e e , 1 9 8 6 ) . R e g a r d l e s s of n e w ­ c o m e r s ' gender and racial identities, p o w e r distinctions o b v i o u s l y influence s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s e s as o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a c t o r s c o n t e n d w i t h s y s t e m s o f h i e r ­ a r c h y , c o m p e t i t i o n , a u t h o r i t y , a n d t e r r i t o r i a l i t y . R a r e l y d o r e s e a r c h e r s s e e m to r e c o g n i z e that o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s e t t i n g s u s u a l l y r e f l e c t t h e d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e ' s n o r m s , a t t i t u d e s , a n d v a l u e s . Y e t , as a b l a c k w o m a n p r o f e s s o r of o r g a n i z a ­ tional behavior observes, "Organizational cultures—large scale, hierarchical, w h i t e , a n d m a l e - d o m i n a t e d — h a v e t h e i r o w n set of n o r m s , t r a d i t i o n s , a n d v a l ­ u e s a n d , in t h e e x t r e m e , a r e p r o t o t y p e s of t h e A n g l o - S a x o n t r a d i t i o n a n d t h e Protestant Ethic" (Bell, 1990, p. 465). Therefore, the "appropriate" socializa­ tion a t t i t u d e s a n d b e h a v i o r s that r e s e a r c h e r s s t u d y u s u a l l y p a r a l l e l t h o s e of t h e dominant culture. Moreover, the literature does not give adequate attention to contextual v a r i a b l e s that m a y affect s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s e s . R e s e a r c h u s u a l l y d o e s n o t address historical, political, or local c i r c u m s t a n c e s that m i g h t influence n e w ­ c o m e r s ' realities. For instance, empirical studies usually provide only cur­ sory i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t r e s e a r c h s i t e s a n d p a r t i c i p a n t s , r a r e l y i d e n t i f y i n g respondents by gender and/or race (e.g., Bullis & Bach, 1989b; Miller, 1996; M i l l e r & J a b l i n , 1 9 9 1 ; M o r r i s o n , 1 9 9 3 ; S t o h l , 1 9 8 6 ) . In a d d i t i o n , t h e o r e t i c a l e s s a y s s e e m t o refer to a m o n o l i t h i c , u n i v e r s a l " o r g a n i z a t i o n " ( e . g . , J a b l i n , 1 9 8 7 ; V a n M a a n e n & S c h e i n , 1 9 7 9 ) . A n e e d e x i s t s to s i t u a t e a n d a n a l y z e s o c i a l i z a t i o n s t u d i e s a c c o r d i n g to h i s t o r i c a l , s o c i e t a l , a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l / institutional factors that m a y influence h o w organizational m e m b e r s interact w i t h o n e a n o t h e r . A s o n e e x a m p l e , w e n e e d to c o n s i d e r s o c i o h i s t o r i c a l f a c t o r s s u c h a s s e x i s m a n d r a c i s m that reflect h i s t o r i c a l p o w e r r e l a t i o n s in W e s t e r n societies. T o conclude, even though recent socialization studies have sought to un­ derstand the n e w c o m e r ' s perspective and experiences, several needs persist. R e s e a r c h n e e d s to d e l v e m o r e d e e p l y i n t o i n d i v i d u a l s ' e x p e r i e n c e s ; to s t u d y t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n e x p e r i e n c e s of m a r g i n a l i z e d p e r s o n s ; to i d e n t i f y i n s t a n c e s of p a t r i a r c h y a n d d o m i n a t i o n ; a n d to a s s e s s t h e i n f l u e n c e s o f s o c i o h i s t o r i c a l a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n t e x t s on s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r a c t i c e s . T h i s c h a p t e r a d d r e s s e s

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Analysis

t h e s e n e e d s . A s I d i s c u s s n e x t , t h e e v e r y d a y e x p e r i e n c e s of b l a c k w o m e n f a c ­ ulty in p r e d o m i n a n t l y w h i t e u n i v e r s i t i e s d e m o n s t r a t e a l t e r n a t i v e o r d e e p e r issues regarding socialization processes.

BLACK FEMINIST STANDPOINT ANALYSIS OF LEARNING THE ROPES T h e n e w c o m e r s to w h o m I refer a r e b l a c k w o m e n in o c c u p a t i o n a l r o l e s h i s t o r ­ i c a l l y r e s e r v e d for w h i t e m a l e s . A l t h o u g h I f o c u s p r i m a r i l y o n b l a c k w o m e n f a c u l t y o r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s at w h i t e u n i v e r s i t i e s , t h e d i s c u s s i o n a l s o a p p l i e s to o t h e r s i t u a t i o n s in w h i c h b l a c k w o m e n a n d o t h e r m a r g i n a l i z e d p e r s o n s assume nontraditional positions (e.g., top-level corporate executives or highr a n k i n g a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ) . T h e s e t y p e s of h i r e s d e p a r t f r o m t r a d i t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s in w h i c h r e c r u i t e r s s o u g h t an e m p l o y e e w h o fit t h e " i d e a l " o f t h e v a c a n t p o s i ­ tion. E m p l o y e r s usually based their ideals on race-, sex-, and class-derived p r o t o t y p e s of w h o " b e l o n g e d " in w h i c h t y p e s of j o b s . T h u s , e m p l o y e r s p l a c e d w h i t e m e n in h i g h - l e v e l p o s i t i o n s of p o w e r , w h i l e t h e y r e l e g a t e d b l a c k w o m e n to m o r e s u b s e r v i e n t r o l e s . A s o n e c o n s e q u e n c e , b l a c k w o m e n a r e a m o n g t h e l o w e s t - p a i d w o r k e r s in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ( P a r k e r & O g i l v i e , 1 9 9 6 ) . H o w e v e r , contemporary organizations are increasingly hiring black w o m e n for n o n t r a d i t i o n a l r o l e s , in p a r t a s a r e s u l t of a f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n i n i t i a ­ t i v e s (or o t h e r l a w s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l m a n d a t e s ) . C o n s e q u e n t l y , b l a c k w o m e n frequently enter workplace roles where they previously have not b e e n wel­ come and where governing ideologies generally have ignored their existence or h a v e v i e w e d t h e m pejoratively. T h e s e and other sociohistorical factors p l a c e b l a c k w o m e n in a d i s t i n c t s o c i a l l o c a t i o n t h a t m a y affect s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s e s in w a y s t h a t m o s t r e s e a r c h e r s d o n o t s e e m to h a v e c o n s i d e r e d . T o explore how sociohistorical and contextual factors influence so­ cialization processes, I describe and analyze "micropractices"—daily, mun­ d a n e o c c u r r e n c e s in o r g a n i z a t i o n a l life ( M u m b y , 1 9 9 3 b ) . R a t h e r t h a n a t t e m p t to c o v e r t h e r a n g e a n d c o m p l e x i t y of s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s e s , I f o c u s o n a s s i m ­ i l a t i o n , o r w h a t h a p p e n s after an i n d i v i d u a l e n t e r s a n e w r o l e . In a d d i t i o n , I d i s c u s s n e w c o m e r s ' i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t o t h e r s in t h e i r i m m e d i a t e w o r k e n v i r o n m e n t , as o p p o s e d to o r g a n i z a t i o n - b a s e d i n i t i a t i v e s ( e . g . , o r i e n t a ­ tion p r o g r a m s o r e m p l o y e e m a n u a l s , n e w s l e t t e r s , a n d m e m o r a n d a ) . I n t e r p e r ­ sonal interactions with others (e.g., coworkers, supervisors, clients, students, a n d c l e r i c a l staff) p r o v i d e t h e p r i m a r y m e a n s b y w h i c h n e w c o m e r s a t t e m p t to learn their role and to reduce uncertainty (Jablin, 1987; D . K a t z & K a h n , 1 9 7 8 ; R. K a t z , 1 9 8 0 ) . O t h e r p e r s o n s p r o v i d e c u e s t h a t g i v e a n i n d i v i d u a l a s e n s e of a c h i e v e m e n t a n d c o m p e t e n c e ( o r f a i l u r e a n d i n c o m p e t e n c e ; V a n Maanen & Schein, 1979). 1

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I c o n c e n t r a t e on t w o b r o a d a s p e c t s of a s s i m i l a t i o n : n e w c o m e r t r e a t m e n t (how others interact with the n e w c o m e r ) and n e w c o m e r sense m a k i n g (the w a y s that t h e n e w c o m e r a t t e m p t s to c o p e w i t h t h e c h a l l e n g e s t h a t s h e f a c e s ) . I refer to role-sending and role-taking c o n c e p t s that K a t z a n d K a h n ( 1 9 7 8 ) d e s c r i b e in t h e i r m o d e l of an o r g a n i z a t i o n as a s y s t e m of r o l e s :

Each person in an organization is linked to some set of other members by virtue of the functional requirements of the system that are heavily implemented through the expectations those members have of the person; he or she is the focal person for that set. An organization can be viewed as consisting of a number of such sets, one for each person in the organization, (p. 220)

W i t h i n this s y s t e m , role-set m e m b e r s c o m m u n i c a t e to t h e n e w c o m e r t h e i r e x p e c t a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g the n e w c o m e r ' s r o l e . A s the n e w c o m e r p r o c e s s e s t h e s e m e s s a g e s , s h e e n g a g e s in r o l e t a k i n g . T o p o r t r a y e v e r y d a y m i c r o p r a c t i c e s , I refer to a v a r i e t y of s o u r c e s , i n c l u d ­ ing m y e x p e r i e n c e s ; d a t a from my r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s on w o m e n o f c o l o r f a c u l t y a n d g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s of c o l o r ; e s s a y s a n d r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s by a n d / o r a b o u t b l a c k w o m e n or o t h e r w o m e n of c o l o r ; a n d a n e c d o t a l d a t a from s o m e of m y f r i e n d s a n d a c q u a i n t a n c e s . T o a d h e r e to an i m p o r t a n t t e n e t of f e m i n i s t s t a n d ­ p o i n t t h e o r y , I offer e x a m p l e s from n u m e r o u s i n d i v i d u a l w o m e n t o tell a col­ lective s t o r y , to d e s c r i b e c o m m o n e x p e r i e n c e s for m e m b e r s of t h i s p a r t i c u l a r group. F i r s t , h o w e v e r , to further c o n t e x t u a l i z e t h e d i s c u s s i o n , I offer a bit of a u t o ­ b i o g r a p h i c a l d a t a ( s e e a l s o B . A l l e n , 1 9 9 5 b , 1996, 1 9 9 8 a ) . I a m a b l a c k , het­ e r o s e x u a l , m i d d l e - a g e d w o m a n w h o w a s b o r n a n d r a i s e d by m y m o t h e r in a s i n g l e - p a r e n t h o m e in a w o r k i n g - c l a s s b l a c k c o m m u n i t y in O h i o . C u r r e n t l y , I a m an a s s o c i a t e p r o f e s s o r of c o m m u n i c a t i o n at a l a r g e , p r e d o m i n a n t l y w h i t e , W e s t e r n r e s e a r c h u n i v e r s i t y . I h a v e w o r k e d at t h i s i n s t i t u t i o n s i n c e 1 9 8 9 , w h e n t h e u n i v e r s i t y hired m e as a t e n u r e - t r a c k a s s i s t a n t p r o f e s s o r . P r i o r to that, I w a s an i n s t r u c t o r in the C o m p r e h e n s i v e S c i e n c e s D e p a r t m e n t of t h e S c h o o l of L i b e r a l A r t s at a b l a c k u n i v e r s i t y in t h e e a s t e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s . A t that t i m e , m y a r e a of s t u d y w a s c o m p u t e r - m e d i a t e d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i ­ c a t i o n . A c o u p l e of y e a r s a g o , I a d d e d r a c e , e t h n i c i t y , a n d f e m i n i s m to m y r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t s . I a m t h e first a n d only p e r s o n of c o l o r faculty m e m b e r in m y d e p a r t m e n t , a l o n g with o n l y o n e g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t of c o l o r , a C h i c a n a . T h e u n i v e r s i t y r e c r u i t e d m e b a s e d p a r t i a l l y on s t a t e a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l d i r e c t i v e s to hire m i n o r i t i e s , a s well a s c o n c e r n a b o u t p u b l i c i m a g e a n d f u n d i n g . I b e l i e v e that m e m b e r s of m y d e p a r t m e n t a l s o v a l u e d m y e x p e r t i s e in c o m p u t e r m e d i a t e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n . W h e n I c a m e to t h e u n i v e r s i t y , I w a s o n e of o n l y t h r e e black w o m e n faculty w h o w e r e t e n u r e d or in t h e t e n u r e t r a c k .

A Black Feminist Standpoint

Analysis

185

Newcomer Treatment W h e n a newcomer enters her role, numerous sources within the organiza­ tion p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t j o b - r e l a t e d s k i l l s a s w e l l a s o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a n d g r o u p n o r m s a n d v a l u e s ( C o m e r , 1 9 9 1 ; J a b l i n , 1 9 8 7 ; L o u i s , 1 9 8 0 , 1 9 9 0 ) . In a d d i t i o n , m e m b e r s of h e r r o l e set c o n s c i o u s l y a n d u n c o n s c i o u s l y c o n v e y t h e i r e x p e c t a t i o n s of h e r ( K a t z & K a h n , 1 9 7 8 ; M i l l e r & J a b l i n , 1 9 9 1 ) . D u r i n g for­ mal and informal communication, other persons transmit discretionary (explicit, direct, intentional) and ambient (implicit, indirect, pervasive) m e s ­ sages to the n e w c o m e r (Jablin, 1987). Miller and Jablin (1991) state that, " T h e s e m e s s a g e s to n e w c o m e r s c o n s t i t u t e efforts to e n g e n d e r ( 1 ) a s e n s e o f c o m p e t e n c e in t h e t a s k r o l e a n d ( 2 ) a s e n s e of a c c e p t a n c e i n t o t h e w o r k g r o u p / o r g a n i z a t i o n " ( p . 9 2 ) . M e m b e r s o f t h e r o l e set t r a n s m i t p r e s c r i p t i o n s a n d p r o ­ s c r i p t i o n s t h a t r e v e a l w h a t t h e y e x p e c t of t h e n e w c o m e r ( K a t z & K a h n , 1 9 7 8 ) . A l t h o u g h t h e l i t e r a t u r e t e n d s to p r e s u m e r e l a t i v e l y e q u a l t r e a t m e n t for n e w c o m e r s , o n e ' s i d e n t i t y as a b l a c k w o m a n in a n o n t r a d i t i o n a l r o l e c a n i n f l u ­ e n c e h e r i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h v e t e r a n m e m b e r s of t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . M e m b e r s o f h e r r o l e set m a y n o t i n t e r a c t w i t h h e r b a s e d s t r i c t l y o n t h e i r e x p e c t a t i o n s of h e r position, or role, as the literature implies (see Katz & K a h n , 1978). Prejudiced individuals w h o do not w e l c o m e a black w o m a n ' s presence and w h o want her to fail m a y g i v e h e r e r r o n e o u s o r m i s l e a d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n , if a n y . B e c a u s e o f institutional sexism and/or racism, white people m a y apply different stan­ d a r d s for e v a l u a t i n g a w o m a n of c o l o r . A s o n e c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e y m a y p r o v i d e nonproductive feedback. For instance, they might be more concerned with her personality than with how well she does her j o b (Cox & N k o m o , 1986). Or, b e c a u s e of fear t h a t t h e b l a c k w o m a n m a y t h i n k t h a t t h e y a r e p a t r o n i z i n g , s e x ­ ist, a n d / o r r a c i s t , w h i t e p e o p l e m a y r e f r a i n from s h a r i n g u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n o r productive criticism. In g e n e r a l , t h e w h i t e p e o p l e w i t h w h o m s h e i n t e r a c t s ( e . g . , c o w o r k e r s , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , s u p e r v i s o r s , m a n a g e r s , c l i e n t s , s t u d e n t s , staff, a n d c o m m u ­ nity m e m b e r s ) will h a v e h a d f e w e r e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h b l a c k s t h a n s h e h a s h a d w i t h w h i t e s . T h e y w i l l b e u n a c c u s t o m e d t o d e a l i n g w i t h b l a c k w o m e n in p o s i ­ t i o n s of a u t h o r i t y . B e c a u s e m a n y w h i t e s d o n o t h a v e a " s o c i a l l y c o g n i t i v e framework based on authentic contacts with black w o m e n , they can easily b a s e t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s of t h e m o n n e g a t i v e s t e r e o t y p e s a n d a s s u m p t i o n s " ( D u m a s , 1979, p. 124). T h e s e perceptions can influence c o m m u n i c a t i o n pro­ cesses. Prevailing stereotypes and assumptions frequently e m a n a t e from various s o c i o h i s t o r i c a l i m a g e s of b l a c k w o m e n , s o m e o f w h i c h I d e s c r i b e a n d d i s c u s s b e l o w . W h i t e p e o p l e ( a n d p e r s o n s of c o l o r ) m a y r e l y o n c e n t u r i e s - o l d p e j o r a ­ t i v e i m a g e s of b l a c k w o m e n as b l u e p r i n t s for i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h u s ( D u m a s , 1979; H o k e , 1997; Orbe, 1998; Parker & Ogilvie, 1996). A l t h o u g h I refer to

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these stereotypes under separate headings, they can occur simultaneously. F u r t h e r m o r e , s o m e of t h e e x a m p l e s c a n a p p l y to m o r e t h a n o n e s t e r e o t y p e .

Stereotypes Beneficiary of Affirmative Action. O r g a n i z a t i o n a l m e m b e r s o f t e n p e r c e i v e a b l a c k w o m a n to b e a n a f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n h i r e , s o m e o n e r e c r u i t e d s t r i c t l y to meet policy requirements (Hine, 1997). S o m e t i m e s they view minority w o m e n as " t w o f e r s " b e c a u s e t h e y c a n b e c o u n t e d for t h e i r g e n d e r a n d for t h e i r race or ethnicity (Benjamin, 1991). This perception frequently a c c o m p a n i e s a b e l i e f t h a t t h e n e w c o m e r is n o t c o m p e t e n t . W h e n t h e y e n t e r a c a d e m e , b l a c k w o m e n c o n f r o n t t h e l o n g - s t a n d i n g p r e s u m p t i o n of w h i t e m a l e i n t e l l e c t u a l s u p e r i o r i t y a n d its a c c o m p a n y i n g b e l i e f that b l a c k s a r e i n t e l l e c t u a l l y i n f e r i o r . A s s u m i n g that black w o m e n are affirmative action hires fuels this conviction. A . A l l e n ( 1 9 9 4 ) e x p l a i n s , " B l a c k w o m e n , l i k e b l a c k m e n , often a r e p r e s u m e d to b e at t h e b o t t o m of t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l h e a p . E m p l o y i n g u s is p e r c e i v e d a s s t e p ­ p i n g o v e r t h e d e s e r v i n g in f a v o r of t h e l e a s t a b l e " ( p . 1 9 2 ) . R e s e a r c h r e v e a l s t h a t w h i t e f a c u l t y a n d s t u d e n t s often a s s u m e that f a c u l t y of c o l o r a r e u n d e r q u a l i f i e d a n d / o r w e r e h i r e d to m e e t q u o t a s ( J a m e s , 1 9 9 4 ; K o s s e k & Z o n i a , 1994). T h e s e false perceptions may restrict whites from accurately perceiving b l a c k w o m e n as c o m p e t e n t c o l l e a g u e s or t e a c h e r s . T h e y a l s o m i g h t i n d u c e h o s t i l i t y a n d d i s t r u s t , as w e l l as o p p o s i t i o n ( E s s e d , 1 9 9 1 ) . Through subtle and blatant communication, other persons display these a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d b l a c k w o m e n . F o r i n s t a n c e , w h e n I w a s first h i r e d , a f a c u l t y m e m b e r in m y d e p a r t m e n t w a s o v e r h e a r d t e l l i n g a g r o u p of s t u d e n t s t h a t I w a s n o t q u a l i f i e d , that I h a d b e e n h i r e d o n l y t o m e e t a q u o t a . In a d d i t i o n , a b l a c k m a l e f a c u l t y m e m b e r from a n o t h e r d e p a r t m e n t t o l d m e ( d u r i n g a r e c e p t i o n for n e w f a c u l t y of c o l o r ) that s o m e o n e in m y d e p a r t m e n t s a i d I w a s n o t a g o o d writer (see B. Allen, 1995b). A black w o m a n law professor recounts her expe­ r i e n c e as a g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t p r e p a r i n g to e n t e r t h e j o b m a r k e t : " A w h i t e m a l e p r o f e s s o r t o l d m e t h a t as a b l a c k w o m a n I w o u l d h a v e to ' p e e o n t h e f l o o r ' at j o b i n t e r v i e w s n o t to g e t h i r e d " ( A . A l l e n , 1 9 9 4 , p . 1 8 6 ) . B l a c k w o m e n r e ­ search participants report comparable experiences. O n e participant stated, " M y a p p o i n t m e n t w a s s e e n as an a f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n h i r e . P e o p l e d i d n o t e x p e c t m e to b e s u c c e s s f u l . B u t I w a s . S o m e w e r e a c t u a l l y r u d e e n o u g h to tell m e s o — t h i n k i n g it w a s a c o m p l i m e n t " (as c i t e d in M o s e s , 1 9 8 9 , p . 1 4 ) . A s e c o n d w o m a n said, I was treated most graciously when I came to campus—many people in my depart­ ment breathed a sigh of relief that they had "gotten one." So the pressure was off. But on the other hand, I have been insulted, treated with arrogance and a sense of superiority, especially by white males, (as cited in Moses, 1989, p. 14)

A Black Feminist Standpoint

Analysis

187

Thus, wherever a black w o m a n turns on campus, she may receive messages f r o m ( o r e n d u r e i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h ) c o l l e a g u e s , s t u d e n t s , a n d staff t h a t i m p l i c ­ itly o r e x p l i c i t l y q u e s t i o n h e r r i g h t t o b e in h e r n e w r o l e . A s o n e w r i t e r observes, "Black w o m e n have their credentials tested over and over a g a i n " ( M o s e s , 1 9 8 9 , p . 11). S o m e p e r s o n s m a y c h a l l e n g e h e r b a s e d o n h e r c h o s e n a r e a of s t u d y . P e o p l e often a s s u m e that a black w o m a n ' s scholarship focuses on race and/or gender. T h i s s t e r e o t y p e p r o b a b l y s t e m s f r o m t h e n o t i o n s t h a t p e o p l e of c o l o r a r e r e s p o n s i b l e for s t u d y i n g t h e s e t o p i c s a n d t h a t w e a r e n o t q u a l i f i e d t o s t u d y o t h e r d i s c i p l i n e s . If s h e d o e s f o c u s o n s u c h i s s u e s , a b l a c k w o m a n m a y e n d u r e disparaging and discouraging interactions because others may view her work as i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l a n d m a r g i n a l ( B . A l l e n , 1 9 9 5 a ; B e n j a m i n , 1 9 9 1 ; B u r g e s s , 1 9 9 7 ; C o x & N k o m o , 1 9 9 0 ) . If s h e h a s c h o s e n a m o r e " m a i n s t r e a m " d i s c i ­ p l i n e , p e o p l e q u e s t i o n a n d n e g a t e h e r c a p a b i l i t i e s t o s u c c e e d . B l a c k w o m e n in t h e life a n d p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y v u l n e r a b l e t o t h e s e t y p e s of attacks (Essien, 1997; Henry, 1994). B l a c k w o m e n f a c u l t y r e p o r t that t h e i r w h i t e s t u d e n t s ( e s p e c i a l l y m a l e s ) f r e q u e n t l y c h a l l e n g e a n d d i s r e s p e c t t h e m , t h e r e b y i g n o r i n g t h e h i e r a r c h y of t h e t e a c h e r - s t u d e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p in f a v o r o f w h i t e / m a l e d o m i n a n c e o v e r b l a c k / female (Benjamin, 1991; Burgess, 1997; Moses, 1989; Pope & Joseph, 1997). O n e o f m y f r i e n d s w h o t e a c h e s at a p r e d o m i n a n t l y w h i t e u n i v e r s i t y e x p l a i n s , I experience students ignoring their own cultural hierarchy [for authority] when it comes to me as an African American woman with a Ph.D. They feel they can fol­ low the dictates of white superiority when it comes to me. They are always the supreme authority and are always worthy of being in control. F o r e x a m p l e , w h e n o n e b l a c k f a c u l t y m e m b e r first b e g a n t e a c h i n g c o l l e g e in 1976, a y o u n g white male student asked her, " W h a t gives you the right to teach this c l a s s ? " (A. Allen, 1994, p. 183). Unfortunately, c o n t e m p o r a r y stu­ d e n t s a l s o e n g a g e in s u c h d i s r e s p e c t f u l b e h a v i o r s . A r e s e a r c h p a r t i c i p a n t r e p o r t e d t h a t a s t u d e n t s a i d to h e r , " Y o u a r e h e r e b e c a u s e of a f f i r m a t i v e action" (Pope & Joseph, 1997, p . 256). A n o t h e r respondent indicated that a student told her that he did not want a " c o l o r e d " teacher ( P o p e & J o s e p h , 1997). B l a c k w o m e n g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s h a v e d e s c r i b e d s i t u a t i o n s in w h i c h p r o ­ fessors s e e m to a c k n o w l e d g e t h e m and value their input only d u r i n g discus­ s i o n o f d i v e r s i t y i s s u e s ; o t h e r w i s e , t h e y feel s i l e n c e d a n d i n v i s i b l e d u r i n g classroom discussions (B. Allen, 1998b; Sandler, 1986; Zappert & Stansbury, 1987). For instance, teachers exhibit negative nonverbal cues such as rolling t h e i r e y e s o r s i g h i n g w h e n s t u d e n t s of c o l o r s p e a k a b o u t t h e i r c o n c e r n s ( e . g . , course materials and topics that d o not reflect their cultural ideologies or their e x i s t e n c e ) . G r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s e x p e r i e n c e o t h e r f o r m s of e t h n o c e n t r i s m a n d

188

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p a t r i a r c h y : A b l a c k w o m a n in h e r e a r l y 4 0 s t o l d m e t h a t o n e o f h e r w h i t e m a l e g r a d u a t e p r o f e s s o r s told h e r t h a t s h e w a s i n a r t i c u l a t e , that h e c o u l d n o t u n d e r ­ s t a n d h e r s p e e c h . Y e t t h i s w o m a n is an i n d e p e n d e n t c o n s u l t a n t w h o is m u c h in d e m a n d for m o t i v a t i o n a l s p e a k i n g . P r o u d of h e r h a r d w o r k o n a c h a l l e n g i n g p r o j e c t in an e n g i n e e r i n g g r a d u a t e p r o g r a m , a y o u n g b l a c k w o m a n I k n o w w a s crushed when her instructor chided, "You should do your o w n work." Staff m e m b e r s s o m e t i m e s d i s p l a y p r e j u d i c i a l a t t i t u d e s a n d b e h a v i o r s t o w a r d b l a c k w o m e n ( B e n j a m i n , 1 9 9 1 ) . A n e w a s s i s t a n t p r o f e s s o r of h i s t o r y told m e that s e v e r a l w h i t e m e n in h e r d e p a r t m e n t w o u l d n o t s p e a k t o h e r w h e n s h e e n c o u n t e r e d t h e m in t h e h a l l w a y o r o n c a m p u s . In a d d i t i o n , t h e y s h o w e d f a v o r i t i s m to h e r w h i t e m a l e office m a t e , w h o a l s o w a s a n e w a s s i s t a n t p r o f e s ­ sor. H e c o u l d g i v e t h e office staff w o r k ( e . g . , t e s t s t o b e t y p e d ) at t h e l a s t m i n ­ u t e , a n d t h e y i m m e d i a t e l y w o u l d c o m p l e t e it. T h e staff m e m b e r s t o l d h e r , h o w e v e r , that s h e h a d to t u r n in h e r w o r k at least 3 d a y s in a d v a n c e . It s e e m s that t h e office staff t o o k t h e i r c u e s a b o u t d i s c r i m i n a t o r y t r e a t m e n t f r o m f a c ­ ulty a n d a d m i n i s t r a t o r s . Token. O r g a n i z a t i o n a l a c t o r s e n a c t s t e r e o t y p e s w h e n t h e y s e e m to r e g a r d a b l a c k w o m a n as a t o k e n , s o m e o n e w h o r e p r e s e n t s h e r s o c i a l c a t e g o r y . T h e y identify h e r as a s y m b o l r a t h e r t h a n a s an i n d i v i d u a l . T o k e n i s m c a n l e a d t o p e r ­ formance pressures because organizational members evaluate the person m o r e c l o s e l y t h a n t h e y d o n o n t o k e n s a n d t h e n g e n e r a l i z e to o t h e r p e r s o n s in the same category (Kanter, 1977). For example, one research p a r t i c i p a n t — a b l a c k p r o f e s s i o n a l w o m a n — r e c o u n t s an i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h h e r w h i t e supervisor: "I hope you make it." Emphasis on you. And I told my new supervisor right then and there. I stopped her in her tracks and I said, "What do you mean? I detect some sort of implication here regarding the pronoun you. I don't feel that you're address­ ing it singularly, but plural. And there's nobody here but me and you." (St. John & Feagin, 1997, p. 193) T h e s u p e r v i s o r r e p l i e d that a b l a c k p e r s o n h a d n e v e r " m a d e i t " in t h e r o l e . T o k e n i s m a l s o c a n elicit r o l e e n c a p s u l a t i o n , in w h i c h d o m i n a n t s d i s t o r t t h e t o k e n ' s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s to fit s t e r e o t y p e s , t h e r e b y l i m i t i n g t h e n u m b e r a n d t y p e s of r o l e s that t h e t o k e n m a y a s s u m e ( K a n t e r , 1 9 7 7 ) . V i e w i n g a w o m a n of c o l o r as an e x p e r t o n r a c e a n d / o r g e n d e r r e l a t i o n s r e p r e s e n t s a c o m m o n e x a m ­ p l e of t h i s m i n d - s e t . T h i s m a y p r o d u c e l i m i t e d o p p o r t u n i t i e s for c a r e e r d e v e l ­ o p m e n t ( S . C o l l i n s , 1 9 8 9 , 1 9 9 7 ; I l g e n & Y o u t z , 1 9 8 6 ) . F o r i n s t a n c e , in c o r p o ­ r a t e s e t t i n g s , e x e c u t i v e s often r e s t r i c t b l a c k s t o h u m a n r e s o u r c e s j o b s o r r e l e g a t e t h e m to c u l t u r a l attache* r o l e s ( e . g . , c o m m u n i t y l i a i s o n o r u r b a n affairs) as o p p o s e d to m o r e p o w e r f u l p o s i t i o n s ( S . C o l l i n s , 1 9 8 9 , 1 9 9 7 ; Tucker, 1994).

A Black Feminist Standpoint

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In a c a d e m e , other p e o p l e routinely and frequently consult b l a c k w o m e n faculty m e m b e r s on racial or gender issues ( H o k e , 1997; M c K a y , 1997; M o s e s , 1 9 8 9 , 1 9 9 7 ) . W h e n I w a s first h i r e d , s o m e of m y c o l l e a g u e s c o n s u l t e d m e for a d v i c e a b o u t h o w to h a n d l e b l a c k s t u d e n t s in t h e c l a s s r o o m , a n d t h e y r e q u e s t e d m e to g i v e g u e s t l e c t u r e s a b o u t r a c e a n d g e n d e r ( e v e n t h o u g h m y a r e a of s t u d y at t h a t t i m e w a s c o m p u t e r - m e d i a t e d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a ­ t i o n ) . A l t h o u g h s e r v i c e is a d e f i n e d c o m p o n e n t of m y a c a d e m i c r o l e , I received m a n y m o r e requests to serve on university c o m m i t t e e s than my t w o w h i t e f e m a l e p e e r s d i d . I b e l i e v e t h a t I w a s i n v i t e d to s e r v e o n t h e s e c o m m i t ­ t e e s to b e t h e s p o k e s p e r s o n for b l a c k s , p e o p l e of c o l o r , w o m e n o f c o l o r , a n d / o r white w o m e n . Often, chairpersons from other d e p a r t m e n t s invite m e to lunches or dinners with minority faculty j o b applicants. O n c e , the university p r e s i d e n t i n v i t e d m e to a c c o m p a n y h e r t o a m e e t i n g w i t h m i n o r i t y c o m m u ­ nity l e a d e r s in t h e n e a r b y b i g city ( s e e B . A l l e n , 1 9 9 5 b , for a d d i t i o n a l e x a m ­ ples). M e m b e r s of an o r g a n i z a t i o n m a y b e l i e v e t h a t a b l a c k w o m a n ' s only r o l e is to b e an e x p e r t o n i s s u e s of r a c e . O n c e , a w h i t e m a l e s t u d e n t d r o p p e d m y i n t r o ­ d u c t i o n to o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n c l a s s after t h e first s e s s i o n b e c a u s e , h e s a i d , h e h a d a l r e a d y fulfilled t h e c o l l e g e ' s e t h n i c s t u d i e s r e q u i r e m e n t . I h a d m a d e no references to ethnicity during m y opening r e m a r k s (see B . Allen, 1998a). Similarly, as I noted earlier, graduate students report that their profes­ s o r s a n d c l a s s m a t e s e x p e c t t h e m to p r o v i d e the m i n o r i t y p e r s p e c t i v e o n c o u r s e m a t e r i a l s , e v e n as t h e y q u e s t i o n t h e s t u d e n t s ' i n t e l l e c t u a l c a p a c i t i e s ( s e e Baraka, 1997). Mammy. In a d d i t i o n to r e g a r d i n g b l a c k w o m e n z a t i o n s often e x p e c t t h e m t o a s s u m e n u r t u r i n g , n i s c e n t of t h e b l a c k w o m a n ' s r o l e as m a m m y 1979; Hoke, 1997; Mullings, 1994; Omolade,

as tokens, m e m b e r s of o r g a n i ­ caretaking roles that are remi­ in e a r l y U . S . h i s t o r y ( D u m a s , 1994).

Whether she likes it or not, the black woman has come to represent the kind of per­ son, a style of life, a set of attitudes and behaviors through which individuals and groups seek to fulfill their own socio-emotional needs in organizations. (Dumas, 1979, p. 123) C o n s e q u e n t l y , m e m b e r s of t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n m a y e x p e c t h e r t o b e a m o t h e r c o n f e s s o r , to p r o v i d e c o m f o r t , a n d to a d v o c a t e for t h e o p p r e s s e d . M o s e s ( 1 9 8 9 ) r e p o r t s t h a t b l a c k w o m e n often s e e m to s p e n d m o r e t i m e t h a n t h e i r white counterparts discussing personal issues with students (see also Benjamin, 1991; Burgess, 1997; Hoke, 1997; M c K a y , 1997; Moses, 1997). As M c K a y ( 1 9 9 7 ) p o i n t s o u t , " S t u d e n t s ( e v e n w h i t e o n e s ) in n e e d of c o u n s e l i n g o n a c a d e m i c i s s u e s as w e l l as p s y c h o l o g i c a l o n e s c o n t i n u a l l y a p p e a r o n t h e d o o r s t e p of t h e b l a c k m o t h e r , t h e g r e a t b o s o m o f t h e w o r l d " ( p . 2 1 ) .

190

COMMUNICATION FROM FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES

M y e x p e r i e n c e s s t r o n g l y s u p p o r t t h e p r e c e d i n g p o i n t s . S t u d e n t s in m y d e p a r t m e n t , as w e l l as s t u d e n t s of c o l o r a n d w o m e n s t u d e n t s f r o m o t h e r departments, frequently seek my advice and comfort regarding their concerns a b o u t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n or o t h e r p e r s o n a l p r o b l e m s . S o m e of m y w h i t e c o l ­ l e a g u e s h a v e a s k e d m e h o w to d e a l w i t h p r o b l e m a t i c b l a c k s t u d e n t s . W h e n I first a r r i v e d at t h e u n i v e r s i t y , a m e m b e r of the B l a c k S t u d e n t A l l i a n c e a s k e d m e to b e t h e i r a d v i s e r .

Matriarch. B l a c k w o m e n a l s o m a y face t h e s t e r e o t y p e of m a t r i a r c h , an aggressive, overbearing individual. Sociological studies by Frasier (1939) a n d M o y n i h a n ( 1 9 6 5 ) s p a w n e d this c a r i c a t u r e b y o f f e r i n g t h e d e r i s i v e l a b e l of m a t r i a r c h to a s o c i e t y that d e v a l u e s p o w e r f u l w o m e n o r b l a c k s ( M u l l i n g s , 1 9 9 4 ; P a r k e r & O g i l v i e , 1 9 9 6 ) . R e s e a r c h s h o w s that s o m e p e r s o n s m a y b e l i e v e this s t e r e o t y p e . F o r e x a m p l e , w h i t e c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s r a t e d b l a c k w o m e n as m o r e c o n f r o n t a t i o n a l t h a n w h i t e w o m e n ( W e i t z & G o r d o n , 1 9 9 3 ) . Similarly, white professional w o m e n viewed black w o m e n ' s conflict-man­ a g e m e n t s t y l e s as m o r e c o n f r o n t a t i o n a l t h a n w h i t e w o m e n ' s ( S h u t e r & T u r n e r , 1 9 9 7 ) . A tall, s o f t - s p o k e n b l a c k w o m a n g r a d u a t e t e a c h i n g a s s i s t a n t w h o m I k n o w r e c e i v e d n e g a t i v e e v a l u a t i o n s f r o m a c o u p l e of w h i t e m a l e s in h e r c l a s s ; t h e y d e s c r i b e d h e r as i n t i m i d a t i n g a n d l o u d .

Power Plays A l t h o u g h p o w e r d y n a m i c s t h r e a d t h r o u g h t h e e x a m p l e s that I h a v e a l r e a d y d e s c r i b e d , I i n c l u d e this s e p a r a t e s e c t i o n to d e p i c t b l a t a n t e x e m p l a r s of t h e w a y s that i n c u m b e n t s w i e l d p o w e r o v e r b l a c k w o m e n n e w c o m e r s . T h e s e i n t e r a c t i o n s reflect h i s t o r i c a l r e l a t i o n s of g r o u p p o w e r a n d d o m i n a n c e . W h e n I w a s h i r e d , t h e c h a i r of m y d e p a r t m e n t at that t i m e ( t h r e e m e n h a v e chaired the department during my 9 years here) w a r n e d m e that I w o u l d be a s k e d to "sit o n e v e r y d a m n e d c o m m i t t e e . " H e k n e w t h a t m a n y m e m b e r s of the u n i v e r s i t y a c t i v e l y w e r e t r y i n g to a d d r e s s " d i v e r s i t y " i s s u e s a n d t h a t t h e y w o u l d v i e w m e as an " e x p e r t . " H e g a v e m e an " o u t " b y t e l l i n g t h e m t h a t h e d i d not allow m e to sit o n e x t e r n a l c o m m i t t e e s . I a p p r e c i a t e t h a t h e w a s l o o k i n g o u t for m y w e l f a r e , b u t I b e l i e v e t h a t h e w a s d e m o n s t r a t i n g a p a t r i a r c h a l a t t i ­ t u d e . In a p r o t e c t i v e f a t h e r r o l e , h e d i d n o t s e e m to c o n s i d e r that I w a s a n a d u l t w h o h a d h e r o w n i d e a s a b o u t s e r v i c e . O n e of t h e r e a s o n s that I a c c e p t e d t h e p o s i t i o n w a s b e c a u s e I s a w the d i r e n e e d for m o r e w o m e n a n d p e o p l e o f c o l o r at the u n i v e r s i t y , a n d I w a n t e d to b e an a c t i v e a g e n t for s o c i a l c h a n g e ( s e e B . A l l e n , 1 9 9 8 a ) . I w i s h that h e h a d i n v i t e d m e to d i s c u s s h o w I felt a b o u t s e r v i c e a n d t h e n a d v i s e d m e a b o u t h o w to n e g o t i a t e s e r v i c e r o l e s s o t h a t I c o u l d a c c o m p l i s h m y p e r s o n a l g o a l s as w e l l as m e e t t h e d e p a r t m e n t ' s e x p e c t a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g r e s e a r c h a n d t e a c h i n g . G i v e n t h e u n i v e r s i t y ' s m i s s i o n to i n c r e a s e 2

A Black Feminist Standpoint

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and value diversity, such a discussion m i g h t h a v e b e e n p r o d u c t i v e for both of u s . P o w e r d y n a m i c s a l s o a r o s e w h e n a c o u p l e of d e p a r t m e n t c h a i r s , t h e d e a n o f m y s c h o o l , t h e c h a n c e l l o r , a n d t h e p r e s i d e n t of t h e u n i v e r s i t y " i n v i t e d " m e t o b e a m e m b e r of a v a r i e t y o f u n i v e r s i t y c o m m i t t e e s . T h e s e c o m m i t t e e s r a n g e d f r o m t h o s e t h a t s p e c i f i c a l l y d e a l t w i t h d i v e r s i t y i s s u e s t o o t h e r s for w h i c h I b e l i e v e I o f t e n w a s e x p e c t e d to fulfill t h e r o l e of t o k e n . F r o m t h e i r p o s i t i o n s o f power, these persons probably did not stop to consider that I might be over­ w h e l m e d w i t h r e q u e s t s to s e r v e o r e v e n t h a t I m i g h t n o t h a v e b e e n q u a l i f i e d t o p r o v i d e t h e p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t t h e y d e s i r e d . T h i s t e n d e n c y a m o n g p e r s o n s in p o w e r p o s i t i o n s t o e x p e c t o p p r e s s e d p e o p l e to s h o u l d e r t h e b u r d e n of a d d r e s s ­ ing d i v e r s i t y s y m b o l i z e s t h e i r p r i v i l e g e a n d s t a t u s : 3

Whenever the need for some pretense of communication arises, those who profit from our oppression call upon us to share our knowledge with them. In other words, it is the responsibility of the oppressed to teach the oppressors their mis­ takes The oppressors maintain their position and evade responsibility for their actions. (Lorde, 1984, p. 114) A s m y t e n u r e c a s e w o r k e d its w a y u p t h e u n i v e r s i t y h i e r a r c h y , t h e c h a i r o f m y d e p a r t m e n t at t h a t t i m e a s k e d t o m e e t w i t h m e . S p e a k i n g o n b e h a l f of t h e dean, he offered m e 2 m o r e years to " p r o v e myself," b e c a u s e , h e said, the d e a n d o u b t e d t h a t m y c a s e w o u l d s u c c e e d . It s e e m s t h a t h e d i d n o t t h i n k t h a t e v a l u a ­ tors would view m y research record favorably. H e thought that I had spent too m u c h t i m e o n s e r v i c e , p e r h a p s t o t h e d e t r i m e n t of m y r e s e a r c h e n d e a v o r s . T h u s , they would grant m e 2 additional years to r e d e e m myself. I refused the offer. Like this chairperson, the white people that a black w o m a n e n c o u n t e r s probably do not even think twice about how they interact with her: " T h e p o w e r i m b a l a n c e is r e i n f o r c e d , a s b l a c k s t r e a d l i g h t l y , c a r e f u l l y , a n d w h i t e s comfortably go about their business. T h e powerful can choose what they wish to i g n o r e " ( T h o m a s , 1 9 8 9 , p . 2 8 4 ) . T h e p o w e r f u l a l s o c a n c h o o s e h o w t h e y b e h a v e toward the p o w e r l e s s , as the following e x a m p l e from a b l a c k w o m a n faculty m e m b e r illustrates: " A n eminent white scholar with w h o m I w a s din­ i n g s u d d e n l y t o o k m y c h i n i n t o h i s h a n d to i n s p e c t m y f a c e . H e t o l d m e , a p p r o v i n g l y , that I r e s e m b l e d h i s f a m i l y ' s f o r m e r m a i d " ( A . A l l e n , 1 9 9 4 , p . 1 8 7 ) . T h e fact t h a t h e w a s c o m f o r t a b l e t o u c h i n g h e r f a c e w i t h o u t h e r p e r ­ m i s s i o n r e v e a l s h i s p a t r i a r c h a l p o s i t i o n a s s t a r k l y as h i s p a t r o n i z i n g c o m m e n t d o e s . W h i t e p e r s o n s o f t e n feel c o m f o r t a b l e t o u c h i n g a b l a c k w o m a n ' s h a i r ( p a r t i c u l a r l y w h e n it is in b r a i d s o r s o m e o t h e r n o n m a i n s t r e a m s t y l e ) . I n a d d i ­ t i o n , w h i t e m e n r o u t i n e l y i n v a d e b l a c k w o m e n ' s office s p a c e s o r i n t e r r u p t t h e i r c o n v e r s a t i o n s ( s e e M c K a y , 1 9 9 7 , p . 14). S t u d e n t s a l s o e n g a g e in p o w e r p l a y s , a s t h e f o l l o w i n g a n e c d o t e i l l u s t r a t e s :

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A white male student informed me that at the beginning of the course he had often been angry at many of the things I had said, and that he had considered confronting me and "punching" me in the nose several times. When he told me the story he was congratulating himself on not having taken such drastic action. (A. Allen, 1994, p. 146) T h i s w o m a n ' s s t o r y is n o t an i s o l a t e d i n c i d e n t . A r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t o n b l a c k w o m e n and student harassment reveals that the typical harasser w a s a white male (Pope & Joseph, 1997). Students' behaviors ranged from verbal com­ m e n t s ( e . g . , " B i t c h , g o b a c k to A f r i c a " ) to p h y s i c a l a t t a c k s . O n e w o m a n shared the following: After reading his grade, the student lunged out of his seat, threw the chair on its side, and shouted very loudly, "I don't want that grade. You can't teach. You black women are not qualified; you are here because of affirmative action. I'm going to see that you don't get tenure." He then stormed out of the room, (as cited in Pope & Joseph, 1997, p. 252) A n o t h e r p r o f e s s o r r e p o r t e d that a w h i t e f e m a l e s t u d e n t t r i e d to p e r s u a d e h e r p e e r s t o w r i t e n e g a t i v e e v a l u a t i o n s of h e r t e a c h i n g . A friend t o l d m e a b o u t a black w o m a n faculty m e m b e r w h o w a s asked by a white m a l e student, during c l a s s , " H o w w o u l d y o u feel if s o m e o n e c a l l e d y o u a b l a c k b i t c h ' ? " 4

A final w a y that d o m i n a n t s e n g a g e in p o w e r p l a y s is t h r o u g h s e x u a l h a r a s s ­ m e n t . O n e w o m a n r e p o r t s that h e r a d v i s e r k i s s e d h e r o n t h e m o u t h ( A . A l l e n , 1 9 9 4 ) . W h e n a p r o f e s s o r friend of m i n e w o r e a T - s h i r t d e c o r a t e d w i t h f i g u r e s of A f r i c a n w o m e n , a w h i t e m a l e p r o f e s s o r c o m m e n t e d , in front o f staff m e m ­ b e r s , " I f y o u s h a k e y o u r b r e a s t s , it w o u l d l o o k l i k e t h o s e w o m e n w e r e d a n c ­ ing." O t h e r black w o m e n report that white m a l e students m a d e sexual advances toward them (McKay, 1997; Moses, 1989; Pope & Joseph, 1997).

Insensitive or Patronizing Comments or Requests T h i s final c a t e g o r y e n c o m p a s s e s t y p e s of c o m m e n t s that o t h e r s m a k e to b l a c k w o m e n . O n t o p of t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s t h a t I h a v e d e s c r i b e d , t h e s e a d d i n s u l t to i n j u r y . T h e f o l l o w i n g i n c i d e n t s typify o t h e r s ' a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t b l a c k w o m e n and their lives. A graduate student I k n o w described her interaction w i t h a w h i t e m a l e p r o f e s s o r d u r i n g an o r i e n t a t i o n s e s s i o n : [The professor said,] "Wow! To be black and a woman getting your Ph.D." Then I believe he commented that my family must be proud Not only did he lack polit­ ical correctness and social grace, but he also (1) had no concept of the fact that I had just come from a university where seeing a black woman with a Ph.D. goes com­ pletely unnoticed because that is just the way it is (and is supposed to be) and (2)

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had no way of knowing whether every person, both male and female, in my family held a Ph.D. A n a t t o r n e y friend o f m i n e c a n n o t c o u n t t h e n u m b e r o f t i m e s t h a t a w h i t e p e r s o n h a s s a i d , " W h y d i d you d e c i d e t o b e c o m e a l a w y e r ? " S i m i l a r l y , p e o p l e often tell a y o u n g b l a c k w o m a n g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t I m e n t o r , " Y o u d o n ' t l o o k like an e n g i n e e r . " A white m a l e asked a black w o m a n b r a n c h b a n k m a n a g e r ( t h e o n l y p e r s o n o f c o l o r a m o n g 12 m a n a g e r s ) to w e a r a b l o n d w i g ( i . e . , p l a y t h e p a r t of t h e b u f f o o n ) in a skit. A w h i t e w o m a n f a c u l t y m e m b e r t o l d a b l a c k w o m a n t h a t s h e m i g h t b e h a p p i e r if s h e " r e t u r n e d " t o a h i s t o r i c a l l y b l a c k c o l ­ l e g e : " M y Ivy L e a g u e g r a d u a t e t r a i n i n g , m y c o l l e a g u e t o l d m e , w o u l d m a k e m e a ' q u e e n ' at a h i s t o r i c a l l y b l a c k c o l l e g e " ( M c K a y , 1 9 9 7 , p . 14). A n o t h e r b l a c k g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t d e s c r i b e s h e r first m e e t i n g w i t h h e r t e m p o r a r y a d v i s e r : After telling him that my interest was in African American women, ethnic identity, and organizational communication, the discussion moved to issues of career plan­ ning and life in academia in general. He proceeded to tell me that because that I was (1) black, (2) female, (3) had interest in feminism, and (4) tall in stature, that I might have a hard time in the field because people (translation—white folks) would be intimidated by me! H o u s t o n ( 1 9 9 7 ) d i s c u s s e s t h r e e t y p e s of i n s e n s i t i v e s t a t e m e n t s t h a t w h i t e people s o m e t i m e s m a k e to black w o m e n : "I never e v e n notice that y o u ' r e black"; " Y o u ' r e d i f f e r e n t . . . "; and "I understand y o u r e x p e r i e n c e as a black w o m a n b e c a u s e . . . s e x i s m is a s b a d as r a c i s m , I w a t c h ' T h e C o s b y S h o w , ' [or] I ' m a l s o a m e m b e r of a m i n o r i t y g r o u p " ( p . 1 9 2 ) . A s H o u s t o n e x p l a i n s , t h e s e types of statements erase or diminish a black w o m a n ' s ethnic cultural experi­ ence. T o s u m m a r i z e , a b l a c k w o m a n n e w c o m e r e n d u r e s a c o m p l e x v a r i e t y of treatment from i n c u m b e n t m e m b e r s , m a n y of w h o m m a y interact with her b a s e d o n s t e r e o t y p e s , f r o m p o s i t i o n s of p o w e r , o r b o t h . A s a r e s u l t , a b l a c k w o m a n m a y find h e r s e l f r e s p o n d i n g to a s e r i e s o f s t e r e o t y p i c a l p r o j e c t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g a b l e to e s t a b l i s h h e r s e l f as a vital m e m b e r in t h e o r g a n i z a ­ t i o n . O n t h e o n e h a n d , m e m b e r s o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s e e m t o v a l u e h e r for n u r ­ t u r i n g b e h a v i o r s a n d for r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e " m i n o r i t y " v o i c e , b u t o n l y w h e n t h e y a s k for h e r p e r s p e c t i v e s a n d a d v i c e . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e y m a y q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r s h e is c o m p e t e n t t o b e an i n t e l l e c t u a l , a s c h o l a r . C o n s e q u e n t l y , b l a c k w o m e n m a y e x p e r i e n c e a type of role a m b i g u i t y (confusion a b o u t require­ m e n t s o r l a c k of i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e r o l e ) t h a t t h e l i t e r a t u r e d o e s n o t d e s c r i b e ( e . g . , D . K a t z & K a h n , 1 9 7 8 ; R. K a t z , 1 9 7 7 ) . A s s h e e n d u r e s all s o r t s of s u b t l e a n d b l a t a n t f o r m s of p r e j u d i c e , s e x i s m , and racism, and provides a variety of services that her j o b description does not i n c l u d e , a b l a c k w o m a n t r i e s to m a k e s e n s e o f t h e m u l t i p l e a n d s o m e t i m e s

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c o n f l i c t i n g m e s s a g e s t h a t b o m b a r d h e r . In t h e i r d i s c u s s i o n o f r o l e t a k i n g , K a t z a n d K a h n ( 1 9 7 8 ) p r o p o s e the c o n c e p t of received role, t h e n e w c o m e r ' s " p e r ­ c e p t i o n s a n d c o g n i t i o n s " of w h a t m e m b e r s of h e r r o l e set h a v e c o m m u n i c a t e d to her. This received role strongly influences h o w the m e m b e r p e r f o r m s her role and h o w she perceives her competence and value to the organization. N e x t , I d i s c u s s p o t e n t i a l s o u r c e s of s t r e s s r e g a r d i n g t h e i r r e c e i v e d r o l e t h a t c o n f r o n t b l a c k w o m e n as t h e y e n g a g e in m a k i n g s e n s e of t h e i r s o c i a l i z a t i o n experiences.

Newcomer Sense Making Socialization researchers have acknowledged that n e w c o m e r s experience c o n f l i c t a n d s t r e s s as t h e y a t t e m p t to a s s u m e t h e i r n e w r o l e ( K a t z & K a h n , 1978; Miller & Jablin, 1991). As Van M a a n e n and Schein (1979) observe, " I n d i v i d u a l s u n d e r g o i n g a n y o r g a n i z a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n a r e in a n a n x i e t y p r o d u c i n g s i t u a t i o n " ( p . 2 1 4 ) . N e w c o m e r s u s u a l l y try to r e d u c e t h i s a n x i e t y b y l e a r n i n g t h e f u n c t i o n a l a n d s o c i a l r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e i r n e w r o l e a s q u i c k l y as p o s s i b l e . T h e y w o r k a c t i v e l y to m a k e s e n s e of t h e s i t u a t i o n a n d i n f o r m a t i o n that t h e y r e c e i v e o r e l i c i t ( W e i c k , 1 9 9 5 ) . T h e n a t u r a l l y stressful p o s i t i o n of n e w c o m e r p r o b a b l y is m o r e p r o n o u n c e d for b l a c k w o m e n . M a n y of t h e m u n d e r g o c o n s t a n t i n n e r s t r u g g l e s a s t h e y e n d u r e t h e t y p e s of i n t e r a c t i o n s I d e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r , as t h e y try t o l e a r n t h e i r r o l e , a s t h e y c o n d u c t j o b - r e l a t e d t a s k s , a n d a s t h e y fulfill e x t e r n a l o b l i g a t i o n s . N e x t , I d e s c r i b e s o m e of t h e m a j o r s o u r c e s of s t r e s s a n d c o n f l i c t t h a t b l a c k w o m e n m a y e x p e r i e n c e as t h e y r e c e i v e r o l e i n f o r m a t i o n a n d e n g a g e in t h e role-taking process. Again, although I divide these into topical headings, the issues may overlap.

Potential Stressors Seeking Information. A p r i m a r y w a y t h a t n e w c o m e r s s t r i v e to r e d u c e u n c e r ­ t a i n t y a b o u t j o b - r e l a t e d s k i l l s a n d g r o u p n o r m s a n d v a l u e s is b y s e e k i n g i n f o r ­ m a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n w a i t i n g for o t h e r s to p r o v i d e it ( C o n r a d & P o o l e , 1 9 9 8 ; Katz, 1985; Miller & Jablin, 1991). Therefore, socialization researchers often study n e w c o m e r information-seeking behaviors (Ashford, 1986; Ashford & C u m m i n g s , 1985; Comer, 1991; Louis, 1990; Miller & Jablin, 1 9 9 1 ; Morri­ son, 1993; Van M a a n e n & Schein, 1979). T h e s e researchers report that n e w ­ c o m e r s e m p l o y a v a r i e t y o f s t r a t e g i e s to o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m s u c h s o u r c e s as t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n itself ( e . g . , e m p l o y e e m a n u a l s o r t r a i n i n g s e s s i o n s ) , c o ­ workers, managers and supervisors, social networks, or mentors. M i l l e r a n d J a b l i n ( 1 9 9 1 ) offer a t h e o r e t i c a l m o d e l o f f a c t o r s t h a t affect n e w c o m e r s ' information-seeking tactics. They describe s o m e of these tactics

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(e.g., direct questions, indirect questions, disguising intent, surveillance, observation, and disclosure), and they provide propositions about h o w n e w ­ c o m e r s e n a c t t h e m . T h e y c o n t e n d t h a t n e w c o m e r s o f t e n a r e a w a r e of c o s t s o r social exchanges that e m b e d information-seeking behaviors. For instance, newcomers express concern about " b u g g i n g " coworkers or eliciting social disapproval. Miller and Jablin further posit that n e w c o m e r s are m o r e likely to a s k d i r e c t q u e s t i o n s w h e n t h e y feel c o m f o r t a b l e a p p r o a c h i n g a s o u r c e o r w h e n t h e y feel t h a t little c h a n c e e x i s t s for " l o s i n g f a c e " o r b e i n g e m b a r r a s s e d . T h e y h y p o t h e s i z e t h a t t h e h i g h e r t h e l e v e l of u n c e r t a i n t y , t h e m o r e a n e w c o m e r e n g a g e s in i n f o r m a t i o n - s e e k i n g b e h a v i o r . In a d d i t i o n , t h e y a r g u e t h a t i n d i v i d ­ u a l d i f f e r e n c e s ( e . g . , s e l f - e s t e e m a n d t o l e r a n c e for a m b i g u i t y ) m a y i n f l u e n c e n e w c o m e r b e h a v i o r s . F i n a l l y , t h e y n o t e t h a t c o n t e x t u a l f a c t o r s , s u c h as t h e t y p e of s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r o g r a m , c a n a l s o affect n e w c o m e r s ' i n f o r m a t i o n - s e e k ­ ing behaviors (see also Miller, 1996). Social conditions also might influence black w o m e n ' s seeking behaviors.

information-

Acquiring role information is particularly challenging for many black women, because, in general, they have limited career opportunities, experiences, and inter­ actions in high-status positions through which to learn role requirements suffi­ ciently well. They are particularly vulnerable at work when entering newly acquired positions where they feel pressured to perform, in order to compensate for both their race and gender, before learning adequately the formal and informal roles. (Bell, 1990, p. 475) A w a r e t h a t o t h e r s m i g h t u s e s t e r e o t y p e s to p e r c e i v e a n d e v a l u a t e h e r b e h a v ­ iors, a black w o m a n may hesitate to seek information directly, not only b e c a u s e of h o w o t h e r s m i g h t j u d g e h e r b u t a l s o b e c a u s e s h e f e e l s r e s p o n s i b l e for r e p r e s e n t i n g o t h e r s l i k e herself. A s e n i o r v i c e p r e s i d e n t of a l a r g e f i n a n c e firm e x p l a i n s , " W h e n t h e y p u t y o u in a j o b , y o u feel a s if y o u a r e c a r r y i n g t h e f u t u r e of a n y b l a c k p e r s o n o r a n y w o m a n in t h i s r o l e f o r e v e r " ( a s c i t e d in T u c k e r , 1 9 9 4 , p . 6 2 ) . A b l a c k w o m a n m a y fear t h a t o t h e r s m i g h t offer h e r m i s ­ i n f o r m a t i o n b e c a u s e t h e y w a n t h e r t o fail. H e r w h i t e c o w o r k e r s m a y feel c o m ­ petitive and threatened by her presence because they believe that she will reap b e n e f i t s t h a t t h e y w i l l n o t b e c a u s e of h e r p e r c e i v e d " t w o f e r " s t a t u s ( B e n j a m i n , 1991). Thus, a black w o m a n may be especially conscientious and cautious a b o u t w h o m to a s k , w h a t t o a s k , a n d w h e n to a s k for i n f o r m a t i o n . W h e n I b e c a m e a tenure-track professor, I did not anticipate the c o m p l e x i ­ ties of t h e r o l e . A c c u s t o m e d to r e a d i n g a s i t u a t i o n a n d q u i c k l y a s s i m i l a t i n g , I felt f r u s t r a t e d a n d c o n f u s e d as t h e i n t r i c a c i e s of m y r o l e e m e r g e d . In p r e v i o u s j o b situations, my information-seeking behaviors paralleled those that Miller a n d J a b l i n ( 1 9 9 1 ) p r e d i c t of a n e w c o m e r ( e . g . , a s a p e r s o n w i t h h i g h selfe s t e e m , I w a s l i k e l y to a s k q u e s t i o n s d i r e c t l y ) . H o w e v e r , in t h i s n e w c o n t e x t , I

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p r o c e e d e d c a u t i o u s l y . A c u t e l y a w a r e of m y "first a n d o n l y " s t a t u s , I r a r e l y asked direct questions or sought help. Instead, I paid close attention to m y col­ leagues and h o w they enacted their roles. Although I was friendly with m y c o l l e a g u e s , I r a r e l y c o n s u l t e d w i t h t h e m a b o u t h o w to d o m y j o b ( e v e n t h o u g h s o m e of t h e m r o u t i n e l y a p p r o a c h e d m e for a d v i c e a b o u t r a c e o r g e n d e r i s s u e s or computers). M e n t o r s a n d s p o n s o r s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e s for l e a r n i n g t h e r o p e s in c o m p l e x r o l e s s u c h as faculty o r e x e c u t i v e p o s i t i o n s . S o m e r e s e a r c h s h o w s that b l a c k w o m e n often a r e not i n v o l v e d in m e n t o r i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s (Benjamin, 1991; Justus, Freitag, & Parker, 1987; Moses, 1989). However, T h o m a s ( 1 9 8 9 ) f o u n d that b l a c k w o m e n f r e q u e n t l y p a r t i c i p a t e in d e v e l o p ­ m e n t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s with o t h e r w o m e n , b u t r a r e l y w i t h w h i t e m e n . In m o s t c o n t e m p o r a r y u n i v e r s i t y s e t t i n g s , as well as in t h e c o r p o r a t e w o r l d , w h i t e m e n usually are the main persons positioned to m e n t o r black w o m e n n e w c o m e r s . B e c a u s e of h o m o p h i l y (a t e n d e n c y to d e v e l o p r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h o t h e r s l i k e oneself), white men and black w o m e n might not easily d e v e l o p m e n t o r i n g or apprentice relationships with one another (Burgess, 1997; Ibarra, 1993). T h e mentor-protege* r e l a t i o n s h i p s e e m s to w o r k b e s t w h e n t h e t w o p a r t i e s h i g h l y identify with one another ( T h o m a s , 1990). R e s e a r c h s h o w s t h a t w h i t e m e n t o r s find it difficult t o b u i l d s h a r i n g r e l a ­ tionships with black w o m e n . T h o m a s (1989) contends that the U . S . history of race relations and racial taboos influences cross-sex/cross-race m e n t o r i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s ( s e e a l s o C o n r a d & P o o l e , 1 9 9 8 ) . B l a c k w o m e n in c a r e e r enhancing relationships with white men m a y e n c o u n t e r pressures and nega­ tive a t t r i b u t i o n s . F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e i r c o w o r k e r s m a y a c c u s e t h e m of h a v i n g s e x w i t h t h e i r m e n t o r . In a d d i t i o n , w h i t e m e n ' s c o w o r k e r s m i g h t a c c u s e t h e m of b e t r a y i n g o t h e r w h i t e p e o p l e , of b e i n g d i s l o y a l ( M o s e s , 1 9 8 9 ) . I n t e r g r o u p d y n a m i c s m a y o c c u r w h e n a b l a c k w o m a n feels p r e s s u r e to a v o i d c o n t a c t w i t h o t h e r b l a c k s to s e e m l o y a l to the d o m i n a n t g r o u p ( B e n j a m i n , 1 9 9 1 ; I b a r r a , 1993). Similarly, she may experience intragroup sanctions from black p e o p l e for i n t e r a c t i n g with w h i t e m e n ( I b a r r a , 1 9 9 3 ) . W h i t e m e n m a y not b e l i e v e that they u n d e r s t a n d b l a c k w o m e n ' s n e e d s (Hall & Sandler, 1983; Moses, 1989). Research reveals that cross-sex or c r o s s - r a c e / e t h n i c i t y m e n t o r i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s s e e m to f o c u s m o r e o n t a s k related issues than same-sex and same-race/ethnicity relationships d o ( C o n r a d & P o o l e , 1 9 9 8 ) . W h e n I first b e c a m e an a s s i s t a n t p r o f e s s o r , I t o o k a d v a n t a g e of a p r o g r a m at t h e u n i v e r s i t y that m a t c h e d m i n o r i t y f a c u l t y w i t h professors outside of their o w n d e p a r t m e n t s . M y m e n t o r w a s a white m a n from a s i s t e r d i s c i p l i n e of c o m m u n i c a t i o n . W e m e t o n c e for c o f f e e , a n d I e n j o y e d o u r c o n v e r s a t i o n . A few m o n t h s later, I c a l l e d h i m w h e n I w a s f e e l i n g s t r e s s e d . I d i s c l o s e d that I w a s f e e l i n g b e w i l d e r e d a n d c o n f u s e d . H e s e e m e d t o w a n t to h e l p , but t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p fizzled. H e d i d n o t c o n t a c t m e a g a i n . I r a n

A Black Feminist

Standpoint

Analysis

197

into h i m on c a m p u s s o m e m o n t h s later, and he s e e m e d u n c o m f o r t a b l e . I n e v e r figured out what happened. N e w c o m e r s can also obtain important information and insight from social networks. H o w e v e r , black w o m e n m a y experience restricted access to infor­ m a l n e t w o r k s b e c a u s e of e x c l u s i o n o r s e l f - i m p o s e d i s o l a t i o n ( B e n j a m i n , 1991; Denton, 1990; Greenhaus, Parasuraman, & Wormley, 1990). Their w h i t e c o l l e a g u e s m a y n o t i n v i t e t h e m t o p a r t i c i p a t e b e c a u s e of o u t r i g h t d i s ­ c r i m i n a t i o n o r b o u n d a r y - h e i g h t e n i n g effects ( e . g . , m i s g i v i n g s a b o u t i n t e r a c t ­ i n g w i t h an " o t h e r " o u t s i d e of t h e j o b c o n t e x t ) . I n a d d i t i o n , b l a c k w o m e n m a y d e c l i n e to i n v o l v e t h e m s e l v e s in s o c i a l e v e n t s . S o m e m a y i s o l a t e t h e m s e l v e s b e c a u s e t h e y " i n t e r p r e t i n v i t a t i o n s to p a r t i c i p a t e in i n f o r m a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s a s bids to b e h a v e according to stereotypes" ( D u m a s , 1979, p . 125). O n c e , a white w o m a n at a f a c u l t y g a t h e r i n g a s k e d m e to s i n g a N e g r o s p i r i t u a l ( B . A l l e n , 1995a). M a n y black w o m e n have other obligations (e.g., family responsibilities or c o m m u n i t y work) that preclude their spending time on extracurricular activi­ ties t h a t often c h a r a c t e r i z e s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n ( e . g . , h a p p y h o u r , golf, o r o t h e r s p o r t s ) . S o m e b l a c k w o m e n m a y c h o o s e n o t to i n t e r a c t m u c h w i t h w h i t e s b e y o n d p e r f o r m i n g t h e a s s i g n e d t a s k s of t h e i r j o b s ( B e l l , 1 9 9 0 ) . O r s o m e of u s m a y w a n t t o a v o i d y e t a n o t h e r s i t u a t i o n in w h i c h w e h a v e to s u p p r e s s o u r o w n c u l t u r a l p r e f e r e n c e s in f a v o r of t h e d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e . Bicultural Identity. M a n y b l a c k w o m e n m a y f a c e t h e c h a l l e n g e of n e g o t i a t i n g a b i c u l t u r a l life s t r u c t u r e ( i . e . , a t t e m p t s t o b a l a n c e p r o f e s s i o n a l a n d p e r s o n a l l i v e s ) a n d e x p e r i e n c e t h e e m o t i o n a l s t r a i n s of w a l k i n g a l i n e b e t w e e n t w o worlds (Bell, 1990, 1992; Denton, 1990). They also have to respond to d e m a n d s from their j o b and from the black c o m m u n i t y ( L o c k e , 1997). A re­ search participant explains, You have double demands placed on you; you have a choice to ignore one and go with the other or try to satisfy both. I try to satisfy both. I don't believe I would be here without the support of the community I feel I have an obligation and debt to pay to my community, (as cited in Benjamin, 1991, p. 130) In a d d i t i o n , a b l a c k w o m a n m a y b e " t o r n b e t w e e n t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s a n d d e m a n d s b o r n of h e r m y t h i c a l i m a g e a n d t h o s e t h a t a r e i n h e r e n t in h e r o f f i c i a l s t a t u s a n d t a s k in t h e f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s " ( D u m a s , 1 9 7 9 , p . 1 2 3 ; s e e a l s o B . Allen, 1995b; O m o l a d e , 1994). I often struggle with the d i l e m m a of trying to r e f u t e o t h e r s ' s t e r e o t y p e d e x p e c t a t i o n s o f m e ( e . g . , to b e a " m a m m y " ) w h i l e f e e l i n g an i n g r a i n e d s e n s e of o b l i g a t i o n ( b a s e d o n h o w I h a v e b e e n s o c i a l i z e d as b l a c k a n d as a w o m a n ) to b e a c a r e t a k e r , to l o o k o u t for o t h e r s ( s e e C o l l i n s , 1991).

198

COMMUNICATION FROM FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES

B l a c k w o m e n m u s t n e g o t i a t e t h e p a r a d o x of b e i n g e x p e c t e d t o c h e c k t h e i r r a c e a n d g e n d e r at t h e d o o r at t h e s a m e t i m e t h a t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l m e m b e r s solicit t h e i r i n s i g h t for d e a l i n g w i t h r a c e a n d g e n d e r i s s u e s ( B o w m a n , 1 9 9 1 ) . Baraka (1997) explains, "The Eurocentric academy most readily embraces those African Americans w h o divest themselves of their culture and heritage to b e c o m e m o r e a c c e p t a b l y E u r o p e a n a n d l i m i t t h e i r i n t e r e s t s t o ' b l a c k ' o r 'gender' issues" (p. 242). In a d d i t i o n , b l a c k w o m e n s o m e t i m e s m u s t n e g o t i a t e c o n f l i c t s r e l a t e d t o t h e two stigmatized aspects of their identity ( B . Allen, 1995b; Collins, 1 9 9 1 ; Dill, 1 9 7 9 ) . In an a r t i c l e titled " B l a c k W o m a n P r o f e s s o r — W h i t e U n i v e r s i t y , " M c K a y (1983) asserts, One constantly feels the pressure of a double-edged sword: simultaneously, a per­ verse visibility and a convenient invisibility. We are treated as blacks, on one hand, as women, on the other. We are left constantly taking stock of the landscape as dif­ ferent issues arise and we have to determine which side, women, or non-white we wish to be identified [with], (p. 144) T h u s , b l a c k w o m e n m a y " e x p e r i e n c e p r e s s u r e to c h o o s e b e t w e e n t h e i r r a c i a l i d e n t i t y a n d t h e i r w o m a n h o o d " ( M o s e s , 1 9 8 9 , p . 1). W h e n o n e o f m y f o r m e r s t u d e n t s (a b l a c k m a n ) faced r a p e c h a r g e s , s o m e m e m b e r s of t h e b l a c k c o m ­ m u n i t y w a n t e d m e to s u p p o r t t h e s t u d e n t , w h i l e w o m e n ' s g r o u p s w a n t e d m e to support their position. I responded by avoiding everyone (see B . Allen, 1 9 9 8 a ) . T r y i n g to n e g o t i a t e t h e s e a s p e c t s o f b i c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y c a n c o n t r i b u t e to r o l e a m b i g u i t y , r o l e o v e r l o a d , o r r o l e c o n f l i c t ( i . e . , " t h e i n a b i l i t y to c o n f o r m to the e x p e c t a t i o n s of a p a r t i c u l a r r o l e , " D e n t o n , 1 9 9 0 , p . 4 5 6 ; s e e a l s o Benjamin, 1991; Katz & Kahn, 1978). Isolation and Alienation. S o m e t i m e s b l a c k w o m e n feel f r u s t r a t e d b e c a u s e " p e o p l e a r o u n d t h e m a r e l i k e l y to b e i n s e n s i t i v e t o t h e i r n e e d s for s o c i o - p s y ­ chological support, reassurance, or s o m e relief from the heavy d e m a n d s on their time and e n e r g y " ( D u m a s , 1979, pp. 124-125; see also Benjamin, 1991). B e l i e v i n g t h e s t e r e o t y p e of m a t r i a r c h , o t h e r p e o p l e m a y a s s u m e t h a t a b l a c k w o m a n is e m o t i o n a l l y s t r o n g a n d c a p a b l e of t a k i n g c a r e o f h e r s e l f ( M o s e s , 1 9 8 9 ) . H e r w h i t e c o l l e a g u e s m a y s e e m to b e o b l i v i o u s to h e r p l i g h t a s an " o u t ­ sider within" (see B . Allen, 1998a, p. 5 7 8 ; Collins, 1991). O n e w o m a n explains, No one ever stopped to think that this might be [an] uncomfortable or difficult situ­ ation [being the only and/or first black woman in her role]. It's not an issue for them [white people]. You just have to learn how to deal with it. But I don't think you ever stop being uncomfortable, (as cited in Tucker, 1994, p. 61)

A Black Feminist Standpoint

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In m e e t i n g s o r c l a s s r o o m s , I s o m e t i m e s g e t t h e s t r a n g e s t f e e l i n g w h e n I r e a l ­ ize t h a t , o n c e a g a i n , I a m t h e o n l y p e r s o n o f c o l o r ( a n d s o m e t i m e s a l s o t h e o n l y woman) present. B l a c k w o m e n w h o s t u d y r a c e a n d / o r g e n d e r m a y feel a l i e n a t e d o r i s o l a t e d because their white colleagues marginalize their area of study (Benjamin, 1991; Henry, 1994; Hoke, 1997; James & Farmer, 1993; M c K a y , 1997). Black w o m e n w h o s t u d y a m a i n s t r e a m t o p i c m a y feel a l i e n a t e d b e c a u s e o t h e r s c h o l ­ ars question their credibility (as I discussed earlier). T h e s e w o m e n also m a y feel p h y s i c a l l y i s o l a t e d a n d a l i e n a t e d w h e n t h e c o m m u n i t y s u r r o u n d i n g t h e u n i v e r s i t y is p r e d o m i n a n t l y w h i t e ( L o c k e , 1 9 9 7 ) . B e s i d e s a l i e n a t i o n f r o m c o l ­ leagues and community, some black w o m e n ' s spouses, family, and friends also may not understand their situations. For instance, I d o not h a v e m a n y f r i e n d s o r f a m i l y m e m b e r s w h o u n d e r s t a n d t h e life o f an a c a d e m i c . M a n y o f t h e m b e l i e v e t h a t I h a v e it m a d e b e c a u s e I t e a c h only t w o c l a s s e s a s e m e s t e r a n d , as t h e y p u t it, I " d o n ' t w o r k " in t h e s u m m e r . T o s u m m a r i z e , as they attempt to learn the ropes, black w o m e n n e w c o m e r s encounter n u m e r o u s potential stressors that may arise from socially con­ structed aspects of their identity (i.e., their race and/or their gender). As I dis­ c u s s n e x t , b l a c k w o m e n r e s p o n d in a v a r i e t y o f w a y s to t h e s e a n d o t h e r s o u r c e s of stress.

Responding to Sources of Stress Before I describe responses and strategies, I must note that m a n y black w o m e n e x p e n d a lot o f e n e r g y t r y i n g to m a k e s e n s e o f o u r e x p e r i e n c e s . O f t e n , I find m y s e l f s e c o n d - g u e s s i n g : W a s t h a t r e m a r k r a c i s t , s e x i s t , b o t h , o r n e i ­ t h e r ? I a l s o w o n d e r if I a m b e i n g p a r a n o i d o r t o o s e n s i t i v e . T h e s e t h o u g h t s m a y s c u r r y a c r o s s m y m i n d , o r t h e y m a y c o n s u m e m i n u t e s o r h o u r s of m y t i m e . In a d d i t i o n , d o u b l e - b i n d s i t u a t i o n s often a r i s e in w h i c h I feel " d a m n e d if I d o , d a m n e d if I d o n ' t . " C o n s i d e r , for i n s t a n c e , t h e n u m e r o u s t i m e s t h a t I h a d t o d e c i d e w h e t h e r t o a c c e p t i n v i t a t i o n s to s e r v e . If I p r o v i d e d t h e s e r v i c e , I m i g h t p e r p e t u a t e t h e n o t i o n t h a t m i n o r i t y p e r s o n s s h o u l d s h o u l d e r t h e b u r d e n . If I d i d n o t , o t h e r m i n o r i t y p e r s o n s m i g h t feel t h a t I b e t r a y e d t h e m o r t h a t I d i d n o t c a r e a b o u t t h e issues. In r e s p o n s e to d o u b l e b i n d s a n d o t h e r i s s u e s , m a n y b l a c k w o m e n f a c u l t y m e m b e r s d e c i d e to e x i t t h e i r j o b s . S o m e o f t h e m t r a n s f e r t o o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s of h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . O t h e r s j o i n c o r p o r a t e A m e r i c a . S o m e t i m e s t h e y b e c o m e e n t r e p r e n e u r s . S a d l y , w h e t h e r w e l e a v e o r w e s t a y in n o n t r a d i t i o n a l r o l e s , m a n y b l a c k w o m e n e n d u r e p h y s i o l o g i c a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s of o u r first a n d / o r o n l y s t a t u s . W e m a y suffer c h r o n i c p h y s i c a l a i l m e n t s o r b u r n ­ out. W e m a y have nervous b r e a k d o w n s and even c o m m i t suicide.

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M c K a y ( 1 9 9 7 ) r e c o u n t s an i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h a c o l l e a g u e w h o a s k e d h e r , if t h i n g s a r e so b a d , w h y d o b l a c k w o m e n s t a y in t h e a c a d e m y ? S h e r e p l i e d , " W e c h o o s e to r e m a i n in t h e s e c o n t e s t e d s p a c e s b e c a u s e a s b l a c k w o m e n ( a n d m e n ) w e k n o w that w e h a v e a r i g h t to o c c u p y t h e m a n d w i l l n o t b e d r i v e n o u t b y t h o s e w h o w o u l d g l a d l y s e e u s g o " ( p . 15). W h e n t h e y c h o o s e t o r e m a i n in t h e i r r o l e s , b l a c k w o m e n e m p l o y a v a r i e t y of s t r a t e g i e s to n e g o t i a t e t h e i m p a c t s of r a c i s m a n d s e x i s m a n d o t h e r s o u r c e s of s t r e s s . T h e y m a y a v o i d d i s ­ criminatory w o r k e n v i r o n m e n t s or alter or lower their career goals (Parker & Ogilvie, 1996). They may assimilate (Locke, 1997), or they may e m p l o y p r o a c t i v e s t r a t e g i e s s u c h as n e t w o r k i n g / m e n t o r i n g o r c o m p a r t m e n t a l i z i n g ( P a r k e r & O g i l v i e , 1 9 9 6 ) . T o fill t h e g a p f o r m e d b y l i m i t e d a c c e s s to m e n t o r s or s o c i a l n e t w o r k s , s o m e n e w c o m e r s f o r m r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d n e t w o r k s w i t h i n d i v i d u a l s ( w o m e n a n d m e n from v a r y i n g r a c i a l o r e t h n i c b a c k g r o u n d s ) f r o m o t h e r d e p a r t m e n t s or u n i v e r s i t i e s w h o s p e c i a l i z e in s i m i l a r a r e a s o f r e s e a r c h . W e c o m m u n i c a t e t h r o u g h p h o n e c a l l s o r e l e c t r o n i c m a i l , a n d w e i n t e r a c t at social gatherings or conferences. Black w o m e n also develop social support systems with other black w o m e n o r w o m e n of c o l o r w h o m a y o r m a y n o t b e a c a d e m i c s . F o r i n s t a n c e , o n e o f m y f r i e n d s h a s d e v e l o p e d a g r o u p of b l a c k w o m e n s c h o l a r s o n h e r c a m p u s c a l l e d t h e B r o w n S u g a r B r i g a d e . O n m y c a m p u s , w o m e n of c o l o r f a c u l t y h a v e f o r m e d a S i s t e r S c h o l a r s g r o u p that m e e t s o n c e a m o n t h at o n e of t h e i r h o m e s . In a d d i t i o n to o f f e r i n g t a s k - r e l a t e d i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e s e s o u r c e s p r o v i d e a t y p e of p s y c h o s o c i a l s u p p o r t t h a t o u r w h i t e p e e r s c a n n o t . A s D e n t o n ( 1 9 9 0 ) o b ­ s e r v e s , " B l a c k w o m e n ' s b o n d s p r o v i d e d i r e c t c o n f i r m a t i o n a n d v a l i d a t i o n for e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t o t h e r s m i g h t not r e a d i l y u n d e r s t a n d " ( p . 4 4 8 ) . S h e e l a b o ­ rates, For black women, who must consider whether an incident was motivated by their race, their sex, or both (Smith & Stewart, 1983), support from significant black female friends can clarify the source of discrimination and help them select perti­ nent coping behaviors, (p. 448) T h e s e s o c i a l n e t w o r k s h e l p to m a k e b l a c k w o m e n feel l e s s i s o l a t e d a n d a l i e n ­ a t e d . F o r e x a m p l e , I a m a m e m b e r of a c o u p l e of e l e c t r o n i c m a i l g r o u p s t h a t provide support and information. I also have developed productive mentoring relationships with two white m e n in m y d e p a r t m e n t . O n e of t h e m w a s i n s t r u m e n t a l in m y b e i n g h i r e d , a n d h e a l w a y s h a s r e s p e c t e d a n d s u p p o r t e d m e . H e h a s p l a y e d a c r i t i c a l r o l e in m y a d v a n c e m e n t as an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s c h o l a r b y a s s i s t i n g a n d advising m e regarding publications, by introducing m e to other academicians in t h e field, a n d b y h e l p i n g m e to p r e s e n t a s t r o n g c a s e for m y t e n u r e a n d p r o ­ motion review. T h e second person recently joined our faculty. I scheduled a m e e t i n g w i t h h i m a n d a s k e d h i m to b e o n e of m y m e n t o r s . H e a g r e e d , a n d h e

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a l r e a d y h a s p r o v i d e d useful i n f o r m a t i o n a n d g u i d a n c e . I m e e t w i t h h i m r e g u ­ larly, and I a m comfortable seeking information from him. M y research and w r i t i n g o n t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n of p e o p l e of c o l o r h a v e h e l p e d m e t o b e c o m e m o r e p r o a c t i v e in m y o w n c a r e e r a d v a n c e m e n t . S o m e black w o m e n compartmentalize their roles by d r a w i n g sharp bound­ aries a m o n g them (Bell, 1990; Parker & Ogilvie, 1996). This can prove advan­ tageous, as Parker and Ogilvie (1996) observe: " H a v i n g multiple, c o m p a r t ­ m e n t a l i z e d r o l e s g i v e s t h e m p e r s p e c t i v e s o n a s e t b a c k o r p r o b l e m in o n e r o l e b e c a u s e it is o n l y o n e p a r t of t h e i r i d e n t i t y " ( p . 2 0 4 ) . M y c o l l e a g u e s s e e m e d s k e p t i c a l a b o u t m y a t t i t u d e w h e n I t o l d t h e m t h a t I w o u l d n o t b e d e v a s t a t e d if I did not earn tenure. However, I meant what I said; j u s t like I got that j o b , I k n e w I c o u l d g e t a n o t h e r o n e . I k n o w b e t t e r t h a n to l i m i t m y i d e n t i t y t o m y j o b as a u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r . In a s t u d y a b o u t b l a c k w o m e n e x e c u t i v e s , B e l l ( 1 9 9 0 ) c o n c l u d e s , " T h e y a r e e x t r e m e l y v i g i l a n t in t h e i r w o r k e n v i r o n m e n t s , a n d t h e y t a k e p a i n in n o t r e v e a l i n g p a r t s of t h e i r t r u e s e l v e s " ( p . 4 7 4 ) . T h u s , o n e w a y t h a t m a n y b l a c k w o m e n r e s p o n d to t h e t h r e a t of s t e r e o t y p i n g is b y m o n i t o r i n g t h e m s e l v e s . F o r i n s t a n c e , s o m e b l a c k w o m e n m a y p a y s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n to t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e . P a r t i c i p a n t s in a r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e y i n t e n t i o n a l l y m a n a g e t h e i r d r e s s to a p p e a r p r o f e s s i o n a l ( B . A l l e n , 1 9 9 8 b ) . O n e w o m a n s a i d , I feel like people look at Black bodies more I try to represent Black women in a very positive way no matter where I go because often I am the only one . . . and I want my colleagues to have a good impression. I think there is a stereotype of black women being "sex pots." (p. 9) A n o t h e r research participant told m e , " T h e r e h a v e b e e n times w h e n I w a n t e d to d r e s s in a m o r e e t h n i c a l l y a p p e a l i n g m a n n e r [ e . g . , m u d c l o t h , h e a d w r a p ] , but I shy away from doing this b e c a u s e . . . I do not w a n t to a p p e a r too mili­ tant" (p. 12). A n a w a r e n e s s of stereotypes also might influence the w a y s that b l a c k w o m e n display their feelings (B. Allen, 1996; Tucker, 1994). I rarely display e m o t i o n s such as anger, frustration, or d i s a p p o i n t m e n t b e c a u s e I d o not w a n t t o p e r p e t u a t e s t e r e o t y p e s of b e i n g o v e r b e a r i n g , m i l i t a n t , o r h y p e r s e n s i t i v e . B e c a u s e of c o n s c i o u s n e s s r a i s i n g ( i . e . , s t u d y i n g , t h i n k i n g , w r i t i n g , a n d talking about feminism and black w o m e n ' s lives), I realize that black w o m e n s o m e t i m e s a r e c o m p l i c i t in h e g e m o n i c p r a c t i c e s . F o r i n s t a n c e , I s o m e t i m e s r e i n f o r c e s t e r e o t y p e s o r r e m a i n s i l e n t in t h e f a c e o f o p p r e s s i o n ( m i n e a n d o t h ­ e r s ' ) . In a d d i t i o n , I u s e d to say " y e s " to all r e q u e s t s for s e r v i c e b e c a u s e I felt obligated. I rarely questioned the process or the system. F u r t h e r m o r e , I con­ t i n u e to s t r u g g l e w i t h i d e n t i t y i s s u e s r e l a t e d t o s c h o l a r s h i p . I u s e d to b e o f f e n d e d a n d d e f e n s i v e w h e n s o m e o n e a s k e d m e if I s t u d i e d r a c e a n d / o r g e n ­ der. I w o u l d reply proudly that I study c o m p u t e r s , thus a t t e m p t i n g to establish

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that I a m i n t e l l i g e n t ( b e c a u s e I a m e x p e r t in a w h i t e - m a l e - d o m i n a t e d a r e a of study). I liked the positive (and usually surprised) way that p e o p l e w o u l d r e s p o n d to m e . N o w that I c o n d u c t r e s e a r c h o n r a c e a n d g e n d e r , I s o m e t i m e s h e s i t a t e to a d m i t it. I b e l i e v e that m y r e t i c e n c e s t e m s l a r g e l y f r o m i n t e r n a l i z e d r a c i s m a n d s e x i s m . I a l s o s t r u g g l e w i t h t h e i r o n y that I a m fulfilling t h e s t e r e o ­ t y p e that a b l a c k w o m a n s c h o l a r s h o u l d s t u d y r a c e a n d / o r g e n d e r . I will c o n t i n u e to r a i s e m y c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d free m y s e l f f r o m t h o s e h e g e m o n i c shackles. A l t h o u g h the l i t e r a t u r e i m p l i e s that p e r s o n s w h o r e m a i n in t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n h a v e b e e n m e t a m o r p h o s e d (i.e., t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o t h e i d e a l e m p l o y e e ) , that is not a l w a y s t h e c a s e . In fact, " n e w c o m e r s m a y s t a y b u t n o t b e c o m e i d e n t i f i e d with t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n " ( B u l l i s & B a c h , 1 9 8 9 b , p . 2 8 7 ) . In a d d i t i o n , n e w c o m ­ e r s m a y try to c h a n g e the g r o u p s to a c c o m m o d a t e t h e i r n e e d s ( J a b l i n , 1 9 8 7 ) . I n d e e d , b l a c k w o m e n m a y w o r k for t h e i r p e r s o n a l n e e d s , but m a n y of u s a l s o w o r k to effect s o c i a l c h a n g e for o t h e r s . W e m a y s p e a k o u t a g a i n s t s t e r e o t y p ­ ing a n d d i s c r i m i n a t o r y b e h a v i o r s . W e t a k e a d v a n t a g e of s i t u a t i o n s in w h i c h o t h e r s a s k for o u r o p i n i o n s a b o u t d i v e r s i t y i s s u e s by b e i n g s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d and b y h e l p i n g to d e v e l o p a n d i m p l e m e n t p o l i c y . R e l a t e d to this w o r k to i n f l u e n c e c h a n g e , m a n y b l a c k w o m e n in u n i v e r s i t y s e t t i n g s e n g a g e in a c t s of r e s i s t a n c e . A s I r e p o r t e d e a r l i e r , I d i d n o t a l l o w a d m i n i s t r a t o r s to p o s t p o n e m y t e n u r e c a s e for 2 y e a r s . I told t h e c h a i r of m y d e p a r t m e n t that e i t h e r the u n i v e r s i t y v a l u e d m e a n d w o u l d g i v e m e w h a t I e a r n e d or I c o u l d m o v e o n . A l t h o u g h I k n o w that I c a n offer b e n e f i c i a l i n s i g h t a n d p e r s p e c t i v e to m y d e p a r t m e n t , I h a v e l e a r n e d to r e f u s e to s h o u l d e r t h e e n t i r e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . I e n c o u r a g e m y c o l l e a g u e s to refer to o t h e r s o u r c e s a n d r e s o u r c e s a n d to s h a r e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . T o n e g o t i a t e c o n s t a n t d e m a n d s f r o m o t h e r s , I h a v e l e a r n e d h o w a n d w h e n to say " n o . " I c a r e f u l l y c o n s i d e r t h e p r o s a n d c o n s of a c c e p t i n g an i n v i t a t i o n to s e r v e , a n d I feel l e s s g u i l t y t h a n I u s e d to w h e n I d e c l i n e . W h e n I say " n o " to c o m m u n i t y a c t i v i t i e s , I e x p l a i n t h a t I n e e d to c o n c e n t r a t e o n r e s e a r c h a n d w r i t i n g so that I c a n r e t a i n m y p o s i t i o n in t h e u n i v e r s i t y ( a n d t h e r e f o r e c o n t i n u e to be a v a i l a b l e to a s s i s t t h e c o m m u n i t y ) . T h e i n v i t i n g p a r t y u s u a l l y s e e m s to u n d e r s t a n d a n d s u p p o r t m y p o s i t i o n . A t the u n i v e r s i t y , I try to s e r v e o n l y o n c o m m i t t e e s that e n g a g e in m a k i n g d e c i ­ sions, solving problems, or developing policy. I a l s o e n a c t h o o k s ' s ( 1 9 8 9 ) d e f i n i t i o n of r e s i s t a n c e b y a c t i v e l y s h a p i n g a n e w i d e n t i t y of m y s e l f , r a t h e r t h a n a l l o w i n g o t h e r f o r c e s to s h a p e m e ( s e e a l s o E t t e r - L e w i s , 1 9 9 3 ) . T h e r e f o r e , a d d i n g b l a c k f e m i n i s m t o m y a r e a of r e s e a r c h r e p r e s e n t s a s i g n i f i c a n t act of r e s i s t a n c e . F o l l o w i n g C o l l i n s e s ( 1 9 9 1 ) c o u n s e l , I a m u s i n g m y " o u t s i d e r w i t h i n " s t a t u s to h e l p c r e a t e b l a c k f e m i n i s t t h o u g h t , the s e l f - k n o w l e d g e that c a n h e l p b l a c k w o m e n b r e a k g l a s s c e i l i n g s ( L o c k e , 1 9 9 7 ) . T o c o p e w i t h s t r e s s o r s r e l a t e d to b i c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y , I h a v e l e a r n e d t o v a l u e h o w I h a v e b e e n s o c i a l i z e d a s a b l a c k w o m a n a c a d e m i c . I a m p r o u d of

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t h e fact t h a t I c a n m o v e fluidly f r o m o n e " c u l t u r a l " c o n t e x t t o a n o t h e r . I r e f u s e to b e s t i g m a t i z e d , e v e n a s I a m a w a r e of o p p r e s s i o n . I try n o t t o o p e r a t e f r o m a "victim" mentality (B. Allen, 1995b, 1996, 1998a; Buzzanell, 1994). I a m p r o u d of m y h e r i t a g e , a n d I i n f u s e e l e m e n t s o f m y b l a c k w o m a n c u l ­ tural e x p e r i e n c e into my work. In the c l a s s r o o m , I s o m e t i m e s use a "call and r e s p o n s e " teaching style reminiscent of s o m e black preachers w h o interact with their congregation by actively eliciting responses (e.g., " C a n I get an ' a m e n ' ? " ; B . A l l e n , 1 9 9 8 a ) . I i n t e r s p e r s e a n e c d o t e s a b o u t m y life i n t o l e c t u r e a n d d i s c u s s i o n m a t e r i a l to g i v e m y w h i t e s t u d e n t s p o s i t i v e p e r s p e c t i v e s o n " t h e b l a c k e x p e r i e n c e . " In a d d i t i o n , I v i e w m y c o n c e r n for o t h e r s as a n " e t h i c of c a r i n g " t h a t a d d s v a l u e to h o w I i n t e r a c t w i t h c o l l e a g u e s , staff, a d m i n i s t r a ­ tors, and students (see Collins, 1991). T o a d d r e s s m y s e n s e o f p h y s i c a l i s o l a t i o n a n d a l i e n a t i o n , I m o v e d to a s u b u r b 4 0 m i l e s a w a y f r o m c a m p u s t h a t is m o r e d i v e r s e in t e r m s of r a c e a n d ethnicity, class, and age. I have developed a diverse group of friends and a c q u a i n t a n c e s , a n d I e n g a g e in a v a r i e t y of a c t i v i t i e s t h a t a l l o w m e t o h o n o r a n d n u r t u r e m a n y f a c e t s of m y m u l t i c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y .

Summary V i e w i n g socialization practices from a black feminist standpoint illumi­ nates issues that previous research has not broached. Therefore, the analysis c o n t r i b u t e s to o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d a n a l y s e s of " l e a r n i n g t h e r o p e s " p r o ­ c e s s e s . T h i s d i s c u s s i o n s u p p o r t s f e m i n i s t s t a n d p o i n t t h e o r y ' s a r g u m e n t for assessing contextual influences on social practices. T h e e x a m p l e s d e m o n ­ s t r a t e t h a t t h e u n i q u e s o c i a l l o c a t i o n of b l a c k w o m e n in c o n t e m p o r a r y U . S . s o c i e t y affects t h e i r s o c i a l i z a t i o n e x p e r i e n c e s . M o r e o v e r , t h e s p e c i f i c c o n t e x t of b l a c k w o m e n in n o n t r a d i t i o n a l o c c u p a t i o n a l r o l e s e x p o s e s n u m e r o u s w a y s that m e m b e r s of o r g a n i z a t i o n s e n a c t h e g e m o n y . Black w o m e n ' s experiences demonstrate that socialization p r o c e s s e s m a y n o t b e b a s e d s o l e l y o n t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s i n h e r e n t in o n e ' s o c c u p a t i o n a l r o l e , a s the literature implies. Rather, organizational m e m b e r s m a y project onto the n e w c o m e r expectations that arise from sociohistorical stereotypes. T h e j o b d e s c r i p t i o n of a s s i s t a n t p r o f e s s o r d i d n o t a l i g n w i t h t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s t h a t m e m b e r s of m y r o l e set c o n v e y e d to m e . F u r t h e r m o r e , it d i d n o t c o r r e s p o n d w i t h t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s that m y r o l e - s e t m e m b e r s s e e m e d to h a v e for m y t w o w h i t e f e m a l e p e e r s ( h i r e d at t h e s a m e t i m e t h a t I w a s ) . S o c i a l i z a t i o n d o e s n o t e n c o m p a s s a u n i v e r s a l e x p e r i e n c e for n e w c o m e r s . T h e p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l l o c a ­ t i o n of a b l a c k w o m a n affects i n t e r p e r s o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n s w h e n s h e a s s u m e s occupational roles that w o m e n like her previously have not occupied. I must introduce a caveat: B e c a u s e I write from a black feminist standpoint, this dis­ c u s s i o n r e f e r s o n l y to b l a c k w o m e n ' s i m p r e s s i o n s a n d p e r c e p t i o n s . C o n s e ­

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quently, the examples provide insight about n e w c o m e r s ' received roles rather than sent roles (see Katz & Kahn, 1978). Future research might assess incum­ bents* e x p e r i e n c e s a n d a c c o u n t s . T h i s a n a l y s i s u n d e r s c o r e s t h e p r i m a c y of c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d i n t e r p e r s o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n s in s o c i a l i z a t i o n m i c r o p r a c t i c e s . M o r e o v e r , it r e v e a l s t h e c o m ­ p l e x i t y a n d s o m e of t h e n u a n c e s of " l e a r n i n g t h e r o p e s " p r a c t i c e s . F o r instance, a black feminist standpoint demonstrates that organizational social­ i z a t i o n is n o t e n t i r e l y r a t i o n a l . R a t h e r , e m o t i o n s p e r m e a t e " l e a r n i n g t h e r o p e s " p r o c e s s e s . In a d d i t i o n , the e x a m p l e s i n d i c a t e that t h i s n a t u r a l l y s t r e s s ­ ful s i t u a t i o n h o l d s p a r t i c u l a r s o u r c e s of s t r e s s for b l a c k w o m e n . F i n a l l y , b l a c k w o m e n ' s experiences show how domination and patriarchy pervade socializa­ tion p r a c t i c e s . T h e y a l s o i l l u m i n a t e t h e m u l t i p l i c i t y of w a y s t h a t b l a c k w o m e n r e s p o n d to m i c r o p r a c t i c e s , i n c l u d i n g acts of c o m p l i a n c e a n d r e s i s t a n c e . T h i s a n a l y s i s is n o w h e r e n e a r e x h a u s t i v e . I c o u l d h a v e w r i t t e n much m o r e a b o u t t h i s c o m p l i c a t e d t o p i c . I h o p e that t h e d i s c u s s i o n p r o v i d e s i n s i g h t a n d d i r e c t i o n for future r e s e a r c h on w o m e n of c o l o r a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s o c i a l i z a ­ tion. As scholars theorize about learning the ropes, they m i g h t c o n s i d e r reve­ l a t i o n s that this c h a p t e r p r o v i d e s . M o r e r e l e v a n t to m y g o a l s for t h i s e s s a y , this d e p i c t i o n y i e l d s n u m e r o u s i m p l i c a t i o n s for e v e r y d a y p r a c t i c e s , as I d i s ­ cuss next.

IMPLICATIONS FOR ORGANIZATIONAL SOCIALIZATION PRACTICES In t h i s s e c t i o n , I offer r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for s o c i a l p r a c t i c e s that a r i s e f r o m t h e d i s c u s s i o n . I p r o v i d e s u g g e s t i o n s for p e r s o n s w h o i n t e r a c t w i t h b l a c k w o m e n o r o t h e r h i s t o r i c a l l y d i s e n f r a n c h i s e d p e r s o n s , t h e n offer g u i d e l i n e s for n e w ­ c o m e r s . A l t h o u g h I f o c u s o n b l a c k w o m e n , t h e s e s u g g e s t i o n s a l s o a p p l y to other n e w c o m e r s . As a black w o m a n historian observes, "In m a n y w a y s the e x p e r i e n c e s of b l a c k w o m e n p r o f e s s o r s s e r v e a s a w i n d o w i n t o t h e i s s u e s , p r o b l e m s , a n d f r u s t r a t i o n s m o s t m a r g i n a l i z e d g r o u p s a n d w o m e n in g e n e r a l d a i l y e n c o u n t e r in t h e a c a d e m y " ( H i n e , 1 9 9 7 , p . 3 3 7 ) . T h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s m i g h t b e n e f i t n e w c o m e r s in o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n t e x t s o t h e r t h a n a c a d e m i a .

Members of the Newcomer's Role Set Although macrolevel societal and institutional/organizational forces influ­ e n c e h o w p e o p l e i n t e r a c t w i t h o n e a n o t h e r , as an i n d i v i d u a l , y o u c a n f a c i l i t a t e a n e w c o m e r ' s s o c i a l i z a t i o n e x p e r i e n c e s . F i r s t , r e a l i z e that y o u c a n h e l p to effect p o s i t i v e c h a n g e . T r y to b e s e n s i t i v e to t h e p l i g h t of b l a c k w o m e n ( a n d o t h e r t r a d i t i o n a l l y d i s e n f r a n c h i s e d p e r s o n s ) in w h i t e i n s t i t u t i o n s . D o n o t d i s ­

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m i s s , d i s c o u n t , o r d i l u t e o u r e x p e r i e n c e s by e n g a g i n g in " m e - t o o i s m . " S o m e ­ times w h e n 1 describe my experiences, a white person will o b s e r v e that he or she has had similar experiences. This type of claim m a y support the a r g u m e n t t h a t u s i n g a b l a c k f e m i n i s t s t a n d p o i n t h e l p s us to r e n d e r m o r e a c c u r a t e d e p i c ­ t i o n s of e v e r y d a y s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s e s ; it m a y d e m o n s t r a t e h o w p e r s o n s ( n o t j u s t b l a c k w o m e n ) c a n e x p e r i e n c e o p p r e s s i o n b a s e d o n v a r i o u s a s p e c t s of i d e n t i t y . M o r e o v e r , t h i s t y p e of r e s p o n s e m a y i n d i c a t e a g e n u i n e a t t e m p t to e m p a t h i z e a n d to e n g a g e in d i a l o g u e . I w h o l e h e a r t e d l y w e l c o m e s u c h d i s c u s ­ s i o n s . H o w e v e r , s o m e t i m e s s u c h r e a c t i o n s m a y reflect d e n i a l , a r e f u s a l a m o n g s o m e w h i t e p e r s o n s to s e e o r try to u n d e r s t a n d t h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f o p p r e s s e d and disenfranchised people. Occasionally, I get the feeling that white people think that I a m paranoid or hypersensitive. This impression occasionally m a y b e t r u e , b u t b l a c k w o m e n often e n d u r e p r e s s u r e s t h a t o t h e r s d o n o t b a s e d o n t h e p h y s i c a l l y s a l i e n t c u e s of r a c e a n d g e n d e r . P l e a s e t r y t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t n o t only do the micropractices I describe count, they also accumulate and take t h e i r toll. S e c o n d , r e c o g n i z e t h a t , c o n t r a r y to w h a t m a n y p e r s o n s s e e m to b e l i e v e , racism, sexism, prejudice, and discrimination are not limited to blatant, overt b e h a v i o r s , a s I h o p e t h i s c h a p t e r d e m o n s t r a t e s . A l t h o u g h y o u m a y b e l i e v e that y o u a r e n o t g u i l t y of a n y of t h e b e h a v i o r s a n d a t t i t u d e s that I d e s c r i b e , I e n c o u r a g e y o u to m o n i t o r y o u r s e l f . T r y n o t to r e i n f o r c e n e g a t i v e s t e r e o t y p e s and expectations as you interact with black w o m e n . U n d e r s t a n d that black w o m e n a r e i n d i v i d u a l s , b u t w e a r e a l s o m e m b e r s of a c o l l e c t i v e t h a t o t h e r p e o ­ ple often t r e a t in p r e d i c t a b l e , d i s c r i m i n a t o r y w a y s . W e m a y o r m a y n o t b e af­ firmative action hires; regardless, we probably are qualified to perform our r o l e s . M o s t of us h a v e p a i d ( a n d c o n t i n u e to p a y ) p r i c e s t h a t y o u m i g h t n o t i m a g i n e to r e a c h o u r c u r r e n t p o s i t i o n s . If y o u c o n s i d e r i n v i t i n g a b l a c k w o m a n to p e r f o r m a s e r v i c e , a s k y o u r s e l f if y o u r r e q u e s t is r e a s o n a b l e . Y o u p r o b a b l y are not the only person m a k i n g d e m a n d s on her. R e s p e c t and h o n o r her time as w e l l as h e r s p e c i f i c s k i l l s a n d i n t e r e s t s . T h i r d , b e an a d v o c a t e for v a l u i n g d i f f e r e n c e . D o n o t p l a c e t h e b u r d e n of addressing social issues such as sexism, racism, and diversity on the n e w c o m e r ' s s h o u l d e r s . Rather, m a k e e v e r y o n e responsible. F o r i n s t a n c e , identify and use resources on c a m p u s and elsewhere. C h a l l e n g e or question colleagues o r s t u d e n t s w h o m a k e r a c i s t a n d / o r s e x i s t r e m a r k s . If t h e n e w c o m e r c o n d u c t s traditionally marginalized research, develop strategies to publicize and value her work and accomplishments. Fourth, so that n o o n e feels slighted or favored, d e v e l o p inclusive policies a n d p r o g r a m s for all n e w c o m e r s . F o r e x a m p l e , c r e a t e a n d m a i n t a i n a f o r m a l mentoring p r o g r a m based on tested models and/or with specific evaluation s t r a t e g i e s in p l a c e . In o t h e r w o r d s , d o n o t t a k e a s l i p s h o d , s u p e r f i c i a l a p p r o a c h to m e n t o r i n g ; m e n t o r i n g is a c r i t i c a l a s p e c t of a n y n e w c o m e r ' s s o c i a l i z a t i o n .

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If y o u w i s h to e n c o u r a g e s a m e - s e x a n d s a m e - g e n d e r m e n t o r i n g , d o n o t r e q u i r e o r c o e r c e p o t e n t i a l m e n t o r s to p a r t i c i p a t e . H o w e v e r , if t h e y a g r e e , c o m p e n s a t e them appropriately (e.g., through release time). Fifth, t a k e an a c t i v e r o l e in p r o v i d i n g t a s k - r e l a t e d i n f o r m a t i o n t o n e w c o m ­ e r s . V o l u n t e e r to c r e a t e a d e v e l o p m e n t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h a n e w c o m e r . R o u ­ t i n e l y offer i n f o r m a t i o n a n d i n s i g h t to all n e w c o m e r s . T h i s w i l l h e l p to c r e a t e a c o l l e g i a l c l i m a t e in w h i c h e v e r y o n e w o r k s to h e l p all n e w c o m e r s ( r e g a r d l e s s of t h e i r r a c e o r e t h n i c i t y a n d g e n d e r ) s u c c e e d . In a d d i t i o n , i n c l u d e b l a c k w o m e n in i n f o r m a l n e t w o r k s a n d a c t i v i t i e s . F i n a l l y , try t o e s t a b l i s h a c l i m a t e of trust, o p e n n e s s , a n d i n c l u s i v e n e s s . L i s ­ ten a t t e n t i v e l y w h e n a n e w c o m e r t a l k s d u r i n g m e e t i n g s . S o l i c i t a n d c o n s i d e r h e r i n p u t o n a v a r i e t y of t o p i c s ( n o t j u s t r a c e a n d / o r g e n d e r ) . T r y t o d e v e l o p a s e t t i n g in w h i c h y o u a n d t h e n e w c o m e r feel c o m f o r t a b l e d i s c u s s i n g s e n s i t i v e or taboo topics. For instance, my department recently instituted a " m e n t i o n ­ i n g " p o l i c y that e n c o u r a g e s us to t a l k p r i v a t e l y w i t h s o m e o n e w h o s a y s s o m e ­ t h i n g that s e e m s o f f e n s i v e o r i n s e n s i t i v e . O n t h e b a s i s o f w h a t I h a v e d i s ­ c l o s e d , y o u m a y feel m o r e a p p r e h e n s i v e a b o u t h o w to b e h a v e b e c a u s e y o u d o not w a n t to b e p e r c e i v e d as p a t r i a r c h a l , r a c i s t , a n d / o r s e x i s t . If y o u feel a w k ­ w a r d , tell the p e r s o n . If y o u s e e m g e n u i n e , I b e l i e v e that m o s t of u s will m e e t you halfway.

Newcomers M c K a y ( 1 9 9 7 ) o b s e r v e s that " b l a c k w o m e n m u s t a l w a y s w e i g h t h e c o s t of t h e i r c h o i c e s a g a i n s t t h e b a l a n c e of e n e r g y , w i l l , a n d t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o s u r ­ v i v e w i t h h u m a n d i g n i t y . E a c h w o m a n m u s t l e a r n to i d e n t i f y h e r o w n l i m i t s " ( p . 15). I a g r e e . T r y to w e i g h t h e c o s t s a n d r e w a r d s for a n y t h i n g y o u m i g h t c o n s i d e r d o i n g in y o u r r o l e as a n e w c o m e r ( e . g . , a s k i n g for i n f o r m a t i o n , f e e d ­ b a c k , o r a d v i c e ; p r o v i d i n g s e r v i c e that y o u r j o b d e s c r i p t i o n d o e s n o t r e q u i r e ; o r c o n f r o n t i n g a c o l l e a g u e r e g a r d i n g a q u e s t i o n a b l e c o m m e n t ) . In a d d i t i o n , b e e x t r e m e l y p r o a c t i v e in y o u r o w n s o c i a l i z a t i o n . A l f r e d ( 1 9 9 6 ) offers s e v e r a l r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for b l a c k w o m e n a c a d e m ­ i c s , i n c l u d i n g " k n o w w h o y o u a r e " ( p . 8 ) . D o n o t a l l o w s o m e o n e e l s e to d e f i n e you. Create a positive self-image, and do not buy into the stereotypes (see also h o o k s , 1 9 8 9 ) . R e c o g n i z e t h e v a l u e that y o u a d d to y o u r o r g a n i z a t i o n . R e m i n d y o u r s e l f often of w h a t y o u h a v e a c c o m p l i s h e d a n d w h a t y o u i n t e n d to a c h i e v e . A l f r e d ( 1 9 9 6 ) a l s o tells b l a c k w o m e n , " K n o w w h a t y o u w a n t a n d h o w to get i t " ( p . 8 ) . D e v e l o p a n d f o l l o w a g a m e p l a n . If y o u a s p i r e t o a s c e n d t h e r a n k s of an o r g a n i z a t i o n , find o u t e x a c t l y w h a t that e n t a i l s . T r y t o g e t e x p e c t a ­ t i o n s a n d r e q u i r e m e n t s in w r i t i n g . D o not h e s i t a t e to a s k c o l l e a g u e s w h o m y o u trust q u e s t i o n s a b o u t y o u r r o l e , a n d i n v i t e t h e m to b e m e n t o r s . S e l e c t i n d i v i d u ­

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als t o a s s i s t y o u in v a r i o u s w a y s , a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r s t r e n g t h s a n d y o u r n e e d s . For e x a m p l e , ask an excellent teacher to help you b e c o m e m o r e proficient, and solicit advice about research and writing from s o m e o n e w h o h a s p u b ­ l i s h e d a lot of r e s e a r c h . D e v e l o p r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h o t h e r m a r g i n a l i z e d p e r ­ sons to acquire insight about socioemotional as well as task-related aspects of your role. Actively solicit feedback on your scholarly w o r k from persons w h o m you respect and trust. I told m y t w o m e n t o r s not to hold b a c k , and I m e a n t it. T h i s f a c i l i t a t e d a n d e x p e d i t e d t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s for m e . Protect and m a n a g e your time and energy. Realize that there will always b e b a t t l e s t o w a g e . O p p o r t u n i t i e s to s e r v e , if t h a t is o n e of y o u r g o a l s , w i l l a l w a y s e x i s t . K e e p y o u r p r i o r i t i e s in m i n d . S o m e t i m e s y o u m a y h a v e t o p o s t p o n e w o r k i n g with a student or c o m m u n i t y group to concentrate on a research or teaching project. Therefore, choose carefully d e p e n d i n g on your t i m e c o m ­ m i t m e n t s , your e m o t i o n a l and physical states, and y o u r sense of w h e t h e r or n o t y o u r efforts w i l l p a y off. A s a m i n o r e x a m p l e , w h e n a w h i t e m a l e s t u d e n t s a i d h e w a s g o i n g to d r o p m y c l a s s , I d i d n o t try t o d i s s u a d e h i m o f h i s m i s c o n ­ c e p t i o n t h a t t h e c o u r s e w a s a b o u t e t h n i c i t y . D o n o t feel o b l i g e d t o e d i f y s o m e ­ one every time a "teachable m o m e n t " occurs (see Orbe, 1998). F i n d o r c r e a t e c o n s t r u c t i v e o u t l e t s for s t r e s s , a n d l e a r n h o w to c o p e w i t h i s o l a t i o n a n d a l i e n a t i o n . D e v e l o p s u p p o r t n e t w o r k s t h a t a l l o w y o u to d i s c u s s challenges and victories (Hine, 1997). Celebrate and savor your successes w i t h p e o p l e w h o c a r e a b o u t y o u . If y o u h a v e n o t a l r e a d y d o n e s o , c o n s i d e r t r y ­ i n g to e x p l a i n y o u r c a r e e r a n d j o b c o n c e r n s to y o u r l o v e d o n e s w h o a r e n o t in s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n s . If y o u t e n d to fulfill t h e s t e r e o t y p e o f t r y i n g t o t a k e c a r e of e v e r y o n e e l s e b u t y o u r s e l f , try to b r e a k o u t of t h a t h a b i t . L e t s i g n i f i c a n t o t h e r s k n o w when you need tender loving care or time alone. Try to recognize when you are being complicit, and consciously decide w h e t h e r to c o m p l y o r r e s i s t . If s o m e o n e i n v i t e s y o u to p r o v i d e a s e r v i c e t h a t y o u b e l i e v e is i n a p p r o p r i a t e for y o u r r o l e , a s k h i m o r h e r t o e x p l a i n w h y h e o r she selected you. Regarding offensive c o m m e n t s and j o k e s , Alfred (1996) r e c o m m e n d s that you confront offenders privately and discuss the offense calmly, w a l k away, or consult a trusted colleague to process your feelings. F i n a l l y , s t r i v e to r a i s e y o u r c o n s c i o u s n e s s a b o u t m a r g i n a l i z e d p e o p l e ; l e a r n a b o u t o u r c h a l l e n g e s a n d o u r v i c t o r i e s in t h e f a c e o f o p p r e s s i o n a n d exploitation. Share your stories and insight with others. As Hine (1997) o b s e r v e s , " T h e s u r e s t w a y to a p r o d u c t i v e a n d fulfilling f u t u r e for b l a c k w o m e n in a n y p r o f e s s i o n is p a v e d w i t h u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e e x p e r i e n c e s of t h o s e w h o w e n t b e f o r e " ( p . 3 2 7 ) . M a k e t i m e for m e n t o r i n g m a r g i n a l i z e d n e w ­ comers. These developmental relationships can be personally rewarding, and t h e y w i l l h e l p to b u i l d a l a r g e r , m o r e d i v e r s e g r o u p of p e r s o n s in n o n t r a d i ­ tional occupational roles. Basically, we must e m p o w e r and support one another (Baraka, 1997; Hine, 1997; Locke, 1997).

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CONCLUSION L e a r n i n g the r o p e s is a c o m p l e x a n d stressful c o m m u n i c a t i v e p r o c e s s that p r e s e n t s d i s t i n c t i v e c o n f l i c t s a n d c h a l l e n g e s for m a r g i n a l i z e d p e r s o n s w h o a s s u m e j o b s t r a d i t i o n a l l y r e s e r v e d for d o m i n a n t m a l e s . I h o p e that this b l a c k f e m i n i s t s t a n d p o i n t a n a l y s i s of l e a r n i n g t h e r o p e s p r o v i d e s i n s i g h t a n d i n f o r ­ m a t i o n that will h e l p n e w c o m e r s a n d i n c u m b e n t s to e n a c t s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r o ­ c e s s e s that a l l o w m a r g i n a l i z e d p e r s o n s not o n l y to s u r v i v e b u t a l s o to f l o u r i s h .

NOTES 1. See B. Allen (1996) for a discussion of the ways that patriarchy and hegemony per­ vade anticipatory socialization processes. For instance, as a "smart" black female grow­ ing up in a lower-class neighborhood in the 1950s, I received messages that my only occu­ pational choices were to become a nurse or a teacher. 2. The tenure and promotion process entails a complex set of requirements and ex­ pectations. At the university where I work, personnel committees at several levels of the institution evaluate a faculty member according to research, teaching, and service. The evaluations are weighted 40%, 40%, and 20%, respectively, usually after the first 6 years in the tenure track. To achieve tenure and promotion, a faculty member needs to demon­ strate excellence in either teaching or research (including publications in mainstream journals or by prestigious publishing houses) and meritorious performance in both teach­ ing and research. Although service counts for 20%, committees do not seem to penalize a faculty member for not providing an adequate amount of service. During a personnel evaluation meeting, a couple of my colleagues admitted that they were uncertain about criteria we should use to judge faculty service. 3. I say "invited" because I believe that these requests were actually directives. I think that few persons in subordinate positions will say " n o " to persons in high positions of power.

9

The Promise and Practice of the New Career and Social Contract Illusions Exposed and Suggestions for Reform Patrice M . Buzzanell

Career research and advice have traditionally focused on the a d v a n c e m e n t of white males within one company through executive development programs and sponsorship (Arthur, Hall, & Lawrence, 1989; Buzzanell, 1987; Vicere & G r a h a m , 1 9 9 0 ) . Career w a s d e f i n e d a s a t i m e - b o u n d s e q u e n c e o f c o r p o r a t e positions with increasing compensation, status, and privilege. This notion of c a r e e r c o r r e s p o n d e d w i t h social contracts, or societal (normative) expecta­ t i o n s f o r e m p l o y e e - e m p l o y e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s , in w h i c h e m p l o y e e s felt e n t i t l e d to i n t e r g e n e r a t i o n a l u p w a r d m o b i l i t y a n d l i f e l o n g e m p l o y m e n t a n d e m p l o y e r s counted on worker loyalty and productivity (e.g., A l t m a n & Post, 1 9 9 6 ; Bennett, 1990; Chilton & W e i d e n b a u m , 1994; Heckscher, 1995; Rousseau, 1995).

AUTHOR'S NOTE: I would like to express my appreciation to the following individuals who read and commented on an earlier chapter draft: Linn Van Dyne, Cynthia Stohl, and Suzyn Omstein.

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C a r e e r s a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t s w e r e i n t e r r e l a t e d in t h a t t h e s o c i a l c o n t r a c t s c o i n c i d e d w i t h i d e a l i z e d c a r e e r f o r m s s u c h as t h e A m e r i c a n d r e a m ( e . g . , Buzzanell & Goldzwig, 1991). The American dream promoted not only soci­ etal b e l i e f s in c o m p e t i t i o n , m e r i t o c r a c y , a n d i n d i v i d u a l d e t e r m i n i s m b u t a l s o i n d i v i d u a l s ' h o p e s for b e t t e r t i m e s t h r o u g h h a r d w o r k , e d u c a t i o n , l o y a l t y , competence, and organizational commitment (see Bennett, 1990; Buzzanell & Goldzwig, 1991; M u m b y , 1988; N e w m a n , 1988, 1993). T h e s e beliefs were o p e r a t i o n a l i z e d in c o r p o r a t e s t r u c t u r e s a n d p r a c t i c e s s u c h as i n t e r n a l l a b o r markets, early (fast-track) identification p r o g r a m s , and firm-specific training. T h e A m e r i c a n d r e a m a n d r e t i r e m e n t f r o m o n e c o m p a n y w e r e s o e m b e d d e d in c a r e e r m y t h o l o g y a n d d i s c o u r s e that m a n y did n o t r e a l i z e h o w f e w p e o p l e , even within the white middle-class, educated male workforce segment, actu­ ally a d v a n c e d to t o p c o r p o r a t e l e v e l s a n d h a d s e c u r e p o s i t i o n s w i t h i n s i n g l e companies (see Buzzanell & Goldzwig, 1991; Heckscher, 1995). O v e r t h e last c o u p l e of d e c a d e s , a n e w c a r e e r a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t h a v e b e c o m e newsworthy because managers and professionals have j o i n e d the r a n k s of t h o s e w h o w e r e u n e m p l o y e d , d i s p l a c e d , a n d u n d e r e m p l o y e d . T h i s new career c a n b e d e f i n e d s t r u c t u r a l l y as a s e r i e s of w o r k c o n t r a c t s o v e r t h e c o u r s e of a l i f e t i m e . It c a n b e a p p l i e d to c o n t i n g e n t , v o l u n t e e r , v i r t u a l , a n d unpaid h o m e - w o r k relationships (e.g., Byron, 1995; R o u s s e a u , 1996). This n e w c a r e e r c o i n c i d e s w i t h a r e v i s e d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t in w h i c h " p a r t n e r s h i p , " e x c h a n g e , a n d " s u r v i v a l of t h e f i t t e s t " i m a g e s a r e p r o m i n e n t ( e . g . , C h i l t o n & W e i d e n b a u m , 1 9 9 4 ; S t r o h , B r e t t , & R e i l l y , 1994) a n d w i t h r e v i s e d p s y c h o l o g ­ ical c o n t r a c t s in w h i c h t e m p o r a r y t e r m s of e x c h a n g e a r e s t i p u l a t e d . W h e r e a s s o c i a l c o n t r a c t s are g e n e r a l i z a b l e s t r u c t u r e s for t h i n k i n g a b o u t , t a l k i n g a b o u t , a n d e n a c t i n g e m p l o y m e n t as w e l l a s o t h e r s o c i a l o b l i g a t i o n s , psychological contracts are individual perceptions about e m p l o y m e n t . S p e ­ c i f i c a l l y , psychological contracts are sets of " i n d i v i d u a l b e l i e f s , s h a p e d b y t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n , r e g a r d i n g t e r m s of an e x c h a n g e a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n i n d i v i d ­ uals a n d t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n " ( R o u s s e a u , 1 9 9 5 , p . 9 ) . P s y c h o l o g i c a l c o n t r a c t s m a y be explicit or implicit, but they m e a s u r e e m p l o y e e - o r g a n i z a t i o n relation­ s h i p s in t e r m s of " m o n e y , b e n e f i t s , t r a i n i n g , w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s , a d v a n c e ­ m e n t o p p o r t u n i t i e s , a n d p r o s p e c t s of e m p l o y m e n t c o n t i n u i t y in e x c h a n g e for t h e t i m e , e n e r g y , c o m m i t m e n t , l o y a l t y , a n d s k i l l s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l " ( S u g a l s k i , M a n z o , & M e a d o w s , 1995, pp. 389-390). Psychological and social contracts are i n h e r e n t l y c o n f l i c t u a l b e c a u s e t h e y o p e r a t e a s " m i x e d - l e v e l p h e n o m e n a " linking micro-macro practices and person-organization-society interactions (Rousseau & M c L e a n Parks, 1993, p. 3). T h i s c h a p t e r f o c u s e s on w r i t i n g s a b o u t c a r e e r a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t s in g e n ­ eral b u t r e c o g n i z e s t h a t t h e s e c o n t r a c t s are m a n i f e s t in t h e d i s c o u r s e a n d p r a c ­ t i c e s of s p e c i f i c p e r s o n - o r g a n i z a t i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p s . T w o i n t e r r e l a t e d g o a l s i n ­ f o r m t h e s t r u c t u r e a n d c o n t e n t of m y a n a l y s i s . M y first g o a l is to e x p o s e h o w the l a n g u a g e of t h e " n e w " c a r e e r a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t m a y c r e a t e a s y s t e m e v e n

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m o r e i n s i d i o u s a n d d e t r i m e n t a l t o m o s t w o r k f o r c e m e m b e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y to m a r g i n a l i z e d m e m b e r s of s o c i e t y ( i . e . , p e o p l e of c o l o r , w h i t e w o m e n , p o o r and lower class, and the less e d u c a t e d ) , than the " o l d " career. T o a c c o m p l i s h this goal, I e x a m i n e discourse, discursive practices, and thinking about the new career using organizational c o m m u n i c a t i o n problematics as a frame­ w o r k . P r o b l e m a t i c s a r e i s s u e s o r p o s s i b i l i t i e s that o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a ­ tion t h e o r i s t s a n d r e s e a r c h e r s a d d r e s s i m p l i c i t l y a n d e x p l i c i t l y by w h a t a n d h o w organizational p h e n o m e n a are studied ( M u m b y & Stohl, 1996). M y ini­ tial a r g u m e n t is t h a t t h e n e w c a r e e r a n d c o n t r a c t a r e p r e s e n t e d as e q u i t a b l e a n d e c o n o m i c a l l y necessary s y s t e m s that correct the faulty a s s u m p t i o n s and p o w e r i m b a l a n c e s of t h e o l d c a r e e r , but t h e y d o not d e l i v e r o n t h e s e p r o m i s e s . M y s e c o n d g o a l is t o d e v e l o p f e m i n i s t c a r e e r c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s t h a t , w h e n enacted, can address underlying concerns about the new career and transform p e r s o n - o r g a n i z a t i o n - c o m m u n i t y relations. I use poststructuralist feminism as a m e a n s of a n a l y s i s ( s e e W e e d o n , 1 9 8 7 ) . In g e n e r a l , p o s t m o d e r n f e m i n i s m s a l l o w us t o q u e s t i o n : W h o is s e r v e d by t h e n e w c a r e e r ? W h y w e a r e l u l l e d i n t o b e l i e v i n g t h a t t h i s n e w c a r e e r is t h e o n l y r e a s o n a b l e r e s p o n s e to a c h a n g i n g w o r k p l a c e ? and H o w can w e use this q u e s t i o n i n g to u n d e r m i n e and alter the u n d e r l y i n g p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e n e w c a r e e r ? B y s u b s t i t u t ­ ing n o n t r a d i t i o n a l l a n g u a g e a n d f e m i n i s t e t h i c a l b a s e s for t h o s e e m b e d d e d in t h e n e w c a r e e r c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n , I h o p e to e n l a r g e t h e n o t i o n of c a r e e r s o t h a t we can challenge material practices, such as pay inequity and w o r k e r dis­ p l a c e m e n t . M y a r g u m e n t in t h i s s e c o n d h a l f is t h a t f e m i n i s t c a r e e r s a n d s o c i a l contracts are socially constructed and negotiated. T h r o u g h feminist analyses, careers and social contracts can be reconceptualized.

P R O B L E M A T I C I S S U E S IN T H E NEW CAREER AND SOCIAL CONTRACT L i k e t h e o l d c a r e e r , t h e n e w c a r e e r is s i m p l y o n e of n u m e r o u s w a y s to s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t " c a r e e r . " B o t h m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of c a r e e r h a v e b e e n p r e s e n t e d as c o m m o n s e n s e , n e c e s s a r y , a n d n o r m a l w a y s of w o r k i n g . T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l c o m m o n a l i t i e s b e t w e e n t h e l a n g u a g e a n d p r a c t i c e s in t h e o l d a n d t h e n e w c a r e e r s . F i r s t , b o t h c a r e e r f o r m s a r e " m a s c u l i n e " in t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e y c e n t e r on o n e t r u e v e r s i o n o f r e a l i t y , f o c u s on i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s , a n d e n f o r c e t h e c o n t r a c t by d i s p a r a g i n g o t h e r v i e w s of c a r e e r ( s e e B u z z a n e l l , 1 9 9 4 ; B u z z a n e l l & G o l d z w i g , 1991). As one e x a m p l e , Arthur and R o u s s e a u ' s (1996) discus­ sion of t h e n e w b o u n d a r y l e s s c a r e e r d o e s n o t a d m i t a l t e r n a t i v e s b e c a u s e t h e b o u n d a r y l e s s c a r e e r still f o c u s e s on p e r s o n - o r g a n i z a t i o n l i n k a g e s ( a l t h o u g h t h e s e a t t a c h m e n t s a r e not " b o u n d " t o a s i n g l e c o m p a n y a s in t h e o l d c a r e e r ) . A n o t h e r c o m m o n a l i t y in t h e old a n d n e w c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s of c a r e e r is t h a t , if s o m e o n e " f a i l s , " t h e i n d i v i d u a l is r e s p o n s i b l e r a t h e r t h a n t h e s o c i a l s t r u c ­

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ture, practices, or situational constraints. B e y o n d these similarities, the c a r e e r s differ in t e r m s of c a r e e r s i t e s , c o n t r a c t f o r m s , a n d w o r k e r s w h o c a n i d e n t i f y w i t h t h e c a r e e r (i.e., m a n a g e r i a l / p r o f e s s i o n a l in t h e o l d c a r e e r v s . u n i ­ v e r s a l w o r k e r in t h e n e w c a r e e r ; s e e T a b l e 9 . 1 ) . O n t h e s u r f a c e , w h a t is different a b o u t t h e n e w c a r e e r a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t is that " e v e r y o n e " ( w o r l d w i d e ) is affected b y c h a n g e s in t h e w a y s t h a t w o r k is b e i n g d o n e a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e b e i n g r e c o n f i g u r e d ( R i f k i n , 1 9 9 5 ) . In t h e past, m a n a g e r s were those w h o benefited from j o b security and career devel­ o p m e n t ; in t h e p r e s e n t , p r e s u m a b l y a n y o n e w h o c a n f o r e s e e w o r k c h a n g e s a n d acquire requisite skills can benefit. L i k e w i s e , e v e r y o n e , including m a n a g e r i a l a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l e m p l o y e e s , c a n suffer u n e m p l o y m e n t , u n d e r e m p l o y m e n t , and uncertainties consistent with temporary work contracts (see Heckscher, 1995; L o n d o n , 1998; N e w m a n , 1993; Rifkin, 1995). O n a d e e p e r l e v e l , w h a t is d i f f e r e n t a b o u t t h e n e w c a r e e r a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t is that t h e a s s u m p t i o n s in t h e n e w c a r e e r l a n g u a g e m a y o p e r a t e t o i n s t i t u t i o n ­ a l i z e p o w e r i m b a l a n c e s a n d to b e n e f i t m a n a g e r i a l i d e o l o g y in m u c h m o r e sophisticated ways than ever before. Although social contract l a n g u a g e p r o m ­ i s e s a fair e x c h a n g e b a s e d both on c o n t r i b u t i o n s b y e i t h e r s i d e a n d o n c o r p o ­ rate survival, the discourse actually accomplishes three corporate objectives: disenfranchising workforce members; benefiting managerial ideology; and c u r t a i l i n g d i s c u s s i o n s of u n d e r l y i n g p r e m i s e s a n d a l t e r n a t i v e s o l u t i o n s . T h r o u g h an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n p r o b l e m a t i c s f r a m e w o r k a n d a poststructuralist feminist analysis, I display h o w the uncritical adoption of the new career and social contract may prove detrimental to m a n y p e o p l e , particu­ larly t o c e r t a i n s e g m e n t s of t h e g l o b a l w o r k f o r c e , b y e n a b l i n g t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n to fulfill t h e s e t h r e e c o r p o r a t e o b j e c t i v e s . T h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s , l a n g u a g e c h o i c e s , a n d r e l a t e d p r a c t i c e s of t h e n e w c a r e e r a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t h a v e n o t b e e n e x a m i n e d s y s t e m a t i c a l l y e x c e p t in e c o n o m i c t e r m s . T o o r g a n i z e m y a n a l y s i s of t h e n e w c a r e e r , I u s e t h e f o u r p r o b l e m a t i c s i n h e r e n t in t h e s t u d y of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n : r a t i o n a l i t y , v o i c e , organization, and organization-society relationship ( M u m b y & Stohl, 1996). T h e first p a r t of e a c h p r o b l e m a t i c s d i s c u s s i o n i d e n t i f i e s c o n c e r n s a b o u t t h e n e w c a r e e r d i s c o u r s e a n d p r a c t i c e s ( s e e t h e left c o l u m n of T a b l e 9 . 2 ) , a n d t h e s e c o n d p a r t of e a c h s e c t i o n e x p l o r e s p o s s i b i l i t i e s for c h a n g e w h e n c a r e e r is r e c o n s i d e r e d f r o m f e m i n i s t p e r s p e c t i v e s ( s e e t h e right c o l u m n o f T a b l e 9 . 2 ) .

Rationality: Economic Rationality of the New Career Versus Multiple Ways of Knowing T h e p r o b l e m a t i c of r a t i o n a l i t y a r g u e s t h a t d i f f e r e n t r a t i o n a l i t i e s a r e n e e d e d to u n c o v e r k n o w l e d g e s w i t h o u t p r i v i l e g i n g o n e w a y of k n o w i n g o v e r o t h e r s . Current career literature elevates economic and technical rationality (i.e., the " o r i e n t a t i o n t o w a r d k n o w l e d g e that p r i v i l e g e s a c o n c e r n w i t h p r e d i c t i o n , c o n ­

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Comparison of the "Old" and the " N e w " Social Contract and Career

Old Social Contract and Career

New Social Contract and Career

Employment Relationship Employment Relationship Family Transactional exchange Individual's duties and responsibilities:

Individual's duties and responsibilities: continuously update skills and add value

competence, loyalty, work as a priority, adaptation to organizational needs to business efforts

Act as "free agent'Vcontractor

Act as "organization man" Individual makes own decisions and directs

Managers are experts who make deciown career.

sions for and about employees. Organization's duties and responsibilities:

Organization's duties and responsibiliprovide training and retraining

ties: lifetime employment except for extreme business conditions or indi­ vidual behavior, entitlement, benefits

Individual's Emotions Trust, security, acceptance of cor- porate paternalism

Individual's Emotions Range of (mixed) feelings, including fear, betrayal, wariness, cynicism, abandonment, and confusion; acceptance of new contract and career as a fact of life; opportunities for growth

Career Definitions Career Definition Series of employee-employer relationships

Time-bound sequence of positions over the course of one's lifetime

progressing toward greater compensation, status, and privilege; lifelong

series of work-related experiences

Career goals: advancement or some sort Career goal: employability security

of progression (e.g., in experiences,

competencies, and/or personal growth)

Organization Image Family, marriage, religion, team, partner, associate, benefactor

Organization Image Current employment "site" (can be virtual "site")

SOURCES: Altman & Post (1996); Buzzanell & Goldzwig (1991); Byron (1995); Csoka (1995); Hall (1996); Hall & Mirvis (1996); Hirsch (1987); Kanter (1992); McKendall & Margulis (1995).

t r o l , a n d t e l e o l o g i c a l f o r m s of b e h a v i o r " ) o v e r p r a c t i c a l r a t i o n a l i t y ( i . e . , " a f o r m of k n o w l e d g e g r o u n d e d in t h e h u m a n i n t e r e s t in i n t e r p r e t i n g a n d e x p e r i ­ e n c i n g the w o r l d as meaningful and intersubjectively c o n s t r u c t e d " ; M u m b y & Stohl, 1996, p. 59; see also Deetz, 1992). T h e s e rationalities are tensions be­ tween managerially defined processes or outcomes and socially constructed realities. In the n e w career, the p r o b l e m a t i c of rationality i n v o l v e s the c a r e e r t h e m e , or s e m a n t i c issue, of e c o n o m i c or technical k n o w l e d g e a n d t h e i m a g e of c o n ­ t r a c t s a s e x c h a n g e r e l a t i o n s h i p s ( s e e t h e left c o l u m n of T a b l e 9 . 2 ) . I n t h e n e w

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T A B L E 9.2 Organizational Communication Problematics as a Framework for Identifying New Career Discourse and Issues Problematics

Within the New Career

Feminist Rethinking of Career

Rationality: Economic Rationality Economic/pragmatic/dispassionate language One-sided construction of contract/career Transactional exchange Short-term focus (quick fix) Clear cause-effect relationship Technical rationality Instrumental ways of knowing

Rationality: Ways of Knowing Humanistic/idealistic/emotional language Mutual contracting/career Relational exchange Long-term focus Complex interconnected dynamics Practical rationality Feminist/women's ways of knowing

Voice: Managerial

Voice: Tensions Between and Within Voices of "Others" Other voices Transformation imperative Empowers individuals to challenge the corporation People should reevaluate and change the new career

Voice

Managerial voice Corporate imperative Subordinates individuals to good of the corporation People should adapt to the new career

Organization:

Organization as "Container"

Construction of organization as site for transaction exchange Individualism, self-"survival of the fit­ test," and separation of the organiza­ tion from relational and community interests Organization-Society Relationship: Distinct Competing Entities Distinct boundaries between corpora­ tion and society

Organization is rootless

Corporate commitment to itself

Competitive ethic

Organization: Social Construction of Relationships/Community in Organizing Organizing as processes of developing and enhancing relationships, connection, and community Boundary permeability

Organization-Society Relationship: Blurring Boundaries Corporate commitment to society at large; blurring boundaries between organization and society; stakeholder concepts Organization is embedded in community Corporate responsibility to justice Collaborative ethic

contract, desirable organizational outcomes include lower operating costs, h i g h e r profits, and s t r e a m l i n e d o r g a n i z a t i o n s that facilitate q u i c k r e s p o n s e s to clients and to environmental threats. Desirable individual o u t c o m e s include e m p l o y a b i l i t y , t r a i n i n g for t h e n e x t j o b , a d e q u a t e n o t i c e of c o n t r a c t ination, honesty about membership possibilities, and severance

term­

packages

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(Hirsch, 1987; Kanter, 1992). Organizational m e m b e r s are e x p e c t e d to priori­ t i z e t h e s e s e t s of o u t c o m e s . W i t h i n t h e n e w c o n t r a c t , m u t u a l u s e f u l n e s s j u s t i ­ fies t h e c o n t i n u a n c e — o r t e r m i n a t i o n — o f t h e e m p l o y m e n t e x c h a n g e . T h e n e w c a r e e r , t h e n , b e c o m e s a s e r i e s of t r a n s a c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s in w h i c h w o r k e r s a r e t e m p o r a r y p a r t n e r s a c t i n g as free a g e n t s . A l t h o u g h e m p l o y e e s a r e e n c o u r ­ a g e d to d e v e l o p ties to t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n s a n d w o r k r a t h e r t h a n to t h e i r o r g a n i ­ z a t i o n s ( S t r o h et al., 1 9 9 4 ) , t h e y o f t e n a r e r e w a r d e d ( o r at l e a s t n o t p u n i s h e d ) for t h e i r t i m e c o m m i t m e n t t o c u r r e n t f i r m s a n d for t h e i r s u p p r e s s i o n o f o b j e c ­ tions to psychological contract violations (Turnley & F e l d m a n , 1998). E m p l o y e e s are informed that these careers are the only realistic response to turbulent global environments; indeed, the old career "is d e a d " (Hall & Asso­ ciates, 1996). T o question the e c o n o m i c , dispassionate l a n g u a g e and practices of t h e n e w c o n t r a c t a n d c a r e e r is to b e d e f i c i e n t , n a i v e , a n d w e a k , b e c a u s e such q u e s t i o n i n g deviates from c o m m o n sense. Advice about careers, social contracts, and psychological contracts affirms t h e i n e v i t a b i l i t y of a n d s i n g l e - m i n d e d a t t a c h m e n t to t h e " n e w " c a r e e r a n d c o n ­ t r a c t s . In h i s s t u d y of t h e A m e r i c a n w o r k e t h i c , B e r n s t e i n ( 1 9 9 7 ) c o n c l u d e s that, in this w o r l d " w h e r e l a b o r m i g h t b e v i e w e d a s a ' d i s p o s a b l e c o m m o d i t y / it is n o t l i k e l y that b u s i n e s s e s w i l l g i v e u p i m m e d i a t e b o t t o m - l i n e g a i n for t h e p o s s i b l e b e n e f i t s of l o n g - t e r m e m p l o y m e n t . F o r b e t t e r o r w o r s e ' c o n t i n g e n t l a b o r is h e r e to s t a y " ( p . 2 4 6 ) . E m p l o y e e s a r e a d v i s e d t o " l o o k o u t for [ t h e m ­ selves] b e c a u s e there are no p r o m i s e s " (Blancero, M a r r o n , & Keller, 1997, p . 1; s e e a l s o H i r s c h , 1 9 8 7 ) a n d t o a c c e p t t h e " n e w r e a l i t y " t h a t e v e r y o n e is temporary (Chilton & W e i d e n b a u m , 1994, p. 31) or "self-employed" (Csoka, 1 9 9 5 , p . 2 5 ) . E m p l o y e r s a r e i n s t r u c t e d n o t to b a c k t r a c k ( " W e c a n n o t g o b a c k " to o l d c o n t r a c t s ; C s o k a , 1 9 9 5 , p . 2 9 ) o r s e n d m i x e d m e s s a g e s ( a b o u t p o s s i b l e r e w a r d s for l o y a l t y ) b u t t o c o n s t r u c t a c o n s i s t e n t u n e q u i v o c a l m e s s a g e a b o u t c h a n g e d c o n t r a c t s ( B l a n c e r o et al., 1 9 9 7 , p . 6; R o u s s e a u , 1 9 9 6 ) . I n d e e d , d i s ­ c u s s i o n s for e m p l o y e r s often d e s c r i b e h o w t h e c o n t r a c t s h o u l d b e c o m m u n i ­ c a t e d w i t h o u t a n y c o n s i d e r a t i o n of a l t e r n a t i v e c o n t r a c t a n d c a r e e r f o r m s ( e . g . , Rousseau, 1996). 1

C h a n g e s in c a r e e r s a n d c o n t r a c t s a r e d e s c r i b e d a s " a s i g n o f t h e t i m e s , " w i t h b o t h p a r t i e s r e g a r d i n g " t h e e x i t m e n t a l i t y a s s y m p t o m a t i c of a n e w a n d a c c e p t a b l e w a y o f c o r p o r a t e life. B o t h s i d e s s h o u l d p l a n for it. E m p l o y e r s s h o u l d e n c o u r a g e i t " ( B y r o n , 1 9 9 5 , p p . 9 , 11). S t r a t e g i c h u m a n r e s o u r c e m a n ­ a g e m e n t p l a y s a c r i t i c a l r o l e in e s t a b l i s h i n g a n d d e v e l o p i n g n e w a r r a n g e m e n t s ( S i n g h , 1 9 9 8 ) . A r t i c l e s affirm t h a t e m p l o y e r s a r e t h e p r i m e b e n e f i c i a r i e s o f the new contract and career (Csoka, 1995; see also Lehrer, 1996), but they a l s o list a d v a n t a g e s t h a t t h e n e w c a r e e r a n d c o n t r a c t h a v e for b o t h p a r t i e s ( i . e . , no illusions about j o b security and lifetime e m p l o y m e n t ; e.g., B y r o n , 1995; Chilton & W e i d e n b a u m , 1994). In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e n e w c a r e e r is p r e s e n t e d as a " f a c t of l i f e . " A s s u c h , it is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h r o u t i n e b u s i n e s s p r a c t i c e s that i n c l u d e p e r i o d i c d o w n s i z i n g ,

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t h e u s e of c h e a p e r l a b o r m a r k e t s , a n d t e c h n o l o g i c a l r e p l a c e m e n t s o f h u m a n s ; it a l s o is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h a l a c k of r e a l g a i n s in c o r p o r a t e e a r n i n g s ( s e e C a s c i o , 1 9 9 3 ; C h i l t o n & W e i d e n b a u m , 1 9 9 4 ; Pfeffer, 1 9 9 4 , 1 9 9 5 ) . I n s t e a d of q u e s ­ tioning the new career language and practices, organizational m e m b e r s a n d r e s e a r c h e r s p e r p e t u a t e t h e i l l u s i o n t h a t t h e n e w c a r e e r is a n u n a l t e r a b l e response to e c o n o m i c imperatives. W h e n feminist approaches are applied to the n e w career and social con­ tract, t h e a r b i t r a r y p r i v i l e g i n g of t e c h n i c a l k n o w l e d g e o v e r p r a c t i c a l r a t i o n a l ­ ity is s h o w n t o h i n d e r i n d i v i d u a l a n d c o l l e c t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t . P o s t s t r u c t u r a l i s t f e m i n i s t s p o i n t o u t that u n e x a m i n e d d i s c o u r s e c u r t a i l s d i s c u s s i o n of w h o w e w a n t t o b e , of w h a t d i f f e r e n t k i n d s of k n o w i n g c o n t r i b u t e t o i n d i v i d u a l a n d c o l l e c t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d of h o w w e c a n c h a l l e n g e s y s t e m a t i c d i s a d v a n ­ tages and inequitable material practices. Without examining the language and p r a c t i c e s of t h e n e w c a r e e r a n d c o n t r a c t , w e u n w i t t i n g l y s u b s c r i b e to a u n i ­ f o r m w a y of c o n d u c t i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l i v e s ( i n v o l v i n g s e r i e s o f t e m p o r a r y c o n t r a c t s for t h e " s u r v i v a l of t h e f i t t e s t " ) t h a t fails t o r e c o g n i z e h o w g r o w t h t h r o u g h a n d w i t h i n r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d s i t u a t e d k n o w i n g is v a l u a b l e in a n d of itself.' W h e n t h e n e w c a r e e r is p r e s e n t e d as a "fact of l i f e , " o r g a n i z a t i o n a l m e m ­ b e r s r e l y o n e x p e r t k n o w l e d g e r a t h e r t h a n c h a l l e n g i n g t h e a s s u m p t i v e b a s e s of this k n o w l e d g e . T h i s p r i v i l e g i n g of t e c h n i c a l k n o w l e d g e a n d e c o n o m i c o u t ­ c o m e s is g e n d e r e d b e c a u s e it e n a b l e s f i r m s to b e t t e r c o n t r o l p e o p l e a n d p r o ­ c e s s e s a n d it s i l e n c e s d i s s e n t . B y e l i m i n a t i n g t h e u s e of p r a c t i c a l r a t i o n a l i t y , t h e n e w c a r e e r a n d c o n t r a c t s w e a k e n t h e e m e r g e n c e of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l v a l ­ u e s t h a t a r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h ( w o m e n ' s ) w a y s of k n o w i n g a n d w i t h v a l u i n g noneconomic outcomes. P r a c t i c a l r a t i o n a l i t y is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h w a y s of k n o w i n g t h a t a r e m a n i f e s t in humanistic/idealistic/emotional language, mutual career discussions, rela­ tional exchange, and complex interconnected d y n a m i c s (see the right col­ u m n of T a b l e 9 . 2 ) . A l t h o u g h l a b e l e d " w o m e n ' s w a y s of k n o w i n g , " a l t e r n a ­ tive e p i s t e m o l o g i e s a r e u s e d b y b o t h w o m e n a n d m e n ( B e l e n k y , C l i n c h y , Goldberger, & Tarule, 1986; Goldberger, Tarule, Clinchy, & Belenky, 1996). A s p e o p l e rely less o n e x p e r t s for k n o w l e d g e (i.e., s i l e n c e a n d e x p e r t k n o w ­ ing), they begin to deal with contextual complexities and their o w n emotional r e s p o n s e s to s i t u a t i o n s . T h e y t h i n k t h r o u g h a n d e v a l u a t e c l a i m s b y u s i n g t h e m s e l v e s a n d o t h e r s a s k n o w l e d g e b a s e s in c a r e e r d i s c u s s i o n s ( i . e . , p r o c e ­ d u r a l w a y s of k n o w i n g , d i s c u s s i o n of self- a n d o t h e r n e e d s ) , a n d t h e y m a i n t a i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of k n o w l e d g e a s t e n t a t i v e , s i t u a t e d , a n d s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d . T h e y w o u l d r e c o g n i z e that t h e n e w c a r e e r a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t a r e n o t c o n c r e t e r e a l i t i e s b u t t e m p o r a r y c o n s t r u c t i o n s c r e a t e d by t h o s e w h o c a n b e n e f i t m o s t a n d w h o h a v e t h e p o w e r to e l e v a t e this t e x t v e r s i o n o v e r o t h e r p o s s i b l e t e x t s . T h e y a l s o w o u l d a c k n o w l e d g e that e m o t i o n s a r e n e e d e d s o u r c e s of i n f o r m a ­ tion. T h e y would not disregard the anguish, sadness, helplessness, disillusion­

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m e n t , b e t r a y a l , a n d a n g e r felt b y m a n y m e m b e r s o f t h e U . S . a n d g l o b a l w o r k f o r c e w h o a r e c o n f u s e d b y c h a n g e s in t h e i r w o r k l i v e s a n d w h o a r e u n a b l e to e a r n a l i v i n g w a g e ( e . g . , H a l l & A s s o c i a t e s , 1 9 9 6 ; H e c k s c h e r , 1 9 9 5 ; London, 1998; Rifkin, 1995; Stearns, 1995). Rather than viewing these e m o ­ t i o n s a s s y m p t o m a t i c of c h a n g e a n d a s p r o b l e m s to b e r e m e d i e d , f e m i n i s t career and contract reconceptualizations would use these emotions (as well as t h e m o r e p o s i t i v e r e s p o n s e s to c a r e e r c h a n g e s ) t o r e v i s e c a r e e r s a n d c o n t r a c t s . E m o t i o n s w o u l d i n f o r m d e c i s i o n m a k i n g a b o u t w h a t is fair a n d a b o u t w a y s to e n h a n c e w o r k e r s ' d i g n i t y , v o i c e , a n d c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h o t h e r s ( s e e M a t t s o n & Buzzanell, 1999). In s u m , as l o n g a s t h e n e w c a r e e r a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t a r e t h e o n l y v e r s i o n s c o n s i d e r e d realistic and informed by technical rationalities, then any other v e r s i o n s o f c a r e e r , s o c i a l c o n t r a c t , a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l life w i l l b e t r i v i a l i z e d a n d s i l e n c e d . T h e u s e of d i f f e r e n t r a t i o n a l i t i e s g e n e r a t e s c h o i c e a m o n g transactional and relational (i.e., s o c i o e m o t i o n a l , e v o l v i n g sets of mutual obligations) contracts and various career forms over the c o u r s e of w o r k e r s ' lifetimes (see Buzzanell & G o l d z w i g , 1991; Rousseau & M c L e a n Parks, 1 9 9 3 ) . P o s t s t r u c t u r a l i s t f e m i n i s t s u r g e u s to m a i n t a i n t e n s i o n s w i t h i n a n d b e ­ tween multiple career and contract forms so that our career u n d e r s t a n d i n g s and practices are neither limiting nor exclusionary. 2

Voice: Managerial Voice and Tensions Between and Within Voices of "Others" T h e p r o b l e m a t i c of voice argues that organizational c o m m u n i c a t i o n theo­ rists a n d r e s e a r c h e r s s h o u l d not f o c u s s o l e l y o n t h e m a n a g e m e n t v o i c e b u t infuse d i s c u s s i o n w i t h m u l t i p l e v o i c e s , i n c l u d i n g m a n a g e r i a l c o n c e r n s , w h i l e i d e n t i f y i n g w h o s e p e r s p e c t i v e is b e i n g p r e s e n t e d ( M u m b y & S t o h l , 1 9 9 6 ) . T h i s d u a l i s m for c a r e e r is l a b e l e d as t h e t e n s i o n b e t w e e n m a n a g e r i a l v o i c e a n d t h e v o i c e s o f " o t h e r s . " In t h i s s e c t i o n , I first d i s c u s s h o w t h e m a n a g e r i a l v o i c e operates within the corporate imperative. Then I outline h o w new career and contract discussions are exclusionary and, finally, d e s c r i b e h o w feminist reconceptualizations might enlarge our discourse about (and practices con­ cerning) careers and contracts. In t h e c o r p o r a t e i m p e r a t i v e , s u r v i v a l of t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d r e t u r n s for s t o c k h o l d e r s a r e t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p r i o r i t i e s ( s e e t h e left c o l u m n o f T a b l e 9.2). For e m p l o y e e s , this imperative translates into o n e p r i m a r y r o l e — b e l i e v e r in t h e c o r p o r a t e i m p e r a t i v e — a n d t w o i n t e r r e l a t e d a n d m u t u a l l y r e i n ­ f o r c i n g r o l e s — j o b r o l e ( o b l i g a t i o n to c o n t r i b u t e t o o r g a n i z a t i o n a l e f f e c t i v e ­ n e s s a s a w o r k e r ) a n d l e i s u r e r o l e ( c o n s u m e r o b l i g a t i o n t o u s e s a l a r y to p u r ­ chase products; consumption enhances organizational stability; Rifkin, 1995; S c o t t & H a r t , 1 9 8 9 ) . E m p l o y e e s e n a c t t h e s e r o l e s u n c o n s c i o u s l y . T h e t a s k s of m a n a g e m e n t a n d o f b o a r d s of d i r e c t o r s a r e to m a k e d e c i s i o n s in t h e o r g a n i z a ­

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tion's best interests. Employers operate under two assumptions: that the indi­ v i d u a l , in c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n , is i n s i g n i f i c a n t a n d d i s p o s a b l e ; a n d t h a t h u m a n n a t u r e is m a l l e a b l e ( S c o t t & H a r t , 1 9 8 9 ; s e e a l s o C h e n e y & Carroll, 1997). Scott and Hart (1989) state that organizational m e m b e r s , par­ t i c u l a r l y t h o s e in p o w e r , often fail t o c h a l l e n g e t h e s u p r e m a c y o f c o r p o r a t e g o a l s b e c a u s e this act w o u l d force t h e m to q u e s t i o n t h e v a l u e s t h e y l i v e b y . H o w e v e r , t h e y a l s o m a y n o t q u e s t i o n t h e e t h i c s of c o r p o r a t e i m p e r a t i v e s n o t o n l y b e c a u s e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n t e x t s a r e c o m p l e x b u t a l s o b e c a u s e t h e p a c e at w h i c h d e c i s i o n s a r e m a d e m i l i t a t e s a g a i n s t t h e k i n d of r e f l e c t i o n n e e d e d to challenge taken-for-granted imperatives. S o w h o a r e t h e s e " o t h e r s " w h o s e v o i c e s a r e u n h e a r d in t h e n e w c a r e e r a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t ? In t h e p a s t , o n l y b l u e - c o l l a r a n d t e m p o r a r y w o r k e r s s u f f e r e d layoffs, but now managerial and professional e m p l o y e e s w o r l d w i d e experi­ ence downsizing and underemployment (Heckscher, 1995; Rifkin, 1995; Sloan, 1996). M a n a g e r s and professionals h a v e been a m o n g the last groups to undergo j o b loss, but U . S . and global labor forecasts predict continuing d o w n ­ s i z i n g a n d e m p l o y m e n t i n s e c u r i t y for m a n a g e r s a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l s a s w e l l a s other organizational cohorts ( O ' C o n n e l l , 1990; Rifkin, 1995; Schwartz, 1990; T a y l o r & G i a n n a n t o n i o , 1 9 9 3 ) . In a h e a r i n g b e f o r e t h e J o i n t E c o n o m i c C o m ­ mittee (1993) of the U . S . C o n g r e s s , G r e e n b e r g , the research and survey d i r e c ­ t o r of t h e A m e r i c a n M a n a g e m e n t A s s o c i a t i o n , s a i d t h a t m i d d l e m a n a g e m e n t is " h a r d e s t h i t " by d o w n s i z i n g b e c a u s e of e c o n o m i c r e a s o n s ( s a l a r y a n d b e n e ­ fits), t e c h n o l o g y , a n d t h e f l a t t e n i n g of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e . E v e n s o , w h i t e m a l e p r o f e s s i o n a l s a n d m a n a g e r s a r e still p r i v i l e g e d o v e r o t h e r w o r k f o r c e g r o u p s . N o t o n l y a r e t h e s e m e n r e c i p i e n t s of e d u c a t i o n , c o r ­ porate training and development, m e n t o r s , and n e t w o r k s , but they also start w i t h h i g h e r e a r n i n g s p r i o r to j o b l o s s a n d often h a v e w o r k i n g p a r t n e r s w h o c a n buffer t h e f i n a n c i a l c o n s t r a i n t s ( G r a h a m , 1 9 9 5 ) . In a d d i t i o n , S i l v e s t r i ( 1 9 9 5 ; s e e a l s o K u t s c h e r , 1 9 9 5 ) , an e c o n o m i s t in t h e U . S . O f f i c e o f E m p l o y m e n t P r o j e c t i o n s , f o u n d that m a n a g e r s w o r k in a p r o j e c t e d g r o w t h o c c u p a t i o n . G i t t l e m a n a n d J o y c e ( 1 9 9 5 ) , e c o n o m i s t s in t h e O f f i c e of L a b o r P r o j e c t i o n s o f t h e U . S . B u r e a u of L a b o r S t a t i s t i c s , f o u n d that h i g h e r - e a r n i n g w h i t e m a l e s w e r e m o r e l i k e l y to b e e m p l o y e d in m a n a g e r i a l o r p r o f e s s i o n a l o c c u p a t i o n s , w h i c h h a v e m o r e s t a b l e e a r n i n g s , a n d m o r e t h a n h a l f o f w h i t e m e n left t h e b o t ­ t o m q u i n t i l e of e a r n i n g s for c o n s e c u t i v e t i m e p e r i o d s . In c o n t r a s t , F u l l e r t o n ( 1 9 9 5 , O f f i c e of L a b o r P r o j e c t i o n s ) r e p o r t s t h a t t h e l a b o r f o r c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n r a t e s of A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s , H i s p a n i c s , A s i a n A m e r i c a n s , a n d N a t i v e A m e r i ­ c a n s a r e p r o j e c t e d to d e c r e a s e f r o m 1 9 9 4 to 2 0 0 5 . E v e n if t h e o u t l o o k for w h i t e m e n d i d w o r s e n , w h i t e m a n a g e r s h a v e t h e r e s o u r c e s to c r e a t e c a r e e r i n s u r a n c e , s u c h as e x e c u t i v e j o b s e a r c h d a t a b a s e m e m b e r s h i p s , i n c l u d i n g E x e c - U - N e t , to w h i c h t h e y s u b s c r i b e w h i l e still e m p l o y e d ( G r a h a m , 1 9 9 5 ) . In s h o r t , t h e n e w c a r e e r a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t h a v e c a u g h t m e d i a a n d r e s e a r c h e r s ' a t t e n t i o n b e c a u s e t h e s e c o n t r a c t s p r e s u m a b l y affect t h e s e c u r i t y

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and entitlements of white m i d d l e - and upper-class A m e r i c a . In b l u e - and w h i t e - c o l l a r R I F s ( r e d u c t i o n s in f o r c e ) , t h e m a n a g e r i a l v o i c e c o n t i n u e s t o operate under the assumptions that the individual is, and should be, subordi­ n a t e d to t h e g r e a t e r g o o d ( i . e . , c o r p o r a t e i n t e r e s t s ) a n d t h a t p e o p l e s h o u l d a d a p t t o t h e c o r p o r a t e a g e n d a . M a n a g e m e n t is p r e s e n t e d a s fair, r a t h e r t h a n a s p a t e r n a l i s t i c o r d i s c r i m i n a t o r y , b e c a u s e e v e r y o n e is a f f e c t e d b y e c o n o m i c n e c e s s i t i e s . S u p p o s e d l y , all p e o p l e a r e e q u a l in t h e e y e s o f c o s t c u t t e r s , m e a n ­ i n g t h a t if s o m e o n e d o e s n o t a d d v a l u e , t h e n t h a t p e r s o n is t e r m i n a t e d . Because most contemporary career and contract discussions primarily focus on managerial and professional employees (e.g., Hirsch, 1987; R o u s s e a u , 1995, 1996; R o u s s e a u & M c L e a n P a r k s , 1 9 9 3 ; Stroh et al., 1994; Sugalski et al., 1995), questions about voice m u s t address the w a y s in w h i c h t h e s e d i s c u s s i o n s a r e e x c l u s i o n a r y b y (a) e s s e n t i a l i z i n g e m p l o y e e s ; ( b ) s y s ­ tematically e x c l u d i n g d e m o g r a p h i c g r o u p s ; and (c) a d h e r i n g to w h i t e m i d d l e class values. First, these discussions about new contracts and careers essentialize e m p l o y e e s b e c a u s e t h e y c r e a t e an i l l u s i o n t h a t all w o r k f o r c e g r o u p s h a v e h a d e q u a l a c c e s s to e m p l o y a b i l i t y . T o e s s e n t i a l i z e m e a n s t h a t all m e m b e r s o f a particular group (e.g., workers) are treated as similar so that variations within g r o u p s ( e . g . , H i s p a n i c a n d E u r o p e a n A m e r i c a n textile workers) a n d v a r i a t i o n s b e t w e e n g r o u p s ( e . g . , d i s p l a c e d w o r k e r s in manufacturing a n d in advanced information technology industries) are erased. By p r o m o t i n g e q u a l e m p l o y ­ ability access, essentialist career arguments neglect the point that there are p a r t i c u l a r w o r k f o r c e s e g m e n t s t h a t a r e l e s s a b l e to e n t e r t h e n e w c a r e e r " s u r ­ v i v a l of t h e f i t t e s t " c o n t e s t s . F o r i n s t a n c e , i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h o u t b a s i c s k i l l s , without the resources to acquire additional training, and without mobility can­ not c o m p e t e ( B u n n i n g , 1990; Hall, 1996; Lehrer, 1996). T h e y are m e m b e r s of t h e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 2 m i l l i o n p e o p l e in t h e U . S . w o r k f o r c e w h o a r e c o n t i n g e n t w o r k e r s e m p l o y e d in w o r k s i t u a t i o n s w i t h f e w h o u r s , l i t t l e s e c u r i t y , a n d n o b e n e f i t s ( U . S . L a b o r F o r c e e s t i m a t e s , in S c h e l l e n b a r g e r , 1 9 9 5 ) . M o s t o f t h e s e c o n t i n g e n t w o r k e r s a r e y o u n g , f e m a l e , a n d in s u p p o r t r o l e s ( J a r r a t t & C o a t e s , 1995). Males and females w h o lack high school and higher education are the l e a s t a b l e to p u r s u e j o b s in g r o w t h o c c u p a t i o n s ( s e e K u t s c h e r , 1 9 9 5 ; S i l v e s t r i , 1995). Displaced workers with high j o b tenure, less education, and blue-collar o c c u p a t i o n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i n c u r h i g h e r t h a n a v e r a g e l o s s e s in t e r m s o f w a g e s ( H a m e r m e s h , 1989). O u t s i d e of the United States, those m o s t v u l n e r a b l e to l a b o r f o r c e d e c l i n e s a n d u n e m p l o y m e n t a r e t h e p o o r in u n d e r d e v e l o p e d nations w h o have relied on single economies that are disappearing rapidly ( s e e R i f k i n , 1 9 9 5 ) . In s h o r t , e s s e n t i a l i z a t i o n m e a n s t h a t c a r e e r a n d c o n t r a c t d i s c u s s i o n s t r e a t all e m p l o y e e s in a s i m i l a r f a s h i o n , a s if all e m p l o y e e s h a v e t h e s a m e o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o c o n s t r u c t c a r e e r s a n d c o n t r a c t s . Y e t , o n t h e b a s i s of sex and gender, race, and educational level, individuals and g r o u p s are m o r e or less able to construct careers guaranteeing employability.

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S e c o n d , t h e n e w c a r e e r a n d social c o n t r a c t a r e e x c l u s i o n a r y d e m o g r a p h i ­ c a l l y . G l a s s - c e i l i n g , " m o m m y t r a c k , " racial and e t h n i c , and g a y a n d l e s b i a n c a r e e r s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e that t h e s e c o n t r a c t s , c a r e e r d e v e l o p m e n t a l s u p p o r t , a n d p r o g r a m s to c r e a t e e q u a l i t y in the w o r k p l a c e are not and n e v e r w e r e s i m i l a r to the " n o r m a l " d e v e l o p m e n t of a n d c a r e e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s a v a i l a b l e to w h i t e managers (Bell, Denton, & N k o m o , 1993; Buzzanell, 1995; Buzzanell & G o l d z w i g , 1 9 9 1 ; H a y e s , 1995; h o o k s , 1984; K a u f m a n , 1 9 9 5 ; M o r r i s o n & V o n G l i n o w , 1990; M o r r i s o n , W h i t e , V a n V e l s o r , & t h e C e n t e r for C r e a t i v e L e a d ­ e r s h i p , 1987; N k o m o , 1992; R o b e r t s , 1 9 9 5 ; W i l l i a m s o n , 1 9 9 3 ) . In s h o r t , t h e r e are differential t r e a t m e n t a n d different o u t c o m e s in c a r e e r p a t h s a n d e m p l o y ­ ability for d i v e r s e w o r k f o r c e m e m b e r s a n d for m e m b e r s of t h e w o r l d w i d e ( p o o r ) u n d e r c l a s s (see Rifkin, 1995). W i t h r e g a r d to g e n d e r a n d r a c e e t h n i c i t y , G i t t l e m a n and J o y c e ( 1 9 9 5 ) e x a m i n e d i n d i v i d u a l e a r n i n g s p a t t e r n s from the a n n u a l d e m o g r a p h i c files of the C u r r e n t P o p u l a t i o n S u r v e y ( C P S ) from 1968 to 1992. In c o n s e c u t i v e p e r i ­ o d s of w o r k , they f o u n d that w o m e n are m o r e likely to stay at t h e b o t t o m q u i n t i l e than m e n ( 7 2 % c o m p a r e d with 5 1 % ) d e s p i t e h o u r s of w o r k ; b l a c k s h a v e m o r e e a r n i n g s i n s t a b i l i t y t h a n t h o s e w h o a r e o l d e r , m o r e e d u c a t e d , or w h i t e ; w o m e n are less likely to r e m a i n in the t o p q u i n t i l e of the o v e r a l l e a r n ­ i n g s d i s t r i b u t i o n than m e n ; a n d b l a c k s are m o r e likely to r e m a i n in t h e b o t t o m q u i n t i l e than w h i t e s . M o r e o v e r , a c c o r d i n g to a r e p o r t of the U . S . G e n e r a l A c c o u n t i n g Office ( 1 9 9 4 ; s e e a l s o S h a r p e , 1993), a v e r a g e A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n w a g e r a t e s are c o n s i s t e n t l y b e l o w t h o s e of w h i t e s ; A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s w e r e 1 5 % m o r e likely to l o s e their j o b s than w h i t e s d u r i n g the 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 1 r e c e s s i o n e v e n after a c c o u n t i n g for o c c u p a t i o n a l and i n d u s t r i a l a f f i l i a t i o n s , w o r k e r a g e , and e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l s ; and A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s a r e u n e m p l o y e d s l i g h t l y lon­ g e r than o t h e r racial g r o u p s . In p o s t d i s p l a c e m e n t s i t u a t i o n s (i.e., b e i n g r e h i r e d after t h e loss of a j o b to w h i c h t h e i n d i v i d u a l had s i g n i f i c a n t l a b o r force a t t a c h m e n t ) , b l a c k s and H i s p a n i c A m e r i c a n s i n c u r r e d g r e a t e r e a r n i n g s a n d h i e r a r c h i c a l level l o s s e s than A n g l o s ( O n g , 1991), and b l a c k s w e r e less likely to be r e h i r e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y for w h i t e - c o l l a r j o b s ( M a r & O n g , 1 9 9 4 ) . In c a s e t h e r e w a s a n y d o u b t that racial p r e j u d i c e still e x i s t s in c o r p o r a t e A m e r i c a , t h e T e x a c o t a p e " h a s r e v e a l e d a g r e a t d i v i d e b e t w e e n b l a c k s and w h i t e s — t h i s o n e in t h e w o r k p l a c e " and h a s c o n f i r m e d w h a t black e m p l o y e e s say that t h e y h a v e l o n g s u s p e c t e d , n a m e l y that " r a c i s m and p r e j u d i c e are e n d e m i c in c o r p o r a ­ t i o n s " ( K a u f m a n & M a r k e l s , 1996, p . B l ) . T h e Wall Street Journal reported B r o o k i n g s I n s t i t u t i o n e c o n o m i c e v i d e n c e that the c u r r e n t " s u r g i n g e c o n o m y [not o n l y ] b y p a s s e s black m e n " and w o m e n but d i s a d v a n t a g e s b l a c k b l u e c o l l a r w o r k e r s in p a r t i c u l a r (Duff, 1997, p. A 2 ; s e e a l s o R i f k i n , 1 9 9 5 ) . In s h o r t , the n e w c a r e e r and social c o n t r a c t t h i n k i n g s y s t e m a t i c a l l y d i s a d v a n ­ t a g e s c e r t a i n g r o u p s of w o r k e r s . T h e n e w c a r e e r o b s c u r e s t h e s e p a t t e r n s by e s t a b l i s h i n g p r e m i s e s and d i s c o u r s e s of e q u i t y so that i n d i v i d u a l d e f i c i e n ­

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c i e s — n o t s y s t e m i c b i a s e s d i s p l a y e d in e m p l o y m e n t p a t t e r n s — a c c o u n t unemployability, underemployment, and displacement.

221 for

Third, not only are the new career and social contract e x c l u s i o n a r y d e m o ­ graphically; they are exclusionary attitudinally as well. Both old and new con­ t r a c t s a s s u m e t h a t e m p l o y e e s w a n t to i n v e s t t h e i r i d e n t i t i e s in c a r e e r s , an assumption biased toward white middle-class achievement orientations and managerial/professional occupations. T h e attitudes that the new career and social contract reinforce are j o b and organizational involvement, along with f e e l i n g s of d e f i c i e n c y if e m p l o y e e s c a n n o t live u p to t h e i d e a l s of " t e m p o r a r y e m p l o y m e n t " and short-term thinking. H e c k s c h e r (1995) reports that, even w h e n m a n a g e r s h a v e s u r v i v e d m a s s i v e d o w n s i z i n g s , t h e y still d e m o n s t r a t e loyalty. C o m m i t m e n t a n d t e m p o r a r y e m p l o y m e n t p l a c e w o r k e r s in a d o u b l e b i n d . D o u b l e b i n d s o p e r a t e w h e n t h e r e is n o s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s o l u t i o n to an i s s u e a n d w h e n c o n c e r n s a r e a p p r o a c h e d in an e i t h e r / o r f a s h i o n ( W a t z l a w i c k , B e a v i n , & J a c k s o n , 1 9 6 7 ) . W o r k e r s a r e not in p o s i t i o n s of p o w e r in w h i c h t h e y c a n a s k for d i r e c t i o n . I n s t e a d , w o r k e r s ' c o n t i n u e d e m p l o y a b i l i t y m a y d e p e n d on both t i m e c o m m i t m e n t a n d d e m o n s t r a t e d l o y a l t y and b e h a v i o r s a n d a t t i t u d e s c o n ­ s i s t e n t with t e m p o r a r y or f r e e - a g e n t m e n t a l i t i e s . T i m e c o m m i t m e n t a n d d e m ­ o n s t r a t e d l o y a l t y l e s s e n t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s to d e v e l o p s u p p o r t s y s t e m s a n d i n t e r e s t s o u t s i d e of t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n that c a n buffer t h e d e v a s t a t i n g e f f e c t s of job l o s s ( e . g . , H e c k s c h e r , 1 9 9 5 ; L e a n a & F e l d m a n , 1 9 9 0 ; R i f k i n , 1 9 9 5 ) . W h e n organizations bind m a n a g e r s and professionals (and others) to the corporation t h r o u g h c o m p a n y - s p e c i f i c t r a i n i n g , p r o m i s e s of c a r e e r m o v e m e n t , a n d fre­ q u e n t r e l o c a t i o n s t h a t p r e v e n t d e v e l o p i n g ties to l o c a l c o m m u n i t i e s , t h e n t h e s o l e a t t a c h m e n t — e x c e p t to t h e c o r p o r a t i o n — t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s e x h i b i t is to their families (Heckscher, 1995). T i m e c o m m i t m e n t also benefits full-time a n d t e n u r e - t r a c k e m p l o y e e s , w h o a l r e a d y a r e at an a d v a n t a g e b e c a u s e t h e y d o not n e e d to w o r k m u l t i p l e j o b s to c o m p e n s a t e for i n a d e q u a t e i n c o m e a n d b e n ­ efits. A s e e m i n g l y i n e s c a p a b l e t w o - t i e r e d s y s t e m b e t w e e n " h a v e s " a n d " h a v e n o t s " e x i s t s that f a v o r s , a n d e v e n e n h a n c e s , c a r e e r p r o s p e c t s a n d r e w a r d s for core workers over unpromotable hires (Barnett & Miner, 1992; Rifkin, 1995). T h u s , t h e n e w c a r e e r and c o n t r a c t e n c o u r a g e i n d i v i d u a l s to m a i n t a i n e m p l o y ­ ability and positive attitudes about temporary e m p l o y m e n t contracts while s i m u l t a n e o u s l y e n c o u r a g i n g t h e m to i n v e s t t i m e a n d e n e r g y in t h e i r c o r p o ­ r a t i o n s . I n d i v i d u a l s w h o h a v e difficulty h a n d l i n g t h e s e d o u b l e - b i n d t e n s i o n s will not fare well u n d e r t h e n e w c a r e e r a n d s o c i a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o n t r a c t s . In s u m , t h e n e w c a r e e r p r o m i s e s an e q u i t a b l e a n d a t t a i n a b l e m o d e l for all workers. While describing a "universal w o r k e r " w h o can d e v e l o p e m p l o y ­ ment sequences congruent with the new career model and contract, the dis­ course and discursive practices privilege corporate interests. There certainly a r e s o m e w o r k e r s for w h o m t h e n e w c a r e e r is a d v a n t a g e o u s ( e . g . , m o s t l y

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w h i t e e d u c a t e d m e n in m a n a g e r i a l o r p r o f e s s i o n a l o c c u p a t i o n s w h o h a v e c a r e e r i s t a n d / o r e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l i n c l i n a t i o n s ) . H o w e v e r , d i f f e r e n c e s in o c c u ­ pations, race, sex and gender, class, age, and educational level m a y increase or d e c r e a s e i n d i v i d u a l s ' a b i l i t i e s to s u s t a i n e m p l o y m e n t . L i s t e n i n g t o t h e v o i c e s a n d s i t u a t e d e x p e r i e n c e s of " o t h e r s " m a y h e l p to c o n v i n c e t h o s e w h o b e l i e v e that t h e r e is n o o p t i o n o t h e r t h a n t h e n e w c a r e e r a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t t h a t i n e q ­ uity d e m a n d s r e v i s i o n of a s s u m p t i o n s , l a n g u a g e , e x p e c t a t i o n s , a n d p r a c t i c e s r e l a t i n g to t h e n e w c a r e e r c o n t r a c t . S p e c i f i c a l l y , t e n s i o n s b e t w e e n a n d w i t h i n v o i c e s of " o t h e r s " e n c o u r a g e u s to e n g a g e in f e m i n i s t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l i m p e r a t i v e s t h a t f u n d a m e n t a l l y a l t e r t h e n a t u r e of i n e q u i t a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s ( s e e t h e r i g h t c o l u m n o f T a b l e 9 . 2 ) . T r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l i m p e r a t i v e s u r g e i n d i v i d u a l s t o r e e v a l u a t e t h e w a y s in which the language of the new career further disenfranchises individuals and g r o u p s w h o a l r e a d y a r e d i s a d v a n t a g e d in m a t e r i a l p r a c t i c e s ( e . g . , p a y i n e q ­ u i t y , l a c k of j o b s , l o w e r r e h i r i n g r a t e s a n d p a y , a n d f e w e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s for formal education and training). Transformational imperatives require d e m o ­ c r a t i c d i a l o g u e that p r o m o t e s p a r t i c i p a t i o n in d i s c u s s i o n ; r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e u n i q u e n e s s of p e r s o n s ; a c c e p t a n c e of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for n o n d e m o c r a t i c c o m ­ m u n i c a t i o n ; a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s k i l l s a n d s i t e s for r e s i s t a n c e a n d e x p r e s ­ sion without censure (Deetz, 1992). T h r o u g h democratic d i a l o g u e , w o r k f o r c e m e m b e r s c a n r e c l a i m " t h e c h o i c e s a g a i n s t all f o r m s o f d o m i n a t i o n o r p r i v i l e g ­ i n g of a n y a r b i t r a r y s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n " ( D e e t z , 1 9 9 2 , p . 2 3 3 ) . H e c k s c h e r ( 1 9 9 5 ) s t a t e s that w o r k e r s a n d m a n a g e r s m u s t d i s c u s s c h a n g e b u t h a v e n o t f o u n d a w a y to d o s o . Although we cannot empower others, organizational and managerial com­ m u n i c a t i o n r e s e a r c h e r s a n d p r a c t i t i o n e r s c a n h e l p e s t a b l i s h c o n d i t i o n s for e m p o w e r m e n t . E m p o w e r m e n t can be assisted by confirming disenfranchised g r o u p s ' v e r s i o n s of i n e q u i t a b l e r e a l i t i e s , v e r i f y i n g t h e a c c u r a c y of t h e i r o b s e r ­ v a t i o n s t h r o u g h c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t o t h e r s ' d e f i n i t i o n s for work and careers are valid. E m p o w e r m e n t also can be aided by valuing and emulating the looser connections between w o r k and organization that some workforce m e m b e r s maintain (e.g., s o m e African, H i s p a n i c , and Native A m e r i c a n s ) . If o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m i t m e n t is less i m p o r t a n t , t h e n f a m i l i a l a n d friendship relationships with others, volunteer activities, and ethnic identities c o u l d b e c o m e m o r e i m p o r t a n t in t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s ' l i v e s ( s e e H e c k s c h e r , 1995; Rifkin, 1995). Lesser importance of organizational c o m m i t m e n t could b e q u i t e l i b e r a t i n g a n d a l l o w or e n c o u r a g e a m o r e d i v e r s e set of p e r s o n a l r e l a ­ t i o n s h i p s ; l e s s e r i m p o r t a n c e of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m i t m e n t c o u l d r e m o v e s o m e of t h e b a s e s for p o w e r i m b a l a n c e s c u r r e n t l y s e e n in a b u s i v e o r g a n i z a ­ t i o n s ( w h e n fear of j o b l o s s o v e r r i d e s h o m e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ; s e e P o w e l l , 1 9 9 8 ) . S o c i e t y c o u l d b e v i e w e d as s a n c t i o n i n g m u l t i p l e f o u n d a t i o n s o f s e l f - e s t e e m and identities rather than just self-esteem based on w o r k identities. In short, a f e m i n i s t c o m m u n i c a t i o n a p p r o a c h to t h e n e w c a r e e r a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t w o u l d

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a d v o c a t e t h e d i s s e m i n a t i o n of i n f o r m a t i o n t h r o u g h m u l t i p l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n channels and sites that unequivocally display w h o does and does not benefit by transactional e x c h a n g e s .

Organization: Organization as "Container" Versus Organization as a Social Construction of Relationships/Community in Organizing In t h e t h i r d p r o b l e m a t i c of o r g a n i z a t i o n , o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h e o r i s t s a n d r e s e a r c h e r s a t t e m p t to c o n c e p t u a l i z e o r g a n i z a t i o n b y q u e s t i o n ­ ing the m e t a p h o r s , spatial location, and social construction of o r g a n i z i n g ( M u m b y & S t o h l , 1 9 9 6 ) . In t h e n e w c a r e e r a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t , t h e o r g a n i z a ­ t i o n is t h e s i t e of t r a n s a c t i o n s in w h i c h t h e r e is s h o r t - t e r m e x c h a n g e o f b e n e ­ fits a n d s e r v i c e s ( s e e t h e left c o l u m n of T a b l e 9 . 2 ) . W h e t h e r t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n is " v i r t u a l " o r s i t u a t e d in a p h y s i c a l l o c a t i o n , it f u n c t i o n s a s a " c o n t a i n e r , " o r c o n t e x t , in w h i c h t h i s e x c h a n g e t a k e s p l a c e . U s i n g t h e i m a g e of o r g a n i z a t i o n s as t r a n s i e n t o r i n t e r i m s i t e s for e x c h a n g e , it is e a s y t o u n d e r s t a n d h o w p e o p l e c a n b e h a v e a s d i s p a s s i o n a t e free a g e n t s w h o h a v e n o t i e s t o a n y o n e , a n y t h i n g , or any place. T h e w o r k " s i t e " can be m o v e d a n y w h e r e , and the specific organi­ z a t i o n a s a p l a c e for d i s p l a y i n g s k i l l s a n d e a r n i n g a l i v i n g is i r r e l e v a n t . In t h e ­ ory, e m p l o y e e s , e m p l o y e r s , and the c o m m u n i t y o w e each other nothing except a temporarily satisfying e c o n o m i c agreement. T a k e n to l o g i c a l e x t r e m e s , t h e t r a n s a c t i o n a l e x c h a n g e p r o d u c e s n o t i e s , except mutually economically advantageous relationships. The disintegration of f o r m e r l i n k a g e s d e t e r m i n e d b y l o y a l t y a n d m o r e c e n t r a l i z e d o r g a n i z i n g p r o c e s s e s p r o d u c e s v a r y i n g e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e s in e m p l o y e e s , b u t c o n s i s ­ t e n t l y m a n a g e r s feel " m o r e i s o l a t e d , m o r e c a u t i o u s , [ a n d ] l e s s a b l e to e n t e r i n t o i n f o r m a l a n d s p o n t a n e o u s a g r e e m e n t s " ( H e c k s c h e r , 1 9 9 5 , p . 7 6 ) . If s u s ­ t a i n i n g e m p l o y a b i l i t y a n d a s s e s s i n g c o s t b e n e f i t s for c u r r e n t a n d p o t e n t i a l e m p l o y m e n t a r e b e n e f i c i a l s t r a t e g i e s for e m p l o y e e m o v e m e n t f r o m o n e e m p l o y m e n t e x c h a n g e s i t e to a n o t h e r , t h e n t h e e m p l o y e e n e e d s t o f o c u s i n w a r d . W o r k e r s s h o u l d , l o g i c a l l y , d i s e n g a g e o r fail t o c r e a t e o r e n g a g e in l o n g - t e r m p r o x i m a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h i n d i v i d u a l s a n d g r o u p s , e s p e c i a l l y if t h e l o s s of s u c h a t t a c h m e n t s w o u l d p r o v e p a i n f u l a n d if t h e r e is n o a p p a r e n t c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e t i m e - c o n s u m i n g t a s k of m a i n t a i n i n g m a r k e t a b i l i t y . E m ­ p l o y e e s a l s o s h o u l d n o t e n g a g e in a c t i v i t i e s , s u c h a s g o o d c i t i z e n o r p e a c e ­ m a k e r interactions, that d o not produce an observable and i m m e d i a t e return o n i n v e s t m e n t ( s e e Huff, 1 9 9 0 ; K o l b , 1 9 9 2 ) . E m p l o y e e s m a n a g e t h e i r o w n c a r e e r s , v i e w t h e m s e l v e s a s c o m m o d i t i e s to b e b a r t e r e d , a n d a r e v i g i l a n t for c h a n g e s t h a t c o u l d affect t h e m . T h r o u g h t h e s e b e h a v i o r s , w o r k e r s g a i n t h e " f r e e d o m " f r o m a t t a c h m e n t s a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l i n v e s t m e n t t o t r a n s f e r to other e m p l o y m e n t sites.

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O n e c o n s e q u e n c e of t h e n e w c a r e e r a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t m a y b e a r e n e w e d emphasis on individualism. The new career and contract literature focuses on h o w t h e individual can survive, sustain employability, recuperate from j o b loss, and avoid underemployment and d o w n w a r d mobility (e.g., Byron, 1995; L o n d o n , 1998; Stearns, 1995). The new career promotes individual postures that a l t e r n a t e b e t w e e n a d e f e n s i v e s e l f - s u r v i v a l m e n t a l i t y a n d a n a s s e r t i v e p u s h for o p p o r t u n i t i e s to m a x i m i z e e m p l o y a b i l i t y . B e r n s t e i n ( 1 9 9 7 ) a d v i s e s that w o r k e r s n e e d the foresight to seek out new job opportunities before short product-life cycles, restructuring, and obsolescence overtake them. They will need . . . to wait for the grim reaper of unemployment to provide them with the impetus to change. In a market economy job security will never be a realistic goal. No amount of hard work, dedication, and loyalty will overcome the cold hand of rationality if people must be laid off. To be prepared by continuous learning and a mind set that "noth­ ing is forever" is the best defense, (p. 247) In t h e n e w c a r e e r a n d c o n t r a c t s , t h e r e is m i n i m a l c o r p o r a t e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y s i n c e t h e o n u s for e m p l o y a b i l i t y r e l i e s o n t h e w a t c h f u l n e s s o f t h e e m p l o y e e . A s e c o n d i m p l i c a t i o n a n d c o n s e q u e n c e of t h e n e w c a r e e r a n d c o n t r a c t l a n ­ g u a g e m a y i n v o l v e t h e i s o l a t i o n a n d a l i e n a t i o n of e m p l o y e e s f r o m t h e m s e l v e s and from work and nonwork activities. W o r k e r s m a y increasingly view them­ s e l v e s a s f a c t o r s in p r o d u c t i o n a n d as p o t e n t i a l l y d i s p o s a b l e c o m m o d i t i e s , a n d t h e y m a y a s s e s s t h e i r m a r k e t a b i l i t y in a d i s p a s s i o n a t e m a n n e r ( s e e A l t m a n & P o s t , 1 9 9 6 ; C h e n e y & C a r r o l l , 1 9 9 7 ) . A s t h e y w o r k to d e v e l o p s k i l l s v a l u a b l e for e x c h a n g e , t h e y m a y r e d u c e o p p o r t u n i t i e s to f o s t e r t h e g r a t i f i c a t i o n g a i n e d f r o m d o i n g a c t i v i t i e s t h e y find i n h e r e n t l y e n j o y a b l e ( i . e . , i n t r i n s i c r e w a r d s ; Csikszentmihalyi, 1978, 1997). Besides their potential alienation from themselves and from w o r k and nonwork activities, organizational m e m b e r s may also b e c o m e isolated from relationships with family and friends. M a n a g e r s and professionals subscrib­ i n g to t h e c o r p o r a t e i m p e r a t i v e f o r g o r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d d e v o t e t h e i r l i v e s to organizational maintenance "even though such behavior incurs broader social c o s t s t o o v a s t to c a l c u l a t e " ( S c o t t & H a r t , 1 9 8 9 , p . 6; s e e a l s o D e e t z , 1 9 9 2 ; N e w m a n , 1988, 1993). T h e y may lose themselves, their families, and their h o m e s . I n d i v i d u a l s m a y fear that, if t h e y d o n o t c o m p l y w i t h o r g a n i z a t i o n a l d e m a n d s , they could be replaced by a more dedicated w o r k e r (Heckscher, 1 9 9 5 ; P o w e l l , 1 9 9 8 ) . S u i c i d e r a t e s for l a i d - o f f w o r k e r s a r e 3 0 t i m e s t h e n a t i o n a l a v e r a g e ( B u n n i n g , 1 9 9 0 ) . C h i l d r e n of p a r e n t s w h o h a v e b e e n l a i d off o r u n d e r e m p l o y e d r e p o r t little faith in g o v e r n m e n t o r in i n d u s t r y a n d little h o p e for a g o o d life ( N e w m a n , 1 9 8 8 , 1 9 9 3 ) . F a m i l i e s a r e affected b y c o s t c u t t i n g a n d d o w n s i z i n g a s w e l l a s b y t h e o r g a ­ nizational and geographic mobility potentially required by the new career.

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W h e n p r e s s e d t o l o c a t e w o r k q u i c k l y b e c a u s e of f a m i l y n e e d s a n d o t h e r f i n a n ­ cial d e m a n d s , industrial workers w h o were unsatisfactorily r e e m p l o y e d ex­ p e r i e n c e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y l o w e r life s a t i s f a c t i o n , w h i c h c a n b e d e t r i m e n t a l t o well-being (Leana & Feldman, 1995). Individuals w h o lose their j o b s because of d o w n s i z i n g m a y display increased d o m e s t i c p r o b l e m s , lose their h o m e s ( 1 5 % l o s e t h e i r h o m e s ) , a n d suffer l o n g - t e r m n e g a t i v e e f f e c t s o n e m p l o y e e e a r n i n g s ( B u n n i n g , 1 9 9 0 ) . V i o l e n c e a g a i n s t o t h e r s is e x a c e r b a t e d b y u n e m ­ ployment, underemployment, and hopelessness (Krugman, Lenherr, Betz, & Fryer, 1986; Rifkin, 1995). Yet the new career and social contract subscribe to o r g a n i z a t i o n - a s - c o n t a i n e r t h i n k i n g . T a k e n to e x t r e m e s , t h i s t h i n k i n g f o s t e r s a m y o p i c v i e w in t h a t o u t c o m e s a n d p r o c e s s e s n o t c o n n e c t e d w i t h e m p l o y a b i l ­ ity, p r o d u c t i v i t y , a n d c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s w i t h i n t h e t e m p o r a r y e m p l o y m e n t c o n ­ text simply are irrelevant. W h e n w e r e e x a m i n e t h e p r o b l e m a t i c of o r g a n i z a t i o n f r o m f e m i n i s t a p p r o a c h e s , w e c a n e n v i s i o n d i f f e r e n t p r o c e s s e s a n d o u t c o m e s for o r g a n i z a ­ t i o n a l m e m b e r s ( s e e t h e r i g h t c o l u m n of T a b l e 9 . 2 ) . B e c a u s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e o n g o i n g p r o c e s s e s a n d p r o d u c t s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n p r a c t i c e s , t h e y a r e c o n ­ structed through c o n n e c t i o n s and are c h a n g e a b l e through these s a m e p r o ­ cesses. For the career and social contract, the p r o b l e m a t i c of o r g a n i z a t i o n i n v o l v e s i s s u e s of c o n n e c t i o n , r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a n d c o m m u n i t y a n d o f b o u n d a r y permeability. T h e new career and contract language displays container, self-interest, and temporary e m p l o y m e n t security images. This same language could be linked to the o p p o s i n g characteristics and i m a g e s of c o n n e c t i o n , c o m m u n i t y interest, a n d s t a b l e r e l a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y . If t h e i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r d o e s n o t t u r n t o t h e free-agent mentality, then the new career and contract can initiate the devel­ o p m e n t of s e l f - r e l i a n t i n d i v i d u a l s w h o b e c o m e p r o a c t i v e in m a i n t a i n i n g p r o ­ fessional and personal relationships that give tangible and intangible p e r s o n a l support. Indeed, Heckscher* s (1995) interview data indicate that organiza­ tional m e m b e r s desperately want to belong to a c o m m u n i t y and desire the k i n d s of b o n d s a n d s u p p o r t that t h e y b e l i e v e t h e y p r e v i o u s l y h a d w i t h s p e c i f i c f i r m s in t h e o l d c a r e e r a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t . T o e n a b l e i n d i v i d u a l s t o d e v e l o p security within uncertain ties, researchers r e c o m m e n d the enlargement and e n r i c h m e n t o f w o r k r o l e s , t h e r e d u c t i o n o f w o r k h o u r s t o c r e a t e m o r e t i m e for third-sector (volunteer and community-based organizational) activities, downshifting from work-oriented lifestyles, and the creation of c o n t e x t s for t h e t y p e s o f d i a l o g u e a n d s o c i a l s u p p o r t n e e d e d for s e n s e m a k i n g ( D e e t z , 1992, 1995b; Heckscher, 1995; Hochschild, 1997; Rifkin, 1995; Saltzman, 1991; Weick, 1995). T h e p a r a d o x of t h e n e w c a r e e r a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t l a n g u a g e is t h a t , as i n d i ­ v i d u a l s a r e e n c o u r a g e d to b e m o r e s e l f - r e l i a n t , m o b i l e , a n d s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t , t h e y a l s o n e e d to b e m o r e c o n n e c t e d to f a m i l y , f r i e n d s , w o r k a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l n e t w o r k s , a n d c o m m u n i t y . T h e p a r a d o x is t h a t " i n d i v i d u a l s a r e o n l y c a p a b l e

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of b e i n g fully s e l f - r e l i a n t w h e n t h e y e x p e r i e n c e t h e m s e l v e s as s u p p o r t e d b y a n d a t t a c h e d to t r u s t e d o t h e r s " w h o m a y o r m a y n o t b e c o n n e c t e d t o t h e o r g a ­ n i z a t i o n ( K a h n , 1 9 9 6 , p . 161). S o m e of t h e n e w c a r e e r a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t c h a n g e s c a n b e l i b e r a t i n g a n d a l l o w for m o r e p e r s o n a l a n d c o l i e c t i v i s t c o n n e c ­ tions ( s e e M i r v i s & H a l l , 1996). As organizational and managerial c o m m u n i c a t i o n researchers and practi­ t i o n e r s , w e c a n a l t e r the d i s c o u r s e , p r a c t i c e s , a n d v a l u e s that p r o m o t e i s o l a ­ tion. W e c a n s h a p e l a n g u a g e to b e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h f e m i n i s t v a l u e s ( s e e t h e r i g h t c o l u m n of T a b l e 9 . 2 ) . C a r e e r a n d c o n t r a c t w r i t i n g s a r e filled w i t h a d v i c e f o c u s e d on a c t i o n , d o i n g , t h e i n d i v i d u a l as a g e n t , a n d w o r k ( i . e . , m a s c u l i n e v a l u e s ) , y e t r e l a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t is l o n g t e r m , r e f l e c t i v e , s o c i a l , m u t u a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d , c o n t e x t u a l , a n d s i t u a t e d in life r h y t h m s ( i . e . , f e m i n i n e / f e m i n i s t values; see Marshall, 1989). An alternative career d e v e l o p m e n t process b e g i n s w i t h r e l a t i o n s h i p s as an i m p e t u s for a n d c o n t i n u e d s o u r c e of d e v e l o p ­ ment (Gallos, 1989). Rather than working toward d e v e l o p m e n t characterized by an i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d s e n s e of self in r e l a t i o n to o t h e r s , w e c a n p o s i t i o n m a t u r i t y a n d g r o w t h from p e r s p e c t i v e s e m p h a s i z i n g i n t e r d e p e n ­ d e n c e ( F l e t c h e r , 1 9 9 6 ; G a l l o s , 1 9 8 9 ; M a r s h a l l , 1 9 8 9 , 1 9 9 3 ) . T h i s m e a n s that t h e g o a l of f e m i n i s t c a r e e r a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t l a n g u a g e is to shift t h e c o n t e x t from c o n t a i n e r s to g r o w t h t h r o u g h i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e , as d i s p l a y e d in w o m e n ' s i d e n t i t y , c a r e e r , and m o r a l d e v e l o p m e n t m o d e l s ( s e e G a l l o s , 1 9 8 9 ; G i l l i g a n , 1 9 8 2 ; W o o d , 1 9 9 9 ) . I n t e r a c t i o n s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e , m u t u a l i t y ( e x p e c t i n g to g r o w a n d to b e n e f i t from g r o w t h ) , a n d r e c i p r o c i t y ( f e e l i n g r e s p o n s i b l e to be b o t h t e a c h e r a n d l e a r n e r ; F l e t c h e r , 1 9 9 6 ) offer o p p o r t u n i t i e s for p e r s o n a l l e a r n i n g w i t h i n w o r k ( K a h n , 1 9 9 6 ; K r a m , 1 9 9 6 ) a n d n o n w o r k (Parker, 1996). B e s i d e s i s s u e s of c o n n e c t i o n , r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a n d c o m m u n i t y , o r g a n i z a ­ tional and managerial c o m m u n i c a t i o n researchers and practitioners could fos­ ter t h i n k i n g , l a n g u a g e , a n d p r a c t i c e s c o n d u c i v e to b o u n d a r y p e r m e a b i l i t y . U n l i k e the " b o u n d a r y l e s s " n e w c a r e e r that b r e a k s t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s ties t o a s i n ­ gle organization (see Arthur & Rousseau, 1996), a career m a r k e d by b o u n d a r y p e r m e a b i l i t y w o u l d r e c o g n i z e o v e r l a p s in m a n y life d i m e n s i o n s . B o u n d a r y p e r m e a b i l i t y w o u l d r e q u i r e that i n d i v i d u a l s e x p l o r e t h e i r c a r e e r a n c h o r s ( a b i l ­ ities, needs, and values; see Schein, 1978) and d e v e l o p career resilience and h a r d i n e s s to h a n d l e c h a l l e n g e s ( s e e L o n d o n , 1 9 9 8 ) as t h e i r m o t i v e s a n d i n t e r ­ ests unfold over time and space. B o u n d a r y permeability w o u l d e m b r a c e the f e m i n i s t c a r e e r v a l u e of c h a n g e s e e k i n g as c e n t r a l in l i f e l o n g c a r e e r , i d e n t i t y , and work processes (see Marshall, 1989, 1993). T h e boundary permeability approach requires integrating different aspects of life, c r e a t i n g i d e n t i t i e s a n d f e e l i n g s of s u c c e s s t h r o u g h r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d i n t e r d e p e n d e n c i e s , a n d a d o p t i n g a s e n s e of w o n d e r m e n t w h e n d e v e l o p i n g n e w c a p a b i l i t i e s a n d " s e l v e s " t h r o u g h c h a n g e . A s s u c h , it differs f r o m t h e p r o ­

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t e a n b o u n d a r y l e s s c a r e e r that is c e n t e r e d o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l : " T h e l o c u s o f c a r e e r d e v e l o p m e n t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y w i l l shift e v e n m o r e s o t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n part b e c a u s e b o u n d a r y l e s s organizations will not b e able to meaningfully plan an e m p l o y e e ' s c a r e e r " ( M i r v i s & H a l l , 1 9 9 4 , p . 3 6 9 ) . T h e p r o t e a n b o u n d a r y l e s s c a r e e r is b a s e d o n c y c l i c a l p e r i o d s o f r e s k i l l i n g , l a t e r a l c a r e e r m o v e s , a n d possible role conflict and overload as individuals pass across h o m e - w o r k b o u n d a r i e s ( s e e M i r v i s & H a l l , 1 9 9 4 ) . In c o n t r a s t , b o u n d a r y p e r m e a b i l i t y c o n ­ notes more than interfirm careers and individual career success development. B o u n d a r y p e r m e a b i l i t y m e a n s t h a t d i s t i n c t i o n s b e t w e e n h o m e , w o r k , selfresponsibilities, o t h e r s ' contributions, and c o m m u n i t y interests are fluid or merged (Buzzanell, 1997; Chester & Grossman, 1990; Grossman & Stewart, 1990). T h e l a n g u a g e fosters less e m p h a s i s on " I " and " y o u " a n d m o r e on " u s " o r h o w " w e " c a n m e e t o u r self- a n d o t h e r ( s t a k e h o l d e r ) n e e d s a n d d e s i r e s o v e r t i m e . C o m m u n i c a t i o n s k i l l s a r e e s s e n t i a l in d e v e l o p i n g t h e a u t h e n t i c d i a l o g u e that boundary permeability would require. T h e organization as c o n t a i n e r sim­ ply c o u l d n o t e x i s t in a b o u n d a r y p e r m e a b i l i t y a p p r o a c h . A l t h o u g h t h e f e m i n i s t d i r e c t i o n s for c h a n g e in t h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u ­ nication problematic m a y appear idealistic and unfeasible, w e already have m o d e l s for t r a n s f o r m i n g c a r e e r s a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t s a w a y f r o m t h e o r g a ­ n i z a t i o n - a s - c o n t a i n e r i m a g e s f o u n d in t h e n e w c a r e e r a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t lit­ e r a t u r e . W e c a n l o o k for m o d e l s of r e l a t i o n a l i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e g r o w t h in w o m e n ' s career and identity development literature (e.g., G a l l o s , 1989; M a r s h a l l , 1 9 8 9 ) a n d for m o d e l s o f b o u n d a r y p e r m e a b i l i t y in w o r k - f a m i l y a n d dual-career couple research (e.g., Buzzanell, 1997).

Organization-Society Relationship:

Distinct Competing Entities Versus Blurring Boundaries

T h e p r o b l e m a t i c of the organization-society linkage i n v o l v e s an e x p l o r a ­ tion of t h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c o n t e x t a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s ( s e e t h e left c o l u m n of T a b l e 9 . 2 ) . T h e n e w c a r e e r a n d s o c i a l c o n ­ tract foster c o m p e t i t i v e e n v i r o n m e n t a l orientations. O r g a n i z a t i o n s search for: n e w t e c h n o l o g i e s t o r e p l a c e h u m a n c a p i t a l ; w a y s o f c r e a t i n g a d v a n t a g e s for stockholders, top corporate officers, and information specialists ( " h a v e s " vs. " h a v e n o t s " in a t w o - t i e r e d g l o b a l m a r k e t ) ; m e a n s o f a g g r e s s i v e l y r e c r u i t i n g o r r e t a i n i n g t h e m o s t m a r k e t a b l e w o r k e r s ; a n d w a y s of s h e d d i n g r e s p o n s i b i l i ­ ties for h e a l t h c a r e , p e n s i o n s , i n s u r a n c e s , a n d f a m i l y s u p p o r t ( s e e P e r r o w , 1 9 9 6 ; R i f k i n , 1 9 9 5 ; W y s o c k i , 1 9 9 7 ) . I n c r e a s i n g l y , b e n e f i t s t h a t a r e c a s t off b y organizational society are not being absorbed by civil ( U . S . citizenship) soci­ ety ( P e r r o w , 1 9 9 6 ) . In h i s r e v i e w of h i s t o r i c c a r e e r a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t c h a n g e s , Perrow (1996) asserts that, "in the w o r l d ' s history, n o elites h a v e h a d s u c h a p r o d u c t i v e , e c o n o m i c a l , a n d safe m e a n s o f d o m i n a t i o n " ( p . 3 0 7 ) . T h i s

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d o m i n a t i o n in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s e n d a n g e r s " o u r e g a l i t a r i a n a n d d e m o c r a t i c culture" (Perrow, 1996, p. 310). T h e new career and social contract have real and potentially negative effects for U . S . a n d g l o b a l s o c i e t y . Rifkin ( 1 9 9 5 ) r e p o r t s t h a t , " A f t e r c e n t u r i e s of d e f i n i n g h u m a n w o r t h in strictly p r o d u c t i v e ' t e r m s , t h e w h o l e s a l e r e p l a c e ­ m e n t o f h u m a n l a b o r w i t h m a c h i n e l a b o r l e a v e s t h e m a s s w o r k e r w i t h o u t selfd e f i n i t i o n or s o c i e t a l f u n c t i o n " ( p . 2 3 6 ) o r a m e a n s of e a r n i n g a l i v i n g w a g e . S o m e r e s e a r c h e r s p r o j e c t that d i m i n i s h i n g w o r k , l e s s s e c u r e f u t u r e s , a n d u n d e r e m p l o y m e n t m i g h t d e c r e a s e s t a n d a r d s of l i v i n g ( a f f e c t i n g p r i m a r i l y w o m e n a n d p e o p l e of c o l o r in the U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d t h e p o o r in l e s s i n d u s t r i a l ­ ized societies throughout the world), might strain resources as individuals r e t i r e , a n d m i g h t p r o m p t i n c r e a s i n g t r e n d s of w o r l d w i d e v i o l e n c e a n d h o p e ­ lessness (Altman & Post, 1996; B. Harrison, 1994; N e w m a n , 1988, 1993; R i f k i n , 1 9 9 5 ) . O t h e r p o t e n t i a l s o c i a l c o s t s i n c l u d e f u n d a m e n t a l shifts in s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s ( i . e . , " W o r k e r s d o not e n t e r j o b s c o n f i d e n t t h a t t h e y w i l l b e a b l e to b u i l d m e a n i n g f u l l i v e s a r o u n d t h e m " ) ; l o n g - t e r m c u l t u r a l c o s t s ( i . e . , " M a n y of t h e s o c i a l b o n d s a n d p e r s o n a l l o y a l t i e s that t r a d i t i o n a l l y s u s t a i n e d b u s i n e s s e s , f a m i l i e s , a n d local c o m m u n i t i e s a r e b e i n g r a p i d l y p a r e d a w a y " ) ; a n d l e s s c a r e g i v i n g ( i . e . , " O n e c o n s e q u e n c e of t h e rise of L e a n A m e r i c a is a m a r k e d d e c l i n e in o u r o n c e - s t r o n g spirit of c o o p e r a t i o n " ; W i n n e r , 1 9 9 3 , p . 6 8 ) . P o l l ­ s t e r s i n d i c a t e that a m a j o r c o n c e r n is j o b i n s e c u r i t y , r e s u l t i n g in f e e l i n g s of vulnerability and powerlessness when corporations make cuts (Lehrer, 1996). L e h r e r N e w s H o u r f o c u s g r o u p p a r t i c i p a n t s a s s e r t that o r d i n a r y p e r s o n s h a v e neither the bargaining p o w e r nor the highly marketable skills to r e s h a p e the n e w c a r e e r in their o w n i m a g e ( L e h r e r , 1 9 9 6 ) . T h e y l o o k to t h e g o v e r n m e n t for a s s i s t a n c e but feel that t h e g o v e r n m e n t h a s n o t b e e n h e l p f u l in a d d r e s s i n g t h e i r c o n c e r n s (i.e., t h e i r n e e d s for p o r t a b l e h e a l t h c a r e a n d p e n s i o n s , e d u c a ­ tion, and training; see Lehrer, 1996). Disillusionment and c y n i c i s m about p o l i t i c a l a n d c o r p o r a t e l e a d e r s c a n c o m p o u n d f e e l i n g s of h o p e l e s s n e s s a b o u t the new social contract (Deetz, 1995b; Kouzes & Posner, 1993). T h e c o r p o r a t e i m p e r a t i v e m a n d a t e s that c o s t s b e c u t n o m a t t e r w h a t t h e h u m a n c o s t . Y e t w e h a v e m o d e l s that " p r o v e " that h u m a n l a y o f f s a r e n o t t h e b e s t r e s p o n s e for t h e e c o n o m y as a w h o l e o r for i n d i v i d u a l f i r m s . In t h e n e w c a r e e r , t h e r e is l i m i t e d c o r p o r a t e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y — a l t h o u g h s o m e r e s p o n s i b i l ­ ity is d i c t a t e d b y l o c a l , s t a t e , a n d f e d e r a l l a w s ( s e e N o t e 3 ) . A t a t i m e w h e n c o r p o r a t i o n s n e e d to i n v e s t m o r e h e a v i l y in r e m e d i a l e d u c a t i o n a n d r e t r a i n i n g , M c K e n d a l l a n d M a r g u l i s ( 1 9 9 5 ) r e p o r t that, " t o b e c o m e l e s s e n c u m b e r e d , m a n y [ c o m p a n i e s ] h a v e c h o s e n to i n v e s t less in h u m a n c a p i t a l " ( p . 2 1 ) . E x c e p t in s i t u a t i o n s in w h i c h l o w u n e m p l o y m e n t n e c e s s i t a t e s d r a s t i c c o r p o ­ r a t e t r a i n i n g efforts, f i r m s c a n c h o o s e if a n d w h e r e to s p e n d m o n e y for e d u c a ­ tion ( s e e W e s s e l , 1 9 9 7 ) . W h e n c o r p o r a t e a n d g o v e r n m e n t p r o g r a m s f u n d e d u ­ cation, s o m e writers question whether the future workforce will h a v e the s k i l l s n e e d e d for e m p l o y a b i l i t y ( A l t m a n & P o s t , 1 9 9 6 ) . 3

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A feminist career and social contract perspective can serve as o n e road m a p for a f f e c t i n g c h a n g e ( s e e t h e r i g h t c o l u m n o f T a b l e 9 . 2 ) . T h e f e m i n i s t a p p r o a c h a d m i t s t h a t t h e r e a r e n o e a s y a n s w e r s to b r i d g i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t a l b o u n d a r i e s . O n e p o s s i b i l i t y , E u r o p e a n m o d e l s of w o r k e r p a r ­ t i c i p a t i o n in s t a t e d e c i s i o n m a k i n g , p r o b a b l y is n o t t r a n s f e r a b l e t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o r t o o t h e r p a r t s of t h e w o r l d ( P e r r o w , 1 9 9 6 ) . H o w e v e r , w i t h o u t a d e ­ quate transferable benefits, government-sponsored initiatives, and corporate r e c o g n i t i o n o f c o m m u n i t y r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , w o r k e r s c a n n o t fulfill t h e p r o m i s e of a f e m i n i s t c a r e e r a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t . A f e m i n i s t a p p r o a c h t o t h e s e i s s u e s a s k s w h o is m o s t v u l n e r a b l e a n d h o w w e , a s o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a n d m a n a g e r i a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n researchers and practitioners, can assist individuals and g r o u p s in e m p o w e r i n g t h e m s e l v e s ( s e e M a t t s o n & B u z z a n e l l , 1 9 9 9 ) . A f e m i ­ nist c a r e e r a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t a p p r o a c h r e c o g n i z e s t h a t n o t all i n d i v i d u a l s o r g r o u p s a r e d i s a d v a n t a g e d . I n d e e d , for t h e b e t t e r e d u c a t e d a n d t h e p r o f e s s i o n ­ a l s , t h i s t i m e of m u l t i p l e c a r e e r s , f l e x i b l e o p t i o n s , a n d o p p o r t u n i t i e s c a n b e exciting (e.g., top executive rebounds from failure; see Bennett & Lublin, 1995). .

O n e w a y of b l u r r i n g t h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d s o c i e t y is t o approach the organization-society relationship from a feminist stakeholder p e r s p e c t i v e . T h e l a n g u a g e of t h e c u r r e n t b u s i n e s s e n v i r o n m e n t d e s c r i b e s i n t e r d e p e n d e n c i e s a m o n g p a r t i e s w h o h a v e a " s t a k e " in o r a r e c o n n e c t e d to t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n ( e . g . , w o r k e r s , s t o c k h o l d e r s , c l i e n t s , a n d c o m m u n i t i e s in w h i c h organizations are e m b e d d e d ) . W i c k s , Gilbert, and F r e e m a n ( 1 9 9 4 ; see also Deetz, 1995b) describe how stakeholder concepts have masculine orien­ t a t i o n s f o c u s i n g o n a u t o n o m y a n d s e p a r a t e n e s s , c o n t r o l of t h e e x t e r n a l e n v i ­ r o n m e n t , the l a n g u a g e of c o m p e t i t i o n and conflict, objective strategies, and hierarchical p o w e r structures. W e can reframe stakeholder c o n c e p t s to bet­ ter " a r t i c u l a t e t h e m e a n i n g of t h e c o r p o r a t i o n a n d t h e s e n s e o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y that b u s i n e s s e s feel t o t h o s e b o t h i n s i d e a n d o u t s i d e t h e w a l l s o f t h e f i r m in a m o r e u s e f u l a n d c o m p e l l i n g m a n n e r " ( W i c k s et a l . , 1 9 9 4 , p . 4 7 7 ) . T o u n c o v e r how we think about corporate responsibilities and blurred organizationalenvironmental boundaries, we can revise the gendered language and practices t h a t s h a p e s t a k e h o l d e r t h i n k i n g . U s i n g p o s t m o d e r n f e m i n i s m s , W i c k s e t al. suggest that we not only envision corporations as w e b s of stakeholder rela­ tionships but also explicitly direct a moral agenda centered on c o m m u n i t y e m b e d d e d n e s s a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for f u t u r e c o m m u n i t i e s a n d e n v i r o n m e n t s . As organizational-environmental boundaries blur through a moral commit­ m e n t to b e r e s p o n s i v e to a n d r e s p o n s i b l e for p o t e n t i a l p r o b l e m s ( o r v u l n e r a ­ b i l i t i e s ) p r e s e n t e d b y t h e t e m p o r a r i n e s s of t h e n e w c a r e e r a n d c o n t r a c t , s o m e processes can be encouraged: (a) participatory decision m a k i n g and (b) gov­ e r n m e n t a l a s s i s t a n c e in t h e f o r m of t h i r d - s e c t o r c o m m i t m e n t s . Firms with internal processes encouraging workforce participation (i.e., p a r t i c i p a t o r y f i r m s ) o f t e n a v o i d l a y i n g off e m p l o y e e s a n d f o r g o s h o r t - t e r m

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g a i n s for l o n g - t e r m o u t c o m e s a n d p r o c e s s e s s u c h a s c o m m i t m e n t , r e t u r n o n training and socialization investment, and innovation (Levine & Parkin, 1 9 9 4 ) . L e v i n e a n d P a r k i n ( 1 9 9 4 ) d i s p l a y h o w w o r k f o r c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n in d e c i ­ s i o n m a k i n g c a n h a v e m a c r o e c o n o m i c s p i l l o v e r s t h a t affect m u l t i p l e s t a k e ­ holders:

Plant X lays off workers whenever there is a downturn in demand. Plant Y . . . avoids layoffs during downturns by retraining workers, transferring workers within the firm, and hoarding excess labor. The Y plant's no-layoff pledge is rela­ tively expensive when recessions are frequent and d e e p . . . . There is feedback from the firm's employment system to the macroeconomy. Recessions are deeper when many companies have layoffs (X style). Layoffs lead to lower spending by X workers, resulting in further layoffs at other companies. On the other hand, recessions are shallower when many firms avoid layoffs (Y style). Since the costs of running participatory systems increase as the variability of prod­ uct demand increases, policies that reduce demand variability encourage partici­ patory systems. Because Y firms are not rewarded by the market as an automatic stabilizer, the economy under-provides employers that avoid layoffs, (p. 253)

In s h o r t , a l t h o u g h L e v i n e a n d P a r k i n ( 1 9 9 4 ) r e c o g n i z e t h a t o n e t i m e s h o c k s c a n n e c e s s i t a t e l a y o f f s , t h e y a r g u e that m a c r o e c o n o m i c e v i d e n c e d o e s n o t s u p p o r t o n g o i n g d o w n s i z i n g as a b e n e f i c i a l c o s t - r e d u c t i o n s t r a t e g y . A d d i t i o n a l g a i n s from w o r k f o r c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n in d e c i s i o n m a k i n g a n d f r o m g r e a t e r e m p l o y m e n t c e r t a i n t y i n c l u d e w o r k e r s ' w i l l i n g n e s s to i n n o v a t e , c o o p e r a t e w i t h c o r p o r a t e g o a l s , fulfill c o n s u m e r r o l e s , a n d d e v e l o p w o r k c o m m u n i t i e s in w h i c h d i s a g r e e m e n t s c a n o c c u r w i t h o u t fear of j o b l o s s ( s e e L e v i n e & P a r k i n , 1 9 9 4 ; Y o v o v i c h , 1 9 9 5 ) . E v e n in c o m p a n i e s t h a t d o n o t p r o m i s e e m p l o y m e n t s e c u r i t y , e m p l o y e e i n v o l v e m e n t in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of t e m p o r a r y s t r a t e g i c g o a l s c a n f o s t e r t h e c o n f i d e n c e n e e d e d to face u n c e r t a i n e m p l o y m e n t (see H e c k s c h e r , 1 9 9 5 ) . M o r e o v e r , w o r k f o r c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n in d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s c a n spill o v e r i n t o i n c r e a s e d c o m ­ m u n i t y a c t i o n a n d c a r e g i v i n g a t t i t u d e s as p a s t p e r f o r m a n c e (of g a i n i n g a v o i c e in m a t t e r s that affect o u r o w n l i v e s ) p r e d i c t s f u t u r e p e r f o r m a n c e ( s e e D e e t z , 1 9 9 2 ) . In a f e m i n i s t s t a k e h o l d e r m o d e l , t h e s e p a r t i c i p a t o r y f i r m s s h o u l d o b t a i n g o v e r n m e n t a l tax i n c e n t i v e s for t h e i r r o l e s a s e c o n o m y s t a b i l i z e r s a n d as m o d e l s for c i t i z e n s ' p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a c i v i l s o c i e t y . 4

L e v i n e a n d P a r k i n ( 1 9 9 4 ) c a u t i o n t h a t s i m p l e g o v e r n m e n t s u b s i d i e s for workforce participation are inadequate b e c a u s e firms can go through the m o t i o n s of e n a c t i n g p a r t i c i p a t o r y s y s t e m s w i t h o u t fully i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h e d e s i g n s . T h e y a d v o c a t e tax s u b s i d i e s c o n t i n g e n t o n t r a i n i n g , e m p l o y e e s t o c k ownership, and other policies. The government also could grant partial u n e m ­ p l o y m e n t i n s u r a n c e for p a r t i a l l a y o f f s , r e l e a s e J o b s T r a i n i n g P a r t n e r s h i p P a c t f u n d s for w o r k e r s w h o h a v e n o t y e t b e e n laid off, a n d e n c o u r a g e w o r k s h a r i n g

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and workforce training (Levine & Parkin, 1994). Levine and Parkin argue that these and other policy interventions can become self-sustaining over time. W i t h r e g a r d t o g o v e r n m e n t a l a s s i s t a n c e in t h e f o r m o f t h i r d - s e c t o r c o m m i t ­ m e n t s , f e d e r a l t a x i n c e n t i v e s for e d u c a t i o n a n d f o r t h i r d - s e c t o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n w o u l d p r o v i d e b e t t e r c h a n c e s for m o r e p e o p l e to find e m p l o y a b i l i t y s e c u r i t y a n d m e a n i n g f u l w o r k . W h i l e t h e g o v e r n m e n t c a n offer t a x i n c e n t i v e s t o i n d i ­ v i d u a l s a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n s for t a k i n g a n d d e l i v e r i n g t r a i n i n g , c o r p o r a t i o n s s h o u l d p a y w o r k e r s for t h e t i m e to t a k e i n - h o u s e a n d n e e d s - b a s e d t r a i n i n g a n d e a r n t r a d i t i o n a l d e g r e e s . Y e a r s of t r a d i t i o n a l s c h o o l i n g a r e p r e d i c t i v e of e a r n ­ i n g s m o b i l i t y p a t t e r n s ( G i t t l e m a n & J o y c e , 1 9 9 5 ) . E v e n if l e s s - e d u c a t e d w o r k e r s (in y e a r s of s c h o o l i n g ) m o v e i n t o h i g h e r e a r n i n g s b r a c k e t s a n d d i s ­ p l a y m o b i l i t y s t a b i l i t y , e a r n i n g s p a t t e r n s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h i s a d v a n t a g e is t e m ­ porary (Gittleman & Joyce, 1995). Similarly, company-sponsored and skills training has only temporary benefits, because individuals m a y not find similar w o r k in o t h e r f i r m s a n d s k i l l s b e c o m e o b s o l e t e . A s u s t a i n e d a n d c o m p r e h e n ­ s i v e c o r p o r a t e e d u c a t i o n a l p l a n , a l o n g w i t h an e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m c o n d u c i v e to lifelong learning, could lessen s o m e disparities b e t w e e n w o r k e r s and m a n ­ agers and those with less and m o r e formal schooling (Jarratt & C o a t e s , 1995). In a d d i t i o n , t h e i n d e p e n d e n t , v o l u n t e e r t h i r d s e c t o r of t h e e c o n o m y c o u l d b e e x p a n d e d . C o m m u n i t y a c t i v i t i e s a l r e a d y offer s o c i a l s e r v i c e s for t h e h a n d i ­ c a p p e d , d i s a d v a n t a g e d youth, h o m e l e s s , patients, victims of a b u s e , and c o u n t ­ l e s s o t h e r s in n e e d of t e m p o r a r y o r p e r m a n e n t a s s i s t a n c e ( s e e R i f k i n , 1 9 9 5 ) . Not only does third-sector activity provide tangible and intangible assistance, it a l s o f o s t e r s c a r e g i v i n g a t t i t u d e s : " C o m m u n i t y s e r v i c e s t e m s f r o m a d e e p u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t e d n e s s of all t h i n g s a n d is m o t i v a t e d b y a p e r s o n a l s e n s e of i n d e b t e d n e s s " ( R i f k i n , 1 9 9 5 , p . 2 4 2 ) . R i f k i n c a l l s t h e t h i r d s e c t o r t h e " s o c i a l g l u e t h a t h e l p s u n i t e t h e d i v e r s e i n t e r e s t s of t h e A m e r i c a n people into a c o m p r e h e n s i v e social identity" (p. 245). Rifkin suggests that the g o v e r n m e n t p r o v i d e t a x i n c e n t i v e s for e v e r y h o u r an i n d i v i d u a l g i v e s t o a legally certified tax-exempt organization. There could be a s h a d o w w a g e with a s t a n d a r d i z e d t a x f o r m ( s i m i l a r to a W - 2 g e n e r a t e d for t h o s e a l r e a d y e m p l o y e d ) a n d a s o c i a l w a g e as a n a l t e r n a t i v e to w e l f a r e p a y m e n t s for u n e m ­ ployed American workers. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) already m o d e l w a y s to a c c o m p l i s h t h i r d - s e c t o r a c t i v i t i e s o n n a t i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l levels. In s u m , b y w o r k i n g t o w a r d i n c r e a s i n g l y b l u r r e d b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n o r g a ­ n i z a t i o n a n d s o c i e t y u s i n g a f e m i n i s t r e v i s i o n of s t a k e h o l d e r c o n c e p t s , w e c a n n e g o t i a t e c a r e e r s a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t s for l o n g - t e r m b e n e f i c i a l i n d i v i d u a l , societal, and global results. Deetz (1992) notes that there are inadequate f o r u m s for t h e k i n d s of d i a l o g u e n e e d e d t o r e s o l v e s t a k e h o l d e r c o n f l i c t s . B u t democratic c o m m u n i c a t i v e linkages must be fostered to a c h i e v e the p r o m i s e of s t a k e h o l d e r m o d e l s : " S t a k e h o l d e r t h e o r i s t s h a v e s t r i p p e d a w a y t h e f a c a d e of s u c h c o n s t r u c t s as a g e n c y r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d e f f i c i e n c y c a l c u l a t i o n s , t o

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r e m i n d us that t h e m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l q u e s t i o n s a b o u t e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t y a r e u n a v o i d a b l y a n d p r o f o u n d l y m o r a l " ( W i c k s et al., 1 9 9 4 , p . 4 7 6 ) . T h r o u g h democratic communication processes, corporations can be responsive to and r e s p o n s i b l e for different s t a k e h o l d e r c o n c e r n s g r o u n d e d in p r o d u c t i v i t y a n d morality (Deetz, 1995b).

A FEMINIST ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION RECONCEPTUALIZATION OF THE NEW CAREER W h e r e a s t h e n e w c a r e e r a n d social c o n t r a c t t r i v i a l i z e the c o n c e r n s of t h o s e ill p r e p a r e d to e n a c t f r e e - a g e n t a c t i v i t i e s in an u n c e r t a i n w o r k p l a c e w i t h f e w — i f any—safety nets, the feminist career and social contract are temporary, i n c l u s i o n a r y , r e l a t i o n a l l y o r i e n t e d , a n d r e s p o n s i v e to m u l t i p l e - s t a k e h o l d e r n e e d s . T h e d i s c o u r s e a n d r e l a t e d p r a c t i c e s of t h e f e m i n i s t c a r e e r a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t p r o m o t e m u l t i p l e c o u r s e s of a c t i o n a n d r e c o n c e p t u a l i z e t h e r e l a t i o n s a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d c o m m u n i t i e s a n d e n v i r o n m e n t s . P e r ­ h a p s c o n t i n u e d m o d i f i c a t i o n of the f e m i n i s t c a r e e r a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t will r e s e m b l e m o d e l s from o t h e r c u l t u r e s in w h i c h t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n ' s p u r p o s e is to serve the c o m m u n i t y and create or sustain social stability (e.g., G e r m a n y , Japan). T h e four o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n p r o b l e m a t i c s e n a b l e us to d e v e l o p a f r a m e w o r k for q u e s t i o n i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l , p r a g m a t i c , a n d m o r a l c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h e n e w c a r e e r a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t d i s c o u r s e . W h e n w e fail t o q u e s t i o n career language, our silence sustains technical over practical rationality, m a n ­ a g e r i a l o v e r c o o p e r a t i v e i m p e r a t i v e s , o r g a n i z a t i o n s a s s i t e s of t e m p o r a r y e x c h a n g e c o n t r a c t s o v e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s ( r e ) c o n s t r u c t e d for t h e g o o d of e m p l o y e e s a n d f a m i l i e s , a n d c o r p o r a t i o n s as a u t o n o m o u s e n t i t i e s o v e r b l u r r e d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l - e n v i r o n m e n t a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s for m u l t i p l e s t a k e h o l d e r s . W h e n we use poststructuralist feminist approaches, we analyze social organi­ z a t i o n s , m e a n i n g s , p o w e r , a n d i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s t h r o u g h l a n g u a g e to d i s p l a y h o w the b u s i n e s s text is p r i v i l e g e d o v e r t h e w o r k e r / c o m m u n i t y t e x t . A c c o r d i n g to W e e d o n ( 1 9 8 7 ) , l a n g u a g e is the site of self- a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n , p o w e r s t r u g g l e s , a n d t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of s o c i e t y . L a n g u a g e creates our c o m m o n s e n s e meanings about inequitable micro- and institutional p r a c t i c e s a n d p r o c e s s e s ( W e e d o n , 1987). T h r o u g h n e w c a r e e r d i s c o u r s e , w e c o n s t i t u t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of p e o p l e ' s i d e n t i t i e s t h a t m a i n t a i n c o r p o r a t e i m p e r a t i v e s a n d d e n y p a r t i c i p a t i o n to e m p l o y e e s . B e c a u s e i n d i v i d u a l s a r e b o t h t h e s u b j e c t s a n d a g e n t s of d o m i n a n t i d e o l o g i e s ( W e e d o n , 1 9 8 7 ) , d i s c o u r s e c a n o p p r e s s as w e l l as e m a n c i p a t e p e o ­ p l e . T h e b a s i s for an e t h i c a l , m o r a l c a r e g i v i n g v i e w of c a r e e r a n d s o c i a l c o n ­ t r a c t s lies in m i c r o p r a c t i c e s a n d m a c r o p r o c e s s e s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h r o u g h c o m m u n i c a t i o n that d o e s n o t s u p p r e s s c o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r e s t s ( s e e D e e t z , 1 9 9 2 ,

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1995b; Littlejohn, 1995; Sullivan & Goldzwig, 1995), we can select alterna­ tive a n d b r o a d e n e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e c a r e e r a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t t e x t . T h e s e alternatives can be organized according to the directions presented b y t h e e x a m i n a t i o n of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n p r o b l e m a t i c s ( s e e t h e r i g h t c o l u m n of T a b l e 9 . 2 ) . F i r s t , e l a b o r a t i n g o n t h e rationality problematic suggests that we devise career models, definitions, and language that system­ a t i c a l l y p r o m o t e f e m i n i n e / f e m i n i s t v a l u e s of r e l a t i o n s h i p , i n t e r c o n n e c t e d ness, collaboration, and long-term focus. W e can do this by questioning the n e w s o c i a l c o n t r a c t a n d c a r e e r in o u r r e s e a r c h a n d p r a c t i c e s r a t h e r t h a n s i m p l y a c c e p t i n g t h e m as t h e o n l y s e n s i b l e m o d e l s a n d b y d e r i v i n g b e s t p r a c t i c e s for communicating downsizing more clearly. Although cost cutting through lay­ offs a n d d o w n s i z i n g m a y a p p e a r n e c e s s a r y , o t h e r a v e n u e s f o r c o r p o r a t e s u r ­ v i v a l a n d o t h e r o u t c o m e s s h o u l d b e p r o m o t e d in o u r c a s e s t u d i e s , t e x t b o o k s , a n d r e s e a r c h a r t i c l e s (for i n s t r u c t i o n a l s u g g e s t i o n s , s e e B u z z a n e l l , 1 9 9 3 ) . W e can expand thinking by asking students and others to apply their creativity to a n d i n c o r p o r a t e d i f f e r e n t w a y s of k n o w i n g in t h e v e r y r e a l i s s u e s o f c o r p o ­ r a t e s u r v i v a l . W h a t is r e a s o n a b l e , m o r a l , a n d fair f r o m t h e s e d i f f e r e n t p e r ­ spectives? H o w can these different k n o w l e d g e s inform p r a g m a t i c p r o b l e m s o l v i n g ? H o w c a n w e b e c a r i n g a n d c o m p a s s i o n a t e e v e n if e m p l o y m e n t is temporary? S e c o n d , t h e problematic of voice d e m a n d s t h a t w e p u b l i c i z e r e p e a t e d l y in social scientific, interpretive, and critical reports the w a y s that the n e w career a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t d i s a d v a n t a g e w h i t e w o m e n , p e o p l e of c o l o r , t h e l o w e r c l a s s , a n d l e s s - e d u c a t e d m e m b e r s of t h e w o r k f o r c e w h o a r e b o t h f e m a l e a n d m a l e . E a c h of u s h a s a f o r u m for e x p o s i n g c o r p o r a t e i m p e r a t i v e s a n d m a n a g e ­ rial v o i c e in o u r c l a s s r o o m s , o u r e v e r y d a y c o n v e r s a t i o n s , a n d o u r w r i t i n g s (for w a y s to i n c o r p o r a t e m e s s a g e s in e v e r y d a y c o n v e r s a t i o n a n d p r a c t i c e s , s e e Fairhurst & Sarr, 1996). T h i r d , t h e problematic of organization mandates that we channel h u m a n behavior and broaden possibilities through values. W e i c k (1995) states that, in t i m e s a n d c o n d i t i o n s o f e q u i v o c a l i t y , t h e r e a r e n u m e r o u s p l a u s i b i l i t i e s from which w e can direct thinking and b e h a v i o r i / w e h a v e the c o u r a g e to act on our values and beliefs. T o d o otherwise m e a n s that w e allow others to c h o o s e for u s w h a t o u r l i v e s l o o k l i k e . M a i n t a i n i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s as selfc o n t a i n e d t e m p o r a r y e m p l o y m e n t s i t e s d o e s n o t a s s i s t a n y o f u s in d e v e l o p i n g integrated lives. Weick (1995) r e c o m m e n d s authoring new texts, telling sto­ r i e s , c r e a t i n g o c c a s i o n s for i n t e r a c t i o n , a n d c o n s t i t u t i n g i d e n t i t i e s c o n s i s t e n t with values. Caregiving values can lend security: "The experience of feeling cared a b o u t in t h e c o n t e x t of r o l e - r e l a t e d w o r k i n t e r a c t i o n s a l l o w s p e o p l e t o e x p e r i ­ e n c e s e c u r i t y in o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n t e x t s t h a t a r e ( p a r t i c u l a r l y u n d e r t h e t e r m s o f t h e n e w c o n t r a c t ) i n s e c u r e " ( K a h n , 1 9 9 6 , p . 1 6 3 ) . In a d d i t i o n , g r o w t h e n h a n c i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s o u t s i d e w o r k c a n b r i d g e w o r k a n d n o n w o r k life

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dimensions (Parker, 1996) that benefit individuals and c o m m u n i t i e s besides the work organization. Finally, educators, communication practitioners, and h u m a n r e s o u r c e p r o f e s s i o n a l s c a n a s s i s t o t h e r s b y n o r m a l i z i n g f e e l i n g s of i n s e c u r i t y t h r o u g h c o n v e r s a t i o n s a n d b y h e l p i n g us l e a r n t o r e a d o u r s e l v e s s o t h a t w e c a n b e g i n to r e a l i z e w h e n w e n e e d t o m o v e i n t o s e l f - r e f l e c t i v e safe havens (Louis, 1996). This m e a n s that we can foster our abilities to r e c o g n i z e o u r f e e l i n g s a s n o r m a l in t h e s e u n s e t t l i n g t i m e s , a n d w e c a n p r i o r i t i z e selfk n o w l e d g e o r i n s i g h t t h r o u g h r e f l e c t i o n s o that w e c a n p r o a c t i v e l y p r o d u c e positive experiences even when feeling insecure and worried. F i n a l l y , the problematic of organization-society relationships requires that w e b r i n g a m o r e d i v e r s e c r o s s - s e c t i o n of p e o p l e i n t o t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n s a n d n e g o t i a t i o n s a b o u t c o n t r a c t s a n d c a r e e r a n d , h o p e f u l l y , t r e a t all s t a k e h o l d e r s as l e g i t i m a t e c o n t r i b u t o r s to d i s c u s s i o n s a b o u t b l u r r e d b o u n d a r i e s a n d m o r a l responses to corporate environments and c o m m u n i t y concerns (see Deetz, 1992, 1995b). In c o n c l u s i o n , m y t h e s i s is t h a t t h e n e w c a r e e r a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t a r e c o n ­ t i n u a t i o n s of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l t r e n d s t o w a r d g r e a t e r c o r p o r a t e s e l f - i n t e r e s t a n d w o r k f o r c e d i s p o s a b i l i t y t h a t a r e u n h e a l t h y n o t o n l y for t h e w o r k e r s b u t for g l o b a l s o c i e t y as a w h o l e ( s e e C h e n e y & C a r r o l l , 1 9 9 7 ; R i f k i n , 1 9 9 5 ) . Y e t b e c a u s e o f t h e l a n g u a g e a n d t h e m a s c u l i n e p r e m i s e s e m b e d d e d in t h e w a y s w e d i s c u s s c a r e e r a n d c o n t r a c t s , w e fail to s e e a l t e r n a t i v e w a y s of t h i n k i n g a b o u t a n d e n a c t i n g t h e s e c o n t r a c t s . T h r o u g h a p o s t s t r u c t u r a l i s t f e m i n i s t a n a l y s i s of rationality, voice, organization, and organization-society boundaries, w e can find d i f f e r e n t w a y s of t a l k i n g a b o u t a n d e n a c t i n g c a r e e r s a n d s o c i a l c o n t r a c t s .

NOTES 1. Although many career, management, and organizational experts portray relation­ ships and feminine values as essential to effective business processes and career out­ comes, these experts often do not challenge the underlying instrumental orientation of organizational practices (see Cal£s & Smircich, 1993; Fondas, 1997). 2. Reactions are so hostile against women's ways of knowing and the use of nontech­ nical rationalities that corporate leaders* battles against noninstrumental business con­ cerns can make the front page of the Wall Street Journal and gain reader support in subse­ quent editorials (e.g., Pollock, 1996). Fondas (1997) notes that admission of feminine approaches must always have a "hard" instrumental edge or they will be discounted by managers and other organizational members. 3. There are numerous popular and academic articles offering advice about best prac­ tices for downsizing (e.g., Blaxill & Hout, 1991; Bobo, 1994; Greengard, 1993; Rich & Bailey, 1993; Schmenner & Lackey, 1994). Some articles present cases in which down­ sizing worked well to streamline the organization, to handle some of the trauma experi­ enced by individuals who had been laid off and by survivors, and to act as responsible community members (e.g., HealthSpan, see Greengard, 1993). However, American

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Management Association (AMA) surveys of 7,000 corporate members report dismal effects: Fewer than half—43%—report that operating profits improved after cuts were made; 24 percent said that profits fell after the downsizing. While 31 percent said that worker pro­ ductivity increased after the cuts were made, nearly as many, 28 percent, said that produc­ tivity declined. Community relations tended to suffer; 27 percent reported a decline in the quality of their relations with the wider community of stakeholders. And one thing that happens for sure in the wake of a work force reduction is that morale plummets: 22 percent of the companies reporting cuts said that morale declined severely and an additional 52 percent said that morale declined somewhat. (Joint Economic Committee, 1993, p. 5)

Moreover, almost two thirds of the AMA-surveyed companies that made cuts in a given year also made cuts in the following year (Joint Economic Committee, 1993). Other articles emphasize that downsizing can do more harm than good (Rolfe, 1993) and can incur heavy legal penalties from the lack of strict compliance with local, state, and federal laws (Banham, 1995; Edmonston, 1994; Elliott, 1994). For example, Digital saved money from downsizing but lost credibility with clients and sales support. The short-term savings did not equal the loss of expertise, image, and clients (Markels & Murray, 1996). Some firms have found workers to be so "traumatized" by a decade of downsizing that the companies have returned to longer-term contracts for union and non­ union, blue- and white-collar workers. These organizations include Ford Motor Com­ pany, Boeing Company, UAL Corporation (parent of United Airlines), Monsanto, and American West Airlines (Markels & Murray, 1996; White & Lublin, 1996). 4. In the United States, there are precedents for governmental action and increased responsibility for change. Newman (1993) describes past social engineering (i.e., gov­ ernmental action to promote beneficial economic outcomes for large portions of the U.S. population). Work projects during the depression built bridges, highways, and suburban areas that enabled the millions of families qualifying for low-interest mortgages after World War II to commute into urban areas for work. State and local governments supple­ mented federal investments with funds for sewers, schools, police, and fire departments. Newman (1993) claims that "federal involvement in the creation of the mass middle class of the 1950s and 1960s was every bit as much an intrusion into the 'natural' dynamics of the market as any poverty initiatives taken since that time have been" (p. 161).

10

Chaos Theory and the Glass Ceiling Cindy Reuther

Gail T. Fairhurst

If we keep on doin' what we always done, we '11 keep on gettin' what we always got. Barbara Lyons (as cited in Warner, 1992, p. 48)

T h e complexities of race and gender relationships are a continuous struggle for w h i t e w o m e n a n d m e n a n d w o m e n o f c o l o r w h o a t t e m p t t o c l i m b o r g a n i z a ­ tional hierarchies only to b e shut out of top m a n a g e m e n t positions. In a recent a r t i c l e in Working Woman, D u n k e l ( 1 9 9 6 ) e x p l o r e d w h a t it w o u l d t a k e f o r a w o m a n t o b e c o m e t h e first w o m a n C E O w i t h o u t h a v i n g t o c r e a t e h e r o w n c o r ­ p o r a t i o n . O n l y t w o w o m e n m a d e t h e F o r t u n e 1 0 0 0 list o f C E O s , a n d b o t h o w n e d t h e i r o w n b u s i n e s s e s . It w a s n o t u n t i l 1997 t h a t a w h i t e w o m a n r e a c h e d t h e t o p in t h e t r a d i t i o n a l w a y — b y c l i m b i n g t h e c o r p o r a t e l a d d e r — i r o n i c a l l y s u c c e e d i n g in t h e B a r b i e d i v i s i o n o f M a t t e l ( D o b r z y n s k i , 1 9 9 6 ) .

AUTHORS' NOTE: We would like to thank Alice Adams, Patrice Buzzanell, Noshir Contractor, Katherine Miller, and Anne Nicotera for their many helpful comments on earlier drafts of this chapter.

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A 3 - y e a r s t u d y c o m m i s s i o n e d b y t h e U . S . g o v e r n m e n t a n d r e p o r t e d in t h e New York Times in N o v e m b e r 1 9 9 5 a l s o r e p o r t e d b l e a k s t a t i s t i c s f o r w h i t e w o m e n a n d w o m e n a n d m e n of c o l o r t r y i n g to m a k e it t o t h e t o p . T h e s t u d y r e p o r t e d t h a t 9 7 % o f s e n i o r m a n a g e r s of F o r t u n e 1 0 0 0 I n d u s t r i a l a n d F o r t u n e 5 0 0 c o m p a n i e s w e r e w h i t e , a n d 9 5 % to 9 7 % w e r e m e n . I n F o r t u n e 2 0 0 0 i n d u s ­ trial a n d s e r v i c e c o m p a n i e s , 5 % of s e n i o r m a n a g e r s w e r e w o m e n , a n d o n l y f o u r t e n t h s of 1% of m a n a g e r s w e r e H i s p a n i c , e v e n t h o u g h t h e y m a d e u p 8 % of t h e w o r k i n g p o p u l a t i o n . A l t h o u g h w h i t e w o m e n a n d p e o p l e o f c o l o r m a k e u p 5 7 % of w o r k e r s , w h i t e m a l e s c o n t i n u e t o o c c u p y p o s i t i o n s o f p o w e r a n d p r i v i l e g e in d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e n u m b e r s . M a n y r e f e r to t h e e x c l u s i o n of w o m e n at s e n i o r l e v e l s as t h e " g l a s s c e i l i n g " (Bell, 1994; Buzzanell, 1995; Holliday, 1995; Kilborn, 1995; W o o d , 1999). T h e "invisible barrier" created by this exclusion implies a static structure, o n e that b l o c k s o p p o r t u n i t i e s for w h i t e w o m e n a n d p e o p l e o f c o l o r ( H o l l i d a y , 1 9 9 5 ) . W h e r e a s t r a d i t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n s of t h e g l a s s c e i l i n g f o c u s o n d i s p r o p o r ­ t i o n a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s in t h e u p p e r e c h e l o n s ( i . e . , g l a s s - c e i l i n g o u t c o m e s ) a s a r e s u l t of t h i s i n v i s i b l e s t r u c t u r e , B u z z a n e l l ( 1 9 9 5 ) d e f i n e s g l a s s - c e i l i n g p r o ­ c e s s e s as " l a n g u a g e a n d i n t e r a c t i o n p a t t e r n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h g e n d e r i d e o l o ­ g i e s in w h i c h w o m e n a r e d e v a l u e d o v e r t l y a n d s u b t l y " ( p . 3 3 3 ) . W e a d o p t h e r definition by focusing on ideologies, language patterns, and organizing prac­ t i c e s t h a t e s t a b l i s h a n d reify t h i s i n v i s i b l e b a r r i e r . H o w e v e r , w e e x p a n d t h e d e f i n i t i o n of g l a s s - c e i l i n g p r o c e s s e s to i n c l u d e r a c i s t i d e o l o g i e s a n d p r a c t i c e s t h a t d e v a l u e p e o p l e of c o l o r . T h i s a d d i t i o n s u g g e s t s t h a t w o m e n of c o l o r a r e m o s t at r i s k a n d l i k e l y t o b e c o n s t r u c t e d a s i n v i s i b l e in o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s e t t i n g s b e c a u s e they disappear into the gap b e t w e e n " w o m e n " (often c o n s i d e r e d w h i t e ) a n d " m i n o r i t i e s " (often c o n s i d e r e d m a l e ) . T o e n s u r e v i s i b i l i t y , w e e m p l o y l a n g u a g e throughout this chapter that explicitly m a r k s both race and gender. 1

Y e a r s of s t u d y i n g t h e g l a s s c e i l i n g h a v e c u l m i n a t e d in p r o g r a m s a n d p r o c e ­ d u r e s t h a t offer q u i c k fixes r a t h e r t h a n s y s t e m i c c h a n g e . F o r e x a m p l e , t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s o f t e n a t t e m p t t o h e l p w h i t e w o m e n a n d w o m e n of c o l o r d e v e l o p c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e h a v i o r s s t e r e o t y p i c a l l y d e f i n e d as m a s c u l i n e . P o l i c y m a n ­ d a t e s s u c h a s a f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n , i n s t i t u t e d to i n c r e a s e t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of w o m e n a n d m e n of c o l o r a n d w h i t e w o m e n in o r g a n i z a t i o n s , h a v e n o t s u c ­ c e e d e d in e n a b l i n g t h e s e g r o u p s t o b r e a k t h r o u g h t h e g l a s s c e i l i n g a n d a r e currently b e i n g questioned. Although c o m p a n i e s such as A v o n , C o l g a t e Palmolive, Motorola, and D o w Chemical are pursuing s o m e aggressive strate­ gies to attract and p r o m o t e m o r e w o m e n , and c o m p a n i e s such as M a t t e l and A v o n h a v e w o m e n in t h e s e n i o r r a n k s , t h e i r n u m b e r s still a r e r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l (Morris, 1998). T h e g l a s s c e i l i n g is j u s t o n e of m a n y c o m p l e x i s s u e s t h a t h a v e s u r f a c e d a s m o r e w h i t e w o m e n a n d w o m e n a n d m e n of c o l o r h a v e b e g u n c o m p e t i n g for w h i t e - c o l l a r j o b s in t o d a y ' s o r g a n i z a t i o n s . O r g a n i z a t i o n a l d i v e r s i t y i n i t i a ­

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t i v e s , r a c i a l a n d s e x u a l h a r a s s m e n t , office r o m a n c e , c h i l d c a r e i s s u e s , m e n ­ t o r i n g , a n d t h e " m o m m y t r a c k " a r e a few of t h e r e c e n t p h e n o m e n a t h a t w e have seen with social, cultural, political, and legal c o n s e q u e n c e s for organiza­ tions. T a k e n separately or together, these p h e n o m e n a contribute to the already t u r b u l e n t e n v i r o n m e n t s that t o d a y ' s o r g a n i z a t i o n s face a s a r e s u l t of g l o b a l ­ ization, technology, and changing market conditions. C h a o s s c i e n c e a n d r e l a t e d a p p r o a c h e s offer a m e a n s for u n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w o r g a n i z a t i o n s w e a t h e r t u r b u l e n c e in c h a o t i c e n v i r o n m e n t s to m a i n t a i n a s e n s e of b a l a n c e ( S t a c e y , 1 9 9 2 , 1 9 9 6 ; W h e a t l e y , 1 9 9 2 , 1 9 9 3 ) . T h e s e a p p r o a c h e s , a l s o k n o w n a s t h e n e w s c i e n c e s , h a v e b e e n u s e d b y o r g a n i z a t i o n a l t h e o r i s t s to g l e a n l e s s o n s in l e a d e r s h i p ( B l a n k , 1 9 9 5 ; W h e a t l e y , 1 9 9 2 , 1 9 9 3 ) , d i a l o g u e (Shelton, 1993), creativity (Klein, 1993), and e m b r a c i n g instability (Miller, 1 9 9 8 ; S t a c e y , 1 9 9 2 , 1 9 9 6 ) . In this c h a p t e r , w e m a k e a c a s e for u s i n g t h e n e w s c i e n c e s ' p e r s p e c t i v e s o n c h a o s to e x p l o r e t h e c o m p l e x p r o c e s s e s t h a t c r e a t e a n d s u s t a i n g l a s s c e i l i n g s . B e c a u s e of t h e d y n a m i c a n d c o m p l e x n a t u r e o f l a n ­ g u a g e a n d s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n , c h a o s c o n c e p t s c a n offer a n o t h e r p e r s p e c t i v e for u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e g l a s s c e i l i n g . In this s e n s e , w e a r e f o l l o w i n g t h e l e a d o f m a n y w i t h i n t h e field of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t w h o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e n e w s c i e n c e s a r e b e n e f i c i a l for u n d e r s t a n d i n g c o m p l e x o r g a n i z a t i o n a l d y n a m i c s . However, although many organizational chaos theorists take a positive view of t h e i n h e r e n t o r d e r that is f o u n d in c h a o s , w e i n t e n d t o s h o w t h a t t h i s o r d e r can actually perpetuate discriminatory ideologies and practices. W e will also s h o w that f e m i n i s t t h e o r i e s of r e s i s t a n c e c a n s u g g e s t n e w w a y s t h a t w o m e n a n d m e n of c o l o r a n d w h i t e w o m e n m a y e v o k e c h a o t i c d y n a m i c s . C h a o s c a n l e a d to s e l f - o r g a n i z i n g p r o c e s s e s that r e p l a c e d i s c r i m i n a t o r y p r a c t i c e s w i t h p r o c e s s e s that d i s m a n t l e t h e g l a s s c e i l i n g . W e b e g i n w i t h a n i n t r o d u c t i o n to t h e n e w s c i e n c e s a n d its r e l e v a n c e for o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s .

THE NEW SCIENCES The only thing that makes life possible is permanent, intolerable uncertainty; not knowing what comes next. Ursula K. Le Guin (as cited in Warner, 1992, p. 225) A c o l l e c t i o n of t h e o r i e s f r o m t h e h a r d s c i e n c e s s u c h as p h y s i c s a n d c h e m i s t r y constitutes the new sciences. T h e s e theories are referred to as c h a o s theory, c o m p l e x i t y t h e o r y , a n d s e l f - o r g a n i z i n g s y s t e m s t h e o r y . A l t h o u g h t h e y a r e dif­ ferent in m a n y w a y s , all s h a r e a c o m m o n e m p h a s i s o n c o m p l e x , n o n l i n e a r s y s ­ t e m s a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s c i e n c e a p p l i c a t i o n s that t e n d t o g r o u p t h e c o n c e p t s from each theory into one perspective (e.g., Miller, 1998; Stacey, 1992, 1996; Wheatley, 1992).

Chaos Theory and the Glass

Ceiling

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T h e new sciences represent a significant departure from N e w t o n i a n p h y s ­ ics and classical s y s t e m s theory. F o r e x a m p l e , the interplay b e t w e e n o r d e r and d i s o r d e r a n d t h e a b i l i t y o f s y s t e m s t o r e n e w t h e m s e l v e s is c e n t r a l t o t h e n e w s c i e n c e s b u t a n t i t h e t i c a l t o N e w t o n i a n l a w s of e q u i l i b r i u m , e n t r o p y , a n d l i n ­ e a r i t y for n a t u r a l a n d s o c i a l s y s t e m s . S t r a i g h t f o r w a r d l i n k s b e t w e e n c a u s e a n d effect d i s a p p e a r in t h e n e w s c i e n c e s , in p a r t b e c a u s e l a r g e a n d u n f o r e s e e n e f f e c t s c a n b e t h e o u t c o m e of v e r y s m a l l c a u s e s , r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e " b u t t e r f l y e f f e c t " ( C o h e n & S t e w a r t , 1 9 9 4 ) . In c o n t r a s t , a N e w t o n i a n w o r l d v i e w p r e ­ s u m e s a c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s i z e of t h e c a u s e a n d t h e s i z e of t h e e f f e c t . Finally, the famous "double slit" experiments from q u a n t u m physics d e m o n ­ s t r a t e t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t o b s e r v a t i o n affects t h e o b s e r v e d in s i g n i f i c a n t w a y s . T h i s f i n d i n g r u n s c o u n t e r to t h e l o n g - c h e r i s h e d n o t i o n s o f o b j e c t i v i t y a n d t h e s e p a r a t i o n of t h e k n o w e r f r o m t h e k n o w n in s c i e n t i f i c i n q u i r y in a N e w t o n i a n and classical systems theory worldview (see also Miller, 1998). A n e w s c i e n c e s a p p r o a c h offers s e v e r a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s for c h a n g i n g t h e w a y s that organizing practices h a v e been conceived. E o y a n g (1993a) suggests such possibilities: Chaos science and its related areas of investigation use mathematical, objective, scientific strategies to describe systemic behavior that defies the reductionist strat­ egies of the past. In the same way, it is possible that a chaotic paradigm might lend cohesion to the plethora of organizational and management models that are driving organizational change today, (p. 17) T o a p p l y t h e b e n e f i t s of n e w s c i e n c e s c o n c e p t s , s o m e t r a n s l a t i o n t o t h e r e a l m of o r g a n i z a t i o n s is n e c e s s a r y . D e s c r i b e d in o r g a n i z a t i o n a l t e r m s , c o m p l e x n o n l i n e a r i t y i m p l i e s t h a t all c o m p o n e n t s of a s y s t e m a r e d e p e n d e n t o n e a c h other and that interdependence can lead to c o m p l e x c h a n g e . T h u s , line w o r k ­ ers m a y c h a n g e b e c a u s e of information received from m a n a g e m e n t , b u t m a n ­ a g e m e n t also changes based on information from line w o r k e r s ( E o y a n g , 1 9 9 3 a ) . In c h a o t i c s y s t e m s , t h e c h a n g e s a r e c o m p l e x . F o r e x a m p l e , a s u p e r ­ visor w h o tells racist j o k e s m a y e n c o u r a g e racist l a n g u a g e patterns a m o n g s o m e l i n e e m p l o y e e s . If o t h e r l i n e w o r k e r s feel o f f e n d e d b y t h i s b e h a v i o r , t h e y m i g h t c h a l l e n g e t h e s e j o k e s , w r i t e u p a c o m p l a i n t , o r s u e t h e c o m p a n y for a h o s t i l e w o r k e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e effect of a n y of t h e s e a c t i o n s m a y b e i n c o n s e ­ q u e n t i a l o r s i g n i f i c a n t , e s p e c i a l l y as l e g a l o u t c o m e s r e v e r b e r a t e t o t h e r e s t o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o r b e y o n d . In s o m e c a s e s , c a u s a l l i n k s m a y b e c l e a r . In o t h e r c a s e s , t h e s e q u e n c e of c a u s a l l i n k s g e t s l o s t in t h e c o m p l e x i t y of t h e s y s t e m ' s interactions (Stacey, 1996). These dynamics form interdependent nonlinear relationships that generate complex " c h a o t i c " organizing b e h a v i o r s . E o y a n g (1993a) describes the complexity and interdependency displayed a m o n g chaotic systems' components and the unpredictability and e m e r g e n t b e h a v i o r s t h a t a r i s e as a r e s u l t . C o m p l e x i t y a n d i n t e r d e p e n d e n c y a r e t w o fea­

240

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t u r e s of c h a o t i c s y s t e m s t h a t a r e r e a d i l y a p p a r e n t in l a n g u a g e p a t t e r n s a n d d i s ­ c r i m i n a t o r y p r a c t i c e s t h a t u p h o l d t h e g l a s s c e i l i n g . F o r e x a m p l e , in t o d a y ' s p o l i t i c a l l y c o r r e c t e n v i r o n m e n t , d i s c r i m i n a t i o n of all k i n d s h a s b e c o m e m o r e c o v e r t . Often u n c o n s c i o u s l y , l a n g u a g e c a r r i e s a n d r e i n f o r c e s a m a n a g e r i a l i s t i d e o l o g y , o n e o u t c o m e of w h i c h is t h e d o m i n a n c e of c o r p o r a t i o n s in m o d e r n l i f e — a n d t h e w h i t e m a l e s w h o r u n t h e m ( D e e t z , 1 9 9 2 ) . G e n d e r p o l i t i c s in o r g a n i z a t i o n s is a l s o i n t e r t w i n e d w i t h t h e often u n a r t i c u l a t e d i n f l u e n c e s of r a c e , s o c i a l c l a s s , e d u c a t i o n , a g e , a n d s e x u a l o r i e n t a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y as t h e y influence leader-member relationships and executive succession (Fairhurst, 1 9 9 3 , in p r e s s ) . C o m b i n e d w i t h T u t z a u e r ' s ( 1 9 9 7 ) o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t c h a o s m a y b e l u r k i n g a n y w h e r e , t h e r e is d i s c o n t i n u i t y in o r g a n i z a t i o n s . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , e x e c u t i v e s u c c e s s i o n ( i n c l u d i n g h i r i n g s a n d f i r i n g s ) is an i d e a l c i r c u m s t a n c e in w h i c h to e x a m i n e p r o c e s s e s that s u s t a i n t h e g l a s s c e i l i n g . In o u r a n a l y s i s of t h e g l a s s c e i l i n g , w e a s s u m e that o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e n o n ­ l i n e a r , c h a o t i c s y s t e m s , in w h i c h a " s y s t e m " refers to a n y p a t t e r n of a c t i v i t y ( P r i e s m e y e r , 1 9 9 2 ) . T w o b r a n c h e s of c h a o s t h e o r y f r o m t h e n e w s c i e n c e s , t h e strange-attractor and order-out-of-chaos branches, are pertinent b e c a u s e they a r e u s e d b y o r g a n i z a t i o n a l t h e o r i s t s to e x p l i c a t e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p h e n o m e n a (e.g., leadership, instability, or dialogue). W e highlight the differences be­ t w e e n t h e b r a n c h e s b y first i n t r o d u c i n g t h e s t r a n g e - a t t r a c t o r b r a n c h to i l l u s ­ trate h o w organizational policies, behaviors, and practices are p r o d u c e d and reproduced. W e then e x a m i n e the order-out-of-chaos branch and feminist r e s i s t a n c e a p p r o a c h e s to s u g g e s t m e t h o d s for d i s r u p t i n g r a c i s t , s e x i s t , classist, and heterosexist practices.

Strange Attractors and Fractals C h a o s t h e o r i s t K a t h e r i n e H a y les ( 1 9 9 0 ) w r i t e s a b o u t t w o b r a n c h e s o f c h a o s t h e o r y , r e f e r r i n g to t h e first as t h e s t r a n g e - a t t r a c t o r b r a n c h . In t h i s b r a n c h of c h a o s t h e o r y , t h e o r i s t s a r e i n t e r e s t e d in t h e h i d d e n o r d e r t h a t e x i s t s w i t h i n chaotic systems, called "strange attractors" (see T a b l e 10.1). T h e hidden o r d e r is a s h a p e t h a t e m e r g e s o v e r t i m e , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t a s y s t e m c a n b e c h a ­ o t i c b u t still h a v e a s t r u c t u r e . A s t r a n g e a t t r a c t o r is t h e u n p r e d i c t a b l e s h a p e c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n c e r t a i n b o u n d a r i e s that e m e r g e s w h e n t r a c k i n g t h e m o v e ­ m e n t of a s y s t e m . F o r e x a m p l e , c o m p u t e r g r a p h i c s c a n s i m u l a t e a n d c h a r t a s y s t e m ' s fluid m o v e m e n t at a p a r t i c u l a r m o m e n t in t i m e ( G l e i c k , 1 9 8 7 ) . D e s p i t e t h e u n p r e d i c t a b i l i t y a n d e v o l u t i o n of t h e s y s t e m ' s c h a o t i c m o v e m e n t , o r d e r e m e r g e s . W h e a t l e y ( 1 9 9 2 ) e x p l a i n s , " T h e m o s t c h a o t i c of s y s t e m s n e v e r g o e s b e y o n d c e r t a i n b o u n d a r i e s ; it s t a y s c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n a s h a p e that w e r e c ­ o g n i z e as t h e s y s t e m ' s s t r a n g e a t t r a c t o r " ( p . 2 1 ) . A s t h e c h a o t i c m o v e m e n t of the s y s t e m f o r m s i n t o a p a t t e r n r e v e a l i n g o r d e r w i t h i n d i s o r d e r , t h e " b a s i n s of attraction" function as the boundaries within which the s y s t e m stays.

Chaos Theory and the Glass T A B L E 10.1 Chaos Theory Term

Chaos Theory Terms and Glass-Ceiling Applications

Definition

The Strange-Attractor Fractal

Organizational Applications

Glass-Ceiling

Applications

Fractal organizations: Strong vision and values with a diverse expression of roles

Replication of white males at senior levels through stereotyping and the suppression of individual differences

The promotion of innovation through instability brought on by conflict and questioning attitudes

The promotion of a new social order through instability brought on by feminist resistance approaches

Branch

The order created by a strange at tractor

The Order-Out-of-Chaos Self-organizing systems

241

Ceiling

Branch

Order emerging out of chaos

A " f r a c t a l " is t h e o r d e r c r e a t e d b y a s t r a n g e a t t r a c t o r . M a n d e l b r o t ( a s c i t e d in G l e i c k , 1 9 8 7 ) i n t r o d u c e d t h e s c i e n t i f i c c o m m u n i t y t o f r a c t a l s w h e n h e found similar patterns within patterns across different scales of magnifica­ t i o n . A s o n e e x a m p l e , t h e b a s i c s h a p e o f a b r o c c o l i p l a n t is a f l o r e t . A s f l o r e t s a r e r e p e a t e d at d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f s c a l e , t h e c o m p l e x b r o c c o l i p l a n t is c r e a t e d . Organizational theorists use the strange-attractor a n d fractal m e t a p h o r s to d e s c r i b e p a t t e r n s of b e h a v i o r t h a t p r o v i d e o r d e r in t i m e s o f t u r b u l e n c e . A c c o r d i n g t o W h e a t l e y ( 1 9 9 2 ) , in a fractal o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h e r e a r e p a t t e r n s of b e h a v i o r r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n ' s v i s i o n a n d v a l u e s t h a t c a n b e s e e n in e m p l o y e e s throughout the organization. She states, " T h e potent force that s h a p e s b e h a v i o r in t h e s e fractal o r g a n i z a t i o n s , a s in all n a t u r a l s y s t e m s , is t h e c o m b i n a t i o n of simply expressed expectations of acceptable b e h a v i o r and the f r e e d o m a v a i l a b l e to i n d i v i d u a l s to a s s e r t t h e m s e l v e s in n o n - d e t e r m i n i s t i c w a y s " ( p . 1 3 2 ) . M i l l e r ( 1 9 9 8 ) f o u n d j u s t t h i s c o m b i n a t i o n a m o n g n u r s e s at a medical center. Group leadership with a vision and high expectations com­ b i n e d w i t h t h e f r e e d o m o f n u r s e s to c r e a t i v e l y e n a c t t h e i r r o l e s in w a y s t h a t embodied those principles. H o w e v e r , w h a t is p r o b l e m a t i c a b o u t W h e a t l e y ' s ( 1 9 9 2 ) f r a c t a l o r g a n i z a ­ t i o n is t h a t n o o n e q u e s t i o n s whose v a l u e s a n d v i s i o n s a r e b e i n g a s s e r t e d in fractal p a t t e r n s ( s e e a l s o J a n t s c h , 1 9 8 0 ) . T h e r e p l i c a t i o n o f w h i t e m e n at senior levels of the organization, often signifying the replication of patriar­

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chal values and a managerialist ideology, forms a pattern of order that also offers an e x c e l l e n t e x a m p l e of a fractal. W i t h o u t u s i n g c h a o s t h e o r y t e r m i n o l ­ o g y , f o r m e r s e c r e t a r y of l a b o r R o b e r t B . R e i c h s a i d a s m u c h in a r e c e n t New York Times a r t i c l e : "It is often e a s i e r for w h i t e m a l e s to s i m p l y r e p l i c a t e t h e m ­ s e l v e s in d e c i d i n g w h o is g o i n g to b e p a r t n e r o r a m a n a g e r of a m a n a g e m e n t t e a m o r g e t a t e n u r e t r a c k p o s i t i o n " (as c i t e d in K i l b o r n , 1 9 9 5 ) . T h e r e p l i c a t i o n of w h i t e m e n at s e n i o r l e v e l s p r o m o t e s i n t e r a c t i o n p a t t e r n s a n d b e h a v i o r s t h a t m a i n t a i n t h e g l a s s c e i l i n g . T h i s is a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h t h e q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t t h e s e x e s a n d / o r r a c e s h a v e in m e n t o r i n g , c a r e e r c o u n s e l i n g , and development opportunities. W h e n these vehicles give white males the a d v a n t a g e , t h e y a r e p u t o n a c a r e e r p a t h to t h e u p p e r e c h e l o n s c r e a t e d b y t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e y a r e b e t t e r s u i t e d to j o b s at t h i s l e v e l . T h e p r a c t i c e s l e a d i n g to t h e r e p l i c a t i o n of w h i t e m a l e s in s e n i o r l e v e l s a r e b a s e d in i d e o l o g y . In often s u b t l e a n d u n c o n s c i o u s w a y s ( e . g . , in l a n g u a g e , dress, and w o r k rituals), white w o m e n and m e n and w o m e n of color are p r e s ­ s u r e d to c o m m i t to p a t r i a r c h a l a n d w h i t e i n t e r e s t s a n d v a l u e s y s t e m s . T h e u p s h o t is that r e p l i c a t i o n p r o m o t e s c o n f o r m i t y r a t h e r t h a n a p l u r a l i s t i c s y s t e m in w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s c a n i n t e r a c t a n d w o r k a c c o r d i n g to p e r s o n a l p r i n c i p l e s . T h e s u p p r e s s i o n of i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s a n d s t e r e o t y p e s a r e t w o m e c h a ­ n i s m s that p r o m o t e f r a c t a l - l i k e s e l f - s i m i l a r i t y . B e l l , D e n t o n , a n d N k o m o ( 1 9 9 3 ) d e s c r i b e t h e first, s h o w i n g h o w the s u p p r e s s i o n o f i d e n t i t y c r e a t e s a b i c u l t u r a l l i f e s t y l e for m a n y w h i t e w o m e n a n d p e o p l e of c o l o r : A bicultural life structure requires a woman of color manager to shape her profes­ sional world in a male-dominated white culture, while her personal world often remains embedded in her racial/ethnic community. At the workplace, she may be forced to sacrifice the racial/ethnic part of her identity in favor of what is normal in the dominant culture. The suppression of her identity can happen at the superficial level of dress, hairstyle, and language patterns and at much more substantive levels of social, personal, and political values, (p. 18) T h e s u p p r e s s i o n of d i f f e r e n t i d e n t i t i e s f a c i l i t a t e s t h e r e p l i c a t i o n of w h i t e m a l e s at s e n i o r l e v e l s b y f a v o r i n g s a m e n e s s r a t h e r t h a n d i v e r s i t y . T h e s u p ­ p r e s s i o n of i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s c r e a t e s a m i r r o r for w h i t e m e n . T h e c o m ­ b i n e d effects of r a c e a n d s e x p r i v i l e g e m e a n that a w h i t e m a n c a n s e e h i m s e l f (i.e., h i s v a l u e s a n d b e l i e f s ) r a t h e r t h a n t h e v a r i o u s w o m e n w h o r e p r e s e n t p l u ­ r a l i s t i c i d e n t i t i e s , v a l u e s , a n d b e l i e f s . A w o m a n of c o l o r d e s c r i b e s h e r e x p e r i ­ e n c e of t h i s s u p p r e s s i o n : He made some interesting comments at different times, such as: "Being Hispanic here is not going to help you," and "You do not want to be known as the in-house Hispanic." He advised me to hide my calls from people with Hispanic surnames, and my Spanish newspaper, (as cited in Bell et al., 1993, p. 119)

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Whether intolerance toward difference is reflected in overt or covert behaviors, suppression serves to replicate dominant value systems that pro­ tect and promote white patriarchal traditions. This becomes especially true for women and men of color and white women who move up the corporate ladder, stay with an organization for a long period of time, and transform their identi­ ties in the process. Deetz (1992) argues that such success often comes at the cost of giving up one's voice and assuming the ownership of problems not of one's own making. White women are often asked to take responsibility for not "fitting in," not going along with the "joke," or not enjoying the playful "come on." When the burden is placed on a woman to endure others' offensive lan­ guage and discriminatory practices, her social interaction needs are denied and suppressed. The same is true for each ethnic, racial, and class distinction in the United States whose members end up suppressing their individuality in the pursuit of staying employed. Stereotypes are the second mechanism that promote fractal-like selfsimilarity by confining women of color and white women to a narrow range of roles and identities. Wood (1999) elaborates on four organizational stereo­ types of women first proposed by Kanter (1977). These stereotypical roles, which include the sex object, mother, child, and iron maiden, maintain famil­ iar forms of interaction between men and women, formalizing the woman's place in a group and forcing her to live up to this very limiting image. The sex object stereotype defines women in terms of their sex and/or sexu­ ality and expects their actions and dress to conform to traditional views of femininity. Women who support others or bring a nurturing quality to their work often are expected to assume a mother role. Kilbourne and England (1996) describe the social and nurturing skills required in occupations repre­ sented by high numbers of women (e.g., teachers, social workers, counselors, service providers, clerical and administrative support personnel, and admin­ istrators and managers). This skill, also referred to as emotional labor (Hochschild, 1983), requires the ability to deal with one's own and other people's emotions to negotiate interpersonal encounters. Regardless of job type, this skill is required of most women. Moreover, it is also devalued in the workplace and results in lower pay for those jobs requiring the skill. Women are thus segregated into "women's work," disproportionately occu­ pying low-paying, low-status positions (Kilbourne & England, 1996; Wood, 1999). Stereotypes that characterize women as childlike limit women's advance­ ment opportunities and also lead to pay inequities. When women are per­ ceived as less mature or less competent than men, they are often protected in the workplace and may not be given demanding projects that would strengthen their promotional opportunities. Finally, the iron maiden is viewed as being unfeminine. This stereotype leads to discrimination based on the idea that a woman should not be aggres­

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sive, tough, direct, or competitive. Wood ( 1999) describes a 1990 sex discrim­ ination suit that suggests the iron maiden stereotype: Ms. Hopkins brought in more money in new accounts than any of her 87 male peers, yet 47 of the men were made partner while Ms. Hopkins was not. Executives refused to promote Ms. Hopkins because they perceived her as unfeminine. Describing her as authoritative and too tough, they suggested she could improve her chances for promotion if she wore more jewelry and dressed and behaved more femininely, (p. 263)

In this case, a federal district court ruled gender stereotyping an aspect of sex discrimination, and thus illegal. Unfortunately, many such cases never get to court. Whether it is the iron maiden, sex object, mother, or child, stereotypes place white women and women of color in restrictive roles and limit their potential contributions to the organization. Stereotypes also help to define interactions and promote sexist and racist behaviors. In summary, from the strange-attractor branch of chaos theory, we can see how patterns of interactions reify over time and become part of the inherent order in an organizational system. When interactions replicate at different levels in an organization, the inherent order gives stability and security to the system. Some organizational chaos theorists take a positive view of the inher­ ent order that is found in chaos by focusing on the integrity of the organization (e.g., Jantsch, 1980; Wheatley, 1992). We argue, however, that this inherent order can serve to replicate patriarchal and racist patterns of interaction that continue to reinforce the glass ceiling. Although the strange-attractor para­ digm offers a timely analysis for researchers exploring the effects of the glass ceiling, it offers little hope for change. To challenge interactions that are guided by the suppression of individual differences and stereotyping, we need to explore the order-out-of-chaos branch. Order-Out-of-Chaos The order-out-of-chaos branch sets itself apart from the strange-attractor branch through the concept of "new order" (see Table 10.1). In the order-out­ of-chaos branch, self-organizing systems and dissipative structures arise in systems far from equilibrium. The process of self-organization occurs when a complex system is open to its environment, moves far from equilibrium, and reorganizes into a new structure (Jantsch, 1980; Prigogine & Stengers, 1984). A dissipative structure emerges spontaneously when the system interacts with its environment (Eoyang, 1993b). When a system is at equilibrium, energy is equally distributed throughout the system, and differentiation is low. When a system is far from equilibrium, there is high differentiation and a continual transfer of information (energy) between the divergent parts of the system.

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For example, when water is heated, some parts of the water are affected more than others, increasing the differentiation in the system and moving the sys­ tem far from equilibrium. The system adjusts by self-organizing and creating a dissipative structure, resulting in an adaptation of the whole system (Eoyang, 1993b). Referring to systems composed of human interactions, Stacey (1992) sug­ gests that self-organizing occurs when specific conditions are present. According to Stacey, continual sharing of new information between various groups can push systems far from equilibrium. During these transitions, the system moves through patterns of instability where order and symmetry are broken. At these critical points, the system confronts a series of choices. The process of spontaneous self-organization occurs when communi­ cation and cooperation among the components of the system produce a new order or structure (Stacey, 1992). More recently, Stacey (1996) defined selforganization in terms of agents' own local rules of behavior versus a blueprint that specifies how they must act. To facilitate self-organizing, individuals in organizations should stay on the edge of chaos by doing everything they can to avoid complacency while making sure that they contain the anxiety that this inevitably produces. Strong relationships, high-quality leadership, and honest self-reflection that can promote double-loop learning (in which dominant schémas are changed) are the keys to this process (Stacey, 1996). Nonaka's (1988) study of Japanese companies illustrates how organiza­ tions promote innovation through instability. Honda has a culture that encour­ ages confrontation among employees and the hiring of new employees with diverse specialties to help form countercultures. Honda wants new hires to oppose existing values and for those challenges to be met with productive conflict. When instability is viewed positively, the politics of power take on a different perspective because it functions as "an amplifying feedback loop whose purpose is to encourage conflict and spread questioning attitudes" (Stacey, 1992, p. 86). Instability provides a context in which existing patterns of behavior can be disrupted, allowing new perceptions to emerge. We apply the order-out-of-chaos lens as a framework for exploring how organizations can "unlearn" old repetitive patterns and learn new behaviors. New patterns of interaction can emerge from self-organizing that provides opportunities for people of color and white women to succeed in positions that mostly white men occupy today. Stacey's (1992, 1996) work, in particular, offers exciting opportunities for challenging oppressive beliefs and behaviors through his emphasis on questioning attitudes, the expression of difference, and productive conflict. In addition, Stacey's (1996) concern for double-loop learning, which results in replacing the dominant schémas that groups or orga­ nizations may hold, signals the potential at least to replace the arcane belief systems that keep glass-ceiling outcomes in place. Double-loop learning can create second-order change that results in the transformation of a system

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(Watzlawick, Weakland, & Fisch, 1974). Single-loop learning produces only a first-order change in which some behaviors and interactions may be chal­ lenged but there is no significant change to the system. To prevent the produc­ tion of glass ceilings, a second-order change is clearly required. But Stacey's (1992,1996) perspective, too, has its problems. For example, Miller's (1998) study of nurses trained in chaos principles found them hoping that order would emerge spontaneously from the complexity they faced. Unfortunately, they lacked strategies for facilitating and participating in that emerging new order. Miller raised the crucial questions: What if order does not emerge? What are the costs that result from the cacophony of effort when order does not emerge? How does one deal with the indeterminacy while liv­ ing it? Miller (1998) writes, A number of theorists have used "good jazz" as a metaphor for a self-organizing system. However, the fact remains that good jazz is hard to find and that badfazz is among the worst music to endure. An old colleague of mine defined jazz fusion as "five guys playing whatever they want at the same time." And, this is one of the dangers in applying ideas from the new sciences to social systems, (p. 125)

Miller's questions are not easily answered—especially when they are applied to the glass ceiling. What happens if the outcome of conflict over racist and sexist practices is only more chaos and not the hoped-for new order of equal opportunity? Even Stacey (1996) acknowledges that the self-reflection that the chaos sciences promote is not a guarantee of success, only a vehicle for making sense of experiences and potentially designing more effective outcomes. Another problem with self-organizing systems concerns the nature of the conflicts that result from living on the edge of chaos. Some conflicts are socially approved by management because they are about the distribution of money and power within the system (Deetz, 1992). Others go much deeper because they are ideology based. Management does not sanction these conflicts because they are about the system of distribution itself. Will an orga­ nization embracing self-organizing principles embrace the deep-seated ideo­ logical conflicts that tend to be group based, structural, and perpetual? Will they go beyond the conflicts that tend to be individual centered, situational, and seeking only technical solutions (Deetz, 1992)? For white women and women and men of color to excel and be seen in all aspects of organizational life, chaos dynamics and double-loop learning have to flourish both within and outside of management's control, with both approved and unapproved conflicts. By implication, if self-organizing systems theory and related approaches are to be used as self-reflexive tools by organizational researchers and prac­

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titioners, the applications must be socially—not just organizationally— relevant. That is, these approaches must take up the issues of gender, race, class, age, and sexual orientation to understand how glass ceilings are sus­ tained. Feminist resistance approaches encourage us to analyze traditional ideologies and interactions and how these practices lead to gender-, race-, and class-based discrimination. Feminist Resistances Western culture or society has a system of thought that has evolved from ancient history (Bohm, 1994; Calâs & Smircich, 1991). Thoughts are repro­ duced over time, maintaining a cultural structure that helps us describe and define the world. According to Bohm (1994), thought has a systemic fault. It is part of the system and, therefore, always part of the problem. Because thought is part of the system, if an idea or new concept gets repeated several times, it begins to change to fit the system. To use a chaos metaphor, it begins to develop a pattern like the fractal. Therefore, if we try to create new insights and learnings about race and gender relationships, we must first examine the patterns that are part of the system to better know the pattern of self-similarity that needs to be broken. Crawford (1995) argues that men have had more public power in most soci­ eties and thus more access to the creation of discourse and thought. Buzzanell (1995) proposes that "our language and discourse practices often recreate ste­ reotypic masculine and feminine divisions of family, work activities, and occupations" (p. 327). Bhavnani (1993) argues that "an important conse­ quence of these histories is that racialised, gendered, and class-based inequal­ ities are embedded into the creation of knowledge" (p. 96). This supports Foucauldian notions that certain power bases can produce organizing prac­ tices and discourses that our culture defines as knowledge (Calâs & Smircich, 1991). These researchers span multiple feminist perspectives (e.g., social con­ structionist, cultural, socialist, and poststructuralist). They suggest that claims of knowledge that govern our system of thought may protect and enforce the views of those who have access to public discourse (e.g., academ­ ics, government, or law) while repressing the views of those who do not have such power. When select individuals have more access to the creation of knowledge, that knowledge has significant limitations within the organization and in the larger society in which the organization interacts. Feminism chal­ lenges us to pay attention to power dynamics in knowledge creation and the complex interdependencies of gender, race, sex, and class as we seek to create new organizing practices. Tong (1989) describes feminist thought as a kalei­ doscope, writing,

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The reader's preliminary impression may be one of chaos and confusion, of dissen­ sion and disagreement, of fragmentation and splintering. But a closer inspection will always reveal new visions, new structures, and new relationships for personal and political life, all of which will be different tomorrow than today, (p. 238)

Consistent with Tong (1989), feminist resistance can encourage women and men of color and white women to challenge existing patterns of knowl­ edge, creating chaotic dynamics that can potentially remove the glass ceiling. Sotirin and Gottfried (1996) focus on resistance as crucial to feminist studies of women and work, "both as an organizing concept for rereading women's histories and as a mode of action creating possibilities for the transformation of the conditions of women's oppressions" (p. 367). Forms of resistance often include educating organizational members in feminist principles, praxis, and the deconstruction of oppositions in ways that prevent or remedy the marginalization of white women and women and men of color (Buzzanell, 1995, 1999; Calâs & Smircich, 1996; Tong, 1989). Feminist education might begin by helping individuals understand how prejudice is socially constructed over time and can be changed. Stereotyping and prejudicial views are often the result of seeing the world too simply (Buzzanell, 1999). When people challenge current thinking about gender, race, class, age, and sexual orientation, more frameworks for interacting can open up. When individuals understand that they might be able to change the social processes that create and maintain prejudice, they are more likely to take action. Rosa Parks modeled this kind of action when she refused to give up her seat to a white passenger on a Montgomery, Alabama, bus during the U.S. civil rights era. Feminist principles, combined with the chaos sciences' concept of the but­ terfly effect, help individuals locate the relationships between organizing practices and community health or destruction. The butterfly effect refers to a system's sensitive dependence on initial conditions that can lead to large and unforeseen outcomes (Cohen & Stewart, 1994; Miller, 1998; Stacey, 1996). With such effects, even small organizational initiatives have the potential to trigger complex change, just as a corporation's decision to open a plant in Mexico can have far-reaching effects. As individuals, we must learn to ask what the connections are between corporate business decisions, Third World famine, local unemployment, and poverty. What corporate processes prevent individuals from accessing well-paid positions? What corporate practices allow some workers to be paid exorbitant wages while other workers struggle to pay for food and housing? These practices are linked to language and behavior patterns that continue to sustain the glass ceiling and other dis­ criminatory practices. Education can help individuals understand patterns of

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prejudice, make connections between often ambiguous and contradictory practices, and take action to resist. Larger acts of resistance, involving organized opposition to discriminatory practices and policies, may also trigger complex change. However, as with butterfly effects, their impact is not easily predicted. For example, when women were found to be leaving a large Fortune 500 firm at eight times the rate of men, a remaining group of women from across the corporation became extremely concerned (Berryman-Fink, personal communication, July 13, 1998). Since this company promoted only from within, this meant that fewer numbers of women would be candidates for senior-level positions and man­ agement positions in general. The women also believed that a critical mass of women throughout the company would be needed to change a traditional male-dominated culture, a position reminiscent of Kanter's (1977) theory of numerical proportions. As a result of the women's organized effort to this problem, senior management provided a large amount of money to support renewed training efforts and organizational development to make the existing culture more hospitable to white women and men and women of color. How­ ever, the outcome of this effort is still unknown some 5 years after it began. Finally, acts of resistance created out of women's everyday experiences also may trigger complex change. For example, women's resistance in the workplace often emerges from the multiple interpretations of oppression rooted in women's everyday lives (Sotirin & Gottfried, 1996). Thus, feminist analyses may attempt to blur conventional dichotomies that establish the social context for power and resistance. One example of a culturally influen­ tial dichotomy is the private-public divide that characterizes Western culture, constructing traditionally female and male spheres (Cirksena & Cuklanz, 1992). Responding to the fallacies inherent in dichotomous thinking, Collins (1991) suggests that "dichotomous oppositional differences invariably imply relationships of superiority and inferiority, hierarchical relationships that mesh with political economies of domination and subordination" (p. 42). However, practices in the workplace that integrate home and work blur tradi­ tional distinctions like the private-public divide. Sotirin and Gottfried (1996) note that "women often weave domestic rituals and celebrations of womencentered events (such as marriage or the birth of a child) into an ensemble of practices, thereby constituting an oppositional culture to resist management control" (p. 368). But calling certain celebrations "women-centered" tends to reinforce stereotypical and heterosexist notions of gender, illustrating how difficult it is to open up possibilities for communicating and behaving without reifying existing stereotypes. Nevertheless, as a resistance strategy, challeng­ ing traditional dichotomies such as private-public opens up possibilities for different kinds of workplace communication and behavior that may directly

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or indirectly (e.g., through child care provisions and sexual harassment poli­ cies) affect glass-ceiling outcomes. Not all feminist resistance strategies are accompanied by reflection, but it seems necessary to break away from the grip of existing stereotypes to ensure double-loop learning. Reflection requires an individual to concentrate on an experience by bringing the experience to the forefront of the mind, while mak­ ing connections to other experiences (Daudelin, 1996). During this process, the experience is being filtered through unexamined biases and attitudes. When these assumptions are recognized, the individual initiates a new phase in the reflection process, coming close to the edge of chaos, where new thought patterns can be created. Reflection can also be used at the group level to create spaces for self-organizing to occur. For instance, support groups within organizations can serve as a catalyst for resistance, encouraging groups of people to embrace their full identities, reflect on and resist suppres­ sive workplace values, and replace them with values and visions that emerge from pluralism. Pluralism refers to accessing a variety of different opinions, values, and beliefs to create processes that can significantly alter the system's core identity. Although many groups disband after making initial, surfacelevel connections, groups that remain intact can provide much-needed sup­ port and protection to individuals who risk alienation, demotion, or termina­ tion as a result of the chaos introduced by their resistance. Feminist praxis encourages individuals and groups to reflect on those ide­ ologies and behaviors that uphold the glass ceiling. Consistent with this trans­ formation strategy, the experiences of white women and women of color need to be contextualized because women's oppression and resistance do not occupy one universal category. The many and varied relations between race, age, class, gender, sexual orientation, and religion need to be better under­ stood (Sotirin & Gottfried, 1996). For instance, black women often are fight­ ing what Clarke (1995) describes as plantation protocol, when white people in the contemporary United States assume that their birthright is privilege and power. In confronting plantation protocol, women of color resist both race and gender oppression. Diversity initiatives in organizations and groups working to eliminate racism, sexism, and heterosexism can challenge traditional pat­ terns and facilitate chaotic dynamics. Research that explores two or more lay­ ers of relations (e.g., race, class, sexual orientation, age, and religion) will provide more complex and heuristic information. In summary, we have shown how feminist resistance approaches can make organizational chaos theory more socially relevant as a tool for explicating the practices that produce the glass ceiling. In turn, organizational chaos theory offers new hope for feminist resistance approaches that can introduce even a small amount of chaos into organizational life. Drawing on lessons from chaos theory and feminist epistemologies, we conclude by offering several

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suggestions for creating environments that offer the potential to disrupt dis­ criminatory practices.

CONCLUSION For difference must be not merely tolerated, but seen as a fund of necessary polari­ ties between which our creativity can spark like a dialectic. Only then does the necessity for interdependency become unthreatening. Only within that interde­ pendency of different strengths, acknowledged and equal, can the power to seek new ways to actively "be" in the world generate, as well as the courage and suste­ nance to act where there are no charters. Within the interdependence of mutual (non-dominant) differences lies that se­ curity which enables us to descend into the chaos of knowledge and return with true visions of our future, along with the concomitant power to effect those changes which can bring that future into being. Difference is that raw and powerful connection from which our personal power is forged. (Lorde, 1983, p. 99) Many organizational theorists are extolling the virtues of embracing con­ cepts from the new sciences, such as fractal organizations and self-organizing systems. In this chapter, we have tried to show some of the problems with and opportunities for applying these ideas to the glass ceiling. With respect to fractal organizations, individuals who continue to reinforce visions and val­ ues that are part of a homogeneous status quo will continue to replicate sys­ tems that encourage and continue the almost exclusive occupation of top positions by white men. Elements of chaos may flourish, but inevitably orga­ nizational members will repeat traditional ways of interacting based on core visions and values that are fundamentally flawed. Stereotyping and suppress­ ing individual differences will proceed as the norm, and power bases and structures that continue to keep women and men of color and white women from accessing their full potentials will be replicated. Organizations will suf­ fer as a consequence. Self-organizing systems theory, especially when combined with feminist resistance approaches, offers more promise for changing racist, classist, sex­ ist, and heterosexist patterns because of the potential to create new order through instability. Also promising is the emphasis placed on small acts of resistance as a trigger of complex change. This bodes well for individuals, not just organized groups, who hope to make a difference in affecting glassceiling outcomes. Finally, it is not just organizational insiders who have the potential to in­ troduce chaos that leads to new self-organizing behaviors. Organizational researchers and consultants also can ask new questions about the kinds of

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chaos that might be introduced into organizations that lead to new self-orga­ nizing behaviors. A new research agenda might include the following: 1. Exploring structures that are highly susceptible to chaos and thus capable of shift­ ing power dynamics 2. Looking for chaotic dynamics in interactions and behaviors that give white women and women and men of color voice and opportunity to redefine dominant values, visions, and paradigms 3. Locating behaviors that continue to perpetuate gendered and racialized work and suggesting methods for change 4. Identifying spaces "at the edge of chaos" where self-organizing can occur 5. Analyzing language patternsin research and theorizing that promote racist, classist, sexist, and heterosexist ideologies that lead to the replication of white, Western, and patriarchal thought

A feminist chaos agenda for organizational development might include the following: 1. Hiring consultants to identify fractal patterns in organizations 2. Exploring structures thatare highly susceptible to chaos and thus capable of shifting power dynamics 3. Designing training programs from a wide theoretical base, emphasizing how work has been defined by gender and race and is maintained through sexist and racist be­ havior 4. Seeing the connections between • the lack of retention of women and men of color and white women and the replication of white, patriarchal visions and value systems • lawsuits and the suppression of individual differences • lack of advancement opportunities and stereotyping • employee conflicts, low morale, and racist, sexist, heterosexist, and classist ideologies 5. Creating the potential for self-organization to occur by • challenging and redefining definitions of vision, values, mission, and leader­ ship to include alternative and marginalized perspectives • seeking a diversity of individuals to work in the organization • encouraging marginalized individuals to form subgroups to get necessary support and resources for maintaining their beliefs, values, and identities • creating forums for employees to study, analyze, and discuss behaviors at all levels of the organization • analyzing and developing new processes for embracing differences among employees

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The systems that emerge from self-organization are based on the needs, values, and visions of those involved in the process of chaos and creation. Through these new insights, current practices that impose silence and invisi­ bility on many women and men of color and white women can be resisted and changed. Many different voices and visions can erupt from the depths of orga­ nizational chaos viewed through a feminist lens. NOTE 1. In marking the race of white women, we resist collaborating in the phenomenon Haraway (1997) terms the "race of no race." She identifies a typical effect of unexamined race privilege as the tendency for individuals associated with a dominant racial category to freely ignore their privilege. Unexamined ideological assumptions of race privilege are embedded in organizational cultures; these assumptions inform language patterns and policies, producing race-based discrimination.

CONCLUDING CHAPTER

11 Dialoguing .. . Patrice M. Buzzanell

Dialoguing . . . is to continue discussion, to value instability, and to tempo­ rarily resolve issues with a willingness to reopen conversation. "Dialoguing . . . " seems to be an appropriate title for our last chapter because we cannot provide closure on the themes represented by the work in this book or in other contemporary feminist organizational and managerial writings. Because we are engaged in critiquing ongoing feminist concerns, this chapter simply high­ lights some interrelated issues that require further attention: (a) sustaining tensions between binary oppositions; (b) exploring resistance; and (c) pro­ moting participatory discourse and alternative organizing. SUSTAINING TENSIONS BETWEEN BINARY OPPOSITIONS One issue that requires the sustained attention of communication scholars is learning how to maintain tensions between dualisms. As a feminist third wave emerges, a primary characteristic of this phase is learning to live with and nav­ igate contradictions and ambiguities (Bailey, 1997; Orr, 1997). Contempo­ rary feminist work opposes either/or thinking and behaving by revaluing the missing half of oppositions and promoting both/and thinking. Of particu­ lar importance to feminist organizational and managerial communication re­ search is our continuing critique of sameness/difference and inclusion/ exclusion, among other dualisms. 257

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Sameness/difference typically refers to claims about the similarity or uniqueness of women and men. When women are presumed to be identical to men in all aspects except some biological characteristics, then advocates argue for equality. Equality arguments run into trouble when they neglect the disparate life experiences of women and men, the worldwide devaluation of the feminine, and the different expectations and consequences for identical behaviors enacted by women or men. However, when women are considered to be different from men, then two-culture arguments surface; the sexes' ways of knowing, relating, leading, making moral decisions, and viewing their organizational lives presumably are so different that women and men could come from different planets (e.g., Gray, 1992). Difference is problematic because of essentialist assumptions; namely, all women and all men are assumed to behave in certain sex stereotypical ways. The variations within and between the sexes are considered inconsequential. The complexities in work that seeks to understand women's and men's lives are obscured by pres­ sures to simplify and arrange hierarchically. 1 In addition to sameness/difference divides between the sexes, we also can look at sameness/difference with regard to race and ethnicity and sexualsocial orientation. Expectations and consequences for similar behaviors enacted by whites or people of color and by heterosexuals or gays and lesbians are vastly different. Women of color may find themselves second-guessing or questioning what they know to be true or being subjected to others' assess­ ments that they have been hired or promoted as "twofers" (see Allen, this vol­ ume). Gays and lesbians may situate themselves in an uneasy space in conver­ sations and decision making about their lifestyle preferences when they are unsure about whether they will be accepted by others (see Spradlin, 1998; Woods, 1994). Sameness/difference arguments come into play at sites where identities are challenged and our responses cannot address the complexities of the situation. If we assume sameness, then we lose the diversity in human ex­ istence that enriches our experiences and thinking. If we take the argument about difference to the extreme, then we lose sight of the underlying similarity that unites all of us—our humanness and desires to be treated with dignity and respect. The issue of inclusion/exclusion takes a number of forms in this book. We have included multiple feminisms as analytic methods and lenses, varied evi­ dence types, different chapter presentational formats (e.g., narratives, poems, diary entries, personal experiences as moments for challenging theory), and numerous organizational topics and theories. We often use our personal expe­ riences and identities to question and construct theorizing. Chapter authors struggle with definitional boundaries that defy inclusion of what they know to be part of organizational constructs. For examples, see Allen's descriptions of black women's experiences as "outsiders within"; Mattson, Clair, Sanger, and Kunkel's exploration of women's everyday stressors that are not identified as

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organizationally related; Fine and Buzzanell*s paradoxical experiences when enacting leadership as serving; or Bullis and Stout's revisions of earlier socialization research to incorporate traditionally underrepresented members of society. The authors in this volume question the ways in which women (and men) subscribe to singular career forms that cannot lead to greater equity for the sexes, classes, and races or ethnicities (Buzzanell) and the ways in which they fail to deal with the self-organizing repetitive structures inherent in workplace inequity (Reuther & Fairhurst). In general, although feminist communication research still does not ade­ quately publicize the different concerns of women of color (Aldoory & Toth, in press), our chapters have attempted to develop some understandings of what organizational life looks like from marginalized standpoints. It should be a source of embarrassment and a call to action that "the situation of younger middle-class [white] women today seems to be better than that of their moth­ ers a generation ago. . . . By contrast, the situation of many working-class women, including many women of color, has deteriorated" ( Jaggar, 1994, p. 5). Indeed, Bailey's (1997) analysis of emerging third-wave feminist issues indicates that "if there is one message that screams from the pages of . . . [third-wave] books, it is that despite the efforts of older feminists, racism within feminism is alive and w e i r (p. 26). Although we have attempted to bring alternative insights to each organiza­ tional and managerial construct or theory, there are other issues of inclusion/ exclusion, such as masculinities in gender relations and transnational feminist concerns, that are not represented in this volume. The incorporation of mascu­ linities is a logical outgrowth of a contemporary feminist agenda that prioritizes inclusion of difference in theorizing. Feminism is "not just about women, but about oppression, and ways to create life and work experiences that are honest, sensitive and open to all types of voices (including men's)" (Aldoory & Toth, in press, emphasis in original). Mumby (1998) illustrates how masculinities consist of variations that are infrequently accounted for in the ways writers describe gender. Spitzack (1998) reasons,

Researchers have sought avenues for the empowerment of women by encouraging a disruption of the hierarchical and often essentialized opposition of masculine and feminine. In this process the cultural purchase of the feminine is often interro­ gated in relation to a relatively stable and monolithic notion of masculinity. Such an imbalance not only endorses an agenda of unilateral change, thereby preserving the normative power of the masculine, but it also forecloses the need for sustained conversations in which gender is figured as a cultural production, (p. 141)

To understand gender in organizational life means to critique femininities, masculinities, and the intersections within and between the genders.

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Likewise, Hegde (1998) calls for a postcolonial move "to account for the interplay between the local and global, the minority and hegemonic culture" (p. 282). This move reflects a growing disenchantment that feminisms have lessened discriminatory treatment of white women but have either not helped or further disenfranchised women of color and Third World women by neglecting economic class structures (Aldoory & Toth, in press). Hegde (1998) recommends that one way to represent political interests in the social community is to consider theory from the standpoint of feminist resistance and within a transnational (shifting) context. She sees the emerging global cri­ tique of Eurocentric assumptions in feminist thinking as third-wave femi­ nism.

EXPLORING RESISTANCE As we describe resistance to unjust situations, we need to move away from typologies that describe strategies of resistance and focus more on the ways that people incorporate resistant thinking and behaving into their identities and interactions. Resistance takes many forms. Organizational members may resist through hidden transcripts (Murphy, 1998), through retelling and revis­ ing the stories of their lives (Marshall, 1995), through the use of different strategies to preserve identities within cocultural (dominant/nondominant) exchanges (Orbe, 1998), and through expression in silence and/or in voice (Clair, 1998). In some cases, resistance can mean living in an intolerable situation while laying plans to leave. Calâs and Smircich (1996) note that forms of resistance in a transnational feminist perspective may not correspond with First World understandings, such as cases in which female workers become "possessed by spirits and disrupt the work situation" (p. 242). Moreover, in personal rela­ tionships dominated by violence and in ethnic cleansing that destroys those most vulnerable in a given society, resistance can mean death. Resistance can mean that women "steal time" for what they would need to do. They overtly comply with traditional gendered activities and priorities while finding time in their daily routines for other activities (Buzzanell, 1997). They both com­ ply with and challenge temporal gendered orderings. Our chapters show that resistance can range from the deliberate alteration of daily micropolitics (see Allen; Fine & Buzzanell) to the small gestures that emerge—unanticipated— as major systemic changes (see Reuther & Fairhurst). We also see resistance to standard negotiation scripts through the development of alternative negoti­ ation and bargaining processes (see Putnam & Kolb, this volume). At first, women may not resist stereotypical gender expectations. Trethewey (this volume) shows how they may subscribe to and discipline themselves to conform to masculine ideals of professional behavior or looks without chal­

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lenging the double binds such complicity incurs. However, over time, women may emerge as resistant and may enact both resistance and complicity simul­ taneously. What makes action a form of resistance is that the individuals engage in thinking and behaving that preserves dignity and identities that nor­ mally are trivialized, denied, or oppressed. Because of the situated understandings, unfolding nature, and simultane­ ous enactment of resistance and complicity, typologies cannot fully capture the complexities underlying resistance. We need to contextualize thinking (and behaving) about resistance within broader themes such as ethical organi­ zational communication. By insisting that all organizational stakeholders have a responsibility to develop awareness of and responsiveness to practices that undermine authentic relationships and identities, communication special­ ists can create organizational systems centered in the daily enactment of a value transformation vision (i.e., equitable power sharing and decision mak­ ing; Mattson & Buzzanell, 1999). Unethical behavior from a feminist organi­ zational communication perspective is defined as "communicative actions and processes that attempt to marginalize, silence, and disempower individu­ als or groups and prohibit development of voice" (Mattson & Buzzanell, 1999, p. 62). Conversely, ethical messages, practices, and structures support and enable individuals or groups in ways that challenge power imbalances and include participatory discourse.

PROMOTING PARTICIPATORY DISCOURSE AND ALTERNATIVE ORGANIZING In our chapters, feminisms are used not only to probe issues considered perti­ nent to the lives of white women and women of color but also to explore par­ ticipatory discourse. Our chapters describe the creation of participatory systems in stakeholder relations (Haas & Deetz); permeable boundaries be­ tween (public and private) spheres that admit discourses previously relegated to one sphere into the other (Mumby); and co-constructed negotiation pro­ cesses (Putnam & Kolb). These chapters are consistent with current feminist trends to delve into alternative ways of reconceptualizing organizing and organizational structure (see Calâs & Smircich, 1996). By examining how gender operates within struggles for control over organizing processes, we may further challenge commonsense notions of legitimate structure, work processes, and workplace identities, including hierarchy and career (Buzzanell & Goldzwig, 1991; Ferguson, 1984; Mumby, 1998). We also may lessen managerialist tendencies to appropriate aspects of feminine working and leading that promote organizational effectiveness and efficiency but do not transform the power dynamics that disenfranchise most workers (see Calâs & Smircich, 1993; Fine, 1993; Fondas, 1997).

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In general, alternative organizing either is resistant to traditional bureau­ cratic structures and thinking or offers a different kind of structure aligned with values of choice, relationship, inclusion, caregiving, information shar­ ing, community, and membership ownership and decision making (Buzzanell et al., 1997). We see growing attention to processes of representation and advocacy for change, as displayed in writings on workplace democracy and feminist organizing. Cheney (1995) defines workplace democracy as a system of governance which truly values individual goals and feelings (e.g., equitable enumeration, the pursuit of enriching work and the right to express one­ self) as well as typical organizational objectives (e.g., effectiveness and efficiency, reflectively conceived), which actively fosters the connection between those two sets of concerns by encouraging individual contributions to important organiza­ tional choices, and which allows for the ongoing modification of the organiza­ tion's activities by the group, (pp. 170-171)

Cheney et al. (1998) encourage additional research into issues of democracy not only because our disciplinary roots and important questions in varied communicative contexts relate to influence processes but also because our field has ethical and practical interests in promoting democratic organizations and illuminating the processes of representation. Democracy operates as a "form of social relations that aims simultaneously at developmental individu­ alization and the collective good" (Deetz, 1992, p. 5). Democracy can prioritize organizational goals and participatory struc­ tures, whereas feminist organizing consists of processes that are enacted within different types of organizational structures but conform to core femi­ nist principles (Bate & Taylor, 1988; Ferree & Martin, 1995; Martin, 1990). Buzzanell (1994,1995) portrays feminist organizing as the openness to differ­ ent ways of working, the incorporation of holistic human beings (with regard to needs, values, and work outcomes), and collaborative work environments. These are not all-or-nothing elements in organizing, and they are difficult to achieve. However, according to Riger ( 1994), "Creating organizations that serve and advocate for women has been an outstanding achievement of the feminist movement in the United States during the past two decades" (p. 275). Because these organizations serve as means of promoting feminist values, their structures can have a variety of forms, including bureaucratic, participa­ tory, and compound, or can combine "elements of more than one pure feminist practice" (Gottfried & Weiss, 1994, p. 24). Thus, the "critical choice facing members of a newly formed feminist organization is how far to deviate from mainstream principles and practices" (Riger, 1994, p. 280). The critical dilemma for communication researchers and practitioners is how to enlarge the understanding of stakeholder concerns (Haas & Deetz, this

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volume), negotiation parties' interests (Putnam & Kolb, this volume), and evidence admissibility (Mumby, this volume) in organizational decision mak­ ing while developing pragmatic arguments about the needs and means for transformation. Of interest to researchers and advocates of both democratic and feminist organizing is how members communicatively evolve structures that can deal with ideological tensions and changes in size or purpose and pro­ mote participatory and feminist values (see Bate & Taylor, 1988; Buzzanell et al., 1997; Cheney et al., 1998). A continuing challenge for feminist organi­ zational and managerial communication researchers and practitioners is to locate sites in which members replicate, resist, and transform traditionally gendered organizing processes.

CONCLUSION This book is just one attempt to generate further feminist organizational and managerial communication theory, research, and practice so that our work is inclusive, representative, and diverse. As Calâs and Smircich (1996) con­ clude, "It's not only about 'gender' any more, as both women and men, from both First and Third Worlds, employed and unemployed, with and without families, struggle with inequality, injustice, inequity and intolerance" (p. 242). It is about presenting and publicizing the voices of those who are silenced, ignored, and misunderstood because of either taken-for-granted practices or deliberate attempts to squelch resistance. Through the tensions between the voices of those centrally located within and those inadequately represented by communication theorizing, we hope to call into question the very theoretical elements and frameworks that we have taken as the bases of our discipline. Our responsibility as feminist organizational and managerial communica­ tion researchers is to articulate feminist issues in such a way that makes these concerns so compelling that others cannot help but see their importance in everyday interactions. Feminist communication scholarship can stretch the boundaries of what is possible in our research and practice. Our scholarship in these chapters reflects and develops emerging feminist concerns. At present, a third-wave feminist movement is not fully developed, but it seems to include and extend many of the themes we discuss in our chapters: living with contra­ dictions, dissolving dualisms that threaten equality and difference, develop­ ing contexts for participatory practices and decision making, using the per­ sonal narrative to produce knowledge and theorizing, and critiquing and remedying the paucity of solutions and political strategies inherited from ear­ lier feminist work (Bailey, 1997; Heyes, 1997; Siegel, 1997). The work of emerging feminism has to do with a stance and practice:

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Regardless of how, when, and under what circumstances one becomes a part of the current wave of feminist activism and scholarship, what unites practitioners in a third wave of praxis is a pledge to expand on the groundwork laid during waves one and two; a commitment to continue the feminist legacy of assessing foundational concepts, particularly the category "woman"; and the courage to embrace the chal­ lenge of moving feminism, as a political movement without the fixity of a single feminist agenda in view, into the next millennium. (Siegel, 1997, p. 56)

NOTE 1. Simplification and hierarchical arrangement are conditions that prompt essentialist thinking. Heyes (1997) describes the antiessentialism work of contemporary feminists as reactions to second-wave feminists' "lack of intellectual rigor" (p. 145). This second-wave work often erased salient differences among women by using broad categories and generalizations. However, Heyes acknowledges that some difference ar­ guments, such as those developed by Gilligan ( 1982) in her earliest and subsequent publi­ cations, helped rally support for the ways gender operated uniquely as an oppressive social construction: The challenge facing third wave feminist theory lies in the observation that neither inter­ minable deconstruction nor uncritical reification of the category "women" is adequate to the demands of feminist practice. The task we have inherited [from second wave feminists] is to take seriously the commitments entailed in anti-essentialism but to find ways effec­ tively to incorporate them into resistive political projects, (p. 146) One way of accomplishing this goal is to "examine how generalizations are used; not to reject the use of generality altogether, but to ask what is enabled and what is excluded in the context in question" (p. 149). Generalizations can have emancipatory potential de­ pending on how they are used and whether they can develop exploratory inquiries into un­ derdeveloped aspects of women's lives.

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Index

Absent referents, 56, 60, 69, 73

Academia, black women in, 186-190

Accomplishment, sense of, 164, 173

Action, motives of, 36

Active agents, organizational socialization

and, 4 9 , 5 1 , 5 2

Adaptive leadership, 139

Administration, defining, 129

Adorno, T., 34

Affirmative action, 183, 186-188, 237

African Americans, earnings and, 220

African American women, plantation

protocol and, 250

Alfred, M. V., 206

Alienation:

black women experiencing, 198-199,

203

new career and, 224

Allen, B. J., 73-74, 177-208, 258-259

American dream, 210

American work ethic, 215

Anticipatory socialization, 181

Appearance, women's, 116, 121, 123,

124-125, 243

Appreciative inquiry, negotiation and,

99-100

Argumentation:

authoritative paradigms, 15

presuppositions, 31

public-private dichotomy and, 10

public sphere of, 4

spheres of knowledge and, 8

Arthur, M. B., 211

Assimilation, socialization and, 50, 5 1 ,

184

Attitudes:

adaptive leadership and, 139

caregiving, 230, 2 3 1 , 232, 233

dominant culture's, 182

organizationally appropriate, 181

temporary employment and, 221

towards black women employees,

188

Attractiveness, 117

Authority, legitimate, 32

Autonomy, 33

Bach, B. W., 52, 53, 55, 178, 180, 181,

182, 202

Bailey, C , 259

Bargaining activity, negotiation as,

96-99

Barker, J. R., 112

Bartky, S., 114, 122

Bateson, G., 167

Behavior:

adaptive leadership and, 139

feminine, 146

fractal organizations, 241-244

gendered organizational, 133

hierarchical relations and, 179

masculine norms of, 136

order-out-of-chaos, 245

305

306

COMMUNICATION FROM FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES

organizationally appropriate, 181

organizational socialization and, 53

stress affecting, 162

temporary employment and, 221

towards black women employees,

188

white male managers, 242

Beliefs:

gendered organizational, 133

psychological contracts, 210

Bell, E. L., 182, 197

Bell, L. M., 237

Benhabib, S., 25-26, 33-37, 39, 40-41, 42

Benson, S., 18-19, 20

Bicultural identity, 197-198, 202, 242

Binary thinking, critique of, 11-12

Black(s). See African Americans; African

American women

Black feminist standpoint analysis, 177­ 208

Blue-collar workers, African American,

220

Body:

feminist analyses of, 107-127, 260

stress and, 158, 161, 199

Body language, 119-120

Bohm, D., 247

Bordo, S., 116, 118, 125

Botan, C , 112

Boundaries:

organizational-environmental, 227­ 232

organization-society, 227-232, 234

socialization and, 60-63

Boundary permeability:

new career and, 226-227

public-private spheres, 33, 261

Bounded entities, organizations as, 49

Braverman, H., 19, 108-109

Breadwinner status, 20

Briskin, A., 156

Buchanan, B., 51

Bullis, C , 47-75, 178, 180, 181, 182, 202,

259

Bureaucractic control, 109

Burnout, 164-167, 172, 199

Buzzanell, P. M., 4 8 , 55, 56, 6 1 , 62,

63, 64, 65, 72, 128-156, 169, 209­ 235, 237, 257-264

Capitalism:

emancipation from systems of, 4

public-private dichotomy and, 10

women's lives and, 178-179

women's work and, 56

Care, ethic of, 37

Career:

black women and, 188, 200-201

development opportunities, 242

developmental support, 220

glass ceiling and, 236-253

marginalized persons, 236-253

new, 209-235

Career contract, 221

Caregiving, new career and, 232

Caregiving attitudes, 230, 2 3 1 , 232,

233

Caretaking roles, black women and,

189

Caring, servant leadership and, 147

Change:

boundary permeability and, 226­ 227

double-loop learning and, 245-246

feminist agenda, 259

feminist career and social contract

perspective, 229

feminist goal of, 180

feminist leadership and, 144

new career and, 222

organizational visions and, 132

revolutionary pragmatism and, 138

serving and, 150, 153, 156

workplace democracy and, 262

Chaos theory, glass ceiling and, 236­ 253

Cheney, G., 109-110, 112, 172, 262

Childlike women, 243

Circular questioning, 101

Citizen choices, 41

Citizen role, gendered character of, 13

Index

307

Clair, R. P., 7, 157-174, 182, 258-259

serving, 150, 151, 2 3 1 , 232

Clerking sisterhood, 18-19

work, 230

Clothing, 121, 123, 124-125, 243

Community action, 230

Coalition formation, 57

Competition:

Co-construction, negotiation and, 84-86,

in environment, 227

88-89, 9 3 , 9 4 , 103

negotiation and, 77, 99

Coercion, public sphere, 9

Complexity, chaos theory and,

Collaboration, negotiation as, 84, 86, 89,

239-240

90, 93

Concertive control, 109-110, 111

Collective action, 22

Concessions, negotiation and, 85

Collective effort, integrative negotiation

Concrete other, 33-35, 39, 4 1 , 42-44

and, 78

Confessional practices, 7

Collective story, 184, 207

Conflict:

Collective voices, 59

chaos theory and, 246

Collins, P. H., 57, 58, 61

corporational stakeholder

Collinson, D., 18, 19-20

relationships, 29

Color, women of. See Women of color

distributive negotiation and, 78

Comments, directed at black women, 192­ framing, 168

194

negotiation and, 78, 91-92

Commitment, organizational socialization

newcomers and, 194

and, 52, 53

role, 162, 166

Commodities:

Conflict-based stakeholder models, 25

employees as, 223, 224

Conflicts of interests, managerial, 39

negotiation and, 80, 81-82, 94, 96,

Connection, new career and, 225-226

100

Consciousness-raising, 180

Communal goals, negotiation and, 85, 86

Consensus, public sphere, 9

Communication:

Constestation, spheres of knowledge

disciplinary force and, 107

and, 8

dominant means of, 13

Consumer choices, 41

emotional, 165

Consumer roles, 230

masculine behaviors, 237

Container, organization as, 223-227

meta-, 167

Containment, socialization and, 60-63

negotiation, 76-104

Contestation, public sphere and, 10,

socialization and, 53, 59, 181

15-16

systematically distorted, 3 1 , 32

Context:

Communicative action, 25, 31

newcomer information-seeking

Communicative democracy, 4

behavior and, 195

Communicative interaction, 26

organizational practices, 227

Community/communities:

organization as exchange site and,

alternative discourse, 21

223

as set of discursive processes, 22

practical rationality and, 216

belonging to, 225

socialization and, 60, 182, 183

black women and, 197, 202, 207

standpoint theory and, 179

female workers, 19

Contingent workers, 219

new career and, 225-226, 227

Control:

resistance and, 248

bureaucratic, 109

308

COMMUNICATION FROM FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES

concertive, 109-110, 111

participation in, and stress, 166

gendered character of, 113-125

public sphere, 4, 8

negotiation and, 84

rationalistic approach, 133

organizational roles and, 129

stakeholder interests and, 24-46,

organizing processes, 261

262

overt, 108-109

Deconstruction:

socialization used for, 177

negotiation, 80

women's bodies and, 107-127, 260

public-private dichotomy, 13, 16

Cooperation:

socialization, 62

corporation-stakeholder relationships, Deetz, S., 4, 24-46, 109, 112, 178, 222,

29

229, 230, 240, 243, 246, 2 6 1 , 262

decline in, 228

Demands, stress caused by, 162-164,

negotiation and, 77, 94, 95

171

stress affecting, 161

Democracy:

with corporate goals, 230

communicative, 4

Corporate imperative, 217-218, 228, 232

discourse in public sphere and, 9

Corporations:

workplace, 262

ethical concerns, 24-46

Democratic dialogue, new career and,

public-private dichotomy and, 6

222

survival of, 217

Democratic institutions, 5

See also Organization(s)

Democratic state process, corporation

Crawford, M., 247

and, 28, 29

Critical feminism, public/private spheres

Deskilling thesis, 19

and, 3-23

Dialogue:

Culture, workplace reproducing relations

mediated interaction, 43

in, 138

negotiation and, 86, 98-99

Dialoguing, 257-264

Difference, 258

Dahl, R., 17

gendered leadership and, 143

Danielson, M., 74

tolerance of, 242-243, 251

Deadlines, causing stress, 162-164

Discipline, organizational control and,

Debate:

107-127

multinational corporations and, 11

Discourse(s):

negotiation and, 99, 102

alternative, 113

public, 10-11, 15, 22

alternative communities, 21

public-private spheres and, 15

gendered, 115-120

spheres of knowledge and, 8

new career and, 2 1 1 , 221-222,

Decision making:

232-234

authority over personal, 59

participatory, 261-263

concertive control and, 109-110

public-private spheres, 3-23

corporate imperative and, 217-218

rationalistic approach, 133

economic rationality and, 78

socialization, 62

emotions informing, 217

stereotypes and, 247

employee participation in, 229, 262

negotiation and, 76, 93

Discourse ethics, 30-32

organizational roles and, 129

Discrimination, 240, 243, 260

Index

309

decision making and, 78

Discursive communities, overlapping, 11

new career and, 212-217

Discursive practice:

Economic sphere, 15-16

frames as, 168

Education:

new career and, 2 1 1 , 221-222

earnings and, 231

stress as, 172-173

growth occupations and, 219

Display, bodies and, 119, 123, 124

new career and, 222, 229

Distributive exchange, negotiation as, 86­ resistance and, 248

87, 89, 90, 99

tax incentives for, 231

Distributive negotiation, 78

Edwards, R., 108, 109

Diversity:

Effectiveness models, 4

favoring, 242

Egalitarian reciprocity, principle of, 42

managing, 68

Emancipation:

Divisiveness, in organizational

feminist goals of, 180

relationships, 129-130

from capitalist control systems, 4

Domestic sphere, 13, 15, 16

Emotion, 165

Domestic violence, 18

information from, 216-217

Domestic work, 56

Dominant culture, reality constructions

negotiation and, 95

and, 182

Emotional contagion, 165

Dominant-subordinate relationships, work, Emotional exhaustion, 164

62

Emotional labor, 243

Domination:

Emotional strain, stress causing, 161

black women and, 180

Empathic concern, 165

domestic violence and, 16

Empathy, 165

negotiation and, 94

negotiation and, 95

socialization practices and, 59, 204

relating experiences and, 205

standpoint theory and, 179

Employability, 219, 220, 2 2 1 , 224, 228

Downsizing, 218, 225, 230

Employees:

Dress, women's, 116, 121, 123, 124-125,

as commodities, 2 2 3 , 224

243

benefits, 227

Dualisms, tensions between, 257-260

contingent, 219

decision making participation,

229, 262

essentializing, 219

Earnings:

recruiting and retaining, 164, 183,

black women and, 183

227

education and, 231

social contracts, 209-235

marginalized workers, 219, 220

universal, 221

women's work, 243-244

Employment:

Eating disorders, 117

lifetime, 215

Economic issues:

temporary, 219, 221

bargaining and, 81

Empowerment:

corporate imperative and, 217, 228

female clerks, 19, 21

Economic model, corporation-stakeholder

from capitalist control systems, 4

relationship and, 25, 27-28

leaders and, 140

Economic outcomes, new career and, 216

new career and, 222

Economic rationality:

310

COMMUNICATION FROM FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES

research and, 259

servant leaders and, 153

Englebrecht, A. R., 64

Environments, chaotic, 236-253

Eoyang, G. H., 239-240

Equal employability access, 219

Equality:

arguments for, 258

gendered leadership and, 143

Equity, negotiation and, 85

Ethical issues:

corporate imperative and, 218

feminist perspective, 24-46

leadership and, 139

new career and, 232

serving and, 132

Ethical orientation, gender differences in,

68

Ethnicity:

earnings and, 220

sameness/difference dualism, 258

Everyday experiences:

acts of resistance and, 249

standpoint theory and, 179

Excess, female body as, 120-122

Exchange:

as commodity, 81-82

co-construction versus, 84-86

negotiation and, 77, 79-82, 86-87, 94,

96, 100, 102

new career and, 223-225

work contracts and, 210, 213-215,

232

Exclusion:

feminist concepts and, 258-259

informal networks, 69

public sphere, 9

socialization and, 68

women's socialization and, 64

Exit mentality, 215

Experiences:

acts of resistance and, 249

black women making sense of, 199

embodied identities, 124-125

feminist synalytics, 138

feminist theory and, 258

learning about, in negotiation, 90,

93, 94, 101

relating to other's, 205

standpoint theory and, 179

understanding organizations

through, 133-134

women discouraged from sharing,

64

Experts, 7, 216

Failure, responsibility for, 211-212

Fairhurst, G. T., 236-253

Family, new career and, 224-225

Feedback, organizational socialization

and, 52, 54

Female-dominated occupations, 172,

173-174

Female gaze, 122-123

Feminine:

cultural purchase of, 259

devaluation of, 258

Feminine behaviors, 146

Feminine leadership, 141, 143

Feminine servant leadership, 146-152

Feminine speech community,

characteristics of, 141-142

Femininity, 124

disciplinary techniques, 113-115

professional women and, 116

traditional views of, 243

Feminist approaches:

glass ceiling and, 236-253

new career and, 2 1 1 , 216-217,

226, 232-234

organizational ethics, 24-46

organizations and public sphere, 3­ 23

reframing stress, 157-174

tensions between dualisms and,

257-260

to leadership, 128-156

to negotiation, 76-104

to relationships, 225

Feminist counterpublics, 17

Feminist critique:

Index

311

Gendered work, servant leadership and,

disciplined bodies, 107-127

147

public-private dichotomy, 11-18

Gender ideologies, glass ceiling and,

Feminist ethics, multiple-stakeholder

237

model and, 37-38

Gender stereotypes, 243-244

Feminist organizing, 261-263

Generalized other, 33-35, 38, 39

Feminist serving, 152-155

Glass ceiling, 64, 220, 236-253

Feminist standpoint:

Gleick, J., 240, 241

black women and, 177-208

Global economic system, w o m e n ' s

organizational socialization and, 48,

invisibility and, 65

55-74

Global environments, turbulent, 215

Feminist synalytics, 138

Global society, social contracts and,

Feminist third wave, 257

228

Feminized professions, 61

Goals:

Ferguson, K., 27, 261

concertive control and, 110

Fine, M. G , 128-156, 259

negotiation and, 90-92, 93

Fitness, professional women and, 117-118

See also Organizational goals

Foucault, M., 13, 17, 108, 121

Goffman, E., 167-168

Fox-Genovese, E., 13

Goldzwig, S. R., 6 1 , 62, 210, 261

Fractals, 241-244

Goodnight, G. T., 8, 9

Fraker, A. T., 142, 143, 149

Government, workforce participation

Fraser, N., 10, 13, 14-15, 17, 2 1 , 37, 173

subsidies and, 230-231

Friends, isolation from, 224-225

Gramsci, A., 18

Greenleaf, R. K., 142-143, 147-148

Group development, deadlines

Gadamer, H., 38

affecting, 163

Gallos, J. V., 226

Group experiences, standpoint theory

Game theory, negotiation and, 78

and, 179

Gender:

Group rights, public-private spheres

and, 11

as managed status, 116

Growth, serving and, 150, 153, 156

earnings and, 220

ethical orientation, 68

organizational roles, 130

socialization studies and, 68

Haas, T., 24-46, 2 6 1 , 2 6 2

Gender bias, negotiation and, 102

Habermas, J., 9, 10, 25, 27, 30-31, 33,

Gendered activity, exchange as, 79-80

34-35, 37, 42

Gendered communication practices,

Haney, D. Q., 158

organization and, 3-23

Hartsock, N., 80, 81

Hayles, K., 240

Gendered discourses, resisting, 124-125

Gendered identity, disciplinary techniques Hazell, D., 159

Health, stress and, 158, 161, 199

and, 113-115

Heckscher, C , 218, 2 2 1 , 222, 225

Gendered leadership, 141-144

Hedge, R. S., 260

Gendered positions, controlling women's

Hegemony, 18, 179, 182

bodies and, 107

Hierarchical patterns, organizational

Gendered relations, socialization

practices, 130-131

processes reproducing, 48, 59

312

COMMUNICATION FROM FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES

Hierarchical relationships, externalizing,

179

Hispanics:

earnings and, 220

in senior management, 237

Historical context:

socialization and, 182

standpoint theory and, 179

Homophily, 196

hooks, bell, 57, 152, 180

Huff, A. S., 154

Human capital, investment in, 228

Human labor, replacement of, 227, 228

Humor, as resistance, 19-21

Ideal role-taking, 35

Ideal speech situation, 25, 31

Identification:

organizational control and, 109-110

organizational socialization and, 52,

53

Identities:

bicultural, 197-198, 202, 242

black women and, 180

career and, 221

constructed, 4

feminine, 114

masculine workplace, 19-21

new career and, 232

oppositional interpretations of, 17

organizational discourses and, 112­ 113

professional women, 115-120

racial, 197-198

suppression of, 242-243

workplace, 18-23, 222

Inclusion/exclusion dualism, 258­ 259

Individual agency, transformational

standpoints and, 66

Individual differences, suppression of,

242-243

Individualism:

gender issues, 13

masculine identity and, 20

negotiation and, 80, 82

new career and, 224

Individual outcomes, new work

contracts and, 214-215

Individual rights, public-private

spheres and, 11

Information:

from emotions, 216-217

leaders sharing, 142

negotiation and, 100

newcomers and, 185, 194-197

socialization and, 50, 5 1 , 52, 181­ 182

Information specialists, 227

Innovation, 110

Inquiry, mutual, and negotiation, 88-89

Insiders, 60

boundary and, 61

women participating equally with,

55

Institutional arrangements,

socialization and, 62

Institutional ethnography, 73

Instrumental goals, leaders and, 143

Integrative bargaining, 78, 79, 87, 89,

90, 98

Interaction:

glass ceiling and, 237

mediated, 43

negotiation, 76-104

public sphere, 3-23

white male managers and, 242

with black women employees, 191

Interdependence, 251

chaos theory and, 239-240

gender differences in views of, 68

negotiation and, 76, 9 1 , 9 3 , 101,

103

new career and, 226

organization-society, 227-232

Interpersonal contact, stress from, 164

Interpretation:

discourse community and, 22

dominant means of, 13

Invitational rhetoric, 99

Irigaray, L., 121

Index Iron maiden stereotype, 243-244

Isolation:

black women experiencing, 198-199,

203

new career and, 224-225, 226

Jablin, F. M., 49, 50, 52, 60, 62, 6 3 , 178,

180, 181, 194-195, 202

Jaggar, A. M., 259

Job security, 215, 218-219, 228, 230, 231

Justice, ethic of, 25, 26, 33, 37

313 organization construction and,

232-233

stereotypes and, 247

Leadership, 128-156

current approaches to, 139-145

cynicism about, 228

defining, 129-133

framing in, 168

Learning, double-loop, 245-246, 250

Legal issues, bureaucratic control and,

109

Lesbian resistance, as embodied

practice, 124-125

Liberal bourgeois model, 9, 10

Liberal feminism, 55

Life satisfaction, 225

Locations, standpoint feminism and,

55-58

Logic of identity, 34

Lorde, A., 251

Lower classes, organizational

socialization and, 65

Loyalty, to organization, 2 2 1 , 228

Kahn, R. L., 184, 204

Katz, D., 184, 204

Knowing, ways of, 133, 147-148, 212-217

Knowledge:

public-private dichotomy and, 17

social, 8

spheres of discourse and, 8-9

standpoint and, 12

technical, 8

Knowledge claims:

capitalist societies and, 179

coproduced by researcher and

Macropractices, linking with

informants, 12

micropractices, 210

public discourse and, 247

Male dominated organizational

Knowledge production, modern

cultures, 47

corporation and, 18

M ale gaze, 122

Kolb, D. M., 76-104, 2 6 1 , 2 6 3

M anagement:

Krone, K. J., 49

defining, 129

Kunda, G., 110

job loss and, 218

Kunkel, A. D., 157-174, 258-259

marginalized persons in, 236-253

new career and, 210, 212, 222

personal relationships and, 224

rationalistic approach, 133

Labor force participation, minorities and,

socialization and, 181

218-219

Labor markets, 164, 210

stakeholders and, 26, 27, 29-30,

LaClau, E., 57

37-46

Language:

stress and, 161

boundary permeability and, 227

voice and, 217-219

chaotic systems, 239-240

M anagerial rationality, 19-21

glass ceiling and, 237

M anagerialism, 28, 38

new career and, 226

M anstories, 143

offensive, 243

M arginality, 65

314

COMMUNICATION FROM FEMINIST P E R S P E C T I V E S

articulating, 22-23

different positions of, 57, 58

earnings and, 219, 220

feminized professions, 61

glass ceiling and, 236-253

overcoming, 64

public discourse and debate, 9, 11, 17

research and, 259, 260

socialization and, 59, 73

standards of living and, 228

stress and, 170-171

telling stories about, 180

women of color, 179

women's bodies, 115

women's work, 173

Market economy, value system and, 41

Marshall, J., 145, 151,226

Marx, K., 56

Marxist feminists, 173

Masculine behavior norms, 136

Masculine career forms, 211

Masculine communication behaviors,

237

Masculine environment, traditional

bargaining and, 100-101

Masculine leadership, 141

Masculine workplace identity, 19-21

Masculinity, negotiation and, 80

Mass communication, media of, 4 3 , 44

Material practice, stress as, 172-173

Matriarch stereotype, black women and,

190

Mattson, M., 157-174, 217, 258-259

McKay, N., 200, 206

McNay, L., 124

McPhee, R. D., 182

Meaning:

enacting systems of, 4

seeking through work, 149

Melia, J., 124-125

Membership, organizational socialization

and, 49, 50

Men of color, glass ceiling and, 237

Men's work, 65

Menstrual bleeding, 120-121

Mentoring, 196, 200-201, 206-207, 242

Metacommunication, 167

Metaphysics of presence, 34

Micropractices:

linking with macropractices, 210

socialization and, 183, 204, 205

Middle-class women, husband's career

changes and, 63

Miller, V. D., 52, 194-195

Minorities, labor force participation

by,218-219

Mommy-track, 220

Monitoring employees, 112

Moral agenda, organization's, 229

Moral conversation, 26, 35-37, 40-41,

42, 45

Moral impartiality and neutrality,

management and, 38

Moral issues, new career and, 232

Moral point of view, 35

Moral theory, universalistic

perspective, 3 3 , 35

Moral validity, 36

Mothering, stress of, 159-160, 171

Mother role, 243

Mouffe, C , 57

Multinational corporations, public

debate and policy and, 11

Multiple-stakeholder model, 25, 27, 28­ 30, 37-39

Mumby, D. K , 3-23, 212, 217, 223,

259, 2 6 1 , 263

Mutual inquiry, negotiation and,

84negotiation and, 88-89, 93

Nadesan, M. H., 113, 117

Nationality, discursive conception of,

36

Needs:

oppositional interpretations of, 17

politics of, 14-15

Negotiation:

feminist views of, 76-104

framing, 168

process of, 96-102

traditional models of, 77-79

Index Networks:

black women and, 197, 200

informal, 166, 182, 197

new career and, 225

Newcomer:

black woman employee, 177-208

role, 184, 185-207

sense making by, 194, 199

stress experience by, 194-203

treatment, 185-186

Nodes, organizations as, 54

Nonaka, I., 245

Norms:

application of, 35

dominant culture's, 182

justification of, 35

socialization and, 53, 181, 185

Nurturance, 33, 243

black women and, 189

in negotiation, 9 3 , 94

servant leadership and, 147

Oakley, A., 12

Object, body as, 114

Occupations:

growth, 219

socialization research, 67

Oppositional discourses, 16

Oppositions, tensions between binary,

257-260

Oppression:

gendered systems of, 12

outsider within and, 61

public sphere, 9

socialization and, 60

Order-out-of-chaos, 244-247

Organization(s):

agenda of, 217-219

as bounded entities, 49

as container, 223-227

as social construction, 223-227

commitment to, 2 2 1 , 222, 228

contemporary challenges, 178, 215,

217

fractal, 241-244

315 gendered communication

practices, 3-23

person-society interactions, 210

public spheres, 3-23

role divisions, 129-131

socialization and, 47-75, 259

societal relationship, 227-232, 234

ties to, 215

Organizational communication,

feminist synalytics AND, 138

Organizational contracts, negotiation

and, 76

Organizational culture, 47, 49

concertive control and, 110

resistance and, 19

superleaders and, 141

surveillance and, 111-112

Organizational ethics, feminist

perspective ON, 24-46

Organizational goals:

cooperation with, 230

democracy and, 262

instrumental, 143

values and, 218

Organizational outcomes, new work

contracts and, 214

Organizational wives, 64

Organizing:

alternative, 261-263

gender as constitutive feature of,

3-23

Other:

anonymous patriarchal, 122

concrete, 33-35, 39, 4 1 , 42-44

generalized, 33-35, 38, 39

in negotiations, 92

labor force participation and, 218­ 219

new career and, 217-223

women of color as, 179

women's socialization and, 64

Outcome:

gender as, 4

negotiation and, 90-92, 93

Outsiders:

becoming insiders, 49, 51

316

COMMUNICATION FROM FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES boundaries and, 61

within, 5 6 , 6 1 , 6 4 , 73, 202

transformation and, 60

Panoptic gaze, 122, 125

Participation:

in decision-making, 4

in democratic processes, 10, 16

Partnership exchange, 210

Patriarchal culture, female desire and, 121

Patriarchal ideology, public-private

spheres and, 7, 13

Patriarchal values, white male managers

and, 241-243

Patriarchal worldview, economic

rationality and, 27

Patriarchy, standpoint theory and, 179

Pay. See Earnings

Peers:

informal networks, 69

organizational socialization and, 54

Personal learning, within work, 226

Personal qualities, of leaders, 140

Personal relationships, new career and,

224-226

Personal sphere, 8

Person-organization fit, 66

Person-organization-society interactions,

210

Perspectives, reversibility of, 34

Peterson, K. S., 158

Physical strain, stress causing, 161

Policies:

multinational corporations and, 11

workforce participation, 230-231

Political consciousness, 58, 59

Political context:

body and, 115

socialization and, 182

standpoint theory and, 179

Political interests:

corporation, 28

management, 28

stakeholders and, 24, 26, 27, 29-30,

37-42

Political issue:

depoliticizing, 16

stress as, 171-172

Political practices, subordinating

women, 12

Political processes, participation in, 10

Political sphere, discourse and, 14, 15

Politics of needs, 14-15

Porter, K. A., 159

Poststructuralist feminism, new career

and, 211,216-217

Power:

black women and, 180, 190-192

body as site of, 107

discipline and, 111, 112

gendered discourses and, 116

job cuts and, 228

male gaze, 122

negotiation and, 80, 85

new career and, 211

organizational roles and, 129

organizing processes, 261

public, 247

public-private dichotomy and, 6,

13, 17

socialization and, 66

Practical rationality, 213, 216, 232

Praxis, achieving transformation

through, 138

Principled negotiation, 78-79

Privacy issues, 6

Private sphere, 3-23, 33, 261

Private-pubic divide, gendered roles

and, 249

Problematics:

feminist research, 134

new career and, 2 1 1 , 212-232

Problem solving:

leadership style and, 139-140

negotiation and, 76, 78, 94, 95, 97­ 98, 102

Process, body as, 113

Product, body as, 113

Productivity, stress affecting, 161, 164

Profession(s):

marginalized feminized, 61

Index ties to, 215

Professsionalism, disciplined bodies and,

114, 115-120

Professionals:

job loss and, 218

new career and, 210, 212, 222, 229

personal relationships and, 224

Psychological contracts, 210, 215

Public sphere, 3-23, 33, 261

corporate decision making and,

27, 39

role and function of, 7-11

stakeholders and, 40

Public welfare, contestation of issues

of,

Publics, plurality of, 17

Putnam, L. L., 76-104, 2 6 1 , 263

Race:

earnings and, 220

gender intersection, 64, 65

identity and, 197-198

sameness/difference dualism, 258

socialization research, 67, 68

Racism, 205

black women and, 185, 193, 200

endemic, 220

internalized, 202

Rational-critical discourse, 31

Rationalistic approach, to management,

133

Rationality:

new career and, 212-217, 232, 233

problem solving and, 97, 103

Reality:

career forms, 211

dominant cultural constructions of,

182

framing and, 169

impossible, 172

Reframing:

negotiation and, 93, 97

stress, 157-174, 258-259

Relational connectedness, 29

Relational contracts, 217

317 Relationships:

chaos theory and, 239-240

new career and, 224-226

organizational socialization and,

53, 54, 59

organization-society, 227-232, 234

role in negotiation, 92-96, 103

Reproductive roles, 64

Reproductive technology, 57

Requests, directed at black women,

192-194

Resistance-

bargaining and, 78

black women and, 202, 205

body as site of, 107, 260-261

chaos theory and, 247-251

collective voices and, 59

discursive strategies, 22-23

embodied identities, 124-125

feminist standpoint and, 180

humor and, 19-21

multiple standpoints and, 57, 58

new career and, 222

outsider within and, 61

public-private dichotomy and, 6

serving as form of, 58, 59, 152­ 153

socialization and, 6 1 , 62, 69

to control, 108, 109, 110

workplace, 18-23

Responsibility, ethic of, 25, 26, 37

Retirement, 210

Reuther, C , 236-253

Revolutionary pragmatism, 138

Rewards, exchange of, 85

Rhetorical skills, 5

Rifkin, J., 2 1 2 , 2 1 8 , 225, 231

Rights, 33

ethic of, 2 5 , 26, 37

moral conversation and, 36

public-private dichotomy and, 6, 8

Role(s):

black women employees, 185-190,

197, 199-200, 205, 207

consumer, 230

corporate imperative and, 217

318

COMMUNICATION FROM FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES

Sense making:

newcomer and, 194, 199

social support needed for, 225

Servant leadership, 142-143, 144

Service jobs, surveillance in, 112

Serving:

community, 2 3 1 , 232

leadership as, 128-156

Sex object stereotypes, 243

Sexism, 205

black women and, 185, 193, 200

internalized, 202

Sexual harassment, 7, 64

Sexual orientation, sameness/difference

dualism, 258

Site, socialization, 59, 60

Smith, R. C , 60, 182

Sameness, favoring, 242

Social change, 190

Sameness/difference dualism, 258

black women and, 202

Sanger, P. A. C , 157-174, 258-259

feminist goals of, 180

Schein, E. H., 178, 182

revolutionary pragmatism and, 138

Sciences:

Social conditions, newcomer

masculinist bias, 12-13

information-seeking behavior and,

new, 238-251

195

Scripted activity, bargaining as, 76-104

Social construction:

Self, organizational discourses and, 112­ career and, 211

113

organization as, 223-227

Self-concepts, organizational socialization

Social contract:

and, 50

feminist perspective on, 229

Self-confidence, body and, 120

global society and, 228

Self-control, 121-122

new, 209-235

Self-disclosure, in negotiation, 94-95

Social control, body as locus of, 113

Self-esteem:

Social ends, leadership and, 129

body and, 120

Social/historical constructions, of

newcomers and, 195

femininity, 114

work identity and, 222

Social identities, narratives

Self-identified standpoints, 58

constructing, 15

Self-interest, bargaining and, 90, 94, 100

Social interaction. See Interaction

Self-knowledge, bargaining and, 90, 98

Socialist feminists, 178-179

Self-leadership, 140-141, 150

Socialization:

Self-organizing systems, 244-245

black feminist standpoint analysis,

Self-other relations, 34

Self-reflection:

177-208

chaos sciences and, 245-246

femininity, 114

resistance and, 248, 250

investment in, 230

Self-surveillance, 112, 114-115, 123

organizational, 47-75, 259

Self-talk, 115

phases, 49, 50

newcomer, 184, 185-207

received, 194

socialization and, 181

stereotypes, 243-244

Role ambiguity, 181, 193

Role conflict, 162, 166

Role overload, 162, 166

Role-sending, 184, 204

Role-taking, 5 1 , 52, 184, 204

Rousseau, D. M., 211

Rules:

bureaucractic control and, 109

managers enforcing, 129

socialization and, 50, 52, 181

Index Social reality, oppositional view of, 17

Social relations:

direct, 44

fundamental shifts in, 228

illegitimate, 32

indirect, 44

Social sciences, masculinist bias in,

12-13

Social structure, bureaucractic control

and, 109

Social support-

managing stress through, 165

sense making and, 225

Society:

egalitarian multicultural, 21

global, 228

humane, 142

organization relationship, 227-232,

234

overlapping of state and, 9

person-organization interactions, 210

Sociohistorical factors:

black women employees and, 183

socialization and, 182

Sociopolitical issues:

framing as, 168

organizational communication, 138

stress, 171-172

Soul, leadership and, 155

Spears, L. C , 142, 143, 149

Speech act, presupposition and, 31

Spirituality, leaders and, 143, 156

Sponsors, black women and, 196, 200­ 201

Spouse abuse, 16

Stacey, R. D., 245-246

Stakeholders, 261

ethical concerns about, 24-46, 262

interdependencies and, 229

responsibility for multiple, 232

serving, 138. 153

voice of, 230

women meeting needs of, 137-138

Standards of living, 228

Standpoint analysis, black feminist, 177­ 208

319 Stereotypes:

black women and, 185-190, 197,

201-202, 205

fractal-like similarity, 243-244

language promoting, 247

resistance and, 248

suppression of, 242

Stockholders:

advantages for, 227

returns for, 217

Stohl, C , 212, 217, 223

Stout, K. R., 47-75, 1 8 1 , 2 5 9

Strange attractors, 240-244

Stress:

black women experiencing, 199­ 203, 204, 207

feminist reframing, 157-174, 258­ 259

newcomers and, 194-203

Subaltern counterpublics, 21-22

Subaltern voices, 17

Subjective knowing, 133

Subject/object split, 12

Subordinates, servant leadership and,

146

Subordination, socialization and, 59, 60

Suicide, 1 aid-off workers and, 224

Superleadership, 140-141, 150

Supervisor-subordinate relationships,

54

Surveillance:

newcomers and, 195

organizational control through,

111-112

Survival of the fittest images, 210

Symbols, organizational socialization

and, 52

Systems:

chaotic, 236-253

self-organizing, 244-245

Tax incentives, for education and

training, 231

Taylorism, 108

Team-based work groups, 110, 111-112

320

COMMUNICATION FROM FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES

Technical control, 108-109

Technical knowledge, 216

Technical rationality, 212-214, 216,

232

Technical sphere, 8

Technology, surveillance, 112

Temporary workers, 66, 221

Tensions:

between binary oppositions, 257­ 260

women experiencing, 149

Time management, 163-164

Token, black woman as, 188-189

Tompkins, P. K., 72, 109-110

Tong, R., 247-248

Trade, negotiations and, 76, 81-82, 84

Training:

firm-specific, 210

glass ceiling and, 237

investment in, 230, 231

tax incentives for, 231

Transactional contracts, 217

Transactional negotiation, 85

Transactional relationships, new career as

series of, 215

Transformation:

achieving through praxis, 138

double-loop learning and, 245-246

negotiation and, 91-92, 98

new career and, 216, 222

public-private dichotomy and, 6

resistance and, 248

serving and, 150, 153, 154, 156

Transformational leadership, 140

Transformational standpoints, individual

agency and, 66

Transforming voice, multiple standpoints

and, 57, 58

Trethewey, A., 6, 107-127, 260-261

Turner, P. K., 60, 182

Turning-point research, 71-72

Uncertainty:

chaos theory and, 238

organizational socialization and, 52

Underclass, employability of, 219, 220

Underemployment, 218, 224, 225, 228

Unemployment, 219, 220, 225

Use value, work, 56, 63

Validity claims, disputed, 31

Values:

adaptive leadership and, 139

career forms and, 211

caregiving, 232, 233

concertive control and, 110

dominant culture's, 182

feminist, 262

framing and, 169

gendered organizational, 133

intolerance for different, 243

managerial, 28

market economy, 41

masculine, 115

organizational goals and, 218

patriarchal, 241-243

revisioning and, 145

socialization and, 53, 185

societal, 4

stakeholders, 24, 26, 29-30, 37-42,

262

white male managers, 242

Van Maanen, J., 50, 178, 182

Veil of ignorance, 35

Violence:

job loss and, 225

underemployment and, 228

Vision:

leadership and, 129

serving and, 132

Voice(s):

collective, 59

negotiation and, 80, 85

new career and, 217-223, 233

patriarchal traditions and, 243

speak in one's own, 17

stakeholders', 230

standpoint feminism, 55-78

Volunteer sector, 231

Index Wages. See Earnings

Weedon, C , 2 1 1 , 2 3 2

Weick, K., 233

Weight, 125

Welfare, debate over, 14

Western patriarchal epistemology, 12

Wheatley, M., 240, 241

White(s):

black women employees and, 185,

196

earnings and, 220

White males:

black women employees and, 196­ 197

career development, 242

career research and, 209

in senior management, 237, 241-242

job security and, 218-219

language patterns, 240

new career and, 222

White managers, career possibilities

and, 220

White middle-class workers, achievement

orientations of, 221

Women:

as other, 17

capitalist society and, 178-179

career advancement and, 220

corporate decision making and, 28, 30

earnings and, 220

object of study, 12-13

organizational opportunities, 6 1 , 62

stereotypes of, 243-244

stress and, 157-174

traits attributed to, 115

ways of knowing, 216

Women of color:

glass ceiling and, 237

321 organizational socialization and,

65

research and, 259, 260

sameness/difference dualism, 258

serving and, 153

socialization and, 177-208

W o m e n ' s experience, privatization of,

33

W o m e n ' s issues, marginalized, 170

W o m e n ' s occupation, 18

W o m e n ' s work, 172, 173, 243

capitalism and, 56

socialization into, 64

traditional, 63

Work:

marginalized, 171

personal learning within, 226

reconfiguring, 212

seeking meaning through, 149

use value, 56

Work communities, 230

Work contracts, 209-235

Workers. See Employees

Work sharing, 230

Working-class masculine identity,

20

Working-class women, 259

Workplace democracy, 262

Workplace stress, 157-174

Worldviews:

alternative, 9

conflicting, 10

Young, I., 34, 114

Zero sum bargaining, 78

About the Contributors

Brenda J. Allen

( P h . D . , H o w a r d U n i v e r s i t y ) is a n A s s o c i a t e P r o f e s s o r i n t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f C o m m u n i c a t i o n at t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C o l o r a d o a t B o u l d e r . H e r p r i m a r y a r e a o f s t u d y is o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n , w i t h a n e m p h a s i s o n workplace diversity and computer-mediated communication. H e r work h a s b e e n p u b l i s h e d in Management Communication Quarterly, t h e Journal of Applied Communication Research, Communication Studies, the Southern Journal of Communication, a n d Sex Roles. S h e a l s o w r o t e a c h a p t e r i n Our Voices: Essays in Culture, Ethnicity, and Communication ( 1 9 9 6 ) . Brenda. J. A lien @ Colorado, edu

Connie Bullis ( P h . D . , P u r d u e U n i v e r s i t y ) is a n A s s o c i a t e P r o f e s s o r o f C o m ­ m u n i c a t i o n at t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f U t a h . S h e h a s a u t h o r e d n u m e r o u s c o n v e n t i o n papers a n d published articles o n organizational socialization. H e r w o r k h a s a p p e a r e d in s u c h j o u r n a l s a s Communication Monographs, t h e Western Jour­ nal of Communication, Communication Quarterly, Communication Studies, a n d t h e Journal of Organizational Change Management. H e r more recent work has focused on standpoint feminism as an approach to organizational socialization. [email protected] Patrice M. Buzzanell ( P h . D . , P u r d u e U n i v e r s i t y ) is an A s s o c i a t e P r o f e s s o r in t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f C o m m u n i c a t i o n at P u r d u e U n i v e r s i t y . H e r r e s e a r c h i n t e r ­ ests focus primarily on gendered organizational c o m m u n i c a t i o n and o n career i s s u e s i n t h e w o r k p l a c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e w a y s in w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s a n d s o c i e t ­ ies c o n s t r u c t c a r e e r s t o m a n a g e i d e n t i t i e s a n d w o r k p r o c e s s e s o n m u l t i p l e l e v ­ els. For her work on career uncertainty, she received the W . Charles R e d d i n g Dissertation A w a r d from t h e International C o m m u n i c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n . S h e has contributed chapters to several books a n d h a s published in j o u r n a l s , in­ c l u d i n g Communication Monographs, Human Communication Research, the Journal of Applied Communication Research, Health Communication, and 323

324

COMMUNICATION FROM FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES

t h e Western Journal of Communication. S h e is c u r r e n t l y s e r v i n g as e d i t o r of Management Communication Quarterly, incoming chairperson of the o r g a n i ­ z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n d i v i s i o n of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n A s s o c i ­ a t i o n , a n d p r e s i d e n t of t h e O r g a n i z a t i o n for t h e S t u d y o f C o m m u n i c a t i o n , Language, and Gender ( O S C L G ) . [email protected]

Robin Patric Clair ( P h . D . , K e n t S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ) is an A s s o c i a t e P r o f e s s o r at P u r d u e U n i v e r s i t y . H e r p r i m a r y r e s e a r c h a n d t e a c h i n g i n t e r e s t s a r e in o r g a ­ nizational c o m m u n i c a t i o n . She draws from critical, feminist, p o s t m o d e r n , a n d a e s t h e t i c t h e o r i e s to d e v e l o p h e r w o r k o n p o w e r , p o l i t i c s , a n d i d e n t i t y . H e r a r e a s of s t u d y i n c l u d e s e q u e s t e r e d s t o r i e s of s e x u a l h a r a s s m e n t , s i l e n c e as o p p r e s s i o n a n d r e s i s t a n c e , p a y i n e q u i t y , o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s o c i a l i z a t i o n , t h e g e n d e r e d c o n s t r u c t i o n of r e a l i t y , a n d the artful p r a c t i c e s of r e s i s t a n c e . S h e h a s p u b l i s h e d in s u c h j o u r n a l s a s Communication Monographs, Western Journal of Communication, Management Communication Quarterly, a n d Journal of Applied Communication Research. H e r m o s t r e c e n t b o o k is Organizing Sci­ ence ( 1 9 9 8 ) . [email protected] Stanley Deetz

( P h . D . , O h i o U n i v e r s i t y ) is a P r o f e s s o r of C o m m u n i c a t i o n at t h e U n i v e r s i t y of C o l o r a d o at B o u l d e r , w h e r e h e t e a c h e s c o u r s e s in o r g a n i z a ­ tional theory, organizational communication, and c o m m u n i c a t i o n theory. H e is t h e a u t h o r of Transforming Communication, Transforming Business: Building Responsive and Responsible Workplaces ( 1 9 9 5 ) a n d Democracy in an Age of Corporate Colonization: Developments in Communication and the Politics of Everyday Life ( 1 9 9 2 ) ; c o a u t h o r of Doing Critical Management Re­ search ( S a g e , in p r e s s ) a n d Communication and Cultural Change (Sage, 2 0 0 0 ) ; a n d e d i t o r o r a u t h o r of e i g h t o t h e r b o o k s . H e h a s p u b l i s h e d n u m e r o u s essays regarding stakeholder representation, decision making, culture, and c o m m u n i c a t i o n in c o r p o r a t e o r g a n i z a t i o n s in s c h o l a r l y j o u r n a l s a n d b o o k s , a n d h e h a s l e c t u r e d w i d e l y in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d E u r o p e . In 1 9 9 4 , h e w a s a S e n i o r F u l b r i g h t S c h o l a r in t h e F o r e t a g s e k o n o m i s k a I n s t i t u t i o n e n , G o t e b o r g s Universitet, Sweden, lecturing and conducting research on m a n a g i n g k n o w l ­ e d g e - i n t e n s i v e w o r k . H e h a s a l s o s e r v e d as a c o n s u l t a n t o n c u l t u r e , d i v e r s i t y , a n d p a r t i c i p a t o r y d e c i s i o n m a k i n g for s e v e r a l m a j o r c o r p o r a t i o n s . H e offers an o n - l i n e c o u r s e o n c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d c u l t u r a l c h a n g e for t h e e x e c u t i v e m a s t e r s at S e t o n H a l l U n i v e r s i t y . H e a l s o s e r v e d as p r e s i d e n t o f t h e I n t e r n a ­ t i o n a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n from 1996 to 1 9 9 7 . Stanley.deetz@Colo­ rado.edu

Gail T. Fairhurst ( P h . D . , U n i v e r s i t y of O r e g o n ) is a P r o f e s s o r of C o m m u n i ­ c a t i o n at t h e U n i v e r s i t y of C i n c i n n a t i . H e r r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t s f o c u s p r i m a r i l y on leadership c o m m u n i c a t i o n and language analysis: leadership c o m m u n i c a ­ tion d u r i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a n g e a n d w o r k f o r c e r e s t r u c t u r i n g , t h e c o m m u n i ­

About the

Contributors

325

cation of corporate philosophy statements, and l e a d e r - m e m b e r relationships. In a d d i t i o n t o s e v e r a l b o o k c h a p t e r s , s h e h a s p u b l i s h e d in Human Communica­ tion Research, Communication Monographs, Communication Yearbook, Management Communication Quarterly, t h e Academy of Management Jour­ nal, t h e Academy of Management Review, Organization Science, a n d Organi­ zational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, a m o n g o t h e r s . S h e is a l s o t h e c o a u t h o r ( w i t h B o b S a r r ) o f The Art of Framing: Managing the Language of Leadership, h o n o r e d in 1 9 9 7 w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n A s s o c i a ­ t i o n ' s B e s t B o o k A w a r d for O r g a n i z a t i o n a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n . S h e h a s c o n ­ sulted with Procter & G a m b l e , Boeing, the U . S . Air Force, Fluor Daniel, Kroger, and General Electric, among others. [email protected]

Marlene G. Fine

( M B A a n d P h . D . , U n i v e r s i t y of M a s s a c h u s e t t s ) is a P r o f e s ­ sor of C o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d M a n a g e m e n t at S i m m o n s C o l l e g e , w h e r e s h e a l s o d i r e c t s t h e G r a d u a t e P r o g r a m in C o m m u n i c a t i o n s M a n a g e m e n t . H e r r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t s i n c l u d e c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y in t h e w o r k p l a c e ; g e n d e r , r a c e , a n d c o m ­ m u n i c a t i o n ; a n d f e m i n i s t t h e o r y a n d r e s e a r c h . S h e is t h e a u t h o r of Building Successful Multicultural Organizations: Challenges and Opportunities ( 1 9 9 5 ) , in a d d i t i o n t o n u m e r o u s j o u r n a l a r t i c l e s a n d b o o k c h a p t e r s . S h e p r e v i ­ o u s l y w a s o n t h e f a c u l t y o f t h e C o l l e g e of M a n a g e m e n t of t h e U n i v e r s i t y of M a s s a c h u s e t t s , B o s t o n , a n d s e r v e d a s g r a d u a t e d e a n at E m e r s o n C o l l e g e . H e r r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t s in m a n a g e m e n t h a v e b e e n i n f o r m e d b y h e r w o r k a s a n o r g a ­ nizational consultant and her numerous university and college administrative positions, including department chair, associate dean, M B A director, and graduate [email protected]

Tanni Haas ( P h . D . ,

R u t g e r s U n i v e r s i t y ) is an A s s i s t a n t P r o f e s s o r at B r o o k l y n C o l l e g e . In a d d i t i o n to t h e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r , h e h a s w r i t t e n t w o o t h e r e s s a y s o n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n e t h i c s t o b e p u b l i s h e d in The Handbook of Public Relations ( S a g e , in p r e s s ) a n d The Foundations of Management Knowledge (in p r e s s ) , [email protected]

Deborah M. Kolb ( M B A , U n i v e r s i t y o f C o l o r a d o ; P h . D . , M . I . T . , S l o a n S c h o o l o f M a n a g e m e n t ) is a P r o f e s s o r o f M a n a g e m e n t at t h e S i m m o n s C o l ­ l e g e G r a d u a t e S c h o o l o f M a n a g e m e n t a n d t h e D i r e c t o r o f t h e C e n t e r for G e n ­ d e r in O r g a n i z a t i o n s t h e r e . F r o m 1991 t o 1 9 9 4 , s h e w a s e x e c u t i v e d i r e c t o r o f t h e P r o g r a m o n N e g o t i a t i o n at H a r v a r d L a w S c h o o l . S h e is c u r r e n t l y a s e n i o r f e l l o w at t h e p r o g r a m , w h e r e s h e c o d i r e c t s t h e N e g o t i a t i o n s in t h e W o r k p l a c e P r o g r a m . H e r c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h l o o k s at h o w w o m e n ( a n d m e n ) c a n b e c o m e m o r e e f f e c t i v e p r o b l e m s o l v e r s b y m a s t e r i n g t h e d u a l r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e shadow negotiation—empowering themselves and connecting with others. H e r l a t e s t r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s i n c l u d e When Women Negotiate: Empowering Ourselves, Connecting With Others ( w i t h J u d i t h W i l l i a m s , in p r e s s ) a n d

326

COMMUNICATION FROM FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES

Negotiation Eclectics: Essays in Memory of Jeffrey Z. Rubin ( 1 9 9 9 ) . S h e is t h e a u t h o r of The Mediators ( 1 9 8 3 ) , an i n - d e p t h s t u d y of l a b o r m e d i a t i o n , a n d c o e d i t o r of Hidden Conflict in Organizations: Uncovering Behind-the-Scenes Disputes, a c o l l e c t i o n of field s t u d i e s a b o u t h o w c o n f l i c t s a r e h a n d l e d in a v a r i e t y of b u s i n e s s a n d n o t - f o r - p r o f i t o r g a n i z a t i o n s . S h e h a s a l s o p u b l i s h e d a s t u d y o f t h e p r a c t i c e of s u c c e s s f u l m e d i a t o r s , Making Talk Work: Profiles of Mediators ( 1 9 9 4 ) . H e r d i s s e r t a t i o n w o n t h e Z a n n e t o s P r i z e for o u t s t a n d i n g d o c t o r a l s c h o l a r s h i p . S h e is a l s o i n v o l v e d in a n u m b e r of a c t i o n r e s e a r c h a n d c o n s u l t i n g p r o j e c t s t h a t link s t r a t e g i c b u s i n e s s c o n c e r n s w i t h g e n d e r , d i v e r ­ s i t y , a n d w o r k - l i f e i s s u e s . Dkolb@vmsvax. simmons.edu A d r i a n n e D e n n i s K u n k e l is an A s s i s t a n t P r o f e s s o r at t h e U n i v e r s i t y of K a n ­ s a s in t h e D e p a r t m e n t of C o m m u n i c a t i o n S t u d i e s . H e r r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t s i n c l u d e t h e s t u d y of p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , e m o t i o n a n d e m o t i o n a l s u p p o r t , socialization processes, sex/gender, and quantitative/qualitative research methodologies. Recently, she has investigated associations b e t w e e n different m o d e s of e m o t i o n a l d i s c l o s u r e a n d c o g n i t i v e , a f f e c t i v e , a n d h e a l t h b e n e f i t s . S h e h a s p u b l i s h e d s e v e r a l c h a p t e r s a n d a r t i c l e s in j o u r n a l s , i n c l u d i n g Commu­ nication Monographs, Human Communication Research, a n d t h e Journal of Applied Communication Research. She has also received the O u t s t a n d i n g Thesis/Dissertation A w a r d given by the Interpersonal C o m m u n i c a t i o n D i v i ­ s i o n of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n . [email protected]. ukans.edu M a r i f r a n M a t t s o n ( P h . D . , A r i z o n a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ) is a n A s s i s t a n t P r o f e s ­ s o r at P u r d u e U n i v e r s i t y . H e r r e s e a r c h a n d t e a c h i n g i n t e r e s t s e x p l o r e t h e i n t e r ­ s e c t i o n of h e a l t h c o m m u n i c a t i o n , o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d e t h i c s . H e r c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h foci i n c l u d e u n c o m f o r t a b l e s u p p o r t , H I V / A I D S p r e ­ vention, aviation safety, and j o b loss. Her research has e x p a n d e d accepted u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of s o c i a l s u p p o r t b y a d d r e s s i n g t h e c o m m u n i c a t i v e u s e of u n ­ c o m f o r t a b l e s u p p o r t in a c o m m u n i t y p r o g r a m for t r o u b l e d y o u t h . S h e h a s w o r k e d w i t h H I V test p r a c t i t i o n e r s to d e v e l o p a p a t i e n t - c e n t e r e d , h a r m r e d u c t i o n m o d e l of c o u n s e l i n g . S h e is i n v o l v e d in an i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y r e ­ s e a r c h t e a m t h a t c o n s i d e r s t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of h u m a n f a c t o r s ( e . g . , s t r e s s , b u r n o u t ) in m a i n t a i n i n g safety a n d p r o d u c t i v i t y ( e . g . , o n - t i m e f l i g h t s ) in t h e aviation industry. She has also challenged and reframed traditional ethics m o d e l s u s e d to s t u d y j o b l o s s a n d i n t e r a c t i o n in t h e g l o b a l w o r k p l a c e . S h e h a s p u b l i s h e d in Communication Monographs, Management Communication Quarterly, Human Communication Research, t h e Journal of Applied Commu­ nication Research, a n d Health Communication, [email protected] D e n n i s K . M u m b y ( P h . D . , S o u t h e r n I l l i n o i s U n i v e r s i t y ) is a P r o f e s s o r of

C o m m u n i c a t i o n at P u r d u e U n i v e r s i t y . H i s r e s e a r c h f o c u s e s o n p o w e r , d i s ­

About the

Contributors

327

c o u r s e , a n d c o n t r o l I s s u e s in o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n t e x t s . H e h a s p u b l i s h e d in j o u r n a l s s u c h a s Communication Monographs, t h e Academy of Management Review, Discourse & Society, a n d Management Communication Quarterly. H i s b o o k s i n c l u d e Communication and Power in Organizations (1988) and Narrative and Social Control ( e d . , S a g e , 1 9 9 3 ) . H e is c u r r e n t l y w o r k i n g o n a b o o k for S a g e titled Organizing Gender: Feminism, Postmodernism, and Organization Studies, [email protected]

Linda L. Putnam

( P h . D . , U n i v e r s i t y of M i n n e s o t a ) is a P r o f e s s o r o f O r g a n i ­ z a t i o n a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d t h e D i r e c t o r of t h e P r o g r a m o n C o n f l i c t a n d D i s ­ p u t e R e s o l u t i o n in t h e C e n t e r for L e a d e r s h i p S t u d i e s o f t h e G e o r g e B u s h S c h o o l o f G o v e r n m e n t a n d P u b l i c S e r v i c e at T e x a s A & M U n i v e r s i t y . H e r c u r ­ r e n t r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t s i n c l u d e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s in n e g o t i a t i o n , c o n ­ flict, l a n g u a g e a n a l y s i s in o r g a n i z a t i o n s , a n d g r o u p s in o r g a n i z a t i o n s . S h e h a s p u b l i s h e d m o r e t h a n 7 0 a r t i c l e s a n d b o o k c h a p t e r s in m a n a g e m e n t a n d c o m ­ m u n i c a t i o n j o u r n a l s . S h e is t h e c o e d i t o r of t h e New Handbook of Organiza­ tional Communication ( 2 0 0 0 ) , Communication and Negotiation (1992), Handbook of Organizational Communication (1987), and Communication and Organization: An Interpretive Approach ( 1 9 8 3 ) . S h e is t h e 1 9 9 3 r e c i p i e n t o f t h e S C A C h a r l e s H . W o o l b e r t R e s e a r c h A w a r d for a s e m i n a l a r t i c l e in t h e field a n d w a s e l e c t e d a f e l l o w in 1 9 9 5 a n d p r e s i d e n t of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o m ­ m u n i c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n in 1 9 9 9 . [email protected]

Cindy Reuther is a p a r t n e r in N R G , an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g a n d d e v e l o p ­ m e n t g r o u p . S h e u s e s h e r M A in c o m m u n i c a t i o n f r o m t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Cincinnati along with experience-based learning techniques to help individu­ als a n d t e a m s e x p l o r e c u r r e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l i s s u e s , i n c l u d i n g l e a d e r s h i p , change, creativity, and risk taking. Her work with client groups includes Procter & Gamble, Children's Hospital, United Stationers, Association of W o m e n S t u d e n t s - M i a m i U n i v e r s i t y , a n d t h e M i n n e a p o l i s Y W C A . [email protected] Pamela

A . Chapman Sanger is a d o c t o r a l c a n d i d a t e at P u r d u e U n i v e r s i t y . H e r m a i n r e s e a r c h a n d t e a c h i n g i n t e r e s t s a r e in o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a ­ t i o n . H e r w o r k e m p h a s i z e s c r i t i c a l , p o s t m o d e r n , a n d f e m i n i s t a p p r o a c h e s to t h e s t u d y of a v a r i e t y of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p h e n o m e n a . S h e is c u r r e n t l y s t u d y ­ i n g w o r k p l a c e v i o l e n c e . S h e h a s p u b l i s h e d in t h e Handbook of Organization Studies, sangerpt @ sprintmail. com

Karen Rohrbauck Stout is a d o c t o r a l c a n d i d a t e at t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f U t a h . H e r d o c t o r a l s t u d i e s f o c u s o n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s o c i a l i z a t i o n . S h e is w o r k i n g to develop exclusionary socialization, a p h e n o m e n o n that e m e r g e d from her the­ sis r e s e a r c h . S h e h a s b e e n t h e r e c i p i e n t of a C a n n o n r e s e a r c h s c h o l a r s h i p f r o m

328

COMMUNICATION FROM FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES

t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f U t a h t h e last 2 y e a r s a n d h a s w o n t w o I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o m m u ­ n i c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n t e a c h i n g a w a r d s . S h e h a s p r e s e n t e d 12 c o n v e n t i o n p a p e r s a n d w r i t t e n an i n s t r u c t o r ' s m a n u a l for an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a ­ K.Stout®rn.ccMtah.edu tion text.

Angela Trethewey ( P h . D . , P u r d u e U n i v e r s i t y ) is an A s s i s t a n t P r o f e s s o r in t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f C o m m u n i c a t i o n at A r i z o n a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y . H e r r e s e a r c h c e n ­ ters o n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a m o n g o r g a n i z a t i o n a l d i s c o u r s e , p o w e r , r e s i s t a n c e , a n d i d e n t i t y f o r m a t i o n . H e r w o r k h a s b e e n p u b l i s h e d in Communication Mon­ ographs, t h e Western Journal of Communication, a n d Organization Studies, as w e l l as in a v a r i e t y of e d i t e d v o l u m e s . S h e d i r e c t s r e s e a r c h a n d t e a c h e s b o t h u n d e r g r a d u a t e a n d g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s in c o u r s e s s u c h as o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m ­ munication, qualitative research methods, and gender and c o m m u n i c a t i o n . [email protected]

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