Rethinking Media Studies [1 ed.] 1032271272, 9781032271279

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 “A remarkable book with an intentionally grounded approach to media in the 2020s in South Asia and beyond, and with an emphasis on media in the educational process, Rethinking Media Studies: Media, Meditation and Communication is a sorely needed study in our world today. Not least because of the proliferation of the range and definitions of media, especially social media, this transdisciplinary book probes deeply into underlying social and political issues affected by contemporary media representations. Ananta Kumar Giri and Santosh Kumar Biswal bring a rainbow of perspectives and authors to the field of media studies, including such diverse areas as media for democracy (or not) and societal transformation. Ethics, morality, biases, social construction, non-violence (increasingly important for humanity in our era), marginalized communities, self and identity, sustainability and media (an “unorthodox coalition”), hermeneutics, cinema, grief, popular culture, gender, religion (notably Bhakti), and the fall of traditional news media are engaged by the many authors here, who are themselves from multiple backgrounds and disciplines. Surprisingly, meditation is a keystone in the research reported here, with the possible paths ahead indicated by this innovative approach to a dynamic and rapidly changing field of study.” David Blake Willis, Professor of Anthropology and Education, Fielding Graduate University, Santa Barbara, California, USA

“Rarely, we come across scholarly engagements on media and philosophy in the Indian context. Professor Ananta Kumar Giri and Dr Santosh Kumar Biswal's edited book is one such attempt which seeks to go beyond the questions of media and philosophy to provide us perspectives on ethics, aesthetics and satyagraha. This work represents a welcome addition to a world which have made an overkill of media studies without locating it in the natural contexts of history, culture, society and philosophy.” G. Ravindran, Professor and Head, Department of Media and Communication, Central University of Tamil Nadu (CUTN), Tamil Nadu, India







Rethinking Media Studies

This book reconsiders media studies from different philosophical and theoretical perspectives from around the world. It brings together diverse views and visions from thinkers such as Sr Aubrobindo, Jurgen Habermas, Paul Ricœur, Pope Francis, and Satyajit Ray, among others. The authors focus on the issues of ethics, aesthetics, meditation, and communication in relation to media studies and explore the links between media and mindfulness. The volume includes case studies from India, United States, Switzerland, and Denmark and presents empirical works on new horizons of critical media studies in different fields such as American news media and creative media lab. A unique contribution, this book will be indispensable for students and researchers of journalism, communication studies, social media, behavioural sciences, sociology, philosophy, cultural studies, and development studies. Ananta Kumar Giri is Professor at the Madras Institute of Development Studies, Chennai, India. He has taught and done research in many universities in India and abroad. He has an abiding interest in social movements and cultural change, criticism, creativity, and contemporary dialectics of transformation, theories of self, culture, and society, and creative streams in education, philosophy, and literature. Dr Giri has written and edited around two dozen books in Odia and English, including Global Transformations: Postmodernity and Beyond (1998); Knowledge and Human Liberation (2013), Practical Spirituality and Human Development: Creative Experiments for Alternative Futures (editor, 2019), Mahatma Gandhi and Sri Aurobindo (editor, 2022), and The Calling of Global Responsibility: New Initiatives in Justice, Dialogues and Planetary Realizations (2023). Santosh Kumar Biswal is working as Associate Professor and Head of the Department of Journalism and Mass Communication at Rama Devi Women’s University, Bhubaneswar (India). He has worked in Symbiosis Institute of Media and Communication, Symbiosis International (Deemed University), Pune (India). Previously, he has worked in Andhra Loyola College (Autonomous), Vijayawada; and Hindustan Times, New Delhi. He has co-edited books – Social and Cultural Dynamics in Indian Cinema (2020) and Holistic Approaches to Brand Culture and Communication Across Industries (2018). He has published business cases in reputed platforms including SAGE. He has published popular columns in national English dailies including The Indian Express, The Asian Age, The Telegraph, Hindustan Times, The Pioneer, The Statesman, Deccan Chronicle, and Yahoo India. He has contributed MOOCs for SWAYAM & e-PG Pathshala- MHRD, Govt. of India. Currently, he is the Associate Editor of Media Watch, a double-blind peer-reviewed media and communication journal.

Rethinking Media Studies Media, Meditation and Communication

Edited by Ananta Kumar Giri and Santosh Kumar Biswal

First published 2024 by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2024 selection and editorial matter, Ananta Kumar Giri and Santosh Kumar Biswal; individual chapters, the contributors The right of Ananta Kumar Giri and Santosh Kumar Biswal to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Giri, Ananta Kumar, editor. | Biswal, Santosh Kumar, 1979- editor. Title: Rethinking media studies : media, meditation and communication/ edited by Ananta Kumar Giri and Santosh Kumar Biswal. Description: London ; New York : Routledge, 2024. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2023054769 (print) | LCCN 2023054770 (ebook) | ISBN 9781032271279 (hardback) | ISBN 9781032632643 (paperback) | ISBN 9781032632667 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Mass media. Classification: LCC P91.25 .R4525 2024 (print) | LCC P91.25 (ebook) | DDC 302.23—dc23/eng/20240119 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023054769 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023054770 ISBN: 978-1-032-27127-9 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-63264-3 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-63266-7 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781032632667 Typeset in Sabon by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India

For Sharaf Rehman and Aruna Roy

Contents

List of Figures xii List of Tables xiii Notes on Contributors xiv Preface xxiii

Rethinking Media Studies: An Introduction and an Invitation

1

ANANTA KUMAR GIRI AND SANTOSH KUMAR BISWAL

PART I

Media, Meditation, and Communication

13

1 What Follows from the Nature of Human Communication for a Future Democracy as a “Communication Society”?: At the Crossing of Social–Philosophical and Spiritual Meditation 15 JOHANNES HEINRICHS

2 Media, Truth, and the Good: A Meditation on the Implications of Historico-Religious Contexts 36 ORI Z. SOLTES

3 The Message of Media, Communicative Action, and Meditative Walking: Pope Francis’ Prophetic Actions and Paul Ricoeur’s Understanding of Faith for Societal Transformation and Moral Openness 54 KURUVILLA PANDIKATTU S.J.

4 Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action: From Discourse Ethics to Spiritual Transformations 67 ANANTA KUMAR GIRI

5 Mahatma Gandhi, Media Ethics, and United Nations 91 CHRISTIAN BARTOLF



x Contents 6 Significance of Integrating Nonviolent Communication in Communication Studies: An Exploration 104 VEDABHYAS KUNDU

7 Desire for Omnipresence: A Brief Introduction to a Key Conceptual Tool 117 CAMILA MOZZINI-ALISTER

8 The Development of Self in the Age of Social Media: Creating Transitional Spaces through Focused Meditative Practices 131 ANUSNIGDHA

PART II

Rethinking Media Studies: New Horizons of Theory and Practice 145 9 Unorthodox Coalitions: Co-Creative Media Initiatives for Transformative Critical Sustainability Studies 147 SUSAN THIEME AND EDA ELIF TIBET

10 Recreating Global Media through Propitious Hermeneutics Instigating Possible Earthly Prospects for Mankind 165 RUTH NEYAH V

11 Urban Society in the Films of Satyajit Ray: An Ambiguous Journey between Instrumental Rationalism and Intersubjective Reality 182 ABHISHEK KUMAR

12 Transformative Communal Media Engagement and Diversification 196 ABDULKADIR OSMAN FARAH

13 American News Media: A Shattered Institution 210 SHARAF REHMAN

14 Media, Mediation, and Transformation: The Implication of Digital Mediation on Contemporary Bombay Cinema 228 IPSITA BARAT

15 #RIP: Mediatization of Grief Over Social Media: An Exploration of Social Media Expression and Experience of Mourning 239 SURHITA BASU

Contents 

xi

PART III

Rethinking Media Studies: Further Explorations

259

16 From Printing Press to the Metaverse: The Changing Role of Technologies in Journalistic Practice 261 SUCHITRA PATNAIK

17 Social Media: A Critical Cultural Approach 271 JOHN ROBERT CLAMMER

18 Memes and Popular Culture: Indian Perspectives 280 SHOURINI BANERJEE, S. BALAGANAPATHY, AND C. VELAYUTHAM

19 Deconstructing the Idea of Manhood in Indian Television Advertisements 294 PANCHALI BHATTACHARYA AND AMRITA SATAPATHY

20 Media and Risk Communication: Building Interventional Tools During a Crisis Situation with Special Reference To Covid-19 312 TRISHA DOWERAH BARUAH

21 Sabarimala: Adversarial Culture and the Role of Media 323 TAMILSELVI NATARAJAN

22 Revisiting Gender Representation in Indian News Media 339 POOJA VERMA, SANTOSH KUMAR BISWAL, AND SUSHOBHAN PATANKAR

23 Portrayal of Dalit Women Protagonists in Geeli Pucchi and 200 Halla Ho: A Revisit of Hindi Cinema 353 CHANDRAKANT KAMBLE

24 Understanding Electronic Media, Mediation, and Behavioural Biases: A Revisit of Human Behaviour and Meditation 367 SHIBAPRASAD PARHI

25 Ethical Practices in Indian Television 381 FAKIRA MOHAN NAHAK

26 Radical Immersion: Bhakti as Ethical Medium in Contemporary India 395 UMAR NIZARUDEEN

Index 413

Figures

1.1 The Four Sense-Elements of Human Sense-Activity and of the General Action Situation 20 1.2 The Three Components of Human Entity in Relation to the Basic, Over-Individual Sense-Medium 21 1.3 The Subsystems of a Social System as Levels of Ontological Social Reflection 22 1.4 The House (Oikos) of Society, with the Four Institutional Powers at the Right 28 7.1 The Screen Intermediating the Divine Touch, by the Author 121 7.2 The Outer Expansion via Mediation and Inner Expansion via Meditation, by the Author 122 24.1 Impact of Media on Meditation: The Direct and Indirect Effect of Media on Meditation through various Latent Variables 378



Tables

13.1 Do You Use ____ to Access the News? 13.2 Journalists/Broadcasters Recognized by the Viewers 13.3 Most Trusted TV Journalists 13.4 Least Trusted TV Journalists 13.5A Mistrust in the Liberal Media Journalists 13.5B Mistrust in the Conservative Media Journalists 13.6 Gender and Trust in Journalists/Reporters 21.1 Indicators of Peace and Conflict Journalism (Galtung, 2002)

216 217 218 219 220 220 221 333



Notes on Contributors

Editors Ananta Kumar Giri is Professor at the Madras Institute of Development Studies, Chennai, India. He has taught and done research in many universities in India and abroad. He has an abiding interest in social movements and cultural change, criticism, creativity, and contemporary dialectics of transformation, theories of self, culture, and society, and creative streams in education, philosophy, and literature. Dr Giri has written and edited around two dozen books in Odia and English, including Global Transformations: Postmodernity and Beyond (1998), Knowledge and Human Liberation (2013), Practical Spirituality and Human Development: Creative Experiments for Alternative Futures (editor, 2019), Mahatma Gandhi and Sri Aurobindo (editor, 2022), and The Calling of Global Responsibility: New Initiatives in Justice, Dialogues and Planetary Realizations (2023). Santosh Kumar Biswal is working as Associate Professor and Head of the Department of Journalism and Mass Communication at Rama Devi Women’s University, Bhubaneswar (India). He has worked in Symbiosis Institute of Media and Communication, Symbiosis International (Deemed University), Pune (India). Previously, he has worked in Andhra Loyola College (Autonomous), Vijayawada; and Hindustan Times, New Delhi. He has coedited books – Social and Cultural Dynamics in Indian Cinema (2020) and Holistic Approaches to Brand Culture and Communication Across Industries (2018). He has published business cases in reputed platforms including SAGE. He has published popular columns in national English dailies including The Indian Express, The Asian Age, The Telegraph, Hindustan Times, The Pioneer, The Statesman, Deccan Chronicle, and Yahoo India. He has contributed MOOCs for SWAYAM & e-PG Pathshala – MHRD, Govt. of India. Currently, he is the Associate Editor of Media Watch, a double-blind peer-reviewed media and communication journal. Contributors Anusnigdha is Lecturer in Psychology at Birmingham City University, UK. She has previously taught at the University of Essex, UK, and Krea 

Notes on Contributors  xv University, India. She is a psychoanalytically oriented researcher with a socio-constructivist perspective. Her teaching and research focus on the socio-cultural influences on child and adolescent development, with an emphasis on sexuality and gender identity development. Her interests also include considerations of the development of psychosocial and psychopathological issues, cross-cultural applications of psychological theories, and explorations of decolonizing psychological literature. S. Balaganapathy is a dynamic professional with extensive experience in the field of visual communication and media. Currently pursuing a PhD in Media Sciences from Anna University, Chennai, he holds an M.Sc. in E-Media Communication and a B.Sc. in Visual Communication. With a rich background in photography, post-production, and communication design, he has excelled in roles ranging from Assistant Professor to Designer Head, garnering accolades for his contributions to academia. As a published researcher, he has also delivered several impactful lectures and workshops on various aspects of media and communication. Shourini Banerjee is currently Assistant Professor in the Department of Visual Communication, The American College, Madurai (India). Besides, she is heading the Department of Costume Design and Fashion and Co-Ordinator of BVoc/MVoc Media Technology, The American College, Madurai. She is a visiting faculty for Jain University Online and is associated with Xavier Institute of Management, Odisha, as an Adjunct Faculty. She completed her PhD research on “Gender and Masculinity in Television Commercials – A Critical Study” in 2019. Besides, to her credit, she has two co-edited books on A Panoramic View on Women and Films in India and Regional Media-Emerging Trends & Prospects. She is a certified trainer from FACTSHALA, which is a news and information literacy initiative launched by Internews in collaboration with DataLEADS with support from Google​.or​g. Ipsita Barat is Assistant Professor as well as presently heading the Department of Mass Communication and Videography at St. Xavier’s College (Autonomous), Kolkata. Dr Barat has completed her doctoral research at the Department of Film Studies, Jadavpur University, and a postgraduate degree from AJK Mass Communication Research Centre, Delhi. Barat’s academic research focuses on Bollywood, industrial networks, and investments in the Post Millennium Hindi film industry, including film marketing. She was invited to Toruń, Poland, as a part of the Erasmus Staff Mobility for Teaching Programme under Erasmus + Programme in the year 2022 and has also been a programme instructor for several MOOC – Massive Open Online Course initiatives by the Ministry of Education. Christian Bartolf is the Founding Director of Gandhi Information Center (Research and Education for Nonviolence), Society for Peace Education, Berlin, Germany (since 1993). He has lectured and curated exhibitions on

xvi Notes on Contributors peace and non-violence. He has written widely on Gandhi, Tolstory, and Herman Kallenbach, among others. Trisha Dowerah Baruah has been working as Assistant Professor in the Bhupen Hazarika School of Mass Communication under Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open University (KKHSOU) for the past eight years. Baruah completed her Master’s in Mass Communication from Gauhati University in 2008 and her PhD in 2013 from Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open University. Awarded the National Journalism Student Award of Excellence in 2008, her research interests lie in the fields of Public Relations, Human Resource Management, Information and Communication Technology, and Distance Education. Besides, Dr Baruah has also published a number of research papers in national and international journals. Surhita Basu is Assistant Professor at the Centre for Journalism and Mass Communication, Visva-Bharati University, and works in the area of online media, international communication, political communication, politics of knowledge, and development communication. Specializing in online journalism and multimedia, Dr Basu has her PhD in online international journalism from AJK Mass Communication Research Centre, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi. She has more than 12 years of teaching experience in various universities stretching across different parts of India. A gold medalist in her Master’s degree from Rabindra Bharati University, Dr Basu has several publications and presentations in various national and international conferences. Panchali Bhattacharya is Assistant Professor (English) in the Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, National Institute of Technology, Silchar, Assam, India. She has completed her Ph D from the School of Humanities, Social Sciences, and Management, IIT Bhubaneswar, India. Dr Bhattacharya has done her B.A. and M.A. in English and also her B.Ed degree from the University of Burdwan, West Bengal, India. She has published extensively in national and international journals and anthologies and has also presented her research findings in various international seminars and conferences. Dr Bhattacharya has also been appointed as a reviewer for a number of international journals and publishing houses. Her research interests include ecocriticism, feminist studies, and North East Indian Indigenous literature. John Robert Clammer is Professor in the Jindal School of Liberal Arts and Humanities at O.P. Jindal Global University, Sonipat, India. Formerly, he was Professor of Development Sociology at the United Nations University, Tokyo, and prior to that for almost two decades he was Professor of Comparative Sociology and Asian Studies at Sophia University, Tokyo. He has taught at the University of Hull and the National University of Singapore and has been a visiting professor or fellow at the universities of Essex, Oxford, Kent (UK), Bueno Aires (Argentina), Weimar (Germany),

Notes on Contributors  xvii Handong (South Korea), Pondicherry (India), The Australian National University, and the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore. His most recent books include Cultural Rights and Justice: Sustainable Development, the Arts and the Body (2019); Cultures of Transition and Sustainability (2016), and Art, Culture and International Development: Humanizing Social Transformations (2015). Abdulkadir Osman Farah teaches at Copenhagen University and is an associate of Urban Sanctuary, Migrant Solidarity and Hospitality in Global Perspective with Aalborg and Ryerson Universities. Dr Farah is also currently an associate researcher of Somali National University (SNU). Dr Farah is also Research and Innovation Associate, The Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Tswane University of Technology Pretoria, South Africa. Dr Farah is a founder of the Analysis Centre for Transnational Encounters and Connections (AC4TEC – www​ .ac4tec​ .com) in Denmark and the North Eastern African-Nordic Network (NEANOR). He serves as an associate editor of the Journal of Somali Studies as well as the editorial review boards of a number of journals focusing on political development and political sociology. Johannes Heinrichs (born 1942 in Duisburg/Rhine, Germany) studied philosophy, theology, and social sciences at various German universities and in Paris. As a Jesuit, he lectured philosophy in Frankfurt, after leaving the order, he was a visiting professor in Bonn and Berlin, but mainly a researcher and writer. In more than 40 books, he developed an integral philosophy as an ontological “reflection system theory,” the political part of which is a practical proposal of a “Value-LevelsDemocracy” (short version published at Auroville 2019, Edition Prisma). Summarizing book in English: “Integral Philosophy” Stuttgart – New York (2018). Chandrakant Kamble (Ph.D., Symbiosis International, Deemed University, 2023) is Assistant Professor at Amity School of Communication, Amity University, Mumbai. His research interests encompass film studies, cultural studies, and gender studies. He has successfully published papers in Scopus-indexed and UGC-listed journals. Additionally, Mr. Kamble is an accomplished short filmmaker, film critic, columnist, and radio programmer, having showcased numerous short stories and poems on All India Radio. Moreover, he has contributed several articles on cinema and marginalized issues to prominent Indian media outlets. Abhishek Kumar is a business leader turned academician with a depth of experience and knowledge in both. His research and teaching work straddles the fields of leadership and brand in management to philosophies of design and architecture in the creative fields. Abhishek Kumar earned his PhD in Management from Pondicherry University. Prior to joining the

xviii Notes on Contributors Army Institute of Management Kolkata, he was Associate Professor at Anant National University, Ahmedabad. He is an economics graduate from the University of Calcutta and MBA from BIM Trichy. His research oeuvre comprises material imagination, design dialectics, and philosophical literature. He recently offered a phenomenological conceptualization of product as a cipher that resolves the subject–object split. He spends much of his personal and professional time wondering about the sublime content in human endeavours and tries to find ways to theorize them for further study. Vedabhyas Kundu has been the Programme Officer with Gandhi Smriti and Darshan Samiti since 2002. He conducts workshops and delivers lectures/ talks on different dimensions of Gandhian philosophy both nationally and internationally. Dr Kundu coordinates and organizes different programmes and academic initiatives of the Samiti in different parts of the country. These include different state government institutions, central government institutions, judiciary, police, different forces, and universities/colleges. Dr Kundu’s areas of interest are media and information literacy for peace, nonviolent conflict resolution, nonviolent communication, conflict competencies, volunteerism, and human interconnectedness. He has been developing different courses of the Samiti including courses on nonviolent communication, strategies of conflict resolution in schools, community mediation, and peer mediation. For his unique contribution to promoting Nonviolent Communication during the pandemic period in 2020, the Delhi Journalists Association awarded him with the Corona Warrior Award. Camila Mozzini-Alister’s background is a double PhD in Communication (UERJ-Brazil) and Arts: Production and Investigation (UPV-Spain), with a Research Master’s in Social & Institutional Psychology (UFRGS-Brazil) and a Bachelor (Honours) in Journalism (UFRGS-Brazil). She works as a Sociology Lecturer and Adjunct Research Fellow at the University of the Sunshine Coast (UniSC), Australia. As an author, she has published the books Does Social Media Have Limits? Bodies of Light and the Desire for Omnipresence (2021), Phenomenologies of Grace: The Body, Embodiment, and Transformative Futures (2020) with Marcus Bussey, and Impressions of a Connected Body: How Advertising Is Inciting Us to Digital Connection (2019). Her goal as a social media educator is to address the core of our current addiction to social media and help society to consciously shape our hegemonic technologies as a tool for self-knowledge in four different levels: personal, social, environmental and humanitarian, and spiritual. Fakira Mohan Nahak is a postgraduate in Environmental Science and a Gold Medallist in his second Master’s degree Master of Journalism and Mass Communication from Berhampur University, Odisha. He was

Notes on Contributors  xix awarded PhD in Journalism and Mass Communication for his studies on Development Reporting in Television from the same university. Dr Nahak is a journalist turned academician. He has more than 20 years of working experience in Broadcast Journalism. His research interests are in Development Communication, Broadcast Media, and Radio and Television. Presently Dr Nahak is working as the Professor and Head of Department of Communication, Manipal University, Jaipur, India. Ruth Neyah V. is an internal full-time PhD scholar at Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India. She is pursuing her research in African American Diaspora literature. Umar Nizarudeen is with the Department of Collegiate Education, Kerala, India. He has a PhD in Bhakti Studies from the Centre for English Studies in JNU, New Delhi. His poems and articles have been published in Vayavya, Muse India, Culture Cafe Journal of the British Library, The Hindu, The New Indian Express, The Bombay Review, The Madras Courier, FemAsia, Sabrang India, India Gazette London, Ibex Press Year's Best Selection, and also broadcast by the All India Radio. Kuruvilla Pandikattu S.J. is Chair Professor of JRD Tata Foundation on Business Ethics at XLRI, Jamshedpur, and was professor of Physics, Philosophy, and Religion at Jnana Deepa, Institute of Philosophy and Theology, Pune, India. Dr Pandikattu has been actively involved in the dialogue between science and religion. Author/Editor of more than 45 books and 210 academic articles, Pandikattu is a Jesuit priest belonging to Dumka-Raiganj Province, India. He has been fostering science-religion dialogue through publications, conferences, and workshops. The main topics of his research are anthropology, eschatology, life management, and transhumanism. Shibaprasad Parhi is Associate Professor at the Adani Institute of Infrastructure Management, Ahmedabad. He completed his PhD from Aligarh Muslim University in the field of Behavioral Finance on the topic – Behavior and approach of HNI Investors in the Indian Stock Market. His teaching interests include Advance Statistics, Multivariate analysis, Advance Operations Research, Finance and Analytics, Management Computing, and Marketing Model and Simulation and Modelling. He is proficient in statistical software AMOS, R, and Minitab. His research interests include Mathematical Finance and Behavioral Finance and Quantitative Modelling. After his FDPM program from IIM Ahmedabad he worked on two research projects funded by IIMA. He is actively involved in imparting knowledge to industry practitioners and has been the resource person for General Electrical to teach them Strategic Sourcing. He has a rich experience of conducting MDPs and has conducted several MDPs for the middle-level and senior-level professionals of Tata Motors, Jamshedpur, General Electrical, Pune, GSK, Nashik, Atlas Copco, CEAT Tyres, etc-.

xx Notes on Contributors Sushobhan Patankar is Associate Professor at the Symbiosis Institute of Media and Communication (SIMC), Symbiosis International (Deemed) University, Pune. Dr Patankar heads the Journalism program at SIMC, and he teaches Broadcast Journalism, Sports Journalism, and Documentary Filmmaking. He holds a PhD in communication science and has spent a decade in television news reporting. He has worked with India’s largest television network, Network 18, ESPN Star Sports, and the Entertainment division of Television 18. As a television news reporter, he has extensively covered major political, business, civic, and sports issues from the year 2002 till the year 2013. Suchitra Patnaik is working as Assistant Professor at the Department of Communication, School of Interdisciplinary Studies at the English and Foreign Languages University, a central university based in Hyderabad. Dr Patnaik is an alumnus of the Indian Institute of Mass Communication. Dr Patnaik has been a guest faculty at premier Journalism departments in India. Her research interests are news media, journalism studies, and media ethics. Sharaf N. Rehman was Professor of Communication at the University of Texas, Rio Grande Valley. His research interests include Curriculum Theory, Educational Management, and Performing Arts. Born in India, Dr Rehman was the eldest of five children with four younger sisters. Inspired by his father who was an intellectual and had a great passion for books and the arts, Tony developed his own passion for photography and film at a very young age. Tony was a unique human being whose childhood started in undivided India in the city of Ambala. As a child he travelled by foot with his family hiding during days and walking in the nights all the way to Lahore in the troubled and violent time during the partition of India. Growing up, he was rarely seen without a camera, patiently waiting and observing through his lens to capture moments. After spending his early years in Pakistan, he moved to Turkey at the age of 16 to study film and photography after receiving scholarships. In search of further education, he continued to England for one year and then on to Sweden where he settled for some time. Later he moved to United States and worked and lived there. He has authored many short stories, dramas, a poetry book, and a co-authored book of poems and pictures, The Song of Water (with Rabi Narayan Dash). He was a well-known photographer and directed movies, documentaries, and dramas. Amrita Satapathy is Associate Professor in the School of Humanities, Social Sciences, andManagement at the Indian Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar. She completed her PhD from Utkal University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, in 2009 in the area of Postcolonialism, Travel literature, and Autobiography Studies. Her areas of interest include Autobiography and Memoirs, Travel Literature, Indian Writings in English, Creative Writing,

Notes on Contributors  xxi and Cinema and Popular Culture. She is also a prolific writer having written for newspapers of national repute like The Times of India and The New Indian Express. She was a columnist with The Yemen Times, Sana’a, from 2003 to 2009. She has extensively published in the form of academic articles, journals, book chapters, and presented papers nationally and internationally as well. She teaches English for Communication, Global Communication, and Indian Writings in English to BTech students and takes a course in Scientific and Technical Writing, World Literature, and Indian Writing in English (Fiction) for PhD scholars. Tamilselvi Natarajan has been teaching Media Studies since 2004. Her areas of interests include Gender and Media, Social Psychology, Social Media, and Film studies. She has authored two and has edited two books on gender and media, ICT, and film studies. Presently she heads the Media Studies Department at Bayan College, affiliated to Purdue University Northwest, (USA), Sultanate of Oman. She has experience in the field of content writing and digital marketing. She is part of the ‘Disarming Disinformation in the Middle East’ project. She is a Factshala Trainer and has given training to many students and social organizations to identify fake news. Susan Thieme is Professor of Geography and Critical Sustainability Studies. She is the founder and now co-director of the mLAB (https://mlab​.unibe​ .ch/) at the Institute of Geography at the University of Bern. As one of the many mLAB activities she co-leads the Global Science Film Festival with Samer Angelone and Mirko Winkel (https://www​.sciencefilm​.ch/). Her research focusses on societal transformation, justice, and sustainability at the interfaces of migration, (im)mobility, work and education. She is interested in social learning processes and transdisciplinarity, particularly making news media, art, and digital technologies an integral part of research activities and develop unorthodox coalitions of aesthetics and geography. Eda Elif Tibet is currently a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Bern where she has started an applied research initiative “Animating the Commons” in partnership with the Critical Sustainability Unit of Prof. Dr Susan Thieme. She has founded KarmaMotion (award-winning doc films and multimodal media production house) and the EthnoKino, a film festival programme in Bern, dedicated to visionaries and visionary storytellers. She is the lead visual anthropologist at the Global Diversity Foundation and a core faculty member and mentor for the Global Environments Summer Academy taking place at the University of Oxford each year. She has recently joined collaboratio helvetica, an action research association, to work towards systems change and the implementation of the SDG 2030 Agenda in Switzerland. She holds an MPhil from the University of Kent (2013) and an SNSF funded PhD in social anthropology from the University of Bern (2019).

xxii Notes on Contributors C. Velayutham is Assistant Professor at Anna University, Chennai, specializing in Media Sciences. With a prolific background in professional journalism at SUN TV Network, his academic interests revolve around Journalism Studies, Media literacy, and Peace Journalism. Notably, he has made significant contributions to curriculum development, international conferences, and research in media and communication. With a PhD from Anna University and various international fellowships, he has spearheaded multiple funded projects and published extensively in renowned journals. His leadership roles and academic engagements reflect his commitment in nurturing media talents and promoting global partnerships Pooja Verma is currently working as a content editor at a software selection firm, with over two years of experience. She is a postgraduate in Journalism from the Symbiosis Institute of Media and Communication (SIMC), Symbiosis International (Deemed) University, Pune. She has completed her graduation in English (Hons) from Miranda House, Delhi University.

Preface

For all the depth and beauty of her work A wisdom lacks that sets the Spirit free. Sri Aurobindo (1950), Savitri Media is part of our lives and in various ways, it has penetrated deeply our lives and societies. It has made our life mediated and saturated many a time leaving little space and time for meditation, self, and mutual reflections. Meditation helps us to take a pause, be reflective, develop the capacity to listen, and then communicate. Here what Mata Amritanandamayi Devi tells us is helpful: With all that is happening in our world today, the only way to stay sane is by making meditation part or our daily life. Our professionals are yet to learn the wondrous benefits that meditation can bring to them. An entire world of unexplored treasure remains unopened within, but sadly, nobody wants to open it even though the key is left with us. We miss beholding the brilliance of that immense treasure as our thoughts and negative emotions build huge barriers between us and the fortune within. It is like standing in front of a celestial flower but not seeing it. (quoted in Puri 2013: 38–39) Rethinking Media Studies strives to bring meditation to practices of media and communication. It is an effort to engage with media in creative and critical ways. It is also an effort to rethink media studies. We are grateful to contributors for their contributions to this work. We dedicate this book to Sharaf Rehman (known to friends as Tony) and Aruna Roy. Sharaf was a creative poet and scholar of media studies. Originally from India, he taught in the United States and Europe. Sharaf had contributed a chapter to our volume but unfortunately, he passed away in the meantime. He passed away while driving from Texas to Florida on March 4, 2021, and we mourn his untimely passing away and celebrate his creative legacy. Aruna Roy is an inspiring activist who played a crucial role in the enactment of the Right to Information Act. We dedicate this book to Tony and Aruna for their 

xxiv Preface creative and critical contributions to rethinking and transforming the media sphere and making it more democratic. We are grateful to Aakash Chakraborty and Anvitaa Bajaj of Routledge for their kind interest and support for this project. Finally, we hope that this work helps us in rethinking media studies and making our self, society, and the world more reflective and mindful. Reference Cited: Puri, Swami Amritaswarupananda. 2013. Color of the Rainbow: Compassionate Leadership. Amritapuri: Mata Amritanandamayi Mission Trust.

Rethinking Media Studies An Introduction and an Invitation Ananta Kumar Giri and Santosh Kumar Biswal

Media spheres are important domains of our lives, and in an age of Internet and social media, we seem to be imprisoned within it. But how do we link media spheres to other spheres of our lives? How do we rethink media and communication as not only a space of instant communication but also as spaces for self and co-meditations? This calls for rethinking and transforming media as a sphere of mediation and meditation and communication here involves mediation and meditation.1 It involves not only speech but also silence, a pregnant silence which gives birth to new languages and communication of self, other, and the world. We need to cultivate creative links between media spheres and soul spheres of self, culture, society, and the world, which is different from the valourized discourse of public sphere in modernity. We can also explore here the links between media and mindfulness including cultivating new ways of emptying our mind and a new art of mind-fasting. This calls for cultivating a new ecology of media and mind, a mindful media, and a new ecological mind. Rethinking and transforming media also calls for new initiatives in ethics and aesthetics. Here, we can build upon the existing discourses and practices of media ethics which borders on law and other related discourses and institutions of society. Here, Jurgen Habermas’ perspective of discourse ethics and his related work on law, democratic transformation, and moral consciousness help us. In discourse ethics, we are engaged in moral argumentation with each other so that we can go beyond the existing conventions of society which act as prisons and “instances of problematic justice” (Habermas 1990). Today, media sphere has been turned into a noisy battleground with little space for mutual argumentation. But even argumentation needs listening and Habermasian practice of moral argumentation and discourse ethics has not been attentive to the need for listening as it is within a mode of performative competence without acknowledging the limits of both performance and competence (cf. Dallmayr 1991). Here, Fred Dallmayr invites us to bring an ethics of listening to our discourse and moral argumentation which can help us. Along with listening as part of rethinking and transforming media ethics, we also need to bring an aesthetic perspective to rethinking media ethics and media practice going beyond the dualism of ethics and aesthetics and cultivating new modes and practices of aesthetic ethics. Here, we can build upon DOI: 10.4324/9781032632667-1

2  Ananta Kumar Giri and Santosh Kumar Biswal the works of Michel Foucault and Frank R. Ankersmit in going beyond the dualism of ethics and aesthetics and cultivating new visions of media ethics and aesthetics. We can also link ethics and aesthetics to responsibility (see Ankersmit 1996; Clammer & Giri 2017). While these are some of the foundational questions in media studies, our volume makes a modest engagement with some of these issues. It begins with Part 1 Rethinking Media Studies. It begins with Chapter 1, “What follows from the Nature of Human Communication for a Future Democracy as a “Communication-Society” ? by Johannes Heinrichs. The chapter deals with the difference between “communication” and “information” from the viewpoint of a philosophical “reflection theory,” meaning the essence of “transcendental philosophy.” This is followed by Chapter 2, “Media, Truth, and the Good: A Meditation on Historico-Religious Contexts” by Ori Z. Soltes. In his chapter, Soltes discusses some of the large and long religious and philosophical context of the idea of “media,” as that term applies to the current world. He begins with the 1964 phrase from Marshall Mcluhan, “the media is the message,” turns it on its head by reference to a threefold discussion of revelation/interpretation in the theology-based historical relationship between Judaism and Christianity, as well as the theological relationship between Vaishnites and Kraishnites, and the Sokrates’ philosophical consideration of the Good – and of our ability/inability to define it. He ends with a twist towards Satyagraha through the actions of Gandhi and Martin Luther King and an assertion of our ongoing obligation to apply the principles of ongoing interpretive dialogue and action in our own time. Soltes’ essay is followed by Chapter 3, “The Message of Media, Communicative Action, and Meditative Walking: Pope Francis’ Prophetic Actions and Paul Ricoeur’s Understanding of Faith for Societal Transformation and Moral Openness” by Kuruvilla Pandikattu In his chapter, Pandikattu wonders how genuine faith can reshape our lives and that of others. He asks: What has a deepened spirituality to do with saving fellow human beings and Mother Earth? This chapter is an urgent invitation to the readers to pilgrimage with Pope Francis in living faith and committed action. Beginning with the warm receptivity that he has received from the media, we saw the plea that he has been making for objective and unbiased reporting, with a view to cater to the needs of the poor and the marginalized. Pandikattu’s chapter is followed by Chapter 4, “Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action: From Discourse Ethics to Spiritual Transformations” by Ananta Kumar Giri. In his chapter, Giri discusses the theory of communicative action and discourse ethics developed by Jurgen Habermas. Giri reiterates Habermas’ call for bringing “cognition, empathy, and agape” together. Giri also discusses some of the limitations of Habermasian discourse ethics such as its emphasis on rationality and engages in a dialogue with Sri Aurobindo for spiritual transformation of discourse ethics, moral consciousness, and communicative communication. This discussion helps us deepen our visions and practices of communication and media ethics in media studies.

Rethinking Media Studies  3 Giri’s chapter is followed by Chapter 5, “Mahatma Gandhi, Media Ethics, and United Nations,” by Christian Bartolf. In his chapter, Bartolf starts with the 1991 UNESCO Declaration for the Development of a Free, Independent, and Pluralistic Press produced in Windhoek, Namibia, which builds a framework concerning media development, characterizing it by freedom, pluralism, and independence. Bartolf discusses how this was followed by numerous UNESCO declarations on Press Freedom and Media Ethics. Bartolf argues how International Principles of Professional Ethics in Journalism, formulated in1983, highlight with priority “Peoples’ right to true information”: People and individuals have the right to acquire an objective picture of reality by means of accurate and comprehensive information as well as to express themselves freely through the various media of culture and communication.” Bartolf then discusses the work of Mahatma Gandhi as a journalist. Bartolf argues how Gandhi as the author of editorials, editor, and journalist for “Indian Opinion” in South Africa, linked with Phoenix Settlement, Durban, and later as Editor of Harijan and Young India serves as a role model of independent journalism with intercultural collaboration and multilingual communication as Gandhi tells us: What is really needed to make democracy to function is not the knowledge of facts, but right education. And the true function of journalism is to educate the public mind, not to stock the public mind with wanted and unwanted impressions. A journalist has, therefore, to use his discretion, as to what to report and when. As it is, the journalists are not content to stick to the facts alone. Journalism has become the art of “intelligent anticipation of events.” Batolf’s essay is quite fittingly followed by Chapter 6, “Significance of Integrating Non-Violent Communication in Communication Studies” by Vedabhyas Kundu, which also touches on Gandhian themes. In his chapter, Kundu explores the centrality of nonviolent communication as a discipline of study in communication and journalism education. The preponderance of violence in communication and journalism education has contributed to the accentuation of the current toxic or hate narratives in the media. The role of communication and media for public good and a culture of peace has diminished due to media violence and overdose of narratives of hate. Kundu argues how all these necessitate the urgent need to introduce nonviolent communication in the study of communication and media. Kundu’s essay is followed by Chapter 7, “Desire for Omnipresence” by Camila Mozzini-Alister. In her chapter, Mozzini-Alister seeks to introduce the notion of “desire for omnipresence” as a transdisciplinary conceptual tool of academic research. The chapter is articulated along three different parts: the first contextualizes previous developments on the concept of desire for omnipresence as well as gives a closer insight into how it emerged in Mozzini-Alister’s own path as a researcher; the second addresses

4  Ananta Kumar Giri and Santosh Kumar Biswal the sociological approaches where this conceptual tool can be articulated, exploring how the seemingly distant practices of mediation via social media and Tantric meditation intertwine through the concept of anthropotechnics (Ludueña 2012); and the third and final section addresses the implications of using this conceptual tool. Hopefully, this endeavour helps illuminate new approaches to the study of media, its relationship with meditation, and the current desire to be more than just a body. This is followed by Chapter 8, “The Development of Self in the Age of Social Media: Creating Transitional Spaces through Focused Meditative Practices” by Anusnigdha. In her chapter, Anusnigdha discusses the unconscious influence of social media on the development of self from a psychoanalytic perspective and considers the use of focused meditative practices in directing the development in a more positive and fulfilling direction. The cultural environment created in virtual online communities through social media demands the ceaseless attention and engagement of the user, thus influencing what the individual internalizes from the external environment. As these experiences are internalized unconsciously, the individual may not be aware of the extent of these influences on their identity and experience of self. Research indicates a growing number of issues associated with social media use on the physical, mental, and spiritual health of the individual, especially in children. Anusnigdha highlights that among these concerns is the development of a “false self” for the individual due to the constant interference from online communities in the child’s use of transitional space. The Winnicottian concept of transitional space refers to the experience of “formlessness” that allows the individual to remain in a state of “being” while negotiating the subjective internalizations and the objective external experiences. Thus, in addition to the unconscious internalization of social media, its constant and consistent impingement may interfere with this state, interrupting the development of a healthy “true self.” In order to avoid such issues, she argues for the use of focused meditation, such as vipassana, to help the individual integrate their identity and sense of self in a holistic manner. Through such self-reflective meditative practices, the individual can develop the ability to consciously conceive of their self as a distinct entity while acknowledging the unconsciously internalized external objects and their influence on the self. She demonstrates the parallels between the transitional space created by the therapist and the individual to the transitional space created by the individual during focused meditative practices, which allows for the development of the individual’s “true self” despite the influence of social media. All these lead to us to Part II of our book, Rethinking Media Studies: New Horizons of Theory and Practice. This begins with Chapter 9, “Unorthodox Coalitions: Co-Creative Media Initiatives for Transformative Critical Sustainability Studies” by Susan Thieme and Eda Elif Tibet. Here, Thieme and Tibet reflect on their experiences driving international, transdisciplinary, and co-creative applied media research based on an ethics of “commoning,” which is hosted at the mLAB, a media lab at the Critical

Rethinking Media Studies  5 Sustainability Research Unit in the Institute of Geography at the University of Bern, Switzerland. At the intersections of human geography, visual anthropology, news media, arts, and digital technologies, their chapter places the need for establishing unorthodox coalitions. They present three examples of how they use the mLAB collaboratively to contribute to transformative learning and education in sustainability research. They further explore on how through the establishment of unorthodox coalitions, they contribute to mediate, co-produce, and disseminate transformative narratives through the development of innovative educational tools and media (such as films, film festivals, multimodal, and audio-visual interventions) around sustainability. Thieme first shares the example of teaching transdisciplinarity by applying the social learning video method, second that of implementing the Global Science Film Festival and a film-making marathon, and finally the authors discuss “Animating the Commons,” an applied participatory action research initiative led by Tibet. They build on debates around the scholarship and movements on transformative education and the potential of transdisciplinarity as a path towards transformative learning. This set of perspectives seems crucial for universities to deal with complex societal developments such as in/justices, unequal access to and use of resources, demographic change, im/mobility, and migration. The next chapter, Chapter 10, “Recreating Global Media through Propitious Hermeneutics Instigating possible Earthly Prospects for Mankind” by Ruth Neyah discusses the showy and majestic display of pomp which has always been a significant media impact. Wherein as long as the worldwide media insists on simply reporting the truth, common sense would triumph. They argue that the world will no longer interact with media in the same way, but recreating a global forum will never be simple. Here, Satyagraha is an attempt to build a space where people may fight for the truth where it further encourages one to think outside of predetermined and universal concepts. Therefore, they argue that some aspects of our lifestyle can be changed so that we train our minds to distinguish between true and false information rather than relying just on the media. To prevent additional harm to mankind, they urge that we must manage the contents of social media and connect media to our daily lives as its indulgence on our wellbeing can be regulated by tweaking our normal psychological pattern. The following chapter, Chapter 11, “Urban Society in the Films of Satyajit Ray” by Abhishek Kumar, effects a marriage between philosophy and cinema and looks at one with the lens of the other. Towards this purpose he selects the films of Satyajit Ray, more particularly his films that have the city of Calcutta as the site of ever-unfolding humanity and the Habrmasian theory of communicative action. Through his critical reassessment of the classics with the tools of instrumental rationalism and intersubjective reality, Kumar elucidates a pre-theoretical know-how that pervades Ray‘s films. As the pretheoretical state of mind, of characters, and of the director is illuminated, a clarification of the meaning of philosophical concepts too takes place. In the

6  Ananta Kumar Giri and Santosh Kumar Biswal clarification of meaning and of the image, the contribution of this chapter resides. Kumar’s chapter is followed by Chapter 12, “Transformative Communal Media Engagement and Diversification” by Abdulkadir Osman Farah in which Farah proposes a shift from conventional conclusions that youth from transnational ethnic communities are often caught between the choice of adjusting into formally static linear socio-political and communicative conditions confronted by the often informal living situations of their own communities. In moving beyond such extremes this chapter presents the case of the youth Blue Stars which proves the existence of an alternative approach through the utilization of additional media platforms. Here young people find connections and commonalities between otherwise diverging socio-political organizations. Farah’s chapter is followed by Chapter 13, “American News Media: A Shattered Institution” by Sharaf Rehman in which Rehman argues how American news media has lost credibility in recent years. In his chapter, Rehman tries to understand this as well as explain the reasons behind the current dysfunctional nature of the news media. Rehman tells us how the partial and biased media coverage of the two presidential candidates, Joe Biden, a seasoned politician with 40+ years of experience, and Donald Trump, an outsider who rocked the boat of global politics controlled by business interests, and religious and political ideologies, has chased the news audiences away from the traditional news outlets. Rehman also shows the difference between the times when the world was led by typography, i.e., the written word in the form of books, newspapers, and magazines, and the world today as it is guided by pictures, voice, music, and sound effects in media such as moving pictures, radio, and television. In his chapter, Rehman presents the findings of a survey (N = 215) of the American voters/student journalists and their self-reported exposure to news media and their mistrust of the press. In the final section, the paper proposes how journalism and news reporting may be restored and brought back to being objective and functional. Rehman’s chapter is followed by Chapter 14, “Media, Mediation and Transformation: The Implication of Digital Mediation on Contemporary Bombay Cinema,” by Ipsita Barat in which Barat explores the implication of digital mediation on the narrative and style adapted by contemporary Bombay cinema. Digital technologies have impacted all stages of production, including delivery systems, during the last decade. In this chapter, she comments upon distinctive styles emerging because of the digital culture. Furthermore, assessing how these transformations have influenced film style, mise en scène, and cinematography, searching for distinctive themes and styles uniquely representative of these new techniques in Bollywood cinema. Barat further proposes that because of the digitization of cinema in the new millennium, previously marginally explored genres in Hindi cinema, such as science fiction, horror, historical drama, and psychological thriller, are being regularly produced, and unique complex cinematic storytelling surfaces. Overall, the digitization of film-making practice in India has prompted

Rethinking Media Studies  7 “narratives of spectacle” and the re-emergence of genres such as science fiction and horror in contemporary Hindi films. In this chapter, she revisits the genre of science fiction in the paradigm of visual effects-driven making of these films and new digital delivery technologies, establishing a new audience segment for Indian science fiction films. Barat’s chapter is followed by “#RIP: Mediation and Mediatization of Grief over Social Media: An Exploration of Social Media Expression and Experience of Mourning” by Surhita Basu in which she explores the dynamic concept of self-identity and its emotive journey in the complex post-human world where human experience is largely mediated. As the Covid-19 pandemic pushed human civilization to stand face to face with universal grief, largely witnessed and expressed through social media, Basu analyses this mediatization of emotion and mediation of self through in-depth interviews with ten social media users who have suffered loss in various forms and degree due to pandemic. Basu shows the evidential transformation of human emotion and identity through social media usage with conflicting and contesting ideations of virtual identity and virtual reality. All these bring us to Part III of our book, “Rethinking Media Studies: Further Explorations,” which begins with Chapter 16, “From Printing Press to the Metaverse: The Changing Role of Technologies in Journalistic Practice,” by Suchitra Patnaik. Here Patnaik writes about the technological transition in the field of journalism over the decades. Today journalistic content is more about interactivity and engaging the audience’s declining attention span and providing them with a first-hand account and fresh perspective of news and events through the application of new immersive technologies based on Data Journalism, Augmented Reality, and Immersive Journalism. Experiments in Artificial Intelligence in newsrooms have contributed to the process of news gathering, research, writing stories, efficiency in fact checking, and information correlations. The mantra is no longer just reporting news but allowing your audiences to experience it, hence making the entire process objective and transparent. The chapter chronicles how these new technological breakthroughs have altered news ecosystems in terms of news gathering and production practices that have evolved due to the adoption of new automative technologies like big data analytics, Artificial Intelligence, and algorithms in modern newsrooms. This is followed by Chapter 17, “Social Media: A Cultural Approach” by John Robert Clammer. In his chapter, Clammer tells us about the pervasiveness of contemporary social media in our lives and the way it affects self, culture, and the world. Our self-identity is today constructed by social media through social media use as well as mediated consumption. There is also a basic shift from visions and practices of “autonomous individuals” to “networked individuals.” Social media also reconstitutes our reality bringing virtual reality to the fore. At the same time, social media is confronted with challenges of endemic exclusions and deprivations in society with regard to access to social media such as “digital poverty.” While many spend their time in social media in a consumption-oriented

8  Ananta Kumar Giri and Santosh Kumar Biswal way some also use social media for activist mobilization. Clammer’s chapter challenges us to understand the complexity of contemporary social media and find ways of using it for creative, critical, and transformative purposes. In the following chapter, Chapter 18, “Memes and Popular Culture: Indian Perspectives,” Shourini Banerjee, S. Balaganapathy, and C. Velayudham discuss Memes and their emergence as a popular tool of communication in all sectors of life. Memes do not only connect with the millennials but also convey vast information and awareness to the middle-aged and the old alike. In fact, this chapter has analysed the promotional strategies of various governmental, political, and corporate organizations in promoting their brand or any message through memes. Despite being an element of popular culture, memes have turned out to be a vital tool for connection, participation, and distribution. Therefore, this chapter takes into account the positive as well as drawbacks of memes in society. The next chapter, Chapter 19, “Deconstructing the Idea of Manhood in Indian Television Advertisements” by Panchali Bhattacharya and Amrita Satapathy discusses the evolution of Indian television advertisements and the stereotyping of male gender in them. According to the authors, a large number of Indian television commercials peddle disconcerting perceptions and images of masculinity by setting unattainable expectations for men in the society. The idea of manliness that these advertisements propagate denies men the right to express their vulnerability. However, the messages in Indian advertising have started adapting to the changing times in order to respect the sensibilities and preferences of its audience. Bhattacharya and Satapathy show how a number of contemporary Indian brands have undertaken the challenge to do away with formulaic representations and rewrite previously unimagined scripts to reframe the dominant gender discourse. Their chapter offers a unique perspective towards one of the most potent form of media studies, advertisements, in the Indian context and discusses how socially sensitive ad-makers are reinventing and repackaging the idea of the new-age man by deconstructing the idea of manhood. Chapter 20, “Media and Risk Communication: Building Interventional Tools During a Crisis Situation with Special Reference To COVID-19” by Trisha Dowerah Baruah analyses the role played by media in communicating issues relating to risks thereby raising public awareness about risks and crises. Baruah argues having a proper mechanism in place to address crisisrelated issues (disease outbreaks, bio-terrorism, etc. ) can actually help the general public to understand the nature of it and accordingly take necessary steps to mitigate the damage. Baruah’s chapter is followed by Chapter 21, “Sabarimala: Adversarial Culture and the Role of Media” by N. Tamilselvi, which discusses how the secular credentials of journalism were put into question in many cases and how print medium has covered religion and human rights in Sabarimala issue. The chapter analyses the content of national dailies and indicates how the print medium should have been more vigilant and responsible in addressing sensitive issues. The following chapter, Chapter 22,

Rethinking Media Studies  9 “Revisiting Gender Representation in Indian News Media,” by Pooja Verma, Santosh Kumar Biswal, and Sushobhan Patankar, discusses how the news media have their own agenda to further shape public opinion and mobilize citizens on socio-political issues. The representation of women journalists in the newsroom as an agenda has sparked debates in the media and civil society. Gender roles in the editorial department must be dismantled. Evaluation of gender roles in the editorial department is a daily occurrence. Needless to say, gender inequality in the newsroom can be treated as a misrepresentation of the social environment. This chapter unravels the newsroom culture in India and how various news media are concerned about the representation of female journalists on their platforms. Moreover, gender inequality in the Indian news media has been covered up without much thought. Chapter 23, “Portrayal of Dalit Women Protagonists in Geeli Pucchi and 200 Halla Ho: A Revisit of Hindi Cinema,” by Chandrakant Kamble, discusses the plight of Dalit women in Hindi cinema. For Kamble, to understand the significance of Dalit representation in Hindi cinema, it is necessary to decode the relationship between Dalit representation and the social language of Hindi cinema. Kamble discusses Hindi films Geeli Puchhi and 200 Halla Ho, which present queer Dalit experiences in which Dalit women are protagonists. The following chapter, Chapter 24, “Electronic Media, Mediation, and Behavioural Biases,” by Shibaprasad Parhi elicits various aspects of the effect of electronic media on Meditation Practices. Meditation is the call of hours, when stress, tension, and psychosomatic diseases are increasing in this world. The chapter discusses the impact of electronic media – both positive and negative – on the life of practitioners. The following chapter, Chapter 25, “Ethical Practices in Indian Television,” by Fakira Mohan Nahak discusses issues of ethics in the functioning of Indian television. In his chapter, Nahak discusses about the code of ethics of Indian television. The chapter presents different case studies of television programs which raises the question of ethics. Nahak also discusses about News Broadcasters Association, Indian Broadcasting Foundation, and Broadcasting Content Complaints Council and their role in adopting ethical practices and self-censorship in Indian television. Overplay of events by television channels and neglecting the core issues of the society in their reporting is also a part of the chapter. The trends in regional language television and pressure on editorial operations from the advertisers are discussed with examples. The book concludes with Chapter 26, “Radical Immersion: Bhakti as Ethical Medium in Contemporary India,” by Umar Nizarudeen. In his chapter, Nizarudeen looks at the Bhakti movement as a primordial Indic movement with a present-day significance. The chapter discusses the emotional valences of the early modern Bhakti movement of India. Bhakti apparently functioned as an ethical as well as emotional medium. The pervasiveness of Bhakti and its lack of hierarchy rendered it an immersive medium that offered spiritual and intellectual solace and succour and also enabled it to

10  Ananta Kumar Giri and Santosh Kumar Biswal traverse a wide terrain across linguistic, cultural, and other barriers. Bhakti extended the perceived reality to encompass a varied milieu of intellectual, emotional, and ethical thought processes. It provided interactive, first person access for the devotee. The multidimensional facet of Bhakti also lends itself to future mediations as it offers pathways of meditative communication which can help us transform media and media studies. Thus Rethinking Media Studies brings multiple perspectives − some nonconventional perspectives − on media studies and hopefully can help us in re-envisioning and transforming media studies and media practices in our contemporary world. Note 1 In this journey of rethinking and reconstitution, the following thoughts are helpful. For Jurgen Habermas (1984: 15, 94): What is essential to communication is that the symbol should arouse in oneself what it arouses in the other individual. [...] I think all of us feel that one must be ready to recognize the interests of others even when they run counter to our own, but the person who does that does not really sacrifice himself, but becomes a larger self. About the limits of power in communication, Chitta Ranjan Das (2020: 173) tells us: When you seek power due to the lust having power, you really throw your sense of shame and appropriateness to the winds. And what a poor show it makes of yourself in the eyes of all concerned! You seem to forget in arrogance of it that there is a world which looks at you, that there is a time to which you are accountable and, above all, that there is a future that will judge you. Manoj Das (2014: 558), a creative writer and thinker, also tells us: A hundred-fold manifestation of power including technological revolution, rapid communication embracing men, matters and ideas, has made it possible for man to transcend his little ego. Physically the world is ready to become one home for the human fraternity, but psychologically man is yet to embrace world in his self. Gopal Guru (2023: 9) brings the challenge directly to the discourse and practice of media: Ideally, the media is supposed to enlighten the general public on two basic questions: what is happening and how long should something continue to happen? In response to the first question that involves an “is” component, the media through its objective reporting, is expected to bring forth different dimensions of reality in the public view. It has a moral responsibility to objectively cover positive as well as negative sides of a myriad reality in its reportage. Thus, if society is overwhelmed by the negative side rather than the positive side of reality, then the media, through its insightful and investigative foresight, is supposed to lay bare the danger of negativity thinking over the larger space of the people’s mental space.

Rethinking Media Studies  11 References Ankersmit, Franklin Rudolf. 1996. Aesthetic Politics: Political Philosophy Beyond Fact and Value. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Clammer, John and Ananta Kumar Giri. ed. 2017. The Aesthetics of Development: Art, Culture and Social Transformations. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan. Dallmayr, Fred. 1991. LifeWorld, Modernity and Critique: Paths Between Heidegger and Frankfurt School. Cambridge, MA: Polity Press. Das, Chitta Ranjan. 2020. “It Smells of Nothing.” In The Essays of Chitta Ranjan Das on Literature, Culture and Society: On the Side of Life in Spite of, eds., Ananta Kumar Giri and Ivan Marquez. New Castle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Press. Das, Manoj. 2014. “The Management of Power: Ascent of Self.” In Manoj Das: A Reader, ed. P. Raja, pp. 549–558. Delhi: Sahitya Akademi. Guru, Gopal. 2023. “In Search of a Socially Enlightened Media.” Economic and Political Weekly LVIII(5): 9. Habermas, Jurgen. 1984. A Theory of Communicative Action, Vol. 2, Lifeworld and System. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. ———. 1990. Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

Part I

Media, Meditation, and Communication





1

What Follows from the Nature of Human Communication for a Future Democracy as a “Communication Society”? At the Crossing of Social–Philosophical and Spiritual Meditation Johannes Heinrichs

Communication, in philosophical analysis and in terms of a logic of reflection, can be understood as such a kind of information which is qualified by the participants’ taking practically into account the expectations of the interaction partners. There is an inner mutuality of interpersonal reflection, characterized by a double reciprocity structure. This is what communication in the proper and demanding use of the word distinguishes from mere information and also from a strategical (self-interested) use of information. There is a succession of ontological reflection levels: mere information (1), strategic information (2), communication (3), and meta-communication (4). The latter one is not to be understood as information about information (words about words), but as a new implicit ontological reflection level by which the interpersonal exchange becomes systemic: a communication system. The condition of possibility and great mediator of true communication is the meta-communicative universal (Divine) Medium of Sense. Philosophical and spiritual ways of meditation must go together here, without being confused. A “communicative society” in a proper sense doesn’t still exist in modern times, though it means nothing else than real democracy, an internationally urgent project. This will be characterized by the institutional distinction of the mentioned reflection levels in a value-level-democracy with four “heart chambers” of the parliaments, which are institutionalized communication. One of these chambers will be dedicated to the ultimate or spiritual values which govern a secular democracy not less than a traditional society. Information and Communication It is widely recognized today that our democracies need to develop more in the direction of “communicative societies.” The question immediately raised by philosophers at this point is: what is meant here by “communication”? Given the growing significance of data processing and information technologies, why not speak rather of an “information society or an “informed DOI: 10.4324/9781032632667-3

16  Johannes Heinrichs society” (Steinbuch 1969)? Are “informed” and “communicative” equivalent terms when applied to society? Before giving a more scientific definition of these terms, it first can be said that they have a different resonance: “Information” has a cold and prosaic sound, whereas “communication” all around sounds more human, less scientific, and technical. From the standpoint of social philosophy, it seems essential to me both to differentiate between these two concepts and at the same time to connect them. The following fictional phone conversation is found in a popular textbook on the Bible. “She: I love you! He: I take note of that!” (Lohfink 1977: 37). The comic effect here derives from the fact that a declaration of love is far more than just information in the ordinary sense. What is involved here is far more than just information in the ordinary sense. What is involved here is what is called a performative interpersonal speech act, moreover one with a high emotional content. Nevertheless, merely to say that more than “just information” is involved is a gross oversimplification. The specialist in information theory at once interjects here, quite rightly, that to speak in that way presupposes a far too narrow and crude everyday idea of information, as if “information in the scientific sense simply denoted factual content with no dimension of emotion or value.” Information also includes the expression of emotional involvement as well as the response to it, such as the expression of delight, surprise, revulsion, embarrassment, and the whole scale of emotions. There are two contrasting concepts of “information”: a narrow everyday concept and a broader scientific one. Whereas in ordinary parlance “information” denotes (in the first instance) merely factual, value-free items of information, the concept which has come to be generally accepted in scientific parlance embraces every new content which is relevant for decision-making or behaviour and is measurable in “bits.” In its classical form, information theory only took into account the information content, the lower limit of the set of signals required unambiguous codification, but up to now it has not taken fully into account the value of an item of information for the recipient. There is only one weapon not only against excessive rationalism but also against irrationalism of the “sound” human intellect: a philosophical analysis of meaning – and by philosophy in the modern sense I mean nothing less than a universal or integral reflection on meaning, beginning with the very basic nature of human consciousness reflecting on itself (Heinrichs 2018, chap.1). The thesis here may be stated as follows: Information in the narrow sense denotes interpersonally not reflected contents, whereas information in the broader sense also embraces interpersonally reflected contents or what may be called in a qualified sense, “communication.” In other words: in its proper sense, communication is a qualified form of information (in somewhat the same way that poetic language is a qualified form of language), with subjective and intersubjective reflection as the qualifier.

Human Communication for a Future Democracy  17 The explanation and proof of the above thesis and of the concept of communication as well are found in the notion of intersubjective reflection. On this basis alone it will be possible to identify the social consequences of the distinction between information and communication in the specific meaning of each of these two terms. The specific concept of communication will be easier to establish if we approach it from the angle of process rather than that of content. We therefore consider the process whereby information contents are transferred, which is a social action. Reflection Levels of Social Action According to the well-known definition of Max Weber (1978, c. 1), social action is one which is oriented towards the behaviour of others. This practical orientation on the behaviour of others is what is meant here by “intersubjective reflection.” The point of view of reflection theory is very important to give more profile to the first overall definition of Weber. Intersubjective or simply social reflection is not a subsequent and epistemological one (as reflection is mostly and superficially understood), but a constitutive and ontological one, which is widely overseen in the current discourse. We can and must distinguish between the following levels in this intersubjective or social reflection: (1) Physical influence on others or the reflectionless (transfer of) information: the others (recipients) are treated as material or thinking objects. No account is taken of their freedom in this transfer, or it is deliberately ignored. The others are simply acted on like objects without anything being expected from them. Nota bene: The term “reflectionless” refers to the lack of intersubjective reflection. This doesn’t mean that subjectively the action cannot be an act of full self-conscience and in this reference a lived or ontological reflection (reflexioimplicita). On the contrary, we speak here of this exclusively, not of a subsequent reflection in the superficial sense. (Already Thomas Aquinas spoke of the underlying ontological reflection of the subject itself as reflexioimplicita!) (2) Action in which all the interest and gain is aimed to be on one side. The transmitter directs information towards the recipients with the deliberate aim of making them serve his/her own interests. The actor entertains behavioural expectations to his co-actors. For example, in traffic: I expect that the other behaves in a certain way. The other can expect the same from me. But this form of reciprocity doesn’t change the basic unilaterality of expectations, which we can call “strategic.”1 We must not take the reciprocity of unilaterality for the real reciprocity of communication! (3) “Social” action in the positive sense of communicative action, in which an attempt is made to take as much account of the other party’s freedom and wishes as of our own. Communication in the true sense means that reflection of the wishes of the other is taking place reciprocally on both

18  Johannes Heinrichs sides in the mode of acceptance. What we expect from the other party is not a behaviour which is unilaterally determined by ourselves, nor merely the behaviour of the other party that can be predicted to done by the other alone. What is expected from the other party is his/her expectations and wishes themselves which reflect my expectations and wishes, a reflection in the practical way of action. Only a genuine reciprocity of this kind, i.e. not just of behaviour, not even just of behavioural expectations, but also of expectations of expectation (and therefore a practical reciprocity of reflection on both sides) deserves to be called “communication” in that proper sense which is also resonant even in ordinary parlance as in the philosophical use of the term. This is certainly true also of thetheme as formulated here − -even if information in the wider and neutral sense was more to the forefront here in order to take into account the explosive development of the information society. (4) But communication as just defined does not yet represent the conclusive, ultimate reflective form of interpersonal (social) behaviour, i.e., of information in the broad sense. This reflection actually achieves its completion rather in a further fourth stage of reflection on the reciprocal expectations of expectation, in a consensus on expectations of expectation (including a consensus on behavioural expectations and on behaviour generally). In respect of this “consensus,” which for the most part also remains an implicit accompaniment, I prefer to speak of meta communication, as do certain Anglo-Saxon and German writers.7 This term shall be used to define the nature of the relationship of communicants. In defining just this in a practical way of mutual action, they constitute a system of human interrelationships. “In one aspect, communication is content; in another aspect it is a relationship. The latter aspect governs the former and is therefore a metacommunication” (Watzlawick et al. 1967). But the concept of meta-communication achieves a considerably greater precision than speaking of relationship governing content or “communication on communication” even in this form-content approach (not to speak by simple “contents on contents,” as is often said) by our consideration of the stages of ontological and practical intersubjective reflection. As I tried to show in my books since 1976 (summoned up in Heinrichs 2018), this fourth stage of reflection is structurally conclusive and thereby formative of a system: by defining reciprocal relationships in shared standards of behaviour and thought. When speaking of “structurally conclusive,” I mean: not temporally and historically, because social systems develop continually, but their basic structure remains. And that basic structure is that of actions woven together by nothing else than the principle of intersubjective and ontological reflection!

Human Communication for a Future Democracy  19 Communication and Love

To put this genesis of a social system from the very interactions of partners which is of so great theoretical importance more concretely and existentially, let us meditate on the genesis of a couple of lovers, let’s call them He and She. They both have fallen in love at a certain moment. But they don’t know of each other’s attitudes, and they are separated immediately after that happened. Remember, it was in a time without mobile phones! 1. Simple unilateral relation: He thinks constantly of Her, not knowing whether She does the same. That is the crucial question of reciprocity of any lover! 2. Unilateral reflected relation: A common friend tells Her that He is constantly thinking of and longing for Her. Hence, She knows more now than Him (second step by reflection of His attitude). This unilateral situation can become quasi-reciprocal or symmetrical when the same friend or another one tells Him of Her loving attitude – but nevertheless not of her knowledge of His attitude, a reciprocal unilaterality, which is not yet real communication (being analogous in that reference to strategic action above: If the couple would remain on that level, they could only play strategically with each other, even with the desire of love). 3. Real reciprocity or communication: The level of real communication is only reached if there is not only individually “shared” knowledge, but reciprocally shared knowledge and double reciprocal reflection by mutual knowledge and reflection of the other one, perhaps still by the “mediumship” of that third person. 4. Meta-communication: Mutual love is not only knowledge, but a lived consensus about that foregoing reciprocity or mutuality. This is a fourth step that of meta-communication, which takes into account the unchangeable and unavailable conditions of mutuality. Yes, there are unchangeable and unavailable conditions of intersubjectivity and mutuality as there are for the individual acting and thinking. Meta-communication means dealing with those unavailable preconditions in making deals about what is available, i.e. in developing forth the social norms and habit. Social meta-communication is a steady development of what is socially agreed upon – and what is unavailable by mutual agreement, e.g. the basic fact that an agreement is an agreement, which means that it establishes a norm of common behaviour. The Medium of Sense: Issue of All Meditation and Deepest Mediator

These four levels of reflection and of human action, which were briefly shown as the intentional structure as well of communication (including

20  Johannes Heinrichs Sense-Medium

I

You

It (objects)

Figure 1.1  The Four Sense-Elements of Human Sense-Activity and of the General Action Situation.

meta-communication) as of love, correspond to what I call the general elements (sense-elements) of any human intentionality and action which easily can be grasped by phenomenological attention to them and which in this context I can only introduce briefly in spite of their most general importance:2 ​ The most essential condition of mutuality between persons is the common Medium of Sense itself, which is as infinite as the “horizon”.3 of each person is infinite. About this fact of individual and shared infinity in implicit meta-communication we cannot meditate enough. This Medium of Sense, Logos in Western philosophy since Heraclitus and Plato, Atman in Indian tradition is

• not only the depth of any self-conscious being which comes to explicit consciousness as well in spiritual meditation as (in a different way) in methodical thinking on the “condition of possibility” of our questions, assertions, passions, longings, and moral obligations, • but also the “Between” of the dialogue of individuals which the dialogical thinker Martin Buber aimed at, primarily in the personal sphere, • up to the Medium at the highest level of mankind in general, the “Geist” (Spirit) of Hegel, as well in the sense of “Weltgeist” (world spirit), i.e. the common Medium of any communalities like States and their history, as in the sense of “Absolute Spirit”4 • by no means to confuse with the individual “Mind,” which is the rational aspect of the individual Soul, a confusion which has become very current. There is no duality of Mind and Matter (Body), but the triad of Body (pre-personal Matter), personal Soul, and transpersonal Medium of Sense (Logos). The latter one is the big, the infinite Mediator par excellence.​

Human Communication for a Future Democracy  21

From 4 activity-elements to 3 components of human nature SPIRIT

SOUL

BODY

Sense-Medium

I

• over-cultural ("ALL") • cultural (languages) • Vsocial patterns • actual "Between" of dialogue

You

It (objects)

TRANS-PERSONAL

PERSONAL

PRE-PERSONAL

Figure 1.2  The Three Components of Human Entity in Relation to the Basic, OverIndividual Sense-Medium.

The profound play on the words mediation and meditation which Ananta Giri introduced in this book gets its most serious and general application here: There is nothing what is so worth of our meditation, what is even the aim of any meditation in the spiritual sense, and what at the same time is the most basic mediator of all: the general Medium of Sense (Sinn-Medium). As “condition of possibility” or infinite “horizon” (Kant 1787: B 787) of all specific human acts and intentions (questions, assertions, passions). It is even the medium “between” Divinity and Humanity: We may call it Atman with the Indian term for Logos which is Divine and human at the same time (whereas Brahman can well be understood as the self-reflection of Atman in Itself). In the frame of this chapter, I will soon turn from this very theological aspect to the human and especially to the social level. But let me first make some general remarks on meditation which include nothing less than a short theory of consciousness. Philosophical and Spiritual Meditation in a Theory of Consciousness It cannot be my purpose here to deal with the manifold forms of meditation in the spiritual sense. Even if I personally and originally come from a certain Western school of meditation, the one of Saint Ignatius cultivated in the Jesuit order, I am aware that there is probably no country in the world where forms of spiritual meditation play such a big role and where so many different forms of spiritual meditation are cultivated than in India. Therefore, I feel neither a special competence nor a need to deal about any of those forms already dealt with by distinguished Indian writers. But what I have to contribute is the general distinction of spiritual and philosophical kind of meditation from a philosophical viewpoint of the theory of consciousness which can be characterized as a contemporary theory of reflection in the wake of Kant, Fichte, and Hegel. The so-called Copernican Turn

22  Johannes Heinrichs in modern philosophy, inaugurated by Kant, is nothing else than a reflexive turn: away from the objects to their relation to the subject, and the beginning of a reflection theory of conscience, because it is the self-relation of the knowing and acting subject which is fundamental for all its object-relations. This self-relation or reflection is an ontological one which is prior to any expressive or objectifying subsequent reflection. Even before the Copernican Turn, this ontological or implicit reflection has been recognized by Thomas Aquinas (1224–74), but not yet at the same time in its epistemological and systemic significance (which reflective development began slowly with René Descartes, 1596–1650). The importance of reflection-theory for a distinction of spiritual and philosophical meditation is just the insight into the parallel distinction of ontological (implicit) and explicit reflection. If we distinguish scientific philosophy from exercised common religion and personal spirituality (as it is done in Figure 1.3), philosophical meditation is an explicit and conceptional and objectifying reflection. Philosophy is the “art of concepts,”5 and only by this very art the difference between the ontological, implicitly lived reflection which is constitutive for human self-consciousness, and the subsequent, objectifying reflection becomes clear. But even for many philosophers the notion of an implicit and ontological reflection has not become clear. On the other hand, spiritual meditation in all its manifold forms is not a conceptional and explicit, but a pre-conceptional and implicit one. Therefore, nearly all spiritual teachers insist on evading the conceptional reflection, called thinking. They recommend to let pass the thoughts that come during meditation. The reason is not because reflection is bad and an obstacle to spirituality (as some rather bad philosophers and spiritual teachers hold) but that there is that fundamental and mostly overseen difference of lived or

4 3 2 1

Legitimation system world view – morality – religion – spirituality Medium: VALUE-AXIOMS/RITES

Culture system education – science – media – art Medium: LANGUAGE

Political system administration – executive – legislative – judiciary Medium: LAW

Economic system

Consumption – production - trade - money system Medium: MONEY

Figure 1.3   The Subsystems of a Social System as Levels of Ontological Social Reflection.

Human Communication for a Future Democracy  23 ontological kind of reflection, and subsequent, objectifying and mere epistemological kind of reflection. But philosophical and spiritual ways of reflection are not at all hostile to each other, if they are not confused, and if the essentially reflexive nature of consciousness as ontological reflection is not misunderstood as merely objectifying and subsequent. On the contrary, philosophical reflection can also become real meditation in the proper, spiritual sense, namely concerning the essential relation of human consciousness to the Infinite or to the (likewise inner and outer) Atman, which I call SenseMedium. But in meditation, this “concept” can and must become more than an objectified concept. It must become the matter of evidence, of even an inner intuition or view. You can characterize all kinds of spiritual meditation just by this one purpose: to get a clearer or stronger intuition of the Atman, which is Divine and human at the same time (whereas Brahman, as already said above, can well be understood – in the view of a general theory of consciousness as reflection and with much caution in this theological field – as the self-reflection of Atman in Itself). There has been a big struggle among the so-called German idealists about whether man is capable of a proper intellectual view (intellektuelle Anschauung) or not (Tilliette1995). This is a rather difficult epistemological question which I cannot deal with adequately in this frame. To my mind, there are semiotic levels of that intuition or view, the highest of which is called mystical. (For a semiotic understanding of mysticism see Heinrichs 2018, c. 7.) At any rate, we must not understand the inner view on any of these levels of lived, ontological reflection as an objectifying one, i.e. not as the viewing of a separated object, but rather as the medial “condition of possibility” to have objects at all for a self-conscious being. The Medium mediates not only the cognition of objects but also the cognition of Itself and of the connection with the self-reflected Divine. It may be added that human communication with the Divine can be no objectifying addressing to It or Him, but a meta-communicative communication. Therefore it is too simple to understand prayer as a “dialogue” in the common sense with the Deity. Prayer is essentially an essay of “pure” metacommunication by the insufficient means of communication. In my observation, simple praying people normally are not conscious enough of the fact that their “dialogue” with God is not just a conversation between one selfconscious being with another one, but that the Divine “partner” is nothing less than the medial and meta-communicative “condition of possibility” of any communication at all. Therefore human mediators which are the Masters of Wisdom like Krishna (and many great Indian Saints) or Jesus Christ in the West are so important. The way and justification how these Masters, to use the theosophical term, are “divinized” (seen as representations of the Deity) cannot be discussed in this frame.

24  Johannes Heinrichs Other and more direct ways (than by mediation of highly evolved Masters) to approach the Divine in a meta-communicative way are individual and common rituals, e.g. individual mantras and common ceremonies, but also the repetition of pre-formed prayers, often given by masters of spirituality. These are meta-communicative activities of expression which have their big place in a reflection-theory of human actions (Heinrichs 2018, 126ss). To deepen further this point of the importance of meta-communication for the spiritual life would mean to enter deeper into theory of spirituality with philosophical (conceptional!) means than is perhaps ever done before, just because the said reflection theory is needed for that purpose. Spiritual minds normally content themselves to describe their sincere difficulties and aporias at these crucial points of prayer and spiritual practice without too much additional conceptional effort. Their efforts are rather manifested in psychological and autobiographical descriptions as we know them from the Saints (Masters) and spiritual teachers in East and West. At any rate, with the concept of the Sense-Medium of all communication and meta-communication we stand at the very crossing point of spiritual and philosophical meditation. These two forms of meditation are very different. To confuse them means not to understand the difference between ontological and merely epistemological reflection. But they have an overlap when the deeper understanding of the meta-communicative Sense-Medium remains not only conceptional but gets existential. In this case, philosophical meditation gets a spiritual one at the same time. Then alone there is no confusion and terrible levelling but unification of normally different types of reflection. Communication among the Reflection Levels of Social Systems

Communication is the lived or ontological reflection between the self-conscious individuals, so much more than information provided by anonymous mass media. Traditional societies were communities, in which interpersonal communication was the original standard – even if this standard was compromised and too often broken by force and cruelty, and by the power of rulers. Now my question is: What is the role and chance of genuine communication in modern societies, especially in those which call themselves democratic societies? It seems evident that democratic societies pretend to be “communicative” ones, i.e. not only guided by the principle of individual freedom and of equality but also of “brotherhood,” which can be understood as an equivalent of communicative relation. Hence, the term “communicative society” or “communication society” means nothing else than a developed democracy.6 Consequently, my question for the rest of this chapter is this one: what are the structural preconditions for the development of democracies towards more communicative societies? I speak of “structural” preconditions in difference to the historical ones. It is not sufficient to tell stories about our national or pre-national histories. To deal with structural preconditions

Human Communication for a Future Democracy  25 means also to put a stop to merely preachy and moralistic considerations. We will see that the structural approach opens not only social but even personal and existential insights. The above shown levels of intersubjectivity which constitute social systems on the level of personal meta-communication are also the source of the levels of the social system. It is a matter of the line of sight to switch from the individual to the collective view to society “from above” (cf. Figure 1.3):

• The object-oriented or instrumental actions result in the sub-system of economics (with money as a characteristic medium of interaction). This doesn’t mean that all actions in the economic sphere are strictly objectoriented. There can be much “humanity” and friendliness in business. But the distinctive direction of business action goes to material goods. • The subject-oriented or strategic actions or the source of the system of political power (with law, juridical norms, as the medium to canalize power and to avoid violence, at least open violence, as this depends on the question of justice). • The altero-oriented or communicative (dialogical) actions find their systemic place in the cultural level of society (with language as the basic medium). Language is by no means the quintessence of communication as rationalistic and linguistic-turn-thinkers – including Habermas – assert. We can communicate also by gestures and physical expressions (not at least sexuality) and manifold behaviour, especially by helping somebody. But the specific evolutionary media of communication are indeed the languages: manifold variations of a hidden universal “language” in form of common reflection-structures (Heinrichs 2008/9). • The meta-communicative actions of normative regulation are the basis of the basic value system of a society (with basic principles, basic values and their expressive rites as specific medium). The norms of our social behaviour are ever-changing products of more or less implicit, more or less explicit meta-communication. Behind both of these likewise important forms of meta-communication, there are more or less hidden principles of belief or thinking. Not all social norms are consciously known as results of meta-communication. And there is one medium which is the “condition of possibility” of any meta-communication: the above-mentioned Medium of Sense in its infinity which is specific for human mind – and which connects human Mind to the Logos, Geist or Spirit. Whether this Logos is reflected in Itself as a self-conscious Deity, this is the basic theological question. We will see in the following that in modern societies, i.e. those with pluralistic word views and religions, this theological question cannot and must not be answered “officially.” Already in another reader, edited by Ananta Kumar Giri (Giri 2021), I could present the following summarizing figure of the social system as State:​

26  Johannes Heinrichs It is not possible nor necessary to evaluate the many implications of this reflection-system-theory in the present article on communication. We can focus on the specific communicative level of society which is called culture. But the delineation of the communicative to the meta-communicative level belongs essentially to our task. I am beginning with this. In a paradoxical sense, just the traditional societies were “meta-communicative” societies because they were united in a common religious world view. Their meta-communication was clear and predominant. The expression “meta-communicative society” may get a new modern meaning in the sense of everlasting explicit searching for and establishing always anew the last basic principle and values of a society. But we are not there at all to enjoy pluralism because of its proper value fundament, not as an unevitable evil ( Phan 2017). We are – at the best – on the way to a communicative society, with a pluralism of more or less scientific world views (what can I know?), with a pluralism of more or less explicit ethics (what shall I do?), with a pluralism of community-religions, (what can I hope?) and with a pluralism of personal spiritualities (how can I experience and realize the sense of my life?).7 At any rate, for a communicative society the distinction of the meta-communicative level of basic values from the level of cultural life is extremely important: the basic value level concerns the values which are valid or are considered to be valid unconditionally: truth, moral goodness, hope for last sense of life, and realization of such a spiritual sense – and all that follows from these fundamentals in society. Men fought in innumerable war for these truths and values, even if those last values were often only pretexts for minor values of power and material possession. But whether men were fighting for truths and last values or mainly for minor values, both kinds of fighting should be stopped meanwhile, in a future communicative society. The question is: how can we seriously include the basic values in such a society, which will be a democratic one? Democracy does not mean at all value-relativism, but there must be developed fair procedures of dealing with different valueand truth-options. And these democratic procedures of word view pluralism are a basic value in themselves! Let me come to the specific level of communication. Here the further distinction in the graphic follows also the main principle of division, which I call “dialectical subsumption,” which means the main division according to the sense-elements in Figure 1.1 (object, subject, other subject or intersubjectivity, and Sense-Medium) are repeated in each subdivision. Therefore the cultural system is divided, resp. divides itself into education (as objective in the sense of obvious or traditional contents), sciences (as subjective endeavour for knowledge), publication media (as established societal communication), and the arts (as the forms of a lived, ontological meta-languages: languages beyond the ordinary fixed languages). About all these levels of cultural life should be dealt with longer. But what is important for my line of thought are only the big distinctions as well on the

Human Communication for a Future Democracy  27 cultural level itself as to the neighbouring systems of meta-communication and of politics. As to the frontier to meta-communication it is evident that there cannot be a free culture if the distinction from the unconditional basic values is not made: if in a pre-pluralistic society all culture is only a prolongation of religion and a monolithic religion, we cannot speak of a free culture in the realms of education, science, publicity, and arts. As to the other frontier to politics, we remember examples of culture in the service of a State-Weltanschauung (world view), may it be of a secular or of a religious type. About the economic system I confine to only two short remarks: first that the division in Figure 1.3 follows again the principle of dialectical subsumption, which in this case coincides with the historical development: consumption concerns the appropriation of objects, mainly as food, originally given by nature. Production is the new level of economics since the agricultural, namely the Neolithic revolution, trade is interpersonal exchange, and the money system is the medial regulation of the whole economic system, the importance of which has become more and more evident. My second remark follows directly from the overwhelming importance and power of the money system, the realization of which as self-augmenting money poses a serious democratic problem: is a capitalist economy compatible with democracy? It is evident that our existing democracies are to a high degree still plutocracies. Without going deeper into a definition of capitalism and without trying to answer that question directly, I am rather going to deal about democracy from the viewpoint of a communicative society. We can hope that an answer to the last question is included in a piece of theory of democracy from that decisive angle of communication. The Institutionalization of Communication in Parliamentarism (a Short Doctrine of Division of Powers)

If you look at Figure 1.4, you see at the right the so-called “division of powers,” which are functions of the state-activity. But instead of the traditional three powers, we must, from the viewpoint of reflection–system-theory, distinguish four powers, because the executive power is logically divided into administration (as the whole executive power is called in the USA) and government. It is evident that an administration which applies only the existing laws is essentially different from a government which by far acts beyond the existing laws: by important decisions which have nothing to do with mere application of laws, to which, e.g., the police or the financial administration and the whole bureaucracy is strictly bound to. A political leader must take decisions which shall be compatible with the constitution, but which go far beyond the application of laws and constitution. Therefore, I regard the label “administration” for the American government as a traditional misunderstanding – as long as the bureaucratical administration is not principally distinguished from the political government, under whatever label. Even if the administration

28  Johannes Heinrichs The institutionalization of communication in parliamentarism (a short doctrine of division of powers)

The social System as: State 4 Basic-Value-System

World-Views - Moral Religion – Spirituality Medium: Value-Axioms/Rites

3 Cultural System

Education - Sciences – Media – Arts Medium: Language

2 Political System

Territory/Traffic - inner and outer Security Foreign Politics - Juridical Politics/Constitution Medium: Law

1 Economic System

Consumption – Production – Trade – Money-Syst, Medium: Money

iary udic tive tive 4. J egisla Exeku l L a 3. olitic ration t 2. P dminis 1. A iary udic tive tive 4. J egisla Exeku 3. L olitical ration t 2. P dminis 1. A iary udic tive tive 4. J egisla Exeku l L a n . c 3 io oliti trat 2. P dminis A . 1 iary udic tive tive 4. J egisla Exeku l L 3. olitica ration t 2. P dminis 1. A

Figure 1.4  The House (Oikos) of Society, with the Four Institutional Powers at the Right.

in the proper sense becomes more directly dependent on the parliaments − as is desirable everywhere – the difference between the executive of decision (government) and executive of mere administration remains essential. The distinction between the two forms of executive seems nowhere made clearly enough. But the actual weakness and serious danger of American democracy, including the weakness in making constitutional improvements, still lie much more in its party system what will become evident in the following. The logic of the division of powers follows that of the initially introduced sense-elements and the corresponding reflection levels. The (only) logical point of view of their division is their respective relation to the laws, which are the core of a constitutional State: 1. Administration is the application of already “objectively” existing laws to the actions of citizens. (Sometimes these laws are not yet explicit and written, in the beginning.) 2. Government consists of ruling by subjective decisions.

Human Communication for a Future Democracy  29 3. Legislation is the communicative power of deliberation and common decision on laws. 4. Jurisdiction is partially simply part of administration (application of laws), but as an own power the effective supervision of the conformity of that application and of all juridical procedures: the meta-communicative power. What is most important for our issue communication and “communication society” is evidently the third power: the parliamentarism. It is the core and the heart of democracy. Otherwise even a constitutional State could be nothing but the authoritarian application of laws with mostly authoritarian origin. (What the constitutional monarchies of Europe were before the World Wars, and what China seems to be nowadays.) The institutional communication named parliamentarism does not at all replace or force back the everyday communication of people. On the contrary, the more credible the institutional, parliamentary communication becomes, the more vivid will the everyday and non-institutional communication develop. But this is by far not the only reason why our democracies all over the world need urgently a much more credible parliamentarism – for not to die under the attacks of populism and authoritarianism or of their combination like Trumpism! A New Parliamentarism as Structural Precondition of a Communicative Democracy

Only since the audacious research of the English physician William Harvey (1578–1657) we know that the human heart has four chambers. This is only a historical analogy, not a biological argument for my central thesis: The parliaments as the hearts of future democracies which can claim to be communicative societies must have four chambers in order to take into account the four subsystems of a social system. The most important lack of our democracies is undeniable the fact that the parliaments are filled with party-politicians who are not really representatives of the people but of their respective parties which in their turn are power parties, organizations to get power, not matter parties (organizations to achieve aims for the wealth of the population). This character of mere power parties results from the simple fact that they generally are all-round parties, i.e. not specified matter parties. What, for example, has the protection of the environment, the core issue of the Greens, to do with the thesis, often held by Green parties, that nations and their languages are constructs of yesterday which ought to be dissolved, an essentially cultural question because modern nations are basically cultural units. The voters are in a dilemma, if they agree to the Green key issue of ecology, but not to their opinions on nations and migration questions. Likewise, if the same

30  Johannes Heinrichs ecological party takes positions on the issue of social justice, the voter may agree or not. In brief, the voters are principally in a dilemmatic situation as long as the parties are not specified matter parties which stand for one realm of questions, be it economical, be it political in the proper sense, be it cultural, and be it in a religious or basic value sense. Here is not the place to illustrate all the numerous dilemmas which the voter is confronted with when he is obliged to vote for all-round parties which bundle up all the different issues. The worst dilemma is that of a two-party situation of traditional AngloSaxon type! As to communication, neither the voter nor an elected representative has a chance of real matter-oriented communication. Such a chance would be only given if there is separation of the essential bundles of issues (not one point-issues only) – which are the value levels. Whenever there are controversial options on the respective levels (economy, politics, culture, and basic values) parties must constitute themselves on these value levels – as matter parties which are able to find the best solutions in dispute – or just by counting finally the votes of the representatives. Fruitful matter disputes are totally different from the well-known power disputes with hidden interests because of the confusion of all levels. In this context it doesn’t matter whether we understand “communication” as rational discourse or as discourse in the broader sense. The famous J. Habermas plays – consciously or rather unconsciously – in many of his writings with these two very different meanings of “discourse,” we may call them the rationalistic or academic and the emotional or populistic one! At any rate, the power-oriented parties are not able to any “discourse,” which could be named “communication” in the sense of human reciprocity of hearing and understanding! That is why there must urgently be installed a hierarchy of the four chambers or partial parliaments, in which matter-oriented parties can discuss and fight for the best solutions. I begin from the first level in characterizing the main tasks of the respective partial parliaments in order to signalize some of the countless value questions which are posed on each level but which cannot be answered adequately without a holistic system of priority: 4. The basic value parliament does not define positions on the ultimate questions, but how to handle fairly, i.e. in a communicative way, the different, pluralistic positions of world view, ethics, and belief. Only as far as some ethical decisions must become law, it will become directly legislative itself for individual acting. But, what is still more important: its legislative power defines social rules for the subordinate spheres of culture (e.g. representation of violence or sex in films), of politics (e.g. production and trade of weapons, military violence, and threatening with it), not at least ethical rules of an economy which serves to the common wealth instead of governing the whole of society.

Human Communication for a Future Democracy  31 3. The culture parliament has the main task to give education, science, and cultural expression the big importance it must get in a communicative society. The protection of mother languages against an absorption in a bad, simple word language as well as the question of migration and reciprocal hospitality of cultures (that includes the priority of a hosting culture over the cultural guests) are tasks of the culture parliament (Heinrichs 2017). As to the media, what is called “communication” today and what in fact is – at the best – unilateral information would be developed into forms of real communication with forms of greater reciprocity. This big issue would require a new article. 2. The tasks of the political parliament must not be defined more than in Figure 1.4. But concerning “territory” shall be underlined that the possession of ground and other common goods like special earths, air and the environment, and climate in general are political pre-conditions of public welfare as well as of economic activity. This is not seen enough as a genuinely political task in economically dominated nations. 1. That economy is not simply a matter of market, but the serving fundament of the entire society, must not be emphasized again. Even a “free market” stands and must much more consciously than until now stand under ethical, cultural, and political preconditions. In a future communication society the free market can serve as figurative model of free communication, provided that it is seen that this model is not all the reality of communication itself, but dependent on that specific human behaviour we call communication. Difference to Plato and to the Old Indian Caste System

Sometimes the concept of value–levels−democracy is seen near Plato’s Politeia. There is indeed in common with Plato the claim of a philosophical foundation of policy and politics. From that claim derives also a common aversion against “big thoughts” which don’t prove their truth in the real life as well of the individuals as of communities, the states, and the world-community of peoples and states. The importance of the institutional realization of the value levels for the international level cannot be the issue in this frame. But the difference to Plato’s way of thinking must become clear. A fourvalue-based democracy is not at all a design of an aristocratic philosopherstate, where a philosopher-king rules. It is “only” a modern philosophically based design of structures, in which the free and well-instructed “wisdom of the crowds” (Surowiecki 2001) can play: in the form of dynamical, sector-specific elections and legislations. The philosophical contribution is pre-thinking of communicative structures and institutions, in which the democratic wisdom of majorities can develop in a really free and fertile way. But this philosophical pre-thinking is absolutely indispensable. It cannot be replaced by mere empirical political science and statistical sociology! Moreover, in future basic-value-parliaments philosophical thought has a much bigger chance of

32  Johannes Heinrichs shaping society than nowadays and ever in history. And that with the democratic feedback from the entire population. Likewise, the religious and spiritual wisdom and their actualization have much bigger chances – but without traditional suppression and dogmatism. I remember that communication has its roots in meta-communication, that the meditation on the universal medium, which I called Sense-Medium is absolutely fundamental for a communication society.8 I even suppose that the old Indian, Vedic seers were masters of both ways of meditation and reflection, the ontological and the conceptual. Otherwise they couldn’t have grasped, in their way, the essential four-folded structure of the social system. There is a striking parallel of the four levels of actions and values in the traditional Indian caste system as well as in the later varnasrama system of the Hare Krishna tradition (Visnupada 1981). Varna literally means “class, status, colour.” The latter one emphasizes that the varnas are not bound to birth castes, and they take distance from the caste system. But as far as I understand, this is the only essential difference to that traditional system which has been so characteristic of the India. There are four varnas:

• Brahmanas: the intellectual elite and priests, educated in the Holy Scriptures, the Vedas;

• Kshatriyas: the warriors, princes, and senior officials; • Vaishyas: the traders, merchants, landowners, and farmers; • Shudras: craftsmen, leasehold farmers, and day labourers. Below are the formerly so-called “untouchables,” because they were not regarded as real members of the community, called Parias or Harijans, or, nowadays, Dalits. It is not my aim nor my competence to go deeper into the caste – resp. the varna system. My first question is whether there is a “communicative” level of the system. However, the Kshatriyas (warriors etc.) obviously are not understood as a communicative varna but as an exercising strategic power of the “princes and warriors,” that is, of the politicians of today. It could be that this was different in the original system that the old visionary intuition was different from the later tradition and that originally the communicative-cultural element was meant for that level, with a difference between “worldly” and “holy” knowledge and education. But the main difference to a real value order and especially then to a valuebased democracy relies on structural, systemic differences, which have little to do with a unilateral allocation of individuals to one system level. Even if the various professions can be allocated on one of the social subsystems, this must not be the case for the personal totality of the individuals and their participation in social and political life. This is the major difference: whereas the various professions can more or less be mapped to the system levels – economy, politics, social communication, and basic values – the affiliation of individuals to a system level as such is not acceptable for a modern

Human Communication for a Future Democracy  33 society. System levels are no castes nor varnas at all! The “perversion” of system levels into castes/varnas by the assignment of individuals exclusively to one level is not only a lack of systemic thinking (what the old seers perhaps had by intuition) but also a question of taking individuality not seriously. Maybe that the individual assignment was not given in the beginning of the caste system, so that this one was more a result of a big misunderstanding or a confusion and a historical degeneration. I cannot decide about this historical question. Perhaps the Vedic scriptures affirm my hypothesis of an originally deeper sense of the varnas, with no personal affiliation and formation of castes, which misunderstanding would give more explication for the “sacred” longevity of the castes. Anyway, this gap of tradition and future democracy would be overcome if the real value order of the social subsystems would be realized by the chambers of the Indian National Congress. India seems to be called for this historical step, just because of the lasting problem-pressure of castes and their here supposed origin, even if the Western countries should temporarily be unable or unwilling to follow such fundamental insights into democracy as value realization. In this way, India could clear up a historical misunderstanding of her old wisdom, a wisdom which is found again or reconstructed by the Western type of reflection theory as it is outlined here. The slogan would be: Institutionalization of systemic value levels in an exemplary democracy – instead of castes or dogmatic varnas! The Republic of India is by far the most populous democracy in the world. She could and should also become the best one, realizing her own spiritual values in a non-fundamentalistic way, perhaps even before the old democracies awake from their apparent self-sufficiency! The current serious struggles between Hindus and the Muslim minority must and can be resolved by open discourse in a basic value chamber of a tiered parliament, and a resulting fair legislation. The differentiation of parliamentarism means a stop to religious fundamentalism of all sides without ignoring the genuine religious issues in social life. A monolithic parliament of all-over parties can impossibly manage problems like this big one.

Notes 1 I adopt here some expressions of Habermas (1987) who nevertheless does not at all clearly analyse the reflection levels of actions, which are nevertheless decisive for the important transit from action theory to theory of social systems. Habermas only repeats Max Weber’s distinction of rational and value-oriented social actions. Consequently, the extremely important essential connection of social actions and social systems was lacking in the famous controversy between Jürgen Habermas and Niklas Luhmann in the seventies of the last century. This connection is formed by the principle of mutual social reflection, which is a practical and ontological one, not only a matter of reciprocity of (epistemological) perspectives. 2 The most general meditation on these sense-elements for all dialectical relations is given in Heinrichs (2020).

34  Johannes Heinrichs 3 The word “horizon” is not a specific expression of hermeneutics, it occurs already with Kant (1787, B 787), but there only as a subjective horizon. The “condition of possibility,” to speak in his terms, in which way one subject can communicate with another one, is neither asked nor answered by this great pioneer of subjectreflection. 4 In a Western and Hegelian view Atman can be understood as the infinity of the respective individuals, whereas Brahman is the Divine Spirit over the finite (human, self-conscious) individualities – to which Divine can be attributed an own self-reflection. But this is not the place here to go deeper into this essential theological question. 5 This formula of mine alludes to Kant’s characterization of philosophy as “reasonable cognition by concepts” (Kant 1787, B 741 ss). 6 The title “Communication Society/kommunikative Gesellschaft” first occurred to me by invitation as a speaker to a conference in Bonn 1977, organized by the Eastern Asian Institute (Ostasien-Institut) in collaboration with the Society for Mathematic and Data Processing. The Japanese speakers and participants used the expression “Johoka Shakai,” which seems traditional in Japan, even if the new use of it was rather technical in face of the emerging computer revolution. Cf. the contributions of Ostasien-Institut (1977) and Heinrichs (1978). 7 The first three questions are posed like this by Immanuel Kant (1787, 833 ss). He summarizes them in his fourth question “what is human being?.” There is a clear convergence with my formulation above. But spiritual men will oppose to Kant’s view that religion is only a matter of hope for a future Beyond. They want to experience and realize the Sense of their lives “here and now,” mostly not excluding a Beyond. 8 I proposed the resulting reflection-system-theory in many references, such as in philosophical semiotics of action, language, arts, and mystics, cf. Heinrichs (2018).

References Giri, Ananta Kumar. 2021. Pragmatism, Spirituality and Society. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan/Springer Nature. Habermas, Juergen. 1987. A Theory of Communicative Action, 2 vol. Cambridge: Polity Press. Heinrichs, Johannes. 1978. Freiheit – Sozialismus – Christentum. Um eine kommunikative Gesellschaft. Bonn: Bouvier. Heinrichs, Johannes. 2008/2009. Sprache, 5 vol. Baden-Baden: Academia. Heinrichs, Johannes. 2017. Gastfreundschaft der Kulturen. Stuttgart: Ibidem. Heinrichs, Johannes. 2018. Integral Philosophy: The Common Logical Roots of Anthropology, Politics, Language, and Spirituality. Stuttgart and New York: Ibidem/Columbia University Press. Heinrichs, Johannes. 2020. Dialektik jenseits von Hegel und Corona. Baden-Baden: Academia. Kant, Immanuel. 1787. Kritik der reinen Vernunft/ Critique of Pure Reason. Riga: Hartknoch. Lohfink, Gerhard. 1977. JetztversteheichdieBibel. Stuttgart, 1986: Katholisches Bibelwerk. Phan, Peter C. 2017. The Joy of Religious Pluralism: A Personal Journey. Washington, DC: Orbis Books. Surowiecki, James. 2001. The Wisdom of the Crowds. New York: Doubleday.

Human Communication for a Future Democracy  35 Steinbuch, Karl. 1969. Die informierte Gesellschaft. Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlagsanstalt (dva). Tilliette, Xavier. 1995. L´intuition intellectuelle de Kant à Hegel. Paris: J. Vrin. Visnupada, Harikesa. 1981. Vanasrama Manifesto for Social Sanity. New York et al.: The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust. Watzlawick, P., Beavin, J. H. and Jackson, D. 1967. Pragmatics of Human Communication. New York: Norton & Co. Weber, Max. 1978. Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology. Berkeley: University of California Press.

2

Media, Truth, and the Good A Meditation on the Implications of Historico-Religious Contexts Ori Z. Soltes

New Media and their Message In 1964, Marshall McLuhan gained renown for his work, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man, and with it, the idea that “the medium is the message.” In the context of suggesting that print media are being superseded by electronic media, McLuhan referenced watershed moments in communications technology, beginning with the extension of oral communication into writing; continuing with the transformation of hand-written communication into printing by press; and arriving at the emergence of non-print media that, at the time of his book were beginning to make their way into the consciousness of civilization. He noted both that, particularly with the advent of writing and later, with the emergence of non-print communication, a critical mass of individuals felt distinctly uncomfortable, even as he predicted what, more than half a century later has arrived at a post-revolution standard of interhuman interaction that shuttles largely between the internet and the iPhone. Among McLuhan’s central inter-connected points, made early in his volume, in the introduction and in the first chapter – that bears the phrase noted in quotes above as its chapter title – are that we treat the arrival of news media as if they are mere continuations of old media and therefore find it difficult to adapt to the new, but that we limit ourselves significantly if we consider only the content of a given communication, that the means by which the message is conveyed itself conveys a message. He illustrates the issue of medium as a message by means of the functioning of a light bulb. It lacks content in the way that a newspaper with articles or a television with programs do but nonetheless yields a social effect, since it makes it possible for people to shape functioning spaces (where things become or remain visible) during the night, which would otherwise be dark and therefore spaceless. So a lightbulb is a medium that does not deliver content but is itself the content: it “creates an environment by its mere presence”1– as opposed to a newspaper that needs to be actively read or a television whose programs need to be watched for their content to be engaged. McLuhan also proposed – rather controversially – that actual content has little effect on society: the effect of television, for instance, would not per se be affected by whether it offered children-directed programming or DOI: 10.4324/9781032632667-4

Media, Truth, and the Good  37 programming dominated by violence.2 On the other hand, different media offer different characteristics with regard to how the audience is engaged: one can read and re-read a particular passage in a book or a newspaper article, but (at the time of his writing; this has since changed – but that is part of his point, as we shall see) a movie would need to be screened in its entirety in order to see any part of it. Embedded in his discussion is a distinction between two generic types of medium that differently connect the message-creator to the message-recipient: cold/cool and hot. In adapting what Claude Levi-Strauss had referenced (and entitled one of his best-known books), as “raw and cooked” kinds of societies, McLuhan argued that that a cold (he sometimes writes “cool”) medium offers less description and thus requires increased involvement from the audience than does a hot medium that, in providing more description, requires less involvement. A movie is referred to as “high definition,” meaning that it requires more of a viewer’s focus and attention than a “low definition” comic book, which requires lower focal energy from a viewer/reader in order to extract value from it.3 Appositely, movies as a medium are hot because they enhance a single sense – vision – so that the audience, connected to the action on the screen and otherwise isolated in darkness, need not exert much effort to perceive the detailed moving images, whereas a printed account (a book by the same title of a given movie) is a cold medium that may use visual senses but requires a more intense level of focus and comprehension to engage the reader. He included among cooler media the sort of televisions contemporary with his volume – with their small black and white screens – which, he suggested, require more effort from the viewer than a movie does to extract meaning. Similarly, comics, thanks to a minimal presentation of visual detail, require a higher degree of engagement towards meaning effort from their viewers, who need to fill in details with their minds. “Hot” and “cold” operate along a continuum, as opposed to offering a simple dichotomy of topology. For McLuhan a medium is “any extension of ourselves.”4 All new technologies, from printing to radio to automobiles, mediate our communication; their forms or structures affect how we perceive and understand the world around us. Where media theory is concerned, he asserts, the study of media typically fails because it focuses on content, and it thus blind to the psychic and social effects that define the medium’s true significance. McLuhan observes that any medium “amplifies or accelerates existing processes,” introducing a “change of scale or pace or shape or pattern into human association, affairs, and action,” which results in “psychic and social consequences.”5 This is the real “meaning or message” brought by a medium – a social and psychic message – and it depends solely on the medium itself, regardless of the “content” emitted by it.6 Hence: “the medium is the message.” Thus, for example, mechanization as a medium can produce both cornflakes and Cadillacs; these are different products and therefore offer different content, but the impact on workers and society is the same.7

38  Ori Z. Soltes McLuhan’s discussion was lauded by some as forward-thinking and criticized by many others. Umberto Eco, for instance, considered McLuhan’s definition and treatment of “medium” as overly simplistic; Regis Debray contended that McLuhan’s invention “of a homo-mediaticus [is offered] without ties to historical and social context.”8 In fact, David Carr commented that there has been a long progression of “academics who have made a career out of deconstructing McLuhan’s effort to define the modern media ecosystem,” whether it be due to what they see as McLuhan’s ignorance towards sociohistorical context or the style of his argument.9 For our purposes what is most significant is the double temporal direction in which his formulation pushes, whether or not – and “not” seems more likely – he was aware of it. This work proved prescient with regard to the shaping of new electronic media in the more than a half-century since Understanding Media was published. The double complication of newly shaped media – new hot and cold modes and the varying directions of their effect on society, and the slowness with which a given generation embraces new modes that are natural to the generation that follows – has expanded exponentially with the explosion of the internet and social media. Part of the consequence of the evolution of these extensions of man (to use the phrase that serves as a subtitle for McLuhan’s book) is to radically change the nature of human understanding of the world around us and of the engagement of humans with fellow humans. On the one hand we are more in touch, at least potentially, with the breadth of humanity, given the ease with which we can both access information regarding distant points on the globe and access individuals at distant points instantaneously. On the other hand, we are less engaged: young people may be seen sitting at the same café table in any given city, town, or village in any given country and, eyes (and presumably minds) glued to their iPhones, conversing either with each other by way of texts exclusively or not with each other at all, each instead texting someone and somewhere else. At the same time, larger numbers of us seem to be more easily influenced to engage in – often negative or even violent – actions based on messages that we embrace in these media as possessing absolute truth-value, without recourse or inclination to consider even their facticity, much less their larger truth-value. In the world of 2020–21, one can see this last phenomenon very distinctly exemplified by the success with which the tweet medium was used by Donald Trump to convince a substantial part of the American population, without reflection beyond embracing his tweets, that Covid-19 was a non-issue or a conspiracy fomented by his political opponents – even as several hundred thousand Americans perished from it – and requiring no medical response even when a response became available (vaccines). The response to ignore the virus and eschew not only the vaccine but fundamental protections such as masks and social distancing was illusorily tied to Trump’s acolytes’ selfcentered concept of “freedom.”

Media, Truth, and the Good  39 In the context of the presidential election, he enjoyed a similar capacity to succeed well enough with his message – that his election loss was fraudulent – that a substantial cadre of his true believers were willing not only to storm the US Capital violently and threaten members of the legislature with death, but to engage in such actions that sought to tear apart a key series of American democratic customs and principles in the name of championing those very principles. Trump the messenger became one with the message: the tweet medium and the Trump-tweeting medium, very hot and high-definition – requiring and eliciting little from the audience except blind and deaf loyalty and mindless actions precipitated by that loyalty – offer a development consistent with the darkest side of McLuhan’s analysis. What McLuhan described as a transition from one medium to another, which has exploded since he described it, also, however, looks backwards (even if he barely does so) to the early evolution of human media development with consequences for the implications in media-related human behaviour and its moral consequences, which includes – to an important extent, derives from – the idea of media and their messages as both of these are associated with a reality beyond human reality. The Medium and Message of Religion The idea of media in transformation, together with the question of media as extensions of man as opposed to extensions of another reality (God, for instance) towards man, is a variant of a process several thousand years old. This issue is as old as organized religion, the purposes of which are articulated in shifting media, from pre-verbal to verbal to written. There are thus two aspects to the media evolution of particular relevance to the past that marks a meeting point in McLuhan’s formulations with the future – from the time of his book in 1964 and from our own time looking forward. Religion is itself a medium with a message – interwoven of different broadcast modes. Its fundamental message is that there is another reality – we can call this reality, simply, divinity – that has created and therefore, we assume and believe, can destroy us; it can help or harm, further or hinder, bless or curse us. Its fundamental content is to connect us – to tie us back (“l-g” means “bind” in Latin, and “re-” means “back” or “again”) – to that source, so that we survive. For its message is the instruction of what we must do to please and not offend that source. It is a “cold” medium, engendering increased involvement – with a minimum of description, to use McLuhan’s terms. Our involvement revolves around our attempts to understand what exactly the meaning of the message is, so we understand how to translate it into thoughts, words, and actions that yield a positive outcome. Every religion begins with revelation; messages that are believed by its constituents to come from a source beyond ourselves that we refer to as divinity (see the previous two paragraphs). The otherwise inaccessible messages of divinity require communication through media such as prophets (or

40  Ori Z. Soltes priests, or poets, or artists, or pharaohs, or other subsets of that category of individuals).10 Humans differ both in how they understand divinity and in who they believe is the consummate medium – and therefore in what the message is. Moreover, even among those who agree upon the general message, once the (prophetic) medium is gone, questions arise as to its specific meaning. Revelation yields to ever-expanding interpretation. The interpretational process of exploring and explaining the revelation – the medium of translating the divine message – can itself become the message. If a given individual or group comes to consider – mistakes – his/her/their interpretation of the revelation for the revelation itself, by confusing the absoluteness of God and the revelation from God with what he/she/they believe God means, and thus mistaking his/her/their belief (which is humanly derived and therefore by definition contingent), with that absoluteness; then the medium (interpretation) has become the message (absolute revelation) in the mind of the interpreter(s) and his/her/their audience of acolytes. To the extent that those acolytes abdicate their own right and/or responsibility to analyse and interpret the revelation, they have also turned the cool medium and its message into a hot one. For McLuhan, the differences among different media and their means of conveying messages are neutral, as far as ethics and moral behavior are concerned: as noted above, how television functions as a medium with an effect on society does not change – or apparently matter – whether its content be child-friendly or violence-dominated. But where religion (and philosophy) are concerned, both hot and cold and content-filled or content-free have – and have had – enormous impact on the moral action of human history. One might consider three different contexts to exemplify how this process can unfold. Moses, the medium for the divine message to the Israelites at Sinai, communicates (inter alia) God’s imperative that one should not commit murder and that one should not make graven images. These and other commandments provoke questions as to their meaning – and when the descendants of the Israelites become Jews and Christians, they will not only interpret and counter-interpret what they mean, but whether the formulation associated with Moses is definitive or was superseded by commandments associated with a later, different sort of medium, Jesus. Thus the process of interpreting the revelation – the intense process of engaging the cold medium and its embedded message – will have at least four aspects to it. Once Moses is gone from the scene, and assuming that all of the legislation of which these two commandments are part is already in place by the time of his death, the question of what it means to murder or to make graven images will require focused interpretive engagement, since the original medium cannot be consulted: does killing a mosquito constitute murder? What of killing a fellow human being in self-defense, or as a soldier in a war such as that fought against Nazis – a “just war” – or executing a mass murderer by pulling the lever of an electrocution? Is the proscription against graven images a proscription against creating visual art at all, or against the sort of image-making that produces idols that are worshipped as divinities?

Media, Truth, and the Good  41 So, too, a very different, second, question will emerge as to whether or not the entire body of so-called Mosaic legislation was actually transmitted by Moses himself. Was the message transmitted by Moses the medium at Sinai limited to the so-called Ten Commandments, or was it the entirety of the Torah – five books, from Genesis to Deuteronomy, that include 613 commandments within its text – that Moses brought down from the mountain? If the latter, then there is a much greater volume of intense interpretation that will be needed to make sure we get the meanings right, in accordance with God’s will; if the former, then where, when, and how did the 603 post-Sinaitic commandments come into being, and how essential is it that we understand and don’t abrogate any/all of them? For a subset possibility could also be that the entirety of the Torah was transmitted by Moses, not at Sinai, however, but in the course of the 40 years during which he led the Israelites through the wilderness. Third, the question will eventually arise – as the Israelite tradition evolves to become the Judaean and the Jewish and Christian traditions – as to which if any parts of Mosaic legislation are (to repeat) superseded by the words of Jesus. This question will itself have at least two parts to it. One is that the question of the legitimacy of abrogating or at least adjusting Mosaic commandments, whether pertaining to committing murder or to making visual images, or to other prescriptions/proscriptions – such as those, say, pertaining to gastronomy – will be an outcome of engaging the medium of the text which, regardless of whenever and wherever it was written down, offers a divinely originated message. The other is the more slowly evolving issue of whether Jesus is, as a sacerdos similar to Moses – a prophetic medium – or actually God in human form, in which case the sense of the relationship between the message and its medium is radically different from that pertaining to Moses as medium and the messages he transmits. For Christianity, all of this will also be subject, finally, both to the question of the inherent meaning of the words themselves as they were transmitted (presumably, if so we believe) by Moses and by Jesus, and will also therefore be effected by the interpretive decision as to which to include and which to exclude from what comes to be called the Christian Bible: four Gospels end up in a text canonized more than 350 years after the Crucifixion; and at least four possible others are excluded: regardless of their messages they are deemed not to be part of the appropriate medium of transmission.11 If the medium and the message are the Bible, then, to summarize these issues succinctly, the question becomes: what is the Bible, exactly?12 What is the medium that goes by that name – and the answer to that question will affect myriad aspects of the message understood to be embedded within the medium. All of these issues, moreover, are apart from the question of how the commandments are understood if they are being conveyed through the medium of translation – into English, say, rather than Hebrew or Greek. The King James version of the biblical text enjoins us not to kill, rather than not to commit murder, which are the words delivered in Hebrew and Greek, thus offering a distinctly different message through a medium that has been

42  Ori Z. Soltes transformed by a different level of interpretation-engagement by a further, post-prophetic medium – the translator – who decides to render the Hebrew word whose root is r-tz-h as “kill” rather than “murder.” The media that shape what we end up calling Judaism and Christianity are in any case an outcome not simply of whatever these two groups consider to be “Bible” and “revelation” but of the extended post-biblical process of interpretation, both direct and indirect, that we refer to in Judaism as the rabbinic tradition and in Christianity as the patristic and scholastic traditions. Nowhere in the Gospels or elsewhere in the New Testament, for instance, do we have a distinct reference to a triune God or – in spite of the story in Genesis of how Adam and Eve abrogated God’s command not to eat fruit from a particular tree growing in the Garden of Eden – to Original Sin. Yet thanks to the interpretive genius of a patristic thinker such as Saint Augustine (354–428 CE), these concepts became endemic to Christianity and came to be embraced, over time and space, by hundreds of millions of individuals called Christians – just as, by contrast, none of the several million individuals called Jews embrace these two ideas. Traditional Jews, on the other hand, will not mix cheese and meat at the same meal thanks to rabbinic discussions that interpret divine prescriptions regarding substances that need to be kept separate, the specific prescription in Ex 23:19: “do not seethe a kid in its mother’s milk,” and the notion of expanding the functional fulfillment of those prescriptions in order not to risk unintentionally abrogating a divine injunction – but both the Torah’s prescriptions and the rabbinic interpretation of them are not part of the Christian world and its gastronomy. Dharmic Media and Messages One may observe a different sort of variation on the revelation-interpretation complication in the context of the Bhagavad Gita. The Gita is part of a larger epic, the Mahabharata.13 The Indic tradition of which this poem is part distinguishes in a manner analogous to “revelation-interpretation” between texts that are shruti (literally: “heard”) and those that are smrti (literally: “remembered”); the first pertains to divinely inspired and the second to humanly contrived writing. The Mahabharata is understood by all to be a humanly contrived poem. However, some believe that the Gita is not: it is a shruti text embedded in the larger smrti text. The notion that, within a smrti text there is a lengthy portion that is shruti, is based on the medium represented within it as both conveying and embodying its message: Krishna is the medium, and since Krishna is God – or an aspect of God – then the medium is the message, in that the message conveyed by Krishna is contained within himself; he is not a sacerdos functioning as a mere bridge between the divine sacer and humanity. Stated otherwise: analogous yet not identical to the discussion within the early Church and between Christianity and Judaism (and Islam) regarding the nature of Jesus as divine or not divine is the slightly subtler question

Media, Truth, and the Good  43 regarding the nature of Krishna that separates Vaishnavites and Kraishnites in their focus on what, in McLuhan’s terms, is the starkly cold medium of the Gita. For Vaishnavites, the primary expression of God is Vishnu, who assumed different forms across history; the eighth of these avatars is Krishna. To Kraishnites, however, Krishna is the consummate expression of divinity, and Vishnu (and Brahman and other divine expressions) are subsidiary forms. It is not only that “All beings reside in me…. All beings, son of Kunti [i.e., Arjuna, to whom the words of the Gita are being addressed] pass into my material nature at the end of a world-eon; them again I send for at the beginning of a (new) world-eon” (chapter IX. quatrains 6–7), but that I am the ritual act, I am the act of worship,   I am the offering to the dead, I am the medicinal herb, I am the sacred formula, I alone am the sacrificial butter,   I am the fire of offering, I am the poured oblation. I am the father of this world,   the mother, the establisher, the grandsire the object of knowledge, the purifier, the sacred syllable om,   the verb of praise, the chant, and the sacrificial formula; The goal, supporter, lord, witness,   the dwelling place, refuge, friend, the origin, dissolution, and maintenance,   the treasure-house, the imperishable seed. (IX. 16–18) And more than that, Even those who are devotees of other gods   and worship them permeated with faith, it is only Me, son of Kunti, that even they   worship, (though) not in the enjoined fashion. (IX. 23)14 So one might say that the question is not whether Krishna is God but of exactly how Krishna – and Vishnu and Brahman and Siva and others – is/are God. Other God-names and God-aspects and avatars are acknowledged as divine but perceived to be the aspects of a singularity the proper overall identifying “name” of which is Krishna, (whereas for Vaishnavites that “name” would be Vishnu, and Krishna would be one among many avatars; and for Shaivites it would be Shiva and for Brahmins it would be Brahman); and the Gita, in which Krishna explains the dharma to the warrior-prince, Arjuna, is shruti, even if it is embedded in a smrti text. One of the starting points of the Gita is Krishna’s explanation – he has assumed the role of charioteer for Prince Arjuna, who is poised to fight a war against his blind uncle, Dhrtarashtra – of why Arjuna’s intended battle against

44  Ori Z. Soltes his relatives is not only legitimate but necessary. For Arjuna’s blind uncle’s usurpation of the throne (held “temporarily” while Arjuna was still under-age, but now that Arjuna is of age, Dhrtarashtra is in the act of usurping the throne whose occupant should be his nephew) disturbs the proper order of things – the proper dharma (which is both the order of things and the instruction regarding the order of things – a medium which is its own message) – and Arjuna is obligated, if he would be pious, to make an effort to restore that order. This is especially so since he is a kshatriya – a member of the warrior caste that is part of a caste system set in place, Krishna tells him, by the God Himself. The purpose of a warrior is to make war – presumably just war, of which this is one. Moreover, Krishna’s explanation of the circumstances of this impending just war includes the argument that, in killing any of them, Arjuna will not actually kill them, since their souls will move on to their next place in the cycle of reincarnation (samsara) – which depends on their own actions (karma), not upon his. So “[d]ead and living men the truly learned do not mourn” (II.11). As to the embodied (soul) in this body   come childhood, youth, old age, so the coming to another body:   The wise man is not confused herein. (II. 13) But contacts with matter, son of Kunti,   cause cold and heat, pleasure and pain; They come and go, and are impermanent… (II.14) These bodies come to an end,   it is declared, of the eternal embodied (soul), which is indestructible and unfathomable.   therefore, fight, son of Bharata! (II. 18) He [the individual’s soul – atman] is not born, nor does he ever die;   Nor, having come to be, will he ever more come not to be, unborn, eternal, everlasting, this ancient one   is not slain when the body is slain. (II. 20) As leaving aside worn-out garments,   a man takes other, new ones, so leaving aside worn-out bodies   to other, new ones goes the embodied (soul). (II.22) The poem then unfolds with an elaborate description of the reality that Krishna has set in motion and of the human role within it both as a being who should worship God and as one who makes a constant effort to help maintain the order of things as it was first established by God – including, in

Media, Truth, and the Good  45 this case, enacting a war in which the many deaths that will no doubt occur are not by any means to be confused with murder – or even, really, with real death, since “real death” could pertain ultimately only to the soul (atman), and the soul, as a piece, in a sense, of God within us, cannot die. It can only continue to be reincarnated or ultimately achieve release (moksha) from the cycle of samsara and arrived at a final, definitive condition of oneness with God known as nirvana. From the perspective of media “types” and the notion of the message transmitted, the Indic and Abrahamic variations may be summarized as follows: both Judaism and Christianity agree that certain transmitted texts – the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament – are revealed from God through prophetic intermediaries and then subject to divergent interpretations, and there is also interpretative divergence both between and within these two religious traditions as to how, when and whether the message delivered orally through a prophetic medium was committed to a definitive written form. The two traditions profoundly diverge with regard to the Gospels and the New Testament. For Judaism these are post-biblical texts, whereas for Christianity they are the central biblical texts, and the Gospels, moreover, while associated in their written down form with four different individuals, are understood to have embedded within them the words not merely of a prophetic intermediary but of God Itself during the roughly 33 years during which God assumed human form in order to effect human salvation from the consequences of Original Sin. By contrast, Kraishnite Indic believers see the Bhagavad Gita (“Divine Song”) as recording not only the revealed words of God but of God in Its consummate manifestation; non-Kraishnites, in particular Vaishnavites, acknowledge the divinity of Krishna – and there is a vast world of literature and visual imagery of Krishna, depicted, for example, in his love relationship with the Gopi (cowherd girl), Radha, which in the mystical tradition is understood as a metaphor for the love relationship between the mystic and God – but only as an avatar of the consummate articulation of divinity, Vishnu, and thus the role of the Gita within the larger body of literature of which it is part is less central. The Medium and Message of Socratic/Platonic Dialogue Both the Abrahamic and the Indic traditions offer guidance in moral matters including but not limited to killing fellow humans, and both sorts of traditions derive that guidance as a message from a divine source and offer variant understandings as to the most definitive medium of that message. A third direction in which this narrative of media and messages of diverse sorts might be considered is that focused on the Greek philosopher, Socrates – who believed in multiple gods (as opposed to the singular God of the Abrahamic traditions and the more complex version of that viewpoint embraced by variants such as Kraishnism and Vaishnavism

46  Ori Z. Soltes that are part of what is typically if somewhat erroneously referred to as Hinduism15) – but also believed that since they disagree about many things, they cannot be looked to as the source for revealed Truth or the answer to the question of what constitutes the Good. For the purposes of this discussion, a handful of Platonic dialogues might serve to illustrate this – “Platonic,” since the medium used by Socrates was exclusively oral; it fell to his student, Plato (and to a lesser extent, Xenophon) to convert Socrates’ conversations and comments into the written form through which we have access to those conversations.16 Unlike the Indic and Abrahamic traditions, the Socratic perspective looks no further than to human intelligence for guidance regarding what one should believe and how one ought to act in the world. It is in the context of Socrates’ inquiry of a self-professed wise man, Euthyphro, regarding what piety or holiness is – and Euthyphro’s response, in the dialogue that bears his name, that it is what is pleasing to the gods (12e5, 14b3-6) – that Socrates points out that the many Greek gods and goddesses are often famously at odds with each other (as most obviously, when they line up on different sides of the battlefield in the course of the Trojan War). Thus, he suggests, an act that pleases one divinity might offend another (as, for example, explicitly and fatally happens to Hippolytus in the play by that name written by Socrates’ contemporary, the tragic playwright, Euripides).17 The end of the Euthyphro fails to yield a definition of the terms/ideas that Socrates wants to understand.18 This process – of engaging in a dialogue with someone who begins by believing that he knows the definitional answer being sought and ending with Socrates having made clear, and with his interlocutor either accepting or not accepting the certainty that they have not yet arrived at a clear definition of the term(s) in question – is encountered again and again in the Platonic dialogues. The aporia – a lack of clear definition and absolute conclusion – with which the inquiry regarding hosiotes ends is, indeed, echoed in other Platonic dialogues in which Socrates is depicted engaged in discussions regarding other terms and concepts, like friendship (Lysis, Phaedrus), self-control (Charmides), justice (Gorgias, Republic), and virtue (Meno). His ultimate goal is to arrive at the truth with regard to defining what the Good is in order to ascertain exactly what it is that one ought to think, speak, and do in order to be a good person. He is consistently uncertain of the answers to the questions that lead towards the definition of the Good and inevitably finds flaws in the proposed absolute answers to such questions offered by his interlocutors. Yet he eventually comes to assert that the answers are out there – in a realm beyond our own but also really beyond the gods: the realm of the Forms/Ideas. Most significantly, he insists that one must persist in asking such questions through discussions with others, never believing that I alone or even we together, from our limited human perspective, can arrive at absolute answers to any of them in the here and now.

Media, Truth, and the Good  47 So the most certain Socratic message regards the medium: that the means of arriving at conclusions regarding the Good and its concomitants – of ascertaining the truth regarding the Good and its associated Ideas (justice, piety, etc.), and thus regarding moral and ethical behavior – is through the medium of dialogue and elengkhos: cross-examining each other’s conclusions and/ or pre-conceptions. The medium is, in McLuhan’s terms, as cold as it gets: Socrates’ interlocutors are enjoined to focus intensely on the questions that he asks and the analyses that he provides for their answers to those questions and to keep going back to the subject at issue to dig deeper towards the essence of the subject; and we are enjoined to focus intensely on the content presented and explored by Socrates and his interlocutors, furthering the dialogue as if we were present there with them in Athens 24 centuries ago. The medium of the message is neither a prophetic being nor God Itself assumed human form but human verbal interaction – and the message is as much that the medium of elengkhos must be engaged in order to approach answers to moral (and other) definitional questions as it is some particular conclusion regarding those questions. Interestingly enough, in one of Plato’s dialogues in which we see Socrates in action, the Symposium, one of his acolytes, Alcibiades offers an encomium of Socrates that suggests that he is a form of sacerdos: a creature between gods and humans, whose purpose in life is to guide humans along the proper moral path (215b–216a), but not because he is filled, like a prophet, with a divinely revealed understanding of our realm and that beyond us, but because he recognizes that he does not understand, does not know, what others like Euthyphro so readily claim to know and understand. Socrates himself accepts the idea that he is wiser than others, but only due to his profession of ignorance (Apology 20e–23b), and he explicitly demonstrates, in the Meno, how he operates as a kind of midwife of ideas in drawing understanding and ideas out of others with which they are intellectually pregnant – present within them, he asserts, thanks to the fact that the soul undergoes multiple reincarnations in the course of time, and can carry knowledge and understanding from one incarnation to the next, albeit requiring such sacerdotal assistance in order to bring such knowledge and understanding out from its hidden state (Meno 82b–86d). In Plato’s Phaedrus, Socrates also addresses the kind of media issue written about by McLuhan in his Understanding Media: that of change of medium and its complications for conveying messages effectively. For as Phaedrus and Socrates pause to talk in a grassy copse outside Athens, since Phaedrus is so excited by a speech he has just heard delivered by the orator, Lysias, regarding love and friendship, Socrates asks his young friend to repeat the speech. Phaedrus can only get so far before he needs to resort to reading from the scroll of the speech that he has beneath his cloak. In this context, Socrates implies, regarding the relatively new medium, writing, that it has had the consequence of weakening people’s ability to remember, to fully use their minds – and memory is the most human of qualities – since now

48  Ori Z. Soltes they have the crutch of writing as a means of reinforcing memory (Phaedrus 228a–e). While the matter of transitioning media from revelation to interpretation is not a particularly strong issue in the Platonic corpus – everything is understood to be part of a pattern of interpretation and not derived, per se, from a divine revelationary source (although Socrates is himself in-spirited by a “divine voice” to pursue the inquiries that he pursues with individuals like Phaedrus, Alcibiades, and Gorgias) – a conscious awareness of the transition from one medium to another is an aspect of Socratic–Platonic thought. From the Visual Medium to Gandhian Satyagraha This treble – Judaeo–Christian, Vaishnavite–Kraishnite, and Socratic – perspective can be and has been articulated throughout history not only with words but through non-verbal media, such as music, dance, and visual art. The arts have been used as media of expressing divinity when words seem insufficient, but in the so-called modern and contemporary eras, these media often assert themselves as “art for art’s sake.” It is interesting to consider that, as disturbed as Socrates appears to be at the transition in human communication medium from oral to written form – and as inherently problematic as the issue of that transition may be discerned in the contexts of Moses and Jesus and other sacerdotal figures whose words may or may not be converted to written form by their followers – he is also depicted as disturbed by the arts, be they verbal or visual. In Books III and X (especially 601a9) of the Republic, he is represented as suggesting that the arts be rejected from the ideal school program that he is articulating. The rejection is based on two considerations. One is that too often within the art of great poetry the poet does not offer moral and ethical uprightness from its heroic subjects – who could and should serve as models for students who are intending to become leaders of their communities. Akhilleus weeping on the beach because he has been insulted by Agamemnon, in the Iliad, does not set a good example for Socrates’ theoretical students. On the other hand, if the central tenet of a good education system is that it teaches its students to think, and it is clear that the elengkhetic thinking and discussion process with regard to defining the Good and its concomitants typically fails to lead to absolute knowledge of these ideas – and to absolute knowledge of the essence of their analogues with concrete reference points in our reality, such as “tableness” and “chairness” – then using art, which in his view, offers imitations of all of these ideas and objects pushes the students one step further away for the possibility of true knowledge. Socrates misunderstands art. He believes it to be a matter of imitation, rather than a matter of interpretation. He doesn’t understand that the artist filters reality through his/her mind and, in the visual form, translates what has been filtered, by way of his/her mind – and eyes and hands – into the outcome on the canvas or in the sculpted or built form. Inspired artists are the analogues of prophets and priests; they offer a kind of interpreted revelation

Media, Truth, and the Good  49 in their works, through diverse lenses: figurative and abstract, euphonic and cacophonic. Their revelations are in turn interpreted, as beautiful and good (or not), by their own priesthood – art historians, art critics, and gallerists – to their audiences. The challenge to that next layer of sacerdotal medium, if and when the artist is no longer present, is to articulate the interpretation without the absolute certainty that the interpretation has expressed the visual or musical revelation correctly – and not to mistake the interpretation for the revelationary truth itself. This is particularly relevant if one considers the medium of visual art that predates the written accounts of art in which its symbolic language is made explicit. If the shift from oral transmission to the written medium is a basis for some concern for Socrates and others – analogues of those Marshall McLuhan addresses 24 centuries after Socrates in the context of another epochal shift in message-communicating media – then we cannot ignore the problematic of reversing the chronological process: applying written communication to understand art created well before there was writing. We might consider one simple example of this process. The small (4.4/8” tall) figurine known as the Venus of Willendorf, dating from 25,000 years ago, brings this discussion full circle back to the point and purpose of religion: to bind us back to the source that we believe has created and can therefore destroy us, and to assure that we are not destroyed: that we survive. We can recognize the arts as an instrument that assists religion by addressing what I earlier (in fn. 10) referred to as the sacer realm, particularly in its divine aspect, through non-verbal means appropriate to the fact that the sacer realm, in transcending the human realm, transcends the medium of words, which are a quintessentially human medium. We can easily enough recognize the specific ways in which the Venus of Willendorf accomplishes this end – of articulating the concept of “survival” in non-verbal ways. The figurine is a concrete embodiment and articulation of the abstraction of “fertility” – most particularly female fertility – without which, as a practical matter, we cannot survive. Her bulbous body offers an enormous belly with its umbilicus exaggerated, enormous breasts further emphasized by the stick-like arms placed across them, very large thighs and a carefully articulated public area. Moreover, her head possesses no face – she is no specific woman but a visual statement of femaleness – because it is completely covered with rows of what are presumably locks of hair, albeit organized as if they are rows of a well-plowed field. Of further significance – and this is where the precise interpretive challenge of connecting the much later era of writing to this object created thousands of years before humans were writing – there are seven such rows of “hair.” This could simply be an arbitrary number, except that, once we do have writing, we are provided with verbal evidence of the importance of that number with regard to human–divine relations. Given the fact that, against the sphere of fixed stars, there are seven entities that move with a reliable periodicity across the heavens — and in a pre-electricity

50  Ori Z. Soltes reality there is plenty of time to study the heavens and little by way of light pollution to obstruct one’s observations. That they were associated by the Egyptians, Mesopotamians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, and others with divinity is clear from, among other sources, the Roman names for these seven wanderers – the Greek word for “wander” is planeo; hence they referred to as a group as planets – are god-names still retained in English: Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Sol (the sun), and Luna (the moon). The singular importance of sevenness continues beyond pagan antiquity into the Abrahamic traditions – beginning with the notion of a seven-day creation cycle that is subsequently associated with the divine commandment to keep the seventh day holy (sandwiched between the commandments regarding graven images and murder) and continuing with the ideas of seven virtues and sins and that of seven heavens. Sevenness also appears as important in diverse cultures that are non-Abrahamic, across humanity. The point for our purposes is that the sevenness of the Venus of Willendorf’s coif would seem, all things considered, to offer a very early instance of this numerological focus – as part of the extended visual vocabulary of this object that pertains to survival; fertility, on the one hand, and a proper relationship with the gods, on the other – albeit by way of a medium that demands an interpretive engagement the conclusions of which are not likely to be any more provable than the existence of God or an undeniably accurate understanding of God’s revelations through diverse media. The sevenness is arguably visually represented in the Venus of Willendorf as part of the larger program of the human–divine interface that is not only verbally articulated many millennia later across a panoply of traditions but also in the ever-expanding shaping of visual art, particularly in its guise as an instrument for religious thought. Its symbolic value is separate from the specifics of its aesthetic value: a male eye accustomed to Playboy magazine is not likely to find the Venus of Willendorf beautiful. Beauty may be defined as an aesthetic principle but also as a truth-telling principle (or both); art may or may not be what Plato’s Socrates called beautiful and good (kalos k’agathos) because of or in spite of being pleasant or unpleasant to the eye or ear. With no Moses or Arjuna to assert a divine mandate regarding what constitutes Truth and the Good – in the arts or in moral action – we must pursue an ongoing process of elengkhos, never ceasing to discuss and debate while we create, and never confusing our understanding and interpretations of Truth and the Good with Truth and the Good themselves. Indeed, given the lack of a Moses or an Arjuna or a Jesus or a Krishna to assert a divine connection within the messaging provided across diverse electronic media that have exponentially expanded since Marshall McLuhan drew our attention to their potential impact on society, the necessity for engaging the messaging as actively thinking interpreters rather than as passive believers is more essential than ever before. The sort of moral guide provided over the past several years – via the primary medium of Trumpian twitter – from the corridors of political power and through news media channels allied with

Media, Truth, and the Good  51 those occupying those corridors, has culminated in violent actions based on blind and unquestioning belief in a deliberately false self-proclaimed revelation – to come full circle in our discussion. The last several years across the globe, but with particular emphasis in the United States, “truth” has become a dust ball glibly swept out of those halls of power, led by figures whose lust for power (or in Mr. Trump’s case, for attention) supersedes any and every other inclination. Our hope, if we are to survive as a country and perhaps as a species in the fullest sense – that, in Socratic-Platonic terms, examines ideas and in so doing most fully exercises our power as humans – is that, instead of accepting the myriad unquestioned falsehoods that the current, dominant, Trumpized media facilitate, we “hold firmly” to (agraha, in Sanskrit) the push back by way of elengkhos. Our obligation towards the pursuit of satya (“truth” – in speech, as opposed to falsehood; and “real” as opposed to non-existent; and therefore good, rather than evil) must be “maintained firmly” (agraha). As Gandhi understood satyagraha, this is not merely “passive resistance” to negative forces, but firmness in non-violently resisting the negative forces – of ethnocentricity, jingoism, racial, ethnic, and religious prejudice – that are championed by political leaders from the Philippines to Hungary, Turkey to Poland, Israel to Brazil, and India to the United States (at least until recently, but those forces are still present and seeking to re-assert themselves across substantial parts of the American landscape). Satyagraha encapsulates the search for the Good by championing the Truth of one’s convictions – including the convictions to pursue Truth and to push back, with one’s words and actions, against leaders or systems that promote falsehood – making effective use of diverse world-encircling media that were just beginning to take shape when McLuhan referenced them in his 1964 volume – for the sake of gaining or perpetuating their own power. It is not succumbing blindly and too often with violence to the prescriptions of Trumpism and its siblings, but standing firmly against through interpretive thinking that precipitates thoughtful action. This is what Socrates exemplified in Hellas nearly 25 centuries ago, Mahatma Gandhi specifically articulated as a medium for helping to shape a more just world, and Martin Luther King enacted as an instrument to bend the arc of history towards justice. No era is more pregnant with this multivalent imperative than the current one. Notes 1 Marshall McLuhan, Understanding Media, 8. 2 Ibid., 18, 20 3 Ibid., 22. 4 Ibid., 7. 5 Ibid., 7–9 6 Ibid., 7 7 Ibid., 7

52  Ori Z. Soltes 8 Debray, 1996, 70–71. 9 David Carr, “Marshall McLuhan: Media Savant.” 10 The category is called sacerdos (pl: sacerdotes) in Latin; it connects us one way or another to the sacer, which term, ancestor to the English word, “sacred,” refers to the unknown in all of its aspects, including but not limited to divinity. See Soltes, Mysticism in the Jewish, Christian, and Muslim Traditions: Searching for Oneness. 11 We possess texts of a Gospel according to Thomas and another according to James, and we are less certainly aware of a Gospel according to Mary Magdalene and even one according to Judas. 12 Needless to say, this is not only a Jewish–Christian question; the Catholic and Orthodox Bible includes Intertestamental aka Deuterocanonical texts (Judith, Ecclesiasticus, and Maccabees I and II, to name a few) that end up excluded from both the Protestant and the Jewish Bibles, where they are referred to as Apocrypha; the Ethiopian Church included Enoch in its Bible, which is found in no other denomination. 13 The Mahabharata, comprising 100,000 couplet verses, (i.e., 200,000 lines), is about 10 times the length of the Iliad and Odyssey combined. 14 For simplicity’s sake, I am using the translation by Franklin Edgerton for all passages quoted from the Bhagavad Gita. 15 Strictly speaking, “Hindu” means Indian; in the West it has become common to use that term to refer to the Indic forms of religion that include Kraishnism, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and others, since none of them denies the divinity of the primary articulation of God embraced by the others, as we have seen. But the term “Hinduism” implies a single religion, which is not quite correct. Similarly, although there are obviously myriad “gods” that fall under that umbrella, they are all understood, ultimately, to be aspects of a single Godhead – and the array of figurative and abstract images depicting them are also understood to be darshans: visual expressions of God, as opposed to images, per se, of gods, that one might mistakenly analogize to idols. 16 As a separate but related issue, there is considerable debate within the world of Classics as to where, in the Platonic material, Socrates’ string of conversations actually ends and Plato begins, introducing his own concerns, issues, and subjects, while still using the medium of dialogues in which Socrates figures as the primary discussant. This adds another layer of interesting complication to the matter of medium and its specific connection to message, somewhat analogous to that question regarding Moses that reflects on whether he transmitted the entirety of the Torah or only the Ten Commandments at Sinai (or in the course of the 40 years in which he was subsequently leading the Israelites through the wilderness) – as we have previously noted. 17 I don’t mean to suggest that Socrates references the Hippolytus, just that what occurs in the play well illustrates one of the problems that Socrates finds with Euthyphro’s answer to the question. 18 The Greek word, hosiotes, may be translated either as “piety” or as “holiness.” Counterintuitively, perhaps, for the purposes of our discussion it does not matter which English word we use to translate the Greek.

Bibliography The Bhagavad Gita, trans. and ed. Franklin Edgerton. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1944. The Collected Dialogues of Plato, eds. Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1969 (Fifth Printing).

Media, Truth, and the Good  53 Carr, David, “Marshall McLuhan: Media Savant,” The New York Times, January 6, 2011. Debray, Regis, Media Manifestos: On the Technological Transmission of Cultural Forms, trans. Eric Rauth. London: Verso, 1996. Holy Scriptures, The, According to the Masoretic Text. Philadelphia, PA: The Jewish Publication Society of America, 1966. McLuhan, Marshal, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. New York: The New American Library, 1964. Mullen, Megan, “Coming to Terms with the Future He Foresaw: Marshall McCluhan’s Understanding Media,” Technology and Culture: The Journal of the Society for the History of Technology. Vol. 47, No. 2 (April 2006). Soltes, Ori Z., Mysticism in the Jewish, Christian, and Muslim Traditions: Searching for Oneness. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2009.

3

The Message of Media, Communicative Action, and Meditative Walking Pope Francis’ Prophetic Actions and Paul Ricoeur’s Understanding of Faith for Societal Transformation and Moral Openness Kuruvilla Pandikattu S.J.

Introduction How can we transform ourselves and the world? How can genuine spirituality reshape our lives and that of others? What is the relationship between spiritual depth and openness to the poor and marginalized? How can our ordinary words and deeds be prophetic symbols of transformation? What has a deepened spirituality to do with saving fellow human beings and Mother Earth? These are some of the questions that we take up, inspired by the message of Pope Francis and philosopher Paul Ricoeur. The methodology we adopt is descriptive and phenomenological. We take up some of the symbolic actions of Pope Francis, meditate on his deeds based on Paul Ricoeur, and arrive at some insights for our purified and transformative faith. As such, this chapter is a pilgrimage with Pope Francis. Beginning with the warm receptivity that he has received from the Indian media, we study the fervent plea that makes for objective and unbiased reporting in order to focus on the needs of the poor and the marginalized. Then we saw three powerful symbolic actions of the Pope followed by three equally challenging exhortations. First, we take up his visit to the Island of Lampedusa to mingle with the migrants to welcome, protect, promote, and integrate them. Then we look into his embrace of the disfigured person. Finally, we focus on his solitary walk in the city of Rome at the beginning of the pandemic. That was a silent, sorrowful pilgrimage where he pleaded with God to free us all from the devastations of the pandemic. In this powerful process of walking and meditating, he was in solitude and, at the same time, in solidarity with all those people with angst and anxiety. Thus, his was meditative walking in solitude and solidarity. The next section deals with the prophetic deeds of the Pope regarding the urgent need for fraternity and solidarity in the global world and the need to protect the earth and be welcoming to migrants. Through his life and message, we realize that Pope Francis‘ warm embrace of the disfigured man and of the migrants sends a clear signal that he is DOI: 10.4324/9781032632667-5

The Message of Media  55 in solidarity with the sick, weak, and vulnerable. His prophetic speech on protecting, promoting, and integrating the migrants may not be accepted by all, but it is a plea to the conscience of the whole of humanity. We have a moral imperative to make life bearable, especially for the poor and vulnerable, including the migrants and daily labourers. Together with the poor, today, the earth is also crying to us. Thus the Pope makes an earnest request to protect the earth and be ecologically (and economically) sensitive to Mother Earth, our common home. Together with the migrants, the earth, too, is crying out for our collective help based on a “global consensus.” This calls us to walk together with others, befriend them, and take serious steps to alleviate the suffering of human beings, nature, and Mother Earth itself! Such a plea necessarily demands human fraternity and solidarity, which is the need of the hour (Piro 2020). This plea of the Pope comes from a gentle and genuine spiritual depth, which has moved from a First Naïveté to a Second Naïveté, having encountered tremendous pain, struggle, and suffering. Such a deepened and purified faith demands both solitude and solidarity. Such a genuine spirituality necessarily reaches out to the suffering. Thus, we want to show in this chapter that having walked through the agonizing and torturing pain of doubt and reason, debate and commitment, reflection and meditation, walking and pilgrimaging, alone and together, we can still believe in our fellow human beings (fraternity), in ourselves (critical doubt of enlightenment) and God, painfully and joyfully. That is the mystical stage of our faith journey. Walking in solitude and in solidarity. This is faith that is painful and effective. That pilgrimage is done alone and together. When we can dare to take up the suffering of others, embrace everyone who suffers then we become truly human beings! Media and Message We subdivide this section on the media and message in terms of the warm welcome the Pope has received from the media, the Pope’s plea to the media, and then a short reflection on relating the media with its message. A Warmer Media Reception

The election of Cardinal Jorge Mario Bergoglio as the Pope in March 2013 marks a turning point in the conversation in the Indian Media’s coverage of the papacy. From scandals dominating the media coverage of the church in the last few years of Pope John Paul II’s papacy and throughout Pope Benedict XVI’s papacy, a shift has been witnessed wherein the personality of Pope Francis and eventually his ideas became the main talking points in the media (Blow 2021). This research article documents this shift in the way the papacy has been covered in the Indian media and explores the reasons for it (Dutta and Medanha 2018: 349f).

56  Kuruvilla Pandikattu S.J. The shift in the coverage of the papacy is evident from Pope Francis’s very first day in office, with the very first reports in the Indian media, about the new Pope. The Times of India’s front-page headline marked the historic nature of the event: “Papacy leaves Europe after 1,300 years: Francis is the first South American, Jesuit pope.” An infographic accompanying the story reiterated the fact that Pope Francis was the first Pope from outside of Europe since the eighth century and that he was the first Pope from the Jesuit order; there was an additional emphasis on his roots as the son of Italian migrants to Argentina and his reputation for simplicity and austerity. In contrast, when the results of Pope Benedict XVI’s election had been announced, The Times of India front-page headline merely stated, “Ratzinger is Pope Benedict XVI” (Dutta and Medanha 2018: 349f). Moreover, the story’s kicker also emphasized his German nationality and described him as “John Paul II’s Hard-line Defender of Church Doctrine” (Dutta and Medanha 2018: 351). The 366word story that followed made three references to Pope Benedict XVI as a hard-line conservative, giving little other information about him other than his place of birth, age, and his close association to Pope John Paul II. From the reportage of other papers on these two days a trend immediately becomes clear – the papacy of Pope Benedict XVI was expected to be a continuation of the legacy of his predecessors, particularly Pope John Paul II, whereas the election of Pope Francis was hailed as an unprecedented event – the start of something refreshingly new (Pandikattu 2018). The front-page story in The Hindu also stressed that Pope Francis was “the first pontiff from the Americas and the first from outside Europe in more than a millennium” (Dutta and Medanha 2018: 349f). The story went on to describe the new Pope’s humble demeanour “a stunned-looking Cardinal Bergoglio shyly waved to the crowd.” The lifelong service of the 76-year-old Archbishop of Buenos Aires, who spent nearly his entire career at home in Argentina, overseeing churches and shoe-leather priests, was also mentioned. This story was followed by others in the inside pages that painted the portrait of a man of the people, describing his service in Argentina as: The son of middle-class Italian immigrants, he denied himself the luxuries that previous cardinals in Buenos Aires enjoyed. He lived in a simple apartment, often rode the bus to work, cooked his own meals and regularly visited slums that ring Argentina’s capital. (Dutta and Medanha 2018: 350) However, when Pope Benedict XVI’s papacy had been announced, The Hindu carried only one story on the front page. This story made a cursory reference to the mood at St Peter’s Square on the day before moving on to two key points – Benedict XVI’s “uncompromising views on Church doctrine” and the fact that his election was likely to carry forward Pope John Paul II’s legacy. It went so far as to say that his election was likely to be “a disappointment” to those expecting major changes in the policies and the

The Message of Media  57 manner in which work is conducted in the church. It may be noted that there was no mention of Benedict XVI’s scholarship and commendable work as a theologian. It makes evangelization easier if church leaders and media officials are friendly with newspaper editors and reporters of the media. Ever since his election, Pope Francis has been perceived to be a global media icon, notes Dutta and Medanha (2018: 351). His statements and actions have been happily deconstructed by the media and are being read as symbolic of hope and change. Photographs and videos of the smiling, affable Pope saying and doing, all that is good and pleasing, see the media lapping it all up, presenting to the world the message of a new Pope who can do no wrong. “Judging by the sheer volume of new books on Pope Francis, major publishing houses are persuaded that the world’s fascination with the man and his papacy shows no signs of abating” (Cited in Dutta and Medanha 2018). And, with it the papacy quickly sheds the ugly image of a dying beast, shackled by scandals, and becomes an attractive Prince once again! The authors maintain that this new approach of the Indian media towards Pope Francis is due to his pastoral and pragmatic approach towards the issues concerning the church and the world. As the first Jesuit Pope and in the choice of “Francis” as his new name, reminiscent of St. Francis of Assisi, a famous saint known for his simplicity, practice of poverty, and care for the poor, the media could not but paint a picture of jubilant hope. Pope Francis’ simplicity was demonstrated through his actions in the first few days of his papacy. This prince of the church, chose Domus Sanctae Marthae, a guest house for clergy over the Apostolic Palace, his official residence, and called to cancel his newspaper subscription in Argentina. Francis’ first address as Pope from the balcony was in Italian, instead of the more traditional Latin, which Benedict XVI has used. In “breaking security protocol to shake hands with the people” (Cited in Dutta and Medanha 2018) the Pope came across as more human and humble. His actions and words demonstrated a pastoral heart for the people. Unlike the scholarly discussions which are of little use to problems faced by the majority of Catholics. Francis’ approach is pastoral, centred on understanding people and their problems. We can say that the warmer reception of the media stems from the Pope’s own warmer personality, exemplified by his words, deeds, and gestures. This will be elaborated in the next sections. At the same time it may be noted that the Pope is keenly aware of the need for an active media that will provide unbiased facts (Pandikattu and Vadappuram 2018). Plea for Unbiased Presentation of the Facts

We are aware of the power of social media in promoting and even creating news, including the fake news. It is quite impossible to discern facts from fiction, especially in the popular social media. The vast majority of people rely exclusively on social media as the only source of their regular news. In this

58  Kuruvilla Pandikattu S.J. context Pope Francis tells U.S. Catholic media that church needs “clear and unbiased presentation of the facts.” Addressing the American media companies, he said that the traditional national motto of USA “e pluribus unum” (“out of many, one”) can serve as an inspiration of the ideal of unity amid diversity “in an age marked by conflicts and polarisation from which the Catholic community itself is not immune,” the Pope said in a June 30, 2020, message sent to participants of the virtual Catholic Media Conference (Esteves 2020). The church, the Pope says, needs “men and women of conviction who protect communication from all that would distort it or bend it to other purposes.” He added: We need media that can help people, especially the young, to distinguish good from evil, to develop sound judgments based on a clear and unbiased presentation of the facts and to understand the importance of working for justice, social concord and respect for our common home. (Esteves 2020) Reflecting on the conference’s theme (“Together While Apart”) the Pope opined it expressed the “sense of togetherness that emerged, paradoxically, from the experience of social distancing imposed by the pandemic.” He added: “Indeed, the experience of these past months has shown how essential is the mission of the communications media for bringing people together, shortening distances, providing necessary information and opening minds and hearts to truth” (Esteves 2020). He reminded the audience that local communities have relied on the everexpanding forms of media “to share, to communicate, to inform and to unite.” True communicators are called to dedicate themselves completely “to the welfare of others, at every level, from the life of each individual to the life of the entire human family” (Esteves 2020). This demands our own personal involvement and dedication. So, the Pope exhorted: “We cannot truly communicate unless we become personally involved, unless we can personally attest to the truth of the message we convey.” Then he gives a theological basis for genuine communication and sharing of facts in terms of the human search for unity and truth. All communication has its ultimate source in the life of the triune God, who shares with us the richness of his divine life and calls us in turn to communicate that treasure to others by our unity in the service of his truth (Esteves 2020) Pope Francis called on the participants to continue their work and said the Holy Spirit’s gifts of “wisdom, understanding, and good counsel” allow people to see “those who suffer and to seek the true good of all.” The media he maintained should be focused on those who suffer and “give voice to the plea of our brothers and sisters in need of mercy and understanding.”

The Message of Media  59 The media needs to stand with those who are suffering. “Only with that gaze can we effectively work to overcome the diseases of racism, injustice and indifference that disfigure the face of our common family,” the Pope spoke to the audience (Esteves 2020). “Where our world all too readily speaks with adjectives and adverbs, may Christian communicators speak with nouns that acknowledge and advance the quiet claims of truth and promote human dignity,” he added (Esteves 2020). The Media as the Message

The warm reception that the Pope has been receiving in the media and Pope Francis’ own plea for an effective and objective media reminds us of the dictum, “The medium is the message.” Coined by the Canadian communication theorist Marshall McLuhan and introduced in his Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (1964), this dictum proposes that a communication medium itself, not the messages it carries, should be the primary focus of study. The form of a message (print, visual, musical, etc.) determines the ways in which that message will be perceived. McLuhan believed that the nature of the medium that was being used to share a message was more important than the actual content of the message being shared. ... The medium places a filter on a message in a way that significantly influences how the message is interpreted (McLuhan 1967). This radical and fundamental insight of McLuhan is true in the person, life, and message of Pope Francis. So, in the next section, we explore some of his prophetic deeds and creative words as part of his media-engaged and communicative action. Communicative Action: Prophetic Deeds The communicative and transformative actions of Pope Francis may be subdivided into his deeds and words. Visiting the Migrants

Pope Francis’ Encounter with the Migrant on the Island of Lampedusa was a remarkable prophetic proclamation! Soon after his inauguration, on June 8, 2013, Pope Francis said Mass for migrants on Italy’s tiny island of Lampedusa, condemning the “global indifference” to their plight. It was his first pastoral visit outside Rome. On arrival, he threw a wreath in the sea in memory of the many people who had drowned trying to reach Europe. A small boat carrying 166 Africans arrived at Lampedusa’s port just hours before the Pope’s plane touched down (BBC 2013). Lampedusa, about 120 km from Tunisia, is one of the nearest gateways to Europe for Africans fleeing poverty and conflict.

60  Kuruvilla Pandikattu S.J. Tens of thousands of migrants have made the dangerous crossing in recent years, usually packed into rickety wooden boats exposed to the vagaries of the weather. “Pope Francis, only you can save us,” read a banner on one of the fishing boats nearby. “You’re one of us,” said a sign hanging from an apartment near the port. Some residents threw flowers into the water and chanted “Viva il Papa” as his vessel docked. The Pope spoke to a few migrants, then rode in an open-topped car – rather than the Popemobile often used by predecessors – to the site for Mass, near a “boat cemetery” where the hulks of shipwrecked migrant boats lie in the sun. It may further be noted that his altar was a small, painted boat. During the Mass, the Pope urged for a “reawakening of consciences” to counter the “indifference” shown to migrants. “We have lost a sense of brotherly responsibility,” he said, and “have forgotten how to cry” for migrants lost at sea. He denounced the traffickers who exploited migrants and took great risks with their lives (BBC 2013). Embracing the Disfigured: Pope Francis’ Encounter with the Disfigured

Following his general audience in St Peter’s Square, Vatican, on November 7, 2013, Pope Francis kissed and blessed the man, whose face was totally covered in tumours. This was a sight, conveying compassion and humanity, that people will talk about for years. Pope Francis was pictured tenderly comforting a man suffering from a rare disease that has caused him to develop neuronal tumours all over his body (neurofibromatosis), an illness that can lead to impaired vision and learning impairment and can be extremely painful. It is genetic and is not a contagious disease (Williams 2013). The image of Pope Francis embracing the man drew comparisons with the story of St. Francis of Assisi comforting a leper, notes The Independent (Williams 2013). Walking Alone in Rome: Encountering the Sadness and Silence

In the beginning of the pandemic, Pope Francis was seen doing another prayerful and powerful deed. He was seen praying and walking alone in Roman churches asking God to rid the world of the coronavirus. In a dramatic gesture of faith, hope, and love, Pope Francis left the Vatican at 4.00 P.M. on March 15, 2020, to pray in two Roman churches for an end to the coronavirus pandemic (O’Connell 2020). He first rode by car through the almost deserted streets of Rome with a minimum escort to the Basilica of Saint Mary Major to pray before the venerated Byzantine icon of Our Lady – the protectress of the people of Rome (“Salus Populi Romani”), with the child Jesus in her arms. Pope St. Gregory the Great carried in procession near the end of the sixth century, invoking her aid to bring a halt to the plague that had hit the city in that period (O’Connell

The Message of Media  61 2020). In 1837, Pope Gregory XVI invoked her intercession to put an end to a cholera epidemic in Rome. Francis had a special devotion to this image. He came here to pray before this image on the morning after his election as Pope, and he has come here before and after every one of his 32 foreign journeys to some 50 countries. The Vatican spokesman Matteo Bruni said the Pope prayed for some time, invoking Our Lady’s help to rid the world of the pandemic. He also prayed for the healing of the many sick people struck by the virus, and for the numerous victims, and their families and friends. He prayed too for the health workers, doctors, nurses, volunteers and those working to guarantee the smooth functioning of society (O’Connell 2020). From the basilica, the Pope rode to the Via del Corso, the street that leads from Piazza Venezia to Piazza del Popolo. When he arrived there, he walked on the deserted street, as if in pilgrimage, to the church of St. Marcello, home to the venerated wooden fifteenth-century crucifix that was carried in procession through the city in 1552 as a plea for God to end the “Great Plague.” The Pope placed white roses in front of both the icon and the crucifix. The crucifix had survived a fire in 1519 that destroyed the church; Romans considered its preservation as miraculous. Three years after Pope Leo X ordered the rebuilding of the church, the city was struck by the plague, and the faithful – defying a ban on assembly because of contagion – carried the crucifix in procession through the streets of the city toward St. Peter’s Basilica, a procession that lasted 16 days. As the procession moved forward, the plague began to ease, and each neighbourhood wanted to hold onto the crucifix. It may be noted that as the procession re-entered the church of St. Marcello, the plague ceased (O’Connell 2020). Pope Francis spent time in deep prayer before that crucifix before returning to the Vatican. Before the miraculous crucifix, just as he had before the icon of Our Lady, Francis prayed for God to rid the world of the coronavirus pandemic. He prayed too for the victims of this modern-day plague, for their families and friends, for health care workers and all who have responsibility for society at this crucial moment in history. He returned to the Vatican at 5:30 P.M. on March 15, 2020. These three prophetic deeds, encountering the displaced migrants, the disfigured person, and God Himself in the silence of his suffering (and compassion), invite all of us to be truly committed and compassionate to the millions of poor and suffering persons around us. These deeds are matched by his words. Let us explore three of them. Meditative Walking After having pilgrimaged with the Pope, we are in a better position to theorize on this pilgrimage and its consequence for our human life in general and religious faith in particular.

62  Kuruvilla Pandikattu S.J. Inspired by the French philosopher Paul Ricoeur we can speak of three stages of growth in faith. This may remind us of Auguste Comte, the father of sociology, who conceived the growth of humanity in terms of (1) the theological stage, (2) the metaphysical stage, and (3) the positive (scientific) stage. Ricoeur does not vibrate with such a positivistic understanding of human history. Ricoeur’s stages may be closer to the Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, who formulated the human stages in terms of the aesthetic, the ethical, and the religious. Ricoeur’s ideas on religion do relate to spiritual development and deepening, as indicated by Johnston (2020). Most of Ricoeur’s writings on religion dealt with the way a person would interpret sacred texts. Basic Notions of Paul Ricoeur The First Naïveté

Though he mentioned the first naïveté only in passing, and as it relates to what happens after it, we can deduce that the first naïveté refers to the interpretation of scripture (or religious belief) where everything is taken at face value. It is a child’s reading of the fables as being literally true. This is the same as saying that the person in the first naïveté believes everything about his religion literally. This “first naïveté” is also the equivalent of the Faithful level of spiritual development (Johnson 2020). The Critical Distance

For Ricoeur, the rational forces brought to our civilization through modernity and enlightenment have made it difficult to accept religion or scripture in the “first naïveté” sense. Once subjected to rational inspection, the literal meanings of religion really do not hold up. Once a person allows himself to take a step back from religious belief and examine it critically, he really cannot believe the simple, naïve concepts his religion teaches at face value. According to Johnson (2020) this “critical distance” is the equivalent of the rational level of spiritual development. The Second Naïveté

After the critical distance phase, Ricoeur suggested, there is a way to engage with faith in what he called a “second naïveté” way. “Beyond the desert (Rational stage) of criticism, we wish to be called again” (Ricoeur 1967: 349). This second naïveté, scripture, and religious concepts are seen as symbols (i.e., metaphorical constructs) that we now interpret “in the full responsibility of autonomous thought” (Ricoeur 1967: 350). This implies we accept that the myths we held as truth in the first naïveté (or Faithful stage) are in fact, myths, but having passed through the critical distance (or Rational stage) we begin to reengage these concepts at a different level. We do not

The Message of Media  63 accept them any longer at face value, as presented by religious authorities or texts but rather interpret them for ourselves in the light of having assumed personal responsibility for our beliefs. We choose to move forward towards our own interpretation that recognizes these concepts as symbols of something greater than that which the words or teachings imply in their literal sense. This “second naïveté” is roughly equivalent to the Mystic stage of spiritual development as Johnson (2020). Religion, Atheism, and Faith

In a lecture delivered at Columbia University in 1966 entitled “The Religious Significance of Atheism,” Paul Ricoeur applied these insights directly to religious belief. He said, “I have placed “atheism” in an intermediary position: for I wish to consider it as both a break and a link between religion (as in the Faithful stage) and faith (as in the Mystic stage.)” Ricoeur goes on to explain that the two main functions of traditional religion are “accusation” and “consolation.” Ricoeur does use some odd terminology, “accusation,” and by it, he means the taboos imposed by religion and the fear of punishment. By “consolation” he means the desire for protection or shelter. This is keeping in line with the “reward and punishment” understanding of religion. These features, according to Ricoeur, are what attract what he calls “primitive man” to religion. He writes, “I take religion (of the Faithful) to be this archaic system which faith (as in the faith of the Mystic) must always overcome (Macintyre and Ricoeur 1969: 60). An accusation and consolation are considered “rotten points” of religion by Ricoeur. Atheism, on the other hand, is useful in that it destroys the comfort and safety offered by traditional religion and liberates men from taboos imposed by religion. In this sense, according to Ricoeur, “atheism clears the ground for a faith beyond accusation and consolation” (Macintyre and Ricoeur 1969: 60). This is the faith of the Mystical stage of radical faith and spirituality that embraces everyone and everything. This last part is particularly significant. Many religious people move from the traditional faith to religious criticism and feel themselves liberated. The newfound freedom liberates them from the traditional taboos, rewards, and punishments. The fear and trembling that they are freed from are positive. According to Ricoeur, this second stage of freedom, criticism, and rationality should lead to a deeper stage of the second naïveté and deepened faith; faith in themselves, in fellow human beings, and in God. That is truly a great challenge, especially in our world of cynicism and indifference. This is precisely the challenge that Pope Francis is offering to the whole world. To move from the first naïveté to the second, when we can embrace the earth, the migrants in a warmer and communicative manner (ICN 2017). In this embrace, we are called to dialogue, encounter, conversion, commitment, and transformation.

64  Kuruvilla Pandikattu S.J. Befriending the Other

Thus, through conversion, dialogue, and reaching out, we are called to recognize the other as other and to embrace them with their differences. We are called to befriend the other (including God, the larger society, and Mother Earth) is a complex process of walking, meditating, and reflections leading to radical transformations, as indicated by Giri (2016). It, in turn, calls for the appropriate cultivation of subjectivity, intersubjectivity, transsubjectivity, and objectivity. Giri reminds us that friendship is not just a spontaneous overflow of feelings. It calls for works of love, labour and mutual learning involving epistemic and ontological works, meditations and transformations. It also calls for transpositional movements, for example, from self to other and other to self and creative, critical and transformative movements in between and across. (Giri 2016) It also calls for transforming the subjectivity of the self and the other and the structures of objectivity which produce us. Walking and meditating with self and others calls for the experience of a new wisdom about self and other as well as the wisdom of relationship and the world. Transpositional movements give birth to such wisdom, which helps us cultivate transformative friendship with self and the other. Transformative friendship is different from acquiescent friendship, where we just adjust to the existing status quo even if it is not expressive of the creative potential of all concerned. In transformative friendship, we challenge each other to be more truthful, giving and capacious and generous (Giri 2016). Conclusion In this chapter, we have been pilgrimaging with Pope Francis. Beginning with the warm receptivity that he has received from the media, we saw the plea that he has been making for objective and unbiased reporting, with a view to cater especially to the needs of the poor and the marginalized. Then we saw three powerful symbolic actions of the Pope. Let us focus on his solitary walk in the city of Rome at the beginning of the pandemic. That was a silent, sorrowful pilgrimage where he pleaded with God to free us all from the devastations of the pandemic. In this powerful process of walking and meditating, he was in solitude and at the same time in solidarity with all those people with angst and anxiety. Thus his was a meditative walking in solitude and solidarity. At the same time, his warm embrace of the disfigured man and of the migrants sends a clear signal that he is in solidarity with the sick, weak, and vulnerable. His prophetic speech on protecting, promoting, and integrating the migrants may not be accepted by all, but it is a plea to the conscience of the whole of humanity. We have a moral imperative to make life bearable,

The Message of Media  65 especially for the poor and vulnerable, including the migrants and daily labourers. Together with the poor, the earth is also crying to us. Thus, the Pope makes an earnest plea to protect the earth and be ecologically (and economically) sensitive to Mother Earth, our common home. Together with the migrants, the earth, too, is crying out for our collective help based on a “global consensus.” This calls us to walk together with others, befriend them, and take serious steps to alleviate the suffering of human beings, nature, and Mother Earth itself! Such a plea necessarily demands human fraternity and solidarity, which is the need of the hour. This plea of the Pope comes from a gentle and genuine spiritual depth, which has moved from a First Naïveté to a Second Naïveté, having encountered tremendous pain, struggle, and suffering. Such a deepened and purified faith demands, following Ricoeur, that we have walked through the agonizing pain of doubt and reason, debate and commitment, reflection and meditation, and walking and pilgrimaging, alone and together. That is the third mystical stage that Ricoeur refers to. A walking in solitude and in solidarity. This is faith that is painful and effective. That walk is both alone with oneself and together with others. That embraces other religions and no religions. That includes fellow pilgrims and wanderers. When we can dare to take up the suffering of others, embrace everyone who suffers and present it to God painfully, gratefully, and joyfully, we realise our full human potential. Thus we can live with a deep sense of passion, compassion, and moral sensitivity. References BBC. 2013, July 8. Pope Francis visits Italy’s migrant island of Lampedusa. BBC News. https://www​.bbc​.com​/news​/world​-europe​-23224010 Blow, Charles McRay. 2021. The Devil You Know: A Black Power Manifesto. New York: Harper Large Print. Dutta, Ananya and Medanha, Gayatri. 2018. The new pope: Analysing the shift in the Indian Media’s coverage of the papacy. In Pandikattu, 349–362. Esteves, Junno Arocho. 2020, June 30. Pope Francis tells U. S. Catholic media church needs “clear and unbiased presentation of the facts.” The Dialog. http:// thedialog​.org​/featured​/pope​-francis​-tells​-u​-s​-catholic​-media​-church​-needs​-clear​ -and​-unbiased​-presentation​-of​-the​-facts/ Giri, Ananta Kumar. 2016. Walking, meditating and rising in friendship with the other: Transforming the subjective and the objective and the calling of transpositional subjectobjectivity version 1.0. Jnanadeepa: Pune Journal of Religious Studies, January– December 2016, Vol. 20(1–2), 269–284. http://doi​.org​/10​.5281​/zenodo​.4272009 ICN. 2017, February 21. Pope Francis: ‘The protection of migrants is a moral duty. https://www​.indcatholicnews​.com​/news​/31979 Johnston, Margaret Placentra. 2020. Paul Ricoeur’s work as it relates to spiritual development theory. https://c1b9a88f​-157e​-47ac​-91dd​-90f00bc73c13​.filesusr​.com​/ ugd​/18a280​_3bc​aa8e​62ed​848a​c954​aeae​897a5a4a7​.pdf

66  Kuruvilla Pandikattu S.J. Macintyre, Alasdair and Ricoeur, Paul. 1969. The Religious Significance of Atheism. New York: Columbia University Press. McLuhan, Marshall. 1967 [1964]. Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. London: Sphere Books. O’Connell. 2020, March 15. Pope Francis prays in Rome churches asking God to rid the world of the coronavirus. America Magazine. Retrieved January 31, 2021, from https://www​.americamagazine​.org​/faith​/2020​/03​/15​/pope​-francis​-prays​-rome​churches​-asking​-god​-rid​-world​-coronavirus Pandikattu, Kuruvilla. (ed). 2018. Pope Francis: His Impact on and Relevance for the Church and Society: Commemorating Five Years of His Papacy. Pune: JnanaDeepa Vidyapeeth; New Delhi: Christian World Imprints. Pandikattu, Kuruvilla, S. J. and Vadappuram, Jose M. (eds). 2018. Francis Effect: Fifty-One Articles on Pope Francis’ Insights. Pune: Papal Seminary. Piro, Isabella. 2020, October 4. “Fratelli tutti”: Short summary of Pope Francis’s social encyclical. Vatican News. https://www​.vaticannews​.va​/en​/pope​/news​/2020​ -10​/fratelli​-tutti​-pope​-fraternity​-social​-friendship​-short​-summary​.html Ricoeur, Paul. 1967. The Symbolism of Evil. Boston: Beacon Press. Williams, Rob. 2013, November 7. Moving photographs show Pope Francis embracing man disfigured by disease. The Independent. https://www​.independent​ .co​.uk​/news​/world​/europe​/moving​-photographs​-show​-pope​-francis​-embracing​ -man​-disfigured​-disease​-8926116​.html

4

Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action From Discourse Ethics to Spiritual Transformations Ananta Kumar Giri

Introduction and Invitation The contemporary moment is characterized by unmet challenges both in theory and practice. The processes of change at work in individual social systems as well as interaction among different societies in the global ecumene bring to the fore the unfinished task lying before us with regard to moral consciousness and communicative action. Now because of globalization, as “moral issues stemming from cultural diversity ... that used to arise mainly between societies now increasingly arise within them” (Geertz 1986: 115), the nature of interaction between different cultures with widely variant moral standards and the development of a critical reflective consciousness on the part of the actors where moral issues are not easily disposed of either through a convenient relativism or universalism is an epochal challenge before us. Similar is the task when we come to individual social systems as they are characterized by pervasive structural differentiations and as in these societies “morality gets no clear status in the construction of a structurally differentiated life world” (Habermas 1987a: 92). A related issue here is the unprecedented crisis of institutions including media institutions that characterize individual social systems to cope with the contemporary dynamics of change in self, society, and culture. For many insightful critics, our contemporary dilemmas are also significantly institutional, in as much as they spring from the irrelevance of existing institutions and lack of availability of new institutions to guide our private lives and the public sphere. These institutional dilemmas are primarily “moral dilemmas” (Bellah et al. 1991: 38) which call for a new moral language to think about our institutions as they are now ridden with “unprecedented problems” (Bellah et al. 1991: 42). For instance, reflecting on contemporary American society Robert Bellah and his colleagues argue that in the face of the challenge of the present and the dislocations of the post-industrial transition there is an urgency to think of “democracy as an ongoing moral quest,” not simply as a political process – “as an end state” (Bellah et al. 1991: 20). They are emphatic in their proposition that we currently need a new “moral ecology” to think creatively about institutions – their predicament and possibility since “the decisions that are made about our economy, our schools, our government, of our national position in the DOI: 10.4324/9781032632667-6

68  Ananta Kumar Giri world cannot be separated from the way we live in practical terms, the moral life we lead as a people” (Bellah et al. 1991: 42; emphasis added). The imperative for a moral grounding of institutions in contemporary practice is paralleled by reflective developments in theory as well. This is most evident in the restructuring of theory from structure to reflective self in thinking through moral consciousness and communicative action. Most important sign of this restructuring is the theory of “post-conventional” morality developed by psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg. In Kohlberg’s theory of moral development one’s moral consciousness is not a mere appendix to social conventions and one is able to differentiate oneself “from the rule and expectation of others” and one’s “values in terms of self-chosen ethical principles” (Cortese 1990: 20). The idea of post-conventional morality rescues moral consciousness from unreflective sociologism where morality is looked upon as an extension of social norms and cultural expectations and brings critical reflection to its very core. In this move from unreflective sociologism to critical reflection, the self-justificatory systems of society and culture are critically lived, analysed, and transcended by seeking actors in quest of justice, well-being, and freedom. The current idea of post-conventional morality has a long pedigree in critical and transformation-seeking social theory, which can be drawn at least back to John Dewey’s insightful distinction between customary and reflective morality at the turn of the century. For Dewey (1960: 29), “the question of what ends a man should live for does not arise as a general problem in customary morality. It is forestalled by the habits and institutions which a person finds existing all around him.” “There can, however, be no such thing as reflective morality except where men seriously ask by what purposes they should direct their conduct and why they should do so; what is which make their purposes good” (Dewey 1960: 30). The fact that reflective morality is accompanied by a scheme of critical evaluation is clearly stated by Dewey: Reflection has its normal function in placing the objects of desire in a perspective of relative values so that when we give up one good we do it because we see another which is of greater worth and which evokes a more inclusive and more enduring desire. (Dewey 1960: 35) The work of Jurgen Habermas, an important interlocutor of our time who has engaged seeking souls in reflection on the present challenges of human emancipation, is a significant contribution to both the idea of post-conventional morality and the contemporary discourse of moral transformation of institutions. Habermas’ work reflects the challenge of theory and practice outlined above. His Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action is an important contribution to the idea of post-conventional morality with his distinction between critical moral reflection and ethical substantialism. He is also a systematic and transformation-seeking critic of institutional life under late capitalism where his political criticism employs not only the familiar variables of

Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action  69 class and power but also the less familiar ones of moral consciousness and communicative action. Habermas has written extensively on specific issues in the history and development of Germany as well as on the wider questions of the history and discourse of modernity. Though Habermas is too easily categorized as the most prominent member of the contemporary European Left, his agenda has always involved a wider critical engagement, critiquing the conventional theories and methods of Marxism as well. In that sense, he has always pursued his task as a critic of the existing methods and systems. In his recent work, Habermas has championed the cause of radical democracy, one important aspect of which is the moral renewal of individuals and the public sphere (Habermas 1990b: 1994). Habermas argues that the task of human emancipation today requires a moral approach along with the familiar models of political action. Consider, for instance, the persistent question of poverty and disadvantage in advanced industrial societies. For Habermas, while in the classical phase of capitalism capital and labour could threaten each other for pursuing their interests, today “this is no longer the case” (Habermas 1990b: 19). Now the underprivileged can make their predicament known only through a “protest vote” but “without the electoral support of a majority of citizens ... problems of this nature do not even have enough driving force to be adopted as a topic of broad and effective public debate” (Habermas 1990b: 20). In this situation, for Habermas, a moral consciousness diffusing the entire public sphere is crucial for tackling the problem of poverty and disadvantage. As Habermas argues: “a dynamic self-correction cannot be set in motion without introducing morals into the debate, without universalizing interests from a normative point of view” (ibid). The same imperative also confronts us in addressing contemporary global problems such as environmental disaster, world poverty and the North–South divide.1 For Habermas, in addressing these problems we also need a moral perspective, as he (1990b: 20) writes: these problems can only be brought to a head by rethinking topics morally, by universalizing interests in a more or less discursive form xx The moral or ethical point of view makes us quicker to perceive the more far-reaching, and simultaneously less insistent and more fragile, ties that bind the fate of an individual to that of every other, making even the most alien person a member of one’s community. In this chapter, I strive to make a critical assessment of the work of Habermas with regard to his own stated goal of transformation. I begin with Habermas’ own assumptions such as “linguistification of sacred” in the field of moral consciousness and strive to look into incoherences in his project considered in accordance with its own norms. In other words, what I am interested in, to begin with, is an internal critique of the Habermasian agenda of transformation. In this way, I share a similar goal with the noted Habermas scholar Thomas McCarthy who sums up the objective of his critical engagement:

70  Ananta Kumar Giri “Rather than confronting Habermas’s ideas with objections from competing theoretical traditions, I hope to bring out tensions in those ideas themselves” McCarthy 1992: 52). But while I am interested in bringing out tensions in Habermas’ ideas I am also engaged in interrogating Habermas’ agenda from outside its own frame of reference precisely because the issues that these tensions raise cannot be resolved within its own frame. Thus, the tradition where I move towards from Habermas’ own frame of reference is the tradition of spiritual criticism and spiritual transformation. While Habermas scholar Robert J. Antonio argues that the “secular and intersubjective turn in critical theory begun by Habermas can be completed by encouraging a broader dialogue with pragmatism” (Antonio 1989: 74), I submit that it is the question pertaining to intersubjectivity that requires an opening towards processes of spiritual transformation and criticism. What I argue is that critical theory now must make a dialogue with critical and practical spirituality in order to achieve its own stated objective of transformation. Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action: Habermas’ Agenda Habermas argues that at the contemporary juncture where the sacred no longer has the unquestioned authority that it once had, morality can no longer be grounded in religion. Rather it has to emerge out of and be anchored in a process of rational argumentation where the actors participate in undistorted communication as members of a community of discourse. For Habermas, the rise of the public sphere of rational argumentation and rationally motivated communicative action goes hand in hand with the relocation of the sacred from the domain of the “Unspeakable” to our everyday world of language, making it both an object and medium of our ordinary conversation. Habermas’ moral theory has to be understood in his evolutionary framework of the “linguistification of the sacred” (Habermas 1987a) and the “structural transformation of the public sphere” (Habermas 1989).2 Habermas believes that morality, anchored in and emerging out of the rational arguments of participants in discourse, can fill the void created by the demise of the sacred order. The idea of a rational society and an “ideal communication community” is central to Habermas’ agenda of morality. In his emphasis on rationality, Habermas is “closest to the Kantian tradition” (McCarthy in Habermas 1987a: vii).3 Both for Kant and Habermas, “calculations of rational choice generate recommendations relevant to the pursuit of contingent purposes in the light of given preferences,” and “when serious questions of value arise deliberation on who one is, and who one wants to be, yields ethical advice concerning the good life” (ibid). Like Kant, Habermas understands “practical reason as universal in import: it is geared to what everyone could rationally will to be a norm binding on everyone else” (ibid). Habermas’ discourse ethics, however, “replaces Kant’s categorical imperative with a procedure of moral argumentation,” shifting “the frame of reference from Kant’s solitary,

Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action  71 reflecting moral consciousness to the community of moral subjects in dialogue” (McCarthy in Habermas 1990a: vii). For Habermas, “the projection of an ideal communication community serves as a guiding thread for setting up discourses” (Habermas 1990a). Those who participate in this communication community have an urge to participate not only in communication but also in a discursive transformation, where “in the relationship between the Self and the Other there is a basic moment of insight” (ibid). Habermas quotes George Herbert Mead, whose work he values a lot and whom he considers as one of the main inspirations behind his theory of communicative action, programmatically: “What is essential to communication is that the symbol should arouse in oneself what it arouses in the other individual” (Habermas 1987a: 15). Habermas tells us: “I think all of us feel that one must be ready to recognize the interests of others even when they run counter to our own, but the person who does that does not really sacrifice himself, but becomes a larger self” (Habermas 1987a: 94; emphasis added). For Habermas, an urge for justification of norms that guide individual action is very much part of being human. Though Habermas is dismissive of questions of ontology he proceeds with two basic assumptions about man, viz., that he has a need for communication and an urge for justification.4 Habermas argues: “From the perspective of first persons, what we consider justified is not a function of custom but a question of justification or grounding” (Habermas 1990a: 20). This universal need for justification has a special manifestation in modern societies where all norms have now “at least in principle lost their customary validity” (Habermas 1988: 227). In this context, the procedure of rational argumentation, which is the other name of “discourse ethics,” fulfils this need for justification and provides the “discursive redemption of normative claims of validity” (Habermas 1990a: 103). Habermas argues that the realization of moral consciousness is based upon our ability to take a hypothetical attitude to the “form of life and personal life history” that has shaped our identities (Habermas 1990a: 104). But those who are uncritical about their socialization by and immersion in the society and culture to which they belong are incapable of taking a hypothetical attitude towards these since they fail to realize that though every form of life presents itself as the best possible form of “good life,” it is the task of moral consciousness to go beneath such taken-for-granted assumptions and self-proclaimed truths.5 It is here that participation in the procedure of practical discourse functions as a redeeming process. First of all, it breaks the illusion of the “good life” that has been associated with a particular form of life by the force of custom and habit. While the “formal” ethics of a society binds us to its order and scheme of evaluation, discourse ethics breaks this bondage and enables us to understand our own self as well as the validity of our culture from the point of view of justice. Habermas tells us that “the universalization principle of practical discourse acts like a knife that makes

72  Ananta Kumar Giri razor–sharp cuts between evaluative statements, and strictly normative ones, between the good and the just” (ibid). It is this concern for justice6 that creates an incessant thrust towards problematization, laying bare the moral problems within our taken-for-granted cultures. For Habermas, a “thrust towards problematization” is essential for moral consciousness to emerge and to be at work in the context of the life world (Habermas 1990a: 107). Habermas tells us how in the normal circumstances of what he calls “ethical formalism” this problematization is not possible.7 But participation in discourse ethics enables the participants to look at one’s own culture critically, where criticism means discovering whether the “suggested modes of togetherness genuinely hang together” or not (see Neville 1974: 189). Habermas argues that “for the hypotheses-testing participant in a discourse, the relevance of the experiential context of his life world tends to pale” (Habermas 1990a: 107). Habermas believes that “under the unrelenting moralizing gaze of the participants in discourse ... familiar institutions can be transformed into so many instances of problematic justice” (1990a: 108). Critical Discussion of the Idea of Discourse Ethics: Habermas’ Self-Criticism Habermas argues that the abstractive requirements in discourse ethics provide actors a cognitive advantage, a capacity for distantiation. But this cognitive distantiation is not enough either for the practice of discourse ethics or for the realization of moral consciousness. It calls for parallel emotional maturity, adequate motivational anchoring, and growth. He argues that “cognition, empathy, and agape” must be integrated into our moral consciousness especially when we are engaged in the “hermeneutic activity of applying universal norms in a context-sensitive manner” (Habermas 1990a: 182). Thus he argues, reminding us of Christian imperatives for love and care, that “concern for the fate of one’s neighbour is a necessary emotional prerequisite for the cognitive operations expected of participants in discourse” (ibid). This integration of cognitive distantiation and emotional care is particularly required when the initial separation between morality and ethical life is to be overcome. He is aware of the difficulties that this separation poses for the practice of morality. Thus he is not content to leave his agenda only at the “deontological level” like Kant. He is interested to bring back morality as a guide for action and reflection into practice. Habermas himself writes: Moral issues are never raised for their own sake; people raise them by seeking a guide for action. For this reason the demotivated solutions that post-conventional morality finds for decontextualized issues must be reinserted into practical life. If it is to become effective in practice, morality has to make up for the loss of concrete ethical life

Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action  73 that it incurred when it pursued a cognitive advantage. (Habermas 1990a: 179) This opening has to be achieved through “an integration of cognitive operations and emotional dispositions and attitude” that characterizes “the mature capacity for moral judgement” (Habermas 1990a: 182). Though a notion of universal human justice is central to Habermas’ perspective on moral consciousness, Habermas himself takes great care to emphasize that morality must obey both the principles of justice and solidarity; it must achieve an integration of “the ethics of love and ethics of justice.” While the first “postulates equal respect and equal rights for the individual,” the second “postulates empathy and concern for the well-being of one’s neighbour” (Habermas 1990a: 200). For him “morality cannot protect the rights of the individual without also protecting the well-being of the community to which he belongs” (ibid). Thus criticism of the taken-for-granted ways of life must be accompanied by a concern for the community. What is important to note is that both these concerns, for him, “should flow from an adequate description of the highest stage of morality itself” (Habermas 1990a: 182). Discourse Ethics and Moral Consciousness: The Limits of the Habermasian Approach But though Habermas speaks of the need for an “adequate description of the highest stage of morality itself,” he himself does not inquire into the nature and height of this stage. For him, it is the public sphere which constitutes this highest stage. Habermas speaks of appropriate emotional development and reflective engagement for the project of critical moral reflection to have its desired effect on individuals in society. But he does not look into the issue of how far his own rational approach can facilitate this. Participation in mutually transforming dialogue, which is the key feature of Habermas’ discourse ethics, raises the question of intersubjectivity – the mode of relationship between the self and the other. But the whole question of intersubjectivity – its realization and its needed rich description – for a project of morality to succeed is missing from Habermas.8 The question for us here is what kind of relationship between the self and the other is envisaged in discourse ethics – whether the self or the other are just talking to each other in discourse ethics or the non-self is also part of the self. In this context, McCarthy argues that Habermas’ agenda only refers to ethical self-clarification and “ethical self-clarification itself cannot get us beyond the value differences that may result from it” (McCarthy 1992: 62). It is perhaps for this reason that Bauman (1993: 84) writes: a post-modern ethics would be one that readmits the other as a neighbour into the hard core of the moral self ... an ethics that recasts the

74  Ananta Kumar Giri other as the crucial character in the process through which the moral self comes into its own. But the process of this dialectic between self and other is not only rational but also spiritual. As Bellah et al. argue, paying attention to the needs of the other is a spiritual process. In their words: “as in the religious examples, we mean to use attention normatively ... in the sense of ‘mindfulness as the Buddhists put it, an openness to the leadings of God, as the Quakers say” (Bellah et al. 1991: 256). The problem with the Habermasian discourse ethics is also its strength, namely its emphasis on rationality. Rationality is an important starting point but there are problems when it is made the be-all or end-all in life, as it is in the approach of Habermas. Habermas strongly believes that it is a rational philosophy of science that is not scientistic which holds the key to the overcoming of the confusion in which moral consciousness finds itself today (Habermas 1981).9 But though Habermas distinguishes between instrumental reason and communicative reason and is an ardent critic of modern positivism, his communicative rational agenda still has its limits in coming to terms with the challenge of transforming moral awareness into a basis of transformative communicative action. Bernard Williams’ argument in Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy is of crucial significance here: “How truthfulness to an existing self or society is to be combined with reflection, self-understanding and criticism is a question that philosophy itself cannot answer. It is the kind of question that has to be answered through reflective living” (Williams 1985: 200). To be fair to Habermas, Habermas himself is aware of the need for reflective living but not sensitive to its manifold dimensions. Moral issues raise questions which are not merely rational but also spiritual. This is a point argued by two important interlocutors of our times, namely Taylor (1989) and Pande (1989, 1991), who incidentally come from two different traditions. For Taylor, to speak of moral consciousness is to speak of the qualitative distinction between the higher and the lower desire or scheme of things, a realization which is dependent on spiritual enlightenment.10 Moral questions inevitably raise questions of ontology – the nature of the actors and the quality of their depth dimension. Though Habermas makes a distinction between ego identity and role identity and speaks of self-reflection in the context of the therapeutic dialogue of the actors (Habermas 1972, 1979), he does not address the question of ontology, vis-à-vis moral consciousness. In this he seems to be carried away by the modernist preference for epistemology to ontology. But Taylor (1989: 7) here urges us to proceed cautiously. For Taylor, “the whole way in which we think, reason, argue and question ourselves about morality supposes that our moral reactions” are “not only ‘gut’ feelings but also implicit acknowledgements of claims concerning their objects.”

Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action  75 The various ontological accounts try to articulate these claims. The temptations to deny this, which arise from modern epistemology, are strengthened by the widespread accepting of a deeply wrong model of practical reasoning, one based on an illegitimate extrapolation from reasoning in natural science. (ibid) Moral ontology is not confined to spiritual ontology alone but is an important part of it. Moral notion requires a reflective self whose source is spiritual. For Taylor, an inquiry into the sources of the self “is not only a phenomenological account but an exploration of the limits of the conceivable in human life, an account of its transcendental conditions” (Taylor 1989: 32). Pande also makes a similar argument. For him, it is only a self which is conscious of its ideal universality that can distinguish values from appetites, pleasures and selfish interests and can become the moral subject. It is the question of the ideal self which is the source of the moral law on which social unity and coherence depends. The ideal self is not an abstract transcendental subject in which immediacy and coherence or non-contradiction both coalesce. (Pande 1982: 113) Pande’s ideal self is spiritual in its source, actualization, and imagination. Pande draws on the concept of man in Indian tradition where it is believed that spirituality is an important dimension of self and identity (see Pande 1985, 1989, 1991, 1992). But this is also true in traditions of spirituality in the West which, as Taylor argues, have encouraged “detachment from identities given by particular historical communities” (Taylor 1989: 37). Habermas takes for granted that the sacred has become part of modern rational language; he calls this “the linguistification of the sacred.” But this view of the modern condition is coloured by the Protestant religious experience where religious engagement is subservient not only to the process of rationalization at work in society but also to the power of the word. Habermas’ theory of linguistification of the sacred is based upon a tradition like Protestantism which privileges words over silence in religious engagement. But this may not be so in the Catholic tradition and certainly not so in the Buddhist and Hindu traditions where silence is very much part of reflection; in fact, silence is the source of critical reflection and transforming utterances in acts of discourse. Habermasian discourse ethics is based upon a very naive view of religion and religious evolution in modern societies. In this context, Robert J. Antonio’s critique of Habermas is particularly true of his notion of linguistification of the sacred: “the problem of formalism can be overcome, and the true limits of immanent critique clarified, only after all the pseudohistorical baggage is left behind” (1989: 741). Habermas’ discourse ethics is procedural11 but is not serious about the preparation required of participants to take part in the procedure and also

76  Ananta Kumar Giri does not address the question of normative direction. Habermas does not address the ontological preparation required of actors to listen and hear in the process of conversation. It is perhaps for this reason that even such a sympathetic critic of Habermas as McCarthy argues that arguments in which actors are engaged in discourse ethics “themselves remain tied to specific contexts of action and experience and thus are not able wholly to transcend the struggle between Max Weber’s warring gods and demons” (1992: 58). This problem can be overcome by opening oneself to spiritual awareness, which would enable the actors to “transcend the struggle between warring gods and demons.” Participation in spiritual practice or what is called sadhana can and does facilitate this. As a prelude to arguments to follow, at this point it may be helpful to briefly point out the meaning of spiritual engagement referred to here. It refers to a process of multi-dimensional critical movement. First, it is a process of discovering a higher self within oneself – one which is characterized by more intimate subjectivity. If ethics has to do with the challenge of the other, then spirituality as a transformative seeking of values in both inner freedom and in more genuine bonds of intersubjectivity helps us to invite the other into the self. If every dialectic inevitably has a process of self-reflection,12 this is also true of the dialectic of self and the other, and spiritual transformation of the consciousness of actors makes this dialectic more reflective. As Taylor argues from the spiritual point of view, vis-à-vis St.Augustine: “[...] radical reflexivity takes on a new status, because it is the space in which we come to encounter God, in which we affect the turning from lower to higher” (1989: 140). Spiritual transformation also involves transforming the base of society or the infrastructure of society. It requires transforming the structures of society which subjects human beings to indignity and exploitation. Spirituality has a dimension of institutional criticism as well, which is most evident in traditions of prophetic criticism, martyrdom, and the Bhakti movements (Giri 1996; Uberoi 1996; Walzer 1988). From Discourse to Spiritual Transformation Though Habermas pleads for post-metaphysical orientations in our moral engagement, a careful reading of him shows that he is deeply aware of the limitations of his agenda. He recognizes that his agenda is anthropocentric13 but does not explore ways of overcoming the limits of anthropocentrism. Furthermore, while the question of justice is central to his agenda of morality, Habermas does not address whether the pursuit of justice is only a question of socio-political legislation or it involves, as Agnes Heller (1987) argues, a “profound anthropological revolution.” For Heller, pursuit of justice almost always involves an engagement with a “Beyond”14 (also see, Giri 1997; Dallmayr 1993, 1995, 1996; Laclau 1992). By “Beyond,” Heller refers to something beyond and deeper than mere socio-political legislation. She states quite clearly that “... Beyond has the connotation of higher and not

Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action  77 only of being different” (Heller 1987: 325–6). But it is this intimation of the “Beyond” and a transcendental height that is missing from Habermas, which has grave consequences for the realization of some of his own objectives such as the realization of justice and the overcoming of anthropocentrism. Habermas speaks of “linguistification of sacred” but does not explore the critical potential that a transcendental sacred has in rethinking existing social arrangements and transforming our conventional institutions which chain human dignity in many guises. In this context, the work of Unger (1987) calls for our attention. For Unger (1987: 576), there are two kinds of sacred reality. “The first is a fundamental reality or transcendent personal being; the second, the experiences of personality and personal encounter that, multiplied many times over, make up a social world.” Though human beings have a tendency to reduce the first sacred reality to the logic of the societal sacred, the transcendental sacred still continues its autonomy and acts as a source of criticism, creativity, and transformation.15 For Unger, when people are only bound to the sacredness of the existing social contexts, “nothing is left to them but to choose one of these worlds and to play by its rules” (Unger 1987: 577). These rules, though “decisive” in their influence, are ultimately “groundless” (ibid) (also see, Laclau 1992). Unger argues that when the decisiveness of the present social world, presenting itself as a sacred order, “arises precisely from its lack of any place within a hierarchy of contexts” (ibid), then “there is no larger defining reality to which it can seem as the vehicle or from whose standpoint it can be criticized” (Unger 1987: 577).16 Habermas’ agenda of linguistification of the sacred suffers from this problem as well. It is perhaps for these reasons that Dallmayr does not look at Habermas’ “discourses ethics” as a categorical shift from the Kantian deontological morality. “Discourse ethics,” Habermas writes, “picks up the basic intent of Hegel’s thought in order to redeem it with Kantian means” (quoted in Dallmayr 1991: 117). But for Dallmayr there is no scope for genuine redemption in the Habermasian agenda. For Dallmayr (1991: 126), Habermas “makes reference to the alleviation of suffering or of ‘damaged life’ but only as a marginal gloss not fully integrated in his arguments.” Dallmayr argues that in order to address the questions of justice, suffering, moral responsibility, and the self-justification of inhuman social systems as the sacred order, discourse ethics needs a spiritual opening (see, Dallmayr 1995, 1996). Spiritual Foundations of Moral Consciousness: The Agenda of Sri Aurobindo Habermas uses rational argumentation as the key to the realization of moral consciousness. But in traditions of spiritual criticisms, there is a much more inclusive approach to rationality and morality, which is illustrated in the work of a critic such as Sri Aurobindo (1871–1950). Aurobindo is a multidimensional critic of the human condition and is noted for his works such as Human Cycles, Life Divine, The Synthesis of Yoga, and Future Poetry.17

78  Ananta Kumar Giri Aurobindo does not discount the significance of reason for the origin and growth of morality but wants us to have a proper perspective regarding “the office and limitations of reasons” (ibid). Much like Habermas, he argues that reason and rational development have played a key role in our being human.18 Aurobindo himself argues, reminding us of Habermas, that “an attempt to universalize first of all the habit of reason and the application of intelligence and the intelligent will to life” has played a crucial role in the shift from the “infrarational” to the “rational” age (Sri Aurobindo 1962: 179). He also wants us to appreciate the crucial significance of reason in understanding the validity of traditions.19 Like Habermas’ plea for undistorted communication, Aurobindo also sensitizes us to the distortion that power can introduce in the working of a rational discourse and the realization of even its inherent emancipatory potential.20 But for Aurobindo even though reason is so important for moral development and evolution (both phylogenetic and ontogenetic), it cannot be a sole foundation of morality. Aurobindo accords this role to spirit, not to reason. For him, both order and evolution in life involves “interlocking of an immense number of things that are in conflict with each other” and discovering “some principle of standing-ground of unity” (Sri Aurobindo 1962: 201). Reason cannot perform this function because “The business of reason is indeterminate ... in order that it may do its office, it is obliged to adopt temporarily fixed view points” (ibid). When reason becomes the sole arbiter of life and morality, “every change becomes or at least seems a thing doubtful, difficult and perilous ... while the conflict of view points, principles, systems leads to strife and revolution and not to basis of harmonious development” (ibid). For Aurobindo, harmony can be achieved only when the soul discovers itself in its highest and completest spiritual reality and effects a progressive upward transformation of its life values into those of the Spirit; for they will all find their spiritual truth and in that truth their standing-ground of mutual recognition and reconciliation... (ibid). For Aurobindo, the inadequacy of reason to become the governor of life and morality lies in man’s transitional nature – half animal and half divine. He believes that “the root powers of human life, its intimate causes are below, irrational, and they are above, suprarational.” It is for this reason that “a purely rational society could not come into being and, if it could be born, either could not live or sterilize or petrify human existence” (Sri Aurobindo 1962: 114). He (1962: 206) argues, if reason were the secret, highest law of the universe ... it might be possible for him by the power of the reason to evolve out of the dominance of the infrarational Nature which he inherits from the animal. But his nature is rather transitional; the rational being is only a middle term of

Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action  79 Nature’s evolution. A rational satisfaction cannot give him safety from the pull from below nor deliver him from the attraction from above. Aurobindo uses reason but, unlike Habermas, does not take it as the be-all and end-all of life. For him,The solution lies not in reason but in the soul of man, in its spiritual tendencies. It is a spiritual, an inner freedom that alone can create a perfect human order. It is spiritual, a greater than rational enlightenment, that can alone illumine the vital nature of man and impose harmony on its self-seeking, antagonisms and discord. (ibid; emphasis added) An ideal society, for Aurobindo, is not a mere “rational society” but a “spiritual society.” A society founded on spirituality is not governed by religion as a mere social organization where society uses religion “to give an august, awful and ... eternal sanction to its mass of customs and institutions” (Sri Aurobindo 1962: 211). A spiritual society is not a theocratic society but a society guided by the quest of the spirit. A spiritual society regards man not only as a mind, a life and a body, but as a soul incarnated for a divine fulfillment upon earth, not only in heavens beyond, which after all it need not have left if it had no divine business here in the world of physical, vital and mental nature. (Sri Aurobindo 1962: 213) Sri Aurobindo’s idea of the highest stage of morality is close to the Kohlberg– Habermas idea of the post-conventional stage of moral development. Like the Habermasian idea of the post-conventional stage of morality, Aurobindo’s idea of morality is not an extension of the collective egoism of a particular society. But what distinguishes his idea of morality is the invocation of God not only as a tertiary factor but also as a constituting factor in the dyadic relationship between the self and the other. For him (1962: 136), “the seeking for God is also, subjectively, the seeking for our highest, truest, fullest, largest Self.” He (1962: 143) argues, ethics is not in its essence a calculation of good and evil in action of a laboured effort to be blameless according to the standards of the world – these are only crude appearances – it is an attempt to grow into divine nature. Let us hear him in his own words about the probable more reassuring route towards moral consciousness and communicative action: ethics only begins by the demand upon [man] of something other than his personal preference, vital pleasure or material self-interest;

80  Ananta Kumar Giri and this demand seems at first to work on him through the necessity of his relations with others. But that this is not the core of the matter is shown by the fact that the ethical demand does not always square with the social demand, nor the ethical standard always coincide with the social standard. His relations with others and his relations with himself are both of them the occasions of his ethical growth, but that which determines his ethical being is his relations with God, the urge of the Divine whether concealed in his nature or conscious in his higher self or inner genius. He obeys an inner deal, not to a social claim or a collective necessity. The ethical imperative comes not from around, but from within him and above him. (Sri Aurobindo 1962: 141) Beyond the Technology of Power: Spirituality and the Technology of the Self In his The Imperative of Responsibility, Jonas (1984: 141) argues: “it must be understood that we are here confronted with a dialectic of power which can only be overcome by a further degree of power itself, not by quietest renunciation of power.” This more power, in Jonas’ own view, has to emanate from society and supposedly can break the tyrannical automation of power. Jonas is articulating a point of view towards ethical responsibility which is more widely shared among interpreters and actors today.21 The crux of this approach lies in the belief that by having more power we can solve the ethical problems confronting us today.22 But such politicization of morality removes the “inner life from the sphere of the moral,” making it impossible to articulate proper moral concepts (Edelman 1990: 53). But a spiritual approach to ethics and morality, as Aurobindo’s work shows, brings the “inner life” of the actors to the heart of their moral consciousness and communicative action. Spirituality not only retrieves the inner life of the actors and juxtaposes it to their outer life but also continuously strives to critically scrutinize the structure of desire of the inner life and subject it to transformative criticism. This transformed inner life becomes a source of transformational criticism of the logic of power in society. Habermas’ discourse ethics shares the above-mentioned problems of an approach to morality where the logic of power reigns supreme over the creative desire and the devotional dynamics of the self. Though Habermas makes a distinction between technology of power and technology of self (see, for instance, Habermas 1987b), his critical theory, in general, and perspective on discourse ethics, in particular, scarcely scratches the surface of technology of self. To be fair to him, Habermas is deeply concerned with the need for self-reflection on the part of the actors, but he limits this to the context of therapeutic dialogue between the patient and the analyst. Habermas does not explore the possibility of autonomous self-discovery without the mediation of the therapist.

Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action  81 Spirituality here suggests a different route. Spiritual traditions stress that self-knowledge and self-reflection go together. Aurobindo (1950: 2), for instance, proposes yoga as a synthetic mechanism where “Yoga is a methodological effort towards self-perfection by the expression of the potentialities latent in the being and a union of the human individual with the universal and Transcendent Existence.” Yoga is a practical psychology of self-perfection to help God complete her unfinished task of creation. Its objective is transformation and making possible a higher stage of evolution here on Earth, not individual moksha (salvation). Yoga helps us to overcome our “separative ignorance” (Sri Aurobindo 1950: 618). The practice of Yoga helps us to go beyond altruism and egoism, good and evil, where we are able to “take a wider psychological view of the primary forces of our nature” (ibid). Through the practice of Yoga there grows an immediate and profound sympathy and immixture of mind with mind, life with life, a lessening of the body’s insistence on separateness, a power of direct mental and other intercommunication and effective mutual action which helps out now the inadequate indirect communication and action.... (Sri Aurobindo 1950: 615) Yoga enables individuals to have a right relation with the collectivity where the individual does not “pursue egoistically his own material or mental progress or spiritual salvation without regard to his fellows,” nor does he “maim his proper development” for the sake of the community but sums up in himself “all its [community’s] best and completest possibilities and pour them out by thought, action and all other means on his surroundings so that the whole race may approach nearer to the attainment of its supreme potentialities” (Sri Aurobindo 1950: 17). A spiritual approach to self-reflection, for instance as that of Yoga, proceeds with a different relationship between knowledge and human interest or knowledge and power. In the spiritual traditions of practice and inquiry, the aim of knowledge – whether of self or other, or of both – is not to have power over the other but to become an instrument of service and creativity in the genuine growth and development of the other. This creative service begins with enhancing the “functioning” and “capability”23 of the other and aims at the spiritual transformation of their consciousness. The urge of the seekers within traditions of spiritual practice and inquiry, as Rabindranath Tagore24 puts it in one of his poems, is to fulfill one’s life through self-sacrifice and presenting oneself as a gift to the other. The idea of discourse in the traditions of spiritual transformation is different from the over-politically determined view of discourse in modernity. Discourse here is not confined to politically significant utterances nor is it only full of speech acts. In spiritual traditions, silence is also an important part of discourse. It is undoubtedly true that the discourse that the participants in Habermasian discourse ethics are engaged in is not confined to the

82  Ananta Kumar Giri political; in fact its critical significance lies in the fact that it is carried out in the life world. But in order to realize the search for multi-dimensional criticism such as therapeutic criticism and aesthetic criticism that the participants in discourse ethics are engaged in there is a need for them to participate in the spiritual dialectic of silence and utterances as well.25 It is an integral part of spiritual realization that money and power are not the sole measures of a good life; they must be provided normative direction by the quest for meaning in discovering the depth dimension of one’s being and creating bonds of intersubjectivity (see Bellah et al. 1991). This realization affects the technology of the self that the actors seek to cultivate. Bellah and his colleagues describe some of these ideally imagined modes of practices and criticism (Bellah et al. 1991). The following critique of consumerism that Bellah and his colleagues provide is an instance of spiritual criticism which bears a lot of suggestions for transformation for the participants in discourse ethics: “Consumerism kills the soul as any good Augustinian can see because it places things before the valuing of God and human community” (Bellah et al. 1991: 211). Bellah and his colleagues also suggest a pattern of cultivation as an appropriate mode of being in the world today – a pattern characterized by a spiritual attentiveness to the need of the others.26 By the Way of Conclusion: From Practical Discourse to Practical Spirituality Habermas does not “tie the criterion of rationality to the idea of self-constituting subject of history, he locates it in the basic context of action, in talk between subjects” (Wagner and Zipprian 1989: 103). This is the problem with the Habermasian approach to rationality and morality. The key question is can we have such a view of rationality or what he calls communicative rationality and realize the ends that he sets for himself; adequate motivational development of actors for them to be able to act upon their moral realization as critics and transformers? Can his procedure of rational argumentation actualize his worthy expectation that participants in discourse ethics realize that one who recognizes the interests of others “does not really sacrifice himself, but becomes a larger self” (Habermas 1987a: 94)? Realizing these goals requires a wider view of rationality where it is part of the consciousness of actors – a consciousness which is simultaneously rational and supra-rational, rational, and spiritual. Habermas (1979: 93) believes that at the highest stage of moral development internal nature is moved into a “utopian perspective.” At this stage, internal nature is not subject to the “demands of ego autonomy; rather through a dependent ego it obtains free access to interpretive possibilities” (ibid). He also hopes that moral consciousness as a kind of critique would terminate in a “transformation of the affective-motivational basis” of actors (Habermas 1972: 234). But my argument in this paper has been that his rational approach is incapable of realizing these worthy ideals; it has to be supplemented by spiritual praxis.

Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action  83 Habermas speaks of practical discourse. Communicative interaction is the most important part of this practical discourse. This practical discourse can be part of a practical spirituality (Metz 1970; Vivekananda 1991). Practical spirituality, as Swami Vivekananda27 (1991: 354) argues, urges us to realize that “the highest idea of morality and unselfishness goes hand in hand with the highest idea of metaphysical conception.” This highest conception pertains to the realization that man himself is God: “You are that Impersonal Being: that God for whom you have been searching all over the time is yourself – yourself not in the personal sense but in the impersonal” (Vivekananda 1991: 332). The task of practical spirituality begins with this realization but does not end there: its objective is to transform the world. The same Swami Vivekananda thus challenges: The watchword of all well-being of all moral good is not “1” but “thou.” Who cares whether there is a heaven or a hell, who cares if there is an unchangeable or not? Here is the world and it is full of misery. Go out into it as Buddha did, and struggle to lessen it or die in the attempt.” (Vivekananda 1991: 353) What practical spirituality stresses is that the knowledge that one is Divine, one is part of a Universal Being, facilitates this mode of relating oneself to the world. This knowledge is however not for the acquisition of power over the other; rather it is to worship her as God. In the words of Vivekananda: “Human knowledge is not antagonistic to human well-being. On the contrary, it is knowledge alone that will save us in every department of life, in knowledge as worship” (Vivekananda 1991: 353). This plea for practical discourse being part of a practical spirituality has to be understood in the context of the emergent contours of religious evolution of our times which point to a new direction. In this direction exists not only religious fundamentalism but also an urge for spiritual realization on the part of the believers which is not confined to the religions to which they belong (Giri 1994; Sacks 1991). People of faith also now realize that spiritual realization is possible only through addressing the concrete problems of men and women who live in their midst. As Cousins (1985: 7) tells us in his Global Spirituality: “people of faith now rediscover the material dimensions of existence and their spiritual significance.” The realization of practical spirituality in the dynamics of self, culture, and society is as much a normative ideal as the building of a rational society or realization of a state of undistorted communication. The coming of a spiritual society requires both the “reflexive mobilization of self” (Giddens 1991) as well as building up of alternative communities which are founded on the principles of practical spirituality. According to Aurobindo, the coming of a spiritual society begins with the spiritual fulfillment of the urge to individual perfection but ends with the building of a “new world, a change in the life of humanity or, at the least a new perfected collective life in the earth – nature” (Sri Aurobindo 1950: 1031).

84  Ananta Kumar Giri This calls for the appearance not only of isolated evolved individuals acting in the uninvolved mass, but of many gnostic individuals forming a new kind of beings and a new common life superior to the present individual and common existence. A collective life of this kind must obviously constitute itself on the same principle as life of the gnostic individual. (ibid) These gnostic individuals are seekers and bearers of the multi-dimensional transformation of practical spirituality. But these gnostic individuals are not the Nietzschian supermen driven by the will to power; they are animated by a will to serve and desire to transform the contemporary condition and to build a good society. They don’t form a type or a caste of chosen people to dominate this world and interpret its urge for meaning. What Connolly (1991: 187) writes below so aptly sums up the spiritual seekers who are going to carry forward the task of moral consciousness and communicative action well into the future: But this typological differentiation between man and overman no longer makes much sense, if it ever did. For the overman – constituted as an independent, detached type – refers simultaneously to a spiritual disposition and to the residence of free spirits in a social space relatively insulated from reactive politics. If there is anything in the type to be admired, the ideal must be dismantled as a distinct caste of solitary individuals and folded into the political fabric of late modern society. The “overman” now falls apart as a set of distinct dispositions concentrated in a particular caste or type, and its spiritual qualities migrate to a set of dispositions that may compete for presence in any self. The type now becomes (as it actually was to a significant degree) a voice in the self contending with other voices including those of resentment. Notes 1 As Hosle argues, it is “clear that the increasing gap between the First and the Third world raises some of the most difficult moral questions of the modern world” (Hosle 1992: 229). 2 Habermas (1987a: 77) describes for us what he means by linguistification of the sacred: The disenchantment and disempowering of the domain of the sacred takes place by way of a linguistification of the ritually secured, basic normative agreement; going along with this is a release of the rationality potential in communicative action. The aura of rapture and the tenor that emanates from the sacred, the spellbinding power of the holy, is sublimated into the binding/bonding force of criticizable validity claims and at the same time turned into everyday occurrence. Habermas (1987a: 91), further, tells us about the implications of such an evolutionary shift:

Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action  85 Norm-guided interaction changes in structure to the degree that functions of cultural reproduction, social integration, and socialization pass from the domain of the sacred over to that of everyday communicative practice. In the process, the religious community that made social cooperation possible is transformed into a communicative community striving under the pressure to cooperate. 3 It has to be acknowledged here that there is a differing interpretation of the influence of Kant in Habermas. For some, Habermas’ categories are less aprioristic than Kant’s. 4 In this context we might take note of what William Baldamus, an insightful commentator on Habermas, writes. According to Baldamus, “[...] there can be no doubt that Habermas’ graphical diagrams are created intuitively. Ironically, in his own terminology this means they have no rational foundation, although in logical terms their credibility may be unquestionable” (Baldamus 1992: 102). 5 According to Bidney, “An individual is said to be morally free insofar as he acts in conformity with the requirements of his ‘true good’ and his ‘true self.’ Moral freedom and cultural freedom don’t coincide” (Bidney 1967: 453). 6 In this context, Thomas McCarthy tells us: If taking modern pluralism seriously means giving up the idea that philosophy can single out a privileged way of life ..., it does not, in Habermas’s view, preclude a general theory of a much narrower sort, namely a theory of justice. (quoted in Habermas 1990a: vii) 7 As Habermas (1990a: 109) writes: Within the horizon of the life world, practical judgments derive both their concreteness and their power to motivate action from their inner connection to unquestioningly accepted ideas of the good life, in short, from their connection to ethical life and its institutions. Under these conditions, problematization can never be so profound as to risk all the assets of the existing ethical life, but the abstractive achievements required by the moral point of view do precisely that. 8 In so far as the need for describing richly the work of intersubjectivity is concerned, the following lines of Rorty are insightful: Human solidarity is to be achieved not only by inquiry but by imagination, the imaginative ability to see strange people as fellow sufferers ... the process of coming to see other human beings as “one of us” rather than as “them” is a matter of detailed description of what unfamiliar people are like and redescription of what we ourselves are like. (Rorty 1989: xvi) 9 In stressing such an approach Habermas carries forward the agenda of Kant: Thus when practical reason cultivates itself, their insensibly arises in it a dialectic which forces it to seek aid in philosophy, just as happens to it in its theoretic use; and in this case, therefore as well as in the other, it will find rest nowhere than in a thorough critical examination of our reason. (Kant 1987: 26) 10 For Taylor, To know who you are is to be oriented in moral space, a space in which questions arise about what is good or bad, what is worth doing and what is not, what has meaning and importance for you and what is trivial and secondary. (Taylor 1989: 28)

86  Ananta Kumar Giri 11 In this regard, what Charles Taylor writes is significant: the modern idea of freedom is the strongest motive for the massive shift from substantive to procedural justification in the modern world ... And if we leap from the earliest to the most recent such theory, Habermas’s conception of discourse ethics is founded in part on the same consideration. The idea that norm is justified only to the extent that all could uncoercedly accept it is a new and interesting variant of procedural idea. (Taylor 1989: 86) 12 Here we can take note of the insightful arguments of philosopher Verma. Verma writes: “The dialectic by itself does not explain the possibility of cultural change or critique of culture. What is important to add in this dialectic is that the internalization can be reflective or unreflective” (Verma 1991: 534). 13 Habermas (1990a: 211) himself writes: compassion for tortured animals and the pain caused by the destruction of the biotopes are surely manifestations of moral intuitions that cannot be fully satisfied by the collective narcissism of what in the final analysis is an anthropocentric way of looking at things. But how do we open ourselves for a dialogue with animals and the natural world while Habermas’ “communicative action theory clearly privileges interhuman speech or discourse, while adopting an ‘objectifying’ attitude to nature”? (Dallmayr 1996: 220). 14 In her view, a just procedure is the condition of the good life – of all possible good lives – but is not sufficient for the good life ... The good life consists of three elements: first, righteousness; secondly the development of endowments into talents, and thirdly emotional depth in personal attachments. Among these three elements, righteousness is the overarching one. All three elements of the good life are beyond justice. (Heller 1987: 273) 15 Unger’s following argument helps us understand this: Whereas the first of these two sacreds is illusive and disputable and requires, to be recognized, the power of vision which is the ability to see the invisible, the second seems near and palpable. Whenever they can, men and women try to identify the first of these two sacreds with the second. They want to see the social world graced with the authority of an ultimate reality. But the progress of insight and the disclosures of conflict prevent this bestowal of authority. If there is a common theme in the history of human thought and politics, it consists precisely in failure to sustain claims of unconditional authority on behalf of particular ways of talking, thinking, living and organizing society. As the two sacreds lose their contact with each other, the distant one fades away into an ineffable, longed for reality without any clear message for understanding and conduct. The nearby becomes profane and arbitrary. (Unger 1987: 576) 16 Prophetic criticism comes closest to the kind of critical engagement that Unger has in mind here. Not only in the traditional past but also in varieties of contemporary societies criticisms of modern institutions of human indignity such as racism and slavery, etc., have been the work of the prophets – be it Gandhi or Martin Luther King Jr – who, it must not be forgotten, have used the name of God to build their movement against forces of oppression. Even in modern critical social movements we are “back to the beginning,” to use the words of Walzer (1988), where social critic is a prophet.

Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action  87 17 Sri Aurobindo was one of the pioneers in the freedom struggle of India and left it quite early in his life for the pursuit of his goal of spiritualization of humanity. Based in his Ashram at Pondicherry, India, Sri Aurobindo and his spiritual companion The Mother have contributed a lot to our understanding of the logic of spiritual transformation as an integral process involving both the individual and society. 18 In his discussion of “the curve of rational age” in Human Cycles, Aurobindo argues that “the present age of mankind” is characterized “from the point of view of a graded psychological evolution by an attempt to discover and work out the right principle and secure foundations of rational systems of society” (Sri Aurobindo 1962: 181). 19 In the words of Sri Aurobindo (1962: 183): Reason can accept no tradition merely for the sake of its antiquity or its greatness; it has to ask, first whether it contains the best truth available to man for the government of his life. Reason can accept no convention merely because men are agreed upon it; it has to ask whether they are right in their agreement, whether it is an inert or false acquiescence. Reason cannot accept any institution merely because it serves some purpose of life; it has to ask whether there are not greater and better purposes which can be best served by new institutions. There arises the necessity of a universal questioning and from that necessity arises the idea that society can only be perfected by the universal application of rational intelligence to the whole of life xxx. 20 In his words: The reason which is to be universally applied, cannot be the reason of a ruling class: for in the present imperfection of the human race that always means the fettering and misapplication of reason degraded into servant of power to maintain the privileges of the ruling class. It must be the reason of each and all seeking for a basis of agreement. (Sri Aurobindo 1962: 184; emphasis added) 21 In the words of Jonas (1984: 142): From which direction can we expect this third degree power which reinstates man in the context of his power and breaks its tyrannical automatism? It must, in the nature of the problem, emanate from society as no private insight, responsibility or fear can measure upto the tasks. 22 Beck (1992), for instance, argues that it is the collective power of society which can address the ecological crises confronting us today. 23 I use “functioning” and “capability” in the same way as Amartya Sen does. See, Sen (1987). 24 A great poet and educational experimenter of modern India noted for his Noble Prize–winning collection of poems called Gitanjali. 25 Professor Robert Bernasconi (personal communication, 1997) argues that there are different kinds of silence and one must not be insensitive to the distinction between self-chosen silence and imposed silence. What spiritual striving seeks is self-chosen silence and aims at breaking all kinds of imposed silences. 26 For Bellah and his colleagues, “Attending means to concern ourselves with the larger meanings of things in the longer run, rather than with short term pay offs” (Bellah et al. 1991: 273). 27 Another pioneering spiritual seeker of modern India known in the West for his interventions in the World Parliament of Religions at Chicago in 1893.

88  Ananta Kumar Giri References Antonio, Robert J. 1989 “The Normative Foundations of Emanicipatory Theory: Evolutionary Versus Pragmatic Perspectives.” American Journal of Sociology 94(4): 721–748. Baldamus, William. 1992 “Understanding Habermas’s Method of Reasoning.” History of the Human Sciences 5(2): 91–115. Bauman, Zygmunt. 1993 Postmodern Ethics. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Beck, Ulrich. 1992 Risk Society: Towards A New Modernity. London: Sage Publications. Bellah, Robert et al. 1991 The Good Society. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Bidney, David. 1967 Theoretical Anthropology. New York: Shocken Books. Connolly, William E. 1991 Identity / Difference: Democratic Negotiation of Political Paradox. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Cortese, Anthony. 1990 Ethnic Ethics: The Restructuring of Moral Theory. Albany: State University of New York Press. Cousins, E.H. 1985 Global Spirituality. Madras: University of Madras Press. Dallmayr, Fred. 1991 Life World, Modernity and Critique: Paths Between Heidegger and Frankfurt School. Cambridge: Polity Press. ———. 1993 The Other Heidegger. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ———. 1995 “‘Rights’ Versus ‘Rites’: Justice and Cultural Transformation.” University of Notre Dame: Paper. ———. 1996 Beyond Orientalism: Essays on Cross-Cultural Encounter. Albany: State University of New York Press. Dewey, John. 1960 [1908] Theory of the Moral Life. New York: Holt, Rienhart and Winston. Edelman, John T. 1990 An Audience for Moral Philosophy? London: Macmillan. Geertz, Clifford. 1986 “The Uses of Diversity.” Michigan Quarterly Review (Winter Issue) 25(1): 105–123. Giddens, Anthony. 1991 Modernity and SelfIdentity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age. Cambridge: Polity Press. Giri, Ananta Kumar. 1994 “Religious Resurgence in Contemporary United States: A View from India.” Sociological Bulletin 43(2): 177–192. ———. 1996 “Social Criticism, Cultural Creativity and the Contemporary Dialectics of Transformations: A Poser.” Introductory statement at the workshop on “Social Criticism, Cultural Creativity and the Contemporary Dialectics of Transformations,” Madras Institute of Development Studies, Madras, December, 4–7, 1996. ———. 1997 “Well-Being of Institutions: Problematic Justice and the Challenge of Transformation.” Madras Institute of Development Studies: Working Paper. Habermas, Jurgen. 1972 Knowledge and Human Interests. Cambridge: Polity Press. ———. 1972 Theory and Practice. Cambridge: Polity Press. ———. 1979 Communication and the Evolution of Society. Cambridge: Polity Press. ———. 1981 PhilosophicalPolitical Profiles. London: Hienemann. ———. 1987a A Theory of Communicative Action. Volume 2: Life World and System: A Critique of Functionalist Reason. Cambridge: Polity Press. ———. 1987b The Philosophical Discourses of Modernity. Cambridge: Polity Press. ———. 1988 “Law and Morality.” In S.M. McCurrin (ed.) The Tanner Lectures on Human Values. Volume VII. Universities of Cambridge and Utah Press.

Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action  89 ———. 1989 The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere. Cambridge: Polity Press. ———. 1990a Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action. Cambridge: Polity Press. ———. 1990b “What Does Socialism Mean Today? The Rectifying Revolution and the Need for New Thinking in the Left.” New Left Review 183, 321. ———. 1992 Postmetaphysical Thinking. Cambridge: Polity Press. ———. 1994 “Overcoming the Past: Interview with Adam Michnik.” New Left Review. Hosle, Vittorio. 1992 “The Third World as a Philosophical Problem.” Social Research 59(2): 227–262. Jonas, Hans. 1984 The Imperative of Responsibility: In Search of an Ethics for the Technological Age. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Kant, Immanuel. 1987 [1781] Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Ethics. Delhi: Orient Publications. Laclau, Ernesto. 1992 “Beyond Emancipation.” In Jan N. Pieterse (ed.) Emancipations, Modern and Postmodern. London: Sage. McCarthy, Thomas. 1992 “Practical Discourse: On the Relation of Morality to Politics.” In Craig Calhoun (ed.) Habermas and the Public Sphere. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Metz, Johannes B. 1970 “Does Our Church Need a New Reformation? A Catholic Reply.” Concilium 4(6): 81–91. Neville, Robert C. 1974 The Cosmology of Freedom. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. Pande, Govind Chandra. 1982 “On the Nature of Social Categories.” In Ravinder Kumar (ed.) Philosophical Categories and Social Reality. Delhi. ———. 1985 Aspects of Indian Culture and Civilization. Varanasi: BHU Press. ———. 1989 The Meaning and Process of Culture as Philosophy of History. Allahabad: Raka Prakashan. ———. 1991 “Two Dimensions of Religion: Reflections Based on Indian Spiritual Experience and Philosophical Traditions.” In Eliot Deutch (ed.) Culture and Modernity. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ———. 1992 “Sri Aurobindo: Cultural Perspectives.” Paper presented at the National Seminar on Sri Aurobindo at Pondicherry. Rorty, Richard. 1989 Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sacks, Jonathan. 1991 The Persistence of Faith. London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson. Sen, Amartya. 1987 “The Standard of Living.” In Geoffrey Hawthorn (ed.) The Standard of Living. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sri Aurobindo. 1950 The Synthesis of Yoga. Pondicherry: Sri Aurobindo Ashram. ———. 1953 The Future Poetry. Pondicherry: Sri Aurobindo Ashram. ———. 1962 The Human Cycles, the Ideal of Human Unity, War and SelfDetermination. Pondicherry: Sri Aurobindo Ahsram. ———. 1970 The Life Divine. Pondicherry: Sri Aurobindo Ashram. Taylor, Charles. 1989 Sources of the Self. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Uberoi, J.P.S. 1996 Religion, Civil Society and State: A Study of Sikhism. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Unger, Roberto M. 1987 False Necessity: AntiNecessitarian Social Theory in the Service of Radical Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

90  Ananta Kumar Giri Verma, Roop Rekha. 1981 “The Concept of Progress and Cultural Identity.” In Eliot Deutch (ed.) Culture and Modernity. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Walzer, Michael. 1988 “Interpretation and Social Criticism.” In S.M. McCurrin (ed.) The Tanner Lectures on Human Values. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. . Wagner, G.R. & H. Zipprian. 1989 “Habermas on Power and Rationality.” Sociological Theory 7(1): 102–109. Williams, Bernard. 1985 Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy. London: Fontana.

5

Mahatma Gandhi, Media Ethics, and United Nations Christian Bartolf

Not by coincidence the 1991 UNESCO Declaration for the Development of a Free, Independent and Pluralistic Press was produced in Windhoek, Namibia, by building a framework concerning media development, characterizing it by freedom, pluralism, and independence. Without any obstacle to freedom of expression in accordance with the fundamental purpose of UNESCO to promote the “free flow of ideas by word and image,” a new communication strategy should strengthen the fragile press freedom in the face of authoritarianism and political violence. An eminent but widely ignored precursor of these UNESCO principles was young lawyer Mohandas K. Gandhi who financed his Indian Opinion in South Africa, simultaneously authoring numerous articles and editorials. It is the history of the International Printing Press which nowadays becomes relevant to reflect on media ethics today in a unifying world federation. This chapter shall highlight the significance of the free and independent press as a collaborative joint project of a pressure group of political and social reformers – in the times of widespread fake news and hate speech! Truth-telling is crucial in media ethics as any opposition of truth-telling is considered deception as novel readers can study in dystopian accounts like George Orwell’s “1984,” which demonstrates the mechanisms of twisting the truth as systematic propaganda tools. Ironically, it is George Orwell who ignored the journalist and editor Gandhi when he – in his 1949 “Reflections on Gandhi” essay – accused Gandhi to “not understand the nature of totalitarianism” and that he “saw everything in terms of his own struggle against the British government. The important point here is not so much that the British treated him forbearingly as that he was always able to command publicity.” But Indian Opinion was – by far – not an easy task to create publicity. And this history-transforming project proved the educative aspects of media ethics, essential for our twenty-first century. Press Freedom and Media Ethics The Windhoek Declaration for the Development of a Free, Independent and Pluralistic Press, short: Windhoek Declaration is a statement of press freedom principles by African newspaper journalists in 1991. The Declaration was DOI: 10.4324/9781032632667-7

92  Christian Bartolf produced at a UNESCO seminar, “Promoting an Independent and Pluralistic African Press,” held in Windhoek, the capital of Namibia, from April 29 to May 3, 1991. The date of the Declaration's adoption, May 3, has subsequently been declared as World Press Freedom Day. The document has been viewed as widely influential, as the first in a series of such declarations around the world, and as a crucial affirmation of the international community’s commitment to freedom of the press.1 May 3 acts as a reminder to governments of the need to respect their commitment to press freedom and is also a day of reflection among media professionals about issues of press freedom and professional ethics. Just as importantly, World Press Freedom Day is a day of support for media which are targets for the restraint, or abolition, of press freedom. It is also a day of remembrance for those journalists who lost their lives in the pursuit of a story. Every year, May 3 is a date which celebrates the fundamental principles of press freedom, to evaluate press freedom around the world, to defend the media from attacks on their independence and to pay tribute to journalists who have lost their lives in the exercise of their profession. World Press Freedom Day was proclaimed by the UN General Assembly in 1993 following a Recommendation adopted at the 26th session of UNESCO's General Conference in 1991. This in turn was a response to a call by African journalists who in 1991 produced the landmark Windhoek Declaration sur le pluralisme on media pluralism and independence. Rallying to the Windhoek principles, subsequent workshops aimed at reproducing the momentum brought by Windhoek ideals of media freedom independence and pluralism to other regions. Four regional seminars were organized for Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, the Arab States, and Central and Eastern Europe. The events resulted in four declarations: 1992 – Alma Ata Declaration Seminar on Promoting Independent and Pluralistic Asian Media, held in Alma Ata, Kazakhstan, from October 5–9, 1992 1994 – Santiago Declaration Seminar on Media Development and Democracy in Latin America and the Caribbean, Santiago, Chile, 1994 1996 – Sana’a Declaration Seminar on Promoting Independent and Pluralistic Arab Media, Sana’a, Yemen, 1996 1997 – Sofia Declaration Seminar on Promoting Independent and Pluralistic Media with special focus on Central and Eastern Europe, Sofia, Bulgaria, 1997 We can find these subsequent documents: The Declaration of Alma Ata on Promoting Independent and Pluralistic Asian Media (1993)2, Sana'a Declaration for the Middle East (1996, adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO at its 29th Session in 1997),3 and the Declaration of Santiago

Mahatma Gandhi, Media Ethics, and United Nations  93 on Media Development and Democracy in Latin America and the Caribbean (1994, endorsed by the General Conference of UNESCO at its 28th session in 1995),4 Sofia Declaration on Promoting Independent and Pluralistic Media with special focus on Central and Eastern Europe (1997).5 UNESCO’s General Conference endorsed the Windhoek Declaration in 1991 and following the proposal of Windhoek seminar participants to devote a day to the promotion of press freedom. In 1993 the UN declared May 3 as World Press Freedom Day, the same day of the adoption of the Windhoek Declaration. Since then, the UNESCO has organized international conferences to debate and raise awareness about press freedom’s most pressing issues. The conferences have increased in scope and size across the years, and the spirit of adopting a declaration at the end of each conference has been maintained most of the time. 1993 – World Press Freedom Day established by UN General Assembly 1994/1996 – World Press Freedom Day celebration at UNESCO headquarters 1997 – Bilbao, Spain. Conference on tolerance and the media 1998 – London, United Kingdom 1999 – Bogota, Colombia. Conference on unpunished crimes against journalists 2000 – Geneva, Switzerland. Round Table on media in conflict and postconflict areas 2001 – Namibia, Windhoek. The Windhoek Seminar: “Ten years on: Assessment, Challenges and Prospects” African Charter on Broadcasting6 adopted by participants of the seminar 2002 – Manila, Philippines. “Terrorism and Media” Resolution adopted by participants of the conference on Terrorism and Media7 2003 – Kingston, Jamaica. “Freedom of Expression: Early New Millennium Challenges” 2004 – Belgrade Declaration8 on “Support to Media in Violent Conflict and Countries in Transition” 2005 – Dakar Declaration9 on “Media and Good Governance” 2006 – Colombo Declaration on “Media, Development and Poverty Eradication” 2007 – Medellin Declaration10 on “Securing the Safety of Journalists and Combating Impunity” 2008 – Maputo Declaration11 on “Freedom of Expression, Access to Information and Empowerment of People” 2009 – Doha Declaration12 on “The potential of media: dialogue, mutual understanding and reconciliation” 2010 – Brisbane Declaration13 on “Freedom of Information: the Right to Know” 2011 – Washington Declaration14 on “21st century media: new frontiers, nw barriers”

94  Christian Bartolf 2012 – Carthage Declaration15 on “New Voices: Media Freedom Helping to Transform Societies” 2013 – San Jose Declaration16 on “Safe to Speak: Securing Freedom of Expression in all Media” 2014 – Paris Declaration17on “Media Freedom for a Better Future: Shaping the Post-2015 Development Agenda” 2015 - Riga Declaration18 on “Let Journalism Thrive! Towards Better Reporting, Gender Equality, and Media Safety in the Digital Age” 2016 – Finlandia Declaration19 on “Access to Information and Fundamental Freedoms – This Is Your Right” 2017- Jakarta Declaration20 on “Critical Minds for Critical Times: Media’s role in advancing peaceful, just and Inclusive Societies” 2018 – Accra Declaration21 on “Keeping Power in Check: Media, Justice and the Rule of Law” 2019 - Addis Ababa Declaration22 on “Journalism and Elections in Times of Disinformation” 2020 - The Hague Commitment to increase the Safety of Journalists23: “Journalism Without Fear or Favour” 2021 – Windhoek+30 Declaration24: “Information as a Public Good” Most recently we read the “Joint statement on the Safety of Journalists on the occasion of the World Press Freedom Day 2022,”25 delivered by the Presidents of the United Nations General Assembly, the UNESCO General Conference, and the Human Rights Council at Punta del Este, Uruguay, explicitly referring to “the 2021 UN General Assembly resolution on the safety of journalists and the issue of impunity (A/RES/76/173), the 2020 Human Rights Council resolution on the safety of journalists (A/HRC/RES/45/18), and the 2021 Windhoek+30 Declaration on information as a public good (UNESCO General Conference Resolution 41C.41).” In essence, all these declarations linked with UNESCO “applaud those governments which have made the safety of journalists a priority, within their borders and beyond, and highlight the significant contribution of civil society organizations that are committed to advancing media freedom and safety” in a time when “challenges prevail, including high levels of impunity for crimes against journalists, a rise in the number of journalists detained and an increased legal harassment against them, online violence, the use of surveillance tools to hinder the journalist’s work, increased attacks on women journalists, and the rise of killings in non-conflict environments” with the perspective to “ build a safer and more enabling environment for journalists and media workers, and protect the right of every citizen to reliable, and, often, lifesaving information.” It should not be necessary to repeat the efforts to summarize in a survey “Mass media codes of ethics and councils: a comparative international study on professional standards”26 (1980), but most recent requests for “new ethical guidelines and self-regulation for the media”27 cannot be

Mahatma Gandhi, Media Ethics, and United Nations  95 ignored and, along similar lines, 30 journalists from Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka gathered virtually in September 2021 to produce the “Code of Conduct to Improve Conflict Sensitive Reporting and Safety of Journalists in South Asia.” The reviewed and revised document was launched by UNESCO and the Public Media Alliance (PMA) in November 2021.28 Conflict-sensitive reporting contributes to reconciliation and peace-building, which is at the heart of UNESCO’s mandate. The Code of Conduct aims to make reporting on conflict more comprehensive, insightful, and trustworthy. It covers minimizing risks to communal harmony through impartial journalism, human rights, and gendered approaches to reporting, and ensuring reliability and confidentiality of sources, among other areas. “International Principles of Professional Ethics in Journalism” were prepared under the auspices of UNESCO by meetings of international and regional organizations of journalists already between 1978 and 1983, issued by the Fourth Consultative Meeting, representing 400,000 working journalists in all parts of the world, in Paris, on November 20, 1983:29 ”Principle I : Peoples’ right to true information

People and individuals have the right to acquire an objective picture of reality by means of accurate and comprehensive information as well as to express themselves freely through the various media of culture and communication. Principle II : The journalist’s dedication to objective reality

The foremost task of the journalist is to serve the people’s right to true and authentic information through an honest dedication to objective reality whereby facts are reported conscientiously in their proper context, pointing out their essential connections and without causing distortions, with due deployment of the creative capacity of the journalist, so that the public is provided with adequate material to facilitate the formation of an accurate and comprehensive picture of the world in which the origin, nature,, and essence of events, processes, and states of affairs are understood as objectively as possible. Principle III : The journalist’s social responsibility

Information in journalism is understood as social good and not as a commodity, which means that the journalist shares responsibility for the information transmitted and is thus accountable not only to those controlling the media but ultimately to the public at large, including various social interests. The journalist’s social responsibility requires that he or she will act under all circumstances in conformity with a personal ethical consciousness.

96  Christian Bartolf Principle IV : The journalist’s professional integrity

The social role of the journalist demands that the profession maintain high standards of integrity, including the journalist’s right to refrain from working against his or her conviction or from disclosing sources of information as well as the right to participate in the decision-making of the medium in which he or she is employed. The integrity of the profession does not permit the journalist to accept any form of bribe or the promotion of any private interest contrary to the general welfare. Likewise it belongs to professional ethics to respect intellectual property and, in particular, to refrain from plagiarism. Principle V: Public access and participation

The nature of the profession demands that the journalist promote access by the public to information and participation of the public in the media, including the right of correction or rectification and the right of reply. Principle VI : Respect for privacy and human dignity

An integral part of the professional standards of the journalist is respect for the right of the individual to privacy and human dignity, in conformity with provisions of international and national law concerning the protection of the rights and the reputation of others, prohibiting libel, calumny, slander, and defamation. Principle VII : Respect for public interest

The professional standards of the journalist prescribe due respect for the national community, its democratic institutions, and public morals. Principle VIII : Respect for universal values and diversity of cultures

A true journalist stands for the universal values of humanism, above all peace, democracy, human rights, social progress, and national liberation, while respecting the distinctive character, value, and dignity of each culture, as well as the right of each people freely to choose and develop its political, social, economic, and cultural systems. Thus, the journalist participates actively in the social transformation towards democratic betterment of society and contributes through dialogue to a climate of confidence in international relations conducive to peace and justice everywhere, to détente, disarmament, and national development. It belongs to the ethics of the profession that the journalist be aware of relevant provisions contained in international conventions, declarations, and resolutions. Principle IX: Elimination of war and other great evils confronting humanity

The ethical commitment to the universal values of humanism calls for the journalist to abstain from any justification for, or incitement to, wars of

Mahatma Gandhi, Media Ethics, and United Nations  97 aggression and the arms race, especially in nuclear weapons, and all other forms of violence, hatred, or discrimination, especially racialism and apartheid, oppression by tyrannical regimes, colonialism and neo-colonialism, as well as other great evils which afflict humanity, such as poverty, malnutrition, and diseases. By so doing, the journalist can help eliminate ignorance and misunderstanding among peoples, make nationals of a country sensitive to the needs and desires of others, ensure the respect for the rights and dignity of all nations, all peoples and all individuals without distinction of race, sex, language, nationality, religion, or philosophical conviction. Principle X: Promotion of a new world information and communication order

The journalist operates in the contemporary world within the framework of a movement towards new international relations in general and a new information order in particular. This new order, understood as an integral part of the New International Economic Order, is aimed at the de-colonization and democratization of the field of information and communication, both nationally and internationally, on the basis of peaceful coexistence among peoples and with full respect for their cultural identity. The journalist has a special obligation to promote the process of democratization of international relations in the field of information, in particular by safeguarding and fostering peaceful and friendly relations among States and peoples. The latest UNESCO World Trends Report Insights discussion paper “Threats that Silence: Trends in the Safety of Journalists”30 highlights how surveillance and hacking are compromising journalism. This was vividly shown in exposés by investigative journalists and researchers, giving rise to UN human rights experts calling for a temporary global moratorium on the sale and transfer of surveillance technology. The growing sophistication and undetectability of mal- and spyware and their increasing use against journalists and human rights defenders by state and non-state actors, endanger free, and independent journalism. Surveillance can expose information gathered by journalists, including from whistle-blowers, and violates the principle of source protection, which is universally considered a prerequisite for freedom of the media and is enshrined in UN Resolutions. Surveillance may also harm the safety of journalists by disclosing sensitive private information which could be used for arbitrary judicial harassment or attack.31 “The UN Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression presented in May 2019 findings and concerns on surveillance and human rights, noting that ‘surveillance of individuals – often journalists, activists, opposition figures, critics and others exercising their right to freedom of expression – has been shown to lead to arbitrary detention, sometimes to torture and possibly to extrajudicial killings.’”32

98  Christian Bartolf “Between 2011 and 2021, the Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ) recorded dozens of incidents of journalists being targeted by spyware. This finding was supported by investigative journalism and fact-checking organizations uncovering the fact that hundreds of journalists had been selected as targets.”33 “AI-powered surveillance of journalists’ movements, and trolling of journalists powered by data-mining and automated attacks, also threaten the free exercise of journalism. Reduced costs means that illegitimate surveillance operations undertaken by governmental or private actors can be broader, disproportionate, more invasive and longer lasting than ever before, without journalists or their sources being aware of them or being able to defend themselves. Privacy is a pre-requisite for journalists to do their work and ensuring our access to fact-based and reliable information. It is a necessity if they are to communicate freely with sources, receive confidential information, investigate corruption, and guarantee the safety of themselves and their sources.” “Increased reliance on digital services means that citizens often unknowingly share private information and data in exchange for free services. Individuals’ data leaves behind a ‘digital footprint’ that can be analysed in real time or ex-post by hostile and illegitimate actors. Moreover, data held by Internet and cybersurveillance companies about personal lives can often be obtained by authorities without adequate due process or transparency. There is a growing global push encouraging more transparency regarding how Internet companies exploit citizens’ data, how it informs predictive models and artificial intelligence, and enables amplification of disinformation and hatred.” “More transparency by Internet companies such as in the use of “ad tech” could help news media with viability issues, as well as with their negotiations for a share in the revenues that are generated through online news appearing on their platforms. Greater transparency, and better privacy protection, would also advance accountability of the Internet companies, and enhance public understanding of the online ecosystem. In turn, this could lead to greater trust that digital communications do justice to availing reliable content such as free and professional journalism.”34 “There is a growing awareness and mobilization of citizens, media workers and organizations, pushing to reclaim data privacy and ownership, and to ensure transparency as part of the solution to arbitrary surveillance, weakened news media viability, and a decline in public trust.”35 --Gandhi’s Principles as Editor, Journalist, and Publisher When in his 1965 pioneer work about Gandhi as journalist,36 Sailendra Nath Bhattacharyya summarized “in retrospect and prospect” the deficiencies and

Mahatma Gandhi, Media Ethics, and United Nations  99 flaws in modern journalism according to Gandhi’s opinion, he remarkably anticipated basic issues and problems of magazines and newspapers: Since 1903, Gandhiji, through his journals the Indian Opinion, the Young India, the Navajivan and the Harijan, not only propagate his views, but, in the process, laid down a standard for journalists to emulate. While running his papers, his idea was to educate the people so that they could understand not only the significance of independence – political, economic and social – but also participate actively in freeing humanity from the bondage it was in. His motto, as a journalist, was service. As a believer in divine Truth, to Gandhi means were as important as ends; that is why he did not take a short-term view of anything and he did not care for quick or spectacular success: “His was a steady and sure process with a clear-cut objective.” His secretary Henry Solomon Leon Polak recalled stories when Gandhi insisted on the high standard of responsibility while editing Indian Opinion with The Times in London in his mind. Gandhi appealed to journalists to confess their errors to avoid untruth in their writings. That is why he corrected previous mistakes as errata. He ran his papers on the financial support of his readers and subscribers, not on advertisements or other sales promotion methods. Gandhi identified with the common man, with the mute millions whose aspirations journalists should give a loud voice in the public arena. He talked to the people, not at the people, it was a communion with the people. He used the language of the common people to “describe truth” as a ceaseless effort, “passion free in thought, speech and action; to rise above the opposing currents of love and hatred, attachment and repulsion.” Gandhi inspired many Indian language papers, because he chose to publish his weekly in South Africa in Hindi, Tamil, and Gujarati – later Gandhi, according to D.G. Tendulkar, summarized the journalist’s ethos in democracy this way: What is really needed to make democracy to function is not the knowledge of facts, but right education. And the true function of journalism is to educate the public mind, not to stock the public mind with wanted and unwanted impressions. A journalist has, therefore, to use his discretion, as to what to report and when. As it is, the journalists are not content to stick to the facts alone. Journalism has become the art of “intelligent anticipation of events.” That is why authentification and verification of facts became the rule, against “a double evil – the suppression of the facts and concoction.” The Press as the Fourth Estate did not allow any journalist to allow bias in news presentation or misuse his or her power otherwise, which would be criminal and because

100  Christian Bartolf it would be a journalist’s mission to uphold the truth. And Bhattacharyya concludes his book on Gandhi as a journalist with a posthumous dedication in Harijan: All work in whatsoever sphere was a means primarily of service in Gandhiji’s eyes. Newspapers and journals can build up a fitting memorial to him in this matter by conforming or trying to conform to the unimpeachable standards of journalism practised by our revered and beloved leader. (Harijan, March 29, 1948) Let us focus on the beginning of Gandhi’s experience as a newspaper reader: during his student days in London, after his arrival in September 1888, he spent hours reading the Daily Telegraph, the Daily News, and the Pall Mall Gazette. His friendship with the members of the London Vegetarian Society afforded him an opportunity to write for its organ the Vegetarian. He contributed, during his stay of about three years in England, nine articles on diet, customs, festivals, etc., of the Indians. These are his earliest writing on record. Thus, it does not astonish us to find out his first article, published in the issue of February 7, 1891, under the caption: “Indian Vegetarian.” In this context, Gandhi emphasized cow protection and worship as the basis of Indian vegetarianism. As early as 1896, Gandhi came to the conclusion that publicity was the best and perhaps the only weapon of defence for Indians. G.P. Pillay, editor of The Madras Standard, received background material for editorials by Gandhi, as a master of details and hard facts. Mr. Chesney, editor of The Pioneer, Allahabad, editorially commented on Gandhi’s Green Pamphlet, wherein he described and ventilated the grievances of Indians in South Africa. Dadabhai Naoroji, representative of the Indian community in England, had started the journal India, and Gandhi became the journal’s “Durban, Johannesburg and South Africa correspondent.” In 1897, Gandhi commented on the famine in India in a letter to the editor of The Natal Mercury (February 2, 1897). During the Second Boer War, after October 1899, Gandhi recorded his experience as a stretcher-bearer for publication in The Times of India. “Gandhi was […] a detailed chronicler, mostly confined to the activities of the Indian Ambulance Corps.” I believe that a struggle which chiefly relies upon internal strength cannot be wholly carried on without a newspaper – it is also my experience that we could not perhaps have educated the local Indian community, nor kept Indians all over the world in touch with the course of events in South Africa in any other way, with the same ease and success as

Mahatma Gandhi, Media Ethics, and United Nations  101 through the Indian Opinion, which therefore was certainly a most useful and potent weapon in our struggle.37 Madanjit Vyaharik, ex-schoolmaster of Bombay and co-worker of Gandhi, established “The International Printing Press” at 113 Grey Street, Durban, in 1998. Brochures and pamphlets of the Natal Indian Congress were printed here. Indian Opinion, the weekly, was started here with first issue on June 4, 1903. The first editorial “Ourselves” was written by Gandhi himself with a desire “to promote harmony and good-will between the different sections of the one mighty Empire.” “This weekly newspaper is published in four languages, namely English, Gujarati, Tamil and Hindi in the interests of the British Indians residing in South Africa.” The policy of the paper was to promote the cause of the British Indian in the sub-continent, as members of a mighty Empire with citizen’s responsibilities, under one flag, for all sections of the British Indian society in their own languages, in all parts of South Africa, with an epitome of events happening in India, to give commercial intelligence, with contributions from competent writers, Indians, and Europeans, on all subjects – social, moral, and intellectual. Europeans – as “true Imperialists” – would benefit to get an idea of Indian thought and aspirations, with the best advertising medium in branches of Indian trade. Madanjit Vyaharik was the proprietor of Indian Opinion. Gandhi himself contributed articles and money for the weekly which he invested, nearly 3,500 Pounds until 1905. Mansukhlal Hiralal Nazar, a journalist from Bombay, was appointed the editor until his death in January 1906. He carried on his shoulders the lion share of the editorial burden, with moderate policy and sound news. The Phoenix Settlement – 14 miles away from Durban town and 21 miles from the Phoenix Railway Station – became the new address, the first issue was on December 24, 1904, printed on a treadle machine, all members of the farm received the same wage of 3 Pounds. Three Englishmen assisted in printing and publication of the paper: Mr Albert West, who owned a printing press in Johannesburg, Mr Herbert Kitchen, an electrical contractor, and Mr Henry Solomon Leon Polak, a man of simplicity and secretary of Gandhi, while John Cordes cared for the moral education of the children and the wellbeing of the settlement workers with a steam bath. That is why we recognize that the origin of Sarvodaya and Satyagraha was inseparably linked with Gandhi as editor and journalist who wrote editorials for Indian Opinion, which was printed and published at Phoenix Settlement as a collaborative project of Indians and Europeans in South Africa, with the printer John Langalibalele Dube and his wife Nokutela as neighbors at the Ohlange Institute at Inanda, nowadays KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa, a confluence of great souls following the great example of Booker T. Washington in favour of emancipation by education through vocational training.

102  Christian Bartolf Notes 1 https://www​.unesco​.org​/en​/articles​/30th​-anniversary​-windhoek​-declaration https://action​-namibia​.org​/wp​-content​/uploads​/2017​/10​/Media​-in​-Africa​.pdf UNESCO (2013): Pressing for freedom: 20 years of World Press Freedom Day 2 https://unesdoc​.unesco​.org​/ark:​/48223​/pf0000149256 3 https://al​-bab​.com​/documents​-reference​-section​/sanaa​-declaration​-arab​-media 4 https://media​.sipiapa​.org​/adjuntos​/186​/documentos​/001​/791​/0001791598​.pdf 5 https://acc​ount​able​jour​nalism​.org​/ethics​-codes​/International​-Sofia 6 http://www​.unesco​.kz/​_files​/37​_Declaration​%20of​%20Alma​%20Ata​.pdf 7 https://wayback​.archive​-it​.org​/10611​/20161021010108​/http:​/portal​.unesco​.org​/ci​ /en​/ev​.php​-URL​_ID​=5354​&URL​_DO​=DO​_TOPIC​&URL​_SECTION​=201​.html 8 https://wayback​.archive​-it​.org​/10611​/20161020124730​/http:​/portal​.unesco​.org​/ci​ /en​/ev​.php​-URL​_ID​=15654​&URL​_DO​=DO​_TOPIC​&URL​_SECTION​=201​.html 9 https://wayback​.archive​-it​.org​/10611​/20170210003908​/http:​/portal​.unesco​.org​ /ci​/en​/ev​.php​-URL​_ID​=18966​&URL​_DO​=DO​_TOPIC​&URL​_SECTION​=201​ .html 10 https://wayback​.archive​-it​.org​/10611​/20170129043245​/http:​/portal​.unesco​.org​ /ci​/en​/ev​.php​-URL​_ID​=23875​&URL​_DO​=DO​_TOPIC​&URL​_SECTION​=201​ .html 11 https://wayback​.archive​-it​.org​/10611​/20180704194629​/http:​/www​.unesco​.org​ /new​/en​/unesco​/events​/prizes​-and​-celebrations​/celebrations​/international​-days​/ world​-press​-freedom​-day​/previous​-celebrations​/wor​ldpr​essf​reed​omda​y2009001​/ maputo​-declaration/ 12 https://wayback​.archive​-it​.org​/10611​/20170516135938​/http:​/www​.unesco​.org​ /new​/en​/unesco​/events​/prizes​-and​-celebrations​/celebrations​/international​-days​/ world​-press​-freedom​-day​/previous​-celebrations​/wor​ldpr​essf​reed​omda​y200900​/ doha​-declaration/ 13 https://wayback​.archive​-it​.org​/10611​/20180704194627​/http:​/www​.unesco​.org​ /new​/en​/unesco​/events​/prizes​-and​-celebrations​/celebrations​/international​-days​/ world​-press​-freedom​-day​/previous​-celebrations​/2010​/brisbane​-declaration/ 14 https://wayback​.archive​-it​.org​/10611​/20170516135837​/http:​/www​.unesco​.org​ /new​/fileadmin​/MULTIMEDIA​/HQ​/CI​/CI​/pdf​/WPFD​/WPFD2011​/Washington​ %20Declaration​%202011​.pdf 15 https://wayback​.archive​-it​.org​/10611​/20180707180029​/http:​/www​.unesco​.org​/ new​/fileadmin​/MULTIMEDIA​/HQ​/CI​/CI​/pdf​/WPFD​/carthage​_declaration​_2012​ _en​.pdf 16 https://wayback ​ . archive ​ - it ​ . org ​ / 10611 ​ / 20170510193101 ​ / http: ​ / www​. unesco​ .org​ / new​ / fileadmin ​ / MULTIMEDIA ​ / HQ ​ / CI ​ / CI ​ / pdf ​ / WPFD ​ / WPFD ​ - San ​ - Jose​ -Declaration​-2013​-en​.pdf 17 https://en​.unesco​.org​/sites​/default​/files​/wpfd​_2014​_statement​_final​.pdf 18 https://wayback​.archive​-it​.org​/10611​/20180707163734​/http:​/www​.unesco​.org​/ new​/fileadmin​/MULTIMEDIA​/HQ​/CI​/CI​/pdf​/WPFD​/riga​_declaration​_en​.pdf 19 https://en​.unesco​.org​/sites​/default​/files​/finlandia​_declaration​_3​_may​_2016​.pdf 20 https://en​.unesco​.org​/sites​/default​/files​/jakarta​_declaration​_4may2017​_en​.pdf 21 https://webarchive​.unesco​.org​/web​/20191120110422​/https:/​/en​.unesco​.org​/sites​/ default​/files​/declaration​_accra​.2018​-05​-03​.pdf 22 https://webarchive ​ . unesco ​ . org ​ / 20191122114352 ​ / https:/ ​ / en ​ . unesco ​ . org ​ / sites ​ / default​/files​/wpfdaddisdecl3​_may​.pdf 23 https://government​.nl​/documents​/diplomatic​-statements​/2020​/12​/09​/the​-hague​ -commitment​-to​-increase​-the​-safety​-of​-journalists https://www​. dfat ​ . gov​. au ​ / international ​ - relations​ / themes​ / human​ - rights​ / hrc​ -statements​/46th​-session​-human​-rights​-council​/joint​-statement​-hague​-commitment​-increase​-safety​-journalists

Mahatma Gandhi, Media Ethics, and United Nations  103 24 https://en​.unesco​.org​/sites​/default​/files​/win​dhoe​k30d​ecla​ration​_wpfd​_2021​.pdf 25 https://www​.ohchr​.org​/en​/statements​/2022​/05​/joint​-statement​-safety​-journalists​ -occasion​-world​-press​-freedom​-day​-2022 26 Jones, J. Clement (1980). Media Codes of Ethics and Councils: A Comparative International Study on Professional Standards. Paris: UNESCO. 27 UNESCO supports new ethical guidelines and self-regulation for the media. Meeting in Sarajevo in November 2021, press councils from South East Europe and Turkey adopted the region’s first joint declaration calling for the strengthening of media ethics in the evolving digital information ecosystem. - https://www​ .unesco​.org​/en​/articles​/unesco​-supports​-new​-ethical​-guidelines​-and​-self​-regulation​-media 28 UNESCO Office in New Delhi, Public Media Alliance (2021): Code of conduct: improving conflict sensitive reporting and journalist safety in South Asia – Document code: In/2021/CI/104 - https://unesdoc​.unesco​.org​/ark:​/48223​/ pf0000380037 29 https://acc​ount​able​jour​nalism​.org​/ethics​-codes​/International​-Principles https://research​.tuni​.fi​/ethicnet​/country​/international​-principles​-of​-professional​ -ethics​-in​-journalism/ 30 UNESCO (2021): Threats that silence: trends in the safety of journalists; insights discussion paper; World trends in freedom of expression and media development: global report 2021/2022 - https://unesdoc​.unesco​.org​/ark:​/48223​/pf0000379589 31 https://en​.unesco​.org​/sites​/default​/files​/wpfd​_2022​_concept​_note​_en​_v5​.pdf 32 https://www​.ohchr​.org​/en​/calls​-for​-input​/report​-adverse​-effect​-surveillance​-industry​-freedom​-expression 33 https://cpj​.org​/2021​/03​/world​-leaders​-should​-regulate​-spyware​-halt​-surveillance​ -of​-journalists/ 34 https://en​.unesco​.org​/sites​/default​/files​/wpfd​_2022​_concept​_note​_en​_v5​.pdf 35 With reference to the Ethics of Artificial Intelligence: https://www​.unesco​.org​/ en​/articles​/unesco​-member​-states​-adopt​-first​-ever​-global​-agreement​-ethics​-artificial​-intelligence - https://unesdoc​.unesco​.org​/ark:​/48223​/pf0000373434​_eng - particularly the 2021 UNESCO “Recommendation on the Ethics of Artificial Intelligence”: https://unesdoc​.unesco​.org​/ark:​/48223​/pf0000373434​_eng 36 Bhattacharya, S. N. (1965). Mahatma Gandhi. The Journalist. Bombay: Asia Publishing House, pp. 165 ff. 37 Gandhi, M. K. (1950). Satyagraha in South Africa. Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House, p. 142.

6

Significance of Integrating Nonviolent Communication in Communication Studies An Exploration Vedabhyas Kundu

Introduction The contemporary hypertechnological environment which is characterized by media convergence, the deepening of communication globalization, the rise of hate speech across different communication platforms, and the advent of the post-truth era necessitates new innovative approaches to the discipline of communication studies. The exponential growth of technology and its impact on communication and its processes has made its study not only more complex but also exciting. There is a continuous flux of new elements and dimensions being added to the communicative experience of human beings. The communication model, in this backdrop, can be described as that encompassing the complexities of communication globalization and convergence along with the networked interconnection of interpersonal and mass communication which Castells (2007) describes as self-mass communication. Cardoso (2011) talking about the current communication paradigms notes, It is built around a rhetoric essentially based on the importance of the moving picture, combined with the availability of the new dynamics of access to information, with the innovating role now also being handed over from the providers, publishers and broadcasters to the users and with profound alterations to the news and entertainment models. Notwithstanding the far-reaching changes in the communication paradigms there are contentions and contestations on the role of communication. No doubt the communication revolution has made great strides in how we connect with the world and its impact on the society, groups and individuals have also been misusing it. In this context, the peace scholar Ikeda (2011) argues that the increasing fragmentation of society is linked to the failure of communication, a breakdown of language. He points out, It is true that the development of information technology presents opportunities for people to forge new connections. However, relations formed online will have no human face if they are limited to anonymous, DOI: 10.4324/9781032632667-8

Significance of Integrating Non-Violent Communication  105 depersonalized exchanges. Such interactions can only be inorganic and neutral, far removed from the refreshing wonder, tangible response and satisfaction that come from the effort to realize face-to-face, soul-tosoul communication. Another major concern that enhancement of communication technology has posed is the amplification of incidences of hate speech and xenophobia. Scholars like La Rue (2016) and Mansouri and Zapata-Bareto (2017) investigate the link between conflicts and the exponential increase in polarization, hate speech, xenophobia, and social disharmony. Here, Ikeda (2007) points out, “Rapid advancement of media technologies has made it possible for religious and ethnic hatred to be broadcast around the globe in the blink of an eye.” The negative effect of the use of communication tools reminds us of the Rwanda genocide of 1994 and the role of Radio Rwanda and Radio Television des Miles Collines in spreading it. Similarly, the International Criminal Tribunal for former Yugoslavia had recognized the role of false propaganda in the Srebrenica Genocide of 1995. Meanwhile concerned at the rise of hate speech and xenophobia, the United Nations launched a UN Strategy and Plan of Action to combat hate speech in 2019. This is in line with the rise of toxic discourses in different societies across the world. In this backdrop, senior Gandhian, Natwar Thakkar in a dialogue with Kundu (2018) talks of the challenge communicators face in the contemporary world: The need for communicators today is to challenge the attempts to divide people on the basis of class, religion and race. … So right from a young age we need to teach children to use communication to promote human values which contributes to a spirit of solidarity. The communication education to my mind should integrate the values of pluralism, mutual respect and inclusivity. It should not be a vehicle to sensationalize or incite passion but a lesson to practice self-restraint and principles of nonviolence in all aspects. Thakkar underscores the essence of integrating the values of pluralism, mutual respect, and inclusivity in the discipline of communication studies. He feels it should be a lesson to practice self-restraint and principles of nonviolence. The dynamic character of communication studies needs to integrate these crucial aspects to negotiate the misuse of communication tools and help in effecting positive initiatives like the UN Strategy and Plan of Action to combat hate speech. Here, Papathanassopoulos’ (2011) argument that communication and media studies need to change when the media change becomes pertinent. In the context of Thakkar’s assertion on the need for ideas of self-restraint and principles of nonviolence finding place in the study of communication, it would be apt to note the possible reasons on why these perspectives

106  Vedabhyas Kundu are generally missing in communication studies. Gorsevski (2014) argues, “Explorations of discursive, rhetorical, interpersonal, symbolic, group, cultural, and other forms of communicative violence tend to take precedence in terms of the general lens that is used to discuss and theorize communication as it relates to various kinds of conflict.” She opines that terms like nonviolence and peacebuilding seem to be “less well understood by researchers in communication.” She observes that present discussions on communication and conflict are more focused on “conflict’s stated or implied relationship with violence.” Communication, according to Gorsevski, “is presented as a means of managing and resolving normal, everyday conflicts at home, at work, in families, in communities, and in other routine places where communicative interaction occurs.” Meanwhile, in the context of what Papathanassopoulos (2011) argues, an important element that is missing in contemporary communication studies is why our communication ecosystem needs to assimilate the idea of human interconnectedness. At a time when the world is reeling under the tsunami of COVID-19, the importance of human interconnectedness becomes all the more important. Hence, our communication ecosystem needs to look not only at human-to-human communication and the use of technological advancements; it has to invariably look at our communication with the nature and other living species. The discipline of communication studies has to be made dynamic and innovative to incorporate these broad ideas. The essentiality of incorporating these dimensions in the discipline of communications is accentuated by concerns raised in the Human Development Report 2020, The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene. It points out, The pressures we exert on the planet have become so great that scientists are considering whether the Earth has entered an entirely new geological epoch: the Anthropocene, or the age of humans. It means that we are the first people to live in an age defined by human choice, in which the dominant risk to our survival is ourselves. The report further notes, To survive and thrive in this new age, we must redesign a path to progress that respects the intertwined fate of people and planet and recognizes that the carbon and material footprint of the people who have more is choking the opportunities of the people who have less. Hence, the challenge today for the discipline of communication studies is to contribute to the evolution of a holistic communication ecosystem which promotes the spirit of human interconnectedness, mutual respect, understanding, and acceptance of different world views, encourages altruistic tendencies like empathy, compassion, and gratitude, and helps to overcome cultural stereotypes and moralistic judgements. The challenge

Significance of Integrating Non-Violent Communication  107 also as Gorsevski (2014) pointed out on how to ensure that theories, practices, and metaphors of nonviolence and peacebuilding gets equal space in “theoretical and pedagogical enterprises” in the field of communication. It is nonviolent communication which encompasses these critical elements which are needed for mutual coexistence and a global culture of peace and nonviolence. In this context, it would be pertinent to explore the essence of incorporating nonviolent communication as an essential element of communication studies, which gets equal space in research, theories, and pedagogy. This chapter will explore why nonviolent communication has to be an essential part of communication studies in any settings across the world. Using the perspectives of thinkers and practitioners like Gandhi, King, Ikeda, Thich Nhat Hanh, and Rosenberg, it will further discuss on why nonviolent communication needs to be introduced across disciplines like education. The arguments of the chapter will be shaped by the author’s own research and practical training workshops of people from different sections like the judiciary, education, police, children, and youth both nationally and internationally. Understanding Nonviolent Communication Nonviolent communication is a holistic communication approach which underscores the significance of human interconnectedness. It encompasses our intrapersonal communication, communication with others, communication in the society at large, communication with nature, and communication with other living beings. Its premise is that in the event of a dysfunctional communication whether it is a destructive self-communication, interactions with others, in the society, with nature, or with other living beings, there would be disruptions in our relationships.(Kundu, 2022a) Dissecting the Indian Tradition of Nonviolent Communication

To develop a greater understanding of what is nonviolent communication, it would be apt to look at it from different perspectives. It can be underlined that nonviolent communication has been part of Indian traditions and culture. Kundu (2021) talks about how the ancient Indian tradition has given credence to a communication process that was pluralistic. This includes our thought process, which is the primary form of communication. This verse from the Rig Veda (1.89.1): Aano bhadrakrtavoyantuvishwatah (many noble and auspicious thoughts come to us from all over) captures the importance of thoughts. Kundu (2021) notes, “It can be argued that the quest for truth in our communication process through a reconciliation of different ideas and views has been an integral part of the Indian thought and traditions.” An important aspect of harmonious communication in Indian tradition has been the significance given to dialogues and how it helps to arrive at

108  Vedabhyas Kundu truth. For instance, this proverb highlights this perspective: “vāde vāde jāyate tattvabodhaḥ” (through continuous dialogue alone one arrives at the truth). An in-depth reading of various Vedic texts helps in the understanding of how Brahma (the Absolute) identifies with language (sabda). Kundu (2021) in this regard points out, “For instance, the Asya Vamiya Hymn of Rishi Dirghatamas in chapter 1 of Rig Veda talks of how the ultimate abode of language is Brahma. Here language is described as something which is the peak of the universe.” Agrawala (1963) talking about the hymn notes, Here language is related to cosmic order and is understood as the idea of the word as distinct from the spoken word. The spoken word is a limited manifestation of the inner word that reveals the truth. Thus, the Asya Vamiyahymn says that Gaurirmimayasalilamtakshati, the vibration of speech creates or fashions out the manifold forms out of the waters of the infinite ocean of the ultimate reality. The Bhagavad Gita also teaches us on what should constitute healthy and ethical communication. Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 17, Stanza 15, says: anudvega-karaḿ vākyaḿ satyaḿ priya-hitaḿ ca yatsvādhyāyābhyasanaḿ caivavāń-mayaḿ tapa ucyate Literally, it means, Austerity of speech consists in speaking in a manner that will not agitate the minds of the listeners or enkindle the base emotions of the listener or his passion; the communication should be true, it must be beneficial to the listener and also pleasant. One should also engage in self-study. (Balakrishnan, 2013) Nonviolent communication is an integral part of the Buddhist traditions. Among the eight-fold path given by the Buddha, right speech or sammāvācāis is one of them. The Buddha mentioned it in his very first sutta after awakening, “The Discourse on Turning of the Wheel of Truth” (Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta). What then constitutes right speech? Magga-Vibhaṅga Sutta (SN 45:8) explains it, “And what is right speech? Abstaining from lying, abstaining from divisive speech, abstaining from abusive speech, abstaining from idle chatter.” An important aspect of nonviolent communication is how we can communicate by grasping an idea from different perspectives or lenses. In this context, for instance, the Jain doctrine of anekantvada (many sidedness or relative pluralism) also echoes with the pluralistic tradition of the Indian communication ecosystem. This Jain doctrine helps us understand the principles of pluralism and the significance of the multiplicity of viewpoints.

Significance of Integrating Non-Violent Communication  109 Dissecting the Gandhian Model of Nonviolent Communication

A simple foundational architecture of the Gandhian model of nonviolent communication rests on Mahatma Gandhi’s five pillars of nonviolence. Gandhi (2017) elaborates on the five basic pillars of Gandhi’s nonviolence. These include:

• • • • •

Respect Understanding Acceptance Appreciation, and Compassion.

The Gandhian model rests on his adherence to human interconnectedness, a principle on his idea of nonviolent rests. Parekh (1997) explains the notion of cosmo-centric view as followed by Gandhi: The cosmos was a well-coordinated whole whose various parts were all linked in a system of yajna, or interdependence and mutual service. It consisted of different orders of being ranging from the material to the human, each governed by its own laws and standing in a complex relationship with the rest. Human beings were an integral part of the cosmos and were tied to it by the deepest bonds. In Gandhi’s favourite metaphor, the cosmos was not a pyramid of which the material world was the base and the human beings the apex, but a series of ever-widening circles encompassing humankind, the sentient world, the material world, and the all including the cosmos. According to Parekh, Gandhi was clear that a nonviolent society, “as human beings were interdependent, should discourage all forms of exploitation, domination, injustice, and inequality … and should find ways of institutionalizing and nurturing the spirit of love, truthfulness, social service, cooperation and solidarity.” The Gandhian model of nonviolent communication can be encapsulated as follows (Kundu, 2021 & 2022a):

• The Gandhian model of nonviolent communication necessitates the use of nonviolence in all aspects of communication whether it is verbal, nonverbal, or our thoughts and ideas. It underlines how the mind, heart, and body remain disciplined at every stage. • The Gandhian model has a strong thrust on the significance of human values in our communicative efforts. It stresses on humanization of any interactions. • We learn the art and science of nonviolent persuasion and efficacy from the Gandhian approach. It gives an understanding of how nonviolent persuasion is a key component of a nonviolent communication ecosystem.

110  Vedabhyas Kundu

• The Gandhian model teaches us the significance of self-discipline and selfrestraint in all aspects of our communicative efforts.

• Gandhi’s nonviolent nonverbal symbolism like fasting tells us about its • •

•

• • • •

efficacy in nonviolent action. We learn how nonverbal symbolism aims at encouraging self-introspection. The Gandhian approach to empathy in his nonviolent communication teaches us how to emotionally connect with people even adversaries. The Gandhian model of nonviolent communication encompasses principles of human interdependence and its relevance in a holistic communication ecosystem. It talks about the importance of the cosmo-centric approach to human nature. Mahatma Gandhi’s strategy of communication was to reach the hearts of the masses through constructive work for social and economic emancipation. For instance, his Talisman is a powerful statement of how each needs to introspect on what they are doing for the last person of the society. It underscores the essence of empathetic connections. Mahatma Gandhi’s five basic pillars of nonviolence – respect, understanding, acceptance, appreciation, and compassion can be considered as the foundational architecture of a nonviolent communication ecosystem. The Gandhian model of nonviolent communication entails the evolution of an individual to a higher plane of values and ethics and respect for human dignity. His communication model underlines the importance of being morally disciplined, strictly adhering to the principles of ahimsa and truth. Openness and flexibility were the hallmarks of Gandhian nonviolent communication. These attributes are important for the constructive resolution of any conflict.

While several scholars have delved into what is nonviolent communication, an expansive explanation based on the Gandhian praxis has been given by senior Gandhian, Natwar Thakkar. Thakkar notes (Kundu, 2018): To me nonviolent communication literacy would mean how our communication efforts should be nonviolent; how our ability and capacity to communicate not only with ourselves but with our family and society be nonviolent in all aspects and overall, how the entire process of communication whether between individuals, groups, communities and the world at large should be nonviolent in nature. This would entail deep understanding of the art and science of nonviolence and its centrality in all our daily actions. It’s not just verbal and nonverbal communication, nonviolent communication literacy would also include whether our thoughts and ideas are nonviolent or not. This would also mean how we can rid of our preconceived notions of individuals or groups with whom we want to communicate and stop evaluating them to suit our own ideas. More than often, we are attuned to think in terms of moralistic

Significance of Integrating Non-Violent Communication  111 judgments which may be our own constructions. By developing deep understanding of the art and science of nonviolence and integrating it in our communication practices we could get over with biased and moralistic judgments; this in turn could contribute to emotional bridge building. Thakkar opines on the need to develop a deeper understanding of nonviolence to be able to become a nonviolent communicator. Further, it would be apt to explore the different elements of nonviolent communication (Kundu, 2020 & 2022b). These include the following: Nonviolent Communication means a complete lack of violence in the way we communicate with others: In the realm of nonviolent communication, there is no place of violence or extreme reactions whether in our thoughts, our verbal communication, or nonverbal communication. (II) Positive Intrapersonal Communication – our Self-Talk and Inner Dialogue: Self-awareness and a constructive intrapersonal communication help in the evolution of a balanced and peaceful communication ecosystem both within and in the outside world. (III) Use of appropriate and positive language: The language and the words that we use are the vehicle of our communication process; it helps us to express our ideas, thoughts, and emotions. Nonviolent communication entails that we become more aware of the words and language we are using and in what manner. (IV) Expansion of our emotional vocabulary and managing emotions during our process of communication: A cornerstone of nonviolent action and communication is the ability to express one’s emotions effectively. Processing and expressing one’s emotions fully and accurately require one to have the required emotional vocabulary for it. Expanding one’s emotional vocabulary entails learning and using a diverse range of words to describe specific feelings and emotions. This not only helps the individual communicate their experience more effectively to other people, but it also helps them to experience their emotions more fully, which in turn allows them to address them more adeptly. V) Avoiding stereotypes in our communication efforts: Stereotyping leads to a dysfunctional communication ecosystem and it aims to dehumanize individuals and erase their individualities. VI) Avoiding moralistic judgements: Getting entrapped into moralistic judgements alienated others. These are highly demotivating and could lead to disputes. The goal of nonviolent communication is to avoid moralistic judgements. VII) Avoidance of negative evaluative language: In nonviolent communication, we are encouraged to use our power of observation without getting into negative evaluations using our preconceived notions. VIII) Importance of mutual respect in communication: Mutual respect helps the communication process become more credible and coherent. (I)

112  Vedabhyas Kundu IX) Importance of flexibility and openness in our communication efforts: One of the most important reasons for a dysfunctional communication system is the lack of flexibility and openness in our approach to the communication process. For constructive resolution of disputes, it is important that we show flexibility and openness in our communicative efforts. X) Incorporating the power of empathy: Increasing materialism and individualism leads to fragmentation of communities. There are chances of decreasing civic engagement. In this backdrop, societies might see a reduction in values like empathy or in other words we find there is an empathy deficit – both at the individual level and at the societal level. An important ingredient of nonviolent communication, by being empathetic helps us to transform ourselves as we step outside our own self to be in someone’s else’s shoes. An important highlight regarding our habits to be empathetic that came up during the numerous workshops was we tend to show empathy mostly for our immediate family members or close friends. Rarely are we empathetic towards those who are not close to us or strangers. While the participants felt empathy plays an important role in healing relationships, it is something which needs regular nurturing. The aim of using nonviolent communication is to nurture a spirit of empathy based on the values of universal dignity and reverence of life. XI) Strong belief in the power of compassion: As we nurture empathy, it is likely to trigger our compassionate self. It is the sense of concern that arises when we realize that another person or being is suffering. It is an attribute that connects the feeling of empathy to acts of kindness and various other expressions that can be described as altruistic tendencies. In fact, the more compassionate we are the more prosocial behaviour we will be able to show. But what is important is to practice self-compassion first. Unless we understand our own pain, we will not be able to understand the pain and suffering of others adequately. Only when we are self-compassionate, we will be able to feel compassionate towards others.   One of the pillars of Gandhian nonviolence, the feeling of compassion guides our communication process to adequately understand the feelings and emotions of others. As communication helps mould our realities, our perspectives, and our emotions, by being compassionate helps us to see the realities around us in an altogether different way. Compassion also helps us in our listening abilities. For instance, the person you are listening to may be very bitter and whatever s/he is saying is full of wrong perceptions. In general, we may not like to listen to that person or might even confront him/her. However, if we are compassionate we will still be listening to that person letting them to empty their heart.

Significance of Integrating Non-Violent Communication  113 XII) Connecting with needs of others: An important ingredient of nonviolent communication is caring for the needs of others. Through different simulation exercises, the author tries to explain the critical importance of understanding why someone is behaving in a particular way from the needs level. At different point of times, we pass judgements if someone is behaving or reacting in a particular way. Nonviolent communication entails us to be nonjudgemental and look deeper from the needs level. XIII) Nurturing the habit of expressing gratitude: Gratitude helps in making stronger and deeper connections. When we start expressing gratitude to people and even situations because of which we might have benefitted, we will find ourselves to be happier and joyful. Gratitude in our communication process will elevate us from the usual narrow-minded focus on searching for fault. When we are attuned to expressing gratitude, we will find that our capacity to be empathetic has expanded and it is much easier to understand the perspective of others. The author has been advocating participants in workshops to keep a Gratitude Journal which entails maintaining a list of people and situations that they were grateful for. Feedback from participants who started maintaining Gratitude Journal underlined how such people became more positive and felt better. Some felt that when they were grateful, they were not fearful of situations or people, and in turn they became less aggressive. Integrating Nonviolent Communication in Communication Studies Right from theoretical and pedagogical approaches, nonviolent communication needs to be applied in all practical applications of communication and media studies. Juluri (2005) gives an insight into the importance of nonviolence in media studies. He argues, If nonviolence can inform media scholars’ critical engagement with the problem of violence in the face of intense conditions of violence and media spectacles of violence in the world, there is an important role that media studies can play in rejuvenating nonviolence as a cultural force and social movement for the media age. In this context, scholars of media and communication could strive to make both theoretical and practical connections between contemporary approaches to communication theories and nonviolent communication. This will help in strengthening both the discipline. However, it would need a substantial widening of the horizon of the current preponderance of communication and violence so that there is space and platform for nonviolence and nonviolent communication. It would also mean how nonviolent communication can be viewed as an important global alternative to violence and communication of divisiveness.

114  Vedabhyas Kundu One of the challenges for those involved in media production is the oftquoted argument that violence sells in order to justify violent programmes. It needs to be ascertained how such arguments and rationales play a role in the marginalization of nonviolence or diminish the usage of nonviolent communication for the construction of media messages. The goal needs to be to create an environment where “nonviolence sells” and nonviolent communication plays a central role in the construction of media messages. Another important challenge is to address the issues of how our commercial media culture has embedded messages which suggest violence. It is important to analyse through a nonviolent perspective on how violence is actually portrayed in the media and the way it is sometimes naturalized. This will help communication scholars to explore nonviolent alternatives and how these can find their way in media messages whether direct or embedded. An important intervention to integrate nonviolent communication into the study of media and journalism was taken up by Gandhi Smriti and Darshan Samiti in association with the University of Liberal Arts, Bangladesh, in 2021. In 2020, the author conducted an online workshop on nonviolent communication and its different dimensions. The focus was on how nonviolent communication needs to be studied in the media and communication studies curriculum. There was discussion on the use of nonviolent communication in the construction of media messages and in peace journalism. Following the workshops a series of follow-up discussions were held. A significant initiative was when the Department of Media Studies and Journalism of University of Liberal Arts, Bangladesh, chose the theme of nonviolent communication in their curriculum integration programme. Prof. Jude William Genelo, Head of the Department, said the theme was first discussed after the session with Gandhi Smriti and Darshan Samiti. He pointed out, Violence begets violence and leads to disastrous results. If we follow a path of retaliation, in the words of Mahatma Gandhi, “the world will soon be blind and toothless.” Hence, conflicts should be resolved by negotiation and dialogue – through tools and strategies of nonviolent communication. Violence is something we need to avoid at all costs. Prof. Jude Genelo and his team motivated their students to develop media products using the different elements of nonviolent communication. More than 100 media products were developed, including advertising campaigns, short documentaries, posters, animation films, blogs, vblogs, and comic strips, by the students, which underlined the use of nonviolent communication. Students who put together blogs and house journals wrote extensively on different issues of social concerns using different tools of nonviolent communication. The use of embedded messages in different media products gave interesting insights into the use of nonviolent persuasion. These products were digitally exhibited and underlined the fact that nonviolent communication

Significance of Integrating Non-Violent Communication  115 can make media products contribute to greater social cohesion and harmony. It also underlined that if messaged properly nonviolent messages can have greater preponderance than violent messages. The author has been experimenting on the use of nonviolent communication in a variety of settings involving media production. For instance, in a book for students of Class VI/VII/VIII on Mass Media, the Central Board of Secondary Education has included a chapter on nonviolent communication. Such initiatives will help students have a grasp of the use of nonviolent communication right from a young age. However, more such efforts need to be made to integrate into different disciplines of study. Conclusion Nonviolent communication assumes that all human beings have the capacity for compassion and empathy and that people only resort to violence or behaviour harmful to others when they do not recognize more effective strategies for meeting their needs. The goal, therefore, is to identify shared needs and develop strategies to meet each other’s needs. In order to achieve this, there is a need for greater respect, tolerance, compassion, self-respect, and collaboration. The discussions elucidated above underline the immense potential of the use of nonviolent communication in media production. It stressed on the need to integrate it into the study of media and communication at a global level so that students and practitioners learn the art and science of using it in the construction of media messages. A commitment is needed at every level – right from schools to media houses – to sincerely incorporate the practice of nonviolent communication so that we can promote a culture of peace and nonviolence. References Agrawala, Vasudeva Sharana (1963). The Thousand Syllabled Speech: Being a Study in Cosmic Symbolism in Its Vedic Version. Banaras Hindu University. Balakrishnan, T. S. (2013, September–October). Effective Executive Communication, the Bhagavad Gita Way. IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSRJBM), 13(4), 26–29. Cardoso, Gustavo (2011). From Mass to Networked Communication. In S. Papathanassopoulos ed., Media Perspectives for the 21st Century. 117–136. Routledge. Castells, Manuel (2007). Communication, Power and Counter-Power in the Network Society. International Journal of Communication, 1, 238–266. Available: http:// ijoc​.org​/ojs​/index​.php​/ijoc​/article​/view​/46​/35. Gandhi, Arun (2017). The Gift of Anger. Penguin Books. Gorsevksi and Ellen, W. (2014). Nonviolence as a Communication Strategy an Introduction to the Rhetoric of Peacebuilding. In R. S. Fortner and P. M. Fackler ed., The Handbook of Media and Mass Communication Theory. Wiley. 440–461.

116  Vedabhyas Kundu Ikeda, Daisaku (2007). Interaction of Civilizations Leads to a Flourishing Culture of Humanity; Acceptance Speech of Honorary Doctorate in Communications. University of Palermo, Sicily, Italy. Ikeda, Daisaku (2011). Toward a World of Dignity for All: The Triumph of the Creative Life; 2011 Peace Proposal. Soka Gakai International. Kundu, Vedabhyas (2018, June). Nurturing Emotional Bridge Building: A Dialogue with Nagaland’s Gandhi; Peaceworks, 8(1) June 2018. Retrieved from https:// peaceworks​.in/ issue​pdf/7​​6573P​​eacew​​orks_​​Vol8_​​Issue​​1​_2​01​​8​.pdf​ Kundu, Vedabhyas (2020). Orientation Course on Nonviolent Communication; Gandhi Smriti and Darshan Samiti, New Delhi. https://www.gandhismriti.gov.in/ announcement/orientation-course-nonviolent-communication​ ; accessed on June 18, 2021. Kundu, Vedabhyas (2021). Integrating Nonviolent Communication in Media and Journalism Studies. https://www​.windowtonews​.com​/news​.php​?id​=452733​&cat​ _id​=21​&p=​&search=​#ontitle; accessed on June 18, 2021. Kundu, Vedabhyas (2022a). Exploring the Gandhian Model of Nonviolent Communication and its Significance; Gandhi Marg Journal 44 (1), April-June 2022. Retrieved from https://www.mkgan​​dhi​.o​​rg​/ar​​ticle​​s​/Gan​​dhian​​-mode​​l​-of-​​ nonvi​​olent​​-comm​​u​nica​​tion.​​html.​ Kundu, Vedabhyas (2022b). Nonviolent Communication for Peaceful Co-existence. In L.R. Kurtz ed., Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, and Conflict. Elsevier, Academic Press. La Rue, Frank (2016). Foreword in Media and Information Literacy: Reinforcing Human Rights, Countering Radicalization and Extremism, Jagtar Singh, Paulette Kerr and Esther Hamburger ed. UNESCO. Mansouri, Fethi and Zapata-Barrero, Richard (2017). Postscript: What Future for Intercultural Dialogue? In F. Mansouri ed., Interculturalism at the Crossroads: Comparative Perspectives on Concepts, Policies and Practices (p. 318). UNESCO. Papathanassopoulos, Stylianos (2011). Media Perspectives for the 21st Century. Routledge. Juluri, Vamsee (2005, May 1). Communication Theory, 15(2), 196–215. https://doi​ .org​/10​.1111​/j​.1468​-2885​.2005​.tb00332​.x.

7

Desire for Omnipresence A Brief Introduction to a Key Conceptual Tool Camila Mozzini-Alister

Introduction Since the pandemic spread of the virus SARS-CoV-2 or “Covid-19” globally took place in 2020, life has increasingly moved to the online realm. Schools and universities had to adapt their classes to distance-learning platforms; restaurants and cafes shut down and started operating through takeaway only; physical business quickly shifted to online stores; families and friends who would often physically meet each other had to remotely talk through video call Apps. While big tech companies like Netflix, YouTube, Tesla, and Amazon recorded their highest revenue rates, many people all over the world lost their jobs and/or had to reinvent themselves working from home. In this overwhelming storm of digital gateways, social media platforms such as YouTube, Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, Twitter, Reels, and Snapchat escalated their levels of use and abuse, capturing even more deeply our lives, demanding attention as a commodity for distraction, addiction, control, and manipulation. Why is it no longer enough to be in the off-line ordinariness of the here and now? There is no doubt that we live in the context of overexposure to image where all sorts of social media encourage us to expose the “I” through the constant updating of virtual profiles. Only on Facebook, 350 million photos are daily published on a platform that insistently asks about what we think, do, and feel. “What’s on your mind?” – interrogates Zuckerberg’s porthole. That which is in our minds became the new target of knowledge, capital, and information, a unique currency capable of providing simultaneous feedback through sophisticated mechanisms of marketing. What is moving this endless desire to remotely communicate via these online channels? It was only after incessantly asking myself why I was still on social media platforms even though I was aware of their very promiscuous personal traces and marketing policies that a new angle of the problem took shape: there is something beyond our critical thinking, rationality, or any kind of logic playing out. It is a desire. An intense and uncontrollable desire for what I called “desire for omnipresence” (Mozzini-Alister 2021). However, what do I mean by “desire for omnipresence”? And how is this desire related to the practices of mediation and meditation? These are the DOI: 10.4324/9781032632667-9

118  Camila Mozzini-Alister questions that this chapter briefly aims to address in order to consolidate the conceptual tool of “desire for omnipresence” as a transdisciplinary field of academic research. Therefore, this will be articulated along three different sections: the first aims to contextualize previous developments on the concept of desire for omnipresence as well as give a close insight into how it emerged in my own path as a researcher; the second addresses the fields where this conceptual tool can be articulated, exploring how the seemingly distant practices of mediation via social media and Tantric meditation became intertwined in what I’ve called “medi(t)ation”; and the third and final section is designed to address the implications of this conceptual tool for the production of research and knowledge as a form of self-knowledge. I hope this endeavour illuminates as well as instigates new approaches to the study of media, its relationship with human consciousness, and the current desire to be more than just a body. Contextualizations for the Emergence of Desire for Omnipresence The contemporary technologies of communication almost fulfil the dream of omnipresence, which is the dream of making the lived experience become independent from the places that our bodies occupy inspace. Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht

Generally speaking, the contexts of historical intersection between religion and techné, spirituality and technology, are nothing new. As Erick Felinto (2008: 16) points out, “the connections between science and religion are millennial and almost genetic.” Historians such as David Noble, for example, showed that “the roots of the technological project of our civilization are already contaminated from mythologies and imaginaries of transcendence” (Felinto 2008: 16). The Tunisian Communication theorist Lucien Sfez (1994: 245) diagnosed that the “contemporary technological impulses, the belief in the omnipotence of the principle of science, establish practices very close to a spiritual culture.” The longing for existing beyond the physical limits of the human body has also been explored by several authors (Davis 1998; Coyne 2001; Mosco 2004) who point to the intimate relationships between technoscience and the yearning for transcendence, between spirituality and digital culture. Also Freud (2010), in the classic “Civilization and Its Discontents,” had already warned about such a possibility when comparing humans to a kind of “prosthetic God” that, with auxiliary organs, would increase the so cultivated imaginary desire to become like God: omniscient, omnipotent, and omnipresent. Currently, this desire for self-deification takes the shape of computers, servers, smartphones, smart devices, and social media platforms connected via cables, satellites, antennas, and radiofrequency waves into what is known as the Internet. What started as a military and academic effort by the Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPANET), in 1958, by

Desire for Omnipresence  119 the US Department of Defense (Castells 2003), perhaps gained a “surprisingly rapid acceptance” (Vaz 2010: 202) due to its “promise to endow the individual with ubiquity. In the network, we are nowhere and everywhere, being able to exchange information or interact with whoever or whatever we want at the moment we want” (Vaz 2010: 202). In this topological “spatiality of erosion” (Vaz 2010: 200) as a possible space for the “self,” the ubiquity provided by the networks puts us in front of the long-awaited limitlessness that even dispenses the corporeal matter. As the artist Roy Ascott (2010: 245) points out, it is “within the electronic space of the network that we can really fly.” Not by chance, the epistemologist Gumbrecht (2010) sees the contemporary technologies of communication almost fulfilling the dream of omnipresence, which is the dream of making the lived experience become independent from the places that our bodies occupy in space. Personally, in my path as a researcher, the insight for investigating this wish for a deterritorialization of the self into a desire for omnipresence came to life through a series of encounters. First, the encounter with smartphones with touchscreen technology after I began my Ph.D. in 2014. From 2014 to 2018, I saw my habits and my daily life drastically altered by the presence of this new being, this new intruder that, unbeknownst to me, has conquered so much space in my life. I became, little by little, addicted to gliding my fingertips on photosensitive screens. Even when I had not received any messages, I was still constantly checking and getting lost in social media – basically, this was the brilliant focus of my “smartphone” usage. I saw myself slowly automatizing a new necessity of presence. A strange presence: although I was totally aware of the mechanisms of neoliberal capture at play in the use of social media and communication devices since I had studied them so thoroughly during my Research Master’s Degree in Social and Institutional Psychology, I simply lost control. Since then, my days became filled with fierce battles against symptoms such as difficulty to concentrate on daily tasks due to constant glances at my phone, reluctance to interrupt the cyclic gliding of fingers on photosensitive screens, and anxiety to talk to people who were not close to my body: what was making me so entangled in such practices? There is a saying in the academic world that goes “research problem, researcher problem.” Everybody has their own existential hole. Mine is called “distance.” Educated by the choices that I took as mine, unwillingly I became specialized in the theme of distances which, by consequence, brought the issue of mediations to the centre of my life. The experience of distance subjectively constituted myself: to give up the physical touch of my loved ones in favour of pursuing my studies, or to be next to other loved ones, has always been a constant to me. And it is at this point that the presence of the image entered the scene. Since a very young age, touching the images of social media profiles was the only way to bringing closer the ones who were no longer by my side. By inhabiting a body mediated by other forms of “flesh,” I learned to grasp the other through the materiality of the image.

120  Camila Mozzini-Alister Such discrepancy from what is taken as “real” has enmeshed in my lenses that allowed me to see the present through the “eyes of the affection”: I see the emergence of the imagetic forms of presence as a central axis in the current modes of living and not something that is merely “a problem of mine.” I got tired of witnessing scene after scene of moments of pause being filled with the gliding of fingers on screens tuned to Facebook, Instagram, YouTube, TikTok, Snapchat, or WhatsApp; of people going out and about with their phones glued to their hands; of people on mass transit travelling also via the speed of Wi-Fi signals and data networks; of bar tables populated by drinks and noisy devices that would rudely insert themselves into the conversation; and of parents who, while taking their kids for a stroll, would talk to the image of people on screens. What is it that escapes in this process of exchanging our personal data for the endless desire to communicate? As I’ve mentioned in the introduction, it was only after I relentlessly asked myself why in blazes I am still on Facebook, even though I was fully aware of the marketing and big data policies, that a new angle of this problem took shape: the desire for omnipresence. I wonder if that is the reason why more and more people ignore or take for granted the obscure uses of their digital traces in exchange for the production of forms of presence that are not limited to the scope and reach of the human body. A desire for simultaneously inhabiting distinct space-times, for concomitantly being here and there, in the space of the physical body and in the space of the mediated body. A desire for being more than just a body. A desire for overcoming the very own human condition. A desire for extending the perimeter of arms, legs, and vision. A desire for being superhuman. A desire for becoming divine? A deification that, since 2014, when I began my Ph.D. in Communication at the State University of Rio de Janeiro (UERJ), has allied the necessity of mediation to the disciplined practice of meditation. The encounter with meditation was something that entered my life in an unexpected way. Despite my strong Christian roots, I found in the Yoga universe something that fascinated and attracted me. As hard as I tried to resist it, it was inevitable. I was initiated in Tantra Yoga, an offshoot of Shivaism that aims to expand all human potentialities with ultimate goal of uniting the self with the divine. Quite rapidly, my daily life was filled with ásanas, mantras, the study of cakras, vegetarian food, breathing techniques, and, twice a day, at least twenty minutes of meditation. I could feel the effects on my body. I felt the acceleration of my life to levels I have never reached before. I wanted to achieve the much-promised liberation of the mind. I aspired to become an “angel,” to be a body of light and, by meditating, travel in the same way the Wi-Fi waves of a touchscreen phone would transport my body to other layers of space and time. Mediation and meditation became, then, the two main activities that would introduce my body to the daily habits cultivated during the last four years of my doctorate studies. Media(t)ation. Two activities that decisively shaped and sculpted my perception of reality.

Desire for Omnipresence  121 Desire for Omnipresence: Delineating Its Fields of Research In a broader sense, the desire for omnipresence is a conceptual tool necessarily transversed by both this intense desire for human expansion and the different and specific forms through which this expansion is technically organized and materialized. From the creation of the first chipped stone tools, fire, writing, and agriculture to the current developments in big data, robotization, augmented reality, outer space exploration, Artificial Intelligence, and nano and biotechnology, as well as the recent announcement of the Metaverse – these are all examples of phenomena crossed by this transcendental desire to create modes of existence that not only aims to control the body but, above all, domesticate it along with this ancient yearning to be “more” than just a human animal amidst nature. Therefore, the desire for omnipresence is an investigation topic that encompasses this delicate intersection between mundane psychic drives and beyond-human forms of externalization, between inner and outer expansion, and between subjectivity and materiality into the complex meaning-making of reality. For this reason, it inherently involves transdisciplinary fields of research such as Design, Arts, Communication, Biology, and Engineering, intertwined with inquiries coming from areas as diverse as Philosophy, Anthropology, Psychology, Sociology, and Epistemology .​ Specifically in relation to my investigation on the desire for omnipresence, the relationship between the fields of mediation and meditation came out of another surprising encounter: Ajit (my Australian partner) and I were visiting the Vatican in July 2017 and, after a long walk, we reached our final destination: the Sistine Chapel. Although full of tourists, there was an air of silence around us. Michelangelo’s frescoes on the ceiling silenced the human noise by speaking the mute language of the sacred. And it was without uttering a single word that Ajit made an unexpected connection: he pointed up, showing me the masterpiece “The Creation of Adam” and then touched the screen on his phone. When faced with the resemblance of his touching gesture, I was

Figure 7.1  The Screen Intermediating the Divine Touch, by the Author.

122  Camila Mozzini-Alister overcome by astonishment: would we be mediating our relationship to the divine through screens? If so, what is the relationship between the mediation of screens and the practices of meditation? And what do those gestures have to do with the way social media is affecting us? (Figure 7.1) In that moment, Yoga’s maxim reverberated in my thoughts. It does not matter how diverse the many spiritual offshoots emerging from India may be, in all of them there is a common premise: “you are not your body.” How they reached such a conclusion, it is not up to me to explain in detail here, but it is a fact that, for the yogi wisdom, the physical body is just one of the mind’s many layers of energy, and, by the way, the outermost and least subtle one. A logic that is being strangely re-enacted on the current smartphones with touchscreen technology: instead of buttons and keys protected with an isolating material, nowadays we transport the body via radiofrequency waves that travel by the direct exchanges of electric current between photosensitive screens and fingertips. There is something singular in this gesture: for the first time, the humanity of our techniques electromagnetically inserts the body into other layers of presence no longer restricted to the field of the visible. A search. A search to reach something that is beyond the corporeal substratum, something that ruptures the tridimensional conventions of space and time, and something that allows us to be simultaneously in every “here” and every “now.” Something that makes us, at last: omnipresent.​ However, it is important to be specific with the meaning of a few concepts that were recurrent along the research: (a) desire for limitlessness; (b) desire for omnipresence, (c) image, (d) meditation, and (e) mediation. Starting with the term that has become commonplace in any advertisement slogan that incites us to be digitally connected: by (a) desire for limitlessness we will

Figure 7.2  The Outer Expansion via Mediation and Inner Expansion via Meditation, by the Author.

Desire for Omnipresence  123 understand the innate spiritual desire to expand our consciousness towards the infinite (Sarkar1993). Driven by such desire, our current (b) desire for omnipresence is comprehended as the desire “to reach a dimension in which the tridimensional experiences of space and time are no longer applied.” Said dimension is usually related to the field of the sacred, the divine: God. Pertaining to (c) image, it will be understood as “a means of expansion of space and time.” Lastly, we have the two fields employed as the basis for our study of the current desire for omnipresence: (d) meditation: “direct process of inner expansion towards the union with limitlessness through the subtlization of the mind.” To that end, techniques that subtilize the body, such as vegetarianism, ásanas, and mantras will be applied to control the lower cakras in order to enable us to tune with wavelengths invisible to the human eye; and (e) “mediation”: “indirect process of outer expansion towards the connection with limitlessness through the subtilization of the body as an image of a virtual profile.” To that end, techniques of interaction in social networks, such as newsfeed scrolling and the sharing of thoughts and emotions, prompt us to create forms of energetic symbiosis between body and device (Figure 7.2). These two modes of expansion of the body’s presential limits, meditation and mediation, were studied using the concept of anthropotechnics, that is, “techniques through which human communities and the individuals who compose them act upon their own animal nature with the goal of guiding, expanding, modifying or domesticating their biological substratum” (Romandini 2012: 9). Nevertheless, since “every anthropotechnology implies a zoopolitical substratum that lies at its center” (Romandini 2012: 10), we will enter in the delicate realm of the zoé, that is, of the spectrality. Spectrum, for Romandini (2012), relates to two different meanings: in a broad sense, it pertains to the “incorporeal creatures like, for instance, the angels” (idem) and God, with a capital “G,” that “is expressed through the Spirit” (idem) and carries a common ontological ground between Spirit and Spectrum. In a strict sense, it relates to the “beings that survive (even though in the form of a postulate) their own death, or that establish a point of indistinction between life and death” (Romandini 2012: 13). Under this light, “the spectrum can be completely immaterial or acquire different ‘consistencies’” (idem). The motive for including this perspective is because without the study of the “spectral dimension, it is impossible to have a cabal comprehension, not only of the contemporary political drift in general, and of the zoopolitics in particular, but also of the new possibilities of ontology” (Romandini 2012: 12). Different ontologies that, avoiding questions like “what is this?,” move towards questions such as “how is this produced?” and “how is this possible?.” Questions that increasingly operate a self-criticism of our own selves by a problematization of the ways through which we build ourselves as “humans” and no longer “animals.” In this sense, I’ve dared to dwell on the study of the contemporary “spectral climate” (Flusser 2008) from the perspective of Tantra Yoga’s subtle knowledge. This choice was made because the very goal of Tantra is intimately related to the hard core of the concept of

124  Camila Mozzini-Alister anthropotechnic as an expansion and domestication method of the biological substratum: “the spiritual practice which liberates the aspirant from the dullness or animality of the static force and expands the aspirant’s [spiritual] self is Tantra”1 (Sarkar 1993: 167). Thus, the binomial mediation/meditation was used as elements to dissect the current modes of deconstruction and therefore, expansion, of the body’s physical form. The body, in the practices of medi(t)ation, reconfigures its anatomy based on manipulation techniques of the electromagnetic spectrum or, in yogi language, of “prana.” Whether being in the search for the mind’s enlightenment through the subtilization of the body, or in the body’s electrocution through the conditioning of the mind to the constant touching of screens tuned into virtual profiles, these two apparently distant universes were crossed as if one is the inverted mirror of the other. Just like Flusser and Bec (2011) explored, in the book Vampyroteuthis Infernalis, the abysses between humans and the rare species of the Cephalopoda genus in a game of symmetries, the same strategy was used to articulate the relationships between mediation and meditation. That is because, playing with the material regularities of shocks, points and waves, mediation and meditation emerge as inverted mirror of one another. Thus, if by mediating one first feels the nano shock between fingertips and screen allowing us to inhabit the topological universe of points made of bits and pixels, which are then transmitted through waves and antennas, by meditating happens the symmetric opposite. First, one does ásanas and diets to subtilize the body’s waves and vibrational frequency, then sits down to meditate in order to balance cakra points, and at last, by applying a mantra, one receives the shocks of samádhi. Playing with the material regularities of shocks, points and waves, mediation and meditation emerge as inverted mirror of one another. The argumentative background of this idea shares the common soil permeated by the maxim of the Ladder of Abstraction (Flusser 2008). In it, Flusser states that for us to become aware of the concreteness of the world, we would first take distance from it in order to grasp it better via intermediates called “technical images” (Flusser 2008). As manifestations of the highest degree of abstraction in relation to the concrete world, technical images would be, in a nutshell, images that do not need the direct action of the human hand due to the mediation of devices that work just like black boxes: hermetic, automatized, and programmed. Subjectively secularized and, therefore, far away from the possibility of grasping the experience of the divine, the limitlessness, in the banality of the molecular level of matter, today we desperately search this unlimited divine dimension by the use of abstractions that are materialized into the form of two contemporary mediums of the biological substratum expansion: mind and screen, and mediation and meditation. Respectively immersed in the emptiness of the cosmic and topological spaces, a material archaeology of both mind and screen was proposed based on the proposition of a media archaeology (Parikka 2012). As a method for investigating the “deep layers of the body” (Parikka 2012: 30) inscribed in the non-visual field of algorithms, semiconductors, and in technologies such

Desire for Omnipresence  125 as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, UMTS, EDGE, HSPA, GSM, and GPS – and why not, also cakras? – this transdisciplinary methodological approach was applied to connect mind and screen, mediation, and meditation as possible variables in the research for the current desire for omnipresence. Thus, this study was based on what authors such as Hayles (2006) and Thrift (2004) described as technological unconsciousness: “the everyday habits initiated, regulated, and disciplined by multiple strata of technological devices and inventions, ranging from an artifact as ordinary as a wristwatch to the extensive and pervasive effects of World Wide Web” (Hayles 2006: 138). Entrenched in practices such as “scrolling, interacting with computerized voices, talking and text messaging on phones, and searching the web to find whatever information is needed at the moment” (Hayles 2006: 140), the desire to exist beyond the limits of our own body becomes more and more intertwined with the technical unconscious of smart devices. Enmeshed within this flow of data, human behaviour is increasingly integrated with a wide variety of other cognitive activities that “fall below the threshold of conscious awareness” (idem). Research such as those conducted by Ariely (2012) and Mlodinow (2008, 2012) have already brought to light our irrational condition by finding out that around 95% of our choices arrive from unconsciousness. Thus, it is no accident that Grusin (2010) states that several gestures incorporated into our mediation practices cannot be known “not because they have been repressed or sublimated but because they are concealed or invisible or unrecognized in everyday practices that we participate in and take for granted” (Grusin 2010: 71). Therefore, by diving into both the collective unconscious exteriorized on the screen and into the individual unconscious interiorized in the mind, my goal was to investigate the modes of affection, that is, the effects of tangibility arising from bodies that are no longer restricted to one taken as “the solid, the tangible, what is sensitive and, mainly, to that which is bathed in light and is, therefore, quite visible” (Dagonet 2012: 2). Therefore, following the so-called “Affective Turn” (Clough & Halley 2007), this research aimed to deal with the matter of the matter in order to think about the “bodily capacities to affect and be affected or the augmentation or decrease of a body’s capacity to act, to engage, to connect” (Clough 2008: 2). Capacities that, as proposed by Hardt (2015: 1), “besides obviously calling attention to the body and its emotions,” produce an important development: “the challenge of the affective visage primarily lies in the body/mind synthesis required by such perspective, since it would involve both reason and passion” (Hardt 2015: 1) in “a new ontology of what it means to be the human” (Hardt 2015: 8). Affections, deviating from their usual meaning related to the feeling of care towards something or somebody, allow us to talk about the potential of the material impact produced by relationships – as Deleuze would contemplate (1978) when talking about Spinoza – between bodies, whether they are made of flesh or light. There are several implications deriving from the use of desire for omnipresence as a conceptual tool. As the result of a complex process of distortion

126  Camila Mozzini-Alister of our innate spiritual desire for limitlessness (Sarkar 1993), the desire for omnipresence, as any other concept, is not neutral nor innocent: it carries with it political consequences into many different levels of analysis. For example, the want to colonize Mars; the attempt to modify human genome; the will to extract the final human truth from real-time social media statistics; and the construction of more than real realities by experiments with VR, AR, AI, Metaverse, or what is known as the “transhuman condition” debate are all topics that can be analysed through the lens of desire for omnipresence. Other debates around technology such as the impacts of social media on mental health, social media addiction, social fragmentation, and polarization as well as the studies around the figure of the influencer, hate speech culture, and current modes of subjectivation are also fruitful possibilities where desire for omnipresence can serve as a conceptual tool. In my own research, I’ll list in this final section only three of the main implications all related to a profound critique of the notion of progress: first, the denouncement of the current politics hypercontrol; second, the problematization of its unsustainable environmental and humanitarian impacts; and finally, the decolonization of the notion of technology itself with the aim of bringing forth an incisive questioning about limits. Thereupon, in sync with the Nietzschean, Foucauldian, and Benjaminian problematizations of the Enlightenment and its civilization project, a first dimension is a critical account on the irrationality of the Western rational idea of progress and, consequently, the anthropotechnics that actualize this human desire for control and certainty. In my own account of desire for omnipresence, I’ve found that the intersection between mediation and meditation, mind and screen, is now creating angelical models of the Beyond-Human life in tandem with the maximum exacerbation of control mechanisms (Deleuze 2008). The peculiarity of this mode of control is that it is no longer a control over things or tangible objects but a sort of control of the control over light, photons, and electrons, over nuclear fission and over the electromagnetic spectrum’s tiniest forces in favour of strategies of enlightenment and electrocution of the body that aim to enlarge the mind through the blind hypertrophy of the vision on the screen. A kind of control of whatever makes us go beyond limbs, torso and head, muscles, bones and tendons, arteries, veins and ducts, organs, glands, and systems via the development of mechanisms applied to the manipulation of an extracorporeal anatomy. Interestingly, instead of dying, the secularized God even more furiously “comes back out the window under indefinable names such as ‘energy’ or ‘probability’” (Flusser 1987: 2). That is because, by ironically reversing the initial dynamic between creator and creature, now people made of flesh and bones are seeking to become as an image and likeness of their virtual profiles as well as their spiritual gurus in order to transform their bodies into a body of light (Mozzini-Alister 2021). A body of light, that is, bodies on a higher level emancipated from their mammalian condition for not having glands, nerves, hormone secretion, and

Desire for Omnipresence  127 cakras that force us into the loneliness of feeling. Not by chance, the model of body of our hegemonican thropotechnics is the model of the resurrected body of Christ (Romandini 2012). Angel par excellence and the outcome of divine intervention’s first biotechnology (Romandini 2012), it is in the subtleness of the Resurrected Christ that the Beyond-Human Cherub is now looking for the form of its own existence: a form that traverses every wall and encounters no boundaries, moves elsewhere and faces no delays, soars high above, and overcomes even gravity itself – just like the resurrected body of the virtual profile available 24/7 and the all-powerful body of the spiritual guru. But above all, a form capable of “perceiving without being affected” (Romandini 2012: 217), i.e., of burning without feeling the pain of fire. Impassible by having achieved a non-animal sensitivity, the current desire for omnipresence is producing models of embodiment that aims at deprogramming our animal survival instincts of sleep, eat, fear, and sex since they tragically face us with a whole bunch of unpleasant emotions that are not likely to be liked, shared, or commented on social media. This initial dimension unfolds into other layers of critique that encompass the relationship between social media and the current capitalist mode of production as well as its impact on humanity and the environment. That is because, in the heart of our desire for omnipresence lies a desire for expansion. From the Latin “expansio,” formed by the union of the prefix “ex” (outward), the root “pandere” (unfold, extend, and open), and the suffix “ción” (action, effect), expansion implies the action of wanting “to be more and better,” unfolding outwards. However, there is a fine thin line between “expansion” and “alienation”: from the Latin “alienus,” alienation refers to what is outside, belonging to the other. And more and more out of sync with reality, unfamiliar with the social events and productive chains of the neoliberal economic model, like “aliens” among our own species, I’ve found that we no longer realize the true cost of our fascination for smartphones: the enslavement of African children that precariously work on the extraction of the minerals required for the production of smart devices,2 the mass suicide of Chinese employees working at “telecom” companies3 that look more like terrible slavery manors, and the brutal devastation of natural resources caused by human action in the middle of the so-called “Anthropocene Era.” Ironically, we have arrived at a historical period in which human intervention is so intense that changes and acts like a biological force of global impact upon the climate and the management of our planet’s ecosystems. As Benjamin said, “there has never been a monument of culture, which is not simultaneously one of barbarism” (Benjamin 1994: 225). Hence, the final (but not restricted to) implication on the use of desire for omnipresence as a conceptual tool lies in its intertwined relationship with Cosmopolitical Epistemologies (Castro 2012; Stengers 1997, 2005), relational ontologies, and the incisive questioning about the meaning of technology itself as well as the notion of limits: the limits of mediation, of meditation, of expansion, of progress, of presence, and of knowing – or in a

128  Camila Mozzini-Alister nutshell, the limits of what it means to be human in face of the horrendous acts of denial regarding the wisdom developed by Indigenous technologies and African technologies that have been attempted to be wiped out along “History.” In this sense, Flusser (2008: 139) wisely said that the problem of freedom “is not related to the ability of being opposed to this or that determination, but the ability to ignore all conditions in order to elaborate a nondetermined universe.” It is up to us to decide: until what point are we capable of standing uncertainty? Until what point can we stand to stop expanding, to deaccelerate, and to let go of the reins of data hypercontrol? Until what point are we willing to accept the “blind spot” of death that puts limits to our imagination? Until what point are we open to transform the current desire for omnipresence into a genuine desire for presence? In a world that incites us to the excess of accesses, maybe our biggest opportunity to resist is neither to dissolve nor to reify the border, but simply to inhabit it. Therefore, let us grab more the skin and embrace the micropolitics of affection: it is by feeling eye to eye, touch to touch, scent to scent, talk to talk, and silence to silence that, even within the limits of our own bodies, we can become unlimited. And that in this journey we may find in the never-silenced Spinozian question the only doubt capable of being lived: after all, what can a body do?4 Notes 1 The complete passage goes: “The significance of the term tantra is ‘liberation from bondage [the bondage of dullness, or staticity]’. The letter ta is the seed [sound] of dullness. And the root verb trae suffixed by d́a becomes tra, which means ‘that which liberates’ – so the spiritual practice which liberates the aspirant from the dullness or animality of the static force and expands the aspirant’s [spiritual] self is Tantra sádhaná. So there cannot be any spiritual practice without Tantra. Tantra is sádhaná.” 2 Complete article at: https://www​.youtube​.com​/watch​?v​=WysjWqQ0oc8, accessed on 03/27/2022. 3 Complete article at: https://www​.theguardian​.com​/technology​/2017​/jun​/18​/foxconn​-life​-death​-forbidden​-city​-longhua​-suicide​-apple​-iphone​-brian​-merchant​-one​ -device​-extract, accessed on 03/27/2022. 4 In the question “What Can a Body Do?,” the French philosopher Gilles Deleuze draws from statements by seventeenth-century Dutch philosopher Baruch de Spinoza: “We do not even know what a body is capable of...” and “We do not even know of what affections we are capable, nor the extent of our power” (Deleuze 1990: 226).

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Desire for Omnipresence  129 Castells, Manuel. 2003. A galáxia da internet: reflexões sobre a internet, os negócios e a sociedade. Lisboa: Fundação CalousteGulbenkian. Clough, P.T. 2008. The affective turn: Political economy, biomedia and bodies. Theory, Culture and Society, 25(1), pp. 1–22. Clough, Patricia. 2007. Introduction. In: P. Clough, J. Halley (Org.). The Affective Turn: Theorizing the Social, pp. 1–33. Durham: Duke University Press. Coyne, Richard. 2001. Technoromanticism: Digital Narrative, Holism, and the Romance of the Real. Cambridge: The MIT Press. Dagognet, François. 2012. O corpo. Michel Jean Maurice Vincent (Trad.). Rio de Janeiro: Forense Universitária. Davis, Erik. 1998. Techgnosis: Myth, Magic+Mysticism in the Age of Information. New York: Three Rivers Press. Deleuze, Gilles. Cours Vincennes 24/01/1978. Tradução Francisco Traverso Fuchs. https://www​.webdeleuze​.com​/textes​/194. Deleuze, Gilles. 2008. Conversações. Tradução Peter PálPelbart. 7 ed. São Paulo: Ed. 34. Deleuze, Gilles. 1990. What can a body do? In: Expressionism in Philosophy. Spinoza New York: Zone Books. Felinto, Erick. 2008. Tecnognose: Tecnologias do virtual, identidade e imaginação espiritual. Revista Famecos, 9(18), pp. 15–26. https://doi​.org​/10​.15448​/1980​ -3729​.2002​.18​.3164. Flusser, Vilém. 2008. O Universo das Imagens Técnicas – Elogio da Superficialidade. São Paulo: Annablume. Flusser, Vilém, Louis, Bec. 2011. Vampyroteuthisinfernalis. São Paulo: Annablume. Freud, Sigmund. 2010. O mal-estar na civilização. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras. Grusin, Richard. 2010. Premediation: Affect and Mediality After 9/11. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Gumbrecht, Hans Ulrich. 2010. Produção de presença: O que o sentido não consegue transmitir. Tradução Ana Isabel Soares. Rio de Janeiro: Contraponto: Ed. PUC-Rio. Hardt, Michael. 2015. Para que servem os afetos? Luiz Roberto Leite Farias (Trad.). Intersemiose, Ano IV, 7, Jan/Jun. Hayles, Katherine. 2006. The traumas of code. Critical Inquiry, 33(1), pp. 136–157. Mlodinow, Leonard. 2008. The Drunkard's Walk: How Randomness Rules Our Lives. New York: Pantheon Books. Mlodinow, Leonard. 2012. Subliminal: How Your Unconscious Mind Rules Your Behavior. New York: Pantheon Books. Mozzini-Alister, Camila. 2021. Does social media have limits? Bodies of Light & the Desire for Omnipresence. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Mosco, Vincent. 2004. The Digital Sublime: Myth, Power, and Cyberspace. Cambridge: The MIT Press. Parikka, Jussi. 2012. What Is Media Archaeology? Cambridge: Polity Press. Romandini, Fabián Ludueña. 2012. A comunidade dos espectros. I. Antropotecnia. Alexandre Nodari e Leonardo d’Ávila de Oliveira (Trads.). Desterro, Florianópolis: Cultura e Barbárie. Sarkar, P.R. 1993. Discourseson Tantra, volume 1 and 2. Kolkata: Ananda Marga Publications. Sfez, Lucien. 1994. Crítica da Comunicação. São Paulo: Loyola.

130  Camila Mozzini-Alister Stengers, Isabelle. 1997. Pourenfiniraveclatolérance. Cosmopolitiques, 7. Paris: La Découverte. Stengers, Isabelle. 2005. The cosmo political proposal. In: Bruno Latour, Peter Weibel (Ed). Making Things Public: Atmospheres of Democracy. Cambridge: MIT Press, pp. 994–1003. Vaz, Paulo. 2010. Esperança e excesso. In: André Parente (Org.). Tramas da rede: novas dimensões filosóficas, estéticas e políticas da comunicação. Porto Alegre: Sulina, pp. 189–208. Viveiros de Castro, Eduardo. 2012. Cosmological perspectivism in Amazonia and elsewhere: Four lectures given in the department of social anthropology, University of Cambridge, February–March 1998, Manchester: Masterclass Series.

8

The Development of Self in the Age of Social Media Creating Transitional Spaces through Focused Meditative Practices Anusnigdha

In contemporary society, online communities and social media are not only a method of communication but have now evolved to include their own unique language and culture for all individuals to participate in and become a part of. While the use of internet for everyday activities has been steadily increasing since the turn of the century, the past few years have seen a dramatic increase in accessing online groups and social media for education, news, social support, and relaxation. Given the pervasiveness of internet and time spent online by children today, these virtual communities and cultures now play an important role in the development of their psyche and concept of self. From a psychoanalytic perspective, the individual’s ego (self) and superego (conscience) are developed through the internalization of external reality. Internalization is the process of unconscious assimilation of the external world, which is influenced by the relationships with parents, peers, and eventually, socio-cultural environment. From the preliminary assimilation, the individual’s self develops through a process of initial gradual distinction between the external world and the internalized objects, followed by the integration of the internalized images to form a composite. In contemporary society, the internet and social media also form part of this external world and play an integral role in the reality that is internalized. Despite the many benefits of online communities and social media for children (such as entertainment, socialization, and education), it is not without potential pitfalls. Due to the unconscious nature of the process of internalization, prolonged and unregulated access to online communities may influence the child’s development in a number of ways without their conscious awareness. In this chapter, I highlight these potentially negative influences on the child’s development due to their interference in the use of transitional space. The Winnicottian concept of transitional space refers to the experience of “formlessness” that allows the individual to remain in a state of “being” while negotiating the subjective internalizations and the objective external experiences, and this state is considered essential to the development of a healthy “true self.” I propose that through the use of focused meditative practices in their daily lives, the individual can continue to create a transitional space that allows for the development of the individual’s “true self” despite the external DOI: 10.4324/9781032632667-10

132 Anusnigdha interferences. The examination of internal reality during focused meditation allows the individual to consciously practice self-observation and reflection; in other words, it may allow them to achieve conscious awareness of the internal psychic process. Thus, the resonances between the traditions of meditation and psychoanalysis may help negotiate a more holistic sense of self despite the constantly impinging and intrusive nature of online communities and social media. The “True Self,” The “False Self,” and Transitional Space The psychoanalytic perspective emphasizes the salient role of the individual’s unconscious in their lives. Within this framework, object relations theories primarily focus on the importance of early interactions of the child with their caregivers on the organization of their psychic structures and personality, and thus, the development of early patterns in the experiences of their self. The child internalizes these early interactions in the form of self and object1 representations, and these internalizations and patterns of experiences with the external object form the foundations for later constructions of the intrapsychic and interpersonal functioning. To a certain extent, the object relations theories adopt the traditional tripartite model of the psychic structure comprising the id, ego, and superego. The id represents the repressed and unconsciously desired object relations; initially, these are the infant’s interactions with the parents. These early interactions of the infant with the caregivers – those that are idealized, sometimes considered prohibitory, and even perceived to be persecutory – are internalized in successive layers. These layers are gradually integrated to form the superego, the beginnings of conscience guiding the individuals. The ego is consolidated as an “integrated self-structure” within the representations of the objects and is responsible for negotiating with the dynamic, unconscious needs of the id and the externally constructed morality of the superego. In this manner, the child’s psychic life begins with internal needs and is influenced in its development by the external environment, starting with their primary caregivers. From a Winnicottian perspective, the role of the mother2 extends beyond simply physically caring for and interacting with the child. Healthy development requires the mother to create an environment for the child that is sensitive to their needs; she acts as a mirror to provide the infant with a reflection of their experiences. Winnicott refers to this process as creating a “holding environment” for the infant to be contained within. With appropriate mirroring from the mother, the child is able to begin the task of self-integration (Winnicott 1945). He describes this process of self-integration through mirroring for the infant as “When I look I am seen, so I exist” (Winnicott 1971: 134). The holding environment and mirroring play the vital function of “bringing the world to the child” by providing to the child what they need when they are on the verge of anticipating it. This creates a “moment of illusion” for the child, where they experience themselves as being omnipotent

The Development of Self in the Age of Social Media  133 and being able to conjure up objects (initially the breast3) to fulfil their needs that in fact the attentive mother is presenting. Repeated experiences of such spontaneous omnipotence allow the infant to form the basis of the development of a healthy self and to learn to interact with the external reality (Winnicott 1945). Conversely, interference in this process may affect the child’s capacity for self-experience and integration. Breaking the illusion of the child’s omnipotent phantasies4causes a lack of creativity and their ability to play, eventually causing intruding on the psychic development. The holding environment also allows for the space for the child to develop the capacity to be alone. Thus, the mother has to not only shape the world to the child’s demands (creating the illusion of omnipotence) but also provide a “nondemanding presence” when the child does not present any immediate needs. The ability to be comfortable in solitude – to simply be – is a central feature of developing a stable self. It is only when alone (that is to say, in the presence of someone) that the infant can discover his own personal life. (Winnicott 1958: 34) Developing the ability to be alone in this non-intrusive formless state and gaining the capacity to reach their maturational potential within the creative space allow for the possibility of developing a “true self” in the infant. Once the phantasy of omnipotence is established, the mother can begin the process of a “graduated failure of adaptation” – gradually allowing the child to give up the illusion of omnipotence by providing the transitional space to learn about the reality of the external world and his own limitations (Winnicott 1954). Thus, the development of the “true self” relies on the experience of transitional space. It represents a state of perception within which the infant is able to accept the boundaries of his powers and realize the independent existence of others. This allows the infant to negotiate a shift from a subjective self-centred experience to acknowledging his self among others. This shift in perspective is not linear nor final by any means, and the use of transitional space is beneficial to children and adults alike. For the infant, the transitional space allows for the development of the capacity to play and be creative. Similarly, in adults it represents a capacity to develop and create ideas and process thoughts in the face of objective reality. Consequently, the development of a healthy, stable self relies on this ability to play and be creative, established within an appropriate holding environment for the child to initially experience their omnipotence and eventually, their limitations – to be able to move from a state of complete infantile dependence to an independent self. Winnicott states, Individuals live creatively and feel that life is worth living or else ... they cannot live creatively and are doubtful about the value of living. This variable in human beings is directly related to the quality and quantity

134 Anusnigdha of environmental provision at the beginning or in the early phases of each baby’s living experience. (Winnicott 1971: 83) The process of the graduated failure of adaptation is essential to develop a sense of separation and differentiation from the mother, to face the external realities, and to realize existence as an individualized self. In other words, it marks the beginning of the ego functions within the infant. Intrusion or interference during this time is experienced as “impingement” on the process of development, leading to a “fragmentation of the infant’s experience.” In this situation, the child is unable to develop the capacity to be alone or selfintegrate, and so becomes “prematurely and compulsively” attuned to the needs of the mother instead. In the absence of the experience of the “formless quiescence” to develop an active ego or self, they respond instead to what is provided for them by the mother. Thus, the experience of impingement distorts the internalizations that should have led to the “true self,” instead leading to the gradual organization of a “false self,” one that is compliant to the mother’s attributes (Winnicott 1960). By complying with the external environmental demands, this “false self” serves to protect the integrity of the “true self.” It reacts in anticipation to presumed impingements, resulting in overactivity in the child as they develop, and leads to cognitive processes to become separated from bodily experiences. One of the pressing matters when considering the development of the self in contemporary society, then, is to acknowledge the dynamic role of the constant presence of technology and internet in the environment of the child that is to be internalized. The child’s presence in the virtual online environments and their social media subsequently interfere and constantly – actively – impinge in their transitional space. The effects of these intrusions can be seen increasingly in the adverse cognitive development, diminishing capacity to be alone, and increasingly developing a “false” sense of self – one that learns to respond to the cues of online communities and social media instead of the mother. Social Media: The Online Culture and Its Influence The rapidly developing technologies along with increased accessibility to the internet in the past few decades have led to a dramatic growth in the number of people networking online. Social media platforms and networks (such as Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter among others) initially grew in popularity by providing access to maintain and create relationships that were not limited by the physical realities of the individual. They have now evolved to become an inescapable facet of modern living, as internet use and social media profiles have become entrenched in and intertwined with many aspects of the offline world. These include practical day-to-day activities (such as education, travel, and shopping) as well as recreational activities (such as access to e-books, movies, gaming, and socializing).

The Development of Self in the Age of Social Media  135 In addition to becoming an unavoidable external reality that the child is exposed to, the underlying motivation to use social media platforms also plays an important role in the internalization process. These communities fulfil the basic human need for socialization with ease and in a manner complementary to traditional “offline” interactions and influences. The use of social media platforms is also particularly pronounced in younger populations, in terms of both amount and frequency. This is partly due to the fact that the younger populations have grown up with the pervasive use of the internet in society – as “digital natives” rather than transitioning to the connected world, like the older generations. It is undeniable that access to the internet, online communities, and social media have been invaluable to the exchange of knowledge and culture globally; however, for children and young adults, the everyday “offline” activities are now intertwined to some extent with online communities on social media. The unintended result of this virtual space is the internalization of certain aspects of these virtual communities that influence their development as seen in children and young adults now, which was absent in previous generations. It is important to note that while social media manages to fulfil the need for socialization to a certain extent, there are some distinct and important ways in which virtual socialization differs from in-person socialization (such as learning about facial and social cues). The adverse effects of the unconscious internalization of social media are enhanced by the engineered growth of these communities5to aid socialization; these influences affect the individual’s physical, cognitive, and psychological development, in addition to hampering real-world social relationships. The differences from socialization in person as mentioned above also result in the selective integration of the internalizations, leading to further psychological issues. The physical effects of social media use include increased sedentary behaviour, which is linked with obesity and health-related issues (DeMattia et al. 2007), and underdevelopment of the cognitive abilities in children such as lowered attention span and increased attention-switching due to the constant influx of online prompts and notifications; memory issues due to increased reliance on the internet rather than traditional internal knowledge; and decreased social cognition as a result of an inability to develop engagement with social cues (Achterberg et al. 2017). In addition, the virtual bubbles of social media groups offer an “escape” from the mundane daily reality. Such disengagement in some cases may overpower the individual’s grounding with reality and lead to internet addiction (Akyol et al. 2021). The effects on psychological development are also incredibly complex. By encouraging participation based on sharing content specifically created to highlight the presenter’s online persona as desirable, these virtual communities create a unique sphere of influence that is incomparable to traditional media. The sources of psychological distress are partly the easily quantifiable metrics within which the success (or failure) of social interactions online can be measured – for example, the number of interactions (shares/views) and

136 Anusnigdha popularity (followers/likes). Most social media platforms provide an analysis of these interactions (increase or decrease) to the individual in an effort to increase engagement from users. However, the immediate feedback on their content also has negative effects on individuals (especially younger users) relating to decreased social and emotional well-being, in the form of cyberbullying,6 increased perceptions of social isolation, exclusions, and feeling rejected online, as well as increased levels of anxiety and depression (Lin et al. 2016; Vannucci et al. 2017). The differences in socialization in-person and online can be seen to influence their behaviour and internalizations in three main ways. First, unlike physical interactions, social media platforms allow the individual to present themselves in a manner they would prefer to be perceived by others, which is then fine-tuned based on the feedback (the popularity) of their posts and interactions. Such community feedback has an enormous impact on the perception of the self-worth of the user sharing the content. Specifically, negatively perceived feedback (such as fewer interactions with the post) often leads to increasing levels of anxiety and changes in users’ future online behaviour. Second, in addition to being curated based on community feedback, the self-representations are often edited and “filtered” to an extent where they may not reflect the user’s physical reality. Increased usage of “filters” (that enhance and augment the users’ features while clearing any perceived flaws) for self-representation demonstrates a general lack of self-acceptance. Dissatisfaction with their physical reality in combination with the exposure to constant social media posts of hyper-successful individuals (which themselves are digitally manipulated to enhance the perception of their success or beauty) contributes to an increasing number of children and young adults experiencing of poor body image, negative self-worth, and unrealistic expectation of themselves (Crone and Konjin 2018; Royal Society for Public Health 2007). Finally, while some social media provide an opportunity to socialize in almost virtual anonymity, most platforms encourage the user to reveal much of their personal information regarding their lives. Although self-disclosure to peers (whether online or offline) has many benefits for the individual’s well-being, children and young adults are particularly vulnerable to and at risk for internet abuse and cyberbullying. Familial relationships may also be affected due to the parents’ involvement with social media. In one research, parents admitted to ignoring their children trying to share their thoughts and day’s schedule on multiple occasions due to their own preoccupation with online activities (Iannotti et al. 2009). Learning from their parents’ behaviour through imitation and internalization, these children tend to spend more time online than with their parents. In these cases, virtual communities on social media play a larger role in the development of their sense of self than usual. In addition, unregulated and unsupervised access to social media exposes children and young adolescents to a number of possible negative influences, including threats, cyberbullying, and inappropriate content.7

The Development of Self in the Age of Social Media  137 Social Media and Online Communities: The Relationship to Identity Development Given the unregulated nature of such communities, the content created by users is often closely linked to their lives – involving their emotions and thoughts – which are explored and internalized in relative anonymity without strict parameters. In comparison, the development of the self for previous generations (the digital immigrants) required that such internal explorations be based on physical relationships and immediate environments while being regulated by and restricted to parents, families, schools, and traditional media. While these traditional influences still remain, the digital natives have a nearunrestricted access to a larger, global, virtual society providing community feedback on their actions that influence their sense of self and self-worth. As the process of internalization and development of the psychic structures that regulate the self are primarily unconscious, the users are largely unaware of the extent of the effect of the online feedback on their physical, mental, and spiritual health. Research into the effects of social media on child development indicates that prolonged exposure to these platforms can lead to lowered cognitive capacities, such as shortened attention spans and lower social cognition. Children are also at risk for compounding mental health issues as well as vulnerable to exposure to inappropriate content. In addition, there are indirect effects which include decreased engagement with academics, possible withdrawal from physical social relationships, and interference with sleep patterns. While empirical research cannot measure the unconscious internalization of these experiences on the developing ego and sense of self, it provides the basis to hypothesize the internal world of the child. A child who has extended unrestricted access to social media faces psychic overactivity from the constant activity, notifications, and movement in the online communities and experiences constant impingement during the development. This drastically reduces the opportunities for them to develop the capacity to be alone and to engage in creative thinking. In such situations the ego is comprised of internalizations of experiences with objects that repeatedly and consistently disallow for the formless transitional space to just be, and as such, it is unable to develop the adequate resources or strength to become independent and separate. Rather than the mother’s impingement as described by Winnicott, the formation of a “false self” in children is now facilitated by the scientifically designed to be pervasive online virtual communities on social media. Yet, the innate instinct of these psychical structures is to preserve themselves; the “true self” withdraws deeper into the unconscious in order to protect itself (Guntrip 1961). It is not completely lost yet, and the “false self” functions to protect the “true self” – the regressed and undeveloped ego is passively responsive, awaiting the transitional space to foster growth and recuperation. In some cases, the ego might regress to a state of such passivity that it becomes completely depersonalized

138 Anusnigdha and the individual is now incapable of self-expression (which takes place in severe psychopathological cases). However, it is also possible to bring out the “true self” that is withdrawn and cease the work of “false self” that protects the individual from the continual impingements. This has been one of the tasks of psychotherapy. Psychoanalytic therapy aims to facilitate the process of making conscious in the present the unconscious internalized object relations from the past. The psychoanalyst facilitates the development of the transitional space and creates a holding environment to contain the individual (Bion 1962), thus allowing for the creative space for the individual to reintegrate their self. Often, the process begins with the early need for passive dependence, and the process of gradual adaptation – much like the task of the mother during the early stages of development – allows for the rebirth of a stronger, independent, and active ego.8 This aim of psychoanalytic therapy is parallel to the aims of meditative practices: meditation allows for the individual’s observations of their self in a manner that makes the unconscious internal motivations conscious to the individual. In this regard, the object relations theory in its broadest sense has been compared to the Abhidhamma model of the mind, the introspective process of scrutinizing aspects of internal thoughts, motivations, and subjective behaviour (Kutz et al. 1985). The use of focused meditative practices then, when considered in conjunction with an object-relational model, has the potential to provide a possible means to prevent, restrict, and even undo the development of the “false self.” Meditation and Object Relations Given the wide variety of meditative practices and the different philosophies associated with them, meditation can mean a number of things: it can refer to being able to turn inwards in observation of oneself, or the process of becoming conscious of consciousness, or even to consciously observe the present thoughts and feelings at a particular moment. It can be used as a process for self-liberation and self-realization and requires the commitment of the individual towards their psychic and spiritual development. Similarly, the process of psychotherapy involves the client’s commitment to understanding the root of their trauma as well as the unconscious defences that may be involved in the process of repression in order to promote a strengthened psychic structure for the individual. While there are some differences in the aims of psychoanalytic therapy and meditative practices, the approaches are not necessarily mutually exclusive. There is some difficulty in creating a dialogue between the two perspectives originating from the different understandings of the nature of cohesiveness and continuity of the self, and the different values attributed to key terms such as “ego” and “self” that are used in both traditions. However, despite the different values attributed to these concepts in both traditions, the basic

The Development of Self in the Age of Social Media  139 understanding of the terms is largely similar. From a psychoanalytic perspective, the ego is an essential psychological structure that allows for the organization in the individual’s day-to-day life, allowing for control over impulses, thought processes, and self-reflection. Thus, the ego is synonymous with the “self” and develops as a composite product of internalization of experiences and social interactions of the individual. Similarly, from a meditative psychological perspective, the sense of self is not innately physiological, psychological, or even spiritual but rather represents a state of consciousness that is constructed through representations of the significant objects in our environments. The differences in the values assigned to the nature of the ego or the self within the two philosophies relate to internal continuity and its relations to the external world. From a psychoanalytic perspective, the ego develops from continual internalizations, and the sense of self is characterized by a perception of this continuity and consistency. On the other hand, from the perspective of Vipassana meditation, attempts to maintain a personal continuity cause internal discontent and conflict in the individual. Thus, these differences lead to further discrepancies with regard to understanding the psychological issues that the individual may suffer from.9 To resolve these issues, psychotherapy focuses on re-developing a basic sense of self or creating a stable, integrated self-representation. The aim is to achieve the developmental milestone of ego development and object constancy. From a meditative perspective, this can be considered the root cause of all mental suffering. Instead, meditative practices focus on disidentifying from the construction of the self that the personal identity is grounded upon through the process of “transcending the ego” or achieving “egolessness” (Epstein 1990). Yet, the two are not at odds. Egolessness does not imply repudiating ego as the psychic structure that organizes and maintains our experiences, but rather, it represents the process of “unintegration,” ultimately resulting in the formlessness of the transitional space as emphasized by Winnicott in his writings. It marks a developmental achievement that fosters the ability to be creative and play (Winnicott 1971). Further, Englar notes that […] it takes a fairly mature level of ego organization just to practice meditation, especially forms of meditation based on observing the moment-to-moment mind-body process, and the fears, anxieties, humiliations, rages, depression, despair, self-doubt and even ecstasies which self-discovery entails. Clinically, meditation strengthens the ego rather than transcends it. (Englar 1984: 26, emphasis added) In my opinion, the two traditions while maintaining their differences are complementary and compatible when considering the development of the self. Specifically, when considering their utility in combating the impingement of social media in children’s development, a combination of the two traditions

140 Anusnigdha can be utilized in order to focus on self-observation through introspection in order to decrease the egocentric traits within the individual.10It is important to note that the meditative practices are not meant to be therapeutic by themselves in such a scenario but to aid the therapeutic process an individual might undergo. Employing aspects of meditation allows for personal responsibility and the recognition of unconscious defences and resistances that may have been employed. Despite the wide varieties of meditative practices and philosophies that guide them, the common underlying emphasis remains on the ability to create awareness within the individual, as well as being able to be able to tolerate and “let go” of the aspects that trouble them. This emphasis echoes the therapeutic aims of managing anxiety, decreasing narcissistic tendencies of the ego, and the ability to mourn the past to develop a new self for the future. Thus, the aim to shed the “false self” and allow the “true self” to emerge for the individual is an emphasis that is shared by both traditions. Meditation and Transitional Space, and Social Media Focused meditation is the practice of achieving tranquil relaxation through restricting and narrowing attention. It is an experience of contentment within a “formless state” of infinite space with the aim of simultaneously reaching “infinite consciousness” and “nothingness” at the same time (Goleman 1988). Such a state of being resonates with the experience of transitional space to develop the capacity to be alone as described by Winnicott, an essential and required experience to develop a healthy sense of self. Both traditions are similar in their emphasis on being present at the moment. Coltart (1992: 174) notes, The discipline of meditation practice enhances the discipline of one’s own contribution to an analytic session which sometimes is, in fact, almost indistinguishable from a form of meditation. The experience of the transitional space focuses on the individual “being alone in the presence of someone” (Winnicott 1958). While psychoanalytic therapy focuses on the role of the therapist to be able to create a holding environment that allows the client to be present in the moment, this capacity for “being” does not necessarily need an externally created holding environment. The tranquil, formless state achieved through the practice of focused meditations, allows for the creation of a similar environment. While there are many ways to do this, research indicates that even simple mindfulness exercises, such as focusing on their breath during stressful moments, are helpful to individuals to increase awareness in the moment. Other exercises include focusing on a single object in front of the individual (such as a candle or point on the wall). These activities are essentially meditation techniques aimed at creating a narrowed focus to allow for awareness of any experience, thoughts, or emotions that may arise, without selectively focusing on it. Thus, the aim

The Development of Self in the Age of Social Media  141 is to create a state of being, both perceptual and non-perceptual at the same time. At this stage, the individual can enter the transitional space. The role of the transitional space in negotiating outer reality with the inner subjective experiences is key to allow for the emergence of the “true self.” Winnicott (1971: 3) describes this space as: It is an area that is not challenged, because no claim is made on its behalf except that it shall exist as a resting-place for the individual engaged in the perpetual human task of keeping inner and outer reality separate yet interrelated. To a certain extent, the online communities and social media provide such a space for the individual’s internal negotiations, which allow the restructuring of identities. Adolescents use the virtual communities as a “testing-ground” for their emerging identities during the process of negotiating their internalizations. In this manner, the virtual identity created by the individual does influence the real, offline experiences of the individual. This is seen to be beneficial for LGBTQ+ adolescents (Miller 2017), individuals with disabilities (Miller 2017), and gender non-conforming adolescents (West et al. 2021). At the same time, it has also led to an increase in extremist identities (Radlauer 2007) and misogynistic and sexist tendencies (Mantilla 2013). Thus, the use of social media and online communities is one that can be beneficial for adolescents who are seeking a community to interact with likeminded individuals, especially for those who do not have these resources available in their physical environment. At the same time, the unconscious internalizations of the virtual environment have a number of potential drawbacks for the developing sense of identity for children and adolescents, particularly those who are vulnerable. Possible harm also includes reduced cognitive abilities and decreased psychological health of the child. While parents may try to ensure regulated and supervised access to the internet for children, this may not be practically possible in all situations. The online communities and social media have a particularly developed lure to escape from reality, an attraction which the parents themselves may succumb to. The use of social media for digital natives and immigrants alike has become entrenched and nearly inescapable. The influence the virtual world carries in terms of impingement and internalizations and blurs the boundaries of virtual and psychic reality in more complex ways than could be considered at their inception. The experience of using online communities can be supportive, even beneficial, if it is used consciously as a transitional space to negotiate between the internal struggles and objective, external reality. It offers helpful communities within which identities can be “played” with and carefully curated to reflect the needs of the individual’s “true self.” Yet, it is imperative that these negotiations are carefully and consciously acknowledged. Much of the issues related to social media use for the development of the self arise from the unawareness of the extent of the internalization of the

142 Anusnigdha virtual world. Conscious use of the beneficial aspects while regulating physical activities and interactions can reduce the negative impact immensely. In such a manner, awareness of the aspects that are internalized can help curate the “true self.” To this end, the practice of focused meditation can be utilized to create an awareness within the individual akin to the creation of transitional spaces. By allowing for the possibility of unintegration, development of creativity, and the capacity to be alone through focused meditation, the individual may be able to maintain a strong sense of their “true self” despite the prevalence of and exposure to the impingement of the online communities and social media. Focused meditation allows for the individual to maintain such an awareness and to reduce the harm on the development from the constant impingement that the prolonged exposure to social media may cause, thus enabling them to use online communities to develop a transitional space within which they can be creative – and simply be. Notes 1 In this framework, the term “object” is a theoretical concept to describe the internal representations of the external individual. 2 Winnicott used the term “mother” in his writing interchangeably with “primary caregiver”; the term is gender neutral in its usage and refers to the first object representation for the infant. 3 The term “breast” here refers to the whole process of mothering the child. He writes, When it is said that the first object is the breast, the word breast is used, I believe, to stand for the technique of mothering as well as for the actual flesh. It is not impossible for a mother to be a good-enough mother (in my way of putting it) with a bottle for the actual feeding. If this wide meaning of the word breast is kept in mind, and maternal technique is seen to be included in the total meaning of the term. (Winnicott 1951: 206) 4 The term “phantasy” is used within psychoanalytic literature to refer to the representations of the contents of the unconscious desires, instincts, and frustrations, as opposed to conscious “fantasies” of the individual, such as daydreams. 5 The increase in social media use over the years has not only been a natural result of technological advancements; it takes intensive research and careful engineering to make them as addictive as possible to users (Alter 2017). 6 In 2008, nearly one-third of children using online digital learning platforms experienced cyberbullying at some point (Boyd and Ellison 2008). By 2021, the number has been seen to have increased to up to 46% (Zhu et al. 2021). 7 Even toddlers and younger children spending time on age-appropriate games and videos available online on YouTube are at risk as malicious agents work in bypassing the age-appropriate filters in order to expose children to harmful content. This was recently demonstrated by what is referred to by some as “Elsagate” (Han & Anisngkar 2020). 8 This process has been referred to as “the new beginning” (Balint 1952). 9 For example, many of the clinical psychopathological issues have been noted to be related to disorders of the self, such as failures or regressions in establishing a cohesive self (Kohut 1977) or self-concept (Kernberger 1975). In contrast, within meditative psychology, the psychopathologies are considered to originate from the

The Development of Self in the Age of Social Media  143 presence of an ego as well as the feeling of selfhood. For example, attavadupadana (atta: self or ego; upadana: material cause) represents the process of attachment to personal existence, which is the source of suffering originating from attempts to preserve the self (Nanamoli 1976; Williams et al. 2002). 10 In fact, there has been an increasing number of psychoanalytic practitioners who seek to integrate the practice of meditative mindfulness with psychotherapy (such as Coltart 1996; Cunningham 2006; Epstein 2006), focusing on strengthening the ability of the ego to be able to have higher levels of tolerance.

References Achterberg, M., van Duijvenvoorde, A. C., van der Meulen, M., Euser, S., BakermansKranenburg, M. J. and Crone, E. A., 2017. The Neural and Behavioral Correlates of Social Evaluation in Childhood. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 24, pp. 107–117. Akyol, N. A., Ergin, D. A., Krettmann, A. K. and Essau, C., 2021. Is the Relationship Between Problematic Mobile Phone Use and Mental Health Problems Mediated by Fear of Missing Out and Escapism? Addictive Behaviors Reports, 14, p. 100384. Alter, A., 2017. Irresistible: The Rise of Addictive Technology and the Business of Keeping Us Hooked. New York: Penguin. Balint, M., 1952. New Beginning and the Paranoid and the Depressive Syndromes. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 33(2), pp. 214–224. Bion, W., 1962. The Psycho-Analytic Study of Thinking. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 43, pp. 306–310. Boyd, D. and Ellison, N., 2008. Social Network Sites: Definition and Conception. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 13(1), pp. 210–230. Coltart, N., 1992. Slouching Towards Bethlehem. London: Free Association Books. Crone, E. A. and Konijn, E. A., 2018. Media Use and Brain Development During Adolescence. Nature Communications, 9(1), pp. 1–10. DeMattia, L., Lemont, L. and Meurer, L., 2007. Do Interventions to Limit Sedentary Behaviours Change Behaviour and Reduce Childhood Obesity? A Critical Review of the Literature. Obesity Reviews, 8(1), pp. 69–81. Epstein, M., 1990. Psychodynamics of Meditation: Pitfalls on the Spiritual Path. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 22(1), pp. 17–34. Goleman, D., 1988. The Meditation Mind. Los Angeles: Tarcher. Guntrip, H., 1961. The Schizoid Problem, Regression, and the Struggle to Preserve an Ego. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 34(3–4), pp. 223–244. Han, W. and Ansingkar, M., 2020. Discovery of Elsagate: Detection of Sparse Inappropriate Content from Kids Videos. Novi Sad: IEEE. Iannotti, R. J., Kogan, M. D., Janssen, I. and Boyce, W. F., 2009. Patterns of Adolescent Physical Activity, Screen-Based Media Use, and Positive and Negative Health Indicators in the US and Canada. Journal of Adolescent Health, 44(5), pp. 493–499. Kernberger, O., 1975. Borderline Conditions and Pathological Narcissism. New York: Jason Aronson. Kohut, H., 1977. The Restoration of Self. New York: International University Press. Kutz, I., Borysenko, J. Z. and Benson, H., 1985. Meditation and Psychotherapy: A Rationale for the Integration of Dynamic Psychotherapy, the Relaxation Response,

144 Anusnigdha and Mindfulness Meditation. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 142(1), pp. 1–8. Lin, L. Y. et al., 2016. Association Between Social Media Use and Depression Among US Young Adults. Depression and Anxiety, 33(4), pp. 323–331. Mantilla, K., 2013. Gender Trolling: Misogyny Adapts to New Media. Feminist Studies, 39(2), pp. 563–570. Miller, R. A., 2017. My Voice Is Definitely Strongest in Online Communities: Students Using Social Media for Queer And Disability Identity-Making. Journal of College Student Development, 58(4), pp. 509–525. Nanamoli, B., 1976. Visuddhimagga: The Path of Purification by Buddhaghosa. Boulder: Shambhala. Radlauer, D., 2007. Virtual Communities as Pathways to Extremism. NATO Security Through Science Series E Human and Societal Dynamics, 25, p. 67. Royal Society for Public Health, 2017. Social Media and Young People’s Mental Health and Wellbeing [Online] Available at: https://www​.rsph​.org​.uk​/our​-work​/ policy​/social​-media​-and​-young​-people​-s​-mental​-health​-and​-wellbeing​.htm. Vannucci, A., Flannery, K. M. and Ohannessian, C. M., 2017. Social Media Use and Anxiety in Emerging Adults. Journal of Affective Disorders, 207, pp. 163–166. West, A., Wada, K. and Strong, T., 2021. Authenticating and Legitimizing Transgender and Gender Non-conforming Identities Online: A Discourse Analysis. Journal of LGBTQ Issues in Counseling, 15(2), pp. 195–223. Williams, P., Tribe, A. and Wynne, A., 2002. Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition. London: Routledge. Winnicott, D. W., 1945. Primitive Emotional Development. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 26(3–4), pp. 137–143. Winnicott, D. W., 1951. Transitional Objects and Transitional Phenomena—A Study of the First Not-Me Possession. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 34(2), pp. 89–97. Winnicott, D. W., 1954. Mind and Its Relation to the Psyche‐Soma. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 27(4), pp. 201–209. Winnicott, D. W., 1958. The Capacity to Be Alone. International Journal of PsychoAnalysis, 39(5), pp. 416–420. Winnicott, D. W., 1960. Ego Distortion in Terms of True and False Self. In: The Maturational Processes and the Facilitating Environment. London: Routledge. Winnicott, D. W., 1971. Playing and Reality. Middlesex: Penguin. Zhu, C., Huang, S., Evans, R. and Zhang, W., 2021. Cyberbullying Among Adolescents and Children: A Comprehensive Review of the Global Situation, Risk Factors, and Preventive Measures. Frontiers in Public Health, 9(1), p. 634909.

Part II

Rethinking Media Studies New Horizons of Theory and Practice





9

Unorthodox Coalitions Co-Creative Media Initiatives for Transformative Critical Sustainability Studies Susan Thieme and Eda Elif Tibet

In sustainability-related studies, there is a growing agreement on the need to work across different fields of knowledge and expertise – not only within the relatively narrow circle of academic scholars but far beyond it. In addition, we understand that we have the possibility to shape not only the content of our research but also its context (e.g., van der Leeuw 2018). We can actively contribute to collectively seeking and creating the forms of sustainability through which we research and teach (see Greenberg 2013: 58). Therefore, we need to better understand the alliances and coalitions taking place around the practices of sustainability (Scoones 2016: 307), and how they respond to the need to acquire certain skills, namely understanding complexity, emphasizing relationships, and thinking relationally (van der Leeuw 2018). In this chapter, we reflect on our experiences of driving co-creative media initiatives through the establishment of unorthodox coalitions. These coalitions contribute to mediate, co-produce, and disseminate transformative narratives through the development of innovative educational tools and media (such as films, film festivals, and multimodal and audio-visual interventions) around sustainability.1 To frame our reflections, we draw inspiration from debates around the scholarship and movements on transformative education and the potential of transdisciplinarity as a path towards transformative learning. This set of perspectives seems crucial for universities to deal with complex societal developments such as in/justices, unequal access to and use of resources, demographic change, im/mobility, and migration. To become seedbeds for regenerative practices, it is essential to not only conduct transdisciplinary research but also incorporate transdisciplinarity into teaching. If we want to encourage students to become agents of transformation, they must be equipped with transdisciplinarity-focused competencies and skills and become inspired to apply an integral and holistic approach to enhancing societies and communities (Schieffer & Lessem 2016). According to Lange (2019), sustainability education becomes most transformative when it addresses all three levels of change: (1) Western epistemology (ways of knowing, nature of truth); (2) ontology (ways of being, nature of existence); and (3) cosmology (nature of the universe) and ethics (nature of moral values and conduct). DOI: 10.4324/9781032632667-12

148  Susan Thieme and Eda Elif Tibet At the same time, a transformative educational lens reveals the need for universities to also transform themselves (COPERNICUS Alliance 2012). Seeing justice as an integral part of sustainability (e.g., Mani 2002; Agyeman et al. 2003; Greenberg 2014; Janker & Thieme 2021) allows us to raise critical questions on the whole way that universities function. Relying on a nested understanding of justice (e.g., Fraser 2018; Sheller 2018: 35), the entire process of knowledge production in higher education raises questions of access to knowledge, participation in shaping conditions of education, procedures for consent and understanding, pro-active knowledge co-production, transparent procedures, and recognition of knowledge and of equal value. The following reflection on our collaborative journey thereby also resonates with debates on “commoning,” emphasizing the social and political transformation and relational processes of social organization inherent in the commons (de Angelis 2017; Caffentzis & Federici 2014; Helfrich & Bollier 2020). Our question is: how can we (re-)claim higher education? And how can we create spaces for transformation and emancipation through “commoning” of knowledge and co-creation to bring a critical stance to sustainability studies? How can transdisciplinarity be implemented in research and teaching in a co-creative way, addressing and including people with a broad range of knowledge, experiences, expertise, and expectations? In the following we reflect on how we explore and experiment with “unorthodox coalitions” that we foster at the mLAB, a media lab at the Critical Sustainability Research Unit in the Institute of Geography at the University of Bern, Switzerland. Situated within Swiss academia yet tied to transnational networks from Europe, the Middle East, Africa, and Asia, our media lab works along an international and transdisciplinary spectrum. At the intersections of human geography, visual anthropology, news media, arts, and digital technologies, this chapter places the need for establishing unorthodox coalitions in dialogue with Escobar’s relational ontologies (2015) in defining what is “the transformative.” We first describe why unorthodox coalitions should take place from the outset as well as the formation and general character of the mLAB.2 Then, we present three examples of how we use the mLAB collaboratively to contribute to transformative learning and education in sustainability research by using media and digital research methods. First, we share the example of teaching transdisciplinarity by applying the social learning video method, second that of implementing the Global Science Film Festival and a filmmaking marathon, and finally we discuss “Animating the Commons,”3 an applied research initiative that dwells mostly on multimodality and participatory action research methods. Setting up the Media Lab (mLAB) as Transformative Education and Learning The mLAB is an experimental space encouraging researchers and students to co-create, test, and critically reflect on new forms of transdisciplinary

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collaboration. While we acknowledge other labs and creative spaces such as Harvard’s Sensory Lab, MIT’s Co-Creation Studio, Aarhus University’s Eye and Mind Lab, and University of Basel’s Critical Media Lab, geography as a discipline has not created many spaces explicitly for research and artistic collaboration (besides providing technical infrastructure), targeted towards a critical engagement with digital media. Established in 2017 by Susan Thieme, the mLAB received faculty seed funding and became a co-led space with the participation of the geographer Carolin Schurr and the artist Mirko Winkel, grounding a team of scholars and artists whose interest is to discover new directions and imaginative formats within and beyond geography (Thieme et al. 2019; Truong & Schurr 2019). The aim of the mLAB is to make news media, art, and digital technologies an integral part of research activities and to develop unorthodox coalitions of aesthetics and geography. Besides making research results visible to different publics, the mLAB focuses on creating sensorial routes of knowledge production in a collaborative and collective manner. The inspiration for such a lab goes back to Thieme’s PhD and postdoctoral experiences of transdisciplinary and collaborative work in filmmaking on mobilities in South and Central Asia (The Other Silk Road, 2008; Thieme 2010). Experiencing the urgent need to support alliances and challenge standard formats of research collaborations and publishing practices, she aspired to enhance institutional support and recognition into collaborative research in academic environments. Combining research, teaching, and outreach, the mLAB provides a platform for questioning and exploring: (1) contemporary digital media practices in gathering, analysing, and communicating data and research; (2) the potential of artistic research in different academic fields; (3) how different sorts of data or material (quantitative, qualitative, visual, and digital) can be handled aesthetically; and (4) how art can help to generate another sense of meaning alongside mere logics of utilization. As we constantly develop our teaching approach, students are encouraged to explore the large variety and multimodality of media, such as gallery shows, performances, designs, apps, games, makerspaces, maps, diagrams, and prototypes (Collins et al. 2017: 143) and the potentials, challenges, and the politics behind each. Unorthodox Coalition 1: Teaching Transdisciplinarity through Practice Partners and the Social Learning Video Method Facilitated by the mLAB, our first example of an “unorthodox coalition” is a course for Masters’ students, teaching transdisciplinarity (Thieme & Fry 2021). Transdisciplinary research claims to co-produce knowledge on societal problems through collaborations among researchers from different disciplines as well as actors from civil society, administration, and private sector. At universities, transdisciplinarity has a difficult positionality, often

150  Susan Thieme and Eda Elif Tibet being equated with private sector, contract-based research, and conflictive disciplinary thinking (Bammer et al. 2020). However, transdisciplinarity addresses complex problems of societies as a whole, seeking solutions oriented towards societal transformation (e.g., Hirsch Hadorn et al. 2008; Jahn et al. 2012; Paulsen & Pohl 2009; Pohl 2011; Roux et al. 2006; Schneider et al. 2019; de Jong et al. 2016; Schneidewind et al. 2016). Different competencies are needed to deal with complexity, such as working with different styles of thinking, specialized terminologies, and values from different fields of practice (Gonser et al. 2019; Hoffmann et al. 2019). Alongside the capacity for teamwork, facilitation, and presentation, specific methods are needed to enable the intensive exchange of arguments, observations, experiences, and solutions, which serve to build bridges between disciplines and foster action outside research (Defila and Di Giulio 2019; Kruse et al. 2015). Another related field of inquiry is enabling students as agents of change,4 to develop their own critical stand on transdisciplinarity and developing their skills to deal with complex problems and collaborations (Herweg et al. 2016; Miller et al. 2011; Trechsel et al. 2020; Wilhelm et al. 2019; Thieme & Fry 2021). Thieme and colleague, Patricia Fry, translated the Social Learning Video method into a 12-week teaching format. The task of the seminar is for 20 students to work jointly on one social learning video – all of them experiencing the process of co-production and collaborative work. Together with practice partners, we used this method to identify approaches to future practices of daily mobility, using the example of Swiss railway stations. By jointly developing a video with stakeholders, this method builds a bridge between science and other working environment and practices, making visible and audible views, thought styles, and transformative knowledge of different actors. These videos also trigger learning processes in the networks of the target group. The development of a social learning video highlights and reflects on negotiation processes and dimensions of sustainability as well as different forms of knowledge (Fry 2018; Fry & Thieme 2019). The distinctions between different forms of knowledge (Wuelser et al. 2012) create a link between problem analysis (system knowledge) and solution-finding (goal and transformation knowledge). By experiencing and analysing these forms of knowledge via a thematic example, students can better understand their significance for society. If students experience the joint development of a social learning video and its effect in cooperation, mediation and implementation in society, they can then link it to conceptual readings, but also apply it in their own work. The production of the video initiated a lively exchange between students, practice partners, and lecturers. The ongoing discussion of the video’s aim, the process of filming, the discussion of raw material at different stages, and the final production of the final video initiated a constant reflection on the process, as well as what becomes part of the video and what to leave out. In a transdisciplinary learning process, actors with different understandings of science, practice, and general values come together. Independent learning

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is important for the students to recognise their own professional perspectives and value standards as well as others’ perspectives. Reflecting on one’s own thought style and broadening one’s own subject-specific perspective is a first step towards transdisciplinary work and transformative thinking. Furthermore, students go through a transdisciplinary problem-solving cycle. They learn to define societal problems, develop, and analyse research questions, interview stakeholders and moderate group discussions, create a framework for a successful exchange of knowledge, integrate different forms of knowledge, and present and implement results. Finally, they gain insight into the organization of a project, into communication and negotiation with practice partners, and into larger social and institutional contexts. They also benefit from the experience at the beginning of the course that the direction the transdisciplinary research process and the cooperation of external partners and students will take is not entirely clear. Teaching transdisciplinarity also changes the role of lecturers and students. Besides the students’ learning process, all participants gain knowledge. Lecturers are no longer at the centre of teaching but instead act as facilitators and guides, encouraging an atmosphere of shared learning and trust (Thieme & Fry 2021; Fry & Thieme 2021; Schneidewind et al. 2016). Students have a key role in the research cycle and the creation of the social learning video, where they are encouraged to take initiative. Furthermore, practice partners bring their own ideas and demands on the teaching project. They often appreciate insights into a changing university and teaching environment and bring together different generations, whose exchange and cooperation is an important contribution to practice partners’ present and future needs. Transdisciplinary and research-oriented teaching challenges many institutional and structural aspects at the university, including university standard processes of examination and evaluation. The mLAB offers an anchor for explorations and creating simultaneously stable and challenging conditions, including encouraging students to take risks, deal with uncertainties and changes, and develop the trust in themselves to grow with the tasks (e.g., Kligyte et al. 2019). We argue that the openness of this process demonstrates its important potential and enables collaborations with people and institutions beyond academia. The second “unorthodox” coalition we present is the Global Science Film Festival, including a film-making marathon. Coalition 2: Global Science Film Festival

As described in the chapter introduction, universities themselves must critically reflect on their working practices to be able to contribute meaningfully to a more just world. Academic discourses produced in higher education are still often rooted and sustained in small circles of interest, targeting a limited and privileged audience. The conventional form of scientific dissemination is through journals or conference presentations in formal educational settings

152  Susan Thieme and Eda Elif Tibet that often celebrate the finished final product: a paper, book, scientific documentary, or ethnographic film. These products often exclude their own research participants who are usually not made co-authors, as knowledge co-producers. Possibilities of co-authoring are often not even debated, due to institutionalized norms and rules about symbolic value and status of formalized (higher) education, lack of institutional support, and other intersectional differences such as places of origin, gender, or language. Western science, particularly, has a history of clear divisions in ascribing who is whom: “the researcher” versus “the researched”; what is perceived as “science” versus “art”; a hierarchical assignment of roles; and a hegemonic gaze when it comes to identification and therefore representation of academic knowledge (Sen 2006). By highlighting various ways of knowing, we provide examples of how we access, maintain, conduct, activate, document, analyse, transfer, transform, and cooperate in knowledge production by encouraging the interlocutors to produce and co-produce their own media narratives. By working in the fundamentals of decolonial and co-creative participatory methodologies, beyond simply advocating for collaboration, our research practices as the authors of this paper adapt to reflect on issues of power, ethics, knowledge production, representation, application (Low & Merry 2010), co-creation, and transformation. As part of mLAB, Thieme brought the Global Science Film Festival to Bern, the capital of Switzerland. The festival was founded and initiated by Samer Angelone in Zurich, and since 2019 the festival has been co-directed with Thieme, in collaboration with forthcoming local cinemas in Bern and Zurich. Building bridges among science-art-publics has been at the heart of this coalition, grounded in the assumption that barriers to broad communication can be overcome in part through films and festivals. Our goal is for bridging to occur within Switzerland and internationally, between filmmakers and scholars, and among different professions, areas of knowledge, and audiences, as well as cities. The festival hosts jury-selected films by professional and non-professional filmmakers who deal with global issues and challenges from different fields of social and natural science. In moderated discussions audiences, filmmakers, and local researchers explore how the films connect current societal developments with scientific debates. The event allows audiences to get to know the latest films and the professional work behind them. It opens these experiences to the public, alongside scholars working and students studying in university spaces, which are often perceived in cities as “black boxes” except by university staff or students themselves. When combined with a course on curating science events, students become part of the festival organizing team. They receive insights into how such events are organized, reflect on the process of filmmaking and the different people involved, and on the power and politics of how films are selected, presented, and discussed. Furthermore, students play an active role in the curation, organization, and moderation of the films. They work on the design and dissemination phases and have the chance to encounter a

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different learning experience by meeting researchers, directors, and protagonists of the films. Along with the film festival, Samer Angelone regularly runs filmmaking and photography marathons where professional filmmakers teach researchers to turn their research contents into short films. By promoting film and showing alternative ways of research communication, Angelone (2019; Angelone et al. 2020) also contributes to using the researcher’s potential in a transformative way. The marathons enrich the festival alongside to the hosting of short films created by university-based researchers. Since the filmmaking process is often collaborative and interactive, the provision of a dedicated space for the associated set of practices promotes interaction between students and lecturers, students and younger researchers and their peers. The laboratory thus becomes a space for collaborative communication. In one filmmaking marathon we had 21 students in different stages of their education (BA, MA, PhD, and Post-doc) participating. Over two days, students learnt how to use the camera and edit their films by producing a common film project. Co-author Tibet led a working group of postdocs and PhDs, who preferred to work on editing the already-researched material from their field work. They produced short films on gender equality in Malawi, eradicating poverty in Rwanda, environmental justice in Ghana5, and agricultural technologies in Switzerland. The phases of scripting story boards to communicate their scientific work and to edit their research work into short films helped clarify and articulate their research aims and goals. The Global Science film festival and the filmmaking marathon reveal how such events create spaces for mediation for various forms of co-creation. When science meets visual media, one can expect the emergence of undiscovered new possibilities and the mediation of scientific action itself. Such as the engagement then continued with close collaborations among the workshop participants and co-author Tibet at a science outreach event called Our Common(s) Story Forum6 hosted by the EthnoKino.7 EthnoKino is an ethnographic, multimodal visual anthropology film screening and training programme (Doc Impact Lab for Mov(i)ement Fellows) based in Bern, dedicated to visionaries and pioneering storytellers. Advocating for a cinema of the commons is spreading across the world with new collaborations in Mexico City, Berlin, Patagonia, Marrakech, Pune, Istanbul, and more. EthnoKino, a cinema-based pedagogic formation, has been a research platform with teaching assistant credits at WBK Kolleg of University of Bern is constantly being developed at Animating the Commons research initiative as a trailblazing multimodal anthropology training programme. Unorthodox Coalition 3: Animating the Commons an Applied Research Initiative

Media is a field heavily preoccupied with the unconscious; all the stimulus that circulates has potential internalized and behavioural effects. It is with

154  Susan Thieme and Eda Elif Tibet this inherent ontological conflict that “what is there” to “see” or to “look at” sits at the heart of the power-charged field of media studies. Leach, Scoones, and Wynne (2005: 5) argue that, rather than being new, ontological conflicts that challenge “modernity and its hegemonist scientific culture” seem almost to define our times. These kinds of conflicts have gained unprecedented visibility in part because the hegemony of the story of modernity is undergoing a crisis (Blaser 2013: 5s48). According to Escobar (2015), this is a politico-conceptual problem that views everyone as “we are all modern” and that the cultural differences that exist are between perspectives on one single reality “out there.” This rules out multiple ontologies, generating an ontological conflict, the conflict between realities, or “contradictory form[s] of consciousness” (Fabian 1983: 146). All-encompassing modernity engulfs cultural differences when it assumes all contemporary cultures are modern because they have engaged in transformative interactions with Europe. Therefore, to disrupt this discourse, we need telling and analysing stories to let us see how epistemologies and ontologies from the South have their own knowledge recognition and marks to make on the world (Blaser 2013). To visualize stories from the Global South within Critical Sustainability Studies, the co-authors of this paper initiated “Animating the Commons,” an applied research initiative that engages in participatory action research and multimodal medias, founded and led by Tibet in 2020 and hosted by the Critical Sustainability Unit at the Institute of Geography at the University of Bern in close partnership with the “Enacting Global Transformation” research initiative founded and led by Theatre of Transformation Academy8 situated at the University of Oxford. The initiative, sitting at the interface of critical sustainability studies and visual and multimodal anthropology, combines an approach of systems change, social innovation, and mobility justice particularly looking at just conservation and sustainability transformation. It closely looks at the commons and commoning practices of hope and transformation within local to global scales. Adopting a visual and multimodal anthropological lens, the initiative investigates post-colonial connectivities around news media narratives, from regenerative cultural landscapes to transformative pedagogies. Today the initiative hosts multiple partnerships and collaborations as unorthodox coalitions with various networks, foundations, charities, TV channels, collectives, associations, film festivals, and educational platforms. The initiative hosts various independent research projects that are branded as social innovations, of which some we will be exploring in this chapter are as follows: (1) Our Common Films by KarmaMotion, (2) Co-Create & Transform, and (3) High Atlas Cultural Landscapes . Our Common Films by KarmaMotion,9 a visual anthropology and multimodal media collective, identifies itself as a collective of media producers aiming to cooperativise knowledge production through engaged scholarship and storytelling. The collective was set up by visual anthropologist Eda Elif Tibet in 2011 and then with the joining of Inanç Tekgüç

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in 2018. Upon their graduation in social and visual anthropology they came up with the vision that research partners would become equal shareholders in their own stories, narration, and representation. Following on the participatory and collaborative work of luminary visual anthropologists like Jean Rouch, Timothy Ash, and David and Judith McDougall, and prominent filmmakers like Dziga Vertov and Werner Herzog, Karma Motion experiments in its own co-creative and transformative filmmaking style and research approach. The latter usually takes place in people’s most intimate spaces, their homes. Home might be a nomad’s yurt turned healing space (AMCHI, 2013) or an unending road questing for green grasslands amidst water scarcity and climate change (Hey Goat!, 2014; Ait Atta: Nomads of the High Atlas, 2020). It might be a troglodyte’s cave home transformed into a UNESCO World Heritage Site, or a commodified boutique hotel (28 Days on the Moon, 2012; Awakening a Fairy Tale, 2024), where sentient ecologies are still to be reconciled among humans, fairy chimneys, and pigeons (Tibet 2011; Tibet 2018). It might be a refugee’s bedroom turned home music studio (Refugee Here I Am, 2015), a living room become a choir’s rehearsal space (Ballad for Syria, 2017), or a visionary’s home converted into a rural university campus, a “Humaniv-EARTH-Sity” (Home for Humanity, 2023). Karma Motion has been telling unique stories in people’s homes as the transformative site and source to begin intimate co-creations since 2011. Karma Motion collaborates with nomadic tribal leaders, Tibetan healers, transitional justice experts, catalysts, pedagogues, human rights activists and advocates, musicians, forcefully displaced peoples enduring lives in exile, scientists, journalists, and students from different countries. Since we do not perceive cultures to be static entities, we perceive changing environments and dealing with uncertainties as part of our work. We flow and infuse into each other’s world views, cosmologies, and epistemologies as we look deeply into relational ontologies. Our collaborators are therefore not the mere subjects of our scientific inquiry. They are seen and received as the partners of knowledge co-creation and mediation: our engagements also manifest themselves in academic publications, particularly in the fields of media and displacement (Tibet & Yogurtcuoglu 2018; Tibet & Deeq 2019). Co-Create & Transform focuses on Performance Ethnographies for Critical Sustainability Research & Practice initiated by Rama Mani and her Theatre of Transformation Academy. We join forces with the “Enacting Global Transformation Initiative,” which has been based at the University of Oxford since 2013 and will move to the mLAB in 2023. We build relationships to enhance and transform higher education curricula into co-created decolonial and multimodal media narratives, by working through performance ethnographies. In the premises of our transformation work, we adopt Jung’s concept of the transcendent function (Jung 1957, see also Miller 2004), as we define transformation to be predominantly a process of “inner/soul work.” We explore

156  Susan Thieme and Eda Elif Tibet and seek a “wholeness of self” to begin the transformation process that takes place through individual self-exploration, as well as via small group explorations (Lange 2019). In a particularly relevant initiative, which offers an example of the search to achieve wholeness with oneself and the surrounding world, Karma Motion collaborates in realizing and giving further visibility to Home for Humanity.10 This educational association and rural home campus aims to establish itself as a Humaniv-EARTH-Sity.11 The rural campus was founded by Dr. Rama Mani and Prof. Dr. Alexander Schieffer, who co-lead a St. Gallen University BA & MA Course, “Agents of Transformation” as part of the university’s International Development track. The rural campus also has been hosting Schieffer’s transnational doctoral program run by TRANS4M.12 Schieffer and Mani ask their students to act as agents of transformation by shifting symbols and archetypes that comprise collective narratives. Their Quest for Humanity and Homes for Humanity programmes foster profound connectedness to the rest of the living world. It moves beyond egobased relationality, supporting students to engage with emotional and symbolic content (Lange 2019: 4) with the assistance of the four directions of the integral compass (Schieffer & Lessem 2016). Creating an all-inclusive learning model with Global & Southern epistemologies, Schieffer and Mani also bring in outstanding guests (ambassadors to the UN, leaders, doctors, healers, social enterprise founders, deans, policymakers, activists, human rights defenders, movement leaders, Right Livelihoods, and Nobel Peace Prize laureates) from across the globe under what they have called the Earth Alliance and Earth Pioneers. The Alliance reflects on (and practices) ways to contribute to safeguarding humanity on earth and providing the means to do so to next generations, by offering mentoring to co-create an all-inclusive home on earth for all cultures. Starting from the Alliance’s Quest for Humanity, the questers can take five steps to reach a state of what Schieffer explains to be a double heart-beat process: “from an Integral Self-Home to an earth home in unity” (Home for Humanity 2021). Karma Motion collective is working to create visualizations of these programs through the documentation of these transformative learning processes and stages and conducts research at the program’s rural campus, bridging the initiatives with the mLAB to engage with cultural and regenerative landscapes.13 The mLAB has initiated a coalition with Karma Motion and Home for Humanity, to start and be part of such processes of dialogue among a variety of relational ontologies by creating more inclusive, co-creative, and participatory spaces for knowledge production. Moreover, both thrive when they create and hold transformation, yet initiate a transcendent function that is crucial to the processes of collectivity. In doing so, they achieve a pluriverse of forms of knowledge through storied-performative enactments (Blaser 2015: 552). In this context, media is a sphere and promoter of such engagements and sees beyond the dichotomy of rational and spiritual ways of being through mindfulness and decolonial practices of the mind.

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High Atlas Cultural Landscapes

Since mobile pastoralism has been a prominent form of land use in most of the world’s drylands, as national boundaries shift and harden, and the establishment of nature reserves expands, transhumant pastoralists are at risk of being displaced from their lands globally. For mobile pastoralists to adapt and be resilient, access to information is needed more than ever before, particularly to sustainably manage their lands. With participatory audio-visual research methods, mobile pastoralists can acquire and share knowledge, observe, and document land use and changes in political discourses. With the right tools and information, mobile pastoralists can improve resilience by mitigating and better adapting to environmental stressors and regional and international threats. Our research projects thus intend to empower communities to find venues where they can raise their voice and find legislative and practical support in sustaining and improving their livelihoods. Participatory films can be used as non-text policy arguments and address a wide array of audiences outside the confines of formal space. Our engagements with mobile pastoralists raise awareness, break down prejudices, create further solidarity among transnational communities, and inspire an ongoing active public debate on the major themes with their target and wider audiences. The major aim of these transdisciplinary participatory media projects is to communicate and explore the importance of local knowledge on mobilities and regenerative practices. We contribute to ongoing debates about challenges and changing perceptions of nomadic life by transforming the stages of filmmaking into a learning and communication platform (Thieme 2012). With case studies of Moroccan mobile pastoralists and French shepherds, Karma Motion collected audio-visual testimonies from participating family members on their opinions on sustainability, climate change, and regenerative pastoralism. On the one side, there is a family who longs for modernity and wishes to move from the High Atlas Mountains to the city, and on the other side there is a family who has moved from a modern urban lifestyle to the rural site in France and has become cheese-producing shepherds and farm holders, neighbouring Schieffer and Mani’s global rural campus Home for Humanity. Conducting audio-visual research, Karma Motion then distributes pastoralists’ and shepherds’ narratives through creating their own media platforms such as websites and social media14 in coalition with the shepherds’ own associations, who make use of the visuals to showcase their concerns, services, and products. One other example of the use of such media creation in the dissemination of new narratives on sustainability is regarding a recent online exhibition depicting photographs, videos, and films at a collaboration with the Virtual Museum of Human Ecology of Madrid.15 With the two case studies, one from the South (Morocco) and one from the North (France), we aim to show a relational ontological perspective by showcasing a nominally

158  Susan Thieme and Eda Elif Tibet (non)modern (Indigenous tribal) family and a seemingly (ex)modern family (moved to rural France) as examples that identify unique human stories of adaptation, regeneration, resilience, and resistance to situations of distress and unsustainability. We show how these two examples collide and diversify in their approaches to sustainability, as they create new narratives to address the challenges both families face. The project aims to explore the know-how and tools being developed by pioneering farmers and herders who are in support of the transition towards regenerative pastoral and terrestrial agriculture in this region and beyond. One Geography MA student has already adapted her master’s thesis to analyse the intergenerational future perspectives among Moroccan mobile pastoralists which she compared to her own visual fieldwork with different generations of shepherds in Switzerland (Schilliger 2022), she heavily drew on a KarmaMotion film; “Ait Atta: Nomads of the High Atlas” broadcast at ARTE TV16 and distributed by Green Planet Films across all libraries in the Americas as an educational documentary film.17 Conclusions In a continuous effort for a co-creative search on new narratives for sustainability that is grounded in how humans make decisions, as critical sustainability scholars we seek to understand how the world we live in works. The narratives we develop to make sense of the world play a central role in shaping our decisions about how to solve global problems. Unorthodox coalitions like those described above support our (and the media lab’s) vision to co-create inclusive spaces not only in the mere sense that it welcomes participants from a variety of backgrounds but also in the unbounded sense of acknowledging and recognizing the pluriverse of ways of being in the world. It allows us to know that the Earth exists beyond epistemologies, ideologies, ontologies, and schools of thought. Instead, it is present all at once, in a transformative relationship that is continually inspiring change. By initiating unorthodox coalitions and unconventional alliances, it is possible to transform our understanding of sustainability by bringing the mind and spirit together. Multimodality is not only about being reflective in the way we create media artefacts together; it is also hidden and contained in the political process of co-directing films and co-publishing academic papers together with research participants. Through these acts of co-production, we attempt to decolonize authority, to equalize the flow of political power by addressing and making visible the invisibilized. Through this kind of shared engagement, we argue that healthier relationships can then be established in the field. We can then come up with ways towards innovative solutions to the problems faced by those most impacted in work to achieve sustainability. Some of the co-creative and participatory transformative methodologies and processes possible within the making of scientific films with the

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aforementioned partners are yet to be discussed in future case studies and form the basis for ongoing mLAB’s empirical research. We argue for a need to re-establish ourselves within our disciplines, to serve as a creative commons as we look for manifestations and practices of open science. Being situated in a wealthy country like Switzerland, we acknowledge that we are operating within the superstructures of high inequality. Hence our opening the university up to the public and our attempts to co-direct and co-author with research participants and partners can be seen as attempts to decolonize and open up these spaces of unjust distribution of power, knowledge, and status that are fuelling “unsustainability.” Such transdisciplinary engagements by scientists and media creators with the private sector, civil society, and policy actors are currently much needed to bridge universities with non-academic segments of society. In our view, then, critical sustainability means first facilitating possibilities to learn how to co-create knowledge, how to negotiate, and how to enable different voices to be heard. Then, it invites and facilitates a participatory media critique for emancipatory understandings of and by the people being researched. By enabling people to use media for their own benefit and empowerment, they at once become agents of transformation themselves, through unorthodox coalitions, multimodal media co-creations, and earth alliances. Notes 1 Development has been connected to sustainability for the first time, during the 1980s (Lange 2019). 2 mLab – Institute of Geography. No space at Thun station. 2019. Searching for sustainable development of space. https://www​.youtube​.com​/watch​?v​=l2IXRKVxz5Q (Accessed January 22, 2023). 3 Animating the Commons: www​.animatingthecommons​.com 4 A term coined by Prof. Dr. Alexander Schieffer who refers to students as “Agents of Change” and “Agents of Transformation” as part of his Integral Development BA Course developed at St. Gallen University and Trans4m Academy for Integral Transformation: https://www​.trans​-4​-m​.com (Last Accessed: January 01, 2023). 5 PhD Candidate James Natia, “Stop the Gold Rush”: https://vimeo​.com​/392572404 has particularly created great intrigue among the other participants and has been shared within various environmental networks and circulated among other viewers of interest (Last Accessed January 01, 2022). 6 Post-doctoral researchers, Timothy Adams, Eda Elif Tibet, and Sebastian Boillat, came together in a forum discussion hosted by Ethnokino “Our Common(s) Future,” right after the screening of “Ait Atta Nomads of the High Atlas,” a film directed by Inanc Tekgüc & Eda Elif Tibet. https://www​.ethnokino​.com​/post​/our​ -common​-s​-future (Last Accessed January 01, 2022). 7 EthnoKino is dedicated to visionaries and pioneering storytellers across the globe and is an international action community of practice, working towards systemic change through the power of authentic and meaningful storytelling. www​.ethnokino​.com (Last Accessed December 04, 2023). 8 Theatre of Transformation Academy champions the emerging power of humanity to shape our shared future through a transformative methodology and global programmes. https://the​atre​oftr​ansf​ormation​.org (Last Accessed December 04, 2023).

160  Susan Thieme and Eda Elif Tibet 9 KarmaMotion is a multimodal Anthropology production house run by a collective of media makers and scientific, cultural artistic collaborators, producing fictional and non-fictional films, photography, design, audiovisual interventions, books, and website creations and in opening new channels for new media narratives around sustainability, heritage, and regeneration, particularly with mobile pastoralists, transhumants, migrants, and refugees: www​.karmamotion​.com (Last Accessed January 01, 2022). 10 Home for Humanity was founded by Alexander Schieffer and Rama Mani with family board founding members Pius Leutenegger, Thais Corral, Arjuna Hiffler Mani, and Eda Elif Tibet in September 2019 in France. Official Web Site: https:// www​.homeforhumanity​.earth (Last Accessed January 10, 2022). 11 Humaniv-EARTH-Sity by Home for Humanity https://www​.homeforhumanity​ .earth​/one​home​univ​earthsity (Last Accessed December 04, 2023). 12 TRANS4M was co-founded by Professor Ronnie Lessem and Professor Alexander Schieffer in Geneva, Switzerland, in 2006, and is hosted by St. Gallen and Da Vinci Universities. Having worked and lived on literally all continents, Ronnie and Alexander recognize the uniqueness not only of each individual’s potential but also of the particular genius and inimitable contribution of each society: https:// www​.trans​-4​-m​.com​/community​/our​-founders/ . 13 KarmaMotion has become a core ally in multimodal media work from co-designing a new website for Home for Humanity, to producing a “Humanity Charter” video https://www​.homeforhumanity​.earth​/humanity​-charter, and making a documentary film on the unfolding story of creation. Karma Motion collective not only assists in giving further visibility towards the making of the “Humaniv-EARTH-Sity” but also becomes the media partner in spreading the vision across the world: https:// www​.karmamotion​.com​/home​-for​-humanity (Last Accessed August 02, 2022). 14 Au Rythme du Troupeau, a shepherds family farm house and culinary eco-tourism enterprise specialized in goat pastoralism through which they produce artisan cheese and yogurt https://www​.aurythmedutroupeau​.fr (Last Accessed December 04, 2023). 15 The exhibition titled “Territories of Life on the Edge: Mediterranean Mountain Pastoral Commons” is curated by Dr. Pablo Dominguez researcher in Toulouse France and is co-authored by various participants. The virtual audio-visual installation highlights Mediterranean mobile pastoralists own assemblies in self-governing the commons in four cases: Spain, Montenegro, Turkey, and Morocco. KarmaMotion takes part as co-authors, with both its Turkey and Morocco cases in photographs and films; http://museoecologiahumana​ .org​ /en​ /history/ (Last Accessed: January 01, 2022). 16 Ait Atta Nomads of the High Atlas broadcast on ARTE TV https://programm​ .ard​.de​/TV​/Themenschwerpunkte​/Dokus-​-Reportagen​/Alle​-Dokumentationen​/ Startseite/​?sendung​=287244000944514 17 Green Planet Films Distribution of Ait Atta Nomads of the High Atlas https:// greenplanetfilms​.org​/products​/ait​-atta​-nomads​-of​-the​-moroccan​-high​-atla

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Sen, Amartya (2006): Identity and Violence: The Illusion of Destiny. New York: Penguin Books. Sheller, Mimi (2018): Mobility Justice: The Politics of Movement in an Age of Extremes. Verso, New York. Thieme, S., & Fry, P. (2021): Transdisziplinarität praktisch erleben: Prinzipien für die geographische Hochschullehre. In Wintzer, J., Moosig, I., & Hof, A. (Eds.). Prinzipien, Strukturen und Praktiken geographischer Hochschullehre. Hamburg: UTB, pp 105–118. Thieme, Susan, Eyer, Philipp, & Vorbrugg, Alexander Benjamin (2019): Film VerORTen: Film als Forschungs- und Kommunikationsmedium in der Geographie. Geographica Helvetica 74(4), pp. 293–297. Thieme, Susan (2012): “Action”: Publishing research results in film. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung 13(1). https://doi​.org​/10​.17169​/fqs​-13​.1​.1671 Tibet, E. E. (2011): Tourism Impact among the Cave Dwellers of Cappadocia: From Troglodytes to modern houses. In Kozak, M. (Ed). Sustainability of Tourism: Cultural and Environmental Perspectives. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, pp. 44–75. https://www​.cambridgescholars​.com​/download​/sample​/60568 Tibet, E. E. (2018): The sentient ecology of Cappadocia: Dove cote paintings, pigeons, vineyards cave dwellers and fairy chimneys. Biodiversity Journal of Life and Earth 19(3–4), pp. 225–236. https://www​.tandfonline​.com​/doi​/full​/10​.1080​/14888386​ .2018​.1546125 Tibet, E. E., & Yogurtcuoglu, G. S. (2018): Displaced in Media: Advocacy Publication. Case study from Turkey on the good practices of participatory film making with unaccompanied asylum seeking youth (Book Magazine edited by European Culture Foundation funded and published by Erasmus + Project). https:// static1​.squarespace​.com​/static​/526​e597​8e4b​0b83​086a1fede​/t​/5c1​76c0​c40e​c9a9​ be8d2b48f​/1545038867582​/ECF​-Magazine​-displaced​-in​-media​_updated​_DEF​.pdf Tibet, E. E & Deeq, A. (2019): DENOVO: Photography as a way of finding place in the world, presenting Abdi Deeq’s art-work (Also in French: De Novo: La photographiecommeunefaçon de trouversa place au sein du Monde). Revue Jeuneset Mineursen Mobilite Journal 4, pp. 18–36. https://f​.hypotheses​.org​/wp​ -content​/blogs​.dir​/1716​/files​/2018​/12​/JMM4​-VL​.pdf Truong, J., & Schurr, C. (2019): Global geographies of the intimate: New research group at the University of Bern. GeoAgenda 1, pp. 8–10. Verband Geographie Schweiz (ASG). Trechsel, L. J., Steinböck, C., AyeriOgalleh, S., Zimmermann, A. B., Herweg, K., Breu, T., & Lannen, A. (2020): Unlocking knowledge for sustainability: Partnership-based research and education. CDE Policy Brief, No. 17. Bern: CDE. https://www​.cde​.unibe​.ch​/research​/cde​_series​/policy​_briefs​/unlocking​_knowledge​ _for​_sustainability​_partnership​_based​_research​_and​_education​/index​_eng​.html van der Leeuw, Sander (2018): Closing remark: Novel approaches to complex societal change and sustainability. Sustainability Science 13, pp. 1589–1596. Wuelser, G., Pohl C., & Hirsch Hadorn, G. (2012): Structuring complexity for tailoring research contributions to sustainable development: A framework. Sustainability Science 7(1), pp. 81–93. Wilhelm, S., Förster, R., & Zimmermann, A. (2019): Implementing competence orientation: Towards constructively aligned education for sustainable development in university-level teaching-and-learning. Sustainability 11(7), pp. 1891–1913.

164  Susan Thieme and Eda Elif Tibet Films: Thieme, Susan (2008) The other silk road: Documentary Film. Team: Susan Thieme, XonzoiBarbora, Ahmed, Kazu; Bardoloi, Ushma; Kashyap, Sushmita. NCCR North-South & Panos South Asia. https://vimeo​.com​/89387343 Thieme, Susan (2019) Kein Platz am Bahnhof Thun: Social Learning Video, Institute of Geography, University of Bern. https://www​ .youtube​ .com​ /watch​ ?v​ =l2IXRKVxz5Q Tekgüc, Inanc & Tibet, Eda Elif (2020) Ait Atta: Nomads of the High Atlas: Documentary film Directed by InancTekgüc & Eda Elif Tibet, in association with Global Diversity Foundation. Co-Produced by KARMAMOTION: https://www​ .karmamotion​.com​/aitatta Tibet, Eda Elif (2012) 28  Days on the Moon: Documentary Film Directed by Eda Elif Tibet, 54 minutes, broadcast by IZ TV and HABITAT TV. Produced by KARMAMOTION: https://www​.karmamotion​.com​/28​-days​-on​-the​-moon Tibet, Eda Elif (2013) AMCHI: Documentary Film Directed by Eda Elif Tibet, 57 minutes,Leh, Ladakh India in association with Ladakh Society for Traditional Medicines, broadcast by IZ TV and HABITAT TV. Produced by KARMAMOTION: https://www​.karmamotion​.com​/amchiand https://www​.amchikarmachodon​.com​/ the​-film Tibet, Eda Elif (2014) Hey Goat!: Documentary Film Directed by Eda Elif Tibet, 47 minutes, Turkey in association with Doga Foundation and the Mediterranean Consortium for Nature and Culture. Produced by KARMAMOTION: https:// www​.karmamotion​.com​/hey​-goat Tibet, Eda Elif (2024) Awakening a Fairy Tale: Documentary film Directed by Eda Elif Tibet. Broadcast by Habitat TV. Produced by KARMAMOTION: https:// www​.karmamotion​.com​/awakening​-a​-fairy​-tale Tibet, Eda Elif & Ikah, Enzo (2015) Refugee Here I Am: Documentary Film Directed by Eda Elif Tibet & Enzo Ikah, 84 minutes, Turkey. Produced by KARMAMOTION: https://www​.refugeehereiam​.net Tibet, Eda Elif & Alhafez, Maisa (2017) Ballad for Syria: Documentary Film Directed by Eda Elif Tibet & Maisa Alhafez, 47 minutes, Turkey. Produced by KARMAMOTION: https://www​.balladforsyria​.com Tibet, Eda Elif, Schieffer, Alexander & Mani, Rama (2021) Home for Humanity: Documentary film Directed by Eda Elif Tibet, In association with Home for Humanity Foundation. Co-Produced by KARMAMOTION: https://www​ .karmamotion​.com​/home​-for​-humanity

10 Recreating Global Media through Propitious Hermeneutics Instigating Possible Earthly Prospects for Mankind Ruth Neyah V Introduction Media areas are profoundly important areas of our lives, and we seem to be trapped within them in the era of the internet and social media. There is always uncertainty in dialogue and always an expression of latent aggression. The Indian media has significantly improved over the last 15 years. Slow but steady private ownership and deficit spending therefore ended in expanded amusement-seeking forum rather than serving the people of the nation with required news reporting. However, when this definition of violence exists, until one finds “nothing besides” violence in it, the fundamental point is missed, namely that the vital power to stop violence without procreating it in new ways could only exist in the potentiality of thorough purpose and our emphasis on this aim. Satyagraha is a multi-dimensional movement of being with and fighting for the facts, not just a political tool. It is not stuck in the logic of self-and-other opposition. Satyagraha aims to establish a field that seeks and stands for the truth. Transposition movements and many hermeneutics are involved in Satyagraha. I claim with a modern Satyagraha hermeneutics and study how Satyagraha is an essential part of liberal democracy, and constitutional democracies turn legally valid objects without Satyagraha. Satyagraha is a sphere of morality, culture, and duty, and they are subjects that go beyond the dualism of oneself and others, and at the stages of oneself, others, society, and the universe, both local and planetary Advaita, understand Advaita (non-duality). I often refer this to Lokasangraha’s awareness of the union of people for the profit of everybody else. The stages and areas of emerging of oneself, others, and the universe are Swaraj and Satyagraha. They are places of compassion and conflict, aggression, and nonviolence challenges that allow us to transcend our own alienation, disintegration, and re-connect. However, this relation relies on elegance, integrity, and discourse. Thus, the Swaraj and Satyagraha ventures are both part of a modern art form. News organizations might well encounter a level of complexity in connecting to the vehement presence of “post-truth” and “biased media” as key indicators of the news culture situation, the subject of both numerous writings in print media and a series of new editions. DOI: 10.4324/9781032632667-13

166  Ruth Neyah V And besides, concerns as to the uncertainty and precarity of what has been openly presented as the “fact of the matter” have largely been attributed to analysis in cultural anthropology and the excess sociocultural dimensions of global news investigation. Comparably, the concept of information containing a fair estimate of sometimes intentionally fabricated content, as a matter of editorial decisions itself or even the techniques of manipulation used mostly by journalists, is quite common nowadays. It is indeed important to remember the distinction between all the “post-truth” mark and “manipulated news” considering the points of integration. “Post-truth” seems to be a self-consciously magnificent concept of epochal change (negotiating strongly on perceptions about an “age of facts” we evidently enjoyed ever since). Firstly, it would want to place the tags “fake news” and “false facts” in a kind of an extended and expansive context, within which consideration is provided to past objective analysis in media and also to the range of formats in which tactical influence may happen deliberately and perhaps even. It will, therefore, be quite cautious with its own use of terminology. While beneficial for catching timely publicity, their sensationalism also carries a propensity for sensationalizing and redefining, which may impose severe restrictions and persistent difficulties (Bhaskaran et al. 2017). Among many other aspects, they disregard the fact that the current lively discussion of issues in various contexts suggests that “reality” as a criterion, while perhaps weighted differently, has certainly not been discarded. Primarily, it focuses on established relations mostly with current and comprehensive variety of skills on transition including both media environments globally as well as in “public realm and procedures have to be rendered to reorient explicitly what is really ‘fresh.’” “Humbug media,” as suggested, also requires placing only within the history of media studies to the major concerns of truthfulness in broadcasting as well as the long-standing question of exactly what the “headlines” as a word encompasses and what it does not. The extensive proven track record of media manipulation needs extensive focus (Neuman et al. 2011). Alongside what’s been unfolding, but largely in the periphery within these debates, seems to be the shifting social and economic criteria wherein citizen status is also now experienced in many nations as well as the fears against presumed manifestations of the “chief” and the “established” which are thus being created. Those doubts may propel democratic reformation but they may provide an avenue for more, innovative strategies of just the unreliable as well as the intentionally misleading. Ethics, Aesthetics, and Responsibility of Media The media has a significant and nuanced impact onto how humans perceive and influence the globe. From news reporting and fact-checking to the airing of soaps, dramas, and documentaries they provide everyone with information

Recreating Global Media  167 and entertainment and aim to improve our knowledge of the world in frequently subtle ways in which the media interact with and influences our faith and essential values. Generally, however, considering the mass media’s growing existence and its impact within the globe arise a variety of ethical and social questions that ought to be answered (Bradshaw & Howard 2018). There seems to be, possibly, a distinction among newspaper and television coverage herein. Numerous individuals focus on news as the main repository of information for news, world news, global events, consumer concerns, and suchlike. Having been willing to see the reporter or narrator and whatever is on the frame ensures that perhaps the viewer could to a degree believe his/her eyes instead of depending exclusively on the term. After all, in one way this indicates that there is even greater space for misleading propaganda if the power of media coverage would be in the hands of the wrong people, but the viewer could also take the origin into consideration. But as for the blatancy of the textual content, this may not be the place to go through this antique and incredibly deep relevant question, so let’s say that it is a dilemma that we often solve at a practical level in our ordinary routine. Even when we are provided details, through papers, television, the Internet, or some other medium, we have really no alternative than to use our intelligence to examine it all for accuracy. This refers as much to a characterization of a term or textual content. There is indeed no overall guarantee of the factuality of news reporting (Corner 2017). Much as today the profession of broadcast journalism is lampooned on television; therefore, there is a long history of criticism against the idiocy of the newspaper industry before the television era. Although there have been reporters who’ve already chosen to stand out of the mainstream since their righteousness seems unshakeable, their impact on the broader media landscape remains limited. Rather widely this seems to be an idea that further views media as playing a valuable, perhaps inevitable, role in the society, offering the understanding, the interpretation, the debate, and the opinion beyond where a contemporary multicultural society could never thrive (Kieran 2002). This leads us directly to the overt cultural rationale for the nature of journalism including such ideologies as “the press freedom,” although the free dissemination of news and commentary is a prerequisite of a liberal country. Relating probably at least to the dual picture of news is a two-sided fact within which the sides refute instead of complementing each other. Firstly, media is a business sector, a big player in the revenue business system, and reporters are solely employees in that industry, motivated by a need to earn an income. Secondly, journalism is a discipline, a career choice based on ethical principles which guide and regulate the behaviour of the professional. Since attempting to exist in every one of those is challenging, if it is not conflicting, further interpretation and study is called for. There seems to be no denying that media is a big industry (Rao & Johal 2006). Additionally, media is too small a term: this is the era of technology. The media are multidimensional, global, and entwined: newspapers, magazine

168  Ruth Neyah V articles, radio, films, blog posts, satellites, cellular networks, and the online world are gradually falling under the influence of a number of corporations that are focused everywhere and which target a higher revenue, greater income, and wider economic impact. One of the ironies of the national political system is that, while getting elected is often seen as the primary goal, the real challenge lies in achieving something once in office. Therefore, governance entails more than just winning elections; it involves the arduous task of accomplishing tangible goals. Journalists intensify the blatant hypocrisy by reporting politicians again at the peak of their campaigns or re-elections and paying even less importance to their decision-making in the election process. A lack of relevant mentoring, particularly ethical training sessions, is impacting journalists’ perception of topics such as confidentiality and clarity. In almost any case wherein viewers and distributors engage in media, ethical problems notify all stages of the development, propagation, and acceptance. This seems to be evident in the manner wherein we define global media, the global situations in which we position ourselves, reflections about how or why occurrences have unfolded when they have, and what boundaries of actions are available to us considering the happenings. What really is confounding, though, is that regardless of the fact that in regular interactivity we always formulate the meaning and our experiences with media in formal terms, there is a popular misunderstanding that the significance of media and news are, in any basic level, “flimsy.” Amidst the constant usage of ethical terms, many appear to maintain that ethical issues are of minor significance in the practice of multinational media and news, at least in contrast with the tactical concerns of gaining an audience in a fractured media sector or the strategic aims of shaping political fact or fostering social reform. The preceding explanations are found by some to be self-evident (Rao & Wasserman 2015). Firstly, it can be said that the press literally put up the mirror to choose from truth, but it is a reflection of respective cultures as well as state governments’ policies and principles, a mirror that represents the fight between cultures for it and for supremacy instead of just the identification of shared ethical objectives. Secondly, instead of just viewing media as a conduit among “each other” we frequently see it as an instrument, with moral principles that are clearly distinct. The prime goal of ethical theory nowadays is to turn it into an improvement life cycle that, from blatant stereotyping to patriotism to realism, questions prevailing types of myopic morals. In terms of philosophical innovations, we ought to be revolutionary, implementing universal morality and international media ethics with our digital society (Patterson et al. 2018). Changing Forms and Morals in Indian Media Our attention in this section on the evolving system of media and moral values in India will be on the core structure of the media and its effect on media professionals and reporters, rather than on corporate governance trends.

Recreating Global Media  169 Media ownership trends in India have been shifting at a fast rate in recent years. Recent cross-media firms have been founded by tightly run familyowned news outlets which have gone public. Any privately owned media firms have addressed themselves on the capital markets as well. After globalization, especially after the introduction of televisions, the negative effect pushed several other media to go absurdly commercial, resulting in metamorphosis. By pleasing metropolitan consumers with better buying power, these business interests succumbed to mollifying tactics. The advent of enticing programming on 24-hour news channels and reality shows has impeded the word-processing patterns of millions of people in India. Classic family magazines and newsletters, as well as print’s scope, are increasingly slipping away. The degradation of vocabulary began when private companies started to influence language use, compounded by the entry of non-professionals into the field (Galloway et al. 2013). Two distinct media trends emerge in India: the traditional practice characterized by a dynamic, multicultural, and relatively independent press, juxtaposed with the modern tradition of state-controlled television and radio. Most critical analysts are likely to conclude that the first is a valuable practice with all its defects, inconsistencies, and ethical lapses, whereas the latter is a dejecting and mostly misguided ritual, reflecting a frittered great political and transformative potential. Now over two centuries old is the Indian news. Its attributes were primarily influenced by its political history and, in specific, by its affiliation with the fight for independence, as well as interaction, modernization, and improvement movements. The long campaign for democratic decolonization, social policy scandals and struggles, progressive and democratic ambitions and movements, impulses to negotiate and fight, and the rivalry between journalism’s identity and social utility premonitions have all been expressed in the Indian media’s nature and success over the long term. In the first instance, the strong connection between the movement of new India for political and social freedom from colonial thraldom and colonialism and the roots and growth of the Indian press is at the core of the ancient media nostalgia’s seriousness, importance, and public-spirited focus. Additionally, certain plurality and pluralism as well as a space for the voicing of divergent views are part of the historical legacy. The Indian press’s plurality and pluralism can be said to illustrate the subcontinent’s immense geographical, linguistic, socioeconomic, and cultural stratification. The hegemony of the press and media has grown overwhelmingly in wealthy nations, destroying plurality, pluralism, and the moral standards of professional journalism. Exploitative patterns and coercive pricing policies focused on rising market share and crushing profit motives have also been observed in the press sector in India. A duopoly or monopoly has been created in certain newspaper business markets in India. Finally, for those within Indian press culture, there have and will always be fierce personal and political divisions.

170  Ruth Neyah V However, there are more severe concerns with the Indian press’s growth direction than intrinsic inequality and unevenness. The scaling down and undermining of editorial features and data in certain prominent newspaper organizations; systemic streamlining, followed by some kinds of economic research; the expanding likelihood within newspapers to regulate reporting, commentary, and comment to meet the investors’ political and economic desires; the reverting and depriving editorial features and information in certain prominent newspaper organizations; the structural homogenizing by some types of market research; the rapidly increasing desire inside newspapers to censor news, data, and discussion to satisfy the investors, hypercommercialization; aggressive marketing and coercive tactics to overwhelm and destroy competitors in the feeding grounds of many other publishers, creating concerns about media empire; confidential deals with businesses that threaten the freedom and integrity of journalism; and fraudulent practices such as corruption and protection racket for positive publicity are profoundly troubling phenomena (Parthasarathi &Athique2020). Evolution of Media It is important to understand information environments and media markets from an evolving theoretical prism, as diverse studies of media structures and technology have demonstrated. From this angle, we see that in reaction to shifts in their external climate, segments of the entertainment industry appear to adopt particular evolutionary trends. These environmental factors may assume the shape of modifying socio-cultural circumstances or developments in the digital workplace. For example, analyses have already shown that emerging socio-cultural factors, such as growing schooling or per capita growth, can change the environmental circumstances of the media in contexts that more or less influence the degree to which a given medium is used, but even how it is used and also the quality of the information it offers. For example, expanded literacy helped bookselling switch from targeting just the better educated and monetizing the material that appealed to such a group to a field that represented an even broader spectrum of expectations of the public. Advances in technology seem to have been a principal factor in bringing innovation, especially changes in accessible media technology. Very often, those shifts have really been influential in switching media from the mainstream stage to what is being referred to as the “customized” point, where more advanced media technologies often fail to stay competitive in the global market of digital media rivalry. A real development process of digital media evolution was formulated by Lehman-Wilzig and Cohen-Avigdor; it’s a six-phase framework which summarizes the alterations that a medium undergoes during its growth, in their case, the Internet. This framework provides a good starting point for initiating a particular theoretical and conceptual course, although that doesn’t

Recreating Global Media  171 break from linear or cyclic tactics. Considering the project’s tacit linearity, the writers understand the importance of taking a methodical approach: “although some research has concentrated narrowly on a single platform, today’s diverse media landscape necessitates an intermedia technique as emerging media propaganda grow into older media.” We may say that almost every modern media is directly influenced by the replication of various initial technical devices, languages, and processing grammar. The medium, from such a viewpoint, is also a platform that organizes results in major and symbolic elements, precious stories, and conceptual concepts. Firstly it situates the idea of audience development in with a sense of bringing innovation and what is referred to as audience awareness rationalization. In terms of the technical and analytical context that they offer, both of these mechanisms are critical to the idea of audience development that is being introduced here. Secondly, it sets out the three key components of the viewers’ evolutionary paradigm that is being established here. One of it being the transition in media usage trends that is now taking place. These improvements communicate not only with one another but with the model’s second main component: the dynamic existence of the viewer’s knowledge systems. The word “viewer’s information systems” applies to a wide variety of continuously emerging methods for collecting data on an increasing number of aspects of audience behaviour. The emerging design of consumer information systems offers crucial new inputs on how advertising firms conceptualize (and generate revenue) existing audiences (Napoli 2008). Accordingly, what is referred to as strategic business opposition and bargaining is the third main feature of this framework. A fresh conceptualization of the viewing public arises from this often contested process, which includes stakeholders ranging from service providers and marketers to people groups and politicians, and is adopted by an adequate large percentage of relevant stakeholders to enable the viewer’s global market to continue to make progress proactively. The final section outlines the chapter’s key points and addresses potential research prospects. The technology developments that are changing how viewers experience media are one main factor of contemporary viewer evolution. The advertising ecosystem is evolving in aspects that are drastically altering how and where viewers watch content, pushing media groups to reconsider their target audiences. Media/audience polarization and audience autonomy are two main trends that all these developments have created, and hence the two key factors that entertainment companies must implement in a re-conceptualization of their viewers (Napoli 2011). Many of the stages and protocols listed here will intersect and, considering the variety of media and contact perceptions, be in multiple stages of progress at the same time. Other media are trying through some kind of dictatorial process as a new paradigm appears, and traditional media are getting accustomed in order to thrive. Both media, it should be said, go through experimental phases at some stage in their lives, either reconstructing or

172  Ruth Neyah V being replicated. The numerous media evolve in parallel, but these parallel lines appear to intersect. Media: A Medium Controlling Human Minds Since this comes to self-reported results, the complexities of calculating media attention expand. Self-reported press coverage, as many researchers have found out, is potentially vulnerable to being misleading. These hazards may result from cognitive or motivational causes. When self-reports of media consumption are unreliable due to perceptual causes, inaccuracies of data gathering lead to an inaccurate information. When asked about specifics of media attention in polls, for example, people may be unable to remember them and must rely on theories to respond. Differences between people’s motives to write on, or partake in, a specific topic contribute to unequal reporting of attention to the topic when selfreports are problematic due to emotional factors. Self-reports of sensitivity to offensive content, such as abuses, for example, vary depending on people’s proclivity to offer socially acceptable responses. Similarly, motivational variables that anticipate attention to a particular message can potentially be mistaken with message comprehension and memory, which can contribute to self-reports of media attention being distorted. Two recent developments in people’s viewing environments have intensified the challenges around selfreported media consumption assessment. For instance, digital media technologies have advanced, and media has become more accessible (Couldry 2009). As a result, audiences are susceptible to considerably greater entertainment material than they have ever been accustomed to before, and this consumption exists almost everywhere, at every moment, and even concurrently when they multitask. For instance, it has been discovered that 80% of teens use other media when watching television. Likewise, while on the phone, the bulk of college students multitask; they talk while playing computer games or check social networking sites while sending an email. The modification of media consumption habits in today’s media landscape has numerous implications for estimating self-reported exposure, including perceptual and motivational factors that may lead to incorrect self-reports of exposure. To continue, we might avoid intending to quantify global exposure to a specific medium – that is, time spent with a given medium or technology. Since it is still commonly used, this method of exposure calculation is straightforward to analyse and applies itself well to cross-study comparisons. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, however, worldwide exposure measurements were blamed for their inconsistent statistical results and low validity (Kohli-Khandekar 2008). These hypotheses are usually concerned with the influence of specific material or structural properties of a media or technology on desirable outcomes. Second, we must look at the kind of content that we are involved in as precisely as possible, for instance, by measuring accessibility to various types

Recreating Global Media  173 of content, genres, or names. These unique exposure tests have the advantage of being able to be paired with material assessments. Unique exposure measurements, on the other hand, have the downside of being used in complementary techniques as specific vehicles shift, creating issues with the exposure initiative’s over-time relative performance. Furthermore, when evaluating exposure to socially unacceptable material, particular exposure measures can evoke more motivating reactions than generalized exposure methods. Eventually, when it comes to sensitivity to individual signals, researchers should pay more attention to the benefits and drawbacks of identification interventions. Typically, awareness is calculated by informing the participants whether they would have seen or read a specific post. As a whole, it is fair to predict that the progression in media-effects science would be highly dependent on the growth and development of press coverage controls. While there have already been commendable attempts to put the topic of media attention factors to the mainstream, a basic study on press coverage metrics appears to be taking on an even more strategic tone in order to move beyond its present state of dispersion. It is crucial that criteria of disclosure measure adequacy become ubiquitous in media sources. The validation tests of current exposure interventions should also be given a prominent position in the industry. The transition from communications technology to dictated media has been one of the major notable changes in the media world over the last 20 years. The word “mass communication” was coined in the 1920s in reaction to new approaches to target viewers through mass media such as the newspaper, radio, and film. The contact between media and the viewer is multidirectional; information is created by one source and transmitted to several recipients. The acceptance of digital content is chosen, according to the mainstream media obtained sample: media consumers want the media content to suit their personal requirements, solely on the basis as to whether these needs reflect the intention of the creator. The framework of mass self-expression is close to mass communication in terms of self-selectivity. Mass media selfcommunication, on the other hand, acknowledges that media material is generated by default and that its distribution is self-directed. As a consequence, while mass communication research is based exclusively on information recognition mechanisms, mass self-communication study investigates both information recognition and content process design. From the advent of the field, there have been discussions over the scale and functional importance of media impact. When comparing contextual findings along all fields, we find that the impact sizes disclosed in news reporting are equivalent to those spotted in many other fields of study. More specifically, the recorded social influence formats in mainstream press studies seem to be more compatible with modern entertainment hypotheses than is generally accepted (Valkenburg & Peter 2013).

174  Ruth Neyah V The old definition of ‘media’ was bolstered in part by the realistic integration of media-viewing patterns, which encouraged people to believe that others were doing almost the same thing as they turned on the TV or radio. This was attributed in part to the ease and convenience of the content and television packages that the newspapers evolved: the prime-time news alert, the newsletter distributed or gathered each day, and the regular or weekly episodes of a television show. However, the initial ease was focused on the deficiency. Accessibility takes on a new significance in an age of ample knowledge. It’s possible that what’s more comfortable than big newspaper packets is skimming through internet news stories several times a day. As a result, the media market is worried that existing media facets are on the verge of extinction: hardly any newspapers within a decade, a young audience that has never seen television news broadcast. As a consequence of the integration of historically disparate entertainment fields, people’s simulations around the media spectrum seem to be so complex that neither viewers nor business can distinguish a specific template. The situation has become much more difficult. Sometimes there is the question of a massive change, although there are still major market demands to obtain access to those new global domains for marketing purposes. When it comes to social media sites, their potential to amplify a feeling of social “visual stimuli” is undeniable, yet it’s uncertain if it would be in contrast to or in combination with access to centralized media. Enterprises of the media are creating accounts on social networking websites. Organizations are involved in customized content on social networking websites, as we all understand fully (Lal 2017). Satyagraha in Contemporary Media The Indian media industry has been growing at a fast pace over the last few decades and it’s sure likely to continue to grow further in a cluster-like manner. A lot of traditional as well as modern methods are being implemented for enhancing media and taking it to the next level. There are only two examples of the trouble that false news may cause in a nation like India. Some false stories circulated on social media, although not as devastating as the ones listed above, concern United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’s acceptance of India’s Prime Minister and the Indian National Anthem as the world’s best. These reports recur on a daily basis in media platforms sites, and they often feature in state and local media sources as well. Likewise, rumours about the discovery of global positioning system chips and hazardous (radioactive) ink in the newly released 2000 Paper currency to hunt down addicts of money laundering as well as photographs of the United States President Donald Trump endorsing the Indian Prime Minister during the ongoing state general elections in India have recently gotten a lot of coverage in India. In India, internet users are posting, liking, and retweeting all of these fake news articles in massive numbers.

Recreating Global Media  175 In India, the vast majority of social media consumers are predominantly urban who come from a rich background and have a certain degree of basic and media literacy, both in terms of general knowledge and media use. Any of the people who spread these tales are also well-educated. The question is, “What motivates them to promote such false information?” One evident reason is that people who are used to mass media outlets and related notions of legitimacy have poor levels of media literacy. Their lack of knowledge of social mass media self-publishing skills makes it impossible for them to differentiate right from wrong (Bhaskaran et al. 2019). Intellectuals researching the post-truth scenario’s effect on this phenomenon have consistently documented the presence of safe spaces and data channel circles. Algorithms on social media also made things simpler. It isn’t exactly obvious. Is it real that the prime minister and the national anthem have been deemed the greatest of all time by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization? That is precisely the case. Both of these were false news, as discussed in the beginning (Ram 2011). Nevertheless, our core point is that it is now appropriate to formulate a global economic system that is simultaneously equally interconnected and divergent to be considered a special body. With an economic rather than a technical reading, the “alignment” of media procedures into an interconnected business environment seems to have been a significant accomplishment. Journalism learning has typically been motivated by business demands. Current journalism curriculum models are based on the dissemination paradigm of mass media and the priorities of the media industry, with an emphasis on identifying, moulding, and disseminating content for mass consumption. Critics of this concept, on the other hand, refer to some shortcomings, including a disdain for the latest developments in media and communications. To restore journalistic positions in a democratic society, journalism education must also concentrate more on culture than business, creating innovative ways of creating digital content and influencing people in an inspiring way (Bhaskaran et al. 2019). In the sense of false news, this viewpoint is true. The emergence of news stories has also been related to the established press breaking up with a broad audience that was frustrated with the process and the newspapers. The industry-focused structure was simply not going to work and struggling all by itself. While these are global views on journalism education, the Indian situation has a variety of concerns. Since now over 70 years, the fundamental concept of the journalism education system in India remains the same: to infuse industry-required skills. The common opinion is that college-based journalism education relies more on inculcating academic expertise along with realistic abilities to potential journalists, while corporate sector programmes (frequently sponsored by major media companies) seek to develop practitioners with relevant technological skills. In reality, college-based programs face challenges in teaching technical skills to a significant degree, primarily due to the significant divide

176  Ruth Neyah V between academia and business, a shortage of instructors with technical knowledge, and a lack of resources. Several academics have noted that India’s journalism learning environment has no concrete objectives and fails to strike a balance between attaining skills and knowledge and instilling reflective practice. These circumstances have sparked controversy in India about the value of professional development and degrees, closely related to arguments elsewhere. Indian journalism education has yet to consider adaptive capacity policies to reduce chaotic digital transformation and post-truth consequences because its instant challenges are often very primitive. Any efforts to establish a pedagogic approach to solve a phenomenon like false news should be grounded in conceptual subjectivity, which recognizes the evolving aspects of the post-truth existence instead of just relying entirely on the technical developments that allow those phenomena. Efforts to fight false news using technically aggressive remedies, such as creating models or applications, often fall short. This point is not intended to diminish the value of those alternatives in countering the dissemination of false news. Initiatives to adjust current journalism education systems to post-truth implications with an active emphasis on incorporating preparation to create or manage such technical technologies, on the other hand, may not be as effective. Technological solutions emerge and fade away in a brief amount of time even when they are accompanied by periodic changes. This quicker speed makes it impossible to duplicate in non-digital, daily experience and finitude education systems. Furthermore, the student tales from India do not dwell on a shortage of technological expertise, but more on fundamental questions regarding alleging journalism companies. To contend with post-truth facts like false news, such a situation necessitates the improvement of talents and instinctive capacities rather than just short-term skills. The fake news community thrives in a highly modified world that is fuelled by both societal and technological forces. The development of destructive technologies and related improvements was interconnected with one of its elements, the technical. For example, while fake news hucksters are still thriving on social media, they are increasingly adopting and incorporating developments in augmented reality, robotics, and voice recognition to simplify fake news creation and dissemination, frequently moving away from social media, such as the spams through which robot calls are initiated. As part of this transition, journalists should just be informed more about the broader ethical implications of journalistic consciousness, organization, and function in the global sense of fake news creation and dissemination. Since individuals in media find it attractive to emphasize their personality as trained individuals in the social room, techniques relating the development of assessment abilities to experiential social benefits can motivate students to exert their reporting organization and appreciate its social significance.

Recreating Global Media  177 Plenary Futures of Media: A Double-Edged Sword Moving ahead, among the most exciting pathways for a future scholarship is a study that incorporates technology utilization and development into the daily lives of young Indians. Many are localized studies, primarily of Indian youth’s innovative acquisitions of modern media technology to illustrate their own personal experiences. Since India’s introduction of digital media technology is so fast, an evaluation of it will offer useful lessons for furthering news media theory. On June 4, 1903, Mahatma Gandhi published his first publication, Indian View, in South Africa. This was his first effort at editing and distributing an Indian newspaper. Furthermore, it was when he wrote to the London Vegetarian Society’s organ, Vegetarian, that he was first introduced to a community newspaper. Gandhi made a contribution of about nine papers on wellness, traditions, ideologies, and other themes during his three-year stay in London. Dadabhai Naoroji, the patriarch of the Indian community in England, may have influenced him to establish a public newspaper. In 1890, Naoroji founded the India magazine. Gandhi later became the South African correspondent for the magazine (Chatterjee & Pal 2018). He quickly learned that sporadic newspaper stories were insufficient for having a long-term impression. He wanted a way to connect with the media. He made the decision to initiate the Indian View. He developed the newspaper’s tonality and genre; almost nothing did he begin to fathom that he was ready to finally pave the way for loads of newspapers in multiple languages to emerge in India over time. All of the newspapers affiliated with Gandhi shared certain fundamental characteristics. “Whereas the subjects and their treatment in the journals differed and per the historical eventuality,” Professor K. Swaminathan (1998) expressed in his talk at the Nationalist Forum of Journalists in New Delhi during 1976, there was perhaps running through them all a similar theme, the emphasis on honesty and nonviolence, on justice to all and the general good, which generated the first principles. In reality, appreciation for fact emerged from a concern for facts in the abstract. For years, Gandhi’s philosophies have acted as the country’s pillar. He was best involved in political ideology, which was the guiding force underneath his administration in the Indian independence movement, but he also had helpful suggestions for journalists. Gandhi (1925) wrote in Young India, “To be true to my religion, I do not write in rage or malice.” I’m not allowed to publish haphazardly. I’m not allowed to compose only to arouse enthusiasm. The reader has no idea how much discipline I have to practise in my subject range and vocabulary from week to week. It is a form of planning for me (Akella2009). It encourages me to take a peek at myself and find my shortcomings. My ego also determines a witty word or a cruel adjective when I’m angry. It’s a miserable ordeal, but it’s a good exercise to get rid of these weeds.”

178  Ruth Neyah V His lessons as a writer will indeed be a model for today’s journalists and communicators. Gandhi claimed that no entity on this planet has the right to compel a person to get anything against his or her will. It is important to defend an individual’s personal rights and dignity. Dismissing the value of an individual and his or her rights would inevitably lead to the breakdown of civilization – “no society may possibly be founded on the rejection of individual liberty.” When a man or woman thinks he or she has been mistreated or mistaken, he or she has the strength and will to alter cultures and their working. To describe the practice of Satyagraha, the three factors of reality, peace, and pain are taken together. A person is keen to explore and find the journey of truth. Truth is subjective, in the sense that it is measured in terms of individual desires. The finding of reality leads to divergent views, which is at the core of the Satyagraha policy. Nonviolent intervention should be used to settle disputes, according to Satyagraha. Non-violent intervention is based on the principle of attempting to hurt the other adversary and still experiencing self-suffering in order to convince the adversary to cause justice to be served (Dhital 2019). The aim of this chapter was to establish an analysis of the Satyagraha concept, its realistic application, and its ability to adapt to peacefully settle disputes. Satyagraha may be used as a moral underpinning for constructing and designing dispute resolution models that are both nonviolent and communal. However, there have been some reservations about the Satyagraha policy’s feasibility. Experts and scholars who want to implement innovative management strategies remove challenges in management philosophy and capture the attention of educators and professionals by concentrating on marginalized and ostracized parties in organizations may be involved in this approach. It may be worthwhile to address Satyagraha and its components mostly within the critical management studies model in order to have a better understanding on topics such as liberation, inequality, and the task of moral standards in businesses (Vadhera 2015). Conclusion The Gandhian ideology, with its focus on reality and a peaceful, democratic solution, may be helpful in highlighting the significance of morals, universal principles, and fairness in today’s business environment, which involves financial hardships, corporate failures, and completely transforming media which is filled with fake and baseless news. There are people who had followed Satyagraha in the past and have experienced optimistic results. For instance, Danube Circle, an individual civic organization in Europe, utilized nonviolence to effectively stop the construction of the Nagymaros Dam in Hungary during the Communist regime in the year 1998. It was often used by climate change campaigners to oppose climate crisis under the tag “climate Satyagraha.” In the United Kingdom, the United

Recreating Global Media  179 States, worldwide, especially, climate Satyagraha has also been used to campaign against thermal plants (which use coal in their procedures), associated with environmental destruction and, ultimately, global warming. If Satyagraha could bring about so many optimistic changes, adapting to Satyagraha can create massive results in the field of entertainment and mass media. Since media has started sensationalizing fake and unwanted news rather than finding out the truth it has become worthless and it has become a habit for some journalists to spread falsified news around. Without a strong push it would never be possible for media to take up Satyagraha in order to refine their ways. Media tends to mix up different cultures and stirs hatred among languages and religions, which in turn creates tension and unnecessary gaps between the people of a country. Media is a mix of boon and bane, but it has to be used in the right way to make humans constructive and efficient rather than creating petty thoughts. Media and technology are interlinked; hence, the growth of it has to be beneficial to mankind without causing caution to the entire human race. As media and technology keep enlarging, the media houses are running towards extravagance and unique ideas since they keep running out of ideas they tend to overdo and repeat scenarios which would later lessen their impression among viewers (Valkenburg & Peter 2013). There is a fine level of interlinking between culture, media, meditation, language, self, and society; though they are not relativistic they tend to be relational and hence they have a connection. Media houses are more into connecting emotionally with the audience. Rhetorical techniques are usually used to evoke an emotional reaction from the reader or listener. The participant’s emotional reaction would be used as a medium to convince them to address a specific case. The desired emotional reaction is essentially an end in itself for post-truth statements. It is not really a medium neither for more philosophical contemplation nor for interpersonal concerns for the anonymous “other.” Instead, it’s a chance for advocates of post-truth statements to indulge their readers or listeners in arrogant comfort, unremitting paranoia, or reckless indignation at the “other.” Hence, media has become a prisoner to political dominance and various other things in the country; it has fallen prey to social, cultural, and global scenarios. Only if there is a strong driving force which dictates the functioning and inculcates space for altering and rethinking media industry, it would bring about a massive change. Until then we can only witness minor changes in the industry, whereas it would still be the place where trust, truth, and honesty are given the least importance. We could support bringing into the league an option of supporting an independent press but eventually it would depend upon advertisement agencies for economic benefits. Language is a social product as well as an instrument for reasoning hence media uses it according to its benefit as it controls the flow of writing or a virtual presentation. Although news gathering and reporting organizations portray themselves as impartial, they make decisions at any turn: in editing, camera angles, light

180  Ruth Neyah V setting, interviewing duration, and style. These judgements are replicated in and across a number of perceptual and strategic instruments. News collecting organizations are, by nature, not displaying the fact alone, but instead a recording of the fact, be it in a literary or a pictorial form. Our aim is to better explain how belief affects these choices and also how viewpoint is expressed in and by processes of portrayal. References Akella, D. (2009). Satyagraha: The Gandhian philosophy of conflict management. Journal of Workplace Rights, 14(4), 503–523. Bhaskaran, H., Mishra, H., & Nair, P. (2017). Contextualizing fake news in posttruth era: Journalism education in India. Asia Pacific Media Educator, 27(1), 41–50. Bhaskaran, H., Mishra, H., & Nair, P. (2019). Journalism education in post-truth era: Pedagogical approaches based on Indian journalism students’ perception of fake news. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 74(2), 158–170. Bradshaw, S., & Howard, P. N. (2018). Challenging truth and trust: A global inventory of organized social media manipulation. The Computational Propaganda Project, 1, 3–25. Chatterjee, M., & Pal, S. Mahatma Gandhi as a Communicator Gandhi the Journalist and the Media Crusader, Pre-dated Gandhi, the Freedom Fighter, Global Media Journal, 9(2), 1–10. Corner, J. (2017). Fake news, post-truth and media–political change, 39(7), 1100–1107. Couldry, N. (2009). Does ‘the media’ have a future? European Journal of Communication, 24(4), 437–449. Dhital, P. (2019). Media Satyagraha in the broadcast age: Underground literature and populist politics during the Indian internal emergency of 1975–1977. Interventions, 21(7), 942–958. Galloway, A. R., Thacker, E., &Wark, M. (2013). Excommunication: Three inquiries in media and mediation. University of Chicago Press. Kieran, M. (Ed.) (2002). Media ethics. Routledge. Kohli-Khandekar, V. (2008). The Indian media business. SAGE Publications. Lal, A. (2017). India social: How social media is leading the charge and changing the country. Hachette UK. Napoli, P. M. (2008). Toward a model of audience evolution: New technologies and the transformation of media audiences. Napoli, P. M. (2011). Audience evolution: New technologies and the transformation of media audiences. Columbia University Press. Neuman, W. R., & Guggenheim, L. (2011). The evolution of media effects theory: A six-stage model of cumulative research. Communication Theory, 21(2), 169–196. Parthasarathi, V., & Athique, A. (2020). Market matters: Interdependencies in the Indian media economy. Media, Culture & Society, 42(3), 431–448. Patterson, P., Wilkins, L., & Painter, C. (2018). Media ethics: Issues and cases. Rowman & Littlefield. Ram, N. (2011). The changing role of the news media in contemporary India. Indian History.

Recreating Global Media  181 Rao, S., & Johal, N. S. (2006). Ethics and news making in the changing Indian mediascape. Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 21(4), 286–303. Rao, S., & Wasserman, H. (Eds.) (2015). Media ethics and justice in the age of globalization. Springer. Vadhera, N. M. (2015). What ails the Indian media organizations? International Journal of Research in Social Sciences, 5(4), 104–112. Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2013). Comm research—Views from Europe | Five challenges for the future of media-effects research. International Journal of Communication, 7, 19.

11 Urban Society in the Films of Satyajit Ray An Ambiguous Journey between Instrumental Rationalism and Intersubjective Reality Abhishek Kumar Introduction The films of Satyajit Ray brought Indian filmmaking to the world stage. Literary works of Indian writers found a deft cinematic touch and received a treatment that gave them universal appeal. He made 29 feature films and a few short films and documentaries. The films grasp the ordinary with a beauty that celebrates deep humanity and in the process transform them into extraordinary pieces of art. As Benjamin in his seminal essay, “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction” (Benjamin, 1936), says about cinema, “it happens almost invariably that the greatest effects are achieved when the least acting is done.” Ray’s films made the intervening camera almost non-existent. Soumitra Chatterjee, one of his favorite actors, who appeared in a large number of Ray’s films, famously commented that in his film, Pratidwandi, he had to act, only in the last scene where he has to react violently to the treatment accorded to the candidates waiting alongside him for the interview. This aspect of Ray’s filmmaking afforded the audience the patience to linger and not distract them with technology. His films thus become a meditative space where action is also a thought-substance. They are akin to an invitation to reflect upon possibilities that seem to lie buried in the moment. The decade of the 1970s was the decade of ferment. Ray’s films that came in that decade, also called, the Calcutta Trilogy of Pratidwandi (1970), Seemabaddha (1971), and Janaranya (1976), are the expression and anticipation of the ferment. By the 1970s, a quarter of a century had elapsed postpost–independence-independence and the romance of political freedom from the British was over. The reality had begun to bite. Grand ideologies were beginning to look weak under the onslaught of commerce, and ordinary human struggles were under deeper scrutiny of politicians and artists. Memories of May 1968 in Paris were still fresh and against this backdrop Ray’s trilogy was a poignant call to pause and reflect on the conditions of human existence in cities. The then Indian society was grappling with the opposing forces of belief and nihilism. The rise of the Naxalite movement alongside the material progress expressed this dichotomy. These forces shaped the three films that contained and transcended these forces at once. DOI: 10.4324/9781032632667-14

Urban Society in the Films of Satyajit Ray  183 Calcutta Trilogy and Beyond Pratidwandi, the first film in the series, deals with a man’s search for a job in the city and takes him through situations that leave him frustrated and despairing. In one of his job interviews, when he singles out the courage shown by the Vietnamese people against the mighty United States as the most significant event of the decade over man landing on the moon he was promptly branded a communist. In another interview, his outburst against the insensitivity shown towards candidates waiting for an interview makes him branded as the troublemaker. Several undercurrents contribute to his frustration such as his sister using her sexuality for career advancement or his brother, a militant communist in stark contrast to the protagonist (Siddharth), who vacillates between options, has doubts about everything, is passive and only sometimes aggressive. The in-betweenness of his character makes the film fertile with meaning and beauty. Pratidwandi is a commentary on the urban society that was in the works in the decade of 1970s. The binary of Siddharth’s brother and his sister, one an unbending romantic while the other an opportunistic realist, provides the margins between which the story unfolds. He admires the convictions of his brother even though he himself is full of ambiguities. His agency surfaces only under duress be it visiting his sister’s employer and communicating that she will not work with him anymore or the final sequence where he explodes with anger at the callous treatment meted out to the candidates. On all occasions, they lead to nothing. As the first film of the trilogy, it reveals possibilities in an urban society and emphasizes the space it creates for conflicting goals. The escape, if any, is only the proverbial village, both literally and psychologically. The urban reality seems to be a prison and horizon at the same time and definitely not an accomplished project. Movements in Siddharth’s character attest to this truth. Seemabaddha, the second film in the trilogy, presents a more mature picture of urban society. The rural–urban divide evokes itself in the relationship between the protagonist Shyamal, a corporate bigwig, and his sister-in-law Tutul, played by Sharmila Tagore, who visits him in Calcutta from Patna, a nearby small town. The similarities and differences between them are deep. Shyamal’s wife and Tutul’s sister Dolan is excited and flaunts the benefits of her husband’s success. The flirtatious encounters between her husband and Tutul do not faze her. In the sequence near the bookshelf as Tutul seductively moves while flipping through the books, Dolan almost says to her husband since you do not make love to me, here is my sister. The fledgling relationship between Shyamal and Tutul takes a serious turn when he confides in her and not in his wife, the challenge at the workplace of saving a faulty export assignment that may cause huge losses. He takes a cue from a casual conversation with her and embarks on a diabolical plan, instigates a strike in his own company, and even engineers a bomb blast that inflicts serious wounds on a security guard. This enables the company to invoke the force majeure

184  Abhishek Kumar clause in the legal agreement and save the consignment. The sense of relief in the management borders on admiration for the young Shyamal. He soon receives a promotion and becomes a director. In an interesting incident that occurs at a restaurant he is visiting to celebrate his success, the cabaret dancer after rejecting several men chooses to garland Shyamal. The hinted valorization of the deed and consequent success characterizes the urban society of the then Calcutta. That he falls in Tutul’s esteem as she overhears a hushed conversation between Shyamal and a colleague remains a matter relegated to the realm of affection. In the final scene, as Tutul removes the watch gifted to her by Shyamal, places it on the table, and moves away from the intimacy of the room where they had enjoyed many encounters, he realizes the import of his deed. Seemabaddha operates at multiple levels. Professional rivalry, success at any cost, and a pleasure-centred life are contrasted with a dramatic fall from grace. The social reality of success tempts an unsuspecting subject and easily overcomes her resistance. Initial admiration and envy soon turn into distaste and avoidance as reality reveals itself. The opposition between scheming ways of living and an honest life, between ends justifying means and vice versa, is picturized in a way that its outcome is stark and tragic. The psychological richness emerges from Tutul’s admiration of her father’s evaluation of Shyamal. Her rejection in the end is an act of courage and suggests a grappling with self. Shyamal who initially expected admiration from her as he enters the room realizes soon that it is far from that. Here the tussle between what it means to be a human in a village stands in opposition to the same definition in cities. A movement away from community living and towards external props for existence is emphasized. In this movement is also seen as a movement out of oneself and towards an alien other, against which one has to fortify oneself with all that money can buy. Janaranya is a coming-of-age film of a young and educated man living in Calcutta. The urban reality is evoked as his life unfolds before our eyes. Somnath’s moderate academic performance disappoints him and surprises his father, who was confident of his son’s abilities and was sceptical of the examination processes of Calcutta University. The pressure, however, of making something of his life with a little help from an acquaintance pushes him towards a career in sales. The job expects him to collect orders from clients and deliver goods at a commission. As he gets comfortable with the wheeling-dealing, he tests himself with more complex deals and larger orders. The chaperoning of Somnath by Mr Mittar played masterfully by Rabi Ghosh turns him into a professional. He now engages new clients by identifying quirks in their personalities and tries to learn about their families and the bearing they may have on decisions regarding contracts. The largest order that he is now after requires him to provide a prostitute to the decisionmaker. His discomfort at visiting various brothels to secure one woman for the night leads him to Kauna/Juthika, his friend’s sister. Stung by guilt he offers her money and suggests that she need not do this, which she refuses

Urban Society in the Films of Satyajit Ray  185 and goes ahead with the deal. Her steadfast assertion that she is approached for work, which she must do regardless of who she is. That she is his friend’s sister must not come in the way. She accepts a disproportionately large amount from him and gives details of her brother’s current occupation before entering the hotel room. The eventual winning of the contract, the relief in his father’s eyes, and his lack of enthusiasm are only a pyrrhic victory. All three films end in despair. Individuals when pitted against the might of circumstances, economic realities, and political forces redeem their humanity by resisting the forces at least for a while and eventually by giving in to them. The nature of these forces originates in the urban reality of the city that presses against their resistance and determines their fate. In all three cases, the characters know what they are doing and in that, painful awareness lies the pathos of the films. Satyajit Ray in his interview with Gupta for Cineaste (1982) says, If you’re making a film about problems, but you don’t have a solution, there’s bound to be a despairing quality. In The Big City or Mahanagar, both husband and wife lose their jobs. There are no jobs around. They drift apart, there is misunderstanding, and they come together again. But they still don’t have any jobs, and they may not have any for quite some time, but that doesn’t make it despairing. The only bleak film I have made is The Middleman. There is no question about that. I felt corruption, rampant corruption, all around. Everyone talks about it in Calcutta. Everyone knows, for instance, that the cement allotted to the roads and underground railroad is going to the contractors who are building their own homes with it. The Middleman is a film about that kind of corruption and I don’t think there is any solution.

Instrumental Rationality as the Chief Value of Urban Life

The factors that unite these films are many with the city itself being one. Calcutta serves as the site for the unfolding of the lives of the characters. Its spatial realities play an important role in furthering the story, be it the desk in the hall on which Somnath conducts his business or the shared facilities like the telephone. The social and spatial layout of numerous brothels that Somnath visits or the waiting room for the interview did not offer a place to sit to the candidates or the restaurant where the cabaret takes place. The streets spilling into the house as lecherous gatherings assembleassemble before the window of the house of Kauna, the sister of Somnath’s friend Sukumar as she changes her dress, or the racecourse where Shyamal and Tutul exhibit themselves in the fineries of the times. Corridors with cabins on both sides and a conference room that excludes wannabes like Shyamal and his rival colleague or the imposing interview panel faced by Siddharth. Such spaces secrete power and categorize people as the ones who have the power and those who do not. That

186  Abhishek Kumar the power has an unseen quality about its source is an urban phenomenon. Hidden behind intentions and shrouded in layers of processes is the power that makes people helpless, makes them do things that otherwise they may not even dream of, and compels them to live a life out of their skin. Such realities confer upon a few and strip the rest of agency. A power that does not brook breach and retaliates violently at the hint of rebellion like a mere mention of Vietnam or a middleman expected to procure a prostitute. Even though a part of the echelons of power, Shyamal has to resort to plotting and scheming to hold on to or to win power. Calcutta is alive and sees things with the undertones of a silent conflict between haves and the have-nots, a reality that emerges from it is one of the centres of communist ideology of the then world. Another factor common to Ray’s urbanism is the emergence of instrumental rationality as the chief characteristic of urban life. A lifestyle that focuses on profiting from every transaction in cash or kind. The motive, rooted in economic reality alone, turns humanity into an aggregated mass of businesses perpetually seeking profit. As a practical way of life, however, it is not as easy as it looks. It includes intention, desire, and action and contributes to the formation of practical rationality (Hume, 1737). Instrumental rationality is transcended only when the character reaches the limits of tolerance like Tutul when she returns the gift Siddharth when he informs his sister’s boss that she would not work for him anymore or Somnath when he hesitates in employing his friend’s sister as a prostitute. It also breaks on occasions of distraction such as the reference to the anatomy of a female breast as Siddharth notices an attractive woman crossing the street. A closer look suggests that the three films respond to instrumental rationality in their own unique way; Pratidwandi resists it, Seemabaddha celebrates it, and Janaranya admires it. In these films, we see an anticipation of what is to become an accepted if not eulogized mode of living in the new urban society. Technology-driven society built upon the work done by industrial revolution paved way for technological rationality, a rationality that carried forward the essence of instrumental rationality to a new extreme so beautifully expounded in One-Dimensional Man (1964) by Herbert Marcuse. As these films demonstrate, man kept moving forward in material terms and away from himself, making him incapable of moral suffering. The films epitomize this movement. Narrow instrumentalism (Hume, 1739) expands on the idea and makes moral stand irrational and undesirable. Instrumental rationality transcends itself in Immanuel Kant’s Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals (1785). Kant says that practical rationality is not just about being instrumentally rational but about following the moral law. He goes on to assert that if one wills the end, rationality requires that one also wills the means and introduces instrumental coherence. He extends the question further and asks, if the end is immoral, is it irrational not to will immoral means? The despairing quality and non-heroic conduct of his characters were often the questions raised about his films. When quizzed on Calcutta Trilogy,

Urban Society in the Films of Satyajit Ray  187 surprisingly he added Aranyer Din Ratri (1970) to the list. A film about four friends spending their holidays away from Calcutta in a forest bungalow and surrounding villages. While Calcutta is seemingly absent, it makes its presence felt through the values held by the characters. The values of opportunism, false bravado, the life of appearances, and an urban routine continuecontinue to hold even in new surroundings. The film unfolds as they befriend two women and their father, played by Sharmila Tagore and Kaveri Mukherjee, who are also there on a holiday. The weekend habits of waking up late, going out for a drink, looking for a prostitute, and gambling or drinking and dancing in the evenings continue. Even the onset of love comes in the guise of a challenge, as Sharmila Tagore admits that she wanted to break the confidence of the young and attractive Asim. Kaveri Mukherjee too reveals sexual frustrations of her widowed life and makes bold advances toward Sanjoy. These instances are typically urban. As the film progresses and the influence of the city wanes, characters begin grappling with their inner selves and the masks begin to fall. Forest and the rural or tribal life associated with it are closer to nature and therefore starker and real. A city is exacting as it drives a wedge between personal and professional spaces and expects people to behave differently at the two sites. It requires appearances and therefore masks to get by. The journey the four friends make is liberating psychologically speaking from the work-induced superego and the city-induced living reality of alternating between work and leisure spaces. Ashish Nandy refers to such a journey in his work (2007), An Ambiguous Journey to the City: The Village and Other Odd Ruins of the Self in the Indian Imagination, in the following lines: In the whole southern world, the beckoning magic of the new colonial metropolis frames the mythic journey to the city ... In the official ideologies of conformity and dissent floating around in post-colonial societies, the journey to the city is a journey from a self-buffeted by primordial passions and an authoritarian conscience – the village is seen as the repository of these – to a self-identified with fully autonomous ego functions In the gradual unfolding of the story, we can see, characters fulfilling their autonomous ego functions. Sharmila Tagore is able to reveal the wounds of her childhood. Asim is able to show his vulnerable side and admit to her that he is hopelessly in love with her. Sanjoy comes face to face with his middleclass values when he is not able to respond to the sexual overtures of Kaveri Mukherjee, and Sharmila’s father is able to sing again. As they return to their old urban life, the ordinary experiences of the days in the forest reveal deep insights. Calcutta by its absence makes its presence felt through the stifling influences that it had on the characters. In another film made much earlier, titled Mahanagar or The Big City (1963), Ray reveals another side of Calcutta, a city that has not yet lost

188  Abhishek Kumar hope on the dignity of work and camaraderie between fellow workers. Arati Mazumdar, played by Madhabi Mukherjee, is a housewife who takes up the job of a salessaleswoman against the wishes of her father-in-law and grudgingly supportive husband Subrata. As she begins doing well and earns the respect of her manager, her husband loses his job. Now that she is the sole breadwinner of the family, her father-in-law, a retired schoolteacher unable to accept her money, begins visiting his former students and seeks financial help from them. One fine day, Arati discovers that the boss has fired her colleague Edith Simmons who joined back after a long illness. Arati had bonded well with Edith. She had taught Arati the ways of a modern woman like using sunglasses or lipstick. Her eroticization, however, was for the world outside and invariably before entering the house, she would remove her glasses and smear off the lipstick. One day she comes to know that Edith’s explanation of her long illness for her absence from work was not acceptable to the boss and was the reason for her dismissal. Boss suggested that she was malingering and was loose. Arati considers this unjust, overcomes her diffidence, and confronts her boss. In the heated exchange that follows, she insists that he apologizes to Edith, and on refusal, she resigns and storms out of the office. In this film, instrumental rationality is yet to form, and human relationships are still primary. Kant presents hypothetical and categorical imperatives as drivers of instrumental rationality. Hypothetical imperative represents the necessity of an action as a means to attain something else while categorical imperative represents an action necessary in itself without referring to any other end. Arati’s action is a categorical imperative. The city, in this film, offers hope even in the most adverse circumstances, be it by students to teachers, by husband to wife, employee to colleagues, or friend to another friend. Edith and her ways of dressing up or her lifestyle underline the mélange of cultures that the city is. The nuanced treatment of the ways her fellow employees cope with the difference is subtly but emphatically pointed through exchanges in the ladies’ room and elsewhere. The phallic symbolism of Arati learning to apply lipstick from Edith is not lost as she re-discovers her sexual self and constructs a masculine assertiveness. Mahanagar is a product of India that had recently won her independence and is upbeat on the possibilities of men and women working together to build a new country. In his later films, Ray becomes more cynical and gives up on the dream. The hypothetical imperatives of common interests forging a vision for self and society when met with reality are soon abandoned. The later appropriation of dreams by ideologies of the times takes away their endearingly human quality. Compelling Intersubjective Reality of a City Ray’s characters affect one another and even though they are autonomous, the intersubjective reality does not escape them. “Reaching Understanding” is the goal of the speech and in the “arriving at” an understanding lies the movement that his films promise. The instrumental rationality represents

Urban Society in the Films of Satyajit Ray  189 strategic action. When characters address one another with a practical attitude without the motive of obtaining returns, they engage in communicative action. Communicative action is an inherently consensual form of social coordination in which actors mobilize the potential for rationality. The consensual nature of reaching understanding is evident in the conversations between Somnath and his uncle who sets him up for a career in business or with Mr Mittar who guides him towards success. The conversations that do not begin with an end in mind lead to meaningful actions and in some cases even transformation in characters. The communication that are strategic actions and are rooted in maximizing individual goals like Somnath’s dealings with his clients or Siddharth’s interactions with the union leader or the members of the board represent instrumental rationality associated with urban life in the city. Habermasian theory of communicative action (1984) transcends instrumental rationality, recognizes intersubjective nature of living, and theorizes social reality of Kant as a construct of meaningful social interaction. It offers a rationality that is epistemic, practical, and intersubjective. It concerns itself not so much with the possession of knowledge but with the process in which speaking and acting subjects acquire and use knowledge. It attempts to reconstruct the practical knowledge necessary for being a knowledgeable social actor among other knowledgeable social actors. At the end of the film, Mahanagar, both husband and wife know that they do not have a job and that it is unlikely that there will be one in near future yet in the knowledge they are fully contained and unified. The reconstructive element of the theory of communicative action (TCA) foregrounds the theoretical basis of the pretheoretical know how of human capabilities like speaking, understanding, judging, and acting. The films of Satyajit Ray linger and draw into discourse that which is passed over in silence and thus illuminate that pre-theoretical space. The return of the gift by Tutul or the helpless acceptance of Somnath of the decision of Kauna or Siddharth’s eventual submission to a rural reality are the events that draw attention to the intersubjective nature of social existence and give visual expression to the pre-theoretical knowhow. The meditative quality that foregrounds the helplessness does not let us move on. TCA recognizes that we simultaneously inhabit expressive, normative, and objective worlds. As the names suggest, the expressive world emphasizes uninhibited and diverse human expressions, the normative world presents cultural norms as precepts for living, and the objective world is the world of objects that are traded. The objective world may relatively be more homogeneous, and the normative and expressive worlds allow autonomous subjectivity to bloom. In these five films, a superstructure of normative and expressive realities is built on the objective world. Calcutta the city remains an unchanging objective reality. The characters flirt with though rarely transcend normative or expressive realities. In TCA, Habermas identifies the dominant values of the three worlds as sincerity, rightness, and truth, respectively. The expressive world expects a coherence between inner reality and external expression

190  Abhishek Kumar with sincerity as the mediating variable. Similarly, the normative world concerns itself with ethics as the determinant and has rightness as the mediating variable. In the objective world, truth becomes the mediating variable. In Ray’s films, we see a simultaneous fulfilment of the three claims. They fuse sincerity, rightness, and truth in a cinematic expression. The sincerity with which his characters doubt themselves or their ambivalence towards what is right or even the absence of any prescriptive and final truth that makes them open to possibilities. They discover themselves between the polarities of doubt and conviction, ideology and malleability, love and indifference, and material gains and emotional outbursts. Urban Society as It Springs from the Village Ray’s films give us a sneak peek into the urban society as against the city. Instead of being the ground on which action unfolds, it becomes a subject, a collective subject. It actively interferes with the paths and destinies of people who are a part of it. The social intelligibility of interactions like the one by Mr Mitter to Somanth in a restaurant in Janaranya (snippet given below) helps their inner worlds emerge. Mitter: Are you prepared to die for a cause? Somnath: I doubt it. Mitter: Could you work as a labourer? You would earn a lot more than you do now. Somnath: I know. Mitter: But you can't. Have you the guts to be a factory worker? Somnath takes off his glass and rubs his eyes. Mitter: You admit you are a weakling in mind and body The conversation reveals the edges of a normative world, where a transfigured value system of a village is being transplanted into an urban setting. In his speech, Mr Mitter tries to represent the urban society as it appears to him, a world that represents the village as vestigial yet colonizing entity. Somnath is not resisting nor is he defensive, a distinct urban character. He is reflective even when a judgement is passed on to him. In another instance, Somnath while visiting his friend in a slum confronts the reality of a life of a village transported to an urban setting. The showing of face of his sister to Somnath may have a cinematic motive which is revealed towards the end, but it is also a very humane gesture that one must confront the other in person, an inalienable aspect of village life. Ray’s metaphor of a slum for the Indian popular cinema finds an artistic representation in the scene. Satyajit Ray in his interview to Gupta (1982) says,

Urban Society in the Films of Satyajit Ray  191 What I can do, however, is to pack my films with meaning and psychological inflections and shades, and make a whole which will communicate a lot of things to many. The meanings attached to various scenes supply an inexhaustible resource to understand transitions taking place in city life. As a city goes through the phases of being a political city, mercantile city, and industrial city with the values of each succeeding phase swamping the values of the earlier phase without really extinguishing them, find expression in the Calcutta trilogy and beyond. If these films manage to communicate a lot of things to many people, if the psychological inflections and shades continue to resonate even after decades, it means that they contain within them the kernels of these urban societies that once dominated life in these societies. Political city, which was the earliest, is often the seat of the empire surrounded by villages that support the government with taxes and manpower. The movement to the city from the village was little as villages remained isolated and self-contained. In Pather Panchali (1956) we get a glimpse of such a village. It’s connect with a city remains nebulous as Harihar goes from and returns to the village. The rousing quality of the film and the continuing admiration that it receives till today suggests that the village in us has not yet died. As the film traces the story of Harihar, his wife Sarbajaya and their two children, Durga and Apu, their poverty, struggles, and joys of life, the village comes to life in its most tender and tragic form. Pather Panchali is followed by Aparajito (1956) and then Apur Sansar (1959) completing the trilogy. As Apu, who for the first time comes on his own towards the end of Pather Panchali, moves closer to urban realities in Aparajito, first in Benares a holy city and later in Calcutta where he begins his studies. At Benares, even though Harihar finds work to sustain his family he, meets an untimely death. Sarbajaya has to deal with her lecherous neighbour in Benares. To avoid that sshe moves to a village near Calcutta. The relationship between mother and son, at once tender and complex, is shadowed by his life in the city. Little wonder then that the longing in mother’s eyes at every passing train that may bring the son back is only exceeded by her forlorn existence interspersed by short joys when he visits her. In Apur Sansar, the city takes over. The space for affection and life is still provided by the village, where Apu accidentally finds Aparna, whom he marries. He extinguishing his own individuality as he tears off his manuscript by the sheer economic compulsions is typical of a city life. Aparna’s death and subsequent wandering life of Apu once again evokes the rootlessness of city life. The reclaiming, in this case of his son, incidentally also happens far away from the city. Urban society of Ray’s films therefore does not stand in isolation of its rural past but is built upon it. In several other films that deal with the urban world of Ray, such as Pikoo, Kanchenjunga, Nayak, Shakha Proshakha, and Agantuk, similar insights are obtained. In Pikoo, the extramarital affair set against the striking context of the child who is sent out to play and the father-in-law who is ignored or

192  Abhishek Kumar considered too insignificant to factor in reflects the urban focus on self in exclusion of the rest. Intersubjectivity here includes the two loving partners, while the rest are instruments to be used or discarded. Kanchenjunga (1962) even though has the entire film played out in a hill station, it is about a family from Calcutta and the issues it is grappling with. The themes remain acutely urban like unemployment, extramarital affair, and role of social and economic hierarchies in fixing up of a marriage that maintains the social dignity of the family. The film interilluminates the two worlds, urban world and a world away from it. The inhibiting influence of the urban world on the autonomy of individuals etched memorably in the final scenes when the protagonist speaks of rising hills inspiring him to rise above his fears and take a courageous stand, which is epitomized in the following words: Maybe it is this place that has got something to do with it … I have never seen anything like this before. The majestic Himalayas, these silent pine-trees, this strange play of sunlight, clouds and mist. It’s so unreal, almost like a dream state. My head was in a whirl, and everything seemed to change before my eyes. As if I wasn’t myself anymore, as if I was someone special. A hero! A giant! As if I was full of courage … careless … undaunted. And as if no one could stop me anymore. The film Nayak or The Hero (1966) is set as a train journey in which the actor bares himself to a curious journalist. The journey is to the psychological world of a seemingly successful and happy star. Nayak in weak moments confesses that the change that the stardom has brought about is not desirable and gives an example of the occasion when he failed his friend who wanted him to stand beside the striking labour union and say a few words of encouragement. His offer of money to them, any amount but not being able to stand beside them, made him lose esteem in the eyes of his friend. In another instance, one of the actresses, Pramila Chatterjee, visits him asking for work and suggests that she has ambition, talent, and drive to succeed and is willing to go to any length, including coming to his place at night. While this film may deal with the life of people in the upper echelons of society, the urban stamp is unmistakable. Instrumental rationalism triumphing over intersubjective reality is repeatedly observed, with the latter having an upper hand only in dream sequences. Shakha Proshakha (1990), Branches of the Tree, is a film about a wellto-do family that has to suddenly gather as their father falls ill on his 70th birthday. The film is characterized by the issues of corruption at workplace, professional traps of economic security, and alienation from one’s calling. Urban influences have affected all characters and is seen in; their indifference towards their grandparents, corrupt lives of the eldest brother who is a high-ranking officer in a company, and his brother , a businessman. The youngest of all is able to confront himself as he grapples with reality and calls

Urban Society in the Films of Satyajit Ray  193 it quits to join a theatre company. This film too elucidates that vice-like grip of instrumental rationality that takes people away from themselves. It also suggests that to escape either one must be a child or childlike as seen in many cases above or a mad man and have the courage to confront reality like Tutul or Shyamal or Pratap and Prashanta in Shakha Proshakha. Finally, Agantuk, The Stranger (1991), his last film sees a final return to roots in an anthropological sense and attempts to rediscover the meaning of being human. Anila receives a letter from the protagonist Manmohan Mitra, who claims to be her uncle and wishes to spend a few days at her home. The way her family deals with him, a stranger, indicates towards the urban value of suspicion who is subjected to even an inquisition by a lawyer friend. The post-dinner conversation initially civil but increasingly nasty leads to Manmohan Mitra leaving their home the next day morning. During the conversation, issues from God to medicine, technology to sexuality, and tribal practices to cultural refinement are discussed. In one of his fluent flourishes, he explores the essence of technology: Oh, my goodness! The main thing has been left out! Science! Technology! You can only think of Neptune, of Voyager. But think of this – how did the savage, ape-like man who had nothing at all learn hunting, fishing, agriculture, weaving, pottery ... how did he devise ways of acquiring everything one needs to lead a life? There's more – architecture! Even a thatched hut bears witness to the art of building. Do you know of the igloo? The home of the Eskimo? One is opaque, and is used to make the roof over their heads, the other is transparent, and is used to make the square windows in their houses. What would you call this? Is this not science? Not technology? In Agantuk, he presents man as a volatile site of conflicting forces and desires. He conducts an interrogation of a man conceptually through the protagonist Manmohan Mitra and experimentally through the characters that surround him. The final flight of Manmohan Mitra to a tribal village and the contrite family’s journey to that village is a suggestion that reclamation of the village is necessary to rebuild self and society. Ray’s films are objects of an inquiry that leads us into the labyrinthine world of sociopsycho realities. They refer to ideas that carry the seeds of what makes us humane. Various scenes often stand on their own and communicate meanings that may be seen in isolation as well as a part of the evolving storyline. Little wonder that his films are cult objects that are loved, discussed, and studied to illuminate our understanding of ourselves. Umberto Eco in his work, Trends in Hyperreality (1986), states, What are the requirements for transforming ... a movie into a cult object? The work must be loved, obviously, but this is not enough. It

194  Abhishek Kumar must provide a completely furnished world so that its fans can quote characters and episodes as if they were aspects of the fans private sectarian world ... I think that in order to transform a work into a cult object one must be able to break, dislocate, unhinge it so that one can remember only parts of it, irrespective of their original relationship with the whole. A large number of scenes from his films are pieces that have defined future cinema and used for inspiration. When taken out of the Indian or Bengali context and adapted to other cultural contexts such as Hollywood films or Hindi films, they still do the magic. His urbanism too in a similar manner illuminates the space between instrumental rationalism and intersubjective reality. When the scale favours the former, it is practical, worldly, and transactional and when it is the latter, it gives us a glimpse into what is the meaning of being human. Conclusion Satyajit Ray had an urban middleclass upbringing. His sensibilities were formed by Calcutta and all that the city stood for. His ears and eyes caught in camera the visible cityscapes and the invisible, such as influences of ideology on daily lives of people. A common accusation against him is he is not political enough. His films have the politics of human relations sharpened by the sensibilities of an urban society and not the politics of ideology. The compulsions of surviving in a demanding city force people to resort to instrumental rationality from which they find reprieve only in the moments of extreme mental duress or occasions of play. Ray’s films articulate the alternation between a matter of fact life characterized by cold business-like interactions and a life where two or more people together create a shared reality References Benjamin, W. (1936). The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction. London: Penguin Books. Bhattacharya, A. (1990). Satyajit Ray’s Calcutta: Friend or Adversary? India International Centre Quarterly, 17(3/4), 301–313. Eco, U. (1986). Trends in Hyperreality. London: Picador. Gupta, U., & Ray, S. (1982). The Politics of Humanism: AnInterview with SatyajitRay. Cinéaste, 12(1), 24–29. Habermas, J. (1984). Theory of Communicative Action, Vol 1: Reason and the Rationalization of Society. Boston: Beacon Press. Hume, D. (1739–40). Treatise of Human Nature, L. A. Selby-Bigge (ed.). 2nd ed., revised by P. H. Nidditch. Oxford: Clarendon, 1975.

Urban Society in the Films of Satyajit Ray  195 Kant, I. (1785). Grundlegung Der Metaphysik Der Sitten (English: Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals, J. W. Ellington (Trans.). Indianapolis: Hackett, 1983. Marcuse, H. (1964). One Dimensional Man. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Nandy, A. (2007). An Ambiguous Journey to the City: The Village and Other Odd Ruins of the Self in the Indian Imagination. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

12 Transformative Communal Media Engagement and Diversification Abdulkadir Osman Farah

Introduction The often-negative laden media discourses targeting ethnic communities in the Danish society mainly emerge from intense political campaigns and strategies by political parties (Hussain, 2000; Jacobsen et al., 2013; Andreassen, 2016). As political leaders compete for political offices, established Danish media balance the demands of political elites as well that of the wider society. Under such dialectical conditions, members of transnational ethnic communities often find themselves in subordinate positions and roles. However, in recent years, a group of youth, representing the younger generations whose educational and cultural capability lets them position themselves into more assertive roles in their relations with media platforms, emerged. Often these energetic youth consider and deploy, among other tools, personal biographies and complex life situations as beneficial expressive sources. From their situated positions they then enter dialogue and collaborations with not just their own specific communities but also with other constituents in the wider society. Under such endeavour, the youth eventually reach out the established media and even top politicians. The mobilized youth argue that the negative media focus on the limitations of ethnic communities has less to do with existing real challenges. The emphasis rather, departs, they suggest, from detached perceptions as well as social imagination reflecting biased information and discourses often constructed and provided by the same dominant media whose design aims at the mainstream society. The youth groups in this regard identify a problem resting on the mainstream public’s overreliance on asymmetric and unbalanced established media discourses. Consequently, the youth groups decide to address and find answers to such challenges in attempting to diversify and if possible overcoming such entrenched media barriers. Their immediate answers include the attempts of mobilizing diverse constituents through the process of providing alternative sources of information and stories (Rønsholt, 2017). Such alternative approaches target own communities as well as the wider society. In their activities the youth utilize different media platforms, including social media. The youth group consists of limited groups of both females and males of the second generation of ethnic communities. They start their activities DOI: 10.4324/9781032632667-15

Transformative Communal Media Engagement  197 with the reflection of own biographies and stories followed by intracommunity engagements as well as extra-communal links, eventually resulting in partial connection of established media platforms, the political system, and beyond. Furthermore, the youth depart from the premise that intracommunal realities and experiences differ from extra-communal concerns and priorities – though the two are linked. If utilized properly, they suggest, such connections can enrich the society as a whole. Reasonable connections and mutual understandings can reduce, they propose, the gap through discussions, exchanges, and dialogue. In addition, the representatives of the transnational ethnic community youth consider themselves as part of the society due to their educational and employment background, compared to that of the parent generation. These are social mobility qualities their parents might have initially lacked. The youth therefore seem to demand more inclusion and respect. Consequently, the main question which the youth groups raise is: How to better link intracommunal relations with extra-communal relations for better social and community sustainability? At the same time, the youth groups pursue a specific method in trying to answering the challenges as well as reaching the stated goal of communal sustainability. Firstly, the youth suggest the combination of personal and community assertions with concrete reaching out dialogical activities such as understanding the youth and their stories –- recognizing demographic and historical differences from the parent generation. Secondly, they focus on events, situations, and conditions. Thirdly, the youth representatives try to reason their activities from the perspectives of their own original ethnic background as well as that of the wider society. Finally, the youth consider themselves as balancing and meditators by belonging and identifying themselves with both societies simultaneously. Though adapting a normative understanding from their communities and also witnessing how the mainstream society classifies and discusses social relations and priorities, the youth consider their stories differing though partially connecting to that of their parents as well to the mainstream society. Homogenizing vs Hydrogenizing Diverse Contexts Although the Danish society has a stable democracy and relatively free society, within the Danish social mechanisms, conflicting segregated and affluent communities and neighbourhoods exist (Jensen et al., 2021). Henceforth, established media platforms and political organizations design multiple approaches to such diverse contexts. However, due to existing asymmetric power relations, the media remains cautious in their critiques of affluent continuants in the mainstream society. In contrast, the same media often portrays constituents of ethnic minorities in stereotypical manners. Under certain circumstances, particularly during heightened political situations, the media describes ethnic minorities as representatives of “parallel societies” and thereby “outsiders” (Wren, 2001).

198  Abdulkadir Osman Farah One main feature of the media and political elite dominance includes the process of sidelining or ignoring the actual livelihoods of ethnic communities. An exception is during periods of intense electoral campaigns and troublesome times which the media mobilizes voters. However, mainstream media do not take ethnic communities and their representatives seriously (Hervik, 2011). In responding to such unbalanced conditions, the younger generation of ethnic community members decided to undertake social activities fostering and promoting the forgotten and sidelined ideas of the life stories of the ethnic communities, particularly that of the youth. In this regard, the youth generates a form of alternative group feeling that not necessarily fully belong to the mutually defensive categories of the mainstream versus the ethnic communities. Instead, the youth groups suggest a third alternative intermediate position, which seemingly appears different, but at the same time connects the two conflicting positions or spaces (Nørreby and Møller, 2015). A feature of the ethnic community life is that they rely on the mainstream for information. Before social media people had lesser opportunities to interpedently frame stories and share them in public. The mainstream society is rather different. The influential members of the society have either their own media platforms or rely on and relate to existing media platforms that historically also originate from different kinds of competing social mobilizations (Bjur et al., 2013). In addressing the marginal role their parent generation experienced, the youth representatives introduce an additional feature one could call a form of an intercommunity competence. The approach consists of the pursuing of inter-communal social formation through dialogical exchanges. This conception derives from the social interaction rather than from genealogical relations of ethnicity. Through such interaction, the youth representatives often engage in dynamic intercommunal as well extra-communal dialogic reasoning exchanges, including storytelling and sharing. Though the youth point to the limitations of both their parent generations and the mainstream Danish society, they don’t pacifically judge both sides conclusively but instead insist on both sides connecting, communicating and simultaneously prevailing. The younger generation considers their parent generation of people who suffered and struggled in their lives and through the processes of adjustment into the complex Danish society and system. Most of them somehow managed and have helped the younger generations in overcoming the challenges of education and integration. The parent generation confronted, more or less, routine hostile media and political systems (Andersen, Larsen and Møller, 2009). Obviously, they had limited tools to confront such prejudice and exclusion. The younger generation seems more privileged in this regard. They are relatively better educated, many of them with proper employment, and have more or less adjusted into the Danish society (Niknami, Schroder, and Wadensjo, 2019). The younger generation therefore uses different tools and approaches from the parent generation as well as that of the dominant

Transformative Communal Media Engagement  199 socio-media and political system in Denmark. Their prime aim is to improve the community image and remain active as an accepted and well-regarded part of the Danish society. The main question they seek to answer is: How can the younger generations bridge the media and discourse gap that exists between their community and the wider Danish society? Their aim is also to achieve fair media treatment and improved public consciousness. The Conception of Dialogical Positive Intercommunal Interaction Building on Putnam’s earlier work on comparing civic mobilization in Italy and the US and concluding the positive effect of civic communities on democracy (Putnam, 1992), Fennema (2004) and Fennema and Tilie (2001) identified the presence of similar mechanisms occurring within the contexts of the Netherlands and in Scandinavia. Under such circumstances, the studies find situations in which proactive civic communities promote concerted media consciousness and political participation within a multicultural democracy (Fennema, 2004; Fennema and Tillie, 2001). Fennema further conceptualizes the empirical concept of “civic community” as integral to the theoretical framing of “civil society (Fennema, 2004). Furthermore, research in socio-political communication notes that interpersonal and mediated processes affect people’s participation and contribution to the dynamics of socio-political realities as well as the general media structures (Ball-Rokeach, Kim and Matei, 2001). In addition, Fennema’s (2004) ethnic civic community perspective suggests the important role of media communication in ethnic community’s eventual political participation. Other research adds the existence of “communication fabrics” meaning ethnic communities involving diversified communicative ties among and across ethnic group member and media application (Kim and Ball-Rokeach, 2006, p. 173). Fennema suggests most civic communities engage vertical and horizontal relations, adding that this civic cleavage could be overcome as members of the ethnic elites join and become part of the mainstream elite. Fennema further distinguishes bridging and bonding organizational relationships representing competing networking and social capital generation and approaches by ethnic communities. It is through these complex networks that the media formations emerge not just in relation to the framework of the communities but also to that of the mainstream media as well. Fennema stresses interesting points of differentiation and new forms of ethnic communities’ media formation. The challenge is that the media platforms have not been civic and democratic, particularly when it comes to ethnic minorities. Fennema further suggests that when ethnic communities mobilize they often confront the stigma of being migrants and refugees, while some of the mainstream communities though also historically having migrant and refugee roots not confront similar challenges (Fennema, 2004). There is also a sense of mainstream questioning of the autonomy of ethnic communities and their maturity (Fennema and Tillie,

200  Abdulkadir Osman Farah 2001). Furthermore, Fennema and Tillie (2001) find that overlapping memberships and mobilization in multiple contexts promotes increased political participation and trust among different groups. Herewith access to and formation of social and cultural capital is important in contributing and diversifying socio-political media platforms. This expansion of participation and trust occurred within existing frameworks of participation and mobilization within the community that also maintain group solidarity and collaboration, though reaching out and bridging towards additional networks and diverse communities (Horta and Malheiros, 2006, p. 6). Other studies also conclude that ethnic communities expanded and generated social capital and social solidarity forms that transform not just the individual communities but also the wider society as well (Bankston and Zhou, 2002). In their critique, Jacobs et al. (2004) point out that though the conception of Fennema (2004) and Fennema and Tillie (2001) concentrate and analyse the significance of ethnic communities’ social capital and alternative forms of social organization and solidarity, the studies pay lesser attention on the roles in which intergenerational differences play in the formation of such alternative consciousness and transformative strategies. Similarly, there are aspects in which ethnic community organizations go beyond their own network, for instance, when they engage in memberships in religious organizations, unionized movements, and diverse alumni and transnational socio-political and economic formations (McMahon, 2015). Moreover, it is not just ethnic elites that are the most important. Though social capital and the ability to mobilize are important, the younger generation whose interactions and relations with both the ethnic communities and the dominant society remain critical in both the initial framing and activities. One way of kind of a complementary conception to the developmental evolutionary process from a wider civil society to a specific civic engaged framework is the process in which engaged ethnic communities, in this case, undertake concerted activities of diversifying and combining socio-ontological interrelated positions and activities. A rather dynamic process starting with the mobilization of community members and the organization of public gatherings at public institutions and community centres subsequently leading to emerging public debates and editorials in the media, followed by appearances in TV shows and public radio programs, eventually resulting meetings with decisionmakers hereunder senior ministers and politicians. This practical approach contrasts and disrupts the traditional normative media and political approaches of passively categorizing and objectifying communities by often deploying statistics and dissociated general civic public opinions that often do not necessarily relate to the actual empirical realities of communities trying to integrate and adjust into the mainstream. The community civic approach is a subjective bottom-up conscious description and sense of ownership of own destiny – with direct horizontal and dialogic engagement of active community members with the aim

Transformative Communal Media Engagement  201 of achieving social empowerment and public recognition and inclusion. However, the traditional civil–civic society dichotomy partially represents a top-down approach in a framework of social hierarchical stratification of communities with the purpose of exerting power and achieving political aims. Instead, civic ethnic youth representatives express their tiredness of the prevailing political and media stigma in the mainstream. They reject the idea of them being static members of ethnic communities. By not denying their history of having refugee and migrant background, community youth representatives consider their ethnic background not as a limitation but rather an additional historical experience. Occasionally the dominant media and the public political discourse uncritically rely on one-sided demographic and statistical information which often. For the community a critical transformation occurred from been refugees with traumatized parent generation to younger vibrant generations who grow up within the realities of obtaining certain capabilities such as education and complex cultural competence, thereby ensuring them better and expanded integrational opportunities within the community, the mainstream society, and beyond. Consequently, the youth seem capable of resisting prevailing prejudices in public debates. They also see the existence of a certain level of silence by the society in generally not admitting the presence and spread of prejudice and racism. For them such obstacles could be overcome by shifting attention and focus from an overemphasis on statistics and numbers to the process of highlighting of human priorities, social needs, and connections. Such a shift in return requires persistent framing of lifeworld stories by the involved and associated networks. Intercommunal Engagement and Dialogue Resulting in Mainstream Media and Political Curiosity Initial activities of social engagement: In a study on youth social activities and engagement in urban neighbourhoods, social studies find the importance of youth “positionality”; the role in which adults and organizers play in the positionality and engagement of the youth; the way in which the youth together with their grown-up allies and organizers create safe institutional spaces and finally the process in which the youth project leads together with their allies in the process constructing social capital, trust, and relationships leading to the youth becoming a transformative part of transcommunity transformation (Nygreen, Ah Kwon and Sanchez, 2006). Additional studies which specifically focused on youth with African and Asian backgrounds concluded that the activities of the youth provided transformation from being in an “atomized local social relations as individualistic and self-interested” towards the promotion of “collective agency” in fostering commonalities of diverse groups and networks leading to alternative more dynamic civic identities (Kirshner, 2009).

202  Abdulkadir Osman Farah With the Aarhus youth mobilization case, before the project got under way, youth participants prototyped their activities at an educational institution called FO-Aarhus College. This is an institution designed to provide leisure education and cultural exchanges for citizens unable to and who have no time to participate in formal institutional schedules (FO-Aarhus, 2017). The institution organizes among others teachings and courses that empower individuals as well as diverse ethnic communities. Representatives of the youth shared stories and experiences with FO-Aarhus students and teachers who gathered at the institution on one of the days. The audience received the different stories enthusiastically and subsequently asked multiple questions and provided valuable comments. This experimental encounter became an eyeopener for the youth, indicating to them that their simple straightforward story could be shared and have significance for a larger audience who could be interested in listening. In following up on the encounter with the youth, the head of the college has written a long editorial in one of the main newspapers referencing the remarkable encounter with the youth representatives who shared stories capturing the attention of those present at the institution. He portrayed the youth representatives as educated and integrated young people who admire Denmark and the values the nation and the society stand for. Admitting that the parent generation had challenges to understand and adjust into the society, the younger generation equally participates and contributes. In addition, the youth have fulfilled the dreams of their parents by obtaining education and thereby achieving professional status in the Danish society. A remarkable development in which the parent generation struggled with or did not have similar opportunities to access due to linguistic and other cultural obstacles (Report-Blue Stars, 2017). The youth representatives also shared stories of their childhood, for instance, growing up in neighbourhoods. Though difficult, such experiences provided them with strength and understanding of community needs and struggles. In their presentation the youth were also consistent in their position of how a balanced integration should be. In contrast to the prevailing dominant discourse of considering integration as a policy issue in which politicians and bureaucrats have to deal with, the youth proposes alternative approaches to such challenges. Better integration, they suggest, has to start from the local environment. It is about the contact between peoples in the local environment as well as in the wider society (Report-Blue Stars, 2017). In other words, people will have to start discussing, debating, and dialoguing in neighbourhoods, schools, and universities as well as in other public institutions. Often, with regard to public debates, authorities use numbers and different statistics designed for general reading. But the rigid numbers and surveys often frighten people who are not aware of the humans behind the numbers. In this respect, therefore, the youth representatives prefer the promotion of intercommunity dialogue and contacts. They suggest that both the media and some of the politicians can manipulate the gaps within the society, which can only be overcome through communication and dialogue

Transformative Communal Media Engagement  203 (Report-Blue Stars, 2017). Unlike the dominant discourse, the youth do not see a contradiction between their struggling upbringing and roots and the potentiality of becoming active and contributing part of the Danish society. They see such experiences and life stories complementing each other and thereby supporting their endeavour of better living conditions for themselves and the wider society in which they consider themselves as integral. Building bridges in reaching out to communities as well as the wider society: The youth representatives consist of about a dozen of Somali youth, educated and well-integrated into the society. Though the project is part of a larger integration project, the youth volunteer their time and resources to join. In addition, they take a limited course in the art of performing to public audience and they also share their personal stories and those of their families. That means there should be some sort of openness in the process of communicating and dialoguing. For most of the youth this was the first time they engaged in public. Some of them might have spoken to fellow students and people in their neighbourhoods. But going out and discussing publicly in institutions and in the media was new to them. The initial empowering courses were designed to give tools to communicate and respond to potential questions and inquiries more consistently. In each session where the youth representatives go out, the sessions start with a brief presentation of the conditions of the migrant generation and the background of their lives and neighbourhoods. The aim is to contextualize and let those who are unfamiliar with the livelihood of other communities know the communities struggle with prejudice and racism from the mainstream media as well as that of right-wing politicians. The youth have also shown pictures including that of the community and their families as well as images of their communities from different perspectives (Report-Blue Stars, 2017). Though they also present statistics and numbers, they give these numbers contexts and backgrounds and thereby somehow humanize them, in making them relevant and concrete. In complementing such direct contact and communication with audiences, the youth also created a social media, Facebook platform in which they post and share their activities with wider audiences within and beyond Denmark. The youth representatives visit schools, community associations, and other important institutions in which people gather. Here they act as role models for other youth in the community who look up to them as educated engaged youth who are not just supporting their communities but also engaging the wider society to connect and foster relationships, thereby forestalling prejudice and misunderstanding. The youth seem to balance the two sides: the mainstream society and those constituencies traditionally considered marginal. On the one hand, they seem to differentiate themselves from their parent generation which the society often indirectly suggests of burdening the social system (Kvist and Greve,2011). In this regard the youth think and argue that they are now better integrated and not much different from the wider society as their parents

204  Abdulkadir Osman Farah did. They argue they have adjusted into the society. This confirms a kind of intergenerational difference and approach to the surrounding society. The youth argue they acquire a higher employment rate than their parents and are therefore tired of being considered as a burden. They demand among others less focus on statistics and instead of on characters and personalities, including open-minded discussion and debates about prejudice and racism within and among communities. In Denmark we should focus more on prejudice and racism and do something about, we should go out and confront, including us. (Heyfa, Kristeligt newspaper, 2017) We live normal – speak the language and understand the society as much as the natives. Therefore, we don’t understand why we should be exposed stigma and even racism. (Safaa, Kristeligt newspaper, 2017) Extra-communal engagements: Studies find that in order for youth groups to reach out to the mainstream, they will require leaning technicalities as well as cultural competencies as they try in reaching out and impacting audiences in the mainstream. This means that the youth groups transform and amplify in their interaction with the surrounding society (Clay, 2006). Though important, it is not about just an issue of articulation and discourse but also an “embodied place-based experience” including an intersubjective sensitivity and perceptions (McKenzie, 2008). The Blue Stars, as the youth representatives call themselves, initially started their activities in identifying and reaching out to different communities. Then this led to the participation of a diverse community cultural Bazaar, contributing to an intense debate on Danishness as well as the organization of special events. In the organization and implementation of such complex diverse activities, the youth group and their supporters organized a course on media and performance, training them in techniques of public speaking and storytelling. After a while and several consecutive performances, the youth representatives gained experiences and confidence in the process of coming out to the public and telling their stories convincingly. Among the events they participated was a stopover at Dan-mission in the city of Aarhus. Here the representatives took part in a talk with a group of young faith groups in exchanging among others situations of hope, commonality, and prosperity, particularly among the youth but also in the wider society and beyond. From there, after witnessing people were positively receptive to their presence and stories, the youth developed a model of a dialogic performance approach in which they repetitively utilized in multiple contexts and situations. In another event with Danish seniors, the youth representatives initially confronted rather certain scepticism among elders in Sognegården at

Transformative Communal Media Engagement  205 Møllevangs Church reacting to the head-scarf of some of the visiting youth. After a while, when the youth representatives spoke and shared their stories people forgot their dress and appearances (Report-Blue Stars, 2017). The elders and other participants began to laugh and enjoy the emotional and serious accounts by the youth representatives. Eventually, the sessions became a mutual ground for exchanges and understanding in which participants agreed on numerous issues on how to live and advance together as communities and societies. Within about five months, the youth representatives had a total of 11 events. In each event they disseminated their activities as well as their particular performances in these events on several websites and social media platforms where the images and presentations can be downloaded. They have at the same time advertised their activities at public Danish list of event arrangements, hereunder platforms such as the Parish Evening and the Event Zone, where eventually people contacted and ordered the youth representatives to visit (Report-Blue Stars, 2017) Then came a time for a major debate on social challenges in the Danish society. The youth organized the event of discussing and debating on the controversial issue of Danishness. This is a topic not just restricted to the interest of communities but a topic that over the years raged among politicians and opinion makers as well as in the mainstream media. The stories of the youth and their performances in various platforms disrupted the general approach to the topic. The youth had a less homogenizing universalizing approach to the topic of Danishness. They argued that their Danishness was more complex and diverse, consisting of elements of multicultural traits, requiring different ways of understanding and dealing with the formation of identity. Through their performances and assertion, the youth became known in certain earlier exclusive parts of the Danish society, particularly among leading media groups and also among leading politicians. In contrast to other public performances, the Danishness debate included lengthy discussions and exchanges of controversial topics such as the importance and persistence of religiosity and ethnicity. The debate was a part of a wider nationwide debate in Denmark, where different social groups and even experts discuss and analyse how the society’s solidarity and cohesion could be sustained in a situation where the society consists of people with different religious communities and even ethnicities. The outcome of such debates was that the democratic situations as well as the rule of law should be bases for creating trust and commonalities in the society. The youth representatives added the need for continuing dialogue and exchanges of different communities so misunderstandings, distortions, and existing fears could be overcome. Intracommunal engagements: In several studies, youth groups are given the option of “confirming” or “rebelling” their own communities (Cederman, Wimmer, and Min, 2010). When youth groups find themselves trapped in societies that racialize and stigmatize their communities, they will engage process of either strengthening their communities or a diverging conflictual

206  Abdulkadir Osman Farah condition in which they oppose and start disciplining their own communities (Martin, 2017). In addition to the extra-communal engagements of coming out and linking to the wider society, the Blue Stars youth representatives engaged in a kind of internal communal activities. Under these conditions, the youth acted as role models for other sceptical and reserved community youth. They have also in different meetings shared stories and inspired high school students to engage and link to the wider Danish society. At several meetings in Frydenlund Fælleshus and one meeting in Kulturhus Herredsvang, the youth received attention when they have talked about the good opportunities in Denmark for education, work, and the quality of life. They insisted on the idea that young people can transform their lives and that of their families (Report-Blue Stars, 2017). Several young people, who initially came with negative attitudes to participating in the Danish society and taking advantage of its opportunities, became very thoughtful after listening to and having a dialogue with the youth representatives. For instance, at the secondary school Langkær Gymnasium, the youth representatives met with a large group of high school students and inspired these young people to participate actively in community life and beyond (Report-Blue Stars, 2017). The outreach activities not just concern about the youth but also the elder generation. The youth representatives met parent generations including mothers. They discussed with them and exchanged ideas about raising children in complex environments and how young people could access better education. Among the topics discussed included how mothers and girls in the families are burdened by domestic work. For some, boys often do lesser work in the home by not helping their mothers. In contrast, the girls do help their mothers, while they also seem to be better in terms of achievements in education (Report-Blue Stars, 2017). Attracting mainstream political, media, and social attention: According to some studies among the youth and their perception of mainstream media and politics, their attitudes change depending on the level of engagement and interaction with the media and the political organizations (Brantner and Herczeg, 2013). This has mainly to do with the media in general as well as the political system becoming more dynamic and intersubjective. Due to technological advancement and complex socio-political relations, however, it is no longer sustainable to categorically identify and objectify certain constituents without response, criticism, and scrutiny (Jenkins and Deuze, 2008). In addition politicians, and probably youth community members, confront the dilemma of mobilizing communities for voting in democratic societies while maintaining and preserving their own identities and the well-being of their communities (Nandi and Platt, 2020). The systematic committed multidimensional engagement by the youth representatives eventually attracted wider public attention involving media, the political elite, and nominations to different public awards. After

Transformative Communal Media Engagement  207 consistent public engagements, the media finally opened their eyes to the phenomenon of the Blue Stars and to the work of youth representatives. For instance, the main national public radio, DR P1, contacted the youth and presented live interviews. Subsequently, another nationwide semipublic popular TV2 invited the youth for interviews. The breakthrough came when some of the youth representatives appeared in several popular morning talk shows such as “Good Morning Denmark.” Subsequently, the youth representatives disseminated their mainstream media approaches in diverse social media platforms, which in return attracted increased followers and supporters. In a five years’ time, my generation will fill more on the statistics – and our parents will fill the statistics less – then employment numbers will be higher. (Amina, Kritstiligt Newspaper, 2017) In early February 2017, the youth went to Copenhagen on a three-day trip. The main aim of the trip was a scheduled meeting with the integration minister Inger Støjberg, a sharp opposition to the idea of multiculturalism (Kockand Villadsen, 2017), especially when it comes to how to deal with citizens with Middle Eastern and African backgrounds. The meeting turned into a rather heated exchange of views, where members of the youth representatives confronted the minister with alternative ideas and approaches of better integration and thereby coexistence. In the meeting, while the minister strongly advocated for assimilation and nationalism, the youth representatives called for a tolerant, respectful, inclusive, and more balanced society (Report-Blue Stars, 2017). Later several major Danish newspapers requested an interview with the youth representatives. The youth representatives also attracted numerous nominations for prestigious national awards. They were nominated for, among others, “awards for project management,” “awards for volunteers,” “schooling and integrations prize,” “The celebrating Africa awards,” and finally “community leadership awards” (Report-Blue Stars, 2017). Conclusion Conventional research sees youth groups from ethnic communities as individuals caught in between own static communities confronted by more hierarchical and occasionally less compromising dominant representatives of the mainstream society. Such socio-political gaps make youth groups and their community organizations struggle to overcome societal exclusions. Other studies add that youth groups might even find themselves in incises with the systemic imposition of choosing sides in either conforming to the traditions of their own particular communities or preferring to confront them and thereby favouring assimilation in becoming part of the mainstream that often

208  Abdulkadir Osman Farah sustains deliberately situated and unbalanced dominant media and political representations of ethnic communities. The case of the youth Blue Stars proves otherwise. Among others, the youth activities confirm the existence of an alternative approach that connects and balances socio-ontological divergencies. Herewith the youth group deploys both communities’ and mainstream societal resources to promote commonalities and a better understanding of conflicting sociopolitical concerns and situations. By sharing their own upbringing and community stories as a positive valuable resource, the youth groups demonstrate self-confidence and the cultural and social traits of the different communities as an end in itself, rather than being tools that mainstream media and political constituents utilize as a means for specific narrow socio-political and socio-cultural gains. In this regard, the Blue Stars and youth representatives from Aarhus appeal to a continuing dialogical expressive interconnectedness and engagement among different competing social groups in the society as the way forward for a sustainable inclusive democratic society. References Andersen, J., Larsen, J. E. and Moeller, I. H. (2009) The exclusion and marginalisation of immigrants in the Danish welfare society: Dilemmas and challenges. International Journal of Sociology & Social Policy, 29(5/6), 274–286. Andreassen, R. (2016) Sing a song, but stay out of politics: Two cases of representations of racial/ethnic minorities in the Danish media. In: Elisabeth Eide and Kaarina Nikunen (eds.), Media in Motion (pp. 163–180). Routledge. Ball-Rokeach, S. J., Kim, Y. and Matei, S. (2001) Storytelling neighborhood: Pathsto belonging in diverse urban environments. Communication Research, 28(4), 392–428. Bankston III, C. L. and Zhou, M. (2002) Social capital as process: The meanings and problems of a theoretical metaphor. Sociological Inquiry, 72(2), 285–317. Bjur, J., Schrøder, K. C., Hasebrink, U., Courtois, C., Adoni, H. and Nossek, H. (2013) Cross-media use: Unfolding complexities in contemporary audiencehood. In: Nico Carpentier, Kim Schrøder, and Lawrie Hallett (eds.), Audience Transformations (pp. 15–29). Routledge. Brantner, C. and Herczeg, P. (2013) ‘The life of a new generation’: Content, values and mainstreammedia perception of transcultural ethnic media–An Austrian case. Communications – the European Journal of Communication Research, 38(2), 211–235. CecilieRønsholt (2017) Youth with Somali-Danish background share positive stories. https://www​ . kristeligt​ - dagblad​ . dk​ / danmark​ / unge​ - danskere​ - med​ - somaliske​ -roedder​-vil​-fortaelle​-de​-positive​-historier-. Seen the 28-08-2022. Cederman, L. E., Wimmer, A. and Min, B. (2010) Why do ethnic groups rebel? New data and analysis. World Politics, 62(1), 87–119. Clay, A. (2006) “All I need is one mic”: Mobilizing youth for social change in the post-civil rights era. Social Justice, 33(2, 104), 105–121.

Transformative Communal Media Engagement  209 Fennema, M. (2004) The concept and measurement of ethnic community. Journal of Ethnic & Migration Studies, 30(3), 429–447. Fennema, M. and Tillie, J. (2001) Civic community, political participation and politicaltrust of ethnic groups. Connections, 24(1), 26–41. FO Aarhus (2017) https://www​.fo​.dk​/kurser/​?course​=22​-974H#! Hervik, P. (2011) The Annoying Difference: The Emergence of Danish neonationalism, Neoracism, and Populism in the Post-1989 World. Berghahn Books. Horta, A. P. and Malheiros, J. (2006) Social capital and migrants' political integration: The case study of CapeVerdean associations in the greater Lisbon area. Finisterra, 41(81), 143–170. Hussain, M. (2000) Islam, media and minorities in Denmark. Current Sociology, 48(4), 95–116. Jacobsen, S. J., Jensen, T. G., Vitus, K. and Weibel, K. (2013) Analysis of Danish Media Setting and Framing of Muslims, Islam and Racism. SFI. Jenkins, H. and Deuze, M. (2008) Editorial: Convergence culture. Convergence, 14(1), 5–12. Jensen, S. Q., Prieur, A. and Skjott‐Larsen, J. (2021) Living with stigma: Spatial and social divisions in a Danish city. International Journal of Urban & Regional Research, 45(1), 186–196. Kim, Y. and Ball-Rokeach, S. J. (2006) Neighborhood context, and civic engagement:a multilevel approach. Human Communication Research, 32(4), 411–439. Kirshner, B. (2009) “Power in numbers”: Youth organizing as a context for exploring civic identity. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 19(3), 414–440. Kock, C. and Villadsen, L. S. (2017) Rhetorical citizenship: Studying the discursive crafting and enactment of citizenship. Citizenship Studies, 21(5), 570–586. Kvist, J. and Greve, B. (2011) Has the Nordic welfare model been transformed? Social Policy & Administration, 45(2), 146–160. Martin, N. (2017) Are British Muslims alienated from mainstream politics by Islamophobia and British foreign policy? Ethnicities, 17(3), 350–370. McKenzie, M. (2008) The places of pedagogy: Or, what we can do with culture through intersubjective experiences. Environmental Education Research, 14(3), 361–373. McMahon, S. (2015) Immigration and Citizenship in an Enlarged European Union: The Political Dynamics of Intra-EU Mobility. Springer. Nandi, A. and Platt, L. (2020) The relationship between political and ethnic identity among UK ethnic minority and majority populations. Journal of Ethnic & Migration Studies, 46(5), 957–979. Niknami, Susan, Schröder, Lena and Wadensjö, Eskil (2019) Ethnic Minority Youths in the LabourMarkets in Denmark. IZA Discussion Paper No. 12274, . Nørreby, T. R. and Møller, J. S. (2015) Ethnicity and social categorization in on-and offline interaction among Copenhagen adolescents. Discourse, Context & Media, 8, 46–54. Nygreen, K., Ah Kwon, S. and Sanchez, P. (2006) Urban youth building community: Social change and participatory research in schools, homes, and community-based organizations. Journal of Community Practice, 14(1–2), 107–123. Report-Blue Stars (2017) Somali-Danish Youth Share and Express Life Experiences in Denmark. Report-the Blue Stars. Wren, K. (2001) Cultural racism: Something rotten in the state of Denmark? Social & Cultural Geography, 2(2), 141–162.

13 American News Media A Shattered Institution Sharaf Rehman

Introduction To trust someone means that the trustor has confidence in the integrity of the trustee. A trustee may be an individual or an institution. A trustor expects honesty, transparency, and fairness from the trustee. There was a time, not too long ago in the past, when the people could expect such conduct from their elected leaders, banks, automakers, construction companies, law enforcement agencies, pharmaceutical companies, and the news media. Starting in 1972, Gallup Corporation began collecting data about the American public’s level of trust and confidence in the American news media. The barometer on media credibility climbed to 72% in 1976 when the news media offered extensive investigative coverage of the Vietnam War and the Watergate catastrophe. In the past 45 years, the media credibility level has failed to reach 1976’s level. Instead, it has been steadily declining. In 2016, it had dropped to 32% (Swift, 2016). A week before the 2020 elections, Gallup reported that 33% of the people had no trust in the news media, 27% said they did not have very much trust, 31% said that they had a fair amount of trust, and only 9% said they had a great deal of trust ( Brenan, 2020). A 2021 survey by Edelman Corporation1 reports that the trust levels of the American people in their government leaders, journalists, and business leaders are at their all-time lows. Such a state of trust bankruptcy should be unacceptable in a democracy as it could threaten the foundations of a political system. During the months leading to the presidential election of 2020, it became transparent that the news media outlets were openly reporting favourably about certain individuals, ideologies, and business interests. At the same time, the media were also suppressing or ignoring the facts that could cast an unfavourable light on their chosen candidates and their sponsors. Social media became partners in smear campaigns and spreading fake news.2 The political scientists and sociologists of the early twentieth century – a group that included thinkers such as Walter Lippman (1920), Harold Lasswell (1948), Robert K. Merton (1949), Paul Lazarsfeld, and Charles Wright (1959) envisioned the news media to be the watchdogs, to connect subcultures, to build cultural continuity, and to inform the public of the news DOI: 10.4324/9781032632667-16

American News Media  211 in a timely and unbiased manner. Instead of being functional, the news media have become dysfunctional and fallen to lower depths of mistrust and disinformation in the form of fake news and alternatives truths. Can any alternative to truth be permissible in news reporting? From a World Poised for Knowledge to a World of Unawareness During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the ability to read was associated with being informed. An informed person, it was assumed, was better able to make sound decisions as compared to an uninformed or uneducated person. Both reading and writing were considered important and serious activities. Writers are at their best behaviour and their humblest as they bowed respectfully to submit their ideas, opinions, thoughts, and position to their readers who judged not the writers but their words, and the strength of the arguments therein. As one reads, one does not become preoccupied or distracted by the shape of letters and characters. A reader concentrates on extracting the meaning intended in the words. In that regard, calligraphy is not intended to be read and understood; it is created to be “looked at” and appreciated. Calligraphers do not create meanings; their mission is to appeal to the aesthetic senses of the viewers who are not required to read or comprehend but to appreciate. Calligraphy is an end in itself. Typography, on the other hand, is about creating meanings and launching arguments where the writer and the reader engage with utmost seriousness and concentration. It was the seriousness of the typographical minds that established books as the most enduring and respected medium. Children were taught not to disturb a person who was reading a book. The libraries created an environment of silence to enable the patrons to extract meanings without distractions. Readers and the act of reading were taken seriously. Someone who wrote a book, or published in a newspaper, was respected for having done something worthwhile and important; writers were taken seriously. Unlike the present-day media, writers did not interrupt their ideas and arguments by interjecting “important messages” from the local tinkers, fishermen, or the sellers of snake oil and magical potions that cured all ailments. The writers wrote in earnest and single-mindedness of purpose. Nor did the readers engage in chores such as laundry, cooking, and paying bills while reading a book. They read in earnest and with the purpose to ingest the meaning behind the words. For those who were unable to read, the importance of writers and typography was irrelevant. To get a point across to the non-readers, one said, “Let me draw you a picture.” With the popularity of photography and moving pictures, the uneducated masses were led to believe that with the help of the news media, i.e., pictures accompanying the news stories, and great works of literature condensed and abridged into silent films, they were equally as well-read and informed as

212  Sharaf Rehman those who read. It was this deception that brought the “age of exposition” to its end, paving the way for the “age of showbusiness” (Postman, 1983: 30). By adding pictures to newspaper and magazine stories and offering condensed versions of Hamlet (1907)3 and Crime and Punishment (1917), the new (visual) media gave the audience a false sense of assurance and self-esteem. The audiences felt they were getting an education in classical music and literature by listening to the radio and going to the movies. Soon after its introduction in the 1910s, radio replaced newspapers as a source of news and information. It’s important to bear in mind that radio attracted its listeners by playing music, sports programmes, comedy sketches, and radio drama, and relied on advertising for its revenues. Programmes began with commercial announcements, were interrupted in the middle with more commercial messages, and concluded with commercial messages. The audience became accustomed to receiving small doses of music, literature, and the news with constant reminders by the announcers: “Stay tuned, we’ll be back after these important messages from our sponsors.” Imagine that you’re listening to the radio news and the newscaster tells you of a bomb blast in the city claiming many lives. You’re informed that the police, the fire department, and the ambulances are at the scene of the tragedy. The news broadcast becomes a juxtaposition of the sounds of the emergency vehicles, the crowd noise, chaos, and an interview with a bystander. The event is no longer news; it’s transformed into radio drama. And suddenly, as one has come to expect, all is interrupted by the all too familiar: “We’ll be back more coverage right after this.” The “this” here may be a potpourri of commercials by fast-food chains, an annual sale at an auto dealership or a promo for a new movie that will open later in the week. When you return to the news, the announcer tells you that several bodies have been removed and the rescue workers continue their search for more bodies and the wounded. A local policeperson has told the announcer that no one has claimed responsibility for the incident, but an investigation has begun and, the listeners, should stay tuned for more breaking news and details. “More after this…” Events and stories are presented on the radio if these are accompanied by sound effects, screams and sobs, angry shouts, bleeped swearwords, gunfire, shattering glass, and soundbites. Can one compare the radio announcer of the above illustration to a serious writer? Can listening to a news story compare to reading a newspaper? Nevertheless, radio provided its audiences a sense of knowing the classics, a knowledge of world history, international politics, and intricacies of global trade and its economics without having to read a single page. It gave its listeners an easy-to-swallow sugar pill and created an illusion that they were “informed” about the news and world affairs. Television took the illusion a step further. It drew the pictures for those who didn’t read, and in so doing, it made the viewers experts about locations

American News Media  213 they never visited, cultures they never experienced, and political ideologies they never studied. Generation X, the demographic cohort born between 1965 and 1980, is raised during the Golden Era of network television. It is a generation that learned its values not from its parents or teachers, or books but from television programs like Sesame Street, Mr. Rogers Neighborhood, and whatever else it saw or heard on television.4 People watch television news while they do other things from washing their cars to checking their messages on their cell phones. This is also true when people watch television documentaries, situation comedies, crime dramas, reality TV, football games, and televised versions of literary epics like War and Peace. All programs begin with music and end with music. And just as in the movies, wherever necessary, music is used to underscore the mood and emphasize the tone. Everything from a documentary about the Holocaust to the inauguration of presidents is presented as Who Wants to Be a Millionaire or Fear the Walking Dead. Everything is presented as entertainment. All television programs have evolved into entertainment – a trade practised by circus clowns, vaudeville comedians, standup comics, and the likes of pole dancers. News programs are no longer called as such. Since these are presented by showmen, the programs are called news shows. These “shows” begin with music, end with music, use music to bridge from one segment to the next, and call upon music to enhance the mood of any dramatic news event. The stories are formulated using the dramatic structure of a three-act play. The news stories have a beginning, a middle, and an end. These stories also have dramatic elements like conflict, good guys, bad guys, the exposition, and the resolution that is delayed until after the “important message from the sponsors.” Under the masquerade of information, television news is fragmented bits of information that trick the viewers into thinking they are being informed while they are being delivered to the advertisers who will sell them remedies for whiter teeth and erectile dysfunction, fast foods for the people on the go, and dieting programs that promise one to shed the pounds gained from consuming the fast foods. When the news about a pandemic breakout is interrupted with “Now … this” or “Stay tuned,” one is likely to be distracted from the severity of the disease by the claims and promises by the advertisers. During those two minutes of the commercial break, many children die of starvation or cholera, many more are killed on the roads due to drinking and driving, and countless women and children are abused while we were informed about the benefits of an anti-aging cream or an invitation to a luxury resort in the Bahamas. When the news resumes, the newscaster, totally oblivious to the real news stories, prefaces with, “Those of you just joining in…” Not unlike on radio, a news story only makes it on the evening news if it has “strong visuals” of human suffering, loss, and destruction of life and property. A beautiful house in the middle of a forest is not news. A house on fire is. The bigger the fire, the bigger the news. Television news loves the

214  Sharaf Rehman forest fires in California. When the old and mature trees are being consumed in a forest fire endangering the animals, we’ll see the story – most likely, sandwiched between ads for bottled water and an insurance company. We’re never shown when new seedlings or trees are planted. Somehow, that’s not news. Television news has long ceased to be informative; when it’s not entertainment, it’s about the ridiculous lifestyles of the celebrities that have accomplished nothing meaningful or about housewives giving lessons on getting even with unfaithful husbands. The word that fits the best is voyeurism. The effectiveness of news is not measured by an increase in the knowledge base of its audience but by the number of laughs it provides. Consequently, the American viewers are not the best informed but the best entertained. The news media are only keeping the illusion of information alive. It seems that we have entered “an age of newslessness.” During an earlier time, the printing press became the archetype for knowledge; in the present day, television has become the paradigm of our notion of public information (Postman, 1985: 34). To compare what a generation learned from the television programs like Sesame Street and the fantasy world of Bill Cosby Show with what generations of children have learned from the work of a mathematician, an inventor, a part-time photographer, and a writer, Lewis Carroll5 is nothing but belaboring the point. The audiences have realized that the media are serving not them but another master – the advertiser. The result is a steady decline in people’s trust in the news media. The viewers have grown distrustful of the news channels, the anchors, and the commentators who claim to report and analyse the news.6 When a social media outlet blocked the president of the United States, some called it a brave gesture; others called it censorship. Since Twitter blocked Donald Trump, other social media platforms took steps to remove many conservative voices and opinions from their websites. In their defence, the CEOs of these outlets claimed that their actions were aimed at removing hate speech to maintain peace and civility. However, the ax did not come down on all hate speech, but only on certain groups while the other group/s continued to post messages inciting violence and destruction. The unequal and unfair treatment of different voices is not an invention of social media. It has been practised by the traditional journalists of print and broadcast media for nearly 40 years. In the beginning, only a few news outlets openly sided with one political party or view. However, selective reporting, bias, and partiality have been steadily growing. Gallup, Pew, and other organizations have been tracking and reporting on the declining news media credibility since the early 1970s.7 The opinionated reporting8became unashamedly clear during the presidential election of 2016. The result was that the news media credibility dropped to all-time lows as the voters lost their faith in social institutions, the elected politicians, and the Fourth Estate – the press.

American News Media  215 It may be too early to tabulate the achievements and follies of President Donald Trump; however, with his nonparliamentary language, he exposed the corruption among the elected officials and the Big Business. While the media claim to have unmasked Donald Trump, he in turn, by launching a battle against the partial mass media, unmasked the news organizations as fake-news factories serving as the mouthpieces of big businesses that through lobbying won favours of the elected senators, congressmen, and the lawmakers. Against the above-described backdrop, this chapter attempts two tasks. Firstly, using a voter survey, this chapter will measure the media credibility in a geographic region that supported President Joe Biden. Secondly, it will make recommendations about bringing journalism and reporting to their appropriate role as the watchdogs over rulers, and the rebuilders of a broken system. The survey and the data gathering were the easier aspects of the undertaking. The greater challenge is to rewire the reporters and journalists to “report” without interjecting their personal prejudices and preferences. The latter aspect has to do with the restoration of the journalism curricula that teach impartiality, objectivity, and a commitment to fact-checking and truth. The Survey The survey instrument used for this study was developed and tested in 2016 by Rehman, 2020).9 During December 2020 and January 2021 (before the inauguration of President Joe Biden), the survey was given to communication and journalism students at a large university in Texas. The university is located in a predominantly pro-Democratic region where over 96% of the student body is composed of Hispanic-Americans who felt the brunt of the Trump administration and the Wall.10 The sample consisted of 215 respondents – all the participants were students of journalism and mass communication, aspiring to become professional reporters, broadcasters, and journalists. A group, one would assume, would be interested in the processes of gathering, checking, and reporting the news as a professional responsibility rather than an expression of one’s personal opinion. The researcher was interested in three general questions: 1. Do the individuals’ self-declared position (liberal vs conservative) determine their choice of news outlets? 2. Does gender influence the selection of media for news? 3. Do men and women trust or mistrust the same newsreporters? The self-administered survey instrument asked about gender, age, voting behaviour, and their self-labelling as liberal or conservative. The instrument also asked about the respondents’ use of various media for accessing news

216  Sharaf Rehman and their opinion of 23 popular broadcasters on broadcast and cable television channels. The respondents’ opinions about the broadcasters were based on a set of questions that asked if they were familiar with the name and if they trusted or mistrusted the broadcaster. Sample Description

Among the 215 usable11 responses, 130 (60%) were completed by females and 85 (40%) by males. The sample consisted of respondents between the ages of 18 and older. Nineteen (8.8%) of the subjects were under 19 years of age, 136 (63.3%) were between 19 years and 24 years, and 60 (27.9%) were over 24 years of age. One hundred sixty-five of the participants (76.7%) voted in the 2020 Presidential election; 41 (19.1%) did not; and the remaining 9 (4.2%) were non-U.S. citizens, ineligible to vote. Among the 165 who voted, 124 voted for Joe Biden (75.2%), 21 (12.7%) voted for Donald Trump, and 20 (12%) voted for some other candidate. Among the respondents, 121 (56.3%) reported as being very liberal, liberal, or somewhat liberal; 47 (21.9%) were neutral; and 26 (12.1%) said they were somewhat conservative, conservative, or very conservative. The remaining 16 (7.44%) did not respond. A cluster of questions asked the participants about their selection/choice of media for accessing the news. A 2016 study of a similar cohort12 reported that smartphones topped the list as the medium of choices for accessing the news, followed by the Internet, and television coming in as the third most accessed source for news (Rehman, 2020: 58). In the present study, the participants could also pick several media as their sources for news.13Table 13.1 presents the choices identified by the 2020 sample. The instrument presented the respondents with a list of 23 TV journalists and reporters. Among these were 15 men and 8 women. The list included the top-rated broadcasters on the three major networks (ABC, CBS, and NBC) and the Cable News channels such as CNN, MSNBC, and Fox News. The

Table 13.1 Do You Use ____ to Access the News? Source/Medium

Used by

Percentage

#1. The Internet #2. Smartphones #3. Television #4. Newspapers #5. Radio #6. Magazines

177 173 154 60 46 25

82.3% 80.5% 71.6% 27.9% 21.4% 11.6%

Source: Author’s data (2021).

American News Media  217 Table 13.2 Journalists/Broadcasters Recognized by the Viewers Ranked

Name

Network

Name Recognized by

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 19 21 22 23

Tucker Carlson Sean Hannity Chris Cuomo Wolf Blitzer David Muir George Stephanopoulos Rachel Meadow Robin Roberts Carson Daly Don Lemon Lester Holt Laura Ingraham Erin Burnett John King Bret Baier Martha McCullum Mika Brzezinski Nora O’Donnell Brian Kilmeade Shepard Smith Chris Mathews Joan Williams Joe Scarborough

Fox News Fox News CNN CNN ABC ABC MSNBC ABC NBC CNN NBC Fox News CNN CNN Fox News Fox News MSNBC CBS Fox News Fox News Fox News Fox News NBC

69.77% 65.12% 64.19% 62.79% 60.47% 58.14% 55.81% 54.88% 52.49% 52.10.% 51.16% 50.23% 49.30% 48.84% 41.86% 34.88% 34.42% 33.95% 33.02 32.56 30.23% 27.91% 19.53%

Source: Author’s data (2021).

instrument asked if the respondents were aware of the broadcaster and if they trusted the broadcaster. Table 13.2 presents the journalists/reporters in the order of their being recognized by the respondents. Two observations may be made from the data in Table 13.2. . Among the top-ten journalists, six are on cable channels. 1 2. Only two women appear among the top 10 – Rachel Meadow [MSNBC] at #7 and Robin Roberts [ABC] at #8. Among the top 15, two more women make the list – Laura Ingraham [Fox News]at # 12 and Erin Burnett [CNN] at #13. The Issue of Trust

Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines mistrust as (1) a lack of confidence in; (2) to have no trust or confidence in; and (3) to doubt the truth, validity, or effectiveness of. Distrust is defined as (1) the lack or absence of trust and (2) to have no trust or confidence in. The two words mistrust and distrust are often used interchangeably; however, when we say that we don’t trust a person, our hesitation is based on some knowledge or experience. When we distrust someone, we suspect that they may conceal the truth or facts.

218  Sharaf Rehman The philosophical and social aspects of trust have been discussed elsewhere (Hovland, Janis, & Kelly, 1953; Westley & Severin, 1964; Coleman, 1990; Fukuyama, 1995; Seligman, 1997; Finberg, 2002; Wathen & Burkell, 2002). The necessary condition for trust in a broadcaster is the audiences’ perception of the broadcaster’s impartiality. If a reader/listener/viewer perceives the broadcaster as biased, the broadcaster credibility may become questionable and the story may be disregarded as fake news, opinion, or propaganda. Can one assume that “trust” and “distrust” are two sides of the same coin? For the present analysis, the author treats trust and distrust as dichotomous. One side could tell how much, and in whom, the audiences may put their trust, and the other side tells which ones the viewers may not trust. The present set of data attempts to offer a view of both sides. From the list of 23 journalists/reporters, the ten most trusted by the respondents are presented in Table 13.3. The four names that top the list are associated with traditional TV networks. ABC, taking the top three places comes as no surprise as ABC has the highest rating for its news programs. Only three women appear on the list of most trusted – Robin Roberts of ABC at # 3, Rachel Meadow of MSNBC at #5, and Erin Burnett of CNN. However, none of these three are news reporters. Reporters/Journalists most “mistrusted” or “not trusted” by the viewers are listed in Table 13.4. It’s worth mentioning that all ten journalists/reporters are on Cable channels. Two women – Laura Ingraham [Fox News], and Erin Burnett [CNN] make the least trusted list at #3 and #8 respectively.

Table 13.3 Most Trusted TV Journalists Ranked

Journalist/Reporter

Network

Votes

Percentage of Sample

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

David Muir George Stephanopoulos Robin Roberts Lester Holt Rachel Meadow Wolf Blitzer Tucker Carlson Chris Cuomo Don Lemon Erin Burnett

ABC ABC ABC NBC MSNBC CNN Fox News CNN CNN CNN

115 109 105 90 85 82 82 80 74 71

53.49% 51.67% 48.84% 41.86% 39.54% 38.14% 37.67% 37.21% 34.42% 33.02%

Source: Author’s data (2021).

American News Media  219 Table 13.4 Least Trusted TV Journalists Ranked

Journalist/Reporter

Network

Votes

Percentage of Sample

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 10

Tucker Carlson Sean Hannity Laura Ingraham Chris Cuomo Wolf Blitzer Bret Baier Don Lemon Erin Burnett John King Brian Kilmeade

Fox News Fox News Fox News CNN CNN Fox News CNN CNN CNN Fox News

113 85 72 64 53 47 44 40 40 38

52.56% 39.54% 33.49% 29.77% 24.65% 21.86% 20.47% 19.72% 19.72% 17.67%

Source: Author’s data (2021)

Political Position and Media Selection

As reported earlier, 121 (56.3%) of the respondents labelled themselves as liberal, 47 (21.9%) as neutral, and 26 (12.1%) as conservative. Since the data are nominal, the only permissible statistical tests are chi-square and Spearman’s rho. A majority of the liberal participants voted for Joe Biden; the conservatives were split between Donald Trump and Joe Biden. People who share our opinions and inclinations are more easily perceived as credible and trustworthy. On the other hand, people who are at the other end of the continuum are perceived as less credible and less trustworthy. This may seem like a mouthful. However, the present data lend support to this hypothesis. The author included the top-five highest-rated liberal journalists of the liberal media outlets. These included David Muir of ABC, Lester Holt of NBC, Nora O’Donnell of CBS, Wolf Blitzer of CNN, and Rachel Meadow of MSNBC. The following five top-rated journalists/reporters were included from the conservative media – Tucker Carlson, Sean Hannity, Martha McCullum, Bret Baier, and Laura Ingraham. It was hypothesized that there would be no difference in the level of mistrust in the liberal reporters among the liberal and conservative respondents. Chi-square analysis revealed that the null hypothesis could only be retained in the case of one journalist – Lester Holt. For the other four, the chi-square calculations did not support the null hypothesis, implying that the conservative respondents had a higher level of mistrust for the liberal journalists than the liberal respondents. These data are presented in Table 13.5A. Similarly, it was hypothesized that there would be no difference in the level of mistrust in the conservative reporters among the liberal and conservative respondents. Based on the chi-square calculations in Table 13.5B, the hypothesis could not be retained for any of the five reporters. More of

220  Sharaf Rehman Table 13.5A Mistrust in the Liberal Media Journalists Journalist / Reporter

Calculated Chi-Square

p-value

Level of Significance

David Muir Nora O’Donnell Wolf Blitzer Rachel Meadow Lester Holt

9.800 8.3179 4.4135 30.1162 3.2124

.0027 .0039 .0356 .