(Re)Creating Language Identities in Animated Films: Dubbing Linguistic Variation [1 ed.] 9783030566371, 9783030566388

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PALGRAVE STUDIES IN TRANSLATING AND INTERPRETING SERIES EDITOR: MARGARET ROGERS

(Re)Creating Language Identities in Animated Films Dubbing Linguistic Variation

Vincenza Minutella

Palgrave Studies in Translating and Interpreting

Series Editor Margaret Rogers School of Literature and Languages University of Surrey Guildford, UK

This series examines the crucial role which translation and interpreting in their myriad forms play at all levels of communication in today’s world, from the local to the global. Whilst this role is being increasingly recognised in some quarters (for example, through European Union legislation), in others it remains controversial for economic, political and social reasons. The rapidly changing landscape of translation and interpreting practice is accompanied by equally challenging developments in their academic study, often in an interdisciplinary framework and increasingly reflecting commonalities between what were once considered to be separate disciplines. The books in this series address specific issues in both translation and interpreting with the aim not only of charting but also of shaping the discipline with respect to contemporary practice and research.

More information about this series at http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14574

Vincenza Minutella

(Re)Creating Language Identities in Animated Films Dubbing Linguistic Variation

Vincenza Minutella Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures University of Turin Turin, Italy

Palgrave Studies in Translating and Interpreting ISBN 978-3-030-56637-1 ISBN 978-3-030-56638-8 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56638-8

(eBook)

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Cover credit: Getty Images/Glen Allison This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

To Emanuele and Marianna

Preface

The idea of this book developed out of my experience teaching a postgraduate English language and translation course at the University of Turin in 2016. I explored with my students the features of the English language spoken in Anglo-American animated films and the translation strategies adopted in Italian dubbing to tackle various elements of film dialogue. Animated films were chosen as a subject of study because of their popularity, the dual audience they are targeted at (children and adults) and their playful use of the resources of language to convey characterisation and humour. Reading Lippi-Green’s ground-breaking analysis of Disney films in “Teaching Children How to Discriminate (What We Learn from the Big Bad Wolf )” (1997) and analysing various films, students were fascinated to discover that language varieties and languages other than English were used by animated characters to convey specific connotations and often stereotypes. The use of language variation as a quick way to provide characterisation and the strategies adopted by dubbing professionals to recreate this characterisation in Italian dubbing aroused great interest and awareness in my students. I hence decided to investigate the issue of the translation of linguistic identities, language

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variation and multilingualism in animated films from a wider perspective—not focusing on individual case studies. Instead, I explored a large number of films produced by different production companies—not just Disney. By analysing a corpus of contemporary films distributed in Italy within a 16-year time span (2001–2017), I hoped I would find regularities in filmic representations of language varieties and languages other than English in the original films and in their translation for dubbing. As a result, I now find myself writing a book on the dubbing of language variation and multilingualism in animated films in order to systematise my findings. Turin, Italy

Vincenza Minutella

Acknowledgements

My gratitude goes to all the people who have supported this project. I would like to thank all my students at the University of Turin, especially those attending my courses in 2015–2016 and 2019–2020, those I supervised for their final dissertations and students taking the MA in Audiovisual Translation (MAVTO). Thank you for your enthusiasm about the topic of this book, for sharing ideas and for helping me with the transcriptions. Thanks go to the publishers and the editors Cathy Scott, Alice Green and, most of all, to Professor Margaret Rogers for challenging my research with her feedback and wise comments and for being very supportive. I would also like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their insights and suggestions and Ms Zobariya Jidda for her kind help. My deepest gratitude goes to Roberto Morville and Elena Di Carlo who generously shared their knowledge of the dubbing world and their vast professional experience, discussed several translation issues with me and provided precious comments.

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I am extremely grateful to all the dubbing professionals who have kindly answered my questions and discussed the issues with me: Massimiliano Alto, Oreste Baldini, Stefano Brusa, Chiara Gioncardi, Marco Guadagno, Fiamma Izzo, Leslie La Penna, Massimiliano Manfredi, Marco Mete, Maria Grazia Napolitano, Serena Paccagnella, Alessandro Rossi, Francesco Vairano and Carlo Valli. I would also like to thank Claudia Gvirtzman Dichter for sharing her thoughts and experiences regarding the dubbing world and for her comments on accents. I would also like to thank my colleagues and friends who have helped me in many ways. First, I am grateful to Frederic Chaume and Jorge Díaz Cintas for being the first to believe in this project, for their precious advice and for their constant, enthusiastic support; to Maria Pavesi for her insights into my research, for being supportive and for helping me find ‘patterns’; to Silvia Bruti for her feedback and support; to Giselle Spiteri Miggiani for her encouragement and for help with translations, issues of professional practice and comments on accents; to Christopher Taylor for his help and comments about accents; to Tessa Dwyer for her comments about Australian accents and stereotypes; to Rainier Grutman for sharing references and for his comments on French Canadian; to Julio de los Reyes Lozano for comments on Spanish accents and Spanish versions of the films; and to Irene de Higes Andino, Irene Ranzato, Serenella Zanotti, Ilaria Parini, Rosina Lippi-Green and Fabio Rossi for sharing references. I would also like to thank Stefania Taviano for her ruthless revision and Elisa Perego for her support. I am grateful to my colleagues from the MA in AVT at the University of Turin teaching for their encouragement and feedback on various issues: Matteo Milani, Chiara Simonigh, Teresa Biondi and Luca Bellone; to Antonio Romano for his precious comments on phonetic features; and to Lydia Corbelli for her help with translations. A special thank-you goes to my friends and colleagues: to Gerardo Mazzaferro for being a living library and great advisor; to Aurelia Martelli and Esterino Adami for welcoming me into their office and providing warmth and advice; and to Pietro Deandrea for his encouragment and sharing references. I would also like to thank Shan Hirst, Gerard Dorrity, Guy Watts, Chris Owen, Nadia Caprioglio, Massimo Maurizio and Susan Souza for their feedback on accents and languages.

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I am grateful to Hilary Siddons for her language revision and translations. A special thank-you goes to Stuart Doherty for his dedication to this project and his precious help with revisions, editing, comments, tables and pie charts. I would also like to thank Ape and Micol, Isabella, Miwa, Keiko, Valeria, Cinzia, Bianca, Barbara, Debbie, Alessandra, Anna and Chiara for the various ways in which they have helped me. Last but not least, my immense gratitude goes to my family: to my parents for their constant support; to my husband Fabio (my wisest counsellor); and to my children Emanuele and Marianna. You have helped me immensely with your love and patience. Thanks for watching the films over and over with me, for encouraging me during such an exhausting project which has taken my mind away from you, for cheering me up and for keeping me sane. This book would not exist without you. Thank you. I am grateful to the editors of the following publications for permission to reproduce previously published material: Minutella, Vincenza (2016) “British dialects in animated films: The case of Gnomeo and Juliet and its creative Italian dubbing,” Status Quaestionis, 11, Special Issue “North and South: British dialects in fictional dialogue,” edited by Irene Ranzato; and Minutella, Vincenza (2018) “Translating non-native varieties of English in animated films: The Italian dubbing of Madagascar 3: Europe’s Most Wanted ,” Cultus, 144–157.

Contents

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Introduction 1.1 Methodology 1.2 Outline of the Book References

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Dubbing Animated Films: A Complex Collaborative Process 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The Dubbing Process: Main Agents, Stages and Texts 2.2.1 The Distributor and Its Dubbing and Localization Department 2.2.2 A Key Agent in the Dubbing Process: The Creative Dubbing Supervisor 2.2.3 Translation, Adaptation and Recording Phases The Translation and the Translator

1 8 13 15 19 19 21 23 25 31 32

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The Italian Adaptation/Italian Dialogues and the Dialogue Writer Recording the Dubbed Version in the Dubbing Booth: Dubbing Director, Dubbing Assistant, Dubbing Actors and Sound Technician Dubbing Actors What Happens to the Italian Dialogues in the Dubbing Booth? 2.3 One Film, Many Texts 2.3.1 English Dialogue List 2.3.2 Key Names and Phrases (KNP) File 2.3.3 Creative Letter 2.4 Choosing the Voices in Dubbing 2.4.1 Voice Tests and Standard Procedures 2.4.2 Star Talents 2.5 Concluding Remarks References 3 Translating Language Varieties and Multilingualism in Audiovisual Texts: Research and Conversations with Dubbing Practitioners 3.1 Introduction 3.1.1 Translating Linguistic Variation and Multilingualism in Audiovisual Texts 3.2 In Conversation with Dubbing Professionals About the Language of Dubbing, Accents and Dialects 3.2.1 The Client Decides 3.2.2 The Language of Dubbing: A Language that Nobody Speaks 3.2.3 Dubbing Strategies for Dealing with Linguistic Variation Main Language of the Film: Standard Italian

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39 42 43 45 47 50 54 55 55 58 66 67

75 75 76 84 85 89 91 91

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Foreign-Accented English or Foreign Language: Foreign-Accented Italian or Foreign Language Use of Italian Regional Accents and Italian Dialects in Dubbing Italian and Italian American Star Talents With an Accent 3.3 Concluding Remarks References 4

Linguistic Variation in Animated Films from 2001 to 2017 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The Corpus of Animated Films 4.3 Language Variation and Linguistic Characterisation in the Films Making up the Corpus 4.3.1 Language Variation in Atlantis: The Lost Empire/Atlantis: L’impero perduto (2001) 4.3.2 Language Variation in the Shrek Films 4.3.3 Language Variation in Lilo and Stitch/Lilo e Stitch (2002) 4.3.4 Language Variation in Finding Nemo/Alla ricerca di Nemo (2003) and in Finding Dory/Alla ricerca di Dory (2016) 4.3.5 Language Variation in Shark Tale (2004) 4.3.6 Language Variation in the Madagascar Trilogy (2005, 2008, 2012) 4.3.7 Language Variation in the Wild/Uno zoo in fuga (2006) 4.3.8 Language Variation in the Cars Films (2006, 2011) 4.3.9 Language Variation in Ratatouille (2007) 4.3.10 Language Variation in Ice Age 2: The Meltdown (2006) and Ice Age 3: Dawn of the Dinosaurs (2009) 4.3.11 Language Variation in Toy Story 3 (2010)

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95 103 106 109 112 113 123 123 124 126 128 130 131

133 134 137 139 141 145

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4.3.12 Language Variation in How to Train Your Dragon/Dragon Trainer (2010) 4.3.13 Language Variation in Puss in Boots/Il gatto con gli stivali (2011) 4.3.14 Language Variation in Gnomeo & Juliet/Gnomeo & Giulietta (2011) 4.3.15 Language Variation in Rio (2011) and Rio 2 (2014) 4.3.16 Language Variation in Rango (2011) 4.3.17 Language Variation in Brave/Ribelle-The Brave (2012) 4.3.18 Language Variation in Rise of the Guardians/Le cinque leggende (2012) 4.3.19 Language Variation in Hotel Transylvania (2012) and Hotel Transylvania 2 (2015) 4.3.20 Language Variation in Turbo (2013) 4.3.21 Language Variation in Planes (2013) 4.3.22 Language Variation in Despicable Me 2/Cattivissimo me 2 (2013) 4.3.23 Language Variation in Mr. Peabody and Sherman (2014) 4.3.24 Language Variation in The Book of Life/Il libro della vita (2014) 4.3.25 Language Variation in Zootopia/Zootropolis (2016) 4.3.26 Language Variation in Sing (2016) 4.3.27 Language Variation in Coco (2017) 4.3.28 Language Variation in Ferdinand (2017) 4.4 Trends in Linguistic Characterisation in the Films: A Summary of Characters by Language Groups 4.4.1 Regularities in Native Varieties of English General American English Heroes Other Varieties of American English British English Scottish English

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160 160 161 162 165 167 168 171 173 175 177 180 180 182 183 187 188

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Australian English Foreign-Accented English or Non-Native Varieties of English French-Accented English: French and Canadian Characters Spanish-Accented English: Spanish and Latino Characters Italian-Accented English and Italian American: Representations of Italianness German-Accented English Russian-Accented English and Russian Characters Brazilian Portuguese-Accented English and Brazilian Portuguese Indian-Accented English Undefined Eastern European-Accented English 4.5 Foreign Languages/Languages Other Than English 4.6 Concluding Remarks References

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4.4.2

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Americans, Brits, Aussies, Etc.: Native Varieties of English in Italian Dubbing 5.1 Introduction 5.2 British English Varieties: Is British English Always Neutralised? 5.2.1 Evil Characters: British Upper-Class Villains Speaking RP (Received Pronunciation) 5.2.2 Refined, Posh, Rich or Aristocratic Characters 5.2.3 British vs American Characters 5.2.4 The Lovable Rogue/Thieves/Criminals/Ambiguous Characters 5.3 Scottish English

190 192 193 197 198 199 200 201 201 202 203 204 217 217 219

220 223 231

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5.4 Australian English 5.5 Social and Regional Varieties of American English 5.5.1 Southern American English 5.5.2 African American Vernacular English (AAVE) 5.5.3 New York/Brooklyn Accent 5.6 Exceptions or When Dubbing Uses Italian with an Accent 5.6.1 English-Accented Italian in Dubbing Historical and Literary Figures, Well-Known Living People and British Symbols Britishness Referred to in the Dialogues/Plot English Accent Due to the Marketing Strategy of Using Star Talents 5.6.2 Italian Regional Accents for British/American Characters 5.7 Concluding Remarks References 6

Languages Other Than English/Foreign Languages in Italian Dubbing: Preservation, Neutralisation, Reduction or Adaptation? 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Atlantean and French in Atlantis: The Lost Empire (2001) 6.3 Spanish in Toy Story 3 (2010) 6.4 Preservation Strategy for Russian, French, Japanese, Brazilian Portuguese and Spanish 6.5 Neutralising Foreign Identities: French in Planes 6.6 Dealing with Italian in the Cars Films 6.7 Concluding Remarks References

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263 263 266 267 268 271

279 279 281 285 287 291 294 300 300

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Non-native Varieties of English in Italian Dubbing: Does Foreign-Accented English Become Foreign-Accented Italian? 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Characters Speaking Spanish-Accented English 7.2.1 Hypercharacterisation of Spanish-Accented English (Spanish/Latino/Mexican Characters) 7.2.2 Reduction and Neutralisation of the Spanish Accent in Dubbing 7.2.3 A Different Approach: From Spanish-Accented English to Romanesco 7.3 Characters Speaking French-Accented English (French and Canadian Characters) 7.3.1 Preservation and Hypercharacterisation of a French/Canadian Identity 7.3.2 Reduction and Neutralisation: The Case of Ratatouille 7.4 German-Accented English Characters: Hypercharacterisation in Dubbing 7.5 Russian-Accented English Characters: Preservation and Hypercharacterisation in Dubbing 7.6 Other Foreign Accents 7.7 When Dubbing Erases Difference: The Case of Gru in Despicable Me 2 and Rochelle in Planes 7.8 Concluding Remarks References (Re)Positioning Italianness in Animated Films: No Accent, Foreign Accent, Regional Italian or Dialect? 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Italian American English and Italian-Accented English in Animated Films 8.3 Italian-Accented English: Foreign-Accented Italian in Madagascar 3

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305 313 317 319 320 325 332 335 340 342 345 346 351 351 352 354

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8.4 Italian-Accented English and Italian American: Regional Italian or Italian Dialect 8.4.1 Vinny in Atlantis 8.4.2 Don Lino and Sykes in Shark Tale 8.4.3 Mr Big in Zootopia/Zootropolis 8.4.4 Luigi in the Cars Films 8.4.5 Francesco Bernouilli in Cars 2 8.4.6 Leonardo and Mona Lisa in Mr. Peabody and Sherman 8.4.7 Creative Transformations, or When Dubbing Adds Italian Regional Dialects 8.5 Concluding Remarks References 9

Conclusion References

356 357 359 361 362 363 366 367 370 371 375 386

Appendix 1: List of Films Analysed (in Alphabetical Order)

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Appendix 2: List of Italian Dubbing Experts Consulted About Their Professional Practice (2015–2020)

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Index

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List of Tables

Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 2.3 Table 2.4 Table 4.1 Table 4.2 Table 4.3 Table 4.4 Table 4.5 Table 4.6 Table 4.7 Table 4.8 Table 4.9 Table 4.10 Table 4.11 Table 4.12

English Dialogue List Mock-up KNP file with English terms and comments Mock-up KNP file with English text, comments and target language translation Mock-up KNP file with back translation of the target language translation in the dubbed version required Language varieties spoken in Atlantis Language varieties spoken in the Shrek films Language varieties spoken in Lilo and Stitch Language varieties spoken in Finding Nemo and Finding Dory Language varieties spoken in Shark Tale (2004) Language varieties spoken in the Madagascar trilogy Language varieties spoken in The Wild Language varieties spoken in the Cars films Language varieties spoken in Ratatouille Language varieties spoken in the Ice Age films Language varieties spoken in Toy Story 3 Language varieties spoken in How to Train Your Dragon/Dragon Trainer

47 51 51 51 129 131 133 135 137 140 141 144 147 148 149 151

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Table 4.13 Table 4.14 Table 4.15 Table 4.16 Table 4.17 Table 4.18 Table 4.19 Table 4.20 Table 4.21 Table 4.22 Table 4.23 Table 4.24 Table 4.25 Table 4.26 Table 4.27 Table 4.28

List of Tables

Language varieties spoken in Puss in Boots/Il gatto con gli stivali Language varieties spoken in Gnomeo & Juliet Language varieties spoken in Rio and Rio 2 Language varieties spoken in Rango Language varieties spoken in Brave/Ribelle-The Brave Language varieties spoken in Rise of the Guardians/Le cinque leggende Language varieties spoken in Hotel Transylvania and Hotel Transylvania 2 Language varieties spoken in Turbo Language varieties spoken in Planes Language varieties spoken in Despicable Me 2/Cattivissimo me 2 Language varieties spoken in Mr. Peabody and Sherman Language varieties spoken in The Book of Life/Il libro della vita Language varieties spoken in Zootopia/Zootropolis Language varieties spoken in Sing (2016) Language varieties spoken in Coco Language varieties spoken in Ferdinand

152 154 156 158 159 161 162 163 164 166 168 170 174 176 178 179

1 Introduction

This book focuses on the issue of the portrayal and recreation of linguistic identities in English-language animated films produced by US majors. Language variation and varieties are a means used to represent identities and have been employed for centuries as a characterisation tool both in literature and cinema. The way in which characters speak carries a wealth of information, which in multimodal texts such as films is combined with visual elements to convey meaning. In the case of animated films, voice actors develop the linguistic characterisation of animated characters by working on voice quality, intonation, rhythm, timbre, also resorting to specific accents which can immediately trigger connotations and stereotypes in the audience’s mind. As pointed out by Wells: Accents constitute an important part of many stereotypes. We use indexical information we collect from listening to a person speak in order to slot him into an appropriate stereotype. […] a hearer, having made a stereotype identification of a speaker on the basis of his or her accent, then attributes to him or her all kinds of other qualities that are popularly associated with the stereotype in question. (1982, pp. 29–30) © The Author(s) 2021 V. Minutella, (Re)Creating Language Identities in Animated Films, Palgrave Studies in Translating and Interpreting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56638-8_1

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Animated films as a genre are neither realistic nor dramatic: they focus on comedy and humour, they exploit the interaction between verbal and visual stereotypes, often exaggerating them in order to create comedy. As argued by Brode, “cartoons – with their extremely (and, for anyone who understands the medium, necessarily) broad form of portraiture – rely more heavily on caricature than any other cinematic form” (2005, p. 103). The meanings created by verbal/visual interaction in animated films cannot be ignored and must indeed be analysed in order to understand how filmmakers create characters. Therefore, since dialogue is the only element which is altered when the film crosses borders to another country, this book focuses on the verbal element and on the way characters speak in animated films and in their dubbed versions. Nevertheless, our analysis will make some reference to visual elements combined with verbal ones where relevant. Animated films have been chosen as the object of study due to their popularity, their use of humour, and the double audience they address, which makes them complex and interesting audiovisual products. In fact, although they are mainly aimed at children, they are conceived in such a way as to appeal to adults as well and they have different layers of meaning. A further reason for choosing animated films as the focus of this investigation is that they are dubbed in various countries, also in traditional subtitling countries, due to the young audience they are aimed at. As a result, the issues discussed in this study, though focusing on the Italian context, could be relevant in several other countries. The translation of linguistic variation is one of the most difficult and thorny issues in audiovisual translation. A realistic or stylised representation of language variation is usually exploited in films to create characters and to establish a setting. Lippi-Green points out that: Film uses language variation and accent to draw character quickly, building on established preconceived notions associated with specific loyalties, ethnic, racial, or economic alliances. This shortcut to characterization means that certain traits need not be laboriously demonstrated by means of a character’s actions and an examination of motive. (1997, p. 81)

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Similarly, Kozloff notes that “[r]ecognizable, clichéd dialects are used on-screen to sketch in a character’s past and cultural heritage, to locate each person in terms of his or her financial standing, education level, geographical background, or ethnic group” (2000, p. 82) (see also LippiGreen 2012; Hodson 2014). This applies to animated films where different varieties—geographical, temporal, social, ethnic and idiolects— are used to build quick characterisation and to mould specific identities, thus often reinforcing cultural stereotypes. The way a character speaks conveys meaning and associations that may or may not be recognised by the audience. If we consider that the main audience of animated films is children, this issue is particularly important and deserves attention. As observed by Hodson, “the fact remains that the language varieties used in the film[s] serve to guide the audience towards making certain assumptions about the characters, and that these varieties were the result of choices, made consciously or otherwise, by the filmmakers” (2014, p. 70). Animated characters are defined verbally through the type of language they use, and voice actors learn to create characters by using specific accents and varieties, which are called ‘dialects’ by dialect coaches and in manuals for actors. For instance, the manual Voice-Over for Animation explains that “dialects are another way to differentiate your characters” and describes “the basics of twelve of the most common dialects used in animation” (Wright and Lallo 2009, p. 57). The authors remind aspiring voice-over actors of animated characters that “dialects used in animation may be less about authentic realistic speech and more about portraying a character in a way that is believable to the audience and funny”, and advise them on playing with heavy accents or “only a hint of an accent” (Wright and Lallo 2009, p. 60). The above comments highlight the importance of accents and language varieties as a means for characterisation and especially as a means for comedy. As each linguistic variety plays an important role in the creation of character, and since language varieties and languages can be defined in different ways, an explanation of the terminology used in this book to discuss them is provided below. We start, however, with the main phases of the dubbing process before moving on to the central issue of language varieties. Describing the components of dubbing script preparation in their chronological order, the first is a close translation of the source text

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dialogue into the target language followed by its adaptation (or localisation) into a dialogue which also complies with the requirements of synchronisation (lip and kinesic synchrony as well as isochrony), ready for the final stage of recording the dialogue. Simply put, we can say that there are three main phases of dubbing script preparation and output: translation, adaptation (dialogue writing) and recording. However, not everyone—whether professionals or academics—agrees on this segmentation. For example, the term ‘translation’ is often used by professionals and academics alike to refer to both the translation and adaptation/dialogue writing. In other cases, especially among Italian professionals, the term ‘adaptation/dialogue writing’ is used instead to refer to both the translation and the adaptation. In Italy, and especially as regards animated films, these two tasks are often performed by different people, in which case the dialogue writer will normally commission a professional translation with which he/she can then work. The resulting translation is a kind of draft for the dialogue writer but remains unseen to others, as does the translator. Sometimes, however, the same person (the dialogue writer) carries out both tasks. It is wise therefore to be aware that there is no agreed way of referring to these phases and that the term ‘translation’ often, though not always, subsumes dialogue writing, or it can remain hidden under the term ‘adaptation/dialogue writing’. In the present study I propose to distinguish three main phases—translation, adaptation/dialogue writing, recording (see Sect. 2.1.3)—as this is useful for analytical purposes, even though it was impossible to gain access to the translations underlying the dialogues recorded for each film. Moreover, as this study will illustrate, there are a number of other stages between the adaptation and recording phases, as well as a number of professional roles involved in the dubbing post-production process leading to the final dialogue as recorded in the dubbing studio. For the sake of clarity and the purposes of this study, the English language spoken in the selected films will be divided into native and non-native varieties of English, as this appears to affect the way in which the linguistic identity of the characters is represented and then treated in dubbing. Broad national varieties will be considered. Language varieties from the United States will be divided into a broad General

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American English and more specific regionally, socially marked or nonstandard US varieties (for more details see Sect. 4.1). As regards British varieties, British English (BrE) will indicate a general standard British variety, distinguished from class-based and regional varieties, extending also to those spoken outside the United Kingdom (for more details see Sect. 4.1). On the other hand, all the instances of English spoken with a foreign accent will be called non-native varieties of English or foreign-accented English, and these will be distinguished according to the character’s supposed mother tongue (the specific types are discussed in Sect. 4.1). The films analysed are all English-language films. However, a few instances of lines in other languages can be found. They will be called ‘foreign languages’ or ‘languages other than English’. It is also worth clarifying a terminological issue regarding language varieties in Italy. Cerruti points to the presence of three types of language varieties in the Italian context: standard Italian, regional varieties of Italian/regional Italian and dialects proper defined as ‘Italo-Romance dialects’ (Cerruti 2011, p. 9). As explained by Cerruti: the regional varieties of Italian are varieties of the national language that are spoken in different geographical areas. They differ both from each other and from standard Italian […] at all levels of the language system, especially with regard to phonetics, phonology and prosody, and represent the Italian actually spoken in contemporary Italy. Common Italian speakers regularly speak a regional variety of Italian, which is termed regional Italian (henceforth RI). (2011, p. 9)

While the language spoken by most Italians in conversation is therefore regional Italian (Italian with regional phonetic and some lexical features), the language of dubbing usually adopts standard Italian with a neutral pronunciation devoid of regional accents, intonation and vocabulary. As will be discussed in the following chapters, scholars and practitioners alike agree on the fact that the Italian language of dubbing is standard Italian with impeccable diction and neutral accent, and that it is a language which greatly differs from spoken Italian (see Raffaelli 1996; Rossi 2006, 2015; Ranzato 2016 among others, and Chapters 2 and 3

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of the current book). The Italian language of dubbing is different from the Italian spoken in contemporary Italy because regional accents are usually completely absent. Moreover, regional Italian may be more or less marked and closer to dialects proper according to the amount of dialect lexis, syntax and accent which is used. Dialects proper, on the other hand, also called Italo-Romance dialects, differ from standard Italian and regional Italian in terms of lexis, syntax and accent. This distinction is important for the analysis carried out in this study, which will investigate whether the dominant langue variety used in dubbing is actually standard Italian and whether any departures from this more neutral variety in terms of accent can be observed. In other words, the choice of making a character speak Italian with a marked regional accent and dialect words, or even Italian dialects, carries specific connotations and provides characterisation in the Italian cultural context. Moreover, multilingualism, understood as the coexistence of more than one language or language variety, is frequently used in film dialogues, as in written fiction. Indeed, several studies have been devoted to the analysis of multilingualism—also called ‘heterolingualism’—in films (Delabastita and Grutman 2005; Dwyer 2005; Bleichenbacher 2008; O’Sullivan 2011; Planchenault 2015, 2017; Petrucci 2012, 2015 among others). Grutman defines ‘heterolingualism’ as the phenomenon of using and mixing foreign languages and language varieties (social, regional and historical) in literary texts (Grutman 1996, p. 71). This differs from real-life instances of language interaction and contact and is not necessarily realistic (Grutman 1996, pp. 71–72). As pointed out by O’Sullivan, this definition “invites extension to film and television, which are in some ways freer to multiply languages than print literature is” (2011, p. 20). The terms ‘multilingualism’ and ‘heterolingualism’ can thus be considered synonyms. This phenomenon is used in literary as well as tele-cinematic texts. Delabastita and Grutman define a multilingual text in the following way: the simplest possible definition of a multilingual text would be to say that such a text is worded in different languages, but that still begs the fundamental question of how one should understand the concept of ‘language’. We favour a very open and flexible concept which acknowledges not

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only the ‘official’ taxonomy of languages but also the incredible range of subtypes and varieties existing within the various officially recognised languages, and indeed cutting across and challenging our neat linguistic typologies. (Delabastita and Grutman 2005, p. 15)

If multilingualism is understood in such a wide way (co-occurrence and juxtaposition of language varieties and different languages), then animated films certainly contain several instances of multilingualism. On the other hand, as this book will amply discuss, the real presence of languages other than English is quantitatively limited in Englishlanguage animated films compared with other genres. Nevertheless, languages other than English (also called foreign languages) and several different language varieties are used with specific functions, and the identity of characters is often revealed through the use of such varieties combined with visual elements. Research on language varieties in audiovisual texts and in translation can draw on a range of scholarly approaches from various fields among which are sociolinguistics, film studies and translation studies. Several recent studies have focused on the role played by stylised performances of dialect in fiction, ‘fictional representations’ and the ‘sociolinguistics of performance’ (see Hill 1999; Rampton 1999; Coupland 2001; Delabastita and Grutman 2005; Bell and Gibson 2011; Hodson 2014; Planchenault 2015, 2017 among others). Filmmakers use languages, varieties and accents to reveal character and setting, often resorting to conventionalised features. As argued by Planchenault, “exercises of stylisation are obvious in the case of comedies, which often border on caricature and where the very act of putting on a voice is comical” (Planchenault 2015, p. 254). Audiovisual translators and dubbing/subtitling professionals thus have to find strategies to approach differences in the linguistic portrayal of characters, to signal the presence of more than one language or specific geographical and social varieties and to convey and transfer the connotations attached to particular varieties. The aim of this book is to describe the dubbing process of English-language animated films produced in the twenty-first century, to explore how linguistic variation and multilingualism are used to create characters and identities and to examine

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how Italian dubbing professionals deal with this linguistic characterisation. The book describes dubbing strategies in Italy and seeks to identify recurrent patterns and therefore norms, as well as stereotypes or creativity in the way linguistic variation is tackled.

1.1

Methodology

As far as the methodology is concerned, the analysis adopts a descriptive translation studies (DTS) and a corpus-based approach and relies on a diverse range of research tools: text analysis, corpus study, personal communications and observations of dubbing sessions. The study of a large corpus enables us to observe patterns and regularities and provide a quantitative analysis which may lead to identifying norms regulating translational practice (Toury 1978/1995, 1980). This is accompanied by a qualitative linguistic analysis of meaningful sequences and characters. Macro-textual and micro-textual examination is triangulated with information gathered from agents involved in the audiovisual translation process (for methodological issues in audiovisual translation research see Chaume 2018). Fundamental sources of information on the dubbing process of animated films were personal communications with several dubbing practitioners, all working in Rome and involved in the complex process of preparation of the dubbed versions of animated films. Over a number of years of exploring this area of research, and due to my interest in the professionals’ point of view, I contacted the following dubbing practitioners: Massimiliano Alto (dubbing director and actor), Oreste Baldini (dubbing actor and director), Stefano Brusa (dubbing actor, dialogue writer, dubbing director), Elena Di Carlo (translator and dialogue writer), Chiara Gioncardi (dubbing actress), Marco Guadagno (dubbing director and actor, dialogue writer), Fiamma Izzo (dubbing director, dialogue writer, singer), Leslie La Penna (dubbing director and actor, dialogue writer), Massimiliano Manfredi (dubbing director and actor, dialogue writer), Marco Mete (dubbing director and actor, dialogue writer), Roberto Morville (former Creative Director, Disney Character Voices International, translator and dialogue writer), Maria Grazia

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Napolitano (dubbing assistant), Serena Paccagnella (translator, dialogue writer, dubbing assistant), Alessandro Rossi (dubbing director and actor, dialogue writer), Francesco Vairano (dubbing director and actor, dialogue writer), Carlo Valli (dubbing director and actor, dialogue writer).1 Interactions with dubbing practitioners took place over a period of 5 years, from 2015 to 2020, either over the phone, face to face or via email and were conducted in Italian. Written notes of their answers were taken, while four cases of longer face-to-face interactions were recorded. The questions I posed to practitioners varied depending on the type of film and the issues that cropped up in my research. It is also worth pointing out that not all my questions were answered by all the professionals. A second type of data gathered from dubbing practitioners consists of open lectures given by some of these professionals at the University of Torino. The above data will be quoted in the book as p.c. (personal communication whether face to face, email or telephone) or lectures, respectively, followed by the date. The dubbing practitioners consulted offered insights into the dubbing process, their role and the constraints under which they work. During the conversations and lectures they also provided interesting details about specific animated films or other audiovisual products they worked on. The book contains a selection of the practitioners’ comments which are considered relevant for the purposes of this study in their English translation.2 A third type of data sometimes referred to in this book consists of observations of dubbing sessions. These took place on three occasions in two different dubbing studios in Rome. The aim of the observations was to understand how the dubbing team worked. I sat in the dubbing booth next to the dubbing assistant and witnessed how the dubbing team worked: the documents they worked with (English Dialogue List, Italian Dialogue List), how the dubbing director, assistant and technician interacted with the dubbing actors and whether and why changes to the Italian dubbing script (Italian dialogue) were made. Some information gathered during these brief moments is integrated into the 1The

list of dubbing professionals is also contained in Appendix 2. the professionals have read the parts in which I quote them and have approved them for publication. Unless otherwise stated, all translations from Italian into English are by Hillary Siddons.

2 All

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narrative of the book in the form of my own personal comments. It is important to highlight that, due to reasons of extreme confidentiality and data protection issues, real documents (original film scripts, dubbing scripts and other documentation) cannot be seen or shown. Furthermore, no external personnel are allowed in dubbing studios during dubbing sessions unless officially authorised. I was authorised for research purposes. As far as the audiovisual texts analysed are concerned, the book focuses on a corpus of 37 English-language animated films produced by US companies such as Walt Disney Animation Studios, Pixar Animation Studios, DreamWorks Animation, Sony Pictures Animation, 20th Century Fox Animation/Blue Sky, Universal Pictures, Paramount Pictures and Illumination Entertainment released between 2001 and 2017. Analysis is based on repeated viewing of the films and transcriptions of the film dialogues in English and in Italian.3 For each year at least one film is examined. The films were selected for a number of reasons. They were produced by various production companies (not just Disney), they were big budget films and they were interesting from the point of view of their representation of linguistic variation. They provide various settings, portray characters belonging to different nationalities speaking different varieties of English or coming from various geographical areas or social classes, and some of them contain languages other than English. It was deliberately decided to leave out Disney musical films since they constitute a genre of their own and analysis of their dubbed versions would need to take into account the translation of songs. The films are listed below in chronological order. The title is followed in parentheses by the year of production, the name of the production company and the name of the director(s). The next set of parentheses contains the names of the Italian dialogue writer and the dubbing director. Only one name is provided when the dialogue writer is also the dubbing director.4 1. Atlantis: The Lost Empire/Atlantis: l’impero perduto (2001, Disney, dir. G. Trousdale, K. Wise) (C. Valli) 3The transcriptions were carried out by the author and by her students at the University of Torino. She would like to thank her students for transcribing many of the films discussed in this book. 4 A table containing the films in alphabetical order is provided in Appendix 1.

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2. Shrek (2001, DreamWorks, dir. A. Adamson, V. Jenson) (F. Vairano) 3. Lilo and Stitch (2002, Disney, dir. D. DeBlois, C. Sanders) (C. Vangelista, L. La Penna) 4. Finding Nemo/Alla ricerca di Nemo (2003, Disney-Pixar, dir. A. Stanton, L. Unkrich) (C. Valli) 5. Shark Tale (2004, DreamWorks, dir. E. ‘Bibo’ Bergeron, V. Jenson) (R. Busetti, M. Mete) 6. Shrek 2 (2004, DreamWorks, dir. A. Adamson, K. Asbury) (F. Vairano) 7. Madagascar (2005, DreamWorks, dir. E. Darnell, T. McGrath) (C. Valli, M. Alto) 8. The Wild/Uno zoo in fuga (2006, Disney, dir. S. ‘Spaz’ Williams) (S. Izzo, F. Izzo) 9. Cars (2006, Disney-Pixar, dir. J. Lasseter) (C. Valli) 10. Ice Age 2: The Meltdown/L’era glaciale 2: il disgelo (2006, Blue Sky Studios/20th Century Fox, dir. C. Saldanha) (M. Bardella, M. Guadagno) 11. Ratatouille (2007, Disney-Pixar, dir. B. Bird, J. Pinkava) (C. Valli, M. Alto) 12. Shrek The Third/Shrek terzo (2007, DreamWorks, dir. A. Adamson) (F. Vairano) 13. Madagascar: Escape 2 Africa/Madagascar 2 (2008, DreamWorks, dir. E. Darnell, T. McGrath) (C. Valli, M. Alto) 14. Ice Age 3: Dawn of the Dinosaurs/L’era glaciale 3: l’alba dei dinosauri (2009, 20th Century Fox/Blue Sky, dir. C. Saldanha) (M. Bardella, M. Guadagno) 15. Toy Story 3 (2010, Disney-Pixar, dir. L. Unkrich) (C. Valli) 16. How To Train Your Dragon/Dragon trainer (2010, DreamWorks, dir. D. DeBlois, C. Sanders) (M. Mete) 17. Puss in Boots/Il gatto con gli stivali (2011, DreamWorks, dir. C. Miller) (M. Mete) 18. Gnomeo & Juliet/Gnomeo & Giulietta (2011, Rocket Pictures, Touchstone Pictures, dir. K. Asbury) (C. De Carolis, O. Baldini) 19. Rio (2011, Blue Sky/20th Century Fox, dir. C. Saldanha) (M. Guadagno) 20. Cars 2 (2011, Disney-Pixar, dir. J. Lasseter, B. Lewis) (C. Valli)

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21. Rango (2011, Paramount Pictures, dir. G. Verbinski) (F. Izzo) 22. Brave/Ribelle-The Brave (2012, Disney-Pixar, dir. M. Andrews and B. Chapman) (C. Valli) 23. Rise of the Guardians/Le cinque leggende (2012, DreamWorks, dir. P. Ramsey) (M. Mete) 24. Hotel Transylvania (2012, Sony Pictures, dir. G. Tartakovsky) (C. Gonnelli, A. Rossi) 25. Madagascar 3: Europe’s Most Wanted/Madagascar 3: ricercati in Europa (2012, DreamWorks, dir. E. Darnell, T. McGrath, C. Vernon) (C. Valli, M. Alto) 26. Turbo (2013, DreamWorks, dir. D. Soren) (M. Guadagno) 27. Despicable Me 2/Cattivissimo me 2 (2013, Illumination Entertainment/Universal Pictures distributor, dir. P. Coffin, C. Renaud) (F. Izzo) 28. Planes (2013, Prana Studios, Disneytoon Studios, dir. Klay Hall) (C. Valli) 29. Mr. Peabody and Sherman (2014, DreamWorks, dir. R. Minkoff ) (M. Guadagno) 30. Rio 2 (2014, Blue Sky, 20th Century Fox, dir. C. Saldanha) (M. Guadagno) 31. The Book of Life/Il libro della vita (2014, 20th Century Fox, dir. J. Gutiérrez) (M. Guadagno) 32. Hotel Transylvania 2 (2015, Sony Pictures, dir. G. Tartakovsky) (C. Gonnelli, A. Rossi) 33. Zootopia/Zootropolis (2016, Disney, dir. B. Howard, R. Moore, J. Bush) (M. Manfredi) 34. Finding Dory/Alla ricerca di Dory (2016, Disney-Pixar, dir. A. Stanton, A. MacLane) (C. Valli) 35. Sing (2016, Illumination Entertainment, dir. C. Lourdelet, G. Jennings) (M. Mete) 36. Coco (2017, Disney-Pixar, dir. L. Unkrich) (M. Manfredi) 37. Ferdinand (2017, Blue Sky, 20th Century Fox, dir. C. Saldanha) (M. Guadagno). As can be seen from the list above, the number of dialogue writers and dubbing directors who work on animated films is relatively limited.

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They are well-known professionals who usually also work on feature films. Carlo Valli and Marco Guadagno are the most productive dialogue writers and dubbing directors with 12 films and 9 films under their belt, respectively. Valli is the dialogue writer and dubbing director of most Disney and Disney-Pixar films from 2001 to 2016, and also adapted some DreamWorks films, while Guadagno has adapted and directed films by DreamWorks, 20th Century Fox and Blue Sky Studios since 2009. Another interesting feature is that most of the dubbing professionals working on these films are men. The only female dubbing director is Fiamma Izzo, who works both as a dialogue writer and dubbing director. She is the daughter of Renato Izzo and belongs to a family of dubbing artists. Dialogue writers are also predominantly men. Exceptions are Carla Vangelista, Simona Izzo, Cecilia Gonnelli and Cinzia De Carolis. Another feature that clearly emerges is that for most animated films in the corpus the dialogue writer is also the dubbing director. By drawing on discussions with the Italian dubbing professionals who worked on the films and through an in-depth analysis of film dialogues, the book aims to unveil the complex process that animated films undergo before being screened in a foreign country.

1.2

Outline of the Book

Chapter 2 describes the various stages, agents and texts involved in the dubbing process of animated films. Drawing on previous scholarly research, on personal communications with several Italian dubbing professionals (translators, dialogue writers, dubbing directors, dubbing assistants, dubbing actors and a Disney creative director), as well as on observations of dubbing sessions, the chapter illustrates how dubbing animated films is a complex collaborative process guided and controlled by the US client. Chapter 3 focuses on the issue of translating linguistic variation and multilingualism in animated films. It summarises the thorny issue of the difficulty of transferring linguistic identities and specific language varieties in dubbed texts and describes the opinion of leading dubbing professionals on the language of dubbing and on the challenges they

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encounter when they have to deal with language variation, accents of English and languages other than English in the original films. A further topic discussed is whether Italian regional accents or, more radically, particular regional varieties of Italian or Italian dialects proper are used in dubbing. Chapter 4 explores the use of linguistic variation and languages other than English in the corpus of animated films selected for analysis. It presents the chosen films and identifies the language varieties and languages spoken in them. Summary tables for each film about the characters, varieties of English and languages other than English are provided. A summary of trends in linguistic characterisation in the original films is also provided. Chapter 5 analyses the way in which specific native varieties of English are represented in the animated films making up the corpus and how they are transposed in the dubbed versions. Since most of the characters in animated films speak American English, and General American in particular, the focus is on varieties other than General American. The chapter explores broad, national varieties such as British English and Australian English, as well as social, regional and non-standard varieties of English, since they all connote characters as being ‘different’ and ‘other’ from speakers of General American. The representation and functions of such native varieties in the animated films are highlighted, and the strategies adopted by dubbing professionals to deal with them are discussed, highlighting recurrent translation strategies and thus norms in translational behaviour. Chapter 6 analyses how foreign-language dialogue is dealt with by Italian dubbing professionals. It describes the presence of languages other than English in the animated films making up the corpus and examines how such multilingualism is treated in dubbing (i.e., whether it is conveyed in the dubbed version and if so which modalities are adopted). Chapter 7 analyses how non-native varieties of English or foreignaccented English are represented in the animated films making up the corpus and how they are transposed in the dubbed versions. Examples of characters speaking foreign-accented English are discussed (divided by language or ethnic group). The chapter examines and explains the main translation strategies adopted by dubbing professionals in various films,

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highlighting the presence of recurrent patterns and thus norms, as well as exceptions, and identifying the reasons for resorting to specific strategies. Chapter 8 explores a particular case of foreign-accented English and foreign language in animated films in which the characters are portrayed as being Italian or having Italian origins and thus speak Italian American English or English with a marked Italian accent, sometimes interspersing their speech with Italian words. Since their ‘foreign’ accent connotes an Italian identity, and the language variety of the speaker coincides with the language of dubbing, very specific solutions are required and resorted to by Italian dubbing professionals. Chapter 9 offers a summary and some conclusions.

References Bell, Allan, and Andy Gibson. 2011. Staging Language: An Introduction to the Sociolinguistics of Performance. Journal of Sociolinguistics 15 (5): 555–572. Bleichenbacher, Lukas. 2008. Multilingualism in the Movies: Hollywood Characters and Their Language Choices. Tübingen: Francke Verlag. Brode, Douglas. 2005. Multiculturalism and the Mouse: Race and Sex in Disney Entertainment. Austin: University of Texas Press. Cerruti, Massimo. 2011. Regional Varieties of Italian in the Linguistic Repertoire. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 210: 9–28. https:// doi.org/10.1515/ijsl.2011.028. Chaume, Frederic. 2018. An Overview of Audiovisual Translation: Four Methodological Turns in a Mature Discipline. Journal of Audiovisual Translation 1 (1): 40–63. http://www.jatjournal.org/index.php/jat/article/view/ 43/3. Coupland, Nikolas. 2001. Dialect Stylization in Radio Talk. Language in Society 30 (3): 345–375. Delabastita, Dirk, and Rainier Grutman. 2005. Introduction: Fictional Representations of Multilingualism and Translation. Linguistica Antverpiensia 4: 11–34. Dwyer, Tessa. 2005. Universally Speaking: Lost in Translation and Polyglot Cinema. In Fictionalising Translation and Multilingualism. Linguistica Antverpiensia, New Series—Themes in Translation Studies, vol. 4., ed. D. Delabastita and R. Grutman, 295–310.

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Grutman, Rainier. 1996. Langues étrangères et savoir romantique: considérations préliminaires. TTR: traduction, terminologie, rédaction 9 (1): 71–90. Grutman, Rainier. 2006. Refraction and Recognition: Literary Multilingualism in Translation. Target 18 (1): 7–47. Hill, Jane. 1999. Styling Locally, Styling Globally: What Does It Mean? Journal of Sociolinguistics 3 (4): 542–556. Hodson, Jane. 2014. Dialect in Film and Literature. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Kozloff, Sarah. 2000. Overhearing Film Dialogue. Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press. Lippi-Green, Rosina. 1997. English with an Accent: Language, Ideology, and Discrimination in the United States. London: Routledge. Lippi-Green, Rosina. 2012. English with an Accent: Language, Ideology, and Discrimination in the United States, 2nd ed. London: Routledge. O’Sullivan, Carol. 2011. Translating Popular Film. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan. Petrucci, Peter R. 2012. The Translation of Cinematic Discourse and the Question of Character Equivalence in Talk to Me. Multilingua 31: 231–251. Petrucci, Peter R. 2015. Reclaiming Rio: Iconization and Erasure of American English in the Brazilian Portuguese Dubbing of an Animated Film. Perspectives: Studies in Translation Theory and Practice 23 (3): 392–405. Planchenault, Gaëlle. 2015. Voices in the Media: Performing French Linguistic Otherness. London and New York: Bloomsbury. Planchenault, Gaëlle. 2017. Doing Dialects in Dialogues: Regional, Social and Ethnic Variation in Fiction. In Pragmatics of Fiction, ed. M.A. Locher and A.H. Jucker, 265–296. Berlin and Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. Raffaelli, Sergio. 1996. Un italiano per tutte le stagioni. In Barriere Linguistiche e circolazione delle opere audiovisive: la questione doppiaggio, ed. Eleonora Di Fortunato and Mario Paolinelli, 25–28. Rome: AIDAC. Rampton, Ben. 1999. Styling the Other: Introduction. Journal of Sociolinguistics 3 (4): 421–427. Ranzato, Irene. 2016. Freddi’s Preliminary Norms: Italy’s Censorship Bureau. In Politics, Policy and Power in Translation History, ed. Lieven D’hulst, Carol O’Sullivan and Michael Schreiber, 211–228. Berlin: Frank & Timme. Rossi, Fabio. 2006. Il linguaggio cinematografico. Rome: Aracne. Rossi, Fabio. 2015. La riduzione del caos. Storia e tipologia dei dialetti cinematografici. In Lingue e linguaggi del cinema in Italia, ed. Marco Gargiulo, 37–76. Rome: Aracne.

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Toury, Gideon. 1978/1995. The Nature and Role of Norms in Translation. In The Translation Studies Reader, ed. Lawrence Venuti, 198–211. London and New York: Routledge. Toury, Gideon. 1980. In Search of a Theory of Translation. Tel Aviv: Porter Institute for Poetics and Semiotics. Wells, John C. 1982. Accents of English. 3 Vol. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wright, Jean Ann, and M.J. Lallo. 2009. Voice-Over for Animation. New York and London: Focal Press.

Websites https://www.antoniogenna.net/. https://www.imdb.com/.

2 Dubbing Animated Films: A Complex Collaborative Process

2.1

Introduction

This chapter focuses on the process of dubbing animated films. It aims at describing its complex nature, showing that it is a process in which various people and various forces are involved and multiple texts are created, transferred and rewritten for various reasons until the final dubbed version emerges and is released in cinemas, reaching the new target audience. The dubbing process of animated films is clearly not only a matter of language transfer, a linguistic and cultural issue, but is also part of an industrial process in an international market (see Chaume 2012). As pointed out by Ferrari, “complex cultural and industrial negotiations are at play when individual countries import globally distributed programs” (2010, p. 127). Moreover, as in all kinds of translation, choices at the level of language may be due to extralinguistic factors and be dictated by cultural, marketing and/or industrial or ideological forces (Bassnett and Lefevere 1990). This chapter will show that the dubbing of animated films is a creative industrial post-production process that is strictly controlled by the US producers. It follows very clear guidelines and steps in which several agents, to which we return below, take a part. © The Author(s) 2021 V. Minutella, (Re)Creating Language Identities in Animated Films, Palgrave Studies in Translating and Interpreting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56638-8_2

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Recent research in audiovisual translation has stressed the need to unveil this complex rewriting process, investigating what happens in between the source and target texts (Richart Marset 2012; Zanotti 2014, 2018, 2019; Spiteri Miggiani 2019; Sánchez-Mompeán 2020). In particular, Richart Marset (2012) has explored the caja negra (black box) that records the various stages of text manipulation that a film script undergoes before becoming the final dubbed dialogue and that are usually hidden and not available to the researcher. Similarly, Spiteri Miggiani’s recent book (2019) is an illuminating window onto the ins and outs of the process of translation, adaptation and dubbing of audiovisual texts, offering several examples of text manipulation. She guides the reader through the “progressive, step-by-step text manoeuvring and moulding process” (2019, p. 191) from the translation until the final recording of the dubbed version, and she explains the reasons (linguistic, technical, practical, industrial, etc.) for the changes. An aspect that clearly emerges in Spiteri Miggiani’s book is that “it all depends on the translation commission or target culture norms, which may vary according to the country, company, period of time, and so on” (2019, p. 193). Animated films produced by the big majors are no different, and their global/international distribution is complex and carefully controlled. American companies invest a lot of money in such films and they have probably realised that ensuring a good-quality dubbed version in different languages is important to obtain box office success. They therefore invest resources in the translation, adaptation and dubbing of their audiovisual products in various languages and countries and try to guide this process, which they call ‘localisation’. Indeed, US production companies have taken full control over it. Comments by Italian dubbing professionals reveal that big US majors such as the Walt Disney Company, DreamWorks, 20th Century Fox, Sony Pictures, and Universal follow and supervise the various stages of post-production, providing the dubbing team in each country with directions on how to ‘localise’ the film; that is, how to approach, translate and adapt the film in an accurate way, in order to preserve and convey the filmmakers’ and the particular company’s intentions. As we shall illustrate in this chapter, as regards animated films by US majors, the American

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producers and their global distributors control all the localising phases up to the final dubbed product (see also Spiteri Miggiani 2019, p. 176). For instance, great care is taken in choosing the voices through voice tests and in guiding the translation/adaptation/dubbing process. As this and the following chapter will show, the majors often provide the dubbing team with detailed English Dialogue Lists and appoint dubbing supervisors in each territory (country or group of countries). Furthermore, the majors sometimes organise meetings to discuss important issues regarding the translation of key words and phrases in different languages (Alto, p.c. 27 November 2019; Izzo, p.c. 4 March 2019). The chapter will explore how the dubbing process works in Italy, describing its stages, the texts that are (re)created and the agents that contribute to shaping the final dubbed text. While the chapter will focus specifically on the Italian context, it is likely that the procedures and agents are similar in other countries since the animated films analysed are produced in the United States and then dubbed into various languages in several different territories. The same material (with localisation guidelines) is likely to be sent by the production company to the distributors and dubbing companies in various countries with obvious specificities for each country.

2.2

The Dubbing Process: Main Agents, Stages and Texts1

This section focuses on the phases of the dubbing process in Italy, the people and the constraints involved in translating, adapting and dubbing animated films, recreating them in a different language and for a different audience and market. The dubbing professionals involved

1 For

a comprehensive and detailed description of the Dubbing Process, the Dubbing production chain and the professionals involved see Whitman-Linsen (1992), Chaume (2012, pp. 27– 39), and Spiteri Miggiani (2019). On French dubbing see Bosseaux (2018), on Spanish Dubbing see Richart Marset (2012), see also Matamala on Catalan dubbing (2010), on Voiceover animation and dubbing of animation in Spain see Sánchez Mompeán (2015, 2020), on the dubbing of Animated Films in French (in both France and Québec) see Montgomery (2017) among others.

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in the dubbing/post-production process can be called ‘dubbing agents’ (Spiteri Miggiani 2019, p. 5). As pointed out in the Introduction chapter, information is derived from personal communications with dubbing practitioners (p.c.), lectures and a limited number of observations of dubbing sessions. It is worth pointing out that constant interaction with Italian dubbing professionals since 2015 has, on the one hand, thrown light on the actual process of dubbing animated films in Italy, while, on the other, it has revealed that the situations, procedures, practices, source texts or documents, professional roles and factors involved in this post-production process are so many and so varied that systematisation into a single, uniform and simple structure is not possible. The description provided in this chapter is a tentative summary of roles, documents and agents involved, which is by no means exhaustive, and may contain inaccuracies due to the multiplicity of practices and the impossibility of having first-hand experience of all practices. The dubbing process, also sometimes referred to as ‘dubbing workflow’, consists of several phases in which the interplay between various people or dubbing agents contributes to producing the dubbed version of an audiovisual product. Chaume illustrates the dubbing production chain and the agents that are responsible for various tasks (2012, pp. 29–31): the producer or owner of the audiovisual programme, which could be well-known big American majors; the distributor (each American major has its own distributors); the dubbing studio or dubbing company, which is responsible for producing a translation brief, selecting the dubbing actors and organising the dubbing production; a translator who usually provides a rough translation; a dialogue writer who is responsible for creating new dialogues according to lip synchronisation, adding dubbing symbols and writing dialogues that resemble oral discourse; a dubbing assistant who divides the script into takes and loops; the dubbing studio/company that organises the actual recording of the dubbed track, summoning voice talents into the dubbing studio; and then in the dubbing studio the dubbing director, dubbing assistant and sound technician/engineer who work with the voice talents/dubbing actors. The dubbing company is also responsible for organising the final editing and mixing of the film. Chaume’s overview also applies to the dubbing process of animated films in Italy. To sum up, the main agents

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in the dubbing process of animated films produced by big US majors are the American production company, the distributor, the dubbing company, the dubbing director, the dialogue writer, the translator, the dubbing assistant, the sound technician or engineer, and the dubbing actors. Further roles should be added to these such as people supervising the dubbing process at the national or international level. Conversations with Italian dubbing professionals highlight the presence of the head of dubbing and the Dubbing and Localization Department of each distributor and of a further key role, that of the dubbing supervisor. The next section will describe the role of the distributor and its Dubbing and Localization Department.

2.2.1 The Distributor and Its Dubbing and Localization Department Chaume points out that “dubbing is an industry […] partly driven by the need to make a profit” (2012, p. 33) and that, generally speaking, the distributor is the “‘initiator of the dubbing commission’ [which] sets the industrial process in motion” (2012, p. 32), also explaining that “the big American majors” have their own distributors in various countries, each with its own Dubbing and Localization Department (2012, p. 31). For Disney and Disney-Pixar films the localisation process is supervised by Disney Character Voices International (DCVI), a division of the Walt Disney Company which was developed in the late 1980s/early 1990s to provide the translation and dubbing services for all products released under the Disney/Buena Vista banner(s) and which has branches in several countries including Italy (Morville, p.c. 2019). DCVI has its own Italian branch in Italy (in Milan). As regards distributors such as Universal, 20th Century Fox, and Warner, the situation may vary, but generally speaking each distributor has its own Italian branch with a department in charge of dubbing (known as ufficio edizioni in Italian) and a local manager in charge of dubbing or head of dubbing (known as the capo ufficio edizioni in Italian). They oversee the dubbing process or localisation operations (Guadagno, p.c. 12 April 2019). The distributor’s department in charge of dubbing may be variously called the

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Dubbing and Localization Department (since localisation, as we have seen, is the term used by the US clients), while the local manager in charge of dubbing may be called head of dubbing or Dubbing and Localization Department manager (terminology suggested by Morville, p.c. 2019) or manager of the Servicing and Dubbing Department (terminology suggested by Guadagno, p.c. 2019 and used by 20th Century Fox Italy). Due to the variety of terms adopted, for reasons of clarity we will use the terms Dubbing and Localization Department and head of dubbing. Although the names of the roles and the situations are not clear-cut and may vary, most professionals mention the key role played by the above two agents; that is, the Dubbing and Localization Department (ufficio edizioni) and the head of dubbing (capo ufficio edizioni) in guiding the dubbing process or dubbing workflow (i.e., the phases of the translation, adaptation and recording of the dubbed dialogue of animated films) in Italy. The dubbing practitioners interviewed confirm that dubbing companies and the dubbing team work for a client who can be the production company itself or the distributor of the film with its own Dubbing and Localization Department. The distributor contacts the dubbing studio/company and the whole dubbing process starts. Dubbing professionals have to comply with the client’s requests at all stages of the dubbing process. Dialogue writer and dubbing director Fiamma Izzo summarises the first steps of the dubbing process, and the initiators of the translation commission, as follows: The client commissions the dubbed version. The client [for many animated films] is an Italian distributor that has a Dubbing and Localization Department in charge of overseeing and guiding the dubbing process in all its phases. The dubbing department chooses the dubbing company and the ‘creative team’ (i.e., dubbing director, dialogue writer and dubbing assistant) and makes comments and takes decisions on every aspect of dubbing, from voice casting to linguistic choices, also making amendments to the Italian dialogues. (Izzo, p.c. 4 March 2019)

Sometimes, for some films the client is not only the distributor with its own Italian branch, but the film directors themselves. Izzo provides the

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example of Despicable Me 2 (2013, P. Coffin, C. Renaud) in which she directly interacted with the French director Pierre Coffin (Izzo, p.c. 28 April 2020). Dialogue writer and dubbing director Alessandro Rossi similarly highlights the fundamental role of the distributors in the dubbing process, in particular the role of the head of dubbing. He points out that decisions on voice casting, translation, adaptation and dubbing strategies are taken by the Dubbing and Localization Department of the distributor. According to Rossi, the key role played by these managers is neglected in any criticism of dubbing, which tends to suggest that dubbing strategies and choices are made by the dialogue writer and dubbing director only. On the other hand, the dubbing director must abide by the distributor’s guidelines and requests. Rossi also points out that each distributor has its own policy and that on a general level Disney is different from Sony/Warner Bros, etc. (Rossi, p.c. 30 November 2017). Nevertheless, conversations with dubbing professionals also suggest that there is a further important agent in the dubbing process of animated films. This person is the dubbing supervisor who may be variously called the international creative dubbing supervisor or the dubbing producer/consultant/supervisor. The next section will try to explain the role of the dubbing supervisor in more detail. It should be borne in mind that the situation is multifarious and far from homogeneous despite the following sections attempting to describe roles and agents in a simple and general way.

2.2.2 A Key Agent in the Dubbing Process: The Creative Dubbing Supervisor As previously pointed out, an important aspect that emerges from the conversations with dialogue writers and dubbing directors about the dubbing of animated films is that they have to comply with the requests of the client (Izzo, p.c. 4 March 2019; Guadagno, p.c. 4 March 2019; Mete, p.c. 7 February 2016; Rossi, p.c. 30 November 2017; Vairano, p.c. 27 November 2018 among others). Decisions regarding linguistic characterisation through accents and dialects, the use of various languages,

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but also regarding any translation choice, for that matter, are discussed with the client and, more specifically, with the dubbing supervisor who is appointed as the company’s proxy. He/she represents the client and communicates their wishes. For the Walt Disney Company the role of the dubbing supervisor is called the creative director. He/she is the person who oversees and guides the dubbing process for all Disney and Disney-Pixar products in Italy. Information gathered from professionals suggests that other US majors or distributors such as DreamWorks, 20th Century Fox, Paramount, Sony, and Universal also seem to have a person who controls the dubbing process in various territories at the international level. Italian dubbing professionals refer to this person as the supervisor, using an English loanword in Italian. The dubbing supervisor is thus a key agent in the post-production process of animated films. Whatever the production company or distributor, a dubbing supervisor is in charge of overseeing the whole process, controlling all stages from the adaptation to the final mixing of the dubbed version. He/she is a person appointed by the distributor or by the US major who is responsible for overseeing the whole dubbing process and for ensuring that the final dubbed version reproduces the original film in terms of content and that it is localised; that is, translated and adapted in another language in the right way (i.e., following the producer’s requests). The dubbing supervisor is responsible for the quality of the final product and its fidelity to the original film and creative content. As pointed out above, Disney and Disney-Pixar have their own in-house dubbing supervisor (creative director) who takes on the responsibilites of the dubbing supervisor and more. Morville worked as a creative director for Disney until 2017. He is the Creative Director of all the Disney and Disney-Pixar films discussed in this book. As explained by Morville himself (p.c. 25 January 2016), the creative director’s role for Disney is to supervise all the stages of dubbing in Italy. He/she is responsible for guiding and directing all the phases of the dubbing chain from the choice of dubbing studio/company, dubbing director and dialogue writer to the selection of voice talents, the revision of Italian dialogues and the supervision of dubbing sessions in the studio including final recording and mixage.

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Other big majors also seem to have dubbing supervisors whose role takes on a similar shape to Disney’s creative director. However, the number and type of supervisors may vary, they may be based in various countries and their role may have different names. The person who oversees the dubbing process and controls the adaptation and the final dubbed version of non-Disney films may be an international dubbing supervisor, a creative dubbing supervisor based in Italy or the head of the Dubbing Department of the distributor based in Italy. A further distinction is made between supervisors who work directly for the majors and freelance consultants called dubbing supervisors or dubbing producers. For instance, several Italian dubbing directors have mentioned collaborating with International Supervisor Jody Toll. The LinkedIn profile of Toll shows that she has worked as a freelance dubbing producer and dubbing consultant for several big majors such as Sony Pictures Entertainment, Universal Pictures, DreamWorks Animation and Paramount Pictures. Her role encompassed “creative management including creative materials, process and guidelines, casting and marketing support, translation review and quality control” for films such as Hotel Transylvania 1–3 and The Lorax, “in-territory supervision” for films such as Despicable Me, the Shrek films, Kung Fu Panda 1–2, Madagascar, How to Train Your Dragon and Rango. She also produced creative and translation letters and was “responsible for managing the creative dubbing process including corporate approvals for casting translations, key name and phrases and misc. marketing materials.”2 The dubbing of several non-Disney films discussed in this book was supervised by Toll. The key role of the dubbing supervisor in the dubbing process can also be seen in job advertisements appearing on the web. For instance, Netflix has recently advertised a position as creative dubbing supervisor.3 In March 2019 Netflix advertised positions as production dubbing supervisor for Italy and Germany and for a creative dubbing supervisor. As explained in the job description, the mission of the creative dubbing supervisor “is to preserve the original creative intent of our filmmakers 2 Information taken from: https://www.linkedin.com/in/jody-toll-63a4114 (accessed September 2019). 3 Available at: https://jobs.netflix.com/jobs/869315 (accessed 20 September 2019).

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throughout the many language adaptations Netflix commissions and distributes”. The dubbing supervisor also has to “be able to strategically identify the challenges and complexities localization will face before it even begins”. The advertisement for this job explains that the creative dubbing supervisor may work “in coordination with the regional dubbing production supervisors”. This suggests that there may be more than one supervisor (i.e., an international one and one for each region or territory). The international dubbing supervisor is the link between the filmmakers and the dubbing supervisors in various countries. DreamWorks Animation TV has also recently advertised a job as production coordinator for international dubbing whose role is to collaborate with and assist dubbing supervisors. The above job advertisements confirm that dubbing supervisors are important agents in the dubbing production process and suggest that production companies are aware of how fundamental the translation, adaptation and dubbing of their products is. Supervisors appear to have the following functions: on the one hand, they must ensure that the filmmakers’ intentions and the creative intent (the content and meaning of the original film dialogues) are preserved once transferred to another country and translated into a different language. On the other hand, they must be able to identify and solve the linguistic, technical and cultural challenges posed by the localisation process in different countries and support and guide the dubbing teams by producing translation guidelines, liaising with dubbing companies and dubbing professionals and supervising the final product. The supervisor has to make sure that the dubbed versions are as faithful as possible to the original film dialogues and to the filmmakers’ intentions, while taking into account the specificities of the target language, culture and audience. This also seems to suggest that dialogue writers and dubbing directors must translate and adapt the film dialogues following a specific translation brief or translation commission according to the guidelines provided by the client. The texts that are sent to the dubbing team for translation/adaptation and the guidelines on how to create the dubbed version are described in Sect. 2.3. The role of the dubbing supervisor appointed by the producer or distributor is not completely new. Some 15 years ago Paolinelli and Di Fortunato criticised the role of some dubbing supervisors since their

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only request was total adherence to the source text, a very vague and unspecified ‘literal translation’: Some foreign authors or production companies who can’t get their own professionals take precautions by handing quality control over to people they trust, the ‘supervisors’. Instead of working together with the dialogue writer and the director in a collaboration of meta-professional trust, however, they often simply limit their request to the greatest adherence to something merely called the ‘literal translation’ .4 (Paolinelli and Di Fortunato 2005, p. 44, my italics)

The above quotation highlights the rather rigid approach adopted by some dubbing supervisors, who seemingly work against dubbing professionals rather than with them, since they do not take into account the specificities of the Italian language, technical issues and the audience, merely requiring a so-called ‘literal translation’, which clearly is an impossibility given the technical, linguistic and cultural constraints. Paolinelli and Di Fortunato go on to explain that while they are in principle in favour of the presence of a dubbing supervisor who could coordinate the multilanguage versions of a film and give precise information about it and its language, they believe that the Italian dialogue writer and dubbing director should still be given more freedom and more trust, and that they should be responsible for the good quality of the adaptation and the dubbed version (Paolinelli and Di Fortunato 2005, p. 44). Recent communications with dubbing professionals conducted for the present study, however, emphasise that they also often have a collaborative and constructive role despite the dubbing supervisor’s aim still being to ensure fidelity and close adherence to the source text with the ostensible aim of avoiding a loss of meaning. In fact, whenever Italian dialogues appear to depart from the literal meaning of the English text, dubbing supervisors may have long debates with dialogue writers and dubbing directors who can explain their reasons for specific choices or alleged ‘betrayals’ of the original text. For instance, Guadagno mentions the example of the film The Smurfs/I puffi (2011, dir. Stem 4 Unless

otherwise stated, all translations into English are by Hilary Siddons.

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and Weiss) for which he wrote the Italian dialogues and was the dubbing director, as well as the voice of Quattrocchi/Brainy. When Quattrocchi (Brainy) speaks in the Italian dialogues, Guadagno added the line Che è meglio! (And that’s it), although this expression was not present in the original English dialogues. Che è meglio was an expression that connoted Brainy in the 1980s’ TV series in Italy, but was not in the original English dialogues. This improvised line by Guadagno made the people in the dubbing booth laugh, so they decided to record it and insert it in the Italian dialogues because this expression comes to mind when the Italian audience thinks of Quattrocchi/Brainy. When Guadagno was asked to adapt the English dialogues of the 2011 film, he therefore also used this expression, following localisation principles rather than literal meaning. The international dubbing supervisor, however, complained that the line was not in the original Dialogue List and so had to be removed. Dialogue writer and dubbing director Guadagno managed to convince the supervisor that, despite this ‘unfaithfulness’ to the original, the line should be retained and repeated throughout the film, otherwise the character would lose an important element of his Italian linguistic characterisation and the audience might be disappointed (Guadagno, p.c. 4 March 2019). Other examples of fruitful collaboration and exchange between the dubbing supervisor and the dubbing director/dialogue writer for animated films are provided by Alto and Izzo. Alto, who directed the dubbing of all the Madagascar films, explained that before starting the dubbing process the international dubbing supervisor (Toll) summoned the dubbing teams from various countries to a 3-day meeting in London. Alto and the Italian head of dubbing of the distributor took part. The international dubbing supervisor explained key names and phrases and gave directives on how to approach the dialogues and how to solve translation and adaptation challenges. She explained the meaning of specific scenes, dialogues and lines and discussed how to convey them in different languages. Alto points out the positive role played by the international creative dubbing supervisor. Since she/he is a person who has spoken with the director and knows the ins and outs of the film and its English dialogues, she/he can give precious information and advice on how to approach the film and adapt it for different markets where

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needed (Alto, p.c. 25 January 2016, 27 November 2018). Izzo also talks about taking part in 3-day script meetings with an international dubbing supervisor and colleagues from other countries at which the supervisor provided key information about the story and the characters and they discussed the meaning of specific lines and how to convey them in various languages. According to Izzo such meetings are “a wonderful means to understand the meaning of the original text, of the film, and to share ideas and choices with dubbing teams from other territories” (Izzo, p.c. 6 February 2019). In the case of Disney and Disney-Pixar animated films, as pointed out by Manfredi, Morville and Napolitano (2018), Creative Director Morville worked side by side with the dubbing team in a constant and fruitful collaboration, providing advice on all aspects and trying to mediate between the requests of the producers and the Italian dubbing professionals, making suggestions and revising the Italian dialogues through a constant and respectful exchange.

2.2.3 Translation, Adaptation and Recording Phases As illustrated above, the dubbing supervisor oversees the whole dubbing process, which for animated films consists of various phases. They are summarised as follows by Dubbing Assistant Maria Grazia Napolitano who has worked on several Disney films and all the Pixar films discussed in this book. Napolitano points out that “the materials are sent to the dubbing studio/company; the dubbing assistant segments the text into takes or loops [called anelli in Italian], while the dubbing director and the client [Disney creative director or the creative dubbing supervisor for other majors] select the dubbing actors, often through voice tests.” As previously pointed out, during this preparatory phase the marketing department may require the casting of star talent dubbers, although voice tests for the protagonists are always carried out. In the meantime, the dialogue writer adapts the English dialogues into Italian. Once the Italian dialogues are ready and approved by the client, the actual dubbing of the Italian version is set in motion. The dubbing actors are summoned by the dubbing assistant, according to a recording sheet/dubbing sheet. In the dubbing studio, the dubbing

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director, dubbing assistant, sound technician/engineer and dubbing actors record the dialogues in the dubbing booth. Dubbing actors usually record their lines separately, not interacting with other dubbing actors. The recording process may take several days or a full month. Then the phase of dialogue editing takes place, the synchronizer adjusts the video and audio files so that synchronization is optimised. A last, important stage is the final check, the so-called ‘controllo finale’ which takes place in the mixing room. The whole film is watched by the dubbing director, the dubbing assistant, and the creative dubbing supervisor as a proxy for the client and they decide whether any parts need redubbing/re-takes. (Napolitano, p.c. 14 January 2019)

A last stage consists in the final mixing of the film with other tracks such as music, including versions in other languages. In the case of Disney /Pixar products, this final mixing usually takes place at Shepperton Studios in the United Kingdom where all the different international tracks are mixed (Morville, p.c. 20 April 2018). Other animated films may also be mixed in studios abroad such as Pinewood Studios, Ealing Studios and Twickenham Studios, all of which are in and around London.

The Translation and the Translator In the Introduction chapter we identified three phases in the dubbing process, starting with a translation which forms the basis for its adaptation into a dialogue for the dubbing voices to perform. More finely granulated segmentations are, of course, also possible. Chaume, for example, identifies “five different tasks (translation, take segmentation, insertion of dubbing symbols, lip-sync, dialogue writing and the emulation of natural discourse)” (2012, p. xiv) which are performed by a translator and a dialogue writer. In Italy the dialogue writer can perform all the above tasks, translating from the English dialogue and adapting this first rough translation by writing Italian dialogues that emulate natural discourse, inserting dubbing symbols, respecting lip synchronisation, utterance length and pauses. Nevertheless, this is not always the case when feature films and animated films are concerned. As pointed

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out by Chaume (2012) and Spiteri Miggiani (2019), the English script of a film is often, though not always, translated by a professional translator who provides a so-called rough translation which is the basis of the work of the dialogue writer. As stated by Spiteri Miggiani, “the initial translation of a script is very often carried out by external professional translators and not by the dialogue writers themselves” (2019, p. 26). Most of the dubbing professionals consulted confirm that they work with translators who are usually appointed by them and work directly for them. It is worth pointing out that the names of the translators are not usually known or credited, however, and hence we can speak here about the “translator’s invisibility” (Venuti 1995) in the Italian audiovisual context. This is perhaps due to the fact that the contratto nazionale del lavoro (the Italian contract) does not take translators into account, or because translators work directly for the dialogue writer and are thus not part of the whole dubbing process set in motion by the production company and distributor. The task of the translator is usually to provide a close rendering of the English dialogue and other texts that need to be translated such as the dialogue of the trailer and other material which will be discussed later in this chapter. The features of the translation produced by the professional translator may vary considerably and depend on the dialogue writer’s requests (the translation commission). Generally speaking, the translation is considered a linguistically close, literal translation where fidelity to the original text is paramount and very little or no creativity is required. On the other hand, explanations of puns, idioms, cultural references and ambiguous language are usually required. Moreover, the translator is not usually asked to insert dubbing symbols or adapt the text to the images according to synchronisation or to write natural-sounding and credible dialogue since these tasks will be undertaken by the dialogue writer (for a detailed description of the translator’s task see Chaume 2012, pp. 33–34). Nevertheless, conversations with dubbing professionals have revealed that the type of translation and its degree of complexity, creativity and adaptation/adjustment actually depend on the translation brief (i.e., on what the dialogue writer asks the translator to do). Izzo, for instance, explains that she collaborates with more than one translator and wants them to be very precise—not creative. As she points out, “everything

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has to be very aseptic to leave room for my creativity” (Izzo, p.c. 4 March 2019). Dialogue writer and dubbing director Mete explains that he works with one or more translators and that he asks them to be as literal and faithful as possible to the original text. Once he receives such a translation, Mete’s task is to turn it into dialogues, to take into consideration the issue of synchronisation and the differences between cultures and to express his creativity, even betraying ‘the letter’ in order to be faithful to what he perceives to be the real meaning of the text (Mete, p.c. 7 February 2016). Dialogue writer and dubbing director Valli explains that he usually collaborates with professional translator Richard Mead: What I require is a literal translation of the text, that is, one which is as close as possible to the original words, without any creative solutions or an embellished style. Once I have the literal translation, I do the adaptation myself. However, naturally, I expect idiomatic expressions to be translated with equivalent Italian idioms. For example, a translation like ‘piovono cani e gatti’ (the literal version of ‘it’s raining cats and dogs’) is useless for me. What I need is the corresponding idiom, that is ‘piove a catinelle’ (literally it’s raining in basins’). (Valli, p.c. 10 January 2020)

This idea of a literal translation by an often unmentioned translator and a creative adaptation by the dialogue writer that is speakable and natural sounding is very similar to the way in which theatre texts are translated and adapted (see Taviano 2005; Minutella 2013 among others). Spiteri Miggiani points out the negative side of this practice as follows: Unfortunately, when translators are engaged solely for this linguistic transposition (be it by dubbing companies or by dialogue writers themselves, who may delegate it on their own initiative), their participation in this process is hardly acknowledged. The subsequent adaptation process seems to steal all the limelight, this notwithstanding the importance of having a correct interpretation of the source text which is embedded with so many nuances. (Spiteri Miggiani 2019, p. 26)

I agree with this view: when discussing the dubbing process the first fundamental step of interpreting and understanding the meaning of the original text and conveying it in the target language is not given

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much credit. It is almost taken for granted, as if translation were a mere matter of one-to-one equivalence. The interpretative and creative process involved in translation is disregarded, together with the fact that translators of film dialogue need to take into account the multimodal nature of such texts and the combination of language with the images as well as sounds. Translation studies scholars or anyone involved in translation knows that any form of translation is in itself a matter of interpretation and a complex decision-making process, that a word or expression in a source language can have various possible translation equivalents in the target language and that a so-called ‘literal’ translation of a creative text such as film dialogue is an illusory goal. The translators of film dialogue could perhaps be given more credit and be acknowledged for their important work. Nevertheless, the idea of a ‘less worthy’, easy, literal translation is not shared by all professionals and some acknowledge the complexity of the translator’s task and the degree of creativity that might be involved in it. Furthermore, a rough translation is not always what is asked for. For instance, having been a translator and dialogue writer himself, Morville (p.c. 5 May 2016) admits that the dialogue writer usually asks the translator to produce an ‘advanced translation’ (i.e., a translation which already contains possible creative solutions to translation challenges). The translator should according to Morville not only explain how a literal translation would be, but also suggest possible strategies for solving translation hurdles. It therefore seems that professional translators working for dialogue writers can provide different types of translations according to the agreement between the two professionals and the translator’s skills. Translator Elena Di Carlo, for instance, who has been translating film dialogues from English for Vairano, Guadagno and Mete—all dialogue writers— for several years and who also works as a dialogue writer herself, explains that when she translates she usually searches for a word which is similar in meaning, context of use and register to the one used in the original text, while at the same time aiming to be creative. For instance, if there is a pun, then her task as a translator is first “to explain its meaning to the dialogue writer. After clarifying the meaning of the pun, a good translator could suggest a possible solution, providing an example of a pun in

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the target language” (Di Carlo, p.c. 21 January 2016). Moreover, some of Di Carlo’s translations might be considered pre-adaptations because she tries to keep to the line length of the original text. If she notices there is a labial consonant, then she looks for Italian words containing similar consonants (Di Carlo, p.c. 21 January 2016). However, this is perhaps an exceptional case of a very experienced and skilled professional translator who is also a dialogue writer. In other cases, translators are not asked to pay attention to line length nor to synchronisation. In a previous paper (Minutella 2015) I illustrated text manipulation, rewritings and the type of translation produced by Di Carlo for the Shrek films adapted by Vairano. Smooth communication and collaboration between translator and dialogue writer is extremely important and is key to producing a good-quality Italian adaptation. The translator may signal to the dialogue writer if a specific character uses dialect, incorrect grammar or a particular idiolect and register; the translator and dialogue writer may decide together how to approach these issues (Di Carlo, p.c. 21 January 2016). For instance, this happened in DreamWorks film Home (2015) where the Boov species spoke a kind of ‘interlanguage’ or broken English. Translator Di Carlo signalled this feature to Guadagno and they decided together on how to convey this non-standard English in a consistent way. The dialogue writer and dubbing director explained to the dubbing supervisor how they wanted to convey the linguistic characterisation of the Boov species and this choice was approved. A good translator thus proposes translation strategies to overcome translation and adaptation challenges. He/she can also suggest possible solutions for puns, idioms and rhyming language, which the dialogue writer does not necessarily have to agree with or use in the final Italian dialogues. This happened, for instance, to Di Carlo’s proposal for a song in Shrek 2 (Minutella 2015, pp. 151–153). The translator provided both a literal translation of Donkey’s lines and a possible rhyming translation that would retain the rhythm, the length of the original song, as well as a similar meaning, keeping the same semantic field as the original. Although this solution would have worked well as an adaptation and was ‘singable’ and synchronised, dialogue writer Vairano completely changed the text, inventing a new rhythm and lyrics. This example shows that the translator can suggest solutions and the dialogue writer can decide

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whether to accept or rewrite the text at will according to his or her own personal taste. Several professionals in fact talk about gusto, which is a key element in the rewriting and moulding process in dubbing. In a previous paper I concluded that “the high quality of the dubbed version starts with a good, detailed Dialogue List which is translated by a highly qualified professional and is then reworked and given new life by the dialogue writer, who imbues it with his own wittiness” (Minutella 2015, p. 156). In the light of recent information gathered from personal communications and observations in the dubbing studios, I can state that this excellent quality often also depends on constructive collaboration between several skilled professionals and a whole series of rewritings.

The Italian Adaptation/Italian Dialogues and the Dialogue Writer The dialogue writer then works further on this translation and rewrites it, adapts it and creates the Italian adaptation (called adattamento). The Italian adaptation is also called Italian dialogues (dialoghi italiani) and corresponds to the Italian dubbing script. The dialogue writer produces the Italian dialogue inserting dubbing symbols, respecting lip synchrony and utterance length or isochrony and making sure that the adaptation respects the rhythm and pauses of the original text, labial consonants and open and closed vowels; the resulting text, moreover, must sound natural and believable. The dialogue writer has to use his/her own creativity to recreate humour, puns, idiomatic expressions, metaphors and culturespecific elements, to mention just a few linguistic challenges. As Chaume (2012, p. 35) explains: The dialogue writer, or the adapter, [is] the person who will rewrite the dialogues […] their task is to create a fresh, workable, convincing, prefabricated oral script that meets all lip-sync requirements, but at the same time gives the impression that it is an original dialogue. […] the dialogue writer thus has to achieve a balance between standard prosodic and grammar rules and credible oral discourse. In other words, the dialogue writer must avoid artificiality, and make dialogue lines sound credible and true-to-life. […] The other important task for dialogue writers is

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lip-syncing. […] Dialogue writers have to match the translation to the onscreen characters’ voices.

During a lecture at the University of Torino on the dubbed version of Incredibles 2 dialogue writer, dubbing director and actor Massimiliano Manfredi provided some advice on dialogue writing. It is important, he explained, “to rehearse the lines with the same ‘intentions’ (‘intenzioni’) that the original actor has, since the length of an utterance changes according to whether it is shouted or whispered. The dialogue writer must check, respect and reproduce the original actor’s rhythm and internal pauses, and not only the length of an utterance” (Manfredi, Morville and Napolitano 2018). In the case of animated films in Italy, the Italian adaptation (the rewritten translation) is then sent to the supervisor for quality control. For Disney/Disney Pixar films the Italian dialogues are sent to the creative director who may suggest amendments according to his/her own experience and taste, which also applies to language choices. Dialogue writer Manfredi and former creative director Morville, who have collaborated on several Disney and Pixar films, point out that the Italian dialogues usually undergo rewriting and remoulding through a collaborative process. The dialogue writer produces the Italian dialogues and sends them to the creative director who reads them and makes his/her own corrections and suggestions. Sometimes, if they are unsure about the best solution for a specific line, they might then write two or three alternative versions, record all of them in the dubbing studio and then choose the best one at a later stage. The revised dialogues are used in the dubbing booth as a script, which may be further modified during the dubbing sessions if it is deemed necessary (Manfredi, Morville and Napolitano 2019). When it comes to non-Disney films the dialogue writer sends the Italian dialogues to the head of dubbing or the dubbing supervisor who will then revise and amend them (Di Carlo, p.c. 22 April 2020; Manfredi, Morville and Napolitano 2018). For some animated films, especially if there is an international dubbing supervisor, the client not only requires the Italian dialogues but also a back translation into English so that the international supervisor or the US major itself (la casa madre)

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can verify whether the Italian adaptation is a faithful reproduction of the original text and whether the directions given to the dialogue writer have been followed. In other cases only some key names and phrases are back-translated into English (Di Carlo, p.c. 22 April 2020). However, the number of Italian text extracts (extracts from the Italian adaptation) that need to be translated can vary from film to film and distributor to distributor. As Izzo explained, a back translation is sometimes required, but not if there is a local editorial team or a supervisor, and never for Disney. However, a glossary with the key words of the film and their translation is usually requested (Izzo, p.c. 4 March 2019).

Recording the Dubbed Version in the Dubbing Booth: Dubbing Director, Dubbing Assistant, Dubbing Actors and Sound Technician Once the Italian dialogues have been approved by the client the dubbing sessions can start in the dubbing studio. The dubbing assistant prepares the dubbing/recording sheet (piano di lavorazione) and organises the recording/dubbing sessions (turni di doppiaggio). The dubbing actors are then called into the dubbing studio to voice their characters. Sometimes the client such as Disney’s creative director, in-territory supervisors or the head of dubbing for Dreamworks/Universal/Sony may also be present during the dubbing sessions and make comments or suggestions. Based on my own observations of dubbing sessions at Dubbing Brothers International Italia and SDI Media Italia, during a dubbing session in the dubbing booth the dubbing assistant and the dubbing actor/voice talent are in the cabin where the film is projected on a screen, and the dubbing director and sound technician are separated from them by a glass partition. The dubbing assistant has the dubbing plan, a computer and files of the English and Italian dialogues, as well as a hard copy of the Italian dialogues. The dubbing actor stands by the lectern and reads the Italian dialogues off a hard copy, while the film is projected onto a movie screen (often, but not always, in black and white). The dubbing actors wear headphones so that they can clearly hear the original voices and adjust the volume as they please. In the other booth sit

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the dubbing director and the sound technician/engineer. The dubbing director has his/her own computer so that he/she can check the files of the English and Italian dialogues and usually also has a paper copy of the Italian dialogues. Before starting the session with a dubber, the dubbing director provides important information such as the role of the character, his/her feelings or details on the specific scene. Dubbing actors do not previously know the film plot and cannot see the scenes or the script beforehand, so they must base their interpretation on the information gathered from the dubbing director and the clips they watch, the original actors’ performances and the images. As pointed out by Whitman-Linsen, the role of the dubbing director is similar to that of a theatre or film director: Like the director of a theatre play or film, the dubbing director is responsible for prompting, stimulating and instructing the actors to put on their best performances. He can demand that lines be read differently, re-directing emphasis and shifting expression. Suggestions and criticism pertaining to intonation, expression and voice-projection are also made by the director. Before each take, the director might add a remark or two sketching in missing context for the benefit of the dubbing actor: where the character is, what the character feels, what message is intended to be imparted. (Whitman-Linsen 1992, p. 82)

Chaume’s description of the dubbing director’s role and skills are also worth quoting fully: The dubbing director must have good story-telling skills since the voice talents never actually see the whole film, only the loops they have to dub. It is the director’s job to guide them through the film, instruct them on the plot of the film and on their particular character, tell them what intonation they need to use in each sentence and how to interpret each take or loop, and finally reject or approve the recorded take. Directors might change the translation, should they feel that a particular word or sentence does not convey the appropriate (semantic or pragmatic) meaning for a particular occasion. (Chaume 2012, p. 36)

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There may be several rehearsals before the actual recording takes place. The sound engineer projects the video. The dubbing actor watches the scene a couple of times in the original version; comments are made by the dubbing director on voice, intonation and feelings; and then the volume of the original is turned down and the dubber rehearses the lines while watching the scene again. When he/she feels ready the lines are recorded. The sound technician records the new voice track and adjusts some of the voice files, stretching, reducing and synchronising the track. Everyone then watches the take or loop with the new Italian dialogues and the dubbing director may comment on the performance, clarity of enunciation and synchronisation. The dubbing assistant and sound engineer can also contribute to enhancing the performance by making their own comments and suggestions. Interpretation, pronunciation, tonality and pitch are taken into consideration. The aim is to recreate the utterances of the original actor and reproduce the same intonation, rhythm and meaning. For example, the dubbing assistant and sound engineer control the length of words and utterances since the dubbed voice track has to perfectly match the length of the original dialogues. Moreover, together with the dubbing director they also judge the proper, correct pronunciation of words since they should usually be pronounced in standard Italian, follow the rules of diction and be clearly enunciated. Although this may sound very prescriptive, the use of standard Italian, proper diction and clear enunciation are part of the language of Italian dubbing and of the training of dubbing actors. However, as we shall see later in the book, if the original actor does not clearly articulate (deliberately), speaks dialect or has a very marked accent, then the dubbing actor might be asked not to use standard Italian with proper diction and opt for a less standard or a rough accent. If a word or line is not clear enough, then the dubbing actor has to re-record the whole line or sometimes only a single word. On occasion they record a take, a line, a phrase or a sentence. If the dubbing director believes that there is still room for improvement, then the sounds that are not clear enough are isolated and re-recorded. In this case the role of the sound engineer is particularly important, since he/she is tasked with isolating the word(s), cutting and pasting from various files and selecting the most appropriate recordings so that the final version is a smooth and clear voice flow. The

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dubbing assistant also comments on performance and utterance length since he/she can also control the original track and is tasked with making sure that the dubbed version matches it. The Italian dialogues may, as noted, be changed during the recording. As summarised by Chaume: “The process is a continuous series of stops and starts, rather than a theatrical performance. Dubbers may also change the translation should it not respond to their way of acting. Dubbing actors and actresses are expected to convincingly and expressively mimic the original onscreen performance” (2012, p. 37). The dubbing assistant may ask the voice talent to repeat a line, to record it again because the dubbed utterance does not match the original one either in terms of utterance length (i.e., isochrony), word length and articulation (i.e., lip synchrony) or in terms of intonation and quality of the voice. Such a precise match of dubbed lines with the original ones is necessary for technical reasons for the final mixing process.

Dubbing Actors Sánchez Mompeán explains the main differences between the work of voice actors who voice characters in the original version of animated films and the dubbing actors who give their voice to the characters in a different language: Both dubbers and voice actors make use of a pair of headphones and stand in front of a microphone, but the latter barely need the printed copy of the script placed on their lectern, since they have previously had the time to learn most of their lines by heart. On the contrary, dubbing actors need to build up an effective visual acuity to shift repeatedly from the written script placed on the fixed lectern to the ongoing and mute scene that is to be filled with their words and must strike a balance between an appropriate intonation and a similar-to-real oral discourse while reading their lines. (Sánchez Mompeán 2015, p. 91)

Each dubbing actor records his/her lines individually, as noted, without interacting with other actors. The only exception is when more than one dubbing actor might be in the dubbing booth and they have to record

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so-called ‘walla’, a term used by practitioners to indicate indistinct noises such as background dialogue lines made by a crowd or people in the street. The English Dialogue List may contain actual words or simply state ‘indistinct’. WALLA is written in capital letters in the English Dialogue List and is called BRUSIO in the Italian Dialogue/Dubbing Script (for a description of WALLA see Spiteri Miggiani 2019, pp. 143– 146). In such a case the dialogue writer may invent some exclamations/words/expressions to replace the ones in the original track. When the script contains these background dialogue lines or background noise such as a crowd cheering during a competition or people in the street or at a party a number of dubbing actors are called to the studio and they record their lines together. As already noted, no previous preparation by the dubbing actor is allowed. They have to make do with the time and information that the dubbing director gives them and with the images on screen and the original actors’ voices. As can be seen from the above descriptions, the technique of dubbing is not simple and requires proper training. Professional dubbing actors are highly skilled and have had formal training in dubbing and very often also in acting. Nevertheless, in recent years animated films have also often been dubbed by non-professionals, in particular by celebrities who do not have any training in dubbing. The fact that these celebrities lend their voice to animated characters may have important implications for the dubbing process, for voice casting and for the final voice quality and accent of the characters they dub.

What Happens to the Italian Dialogues in the Dubbing Booth? Several of the dubbing professionals consulted confirm that the Italian dialogues are usually slightly changed and partially rewritten in the dubbing studio for various reasons (Izzo, p.c. 4 March 2019; Morville, p.c. 1 March 2019; Manfredi, p.c. 27 September 2018; Guadagno, p.c. 4 March 2019; Alto, p.c. 27 November 2018; Napolitano, p.c. 14 January 2019). This might be because the dubber has difficulty in pronouncing certain words, because the lines are too long or short and cannot be

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synchronised, or even because of personal taste or because someone— anyone from the dialogue writer him/herself to the dubbing actor to the dubbing assistant/sound engineer or a colleague—comes up with a better/more creative or funnier translation solution. Dialogue writer and dubbing director Manfredi admits that sometimes he may find a more creative, more fitting solution while he is directing the dubbing actors such that he changes his adaptation during the recording session. In other cases it is the dubbing actor who may contribute to a more effective, creative line while rehearsing or improvising. Creative director Morville, for instance, explains that in Cars, actors such as Marco Messeri (who dubs the character of Tow Mater) and comedian Marco Della Noce (dubbing Luigi) improvised some lines during the recording sessions: “they invent lines, inventing a role by putting their own personality in that character. In the studio you have to intervene [and modify what the dialogue writer has written] if there are brilliant actors, if they come up with a brilliant line” (Morville 2016). Morville believes that although total and blind adherence to the text written by the dialogue writer is not necessary, approximately 90% of the dialogues remain (Morville 2016). If the dubbing director is unsure of the final result, then sometimes two or more alternative versions of a line/word/phrase may be recorded. Manfredi (p.c. 27 September 2018) explains that sometimes he writes two or three alternative solutions in the adaptation, all of which are recorded, and then the most suitable one is chosen at a later stage after also discussing it with the client, perhaps during the final check of the dubbed film. Manfredi highlights the fact that his adaptations are bound to be modified thanks to the collaborative work of the whole dubbing team. Guadagno also points out that his adaptations are not a definitive script and can always be slightly changed in the dubbing booth: “The script is open, the fact that I’ve written something doesn’t mean that it cannot be changed” (Guadagno, p.c. 4 March 2019). At the end of the dubbing sessions the dubbing director saves a final version of the Italian dialogues in a Word file titled ‘As recorded’ (Manfredi, p.c. 27 September 2018; Guadagno, p.c. 4 March 2019; and my own observations in the dubbing studio).

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The dubbing of an animated film is thus a collaborative process in which communication and teamwork between the dubbing director, dubbing assistant, dubbing actors and sound technician/engineer are essential. Communication between the dialogue writer and dubbing director is important since the dialogue writer is the person who knows the language of the film best as well as the linguistic characterisation of the characters, which makes it easier for them to rewrite a line of dialogue while in the dubbing booth. This is confirmed by Izzo and Guadagno (p.c. 4 March 2019) who often choose to both adapt and direct dubbed films. This is a deliberate choice since dubbing directors prefer to work on dialogues that they have written themselves because this gives them deeper knowledge of the film and its language and because it is easier and more acceptable for them to make amendments to their own dialogues (Izzo, p.c. 4 March 2019; Guadagno, p.c. 4 March 2019). Izzo states that she always adapts the films she directs because she wants to be free to criticise and change her own dialogue when she is in the dubbing studio: “I have to feel free to criticise my own dialogues, to change. There’s Fiamma the dialogue writer and Fiamma the dubbing director and they don’t coincide” (Izzo, p.c. 30 January 2019). The dialogue writer and the dubbing director are one and the same for most of the films analysed in this book making it easier for him/her to modify his/her own script.

2.3

One Film, Many Texts

Generally speaking, when talking about audiovisual translation we usually refer to a source text (the English dialogues) and a target text (the dubbed dialogues). However, as many scholars have pointed out (e.g., Richart Marset 2012; Spiteri Miggiani 2019)—and as previously suggested—there are several in-between texts, the first of which being the translation. During the dubbing phases several kinds of source text are given to the dubbing team by the client and several target texts are produced by the dubbing team. The material that is sent to the dubbing professionals can vary from film to film and according to the producer/distributor. The texts/files that are always sent to the dubbing team, regardless of the producer/distributor, are the English Dialogue

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List, a key names and phrases (KNP) file and a text called the creative letter. Sometimes a glossary and a subtitle/spotting list are also included. To summarise, the following source text files in English may be sent to the dubbing team along with the video (the documents that are always sent are shown in bold): – English Dialogue List (Trailers, Preliminary 1, 2, 3, etc., Final Dialogue List) – Subtitle spotting list (in some cases) – Annotated subtitle/dialogue with explanations (in some cases) – KNP (key names and phrases) file that sometimes requires back translation – Creative letter (strictly confidential) – Glossary The following target texts are produced by the dubbing team: – Translation of the English dialogue into Italian (carried out by a translator and supplied to the dialogue writer) – Italian adaptation/Italian dialogue/Italian dubbing script (called adattamento italiano) – Italian adaptation/Italian dialogue ‘As recorded’ (adattamento italiano ‘As recorded’): this is the final version of the Italian dialogue as recorded in the dubbing studio after any revisions that may have been made during the dubbing sessions. – Some non-Disney films only: back translation into English of either the full film (in very few cases) or of the key names and phrases file (often) is required. Back translation is not necessary for Disney and Pixar films because the creative director guarantees the good quality of the Italian version and its faithfulness to the original English text. In most cases DreamWorks does not require back translation into English of the whole Dialogue List. However, it does require back translation of the KNP file.

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2.3.1 English Dialogue List The dubbing team always receives an English script that has to be translated and adapted. This is called the Master English Dialogue List, English Dialogue List or Annotated Dialogue List. It is a detailed text prepared by selected vendors specialised in script composition such as Deluxe, Technicolor and MasterWord. It contains the film dialogues, onscreen text and explanatory notes. It is thus a post-production transcript of the film dialogue and of any written text that requires translation/adaptation. Although dialogue lists may vary considerably in form and layout (see Chaume 2012, p. 122; Spiteri Miggiani 2019, pp. 102– 107), they are usually made up of three columns: one indicating the footage (i.e., the exact time in the video file when the words occur), one with the name of the character and one containing the dialogue, as illustrated in Table 2.1. The script of animated films usually contains explanations of the words/expressions used by each speaker in parentheses in the dialogue column (after some lines of dialogue). Such explanatory notes include the meaning of contracted forms, colloquial or slang forms, ungrammaticalities, cultural references, puns, and idioms. They further explain the interaction between words and images, or references and allusions to other films, texts, songs, etc. The quantity and type of explanatory notes may vary considerably. Some examples of “explanatory notes within a dialogue transcript” can be found in Spiteri Miggiani (2019, pp. 105– 107). The information encompassed by the notes helps the translator and dialogue writer to understand the meaning of the lines so that they can translate the dialogue according to the filmmakers’ conception. Although the aim of these explanatory notes in the Dialogue List is probably “to ensure correct interpretation of meaning” (Spiteri Miggiani 2019, Table 2.1 English Dialogue List Footage

Speaker/Character

Dialogue

Timecode

Name

Dialogue (explanatory note)

Source The example is invented by the author

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p. 105) and speed up the translation and adaptation process, it may also be to control the process of interpretation. Nevertheless, the content of dialogue lists and explanatory notes may be subject to some criticism since they are produced by an external person/company providing this type of material—not by the filmmakers themselves. Izzo comments on this issue as follows: English “dialogue lists with explanatory notes are sent from America. However, they are the result of an interpretation by an external person transcribing the dialogue, not by the author of the script. Are we sure that the author’s intentions are the ones written down by a person who listens to the film dialogue with his/her headphones and transcribes it in a word file?” (Izzo, p.c. 30 January 2019). I would also like to add a further problem in that the external company’s interpretation is regarded as the only correct interpretation, rather than one among many possibilities. Morville also criticises the fact that dialogue lists sometimes contain explanations of contracted forms or greetings, or of words whose meaning is easy to decode, while they might not clarify the meaning of more complex words or expressions which may present translation challenges. For instance, they may clarify that ‘isn’t’ stands for ‘is not’, but might not contain information which is needed by a translator about more complex issues (Morville, p.c. 20 April 2020). A dialogue list may contain the line of dialogue “Hey! That’s Paul” followed by the explanatory comment (Hey!: used to call attention to something ); the line of dialogue “Great party, Susan!” followed by the explanatory note (Great: informal —‘excellent’ ); “What?” followed by the explanatory note (What: used as an exclamation expressing surprise); or even “Oops!” followed by a dictionary definition in the explanatory note (Oops: colloquial exclamation used to show recognition of a mistake or minor accident often as part of an apology). Such explanations might be considered unnecessary by translators as language experts. However, generally speaking, explanatory notes do often provide useful information and comments. For instance, the line of dialogue “I did not see that coming” has been explained as (see that coming: idiomatic phrase meaning ‘expect that to happen’ ). Double meanings, humour, puns, idiomatic expressions, cultural references and allusions are also usually explained in the notes. For instance, a note in the Dialogue List of Mr. Peabody and Sherman explains that Marie Antoinette’s line “Cake! I love

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cake so much!” was a reference to the quote “Let them eat cake” supposedly said by the French Queen (Di Carlo, p.c. 20 April 2020). “Cake! I love cake so much!” was also one of the key expressions of the film and was therefore also included in the key names and phrases (KNP) file. The translator/dialogue writer had to provide his/her Italian adaptation of the line and add a back translation into English in order to prove to the client that the reference to the famous sentence by Marie Antoinette had been conveyed in Italian so that the audience of the dubbed version would understand this humorous reference. Translator Di Carlo points out that the English Dialogue List of the same film also provided useful explanations of the presence of puns, visual references and guidelines on how to approach them in translation. For instance, when Mr Peabody comments on Marie Antoinette’s “Smashing party”, the notes explain to the translators that ‘smashing’ is an informal word meaning ‘wonderful’, but they also add that the translator should note the visual reference to the brick which has just broken the window and try to find a suitable equivalent in the target language (i.e., a compliment which can have a double meaning and be linked with the images) (Di Carlo, p.c. 20 April 2020). Dubbing professionals also point out that there are often multiple versions of the English Dialogue List. The client may provide dialogue writers with more than one version if the film has not reached its definitive version yet, sometimes also done for reasons of confidentiality. There may be a Preliminary English Dialogue List 1, Preliminary 2, Preliminary 3, etc. and a Final Dialogue List. Each new version contains modifications which are signalled in various ways (Guadagno, p.c. 4 March 2019). The Dialogue List file is the starting point for the translation and adaptation stage. The dialogue writer is also provided with the actual film. If any discrepancies between the English dialogue in the script and the video are noted, then the dialogue writer must translate and adapt the words as uttered by the actors in the film—not the written ones contained in the Dialogue List (Di Carlo, p.c. 20 January 2020). Spiteri Miggiani points out that “when the script in hand differs from the audiovisual material (in its final cut), dialogue writers must consider the latter as the reliable source, and must adhere to it faithfully. This may imply transcribing segments of dialogue directly from the video file” (2019,

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p. 102). The transcription of dialogue from the video is called rilevamento dialoghi in Italian.

2.3.2 Key Names and Phrases (KNP) File Dubbing professionals point out that most animated films are also accompanied by a key names and phrases (KNP) file which is sent to every country in which the film is dubbed. The KNP file is an Excel file which contains a list of the most important names, words and phrases extracted from the film script. However, the specific content and function of this file can vary considerably. For Disney animated films the KNP file contains important names and words/expressions in the film and translations into the various languages of these names/words in the dubbed versions. Sometimes the terms are accompanied by a brief explanation (comment). The KNP file has the function of summarising how names and important words/phrases are translated in various languages so that Disney Character Voices International can have all this information contained in a single document. The file is shared with dubbing teams in different countries and can help their work since it can be used as a reference point to compare the choices made in different languages. The document can also prove useful in spin-offs of the film or when a character or line from the film is quoted in later audiovisual products. Rather than searching the dubbing scripts to discover how the name or line was translated into Italian, the KNP can be consulted and the translation immediately found (Morville, p.c. 28 April 2020). Other majors use different KNP files containing a list of the most important names, words and phrases extracted from the script with comments and explanations of their meaning, sometimes with translations and back translations into English. Although the meaning of the key names, words and expressions is also explained in the English Dialogue List (in the explanatory notes), the KNP file is a much shorter document whose sole function is to summarise the most important elements and issues involved in the dubbing of the film, especially those that require consistency. Compared with a dialogue list the KNP may contain longer explanations and sometimes provide guidelines on how to tackle such key names and phrases in the dubbed versions. The file may

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Table 2.2 Mock-up KNP file with English terms and comments Reel/page/timecode

English term

Comments

Table 2.3 Mock-up KNP file with English text, comments and target language translation English

Comments

Translation

Table 2.4 Mock-up KNP file with back translation of the target language translation in the dubbed version required Footage

KNP (English term)

Target language translation

English back translation

Comments

also specify which words or expressions require consistency since they may be catchphrases, may be repeated in other parts of the film (other reels) or, in the case of prequels and sequels, they may be mentioned in other films. In this regard the KNP file resembles what Spiteri Miggiani defines as a “consistency sheet” (Spiteri Miggiani 2019, pp. 116–117). The KNP file usually takes the form of a table made up of various columns whose number can vary. Typically, these include the timecode, the key name/phrase in the original language, the target language adaptation (the translation in a dubbing script), the English back translation (literal translation of the Italian adaptation) and comments (Di Carlo, p.c. 20 April 2020). However, the layout and content of KNP files vary considerably and a back translation is not always required. Made-up examples of the format a KNP file might take are shown in Tables 2.2, 2.3, and 2.4.5 The timecode, English source text and comments are provided by the client. The comments explain the meaning of the key words/phrases, 5 It

is not possible to provide actual examples of layout or content since the documents are commercially confidential.

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give suggestions on how to translate them or give directions on how to render specific features. They may also clarify references to previous films, quotations and cultural references. Moreover, they may sometimes contain suggestions on how to treat foreign speech in the dubbed version, indicating that a character uses foreign words and should therefore also use them in the dubbed version. This is particularly interesting for the current research since it indicates that choices on linguistic characterisation and on the presence of accents/foreign languages are often already contained in the guidelines prepared by the client. The remaining columns of the KNP sent to the translator/dialogue writer are subsequently filled in by the dialogue writer with, in the present case, the Italian adaptation. They might be annotated with any comments the dialogue writer deems necessary to explain his/her translation choices. We can recall that in some cases (non-Disney films) the dialogue writer has to send the completed file back to the client adding a back translation into English of the Italian adaptation to prove to the clients that their directions have been followed and that the dubbed version is as close as possible to the original meaning. Alto, for instance, explains that for Madagascar DreamWorks required a back translation of key phrases as soon as the translation and the dialogue rewrite had taken place (Alto, p.c. 25 January 2016). Once the client had approved them, from then on they could not be modified. If, for some reason, during the dubbing process some of these KNPs had to be changed, then the dubbing director had to contact the client (via the dubbing supervisor), explain the reasons for the changes and ask for permission to modify them. As previously pointed out, for Madagascar 3 the key names and phrases were highlighted and explained by the international dubbing supervisor in a 3-day meeting with dubbing teams from various territories (Alto, p.c. 25 January 2016, 27 November 2018). It seems that DreamWorks often asks for a back translation into English of the most important key names, words and phrases in its films such as Shrek, Madagascar, Kung Fu Panda, Mr. Peabody and Sherman, Turbo and Home. Sometimes back translations of songs are also required. This happened, for instance, with all the songs in Trolls (Izzo, p.c. 4 March 2019). Moreover, the dialogue writer/dubbing director may be asked to explain the reasons for any deviations from what the client

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believes is ‘the meaning of the original text’ which, as we have previously observed, can be quite vague and arguable. In this way, as previously pointed out, the US majors believe that fidelity to the original text and the filmmakers’ intent is ensured/guaranteed (Di Carlo, p.c. 20 January 2016; Guadagno, p.c. 4 March 2019; Alto, p.c. 25 January 2016; Izzo, p.c. 4 March 2019). As explained by Di Carlo, for Shrek and Kung Fu Panda dialogue writer and dubbing director Vairano had to produce a back translation of the whole film. In other cases, especially recent films, only those parts considered by the client the most important words and expressions, including the names of characters and puns included in the KNP file need a back translation. Di Carlo’s task as a translator also encompasses translating the Italian adaptation of key names and phrases back into English, adding comments which explain how puns or idioms were dealt with in dubbing (Di Carlo, p.c. 2015, 2016, 11 December 2019, 22 April 2020). The use of such a document (i.e., the KNP file) by the big majors as far as animated films are concerned can be considered a means of quality control by the client of the final adaptation and dubbed version. Dubbing professionals stress that nowadays Italian dialogue writers and dubbing directors cannot take the liberties that used to be taken some decades ago by dubbing professionals when making Italian dubbed versions. In the case of animated films produced by big majors, contrary to what happens for other genres and to what used to happen in the past, Italian dialogue writers and dubbing directors appear to enjoy less freedom. According to Izzo, their clients now tend to require Italian dubbing scripts that are as close as possible to the original script and the video performance of the script to such a point that sometimes there is a risk of producing almost literal translations which are awkward and unnatural sounding. Clients’ insistence on the issue of fidelity may produce Italian adaptations that, according to Izzo, resemble a subtitle rather than a believable, natural-sounding Italian dialogue (Izzo, p.c. 4 March 2019). Alto points out that “the mission of the dialogue writer and dubbing director today is to respect and keep the original” (p.c. 25 January 2016). The well-known but rather unmodish translation studies debate about faithfulness seems to take centre stage in the dubbing of animated films and in the majors’ approaches.

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2.3.3 Creative Letter Another document often mentioned by dubbing practitioners is the so-called creative letter. It appears to be an important document that the dubbing team receives which guides them in the adaptation and recording of the dubbed dialogue. It is a strictly confidential document which accompanies the film and may take various forms. The significance of the creative letter is explained as follows by Rohn: Although translations are usually conducted in the importing market, the exporting company often gives very strict instructions on how the content should be translated. A so-called ‘creative letter’ might give very stringent guidelines as to how a character should be dubbed, which allows only limited creative choice. (2010, p. 113)

The creative letter is a document that contains information on the characters, their voice quality and the actors voicing them in the original version. It provides guidelines about the artistic and creative development of the characters and the film. The creative letter has been described by dubbing professionals as “giv[ing] indications from the artistic point of view” (Morville, p.c. 22 December 2015). It may contain a synopsis, a character description, an explanation of the relationships between characters, and directions on voice casting for the dubbed versions. Izzo (p.c., 4 March 2019) confirms that for films distributed by DreamWorks, Universal, Illumination, Disney and Fox the client usually sends a creative letter that describes the characters and explains the dynamics and relationships between the characters in the film. Dubbing assistant Napolitano describes the creative letter as a file containing descriptions of the characters and information about several aspects of the film such as “the artistic notes to be followed, the descriptions of the characters, and useful information on many aspects of the film” (Napolitano, p.c. 14 January 2019). Manfredi describes the creative letter as a document containing everything that is important about the film and the features that must be respected when dubbing it (Manfredi, p.c. 27 September 2018). As pointed out by Dubbing Producer Claudia

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Gvirtzman Dichter, the aim of the creative letter “is not to explain the story, but to discuss the subtext and who the characters really are” (p.c. 13 June 2020). The creative letter is a confidential document that is sent to the dialogue writer/dubbing director/dubbing assistant/dubbing company. It cannot be disclosed to people who are not directly involved in the dubbing project. The creative letter may also contain voice-casting guidelines. As can be seen in Toll’s LinkedIn profile and in some job advertisements for creative dubbing managers, one of the tasks of the creative dubbing manager is to develop ceative letters and guidelines called ‘Creative Dubbing Guidelines and Voice Testing Guidelines’ by DreamWorks. The choice of voices in the dubbed versions of animated films is another very important part of the dubbing process of animated films.

2.4

Choosing the Voices in Dubbing

Bosseaux (2018, p. 221) argues that since “voice is an integral part of identity […], voice selection [is] the most important task for dubbing directors.” The fact that the big majors guide the selection of dubbing actors by producing creative letters and voice-casting guidelines suggests that the voices we hear in the dubbed versions are the result of a clear policy on the part of the client. The choice of voices also impinges upon the way in which a character is (re)created in dubbing and his/her linguistic characterisation. For instance, as will be discussed in the next chapter and in the examples analysed throughout this book, the choice of dubbing actor can determine whether or not specific accents are used in dubbing. At the same time, the need for a character with an accent can also affect voice-casting choices.

2.4.1 Voice Tests and Standard Procedures As explained by several dubbing professionals and previously pointed out in this book, the client often requires voice tests for the main characters of animated films. The American client sends the video/audio files, the

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script for the voice casting, the creative letter containing information on the characters and the voice quality of the voice actors required in the dubbed version. Manfredi explains that for Disney and Paramount the dubbing actors are selected by the Italian creative director (for Disney) or the head of dubbing of the distributor (for Paramount) together with the American dubbing supervisor (Manfredi, p.c. 10 May 2018). For Disney and Disney Pixar films the creative director collaborates with the dubbing director to find the right voices. Voice tests are recorded and sent back to the client. For non-Disney films voice casting is organised by the head of dubbing of the distributor, perhaps with the help of the dubbing director and the international supervisor. Suitable candidates are selected by taking into account criteria such as voice quality and similarity to the original actor’s voice and interpretation. For each character three appropriate dubbing actors are recorded (three voice tests). The audio files are sent to the American client who chooses the voices. Mete explains that DreamWorks asks for voice tests for the main characters in their animated films (Mete, p.c. 7 February 2016). For some animated films voice tests may be required for several characters. For instance, when choosing the Italian voices for Sing, voice tests were carried out for most of the characters (Mete, p.c. 9 June 2020). Alto and Mete point out that although the voices are chosen in the United States, the dubbing director can have a say in this, or at least give the client his/her own opinion, by filling in a form where he/she can evaluate the voice and provide comments. Nevertheless, the choice is ultimately made by the client (Alto, p.c. 25 January 2016, 27 November 2018; Mete, p.c. 20 September 2019). According to Mete, most US majors ask for the dubbing director’s comments (Mete, p.c. 20 September 2019). The criteria used to judge the dubbing actors’ voice tests are often stated in the casting guidelines contained in the creative letter. Although the choice is often based on a voice match with the original voice actor, especially for Disney films, it is also based on the dubbing actor’s performance and interpretation of the character and his/her delivery and acting style (Morville, p.c. 17 June 2015). Bosseaux emphasises “how critical it is to choose the ‘right’ voices throughout a film or an actor’s career to make sure audiences, including original actors, engage positively with the translated versions” (2018,

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p. 221). The above explanations of how dubbing actors are selected, including voice tests for animated films, seem to suggest that the right voices are carefully and meticulously chosen for this type of audiovisual product. Big majors are very aware of the key role played by voices in animated films and make sure they control this choice by examining the “vocal performance of the dubbing actor” (Whittaker 2017, p. 129). This seems to hold particularly true for Disney and Disney Pixar films. The creation of Disney Character Voices International in 1988 testifies to the significance of voice casting in dubbed versions. Former Creative Director Morville explains that he is very keen on selecting the right voices for the Italian versions of animated films, pointing out that as creative director for Disney his aim in searching for the right dubbing actors (i.e., his mantra) was “to respect voicematch, the quality, texture, colour or grain of the voice, the timbre of the original actor. […] To respect the original film and be faithful to it also means to respect the original voices, using a similar voice quality” (Morville, p.c. 27 September 2019). For more on the grain of the voice see Barthes (1977); on the voice in cinema see Chion (1982); and for more on the importance of voice quality, intonation and prosodic elements in dubbing see Sánchez Mompeán (2015, 2020) and Bosseaux (2018, p. 222). Alto (p.c. 25 January 2016) also mentions taking part in a meeting where the dubbing teams of Pixar’s film Ratatouille were shown the striking similarity of the voices of the main characters in all the languages into which the film was dubbed. We can thus conclude that, generally speaking (definitely for Disney and Pixar products), the quality and texture of the voice of the dubber has to match that of the original actor. This meticulous search for equivalence has been noted in videos about multilanguage versions of songs in Disney films such as Moana and Frozen.6 Nevertheless, it must be added that although voice quality, interpretation and voice match are criteria for choosing a dubbing actor, there are several cases in which marketing reasons prevail over performance

6 For instance, Let It Go (behind the mic multilanguage version from Frozen in 25 languages) and various artists performing How Far I’ll Go (heard around the world in 24 languages from Moana).

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and artistic criteria. A case in point is the phenomenon of star talents dubbing animated films.

2.4.2 Star Talents In recent years (roughly since the late 1990s) animated films have been dubbed by either professional dubbing actors or celebrity, nonprofessional dubbers known as star talents (on the phenomenon of celebrities in voice-over animation and Spanish dubbing see SánchezMompeán 2015; Whittaker 2017). The casting of celebrity voices as dubbers has become an important marketing strategy and first started in the United States. As Wright and Lallo point out when discussing voice-over for animation: A more recent problem for voice-over artists is the use of celebrity voices. Businessmen feel that known celebrity names will bring in an audience, especially to films. Fans may go to see a celebrity’s work, even when they can’t see the celebrity himself. And a celebrity can give a film publicity. (2009, p. 5)

The same marketing strategy is adopted for the localisation of animated films in Italy. The dubbing professionals consulted point out that the marketing department of the distributor (the client) often insists on employing star talents as dubbers in animated films. Since they are easily recognised by the audience they can be used to promote the film in the target country through interviews, press conferences, etc. However, such an imposition may have negative repercussions on the quality of the dubbed version and on the phases of the dubbing process since few celebrities have previous training in dubbing and some are not even actors. Professional dubbing actors receive specific training in dubbing and in acting, have experience in dubbing various audiovisual products and are used to the constraints and technicalities of dubbing. Moreover, they adhere to pronunciation guidelines when it comes to standard Italian pronunciation. Their diction is neutral and devoid of regional accents, as normally required in dubbing. In fact, although

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professional dubbing actors may speak Italian with a regional accent naturally (i.e., in everyday life), when they enter the dubbing booth and dub a character, they drop all signs of their regional accent (unless a specific accent is required by the role and is important for the plot). On the other hand, star talents are non-professional dubbers. They are not restricted to actors (film, theatre or television), but also include singers, TV presenters, sportspeople, influencers or bloggers. Since they do not have dubbing skills and may not even have previous training in acting, this may create problems when such star talents lend their voices to animated characters. Their interpretation may be less credible, lack naturalness, and contain regional accents, especially of those who struggle to speak so-called standard Italian. The difficulties faced by star talents are summarised by Sánchez Mompeán (2015, p. 278) as: Whenever non-dubbing actors take part in the dubbing of an animated film, they might be missing a myriad of techniques and competences alien to the acting task, namely synchronies, voice placement and production in front of a (special type of ) microphone, and specific tonal patterns.

As a result, when star talents lend their voice to animated characters in dubbing, the role they play must be carefully chosen and the dubbing director must work hard to make sure that they manage to produce a good-quality vocal performance and interpretation. As Chaume points out, “dubbing actors and actresses are expected to convincingly and expressively mimic the original onscreen performance. Voice talents have drama school training and sometimes good talents are not good actors, and vice versa” (2012, p. 37). Dubbing actor, dubbing director and dialogue writer Massimiliano Manfredi also points out that “the main difficulty encountered by non-professional dubbers is the original actor’s interpretation, since dubbers must respect the rhythm, length and pauses of the original actor” (p.c. 15 April 2018). Morville also comments as follows: “I need a dubbing actor who knows how to act and can move me. […] sometimes a good actor is not necessarily a good dubber” (Morville, p.c. 26 April 2018). As pointed out above, unless they are explicitly asked to ‘put on an accent’ because it is required by their

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role, the Italian language spoken by professional dubbing actors is standard Italian with proper diction, elocution and no regional accent. For someone who has had no acting training whatsoever, delivering their lines while eliminating accent and pronouncing sentences with proper diction may be quite challenging. Star talents may therefore encounter various difficulties: on the one hand, they need to provide a convincing, believable performance that follows the original actor’s interpretation and the rhythm and length of the original dialogue. On the other hand, since the Italian language used in dubbing is standard Italian they need to speak in a clear way (i.e., according to proper diction and avoiding regional accents). However, dubbing directors such as Vairano (p.c. 27 November 2018), Izzo (p.c. 30 January 2019) and Guadagno (p.c. 4 March 2019) also comment on the positive side of working with some star talents and on the fact that the ‘dubbing norm’ of using neutral standard Italian can be ignored with celebrities. Morville also stresses that when he has to select star talents, he searches for an actor who may be a great performer and can provide added value to the film. One of these is actor Marco Messeri, who dubs Tow Mater in the Cars films.7 Voice casting (i.e., choosing the dubbers and characters star talents can dub in a film and selecting the right voices) is thus a key task in the dubbing process. This can dramatically influence the quality of the dubbed version of an animated film. The number and type of celebrities cast in each animated film as dubbers depends on the film’s budget, the availability of celebrities and other factors. Voice casting thus seems to be a compromise between marketing, economic factors (the budget of the film) and artistic/creative factors. If the production company itself requires the casting of star talent as dubbers, then the creative director, dubbing supervisor and dubbing director are tasked with choosing appropriate roles for such star talents. Morville argues that some films are more suitable for star talents because they contain secondary characters and can offer cameo roles

7 On

Marco Messeri’s interpretation of Cricchetto (Tow Mater) in the Italian dubbed version see the YouTube video Disney Pixar: Cars 3 – Marco Messeri è la voce di Cricchetto – Featurette, available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1F6TI9cI5D4.

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which can be performed by non-professional dubbers, even by celebrities who are not trained actors. An example is Finding Dory/Alla ricerca di Dory in which TV presenter Licia Colò, professional swimmer Massimiliano Rosolino and singer Baby K dubbed minor characters (Morville, p.c. 1 March 2019). Another example is DreamWorks’ Shark Tale for which two Italian dubbed versions were made: one with a non–star talent dubbing cast (this version was presented at the Venice film festival) and one with a star talent dubbing cast comprising singer Tiziano Ferro dubbing Will Smith, singer and TV presenter Luisa Corna dubbing Angelina Jolie and other Italian celebrities. Dubbing director Mete explains that the marketing department requested a star talent cast for the film’s release in cinemas and in the DVD version (Mete, p.c. 7 February 2016). All the big majors have been casting star talents both in the original animated films and in their dubbed versions since the late 1990s (see Sánchez Mompeán 2015). In the Italian dubbed version of the recent Disney Pixar film Incredibles 2 (2018) Italian paralympic fencer champion Bebe Vio voices one of the superheroes (Karen Voyd), while other celebrity voices in the same film include actress Ambra Angiolini (who voices Evelyn Deavor), Amanda Lear (Edna Mode), cinema and theatre actor Orso Maria Guerrini (Rick Dicker) and TV presenter and journalist Tiberio Timperi. While some of these star talents have cameo roles and speak very few lines, others have larger parts. In the Cars trilogy a plethora of celebrities were cast as Italian dubbers. For instance, the Italian version of Cars 2 was dubbed by actresses and actors such as Marco Messeri, Sophia Loren, Franco Nero, Vanessa Redgrave, Sabrina Ferilli, Paola Cortellesi, Alessandro Siani, comedian Marco Della Noce, Formula One driver Lewis Hamilton, former racers Alex Zanardi and Ivan Capelli, sports journalists and TV presenters. In Cars 3 Formula One drivers from various countries had cameo roles dubbing Cruz Ramirez’s electronic personal assistant: Lewis Hamilton in the UK version, Sebastian Vettel in the Italian and German dubbed versions and Fernando Alonso in the Spanish version. This is a localising marketing strategy that links the celebrities’ role with the character they lend their voice to. As argued by Sánchez Mompeán, this “strategy

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to increase the viewership’s reception consists of establishing a professional relationship between both the character and the famous person responsible for dubbing it” (2015, p. 284). Italian star talents have also voiced the main characters in several dubbed animated films. For instance, in the Pixar films Finding Nemo (2001) and Finding Dory (2016), Dory is voiced by actor and comedian Carla Signoris, while Nemo’s father Marlin is dubbed by actor Luca Zingaretti whose international popularity is linked to the Italian TV series based on Camilleri’s book Il commissario Montalbano. In the Pixar films, however, the clownfish Marlin does not speak like Montalbano with a Sicilian accent or with Zingaretti’s more natural Roman accent. He speaks standard Italian. In the Despicable Me trilogy the protagonist Gru in the Italian dubbed version is voiced by TV showman/presenter Max Giusti, in Despicable Me 2 (2013) Lucy is dubbed by singer Arisa and Eduardo Perez/El Macho by actor/singer/comedian/impressionist Neri Marcorè and in The Lorax (2012) the protagonists are dubbed by Danny DeVito himself and singer Marco Mengoni. In the Kung Fu Panda trilogy the protagonist Po is dubbed in Italian by TV and radio presenter, actor and writer Fabio Volo. The above examples suggest that star talents can thus have both leading and secondary roles. The star talent’s role in the film (i.e., the character he/she dubs) must be chosen with great care according to his/her voice quality and skills, as is the case for regular dubbing artists. When considering how roles are assigned, one hypothesis is that if the celebrity is an actor, then he/she should dub a main character, whereas if they are not trained actors but belong to the world of sports/entertainment/media, etc., then he/she should be given a minor role and utter fewer lines. In this way the celebrity would attract people, make news and arouse interest in the film, providing a form of advertising, without their limited acting and dubbing skills compromising the final dubbed version. This would be in line with Sánchez Mompeán’s findings regarding dubbed animated films in Spain: The preferred choice of producers is to use star talents for the dubbing of main characters, since 14 movies include famous figures in leading roles. Similar to the pattern followed in the US, main characters’

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voices are mostly dubbed by actors and comedians, whilst supporting roles are usually performed by other famous figures such as singers or sportsmen/women. (2015, p. 284)

However, this does not always hold true in the Italian context. In several cases the marketing department also decides the character the celebrity should dub regardless of their acting and dubbing skills (Guadagno, p.c. 4 March 2019; Izzo, p.c. 4 March 2019). It is also worth pointing out that the casting of star talents as dubbers in animated films can pose other challenges for the dubbing director. From a practical point of view the fact that star talents are people who work outside the dubbing world means that their schedules may be tight and availability may be reduced. Moreover, while most Italian professional dubbing actors tend to be based in Rome where the main dubbing studios are located, star talents or celebrities may live in a different city (sometimes even in a different country). Thus organising their shifts may be more problematic and expensive. A celebrity will obviously cost more than a professional dubbing actor. However, apparently the benefits are greater than the costs (and if the marketing department wants stars, then clearly they consider such a choice to be cost-effective). Since some star talents live abroad and cannot easily reach the dubbing studio in Rome their lines are sometimes recorded elsewhere in dubbing studios in other countries such as Paris, London (where the final audio mixing of the overseas versions in several languages often takes place) or even Los Angeles if the star talent dubbing the character voicing him/her in the English version lives in the United States. This happened, for example, with both Antonio Banderas and Danny DeVito who voiced the main characters in the original English versions of Puss in Boots (2011) and The Lorax (2012), respectively, and also dubbed the Italian versions. Dubbing directors Mete (for Banderas) and Izzo (for DeVito) flew to Los Angeles to help them record their roles for the Italian dubbed version. Disney Italia creative director Morville flew to Paris to record Amanda Lear dubbing Edna Mode in Italian for Incredibles 2, while he helped Lewis Hamilton to dub his cameo role recording his lines in Italian in the London studios. Sometimes voice tests may also be carried out through

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conference calls with the voice talent in one city and the dubbing director in another. The practice of recording some parts of a dubbed product in different studios is termed “collaborative dubbing” (Chaume 2019; Spiteri Miggiani 2019). As explained by Spiteri Miggiani, “this enables directors to engage actors who are not necessarily, to say the least, within reaching distance of the main studio or who could be based […] in other cities or countries” (2019, p. 24). As already mentioned, Chaume calls this new trend as practised in Europe and America “collaborative dubbing” and describes this as a “single dubbed work recorded in various companies and countries and eventually edited in one company” (2019, p. 112): This process is opted for when the dubbing director, or distributor, wants to engage voice talents living in different countries, or when a particular actor or actress is based in another city or country, hence far from the studios where the recording is taking place. Actors receive the adapted translation (not just the rough translation, but the translation following the dialogue writing process, segmented into takes or loops, including time codes and sometimes dubbing symbols, and most importantly, encompassing lip-sync), dub the lines in their city or country and then send the audio files to the engineer in charge of editing, who therefore edits and mixes all sound tracks in the new target language version. (Chaume 2019, pp. 112–113)

Moreover, directing a star talent can become even more challenging if the celebrity does not speak Italian. This has happened a number of times; for example, dubbing director Fiamma Izzo with US actor Danny DeVito in The Lorax (2012) and dubbing director Marco Guadagno with British singer Lee Ryan in the Ice Age films. In The Lorax De Vito also dubs himself in Italian, Spanish, German and Russian. This is an extreme and exceptional case and a very challenging situation for the dubbing director since DeVito insisted on dubbing himself even though he could not speak those languages. In this case dubbing director Izzo worked side by side with the actor for five full days, eight hours a day (Izzo, p.c. 4 March 2019). Not being proficient in Italian, De Vito obviously needed a language advisor/dialect coach to help him

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pronounce each word such that his sentences could be understood by the Italian audience. This made the role of the dubbing director increasingly difficult. It is worth pointing out that comprehensibility and clarity of enunciation are fundamental requirements, especially with animated films since they are mainly addressed at children. In their manual VoiceOver for Animation (2009) Wright and Lallo stress that it is important that the audience “can easily understand you. […] No one is going to laugh at a gag or be touched by an emotional moment if they are concentrating on understanding the words instead” (Wright and Lallo 2009, p. 60). This, though seemingly banal, is of paramount importance in dubbing. Some behind the scenes videos available on YouTube show DeVito during the recording sessions interacting with the dialect coach and the dubbing director. It is worth remembering that the casting of DeVito as dubber was a marketing strategy for the international release of the film. Guadagno also had a challenging experience directing singer Lee Ryan (ex-member of British boy band Blue) in the Ice Age films (from 2006). In 2006 Ryan’s song Real Love was used for the final credits of the film Ice Age: The Meltdown. Although voice casting for the dubbed version had already finished, Fox’s manager Osvaldo De Santis came up with the idea of using him to dub the opossum Eddie in the Italian version since Ryan was very popular in Italy at the time. As Ryan could not speak any Italian, the task of the dubbing director took a complex turn in that he had to help the star talent pronounce words and sentences clearly and explain to him the meaning of his lines. As a result, it took Guadagno and Ryan two full days to record all the character’s lines, while with a professional dubber it would have taken a couple of hours (Guadagno, p.c. 4 March 2019). However, according to Guadagno, although this was mainly a marketing operation, it was enjoyable and successful. Since Ryan did not know any Italian and was a singer, Guadagno decided to guide him to pronounce his lines by working on syllables and musicality rather than on words and sense. They started with a syllable, memorising it and repeating it, and then added more syllables, until they ended up by pronouncing words and sentences. Although the character’s lines had to be funny and could have an English accent, they had to be intelligible and clear (Guadagno, p.c. 4 March 2019). The possum Eddie ends

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up being a funny, crazy character whose English accent adds a layer of meaning which was not in the original. The use of Italian spoken with an English accent and lacking proper or perfect diction was the result of a marketing strategy to choose a specific English pop singer popular at the time in Italy. Ryan’s comments are also worth quoting: “I got a great response […] I think people laughed at me rather than with me, because my Italian was so bad…. I would never have expected it. I would always come back. I love the character. I should by now have learned Italian.”8 Directing star talent dubbers thus seems to be more time consuming, more challenging and definitely more expensive than just employing professional dubbing actors. A further element that deserves attention regarding the casting of star talent dubbers is that their voices are often recognisable/identifiable. Izzo (p.c. 4 March 2019) explains that the marketing department wants star talents to be recognised by the audience: they are chosen because of their popularity. They cannot therefore lose features that make their voices distinctive. This is also confirmed by Guadagno (p.c. 4 March 2019) and Morville. The latter explains that star talents must be recognisable because that is exactly the point of employing them (Morville, p.c. 26 April 2018). As will be illustrated in Chapter 3, such a casting strategy is a deliberate marketing ploy that has repercussions for linguistic characterisation and for the language of dubbing.

2.5

Concluding Remarks

This chapter has illustrated the complex post-production process of translating, adapting and recording the dubbed dialogue of animated films and has shown that several agents and factors influence the final product. The accounts of the dubbing process gleaned from experts participating in the present study support the claim that “the final Italian

8 An

example of the dubbing session can be seen in the YouTube video Lee Ryan at the dubbing L’Era Glaciale 4 continenti alla deriva (Ice Age 4 Continental Drift), available at: https://www.you tube.com/watch?v=EkIzdXWCLE4. Guadagno guides Ryan working on syllables and musicality (Lee Ryan does not speak any Italian).

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script is the result of multiple manipulation forces by several professionals” (Minutella 2015, p. 141), and that the dubbing post-production process is a “progressive, step-by-step text manoeuvring and moulding process” (Spiteri Miggiani 2019, p. 191) guided and supervised, in the present case, by the US client. More specifically, the chapter has established that, as far as animated films by big majors are concerned, the dubbing team is provided with a number of source texts or documents which are aimed not only at providing information about the film, but also at influencing and controlling the dubbing process and making sure that the final dubbed film complies with the client’s requests, while at the same time keeping track of the choices made in the dubbed version. The chapter has pointed out that along with the English Dialogue List, a creative letter and a key names and phrases file usually accompany the video file. The chapter has also shown that an important agent in the dubbing process of animated films is the dubbing supervisor. We have pointed out that for Disney the person in charge of supervising the whole dubbing process is always the creative director, whereas for animated films by other majors this role is sometimes undertaken by the head of Dubbing and Localization Department of the distributor, sometimes by an Italian dubbing supervisor or by an international dubbing supervisor who oversees localisation of the film in several countries. The next chapter will focus on how to translate language variation, accents and multiple languages in films, in general, and animated films, in particular, as well as on the Italian language of dubbing and on the use of regional Italian and Italian dialects in dubbing.

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Audiovisual Material Quoted Alla Ricerca di Dory - Luca Zingaretti - Backstage | HD (13 September 2016) YouTube video, added by Disney IT [Online]. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=bBfdS0xjGXg. 10 April 2019. Alla Ricerca di Dory - Massimiliano Rosolino - Backstage | HD (13 September 2016) YouTube video, added by Disney IT [Online]. https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=HfY3JT4slIg. 10 April 2019. Let It Go - Behind The Mic Multi-Language Version (from “Frozen”) (1 April 2014) YouTube video, added by DisneyMusicVEVO [Online]. https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=BS0T8Cd4UhA. 10 April 2019. Various Artists—How Far I’ll Go—Heard Around the World (24 Languages) (From “Moana”) (15 December 2016) YouTube video, added by DisneyMusicVEVO [Online]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0g29Wg4ovyek. 10 April 2019.

Websites www.creatingvoices.com. www.voice-overs.com.

Filmography Aladdin (1992). Ron Clements, John Musker, Walt Disney Pictures. Cars (2006). John Lasseter, Pixar Animation Studios, Walt Disney Pictures. Cars 3 (2017). Brian Fee, Pixar Animation Studios, Walt Disney Pictures. Despicable Me (2010). Pierre Coffin and Chris Renaud, Universal Pictures, Illumination Entertainment. Despicable Me 2 (2013). Pierre Coffin and Chris Renaud, Universal Pictures, Illumination Entertainment. Finding Dory (2016). Andrew Stanton and Angus MacLane, Pixar Animation Studios, Walt Disney Pictures. Finding Nemo (2003). Andrew Stanton, Lee Unkrich, Pixar Animation Studios, Walt Disney Pictures. Frozen (2013). Chris Buck, Jenifer Lee, Walt Disney Animation Studios, Walt Disney Pictures. Home (2015). Tim Johnson, DreamWorks Animation.

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Hotel Transylvania (2012). Genndy Tartakovsky, Columbia Pictures, Sony Pictures Animation. Hotel Transylvania 2 (2015). Genndy Tartakovsky, Columbia Pictures, Sony Pictures Animation. Hotel Transylvania 3: Summer Vacation (2018). Sony Pictures Animation, Media Rights Capital (MRC), Rough Draft Korea. How to Train Your Dragon (2010). Dear DeBlois, Chris Sanders, DreamWorks Animation, Mad Hatter Entertainment, Vertigo Entertainment. Ice Age: The Meltdown (2006). Carlos Saldanha, 20th Century Fox Animation, Blue Sky Studios. Incredibles 2 (2018). Brad Bird, Pixar Animation Studios, Walt Disney Pictures. Kung Fu Panda (2008). Mark Osborne, John Stevenson, DreamWorks Animation, Dragon Warrior Media. Kung Fu Panda 2 (2011). Jennifer Yuh Nelson, DreamWorks Animation. Madagascar (2005). Eric Darnell, Tom McGrath, DreamWorks Animation, Pacific Data Images. Madagascar 3: Europe’s Most Wanted (2012). Eric Darnell, Tom McGrath, Conrad Vernon, DreamWorks Animation, Pacific Data Images. Moana/Oceania (2016). Ron Clements, John Musker, Don Hall, Chris Williams, Hurwitz Creative, Walt Disney Animation Studios, Walt Disney Pictures. Mr. Peabody and Sherman (2014). Rob Minkoff, Bullwinkle Studios, Classic Media Productions DreamWorks Animation, Pacific Data Images. Puss in Boots (2011). Chris Miller, DreamWorks Animation, Pacific Data Images. Rango (2011). Gore Verbinski, Paramount Pictures, Nickelodeon Movies, Blind Wink Productions, GK Films, Industrial Light & Magic. Shark Tale (2004). Bibo Bergeron, Vicky Jenson, Rob Letterman, DreamWorks Animation, DreamWorks. Shrek (2001). Andrew Adamson, Vicky Jenson, DreamWorks Animation, DreamWorks, Pacific Data Images, Vanguard Films. Shrek 2 (2004). Andrew Adamson, Kelly Asbury, Conrad Vernon, DreamWorks, DreamWorks Animation, Pacific Data Images. The Lorax (2012). Chris Renaud, Kyle Balda, Universal Pictures, Illumination Entertainment. The Smurfs/I puffi (2011). Raja Gosnell, Columbia Pictures, Sony Pictures Animation. Trolls (2016). Mike Mitchell, Walt Dohrn, DreamWorks Animation. Turbo (2013). David Soren, DreamWorks Animation.

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Zootopia. (2016). Byron Howard, Rich Moore, Jared Bush, Walt Disney Pictures, Walt Disney Animation Studios.

TV Series Il commissario Montalbano/Inspector Montalbano (1999–2019), written by Andrea Camilleri, Francesco Bruni, directed by Alberto Sironi, Palomar, Rai Fiction, SVT.

3 Translating Language Varieties and Multilingualism in Audiovisual Texts: Research and Conversations with Dubbing Practitioners

3.1

Introduction

This chapter focuses on the translation of multilingualism and language varieties in dubbing. The first section of the chapter discusses these issues from the point of view of existing scholarly research, summarising the main studies devoted to this topic. The second section of the chapter moves away from the scholarly field to the professional arena and describes the data gathered through personal communications concerning English–Italian dubbing with leading professionals, as well as from lectures and observations of dubbing sessions. The aim of this section is to shed light on how dubbing practitioners approach the language of dubbing, the challenges posed by foreign-accented characters, the casting of star talents as dubbers and their opinion on the use of standard Italian, Italian with an accent and regional Italian or dialects in dubbing. These two perspectives on the practice of dubbing will be compared in later chapters on the basis of the findings of the study of the animated films selected in the corpus and thereby establish the extent to which they coincide or differ. © The Author(s) 2021 V. Minutella, (Re)Creating Language Identities in Animated Films, Palgrave Studies in Translating and Interpreting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56638-8_3

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3.1.1 Translating Linguistic Variation and Multilingualism in Audiovisual Texts When an audiovisual text is translated into another language for a different culture and audience, language variation or the presence of a third language (L3) is one of the most challenging features for screen translators to deal with (Heiss 2004; Chiaro 2008, 2009; Corrius and Zabalbeascoa 2011).1 The term L3 was first used by Corrius and Zabalbeascoa (2011) and then scholars involved in the TraFilm Project to refer to the presence of a language or language variety different from the main language (L1) of the source text, while L2 is the main language of the dubbed version. The third language in a source text could be another language, a dialect, a sociolect or an invented language. Corrius and Zabalbeascoa define L3 as follows: The third language is a feature of multilingual texts and communication acts. Each language (L1, L2, and any number of different L3ST and L3TT) may be a distinct, independent language or an instance of relevant language variation, sufficient to signal more than one identifiable speech community being portrayed or represented within a text. Thus, L3ST may be a language variety (e.g. a dialect) of L1 (likewise for L3TT with regard to L2). L3, then, may be either the representation or portrayal of a natural, living language, dialect or variety, or a fictitious, invented, language (e.g. Cityspeak). For a natural L3, there may be a genuine attempt to provide a realistic representation of an existing language, but L3 may also be a fake or pseudolanguage that merely displays one or two stereotypical traits. (Corrius and Zabalbeascoa 2011, p. 115)

1 On

the translation of linguistic variation and multilingualism in audiovisual texts see also Pavesi (1994, 2005), Grutman (1996), Heiss (2004, 2014), Meylaerts (2006), Barra (2007), Di Giovanni (2007), Chiaro (2008, 2009), Bruti (2009, 2014), Dore (2009, 2019a, b), Parini (2009, 2019 on Italian–American), Ferrari (2010), Martínez Sierra et al. (2010), Ranzato (2010, 2018a, b on British dialects in dubbed Italian), Corrius and Zabalbeascoa (2011), Díaz-Cintas (2011), O’Sullivan (2011), Chaume (2012, pp. 131–133), Guillot (2012), Minutella (2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2018), De Bonis (2014, 2015a, b), De Higes Andino (2014), De Higes Andino et al. (2013), Zabalbeascoa and Corrius (2014), Ellender (2015), Iaia (2015), Petrucci (2015), Bruti and Vignozzi (2016), Monti (2016), Beseghi (2017, 2019), Santamaria Guinot and Pujol Tubau (2018), Corrius et al. (2019), De Heredia and De Higes Andino (2019), Spiteri Miggiani (2019, pp. 166–177), Yau (2019), and Geyer and Dore (2020).

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Therefore, L3 stands for any deviation from L1 that represents a variety of a language (a geographical or social dialect, an ethnolect or an idiolect), a natural language other than L1 (a foreign language) or an invented language. However, I believe that a distinction between a different, natural foreign language, an invented language and an internal variety of the language should be made in order to categorise the type of multilingualism or heterolingualism that a film exhibits. In fact, the translation strategies adopted to deal with L3 may vary according to the type of heterolingualism involved. As pointed out by Corrius and Zabalbeascoa, “the concept of L3 stresses the fact that not all the voices in a text (e.g. a film or a novel) speak the same language or the same variety” (2011, p. 117). Corrius and Zabalbeascoa (2019) further point out that “although L3 was initially proposed to tag foreign languages it can also be used to locate any relevant use of language variation (dialects, sociolects, chronolects, idiolects) when used in fiction as a stylistic device to sound ‘foreign’” (2019, p. 73). To summarise, a third language in a film can be a national language (which differs from the main language of the film), an invented language or a regional, social or ethnic variety of the same language (i.e., L1) (a so-called dialect). The type of heterolingualism or multilingualism thus varies considerably and these languages or varieties may require different approaches in translation. While we agree that the above are all instances of L3 and of multilingual/heterolingual texts, the type of language or language variety involved needs to be clearly identified in order to understand the translation strategy adopted to deal with it. The hypothesis put forward in this book is that we need to distinguish between foreign languages (by which I mean languages other than English, either real or invented), instances of native varieties of English by which I mean broad national varieties as well as dialects (i.e., a regional, social or ethnic variety of English spoken in English-speaking countries) and non-native varieties of English (by which I mean foreignaccented English) when examining and categorising translation solutions used in English-language animated films. In fact, the study will show that the linguistic identities of characters greatly differ if they speak a foreign language, English with a foreign accent or English with a native accent.

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The following part of this section will attempt to summarise previous studies on the translation of multilingual films and language variation. According to some scholars, audiovisual translators have various options to tackle multilingualism or linguistic heterogeneity, understood as the presence of a natural or invented language, dialect or sociolect in film dialogues. The two main strategies are to ‘mark’ the foreign dialogue (to convey it) or ‘not to mark’ it (to neutralise it). Once the translator has decided which strategy to adopt, several techniques or modes can be employed to mark the foreign dialogue (L3) in the dubbed version. Such techniques range from non-translation, dubbing, subtitling through to liaison interpreting (see Martínez-Sierra et al. 2010; Chaume 2012, pp. 131–133; De Higes Andino 2014; De Higes Andino et al. 2013; Santamaria Guinot and Pujol Tubau 2018 among others). Corrius and Zabalbeascoa (2011, pp. 120–121) propose three strategies for dealing with L3: leaving it unchanged, neutralising it and adapting it. The strategies of neutralisation and adaptation are interesting and useful for our study. De Bonis (2014, 2015a, b) identified three main macro-strategies used in the translation of multilingual films when dealing with dialogue uttered in more than one language. According to De Bonis, the strategies adopted in Italian dubbing to deal with so-called secondary languages or foreign speech are “neutralisation of the different languages present in the original version,” “preservation of the different lingua-cultural identities through a combination of dubbing with other screen translation modalities such as subtitling or no translation at all” and “quantitative reduction of the multilingual situations present in the original version of the film” (De Bonis 2014, p. 243). De Bonis’ three macro-strategies (neutralisation, preservation and quantitative reduction) are useful for the present study, both when discussing the presence of languages other than English and when considering internal variation within a language. Analysis of the dubbed versions carried out in Chapters 5–8 will adopt these categories. Further strategies will be added from other studies, as indicated in the following list. The list includes the main strategies we propose to adopt:

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1. Neutralisation, in which L3 is eliminated and standard Italian is used instead. 2. Quantitative reduction, in which the amount of L3 is reduced in the dubbed version, but it is still present. 3. Preservation, in which L3 is preserved in the dubbed version. This means that foreign language dialogue remains unchanged and the linguistic identity of a character is maintained intact. If a character speaks Spanish, then he/she will speak Spanish in the dubbed version. If a character speaks an invented language, then he/she will speak an invented language in the dubbed version. If a character speaks Frenchaccented English, then he/she will speak French-accented Italian in dubbing. If a character speaks with a posh English accent and therefore L3 is RP (Received Pronunciation) English, then the character will somehow be identified as British in the dubbed version too. 4. Hypercharacterisation, in which the specific linguistic identity of a character is highlighted and emphasised by exaggerating some phonetic, lexical and syntactic traits. This means, for instance, that a foreign accent is used to a larger extent in the dubbed version, more foreign words are used in dubbing or a specific accent is more marked in the dubbed version compared with the original version. This term is borrowed from Parini (2009). 5. Adaptation/localisation/domestication/transformation, in which the linguistic identity of the character is modified and adapted in various ways. L3 is adapted to the target culture and language, is domesticated and localised through Italianisation of the linguistic identity with a very specific Italian one (from a specific variety to an Italian regiolect or dialect) or the linguistic identity of L3 is transformed by changing the character’s nationality (e.g., from Italian to Spanish or French). The above strategies may overlap or co-occur in the dubbed versions. If we take into consideration sociolinguistic and regional variation within a language, the linguistic heterogeneity of the source text often gets highly reduced in translation (specifically in dubbing) since linguistic varieties in one language have specific connotations that do not have equivalents in another language. As pointed out by Chiaro, “a common strategy to deal with variation is simply not to deal with it

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and homogenize it into the standard, mainstream variety of the target language” (2008, p. 23) (see also Pavesi 1994, 2005; on standardisation of geographical and social varieties see also Yau 2019). Since one-to-one equivalents across cultures cannot be assumed, the translational norm in Italy is to neutralise geographical variation. Opting for a target language regional dialect may in fact result in adding unwanted and different social connotations to a character. The neutralisation of linguistic variation and the use of standard Italian in dubbing (strategy 1 in the list) can thus be considered the first and most common strategy in dealing with linguistic variation. However, I would argue that this particularly happens when the characters are native English speakers. For historical reasons and as a result of the legacy of Fascist regulations there is a tendency in Italian dubbing to adopt a sociolinguistically, regionally unmarked Italian (see Ranzato 2016). This is the reason the language of dubbing has been defined as un italiano per tutte le stagioni (an Italian for all seasons; Raffaelli 1996). This frequent absence of regional markers in the language of dubbing contrasts with their presence in original Italian television and cinema productions where Italian spoken with a regional accent and sometimes even dialects can be heard (Pavesi 2005, p. 28; Rossi 2006, p. 293). The adaptation/transformation strategy for dealing with variation (strategy 5) by resorting to a target language regional dialect is noted by several scholars (Pavesi 1994, 2005; Rossi 2006; Chiaro 2008; Parini 2009, 2019; Ferrari 2010 among others) who highlighted that a few stereotypical Italian regional varieties such as Sicilian, Neapolitan and Romanesco are sometimes used despite the norm in dubbing being to neutralise variation and to use standard Italian. Italian dialects or Italian varieties with a regional accent and some dialect words are usually exploited, especially in comedies, for humorous purposes and in mafia and gangster films with Italian American characters, to represent stereotyped thugs or mobsters. Chiaro (2008, p. 15) observes: The clichéd variety of English spoken by Italo-Americans, so common in US screen products, is one of the screen varieties which is consistently replaced with a form of Italian strongly marked with a Sicilian accent and syntactic structures typical of Sicilian. The negative stereotypes implied by

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such a choice are evident, but presumably opting for this preference does tend to be true to the original skopos.

The use of Italian with a Sicilian accent and regional lexis and syntax to dub Italian American gangsters has thus become a dubbing stereotype (a convention). This is confirmed by studies by Rossi (2006), Ferrari (2010), Parini (2017, 2019) among others. Alternatively, a Neapolitan accent might be used, as is the case for the popular American TV series The Sopranos. This is based on ethnic stereotypes in which the Italian American Mafia boss Tony Soprano of the original version is dubbed in Italian with a Neapolitan accent or dialect (Ferrari 2010, p. 109). Other cases in which dubbing uses adaptation and domestication (strategy 5) through the use of Italian regional varieties instead of neutralisation are the film My Fair Lady (1964) and the American TV series The Nanny (1993–1999). In the dubbed version of My Fair Lady the protagonist’s contrived Cockney is localised using “a non-existent Italian language” (Ranzato 2010, p. 114). In The Nanny Jewish American Fran Fine is turned into a woman from southern Italy’s Ciociaria (Ferrari 2010). However, these seem to be exceptions to the norm which continues to be the neutralisation of accents and of language varieties by choosing standard Italian devoid of any regional inflection or trait (Bruti and Vignozzi 2016; Sandrelli 2016; Ranzato 2018a, b). Other exceptions to the homogenising norm in Italian dubbing are some animated films and TV series which exploit Italian regional dialects. For instance, as pointed out by Bruti (2009), in The Aristocats (1970) the stray cat Thomas O’Malley became Romeo er mejo der Colosseo (a cat speaking Romanesco dialect). In Lady and the Tramp (1955) the Italian waiter and chef who speak with a marked Italian American accent in the original version were given a Sicilian accent in the first Italian dubbed version of the film, and then a Neapolitan accent in the 1997 redubbing (Rossi 2006, pp. 325–326). The Italian version of The Simpsons (1989–ongoing) is famous for its widespread use of Italian regional dialects which transform the American characters into local Italian ones according to Italian stereotypes (see Barra 2007; Fusari 2007; Dore 2009; Ferrari 2010; Puddu and Virdis 2014). As illustrated by Parini (2019) and further discussed in this book, the mobster shark

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Don Lino in the dubbed version of Shark Tale (2004) speaks with a strong Sicilian accent and uses dialect words, while his subordinate Sykes has a Neapolitan accent. Another recent animated film whose dubbed version makes constant use of several Italian regional dialects is Gnomeo & Juliet (2011), a film in which the story of the star-crossed lovers is linguistically reinterpreted and localised in terms of a north vs south divide (Bruti and Vignozzi 2016; Minutella 2016). Such films provide evidence that regional Italian is resorted to in dubbed animation where it often has a comic function associated with animation’s use of caricatures and stereotypes. A further strategy to deal with linguistic variation is by retaining, conveying and perhaps emphasizing foreign accents (strategy 4). In my view this is especially associated with characters who are marked as nonnative speakers of L1. The language variety they speak can be defined as foreign-accented English, a non-native variety or an ethnolect. The concept of ethnolect has been put forward to refer to “ethnic varieties of the majority language”; that is, varieties which signal that the speaker was born in the same country but belongs to a specific ethnic group and has a different native language, or that the speaker was not born in that country (Salmon Kovarski 2000, pp. 68–69). The strategy of marking and emphasising the foreignness of a character as a non-native speaker (i.e., of retaining their ethnolect) seems to be used in comedies and animated films for humorous purposes and to highlight the ethnic difference of a specific character or his/her nationality. Analysing a series of films dubbed into German and Italian, Heiss demonstrates that compensation strategies at the levels of lexis, syntax and pronunciation are adopted to “characterise the various ways of speaking of the individual characters in a manner that makes them distinguishable from one another. […] At a phonetic level it is possible to reproduce typical accents (for example, a German accent or various ethnic accents)” (Heiss 2004, p. 211). According to Heiss the comedy genre allows for more “‘unorthodox’ solutions in translation” since it is “perceived as being detached from reality” (2004, p. 211). The same can be said about animated films: they do not aim at realism, are usually comedies, often create funny caricatural characters and draw on stereotypes. As pointed out by Heiss:

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The cliché of ‘foreign talk’ has always been a favorite means of parodic character representation in comedy. […] Dubbing a film that instrumentalizes ‘foreign talk’ is not commonly seen as problematic, since similar strategies can be developed in the target language to accommodate this. Incorrect syntax, pronunciation, inadequate lexical use, and so on, can be reproduced in all languages with little difficulty […]. Foreign accents also exhibit certain patterns that call up clichéd representations. (Heiss 2014, p. 7)

Such a strategy is adopted in Bend It Like Beckham and other multilingual films where the protagonists are of Indian heritage. An Indian accent and non-standard grammar are resorted to in the dubbed version to recreate the language spoken by the South Asian first-generation immigrants (Jess’ parents and other adults), while the young generations born and raised in the United Kingdom or the United States speak with a native English or American accent (Minutella 2012). This is also apparent in the stereotyped foreign accents of the cats in Scat Cat’s band in The Aristocats (see Bruti 2009), in the foreign-accented Italian of Puss in Boots and other minor characters in the Shrek saga (see Minutella 2015) and in the foreign-accented Italian used by several characters in Madagascar 3: Europe’s Most Wanted (see Minutella 2018). It seems reasonable therefore to hypothesise that there is another exception to the homogenising norm in dubbing. A stylistic dubbing convention and therefore a different dubbing norm might be that nonnative varieties of English, also called foreign accents or ethnolects, are connoted and maintained in dubbing: “foreign-accented English in the original versions is often rendered with foreign-accented Italian in dubbing” (Minutella 2012, p. 227). Quantitative and qualitative analysis of the corpus of animated films provided in this book aims to further explore this hypothesis for the genre of animated films. The book will attempt to answer such questions as: Does the homogenising and neutralisation norm really prevail in the Italian dubbing of animated films? Is standard Italian dominant in dubbed Italian? Is linguistic heterogeneity conveyed in dubbing? If so, how? Is it possible to identify other norms in the way in which language varieties and languages other than English are treated in dubbing? Which

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strategies are adopted to deal with languages other than English in dubbed animated films? Is foreign speech subject to neutralisation, reduction or preservation (De Bonis 2014)? Are there any differences in the way native varieties and non-native varieties of English are treated in dubbing? The analysis of animated films in the remaining chapters of this book indicates that neutralisation and standardisation do indeed occur and usually prevail (constituting a norm), but only with native varieties of English (i.e., with characters whose first language is English), whereas non-native varieties of English (also called foreignaccented English) are not neutralised in dubbing. Analysis will consist of a quantitative and qualitative linguistic examination of several films, combining it with information gathered from dubbing professionals. In the light of the above considerations derived from scholarly research on audiovisual translation, I approached dubbing practitioners in order to investigate whether theory and practice were actually worlds apart, whether they took such issues into account when they worked, whether they consciously followed specific strategies or guidelines and what they thought about the language of dubbing, foreign accents and dialects.

3.2

In Conversation with Dubbing Professionals About the Language of Dubbing, Accents and Dialects

This section summarises the data gathered from personal communications with dubbing practitioners. In order to understand dubbing professionals’ opinions on the issues discussed above the following questions were asked in Italian (face to face, email or telephone) during my interactions with them. As previously pointed out, not all the questions were answered by all the informants. I am also aware that some of the questions overlap: 1. Who is responsible for making decisions on the use of specific foreign accents, foreign languages or Italian regional accents and dialects in dubbing?

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2. What type of language is usually adopted in Italian dubbing? Is standard Italian the best and most frequent solution? 3. What is your approach to the presence of several varieties of English and foreign accents in films? Do you think they should be rendered with an accented Italian or do you prefer to use standard Italian devoid of any regional or foreign inflection/accent? 4. What do you think of the use of Italian dialects, regional Italian and regional accents in dubbing? How frequently are they used in dubbed animated films? What are the reasons for using Italian dialects or Italian with a regional accent? 5. Following the tradition of The Godfather, when there are (stereotyped) Italian Americans in an American film they are often dubbed using a Sicilian accent or dialect, especially when the character is a thug or a mobster. What is your translational approach towards the Italian American variety in the original versions? How do you render it in dubbing? What follows is my own personal account of the dubbing professionals’ answers to my questions. Observations of dubbing sessions and lectures are also quoted where considered relevant.

3.2.1 The Client Decides The previous chapter described the main phases and agents of the dubbing process, highlighting the key role played by the client. The client is an umbrella term used by dubbing practitioners to refer to the entity commissioning the dubbed version and for whom they work. As pointed out in the previous chapter, for feature films and animated films the client may be the American producer (or the directors themselves in very few cases), the distributor (with its head of the Dubbing and Localization Department), the international or local creative dubbing supervisor or Disney’s creative director. An important element that emerges from interactions with dubbing practitioners is that the choice of whether to use specific foreign accents, Italian regional accents or dialects and various languages in the dubbed version lies with the client.

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In other words, when important feature films and animated films are dubbed, it is the client who decides whether linguistic characterisation and differentiation through accents, dialects or languages should be conveyed, although dubbing professionals do exercise their judgement in certain cases, albeit subject to final approval by the client (Sect 3.2.3). The client gives directions on how to convey languages, varieties of English and foreign accents and whether to use Italian regiolects or not. It is an editorial, localisation choice that the dubbing team has to comply with. This is confirmed by most of the practitioners contacted (Rossi, p.c. 30 November 2017; Vairano, p.c. 27 November 2018; Izzo, p.c. 4 March 2019; Morville, p.c. 5 May 2019 among others). As reported by most practitioners, the client gives directions and decides. For instance, Rossi reports that the production company provides specifications on what type of language and accents to use in the dubbed version and that the big majors adopt the same strategy in different countries for all the territories where the film is localised. As he puts it: “guidelines with regards to accents are forwarded by the production house itself in the case of global producers. For instance, Sony, being a global producer, that is, a major ‘film publisher’, makes the same creative choices for all geographical regions. […] This is the case for high-quality and high-end productions. The major opts for a consistent editorial policy for all the territories” (Rossi, p.c. 30 November 2017).2 Izzo also emphasises that the dialogue writer, dubbing director and dubbing company do not have decisional power about using regional accents, Italian dialects, foreign accents and languages in the dubbed versions. It is the client (i.e., the distributor or the Italian or international supervisor) who decides: “we, the artistic directors of the dubbing companies or dubbing directors, have little say in the matter. It’s the Italian or international supervisors or the distributors who decide […] The decision is never left to the dubbing director or the dubbing company” (Izzo, p.c. 30 November 2019, 4 March 2019).

2I

would like to thank Lydia Corbelli and Giselle Spiteri Miggiani for their help in interpreting and translating this quotation from Italian.

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Izzo explains that the American client generally requires the use of specific foreign accents for those characters who have a foreign (nonEnglish) accent in the original film. The document in which this is specified can vary by company. Indications on the type of language or accent that should be used in dubbing are usually provided and explained, as noted in Chapter 2, in the creative letter that is sent to the dubbing director and dialogue writer or in the KNP (key names and phrases) file (Izzo, p.c. 4 March 2019). While it is true that the use of foreign words, utterances and foreign accents is usually decided by and with the client and that the Dialogue List, the KNP and the creative letter often provide guidelines and directions about this, Morville points out that sometimes it is not possible to reproduce the original choices exactly as they were specified (Morville, p.c. 1 March 2019). Furthermore, as we shall see in the chapters discussing dubbed versions, in some cases the client allows the dubbing team to choose from a series of alternatives. This means that the dubbing team actually does have some discretion over what is stated as the client’s preference in the documents accompanying the video and may discuss these requests with the client. Some examples of ‘unfaithfulness’ to the original film in the portrayal of characters and of otherness will be provided in the following chapters. Translator Elena Di Carlo also points out that the English Dialogue List usually specifies if a character has a foreign accent, uses foreign words or speaks in a peculiar way (e.g., making grammar mistakes or using certain fixed expressions). Therefore, when Di Carlo translates English dialogues into Italian, she usually adds this information in her translation in the form of notes for the dialogue writer, talks about this issue with him/her and then they decide how to approach the translation/adaptation. All of this will then be discussed with the client (Di Carlo, p.c. 21 January 2016). This happened, for instance, with DreamWorks’ film Home (2015) where the alien species of the Boov speak English with grammar mistakes. Their broken English has a humorous function. Translator Di Carlo and dialogue writer Guadagno thus had to create a kind of ‘interlanguage’ in Italian. For this to happen they suggested that all the Boov made the same types of mistakes. Although the protagonist Oh seems to make more mistakes than the other Boov in

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the original English dialogues, the Italian translator and dialogue writer convincingly argued that all the Boov had to make the same types of mistakes. If Oh made more mistakes, then he would appear less educated than the other Boov. While Oh is indeed different from the other Boov, he is not less educated. They presented their translational approach to the client who agreed with their choice. In this way the dialogue writer can identify a specific ‘translational problem’ (such as the presence of puns, culture-specific references, accents, dialects or foreign languages and characters who speak a broken form of language), signal it to the dubbing director and then discuss it with the client. However, it is the client who will take the final decision. This is confirmed by former creative director Morville who states that the dialogue writer can make suggestions like saying the character would use a specific accent, but this has to be discussed with the dubbing director and the creative director or dubbing supervisor (Morville, p.c. 1 March 2019). Sometimes, if a final solution has not been reached, the dubbing director will then decide to record various alternative versions of some lines/utterances and let the client decide which one to use at a later stage. When foreign languages are present to a certain extent in the original film with no translation, a dubbed version retaining these foreign words and utterances may be recorded and then shown to a selected audience in order to examine whether the product would be understood and enjoyed by the Italian audience. If the dubbed version works, then the foreign language will be kept; if the dubbing team believe the audience has not responded positively to the film because of the presence of foreign words, then amendments to the dubbed version will be made. For instance, a test screening was organised for the dubbed version of Disney-Pixar’s Coco (2017), an animated film set in Mexico which contains several Mexican words that are not familiar to the average Italian viewer. Since the audience response was positive, Disney’s creative director and the dubbing team decided to go ahead and release the version with the Spanish words untranslated (Morville, Manfredi, p.c. 27 September 2018).

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3.2.2 The Language of Dubbing: A Language that Nobody Speaks As previously pointed out, dubbing has historically and traditionally adopted a neutral, standard Italian in which there are no regional traits and words are pronounced according to a neutral diction. It was an undifferentiated language or un italiano per tutte le stagioni (an Italian for all seasons) (Raffaelli 1996), as noted earlier. Although sociolinguistic variation is sometimes partly conveyed in contemporary Italian dubbing, as far as pronunciation is concerned dubbed Italian still significantly differs from naturally occurring spoken Italian and from the language of Italian films and television products. The Italian language of dubbing can be considered a more conservative standard Italian and is sometimes called doppiaggese (dubbese) (Pavesi 1994, 2005, 2009, 2019; Chaume 2001, 2004, 2012; Rossi 2006, 2015; Antonini and Chiaro 2009; Pavesi et al. 2014; Ranzato 2016). As pointed out by Chiaro, dubbed Italian is “a single neutral, aseptic variety [which] is clearly delivered, grammatically correct and, above all, totally devoid of any regional or social markers” (Chiaro 2008, p. 12). The dubbing professionals interviewed confirm this view and tend to prefer a clearly enunciated, neutral Italian with no regional inflection. Several professionals argue that dubbing actors should speak standard Italian and display what they call ‘proper diction’ that follows the rules of pronunciation dictionaries, is not used by anybody in spoken Italian, but is taught in acting and dubbing actors’ schools. As Alto puts it: “dubbing must use a language that nobody speaks” (Alto, p.c. 25 January 2016). Morville points out that the language of dubbing is a fictitious language, a neutral Italian understood by everyone (p.c. 17 June 2015) or a nonexistent language (Morville, p.c. 25 January 2016). Rossi also claims that the Italian language of dubbing differs from real everyday Italian (Rossi, p.c. 30 November 2017). Alto (p.c. 25 January 2016) expresses a passionate view about the language of dubbing and the role that dubbing professionals have towards the Italian language. He believes that impeccable diction is extremely important in dubbing and that dubbing actors should

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pronounce words correctly because they have a responsibility to make the Italian language uniform (a kind of didactic purpose). La Penna also stresses that dubbing professionals must pay careful attention to elocution and to using a clear, accurate Italian both in terms of pronunciation and grammar, especially when dealing with audiovisual products aimed at a young audience. In his words, “in dubbing we are really careful to use the correct pronunciation, we follow what the Dictionary of Pronunciation and Spelling, the Accademia della Crusca, says” (La Penna, p.c. 1 March 2019). Indeed, several of the dubbing professionals interviewed confirm that when in doubt they use this Dizionario italiano multimediale e multilingue di ortografia e di pronunzia (or DOP) (online at: http://www.dizionario.rai.it/ricerca.aspx#) (La Penna, p.c. 1 March 2019; Manfredi, p.c. 29 March 2019; Napolitano, p.c. 29 March 2019; Izzo, p.c. 4 April 2019). As a norm, therefore, the language of dubbing is standard Italian with proper diction and no regional accent unless otherwise specified and required for a certain role and characterisation. As pointed out in the previous chapter, it is the job of the dubbing director to make sure that the dubbing actors use a neutral, polished, clear Italian in the dubbing booth. This situation appears similar to that of Spanish dubbing (Whittaker 2017) and dubbing in Québec (Montgomery 2017). As reported by Whittaker (2017, p. 131), “Spanish dubbing actors […] are taught to articulate their words with crystal clear enunciation in dubbing schools, and to adhere strictly to pronunciation guides of Spanish.” Moreover, an equally normative and purist approach to the avoidance of grammar mistakes in dubbing audiovisual products for children had a didactic purpose reminiscent of what are now often considered to be rather outdated practices in the translation of children’s literature (see O’Sullivan 2005; Lathey 2006, 2016). As La Penna puts it, dubbed language must be “a perfect, clear Italian, from a grammatical point of view too” (La Penna, p.c. 4 March 2019). Lexical and syntactic doubts are usually checked against the La Crusca reference grammar (available online).

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3.2.3 Dubbing Strategies for Dealing with Linguistic Variation When asked how they deal with language varieties in films, most of the practitioners consulted point out that each film is unique, that there are no strict rules on how to approach accents or foreign languages and that, as noted, it is the client who usually makes the decisions and comes up with requests. Izzo explains that each audiovisual product has to be examined and judged separately per se (Izzo, p.c. 30 January 2019). Regarding the use of accents and dialects La Penna similarly states that “you have to reason case by case” (La Penna, p.c. 1 March 2019). Nevertheless, although the dubbing practitioners consulted state that no definitive, strict rules or guidelines exist and that decisions are taken by the client, when I asked further and more specific questions, some strategies for dealing with linguistic variation and linguistic characterisation emerged. Furthermore, the dubbing practitioners consulted comment on the variables they have to take into account and the challenges they have to tackle when characters with accents or foreign languages are present in films.

Main Language of the Film: Standard Italian The dubbing professionals consulted in the present study agree that the base language of a film (i.e., the main or dominant language spoken in a film be it English, French, Spanish or any other language) is usually dubbed into standard Italian with no foreign, regional or socially marked accent (Guadagno, p.c. 7 January 2016, 4 March 2019; Alto, p.c. 25 January 2016; Vairano, p.c. 27 November 2018 among others). For instance, Vairano (p.c. 27 November 2018) explains that if the setting of a film is the United States, France, England, Germany or any other country and if the language spoken is English, French, Spanish, German or another language, then the main language spoken in the film becomes standard Italian in dubbing. Moreover, no distinction is made in dubbing for characters whose accent is geographically connoted in the original film. In other words, if they speak English in the original version

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regardless of the type of accent they display be it American, Australian, Scottish, Texan, Alabaman or any other, then they will speak standard, neutral Italian. However, if within that setting a character speaks another language such as German or has a German accent, then he/she will usually speak Italian with a German accent. Moreover, if an entire film is set in a locale where the dominant language is not English and the setting never changes—say, the story takes place in France—the characters usually speak standard Italian with no accent (Alto, p.c. 25 January 2016; Morville, p.c. 28 January 2016; Vairano, p.c. 27 November 2018). Alto is strongly against the use of foreign accents for films set in foreign countries. He argues that if a film is set in Paris, then it would be ridiculous to make all the characters speak with a French accent where the film is set (Alto, p.c. 25 January 2016). Morville (p.c. 28 January 2016) also points out that having all the characters speak with a foreign accent could end up irritating the audience. Such comments suggest that dubbing professionals take into account what they believe the audience’s taste to be when choosing their dubbing strategy wherever they can. The approach taken by Alto and Morville to this and their choices in the dubbed version of Disney-Pixar’s Ratatouille (2007) will be further discussed in Chapter 7 where films set in France, portraying French characters and representing French linguistic otherness are described. Vairano (2018) also provides the example of Disney’s animated film The Hunchback of Notre Dame/Il gobbo di Notre Dame (dir. Gary Trousdale, Kirk Wise, 1996), which is set in Paris and whose dubbed version is completely in neutral standard Italian with no French accents (Vairano, p.c. 27 November 2018). It should be pointed out that in the English version the characters did not have any French accents either (Lippi Green 1997). General American was used for most of the characters and British English for the evil Frollo (voiced by British actor Tony Jay). Regarding their approach to native varieties of English, the professionals interviewed maintain that the differences between various geographical varieties of English cannot be conveyed (Rossi, p.c. 30 November 2017; Valli, p.c. 6 April 2018; Izzo, p.c. 30 January 2019; La Penna, p.c. 1 March 2019; Guadagno, p.c. 4 March 2019; Mete, p.c.

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20 September 2019). They believe that differences between an American, British, Australian or Scottish accent or between different American or British dialects cannot be reproduced in dubbing; hence standard Italian must be used perhaps with slight differences in terms of voice or performance. Mete (p.c. 7 February 2016) argues that it is impossible to mark a difference between southern and northern varieties of American English and that it is better to avoid using Italian regional accents because it would make no sense since there is no correspondence between American and Italian varieties because the connotations attached to specific accents of English differ from those attached to Italian ones. This echoes a very similar debate in written and drama translation (see Anderman 2007). La Penna (p.c. 4 March 2019) also states that it is impossible to convey the differences between American and British accents and gives the example of the Texan variety of American English used in several films to show that the character is a simpleton. La Penna comments on this as follows: “in dubbed Italian this type of character would speak a perfect standard Italian, but personally I would make sure to choose an appropriate unrefined voice and acting style and write lines with simple and not furbished words” (La Penna, p.c. 1 March 2019, 20 September 2019). Morville (p.c. 6 June 2019) comments on the Southern American accent associated with the stereotype of the rustic and uneducated southerner. An example is Tow Mater in Cars. In his view Tow Mater’s accent cannot be transposed into Italian. The character cannot speak with a regional Italian accent and should not use non-standard grammar. However, his naive and rustic personality can be conveyed through the use of simple lexis and the voice quality of the dubbing actor (on the characterisation of Tow Mater in English and in the dubbed version see Chapter 5). While differences between American English and British English are difficult to convey in dubbing, some attempts at suggesting otherness and difference may therefore be made. When discussing possible strategies to provide characterisation such as differentiating a British character from an American one, Izzo points out that British characters may be rendered linguistically by choosing a specific voice or getting the dubber to perform in a certain way. However, it would be ridiculous if such characters spoke with a marked and comic English accent (Izzo, p.c. 30 January 2019). Guadagno also explains that, generally speaking, there is

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a tendency to make British characters speak with a more formal register in which language and acting style are more elegant and refined, while the speech style of Americans is slightly less so. Guadagno argues that choosing a southern Italian accent or a northern Italian accent would not be correct. He feels that such a loss in regional variation constitutes one of the limits of dubbing. However, what dubbing can do is “create some nuances with the choice of the voice, the way the language is uttered, and the form of language itself, but always remaining within the Italian language, maybe using more slang or jargon” (Guadagno, p.c. 7 January 2016). Regarding the use of different varieties of the same language such as sociolects (social varieties expressing the social class the speaker belongs to) rather than dialects (the geographical origin) most of the dubbing practitioners consulted do not comment on this issue. They were mainly focused on differences in terms of regional variation rather than social class. Nevertheless, the issue of social variation was considered when discussing characters speaking with a Southern American English accent, which is immediately recognized as being rustic and uneducated, or with a New York accent. In these cases dubbing practitioners are aware of the stereotypical linguistic features of such characters and say they would try to make this type of character speak with a simple lexis and style (La Penna, p.c. 1 March 2019; Morville, p.c. 1 March 2019). None of the practitioners consulted mention the challenges posed by British varieties of English that signal class differences. However, Morville (p.c. 6 June 2019) and Guadagno (p.c. 30 January 2016), as noted above, explain that for British characters (as opposed to American ones) they often use a formal register and more refined style. This might suggest that while Italian dubbing practitioners are aware of the connotations and stereotypes attached to US accents and perpetuated in Hollywood films, they might not be equally aware of all the nuances of specific UK varieties. The fact remains that dubbing professionals consider these accents and their cultural and social meaning impossible to transfer in the Italian language.

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Foreign-Accented English or Foreign Language: Foreign-Accented Italian or Foreign Language Dubbing professionals agree that foreign languages and foreign accents are usually retained if they contribute to distinguishing a specific character in the original version. In other words, if there are characters who are identified as foreign and represented and marked linguistically as being ‘foreign’, ‘other’ or ‘different’ because they speak a language that differs from the main language of the film or because they speak English with a foreign accent, then such a linguistic characterisation is usually recreated in dubbing. Giving a character a foreign accent may have the aim of letting the audience know that he/she comes from a different area or nation or that they have a different ethnicity. When this is meaningful in terms of the film plot, it has to be conveyed in dubbing. Such characters evoke difference in the original version and this otherness should thus be maintained. Izzo explains that the client usually tells dubbing professionals that there are specific accents or other languages and suggests how to approach them. She also points out that, generally speaking, if in the original film there is a character speaking English with a foreign accent, then the dubbed version must reproduce this (Izzo, p.c. 4 March 2019). The choice is usually made to select a native speaker of the foreign language in question as a dubbing actor and then decide the degree of accent that should be conveyed. In some comedies and in animated films greater freedom and creativity is allowed and dubbers can sometimes play with characterisation since the spirit of animation is to have fun. However, it is always important to respect the original film and aim at authenticity (Guadagno, p.c. 1 March 2019). Vairano summarises this issue by saying that “if a character stands out, I characterise them” (p.c. 27 November 2018). He confirms that if a character is foreign in an animated film, then this representation has to be maintained in the dubbed version (Vairano, p.c. 27 November 2018). For example, the Spanish identity of Puss in Boots is kept and emphasised in the Italian dubbed version in the Shrek tetralogy he worked on. The same goes for the Three Little Pigs who have a German accent in the original and this was kept and emphasised in the Italian version (dubbed by Vairano himself ). As he explains (p.c. 27 November

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2018), the presence of a foreign accent has a function in the film in that it provides characterisation and triggers humour; hence it should be retained. Foreign accents often have the function of entertaining the audience, especially in comedies and animated films, and must thus be kept in dubbing. For example, Vairano reveals that during the dubbing sessions of the character Puss in Boots in the Shrek films the supervisor asked Antonio Banderas to sound more Spanish when he dubbed himself in Italian (“more Spanish, more Spanish”). This led the actor to complain at being criticised for “not being Spanish enough.” This suggests that the aim of the dubbed version was to put emphasis on the cat’s Spanish identity through his linguistic choices and accent, aiming at hypercharacterisation. Rossi (p.c. 30 November 2017) agrees that, generally speaking, a foreign accent is used in dubbing when it is used in the original film. If a film is multilingual, then the main language is dubbed into standard Italian. Other languages or any kind of speech that sounds different from the main language or sounds foreign are either rendered in Italian with a foreign accent, left in the original language with subtitles or untranslated. Rossi (p.c. 30 November 2017) stresses the fact that it is the client (i.e., the distributor or the director himself/herself ) who sets the rules and instructs the dubbing director how the presence of multiple languages and language varieties should be dealt with. He provides the extreme case of the film Le Concert/The concert (2009) by Romanian director Radu Mihaileanu. This is a multilingual film which is set in Russia and France. Russian musicians are seen in their own native country and then in Paris where they try to communicate with French people. Russian, French and broken French are thus heard in the original film. The Italian dubbed version was adapted and directed by Rossi who was fiercely criticised for making the Russians speak a ridiculous, broken Italian with a broad, comic Russian accent when they were supposed to speak their own native language (i.e., Russian as they would in Russia) (see http:// www.asinc.it/rec_dtt_00.asp?Id=261). Dubbing director Rossi explained in a telephone interview that both the film director and the distributor BIM had told him to use this strategy and that the choice was imposed on him despite his own opinion. The film director even sent him a letter explaining how the dubbed version had to be and specifying the types of

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mistakes that the characters had to make. The director refused to discuss any issues with Rossi who wanted to use subtitles when the Russian characters spoke Russian (Rossi, p.c. 30 November 2017). Despite suggesting alternative solutions such as using a reference language, using Russian with subtitles and using a broken/distorted language when the characters spoke French, Rossi had no choice and was not allowed to hire Russian dubbing actors. Although the actors playing the Russian characters in the original film are either Russian or from Eastern Europe, in the Italian dubbed version they are all professional Italian dubbers who contrived accents and used broken Italian, thus making caricatures of the characters. This anecdote is a clear and extreme example of how the issue of linguistic characterisation is controlled by the client who has the final say. Valli maintains that “in order to differentiate those characters in the original film who speak a language other than English, or English with a foreign accent, the Italian dubbed version must make them speak in a different language, not Italian, or they should at least speak Italian with an accent. Sometimes grammar mistakes may be added, since they contribute to conveying ‘foreignness’” (Valli, p.c. 6 April 2018). Valli’s opinion suggests that sometimes foreignness is recreated in dubbing not only through a foreign accent, but also by using non-standard grammar. The case studies examined in Chapter 7 will investigate whether foreign characters do actually speak Italian with a foreign accent and whether grammar mistakes are also inserted into their speech. Former Creative director Morville (p.c. 17 June 2015) argues that if a character speaks English with a foreign accent to achieve a specific linguistic characterisation, then dubbing should match and reproduce such characterisation in order to ensure voice match and correspondence with the original. However, since heavy accents may hinder communication or annoy the audience, it is preferable to use some sporcatura (a colouring or flavouring in the speech, a diction that is not neutral and somehow betrays the origin of the speaker), sparse use of foreign accents or the insertion of a few foreign words and a few non-standard words (Morville, p.c. 28 January 2016). The principle he tries to follow when choosing a dubbing strategy is “to avoid attracting the audience’s attention to the language of dubbing” (Morville, p.c. 28 January

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2016). Morville further adds that the strategies adopted in dubbing may vary according to the film genre. In a dramatic film, for instance, hearing heavy foreign accents might end up distracting the audience from dramatic moments by focusing their attention on language. Therefore, foreign accents should be used with caution in such films, otherwise the drama and poetry of some situations would be lost. This was the case, for instance, for the film War Horse (Spielberg, 2011) where it was decided to make the accent of French characters in the dubbed version less pronounced (Morville, p.c. 28 January 2016). The need to avoid heavy foreign accents is stressed by several of the professionals consulted in the present study. Guadagno, for instance, tries to avoid overdoing foreign accents or producing fake accents because of the fear that they will become annoying to the audience (Guadagno, p.c. 4 March 2019). This is also confirmed by Izzo who is strongly against the use of fake, heavy foreign accents (Izzo, p.c. 4 March 2019). La Penna similarly believes that a film with many accents tires the audience (p.c. 1 March 2019). Moreover, Izzo emphasises that she is strongly against the use of mock, parodic foreign accents and mentions the criticism received for the feature film Beauty and the Beast (2017, Bill Condon). The Italian voice of Lumière was criticised as not being French enough since the audience wanted a stronger accent, a more French character, closer to the one they remembered in the dubbed version of the 1991 animated film. However, the accent in the animated film was fake and a parody of a French person speaking Italian, whereas what she and creative director Morville had attempted to do with the character in the 2017 film was to make him sound authentic. Indeed, they chose French actor and theatre director Frédéric Lachkar who just used his own accent rather than trying to sound French (Izzo, p.c. 4 March 2019). Nevertheless, several professionals emphasise the role personal taste plays. Morville observes that his job is one that requires sensitivity and taste irrespective of the requests of American producers. The personal taste and subjectivity of each professional also play a part in the choices made in dubbing regarding accents. As Morville puts it, “our job is also a matter of taste, of sensitivity. There is no rule, no law” (Morville, p.c. 28 January 2016).

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Another issue crops up in the case of English with a foreign accent or the use of foreign languages. This relates to reproducing such a characterisation in a believable way and making the accent sound natural. There are two possible options. Either a non-Italian dubbing actor who is a native speaker of the relevant language can be cast or an Italian dubbing actor who contrives a foreign accent. In the latter case a dialect coach or language advisor is often (but not always) employed. Most practitioners state that dialect coaches often work with Italian dubbing actors who have to contrive a foreign accent to help them pronounce their lines in a way that is as natural sounding as the speech of a native speaker. However, the downside of casting foreign dubbing actors or employing dialect coaches is that the dubbed version becomes more expensive and dubbing sessions might also be more time-consuming since several attempts at finding the right accent might be needed (La Penna, p.c. 1 March 2019). Rossi explains that when a character has a foreign accent or speaks another language he usually prefers to work with foreign dubbing actors who are native speakers of that language. The negative sides of working with mother-tongue dubbers are that the dubbing director ends up not only having to work harder but also has less choice since the availability of foreign dubbing actors in Italy is limited (Rossi, p.c. 30 November 2017). Morville (p.c. 26 April 2018) also highlights the fact that as a creative director supervising the dubbing process of Disney and Disney-Pixar films he seeks authenticity and credibility in dubbing. This can only be achieved through vocal performance and accents by employing native speakers and dialect coaches/language consultants. For instance, for the film Coco (2017), which is set in Mexico and contains a large number of Spanish words and utterances, a Spanish dialect coach was used to help the Italian dubbing actors speak the lines in Spanish in a natural-sounding way. The Italian dubbers needed to sound believable in order to provide an accurate rendering—not an approximation or a caricature of an Italian speaking Spanish. Vairano (p.c. 27 November 2019) believes that it is not always necessary to resort to dubbers who are native speakers of the foreign language and that a distinction has to be made according to the genre of the film. For instance, he believes it acceptable to use a skilled Italian dubber in an animated film who puts on a foreign accent for humorous purposes

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in order to provide “a characterisation with an accent.” However, the important thing is that “the character is believable.” Moreover, in “an animated film and in comedies it is easier and more acceptable to cast an Italian dubbing actor who puts on a foreign accent, because it is ‘part of the game’, the humorous aim of the film” (Vairano, p.c. 27 November 2018). On the other hand, in a non-animated film or in films that are not comedies such as drama, casting an Italian dubber who mimics an accent may then be more problematic. If the audience notices that the dubbing actor is Italian, then the quality of the dubbed version and the audience’s involvement in the story may well be jeopardised. Vairano himself has often dubbed German characters. In some cases he reports that he took part in voice tests and was preferred to German native speakers because they were not skilled actors (Vairano, p.c. 27 November 2019). Vairano believes being a native speaker of a language is not enough on its own to be a good dubber because technical skills are necessary. As a result, an Italian dubbing actor who contrives an accent can sometimes, in comedies, provide a better performance than a native speaker who is not a trained dubber or actor. Nevertheless, Vairano explains that the tendency in non-animated and serious films is to find dubbers who are native speakers of the language. Since Izzo is strongly against fake accents she prefers to work with a dubbing actor who is a native speaker of the language or with a language consultant or dialect coach when foreign accents in Italian have to be adopted. The problem with having Italian dubbers speak Italian with a foreign accent is the risk of them sounding fake since they may lack consistency and pronounce the same word differently at different points in the film, whereas a native speaker would always pronounce such a word in the same way (Izzo, p.c. 4 March 2019). On the issue of casting Italian dubbing actors helped by a dialect coach Izzo provides the example of Quentin Tarantino’s film Inglourious Basterds (2009) on which she worked as dialogue writer and dubbing director. She explains that she had difficulties in finding the right dialect coach to help professional dubbing actor Stefano Benassi speak Italian with a natural-sounding German accent. Izzo reports that the choice about how to localise the film for the Italian market was made by Tarantino himself. The choice included whether to dub the whole film

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into Italian, whether to dub or subtitle the parts in languages other than English (French, German, Italian) and whether to make the characters speak with an accent or not. The director initially wanted Izzo to dub the whole film, neutralising its multilingualism. However, she explained to him that this type of film could not and should not be completely dubbed because it would lose its identity and meaning. Izzo insisted that alternative audiovisual translation methods be adopted and subtitles in some parts be used. Moreover, Tarantino wanted to read the Italian dialogues and a back translation into English before approving the Italian version (Izzo, p.c. 30 January 2019). When Colonel Hans Landa (played by Austrian actor Christoph Waltz) speaks English (with a German accent) in the original version, he has to speak Italian with a German accent in the dubbed version. Although Izzo prefers to cast native speakers as dubbers, in this case she wanted a professional dubber. As a result, Stefano Benassi was chosen and a language advisor was used to teach him how to pronounce the lines in Italian with a German accent such that he sounded like a German speaking Italian—not an Italian pretending to speak like a German. It turns out that Izzo tried out five different coaches because she was not happy with the performance. Benassi had to repeat the same lines over and over again every day with a different coach until Izzo found the right one to help Benassi find the right voice and give a believable and authentic vocal performance (Izzo, p.c. 30 January 2019). Although dubbing directors prefer to cast native speakers or use dialect coaches to help professional dubbers sound authentic, in comedies and animated films some examples of inauthentic, mock accents can be found. There are cases in which authenticity of accent is not of paramount importance, especially when the original film itself does not aim at authenticity but at ‘styling’ an accent and representing otherness with a comic and often parodic function. For instance, in the dubbed version of Madagascar 3 no dialect coaches were used for the Russian tiger Vitaly or for the speech of Gia and Stefano who spoke with a contrived Italian accent in the original version and an undefined foreignsounding or Spanish-sounding Italian in the Italian dubbed version. This was partly justified by the fact that these characters spoke with contrived accents in the original film version, where they were voiced by American

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actors, and because hiring dialect coaches for all the supposedly foreign characters would have been too expensive (Alto, p.c. 25 January 2016). Several professionals point out that comedies and animated films also allow for more freedom in the exploitation of mock foreign accents because of their comic function. If the original film has a contrived accent, then the dubbed version can recreate a comic accent. The important thing is to reproduce the particular function of the original and the choices made there. For instance, discussing the Hotel Transylvania films Rossi maintains that “what we have to do is try to recreate what there is in the original. If the original film stars a famous, well-known comic actor who pretends to speak ‘Transylvanian’, then I do the same thing in my dubbed film” (Rossi, p.c. 30 November 2017). Since in the original version of Hotel Transylvania Dracula was voiced by US comedian Adam Sandler contriving an undefined Eastern European or ‘Transylvanian’ accent, in the Italian dubbed version popular comedian Claudio Bisio was cast and asked to create a kind of ‘Transylvanian’ Italian (i.e., Italian with a kind of Russian or Eastern European accent). Although it is a comic characterisation with no pretension at authenticity, it is one that aims at making the audience laugh and remains faithful to the intentions of the original film. In this case it can be argued that what is important is not that the character’s speech sounds believable and natural, but that it approximates the image (i.e., the stereotype of an Eastern European speaking Italian). The aim is not a faithful reproduction of a native-like accent, but rather a comic mimicry/comic impression of a very generic ‘other’. Despite her dislike of fake accents, Izzo (p.c., 4 March 2019) also acknowledges that a contrived foreign accent can be used in the dubbing of comedies since their function is to make people laugh. Hence she would accept and justify the use of an inauthentic, contrived foreign accent in dubbing if the original film had a mock foreign accent as well. If the director wanted a character in the original film to mimic an accent, since the aim of the dubbed version is to reproduce the original film, then the Italian dubber can do the same and put on an accent. In other words, if it is all fake in the original, then it can be all fake in the Italian version.

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A further strategy adopted by dubbing professionals when they have to recreate a foreign character and provide linguistic differentiation is to insert some foreign words in the Italian dialogues. An interesting comment is provided by dialogue writer and dubbing assistant Serena Paccagnella who suggests that sometimes the dialogue writer can resort to the use of some words or expressions that are typical of a language, so that the audience immediately recognises the origin of the speaker. As examples she claims that the repetitive use of the vocative ‘Sir ’ can be used to identify British characters (as opposed to American ones), or that the often-used ‘amigo’ can connote Latin-American speakers (Paccagnella, p.c. March 2018). A further important factor affecting the representation of otherness, foreign languages and accents in animated films is auditory clarity. Dubbing professionals point out that a character with a heavy accent who uses many foreign words may not be clear enough and may not be understood in audiovisual products aimed at children. As already stated, clarity is considered to be of paramount importance in dubbing in general, and in animated films in particular, due to their typically young audience. The emphasis on clarity and believable accent is in line with Wright and Lallo’s “Suggestions for Using a Dialect” for actors who would like to become voice-over actors for animation: What is most important is that a dialect SEEMS authentic and that we can easily understand you. Does your character have a heavy accent or only the hint of an accent? In either case we must understand you clearly. No one is going to laugh at a gag or be touched by an emotional moment if they are concentrating on understanding the words instead. (Wright and Lallo 2009, p. 60).

Use of Italian Regional Accents and Italian Dialects in Dubbing When asked what they think about the use of Italian dialects and regional accents in dubbing, whether and how frequently they resort to Italian dialects or regional accents in dubbed animated films and the reasons for

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using them, the dubbing professionals consulted in this study answer that they usually prefer standard Italian devoid of accents and seldom use Italian dialects. When they do it is only in exceptional cases and for specific reasons such as adding humour to a film. As Morville points out: “we will never hear a regional accent unless it is put there deliberately” (Morville, p.c. 26 April 2018). Disney’s former creative director emphasises that: Dubbing serves to render the dialogue comprehensible, so you need to avoid overloading it with useless structures [….] An accent is fine if it is needed for characterisation, otherwise it is ridiculous and incomprehensible […] Regional accents and dialects are often linked to a comic effect, but they risk creating caricatures, and can become a parody of themselves. The risk is there, and you have to analyse and decide case by case. (Morville, p.c. 26 April 2018)

Dubbing director and actor Alessandro Rossi avoids Italian dialects or regional accents despite arguing that sometimes they may be used to add extra humour and comedy to an audiovisual product or to a character (Rossi, p.c. 30 November 2017). La Penna (p.c., 1 March 2019) believes that they should not be used in dubbing and that “they have no reason to exist” unless the plot and setting of a film requires them. The only time Italian dialects or regional accents might be acceptable in dubbing is if the characters are in Italy or in Brooklyn. The tendency in such a case is to adopt a Sicilian dialect or accent. Moreover, although he has made some characters speak a regional variety of Italian or with a marked regional accent in his professional career, this was only because the client (via the dubbing supervisor) asked him to do so despite the fact that he does not agree with resorting to this type of localisation. Alto (p.c., 25 January 2016) also opposes the use of Italian regional accents or dialects in dubbing and is strongly against the stereotypical overuse of Sicilian or dialects from the south. He believes they are old stereotypes that should be eliminated. However, he admits that if there is a direct reference to or parody of The Godfather in the film, then opting for Sicilian is inevitable. For instance, in Shark Tale (2004) the sharks mimic The Godfather in which case the use of a Sicilian variety

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in the dubbed version makes sense since it recreates the intentions of the original film (Alto, p.c. 25 January 2016). Mete (who was the dubbing director of Shark Tale) similarly states that although dubbing directors tend to avoid Italian dialects and regional Italian words and accents, in some exceptional cases they are necessary. Another reason for using Italian regional accents or dialects is to add extra humour. As Ferrari points out: “The Simpsons […] represents but one case that exemplifies the tendency of using regionalized accents in Italy to increase the comical effect of animated characters” (2010, p. 45). The dubbing professionals consulted confirm that Italian dialects or regional accents may be resorted to for comic purposes. Stefano Brusa, who dubbed the character of Gnomeo and gave him a northern Italian accent in the animated film Gnomeo & Juliet (2011), points out that the use of Italian dialects has the function of providing characterisation (in the specific film it also highlighted the differences between the two families). He further points out that it is an easy way of making the audience laugh (Brusa, p.c. 14 April 2020) arguably because this contravenes the norm of using standard Italian, which has greater prestige, and because dialects are used in comedies in Italian cinema (see Rossi 2006, 2015). Although Vairano agrees that the function of a regional accent is to be funny, he explains that he usually tries to avoid Italian dialects. In order to trigger humour he prefers to play with words or to make up new words rather than resorting to dialects or regional Italian (Vairano, p.c. 27 November 2018). In keeping with the views of other interviewees in this study, he uses dialect only if it is inevitable (e.g., when the original film has Italian American characters). In such a case linguistic characterisation is effected by using a Sicilian or Neapolitan dialect. Vairano believes that although the dialect has to be from the south, it does not necessarily carry negative connotations (Vairano, p.c. 27 November 2018). Therefore, a marked accent has a comic effect. However, since it runs the risk of making caricatures of the characters it is advisable to resort to it with caution (Galassi 1994, pp. 66–67; Paccagnella, p.c. 20 January 2016; Alto, p.c. 25 January 2016; Morville, p.c. 28 January 2016; Guadagno, p.c. 30 January 2016; Rossi, p.c. 30 November 2017; Manfredi, p.c. 27 September 2018). Dubbing directors and dubbing actors may thus decide in rare cases, though always for humorous

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purposes, to recreate a regional accent or a marked regional pronunciation. This is what dubbing professionals call ‘una sporcatura’ (i.e., a flavouring or colouring, a diction that is not neutral and somehow defiled in that it betrays the origin of the speaker) (Alto, 25 January 2016; Morville, 28 January 2016; Guadagno, 30 January 2016; Valli, 6 April 2018; Manfredi, 27 September 2018; Minutella 2018, pp. 147– 148). Rossi (p.c. 30 November 2017) provides further interesting insight when he comments that Italian dialects or regional accents might be used to render a film or cartoon more humorous. This happens when dubbing professionals think that the film is not funny enough and might not engage an Italian audience.

Italian and Italian American The use of the Italian language and/or Italian American in an original film poses several challenges to Italian dubbing professionals. If the characters in the original film speak Italian, then a number of strategies are possible. Dubbing professionals can either change the language such as turning Italian into French or Spanish (Alto, p.c. 25 January 2016; Di Carlo, p.c. 20 April 2016; La Penna, p.c. 1 March 2019), provide a specific characterisation through the dubbing actor’s voice or resort to Italian dialects. As La Penna argues, “if the character is Italian and speaks with an Italian accent, either you make up a French accent (you transform the character into a French protagonist), or you work on voice” (La Penna, p.c. 1 March 2019). For instance, since the Italianness of Stefano and Gia in DreamWorks’ Madagascar 3 is not mentioned in the dialogue and they speak with contrived, mock Italian accents in the original film, in the dubbed version they were made to speak a contrived, Spanish-sounding Italian (see Minutella 2018). Another strategy used in dubbing is to resort to Italian dialects. Such a strategy is used if the Italianness of the character in the original version is stated in the dialogue, is conveyed through visual characterisation or creates a communication problem whereby the other characters fail to understand him/her due to the use of a different language. Izzo provides a practical example from the dubbing of the TV series Grey’s Anatomy for which she is the dialogue writer.

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In some recent episodes in season 14 an Italian character called Carina De Luca appears together with her brother Andrew. Carina is played by Italian actress Stefania Spampinato who comes from Sicily. Since the siblings speak Italian in some episodes and the other characters do not understand what they are saying, the dialogue writer (Fiamma Izzo) and dubbing director (Giuppy Izzo) had to decide how to approach this issue such that the foreign language in the film (i.e., L3) actually coincides with the language of the dubbed version (i.e., L2). As explained by Izzo, this problem could be resolved either by making Carina and Andrew speak another foreign language like Spanish or by making them speak an Italian dialect which would be equally unintelligible to other speakers of Italian. Fiamma and Giuppy Izzo discussed it with the client and finally decided to make Carina speak an Italian dialect. Since the actress initially wanted to dub herself in Italian they chose Sicilian as the dialect (Izzo, p.c. 30 January 2019). Such a choice of dialect may well help the dialogue writer and dubbing director avoid problems in subsequent episodes. Izzo asks what would happen if they decided to switch from Italian to Spanish and then in a subsequent episode, perhaps in a year’s time, the characters went to visit Carina’s family in Italy? How would they justify the fact that she spoke Spanish? Resorting to a dialect thus solved the language barrier problem and kept the character’s Italian identity (Izzo, p.c. 30 January 2019). Creative director Morville (p.c. 17 June 2015; 28 January 2016) provides other examples from animated films such as the choices he made in the Cars films for the characters Luigi and Guido who are represented as Italian in the original film. Luigi has a marked Italian accent, whereas Guido only speaks Italian in the original version and nobody understands him. In such a case a change of language would be impossible in the dubbed version. Therefore, Morville had to find an Italian equivalent. He opted for Italian dialects from Emilia Romagna and cast dubbers who could be funny and believable. The choice of accents and dialects from Emilia Romagna derived from the association between racing cars and Ferrari which is based in this region (in Maranello). Morville thus cast as dubbers two celebrities known in Italy for their link with Ferrari and racing: racing driver Alex Zanardi and stand-up comedian Marco Della Noce, famous for his impersonation of

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a Ferrari mechanic in the TV programme Zelig. Cars 2 also has other Italian characters who speak Italian or Italian American. For instance, the Formula One racing car Francesco Bernoulli speaks English with a heavy Italian accent in the original version. In this case Morville decided to make him Neapolitan and cast star talent Alessandro Siani, an actor and director from Campania, who used his natural accent and dialect. Famous actors such as Franco Nero and Sophia Loren were also chosen to dub Uncle Topolino and Mamma Topolino. The above examples from the Cars trilogy suggest that Morville’s search for authenticity in voice casting applies not only to characters speaking with a foreign accent, but also to characters speaking Italian with regional accents and dialects. In fact, when the former creative director decides to use Italian dialects or regional pronunciation in dubbing, he looks for native speakers of the dialect who are from a specific region, have a specific accent or know the dialect. As he puts it, he chooses dubbers who are “healthy carriers of the dialect germ” (Morville, p.c. 17 June 2015). When the original film has a character speaking an Italian American variety of English, the approach of dubbing professionals can vary (see also Sect. 3.2.3.3). However, it does seem that there is a common stereotype that almost cries out for the (over)use of Sicilian; this is when the character is associated with ambiguous or negative behaviour. Vairano believes the Italian American stereotype requires an Italian dialect from the south, especially Sicilian or Neapolitan (so-called brucolino) (Vairano, p.c. 27 November 2018). However, Vairano argues that a Sicilian dialect has a comic function in animated films depending of course on the character and does not necessarily carry negative connotations such as being associated with the mafia or criminals. Morville (p.c. 17 June 2015) agrees that the presence of Italian American, especially in comedies, creates a challenge for dubbing into Italian. American comedies sometimes contain an Italian American variety of accent to immediately communicate and convey a stereotype or a parody with all its negative associations. When Morville is faced with this type of linguistic and visual characterisation in a film, he says he tries to come up with creative solutions rather than opting for the stereotypical Sicilian dialect. However, he admits that despite his efforts “there are still some

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stereotypes in dubbing which are recognised and re-used by dubbing professionals” including himself (Morville, p.c. 26 April 2018). Paccagnella also stresses and criticises the presence of negative stereotypes in Italian dubbing and in Italy, in general. Nevertheless, she argues that as a dialogue writer she would try to respect the choice of the original film. In other words, “if there is a caricature of an Italian-American in the original, a similar caricature should be recreated in the dubbed version, opting for widespread Italian stereotypes that associate the mafia with southern and Sicilian dialects” (Paccagnella, p.c. 8 February 2016). The case studies discussed in Chapter 8 will further explore these issues and examine the extent to which such stereotypes are used in dubbed animated films. Suffice it to say here that the dubbing professionals consulted for this study are aware of the presence and use of stereotypes in Italian dubbing (especially those associated with Sicilians) and sometimes try to avoid them (using standard Italian or choosing less common regional Italian varieties and dialects). However, in some cases they consciously reuse them to facilitate characterisation, to elicit laughter and to be faithful to the original film. Sometimes they resort to them in an unconscious way.

Star Talents With an Accent The use of star talents as a marketing strategy to promote animated films and the need for them to receive intensive coaching has already been outlined (see Sect. 2.3.2). As we have seen, this usually means it is just another exception to the norm of using standard Italian with neutral diction and no regional accent. Several dubbing practitioners consulted point out that such celebrities can and often do retain their own regional accent, specific cadence and inflection since their voice has to be recognisable. We can recall Bosseaux’ remark that “voice is an integral part of identity” (2018, p. 221), “like a ‘fingerprint’, instantly recognisable and identifiable” (2018, p. 219). Celebrities are cast to dub specific animated characters precisely because they are well known. Since they are not actually seen, their voice should be identifiable and instantly recognised by the audience. The dubbing professionals consulted stress

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that star talents are usually allowed more freedom and creativity in their vocal performance in animated films as a result of such a requirement (Alto, p.c. 25 January 2016; Vairano, p.c. 28 November 2018; Izzo, p.c. 4 March 2019). Alto points out that when it comes to pronunciation “there is a different degree of acceptance/tolerance with star talents” (Alto, p.c. 25 January 2016). Izzo adds that “in animation anything is possible and allowed, especially if the dubber is a star talent” (Izzo, p.c. 30 January 2019). Some examples are given in Sect. 2.3.2. Vairano argues that regional accents heard by the audience in animated films are generally the direct consequence of casting star talent dubbers chosen because they are well known in Italy—not because of a deliberate artistic choice by the dubbing director (Vairano, p.c. 27 November 2018). While professional dubbing actors generally use neutral diction, some kind of regional accent and cadence (cadenza) may be perceived in dubbing, especially when non-professional dubbers are chosen to voice the characters. As explained by Vairano, “if the dubbing director eliminated the distinctive features of the star talents’ voice, there would be no point in having them. Assuming you succeeded in a complete ‘polishing up’, the audience would no longer be able to recognise their voice” (i.e., there would be no point in casting them). The dubbing director thus has to somehow mediate “between the dubbing norm of standard Italian with clear diction and the star talent’s vocal features and regional accent, their idiolect. He needs to look for an acceptable compromise” (Vairano, p.c. 27 November 2018). Vairano provides the example of star talent Fabio Volo who dubs the protagonist in the Kung Fu Panda trilogy. He reports working hard with Volo to help him deliver his lines clearly, while still letting him keep his personal, typical way of pronouncing words and hastening or slurring sentences according to his own speech rhythm, intonation and regional accent. His voice had to be recongnisable. Another example of Italian spoken with a regional accent due to using a star talent can be found in Disney’s The Wild/Uno zoo in fuga (directed by Izzo) in which Piemontese comedian Luciana Littizzetto dubs one of the animal protagonists employing her clearly distinguishable, marked Piemontese accent and making use of dialect words such as balengo (stupid).

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Izzo (2019) also points out that it is often the marketing departments of the distributor who decide to use star talents. Such talents are chosen because they are popular and have accents that are instantly recognisable. This was the case with TV showman/comedian Max Giusti who dubs Gru in the Despicable Me trilogy. As we will see in Chapter 7, in the original film Gru (voiced by US comedian Steve Carell) has a kind of undefined, contrived Eastern European or German accent which is lost in the Italian version. This contravenes the norm of retaining foreign accents in dubbing and the dubbing practitioners’ tendency to be faithful to the original film’s intentions. Such a ‘betrayal’ of the original linguistic characterisation had its roots in marketing where the need to recognise the star talent dubbing the protagonist was deemed more important than any fidelity to the original character. The vocal features of Giusti, his own specific way of speaking and his idiolect had to be easily recognised by the audience (Izzo, p.c. 4 March 2019). Since the marketing department of Universal decided that Gru had to be voiced by Giusti and wanted him to be recognisable (Izzo, p.c. 27 April 2020) Gru’s specific linguistic identity in Despicable Me was thus completely lost and modified in the dubbed Italian version. The casting of star talents to dub the Italian voices of animated characters thus appears to constitute a challenge for dubbing directors. Such casting determines whether regional accents or dialects are used in the Italian dubbed version. Star talents generally speak using their own voice or regional Italian. No attempt is usually made at using standard Italian with neutral diction. Sometimes a specific star talent may be chosen to dub a certain character precisely because of his/her geographical origin such that he/she can add an extra layer of meaning to the character through his/her voice. Examples of star talents displaying regional accents or a specific cadence will be discussed in further detail in the following chapters.

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Concluding Remarks

This chapter has summarised previous research on the translation of multilingualism and language variation and has pointed out that several scholars have defined the translation strategies adopted by audiovisual translators in various languages and have identified some norms. We have also tried to put forward a hypothesis about how linguistic variation and multilingualism are dealt with. This argues that a distinction needs to be made between foreign languages (i.e., languages other than English, real or invented), instances of native varieties of English (broad national varieties and dialects as well as regional, social and ethnic varieties spoken in English-speaking countries) and non-native varieties of English (foreignaccented English) in order to identify patterns in dubbing strategies. The chapter then went on to provide insights into the approach by the dubbing professionals consulted towards the Italian language of dubbing and the choice of voices, languages and accents. The dubbing professionals make the point that the issue is complex and varied. While they agree that final decisions on accents and languages are usually taken by the client, the examples discussed actually reveal that there are exceptions and that at least some kind of discussion takes place. The dubbing professionals also point out that every film is unique and there are no real rules to follow. They highlight that they generally prefer Italian to be spoken without an accent following the tradition and history of Italian dubbing. However, foreign accents are usually adopted when the original film has foreign characters. Although regional accents or dialects may be chosen, this is rare and mainly done for comic purposes. It is also done if the dubber is a star talent or if the original character is Italian. A broad regional or foreign accent is usually given to comic characters and often makes caricatures of them. Although mimicking accents anf giving some characters broad accents aim to create a comic effect, such strategies run the risk of sounding offensive to the people represented because of their stereotypical potential. This is why dubbing practitioners generally prefer to avoid mock or contrived foreign accents and would rather cast a native speaker of the language (a foreign dubbing actor) or have an Italian dubbing actor trained by a dialect coach to help him/her create a

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believable, natural-sounding Italian with a foreign accent. This appears to be the underlying policy governing dubbing choices. However, the dubbing professionals point out that compromises have to be made which sometimes result in stereotypical representations. The type of film, producer, budget and expected box office return are all factors that influence the final dubbed product at the linguistic level. Moreover, personal communications with the dubbing practitioners emphasise that the final choice of whether to use foreign accents, foreign languages, regional accents or Italian dialects always lies with the client and is discussed on a case-by-case basis. Other important aspects that emerge from the personal communications are that animation as a genre allows dubbing professionals (dubbing directors and dubbing actors) to take more liberties in how they play with language and accents, and that dubbing professionals attempt to be faithful to the original film and the intentions of its producers and to convey dialogue that is believable. The next chapter will introduce the films that make up the corpus of films selected for this study and will provide a description of the language varieties and languages represented in them. The chapter will then attempt to highlight patterns in linguistic representation in the films.

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Parini, Ilaria. 2009. The Transposition of Italian-American in Italian Dubbing. In Translating Regionalised Voices in Audiovisuals, ed. F.M. Federici, 157–176. Rome: Aracne. Parini, Ilaria. 2017. When Benny the Groin and Tommy the Tongue Whacked Lou the Wrench: Cultural and Linguistic Representation of Italians in Mafia Comedies. In The Mediterranean Dreamed and Lived by Insiders and Outsiders, ed. Antonio C. Vitti and Anthony Julian Tamburri, 103–127. New York: Bordighera Press. Parini, Ilaria. 2019. Sleeping with the Fishes. Italian-Americans in Animation. In Reassessing Dubbing. Historical Approaches and Current Trends, ed. Irene Ranzato and Serenella Zanotti, 246–262. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Pavesi, Maria. 1994. Osservazioni sulla sociolinguistica del doppiaggio. In Il doppiaggio. Trasposizioni linguistiche e culturali, ed. R. Baccolini, R. M. Bollettieri Bosinelli, and L. Gavioli, 129–142. Bologna: Clueb. Pavesi, Maria. 2005. La traduzione filmica. Aspetti del parlato doppiato dall’inglese all’italiano. Rome: Carocci. Pavesi, Maria. 2009. Dubbing English into Italian: A Closer Look at the Translation of Spoken Language. In New Trends in Audiovisual Translation, ed. Jorge Díaz Cintas, 197–209. Buffalo and Toronto: Multilingual Matters. Pavesi, Maria, Maicol Formentelli, and Elisa Ghia (eds.). 2014. The Languages of Dubbing. Mainstream Audiovisual Translation in Italy. Bern: Peter Lang. Pérez L. de Heredia, María, and Irene Higes Andino (eds.). 2019. Multilingüismo y representación de las identidades en textos audiovisuales / Multilingualism and Representation of Identities in Audiovisual Texts. MonTI Special Issue 4. Petrucci, Peter R., 2015. Reclaiming Rio: Iconization and Erasure of American English in the Brazilian Portuguese Dubbing of an Animated Film. Perspectives: Studies in Translation Theory and Practice 23 (3): 392–405. Puddu, Nicoletta, and Daniela Francesca Virdis. 2014. Dalla Scozia alla Sardegna: stereotipi e tratti bandiera di Groundskeeper Willie/Willie il Giardiniere dei Simpson. In Dalla Sardegna all’Europa. Lingue e letterature regionali, ed. A. Dettori, 338–354. Milan: FrancoAngeli. Raffaelli, Sergio, 1996. Un italiano per tutte le stagioni. In Barriere linguistiche e circolazione delle opere audiovisive: la questione doppiaggio, ed. Di Fortunato Eleonora and Mario Paolinelli, 25–28. Roma: AIDAC. Ranzato, Irene, 2010. Localising Cockney: Translating Dialect into Italian. In New Insights into Audiovisual Translation and Media Accessibility, ed. Jorge

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Díaz Cintas, Anna Matamala, and Joselia Neves, 109–122. Amsterdam: Rodopi. Ranzato, Irene. 2016. Freddi’s Preliminary Norms: Italy’s Censorship Bureau. In Politics, Policy and Power in Translation History, ed. Lieven D’hulst, Carol O’Sullivan e Michael Schreiber, 211–228. Berlin: Frank & Timme. Ranzato, Irene. 2018a. The Cockney Persona: The London Accent in Characterisation and Translation. Perspectives 27 (2): 235–251. Ranzato, Irene. 2018b. The British Upper Classes: Phonological Fact and Screen Fiction. In Linguistic and Cultural Representation in Audiovisual Translation, ed. Irene Ranzato, and Serenella Zanotti, 203–227. London/New York: Routledge. Rossi, Fabio. 2006. Il linguaggio cinematografico. Rome: Aracne. Rossi, Fabio. 2015. La riduzione del caos. Storia e tipologia dei dialetti cinematografici. In Lingue e linguaggi del cinema in Italia, ed. Marco Gargiulo, 37–76. Rome: Aracne. Salmon Kovarski, Laura. 2000. Tradurre l’etnoletto: come doppiare in italiano ‘l’accento ebraico. In Traduzione multimediale: quale traduzione per quale testo? ed. R. M. Bollettieri Bosinelli, C. Heiss, M. Soffritti, and S. Bernardini, 67–84. Bologna: Clueb. Sandrelli, Annalisa. 2016. ‘Downton Abbey’ in Italian: Not Quite the Same. In North and South: British Dialects in Fictional Dialogue, ed. Irene Ranzato. Status Quaestionis 11: 152–192. Santamaria Guinot, Laura, and Miquel Pujol Tubau. 2018. Mapping L3 in Audiovisual Productions. In Focusing on Audiovisual Translation Research, ed. John D. Sanderson and Carla Botella-Tejera, 191–210. Valencia: Universitat de Valencia. Spiteri-Miggiani, Giselle. 2019. Dialogue Writing for Dubbing. An Insider’s Perspective. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Whittaker, Tom. 2017. Woody’s Spanish ‘Double’. Vocal Performance, Ventriloquism, and the Sound of Dubbing. In Locating the Voice in Film: Critical Approaches and Global Practices, ed. Tom Whittaker, and Sarah Wright, 119–136. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Wright, Jean Ann, and M.J. Lallo. 2009. Voice-over for Animation. New York and London: Focal Press. Yau, Wai-Ping. 2019. Sociolinguistics and Linguistic Variation in Audiovisual Translation. In The Routledge Handbook of Audiovisual Translation, ed. Luiz Pérez-González, 281–295. Abingdon: Routledge. Zabalbeascoa, Patrick, and Montse Corrius. 2014. How Spanish in an American Film Is Rendered in Translation: Dubbing Butch Cassidy and the

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Sundance Kid in Spain. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 22: 255–270. https://doi.org/10.1080/0907676x.2012.695380.

Filmography Beauty and the Beast. 2017. Bill Condon. Walt Disney Pictures: Mandeville Films. Cars. 2006. John Lasseter, Pixar Animation Studios, Walt Disney Pictures. Cars 2. 2011. John Lasseter, Brad Lewis, Walt Disney Pictures, Pixar Animation Studios. Cars 3. 2017. Brian Fee, Pixar Animation Studios, Walt Disney Pictures. Coco. 2017. Lee Unkrich, Adrian Molina, Walt Disney Pictures, Pixar Animation Studios. Despicable Me. 2010. Pierre Coffin and Chris Renaud, Universal Pictures, Illumination Entertainment. Despicable Me 2. 2013. Pierre Coffin and Chris Renaud, Universal Pictures, Illumination Entertainment. Gnomeo & Juliet. 2011. Kelly Asbury, Rocket Pictures, Arc Productions, Touchstone Pictures, Miramax, Starz Animation. Home. 2015. Tim Johnson, DreamWorks Animation. Hotel Transylvania. 2012. Genndy Tartakovsky, Columbia Pictures, Sony Pictures Animation. Hotel Transylvania 2. 2015. Genndy Tartakovsky, Columbia Pictures, Sony Pictures Animation. Hotel Transylvania 3: Summer Vacation. 2018. Sony Pictures Animation, Media Rights Capital (MRC), Rough Draft Korea. Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull. 2008. Steven Spielberg, Paramount Pictures, Lucasfilm, The Kennedy/Marshall Company. Inglourious Basterds. 2009. Quentin Tarantino, Universal Pictures, The Weinstein Company, A Band Apart, Studio Babelsberg, Visiona Romantica. Kung Fu Panda. 2008. Mark Osborne, John Stevenson, DreamWorks Animation, Dragon Warrior Media. Kung Fu Panda 2. 2011. Jennifer Yuh Nelson, DreamWorks Animation. Le Concert. 2009. Radu Mihaileanu, Oï Oï Oï Productions, Trésor Films, France 3 Cinéma, EuropaCorp, Castel Film Romania, Panache Productions, Radio Télévision Belge Francophone, BIM Distribuzione. Madagascar 3: Europe’s Most Wanted. 2012. Eric Darnell, Tom McGrath, Conrad Vernon, DreamWorks Animation, Pacific Data Images.

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My Fair Lady. 1964. George Cukor, Warner Bros. Ratatouille. 2007. Brad Bird, Jan Pinkava, Walt Disney Pictures, Pixar Animation Studios. Shark Tale. 2004. Bibo Bergeron, Vicky Jenson, Rob Letterman, DreamWorks Animation, DreamWorks. Shrek. 2001. Andrew Adamson, Vicky Jenson, DreamWorks Animation, DreamWorks, Pacific Data Images, Vanguard Films. Shrek 2. 2004. Andrew Adamson, Kelly Asbury, Conrad Vernon, DreamWorks, DreamWorks Animation, Pacific Data Images. Shrek Forever After. 2010. Mike Mitchell, DreamWorks Animation, Pacific Data Images. Shrek the Third. 2007. Chris Miller, Raman Hui, DreamWorks Animation, Pacific Data Images. The Godfather. 1972. Francis Ford Coppola, Paramount Pictures, Alfran Productions. The Hunchback of Notre Dame. 1996. Gary Trousdale, Kirk Wise, Walt Disney Feature Animation, Walt Disney Pictures. The Wild. 2006. Steve ‘Spaz’ Williams, C.O.R.E. Feature Animation, Contrafilm, Freewill Entertainment, Hoytyboy Pictures, Nigel Productions, Sir Zip Studios, Walt Disney Pictures.

TV series Grey’s Anatomy (2005–ongoing). Shonda Rhimes, abc Studios. The Simpsons (1989–ongoing). James L. Brooks, Matt Groening, Sam Simon, Gracie Films, 20th Century Fox Television, 20th Century Fox.

Websites https://www.antoniogenna.net/. https://www.imdb.com/.

4 Linguistic Variation in Animated Films from 2001 to 2017

4.1

Introduction

As previously pointed out, scriptwriters often use conventionalised linguistic features and traits such as different language varieties to supply information about location and character (Hodson 2014, p. 7). Different types of language varieties and accents in films are adopted “as a quick way to build character and reaffirm stereotype” (Lippi-Green 1997, p. 85), to provide a setting for the story and to trigger humour (LippiGreen 1997, p. 87; Kozloff 2000, p. 82; Hodson 2014, pp. 6–7). For instance, we can observe the tendency to use foreign accents and a few foreign words or expressions to give local colour to a film, to convey the setting of the story or point out the nationality of the speaker (LippiGreen 1997, p. 87; Wahl 2005). This phenomenon has been defined as “audio-postcarding” (Wahl 2005, 2008) (i.e., using foreign accents and a few foreign words or expressions to give local colour to a film, convey the setting of the story or point out the nationality of the speaker) or as signposting or “evocation” (Bleichenbacher 2008; O’Sullivan 2011). Specific language varieties and accents, in particular, are adopted to connote otherness and are also often used as vehicles of humour since they can © The Author(s) 2021 V. Minutella, (Re)Creating Language Identities in Animated Films, Palgrave Studies in Translating and Interpreting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56638-8_4

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provide stereotypes and caricatures. All these functions of linguistic variation (setting, character, otherness, stereotype and humour) can be found in the films making up the corpus of films selected for this study. The aim of this chapter is to provide a description of the language varieties and languages spoken in the animated films making up the corpus of films selected for this study. The chapter will attempt to answer the following questions: Which varieties and languages do the animated characters in the films speak? What are the most frequent language varieties spoken? Are specific accents and language varieties used systematically to create specific stereotypes? The chapter will first introduce the corpus of animated films selected for this study. It will then describe the films one by one, focusing on their plot and on the language varieties and languages spoken. Summary tables for each film will highlight how the characters speak (i.e., what type of English they speak and whether they speak languages other than English). The third section will illustrate the regularities observed in the whole corpus as far as language variation and linguistic characterisation are concerned. It will explore whether any patterns emerge in linguistic characterisation (i.e., whether specific language varieties are used in the films in order to convey particular character types and stereotypes). Regularities in the use of native varieties of English and non-native varieties (or foreign-accented English) will be highlighted. An account of the presence of languages other than English in the films will close the chapter.

4.2

The Corpus of Animated Films

As pointed out in the Introduction chapter, the corpus consists of 37 animated films chosen using a series of sampling criteria. They are recent productions (2001–2017), big-budget films produced by various US production houses (Disney Animation, Pixar Animation, DreamWorks Animation, Sony Pictures, 20th Century Fox/Blue Sky, Universal Pictures, Paramount Pictures and Illumination Entertainment) and are interesting in terms of the representation of language variation, multilingualism and linguistic identity and in terms of the translation strategies adopted in dubbing. For each year at least one film was selected. The

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films are listed below in chronological order.1 The title is followed in parentheses by the year of production, the name of the production company and the name of the director(s). 1. Atlantis: The Lost Empire/Atlantis: l’impero perduto (2001, Disney, dir. G. Trousdale, K. Wise) 2. Shrek (2001, DreamWorks, dir. A. Adamson, V. Jenson) 3. Lilo and Stitch/Lilo e Stitch (2002, Disney, dir. D. DeBlois, C. Sanders) 4. Finding Nemo/Alla ricerca di Nemo (2003, Disney-Pixar, dir. A. Stanton, L. Unkrich) 5. Shark Tale (2004, DreamWorks, dir. E. ‘Bibo’ Bergeron, V. Jenson) 6. Shrek 2 (2004, DreamWorks, dir. A. Adamson, K. Asbury) 7. Madagascar (2005, DreamWorks, dir. E. Darnell, T. McGrath) 8. The Wild/Uno zoo in fuga (2006, Disney, dir. S. ‘Spaz’ Williams) 9. Cars (2006, Disney-Pixar, dir. J. Lasseter) 10. Ice Age 2: The Meltdown/L’era glaciale 2: il disgelo (2006, Blue Sky Studios/20th Century Fox, dir. C. Saldanha) 11. Ratatouille (2007, Disney-Pixar, dir. B. Bird, J. Pinkava) 12. Shrek the Third/Shrek terzo (2007, DreamWorks, dir. A. Adamson) 13. Madagascar 2: Escape to Africa/Madagascar 2 (2008, DreamWorks, dir. E. Darnell, T. McGrath) 14. Ice Age 3: Dawn of the Dinosaurs/L’era glaciale 3: l’alba dei dinosauri (2009, 20th Century Fox/Blue Sky, dir. C. Saldanha) 15. Toy Story 3 (2010, Disney-Pixar, dir. L. Unkrich) 16. How to Train Your Dragon/Dragon trainer (2010, DreamWorks, dir. D. DeBlois, C. Sanders) 17. Puss in Boots/Il gatto con gli stivali (2011, DreamWorks, dir. C. Miller) 18. Gnomeo & Juliet/Gnomeo & Giulietta (2011, Rocket Pictures, Touchstone Pictures, dir. K. Asbury) 19. Rio (2011, Blue Sky/20th Century Fox, dir. C. Saldanha) 20. Cars 2 (2011, Disney-Pixar, dir. J. Lasseter, B. Lewis) 21. Rango (2011, Paramount Pictures, dir. G. Verbinski) 1A

table containing the films in alphabetical order is provided in Appendix 1.

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22. Brave/Ribelle-The Brave (2012, Disney-Pixar, dir. M. Andrews, B. Chapman) 23. Rise of the Guardians/Le cinque leggende (2012, DreamWorks, dir. P. Ramsey) 24. Hotel Transylvania (2012, Sony Pictures, dir. G. Tartakovsky) 25. Madagascar 3: Europe’s Most Wanted/Madagascar 3: ricercati in Europa (2012, DreamWorks, dir. E. Darnell, T. McGrath, C. Vernon) 26. Turbo (2013, DreamWorks, dir. D. Soren) 27. Despicable Me 2/Cattivissimo me 2 (2013, Illumination Entertainment/Universal Pictures distributor, dir. P. Coffin, C. Renaud) 28. Planes (2013, Prana Studios, Disneytoon Studios, dir. Klay Hall) 29. Mr. Peabody and Sherman (2014, DreamWorks, dir. R. Minkoff ) 30. Rio 2 (2014, Blue Sky, 20th Century Fox, dir. C. Saldanha) 31. The Book of Life/Il libro della vita (2014, 20th Century Fox, dir. J. Gutiérrez) 32. Hotel Transylvania 2 (2015, Sony Pictures, dir. G. Tartakovsky) 33. Zootopia/Zootropolis (2016, Disney, dir. B. Howard, R. Moore, J. Bush) 34. Finding Dory/Alla ricerca di Dory (2016, Disney-Pixar, dir. A. Stanton, A. MacLane) 35. Sing (2016, Illumination Entertainment, dir. C. Lourdelet, G. Jennings) 36. Coco (2017, Disney-Pixar, dir. L. Unkrich) 37. Ferdinand (2017, Blue Sky, 20th Century Fox, dir. C. Saldanha). The next section provides a description of language variation and characterisation in the films making up the corpus.

4.3

Language Variation and Linguistic Characterisation in the Films Making up the Corpus

This section provides a description of the films making up the corpus of animated films selected for this study and the languages and language

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varieties spoken in them. The films are presented in chronological order, illustrating the linguistic characterisation of characters according to broad categories of languages and language varieties. Only those characters considered important for the purposes of our analysis will be described—not all the characters in each film. The degree of detail about plot, setting and language varieties will vary from film to film according to whether such information is deemed important for the relevant dubbing strategy. A summary table for each film will be provided. The table contains the following information: name of character, name of the actor/actress voicing them, the character’s role, occupation and nationality (only if stated in the film and if deemed relevant to our analysis) and the language variety and/or language(s) spoken. As previously discussed, the notion of standard is misleading and arbitrary; moreover, language varieties and the terminology used to refer to them are not always clearcut. Nevertheless, for the sake of clarity and for the purposes of this study, language varieties from the United States will, as noted in the Introduction, be divided into a broad General American English – where GenAm is “a convenient name for the range of United States accents that have neither an eastern nor a southern colouring” (Wells 1982a, p. 10)2 – and more specific regionally or socially marked, or non-standard US varieties such as Southern American English, African American Vernacular English (AAVE) and the New York/Brooklyn accent. Regarding British varieties, British English (BrE) will indicate a general, more standard British variety, with a further social distinction between upper-class BrE (i.e., Received Pronunciation or RP), a more working-class BrE or working-class London/Cockney accent and Scottish English (ScE). A further native variety of English found in the films is Australian English (AusE) (on varieties of English see Wells 1982a, b and c; Finegan and Rickford 2004; Kortmann and Schneider 2004; Kirkpatrick 2007; Svartvik and Leech 2016 among others). On the other hand, non-native varieties of English or foreign-accented English will be divided into English that is French accented, Italian accented, German accented, Spanish accented, Russian accented and 2 On

the use of General American by actors and trained speech teachers to teach a nonregionally marked variety of American English for the stage see the International Dialects of English Archive (IDEA): https://www.dialectsarchive.com/general-american.

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so on. Identification of the variety spoken by each character is based on accent, intonation and rhythm, as well as on the presence of specific lexical and syntactic features, taking into account the fact that accents/language varieties/dialects in animated films are fictional and are used as quick means of characterisation. While this chapter will provide a brief description of the films and a list of which varieties are spoken by which characters, a more detailed analysis of the linguistic features that are used to represent specific varieties and of the way in which characters speak will be the focus of the following chapters. Dialogue extracts will not be quoted here since they will be discussed at length in the chapters devoted to the examination of dubbed versions. For the sake of clarity and brevity films such as the Shrek tetralogy, the Cars trilogy, the Madagascar trilogy and the Ice Age films will be discussed together since the main characters appear in all the films.

4.3.1 Language Variation in Atlantis: The Lost Empire/Atlantis: L’impero perduto (2001) Disney’s Atlantis, set in the early twentieth century, tells the story of Milo, a young American linguist and philologist who embarks on a mission with a group of adventurers to discover the lost empire of Atlantis. The film includes both native and non-native varieties of English, as well as some lines uttered in French and in the invented, constructed language of Atlantean. A pre-credits sequence shows people of Atlantis speaking a foreign tongue which is subtitled into English. This provides the setting of the story. After this pre-credits sequence the title of the film appears followed by a more familiar setting: Washington, DC, 1914. This film is thus partly set in an English-speaking country and partly in a mythical kingdom (Lippi-Green 1997, p. 88), and the combination of languages and language varieties makes it an interesting and rare example of a multilingual animated film. The protagonist Milo, the antagonist Commander Rourke and several other characters speak General American. The scruffy cook Cookie speaks with a marked Southern American accent, while the doctor Dr Joshua Strongbear Sweet speaks General American with some phonetic

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features, mainly intonation and rhythm, typical of AAVE. Foreignaccented English is spoken by some members of the expedition who were born in different countries and who are represented as being other (their identity cards are shown on the screen). Table 4.1 summarises the language varieties and languages spoken in Atlantis. Table 4.1 Language varieties spoken in Atlantis Name of character

Voice actor/actress

Milo

Michael J. Fox

Dr Joshua Strongbear Sweet

Phil Morris

Vincenzo ‘Vinny’ Santorini

Don Novello

Gaetan Molière ‘Mole’

Corey Burton

Audrey Ramirez

Jacqueline Obradors

Cookie

Jim Varney

Princess Kida

Cree Summer

King of Atlantis

Leonard Nimoy

Commander Rourke

James Garner

Role in the film Occupation Nationality Protagonist/Hero Linguist American Secondary character Member of the expedition doctor American Secondary character Member of the expedition demolition expert Italian (born in Palermo) Secondary character Member of the expedition geologist French (born in Paris) Secondary character Member of the expedition mechanic American (Latino) Secondary character Member of the expedition cook American Main character Princess of Atlantis Atlantean Secondary character King of Atlantis Atlantean Villain, antagonist

Language variety, language General American, French, Atlantean General American, AAVE intonation

Italian American, Italian-accented English

French-accented English, French words and expressions

Slight Spanish-accented English, a few Spanish words Southern American English Atlantean, French, General American Atlantean, General American General American

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4.3.2 Language Variation in the Shrek Films In the films of the Shrek saga several varieties of English, both native and non-native, can be heard. As far as native varieties are concerned, the green ogre Shrek (voiced by Canadian actor Mike Myers) speaks with a contrived Scottish accent, while Princess Fiona (voiced by Cameron Diaz) speaks American English, initially with Middle English features (such as the use of archaic lexis and a formal register). British English (RP) is used in Shrek 2 by characters who are voiced by well-known British actors. These are Fiona’s parents (the King and Queen of the kingdom of Far Far Away voiced by John Cleese and Julie Andrews, respectively) and the villains in the film: the evil Prince Charming (Rupert Everett) and his mother the Fairy Godmother (Jennifer Saunders). On the other hand, Shrek’s comic sidekick Donkey (Eddie Murphy) “often uses non-standard dialect similar to African American Vernacular English and a ‘hip style’” (Minutella 2014, p. 81), drawing on rhythmic, lexical and morphosyntactic features that are frequently employed in films to identify African American characters (Green 2002; Zanotti 2011; Minutella 2014). Several non-native varieties of English are also exploited to achieve humorous effect and perpetuate stereotypical representations. These are Spanish-accented, French-accented and German-accented English. Spanish-accented English is spoken by Puss in Boots (Antonio Banderas), a booted cat who initially attacks Shrek and then becomes his friend and helper. His Spanish identity is testified to by his accent and some lexical choices (see Minutella 2014, p. 175). The characters of Monsieur Hood (a seductive but rude Latin lover), the Muffin Man (a skilled chef ) and Jerome (the Fairy Godmother’s affected receptionist) all speak Frenchaccented English. German-accented English is spoken by the three little pigs who sometimes also use common German words such as ja. Table 4.2 summarises the Language varieties spoken in the Shrek films.

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Table 4.2 Language varieties spoken in the Shrek films Name of character

Voice actor/actress

Role in the film Occupation

Shrek Princess Fiona

Mike Myers (Canadian) Cameron Diaz

King Harold

John Cleese

Queen Lillian

Julie Andrews

Prince Charming

Rupert Everett

Fairy Godmother

Jennifer Saunders

Donkey Puss in Boots

Eddie Murphy Antonio Banderas (Spanish)

Protagonist/Hero Ogre Main female character Heroine, princess King of Far Far Away Queen of Far Far Away Villain Fairy Godmother’s son Villain Prince Charming’s mother Comic sidekick Initially negative, becomes helper to hero

Monsieur Hood

Vincent Cassell (French)

Secondary character

The Muffin Man

Conrad Vernon

Secondary character Chef

Jerome

Guillaume Aretos (French)

The Three Little Pigs

Cody Cameron Sean Bishop

Secondary character Receptionist to the Fairy Godmother Secondary characters Fairytale creatures

Language variety Scottish accent General American archaic language, Middle English BrE (RP) BrE (RP) BrE (RP)

BrE (RP)

AAVE Spanish-accented English, Spanish words and expressions French-accented English, French words and expressions French-accented English, French words and expressions French-accented English, French words and expressions German-accented English, German words and expressions

4.3.3 Language Variation in Lilo and Stitch/Lilo e Stitch (2002) Lilo and Stitch is set in Hawai’i and portrays the life of a young girl, Lilo, who befriends an aggressive alien monster which she believes is a dog and

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she calls Stitch. The protagonist speaks General American English with Hawai’i Creole (HC) intonation and rhythms, as does her sister Nana. Other minor characters utter a few words and sing a song in Hawai’i Creole. Most of the aliens speak AmE and BrE, with various accents, and one of them speaks foreign-accented English. This film is praised by Lippi-Green for its “sensitive portrayal of Hawai’i, Hawai’ian culture and people of color” (2012, p. 124). According to Lippi-Green, Lilo and her family “have features that are not Anglicized, and their lives are neither romanticized nor trivialized; they all speak with Hawai’i Creole (HC) intonation and rhythms, and HC is heard now and then in the background” (2012, p. 124). Moreover, the film also features one African American character, the social worker Cobra Bubbles, who has a positive role. Lippi-Green argues that he “looks a great deal like a professional weight lifter. His looks are frightening and his voice—distinctly African American—is imposing, but this character is in fact one of the good guys, sincere in his concern for the orphaned sisters” (2012, p. 124). Cobra Bubbles is voiced by African American actor Ving Rhames and is represented as a big, muscular and menacing man, with his name tattooed on his knuckles and a deep voice which may be recognised as AAVE due to its intonation. However, Cobra Bubbles’ speech does not display any lexical or syntactic features typical of AAVE. As far as vocabulary and grammar are concerned, he speaks Standard American English. Moreover, his register is also quite formal, as required by his professional role. Despite Disney’s attempt to be politically correct by casting some Hawai’ian actors and making characters speak with Hawai’i Creole intonation and rhythms and by assigning a positive role to an African American character, it can be argued that a negative, stereotypical portrayal of ‘foreigners’ may still be found. In fact, the negative character in the film, the alien scientist Dr Jumba Jookiba, who conducts illegal genetic experiments and creates an abomination (Stitch), is made to speak English with a broad and exaggerated foreign, Russian accent. Dr Jumba Jookiba’s characterisation will be analysed in further detail in Chapter 7. Table 4.3 summarises the Language varieties spoken in Lilo and Stitch.

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Table 4.3 Language varieties spoken in Lilo and Stitch Role in the film Occupation Nationality

Name of character

Voice actor/actress

Lilo

Daveigh Chase

Female protagonist Hawai’ian

Nana

Tia Carrere

Protagonist’s sister Hawai’ian

Cobra Bubbles

Ving Rhames

Secondary character Social worker

Grand Councilwoman

Zoe Caldwell

Dr Jumba Jookiba

David Ogden Stiers

Secondary character Head of the alien species Villain Alien scientist Secondary characters

Other characters

Language variety General American, Hawai’i Creole (HC) intonation and rhythm General American, Hawai’i Creole (HC) intonation and rhythm General American, AAVE intonation and rhythm BrE (RP)

Russian-accented English Hawai’i Creole (HC) intonation and rhythm, Hawai’i Creole (HC)

4.3.4 Language Variation in Finding Nemo/Alla ricerca di Nemo (2003) and in Finding Dory/Alla ricerca di Dory (2016) In Pixar’s Finding Nemo (2003) the little clown fish Nemo is captured in the Great Barrier Reef and taken to Sydney, Australia. His father Marlin faces several challenges in order to save him, helped by the blue tang fish Dory. Most of the characters in this film speak native varieties of English, in particular AmE and AusE. Despite the Australian setting, the main characters (Nemo, Marlin and Dory) speak General American English and are voiced by American actors, while some secondary characters voiced by Australian or New Zealand actors have an Australian accent and use some typically AusE words such as mate, G’day and Crikey.

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Characters with an Aussie accent are Bruce, Anchor and Chum (three vegetarian sharks), the dentist Philip Sherman (the person who caught Nemo) and the pelican Nigel. The sharks have a strong Australian accent, while the pelican (voiced by Geoffrey Rush, whose voice is recognisable) has a more general Australian accent. In Finding Nemo there is only one character who speaks foreign-accented English: the shrimp Jacques who lives in the dentist’s fish tank and helps Nemo escape from it. Jacques (voiced by US actor Joe Ranft) has a marked French accent and uses a few French expressions (Ouh la mer … bon! Voilà he’s clean) that are widely termed “spectacular fragments” (i.e., the insertion of foreign words into an English dialogue; Rampton 1999, p. 423). In Finding Dory (2016) the protagonist Dory, who suffers from shortterm memory loss, starts remembering her past and thus leaves the reef in search of her parents. Nemo and Marlin try to follow her and end up in a marine institute in the United States. In this film General American English is the preferred language variety spoken by most of the characters. However, two comic characters emerge as linguistically differentiated through their British English variety. The sea lions Fluke and Rudder (voiced by British actors Idris Elba and Dominic West) speak English with a broad Cockney accent, with phonetic and lexical features typical of this sometimes stigmatised variety of English. Another interesting secondary character appearing in both films is Crush the Turtle. His language is stereotypical of the Californian or ‘surfer dude’.3 Table 4.4 summarises the Language varieties spoken in Finding Nemo and Finding Dory.

4.3.5 Language Variation in Shark Tale (2004) DreamWorks’ Shark Tale portrays a mafia family of sharks led by Don Lino (Robert De Niro), his faithful and aggressive son Frankie (Michael Imperioli) and his meek and harmless brother Lenny (Jack Black) who is vegetarian. The sharks menace the peaceful life of the reef where the little fish Oscar (Will Smith) works as a whale washer but dreams of becoming 3 On

this TV and cinema trope see https://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/SurferDude.

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Table 4.4 Language varieties spoken in Finding Nemo and Finding Dory Name of character

Voice actor/actress

Role in the film Occupation

Language variety

Nemo (in Finding Nemo) Nemo (in Finding Dory) Marlin

Alexander Gould

Main character Clown fish

General American

Hayden Rolence

Main character

General American

Albert Brooks

Dory

Ellen DeGeneres

General American General American

Bruce

Barry Humphries (Australian) Eric Bana (Australian) Bruce Spence (New Zealand) Bill Hunter (Australian)

Main character Clown fish Helper to main character Main character Blue tang fish Minor character Shark Minor character Shark Minor character Shark Minor character Dentist Australian Minor character Pelican Minor character Shrimp

Anchor Chum Philip Sherman Nigel Jacques

Fluke Rudder Crush the Turtle

Geoffrey Rush (Australian) Joe Ranft

Idris Elba (British) Dominic West (British) Andrew Stanton

Minor character Sea lion Minor character Sea lion Minor character Turtle

AusE AusE AusE AusE

AusE French-accented English, French words or expressions BrE BrE General American ‘surfer dude’

rich and famous. His boss is the puffer fish Sykes (Martin Scorsese) who lends money with interest and works for Don Lino. When the shark Frankie is accidentally hit and killed, Oscar is mistakenly thought to have killed him and becomes the reef ’s hero. In Shark Tale several varieties of American English can be heard, with instances of AAVE (Oscar) and Jamaican English (the jellyfish Ernie and

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Bernie). Angie (Oscar’s best friend), the sensual Lola (a gold digger), Lenny and other minor characters speak General American. On the other hand, the sharks speak an Italian American variety of English which is used to trigger stereotypical associations. The only shark who does not speak Italian American is the non-violent, flower-loving and vegetarian Lenny who is different from his family and therefore also speaks differently. Don Lino and the sharks are portrayed in the film both visually and verbally as a parody of the gangsters in the film The Godfather (1972), creating a negative representation of the Italian American ethnic group. As Parini explains: Language undoubtedly plays an extremely important role in the construction of identity of the characters. Indeed, the sharks’ language variety can be classified both as an ethnolect – as it conveys the characters’ ethnic origins – and as a sociolect – as it conveys their social origins, i.e. their belonging to the group of gangsters/sharks. (2019, p. 254)

As pointed out by Parini (2019, p. 249), “use of the Italian American ethnolect […] became quite an issue for the distributors and producers of the film. The film was severely criticized by various associations of Italian Americans concerned about the perpetuation of negative stereotypes related to their ethnic group.” Ethnolects and social varieties of American English are exploited to a great extent in this film to convey otherness, to portray characters, appearing to convey and reaffirm stereotypes and negative connotations. Negative visual and linguistic stereotypes abound in this film and are created through linguistic characterisation by means of phonetic, lexical and syntactic features. While most of the negative characters speak an Italian American ethnolect, it is worth pointing out that the main character in the film, Oscar, speaks a non-standard, stigmatised variety of AmE (i.e., AAVE) and has negative characteristics as well. He lies, he is lazy and obsessed with making money, using illegal methods to do so. Oscar is represented as black not only through his body language and jewellery, but also through his accent, his use of AAVE intonation, syntactic features and vocabulary (King et al. 2010, p. 40). Table 4.5 summarises the Language varieties spoken in Shark Tale (2004).

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Table 4.5 Language varieties spoken in Shark Tale (2004) Name of character

Voice actor/actress

Oscar

Will Smith

Angie

Renée Zellweger

Lola

Angelina Jolie

Don Lino

Robert De Niro

Frankie

Michael Imperioli

Lenny

Jack Black

Sykes

Martin Scorsese

Ernie

Ziggy Marley

Bernie

Doug E. Doug

Role in the film Occupation

Language variety

Main character Fish Whale washer Secondary character Oscar’s friend Fish receptionist Secondary character Fish Evil character Mobster Shark Secondary character Don Lino’s son Shark Main character Don Lino’s son Shark Secondary character Puffer fish Thug Minor character Jellyfish Thug Minor character Jellyfish Thug

AAVE

General American

General American Italian American Italian American General American Italian American Jamaican English Jamaican English

4.3.6 Language Variation in the Madagascar Trilogy (2005, 2008, 2012) DreamWorks’ films Madagascar (2005), Madagascar 2: Escape 2 Africa (2008) and Madagascar 3: Europe’s Most Wanted (2012) contain characters speaking both native and non-native varieties of English. These language varieties portray character, convey humour and are also partly linked to the setting of the films: New York and Madagascar in the first film, a generic Africa in the second and Monte Carlo in the third. The protagonists are four animals who have spent most of their lives in the New York zoo: Alex the lion (Ben Stiller), Marty the zebra (Chris Rock), Gloria the hippo (Jada Pinkett Smith) and Melman the giraffe

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(David Schwimmer). Most of the main characters speak General American, while King Julien, king of the lemurs, has an Indian English accent which was contrived and comically emphasised by humorist Sacha Baron Cohen. Marty the zebra and Gloria the hippo mainly speak General American, displaying a limited number of features of AAVE, especially intonation and rhythm. It is worth noting that in Madagascar 2: Escape 2 Africa, Alex’s parents, though living in Africa and being voiced by African American actors, do not use marked features of AAVE and certainly do not use non-standard grammar. They can be said to “fluctuate between MUSE (Mainstream US English) and AAVE (African American Vernacular English)” (Lippi-Green 1997, p. 93). On the other hand, the evil character Alex’s uncle Makunga (an allusion to The Lion King and to Hamlet ) is voiced by Alec Baldwin and has an American accent. In this film, despite the African setting, the only character speaking AAVE is the native African hippo called Moto Moto (a minor character voiced by rapper will.i.am). Additionally, several instances of non-native varieties of English (also called ethnolect or foreign-accented English in this book) can be found in Madagascar 3: Europe’s Most Wanted (2012). In this film the protagonists land in Monte Carlo and are chased by the French police led by Animal Control Officer Captain Chantal Dubois (Frances McDormand) who speaks a heavily French-accented English and sings a French song. The protagonists manage to escape by joining a group of circus animals: the Circus Zaragoza. The European members of the Circus speak nonnative varieties of English: the meek sea lion Stefano (Martin Short) and the female leopard Gia (Jessica Chastain) display a stylised Italianaccented English, while the angry Siberian tiger Vitaly (Bryan Cranston) speaks with a strong, stylised Russian accent and uses some Russian words. The stereotyped foreign-accented English of these characters (all voiced by American or Canadian actors assuming an accent) clearly does not pretend to be realistic and has humorous purposes. The linguistic features displayed by such foreign-accented characters are phonological, lexical and syntactic. A brief exchange in the Spanish language is also present, uttered by the penguins, though with an English accent: Tenemos un grande problema – Qué grande problema? (We have a big problem—What big problem?). However, the penguins usually speak

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American English. For a comprehensive examination of non-native varieties of English in this film see Minutella (2018). Table 4.6 summarises the Language varieties spoken in the Madagascar trilogy.

4.3.7 Language Variation in the Wild/Uno zoo in fuga (2006) In Disney’s The Wild a group of animals escape from the New York zoo to save Ryan, a young lion cub who was accidentally trapped and taken to Africa. Most of the characters speak native varieties of English. Among the protagonists, Ryan (Greg Cipes), his father Samson (Kiefer Sutherland), the giraffe Bridget (Janeane Garofalo) and the squirrel Benny (Jim Belushi) speak General American English, while the koala Nigel voiced by British comedian Eddie Izzard speaks British English. The film also contains minor characters speaking other native and non-native varieties of English. The two sewer-dwelling alligators Stan and Carmine (voiced by Lenny Venito and Joseph Siravo) speak with a New York accent also known as ‘Brooklynese’ (Wells 1982c, p. 502; Labov 1966). A flock of dancing pigeons have an exaggerated Indian accent, and the pigeon Hamir is represented in a stereotypical and parodic way by exploiting phonological and morphosyntactic features typical of Indian English (Kachru 1983). Furthermore, when the zoo animals are in the jungle, Benny is mistaken for a ball of dung by a group of dung beetles rolling their balls of dung, singing and dancing. The dung beetles have long blonde hair, red lips and wear colourful clothes that resemble traditional Tirolese costumes and speak with a marked German accent, using the recognisably German words Achtung and ja. The visual elements and their accent and pronunciation are definitely meant to quickly create a humorous characterisation. Stereotypical and stylised German-accented and Indian-accented English are thus exploited in this film together with a stereotypical New York or Brooklyn accent to bring about instant characterisation and to trigger humour. Table 4.7 summarises the Language varieties spoken in The Wild .

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Table 4.6 Language varieties spoken in the Madagascar trilogy Name of character

Voice actor/actress

Role in the film Occupation

Alex

Ben Stiller

Marty

Chris Rock

Main character Lion Main character Zebra

Gloria

Jada Pinkett Smith

Main character Hippo

Melman

Moto Moto

David Schwimmer Sacha Baron Cohen will.i.am

Zuba

Bernie Mac

Main character Giraffe Lemur King Minor character Hippo Alex’s father Lion

Florrie

Sherri Shepherd

Makunga

Alec Baldwin

Captain Chantal Dubois

Frances McDormand

Stefano

Martin Short

Gia

Jessica Chastain

Vitaly

Bryan Cranston

King Julien

Secondary character Alex’s mother Lion Antagonist, villain Alex’s uncle Antagonist Animal Control Officer Helper to protagonists Sea lion Helper to protagonists Leopard Siberian Tiger

Language variety General American General American, AAE intonation and rhythm General American, AAE intonation and rhythm General American Indian-accented English AAVE General American, AAVE intonation and rhythm General American, AAVE intonation and rhythm General American

French-accented English, French words and expressions Italian-accented English Italian-accented English Russian-accented English, Russian words and expressions (continued)

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Table 4.6 (continued) Name of character

Voice actor/actress

Role in the film Occupation

Penguins

Tom McGrath, Chris Miller, Christopher Knights, John DiMaggio

Penguins

Language variety General American A few lines in Spanish with an English accent

Table 4.7 Language varieties spoken in The Wild Name of character

Voice actor/actress

Role in the film Occupation

Samson

Kiefer Sutherland

Ryan

Greg Cipes

Bridget

Janeane Garofalo

Benny Nigel Stan

Jim Belushi Eddie Izzard Lenny Venito

Protagonist Lion Protagonist Lion cub Protagonist Giraffe Squirrel Koala Alligator

Carmine

Joseph Siravo

Alligator

Hamir and other pigeons

Christian Argueta/David Cowgill

Pigeons

Dung beetles

Nika Futterman Julianne Buescher

Dung beetles

Language variety General American General American General American General American BrE New York accent, Brooklynese New York accent, Brooklynese Indian-accented English, Indian English features German-accented English, German words and expressions

4.3.8 Language Variation in the Cars Films (2006, 2011) In Pixar’s Cars films, whose protagonist is the racing car Lightning McQueen (Owen Wilson), most of the characters speak native varieties of English (mainly General American), but several non-native varieties of English are also spoken, especially in Cars 2. In the first film the popular fancy car McQueen finds himself in Radiator Springs, a tiny ghost town on Route 66. The contrast between the racing champion and

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the village cars is immediately evident, both visually and linguistically. McQueen’s language and behaviour contrast in particular with those of Tow Mater (Larry the Cable Guy), a rusty tow truck who will become his best friend. As soon as we hear him speak, an American audience understands that Mater is both uneducated and rustic. As will be discussed later in the book, Mater has a broad southern accent and uses non-standard grammatical features typical of Southern American English (Finegan and Rickford 2004) such as double negation and ‘ain’t’. As Montgomery puts it: In the original Cars, Mater, who has a thick American southern twang, is strongly demarcated as lower class both visibly (vis-à-vis his rusted carriage) and audibly through his poor grammar and mispronunciations. In the English language version, this characterization is also audibly communicated through vocal performer Daniel Whitney’s (also known by his stage persona, ‘Larry the Cable Guy’) trademark ‘redneck’ humour and put on, exaggerated southern accent. (2017, p. 89)

The non-standard, native variety of American English spoken by Mater is used to provide quick comic characterisation since this Southern American English variety is often used in Hollywood films for the stereotype of the southern, rustic, uneducated simpleton. Non-native varieties also abound in the Cars films. For instance, some Radiator Springs inhabitants are linguistically and visually represented as being Italian or of Italian origin. As will be discussed in Chapter 7, the mechanic Guido (Guido Quaroni) speaks only Italian and nobody except for his friend Luigi understands him. The old 500 car Luigi (Tony Shalhoub) speaks an Italian American ethnolect with the stereotypical pronunciation and rhythm of Italians living in the United States and ungrammaticalities. In addition, lines in Italian and in an Italian-accented English are used to a large extent in Cars 2 when the World Grand Prix takes place in Italy. The minor Italian characters of Uncle Topolino and Mamma Topolino (Franco Nero and Vanessa Redgrave) alternate between Italian and Italian-accented English (with a few ungrammaticalities). Furthermore, the antagonist Formula One racing car Francesco Bernouilli (voiced by Italian American John

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Turturro) is clearly represented both in his behaviour and in his language through long-established stereotypes of Italians. Chapter 8 will illustrate that linguistic features used in Francesco’s speech connoting Italianness are phonetic, lexical and syntactic (ungrammaticalities). The characters in Cars 2 speak several native and non-native varieties of English and more than one language. British English is exploited to establish the setting (the United Kingdom) and to provide characterisation. The contrast between American English and British English is highlighted when Lightning McQueen and Mater interact with British Intelligence agents Finn McMissile (Michael Caine) and Holley Shiftwell (Emily Mortimer), Sir Miles Axlerod (Eddie Izzard) and the Queen (Vanessa Redgrave). British Formula One driver Lewis Hamilton has a cameo role. The film also contains some words in French and some French-accented English, which has the function of indicating a change of setting, giving couleur locale and providing a postcarding effect (Wahl 2005, 2008) since the first race of the World Grand Prix takes place in Paris. French words are inserted into the speech of Finn McMissile and the French cars he interacts with. Such “spectacular fragments” (Rampton 1999, p. 423) are either uttered in isolation or inserted into English sentences such as Parts for sale, Monsieur! Monsieur! Parts for sale! (a seller), Imbécile! (car in the street) and Allez! Maintenant – vite! (Finn McMissile to a driver). German-accented English and German are also present in Cars 2, though to a minor extent. The evil Professor Zundapp (Thomas Kretschmann) speaks English with a German accent and uses a few German words (Guten Tag ), in Germany Franz (a flying car) speaks with a heavy German accent and the lines uttered by Formula One driver Michael Schumacher in his cameo role are uttered in Italian with a slight German accent. A slight Spanish-accented English is also spoken by the character of Ramone (Cheech Marin), one of the cars living in Radiator Springs. He speaks General American English with some Mexican Spanish words interspersed (hijole, ese) and a very slight Spanish accent. The character’s name suggests that he is meant to be portrayed as a Latino. Table 4.8 summarises the Language varieties spoken in the Cars films.

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Table 4.8 Language varieties spoken in the Cars films Name of character

Voice actor/actress

Lightning McQueen Tow Mater

Owen Wilson

Finn McMissile

Michael Caine

Holley Shiftwell

Emily Mortimer

Sir Miles Axlerod

Eddie Izzard

The Queen

Vanessa Redgrave

Guido

Guido Quaroni

Luigi

Tony Shalhoub

Uncle Topolino

Franco Nero

Mamma Topolino Francesco Bernouilli

Vanessa Redgrave

Professor Zundapp

Thomas Kretschmann

Franz

Larry the Cable Guy

John Turturro

Role in the film Occupation Nationality Protagonist Racing car Comic sidekick Main character Tow Truck American British Intelligence Agent British British Intelligence Agent British Villain British Monarch British Mechanic Italian Mechanic Italian

Minor character Italian Minor character Italian Racing Car Antagonist Italian Negative character German Minor character Flying car

Language variety, language General American Southern American English

BrE, some English-accented French BrE

BrE BrE (RP) Italian Italian-accented English, Italian words and expressions Italian-accented English, Italian Italian-accented English, Italian Italian-accented English, Italian words and expressions German-accented English, German words and expressions German-accented English (continued)

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Table 4.8 (continued) Role in the film Occupation Nationality

Name of character

Voice actor/actress

Michael Schumacher

Michael Schumacher

Minor character Racing car German

Lewis Hamilton

Lewis Hamilton

Ramone

Cheech Marin

Minor character Racing car English Radiator Springs resident

Language variety, language German-accented English, German-accented Italian BrE

General American, Spanish-accented English, a few Spanish words

4.3.9 Language Variation in Ratatouille (2007) Pixar’s Oscar-winning Ratatouille is a film set in Paris that tells the improbable story of a rat, Remy, who proves to be a great chef. In this film language varieties and accents, in particular, are used to establish the setting of the story. Most of the characters in fact speak English with a French accent, although the protagonists and other major characters speak native varieties of English. The rat Remy (Patton Oswalt) and Alfredo Linguini (Lou Romano) speak General American English, while the severe food critic Anton Ego (voiced by British actor Peter O’Toole) speaks British English. Many other characters such as the ghost of the famous restaurant owner and chef Gusteau (a figment of Remy’s imagination), Colette (the only female chef in Gusteau’s restaurant), the evil chef Skinner (voiced by the late British actor Sir Ian Holm) and several other characters speak French-accented English and use some French words and expressions. Such “spectacular fragments” (Rampton 1999, p. 423) are used not only to signal the French setting and identity of the characters, but also to provide caricatures. The heavily French-accented English spoken by the French characters enhances the comic effect. It should also be added that one character working in the kitchen (Horst) speaks English with a German accent, using a few understandable German

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words such as ja. As will be discussed in Chapter 7, the linguistic characterisation of chef Skinner is somewhat ambiguous and interesting since he sometimes fluctuates between a French and a British accent. Nevertheless, it can be argued that the representation of the French characters in Ratatouille uses exaggerated conventional linguistic clichés which render some of the characters almost caricatural and definitely stereotypical. Furthermore, the linguistic identities of some characters are not always consistent since some voice actors shift in and out of a mock French pronunciation. The fact that none of the actors voicing the French characters is actually French may also contribute to this stylised representation. Furthermore, as will be explored in Chapter 7, the linguistic representation of chef Colette (Janeane Garofalo) raises some questions since her use of a broad French accent and some ungrammaticalities makes her appear less educated than the male characters. Table 4.9 summarises the Language varieties spoken in Ratatouille.

4.3.10 Language Variation in Ice Age 2: The Meltdown (2006) and Ice Age 3: Dawn of the Dinosaurs (2009) The Ice Age films were made by Blue Sky Studios/20th Century Fox. The protagonists are Manny the mammoth (Ray Romano), Sid the sloth (John Leguizamo), Diego the sabre-toothed tiger (Denis Leary) and the female mammoth Ellie (Queen Latifah). Searching for a milder climate during the Ice Age, Manny, Diego and Sid end up living together as a herd and settle down in an isolated valley which they have to leave when the ice wall surrounding it starts to melt. During their exodus they are joined by Ellie, a mammoth who is convinced she is a possum since she has spent all her life with her brothers, two funny possums called Eddie (Josh Peck) and Crush (Seann William Scott). In the third film of the saga Manny and Ellie are expecting a baby, Diego wants to leave the herd and Sid desperately wishes to have a family of his own and thus steals some dinosaur eggs. Consequently, he ends up in an underground world inhabited by dinosaurs. The herd is chased by the mother dinosaur but is helped by a one-eyed weasel called Buck (voiced by British actor

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Table 4.9 Language varieties spoken in Ratatouille Name of character

Voice actor/actress

Role in the film Occupation

Remy

Patton Oswalt

Linguini

Lou Romano

Djiango

Brian Dennehy

Anton Ego Colette

Peter O’Toole Janeane Garofalo

Skinner

Sir Ian Holm

Villain, antagonist Chef

Auguste Gusteau

Brad Garrett

Horst

Will Arnett

Ghost chef Owner of Gusteau’s restaurant Chef

Protagonist Rat Chef Protagonist Garbage boy, chef Secondary character Rat Remy’s father Food Critic Main character Chef

Language variety General American

General American

General American

BrE (RP) French-accented English, French words and expressions French-accented English, French words and expressions, mixture of French accent and British accent French-accented English, French words and expressions German-accented English

Simon Pegg) who looks and behaves like a pirate and has a strong British accent. The main characters in these films speak native varieties of English, more specifically General American English. Sid is slightly differentiated in linguistic terms due to his use of a sigmatic /s/ and of a few Spanish expressions such as Qué pasa? The fact that he is voiced by Colombian American actor Leguizamo may suggest that his ethnicity was a way to linguistically characterise the sloth. Moreover, as pointed out by King, Lugo-Lugo and Bloodsworth-Lugo (2010, p. 124), Sid is insulted as a result of the racial/ethnic slur uttered by two rhinos who call him a ‘furry piñata’. Accordingly: “to attach the character of the sloth to the

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Table 4.10 Language varieties spoken in the Ice Age films Name of character

Voice actor/actress

Manny

Ray Romano

Sid

John Leguizamo

Diego

Denis Leary

Ellie

Queen Latifah

Eddie

Josh Peck

Crush

Seann William Scott Simon Pegg

Buck

Role in the film Occupation

Language variety

Main character Mammoth Main character Sloth

General American General American, very few Spanish words and expressions General American General American General American General American BrE (Estuary English)

Main character Sabre-toothed tiger Main character Mammoth Secondary character Possum Secondary character Possum Secondary character Weasel Pirate

voice of John Leguizamo easily makes the ‘Latinos as lazy’ connection quite explicit” (2010, pp. 125). However, despite King, Lugo-Lugo and Bloodsworth-Lugo’s criticism I would argue that in the Ice Age films Sid’s linguistic characterisation does not appear to be a stereotypical or exaggerated representation of Latinos since he does not speak Spanishaccented English. He speaks General American with very few Spanish words. What is typical of this character’s linguistic identity, on the other hand, is his speech impediment which is combined with his naive and clumsy behaviour, creating comedic moments. Table 4.10 summarises the Language varieties spoken in the Ice Age films.

4.3.11 Language Variation in Toy Story 3 (2010) Pixar’s Oscar-winning Toy Story 3 follows the adventures of Andy’s toys when their owner leaves for college. Rather than being put in the attic, as Andy had planned, the bag the toys are in is mistakenly taken to the Sunnyside day care centre where many excited kids play with them.

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Sunnyside is ruled by Lotso, a pink teddybear that turns out to be evil and locks them in. The language variety spoken in the film is predominantly General American English with some social and geographical variance. Most of the characters are voiced by US actors such as Tom Hanks (the cowboy Woody), Tim Allen (the space ranger Buzz Lightyear), Joan Cusack (the cowgirl Jessie), Ned Beatty (the teddy bear Lotso) and Michael Keaton (Ken). However, the film is particularly interesting for the purposes of our study because it displays a rare example of the actual presence of a language other than English in the dialogues (Bleichenbacher 2008, p. 24). In fact, in this film the foreign language does not consist only of an accent and a few words but is spoken for longer stretches of dialogue by Buzz Lightyear. When his friends accidentally change his language setting, Buzz Lightyear speaks several lines in Spanish. The controlled, serious space ranger toy turns into a Flamenco-dancing flirter who speaks perfect Spanish with the voice of Spanish actor Javier Fernández-Peña (http://www.voiceofspain.com/). As will be illustrated in Chapter 6, in Toy Story 3 the presence of the Spanish language is quantitatively and qualitatively conspicuous, is spoken quite extensively and is subtitled in English. Table 4.11 summarises the Language varieties spoken in Toy Story 3. Table 4.11 Language varieties spoken in Toy Story 3 Name of character

Voice actor/actress

Woody

Tom Hanks

Buzz Lightyear

Tim Allen

Spanish Buzz Lightyear Jessie

Javier Fernández-Peña Joan Cusack

Lotso

Ned Beatty

Ken

Michael Keaton

Role in the film Occupation Protagonist Toy Protagonist Toy Protagonist Toy Main character Toy Antagonist Toy Toy

Language variety, language General American General American Spanish (some lines) General American General American General American

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4.3.12 Language Variation in How to Train Your Dragon/Dragon Trainer (2010) How to Train Your Dragon (HTTYD) is based on the book series by British writer Cressida Cowell and is the first film of a saga whose protagonist is young Hiccup, a teenage Viking living on the small island of Berk. The Vikings’ leader is Stoick the Vast, a big warrior who tries to defend his people from the danger of dragons and wants his son to become like him and his friend Gobber. Hiccup, on the other hand, is very different from his father both physically and in character. One day Hiccup catches and hurts a very dangerous dragon, a Night Fury, but rather than killing it he befriends the animal. In this film all the characters speak native varieties of English. The interesting issue regarding linguistic variation is the clear and deliberate distinction between adults and the younger generation of Vikings since Stoick (Gerald Butler), Gobber (Craig Ferguson) and other Vikings belonging to the older generation speak with a marked Scottish accent and are voiced by Scottish actors, while the young Vikings speak General American English. Scottish-accented English is thus used to provide characterisation and to express a contrast between older and younger generations of Vikings. This aroused some criticism (see Cutler 2016) because the linguistic portrayal of the Vikings as Scottish is historically inaccurate and because young people and adults belonging to the same families and living in the same place speak distinct varieties of English, which is of course unlikely. However, the fact remains that this is a fictional work and this linguistic characterisation brought about by casting Scottish and American voice actors was a deliberate choice possibly aimed at representing generational differences. Moreover, the use of a Scottish accent is coherent with the books the film is based on. In fact, the author imagined the island of Berk as being a tiny island in the north of Scotland in the Hebrides where she used to spend her summers as a child (see https://www.cressidacowell.co.uk/about-cressida/; https://www.cressidac owell.co.uk/book/how-to-train-your-dragon/; Cowell, in Miller-Zarneke 2014, pp. 6–7). Table 4.12 summarises the Language varieties spoken in How to Train Your Dragon/Dragon Trainer.

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Table 4.12 Language varieties spoken in How to Train Your Dragon/Dragon Trainer Name of character

Voice actor/actress

Role in the film Occupation

Hiccup

Jay Baruchel

Stoick the Vast

Gerard Butler

Gobber

Craig Ferguson

Protagonist Young viking Main character Hiccup’s father, leader of the Vikings Stoick’s closest friend Viking

Language variety General American Scottish-accented English

Scottish-accented English

4.3.13 Language Variation in Puss in Boots/Il gatto con gli stivali (2011) DreamWorks’ Puss in Boots is a prequel to the Shrek films which sees the booted cat as the protagonist and tells the story of how he became an outlaw in search of the legendary magic beans. Puss (Antonio Banderas) is an orphan who lives in the town of San Ricardo in an orphanage where he is bullied by other orphans and becomes best friends with the egg Humpty Alexander Dumpty (voiced by Zach Galifianakis). Some years later, Kitty Softpaws (voiced by Mexican American Salma Hayek) and Humpty Dumpty convince Puss in Boots to steal the magic beans from the evil Jack and Jill (voiced by US actors Billy Bob Thornton and Amy Sedaris). The language varieties and languages spoken in the film are General American, Spanish-accented English and Spanish. Kitty speaks American English with a slight Spanish accent, whereas Puss has a heavy Spanish-accented English. The minor characters from San Ricardo also use Spanish-accented English along with some Spanish words and expressions. Several instances of code-mixing and code-switching (i.e., instances of dialogue in which a person switches from one language to another) provide both setting and character portrayal and can be considered spectacular fragments (Rampton 1999, p. 423). The Spanish words found in the dialogues are mainly vocatives, terms referring to food and people, and exclamations (leche, señor, señorita, maldito huevo,

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holy frijoles, adiós, pequeño, mama, etc.). It is worth pointing out that the evil Jack and Jill speak a social variety of American English: they have a Southern American accent and use several non-standard syntactic features such as ‘them’ for ‘those’, double negation and ‘ain’t’, which are stereotypically associated with Southern American English. As explained in the DVD extras, this southern accent was deliberately chosen by the voice talents to represent the rough, dirty, brutal and vicious couple. It might be argued that in so doing the American stereotype of southerners as rural, rough and uneducated is conveyed both visually and verbally. Table 4.13 summarises the Language varieties spoken in Puss in Boots/Il gatto con gli stivali. Table 4.13 Language varieties spoken in Puss in Boots/Il gatto con gli stivali Role in the film Occupation Nationality

Name of character

Voice actor/actress

Puss in boots

Antonio Banderas

Protagonist Cat

Humpty Alexander Dumpty Kitty Softpaws

Zach Galifianakis

Puss’s best friend Egg

Salma Hayek

Main character Cat

Jack

Billy Bob Thornton

Antagonist Man

Jill

Amy Sedaris

Antagonist Woman

Comandante

Guillermo del Toro

Captain of the Guards of San Ricardo

Mama Imelda

Constance Marie Lopez

Puss’s adoptive mother Woman

Language variety Spanish-accented English, Spanish words and expressions General American

Slight Spanish-accented English, Spanish words and expressions Southern American English Southern American English Spanish-accented English, Spanish words and expressions Spanish-accented English, Spanish words and expressions

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4.3.14 Language Variation in Gnomeo & Juliet/Gnomeo & Giulietta (2011) The British American production Gnomeo & Juliet is an animated rewriting of Shakespeare’s tragedy with ceramic garden gnomes as protagonists, an obvious happy ending and music by Elton John (who is also a producer of the film). The Britishness of the story and its protagonists is emphasized both visually and verbally. The story is set in Britain in Stratford-upon-Avon where the gnomes live in the two neighbouring gardens of Ms Montague and Mr Capulet. The film contains several verbal and visual allusions to Shakespeare and his plays. Most of the voice cast is British. Linguistic variation plays a central role in establishing the setting of the story, defining the identity of the characters and providing humour by exploiting several stereotypes. The characters in the film speak mostly British English with various geographical and social dialects (for a detailed analysis of language varieties in this film see Bruti and Vignozzi 2016; Minutella 2016). A few characters not belonging to the feuding families are voiced by US actors and display American accents. Gnomeo is voiced by Scottish actor James McAvoy who adopts a London youth accent, Juliet is voiced by Emily Blunt with a middle-class standard English, the rustic Lord Redbrick by Michael Caine with his distinguishable Cockney accent and the more refined Lady Bluebury by Maggie Smith with an upper-class British English accent. The comic plastic frog Nanette (Juliet’s friend and nurse) has a Scottish accent conveyed by Scottish actress Ashley Jensen. American English is spoken by minor characters such as Terrafirminator (Hulk Hogan), Dolly Gnome (Dolly Parton) and the red Goon Gnomes (Kelly Asbury), and Dolly Gnome has a Southern American accent. Another important character in terms of linguistic characterisation is the pink plastic flamingo Featherstone, the lovers’ helper. As will be illustrated in Chapter 7, Featherstone (voiced by US actor Jim Cummings) speaks a Spanish-accented English with an exaggerated Latin American pronunciation and several Spanish words and expressions (¡Hola! , ¿Cómo está usted?, Bueno) as well as ungrammaticalities (Minutella 2016, p. 230). The film also contains a few, comic lines in Japanese uttered by the Scottish frog Nanette when

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Table 4.14 Language varieties spoken in Gnomeo & Juliet Name of character

Voice actor/actress

Role in the film Occupation

Language variety, language

Gnomeo

James McAvoy

Protagonist Gnome

Juliet

Emily Blunt

Lord Redbrick

Michael Caine

Lady Bluebury

Maggie Smith

Protagonist Gnome Gnome Head of the Blues Gnomeo’s father Gnome Head of the Reds Juliet’s mother Antagonist Gnome Juliet’s cousin Decorative frog Juliet’s nurse Lawnmower Minor character Gnome Gnomes Helper to protagonists Decorative flamingo Statue

BrE (London youth-accented BrE) BrE (standard, middle-class BrE) BrE (Cockney)

Tybalt

Nanette

Ashley Jensen

Terrafirminator Dolly Gnome

Hulk Hogan Dolly Parton

Goon gnomes Featherstone

Kelly Asbury Jim Cummings

Bill Shakespeare

Patrick Stewart

BrE (upper-class BrE, RP)

BrE (Cockney)

Scottish English, Japanese General American Southern American accent General American Spanish-accented English, Spanish words and expressions BrE (RP)

Juliet is disguised and moves like a female Ninja warrior. Table 4.14 summarises the Language varieties spoken in Gnomeo & Juliet.

4.3.15 Language Variation in Rio (2011) and Rio 2 (2014) The Rio films are a United States/Brazil coproduction by Blue Sky Studios/20th Century Fox directed by Brazilian Carlos Saldanha. The domesticated blue macaw Blu (raised in Minnesota as a pet by Linda) is taken to Rio de Janeiro in order to mate with the only female bird of his

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species left (Jewel). In Brazil the American foreigners Linda (Blu’s owner) and Blu are welcomed by Brazilian ornithologist Tulio and they meet several characters both animal and human. Linda and Blu take some time to get accustomed to the new culture. Blu and Jewel are kidnapped by some bird traffickers/smugglers and the evil cockatoo Nigel. In Rio 2 Blu and Jewel now live in Rio with their kids and they are completely humanised city birds. They decide to go to Amazonia in order to help the couple Linda and Tulio save the birds living in the Amazon forest. When the family and their friends reach the forest, they discover a flock of blue macaws and Jewel’s father. Blu finds it difficult to live in the natural world and with his father-in-law. The voice cast includes Jesse Eisenberg (Blu), Leslie Mann (Linda), Anne Hathaway (Jewel), Andy García (Eduardo), New Zealand actor Jemaine Clement (the cockatoo Nigel), Mexican American George Lopez (the toucan Rafael), Brazilian Rodrigo Santoro (the Brazilian ornithologist Tulio) and African American celebrities Jamie Foxx (the canary Nico), will.i.am (the red-crested cardinal Pedro) and Tracy Morgan (the bulldog Luiz). The language varieties spoken in the Rio films are General American English, New Zealand English, AAVE, Brazilian Portuguese-accented English and some slight Spanish-accented English. Some Brazilian Portuguese is spoken. Nevertheless, as pointed out by Bruti (2014, p. 93), despite the Brazilian setting many characters (also those who are supposed to be Brazilian) speak General American and the amount of Brazilian Portuguese-accented English and Brazilian Portuguese is quantitatively scarce (see also De Rosa 2014; Petrucci 2015). In the Rio films a few instances of spectacular fragments provide couleur locale and help to establish the setting of the story. As will be discussed in Chapter 6, a few words in Brazilian Portuguese are uttered by Jewel when she first meets Blu, but then she immediately switches to General American. A few words and expressions in Brazilian Portuguese (Valeo, vem pra cà) are uttered by a man (a minor character) during the Carnival parade, and Portuguese-accented English is spoken by the Brazilian bird traffickers. The ornithologist Tulio is the only main character who has a mild Brazilian accent. Regarding native varieties of English, Pedro, Nico and Luiz are linguistically characterised

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through phonetic, prosodic, lexical and syntactic features typical of AAVE. Nigel, who wants to kill Blu, displays a New Zealand accent, uses an archaic language and often quotes from Shakespeare’s Hamlet. The tree frog Gabi who is in love with Nigel speaks General American, uses archaic words and quotes from Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet. Table 4.15 summarises the Language varieties spoken in Rio and Rio 2. Table 4.15 Language varieties spoken in Rio and Rio 2 Name of character

Voice actor/actress

Role in the film Occupation

Language variety and language

Blu

Jesse Eisenberg

General American

Linda

Leslie Mann

Jewel

Anne Hathaway

Protagonist Blue macaw Main character Bird owner Protagonist Blue macaw

Tulio

Rodrigo Santoro

Main character Ornithologist

Nigel

Jemaine Clement

Secondary character Villain/Antagonist Cockatoo

Rafael

George Lopez

Secondary character Toucan

Nico

Jamie Foxx

Pedro

will.i.am

Luiz

Tracy Morgan

Gabi

Kristin Chenoweth

Secondary character Canary Secondary character Red-crested cardinal Secondary character Bulldog Tree frog

Man during carnival

–

Minor character

General American General American, Brazilian Portuguese (few lines) Slight Brazilian-accented English New Zealand English with a New Zealand accent General American, slight Spanish-accented English (a few Spanish words) AAVE AAVE AAVE General American, archaic language, middle-English pronouns and verb forms Brazilian Portuguese

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4.3.16 Language Variation in Rango (2011) Paramount’s Oscar-winning Rango is an animated Western. Its protagonist is the chameleon Rango, voiced by Johnny Depp. After a car accident Rango finds himself in the desert in an old village called Dirt whose inhabitants are mysteriously running out of water. Rango pretends he is a brave and skilled hero. The village mayor appoints him sheriff and Rango agrees to help the villagers. Since Rango refers to Western films, it is set in the ‘Wild Wild West’ where different types of people meet and clash. As a result, the language varieties spoken in this film range widely: from General American English to British English (Cockney), Southern American English, Spanish-accented English and some Spanish. Rango (Johnny Depp), the Mayor (Ned Beatty) and the dangerous Rattlesnake (British actor Bill Nighy contriving an American accent) speak General American, while British English with a marked Cockney accent is spoken by Bad Bill, a brutish thug voiced by British actor Ray Winstone. Linguistic characterisation is further achieved through the use of a non-standard regional and social variety of American English. As will be discussed in Chapter 5, the inhabitants of Dirt and other minor characters have a southern US accent and use non-standard grammatical features such as ‘ain’t’, double negation, ‘them’ for ‘those’ and copula omission. They speak Southern American English. Non-native varieties of English and other languages are also important in this film. As will be illustrated in Chapter 7, Spanish-accented English interspersed with several Spanish words and expressions (some of them typical of Latin American Spanish) are used by the narrators (the four Mariachi Owls who play the guitar and sing) as well as by a desert frog. American English, British English and Spanish-accented English are thus the main language varieties spoken, with several words and expressions in Spanish. The film also contains some rude language, taboo words and expressions (uttered in Spanish such as cojones) and hints at some rude English expressions. Table 4.16 summarises the Language varieties spoken in Rango.

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Table 4.16 Language varieties spoken in Rango Name of character

Voice actor/actress

Role in the film Occupation

Rango

Johnny Depp

Mayor

Ned Beatty

Rattlesnake Jake

Bill Nighy

Bad Bill

Ray Winstone

Mariachi Owls

George Del Hoyo, Gore Verbinski

Rock-Eye

Joe Nuñez

Protagonist Chameleon Antagonist, villain Mayor of Dirt Tortoise Antagonist Snake Antagonist Tax collector, bandit Gila monster Narrators Musicians and singers Owls Minor character Desert frog

Beans

Isla Fisher

Balthasar

Harry Dean Stanton

Female lead, village girl Iguana Thief

Language variety General American General American

General American BrE (Cockney)

Spanish-accented English, Spanish words and expressions Spanish-accented English, Spanish words and expressions Southern American English Southern American English

4.3.17 Language Variation in Brave/Ribelle-The Brave (2012) Disney-Pixar’s Brave is set in Scotland in an undefined time. The protagonist is the Scottish Princess Merida, daughter of King Fergus and Queen Elinor. Merida is a brave, unconventional princess who does not want to abide by the rules and conventions of tradition, does not want to become a ‘proper’ queen like her mother and prefers to ride horses and play with bows and arrows. Other characters are Merida’s brothers (the naughty identical triplets Hamish, Hubert and Harry), members of other Scottish clans and a witch. The film has an all-British cast. Merida is voiced by Kelly MacDonald, King Fergus by Billy Connelly,

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Lord Dingwall by Robbie Coltrane, Lord MacIntosh by Craig Ferguson and Young MacIntosh by Steven Cree (all actors from Glasgow and the surrounding area). Lord MacGuffin and Young MacGuffin are both voiced by Scottish actor Kevin McKidd. The voice actors are thus mostly Scottish, except for Queen Elinor (Emma Thompson) and the Witch (Julie Walters) who contrive a Scottish accent. In terms of linguistic representation all the characters speak English natively, using the Scottish English variety. As will be discussed in Chapter 5, the characters’ Scottish identity is portrayed by means of prosodic and lexical features, by a Scottish accent and by the use of words and expressions typical of Scottish English such as wee, lass, aye and och and such expressions as jings, crivens and help ma boab. Moreover, Young MacGuffin utters some incomprehensible words in Doric. This specific Scottish dialect is used in order to provide characterisation and humour since nobody can understand Young MacGuffin. Table 4.17 summarises the Language varieties spoken in Brave/Ribelle-The Brave. Table 4.17 Language varieties spoken in Brave/Ribelle-The Brave Role in the film Occupation

Language variety

Robbie Coltrane

Protagonist Princess Merida’s father King Merida’s mother Queen Clan head

Lord MacIntosh

Craig Ferguson

Clan head

Young MacIntosh

Steven Cree

Lord MacGuffin

Kevin McKidd

Merida’s suitor Lord McIntosh’s son Clan head

Young MacGuffin

Kevin McKidd

Scottish English Scottish English Scottish English Scottish English Scottish English Scottish English Scottish English Doric dialect

The Witch

Julie Walters

Name of character

Voice actor/actress

Merida

Kelly McDonald

King Fergus

Billy Connelly

Queen Elinor

Emma Thompson

Lord Dingwall

Merida’s suitor Lord MacGuffin’s son Helper to protagonist

Scottish English

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4.3.18 Language Variation in Rise of the Guardians/Le cinque leggende (2012) This film is based on a series of children’s books by William Joyce about the guardians of childhood. Each guardian represents and protects an emotion or human value: North (Santa Claus) is the guardian of wonder, the Easter Bunny is the guardian of hope, the Tooth Fairy is the guardian of memory and Sandman is the guardian of dreams. They are guided by the Man in the Moon who summons them to fight against Pitch Black, the evil character representing fear and nightmares. Jack Frost is then chosen to join the guardians of childhood as the guardian of fun. In this film most characters speak various native varieties of English: the Tooth Fairy (Isla Fisher) and Jack Frost (Chris Pine) speak General American, the Easter Bunny (Hugh Jackman) speaks Australian English and the evil Pitch Black (Jude Law) has a charming British English accent. The one non-native variety of English belongs to North (Alec Baldwin) who speaks a contrived foreign-accented (Eastern European or Russian-accented) English. The representation of these characters through specific linguistic varieties contributes to defining them in terms of character portrayal, setting (for North) and partly humour (especially for North who is presented as a comic character. Table 4.18 summarises the Language varieties spoken in Rise of the Guardians/Le cinque leggende.

4.3.19 Language Variation in Hotel Transylvania (2012) and Hotel Transylvania 2 (2015) The protagonist of the Hotel Transylvania films is Dracula (‘Drac’) who turns his castle into a hotel where monsters can seek refuge from dangerous and aggressive humans. Drac lives a happy life with his monster friends and his daughter Mavis until peace is broken by the arrival of a young man, the American Jonathan (Johnny), with whom Mavis falls in love. In the second film of the trilogy Mavis and Johnny have become parents and live in the castle alongside Drac. They decide to visit Johnny’s parents in the United States while Drac takes care of his grandson Dennis. The film highlights the contrast between the

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Table 4.18 Language varieties spoken in Rise of the Guardians/Le cinque leggende Name of character

Voice actor/actress

Role in the film Occupation

Tooth Fairy

Isla Fisher

Jack Frost

Chris Pine

Easter Bunny

Hugh Jackman

Pitch Black

Jude Law

North

Alec Baldwin

Protagonist Guardian of Memory Protagonist Guardian of Fun Protagonist Guardian of Hope Antagonist King of Nightmares Protagonist Guardian of Wonder

Language variety General American

General American AusE

BrE (RP)

Russian-accented or Eastern European-accented English

younger generation and Drac’s old-fashioned mentality. This contrast is also achieved through verbal means by making Drac (Adam Sandler) speak with a contrived Eastern European accent, and Johnny (Andy Samberg) and Mavis (Selena Gomez) speak General American, with Johnny using several colloquial expressions. The heavy foreign-accented English contrived by US comedian Sandler has the function of triggering humour. Drac’s stylised linguistic representation is constructed by means of prosodic features, pronunciation and accent/intonation. Table 4.19 summarises the Language varieties spoken in Hotel Transylvania and Hotel Transylvania 2.

4.3.20 Language Variation in Turbo (2013) The protagonist of DreamWorks’ Turbo is Theo, a garden snail whose dream is to become an Indianapolis 500 champion and whose idol is French Canadian racing driver Guy Gagné. Turbo lives with his brother Chet, a more down-to-earth and overly cautious snail, and they both work in a tomato plant in a garden. After a strange accident Turbo wakes up with super speed and saves his brother from being eaten by a bird. The

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Table 4.19 Language varieties spoken in Hotel Transylvania and Hotel Transylvania 2 Role in the film Occupation Nationality

Name of character

Voice actor/actress

Drac

Adam Sandler

Vampire Hotelier Transylvanian

Mavis

Selena Gomez

Johnny

Andy Samberg

Drac’s daughter Vampire Transylvanian Drac’s son-in-law Human American

Language variety ‘Transylvanian’-accented English, Eastern European/Slavic-accented English General American

General American

snails end up in a rundown mall in California and are captured by Tito, a young man who along with his brother Angelo sells tacos from their taco van. Turbo is then enrolled in the Indy 500 competition where his hero Guy Gagné tries his best to avoid being defeated by the snail. The film presents characters who speak both native and non-native varieties of English. For instance, the hero Turbo (Ryan Reynolds) and his brother Chet (Paul Giamatti) speak American English, while Spanishaccented English and French-accented English are spoken in the film to provide characterisation and comedy. Tito (voiced by Michael Peña) speaks mainly English with a very slight Spanish accent and uses some Spanish words and expressions, and Angelo (voiced by Luis Guzmán) has a heavier Spanish-accented English. French-accented English is spoken by Canadian racing driver Guy Gagné (voiced by US stand-up comedian Bill Hader), a seductive but evil character who speaks with a broad French accent and sometimes uses French words. Table 4.20 summarises the Language varieties spoken in Turbo.

4.3.21 Language Variation in Planes (2013) Disneytoon’s Planes is the story of Dusty Crophopper who fulfils his dream of taking part in the Wings Around the Globe race against planes from all over the world. The film contains stereotypical representations of

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Table 4.20 Language varieties spoken in Turbo Name of character

Voice actor/actress

Role in the film Occupation

Turbo

Ryan Reynolds

Chet

Paul Giamatti

Tito

Michael Peña

Protagonist Snail Turbo’s brother Snail Turbo’s friend and owner Taco seller

Angelo

Luis Guzmán

Tito’s older brother Taco seller

Guy Gagné

Bill Hader

Antagonist Racing driver Canadian

Language variety General American General American Spanish-accented English (slight accent), some Spanish words and expressions Spanish-accented English, some Spanish words and expressions French-accented English, French words and expressions

the ethnic ‘other’ through visual and verbal clichés, some cheap humour that verges on the vulgar and sometimes insulting (sexist) language. For instance, when the sensual Indian plane Ishani turns her back, Dusty comments “Look at that propeller!” Or when Mexican plane El Chupacabra (‘El Chu’) tries to seduce Canadian plane Rochelle by making romantic jokes, the female plane tired of El Chu’s exaggerated behaviour replies by saying that the mind of the Mexican plane is “teeny tiny”. Stereotypes are also conveyed through linguistic variation. An attempt to provide authenticity of accent, naturalness and credibility can be seen in the choice of voice actors. For instance, El Chupacabra is voiced by Mexican American Carlos Alazraqui, Ishani by Bollywood actress Priyanka Chopra and British plane Bulldog by English actor John Cleese. However, this does not prevent the film from indulging in stereotypes and parody in an attempt to make the audience laugh. Both native and non-native varieties of English are used in this film. The protagonist Dusty Crophopper (Dane Cook) and several minor characters speak General American. British English is used by Bulldog, a plane whose visual and verbal characterisation is highly caricatural. The

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Table 4.21 Language varieties spoken in Planes Name of character

Voice actor/actress

Dusty Crophopper

Dane Cook

El Chupacabra

Carlos Alazraqui

Ishani

Priyanka Chopra

Bulldog

John Cleese

Rochelle

Julia Louis-Dreyfus

Franz

Oliver Kalkofe

Role in the film Occupation Nationality Protagonist Plane American Race competitor Plane Mexican Race competitor Plane Indian Race competitor Plane British Race competitor Plane Canadian

Flying Car German

Language variety and language General American

Spanish-accented English, several Spanish words and expressions Slight Indian-accented English BrE

French-accented English, French words and expressions French German-accented English, German words and expressions

Mexican identity of El Chu is highlighted both visually and verbally. He speaks a marked Spanish-accented English and uses several Spanish words and expressions. Rochelle also speaks a marked French-accented English and uses some French words and expressions such as J’en sais pas, oui and magnifique. Some German-accented English and German is also heard when the race stops in Germany. The easily recognisable German word Achtung! is used to provide setting, while the minor character Franz (a flying car) who is a great fan of Dusty, also uses several German words. Foreign-accented English and foreign languages are thus resorted to in this film in order to create characters, signal national identity, trigger humour and provide setting (Germany). Table 4.21 summarises the Language varieties spoken in Planes.

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4.3.22 Language Variation in Despicable Me 2/Cattivissimo me 2 (2013) Despicable Me 2 is the second film of a trilogy whose protagonist is Gru, a reformed comic super-villain. In the first film Gru attempted to steal the moon, but ended up adopting three girls and deciding to try and live a normal life with them. In Despicable Me 2 Gru joins the Anti-Villain League, a secret group that fights crime on a global scale, and has to search for the person who stole a secret Arctic laboratory containing a dangerous mutagen. Gru and his new colleague agent Lucy Wilde search for the culprit in a shopping mall. The suspects are Eduardo Pérez (the Mexican owner of the Salsa y Salsa restaurant) and Asian Floyd Eagle-san who sells wigs. In the meantime, Dr Nefario (Gru’s assistant) leaves his job because he misses being evil and has received a good job offer, and the little Minions (Gru’s companions and assistants) mysteriously disappear. The film is particularly interesting in terms of linguistic characterisation since it includes both native and non-native varieties of English, as well as a few lines uttered in a foreign language. Unlike most animated films, the protagonist Gru (Steve Carell) does not speak General American but rather a contrived, undefined foreignaccented English. General American is spoken by Lucy, Gru’s adopted daughters Agnes, Margo and Edith and several other characters, while British English is spoken by Dr Nefario and Silas Ramsbottom voiced by English actors Russell Brand and Steve Coogan, respectively. Some lines in Russian can be heard at the very beginning of the film. Several varieties of foreign-accented English are spoken in the film. For example, Spanish-accented English with several Spanish words and expressions is spoken both by Eduardo Pérez/El Macho (voiced by Peruvian American actor Benjamin Bratt) and his son Antonio (voiced by American actor Moises Arias). Italian-accented English is spoken by a waiter in an Italian restaurant voiced by American director Chris Renaud. The minor character of Floyd Eagle-san (voiced by Asian American actor Ken Jeong) speaks American English with a slight foreign accent. Furthermore, the small naughty yellow creatures called the Minions speak an invented,

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almost incomprehensible language along with a few real English, Frenchaccented and French words.Table 4.22 summarises the Language varieties spoken in Despicable Me 2/Cattivissimo me 2. Table 4.22 Language varieties spoken in Despicable Me 2/Cattivissimo me 2

Name of character

Voice actor/actress

Gru

Steve Carell

Eduardo Pérez/El Macho

Benjamin Bratt

Antonio Pérez Lucy Wilde

Moises Arias

Agnes

Elsie Fisher

Margo Edith

Miranda Cosgrove Dana Gaier

Dr Nefario

Russell Brand

Silas Ramsbottom

Steve Coogan

Italian waiter

Chris Renaud

Floyd Eagle-san

Ken Jeong

Secret Arctic lab guards

Kristen Wiig

Role in the film Occupation Nationality Protagonist Reformed super-villain Suspect, villain Owner of Salsa y Salsa restaurant Mexican Eduardo’s son Gru’s colleague Secret agent Gru’s daughter Gru’s daughter Gru’s daughter Gru’s assistant Scientist Leader of the Anti-Villain League Minor character Waiter Minor character Suspect Shop owner Minor characters

Language variety, language Undefined foreign-accented English (Eastern European accent) Spanish-accented English, some Spanish words and expressions

Spanish-accented English General American

General American General American General American BrE (Cockney)

BrE (RP)

Italian-accented English

General American, slight foreign-accented English Russian (continued)

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Table 4.22 (continued)

Name of character

Voice actor/actress

Role in the film Occupation Nationality

Minions

Pierre Coffin and Chris Renaud

Gru’s assistants Minions

Language variety, language Incomprehensible, invented language containing some English, French-accented and French words

4.3.23 Language Variation in Mr. Peabody and Sherman (2014) A genius dog called Mr Peabody and his adopted son Sherman travel though time and across the world in the WABAC—a time machine invented by Mr Peabody. While the story is set in contemporary America, Mr Peabody and Sherman return to ancient Egypt, to ancient Greece during the Trojan war, to France during the French Revolution and to Italy during Leonardo’s work on the Mona Lisa. Such a plethora of cultures and ages is linguistically represented in the English version through the use of non-native varieties of English. While Mr Peabody (Ty Burrell), Sherman (Max Charles), his schoolmate Penny (Ariel Winterson), her parents and all the Americans in the film speak General American, some historical figures from other countries speak non-native varieties of English with foreign accents which are more or less easily detectable and variously stereotyped. In particular, the linguistic characterisation of Italian Leonardo (Stanley Tucci) and Mona Lisa (Lake Bell) and of French Marie Antoinette (Lauri Fraser) and Robespierre (voiced by French production designer Guillaume Aretos) adds a further layer of humour to a film which abounds in cultural references, allusions and wordplay. Foreign-accented English and lexical features as well as instances of code-switching and code-mixing convey humour while signalling the origins of the speakers and the countries where the action takes place. Words and expressions in French and in Italian serve as spectacular fragments, as noted for many of the films in the corpus.

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Table 4.23 Language varieties spoken in Mr. Peabody and Sherman Name of character

Voice actor/actress

Mr Peabody

Ty Burrell

Sherman

Max Charles

Penny Peterson

Ariel Winter

Leonardo

Stanley Tucci

Mona Lisa

Lake Bell

Robespierre

Guillaume Aretos

Marie Antoinette

Lauri Fraser

Albert Einstein

Mel Brooks

Role in the film Occupation Nationality Protagonist Genius dog Protagonist Mr Peabody’s adopted son Sherman’s classmate Schoolgirl Secondary character Inventor and artist Italian Secondary character Model Italian Secondary character Politician French Secondary character Monarch French Minor character Theoretical physicist German

Language variety General American General American

General American

Italian American English

Italian American English French-accented English, some French words and expressions French-accented English, some French words and expressions German-accented English

Furthermore, Mel Brooks also modulates his voice to provide a German accent for Einstein. Table 4.23 summarises the Language varieties spoken in Mr. Peabody and Sherman.

4.3.24 Language Variation in The Book of Life/Il libro della vita (2014) The Book of Life is directed by Mexican animator Jorge G. Gutiérrez and starts in a US museum which is visited by some bored teenagers. An

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unusual museum guide tells them a story from “The Book of Life” which takes place in the Mexican town of San Angel. The protagonists are Manolo (a boy who wants to become a musician despite his family tradition of bullfighting), his friend and rival Joaquín (a brave boy who will become a fighter/soldier) and María (the daughter of the village general with whom both boys are in love). Other important characters are La Muerte (the ruler of the Land of the Remembered) and Xibalba (the ruler of the Land of the Forgotten) who belong to the world of the dead and influence the life of the three friends. In order to save María from death Manolo enters the realm of the dead during the Mexican celebration of Día de Muertos and has to face several challenges. The film’s voice cast is made up of several Latino actors such as Diego Luna (Manolo), Zoe Saldana (María) and Kate del Castillo (La Muerte). Some American actors voice other characters such as Joaquín (Channing Tatum) and Xibalba (Ron Perlman). Both General American and Spanish-accented English are the language varieties spoken in the film and there are some instances of code-mixing and code-switching. Spanish words or expressions are used by various characters to suggest that they should realistically be speaking Spanish since the story is set in Mexico. Such words as fiesta, mi amor, señora, señorita, mijo, adiós, buenas noches, Cinco de Mayo, La Muerte and venga toro abound in the English dialogue. Most of the main characters tend to speak General American and sometimes with a very slight Spanish accent (and with Spanish words and expressions interspersed in their dialogue). A few minor characters speak English with a broad Spanish accent. The characters who have a broad foreign accent are María’s father (General Posada), Manolo’s grandmother and some minor older characters. This results in a generational contrast. As pointed out by Planchenault (2017, p. 287), the film provides an example of the “commodification of accented voices across generations: while the grandparents and parents speak English with a non-native accent (with the grandparents displaying the strongest Mexican accent) and code-switch frequently in Spanish, the children speak unaccented American English.” Although linguistic characterisation sounds quite authentic, it only rarely appears like a stylised, stereotypical and comic representation. Table 4.24

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Table 4.24 Language varieties spoken in The Book of Life/Il libro della vita Name of character Young Manolo Young Joaquín Manolo

Voice actor/actress

Role in the film Occupation

Diego Luna

Protagonist Protagonist Protagonist Aspiring musician

Joaquín

Channing Tatum

Main character Manolo’s rival Aspiring soldier

María Posada

Zoe Saldana

Main character Love interest General’s daughter

General Ramiro Posada

Carlos Alazraqui

Maria’s father General

La Muerte

Kate del Castillo

Xibalba

Ron Perlman

Carlos Sanchez

Hector Helizondo Grey Griffin

Supporting character Ruler of the Land of the Remembered Antagonist (villain) Ruler of the Land of the Forgotten Manolo’s father Bullfighter Manolo’s grandmother Minor character

Manolo’s grandmother Candle maker

Ice Cube

Language variety General American General American General American, slight Spanish-accented English, a few Spanish words and expressions General American, sometimes slight Spanish-accented English, some Spanish words and expressions General American, sometimes with slight Spanish-accented English, some Spanish words and expressions Spanish-accented English, some Spanish words and expressions General American, slight Spanish accent

General American

Spanish-accented English Spanish-accented English AAVE intonation and rhythm (continued)

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Table 4.24 (continued) Name of character Minor characters

Voice actor/actress

Role in the film Occupation

Language variety Spanish-accented English, some Spanish words and expressions

summarises the Language varieties spoken in The Book of Life/Il libro della vita.

4.3.25 Language Variation in Zootopia/Zootropolis (2016) In Oscar-winning Disney Animation Studios’ film Zootopia several mammals, both predators and prey, coexist happily and peacefully in the ideal town Zootopia, where anyone can become anything they want. The tiny rabbit Judy Hopps, born and raised in the countryside, has big dreams and manages to fulfil them in Zootopia where she becomes the first bunny police officer (and one of the few female officers). Nevertheless, although the city is considered a utopian place and a diverse city that celebrates differences, life is not as perfect as it seems. Prejudice as well as race and gender discrimination actually occur. For instance, Judy has to face discrimination in the workplace and being a rabbit and female she is made to work as a parking control officer; the Mayor is a lion who bullies his meek secretary (a sheep); and animals are called names by other animals. Judy is considered a cute and dumb bunny, Nick Wilde a sly fox and the police receptionist Clawhauser (a cheetah) a flabby donut-loving cop (and actually eats donuts while working). The film has been described as an exploration of stereotypes, race and racism, gender inequalities and discrimination and a portrayal of US multicultural society with its race-related problems and conflicts (Beaudine et al. 2017; see also Soares 2017, p. 26). Crewe argues that “discrimination, oppression, and inequality operate on multiple axes within the film: animals experience different treatment based on their size, their specific

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species, or more broadly, whether they fall into the category of prey or predator” (2017, p. 30). Most of the characters in Zootopia speak English natively with General American being the prevailing variety. The main characters are Judy Hopps (Ginnifer Goodwin) and the sly fox Nick Wilde (Jason Bateman) who both speak General American. Nevertheless, a few characters speak social and ethnic varieties of American English or non-standard English. Despite (or perhaps because of ) the film’s message against stereotypes, linguistic characterisation contributes to reinforcing specific social stereotypes. An example is the portrayal of a mafia mobster (a tiny arctic shrew ironically called Mr Big) speaking Italian American English with a broad Italian accent. Mr Big’s behaviour and speech clearly allude to Vito Corleone’s character in the 1972 Godfather film (some dialogue lines are actually quotations from that film). His daughter Fru Fru (voiced by Leah Latham) speaks with a less marked Italian American accent. Further examples of American stereotypes are the countryside fox Gideon Grey and the thief Duke Weaselton. Gideon Grey (voiced by Phil Johnston) is a fox who bullied Judy when she was a child but who then becomes a pastry chef in Judy’s village. He is represented as a southern, rustic farmer who speaks a variety that can be identified as rural Southern American English both at the phonetic and lexical level (see Soares 2017, p. 29). The weasel Duke Weaselton (Alan Tudyk) is negatively portrayed through his behaviour and language. He is a thief, has a New York City/Brooklyn accent and speaks a non-standard variety of English with stigmatised grammatical features such as ain’t and double negation. The tiny but aggressive Finnick utters a few words using AAVE. By somehow connoting such secondary characters in a negative way and having them speak non-standard varieties of American English (Gideon and Duke) or an ethnolect (Italian American for Mr Big) this contributes to reinforcing stereotypical representations. The language spoken by further minor roles is also marked such as that of Yax the yak (voiced by Tommy Chong) who is the hippie receptionist at the yoga centre for naturists/naked animals and speaks an idiolect characterised by a very colloquial register and the frequent use of vocatives such as dude and bro. This conforms with the comic stereotype of the surfer dude or dopehead. Another native variety of English spoken in the film is British

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English. The head of the police department, the buffalo Chief Bogo, is voiced by London-born Idris Elba with a standard British English accent and a formal register.4 Table 4.25 summarises the Language varieties spoken in Zootopia/Zootropolis.

4.3.26 Language Variation in Sing (2016) The film Sing is presumably set in a US city and tells the story of the koala Buster Moon, owner of the Moon Theatre, who decides to organise a singing contest in the hope of saving his theatre from being closed down. Since he is facing bankruptcy he asks for the financial support of rich elderly sheep Miss Nana Noodleman (an opera celebrity) and starts auditioning several animals. The finalists are the gorilla Johnny (voiced by British actor Taron Egerton), the white mouse Mike (Seth MacFarlane), the porcupine Ash (Scarlett Johansson), the pigs Gunter and Rosita (Nick Kroll and Reese Witherspoon) and the elephant Meena (Tori Kelly). They are coached by Buster Moon (Matthew McConaughey) who is helped by his secretary, the chameleon Miss Crawly (voiced by the film director Garth Jennings) and Moon’s friend the sheep Eddie (John C. Reilly). Several famous songs are performed by the voice actors. When it comes to linguistic variation, the anthropomorphic animals in the film speak both native and non-native varieties of English. Most of the characters naturally speak General American, while some speak British English with specific accents signalling their social provenance. For instance and as will be discussed in Chapter 5, the rich diva Nana (voiced by British actress Jennifer Saunders) speaks an upper-class British English (RP); while the gorilla Johnny, his father and his gang of thieves have a working-class Cockney accent. In terms of linguistic characterisation the mouse Mike has a slight East Coast/New York accent and may be said to speak with a cool New York street flavour to sound like a

4 Eight

native speakers of British English and one native speaker of American English identified the language variety spoken by Chief Bogo as British English. Four British English speakers also detected an East London accent (see also Dore 2019), while two detected an accent that was a mixture of British and American.

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Table 4.25 Language varieties spoken in Zootopia/Zootropolis Name of character

Voice actor/actress

Role in the film Occupation

Language variety Language

Judy Hopps

Ginnifer Goodwin Jason Bateman J. K. Simmons

Protagonist Police officer Main character Mayor of Zootopia Mayor’s secretary Police officer receptionist Antagonist (negative character) Crime boss Mr Big’s daughter Minor character (negative character) Thief Minor character (negative character – Judy’s school bully) Farmer, pastry chef Minor character Yoga centre receptionist Hippie Minor character Police chief Judy’s Boss Minor character Con artist Yoga instructor

General American

Nick Wilde Mayor Lionheart Bellwether

Jenny Slate

Clawhauser

Nate Torrence

Mr Big

Maurice LeMarche

Fru Fru

Leah Latham

Duke Weaselton

Alan Tudyk

Gideon Grey

Phil Johnston

Yax

Tommy Chong

Chief Bogo

Idris Elba

Finnick

Tommy ‘Tiny’ Lister Rita Geddy

Nangi

General American General American General American General American Italian American English, some Italian words Slight Italian American English New York accent, non-standard grammar

Southern US English, non-standard grammar

General American, with Californian surfer dude, dopehead idiolect British English

AAVE Slight Indian accent

gangster.5 Non-native varieties of English are also spoken by the German pig Gunter and some aggressive Russian bears who like gambling and

5I

would like to thank Claudia Gvirzman Dichter, Giselle Spiteri Miggiani, Antonio Romano, Christopher Taylor, Stuart Doherty and Shan Hirst for their comments.

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playing cards. As will be discussed in Chapter 7, Gunter uses a broad and stylised German-accented English whose phonetic, lexical and syntactic features are used to index the pig’s German identity and contribute to making him a funny character, also due to his over-the-top behaviour and voice quality. Another language in addition to English is used in this film. A group of female red pandas sing and speak only in Japanese (unsubtitled). The foreign language creates comic communication problems during the auditions and rehearsals. Table 4.26 summarises the Language varieties spoken in Sing (2016).

4.3.27 Language Variation in Coco (2017) Disney -Pixar’s Coco is a story set in Mexico whose protagonist is Miguel, a boy who loves music and whose idol is singer and actor Ernesto de la Cruz. Miguel, however, cannot play the guitar since music is banned in his family. During the celebrations for Día de los Muertos Miguel steals a guitar in order to take part in a competition and ends up in the realm of the Dead, meeting his idol and his ancestors. In order to return to his world Miguel has to be blessed by a dead member of his family. This will enable him to meet his old Mama Coco again and save the memory of his great grandfather from oblivion. Given the setting and plot of the story, the filmmakers clearly attempted to provide an accurate and respectful portrayal of Mexican culture. Director Unkrich and his team were well aware that they could be criticised for appropriating and distorting Mexican culture and traditions, as well as for providing a fake representation of Mexican cultural elements and language through stereotypes and clichés. By choosing Latino voice actors and discussing various issues with several Hispanic consultants they managed to avoid criticism (Ugwu 2017, online). When it came to language, it was important to work with believable dialogue that resembled the real language spoken by Mexican people as much as possible and to have “an all-Latino cast” that would deliver the lines naturally (Moreno 2016, online). For example, one of the main characters (Miguel) was voiced by Anthony González, another (Héctor) by Gael García Bernal and yet another (Mamá Coco) by Ana Ofelia Murguia. All

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Table 4.26 Language varieties spoken in Sing (2016) Name of character

Voice actor/actress

Buster Moon

Matthew McConaughey

Eddie

John C. Reilly

Miss Nana

Jennifer Saunders

Johnny

Taron Egerton

Big Daddy

Peter Serafinowicz

Mike

Seth MacFarlane

Ash

Scarlett Johansson

Gunter

Nick Kroll

Rosita

Reese Witherspoon

Meena

Tori Kelly

Miss Crawly

Garth Jennings

Red pandas

Uncredited

Role in the film Occupation

Language variety, language

Protagonist Theatre owner Koala Buster’s friend Sheep Eddie’s aunt Former opera singer Sheep Competitor Singer Reluctant criminal Gorilla Minor character Johnny’s father Thief Gorilla Competitor Singer Mouse Competitor Singer Porcupine Competitor Singer Pig

General American

Competitor Singer Mother of several piglets Pig Competitor Singer Elephant Secondary character Secretary Minor characters

General American British English (RP), upper-class British English British English (Cockney)

British English (Cockney)

Slight East Coast/New York accent General American

German-accented English, some German words and expressions General American

General American

General American

Japanese (continued)

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Table 4.26 (continued) Name of character

Voice actor/actress

Russian bears

Jim Cummings

Role in the film Occupation

Language variety, language

Minor characters (negative) Brown bears

Slight Russian-accented English

the characters speak foreign-accented English and frequently code-switch and code-mix between English and Spanish (English L1 and Spanish L3). A New York Times article commented that the main characters slipping “in and out of untranslated Spanish [is] a rarity in commercial American cinema” (Ugwu 2017, online). A natural-sounding Spanish-accented English that is neither contrived nor stylised is thus used throughout the film to signal the setting of the story, indicating that the characters would normally speak Spanish and defining the characters’ Mexican identity. Accents are neither heavy nor mock since the aim of linguistic characterisation was not for comic or parodic rendering, but rather for credible and natural-sounding dialogue. Moreover, minor characters in the street tend to utter Spanish words or expressions such as greetings and leave-takings to add couleur locale. Examples of lexical items found in the film dialogues are family terms (mamá, papá, tío, abuelita), interjections and exclamations (¡ay, Dios mio! ), vocatives (muchacho, chamaco, mijo) and greetings and leave-takings, pragmatic formulae and terms referring to Mexican culture and food (muchas gracias, de nada, ¡ay, ay ay, muchacho! , chorizo, alebrijes, Día de los Muertos, ofrenda, vámonos). Table 4.27 summarises the Language varieties spoken in Coco.

4.3.28 Language Variation in Ferdinand (2017) Ferdinand is a film set in Spain loosely based on a 1936 book by Munro Leaf and Robert Lawson. The film tells the story of the bull Ferdinand who lives on a bull farm but refuses to fight and loves flowers. After his father is taken to the Plaza de Toros and fails to return, Ferdinand escapes and is adopted by a girl who lives with her father and a dog in the lovely, flowery countryside. Ferdinand becomes the girl’s best friend, but he is

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Table 4.27 Language varieties spoken in Coco Name of character

Voice actor/actress

Role in the film Occupation

Language variety, language

Miguel

Anthony González

Protagonist Musician

Ernesto de la Cruz Héctor

Benjamin Bratt

Main character Musician and actor

Gael García Bernal

Main character Mamá Coco’s father Musician

Mamá Imelda

Alanna Ubach

Mamá Coco

Ana Ofelia Murguia

Miguel’s ancestor Mamá Coco’s mother Miguel’s greatgrandmother

Spanish/Mexican-accented English, Spanish/Mexican words and expressions Spanish-accented English, Spanish words and expressions Spanish/Mexican-accented English, some Spanish/Mexican words and expressions Spanish-accented English, Spanish words and expressions Spanish/Mexican-accented English, some Spanish/Mexican words and expressions

caught by his ex-owner during a flower festival in which he accidentally causes havoc in the village and is taken back to the Casa del Toro. Once there, Ferdinand tries to help his former friends to escape. However, the bullfighter El Primero chooses Ferdinand for his last corrida in Madrid. Since the setting of the story is clearly Spain (Andalucía) all the characters except for some bulls are meant to be Spanish. This could suggest the choice of a Spanish-speaking (either Spanish or Latino) cast and the use of Spanish-accented English or of Spanish words interspersed in the characters’ speech. However, the fact that the story takes place in Spain is suggested mainly through visual elements and through very few Spanish words or Spanish-speaking minor characters who provide a postcarding effect. In fact, the protagonist is voiced by US wrestler, actor and rapper John Cena and most of the main characters speak General American or British English. The use of Spanish-accented English and Spanish amounts to a few words uttered by Moreno (voiced by Raúl Esparza) the owner of the Casa del Toro, the bullfighter El Primero (voiced by Miguel Ángel Silvestre) and other minor characters voiced by Spanish or Latino voice talents such as Colombian singer Juanes (Nina’s father). The film also contains some unexpected language varieties and languages which

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are used for comic purposes only. These are Scottish English which is spoken by the bull Angus (voiced by Scottish actor David Tennant) and the German-accented English spoken by three ridiculous dancing horses called Hans, Klaus and Greta (voiced by Flula Borg, Boris Kodjoe and Sally Phillips). Table 4.28 summarises the Language varieties spoken in Ferdinand . Table 4.28 Language varieties spoken in Ferdinand Name of character

Voice actor/actress

Ferdinand

John Cena

Moreno

Raúl Esparza

Protagonist Bull Antagonist Owner of Casa del Toro

El Primero

Miguel Ángel Silvestre

Antagonist Bullfighter

Juan

Juanes

Nina’s father Florist

Angus

David Tennant

Hans, Klaus and Greta

Flula Borg, Boris Kodjoe and Sally Phillips

Secondary character Ferdinand’s friend Scottish Highland bull Minor antagonists Dancing horses

Lupe

Kate McKinnon

People in the streets and in the Plaza de Toros

Role in the film Occupation

Secondary character Ferdinand’s friend Goat

Language variety General American Spanish-accented English, some Spanish words and expressions Spanish-accented English, some Spanish words and expressions Spanish-accented English, some Spanish words and expressions Scottish English

German-accented English, some German words and expressions General American

Spanish words and expressions

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Trends in Linguistic Characterisation in the Films: A Summary of Characters by Language Groups

In her study of Disney animated films Lippi-Green provides a list of the animated characters analysed by major language groups and evaluates the characters’ actions and motivations (Lippi-Green 1997, p. 90; 2012, p. 117). She groups them into such categories as US, British, Foreign (language group) and positive, negative, mixed, unclear (motivations and actions). As she argues (2012, p. 117), “interesting patterns come forward when we examine the representation of specific languages linked to national origin, race, or characterization.” If we examine the characters in the animated films of our corpus following Lippi-Green’s methodology and take into account the language group they belong to (i.e., the variety they speak), their national origin, their role in the film, their actions/motivations (whether they have a positive, negative or mixed characterisation) and their visual representation, then some interesting patterns appear to emerge in the representation of language varieties and character types. These will be described in the following sections.

4.4.1 Regularities in Native Varieties of English In her analysis of what variety of English characters speak in Disney animated films Lippi-Green (2012, p. 115) reveals that 56% speak American English, 33% British English, 2% other native varieties of English and 9% non-native English. This means that most of the characters in the Disney films analysed by Lippi-Green (2012) (approximately 90%) “speak English natively, with an American or British or Australian accent” (Lippi-Green 2012, p. 115). More specifically, the most frequent variety spoken in Disney films is what Lippi Green calls ‘Standard American English’ (*SAE), although she adds the asterisk to highlight the fact that she believes the term ‘standard’ is inaccurate: she disagrees with “the idea of a homogenous, standard American English” which she describes as “a mythical beast” (Lippi-Green 2012, p. 62) (on debates

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in sociolinguistics about the persistence of standard/non-standard terms see Coupland 2002). In this book the terms American English and ‘General American’ have been chosen (see Finegan and Rickford 2004; Kirkpatrick 2007). The varieties spoken by characters in Disney films according to Lippi-Green’s study are the following: For the most part (43.1 percent) they speak something approximating *SAE. Another 13.9 percent speak varieties of US English which are associated with particular geographic area [sic ], racial, ethnic or economic groups. Less stigmatized varieties of British English are spoken by 21.8 percent. (2012, p. 115)

These data signal that within American and British varieties further differences can be highlighted. While only around 14% of the speakers of American English speak a “regionally or socially peripheral” variety of AmE and only 11% speak a variety of BrE that is “regionally or socially marked as peripheral” (Lippi-Green 2012, p. 115), the most frequently adopted variety in the Disney films analysed by Lippi-Green is General American (*SAE) followed by Standard British English. Regional and social varieties of BrE and AmE are used for fewer characters and therefore it is plausible to think that they are exploited to provide characterisation and differentiation to mark the characters as ‘different’ or ‘other’. Regarding our corpus of animated films, just over two-thirds (68%) of the characters speak native varieties of English, the remainder (32%) speaking non-native varieties of English. The great majority of English native speakers (69%) speak varieties of American English, onequarter (25%) speak varieties of British English and a small minority (6%) speak other native varieties. General American dominates (81%) within the varieties of American English, while other characters speak regional or social varieties such as Southern American English, AAVE, New York/Brooklynese. These data appear to confirm the dominance of General American in the animated films analysed, although the

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percentage of characters speaking non-native varieties of English is higher in our corpus (32%) than in Lippi-Green’s (9%).6 The choice of a specific variety of English contributes to character portrayal in the animated films analysed in this book and is often meaningful since it may convey specific connotations or traits. Broad national varieties such as British English, Australian English, Scottish English, as well as regional or social dialects of American and British English are used in these films and may have a number of functions: to convey meaning, to indicate the setting of the story, to provide contrast, to create character or to trigger humour. As pointed out by Bleichenbacher, third languages can realistically be used “as a background noise to create a certain ambience or indicate localities,” to “indicate a character’s nationality in favour of authenticity,” to “portray a character – often connected with stereotypes”, to “be an element of suspense” or “a comic element” (2008, p. 28).

General American English Heroes The first important regularity found in the films is that almost all the main/leading characters and heroes speak General American English— not foreign-accented English, other native varieties of English or commonly stigmatised varieties of English (socially or regionally peripheral varieties of American and British English). This also happens in films that are set in countries where the main language of communication would not be English such as Ratatouille, Ferdinand and Rio. This confirms previous studies by several scholars (see Lippi-Green 1997, 2012; Petrucci 2015; Planchenault 2015 among others) who argue that most characters in Hollywood films and in Disney animated films speak a standard variety of American English. Petrucci points out the presence of “an essentialist language ideology whereby, in the eyes of mainstream Hollywood at least, the default nationality for English speakers is American and the default accent for English is Standard American English” (2015, p. 397).

6I

would like to thank Stuart Doherty for providing these data, creating tables and pie charts.

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In the 37 films analysed only 2 main characters speak a native variety of English other than General American (Merida in Brave and Oscar in Shark Tale) and 3 speak a broad foreign-accented English: Puss in Puss in Boots, Gru in Despicable Me and Dracula in Hotel Transylvania. Another 2 main characters speak a mild foreign-accented English in a couple of recent films set in Mexico: Manolo in The Book of Life and Miguel in Coco. This prevalence of General American as the preferred variety for the leading characters in the corpus confirms previous studies and shows that not only Disney but all the US majors favour this policy in voice casting and character portrayal. Second, General American is the prevailing language variety spoken in the films making up the corpus and is not only used by both main and secondary characters but also by characters whose actions and motivations can be positive, negative or a mixture. This confirms Lippi-Green’s (2012) analysis and comments made by various scholars who have noted that most of the characters in Hollywood films and in animated films, in particular, tend to speak Standard American English.

Other Varieties of American English Within the native varieties of English, and American varieties of English in particular, Southern American English and African American Vernacular English appear to be used to provide stereotypical representations of characters. Such varieties are considered by Lippi-Green as “regionally or socially marked as peripheral” (2012, p. 115). Southern American English and AAVE tend to be spoken by secondary characters and by characters who are portrayed as somehow negative or carry some negative connotations. Combined with the visual portrayal of the characters, such varieties contribute to providing stereotypical representations, thus reaffirming the negative stereotypes attached to American southerners and African Americans and enhancing the stigmatisation of these non-standard native varieties of English.

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Southern American English Some of the characters speaking Southern American English act positively and have positive motivations (Tow Mater in Cars and some of the people of Dirt in Rango), others are definitely negative (Jack and Jill in Puss in Boots, the bully fox Gideon Grey in Zootopia, the thieves in Rango), yet others are ambiguous (Cookie in Atlantis). Nevertheless, they are all visually represented as scruffy, rustic, rough, uneducated, a bit dull or dim-witted. The verbal and visual representation of these characters is presumably meant to release laughter in the Anglo-American audience who are supposed to immediately recognise the stereotypes and to enjoy the caricature. According to Ramírez Berg, the American southerner constitutes an in-group stereotype termed “hayseed rednecks” (Ramírez Berg 2002, p. 22). This stereotype is also discussed in Phillips’ study of the perception of Standard American English and Southern American English (2010, p. 56) in which she concludes that “Southern-accented speakers trigger stereotypic perceptions” and “low intelligence and low wealth are strong, common stereotypes associated with American Southerners” (2010, p. 53). It is also worth noting that in the film corpus only two female characters (i.e., the evil Jill in Puss in Boots and the nice Beans in Rango) speak using non-standard grammar. On the other hand, although a few positive characters in the film corpus speak with a Southern American accent, they mostly use standard grammar. Examples are Slinky Dog in Toy Story 3 and Dolly Gnome in Gnomeo & Juliet (on the features of Southern American English see Finegan and Rickford 2004; Lippi-Green 2012).

African American Vernacular English (AAVE) The characters speaking an African American variety of English can be split into two groups each of which displays a few specific features of AAVE (on AAVE see Green 2002; Lippi-Green 2012; Lanehart 2015 in particular). The first group consists of female characters, positive characters and main characters. They are all voiced by African American actors who speak a variety of English that cannot be classified as AAVE

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in all respects since they use standard grammar, have an accent close to General American but do at the same time display AAVE intonation and rhythm. These characters seem to be aligned with mainstream American English and their linguistic identity as AAVE is only conveyed through their intonation. On the other hand, other characters who speak AAVE use several nonstandard grammatical features typical of this variety of English. Such characters share some personality/behaviour features and are all male. The typical non-standard linguistic markers of AAVE thus appear to be associated with negative or at least ambiguous male characters. The non-standard grammatical features of AAVE used in the films in the corpus and the way in which these characters speak will be discussed in Chapter 5, which will also analyse how the specificities of AAVE are tackled by dubbing professionals. As previously observed, AAVE is another stigmatised variety of American English which appears to be largely used in the films analysed to provide negative stereotypical representations of African Americans. Characters speaking AAVE in the films tend to be funny, lazy and/or uneducated and are often comic sidekicks or con artists. Moreover, they are often in animal form. Several nonstandard features typical of AAVE can be found in the speech of comic characters who represent specific stereotypes of African Americans and are mostly voiced by African American (male) voice talents. Examples are Donkey (voiced by Eddie Murphy) in Shrek; the hippo Moto Moto in Madagascar 2 (voiced by will.i.am); the canary Pedro, the red cardinal Nico and the bulldog Luiz (voiced by will.i.am, Jamie Foxx and Tracy Morgan, respectively) in Rio; the fish Oscar (voiced by Will Smith) in Shark Tale; and Finnick in Zootopia. It is worth pointing out that Oscar is the only character speaking AAVE who is also the protagonist of a film in our corpus. However, he is not a proper hero since his behaviour is not entirely positive. It is also worth mentioning that characters portrayed as speakers of AAVE appear in non-Disney films and all appear in animal form. This suggests that the findings by Lippi-Green on AAVE in Disney films also apply to films by other US production companies and therefore such characterisations are likely to be due to a prevailing casting trend. This is in line with the stereotypical negative representations of African Americans as jokesters and as having animal form, as discussed

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by Lippi-Green (1997, pp. 91–95; 2012, pp. 121–123). Bloomquist further comments on stereotypes of African Americans in animated films as ‘contemporary cooning’ (a coon is a raccoon and in US slang it is used derogatorily to refer to a person of colour), providing as examples the characters “voiced by today’s Black comedians” (Bloomquist 2015, p. 750). On the other hand, the zebra Marty in Madagascar and all the female characters voiced by African American actresses or celebrities tend to speak American English devoid of non-standard grammar features typical of AAVE albeit with mild AAVE intonation or rhythm, or “fluctuating between mainstream US English and AAVE” (Lippi-Green 2012, p. 121). The films also portray other characters who are not in animal form, who are represented visually as African American and whose speech does not contain exaggerated AAVE features. Rather, they may be said to speak standard American English with AAVE intonation and rhythm. They are Dr Joshua Sweet in Atlantis and Cobra Bubbles in Lilo and Stitch. Lippi-Green suggests that the choice of a more standard variety of American English for these characters may be due to the fact that they are positive. This again would thus support the hypothesis that AAVE is associated with negative characterisation (Lippi-Green 2012, p. 123).

The New York Accent (Brooklynese) The films in the corpus also contain characters who speak with a working-class New York/Brooklyn accent. These are the funny alligators Stan and Carmine living in New York’s sewers in Disney’s The Wild and the thief Duke Weaselton in Zootopia. Such characters take the form of animals, are rough and might be associated with underworld activity and/or criminality. Their speech displays stereotypical phonetic features (e.g., dropped /r/, ‘th’ pronounced as ‘d’) and some non-standard grammar. The mouse Mike in Sing also speaks with a New York accent, although his linguistic characterisation is less marked and he does not use any non-standard features. Nevertheless, he is also associated with negative behaviour in that he is quite aggressive and cheats at cards.

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British English Another regularity that can be found in the films is that British English is often used to connote a character as different from speakers of American English. Assigning a British accent, whether regionally or socially marked, to a specific character indexes specific tropes and is an important means of character construction (see also Planchenault 2015, p. 122 for a similar point related to Frenchness). Moreover, although Planchenault’s comment refers to Frenchness, it can be applied to any non-American accent such as British or Australian accents: “what is indexed […] is plain otherness” (Planchenault 2015, p. 122, emphasis in the original ). Several scholars and critics have noticed that villains in Hollywood films including animations often speak British English (Lippi-Green, 1997, p. 122; Chiaro 2008, p. 16; Rojek 2008, pp. 131–134; Corrius and Zabalbeascoa 2011, p. 121; Minutella 2014, p. 70; Minutella 2016; Ranzato 2018b, p. 223 among others). As argued by Rojek: “Surely, Hollywood’s predilection for using British actors to play villains reflects wider Western cultural perceptions of the British as pathologically reserved and unfeeling.” Rojek also added that “the British model of reserve is well suited for representations of villainy because it smacks of innate superiority” (Rojek 2008, pp. 131, 133). Other “villainous traits that Hollywood associates with the British” include superciliousness, conviction of innate superiority, emotional frigidity, indifference and extreme self-control by constricting their emotions (Rojek 2008, pp. 131–132). Examples of ‘superior’ villains speaking Standard British English (RP) in our corpus of animated films are Pitch Black in Rise of the Guardians, Prince Charming and the Fairy Godmother in Shrek 2 and Sir Miles Axlerod in Cars 2. Lippi-Green (1997, 2012) has also observed that “rich people and aristocrats, in France or elsewhere, speak with British accents no matter what their logical language” (1997, p. 100). In the films analysed several characters speaking British English are represented as upper-class British speakers and portrayed as rich, aristocratic, refined and posh. Examples of such characters are King Harold and Queen Lillian in Shrek 2, the food critic Anton Ego in Ratatouille, the statue of Shakespeare and Lady Bluebury in Gnomeo & Juliet, the Queen in Cars 2 and Nana in Sing.

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The actors voicing these characters are all British. The films analysed thus confirm the association between the socially prestigious British English variety and two character types: the evil and the posh/refined. A further pattern in linguistic characterisation that emerges in the films making up the corpus is that a non-posh British English variety or a more working-class London accent appears to be frequently used for rougher characters. Regional and social varieties of English may signal that the character is working class or less cultured, thus confirming the frequent association made between working-class British English, typically spoken with a Cockney accent, and rough or ambiguous characters. Linguistic stereotypes linked to stigmatised varieties of British English are thus also present in the animated films analysed (on social and regional British dialects of English in films see Ranzato 2010, 2018a, b; Hodson 2014). Ranzato (2018a, p. 241) argues that “Cockney is […] used in telecinematic narratives to represent the working class type as opposed to more refined individuals.” She provides several examples of “how the Cockney character is often narratively contrasted to others of a superior social class, and of how the voice of the Cockney is used to portray characters of dubious moral standing” (Ranzato 2018a, p. 242). Examples of characters having such features in the animated films analysed are Tybalt and Lord Redbrick in Gnomeo & Juliet; Dr Nefario in Despicable Me 2; the alligator Bad Bill in Rango; the gorilla Johnny, his father and a gang of thieves in Sing; and the lazy sea lions Fluke and Rudder in Finding Dory. Although the function of these British English varieties is usually to provide characterisation (evil, posh, rough or uneducated), it may also be to trigger humour, to establish the setting or to provide a contrast with speakers of other varieties (General American, in particular).

Scottish English Other native varieties of English are also exploited in the films to connote otherness (i.e., to differentiate them from the majority of American English speakers, to provide characterisation and sometimes to signal the setting of the story). Unlike other British English varieties such as

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RP and Cockney, Scottish English tends to be considered an appealing variety and to be used for positive characters. Cutler states that Scottish accents carry positive connotations and are associated with ancient exotic lands, bravery and sexual desirability, especially when compared with other socially stigmatised varieties of English such as Cockney or Brooklynese (Cutler 2016, pp. 75–76). Scottish English is used in the animated films in the corpus to provide setting and for characters who are positive in that they are funny, strong, brave, big, rough and authentic. More specifically, a Scottish English variety can be heard in the speech of the comic frog Nanette in Gnomeo & Juliet, in the dialogue of all the characters in Brave (which is set in Scotland), in the speech of the adult Vikings in How to Train Your Dragon and in the lines uttered by the bull Angus in Ferdinand . Such characters have broad Scottish accents and are clearly identified both visually and verbally as Scottish. This supports Planchenault’s observation that in recent years there has been an increased use of Scottish English in animation to differentiate characters: “it seems that there has been a recent tendency in the world of animation films to use Scottish accents” (Planchenault 2015, p. 178). Scottish English in the films analysed fulfils a number of functions: in Shrek it is used to provide characterisation, humour and contrast; in Gnomeo & Juliet it is used to convey humour and characterisation; in How to Train Your Dragon it is used to provide characterisation and express contrast and humour; and in Ferdinand it is used for character portrayal and to trigger humour. Moreover, with the exception of Shrek and two female characters (Elinor in Brave and Valka in How to Train Your Dragon) Scottish English is conveyed by casting Scottish actors. Such characters are represented as positive and funny and thus exploit the positive associations and stereotypes attached to Scottish English.

Australian English Another native variety of English adopted to provide setting, signal otherness and partly convey humour is Australian English. Characters speaking AusE appear in only two corpus films: Finding Nemo and Rise of the Guardians. In Finding Nemo an Australian accent is used to signal

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the setting (Sydney and the Ocean) and is spoken by a few secondary characters voiced by Australian actors. In Rise of the Guardians the Easter Bunny is represented both visually and verbally as being Australian. In the case of the three vegetarian sharks in Finding Nemo and the Easter Bunny Australian English seems to be emphasised and exaggerated to connote Australianness and broadness. Their Australian identity is also highighted by the frequent use of specific typical (arguably stereotypical) Australian words such as Crikey, G’day and mate and a broad accent. Such Australian characters have a number of features in common: they are funny, they are animals, they are all male and they are big, strong, tough and slightly aggressive, though good. They appear to exemplify certain Australian male stereotypes such as toughness, physical strength and being natural, unassuming and direct. Another Australian stereotype that is hinted at by such characters is the ‘larrikin’ (i.e., an uncultivated, rowdy but good-hearted, playful trickster). As pointed out by Goldsmith, Australian characters on screen are often defined by having a broad Australian accent. Moreover, several characters display “the traits that Australians [consider] emblematic of a ‘larrikin’ or ‘ocker’ persona – unorthodox, profane, prone to using inventive slang, abrasive, competitive, disrespectful of authority” (Goldsmith 2017, p. 84). The Easter Bunny and his broad Australian accent combined with his behaviour comply with the stereotype (on media and screen representations of Australians see Crawford 2010; Goldsmith 2017; Marshall 2019).7

4.4.2 Foreign-Accented English or Non-Native Varieties of English The functions of non-native varieties of English (also called foreignaccented English) in our film corpus are to signal the setting, to provide characterisation and otherness and to convey humour. An emphasis on foreign accent/foreignness conveys otherness and comicality. The stronger the foreign accent, the more comedic the character, while a less emphasised accent suggests the character is not as funny. 7I

would like to thank Tessa Dwyer for her comments about Australian accents and film stereotypes of Australians.

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Some characters speak English with a foreign accent to signal to the audience their nationality and that the story takes place in a country where the main language would not be English. This means they would realistically be speaking another language which is suggested by their accent and a few foreign words interspersed in the dialogue. This happens, for instance, in Ratatouille (France), Rio (Brazil), Cars 2 (Italy, Germany and France), Mr. Peabody and Sherman (France and Italy), Madagascar 3 (Monte Carlo), Ferdinand and Puss in Boots (Spain, Mexico) and Coco and The Book of Life (Mexico). Foreign-accented English also appears to be used to provide characterisation (i.e., to “reveal character”; Kozloff 2000, p. 43), to signal otherness and very often to trigger humour. In fact, it is often associated with comic characters and intended to make the audience laugh by emphasising an accent and providing a caricatural effect. An exaggerated representation of foreign-accented English is often conveyed through the use of prosodic, phonetic features combined with foreign or foreign-sounding lexis and sometimes ungrammaticalities. Examples of comic characters speaking foreign-accented English are French-accented Chantal DuBois and Italian-accented Stefano in Madagascar 3, Colette and Skinner in Ratatouille, Gunter in Sing, El Chupacabra in Planes, El Macho in Despicable Me 2, Featherstone in Gnomeo & Juliet and Francesco Bernouilli in Cars 2. As pointed out above, the main characters or heroes in the corpus of films seldom speak foreign-accented English. The only heroes who speak foreign-accented English are Puss in Boots in the eponymous film, Gru in Despicable Me 2 and Dracula in Hotel Transylvania. Spanish-accented Puss in Boots was a secondary character in the Shrek saga, but became the protagonist of a new film when the filmmakers decided to make a film as a result of the character’s popularity. The heavy Spanish characterisation of Puss in Boots is due to the celebrity of his Spanish voice actor Antonio Banderas who enjoyed great popularity thanks to this vocal performance. Gru’s foreign Eastern European accent is a contrived invented accent that comedian Steve Carell put on in order to provide comic characterisation and one that does not claim any authenticity or realism. Drac’s foreign ‘Transylvanian’ accent is again a mock contrived accent that US actor Adam Sandler resorted to for comic characterisation and one that might

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be suggestive of Dracula’s origins. This makes the audience immediately recognise the speaker as the ‘other’, while not claiming to be authentic and realistic since the purpose is merely to give a hint of otherness and create humour. Although foreign-accented characters are sometimes negative, the quantitative data available do not suggest that there is any association between ‘foreign’ and ‘negative’ in the films under study since several villains are also American or British. On the other hand, there is a clear association between ‘foreign’ and ‘comic/parodic’ in the animated films making up the corpus. Chapter 7 will describe and analyse the linguistic representation of foreign-accented characters and their dubbing into Italian.

French-Accented English: French and Canadian Characters French-accented English is used to provide setting (Ratatouille, Madagascar 3, Mr. Peabody and Sherman), to provide characterisation, to signal otherness and above all to convey stereotypes (mostly negative) and caricatures of the French and of Canadians. It is always emphasised and always comic. Ferber (2008), Lippi-Green (2012), and Planchenault (2015) have discussed French stereotypes in the media, particularly in Hollywood and Disney films. Lippi-Green has observed that the French in Disney films are associated with food, are sensual rascals or are irascible. As she puts it, “the truly French, the prototypical French, are those persons associated with food preparation or presentation” and “if a personality is established at all, there are two basic personality types available to them: the irascible […] and the sensual rascal” (Lippi-Green 1997, p. 111). Planchenault emphasises the “emblematic rudeness of the French” and summarises “the values attached to French culture and people which are represented in the American media” (2015, p. 104). She points out that French culture is associated with “authenticity; tradition; romance; arts; gastronomy; fashion” (2015, p. 104). Moreover, she analyses the French as having positive and negative values/qualities that can be grouped as follows:

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(+) Passionate, sensual, hedonist, romantic, intellectuals and artists, elegant, proud; (–) Arrogant, big mouth, quick-tempered, philanderer, inconstant. (Planchenault 2015, p. 215)

French-speaking characters in the animated films analysed certainly comply with such stereotypes. The French-accented characters in Ratatouille are clear examples of the French stereotypes identified by LippiGreen in Disney films: they are chefs and two of them, in particular (i.e., Skinner and Colette), are quite abrupt and ill-tempered. As Planchenault points out in her analysis of French-accented English in Hollywood films, “rudeness, though often represented as more typical of the French male behaviour, may also be displayed by French women, as when Colette abruptly interrupts Linguini’s interview (Ratatouille, 2007) with the line: ‘We hate to be rude but we’re French’” (Planchenault 2015, p. 112). The French characters in the Shrek films also comply with mass media stereotypes of the French as being associated with food preparation, sexual banter, rudeness and effeminacy (Lippi-Green 1997, p. 100; Ferber 2008; Planchenault 2015, pp. 111–112). French is used to establish the setting in Ratatouille, Mr. Peabody and Sherman and Madagascar 3: Europe’s Most Wanted . Rude characters are found in the Shrek films (Monsieur Hood), Atlantis (Moliére), Ratatouille (Chef Skinner and Colette), Madagascar 3 (the villain Captain Chantal DuBois) and Turbo (the arrogant and evil Canadian pilot Guy Gagné). Characters associated with food are found in Ratatouille and the Shrek films. Sensual characters are found in Shrek (the sensual rascal Monsieur Hood, who tries to seduce Fiona) and Planes (Canadian plane Rochelle is portrayed as a witty, sensual character). In most cases, French-accented characters are funny and their linguistic characterisation provides a caricatural comic portrayal.

Spanish-Accented English: Spanish and Latino Characters As is usually the case, regardless of the foreign language providing the accent, the function of Spanish-accented English is to provide setting, signal otherness, portray characters, evoke stereotypes and trigger

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humour. Spanish-accented English is spoken by characters who are clearly native speakers of Spanish either from Spain, Latin America or the United States. However, it is important to acknowledge here that such characters make use of at least two varieties of Spanish accent since this is closely linked to the type of stereotypical portrayal they are expected to give in the films. Some characters speak with a Spanish accent (from Spain), while others speak with a Latin American accent (from the American continent) and use lexis that is typical of this broad variety of Spanish. This distinction is also important because the actors voicing the characters may have a number of very different identities: they may be Spanish or US citizens with Latin American origins (US Latinos) or actors from Latin American countries (Latin Americans). Moreover, the characters in the films analysed are visually represented using stereotypes. Nevertheless, for ease of analysis we will not distinguish between the types of Spanish-accented English in this study since differences are not easy to draw. The terminology used to refer to such stereotypes and to Spanish speakers belonging to various nationalities and backgrounds is not only a complex issue, but it is also ideologically and politically laden. Following Ramírez Berg (2002), I will call all the Spanish-speaking characters who are from the American continent Latinos. Ramírez Berg’s explanation is worth quoting in full since it is relevant to our analysis: “Latino” is the umbrella term for people of Latin American descent that in recent years has supplanted the more imprecise and bureaucratic designation “Hispanic.” Thus Cuban Americans, Puerto Ricans, Mexican Americans, and any people who trace their ethnic roots back to Central or South America are considered Latino if they live in the United States. Those citizens of Central or South America I refer to as Latin Americans, or by their specific nationality. However, when speaking of the stereotypes developed by Hollywood, I have used the term “Latino stereotypes” to mean both U.S. Latinos and Latin Americans. I do this for the sake of convenience and to emphasize the fact that Hollywood did not differentiate between these two broad groups in its stereotyping imagery. As far as Hollywood was concerned, U.S. Latinos and Latin Americans could all be lumped together as people with identical characteristics; as such, they

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could all be uniformly depicted stereotypically as bandits, harlots, Latin lovers, and so forth. (Ramírez Berg 2002, pp. 5–6)

Some of the Spanish-accented characters found in the animated films analysed are represented through stereotypes of Latinos and Spanish people. Spanish-accented English is spoken in the Shrek films, in Puss in Boots, in Toy Story 3 and in Ferdinand . In some cases the representational strategy is one of deliberate exaggeration, while in others (only a few) it is realism. Spanish-accented English is used to signal the setting and provide characterisation in Puss in Boots, The Book of Life, Ferdinand (just a few instances and a few minor characters) and Coco. In several cases the films make use of spectacular fragments (some Spanish words are inserted in the English dialogue) and Spanish-accented dialogue. These occur in all the films in which Spanish-speaking characters appear. However, some recent films also display cases of code-mixing and English–Spanish code-switching. Code-switching is typical of bilingual speakers and is often employed by US Latinos. In the film Coco (2017) instances of code-switching can be observed and greater use of the Spanish language in the film dialogue compared with previous films can be noted since the filmmakers attempted to realistically portray Mexican culture and cast Latino voice actors. Longer stretches of Spanish are also used in Rango, where a trio of owls are dressed as mariachis and sing songs peppered with Spanish words (code-mixing). Such films will be further discussed in Chapter 7. The portrayal of US Latinos and Latin Americans, especially Mexicans, is quite often through Latino stereotypes/caricatures. Spanish-accented characters in the films analysed are represented as passionate, sensual Latin lovers; seducers; salsa or flamenco dancers; flamboyant bullfighters; guitarists/musicians; and food sellers (surrounded by objects representing Mexicanness). A Mexican identity is associated with food (churros, guacamole, nachos, etc.), music and dance, facial hair and romance. The following characters in the films analysed speak Spanish-accented English: – Audrey Ramirez in Atlantis (mainly speaking General American, she delivers a single line in Spanish; her Spanish is aimed at characterisation and differentiation).

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– Puss in Boots in the Shrek films and in Puss in Boots (the Spanishness of the cat is highlighted through verbal and visual elements; his Spanish-accented English and some Spanish words are aimed at characterisation and comedy). – Ramone in the Cars films (his slight Spanish accent is aimed at character portrayal and enhancing comedy). – Featherstone in Gnomeo & Juliet (his broad Spanish accent and some Spanish words are aimed at comic characterisation and at enhancing humour; this is a stylised representation provided by a US actor). – the Mariachi Owls in Rango (their broad Spanish-accented English interspersed with Spanish words through code-mixing provides setting, triggers humour and creates a Latino-Mexican characterisation). – Tito and Angelo in Turbo (they are portrayed as Mexican through verbal and visual means such as selling tacos, being slightly overweight and being funny; the way they speak is aimed at providing characterisation, stereotypes and humour). – Eduardo Perez/El Macho and his son Antonio in Despicable Me 2 (El Macho is clearly identified as being Mexican through a series of visual and verbal stereotypes; he is the baddy in the film and embodies the stereotype of the Latino villain found in Hollywood films). As argued by Ramírez Berg, there is a “long line of Latino movie antagonists … el bandido […] we expect him to be villainous and to act in predictably despicable, criminal, and inhumane ways” (2002, pp. 18– 19). El Macho is represented as overweight, has a goatie, is associated with food and salsa dance and is a Latin lover. Moreover, he is a despicable and cruel person. The visual and verbal portrayal of El Macho is aimed at creating character, conveying stereotypes and triggering humour. – Manolo and other minor characters in The Book of Life (Spanishaccented English and some Spanish words used as spectacular fragments are meant to provide setting (Mexico) and authenticity; the characters are mostly positive, though some of them are ridiculed). – Miguel and all the characters in Coco (Spanish-accented English and Spanish words/expressions used as spectacular fragments are meant to

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define the Mexican setting of the film and employed for character portrayal in a search for authenticity). – Some minor characters in Ferdinand (some Spanish-accented English and Spanish words uttered by secondary characters – not the main ones; this is aimed at establishing the Spanish setting, portraying characters and enhancing comedy, with a few stereotypes such as the Spanish bullfighter El Primero, who is visually and verbally represented in a comic way). – El Chupacabra in Planes (the plane is identified as being Mexican through his heavily Spanish-accented English; this is aimed at providing characterisation, reaffirming the stereotype of the male buffoon (Ramírez Berg 2002) and triggering humour). As can be seen from the above list, many of the characters are Mexicans or Latinos. Moreover, the most comic and caricatural are Mexican. This might not be by chance since relations between Mexico and the United States have a long history.

Italian-Accented English and Italian American: Representations of Italianness The representation of characters speaking Italian-accented English and Italian in the animated films analysed mostly aims at making the audience laugh and at reinforcing stereotypes of Italians and Italian Americans. The most prominent stereotype is that of the mafia mobster or criminal. The negative stereotype of Italian Americans as thugs or criminals can be found in Atlantis (Palermo-born Vinny is a bomb expert who has spent some time in jail), in Shark tale (the sharks belong to a mafia family) and in Zootopia (Mr Big is portrayed as a mafia boss). In the book The Art of Zootopia Mr Big is defined as paying “homage to the Godfather. He’s like Marlon Brando as an arctic shrew” (Julius 2016, p. 112). Other common stereotypes found in the animated films analysed are food-loving, melodramatic, romantic, loud and ill-tempered people with tight family bonds, especially with their mamma. For instance, both Francesco Bernouilli in Cars 2 and Mr Big in Zootopia mention

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their mamma and grand-mamma, respectively (on stereotypes of Italians in Hollywood films see Bondanella 2006; Parini 2017, 2019). The following characters in the films analysed speak Italian-accented English: – Vinnie in Atlantis (he is partly negative since he is a demolition expert). – Don Lino and other sharks in Shark Tale (they are negative since they are associated with the mafia). – Stefano in Madagascar 3 (his contrived, mock Italian-accented English is aimed at triggering humour; he is a comic character). – Gia in Madagascar 3 (her slight contrived, mock Italian-accented English is aimed at providing characterisation; she is a nice character who falls in love with Alex, the American leader of the New York zoo animals). – Leonardo and Mona Lisa (they speak with an exaggerated, mock Italian accent; they are comic characters). – Mr Big in Zootopia (he speaks with an exaggerated, contrived Italian American accent; this is aimed at mimicking the Godfather film, reaffirming the mafioso stereotype and triggering humour). – Francesco Bernouilli in Cars 2 (he has an exaggerated, contrived Italian accent which is aimed at enhancing humour; he is an arrogant and rude car). – Luigi in the Cars films (his Italian-accented English is aimed at comic characterisation). – Guido in the Cars films (he is an Italian forklift who works with Guido and only speaks Italian; this provides characterisation and comedy). – Uncle Topolino and Mamma Topolino in Cars 2 (their Italianaccented English and Italian is aimed at providing characterisation, establishing the setting and enhancing humour).

German-Accented English German-accented characters appear in seven of the films analysed. Most of the German-speaking characters in these films tend to have very minor but mostly positive roles mainly aimed at triggering laughter. They

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are predominantly secondary characters whose German identity is highlighted through an often exaggerated accent, with a clear comic intent. Their German-accented English is interspersed with a few easily understandable and well-known German words. However, it is worth noting that one character (Prof. Zundapp) is definitely negative and that the three horses in Ferdinand are unfriendly, nasty, yet comic and have a poor sense of humour. Moreover, in two of the films analysed Germanaccented characters are dancers (Gunter and the three horses) and in another two (Shrek and Sing ) they are represented as pigs.

Russian-Accented English and Russian Characters The films analysed also contain some characters who speak English with a broad Russian accent and sometimes utter ungrammaticalities. They are the mad scientist Dr Jumba Jookiba (Lilo & Stitch), the aggressive tiger Vitaly (Madagascar 3: Europe’s Most Wanted ) and the big guardian of childhood Nicholas St North (Rise of the Guardians). They are all voiced by US actors. The function of this often exaggerated and contrived Russian-accented English is to provide humour and to contrast with other characters. There is a tendency to convey an overtly negative, but supposedly comical and funny representation of Russians who are crazy evil geniuses, sometimes aggressive, always big figures and often criminals. The only positive character is North, who is visually represented as having a big build. Such an association between characters speaking English with a Russian accent and being negative (which may hark back to the Cold War) is also found in Pets 2 (2019), a recently released animated film by Illumination Entertainment. Here the villain is the circus owner Sergei, voiced by US comedian Nick Kroll who uses a Russian accent. This may be the result of cinema’s exploitation of tropes regarding Russians that are used for quick characterisation, even in animated films aimed at children. As will be discussed in Chapter 7, it is worth pointing out that the stylised representations of Russians provided by US actors in the animated films discussed above include the use of ungrammaticalities. Russians in such films are portrayed as not only having an accent, but also making mistakes when they speak English.

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This enhances their otherness and distance from the American heroes. Characters portrayed as Russians also seem to have negative connotations associated with them. Their visual representation and their aggressive behaviour combine with their accent to convey the negative stereotype of Russians. A further negative visual element perhaps needs attention. Russians are depicted as bears in both Sing and Zootopia. Although they utter very few lines, the brown bears in Sing seem to be Russian8 since they have a slight Russian accent. They are portrayed as thugs who drive fast sports cars; wear fancy clothes, suits, necklaces and sunglasses; play cards in a nightclub and get angry and violent once they discover that they have been cheated by Mike. In Zootopia, Mr Big’s bodyguards are polar bears wearing black suits, thus associating them with the mafia (presumably an allusion to the Russian mafia).

Brazilian Portuguese-Accented English and Brazilian Portuguese Brazilian Portuguese and some English spoken with a Brazilian Portuguese accent are only found in the Rio films. These films contain a few words and expressions in Brazilian Portuguese such as Jewel’s first lines in the film; some words uttered by a man during the carnival including valeo and vem pra cà; and a TV commentary of a football match. English spoken with a Brazilian Portuguese accent is delivered by Tulio and a few (mostly negative) secondary characters. Characters speaking with a Brazilian Portuguese accent are associated with the Amazon and with birds (Tulio) or are smugglers/criminals (the bird traffickers who speak English with a slight foreign accent that is intermediary between Spanish and Brazilian Portuguese). Brazilians (especially men) are depicted in the films as football, samba, music and carnival lovers; quite emotional and not very practical (Tulio, in particular, cannot keep things under control); or they are smugglers. Visual tropes of Brazil and Rio de Janeiro are the carnival, samba, the statue of Christ the Redeemer, 8The dubbing director of the Italian version confirms that the bears are Russian (Mete, p.c. 9 June 2020) and that the client asked them to make them speak with a slight Russian accent in the dubbed version.

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favelas, football matches and the Amazon forest. The presence of visual stereotypes of Brazilians in Rio has been pointed out by De Rosa (2014) and Petrucci (2015). As will be discussed in Chapter 6, the minimal use of this variety of English and Brazilian Portuguese has a “postcarding function” (Wahl 2005, 2008).

Indian-Accented English Indian-accented male characters are associated with unpredictable, overthe-top and ridiculous behaviour (King Julien in Madagascar and the pigeon Hamir in The Wild ). Female characters are sensual (Ishani in Planes) or they are associated with Indian music, spirituality and tattoos (the pigeons in The Wild and the elephant Nangi in Zootopia). It is worth pointing out that male Indian characters in the films have a marked accent and sometimes speak with a non-standard grammar, while the female characters have a slight Indian accent and speak a more standard English in terms of grammar.

Undefined Eastern European-Accented English A mock, contrived, foreign-sounding, slightly Eastern European accent is given to the main characters of the Despicable Me and Hotel Transylvania films. Although Gru and Drac do not use any foreign words, the actors voicing them put on a foreign accent that is aimed at signalling their otherness, their identity (and probably origins) and at triggering humour. Both characters are linked to evil and darkness. Drac is a vampire and hence associated with horror, whereas Gru is a super-villain. They both appear to be cold and sinister, although the characters are positive and they fulfil the role of the misunderstood monster.

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Foreign Languages/Languages Other Than English

The corpus also contains a few examples of foreign languages (i.e., languages other than English) used in the dialogue (Bleichenbacher 2008, p. 24; O’Sullivan 2011). In 9 of the 37 films some sentences are uttered in a language other than English such as French, Italian, Spanish, Russian, Brazilian Portuguese, Japanese and the invented language of Atlantean. Inserting lines of other languages in animated films is aimed at conveying the setting, providing an audio-postcarding effect (Wahl 2005, 2008), portraying characters, creating identity and expressing otherness and contrast. A comic function is also always present. In some cases the use of a foreign language creates confusion and a comic misunderstanding (on the functions of multilingualism in comedy see De Bonis 2014a, 2014b, 2015b; Chiaro and De Bonis 2019, 2020). There now follows a brief account of the languages spoken, the films in which they occur, the function(s) of the foreign language and the translation modes adopted in the original films to represent such languages (i.e., whether they are left untranslated, subtitled or translated by a character in the film acting as an intradiegetic interpreter). Several lines in Italian are contained in the Cars films; they are mainly uttered by Guido. In Cars 2 they are also spoken by Mamma Topolino and Uncle Topolino. Italian is aimed at highlighting otherness and unintelligibility, signalling an Italian setting and always contributing to conveying humour. Italian is either left untranslated or translated by an intradiegetic interpreter within the film. Lines in French are uttered in Atlantis, Planes and Madagascar 3: Europe’s Most Wanted by French or Canadian characters. They are mainly aimed at highlighting the nationality of the speaker and have a comic function. They are almost always left untranslated either because they can be easily decoded or to stress the characters’ unintelligibility and enhance humour. Several lines in Spanish are uttered in Toy Story 3 by Buzz Lightyear. This change of language creates a change in personality and is comic. The Spanish language is subtitled into English since Buzz’s words would normally be unintelligible to an English-speaking audience. The presence of Russian consists of a few exchanges in the opening scene of Despicable Me 2. Russian is

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used to establish a foreign setting. It is left untranslated and is therefore incomprehensible to an English-speaking audience. Japanese is found in Gnomeo & Juliet and Sing. In Gnomeo & Juliet a few lines are uttered by the plastic frog Nanette. She speaks a line in Japanese which is subtitled into English. Then Nanette switches back to her native English and subtitles in Japanese are added. The function of these exchanges and of the whole scene is comedy. In Sing some red pandas sing and speak in Japanese and Buster Moon tries to communicate with them in their language with comic outcomes. Miscommunication has a humorous function and is enhanced by leaving the foreign language untranslated. Brazilian Portuguese is used in Rio by the blue macaw Jewel when she meets Blu. Brazilian Portuguese is left untranslated since its aim is to indicate locality, provide otherness and signal the Brazilian setting and identity. The invented language of Atlantean is used in Atlantis. As will be illustrated in Chapter 6, Atlantean is partly subtitled and partly left untranslated. This language defines the setting, provides characterisation, emphasises its speakers’ otherness and is important for the development of the plot (the only American character who understands Atlantean is the linguist Milo who acts as an interpreter between the adventurers and the native people of Atlantis).

4.6

Concluding Remarks

This chapter has provided an account of the language varieties and languages spoken in the films. It described which characters speak which varieties, showing how specific varieties correspond to character types and highlighting the connotations associated with each variety. Chapters 5–8 will provide an analysis of how language varieties are signalled in the films and dubbed into Italian. The chapters will explore how the animated films of the corpus portray language varieties and foreign languages, how language variation is used to convey the characters’ identities and will investigate the ways in which such language varieties are treated in Italian dubbing. The following chapters will investigate the strategies and techniques adopted in Italian dubbing to deal with linguistic variation, multilingualism and foreign-accented English in the

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animated films making up the corpus. The aim of this analysis is to explore possible dubbing norms and to establish whether (a) the strategies and norms proposed in previous studies and (b) the hypothesis and strategies suggested in Chapter 3 can in fact be confirmed. Is it plausible to hypothesise that native varieties are homogenised and standardised, while foreign languages, foreign-accented varieties, non-native varieties or ethnolects are always conveyed and reproduced? Is the presence of more than one language in the source text of the film dialogues maintained or neutralised? What happens when L3 in the source text coincides with L2 (i.e., Italian)? Clearly distinguishing between native varieties and non-native varieties of English and foreign languages the next chapter will focus on translation strategies for native varieties of English.

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https://www.cressidacowell.co.uk/about-cressida/. https://www.cressidacowell.co.uk/book/how-to-train-your-dragon/. https://www.antoniogenna.net/. https://www.imdb.com/.

Filmography Atlantis (2001). Gary Trousdale, Kirk Wise, Walt Disney Feature Animation, Walt Disney Pictures. Bend It Like Beckham (2002). Gurinder Chadha, Kintop Pictures, Film Council, Filmförderung Hamburg, British Sky Broadcasting (BskyB), British Screen Productions, Bend it Films. Brave/Ribelle (2012). Mark Andrews, Brenda Chapman, Steve Purcell, Walt Disney Pictures, Pixar Animation Studios. Cars (2006). John Lasseter, Pixar Animation Studios, Walt Disney Pictures. Cars 2 (2011). John Lasseter, Brad Lewis, Walt Disney Pictures, Pixar Animation Studios. Cars 3 (2017). Brian Fee, Pixar Animation Studios, Walt Disney Pictures. Coco (2017). Lee Unkrich, Adrian Molina, Walt Disney Pictures, Pixar Animation Studios. Despicable Me (2010). Pierre Coffin, Chris Renaud, Universal Pictures, Illumination Entertainment. Despicable Me 2 (2013). Pierre Coffin, Chris Renaud, Universal Pictures, Illumination Entertainment. Ferdinand (2017). Carlos Saldanha, Blue Sky Studios, Davis Entertainment, 20th Century Fox Animation. Finding Dory (2016). Andrew Stanton, Angus MacLane, Pixar Animation Studios, Walt Disney Pictures. Finding Nemo (2003). Andrew Stanton, Lee Unkrich, Pixar Animation Studios, Walt Disney Pictures. Gnomeo & Juliet (2011). Kelly Asbury, Rocket Pictures, Arc Productions, Touchstone Pictures, Miramax, Starz Animation. Home (2015). Tim Johnson, DreamWorks Animation. Hotel Transylvania (2012). Genndy Tartakovsky, Columbia Pictures, Sony Pictures Animation. Hotel Transylvania 2 (2015). Genndy Tartakovsky, Columbia Pictures, Sony Pictures Animation.

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Hotel Transylvania 3: Summer Vacation (2018). Genndy Tartakovsky, Sony Pictures Animation, Media Rights Capital (MRC), Rough Draft Korea. How to Train Your Dragon (2010). Dean DeBlois, Chris Sanders, DreamWorks Animation, Mad Hatter Entertainment, Vertigo Entertainment. Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs (2009). Carlos Saldanha, Mike Thurmeier, 20th Century Fox Animation, Blue Sky Studios. Ice Age: The Meltdown (2006). Carlos Saldanha, 20th Century Fox Animation, Blue Sky Studios. Lilo and Stitch (2002). Dean DeBlois, Chris Sanders, Walt Disney Pictures. Madagascar (2005). Eric Darnell, Tom McGrath, DreamWorks Animation, Pacific Data Images. Madagascar: Escape 2 Africa (2008). Eric Darnell, Tom McGrath, DreamWorks Animation, Pacific Data Images. Madagascar 3: Europe’s Most Wanted (2012). Eric Darnell, Tom McGrath, Conrad Vernon, DreamWorks Animation, Pacific Data Images. Mr. Peabody and Sherman (2014). Rob Minkoff, Bullwinkle Studios, Classic Media Productions, DreamWorks Animation, Pacific Data Images. My Fair Lady (1964). George Cukor, Warner Bros. Planes (2013). Klay Hall, Prana Studios, Disneytoon Studios. Puss in Boots (2011). Chris Miller, DreamWorks Animation, Pacific Data Images. Rango (2011). Gore Verbinski, Paramount Pictures, Nickelodeon Movies, Blind Wink Productions, GK Films, Industrial Light & Magic. Ratatouille (2007). Brad Bird, Jan Pinkava, Walt Disney Pictures, Pixar Animation Studios. Rio (2011). Carlos Saldanha, 20th Century Fox Animation, Blue Sky Studios. Rio 2 (2014). Carlos Saldanha, 20th Century Fox Animation, Blue Sky Studios, FortyFour Studios. Rise of the Guardians (2012). Peter Ramsey, DreamWorks Animation. Shark Tale (2004). Bibo Bergeron, Vicky Jenson, Rob Letterman, DreamWorks Animation, DreamWorks. Shrek (2001). Andrew Adamson, Vicky Jenson, DreamWorks Animation, DreamWorks, Pacific Data Images, Vanguard Films. Shrek 2 (2004). Andrew Adamson, Kelly Asbury, Conrad Vernon, DreamWorks, DreamWorks Animation, Pacific Data Images. Shrek Forever After (2010). Mike Mitchell, DreamWorks Animation, Pacific Data Images. Shrek the Third (2007). Chris Miller, Raman Hui, DreamWorks Animation, Pacific Data Images.

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Sing (2016). Garth Jennings, Cristophe Lourdelet, Illumination Entertainment, Universal Pictures, Dentsu, Fuji Television Network. The Aristocats (1970). Wolfgang Reitherman, Walt Disney Productions. The Book of Life (2014). Jorge R. Gutiérrez, 20th Century Fox Animation, 20th Century Fox, Reel FX Creative Studios, Chatrone, Mexopolis. The Godfather (1972). Francis Ford Coppola, Paramount Pictures, Alfran Productions. The Wild (2006). Steve ‘Spaz’ Williams, C.O.R.E. Feature Animation, Contrafilm, Freewill Entertainment, Hoytyboy Pictures, Nigel Productions, Sir Zip Studios, Walt Disney Pictures. Toy Story 3 (2010). Lee Unkrich, Walt Disney Pictures, Pixar Animation Studios. Turbo (2013). David Soren, DreamWorks Animation. Zootopia (2016). Byron Howard, Rich Moore, Jared Bush, Walt Disney Pictures, Walt Disney Animation Studios.

TV Series The Nanny (1993–1999). Fran Drescher et al. (creators), Dorothy Lyman, Lee Shallat Chemel, Peter Marc Jacobson et al. (directors), CBS. The Simpsons (1989–ongoing). James L. Brooks, Matt Groening, Sam Simon, Gracie Films, 20th Century Fox Television, 20th Century Fox. The Sopranos (1999–2007). David Chase, HBO.

5 Americans, Brits, Aussies, Etc.: Native Varieties of English in Italian Dubbing

5.1

Introduction

This chapter focuses on how native varieties of English are used in animated films and how they are dubbed into Italian. As previously highlighted, since the productions are American, the most frequently used and therefore ‘unmarked’, default variety of English in the films making up the corpus is General American. Particular emphasis will be placed on native varieties that signal otherness than the unmarked variety: British English, some of its regional and social dialects and accents (upper-class BrE or RP, Cockney/a London accent, Scottish English), Australian English, and non-standard varieties of American English such as Southern American English and AAVE. The chapter will investigate how these native varieties are transferred to the Italian context from a translational perspective. What are the strategies adopted in dubbing? Does dubbing convey the nuances in characterisation provided by geographical and social varieties of English or does it neutralise, level out and standardise variation, homogenising regional and social differences? Is standard Italian that is devoid of any regional accent the preferred choice in Italian dubbing? Chapter 3 © The Author(s) 2021 V. Minutella, (Re)Creating Language Identities in Animated Films, Palgrave Studies in Translating and Interpreting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56638-8_5

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highlighted that the dubbing professionals consulted felt the differences between an American accent and a British accent or between different accents of American English cannot be conveyed in dubbing: characters speaking with specific accents must speak standard Italian in the dubbed version. All the dubbing professionals interviewed agree on this point. Some suggested that in some cases the distinctive features of a British character may be hinted at by using a formal, refined register (Guadagno, p.c. 26 January 2016; Morville, p.c. 6 June 2019), while southern US characters may be given an informal register (La Penna, p.c. 1 March 2019; Morville, p.c. 6 June 2019). Moreover, some professionals stated that when there is a character with a Brooklyn accent, they often choose a Sicilian or Neapolitan accent (Vairano, p.c. 28 November 2018). Scholarly research in this field (see Chapter 3) has observed that geographical and social varieties of English tend to be levelled out in dubbing and subtitling with very few exceptions (see Pavesi 1994, 2005; Taylor 2006; Chiaro 2008, 2009; Ranzato 2010, 2018a, b; Ellender 2015 on Scottish English in French; Monti 2016; Bruti 2014; Bruti and Vignozzi 2016; Sandrelli 2016 on RP and Cockney in Italian dubbing). The differences between a character from the north or south of the United States, between an American speaker and a Scottish one or between a speaker from London and one from Manchester is usually not conveyed in dubbing through accents since there is no equivalence between the connotations of accents of English and accents of Italian. This chapter explores whether the dubbing professionals’ insights are confirmed in actual translation/dubbing practice and whether the homogenising and standardisation norm applies to the genre of animated films. Is the linguistic identity of characters represented as being American, British, Australian or as belonging to specific social groups conveyed/preserved, or is it neutralised or transformed? Building on the outline sketches of the original films presented in chapter 4, the present chapter will discuss how the animated films making up the corpus represent such native varieties and how they are dealt with in dubbing. We will examine whether a standard, regionally neutral Italian is adopted, thus leading to neutralising variation and to non-characterisation. This raises the question whether homogenisation is really the norm or whether other strategies are also resorted to.

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The use of diatopic varieties to define characters will be analysed in order to assess whether they are maintained or neutralised in Italian dubbing. Are the differences between British English, American English, Australian English, etc. erased? What happens in dubbing when the characters speak native varieties of English (i.e., when their mother tongue is English)? Are social and regional varieties of English and non-standard varieties of English neutralised in Italian dubbing? Is the linguistic identity of the characters lost in dubbing by reducing and neutralising difference? Are the characters’ individual accents and therefore their identities neutralised and homogenised into one standard Italian? Or are they somehow conveyed and, if so, how? Are there any exceptions to the homogenising norm? The next sections will analyse in detail those films considered prototypical in terms of the strategies adopted in Italian dubbing. We start with native British English varieties.

5.2

British English Varieties: Is British English Always Neutralised?

This section explores how characters speaking British English varieties in the films belonging to the corpus are represented, highlighting the recurring features of such characters, the stereotypes they convey and examining how this linguistic identity is treated in Italian dubbing. The animated films in the corpus exploit stylised representations of several British English varieties that carry very different connotations and signal specific character traits, as indicated in the previous chapter. Analysis of the films suggests that British voices in the films display both upper-class accents and working-class ones, that there are patterns in dialect representation and character type and that characters speaking British English in animated films are not only villains. The following analysis carried out on the original and dubbed dialogues investigates whether and how connotations attached to British varieties are rendered in dubbing, how the the linguistic varieties attributed to the various characters are dubbed and whether the strategies deployed are likely to maintain the source text effect in the target text.

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5.2.1 Evil Characters: British Upper-Class Villains Speaking RP (Received Pronunciation) Discussing “a character’s verbal competence, the degree to which he or she shows dexterity or eloquence” Kozloff points out that “given the general distrust of language, and the overall anti-intellectual tenor of American culture, it should be no surprise that American films offer evidence of a deep distrust of verbal proficiency: articulate, polished speakers […] are almost always villains” (2000, p. 78). In particular, the variety that is typically used for villains is upperclass British English termed Received Pronunciation (RP) and sometimes Upper Received Pronunciation (U-RP) (see Wells 1982, pp. 281–283; Ranzato 2018b, pp. 205–209; see also Sect. 5.2.2). During an interview with David Tennant on the UK Channel 4 programme The Last Leg, the presenter commented that “the posh English accent in particular, because it’s more educated, is considered to be less trustworthy” (Channel 4, The Last Leg, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8T-J0suoSQM). Ranzato points out that “many British actors star, indeed, as villains in American films, and if not all of them speak RP, certainly most of them do. […] the antagonists played by British actors with a flawless RP are so many that it would be difficult to choose one as an exemplification” (2018b, p. 223). Focusing on animated films, Lippi-Green’s description of the evil lion Scar in The Lion King is worth quoting in full: Mufasa’s evil brother Scar is voiced in an exaggerated and distinctly effeminate British English (Jeremy Irons). This falls into a well-established practice of rendering evil geniuses as Brits […] but it also portrays homosexuality as evil, untrustworthy, and inauthentic. Scar is also the only lion with a black mane. (2012, p. 122)

This description is interesting since Lippi-Green highlights two particular vocal features of this character: his British accent and an affected, effeminate voice quality and articulation. Several examples of British English (RP/U-RP) used for villains and performed by British actors can be found in our corpus of animated films including, as we recall from Chapter 4, the villain in Cars 2 voiced by

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Eddie Izzard. Further examples of prototypical villains (discussed below) are Pitch Black in Rise of the Guardians voiced by Jude Law and the evil Prince Charming and the Fairy Godmother in Shrek 2 voiced by Rupert Everett and Jennifer Saunders. Pitch (also called the King of Nightmares and the Boogeyman, a mythical creature that haunts children’s sleep) is the main antagonist of the film and fights against the Guardians of Childhood. He displays a marked British RP accent. The character of Pitch and the casting of Law to voice him are explained as follows: Although Pitch, or the Boogeyman, is the enemy of the Guardians, the filmmakers didn’t want to make him your run-of-the-mill frightening villain. The goal was to make him a fascinating and complex character that wouldn’t be too scary for children in the audience. […] When Jude Law came on board as the voice of Pitch, he became a velvet-voiced charmer – an intriguing personality that could easily be pitted against North. (Zahed 2012, pp. 111–112)

The above comments highlight the careful study of character and the importance of voice casting, type of voice and interpretation to create characterisation when making the film. When it came to attributing an Italian voice to this charming but scary character, dubbing director Mete explained that the different geographical varieties of English spoken by the Guardians could not be conveyed in Italian (Mete, p.c. 20 September 2018). He felt it was impossible to retain the regional connotation of the Eastern Bunny (played by Australian Hugh Jackman) or the elegance and charm of the British accent displayed by the evil Pitch Black. Since there could be no clear Italian equivalents to the connotations attached to geographical and social varieties of English, the dubbing director attempted to work on other features of the performance. In particular, when considering the role of Pitch, Mete and Riccardo Niseem Onorato (the official dubber of Jude Law) carefully studied the character’s personality and his voice. In the Italian version Pitch Black had to have a charming, seductive voice since evil and fear can be fascinating and attractive. Pitch’s distinctive RP English was thus neutralised in the dubbed version where dubber

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Onorato used standard Italian. The connotations attached to Law’s British accent and his slow pace of delivery were conveyed in dubbing mainly through vocal performance and modulation of the voice—not through a specific regional or social accent, nor through lexis or a more refined register. The following utterance by Pitch in the English original contains emphatic adjectives, sarcasm and a question tag. The Italian dubbed version does not use a formal register, misses the irony and partly loses the linguistic characterisation: Example 5.1 Original version

Dubbed version

PITCH I have to say, this is very, very exciting. The Big Four, all in one place. I’m a little starstruck. Did you like my show on the globe, North? Got you all together, didn’t I?

PITCH Devo dire che è molto emozionante. I Quattro Grandi tutti insieme. Sono sopraffatto dalle stelle. Ti è piaciuto il mio spettacolo sul globo, Nord? Vi ho riuniti, visto? BACK TRANSLATION I have to say that it is very exciting. The Big Four all together. I am overwhelmed by the stars. Did you like my show on the globe? I got you all together, see?

In this example it is the dubber’s interpretation of Pitch (i.e., his elegance expressed through voice quality rather than lexical or stylistic choices) that attempts to recreate his character. However, translation of the question tag “didn’t I?” as “visto? ” lacks formality and the dubbed version does not convey the irony of Pitch’s comment “I’m a little starstruck” by which he sarcastically means that he is impressed, almost dazzled/overwhelmed, because the Big Four Guardians of Childhood— North, the Easter Bunny, Sandman and the Tooth Fairy—have reunited in order to fight against him. The adjective starstruck (abbagliato dalla celebrità) is translated as sopraffatto dalle stelle (overwhelmed by the stars), which does not really express the irony and sarcasm of Pitch’s comment. In the Shrek films both Prince Charming and the Fairy Godmother speak with a refined, affected voice with a distinctly British RP accent in the original English version. In the dubbed version both characters speak standard Italian that is devoid of any regional accent such that their

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linguistic characterisation and association with evil, achieved through the use of RP in the English, is lost. In the dubbed version the evil characters are not identified through their accent. In fact, they have the same accent as Shrek, Fiona and other characters: they all speak standard Italian. Hence, the connotations attached to the language variety spoken by the Fairy Godmother and Prince Charming (RP) are not (re)created in the Italian dubbed version: instead, the dubbing actors (Francesco Prando and Franca D’Amato) attempt to somehow express the evil nature of the characters through voice quality and vocal performance. Several other examples of British-accented villains can be found in the corpus. The strategy used to deal with such characters in dubbing is always that of levelling out variation and erasing their distinctive accents using standard Italian. Evil characters speaking British English, and more specifically RP, are dubbed into standard Italian with neutral pronunciation and standard diction. We can thus conclude that the homogenising norm applies to British English when it is used to represent evil characters. Dubbing neutralises linguistic variation. This is confirmed by ex-Disney creative director Morville who states that “When you have a villain, what can you do? You can’t give them an English accent because the others would have to have an American accent. But that’s impossible. Making them talk with an accent becomes false, artificial” (Morville, p.c. 4 June 2019). Moreover, using Italian with an English accent may add comic connotations since accents tend to be associated with comic characters. It can therefore be considered a norm that all evil characters displaying an English accent in the films making up the corpus are dubbed into standard Italian.

5.2.2 Refined, Posh, Rich or Aristocratic Characters In the films under analysis the same variety of British English is used by several characters who are not evil, but represented as rich, aristocratic or refined. Such characters tend to be portrayed as upper class: they speak standard British English marked by an RP or U-RP accent (on the features of U-RP and its use in films and TV series, see Bruti and Vignozzi 2016; Sandrelli 2016; Ranzato 2018b). RP or U-RP is

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used quite frequently in films, often as a contrast to less refined characters speaking American English or displaying a working-class accent that is regionally marked. In her analysis of U-RP in films and in dubbing Ranzato points out that upper-class British speakers in films display a “frequent use of emphatic accent patterns and of intensifying modifiers. These features are iconic and have, perhaps for that reason, an intense interactional effect, at least on outsiders” (Ranzato 2018b, p. 205). Furthermore, “[t]he use of intensifying modifiers (like extremely) and hyperbolic adjectives (like outstanding ), as well as the prosodic stress patterns project self-assurance and an expectation of agreement from the listener” (2018b, p. 205). Examples of characters from the films analysed who can be described as upper-class British speakers include the food critic Anton Ego in Ratatouille (voiced by Peter O’Toole), the statue of Shakespeare in Gnomeo & Juliet (voiced by Patrick Stewart), Lady Bluebury in Gnomeo & Juliet (voiced by Maggie Smith and highlighting the contrast between her and London working-class character Lord Redbrick voiced by Michael Caine), the Queen in Cars 2 (voiced by Vanessa Redgrave—she also voiced the Queen in the dubbed version) and Nana in Sing (voiced by Jennifer Saunders). In many of these cases it can be argued that the function of the dialogue and choice of language variety in the films is more than providing characterisation since they can also be used “to give an actor a ‘star turn’” (Kozloff 2000; Ranzato 2018a, p. 236). Ranzato points out that a particular language variety can be used to give actors/actresses “the opportunity to use a distinctive accent (which may be his/her own) as a ‘trademark’” (2018a, p. 236), particularly for actresses. Examples from the Shrek films, Ratatouille and Sing are provided below. In Shrek 2 (2004) the green ogre meets Fiona’s parents (the King and Queen of the Kingdom of Far Far Away). King Harold and Queen Lillian are completely different from Shrek in appearance, behaviour and language. They are also very different from their own daughter who in the first film of the saga was a beautiful lady speaking a formal, refined Middle English by day, but by night turned into a monstrous green ogre. Fiona’s parents being royals speak with an RP accent. The King and Queen’s Britishness is emphasised by their marked accent/pronunciation,

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the use of British English expressions, dry humour/sarcasm and understatement. In the Italian dubbed version the King and Queen speak standard Italian, thus losing the connotations attached to the RP delivery. King Harold, in particular, finds it hard to accept the ogre as his son-in-law: he argues with him and devises a plot to eliminate him. Nevertheless, in order to convince Shrek that he has changed his mind he tries very hard to be kind to him. Examples 5.2 and 5.3 will illustrate the formality and politeness in King Harold’s speech delivered in the film in a refined British English accent/upper-class speech (RP). Example 5.2 Original version

Dubbed version

KING HAROLD (to Shrek) Do you suppose we could just pretend it never happened and start over?

KING HAROLD Tu pensi che possiamo fingere che non sia mai accaduto e ricominciare? BACK TRANSLATION Do you think we can pretend that never happened and start over?

The King uses an indirect, very polite question a more direct version of which would be “Can we pretend it never happened?” The use of formulaic politeness is a sociopragmatic feature that is popularly associated with interactions in spoken British English. Example 5.3 Original version

Dubbed version

KING HAROLD (to Shrek) Excellent idea. I was actually hoping you might join me for a morning hunt. A little father–son time?

KING HAROLD Ah, ottima idea! Io, in effetti speravo che potessi unirti a me per una caccia mattutina, una … cosetta padre e figlio. BACK TRANSLATION Ah, great idea! I was actually hoping you could join me for a morning hunt, a little father–son thing.

Example 5.3 contains a hyperbolic adjective (‘excellent’) and a very polite, typically British indirect formula to express an invitation, with the use of the modal verb ‘might’ (rather than a more direct question

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such as ‘Would you like to join me for a morning hunt?’). Ranzato points out that “extralinguistic images of ‘elegance’, ‘propriety’, ‘politeness’ and ‘refinement’ are also regularly associated with the use of RP” (Ranzato 2018b, p. 208). Moreover, King Harold mentions the practice of hunting, a popular pastime for British aristocrats. The Britishness of these utterances and of King Harold’s accent, in general, are lost in dubbing since in the Italian version the actor speaks standard Italian. The same loss of sociopragmatic and cultural nuances applies to Queen Lilian’s elegant, controlled character. Her British demeanour and accent is neutralised in the dubbed version. Moving on to Ratatouille (2007), it has been noted that many characters speak English with a broad French accent (to signal the setting of the story and provide stereotypes of the French) and the protagonists (the rat Remy and the young man Alfredo Linguini) as well as the other rats speak American English, while the severe, harsh and sharp-witted food critic Anton Ego (voiced by British actor Peter O’Toole) speaks standard British English with a distinctly upper-class accent. In the Italian dubbed version both General American and British English RP are neutralised and turned into standard Italian. The speech of the rats and of Linguini, Anton Ego and his collaborator Ambrister (who also has a British accent) is undifferentiated in the Italian dubbed version since they all speak standard Italian. In the dubbed version the homogenising norm and the standardisation of regional and social variety is applied to the British and American characters in this film, and the elegant, haughty, refined characterisation of food critic Anton Ego through his English RP accent is lost. Nevertheless, although Ego is undifferentiated in terms of accent in the Italian dubbed version, his elegant manners, elocution and his British upper-class speech style are conveyed by resorting to a formal register. In other words, his linguistic identity is conveyed through the use of a more refined, formal Italian in order to distinguish the original BrE from AmE and to signal his personality, social class, education and attitude. The selection of polished, formal or less common lexical choices appears to be a translation strategy adopted by dubbing professionals to somehow compensate for the loss of diatopic variation of British characters.

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Anton Ego’s elegance, coldness and Britishness is emphasised in the description of the character as devised by the filmmakers. The description of Ego in the book The Art of Ratatouille is particularly interesting: Carter took the idea of the Ego character we gave him, the angel of death in the cooking world, the “Grim Eater” who never finishes a meal, and came back with his delicious, cadaverous, funereal character. Ego is such a hypercritical kind of vulture that he hardly eats at all. So he’s thin and gaunt – really the undertaker’s undertaker, there to pass death sentences to unfortunate eating establishments. The slight stoop, rounded back, and muffler are all reminiscent of a vulture. And, of course, at the same time he’s very intelligent and sophisticated and impressed with his own erudition; he has the ennui of the decadent elite. (Jan Pinkava, co-director, in Paik 2007, p. 142)

Anton Ego’s visual representation matches the verbal one. Example 5.4 Original version

Dubbed version

EGO Then tell me, Ambrister … how could it be … “popular”?

EGO Allora dimmi, Ambrister … come può essere tornato in auge? BACK TRANSLATION So tell me, Ambrister … how can he be back at its peak?

Example 5.4 contains the adjective ‘popular’ which is pronounced by Ego by “prolonging the steady state of a consonant” (Ranzato 2018b, p. 208) and lenghthening the final vowel (for a summary of U-RP features see Wells 1982, pp. 281–283; Ranzato 2018b, pp. 207–208). Such a U-RP pronunciation of the adjective finds no correspondence in terms of accent in Italian. However, it is rendered in the Italian dubbed version by making use of the formal expression in auge, the most formal of a series of possible Italian translation equivalents for ‘popular’. It is worth noting that in contemporary dubbed language, especially in dubbed TV series (perhaps due to synchronisation issues), ‘popular’ is often rendered with the Italian adjective popolare (a semantic calque from English). The dubbing team of Ratatouille, on the other hand, rightly

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chose a less common, more authentic and more refined expression which better matches the elegance of Ego. In Sing (2016) the sheep Miss Nana (voiced by Jennifer Saunders) is a retired diva, actress and opera singer living in a big villa. She is represented visually through costumes and gestures as superior, elegant, rich and posh—and, predictably, she drinks tea. Moreover, she has a butler. These are all characteristics stereotypically associated with upperclass British characters. The visual representation is combined with the linguistic one. In fact, although the film seems to be set in a fictitious American city on the West Coast, Miss Nana is definitely British and speaks with an upper-class accent. On the other hand, her ‘spineless’ grandson Eddie (a sheep voiced by John C. Reilly) and his friend Buster Moon (a koala voiced by Matthew McConaughey) are American. Eddie comments on his grandmother by saying that “She’s one mean sheep.” Moon always looks on the bright side and his motto is: “When you’ve reached rock bottom, there’s only one way to go, and that’s up!” This contrast is emphasised by the language varieties they speak. The following exchange takes place between Miss Nana, her grandson Eddie and Buster Moon when they visit Nana because Moon wants to persuade her to fund his singing contest. Example 5.5 Original version

Dubbed version

NANA Oh, lucky me. A visit from my useless grandson and his ghastly little theatre friend. BUSTER MOON Look at that. She remembers me. Okay. Nana. How would you like to be the sponsor for a very prestigious prize? NANA Not for that singing contest I saw on the news. BUSTER MOON That’s the one! NANA Oh, I see. You don’t have the money, do you? […] BUSTER MOON Nana, please, just listen to me. NANA No, absolutely not.

NANA Come sono fortunata. Una visita del mio inutile nipote con il suo orrido piccolo amico teatrante. BUSTER MOON Hai visto? Si ricorda di me. Okay, Nana. Che ne direbbe di diventare lo sponsor di un premio molto prestigioso? NANA Non sarà quella gara di canto che ho visto al notiziario? BUSTER MOON Proprio quella. NANA Oh, capisco. Lei non ha il becco di un quattrino, dico bene? […] BUSTER MOON Nana, la prego, mi ascolti solo un secondo. NANA No, assolutamente no. (continued)

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(continued) Original version

Dubbed version

EDDIE Don’t listen to him, Nana. NANA I’m not listening to either of you. Lapsang souchong. No sugar. And be quick about it (she gives Eddie a cup and orders him to make tea…) EDDIE Oh, Nana. I I don’t know how to make tea. […] NANA Please. This flattery is futile. I have no intention of bailing you out. Haha. Your pathetic shows are the reason that theatre no longer has an audience. […] They were not good old days, Mr Moon. They were magnificent. […] I can recall […] the curtain rising over that glorious stage. […] But anything’s better than spending another evening playing checkers with this sad old fart.

EDDIE Non starlo a sentire. NANA Non sto a sentire nessuno dei due. Lapsang souchong e senza zucchero. Una cosa rapida. EDDIE Nana, io … hmm, non so preparare il tè, hmm. […] NANA La prego. Queste lusinghe sono vane. Non intendo tirarla fuori dai guai. Ah. È per i suoi patetici show che il teatro non ha più un pubblico. […] Non erano ‘bei vecchi tempi’, signor Moon. Erano semplicemente magnifici. […] Ricordo ancora […] il sipario che si alzava su quel glorioso palcoscenico. […] NANA Ma qualunque cosa pur di non giocare a dama un’altra sera con quel vecchio babbione. BACK TRANSLATION NANA How lucky I am. A visit from my useless grandson with his horrid little theatre friend. BUSTER MOON Did you see? She remembers me. Okay, Nana. What would you say about becoming the sponsor of a very prestigious prize? NANA That won’t be that singing contest I saw on the news? BUSTER MOON That’s the one. NANA Oh, I understand. You don’t have a single cent, am I right? […] Well, you’ll not get a cent out of me! BUSTER MOON Nana, please, listen to me for just a second. NANA No, absolutely not. EDDIE Don’t listen to him. NANA I’m not listening to either of you. Lapsang souchong and no sugar. Be quick about it. EDDIE Nana, I … hmm, I don’t know how to make tea, hmm. (continued)

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(continued) Original version

Dubbed version [...] NANA Please. This flattery is futile. I’m not going to get you out of trouble. It’s because of your pathetic shows that the theatre no longer has an audience. […] They were not the ‘good old days’, Mr. Moon. They were simply magnificent. […] I still remember […] the curtain rising over that glorious stage. [...] But I’d do anything to avoid playing checkers yet another evening with that old idiot.

Even without hearing the spoken dialogue the above exchange shows the imperious tone of the rich and refined elderly diva Nana. The social difference between the broke but always positive-thinking Buster Moon, his lazy laid-back friend Eddie and the overbearing Nana is reflected in the different varieties of English spoken by each: General American (Buster and Eddie) and British English (Nana) with a posh, upper-class accent—an example of the American vs British cinematic trope (see Ranzato 2018b). Nana’s British essence is conveyed through Jennifer Saunders’ cold, unemotional comments and orally in her accent and delivery. Note the intrusive /r/ in ‘I saw on the news’ (/aI sO rAn ðђ nju z/), ‘don’t’ pronounced as /dђ*nt/, ‘ghastly’ pronounced as /gA stli/, ‘futile’ pronounced as /fju taIl/, the lengthening of the vowel ‘o’ and the pronunciation of tapped ‘r’ between vowels in ‘glorious’.1 Moreover, Nana’s slowly delivered comment “Oh, lucky me. A visit from my useless grandson and his ghastly little theatre friend” is both highly sarcastic and quite offensive (in line with her haughty attitude). The diva’s rude remark does not in any way affect the koala’s optimistic and positive approach to life, as he is happy that Nana remembers who he is. The contrast between the slim, rich and superior Nana and the little Koala is emphasised visually and linguistically by making them speak with very different accents. Nana’s Britishness is also conveyed  

 

 

1I

 

would like to thank Antonio Romano for his help with the phonetic transcriptions.

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syntactically and lexically by the use of a question tag (“You don’t have the money, do you?”), adjectives such as ‘ghastly’, ‘futile’, ‘pathetic’, ‘magnificent’ and ‘glorious’ and by her ordering a speciality tea (what else would a British person drink in a Hollywood film?). Furthermore, Nana’s comment on her butler is once again offensive and demonstrates her unpleasant superiority, while she uses a vulgar British expression “old fart” (a boring or annoying person), showing what some would regard as an upper-class disregard of social embarrassment when swearing. In the Italian dubbed version the connotations attached to each character’s accent are lost. According to dubbing director Mete (p.c. 9 June 2020), no specific accent was given to Nana, but since she was a diva they chose an experienced dubbing actress (Rita Savagnone) capable of providing such a connotation through her voice. Voice modulation, pitch, rhythm and vocal performance (as well as register and lexical choices in the dubbing script) help dubbing actors in characterisation, but no specific accents are used. In fact, Nana oscillates between a highly formal and more colloquial register since she uses some informal expressions such as the idiom non avere il becco di un quattrino (“to have no money”) and non caverà un centesimo da me (“you won’t get a cent from me”) where the verb cavare is more colloquial than the more neutral avere or ricevere as well as the derogatory expression vecchio babbione that is used to refer to an uninteresting, silly or stupid older man (similar to the British “old fart”). It is worth pointing out that the Italian dubbed version seems to lower the register of Nana’s language since more colloquial expressions are used than in the English version. The dubbed version thus eliminates any trace of regional and class accent, running the risk of losing the haughty attitude conveyed by the RP spoken by Nana. Nevertheless, the voice performance of the dubbing actress acted as the means to bring about characterisation.

5.2.3 British vs American Characters The film Cars 2 is an excellent example of the use of British and American English with the function of building characterisation and

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representing a contrast between types of characters. The comic character Mater is involved in a spy story and ends up working with British Intelligence secret agents Finn McMissile (voiced by Michael Caine) and Holley Shiftwell (voiced by Emily Mortimer). The contrast between the rustic and naive Mater (with his broad Southern American accent and dialect) and the British English accent provides characterisation and humorous contrast. An example of an aristocratic character speaking RP is the Queen of England. Since Mater saves the competitors from a bomb during the race in London the rustic American tow truck is knighted by the Queen who is voiced by Vanessa Redgrave in both the original and the dubbed Italian version. The Queen’s “I hereby dub thee Sir Tow Mater” becomes “Io ti nomino cavaliere, Sir Carl Attrezzi” (I appoint you knight, Sir Carl Tools), which is pronounced with an English accent since the Italian line was spoken by the same actress. Example 5.6 Original version

Dubbed version

QUEEN I hereby dub thee Sir Tow Mater. MATER Sir? Shoot, you can just call me Mater, Your Majesty. I don’t wanna hear none of this “Sir” business. By the way, have y’all met each other? Queen, McQueen. McQueen, Queen. McQueen, McMissile. McMissile, McQueen. Queen, McMissile.

QUEEN (English accent) Io ti nomino cavaliere, Sir Carl Attrezzi. MATER Sir? Fischia, chiamatemi Cricchetto, maestà. Lasciamo stare la storia del “Sir”. A proposito, adesso vi presento. Regina, McQueen. McQueen, Regina. McQueen, Finn. Finn, McQueen. Regina, Finn. BACK TRANSLATION QUEEN I appoint you knight, Sir Carl Tools. MATER Sir? Whistle, just call me Mater, Your Majesty. Let’s forget about this ‘sir’ business. By the way, I’ll introduce you. Queen, McQueen. McQueen, Queen. McQueen, Finn. Finn, McQueen, Queen, Finn.

The old-fashioned, euphemistic US slang interjection “shoot” is a marker of Mater’s idiolect since he utters it very often when he speaks. In the Italian dubbed version this unusual and comic interjection is translated with the equally funny and uncommon interjection fischia (whistle), although Mater’s Southern American English is neutralised in

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terms of accent. The formality of the Queen is also not conveyed in the dubbed version which uses the informal vocative tu rather than the more formal Lei. However, the Queen’s Britishness in the dubbed version is expressed through her English-accented Italian. Some degree of informality is conveyed in the expression “Lasciamo stare la storia del ‘sir’” (“let’s forget about this ‘sir’ business”). However, Mater uses the formal voi pronoun to address the Queen and no other colloquial expressions are adopted except for the humorous fischia. Nevertheless, later analysis of other scenes will show that Mater’s characterisation in Italian matches that of the original film well since informal and colloquial expressions are inserted in his lines. The above example of the Queen is a rare case in which a British variety of English is transferred in dubbing into Italian with an English accent rather than using standard Italian with a neutral accent. This may be justified by the fact that the character actually portrays a living person and a symbol of Britishness. Moreover, the fact that the same British actress dubs herself in the Italian version lends a sense of naturalness and authenticity to the voice, which does not make her a caricature or a parody. The American vs British trope mentioned earlier can again be found in the exchanges between Mater and the British characters: the tow truck’s behaviour and American speech is humorously contrasted with that of all the British speakers from Sir Miles Axlerod, the Queen, Lewis Hamilton through to the intelligence agents Finn McMissile and Holley Shiftwell (all voiced by British actors). Mater emerges as a comic character. In Ranzato’s words, here we see “characters from the British upper middle class in their interactions with socially lower (but also ‘warmer’) Americans” (Ranzato 2018b, p. 220). The exchange in Example 5.7 between Mater and Finn McMissile, who mistakes Mater for an American secret agent, illustrates this point and the irony and self-irony of Mater. The exchange plays on the characters’ accents. There is a series of misunderstandings as a result of Finn and Holly believing that Mater is a secret agent who is deliberately pretending to be naive and dull since he is undercover, whereas he is actually simply being himself.

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Example 5.7 Original version

Dubbed version

FINN I never properly introduced myself. Finn McMissile. British Intelligence. MATER Tow Mater. Average intelligence. FINN Who are you with? FBI, CIA?

FINN Non mi sono ancora presentato come si deve. Finn McMissile. Intelligence britannica. CRICCHETTO Carl Attrezzi. Intelligence, beh, insomma. FINN Tu con chi sei? L’FBI? La CIA? BACK TRANSLATION FINN I still haven’t introduced myself properly. Finn McMissile. British Intelligence. MATER Carl Tools. Intelligence, well, so and so. FINN Who are you with? The FBI? The CIA?

In the above exchange humour is conveyed in the dubbed version by using different accents and by playing on the fact that Mater does not recognise the term ‘British Intelligence’ and thinks that Finn is talking about his IQ level. Mater’s reply is thus a kind of self-mockery and confirms that the filmmakers wanted the tow truck to sound a bit slow and dim-witted. The fact that he speaks with a southern drawl also confirms the US negative stereotype associated with this variety of English. The contrast between formal British and informal non-standard American varieties of English emerges in the following exchange (with Mater’s informal register and non-standard syntax in bold). Example 5.8 Original version

Dubbed version

FINN This seems like a dead end. If there were something in the photo that could narrow this down a bit I’d be a lot happier.

FINN Questo mi sembra un vicolo cieco. Se ci fosse qualcosa nella foto che potesse restringere le ricerche, sarei più felice. (continued)

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(continued) Original version

Dubbed version

MATER You might not be happy, but I bet this feller is. See how he’s had most of his parts replaced? And see all them boxes over there? Them’s all original parts. They ain’t easy to come by.

MATER Forse tu non sarai felice, ma scommetto che lui lo è. Si è fatto sostituire un sacco di pezzi. Vedi quelle scatole laggiù? Sono ricambi originali. Non sono facili da trovare. BACK TRANSLATION FINN This seems like a dead end. If there were something in the photo that could narrow this down a bit I’d be a lot happier. MATER You might not be happy, but I bet he is. He’s had most of his parts replaced. And you see all those boxes over there? They’re all original parts. They aren’t easy to find.

While Finn’s sentences are quite formal, Mater’s utterances are filled with non-standard grammar. The Italian dubbed version does not reproduce these non-standard features nor the two different accents, thus reducing and neutralising the negative stereotypical characterisation conveyed in the English version. Compensation is achieved only through the use of an informal expression such as un sacco di (a bunch of ) and through the vocal performance of the dubbing actor. The only characterisation provided in the dubbed version is a very slight Tuscan accent (the natural accent of actor Marco Messeri). A stigmatised, non-standard variety of American English is turned into largely standard Italian, but non-standard grammar is not used even though it is signalled in the Dialogue List. In fact, creative director Morville believed that Mater should not speak broken Italian and should not sound uneducated and silly (p.c. 4 June 2019). The humorous contrast between the British secret agent and the rustic American from the south is neutralised in dubbing.

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5.2.4 The Lovable Rogue/Thieves/Criminals/Ambiguous Characters There are other characters who usually speak British English, but do so in a more regionally or socially marked way. They tend to fall in the category of lovable rogues or rough diamonds. In the films analysed we can find several examples of this type of character. Those speaking with a London/Cockney accent share some features: they are working class (or portrayed as not being middle or upper class); they are rough, less refined, less educated; they may be lazy, thieves or criminals; and may be involved in dubious business dealings. Cutler points out that “a person’s accent can potentially index a very specific place identity, entailing that he or she is a veritable representative of that place” and adds that “stigmatized or undesirable accents like Cockney or Brooklynese […] are also linked to specific places and groups of people (e.g. East London, working class, or Brooklyn, immigrant background, etc.)” (2016, p. 75). Ellender similarly observes that “[s]peakers of Cockney are stereotypically associated with dubious business dealings and other criminal activity” (2015, p. 77). In Sing (2016) the gorilla Johnny, his father (Big Daddy) and his gang of gorilla thieves are characterised as having a London/Cockney accent. Their language contains instances of stigmatised Cockney features such as h-dropping, t-glottaling, l-vocalisation, th-fronting and vowel shifts that can be heard in the following words and expressions uttered by Big Daddy: right pronounced as /rAI/, fine pronounced as [fAIn], time pronounced as [thAIm], and “stay here” pronounced as stay ’ere (h dropping). They can also be heard in words uttered by Johnny: “late” pronounced as [leI], “date” pronounced as [deI], “not yet” pronounced as [no?je] or [nA?je], “wait” pronounced as [weI] and “father” pronounced as [fa:vђ]. Moreover, several non-standard grammatical features can be heard in their speech. Some utterances by Johnny’s father in Example 5.9 illustrate that he speaks a London, working-class variety of English that is conveyed not only through accent and specific phonetic features in the

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oral performance, but also through non-standard grammatical features (in bold). Example 5.9 Original version

Dubbed version

BIG DADDY Barry don’t mind. Do you, Barry?

BIG DADDY A Barry non dispiace. Vero Barry? BACK TRANSLATION BIG DADDY Barry doesn’t mind. Right, Barry? BIG DADDY Non abbiamo ancora una data. BACK TRANSLATION BIG DADDY We don’t have a date yet. BIG DADDY Sei ancora troppo morbido in curva, Johnny. BACK TRANSLATION BIG DADDY You’re still too soft on corners, Johnny.

BIG DADDY We ain’t got a date yet.

BIG DADDY You’re still too soft on ’em corners, Johnny.

Example 5.9 shows that the non-standard grammatical features of the original dialogue are not reproduced, hinted at or suggested in the Italian version. The dubbed version neutralises the specific working-class accent in the performance by using standard Italian and standard grammar. Moreover, no attempt seems to have been made during dubbing to adopt compensation strategies for this loss at the diatopic level such as the use of an informal register. The Italian dubbed version simply relies on the vocal performance of the dubbing actors to convey the social class, roughness and toughness of the characters. The strong, stylised sociocultural representation of the gorillas in the original version, particularly of Johnny’s father, through the choice of Cockney is thus lost in the dubbed version. Other than the tone of voice of the dubbing actors, it could be argued that linguistic identity is neutralised in the dubbed version, perhaps because of the difficulty of establishing any correspondence between regional varieties of languages or because it was not deemed important in the localisation process. Another interesting character with a London accent is Bad Bill in the animated Western Rango. He is voiced by British actor Ray

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Winstone who was born a Cockney. According to the IMDb his trademark characteristics are his “hard, gritty voice” and his “working class Cockney accent” (https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0935653/bio?ref_= nm_ov_bio_sm). Bad Bill’s Cockney accent marks him as different from the rustic but peaceful townspeople. Example 5.10 is uttered with a marked Cockney pronunciation with instances of t-glottalisation and lvocalisation. He also uses informal British English words such as “gawp” (i.e., to stare in a rude, stupid or unthinking way—Collins English Dictionary or CED) and the colloquial vocative “mate” (pronounced as /meI/) typical of British and Australian English—though not used in North America according to the Oxford English Dictionary. Example 5.10 Original version

Dubbed version

BAD BILL You got corn in your ears, mate? You don’t pay the mortgage, you don’t own the land. […] If I see your face in this town again, I’m gonna slice it off and use it to wipe my unmentionables! […] What are you all gawping at?

BAD BILL Hai il granturco nelle orecchie, compare? Se non paghi l’ipoteca, dovrai darci la terra. […] Se rivedo la tua faccia in questa città, la taglio a fettine, e la uso per pulirmi gli intoccabili. […] Che cosa fate lì impalati? BACK TRANSLATION BAD BILL Do you have corn in your ears, buddy/mate? If you don’t pay the mortgage, you’ll have to give us the land. […] If I see your face again in this town, I’ll slice it off and use it to wipe my untouchables! […] What are you all doing standing stock-still?

In the Italian dubbed version Bad Bill does not have any specific regional accent and speaks standard Italian. However, the word ‘mate’ is translated as compare, which is a vocative (a familiariser that connotes closeness) used in southern Italy arguably suggesting a southern Italian identity for the criminal. Voice quality and performance further contribute to characterisation. The linguistic differentiation and contrast between Bad Bill, Rango and the townspeople, which are clearly distinguishable in the original version, are neutralised and homogenised into standard Italian. When I asked dubbing director Izzo why they did not

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maintain or somehow convey the Britishness of the character, she replied that they were not allowed to use an English accent. Moreover, she believes that it would have sounded strange (Izzo, p.c. 3 March 2019). Other characters speaking with a broad, working-class London accent are Dr Nefario in Despicable Me; the funny, slow and lazy sea lions Fluke and Rudder in Finding Dory; the uneducated Lord Redbrick and Juliet’s aggressive cousin Tybalt in Gnomeo & Juliet; and the funny, pirate-looking Buck in Ice Age: The Meltdown. In most cases the dubbed versions neutralise the British accent and lose the linguistic characterisation of London-accented characters. However, some exceptions are Fluke and Rudder’s mild Sicilian accent, Tybalt’s Calabrese accent and the use of some dialect words, Lord Redbrick’s Sicilian accent and the use of dialect words (discussed in Chapter 8). Neutralising the London accent and the linguistic characterisation and stereotype generally associated with it is mitigated during dubbing in some cases by the voice quality, voice modulation and interpretation of the dubbing actors who in the dubbing studio usually try to replicate the rhythm, voice quality and intonation of the original actor, as we have already seen. Our analysis of London/Cockney speakers in animated films is consistent with Ranzato’s examination of telecinematic texts belonging to various genres: An exception to the almost uniform recourse to standardisation are the instances in which prosodic features and actors’ voices have come to the rescue of stylised characterisations […] Overall, however, what this analysis has highlighted is a comparative loss of the vividness and force of the original texts. These are accents which have a precise aesthetic, as well as narrative and mimetic function. And the creative forces at play in dialogues which give actors the possibility to exploit the resources of dialects are often ignored in the translation process so that, in the target versions, these Cockney stars sadly shine a much dimmer light. (2018a, p. 248)

The same can be said about animated characters in films making up the corpus dubbed between 2001 and 2017. The London/Cockney accent and all the nuances it carries are obliterated in Italian dubbing. This appears to be the result of the wide-ranging common practice in

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dubbing not to differentiate between native varieties of English. It might be argued that Cockney speakers, much like RP speakers and speakers of other British varieties, are native speakers of English. Since differences between accents when characters speak English natively cannot be recreated in dubbing, the dubbed version flattens them out, reducing variation and all the sociocultural and pragmatic nuances conveyed by each variety.

5.3

Scottish English

As pointed out in Chapter 4, Scottish English or what has been defined as Standard Scottish English (Stuart-Smith 2004) and a Scottish accent tend to carry positive connotations in the animated films that make up our corpus. Scottish English is used for characters who are funny, strong, brave, big, rough and authentic. It is also used to provide setting (as in Brave). The Scottish accent is used to provide characterisation, humour and contrast in the film Shrek. However, Shrek uses a stylised version of a Scottish accent since the actor voicing him contrives an accent without being consistent in pronunciation. Moreover, very few Scotticisms (i.e., words and expressions peculiar to Scottish English) such as ‘aye’ are used in Shrek’s lines. As pointed out by Mike Myers, when rehearsing his lines to create the character he tried other accents but they did not work. As reported in The Telegraph (2007), “his first problem, when he made the original Shrek film in 2001, was finding the right accent. ‘It was weird,’ he recalled. ‘It took a few times for me to get the voice right. I first tried it in a sort of Canadian accent, but it just didn’t connect, and, because fairytales are a European thing and ogres are more earthy, the Scottish accent just felt right’.”2 In the dubbed version Shrek speaks standard Italian and hence his linguistic identity is neutralised. In Gnomeo & Juliet (2011) Scottish actress Ashley Jensen uses a Scottish accent to convey humour and characterisation and to create an 2The

Telegraph (2007), “Mike Myers: How I Nailed Shrek’s Accent”, https://www.telegraph.co. uk/culture/film/starsandstories/3665827/Mike-Myers-how-I-nailedShreks-accent.html.

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idiolect for the green plastic frog Nanette (a surrogate for Juliet’s Nurse). She is a comic character and her accent and behaviour contribute significantly to her characterisation. As a result of the general dubbing policy to localise the whole film and make all the characters Italian, Nanette speaks Neapolitan in the Italian dubbed version. She does so with a marked accent, using dialect words and cultural references such as babà (a typical Neapolitan pastry) (on Nanette in the original version and in dubbing see Minutella 2016, p. 238). Scottish English is also used in other films where it has the function of immediately and unmistakably identifying the characters, providing setting and conveying humour. However, the Scottish identity of the characters is always neutralised in the dubbed versions since standard Italian is used. In Brave (2012) Scottish English is conveyed through broad Scottish accents and several lexical features (Scotticisms) and Scottish cultural references. It is used to identify the characters, provide setting, convey humour (King Fergus, the three Lords and their sons not only look funny but they also behave and speak in a comic way) and result in miscommunication when Young McGuffin speaks the Doric dialect. As noted in Chapter 4, in the How to Train Your Dragon films Scottish English is used not only to provide characterisation but also to highlight generational contrast. In Ferdinand (2017) Scottish English serves the purpose of comically characterising the bull Angus who not only has a Scottish name but also represents a Scottish breed (Highland Cattle). Stereotypical lexical and phonological Scottish features and an exaggerated, strong accent together with Angus’ behaviour render the character extremely comic. In these films the characters are voiced by Scottish actors/voice talents with four notable exceptions: Shrek, voiced by Canadian Mike Myers; Hiccup’s mother Valka, voiced by Australian actress Cate Blanchett in How to Train Your Dragon 2; and Merida’s mother Elinor, voiced by London-born actress Emma Thompson and the witch voiced by Julie Walters in Brave. Queen Elinor’s Scottish pronunciation is less marked than that of her daughter and that of the male characters. Cutler describes Merida and her mother Queen Elinor as follows:

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The main female character embodied by young Merida is self-confident and boyish with a giant mop of unruly red curls and world-class archery skills. Her accent is notable for its lengthened vowels, tapped /r/, and unique lexical expressions (Jings crivins, help ma boab! ). Queen Elinor makes minimal use of ScE features (dark /l/, softly tapped /r/, and slight vowel lengthening) which helps to establish her role as a model of proper speech and behavior for her daughter Merida. (2016, p. 78)

I agree with this view. Emma Thompson’s accent sets her apart from the male characters and from her own daughter whose behaviour is rebellious and distant from her. The contrast between mother and daughter, which is the central theme of the film, is conveyed through both their behaviour and language: Merida is more authentic and wilder and speaks with a full Scottish accent, while her mother is more controlled and strict and her speech fluctuates between Scottish English and Standard English. Such linguistic characterisation matches the personalities, roles and ages of the women. This contrast is not conveyed in the dubbed version since all the characters in the film speak standard Italian with its neutral accent, thus confirming the argument put forward by dubbing professionals that the main language of animated films is always dubbed into standard Italian. Kevin McKidd, who voices both father and son (Lord MacGuffin and Young MacGuffin), decided to resort to a Scottish dialect—his grandfather’s Doric dialect—in order to characterise the speech of Young MacGuffin. He explained in an interview that he decided to choose a real Scottish dialect he knew since the directors wanted him to speak in a way that was incomprehensible to other characters.3 As a result nobody understands Young MacGuffin and there are no subtitles when he speaks. This is somehow conveyed in the dubbed version by making the dubbing actor speak a nonsensical sentence (Se fosse nel mentre io lui sul groppizio ci va—If it were in the while I he on his groppizio goes)—not through a specific Italian dialect or an English accent. Since the function of the Doric dialect was to be unintelligible, the dubbing team invented meaningless words rather than resorting to an Italian dialect, which would have domesticated and Italianised the character and would have clashed 3 See

interview with the voice actors and film directors: “Brave | It’s English Sort Of | Disney Pixar”, online at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zdBKJLzlxSA.

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with the Scottish setting of the film and nationality of the character. An alternative strategy could have been to keep the lines in the original dialect and use the original audio track and voice of the original actor. It is also worth pointing out that in Brave and other films using Scottish English several Scotticisms are used. Examples are the words aye, lass/lassie, wee, och, loch and haggis. Other less common Scottish words found in Brave are gammy, scaffy, tatty, glen (a narrow valley, especially in Scotland or Ireland) and tumshie (Scottish informal and humorous term for a turnip). Tumshie is used by Lord Dingwall as a humorous insult. Fergus, Merida, Elinor and other characters use several of these words that are enregistered as typical of Scottish English: they are marked as dialectal (Scottish) in dictionaries of the English language such as the Collins English Dictionary, the Merriam-Webster Dictionary and the Oxford English Dictionary (online versions). A few examples of dialogues from Brave and Ferdinand will illustrate the large presence of Scottish lexical features in English dialogues and how their dialectal character disappears in the Italian dubbed versions. Example 5.11 Original version

Dubbed version

FERGUS Happy birthday my wee darling! Now, there’s a good girl.

FERGUS Buon compleanno mia adorata! Ecco così, brava! BACK TRANSLATION Happy birthday, my love! Right, like this, well done!

In Example 5.11 King Fergus’ Scottish English is conveyed mainly through his accent, in particular the pronunciation of rhotic and trilled ‘r’s (in ‘birthday’, ‘darling’, ‘there’, ‘girl’), the pronunciation of vowels and by the use of the Scottish English adjective wee. The dubbed version does not convey any of these features but uses standard Italian with a neutral accent. The exchange in Example 5.12 takes place in the palace while Merida and her family are having dinner. The exchange is delivered in a Scottish accent and contains a Scottish visual and verbal reference (haggis) and two Scottish words: the interjection och and the adjective wee (Scottish lexis in bold).

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Example 5.12 Original version

Dubbed version

ELINOR Boys, you’re naughty! Don’t just play with your haggis. Och, now, how do you know you don’t like it if you won’t try it? That’s just a wee sheep’s stomach! It’s delicious! Mmm.

ELINOR Bambini, non giocherellate con il vostro haggis! Oh, andiamo, come fate a sapere che non vi piace se non lo assaggiate? È solo lo stomaco di una pecorella! È squisito! Mmm. BACK TRANSLATION ELINOR Boys, don’t play around with your haggis! Oh, come on, how do you know you don’t like it if you don’t try it? It’s only a sheep’s stomach! It’s delicious! Mmm.

The exchange in Example 5.12 is translated into Italian by retaining the culture-bound word haggis because the audience actually sees the food on the boys’ plates and because the meaning, which would be obscure to most Italian children, is actually explained in the dialogue and generates the humorous reaction of the child. The boy’s facial expression and disgusted gesture are justified. The Scottish accent of Queen Elinor is lost in the dubbed version, as are the Scottish words och and wee. As previously pointed out, the neutralisation of Scottish lexis goes hand in hand with the neutralisation of accent since in the dubbed version all the characters (with very few exceptions) speak standard Italian devoid of any regional accent. The dialogues in Brave also contain the exclamation Crivens and the stereotypical extended version “Jings, crivens, help ma boab” which is defined by the CED as “an exclamation of surprise, now more commonly used for comedic effect.” Example 5.13 shows Merida using the expression when she speaks to her mother.

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Example 5.13 Original version

Dubbed version

MERIDA Mum… (ELINOR, now a bear, grunts and groans) Jings, crivens, help ma boab. Mum, I know you’re scared, you’re tired, you don’t understand, but we’ve got to keep our heads. Just calm down. Listen.

MERIDA Mamma… Oh, santo cielo, come devo fare? Mamma, so che sei spaventata, sei stanca e non capisci quello che succede, ma non dobbiamo perdere la testa, d’accordo? Ora calmati. Calmati … e ascolta. BACK TRANSLATION MERIDA Mum … Oh, heavens, what can I do? Mum, I know you’re scared, you’re tired, you don’t understand what’s happening, but we mustn’t lose our heads, alright? Just calm down, calm down … and listen.

The Scottish expression is rendered in the dubbed version with a common Italian expression that is neither regionally nor socially connoted. As far as the dubbed Italian version of Brave is concerned, all the main characters speak standard Italian with no specific regional inflection. Elimination and standardisation of sociolinguistic variation and of Scottish features are the prevailing translation strategies adopted in the dubbed version of this film. The wide presence of Scottish lexis and the constant use of Scottish accents are lost. This also applies to the generational difference between the Scottish accent of the adult Vikings and the American accent of the younger generation in How to Train Your Dragon. The Scottishness of Brave is conveyed in the Italian dubbed version through visual elements, costumes, setting and music— not through a specific use of language. This is in line with our previous analysis of other native varieties of English: the homogenising norm applies to most of them. A few minor characters, on the other hand, speak Italian with an accent. These will be discussed in Sect. 5.5. An interesting instance of Scottish English used for character portrayal and comedy is David Tennant’s stylised vocal performance for the Highland steer Angus in Ferdinand (2017). Angus is visually represented as a Scottish bull that is funny and a bit dull (he cannot see very well and thinks he is almost blind, whereas he only has very long hair that

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covers his eyes). Scottish actor Tennant emphasises Angus’ Scottishness and the comic essence of this character. Tennant’s interpretation of the clumsy Angus can be described, borrowing Coupland’s words, as a “jocular celebration” (2001, p. 352) of Scottishness. Angus speaks with a broad Scottish accent, uses Scotticisms and delivers his lines at quite a fast pace. All these features contribute to creating a very comic character. Tennant’s performance can perhaps be interpreted “as a stylized and certainly a self-reflexive representation” (Coupland 2001, p. 353) of Scottishness. In the Italian dubbed version no regional accent is conveyed and all verbal references to Scotland are lost. Moreover, Tennant’s great stylised, humorous vocal performance is erased and replaced by an Italian voice that does not carry the same wealth of connotations and comedy. The dubbing actor speaks standard Italian with a neutral accent. Nevertheless, the Italian dialogue writer attempted to compensate for this loss of humour (at the phonetic level) by resorting to informal, less common and creative/funny expressions such as “Ti ha dato di volta il cervello?” (“Are you out of your mind?”) and “Per tutte le sbornie” (“For all the binges”) to translate the Scottish informal expression Jings! Crivens! And help ma boab, as illustrated in Example 5.14. Example 5.14 Original version

Dubbed version

ANGUS Have you lost your bloody mind? […] Jings! Crivens! And help ma boab!

ANGUS Ti ha dato di volta il cervello? Per tutte le sbornie! Aiuto! BACK TRANSLATION ANGUS Are you out of your mind? For all the binges! Help!

Angus makes another humorous speech when he finally manages to see properly. The lines are delivered in English with exaggerated trilled ‘r’s and typical Scottish English vowels. Moreover, his comments are humorous and contain wordplay and allusions such as “I’m a dead bull walking” rather than a “dead man walking”, the words finito and kaput, and the Scotticism wee in “Ya wee wooden devil” translated as “il mio nemico” (my enemy). In the Italian dubbed version the dubbing actor tried to replicate the rhythm and fast pace of the original, but Tennant’s

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unique Scottish accent and Scottish words are neutralised, making Italian Angus less funny. What is lost in the dubbed version is the interplay and the combination of visual and phonetic elements that creates characterisation and humour. Although an adult audience may well catch on, it might not be perceived by children. The example of Angus confirms and corroborates our opinion that differences between native varieties of English despite their function within the original films are not conveyed in Italian dubbing. The Scottish identity of the characters in the films analysed is never maintained in the dubbed versions except where the screen image indicates this. The only Scottish character dubbed into Italian with a marked regional accent is the comic Nanette in Gnomeo & Juliet. Her linguistic characterisation in the original and dubbed version will be discussed in Sect. 5.6, which deals with exceptions to the homogenising and neutralising strategy. Nanette and to a certain extent the three lords in Brave constitute an exception to the dominant strategy of neutralising Scottish English in that a regional variety of Italian can be detected in the vocal performance of the dubbers.

5.4

Australian English

As previously pointed out, in Dreamworks’ Rise of the Guardians/Le cinque leggende (2012) various native varieties of English are spoken. Other than North, the protagonists are native speakers of English (AmE, BrE and AusE). The Easter Bunny’s Australian identity is emphasised in the original film both visually (through his clothes and objects) and verbally (through his broad Australian accent). Choosing a well-known Australian voice actor here helped the animators create the character such that the actor’s persona and origins contributed to character portrayal and characterisation: Once Hugh Jackman was cast, though, things fell into place. Bunny became an Australian ranger who uses magical boomerangs as weapons. […] “We gave him an Australian Outback slicker and pants, but they really didn’t fit him well”, says Gabe Hordos, head of character animation. […] Bunny

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became this awesome warrior figure, which is a great contrast to the usual notion of a bunny as a cute, super soft animal. (Zahed 2012, pp. 48–50)

The casting of Hugh Jackman thus provided the character animators with clues on how to design the Easter Bunny and give voice to him. They gave him a marked Australian accent and used (perhaps overused?) the vocative ‘mate’, which is considered a marker of Australian English (as it is of some varieties of British English). Another stereotypical Aussie linguistic feature is the euphemistic interjection ‘crikey’, which was translated in dubbing as cribbio. Bunny’s accent stands out from those of the other (mostly American) characters as evidenced by Jack Frost insulting the Easter Bunny by calling him a kangaroo during an argument. This is an example of humour based on linguistic variation mixed with cultural elements. An adult American/international audience is supposed to laugh at this combination of linguistic and visual features. Example 5.15 shows Bunny getting offended by Jack’s comments. Example 5.15 Original version

Dubbed version

BUNNY But none of ’em believe in ya. Do they? Y’see, you’re invisible, mate, it’s like you don’t even exist. TOOTH Bunny! Enough! JACK No, the kangaroo’s right. BUNNY The … the what? What’d you call me? I’m not a kangaroo, mate.

CALMONIGLIO Ma nessuno crede in te, vero? Tu sei invisibile, amico. Come se non esistessi. DENTOLINA Calmoniglio! Ora basta! JACK No, il canguro ha ragione. CALMONIGLIO Il … il cosa? Ehhhh? Come mi hai chiamato? Io non sono un canguro, amico. BACK TRANSLATION CALMONIGLIO But no one believes you, do they? You’re invisible, friend. Like you didn’t exist. DENTOLINA Bunny! Enough now! JACK No, the kangaroo’s right. CALMONIGLIO The … what? Eh? What did you call me? I’m not a kangaroo, friend.

In the original version the differences between the General American spoken by the Tooth Fairy and Jack Frost and the Australian English spoken by the Easter Bunny are conveyed in the above exchange by

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phonetic features as well as Bunny’s more informal register (’em, ya, Y’see) and the frequent use of ‘mate’. In the dubbed version no distinction can be perceived between these characters’ accents and speech style. The only linguistic feature of the Easter Bunny in Italian is his use of amico, a calque from ‘man’ and ‘mate’, which is common in Italian dubbese but never used in contemporary spoken Italian (on the translation of ‘man’ and the use of amico in dubbing see Pavesi 2005; Forchini 2013; Formentelli 2014; Minutella 2015 among others). A translation problem arises later on in the film when Bunny’s accent is openly mentioned in the dialogue. Example 5.16 Original version

Dubbed version

JACK FROST Ah, look. I … I’m sorry about the whole, you know, the kangaroo thing. EASTER BUNNY It’s for the accent, isn’t it?

JACK FROST Senti, mi dispiace per la storia, insomma, la storia del canguro. EASTER BUNNY È per come salto, giusto? BACK TRANSLATION JACK FROST Look. I’m sorry about the story, you know, the kangaroo thing. EASTER BUNNY It’s because of the way I jump, right?

This represents a translational hurdle. The difference between American English and Australian English is not conveyed in dubbing, in the voice/accent of the dubbing actors. As a result of erasing regional accents the final lines in the exchange in Example 5.16 had to be rewritten, modifying Bunny’s line. The reference to accent had to be eliminated and another element found that could be associated with a kangaroo. The Italian dubbed version thus transforms the reference to the Easter Bunny’s accent to one about the way he moved. The dialogue writer’s solution is creative, humorous and does not hinder comprehension. Other Australian characters can be found in the film Finding Nemo (2003) when the little fish is captured and taken to Sydney. This specific variety of English is used in this case to provide setting, give couleur locale and create a postcarding effect (Wahl 2005, 2008). Some of the

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fish that Nemo, Marlin and Dory meet in addition to the dentist and other characters have an Australian accent. In particular, the three sharks that Marlin and Dory meet (Bruce, Anchor and Chum) speak with an Australian and New Zealand accent. They are voiced by Australian actors Barry Humphries and Eric Bana and New Zealand actor Bruce Spence. Australian actor Geoffrey Rush voiced the friendly pelican Nigel. This once again seems to suggest that Pixar attempted to cast native speakers of specific varieties in order to provide authentic characterisation and believable accents. In the dubbed version of the film the Australian identity of the characters is neutralised by making them all speak standard Italian, although a colloquial register is used. It is worth noting that the cockatoo Nigel in the Rio films also speaks New Zealand English that is neutralised in dubbing and turned into standard Italian. The homogenising and standardising norm thus also applies to Australian and New Zealand English.

5.5

Social and Regional Varieties of American English

This section will focus on how the dubbing of social and regional varieties of American English and non-standard varieties is dealt with. More specifically, Southern American English, AAVE and New York/Brooklynese will be described since these are the varieties most widely used to provide quick characterisation and stereotypes. As pointed out in Chapter 4, the speech of several secondary characters is filled with phonetic, lexical and syntactic features of such non-standard varieties of American English.

5.5.1 Southern American English In Rango the main female character Beans is voiced by Isla Fisher, contriving a Southern American English accent. Her speech often displays non-standard grammar such as the use of ‘ain’t’, double negation, regularisation of the third person singular and omission of the auxiliary, as can be seen in Examples 5.17–5.19 (non-standard grammar in italics).

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Example 5.17 Original version

Dubbed version

BEANS You ain’t from around here, are you?

BEANS Tu non sei di queste parti, vero? BACK TRANSLATION BEANS You’re not from around here, are you?

Example 5.18 Original version

Dubbed version

BEANS Now that just don’t make no sense. Now, listen. Someone is dumping water in the desert. I seen it with my own eyes.

BEANS Ecco, non ha senso. Ora senta. Qualcuno butta l’acqua nel deserto. L’ho visto con i miei occhi. BACK TRANSLATION BEANS Right, this does not make sense. Now, listen. Someone is dumping water in the desert. I’ve seen it with my own eyes.

Example 5.19 Original version

Dubbed version

BEANS It just don’t make no sense. […] And the Mayor is the only one who don’t seem to be affected.

BEANS La cosa è proprio senza senso. […] e il sindaco è l’unico a cui non manca l’acqua. BACK TRANSLATION BEANS This just makes no sense. […] And the Mayor is the only one who doesn’t lack water.

As can be seen in Examples 5.17–5.19, non-standard syntax is never conveyed in the dubbed version which uses standard Italian without any grammar mistakes. The non-standard, stigmatised variety of English spoken by this female character is not conveyed in Italian and no compensatory strategies are adopted. Her register is neither informal nor colloquial. The dubbed version represents what has been found to be a typical feature of dubbed language: a register shift in which the dubbed version has a higher register compared with the original dialogue.

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Several other characters display instances of non-standard dialect in this film, especially the family of thieves. In Example 5.20 the nonstandard features indexing a regional and social variety of English are neutralised in the dubbed version where, as usual, standard Italian is used. Example 5.20 Original version

Dubbed version

SON 1 Sheriff, we didn’t kill nobody. We done tunnelled into that vault, but there weren’t nothing in it. SON 2 Somebody done robbed that bank before we robbed it. […] That’s what I been trying to tell you, Pappy.

SON 1 Non abbiamo ucciso nessuno. Abbiamo sì scavato fino al caveau ma non c’era niente. SON 2 Qualcuno ha rapinato la banca prima di noi. […] È questo che cercavo di dirti, papi. BACK TRANSLATION SON 1 We didn’t kill anybody. We did tunnel into that vault, but there was nothing. SON 2 Somebody robbed that bank before we did. […] That’s what I’ve been trying to tell you, daddy.

Although no non-standard grammar is used in the dubbed version, an attempt at compensation and conveying the roughness of the characters’ speech is made in the performance using pronunciation that is less standard and diction that is not neutral. It is a matter of voice quality, performance, modulation and pronunciation. In Rango the contrast between educated and less educated speakers is evident both visually (physical appearance, costumes) and verbally (standard English vs non-standard English). Such a contrast mirrors the power relationship/social distance that pervades the film. While Mr Merrimack (the bank manager), the Mayor and Rango speak standard American English, the rustic inhabitants of the town and some criminals who are less educated speak non-standard American English with a marked Southern American accent. Nevertheless, despite the fact that the linguistic representation is important and provides a stark contrast between characters in the original by using standard American English (General American) and a non-standard, stigmatised variety (Southern

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American English), the linguistic identity of the characters is neutralised in the Italian dubbed version. The only way to characterise the criminals and the less educated, rougher, town inhabitants was to work on voice quality and on providing some sporcatura (i.e., diction that is not neutral and somehow defiled in that it betrays the origin of the speaker), but without resorting to ungrammaticalities. When I asked dialogue writer and dubbing director Fiamma Izzo why these characters spoke like the other more educated characters in the film and were not given a more specific linguistic characterisation in Italian, she explained that it was impossible to convey non-standard dialect in the dubbed version due to the conventions and norms that apply to dubbing products for children such as the distributor not allowing ungrammaticalities (Izzo, p.c. 4 March 2019). As previously discussed, Mater from the Cars trilogy is another character speaking Southern American English. He has been dubbed using a similar technique to sporcatura (with a very slight Tuscan pronunciation) and using an informal register. Cookie, the unhygienic chef in Atlantis, is another interesting, uneducated and rough character speaking Southern American English and using several instances of non-standard grammar typical of this variety of English. His lines are interspersed with colloquial words and non-standard English items such as using ‘them’ for ‘those’, ‘done bite’ for ‘has bitten’, double negation and ‘ain’t’. Example 5.21 Original version

Dubbed version

COOKIE Shoot. That ain’t nothing.

COOKIE Ahh, sono bazzecole. BACK TRANSLATION COOKIE Ah, it’s just trifle.

In the above example Cookie uses the informal, American English interjection shoot —as also frequently uttered by the rusty tow truck Mater in the Cars trilogy—and two instances of non-standard dialect: ‘ain’t’ and double negation (‘ain’t nothing’). These two characters are in fact similar in the way that they speak. In the Italian dubbed version the social dialect and non-standard features that characterise Cookie are not reproduced through a specific accent or non-standard grammar, although

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a kind of compensation strategy is adopted by making him use dislocation (questo l’ho fatto—“this I’ve done it”), a more informal register and less common words such as ciccia rather than grasso or carne, dannate (damned) and pizzichi/bazzecole (pittance/trifle). Although non-standard syntax is avoided in the Italian dubbed version, dislocation is used since it is a typical feature of less formal spoken Italian. Voice quality and performance also contribute to characterisation.

5.5.2 African American Vernacular English (AAVE) The aim of this sub-section is to describe the different ways in which selected AAVE features are used in some animated films and how they are dealt with in dubbing. As pointed out in Chapter 4, the films in the corpus contain several male characters speaking AAVE (on AAVE features see Green 2002; Lippi-Green 2012). Characters speaking AAVE can be found in Shrek, Shark Tale, Madagascar, Madagascar 2: Escape to Africa and the Rio films. Their speech displays some typical non-standard grammatical and intonation features that immediately index an African American identity. None of these features are transferred to the Italian dubbed versions that use standard Italian with no accent, thereby neutralising the connotations attached to AAVE. Since all the characters speak standard Italian the distinction between speakers of BrE and AmE is lost. However, a common compensation strategy that is sometimes adopted (e.g., for the characters of Oscar in Shark Tale and Pedro and Nico in Rio) is to resort to a colloquial register. This, together with the voice quality of the dubber, contributes to establishing the linguistic identity of these characters. Non-standard syntax is never used. Racist representations of African American characters and the way they speak are thus avoided in the dubbed versions of the films analysed. Dubbing professionals refrain from mocking black speech in the form of black minstrelsy that was used in the 1950s in dubbing (with grammar mistakes, broken Italian and an exaggerated and ridiculous pronunciation to signal that the characters were black) (Zanotti 2012). This is in line with the contemporary more respectful trend in dubbing of avoiding non-standard varieties and broken Italian for

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African American characters. Zanotti points out that according to “current translational norms […] neutralization is the translation strategy adopted in Italian dubbing” (2012, p. 167) of African American speech. While early dubbings conveyed a highly stereotyped and racist portrayal of African Americans through the use of broken Italian and ridiculous and exaggerated pronunciation (Zanotti 2012, pp. 158–163), in the wake of the Civil Rights Movement the approach of dubbing professionals changed and “the strategy of neutralizing variation was chosen as more adequately representative of the speech of African American characters, even when the original dialogues displayed some dialectic markers” (Zanotti 2012, p. 163). The Madagascar films are good examples of how AAVE is used in animated films and how the linguistic identity of characters differs according to whether they use AAVE intonation and rhythm only (with standard grammar) or whether they also use AAVE non-standard grammatical features. Madagascar 2: Escape to Africa will be used here to illustrate the dubbing strategies adopted to deal with AAVE and other varieties of English. As previously observed, in Madagascar the protagonists are four animals who have escaped from the New York zoo and who all speak American English. The lion Alex and the giraffe Melman speak General American, while the main characters voiced by African Americans (the zebra Marty and the hippo Gloria) use an AAVE intonation without any non-standard grammatical features typical of AAVE. The positive minor characters Florrie and Zuba (Alex’s parents, living in Africa) also use standard grammar. Conversely, the negative hippo Moto Moto, who is represented as arrogant and inarticulate, speaks AAVE with an emphasis on nonstandard grammatical features including some non-standard morphosyntactic features such as copula omission, double negation and omission of the third person -s. The native African hippo Moto Moto (as opposed to the domesticated animals coming from the New York zoo) has a huge body and muscles and is surrounded by female hippos who are all in love with him. The hippo seems to portray what Bucholtz and Lopez have defined as the “valorized stereotypes of young working-class African American men’s style, including coolness, physical toughness and sexual self-confidence” (2011, p. 682). Black rapper and leader of the

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Black Eyed Peas will.i.am voiced Moto Moto in the original version. His comments on his vocal performance for Moto Moto confirm that it was deemed important to emphasise the coolness of the character: he calls Moto Moto’s voice his “dark chocolate voice” explaining that “it’s like Barry White but uhm, cooler” (Madagascar 2, DVD extras). However, the visual and verbal representation of Moto Moto is definitely negative and caricatural. Although he is handsome and attractive, he is also too self-confident and too focused on physical appearance. Moreover, his lines suggest that he is not very smart. For instance, when we first meet Moto Moto he swaggers out of the water to the lyrics of the song Big and Chunky sung by will.i.am. Gloria says “So you must be Moto Moto” and he replies “The name so nice you say it twice.” However, while saying this line he sticks up three fingers showing he cannot count and making himself look ridiculous. Moto Moto is portrayed as being shallow and definitely having limited verbal dexterity. This is especially the case when he courts Gloria since he keeps repeating the same concept (that he likes her because she is chunky, plumpy and huge) and cannot find other words or other ways of expressing his feelings. The following is the exchange between Gloria and Moto Moto in which the female hippo tries to find a reason—other than physical attraction and the fact that they belong to the same species—for choosing Moto Moto as her mate. Gloria asks Moto Moto why he likes her and what he finds special about her. Example 5.22 Original version

Dubbed version

GLORIA Okay, so what is it about me that you find so interesting? MOTO MOTO Well, You are the most plumpenest girl I’ve ever met. GLORIA Okay. Other than that MOTO MOTO Let’s see … Yeah, well, you know … you chunky. Ha. GLORIA Right. MOTO MOTO Ehm … My gosh, girl, you huge.

GLORIA D’accordo, allora, che cosa ci trovi in me di così interessante? MOTO MOTO Ah, sei la ragazza più cicciottosissima che abbia mai visto. GLORIA D’accordo. A parte questo. MOTO MOTO Vediamo … hm, sì, be’, sai, sei tracagnotta, eh eh. GLORIA Certo. MOTO MOTO Hm, accipicchia, ragazza, sei enorme. (continued)

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(continued) Original version

Dubbed version

GLORIA You said that. MOTO MOTO Oh, yes right … hmm we don’t have to talk no more.

GLORIA L’hai, l’hai già detto. MOTO MOTO Oh! Sì, è vero. Hm, ehm, mi basta questo a me. BACK TRANSLATION GLORIA Okay, so what do you find in me that is so interesting? MOTO MOTO Well, You are the plumpest girl I’ve ever met. GLORIA Okay. Other than that. MOTO MOTO Let’s see … Yeah, well, you know … you are chunky. Ha. GLORIA Of course. MOTO MOTO Ehm … My gosh, girl, you are huge. GLORIA You, you’ve already said that. MOTO MOTO Oh, yes right … hmm that’s enough for me.

In the above exchange syntactic features typical of AAVE (and other non-standard varieties of English) in Moto Moto’s lines clearly contribute to creating a negative and comic characterisation. Typical AAVE features found in Moto Moto’s lines are double negation (“we don’t have to talk no more”), copula deletion (“My gosh, girl, you huge”) and omission of the -s in the third person singular (“she love that I’m chunky”). Moto Moto also uses an ungrammatical superlative adjective (“plumpenest” rather than “plumpest”). These non-standard grammatical features are not conveyed in the dubbed version: there is no non-standard grammar with the exception of the a me mi construction, which is considered redundant and incorrect in traditional grammar, a pleonasm that is nevertheless often used in informal spoken Italian and a dislocation that provides emphasis. Whereas in the past a me mi was considered a grammar mistake, in contemporary Italian it may be acceptable for emphasis, but only in an informal spoken register. Moto Moto also uses the vocative ‘man’ to address Melman, although the two do not know one another: “Good, we’re kind of busy here, man.” ‘Man’ is a familiariser typical of informal American English that is often resorted to in film and TV dialogues among young males to express closeness or aggressiveness towards the interlocutor. In dubbed Italian it is frequently omitted or translated by the stock translation amico, which is a marker of

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dubbese (on the translation of ‘man’ in dubbing see Pavesi 2005; Forchini 2013; Formentelli 2014; Minutella 2015 among others). In the dubbed version Moto Moto says “Sì, bravo, abbiamo un po’ da fare qui, amico.” The presence of amico in Italian can be interpreted as an attempt by the dialogue writer/dubbing director to convey, at least at the lexical level and in terms of register, the characterisation of the hippo. While non-standard syntactic features are not conveyed, we witness a certain lowering of the register in order to match the linguistic characterisation of the cool but not very clever hippo. In the original film Moto Moto’s portrayal is thus a negative, stereotypical representation of the coolness of African Americans through common non-standard linguistic forms and stock lexical and syntactic structures typically used to represent non-standard varieties such as double negation, auxiliary deletion, use of ‘ain’t’ and the vocative ‘man’. Moto Moto’s portrayal seems similar to “racist representational practices of the past” (Zanotti 2012, p. 167) since the hippo’s behaviour and language contribute to creating a negative image. The fact that Gloria realises in the end that she actually loves the shy and sensitive Melman, the giraffe, voiced by white actor David Schwimmer (Ross in Friends), who speaks Standard American English (General American) and expresses his deep feelings in a romantic and clear way, may not be coincidental. Moto Moto is not the only character in the corpus of films who displays the non-standard grammar and morphosyntactic features associated with AAVE. Donkey from the Shrek films and Oscar from Shark Tale also share similar linguistic qualities. Double negation, copula deletion and the use of ‘ain’t’ can be found in the lines uttered by Oscar. The sentence in Example 5.23 from Shark Tale illustrates what happens to such non-standard traits in the Italian dubbed version. Example 5.23 Original version

Dubbed version

OSCAR Yeah, that’s funny. I ain’t afraid of nothin’, it’s just…

OSCAR Questa è comica! Io non ho paura di niente, solo che … BACK TRANSLATION That’s funny! I’m not afraid of anything, it’s just that …

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The non-standard syntactic features of Oscar’s language are neutralised in the dubbed version. Nevertheless, in the dubbed version directed by Mete it is possible to observe some strategies used to compensate for this loss of characterisation such as resorting to a colloquial register and humorous invented words that also refer to the underwater world. The birds Pedro (a red-crested cardinal voiced in the original version by will.i.am) and Nico (a yellow canary voiced by black actor and musician Jamie Foxx) also have a specific linguistic characterisation in the English version in that they have a rap style and use colloquial slang words and expressions and some non-standard grammar features typical of AAVE. Such features are important and convey characterisation and humour. In the dubbed version directed by Guadagno a more colloquial style is conveyed through lexical choices (see Bruti 2014, pp. 95–97), while non-standard morphosyntactic features are neutralised. Anglicisms also appear to contribute to creating this linguistic characterisation. In such a case dubbing resorts to register variation rather than accent. The character of Donkey in the Shrek saga also uses several non-standard features that are considered typical of AAVE. Much like what happens in Rio and Shark Tale, the Italian lines of this character neutralise non-standard features, but attempt to compensate for this loss and somehow express Donkey’s attitude, personality and informality by using a colloquial register and creative lexical choices (see Minutella 2014, 2015).

5.5.3 New York/Brooklyn Accent The two alligators Stan and Carmine in the film The Wild/Uno zoo in fuga speak with a New York/Brooklyn accent with some Italian American features. In the English version these loud and funny alligators are voiced by actors Lenny Venito and Joseph Siravo who often play Italian American characters and star in The Sopranos. In the Italian dubbed version the funny alligators are given a southern accent with some dialect features. The New York accent is turned in dubbing into regional Italian since dubbing actors Stefano de Sando (Stan) and Pasquale Anselmo (Carmine) (both from Calabria) use their own accent and dialect, intertwining Calabrese and Sicilian-accented Italian and

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sometimes using dialect words and expressions. This is a case of localisation and hypercharacterisation which makes the alligators in the Italian version extremely funny. The use of such Italian varieties does not trigger any specific stereotypes since the characters are not negatively portrayed in the film. Examples 5.24–5.26 will illustrate the approach adopted in dubbing (dialect words and regional phonetic features in the dubbed version in italics). Example 5.24 Original version

Dubbed version

CARMINE Ah! The big female with the spikes on her melon! STAN They’re tourists!

CARMINE Ahh, hai capitu. A fimmina ca tena i puncigliuni supa a capa! STAN Sono turisti! BACK TRANSLATION CARMINE Ah. I got it. The female who has spikes on her head! STAN They’re tourists!

Example 5.25 Original version

Dubbed version

CARMINE All right. […] Yeah, sure. Of course we’re gonna help yas. We’re one big family, right? Except for that guy there. He scares the …

CARMINE e till’haiu dittu! […] Sì, cetto, sicuro che vi aiutiamo. Siamo tutti quanti una grande famiglia, ggiusto? A parte u picciriddu … porcarì cum’è bbruttu! BACK TRANSLATION I told you! […] Yes, sure, of course we’re gonna help you. We’re all a big family, right? Except for the little one there … Jeez, he’s so ugly!

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Example 5.26 Original version

Dubbed version

STAN Now. Follow me, ’cause you four won’t last ten minutes in this neighborhood. It’s a jungle down here.

STAN E adesso venite cummia. Pecchè da soli non durate neanche cinque minuti. È ‘na ggiungla qua ssotto. BACK TRANSLATION Now you come with me. ’Cause if you’re alone you won’t last five minutes. It’s a jungle down here.

Choosing a marked Italian regional variety for these comic characters by using authentic Calabrese and Sicilian accents and inserting dialect words and expressions that may be not familiar or easily comprehensible to the average Italian (child) audience is a case of adaptation and transformation in dubbing. It is brought about by making use of a localisation strategy that resorts to hypercharacterisation that is aimed at providing a comic effect. The thief and pirate DVD seller Duke Weaselton in Zootopia/Zootropolis is another minor character who speaks colloquial American English, with some non-standard grammar and slang words with a New York/Brooklyn accent. In the Italian version he is dubbed by star talent actor and comedian Frank Matano (from Campania) who has a broad Neapolitan accent and uses dialect words. Hypercharacterisation is brought about using a localisation, transformation and domestication strategy in which the weasel’s linguistic and cultural identity is exaggerated and has a comic function. However, Dore (2019) points out that using regional Italian in such a way has been criticised for perpetuating the negative Italian stereotype associating Neapolitans with criminality (for a detailed analysis of Duke Weaselton and the Italian dubbed version of Zootopia see Dore 2019). A further character whose linguistic characterisation supports such a translation trend is the mouse Mike in Sing. As pointed out in Chapter 4, in the original version Mike has an East Coast/New York/Bronx accent “with a touch of Italian mafia, and he is voiced to sound like a gangster.”4 According to Dubbing director 4I

would like to thank Claudia Gvirtzman Dichter for her comments on Mike’s voice.

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Mete in the original version Mike has a slight Italian accent, so it was decided to render his lines “with a Neapolitan cadence, in order to add a touch of colour, that Neapolitan speech melody, rather than an accent” (Mete, p.c. 9 June 2020). Whether Mike has a specific Italian or New York accent in the original version of the film may be subject to debate but is irrelevant here. What is important is that his cool street flavour, gangster speech style and East Coast accent5 made him stand out somewhat from the other characters. The dubbing team decided to use a southern Italian accent to bring this about. Examples 5.24–5.26 confirm that southern regional varieties of Italian tend to be used for characters sporting a New York/Brooklyn accent. As pointed out in Chapter 3, the use of a Sicilian or a southern regional variety for characters speaking with a Brooklyn accent was mentioned by dubbing professionals as a common strategy in dubbing.

5.6

Exceptions or When Dubbing Uses Italian with an Accent

This section summarises the rare cases in which the Italian dubbed version of an animated film does not neutralise native varieties of English but rather uses an English (British) accent or turns a native English variety into a regional Italian one, domesticating some characters or even the whole film. Examples of English-accented Italian and Italian with a regional accent used to dub native varieties of English can be found in Ice Age 2 (2006), Gnomeo & Juliet (2011), Cars 2 (2011), Brave (2012) and Planes (2013). The above-mentioned examples (i.e., in Sect. 5.5.3) of a New York accent turned into Calabrese, Sicilian and Neapolitan should be added to these.

5.6.1 English-Accented Italian in Dubbing In our corpus of films very few characters are given an English accent in Italian dubbing. Analysis of the films reveals that such exceptions are due 5I

would like to thank Giselle Spiteri Miggiani, Christopher Taylor, Shan Hirst, Stuart Doherty and Antonio Romano for providing comments on this character.

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to specific functions or roles of the characters or to extra-filmic reasons that will be outlined in the following sections.

Historical and Literary Figures, Well-Known Living People and British Symbols As previously pointed out, in Cars 2 two British characters in the Italian dubbed version use Italian with an English accent: the Queen and Lewis Hamilton. In this case the dubbed voices are the same as those of the original film (Vanessa Redgrave and Lewis Hamilton). They speak in Italian with a slight English accent. In this film there are several other British characters who nevertheless speak standard Italian in the dubbed version. There may be a couple of reasons only the Queen and Hamilton are given an English accent in dubbing. First, it may be due to the fact that they have a less central role in the film and speak fewer lines. Dubbing professionals have emphasised their preference for Italian with standard pronunciation because they believe that a foreign or Italian regional accent is often associated with comedy or parody and should not be overused. The second reason for giving the Queen and Hamilton an English accent in the dubbed version may be the fact that they represent well-known real living people. The same can be said of the statue of Shakespeare in Gnomeo & Juliet since the character portrays a literary figure—a symbol of Britishness. British actor Clive Riche (who lives in Italy) dubbed the statue of Shakespeare in the Italian version with a slight English accent (see Minutella 2016).

Britishness Referred to in the Dialogues/Plot In Disney’s Planes (2013) Bulldog is a cold and sarcastic plane taking part in the Wings Around the Globe rally, who displays a British flag and speaks standard British English. It is also worth noting that the name of the plane is a common trope symbolising British nationalism. In this case the function of the British English variety in the film is a combination of various functions in Ranzato’s taxonomy (2018b, p. 236): to

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identify a British character in a predominantly American or international context (the other planes belong to several nationalities, although the hero predictably speaks General American) and to elicit humour. Moreover, Bulldog’s Britishness is referred to in the dialogues and is thus functional to the plot. Bulldog shows a dry British humour and contrasts with the warmer, less sophisticated, rustic Dusty (the American hero). As pointed out in Chapter 4, Bulldog is voiced by comedian John Cleese (famous for his roles in Monty Python, Fawlty Towers and A fish Called Wanda and for his impersonation of unkind upper-class men). In Planes Bulldog “has that pseudo-middle class English accent, the sort you might expect from an RAF officer in a, not too serious, film”6 (Taylor, p.c. 8 July 2019). We might add that another function of this British accent combined with the plane’s behaviour is to portray a comic stereotype of British men since he has a dry sense of humour, he is controlled and detached, apparently insensitive and does not express his feelings. However, at a certain point we realise that he is actually sensitive and quite emotional. In the Italian dubbed version Bulldog speaks Italian with an English accent. The plane is dubbed in Italian by Birmingham-born John Peter Sloan (former actor, comedian, musician and teacher of English who lived in Italy and was popular for his video lessons “Real life English, Instant English – Revolution!”). Sloan is thus a non-professional dubber and falls into the category we have called ‘a star talent’. Choosing to mark/differentiate Bulldog’s speech style in the dubbed version through an English accent and thus opting for a native speaker of British English is due to the fact that the film itself shows and clearly states Bulldog’s British identity. Moreover, during exchanges in the film some characters (and Bulldog himself ) comment on his Britishness. As explained by Morville: “In Planes we chose John Peter Sloan, because the character of Bulldog often made jokes about the English or their way of interpreting reality […] How can you get him to say ‘we English’ with a perfect Italian accent? So we chose an English star talent” (Morville, p.c. 4 June 2019). As a result, the lines uttered by Bulldog in Italian show a slight English accent, pronunciation and intonation as 6I

would like to thank Chris Taylor for his comment on Bulldog’s accent and on his precious feedback on several characters.

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in “Gare indoor?” (where ‘indoor’ is pronounced the RP English way with a long vowel). Example 5.27 containing the line “I don’t cry, I’m British” shows how the British stereotype is exploited and made fun of both visually and verbally to provide parody and how this is transferred into Italian. Example 5.27 Original version

Dubbed version

BULLDOG Thanks for your help, matey. Oh. I couldn’t have done it without … you?! You saved me? What did I tell you, boy? Every plane for himself. […] Yes, but this is a competition. Now you’re dead last. And I owe you my life. (he cries) DUSTY Are you crying? BULLDOG I don’t cry, I’m British! Thanks, matey.

BULLDOG Grazie per tuo aiuto, amico. Non ce l’avrei mai fatta senza di … tu? Tu mi hai salvato? Che cosa ti avevo detto, ragazzo? Ogni aereo per sé, giusto? […] Sì, ma questa è una competizione! Ora sei all’ultimo posto! Hm hm. E io ti devo la vita. DUSTY Che fai, piangi? BULLDOG Io non piango, sono inglese! Grazie, amico. BACK TRANSLATION BULLDOG Thanks for your help, friend. I would never have done it without … you?! You saved me? What did I tell you, boy? Every plane for himself, right? […] Yes, but this is a competition. Now you’re in last place! Hmm hm. And I owe you my life. DUSTY What are you doing, are you crying? BULLDOG I don’t cry, I’m English! Thanks, friend.

Bulldog, his behaviour and lines are a humorous parody of the stereotypes associated with the Brits. As pointed out by Rojek, the stereotypical qualities of the British are a “conviction of innate superiority,” “emotional frigidity” and indifference and “extreme self-control” through the constriction of emotions (2007, pp. 131–132). Moreover, in Example 5.27 Bulldog also uses British English lexis: the vocative ‘matey’ is a British informal noun. It is a familiariser used to address someone in a friendly way or when the speaker is annoyed with someone (Collins English Dictionary, online). Employing an English-born star talent dubber who can speak Italian (John Peter Sloan) ensures that

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the character has a natural-sounding real accent—not a mock one— and provides a kind of authenticity in character portrayal in the dubbed version, especially when combined with recreating the comic persona of Bulldog. The British identity of Bulldog is conveyed in the dubbed version through a number of verbal means: the lines are uttered with an English accent, the first sentence contains ungrammaticalities (omission of the definite article before ‘aiuto’ in “Grazie per tuo aiuto, amico”) and the use of the vocative amico (friend) which, as previously noted, is typical of Italian dubbed language and derives from the translation of ‘man’, but is not used in spoken Italian. The example of Bulldog in Planes seems to support the comments made by the professionals in Chapter 3: if a character must speak Italian with a foreign accent, then the professionals prefer to opt for dubbers who are native speakers of that language and to avoid English-accented Italian since it carries comic connotations.

English Accent Due to the Marketing Strategy of Using Star Talents Choosing to make a character speak Italian with an English accent may also be the outcome of a marketing strategy. Examples can be found in Ice Age: The Meltdown (2006) and in Brave (2012) in which the dubbers are all native speakers of English. By choosing a star talent dubber whose native language is English the character voiced by this celebrity will naturally speak Italian with an English accent in the dubbed version. This is done for marketing reasons—not because of the character’s identity, a specific dialect in the film/plot, the role of the character or his/her British or American identity. As observed in Chapter 4, in the Italian dubbed version of Ice Age: The Meltdown and in the following films of this tetralogy the British pop singer Lee Ryan (ex-member of the boy band Blue) dubs a minor comic character, the opossum Eddie, speaking Italian with an English accent. While all the other characters speak standard Italian, Eddie speaks with a slight English accent because of the dubber’s native language and because Ryan did not know any Italian at all. Guadagno explains that adding an English accent in the dubbed version just for this character is an exception that adds humour to Eddie

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since his pronunciation is funny. Moreover, the craziness and the childlike aspect of the character is emphasised by the English accent (p.c. 4 March 2019). Other exceptions to the norm of using standard Italian for native varieties of English are the lines delivered by the three lords (Lord MacIntosh, Lord MacGuffin and Lord Dingwall) in Disney-Pixar’s Brave (2012). The three lords are dubbed by star talents (i.e., non-professional dubbers) from various areas whose diction is not neutral and whose origin can be detected from their voice. Giobbe Covatta (Lord Dingwall) is from Puglia in the south, Enzo Iacchetti (Lord MacIntosh) is from Lombardia in the north, while Shel Shapiro (Lord MacGuffin) is an English musician and actor who has lived in Italy for many years. In the Italian dubbed version some sporcatura (colouring) signals the geographical origin of the character, thus enabling a southern (Pugliese) accent, a northern (Lombardo) accent and an English accent, respectively, to just be detected. This is perhaps due to the fact that the lords and their sons are comic characters. Their looks, behaviour and speech style are supposed to trigger humour. In any event they are not main characters and do not speak many lines.

5.6.2 Italian Regional Accents for British/American Characters As observed before, the film corpus contains very few cases of minor characters who are portrayed as British or American in the original version, yet who undergo adaptation, localisation and transformation in the dubbed version. Such characters, including Lord Dingwall and Lord MacIntosh in Brave, several characters in Gnomeo & Juliet and minor characters speaking with a New York accent in Zootopia, The Wild and Sing (Duke, Stan and Carmine, Mike) are dubbed with a regional accent in Italian. As previously observed, the whole dubbed version of Gnomeo & Juliet (2011) is an exception to the homogenising and neutralising norm that applies to native varieties of English. In fact, although several British dialects are portrayed in this film (see Bruti and Vignozzi 2016; Minutella 2016), they are completely domesticated and

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turned into regional Italian in the Italian dubbed version. Further examples include the statue of Shakespeare speaking Italian with an English accent, while all the other characters speak Italian with a regional accent; Lord Redbrick’s Cockney accent becoming Sicilian; Lady Bluebury’s RP being turned into a northern accent/dialect; Nanette’s Standard Scottish English becoming Neapolitan and Tybalt’s Cockney becoming Calabrese. As discussed in Minutella (2016), in the Italian version of Gnomeo & Juliet the dubbing professionals decided that all the characters should speak Italian with a regional accent. This is a rare example of transforming and localising the story very creatively and transposing it to the Italian context. It is the result of a dubbing strategy undertaken at the macro-level in which the decision is taken by the dubbing supervisor and the distributor (for a detailed analysis of this film see Minutella 2016). The cases of Gnomeo & Juliet and to a lesser extent of Brave (for Lord Dingwall and Lord MacIntosh) testify to the fact that dubbing professionals do resort to using regional Italian rather than standard Italian in rare cases, for comic purposes. This is again in line with dubbing professionals’ statements that a regional or foreign accent conveys humour, has a comic function, and should be used with caution in dubbing (see Chapter 3).

5.7

Concluding Remarks

This chapter has analysed how native varieties of English are represented and tackled in dubbing in a selection of recent animated films and has provided further evidence of the homogenising norm that applies in Italian dubbing to what we have termed native varieties of English. In fact, when characters speak English natively, the differences between such accents as General American, Standard British English or RP, Cockney, Scottish English and Australian English are obliterated and homogenised. The case studies examined have illustrated that this is also true of British regional and social dialects and non-standard varieties of American English. With very few exceptions, most characters speaking English natively, irrespective of whether they speak more general standard varieties or particular dialects or sociolects, are turned

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into characters who speak standard Italian with an unmarked accent. The linguistic identity of characters indexed by differences between these geographical and social varieties is thus obliterated in dubbing. The loss of accent and lexical or grammatical features is sometimes compensated by register variation, by lexical choices or by the vocal performance of the dubbing actor (i.e., his/her interpretation in the dubbing studio). Nuances in the differences between various accents that provide characterisation in the original films and immediately hint at specific character types or stereotypes are completely erased in dubbing. As a consequence, the stereotypes associated with these native accents are also lost. This analysis confirms scholarly research into Italian dubbing and insights provided by dubbing professionals who argue that differences between an American, British, Scottish or Australian English variety and between regional varieties of American or British English are impossible to convey and are usually homogenised into one target language variety. The chapter has illustrated there are very few exceptions to this homogenising norm in the corpus of animated films analysed and has explained the reasons for such exceptions. Three main cases have emerged in the corpus. An English accent is sometimes heard in dubbing if the animated character is dubbed by an English voice talent (usually a celebrity)—this is often the result of a marketing strategy. Evidence for this is supported by the fact that characters in the original films do not have any specific British, American or national characterisation or a marked regional or social accent. Moreover, English pronunciation is due to the fact that the British or American voice talent naturally speaks Italian with an English accent. Another rare case in which an English accent is heard in dubbing is when the character represents/embodies a well-known symbol of Britishness such as a historical literary figure or someone alive today the audience identifies as British (Ranzato 2018a, p. 236). Examples are the Queen in Cars 2 (voiced by Vanessa Redgrave), the statue of Shakespeare in Gnomeo & Juliet (dubbed by Clive Riche) and Formula One driver Lewis Hamilton as himself. A third reason for resorting to English-accented Italian in dubbing is when the Britishness of the character is openly stated in the film (i.e., if the English identity of the character is meaningful, commented on within the film dialogue and/or visually represented). In this case an English accent is used to convey contrast, to differentiate a character

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whose nationality is stated in the dialogue and/or is functional to the plot. A case in point is the plane Bulldog in Planes. The chapter has also highlighted that English-accented Italian can have a comic function (i.e., it adds humour to the character who becomes funnier and in some cases ridiculous such as Bulldog in Planes and Lord MacGuffin in Brave). It may be argued that adding an English accent often has a comic function or at least a comic outcome. Whether the audience laughs with the character or at the character, however, is not clear. It is also worth pointing out that in all cases where an English accent is heard in dubbing, a native speaker of English (i.e., an English or American actor/actress or star talent) will perform the accent—not contrived by an Italian dubbing actor or celebrity. This appears to be an attempt on the part of dubbing professionals to recreate believable characters as far as accent is concerned and a natural-sounding, realistic Italian with a foreign accent—not an unnatural, contrived, mock accent or a farcical imitation of an accent. Naturalness and authenticity of accent appear to be the norm. Dubbing professionals seem to aim at accuracy of representation and depiction of authentic language, although sometimes they emphasise some accent features in order to provide a parodic and caricatural image/representation. The performance of English-accented Italian thus appears to be a compromise between naturalness, authenticity and emphasis in order to create a comic figure or a stylised representation (Coupland 2001; see Green 2002, p. 202 on minstrelsy). Analysis of the films thus provides further support for dubbing professionals’ insights and comments reported in Chapter 3: if a foreign accent is required, they prefer to have dubbing actors who are native speakers of the language or employ dialect coaches. This happens for characters whose British identity must be conveyed in the dubbed version. Analysis of native varieties of English in Italian dubbing has also shown that there are very rare cases in the sample in which an Italian regional accent is used in dubbing to portray comic characters speaking native varieties of English in the original film. Cases in point are the sea lions in Finding Dory (the London accent is turned into a mild southern Italian accent), two of the Scottish lords in Brave (dubbed by star talents using their own southern and northern accents) and several characters in Gnomeo & Juliet (a rare case since all the characters are localised by

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making them speak regional Italian). The New York–accented characters of Stan and Carmine in The Wild (who speak Calabrese and Sicilian) and Duke Weaselton (speaking Neapolitan) in Zootopia/Zootropolis should be added to these. This might suggest that marked regional Italian varieties (especially from the south) along with many dialect words may be adopted as a strategy to somehow convey the comedy of comic and rough characters. A further element worthy of attention is that the Southern American English variety is neutralised in dubbing and that non-standard varieties are not conveyed: dubbing neutralises all the negative connotations associated with AAVE and Southern American English and always uses standard Italian grammar.

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Dore, Margherita. 2019. Revoicing Otherness and Stereotypes via Dialects and Accents in Disney’s Zootopia and its Italian Dubbed Version, InTRAlinea Special Issue: The Translation of Dialects in Multimedia IV. ed. Klaus Geyer, and Margherita Dore. Online at: http://www.intralinea.org/specials/article/ 2465. Last accessed 5 February 2020. Ellender, Claire. 2015. Dealing with Difference in Audiovisual Translation. Subtitling Linguistic Variation in Films. Bern: Peter Lang. Forchini, P. 2013. A Diachronic Study of Familiarizers (‘Man’, ‘Guys’, ‘Buddy’, ‘Dude’) in Movie Language. In Corpus linguistics and AVT: In Search of an Integrated Approach, ed. R. Baños, S. Bruti, and S. Zanotti, 504–525. Special issue of Perspectives: Studies in Translatology. Formentelli, M. 2014. Vocatives Galore in Audiovisual Dialogue: Evidence from a Corpus of American and British Films. English Text Construction 7 (1): 53–83. Green, Lisa. 2002. African American English: A Linguistic Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kozloff, Sarah. 2000. Overhearing Film Dialogue. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press. Lippi-Green, Rosina. 1997. English with an Accent: Language, Ideology, and Discrimination in the United States. London: Routledge. Lippi-Green, Rosina. 2012. English with an Accent: Language, Ideology and Discrimination in the United States, 2nd ed. Abingdon and New York: Routledge. Minutella, Vincenza. 2014. Translating Verbally Expressed Humour in Dubbing and Subtitling: The Italian Versions of Shrek. In Translating Humour in Audiovisual Texts, ed. Gian Luigi De Rosa, Francesca Bianchi, Antonella De Laurentiis, and Elisa Perego, 67–87. Bern: Peter Lang. Minutella, Vincenza. 2015. ‘Dacci un taglio, vuoi?’ Anglicisms in Dubbed TV Series, Then and Now. RiCOGNIZIONI, Rivista di lingue, letterature e culture moderne 4 (II): 261–282. Minutella, Vincenza. 2016. British Dialects in Animated Films: The Case of Gnomeo and Juliet and Its Creative Italian Dubbing. In Status Quaestionis, 11, Special Issue “North and South. British Dialects in Fictional Dialogue”, ed. I. Ranzato. Online at: http://statusquaestionis.uniroma1.it/index.php/sta tusquaestionis/article/view/13838. Last accessed 20 November 2017. Monti, Silvia. 2016. Reconstructing, Reinterpreting and Renarrating Codeswitching in the Italian Dubbed Version of British and American Multilingual Films. In Ideological Manipulation in Audiovisual Translation, Numero

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Filmography A Fish Called Wanda (1988). Charles Crichton, John Cleese, MGM, Michael Shamberg Productions, Prominent Features, Star Partners Limited Partnership. Brave/Ribelle (2012). Mark Andrews, Brenda Chapman, Steve Purcell, Walt Disney Pictures, Pixar Animation Studios. Cars (2006). John Lasseter, Pixar Animation Studios, Walt Disney Pictures. Cars 2 (2011). John Lasseter, Brad Lewis, Walt Disney Pictures, Pixar Animation Studios. Cars 3 (2017). Brian Fee, Pixar Animation Studios, Walt Disney Pictures. Despicable Me 2 (2013). Pierre Coffin, Chris Renaud, Universal Pictures, Illumination Entertainment. Ferdinand (2017). Carlos Saldanha, Blue Sky Studios, Davis Entertainment, 20th Century Fox Animation. Finding Dory (2016). Andrew Stanton, Angus MacLane, Pixar Animation Studios, Walt Disney Pictures. Finding Nemo (2003). Andrew Stanton, Lee Unkrich, Pixar Animation Studios, Walt Disney Pictures. Gnomeo & Juliet (2011). Kelly Asbury, Rocket Pictures, Arc Productions, Touchstone Pictures, Miramax, Starz Animation. Gosford Park (2001). Robert Altman, USA Films, Capitol Films, Film Council, Sandcastle 5 Production, Chicagofilms, Medusa Film. How to Train Your Dragon (2010). Dean DeBlois, Chris Sanders, DreamWorks Animation, Mad Hatter Entertainment, Vertigo Entertainment. How to Train Your Dragon 2 (2014). Dean DeBlois, DreamWorks Animation, Mad Hatter Entertainment.

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Ice Age: The Meltdown (2006). Carlos Saldanha, 20th Century Fox Animation, Blue Sky Studios. Mary Poppins (1964). Robert Stevenson, Walt Disney Productions. Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl (2003). Gore Verbinski, Walt Disney Pictures, Jerry Bruckheimer Films. Planes (2013). Klay Hall, Prana Studios, Disneytoon Studios. Rango (2011). Gore Verbinski, Paramount Pictures, Nickelodeon Movies, Blind Wink Productions, GK Films, Industrial Light & Magic. Ratatouille (2007). Brad Bird, Jan Pinkava, Walt Disney Pictures, Pixar Animation Studios. Rise of the Guardians (2012). Peter Ramsey, DreamWorks Animation. Shark Tale (2004). Bibo Bergeron, Vicky Jenson, Rob Letterman, DreamWorks Animation, DreamWorks. Sherlock Gnomes (2018). John Stevenson, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Paramount Animation, Paramount Pictures, Rocket Pictures. Shrek (2001). Andrew Adamson, Vicky Jenson, DreamWorks Animation, DreamWorks, Pacific Data Images, Vanguard Films. Shrek 2 (2004). Andrew Adamson, Kelly Asbury, Conrad Vernon, DreamWorks, DreamWorks Animation, Pacific Data Images. Sing (2016). Garth Jennings, Cristophe Lourdelet, Illumination Entertainment, Universal Pictures, Dentsu, Fuji Television Network. Star Wars (1977). George Lucas, Lucasfilm, 20th Century Fox. The Aristocats (1970). Wolfgang Reitherman, Walt Disney Productions. The Lion King (1994). Roger Allers, Rob Minkoff, Walt Disney Pictures, Walt Disney Feature Animation. The Lorax (2012). Chris Renaud, Kyle Balda, Universal Pictures, Illumination Entertainment. The Wild (2006). Steve ‘Spaz’ Williams, C.O.R.E. Feature Animation, Contrafilm, Freewill Entertainment, Hoytyboy Pictures, Nigel Productions, Sir Zip Studios, Walt Disney Pictures.

TV Series Absolutely Fabulous (1992–2012). Bob Spiers et al. (directors), French & Saunders Productions, BBC, Comedy Central. Downtown Abbey (2010–2015). Julian Fellowes, Carnival Film & Television, Masterpiece Theatre, ITV. Fawlty Towers (1975–1979). Bob Spiers, John Howard Davies, BBC.

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Monty Python’s Flying Circus (1969–1974). Ian MacNaughton, John Howard Davies (directors), BBC, Python (Monty) Pictures. The Last Leg (2012–ongoing). Open Mike Productions, Channel 4. The Simpsons (1989–ongoing). James L. Brooks, Matt Groening, Sam Simon, Gracie Films, 20th Century Fox Television, 20th Century Fox. The Wire (2002–2008). David Simon, Blown Deadline Productions, HBO.

6 Languages Other Than English/Foreign Languages in Italian Dubbing: Preservation, Neutralisation, Reduction or Adaptation?

6.1

Introduction

This chapter explores how multilingualism in the films making up the corpus is dealt with in Italian dubbing. It illustrates films containing dialogue in languages other than English (i.e., foreign languages or FLs) and examines whether languages other than English are maintained, quantitatively reduced or eliminated in the dubbed versions. In other words, whether the multilingualism of the original film remains what we have called ‘marked’ in the dubbed film (i.e., conveyed) or whether it is ‘unmarked’ (i.e., not conveyed). Twelve films contain lines in languages other than English. These are Atlantis, Toy Story 3, Despicable Me 2, Madagascar 3, Gnomeo & Juliet, Sing, Rio, Planes, Cars, Cars 2, Ferdinand and Coco. The languages are Atlantean (an invented language), French, Russian, Japanese, Brazilian Portuguese, Italian and Spanish. The occurrence of only a few words or expressions is not considered in this chapter. Analysis of the films has revealed that the most frequent translation strategy in dubbing is to mark the foreign language. When the original English language film contains dialogue in an FL, this is almost always retained in the dubbed version. Borrowing De Bonis’ terminology © The Author(s) 2021 V. Minutella, (Re)Creating Language Identities in Animated Films, Palgrave Studies in Translating and Interpreting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56638-8_6

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we can say that the prevailing strategy in Italian dubbing is that of “preservation” of multilingualism (De Bonis 2014). We should also note that the techniques adopted to mark foreign dialogue in the dubbed versions replicate those used in the original versions (see Díaz Cintas 2011). In other words, if in the original version of the film the foreign dialogue is left untranslated, then it usually remains untranslated in the dubbed version. If it is subtitled, then subtitles are added in the dubbed version. If it is interpreted by a character within the film, then the same character translates it into Italian in the dubbed version. This is a case of diegetic interpreting, which consists of an “act of (oral) interpreting which takes place within the story world through the agency of a character in the narrative” (O’Sullivan 2011, pp. 80–81). The macro-strategy of preserving the foreign language is chosen in almost all the films analysed and can therefore be considered a norm in the Italian dubbing of animated films. There are only three exceptions to the practice of following the solution adopted in the original version to mark foreign speech. The first can be found in Planes where an exchange in French is dubbed into standard Italian in the dubbed version, therefore neutralising the multilingual situation. The second and third exceptions occur in the Cars films when the FL is Italian and therefore coincides with the language of the dubbed version. Here dubbing resorts to neutralising an utterance by using standard Italian (once) and adopting an Italian dialect that is equally difficult to decode for an Italian audience. The main modes chosen by Italian dubbing practitioners to deal with the presence of an FL in animated films can be summarised as: keeping it untranslated, subtitling it, getting a character in the film to interpret it, dubbing it into standard Italian and dubbing it with an Italian dialect. The following sections will discuss the films Atlantis and Toy Story 3 in more detail since they are key examples of dubbing practices (the strategies adopted in other films will be summarised).

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281

Atlantean and French in Atlantis: The Lost Empire (2001)

Disney’s Atlantis makes extensive use of languages other than English, particularly the invented language of Atlantean and French. Atlantean is based on various languages and was created for the film by linguist Marc Okrand – creator of the Klingon and Vulcan languages for Star Trek. In the film Milo tries to explain how this language works by saying that “if you deconstructed Latin, you overlaid it with some Sumerian, throw in a dash of Thessalonian, you’d be getting close to their grammatical structure.” Milo is the only character who can decode this language in written form since people from Atlantis only speak the language but cannot read it. Milo thus helps them by deciphering some written texts. In Atlantis otherness is marked by using Atlantean and French either untranslated or subtitled. The dubbed version uses many strategies to represent this important linguistic differentiation and the ‘otherness’ of Atlanteans – strategies that tend to emulate the methods used in the original version of the film. As observed in Chapter 4, Atlantean is spoken in the opening sequences. In the original version English subtitles are provided so that the audience can decode what the inhabitants of Atlantis are saying. This is vital due to the length of the dialogues and their relevance to establishing the setting of the story. These are instances of the occurrence of L3 dialogue that is “meant to be understood by the audience”; in other words, “the message is required for understanding” (Santamaria Guinot and Tubau 2018, p. 200). In the dubbed version the characters speak Atlantean (the original voice track is maintained) and subtitles in Italian are placed on the upper part of the screen (the original English subtitles occupying the bottom part of the screen). When some Atlanteans find the wounded Milo later on in the film they utter a few words in their language. They are left untranslated in the original version perhaps to highlight their ‘otherness’ or enhance suspense. It may also be because the audience can partly guess the meaning of the foreign words from the images and the situation (i.e., the Atlanteans are probably wondering who the stranger is). In this case the mise en scène can be interpreted “as [a mode] of translation which

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facilitate[s] foreign speech on screen while avoiding or minimising the use of subtitles” (O’Sullivan 2011, p. 7). These Atlantean lines are left untranslated in the dubbed version too. A few sequences later a group of Atlanteans confront the members of the expedition and one of them addresses the explorers in this ‘incomprehensible’ language. Their initial utterances are left untranslated in the original version, which creates tension and highlights the language barrier. The Italian dubbed version once again emulates the method used in the original version, thus leaving the original track untranslated. Nobody seems to understand the Atlantean people except for Milo who is attempting to speak in the foreign tongue. This surprises the female Atlantean Kida who begins talking to Milo. Although they exchange several lines in Atlantean, again no subtitles are provided. The audience (like the American explorers in the film) are left to wonder what they are saying. Leaving such foreign speech untranslated contributes to character portrayal, emphasises otherness and conveys the dramatic effect of the scene, not only establishing a bond between Milo and the native people, but also distancing them from the other US explorers. The scene also emphasises the central role played by language and translation in the film and the part Milo plays as an interpreter, although the explorers soon realise that these people can actually speak several languages and can also communicate in English. Milo asks Kida (in French) whether she speaks French and the French mineralogist in the group (Molière) is excited by this news. He then whispers some untoward words in Kida’s ear that the (adult) audience immediately understands since Kida punches him in the face. These few snippets of French are left untranslated in the original version either because it was felt they would be understood by the average Anglo-American audience or because the visual elements and the character’s behaviour help the audience in decoding them. The dubbed version preserves the FL, marks its presence and replicates the use of French dialogue unsubtitled. The exchange between Milo, Kida and Molière is shown in Example 6.1.

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Example 6.1 Original version

Dubbed version

MILO Parlez-vous français? KIDA Oui, monsieur. MOLIERE She speaks my language! … Pardon, mademoiselle, voulez vous …

MILO Parlez-vous français? KIDA Oui, monsieur, MOLIERE Parla la mia lingua! Eh … Pardon, mademoiselle, voulez vous … BACK TRANSLATION MILO Do you speak French? KIDA Yes, sir. MOLIERE She speaks my language! Eh, excuse me, Miss, would you like to …

Note that Kida and Milo’s lines in Atlantean and the lines in French in this scene appear to be redubbed by Italian dubbing actors Stella Musy (Kida), Massimiliano Manfredi (Milo) and Claudio Bisio (Molière). This method of dubbing over a foreign language using a new voice is not very common, but “is used especially if the character involved is heard speaking both main source language and foreign language” (Spiteri Miggiani 2019, p. 173). This enables the characters to have the same type and quality of voice rather than having the original actors’ voices when they speak the foreign language (Atlantean in this case) and the dubbing actors’ voices when they speak Italian, thus avoiding a disruptive effect (2019, p. 167). Once the explorers realise that the Atlantean people do speak their language, communication switches to English (the language of the colonisers/invaders). However, when Kida later introduces the US explorers to her father (the King of Atlantis), she speaks Atlantean with him since it is their native language and the newcomers cannot understand it except for Milo. As the exchange is quite long and it is important for the audience to understand the meaning of the conversation, the Atlantean dialogue is subtitled in English in the original version of the film. The Italian dubbed version marks this foreign language by maintaining spoken Atlantean and adding Italian subtitles placed on the upper part of the screen. Moreover, the lines in Atlantean are redubbed by the Italian dubbing actors in order to maintain the same voice in the dialogues throughout. Although it is possible to detect a slight difference

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in the Atlantean words used, this does not hinder comprehension or the quality of the dubbed version since Atlantean is a fictional language. The English and Italian subtitles of the exchange between Kida and the King are shown in Example 6.2. Example 6.2 Original version (subtitles)

Dubbed version (subtitles)

KIDA Greetings, Your Highness. I have brought the visitors. KING You know the law, Kida. No outsiders may see the city and live. KIDA Father … these people may be able to help us. KING We do not need their help. KIDA But father … KING That is enough. We will discuss this later.

KIDA I miei omaggi, Altezza. Le ho portato dei visitatori. KING Conosci le regole, Kida. Nessun forestiero può restare in vita dopo aver visto la città. KIDA Padre, questa gente potrebbe essere in grado di aiutarci. KING Non abbiamo bisogno del loro aiuto. KIDA Ma, padre … KING Basta così. Ne parleremo dopo. BACK TRANSLATION KIDA Greetings, Your Highness. I have brought you the visitors. KING You know the rules, Kida. No foreigner can live after seeing the city. KIDA Father, these people might be able to help us. KING We do not need their help. KIDA But father … KING That is enough. We will talk about this later.

The evil Commander Rourke then interrupts them and switches language, addressing the King in English. The King replies in excellent English with no specific foreign accent and a very formal register. In the Italian dubbed version all instances of the foreign Atlantean dialogue are equally marked using a preservation strategy and techniques such as adding subtitles or not translating the foreign fictional language. As a result, the foreignness of the Atlantean language and the identity of Atlanteans as remote and different people is preserved in the dubbed version. The use of subtitles, redubbing in the foreign language and keeping foreign lines untranslated all in the same film are translation modes that are rarely used in dubbed animated films (and

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perhaps more generally in Italian dubbed films). Atlantis thus constitutes a rare example of multilingualism and the centrality of translation in animation. However, the film visually and verbally brings about some stereotypical representations, especially in the portrayal of some members of the expedition such as Italian Vinnie, French Molière, Latina Audrey and southern ‘hick’ Cookie all of whom will be discussed in the following chapters.

6.3

Spanish in Toy Story 3 (2010)

The longest stretch of language other than English in the corpus is uttered by Buzz Lightyear in Toy Story 3. We can recall that the American English–speaking space ranger toy starts speaking perfect, native-like Spanish due to a twist in the plot. His behaviour is also affected by this change of language since he dances to Gipsy Kings’ music, flirts with Jessie and quotes lines from Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet. As pointed out by Santamaria Guinot and Tubau (2018, p. 205), the use of Spanish as L3 by Buzz “helps to create a certain identity.” Buzz’s “personality becomes more romantic and brave when he speaks in Spanish” and his “identity changes together with attitude” (2018, p. 205). The space ranger toy utters 11 turns in Spanish all of which are subtitled in English so that an Anglo-American audience can understand them. The dialogues are important and need to be translated, although it might be argued that young children would be unable to really understand what Buzz says since they would not be able to read the subtitles. However, children would probably still get the gist of Buzz’s lines from his behaviour and body language and from his friends’ reactions. Moreover, a young audience would be in the same situation as the toys in the film who are faced with a foreign incomprehensible language they cannot understand. This creates a situation that is in itself humorous. In the dubbed version such multilingualism and incomprehensibility are maintained since Buzz speaks Spanish (Italian subtitles translating the

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English ones are added at the bottom of the screen). The beginning of Buzz’s transformation is shown in Example 6.3. Example 6.3 Original version

Dubbed version

SPANISH BUZZ Bitácora Espacial. Me he despertado de hipersueño en un planeta extraño. ENGLISH SUBTITLES Star Log. I’ve awakened from hyper-sleep on a strange planet. HAMM Now what did you do? REX I did what you told me …! SPANISH BUZZ Estoy rodeado por criaturas extrañas y desconozco sus intenciónes! ENGLISH SUBTITLES I’m surrounded by alien creatures of unknown intent! SPANISH BUZZ ¿Quién anda ahí? ¿Amigo? O Enemigo? ENGLISH SUBTITLES Who goes there? Friend? Or foe? WOODY Uh … Amigos! We’re all amigos!

SPANISH BUZZ Bitácora Espacial. Me he despertado de hipersueño en un planeta extraño, ITALIAN SUBTITLES Diario Spaziale. Mi sono svegliato dal sonno impergalattico su uno strano pianeta, HAMM Che cosa hai combinato? REX Ho fatto quello che mi avete detto! SPANISH BUZZ Estoy rodeado por criaturas extrañas y desconozco sus intenciónes!!! ITALIAN SUBTITLES Sono circondato da creature aliene con ignote intenzioni! SPANISH BUZZ¿Quién anda ahí? ¿Amigo? O Enemigo? ITALIAN SUBTITLES Chi è là? Amico? O nemico? WOODY Ehm … Amigos! Eh, eh. Siamo tutti amigos!a

Note a No back translation is provided for Example 6.3 since the Italian subtitles are very close to the original English subtitles

Note that the voice of Buzz in Spanish is that of Spaniard Javier Fernandez-Peña—not that of his American voice actor (Tim Allen). The same voice is heard in the Italian dubbed version. Toy Story 3 is thus a further example of the tendency to mark FL in the dubbed version by maintaining and reproducing the presence of L3 (preserving the multilingual situation) and replicating the technique used in the original version (using L2 subtitles to translate L3 dialogue and keeping the original L3 audio track for the Spanish dialogue).

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287

Preservation Strategy for Russian, French, Japanese, Brazilian Portuguese and Spanish

Other films adopt the same strategy of preserving multilingualism and replicating the techniques used in the original version to signal the presence of a language other than English. They will be summarised below and the techniques used in each film will be pointed out. Despicable Me 2 (2013) contains an instance of untranslated Russian spoken by two guards. The opening sequence of the film is set in a land covered in snow outside a “Top Secret Research laboratory, Arctic circle” (so the captions read). Russian is spoken by the guards who are playing cards outside the laboratory and are interrupted by the arrival of a big magnet that steals the whole lab. It is clear from the images (i.e., the men’s gestures) that they are talking about the game of cards and the magnet.1 Use of the Russian language is an instance of audio-postcarding (Wahl 2005, 2008), which has the function of setting the scene and pointing out that the guards are ‘other’. The men’s lines in Russian are left untranslated in the original version of the film. The Italian dubbed version adopts the same technique: it keeps the original audio track with no translation since the function of the Russian dialogue is simply to set the scene. In Madagascar 3: Europe’s Most Wanted (2013) the evil animal control officer Chantel DuBois speaks a caricatural French-accented English (see Minutella 2018). Her French linguistic identity is conveyed by voice actress Frances MacDormand through accent, intonation, stereotypical French pronunciation and the use of spectacular fragments (Rampton 1999, p. 423) such as oui, monsieur, attention and Qu’ -est-ce que c’est? However, in order to characterise DuBois a longer stretch of foreign language is used. According to Planchenault (2015, p. 117), the presence of a foreign language is more than just evocation “when it is spoken for more than a few words or a few lines.” The scene in which DuBois sings the famous French song by Edith Piaf Je ne regrette rien is an instance of 1I

would like to thank my colleagues Nadia Caprioglio and Massimo Maurizio for their comments and translation from Russian into Italian.

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such presence of a foreign language. This is a comic scene which takes place in a hospital where Capitaine Chantel DuBois visits some injured police officers who are sleeping and wakes them up by singing the song in a theatrical way. Her performance is so powerful that the men stand up and even break the plaster casts they are wearing. The song is left in L3 (French) unsubtitled. The Italian dubbed version replicates the original version, leaving the French song (still sung by Frances MacDormand) untranslated. The original track of the film is maintained and no subtitles are added. Although DuBois in the Italian version is dubbed by dubbing actress Barbara Castracane while the song is sung by MacDormand, I would argue that the presence of two voices does not have a disruptive effect since the voice of the dubbing actress is very similar to the original. As pointed out by Spiteri Miggiani, “the only strategy that could perhaps reduce this ‘disruptive effect’ lies in choosing a dubbing voice similar to the one belonging to the original actor, so that the difference between the two voices may become less noticeable” (2019, pp. 167–168). This also appears to confirm dubbing director Alto’s comment that great care was taken in choosing the right voices for the Italian version of this film. Japanese is used in two films for no apparent reason other than for, say, comedic purposes. In Gnomeo & Juliet (2011) Japanese spoken by the Scottish frog Nanette has little to do with setting the story or with representing otherness. When Nanette sees Juliet disguised as a ninja warrior ready to go on her mission to pick a rare orchid from a nearby garden Nanette bows to her and utters a line in Japanese (“Anata wa sono huku ga tote-mo niai masune”).2 This sentence literally means “That outfit really looks good on you” and is translated into a concise and very informal English subtitle summarising the gist of Nanette’s comment: “You look hot!” It appears after she finishes her line rather than being synchronised with it. Immediately afterwards when Juliet is silently leaving the garden, Nanette shouts in English “Take care! … I’ll tell your Dad you’re doing your hair!” These utterances are accompanied by Japanese subtitles that are unlikely to be read by anyone in an Anglo-American audience. The subtitles translate as “Good luck! I’m 2I

would like to thank Miwa Gofuku and Keiko Rokutanzono-Gofuku for the transcription and translation from Japanese into English.

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going to tell your father that you’re taking a bath.” The few spoken and written Japanese lines have a comedic function. They are aimed at playing with languages, with the audience’s expectations, with intertextuality (allusion to Japanese films) and with multilingualism and translation itself. The Japanese spoken, the subtitles, the soundtrack and the visual elements (Juliet’s ninja warrior disguise and movements) are combined in such a way as to make the sequence humorous. The formality of Japanese movements and language contrast with Nanette’s loudness and informal Scottish-accented English. In the Italian dubbed version the Japanese sentences and the English subtitles are retained so that the Italian viewers of the DVD version hear the Japanese line but read the English subtitle (i.e., “You look hot!”), which further complicates the language/translation issue. Only if we select Italian subtitles from the DVD menu does an Italian subtitle appear on the upper part of the screen: “Sei uno schianto!” translates “You’re hot!” This brief but comic exchange in Gnomeo & Juliet adds to the number of languages an Italian audience has to process when watching the film, makes the scene more comedic and at the same time confusing. The film Sing provides a further example of the use of Japanese and the tendency to replicate choices made in the original version of the film. A quintet of red pandas auditioning for the show sing a Japanese song and only speak Japanese. This results in miscommunication with the owner of the theatre Buster Moon. The lines in Japanese are left untranslated, leaving the audience to wonder what the animals mean. During the rehearsals Moon tries to speak Japanese, reading from a book. His Japanese utterances are left untranslated as in the original version, but the audience realises that Moon has said something inappropriate since one of the red pandas slaps him and then they all leave offended.3 Getting characters to speak Japanese thus has a comedic purpose. The Rio films also have a few lines in a language other than English. As previously pointed out, despite its Brazilian setting, Rio (2011) contains very few Brazilian Portuguese words since the main characters, even the 3I

would like to thank Miwa Gofuku for translating the Japanese in the film. The red pandas tell Buster Moon “We feel very fortunate to be taking part in this show” and “We will sing once more for you”. When Buster Moon speaks Japanese, intending to be nice to them and telling them that they are good, he actually says “You guys smell really bad, especially your toenails.”

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Brazilian ones, speak an unmarked American English (Bruti 2014, p. 93; De Rosa 2014; Petrucci 2015). There is only one major instance of Brazilian Portuguese in Rio when the Brazilian blue macaw Jewel attacks the American (from Minnesota) and human-raised blue macaw Blu. The first encounter between the two blue macaws is marked by the brief use of Brazilian Portuguese by Jewel. This shows her ‘otherness’ and highlights her Brazilian identity (her origins). Nevertheless, as soon as she hears Blu speak English she recognises his American accent and switches to perfect, native-like General American. From then on the Brazilian born and raised Jewel only speaks English with an unmarked General American accent (see Bruti 2014; De Rosa 2014; Petrucci 2015). The blue macaws’ first encounter is shown in Example 6.4. Example 6.4 Original version

Dubbed version

JEWEL Quem é você? Que que está fazendo aqui? a BLU (unintelligible) JEWEL Quê? BLU You’re standing on my throat. JEWEL Oh, you’re an American!

JEWEL Quem é você? Que estás fazendo aqui? BLU (unintelligible) JEWEL Quê? BLU Mi stai strangolando. JEWEL Uhm, non sei di qui. BACK TRANSLATION JEWEL Who are you? What are you doing here? JEWEL What? BLU You’re choking me. JEWEL Uhm, you’re not from here.

Note a I would like to thank Susan Souza for her help with Brazilian Portuguese

Brazilian Portuguese is left untranslated in the original version with no subtitles and the Italian dubbed version replicates this choice. However, the dialogue writer had to modify the content of the final comment by Jewel, making her say “you’re not from here” rather than “you’re American” since as far as the Italian audience is concerned Blu speaks Italian—not American English. Rio also contains other instances of audio-postcarding (Wahl 2005, 2008) (i.e., using foreign accents and a few foreign words or expressions to give local colour to a film, convey the setting of the story or point out the nationality of the speaker). These are a radio programme and a football match commentary on TV in Brazilian

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Portuguese. Although they do not contribute to development of the plot, they do provide couleur locale. They are kept in the original language untranslated, thus reproducing the choices in the original version (i.e., the preservation strategy is adopted). Note that the dubbed version of Rio 2 contains an extra bit of Brazilian Portuguese that is not present in the original English version of the film. The song Beautiful Creatures was composed for the soundtrack of Rio 2 and performed by Barbatuques, a Brazilian group famous for creating music through tapping techniques. The English version of the film contains the song in English, whereas the Brazilian version of this song Você Chegou (“You’ve arrived”) is used in the Italian dubbed version.4 This song can be considered “a musical feature of the acoustic landscape” of the film (O’Sullivan 2011, p. 70) which was added in the dubbed version. Ferdinand (2017) also contains a few lines in Spanish uttered by the owner of the Casa del Toro (Moreno), by the men working for him and by a few minor characters. They are meant to provide setting and highlight the Spanish identity of the characters. Spanish words and expressions in the original version are maintained in the dubbed version. An example is Moreno’s “Caballeros, preparénse! […] parate allí,” which is left untranslated in the dubbed version. Other instances of Spanish spectacular fragments are present in this film and they are always kept in dubbing. Disney-Pixar’s Coco (2017) also contains the Mexican folk song La llorona sung by Mama Imelda and Ernesto De La Cruz. The song is sung in Spanish in the original version and left untranslated in the dubbed version.

6.5

Neutralising Foreign Identities: French in Planes

Disney’s Planes (2011) contains a sentence uttered in French by French Canadian plane Rochelle (voiced by Julia Louis-Dreyfus). This sensual 4I

would like to thank Susan Souza for her comments on Brazilian Portuguese.

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female plane with a sharp wit and icy heart is courted by Mexican plane El Chupacabra and usually speaks French-accented English interspersed with French words. However, when her heart is won by El Chupacabra’s romantic serenade, she switches to her own language and addresses him in French. El Chu does not understand her words and asks his friend Dusty what Rochelle means. Dusty comments that he does not understand French either, but Rochelle’s words must mean something nice since “French Canadian is the language of love … in Québec.” Using a language other than English makes it stand out from the surrounding dialogue and emphasises the obscurity of its meaning for other characters and for the audience. Moreover, the comment about Québec makes it all the more intriguing. No subtitles are provided for the French sentence so that the audience is in the same situation as the characters in the film (unless they can understand French). The function of French in this scene is to provide character portrayal, highlight otherness/difference and convey contrast and confusion. It is worth pointing out that despite the reference to Canada, the sentence uttered by Rochelle does not have any specific Canadian/Québécoise element or accent.5 In the dubbed version no foreign language is used in this scene as a result of the localisation strategy adopted to distribute the film in various countries. The filmmakers decided to give Rochelle the same nationality as the country in which the film was dubbed (Miller-Zarneke 2014, p. 76). As a result, in the Italian version Rochelle becomes Italian and her name is Azzurra. She is dubbed by Italian actress Micaela Ramazzotti who is a star talent—not a professional dubber. Although Rochelle speaks with a French accent and uses French words in the original version, in the dubbed version Azzurra loses her French ethnicity and linguistic identity. She speaks standard Italian with no specific accent and is given a kind of ‘sexy’ voice. However, this creates a translation challenge when Dusty makes a reference to the French Canadian language. Since L3 in the source text (i.e., French) becomes Italian in the target text, L3 coincides with L2 (i.e., the language of the dubbed version). The fact that in the film El Chu does not understand Azzurra’s words constitutes a translation 5I

would like to thank Rainier Grutman for his comments on this scene and on French Canadian.

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problem. The dubbing team therefore had to change El Chu’s line and Dusty’s comment about French Canadian and Québec. They could have opted to make her speak an Italian dialect (in order to convey the incomprehensibility of her utterance), but they did not resort to this solution. The reason could be linked to casting a star talent whose voice needed to be recognisable or to the fact that no Italian dialect is really associated with romanticism and sensuality. Another reason could be that the dubbing professionals did not want to add comicality to this character. The English and Italian dialogues are shown in Example 6.5. Example 6.5 Original version

Dubbed version

ROCHELLE Ah. Monsieur El Chu. Comme bouffon, tu es bien romantique. EL CHU What does that mean? DUSTY No idea, but French Canadian is the language of love … in Québec. So, it’s gotta be good.

AZZURRA Ah, signor El Chu, per essere un buffone, sei mooolto romantico. Ah ah ah. EL CHU Porquè ha detto buffone? DUSTY Non ne ho idea, ma l’italiano è la lingua dell’amore, lo sanno tutti. Forse, è un complimento. BACK TRANSLATION AZZURRA Ah, Mr El Chu, for being a buffoon, you are very romantic. EL CHU Why did she say buffoon? DUSTY I have no idea, but Italian is the language of love, everyone knows this. Maybe it’s a compliment.

The above is an example of what Corrius and Zabalbeascoa (2011, p. 118) call the ‘neutralisation’ of L3 and is due to a specific localisation strategy and distribution policy. As observed above, neutralising the foreign language has repercussions for the translation. El Chu’s question “What does that mean?” would not make sense in Italian since the audience already understands the language. As a result, El Chu asks why Azzurra called him a buffoon and Dusty makes a comment on Azzurra’s Italian identity and the Italian language. Neutralising the French lines in Planes is an exception to the tendency to maintain the presence of a foreign language in the dubbing of animated films. Further instances of languages other than English can be found in the Cars films and will be discussed below.

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Dealing with Italian in the Cars Films

As shown in Examples 6.6–6.10 from the Cars films, if the foreign language is Italian (i.e., if L3 in the original version coincides with L2 the language of dubbing), then dubbing tends to transform it into an Italian dialect or Italian with a regional accent. In the Cars films Guido (voiced by Italian visual effects supervisor Guido Quaroni) only speaks Italian and nobody can understand him except for his friend Luigi. In the Italian dubbed version Guido is dubbed by ex-driver and paracyclist Alex Zanardi who is from Emilia Romagna. In order to make Guido’s speech incomprehensible to an Italian audience (to create the same effect as that conveyed by Italian in the English version for an Anglo-American audience), creative director Morville decided to resort to an Italian dialect. He points out that an often-used strategy in dubbing when a character speaks Italian is to resort to a different foreign language such as French or Spanish (Morville, p.c. 30 January 2016, 4 March 2019). However, such a method could not be applied in the case of Guido and other characters speaking Italian such as Mamma Topolino and Uncle Topolino since these cars were clearly visually represented as being Italian and comments were also made in the film dialogues about their Italianness. They had to be characterised as different and their speech as incomprehensible, while still retaining their national identity. The only possible option was to dub Guido using an Italian regional dialect. Morville opted for a Modenese dialect because the characters were Ferrari supporters and Ferrari is based in Maranello (in the Modena province). Morville researched Italians coming from that geographical area in order to find a suitable dialect such as one spoken in the mountains that was unlikely to be intelligible to the average Italian audience (Morville, p.c. 30 January 2016). In the Italian dubbed version Guido thus speaks an almost incomprehensible dialect. Guido’s friend Luigi (an old Fiat 500 car who speaks a contrived Italian-accented English with some ungrammaticalities in the original version) speaks with a very strong regional accent, uses some dialectal words and often acts as an interpreter for his friend. Luigi is dubbed in Italian by stand-up comedian Marco Della Noce who had become popular at the time for his impersonation of a Ferrari mechanic/fanatic.

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The Italianness of the characters and their otherness was therefore maintained (Morville, p.c. 20 April 2018) by conveying L3 of the source text (i.e., Italian) as L3 (i.e., an Italian dialect) in the target version: L1 + L3 (Italian) ST = L2 + L3 (dialect) TT. Example 6.6 is an extract from Cars 2. Example 6.6 Original version

Dubbed version

GUIDO Non ci credo! LUIGI (Italian accent) Guido don’t believe you.

GUIDO (speaks dialect, incomprehensible) LUIGI (Emiliano accent) Neanche Guido ti crede. BACK TRANSLATION LUIGI Guido doesn’t believe you either.

In the original version the unintelligible Italian line is interpreted by Luigi who explains what Guido has just said in grammatically incorrect English (he uses don’t rather than doesn’t ). In the dubbed version Guido’s incomprehensible line in dialect is translated by Luigi into standard Italian with a broad regional accent. In this case, however, Luigi’s lines in Italian do not contain ungrammaticalities. Cars 2 also contains a line in Italian subtitled into English. This unusual solution is due to the function of the foreign language in this scene. Mater is pretending to be a waiter and asks Guido (who is preparing drinks) what McQueen usually drinks. When Guido replies in Italian that he has no idea (“Come faccio a saperlo?”, “How should I know?”), Mater does not understand him and asks for two of them. The comic situation generated by the language barrier would not be understood by English-speaking audiences if they did not have access to the meaning of Guido’s words. Therefore, the filmmakers added English subtitles for this line (shown in Example 6.7).

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Example 6.7 Original version

Dubbed version

MATER Guido, what’s McQueen’s usual? GUIDO (in Italian, subtitled) Come faccio a saperlo? SUBTITLES How should I know? MATER Perfect! Gimme two of ’em.

MATER Guido, il solito di McQueen? GUIDO (speaks dialect) Cum faghi a savere’l? MATER Perfetto. Fammene due! BACK TRANSLATION MATER Guido, McQueen’s usual? GUIDO How should I know? MATER Perfect. Make me two of those.

In the dubbed version the foreign language retains its ‘otherness’ and Italian identity since it is turned into an Italian dialect. This is an instance of what Corrius and Zabalbeascoa (2011, p. 120) call ‘adaptation’. However, while the original audience had access to the meaning of the line through interlingual subtitles in English, the Italian dubbed version provides English subtitles instead of Italian unless Italian subtitles are activated on the DVD. Michael Schumacher voices a cameo role as a Ferrari in the final sequences of Cars. The ex-Formula One Ferrari driver voices a Ferrari in both the original film and the Italian dubbed version. In the English version the Ferrari first introduces himself to Guido and Luigi in English, “Hi. Lightning McQueen told me this was the best place to get tyres. How about setting me and my friends up with three or four sets each?” In the dubbed version this becomes German-accented Italian. When Luigi faints with excitement, the Ferrari then switches to Italian in the original version of the film and no translation into English is provided. As can be seen in Example 6.8, the Italian utterances of the original version are rendered in two different ways in the dubbed version: Schumacher starts speaking Italian (using exactly the same words as in the English original version) and then switches to an incomprehensible dialect (the parenthetic italicised note in the example is not intended to refer back

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to the previous sentence, but indicates another utterance that follows it, explaining whether it is spoken with a specific accent or in dialect). Example 6.8 Original version

Dubbed version

MICHAEL SCHUMACHER (German accent) Wow. Spero che il tuo amico si riprenda. Mi dicono che siete fantastici.

MICHAEL SCHUMACHER (German accent) Wow! Spero che il tuo amico si riprenda (speaks dialect, incomprehensible) BACK TRANSLATION MICHAEL SCHUMACHER Wow! I hope your friend gets better. I’m told you’re great.

The two different strategies work as follows. The first sentence (“Spero che il tuo amico si riprenda”—“I hope your friend gets better”) is maintained unaltered. It remains in Italian and can thus be understood by the Italian target audience. The foreign language in the source text is thus neutralised in the target text (L3 in the ST becomes L2 in the TT, coinciding with the language of the other characters). On the other hand, the second sentence (“Mi dicono che siete fantastici”—“I’ve been told you’re fantastic”) is conveyed in the dubbed version as an L3 since it is turned into an Italian dialect that is equally obscure to the average Italian audience. Neutralising and adapting the linguistic identity of the character are strategies that are applied within a single turn of the speaker, thus recreating the effect of incomprehensibility by using an Italian dialect in dubbing. In Cars 2 Italian is also spoken by the minor characters Uncle Topolino and Mamma Topolino who welcome Lightning McQueen and his friends to the fictional Italian town of Porto Corsa. They speak Italian and Italian-accented English and are portrayed as typical Italian cars with typical Italian habits. Examples 6.9 and 6.10 illustrate the various solutions adopted in both the original film and the dubbed version to convey the Italianness of the couple who are voiced in the original version by a couple in real life (actors Franco Nero and Vanessa Redgrave). When Uncle Topolino welcomes Luigi and Guido, he speaks Italian (untranslated in the original version): “Luigi, Guido, che bello rivedervi.

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Bentornati! Amici, Guido e Luigi sono tornati!” The Italian language of the original version is maintained unchanged in the dubbed version, hence the linguistic otherness of Uncle Topolino when we first meet him is neutralised in the dubbed version. On the other hand, during the evening party the Italian couple notice that McQueen is sad. Mamma Topolino speaks Italian and Uncle Topolino translates her words for McQueen (we thus have an instance of diegetic interpreting by a character in the film). Example 6.9 Original version

Dubbed version

MAMMA TOPOLINO Ma guarda, sta morendo di fame. Gli preparerò una bella cena così ingrassa. UNCLE TOPOLINO She said you look like you’re starving. And she’s gonna make you a big meal and fatten you up, eh?

MAMMA TOPOLINO (speaks Neapolitan) Io o vec sciupatiell, terrà famm’. Mo’ ce preparo na cusarella sciuè sciuè, e vir com s’arripiglia. UNCLE TOPOLINO Dice che sembri morire di fame. Ti preparerà un bel pasto per rimpolparti un po’, eh? BACK TRANSLATION MAMMA TOPOLINO He seems very tired and skinny, he must be hungry. I’ll prepare something real quick, and you’ll see, he’ll get much better. UNCLE TOPOLINO She says you look like you’re starving. She’ll make you a big meal to fatten you up, eh?

The dubbed version turns the unintelligible Italian of the original version into an equally obscure Italian dialect, which is then translated into standard Italian by Uncle Topolino acting as a diegetic interpreter. Mamma Topolino’s utterance is humorous in that it typifies the concern of a Neapolitan mother/woman.6 Dubbing assistant Maria Grazia Napolitano remembers that when Italian actress Sophia Loren recorded her cameo role, the Italian dubbing script was modified in the dubbing studio so that she would speak her own native Neapolitan dialect– not just a regional accent. The same occurred with Franco 6I

would like to thank Valeria Di Donato for her comments on Neapolitan.

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Nero who used his own native accent and dialect from Emilia Romagna (Napolitano, p.c. 20 May 2020). The same strategy is adopted in the following exchange (Example 6.10) in which Uncle Topolino speaks Italian in the original version and the female car translates (interprets) his words. In the dubbed version the original Italian utterances are turned into Italian dialect, thus adopting an adaptation solution. Uncle Topolino speaks Emiliano dialect and Mamma Topolino speaks Neapolitan mixed with a strong Neapolitan-accented Italian. Example 6.10 Original version

Dubbed version

UNCLE TOPOLINO Chi trova un amico trova un tesoro. MCQUEEN What does that mean? MAMMA TOPOLINO Whoever find a friend, find treasure. Now, mangia! Eat! UNCLE TOPOLINO E dov’è la mia cena? MAMMA TOPOLINO La cena? Fattela da solo.

UNCLE TOPOLINO (speaks dialect) Chi cata un amis, al cata un muc’ ed sold. MCQUEEN Che vuol dire? MAMMA TOPOLINO Vuol dire chi trova un amico trova un tesoro. Mo’ mangia, guagliò! UNCLE TOPOLINO E ndov’è la me’ sena? MAMMA TOPOLINO (speaks dialect) Vuo’ la cena? Ma piens’ sempre a magnà? BACK TRANSLATION UNCLE TOPOLINO Whoever finds a friend, finds a lot of money. MCQUEEN What does that mean? MAMMA TOPOLINO Whoever finds a friend, finds a treasure. Now, eat, kid! UNCLE TOPOLINO And where is my dinner? MAMMA TOPOLINO You want your dinner? But do you always think about eating?

By resorting to adaptation in which standard Italian is replaced with an Italian dialect the dubbed version maintains the Italian identity of the characters, linguistically differentiates them from those characters using standard Italian and retains the function of L3 in the original film (the unintelligibility of the characters). Furthermore, the casting of

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famous actors who speak their own regional accent and dialect results in a credible and entertaining dialogue.

6.7

Concluding Remarks

This chapter has shown that when languages other than English were used in the animated films making up the corpus, the “preservation of the different lingua-cultural situations” (De Bonis 2014, p. 243) was the prevailing strategy adopted in Italian dubbing. Furthermore, the dubbed versions appear to reproduce the choices made in the original versions (Díaz Cintas 2011). The films contain very few cases of “quantitative reduction of the multilingual situation” or “neutralisation of the different languages” (De Bonis 2014, p. 243). One instance of neutralisation involves the French of Rochelle in Planes. The examples discussed in this chapter have illustrated that dubbing usually resorts to Italian dialects when the different language is Italian. The Cars films have been shown to have posed a great challenge to the Italian dubbing team who had to find various solutions to recreating and transferring the different functions of the Italian language used in the films, maintaining the Italian identity of the characters while still providing comedy. Creative director Morville chose Italian star talents whose voices sounded authentic when speaking Italian, regional Italian and their native dialect.

References Bruti, Silvia. 2014. Accent and Dialect as a Source of Humour: The Case of Rio. In Translating Humour in Audiovisual Texts, ed. G.L. De Rosa, F. Bianchi, A. De Laurentiis, and E. Perego, 89–103. Bern: Peter Lang. Corrius, Montse, and Patrick Zabalbeascoa. 2011. Language Variation in Source Texts and Their Translations. The Case of L3 in Film Translation. Target 23 (1): 113–130. De Bonis, Giuseppe. 2014. Dubbing Multilingual Films Between Neutralisation and Preservation of Lingua-Cultural Identities: A Critical Review of the

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Current Strategies in Italian Dubbing. In The Languages of Dubbing: Mainstream Audiovisual Translation in Italy, ed. Maria Pavesi, Maicol Formentelli, and Elisa Ghia, 243–266. Bern, Berlin, Bruxelles, Frankfurt am Main, New York, Oxford, and Wien: Peter Lang. De Rosa, Gian Luigi. 2014. Back to Brazil: Humor and Sociolinguistic Variation in Rio. In Translating Humour in Audiovisual Texts, ed. Gian Luigi De Rosa, Francesca Bianchi, Antonella De Laurentiis, and Elisa Perego, 105–128. Bern: Peter Lang. Díaz-Cintas, Jorge. 2011. Dealing with Multilingual Films in Audiovisual Translation. In Translation, Sprachvariation, Mehrsprachigkeit. Festschrift für Lew Zybatow zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. Wolfgang Pöckl, Ingeborg Ohnheiser, and Peter Sandrini, 215–233. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. Miller-Zarneke, Tracey. 2014. The Art of Planes, Preface by John Lasseter, Forewords by Klay Hall and Bobs Gannaway. San Francisco: Chronicle Books. Minutella, Vincenza. 2018. Translating Non-Native Varieties of English in Animated Films: The Italian Dubbing of Madagascar 3: Europe’s most wanted . Cultus Journal 11: 144–157. Retrieved from https://www.cultusjou rnal.com/files/Archives/Vincenza-Minutella.pdf [20 May 2020]. O’Sullivan, Carol. 2011. Translating Popular Film. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan. Petrucci, Peter R. 2015. Reclaiming Rio: Iconization and Erasure of American English in the Brazilian Portuguese Dubbing of an Animated Film. Perspectives: Studies in Translation Theory and Practice 23 (3): 392–405. Planchenault, Gaëlle. 2015. Voices in the Media: Performing French Linguistic Otherness. London and New York: Bloomsbury. Rampton, Ben. 1999. Styling the Other: Introduction. Journal of Socilinguistics 3 (4): 421–427. Santamaria Guinot, Laura, and Miquel Pujol Tubau. 2018. Mapping L3 in Audiovisual Productions. In Focusing on Audiovisual Translation Research, ed. John D. Sanderson, and Carla Botella-Tejera, 191–210. Valencia: Universitat de Valencia. Spiteri Miggiani, Giselle. 2019. Dialogue Writing for Dubbing: An Insider’s Perspective. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Wahl, Chris. 2005. Discovering a Genre: The Polyglot Film. Cinemascope 1. Wahl, Chris. 2008. ‘Du Deutscher, Toi Français, You English: Beautiful!’— The Polyglot Film as a Genre. In Shifting Landscapes: Film and Media in European Context, ed. Miyase Christensen and Nezih Erdo˘gan, 334–350. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

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Websites https://www.antoniogenna.net/. https://www.imdb.com/.

Filmography Atlantis (2001). Gary Trousdale, Kirk Wise, Walt Disney Feature Animation, Walt Disney Pictures. Cars (2006). John Lasseter, Pixar Animation Studios, Walt Disney Pictures. Cars 2 (2011). John Lasseter, Brad Lewis, Walt Disney Pictures, Pixar Animation Studios. Cars 3 (2017). Brian Fee, Pixar Animation Studios, Walt Disney Pictures. Despicable Me (2010). Pierre Coffin, Chris Renaud, Universal Pictures, Illumination Entertainment. Gnomeo & Juliet (2011). Kelly Asbury, Rocket Pictures, Arc Productions, Touchstone Pictures, Miramax, Starz Animation. Madagascar 3: Europe’s Most Wanted (2012). Eric Darnell, Tom McGrath, Conrad Vernon, DreamWorks Animation, Pacific Data Images. Planes (2013). Klay Hall, Prana Studios, Disneytoon Studios. Rio (2011). Carlos Saldanha, 20th Century Fox Animation, Blue Sky Studios. Rio 2 (2014). Carlos Saldanha, 20th Century Fox Animation, Blue Sky Studios, FortyFour Studios. Toy Story 3 (2010). Lee Unkrich, Walt Disney Pictures, Pixar Animation Studios.

TV Series Star Trek (1966–1969). Gene Roddenberry, Desilu Productions, Norway Corporation, Paramount Television, NBC.

7 Non-native Varieties of English in Italian Dubbing: Does Foreign-Accented English Become Foreign-Accented Italian?

7.1

Introduction

This chapter focuses on non-native varieties of English or foreignaccented English. It examines how characters who speak English with a non-native accent are represented in animated films and how their linguistic identity is dealt with in dubbed versions. Recall that one hypothesis of this book based on previous research is that when it comes to characters who are represented as being non-native speakers of English and who speak English with a foreign accent, their linguistic identity tends to be maintained in the dubbed version. The conversations with dubbing practitioners summarised in Chapter 3 also suggested that foreign characters usually maintain their characteristics in dubbing either by casting foreign dubbing actors or by casting Italian dubbers who contrive foreign accents usually with the help of dialect coaches or language consultants. By summarising the translation strategies adopted in the films of the corpus the chapter will attempt to ascertain whether non-native varieties of English are indeed mostly retained in some way (as suggested by dubbing practitioners) and whether we can therefore talk © The Author(s) 2021 V. Minutella, (Re)Creating Language Identities in Animated Films, Palgrave Studies in Translating and Interpreting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56638-8_7

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about a dubbing norm for animated films as far as non-native varieties are concerned. The translation strategies available to dubbing practitioners to deal with foreign-accented English or non-native varieties of English are those of neutralisation (elimination of the foreign accent and of foreign words), quantitative reduction (the foreign accent may be reduced or totally eliminated by using standard Italian, but a few foreign words may be still present in the character’s speech), preservation (the linguistic identity of the character is maintained unaltered by using foreign-accented Italian and the use of foreign words), hypercharacterisation (the character’s linguistic otherness is stressed by adding phonetic, lexical or syntactic elements), adaptation/regionalisation/localisation/transformation (the linguistic identity of the character is slightly modified and adapted by using a more local identity belonging to the target culture or completely changed by modifying his/her nationality). Some of the strategies may overlap. This chapter will examine which strategies are actually adopted in the translation of foreign-accented English, thus ascertaining whether ethnolects are indeed emphasised in Italian dubbing through hypercharacterisation, as hypothesised in Chapter 3. “Hypercharacterisation” (Parini 2009, p. 163) makes a character’s speech more marked not only in terms of “pronunciation and intonation, but also at other levels” such as the morphosyntactic and lexical. As highlighted in Chapter 3, such a strategy is particularly found when the foreign-accented speech of the character has the function of providing a stereotype and triggering humour. The following sections discuss examples from various films in the corpus.

7.2

Characters Speaking Spanish-Accented English

As pointed out in Chapter 4, several films in our corpus portray characters who speak Spanish-accented English and are represented as being Spanish, Mexican or Latin American (Latinos). O’Sullivan points out that “we hear a buzz of Spanish in the background, occasionally emerging into the foreground, in films set in Spanish-speaking regions […]

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because we expect some degree of acknowledgment of the film’s setting” (O’Sullivan 2011, p. 23). Animated films set in Spanish-speaking regions (in particular, Spain or Mexico) are filled with such “buzzes of Spanish.” Characters speak a few words in Spanish that function as markers of location (O’Sullivan 2011, p. 71), spectacular fragments (Rampton 1999, p. 423) or audio-postcarding (Wahl 2005, 2008). These are usually maintained unchanged in the dubbed versions. The animated films analysed in this book are also populated by characters who speak Spanish with a broad accent and are represented in a humorous and stereotypical way through a combination of visual and verbal elements. Their linguistic characterisation is meant to be funny. Di Giovanni observes that “visual and verbal stereotypes […] are employed to narrate otherness” (Di Giovanni 2007, p. 93) in animated films. The linguistic identity or otherness of such characters (i.e., their ethnolect; Salmon Kovarski 2000) is recreated in the Italian dubbed versions using the strategies of preservation and often hypercharacterisation. The following sub-sections will illustrate the translation strategies adopted to deal with Spanish-accented English.

7.2.1 Hypercharacterisation of Spanish-Accented English (Spanish/Latino/Mexican Characters) In Disney’s Planes (2013) El Chupacabra (‘El Chu’ to his friends) is a Mexican plane taking part in the Wings Around the Globe race. His Mexican identity is emphasised throughout the film both verbally and visually and other characters tease him because of his overly romantic and melodramatic style. His Spanish-accented English interspersed with Spanish words is meant to indicate his nationality, convey humour and provide a stereotypical portrayal. El Chu is a star in Mexico where he is a telenovela actor and the indoor racing champion. Moreover, he wears a cape and tries to seduce Rochelle by making exaggeratedly romantic and cheesy comments. He is represented as a funny character both visually through his behaviour and movements and verbally through his broad Spanish-accented English. El Chu is voiced in the original version by actor, comic and writer Carlos Alazraqui who has lent his voice to many

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animated characters in films and cartoons. El Chu’s linguistic characterisation is maintained and emphasised in the Italian dubbed version by the vocal performance of star talent and opera singer Gianluca Terranova (a non-professional dubber). Examples 7.1–7.2 illustrate the comic characterisation of El Chu and his use of Spanish words in the original and dubbed versions. In Example 7.1 the English plane Bulldog makes fun of El Chu by teasing him about his name. Example 7.1 Original version

Dubbed version

BULLDOG Did you say El Chupacabra or El Cuckoo-cabra? EL CHUPACABRA You make joke? You make joke? Very well. You leave me no choice! I eswish my cape at you! You have been eshamed! BULLDOG I hope I can get over it. Oh! I just did!

BULLDOG Hai detto El Chupacabra o El Ciuccio-cabra? EL CHUPACABRA Me prendi in giro? Mi prendi in giro? Muy bien. Tu non me lasci altra sielta. Yo te esferzo con la mia manteglia. Ritienite esvergognato. BULLDOG Spero di soppravivere. Oh! Ce l’ho fatta! BACK TRANSLATION BULLDOG Did you say El Chupacabra or El Cuckoo-cabra? EL CHUPACABRA You make joke? You make joke? Very well. You leave me no choice! I eswish my cape at you! You have been eshamed! BULLDOG I hope I can get over it. Oh! I just did!

As shown in Example 7.1, the Mexican plane pronounces English sentences in the original version with a Spanish accent and prosodic patterns, says “eswish” rather than “swish,” uses non-standard grammar such as omitting the auxiliary do and misusing articles and singular/plural (You make joke? ) and pronounces “joke” as /jok/ and “You” as /dzu:/. In the Italian dubbed version adapted and directed by Carlo Valli, El Chu has a Spanish accent and uses some Spanish and Spanish-sounding words (sielta, te esferzo, ritienite esvergognato). The function of such words is to trigger humour and suggest that he is a native speaker of Spanish, but without claiming any authenticity. The audience can tell that it is a contrived accent meant to sound Spanish

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and exaggerated in order to sound ridiculous and make fun of the character. Several examples of added Spanish or Spanish-sounding words can be found in the Italian dubbed version of Planes. In Example 7.2 El Chu addresses the US plane Dusty Crophopper. In the dubbed version the Spanish verb soy (I am) is added. Example 7.2 Original version

Dubbed version

EL CHU I am flattered, avión pequeño.

EL CHU Soy lusingato, avión pequeño. BACK TRANSLATION EL CHU I am flattered, little plane.

The similarity between the Spanish and Italian languages and the fact that the Italian audience might be familiar with some Spanish words could be the reason the Italian dubbed version uses Spanish rather than Italian for “I am,” hence not only maintaining the linguistic otherness of El Chu, but also exaggerating it and providing what Parini (2009) calls ‘hypercharacterisation’ in dubbing. In Rango (2011) some characters are represented as Latinos. Spanishaccented English interspersed with Spanish words is spoken and sung by the narrators (four mariachi owls playing guitars and singing, telling the story of Rango and making ironic comments) and another character, the desert toad Rock-Eye (voiced by Joe Nuñez). Code-switching and code-mixing permeate the lines of these characters who speak a broad Spanish-accented English. Examples of typically Spanish words/phrases are mojito, huevos, Adiòs, amigo! , Ay, madre de Dios! and Cojones. The Italian dubbed version was produced by the dubbing studio Pumais Due and Fiamma Izzo was both dialogue writer and dubbing director. In the Italian version the mariachis are dubbed in Italian by native speakers of Spanish (or bilinguals) thus ensuring authenticity: Saverio Moriones (bilingual), Diego Suarez (a Spanish dubber living in Italy) and Salvatore Gabriel Valerio (from Ecuador, not a professional dubber). Rock-Eye is dubbed by Italian dubbing actor Renzo Stacchi. A further character, Roadkill (voiced by Alfred Molina in the original version) is also dubbed by Saverio Moriones. Moreover, in response to requests from

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the client, the presence of Spanish in the dubbed version was emphasised. As explained by Izzo, the international supervisor and the distributor’s dubbing and localisation office asked her to emphasise the Spanish language in the dubbed version and told her that no attempt should be made at using non-standard incorrect Italian (Izzo, p.c. 4 March 2019). Analysis of the mariachi owls’ lines demonstrates that the linguistic otherness of the mariachi owls and Rock-Eye in the Italian dubbed version is maintained and emphasised through hypercharacterisation. The dubbing actors achieve this by exaggerating their pronunciation of Spanish and adding Spanish words and expressions to the Italian. Example 7.3 demonstrates this strategy in the prologue uttered by one of the owls (Spanish words and pronunciation shown in italics). Example 7.3 Original version

Dubbed version

MARIACHI OWL We are gathered here today to immortalise in song the life and untimely death of a great legend, Rango. So sit back, relax, and enjoy your low-calorie popcorn and assorted confections while we tell you the strange and bewildering tale of a hero who has yet to enter his own story.

MARIACHI OWL Siamo aquí riuniti oggi per immortalare en una ballata la vida y la prematura departita de una grande legenda, Rango. Perciò mettetevi comodi, rilassati, y gustatevi i popcorn ipocalorici e i dolciumi assortiti, mentre ve narriamo la strana y strabiliante aventura de un eroe che deve ancora vivere la sua istoria. BACK TRANSLATION We are gathered here today to immortalise in a ballad the life and untimely death of a great legend, Rango. So sit back, relax, and enjoy your low-calorie popcorn and assorted confections, while we tell you the strange and bewildering tale of a hero who still has to live his own story.

Note that whereas the owl speaks English with a slight Spanish accent and intonation and no Spanish lexis in the original version, his foreignness in the dubbed version is emphasised since the ethnolect is highlighted by the insertion of several Spanish (or Spanish-sounding)

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words that were not present in the English source text. Further examples of added emphasis of the ethnolect in dubbing are the song the mariachi owls sing while Rango walks through the desert (Example 7.4) and another comment the owls make about him (Example 7.5). Example 7.4 Original version

Dubbed version

MARIACHI OWLS Welcome, amigo, to the land without end, the desert and death are the closest of friends. We sing of his courage in magnificent song, but pay close attention, he won’t be here long.

MARIACHI OWLS Hola, mi amigo, mucho caldo aquí habrai, la muerte y el desierto y amigos que hay. Ha tanto coraggio y prodesse farà, ma fate atensione, no sobravivrà. BACK TRANSLATION Hi, my friend, it will be very hot here, death and the desert are your friends. He’s very courageous and he will be brave. But pay attention, he won’t survive.

Example 7.5 Original version

Dubbed version

MARIACHI OWL Here in the Mojave desert animals have had millions of years to adapt to the harsh environment. But the lizard? He is going to die.

MARIACHI OWL Aquí en el desierto de Mojave gli animali hanno avuto un milione de anni para adaptarse a un ambiente inclemente. Ma la lucertola? Está per morire! BACK TRANSLATION Here in the Mojave desert animals have had one million years to adapt to the harsh environment. But the lizard? He is going to die.

Examples 7.4 and 7.5 show that the English original text contains very few, if any, Spanish words and that the dubbed version is filled with Spanish vocabulary. Izzo explains this was a deliberate choice of the client. Spanish-accented Italian and the accurate pronunciation of Spanish words was achieved by employing Spanish-speaking dubbers.

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The desert rain frog Rock-Eye that Rango meets in the desert speaks with a marked Spanish accent and uses several Spanish words, including vulgar ones. This characterisation is retained and exaggerated in the dubbed version, as can be seen in Example 7.6 in which the desert frog is warning Rango that a hawk that wants to eat them is arriving. Example 7.6 Original version

Dubbed version

ROCK-EYE You better run, mojito! […] Adiós, amigo! […] Ay! Madre de Dios! You! I’ll kill you! You stupid lizard. […] I’m gonna strangle your huevos.

ROCK-EYE Meglio che corri, mojito! […] Adiós, amigo! […] Ay. Mamacita! Tu? Yo te mato, estúpida lucertola! Vattene via o yo te estritolo los huevos! BACK TRANSLATION You better run, mojito! […] Adiós, amigo! […] Ay! Mamacita! You! I’ll kill you, stupid lizard! Go away or I’ll strangle your huevos

In Example 7.6 Spanish or Spanish-sounding words are added in the dubbed version. The strategy adopted to convey and recreate the identity and ethnicity of the owls and the frog in the Italian dubbed version is thus to maintain and emphasise their linguistic otherness, adding lexical elements that belong to the foreign language or sound Spanish and stressing the Spanish accent through the performance of the dubbing actors. This results in a comedic portrayal of these characters in order to elicit humour. Hence hypercharacterisation is resorted to in the Italian dubbing of these Spanish-accented characters. A character whose Spanish-accented English contributes to a stereotypical, parodic representation of Mexicans is Eduardo Pérez/El Macho in Despicable Me 2 and yet another is El Chupacabra in Planes both of whom are located in a non-Spanish setting. As discussed in Minutella (forthcoming), the representation of Eduardo’s otherness is conveyed through negative verbal and visual stereotypes of Latinos in Hollywood films described by Ramírez Berg (2002) such as the bandit (the villain in the film) and the Latin lover (Eduardo and his son Antonio flirt and dance with women). This may suggest that they are heavily characterised in order to emphasise their otherness and ethnicity. The ethnolect they

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speak contributes to a comic (and perhaps negative) characterisation. In keeping with this characterisation Benjamin Bratt, who voices Eduardo Pérez in Despicable Me 2, performs and exaggerates the Spanish/Mexican accent to provide a comic persona or, as Coupland (2001) puts it, a “stylised performance.” The Italian dubbed version of Despicable Me 2 was adapted and directed by Fiamma Izzo. Eduardo was dubbed by star talent, actor, comedian and singer Neri Marcorè with the help of a dialogue coach. The Italian dubbed version presents another example of hypercharacterisation: Eduardo’s Mexican identity conveyed in the original version through visual elements (he has a tattoo of the Mexican flag on his hairy chest, he dances salsa and owns a Mexican restaurant) and verbal elements (a broad Spanish accent and the use of several Spanish words) is not only maintained in dubbing, but is further emphasised and exaggerated by adding several Spanish words in the dubbed version (for a detailed analysis see Minutella, forthcoming). The same strategy (hypercharacterisation) is used to dub the character of Puss in Boots (voiced by Spanish actor Banderas) who appeared first in the Shrek saga (in Shrek 2) and gradually became popular, becoming the protagonist of the eponymous film. As previously stated, Puss in Boots is the only protagonist speaking a non-native variety of English in the animated films analysed here. The booted cat is linguistically characterised in the Shrek films as being foreign since he speaks with a broad Spanish accent and his speech is interspersed with some Spanish words. This ethnolect is maintained and emphasised in the dubbed versions of the films once again by hypercharacterisation. This happens in Shrek 2 where the cat is dubbed by Italian professional dubbing actor Massimo Rossi and in the other films where he is dubbed by Banderas himself who adopts a marked Spanish-accented Italian. Moreover, as explained by the Italian dialogue writer and dubbing director of the Shrek saga, when Banderas dubbed his lines the client (the international dubbing supervisor) kept asking for “more Spanish” (Vairano, p.c. 27 November 2018). The English Dialogue List and the key names and phrases (KNP) file given to the translator and dialogue writer also contained explanatory notes and localisation guidelines which advised them to use Spanish words as much as possible, to replace Spanish words in the English

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dialogue with other Spanish words or add more well-known Spanish words in other parts of the dialogue, if and where needed (see Minutella 2015; Di Carlo, p.c. 27 November 2018). This compensation strategy was thus adopted in the Italian dubbed version, which retained the linguistic identity of Puss in Boots and added Spanish words that were not in the original dialogue. Example 7.7 from Shrek 2 illustrates how added Spanish and Spanishsounding words in the dubbed version constitute a translation strategy that conveys Puss’ otherness and adds humour. Puss has just tried to kill Shrek but has instead been captured by him. Donkey suggests they neuter (i.e., castrate) him. Puss turns into an innocent and scared little cat and asks them to have mercy on him. Example 7.7 Original version

Dubbed version

PUSS IN BOOTS Oh, no! Por favor! Please! I implore you! It was nothing personal, señor. I was doing it only for my family. My mother, she is sick. And my father lives off the garbage! The king offered me much in gold and I have a litter of brothers …

PUSS IN BOOTS O madrecita no, por favor, ve prego, ve imploro, no era niente de personale, señor. Lo facevo solo por la mia familia. Mia madre está malada, e mio padre vive tra y la ispasatura. Il re me ha oferto molto de oro e yo ho una nidiata de fratellini e … BACK TRANSLATION Oh, mother! No, please, please, I implore you, it was nothing personal, sir. I was doing it only for my family. My mother is sick and my father lives off the garbage. The king offered me a lot of gold and I have a litter of brothers.

Hypercharacterisation is used to emphasise the ethnolect and is achieved by adding a high number of Spanish or Spanish-sounding words and expressions and employing a marked Spanish accent (Minutella 2014, p. 77). In the dubbed version of the film Puss in Boots whose dubbing director was Mete, the booted cat still retains his linguistic characterisation in which Banderas’ voice and his Spanish-accented Italian is recognisable and exaggerated.

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Hypercharacterisation is also used in Turbo to dub the taco-selling brothers Tito and Angelo who speak Spanish-accented English and use some Spanish words in the original version. They speak a marked Spanish-accented Italian and use more Spanish words in the dubbed version directed by Guadagno. Close analysis of the films in the corpus thus suggests that hypercharacterisation is regularly used in dubbing to represent Spanish or Latino characters in animated films when the function of the dialogue of such characters is to convey stereotypes and elicit laughter. The linguistic and ethnic identity of the characters is preserved and highlighted in dubbing. Moreover, Spanish and Spanish-sounding words are always added. This testifies to an attempt to stress the Spanish or Mexican identity of such characters in the Italian version. Although the reason for adding Spanish words may be the similarity between Italian and Spanish, it has the function of emphasising the identity of the characters, differentiating them from other characters in the films and adding humour.

7.2.2 Reduction and Neutralisation of the Spanish Accent in Dubbing In the previous sub-section the Italian dubbing strategy of hypercharacterisation was described. It is used to provide characterisation, to create stereotypes and to bring about humour and contrast. However, if the function of Spanish-accented English and Spanish words in the dialogue is to establish the setting of the whole film, then a different strategy is resorted to. In these cases L3 may be reduced or neutralised in terms of Spanish accent, although the foreign linguistic identity of the character (L3) is maintained in terms of the use of Spanish words. This means that Spanish words are usually still inserted in the dubbed dialogue to achieve a postcarding effect, to portray characters and to represent the identity of the speakers, but most of the characters do not speak with a marked foreign accent since this would result in unwanted caricature. Although there is no hypercharacterisation, their foreignness is preserved or even quantitatively reduced by toning phonetic features down. Examples of

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use of this approach in dubbing are the films The Book of Life and Coco (both set in Mexico). In the dubbed version of The Book of Life, whose dialogue writer and dubbing director was Guadagno, almost all the characters speak standard Italian and use a few Spanish words without exaggerating the Spanish pronunciation. A few characters speak a broader Spanishaccented Italian, but they are minor characters who have a predominantly comedic function (a group of nuns and Maria’s father). In the dubbed version of Disney-Pixar’s Coco, whose dialogue writer and dubbing director was Manfredi, the same strategy was adopted. Almost all the characters in the original film are voiced by Latino or Latin American characters who speak English with their own natural accent. The dubbed version cast Italian professional dubbing actors (as was also the case for The Book of Life) who spoke standard Italian without a foreign accent and interspersed their speech with Spanish words. The Mexican characters use the same Spanish words and the same number of them (never more) as those in the original version. All the Spanish words and all the instances of code-mixing and code-switching are retained in the Italian version. The multilingual nature of the source text is therefore reproduced in the dubbed version by retaining the Spanish words. However, the characters do not speak Spanish-accented Italian. Spanish accents, intonation and other prosodic patterns are eliminated. This was done for a couple of reasons. First, since the story takes place in Mexico and the characters are all supposed to speak the same language, there is no reason for them to speak with a foreign accent (they are all supposed to be native speakers of the language spoken in that country). Second, the dubbing actors are all (but one) Italian and are not native speakers of Spanish. Therefore, it would not be natural for them to speak Italian with an accent. Although the dubbing team worked for about a month with voice coaches (i.e., language consultants who advised on the pronunciation of Spanish words and expressions; Manfredi, p.c. 19 December 2019), having consultants for all the utterances in the film not only would have been too expensive but would also have made no sense since pronunciation would never have been native-like. Moreover, the characters are not meant to be comic and adding a foreign accent when speaking Italian tends to add humour. Although the dubbers

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pronounced the Spanish words like natives, they used standard Italian for the lines in Italian. Example 7.8 of an exchange between Abuelita (Miguel’s grandmother), a mariachi in the main square of the village, Miguel’s uncle (Tío Berto) and Miguel shows the number of Spanish words contained in the English dialogue (in italics) and illustrates how the Italian dubbed version deals with Spanish in the dialogue. Example 7.8 Original version

Dubbed version

ABUELITA (to the mariachi) My grandson is a sweet little angelito querido cielito, he wants no part of your music, mariachi! You keep away from him! (to Miguel) ¡Ay, pobrecito! ¿Estás bien, mijo? You know better than to be here in this place! You will come home. Now! TÍO BERTO How many times have we told you, that plaza is crawling with mariachis! MIGUEL Yes, tío Berto.

ABUELITA Mio nipote è un dolce, piccolo, angelito, querido, cielito … e non ne vuole sapere della tua musica, mariachi! Quindi stai alla larga da lui. ¡Ay, pobrecito! … oh ¿estás bien, mijo? Sai bene che questo non è posto per te. Tu vieni a casa con me, subito! TÍO BERTO Te l’avremo detto mille volte, quella plaza è un covo di mariachi! MIGUEL Sì tío Berto. BACK TRANSLATION ABUELITA My grandson is a sweet little angelito querido cielito, and he’s not into your music, mariachi! So keep away from him! ¡Ay, pobrecito! ¿Estás bien, mijo? You know that this is not a place for you! You come home with me. Immediately. TÍO BERTO We’ve told you a thousand times: that plaza is crawling with mariachis!

The dubbed version retains almost all the Spanish words contained in the original version. All the characters code-switch and code-mix English and Spanish, which becomes Italian–Spanish code-switching and codemixing in the dubbed version. This happens throughout the film in order to maintain and convey the Mexican identity of the characters and the Mexican setting. The loss of the Spanish accent in the dubbed version

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allows the Italian version to be true to the original film locale and to the characters without making them comic since their ethnic characterisation is not humorous. Thus, although L3 (the foreign language and foreign-accented English) is maintained unchanged, the foreign accent is neutralised. Coco is particularly interesting for its extensive use of Mexican words and informal expressions in the original dialogues, which are retained in the dubbed version even though the meaning of some words might not be transparent to the average Italian audience. Examples are “¡Espérame chamaco! ” uttered by Hector to Miguel, “Hey tío! ¡Qué onda! ” and the word chorizo, which are all kept untranslated in the dubbed version. Dubbing director Manfredi explained that the decision to retain all the Spanish words was agreed with the client and that a test screening of the dubbed version took place in order to verify whether the extensive use of Spanish words hindered comprehension by the Italian audience (Manfredi, p.c. 27 September 2018). In Puss in Boots, which is entirely set in a Spanish-speaking country (supposedly Spain, but it looks more like a South American region), Italian dubbing follows a strategy in which the Spanish accent is reduced. In the Italian version the number of Spanish words is reduced and, as previously pointed out, the only character who has a marked Spanish accent is the protagonist dubbed by Banderas, whereas the Spanish accent of the other characters in the film is softened or neutralised. An interesting case in which it was decided to neutralise an accent due to the choice of dubbing actors and the context of production is that of Kitty Softpaws, the female protagonist (voiced by Salma Hayek in the original version). Dubbing director Mete (p.c. 7 February 2016) explains that they had to decide whether to give her an accent as well. The problem with the dubbed version was that the only Spanish or Spanish-speaking dubbing actor in the dubbing cast was Banderas, whereas all the other characters were dubbed by Italians. As a result, the audience would notice the difference between Puss’ natural and real Spanish accent (that of Banderas dubbing himself speaking Italian) and the non-natural, fake or contrived Spanish accents of other characters such as Kitty, Imelda and the Comandante. Dubbing director Mete (p.c. 7 February 2016) thus provides a practical and artistic reason for Puss to have a Spanish accent, for Kitty to speak neutral standard Italian and for the linguistic

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characterisation of the other characters to be reduced by allowing them a slight foreign accent and making them use only a few Spanish words (fewer than those in the original dialogue). Since the dubbing actors were all Italian, their vocal performance, even in the best-case scenario in which they were helped by good dialect coaches, would have sounded unnatural. The Spanishness of the original dialogues is thus quantitatively reduced and almost neutralised in dubbing where all the characters except Puss speak standard Italian with a mild Spanish accent. In the dubbed version of Ferdinand a similar strategy is adopted. A few minor characters (the bullfighter El Primero and Moreno, the owner of the Casa del Toro) are differentiated by giving them a soft Spanish accent and by using spectacular fragments, while the main language spoken by the Spanish characters is standard Italian with no accent. The Spanish words in the original dialogue are also maintained. In the dubbed version of Ferdinand , thus, there is quantitative reduction in terms of accent, although there is preservation of the Spanish identity of the most stereotypical characters (in particular the bullfighter El Primero who is represented both visually and verbally as prototypically Spanish) and of the lines in Spanish. The examples discussed in this sub-section appear to confirm that when the films are set in Spanish-speaking countries and in the original films the dominant language is Spanish-accented English, this tends to become standard Italian in the dubbed version and some characters are often given a soft Spanish accent, although Spanish words are retained in the Italian dialogues to convey setting where they have an audio-postcarding function (Wahl 2005, 2008).

7.2.3 A Different Approach: From Spanish-Accented English to Romanesco The corpus of animated films analysed contains only one character whose Spanish-accented English is transformed and localised to a significant

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extent in the Italian version where the character does not speak Spanishaccented Italian or standard Italian, but rather Italian with a broad regional accent. This is the comedic plastic flamingo Featherstone in Gnomeo & Juliet whose identity is dramatically transformed in dubbing. Featherstone (voiced by US voice actor Jim Cummings) is represented as Latin American in the original English version since he speaks a kind of exaggerated foreign-accented and broken English (he has a broad Spanish accent, uses some Spanish words and some ungrammaticalities). Featherstone’s broad Spanish-accented English and frequent mistakes portray him as not being a native speaker of English, thus distancing him from the two British feuding families and the other characters in the story (Minutella 2016, p. 230). His linguistic characterisation, however, is mainly aimed at conveying humour. In the Italian dubbed version the plastic flamingo’s name becomes Piumarosa (pink feather) and he speaks with a marked regional Romanesco accent. This came about because of the dubbing team’s approach to the whole film. The team decided to domesticate and localise the film by making all the characters use Italian regional accents and dialects according to a north–south divide that symbolises the feud between the families. Example 7.9 is taken from the film dialogue in which Featherstone thanks Gnomeo and Juliet for having freed him. It illustrates the complete transformation that this comic character undergoes in the Italian dubbed version (Spanish words and ungrammaticalities in italics). Several regional words and expressions (in italics) convey a different, local Italian identity for the plastic flamingo.

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Example 7.9 Original version

Dubbed version

FEATHERSTONE Do you know what it’s like to be trapped for twenty years? All alone by yourself! No one for to talk at? Hola, Featherstone. ¿Cómo está usted? Oh! Bueno, Featherstone! How’s the other leg? I don’t know, Featherstone, ’member? I don’t have it. You see? I’m not exactly terrific company, am I?

FEATHERSTONE Ma riuscite a immagginavve che vvor di’ rresta’ intrappolato pevvent’anni? Solo come un povero allocco, nisuno con cui fa’ ‘na parola. Oh Piumarosa, come te bbutta? ‘Na favola, Rosapiuma! Come sta l’artra zampa? A ssapello Piumarosa, ma ‘nte ricordi? L’ho ppersa. Visto? Robba da matti, me spiego? BACK TRANSLATION But can you imagine what it means to be trapped for twenty years? Alone, like a poor tomfool, no one to have a word with. Oh, Piumarosa, how are you doing? Great, Rosapiuma! How’s the other leg? I wish I knew, Piumarosa, don’t you remember? I lost it! You see? It’s crazy! Am I being clear?

Featherstone is the only example of a Spanish-accented character undergoing a complete transformation of his linguistic identity in the dubbing process in the corpus of films. It is an exception to the norm of preserving the foreignness of characters and is due to the domesticating and localising approach to the whole film.

7.3

Characters Speaking French-Accented English (French and Canadian Characters)

In the films analysed several characters speak French-accented English, use French words and expressions and are portrayed as being French (mostly) or Canadian. As pointed out in Chapter 4, a French ethnolect or French-accented English is used to provide setting (Ratatouille, Madagascar 3, Mr. Peabody and Sherman), to signal a linguistic and cultural

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otherness (a French or Canadian identity) and to convey (often exaggerated) stereotypes. A comic, caricatural representation is built when visual elements are combined with an exaggerated and often contrived French accent and intonation (see also Planchenault 2015). This occurs for several characters in our corpus of films. In Italian dubbing most of the linguistic features connoting Frenchness are maintained and recreated, emulating the original version, although some features are also emphasised, as we have observed for other accented versions of English. However, the linguistic identity of French-accented characters is not always maintained and reproduced in the Italian dubbed versions. The following sub-sections will illustrate the various strategies used to dub French ethnolects.

7.3.1 Preservation and Hypercharacterisation of a French/Canadian Identity The most frequent strategy dubbing professionals adopt to translate the speech of a character who speaks English with a French accent involves keeping the French identity and maintaining the linguistic otherness of the character. When characters are represented through a stylised and comic performance that plays on stereotypes, in several cases this Frenchness is emphasised in dubbing. Preserving the linguistic identity and sometimes hypercharacterisation are thus recurrent strategies for Frenchspeaking characters. This can be seen in the Shrek films, Atlantis, Turbo, Mr. Peabody and Sherman and Madagascar 3. Such strategies will be discussed in greater detail by taking the example of Mr. Peabody and Sherman. The other characters will be mentioned briefly. In Mr. Peabody and Sherman French historical figures such as Marie Antoinette and the protagonists of the French Revolution (as well as the French people) are portrayed at key moments of the Revolution. Parodies and caricatures of these personalities are conveyed both visually and verbally and historical facts are explained in a comedic way. Although some accents appear contrived, in most cases native speakers of French were selected. For instance, in the original version Robespierre is voiced by French production designer Guillaume Aretos, whereas Marie Antoinette is voiced by American actress Lauri Fraser. In the Italian

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dubbed version directed by Guadagno native speakers of French were selected to dub both Marie Antoinette (Belgian actress Sabine Cerullo) and Robespierre (French-born actor Jacques Peyrac). Due to the type of film and the comic purpose for portraying historic figures in this way the linguistic representation of French characters is particularly interesting and highly caricatural in the original version. The characters have a clearly identifiable French accent in which the typical French /r/ is emphasised and ‘th’ is pronounced as /z/ or /s/ or /v/. Their speech is interspersed with recognisable and well-known French words or expressions such as Mais oui! ; Le gâteau; Vive la revolution; Liberté, egalité, fraternité; monsieur; and en garde. In the Italian dubbed version all the French words are kept and the French accent is conveyed (they speak French-accented Italian) despite being perhaps less marked for the two leading characters. In terms of her behaviour, however, the representation of Queen Marie Antoinette is highly caricatural in the film. When Mr. Peabody and Sherman arrive in Versailles, she is eating a slice of cake while the French people in the streets are starving. The Queen shouts “Cake! I love cake so much! Uuhm!” In the Italian dubbed version she says “Un doolce! Oh, mon dieu! Non sai quanto ne vada ghiotta! Uhuhuh!” (“Dessert! Oh, mon dieu! You have no idea how much I love it!”). The Italian translation emphasises the Queen’s gluttony and adds the French interjection mon dieu which represents a spectacular fragment (Rampton 1999, p. 423) or what Planchenault considers “words […] that are familiar to American audiences and whose use would not impede a full comprehension of the actor’s lines” (Planchenault 2015, p. 118). The Queen’s infamous “Let them eat cake” (itself a poor translation of brioche) and the beginning of the French Revolution are explained here as an unfortunate and comic incident based on a misunderstanding during a party.

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Example 7.10 Original version

Dubbed version

SHERMAN Now, can we have some cake? MARIE ANTOINETTE Mais, oui! SHERMAN Oh, yeah, sorry. Hm “May we” have some cake? MARIE ANTOINETTE Mais, oui! SHERMAN Maybe she can’t hear me through the hair. MR PEABODY Sherman, what the queen means is … MARIE ANTOINETTE Ah! Let them eat cake! MAN (French accent) And when dze queen heard dze poor of Paris could not even buy bread, she said, “Let them eat cake”.

SHERMAN Ora possiamo avere un po’ di dolce? MARIE ANTOINETTE Le gâteau. SHERMAN Ah! Non il “gatto” scusi, noi volevamo un po’ di dolce. MARIE ANTOINETTE Le gâteau. SHERMAN Forse non sente bene per via della parrucca! MR PEABODY Sherman, quello che vuole dire la regina è … MARIE ANTOINETTE Che mangino dolci! MAN (French accent) E quando la regina ha saputo che i poveri di Parigi non potevano nemmeno comprare il pane, ha detto “che mangino dooolci”. BACK TRANSLATION SHERMAN Now, can we have some dessert? MARIE ANTOINETTE Le gateau. SHERMAN Oh, no, sorry. Not ‘il gatto’ [the cat]. We just wanted some dessert. MARIE ANTOINETTE Mais, oui! SHERMAN Maybe she can’t hear me because of the hair. MR PEABODY Sherman, what the Queen means is … MARIE ANTOINETTE Ah! Let them eat dessert! MAN (French accent) And when dze queen heard dze poor of Paris could not even buy bread, she said, “Let them eat dessert”.

In the above sequence the French “Mais oui! ” uttered by the Queen is not understood by American boy Sherman who thinks that the Queen is correcting him and telling him that a more appropriate and polite form of request would be to use the verb ‘may’ rather than ‘can’ since Mais oui! and may we are homophones. This translation challenge was solved by the dialogue writer by replacing the French expression with another

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that could be misunderstood by the boy since Le gâteau is easily confused with il gatto (the cat). Example 7.10 illustrates how the presence of French constituted an important element of the dialogue and thus provided challenges for the translator and dialogue writer who had to come up with creative solutions to maintain the role of L3 in the film. Analysis of the lines spoken by Marie Antoinette and Robespierre seems to suggest that using Frenchaccented English to signal the characters’ Frenchness and the setting is authentically conveyed by French native speakers in dubbing. However, it does not seem to be as exaggerated and caricatural as in the original version. This might be down to the dubbing director’s request not to exaggerate the French accent in an attempt to maintain the voice talents’ authentic or natural-sounding French-accented Italian. This approach was indeed confirmed by Guadagno (p.c. 7 January 2016) who explained that he adopts the policy of looking for foreign dubbing actors and avoiding broad accents when a film contains foreign accents. However, when it comes to the treatment of French in the Italian dubbed version it was decided to insert some French expressions that were absent from the English version such as Mr. Peabody’s en garde or Marie Antoinette’s Mon dieu! Nevertheless, an Italian audience would have little difficulty in understanding them. Preserving the French identity—albeit using slightly different means—is thus the strategy adopted in the dubbed version of this film. The Shrek films feature three French minor characters who appear very briefly. As pointed out in Chapter 4, Monsieur Hood, the Muffin Man and Jerome are clearly identified as French and represent stereotypes. Monsieur Hood (voiced by Vincent Cassell) speaks some lines and sings a song with a marked French accent, uttering French expressions such as “Oh la la! ” and “Be still, mon chérie.” Although the Muffin Man only says the word “Gingy,” its pronunciation and rising intonation is markedly French. The camp receptionist Jerome who works for the evil Fairy Godmother speaks French with a marked /r/. These French linguistic features are retained in the Italian dubbed versions of the films. The characters maintain their identity as a result of the Italian dubbing actors mimicking and emphasising the French accent and using French words. Monsieur Hood says “Calmatevi, mon chérie”

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with a marked French /r/. Jerome pronounces the French words “pardon” and “madrina” with a marked French /r/ and uses /Ѐ/ rather than /tЀ/ in the word “spiacente” (“I’m sorry”) resulting in it being pronounced as “spiasc ente.” Hypercharacterisation is brought about as a result of the ethnolect being conveyed and foreign characterisation being recreated and emphasized. However, these are minor roles where the accent is aimed at eliciting laughter. In the Italian dubbed version of Atlantis (2001) Paris-born geologist Gaetan Molière (Mole) (voiced by US actor Corey Burton) speaks with a contrived French accent and intonation. He also uses French words and expressions. In keeping with the original depiction of the character as comic, the French accent in the Italian dubbed version is retained but exaggerated by comedian Claudio Bisio (a star talent). The Italian dubbed version keeps the French linguistic representation and compensates for losses in one utterance by adding French traits to Mole’s lines elsewhere such as “Forgive me! I could not resist” which in Italian becomes “Excusez-moi! Non ho saputo resistere.” In Turbo the villain is French Canadian Indianapolis 500 champion Guy Gagné (voiced by Canadian comedian Bill Hader) who speaks with a broad French accent. The aim of his performance was clearly not to provide an authentic and realistic representation, but a comic, stylised one. The same approach is adopted in the dubbed version directed by Guadagno where Guy Gagné is dubbed by dubbing actor Franco Mannella who gives him a French accent. The Frenchness of the driver is maintained and reproduced in dubbing. A few recognisable French words are used in both the original and dubbed versions. An example is Guy’s question to Tito “Can I help you, monsieur ?” which becomes “Ha bisogno d’aiuto, monsieur ?” The vocal performance in the dubbed version maintains the French identity of the character without exaggerating it and French words are retained. Preserving the linguistic identity of the Canadian character is clearly the strategy. In Madagascar 3: Europe’s Most Wanted the French linguistic features of the evil animal control officer Chantel DuBois (voiced by American actress Frances McDormand) are highlighted to provide a caricature and instances of ethnolect or foreign-accented English are combined with her behaviour to convey humour with no pretense of authenticity. The

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Frenchness of DuBois is also maintained in the dubbed version where she is dubbed by Italian dubbing actress Barbara Castracane. The otherness of this character is signalled in dubbing by resorting to foreign-accented Italian. DuBois shows linguistic traits typical of French speakers. She has a broad French accent and stereotypical French pronunciation (French /r/ and ‘th’ pronounced as /s/, /z/ or /v/). She sings a French song and uses some French words and expressions (oui, monsieur, attention, Que-est-ce que c’est? ). The Italian dubbed version conveys and sometimes emphasises her French phonetic traits (for a detailed account see Minutella 2018). The French identity of the cruel DuBois is preserved in the dubbed version by using French words and a French-accented Italian which recreates the caricatural representation of the cruel French woman. Planchenault (2015, p. 108) argues: “the stylised French accent is a commodified genre that can henceforth be performed, especially in comedies, without the least preoccupation for realism.” This appears to apply to the animated films in our corpus and their dubbed versions when the aim of the stylised French accent is to provide characterisation, reaffirm stereotypes and trigger humour. French-accented characters tend to be recreated in dubbed animated films for comic reasons, sometimes by emphasising French pronunciation (hypercharacterisation). However, preserving the French linguistic identity of French-accented characters is the prevailing strategy. A different approach is adopted in dubbing when the French accent is used to suggest the setting of the story (i.e., when the whole film is set in a French-speaking country and French is the expected language of communication). The Italian dubbed version of Disney-Pixar’s Ratatouille provides interesting cases in which the linguistic features of French characters are reduced or neutralised.

7.3.2 Reduction and Neutralisation: The Case of Ratatouille An interesting and important exception to the common tendency of maintaining foreign-accented characters or non-native varieties of English in dubbing is represented by Disney-Pixar’s Ratatouille. In Chapter 4 it was argued that exaggerated clichés and stereotypes of the

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French, both visually and verbally, were used to characterise the French characters in the original film. Despite the protagonists being French, they speak General American, while most of the other characters have a broad French accent. Furthermore, the portrayal of Colette, the only female chef in Gusteau’s restaurant and the only female main character in the film, is also highly parodic. Interestingly, in the Italian dubbed version the French pronunciation of many of the characters almost disappears despite and contrary to the Italian tendency to convey ethnolects or foreign-accented speech when present in the original film. In fact, only one character retains a marked French accent. This is Chef Gusteau (the owner of the famous restaurant) whose motto is “anyone can cook” and who inspires the rat Remy. Gusteau appears as a ghost and as a figment of Remy’s imagination. All the other French-accented characters lose the French accent that defined them in the original version and speak standard Italian. As previously observed, this was a deliberate stylistic and editorial choice made by Creative Director Morville and Dubbing Director Alto who believed that it made no sense to have characters living in their own country speak with a French accent (Morville, p.c. 25 May 2016; Alto, p.c. 25 January 2016). Moreover, according to Morville and Alto, a film in which all the characters speak with a fake French-accented Italian would be taxing for the audience and would distract them, making them focus on the language and foreign accent rather than on the story itself, while the aim of good dubbing is to remain invisible and pass unnoticed (Morville, p.c. 28 January 2016; Alto, p.c. 25 January 2016). Dubbing should not disrupt the audience’s suspension of linguistic disbelief (Romero Fresco 2012). Morville explains that the creative letter accompanying the film provided comments on the broad French accent of Gusteau, Colette and Skinner and added some suggestions on how to treat their accents in the dubbed version. The filmmakers asked the dubbing teams in different territories “to keep the French flavour of the film” and advised them to handle accents in a way they deemed appropriate and acceptable in their respective countries (Morville, p.c. 27 May 2020). The dubbing team therefore had some degree of freedom on how to deal with the linguistic representation of the French characters, deciding whether

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to reproduce the same characterisation with broad accents or opt for other solutions they considered more appropriate in the target culture. The Italian professionals responsible for the Italian version (particularly, Morville and Alto) thus decided to eliminate the broad contrived French accent that contributed to rendering the characters too caricatural in the original version and pepper the dialogue to some extent with French words, only a few of which would be enough to hint at the location, to provide couleur locale or to acknowledge that the characters would be speaking French. Morville also decided that the only character speaking with a marked French accent and pronunciation would be the ghost of Gusteau since he is an icon representing French haute cuisine (and since he is not alive). Note that all the French words used in the English dialogues (monsieur, bonjour, Voilà, maître, A votre santé, ma chérie, au revoir ) are retained in the dubbed version since they would be readily understood by an Italian audience. The dubbed version therefore retains the same amount of French lexis as in the original dialogues but neutralises the contrived foreign accent of the characters (except Gusteau’s ghost), thus resulting in a less stereotypically comical portrayal of the French. The choice to reduce and neutralise the French-accented English and use standard Italian in the dubbed version perhaps has the positive outcome of reducing the negative representation of the French in the original version. Although the visual elements remain, the linguistic tropes are eliminated. As a result, it could be argued that dubbing actually ‘improves’ on the original version by neutralising an exaggerated linguistic characterisation that carries negative stereotypes and is highly caricatural. The only character apart from Gusteau’s ghost who retains an accent is the cook Horst who is presented as being German and has a slight German accent in both the original and dubbed versions, a characteristic that is logical since he is speaking a language that is not his own. In the original version chef Skinner (voiced by British actor Sir Ian Holm) is an interesting case in which accents are mixed. Skinner is an evil anti-hero with a broad French accent, although British phonetic features sometimes crop up in his speech. Although he can be considered an example of a character speaking French-accented English, the British actor clearly contrives a broad French accent and the filmmakers clearly intended to portray him as French (Morville, p.c. 27 May 2020).

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However, I would argue that it is exactly this mixture of French and British pronunciation that makes Skinner particularly interesting, even more evil and to a certain extent ridiculous. His physical appearance also contributes to conveying a negative caricature of the chef. I would thus consider Skinner’s interesting mixture of French-accented English and British English to be a variety that suits this type of character well. Examples 7.11 and 7.12 are cases in point. In Example 7.11 a mixture of British and French pronunciation is used (there is no French /r/, but “must” is pronounced as /mђst/), whereas in Example 7.12 the typical French /r/ and French intonation are emphasised in the original version. Moreover, the foreignness and non-native English of Skinner is represented by the omission of verb inversion in the first question. Moreover, the lines are delivered by emphasising the French /r/ (in “are” and “dare”) and using French syllable-timed intonation in which word stress is placed on the last syllable. In the Italian dubbed version Skinner speaks standard Italian with no foreign accent in both cases. Example 7.11 Original version

Dubbed version

SKINNER Welcome to hell. Now. Recreate the soup. Take as much time as you need. All week if you must.

SKINNER Benvenuto all’inferno. Ora, ricrea la zuppa. Prendi tutto il tempo che ti serve … L’intera settimana se è necessario. BACK TRANSLATION Welcome to hell. Now, recreate the soup. Take all the time you need … The whole week if necessary.

Example 7.12 Original version

Dubbed version

SKINNER You are cooking? How dare you cook in my kitchen?

SKINNER Tu stai cucinando? Come osi metterti a cucinare nella mia cucina? BACK TRANSLATION Are you cooking? How dare you start cooking in my kitchen?

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The comic ‘otherness’ and evilness of chef Skinner, that are linguistically conveyed through an affected French accent mixed with some British English phonetic features, are completely neutralised in the dubbed version where dubbing actor Riccardo Peroni speaks standard Italian (as shown in Example 7.13). Example 7.13 Original version

Dubbed version

SKINNER Larousse. Draw and quarter this man, after you put him in the duck press to squeeze the fat out of his head.

SKINNER Larousse. Squartalo e passalo sotto la pressa per anatre per estrargli le pigne che ha in testa e farci il pesto. BACK TRANSLATION Larousse. Draw and quarter this man and put him in the duck press to squeeze the pine cones out of his head and make pesto sauce.

In this example Skinner’s words in the Italian dubbed version are humorous because of the dubbing actor’s performance and the witty and creative adaptation that adds “pine cones” and “pesto sauce” (see back translation)—not because of an exaggerated French accent (which, of course, he doesn’t have). The original version’s reference to the fat of a duck (a humorous allusion to French culture and to foie gras) is adapted to the Italian culinary tradition and turned into pesto sauce. The dubbed version also departs from the original in the linguistic portrayal of Colette, who is dubbed by professional dubbing actress Domitilla D’Amico. In the original version Colette is the only character in the film who uses non-standard syntax: she makes mistakes when she is supposed to be speaking her own native language. In the English version Colette’s turns also contain ungrammaticalities on occasion. This might be because stand-up comedian and voice talent Jeaneane Garofalo had to contrive an accent and speak quite fast. However, the actress also admitted that she improvised her role and deliberately added mistakes to provide characterisation. Garofalo explained how she prepared for the role and where the accent came from as follows:

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I had a CD of a French gentleman speaking English. And then I lost it. And then I watched CNN International. There’s a French anchor who speaks English … so I just mimicked some of the things that he was doing, not pluralizing certain things. […] But I didn’t take French in high school or anything, so I was sort of flying blind and hoping for the best, because I didn’t want to be the only weak link in an otherwise great film. (Villalobos 2007, online)

We do not know whether the actress was actually asked to insert grammar mistakes when she voiced Colette, but the fact remains that her character is the only one in the film who makes such mistakes. For the AngloAmerican audience watching the film the French male characters speak French-accented but grammatically correct English, whereas Colette may be perceived as being less educated. An example from Colette is the line “I memorise all his recipe” which contains an ungrammaticality. In the dubbed version Colette speaks correct standard Italian: “Conosco a memoria tutte le sue ricette” (I know by heart all his recipes). In the Italian dubbed version Colette speaks correct Italian like everyone else. Therefore, her identity and characterisation differ from the original. She has a more positive image/characterisation (she is no longer ‘less educated’ than the male characters). Colette’s explanation of how to recognise good bread and her description of her fellow chefs contains several ungrammaticalities, while some of her other sentences contain fewer grammatical inaccuracies. The dubbed version neutralises the French-accented English and French pronunciation of the original version (‘th’ pronounced as /z/ and French /r/) and the ungrammaticalities (marked in italics), while it retains the two French words (in italics).

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Example 7.14 Original version

Dubbed version

COLETTE How do you tell how good bread is without tasting it? Not the smell, not the look, but the sound … of the crust. Listen. Oh! A symphony of crackle! Only great bread sound this way. The only way to get the best produce is to have first pick of the day, and there are only two way to get first pick: grow it yourself or bribe a grower. GROWER Bonjour. COLETTE Voilà! The best restaurant get first pick.

COLETTE Come si riconosce il pane buono senza assaggiarlo? Non dal profumo, non dall’aspetto, ma dal suono della crosta. Ascolta. Aaah, una sinfonia di scrocchi. Solo il pane migliore fa questo suono. L’unico modo per avere gli ingredienti migliori è assicurarsi la prima scelta, e ci sono due modi per avere la prima scelta: produrre in proprio o dare la mancia all’ortolano. GROWER Bonjour. COLETTE Voilà! Il ristorante migliore ha la prima scelta. BACK TRANSLATION COLETTE How do you tell how good bread is without tasting it? Not from the smell, not from the look, but from the sound … of the crust. Listen. Oh! A symphony of crackles! Only great bread sounds this way. The only way to get the best ingredients is to have the first pick of the day, and there are only two ways to get the first pick: grow it yourself or tip the grower. GROWER Bonjour. COLETTE Voilà! The best restaurant gets the first pick.

The dubbed version is spoken in standard Italian without a French accent, French pronunciation or any ungrammaticalities. Moreover, the offensive “bribe a grower,” which might suggest that French people are accustomed to such practices, is turned into “dare la mancia all’ortolano” (to tip the grower). It is worth noting that the Spanish dubbed version of the above extract retains the verb “bribe.” In the Spanish dubbed version Colette speaks French-accented Spanish, but does not make grammar mistakes.1 The Spanish version thus retained the French linguistic identity by adopting a French accent and was perhaps closer to the original 1I

would like to thank Julio De Los Reyes Lozano for his comments on the Spanish dubbed version of this film.

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film in terms of linguistic characterisation. This comparison with the Spanish dubbed version may suggest that the choice to neutralise the French accent was made by the Italian dubbing team only and was not an international dubbing policy. A further instance in which a character’s identity is neutralised is provided by Rochelle in Planes. As previously observed, since Disney decided to make the Canadian plane Italian in the dubbed version, her French-accented English and French words were completely erased. For example, “J’en sais pas” (I do not know) became “Hm. Questo proprio non lo so” (I really don’t know) and “You are the snow plough, oui?” became “Saresti tu lo spazzaneve?” (Would you be the snow plough?)

7.4

German-Accented English Characters: Hypercharacterisation in Dubbing

The linguistic features used to represent German characters in the animated films analysed are phonological, lexical and syntactic (a few ungrammaticalities). The function of German-accented English characters is mainly to provide characterisation and humour, although a postcarding effect signalling the setting is also present in Cars 2 and Planes. A few German words/expressions are used in the dialogues such as ja, nein, Guten Tag and Achtung! In the dubbed versions of the films the German ethnolect is always maintained and emphasised. All the German words of the original dialogues are retained and the characters speak German-accented Italian. This is usually achieved by casting Italian dubbers who contrive a German accent, although native speakers of German are also occasionally employed as dubbers. For instance, in Ferdinand the three horses are voiced in the English version by German and English actors exaggerating German pronunciation, while in the Italian version Italian dubbers are cast who similarly speak with a broad German accent. On the other hand, Franz in Planes was dubbed by a native speaker of German living in Italy. Irrespective of whether the dubbers are Italian or German, they all emphasise the German accent of the character. Similar examples from other films in the corpus are now discussed.

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In Sing (2016) the overly energetic pig Gunter (voiced in the original version by US comedian Nick Kroll) has a broad German accent and intonation. His German pronunciation of certain sounds in English (especially the German /r/) is accompanied by a number of ungrammaticalities and German words. This is reproduced in the dubbed version where Gunter is perhaps made even more comical by stressing the foreign pronunciation and inserting grammar mistakes (in italics in Example 7.15). Example 7.15 Original version

Dubbed version

GUNTER Ja, ja! This is me. Ja. The two of us together. You joking me? We’re going to be spicy, no?

GUNTER Ja! Ja! Sono me! Ja, noi due. Vuoi prendere in giro me? Saremo super piccanti, no? BACK TRANSLATION Ja! Ja! It is I! Ja, the two of us. Are you kidding me? We’re going to be super spicy, no?

Gunter’s grammar constructions and lexical choices betray his foreign origins. “You joking me?” mixes ‘are you joking?’ with ‘are you kidding me?’. Moreover, he uses the invariant tag “no?”, which is not used by native speakers of English. Such syntactic features denoting foreignness are retained and emphasised in the dubbed version where non-standard syntax such as “sono me” rather than sono io (it’s me) and marked German pronunciation are used by professional dubber Fabrizio Vidale to accentuate Gunter’s funny way of speaking. In Example 7.16 nonstandard syntax is used in both the original and dubbed versions.

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Example 7.16 Original version

Dubbed version

GUNTER Ah, don’t you look so worried face! I’ve got one for you, too.

GUNTER Non guardare con faccia preoccupata! Ho uno anche per tu! BACK TRANSLATION Don’t look with worried face. I have one also for you.

The comic character of Gunter is thus dubbed through hypercharacterisation. In Planes (2014) when the air race stops in Germany some Germanaccented characters appear and make grammar mistakes such as the following words uttered by a waitress in a pub: “You sad. You drink” which is pronounced with a marked German /r/. In Italian this line is equally stereotypically comic and grammatically incorrect: “Tu triste. Tu beve” (You sad. You drinks). Moreover, the flying car Franz tells Dusty that he is a huge fan of his. He speaks with a German accent, pronounces English /w/ as /v/ and Italian /qu/ as /qv/, uses German /r/ and inserts German words in his lines. Example 7.17 Original version

Dubbed version

FRANZ And I would like to say danke for representing all us little planes. DUSTY Uh, you’re a car. FRANZ Ja, ja, ja. But I am vot you call a Flugzeugauto, one of only six flying cars ever built!

FRANZ E vorei tanto dirti danke perché rappresenti tutti noi piccoli aereoplani. DUSTY Ah. Tu sei un’auto. FRANZ Sì, sì, sì. Ma sono quelo che si chiama un Flugzeugauto, una delle sei auto volanti mai costruite! BACK TRANSLATION FRANZ And I would really like to say danke to you because you represent all us little planes. DUSTY Ah. You’re a car. FRANZ Yes, yes, yes. But I am what you call a Flugzeugauto, one of the only six flying cars ever built!

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The ethnolect constructed through German phonetic features and exploited in the English versions of the film is reproduced in the dubbed version where German words are retained, broad German-accented Italian is used and ungrammaticalities are inserted. Further examples of German-accented characters in other films are: – DUNG BEETLE Achtung, stinky./Achtung, sterco. (The Wild ) – GRETA You call vet dancing? Nein! V is is dancing./Kvello lo chiami t anzar e? Ha. Nein. Kvesto è t anzar e. (Ferdinand ) – PROF. ZUNDAPP Guten Tag./Guten Tag. (Cars 2) Analysis of the lines from various animated films in our corpus has illustrated that the strategy of hypercharacterisation is always adopted in dubbing for characters represented as German: elements that are typical features of the German ethnolect are overemphasised and comedy is thereby increased.

7.5

Russian-Accented English Characters: Preservation and Hypercharacterisation in Dubbing

As pointed out in Chapter 4, the animated films making up the corpus also contain a number of characters who are represented as Russian and speak with a marked foreign pronunciation and with ungrammaticalities. Such a Russian identity appears to intensify in the dubbed versions. The strategies of preservation and hypercharacterisation are often adopted in Italian dubbing to deal with Russian-accented characters. Three examples will be discussed in this section: Dr. Jumba Jookiba, North and Vitaly. In Lilo and Stitch (2002) mad scientist Dr. Jumba Jookiba, who illegally created an abominable and evil creature, is voiced by US actor David Ogden Stiers who contrives a foreign accent certain features of which suggest an Eastern European accent of some kind (presumably Russian). However, his nationality is not stated in the film. In the dubbed version the scientist is voiced by an Italian dubbing actor who also mimics an Eastern European or Russian accent. Dubbing director

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La Penna (p.c. 20 December 2019) points out that the creative letter accompanying the film explained that the scientist is foreign, speaks with a foreign accent and the dubbed version had to convey this. Creative Director Morville adds that the creative letter sent to the dubbing team stated that Dr. Jumba Jookiba was Russian and spoke with a broad Russian accent. However, the dubbing teams in various countries “had the option to replicate, reproduce or not this Russian accent performed in the original version, according to Territory customs and sensitivities” (Morville, p.c. 8 January 2020). In other words, the dubbing teams in various countries did not necessarily have to match this Russian linguistic characterisation. They could use a Russian accent (as in the original version) or opt for some type of accent or a target language regional dialect (Morville, p.c. 8 January 2020). Dr. Jookiba’s representation as a non-native speaker with limited knowledge of English grammar and a broad Russian accent is maintained in the dubbed Italian version and arguably emphasised. His accent is typical of Russian characters in Hollywood films and has comic overtones. Such a dubbing strategy could be described as one of preservation and perhaps mild hypercharacterisation. Examples 7.18–7.20 illustrate the strategies adopted (ungrammaticalities and foreign accent in bold). Example 7.18 Original version

Dubbed version

DR JUMBA JOOKIBA I designed this creature for to be unstoppable.

DR JUMBA JOOKIBA Ho progettato quello essere in modo che nessuno lui possa fermare. BACK TRANSLATION I designed that the creature so that nobody can he stop. DR JUMBA JOOKIBA Lo farò a piezzi con tute mie mani nude. BACK TRANSLATION I will tear him apart with all my hands bare. DR JUMBA JOOKIBA Quando tu è disposto a te arendere fa noi sapere, eh? BACK TRANSLATION When you is willing to give you up let we know, eh?

DR JUMBA JOOKIBA Tear him apart with all both my bare hands!

DR JUMBA JOOKIBA When you’re ready to give up just let us know, eh?

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In Dreamwork’s Rise of the Guardians (2012) North (Santa Claus), who is the Guardian of Wonder, is from Russia and speaks Russianaccented English. The film shows him in his laboratory at the North Pole. His marked accent is meant to provide characterisation and signal his provenance. North has a contrived Russian accent and intonation and uses incorrect grammar in which he omits articles and subject pronouns. In the original version North is voiced by Alec Baldwin who contrives a stylised Russian or Eastern European pronunciation. The character is dubbed in Italian by professional dubbing actor Francesco Pannofino. Dubbing director Mete explained that they recognised North’s Eastern European/Russian accent in the original film and tried to reproduce it in the Italian version without exaggerating it and just to provide a hint of his foreignness (Mete, p.c. 7 February 2016). However, analysis of North’s lines suggests that the Italian dubbed version often emphasises this nonnative variety of English, North’s Russian ethnolect and his foreignness despite the dubbing director’s opinion. The presence of several ungrammaticalities (deletion of articles, determiners and verb forms) portray Russian foreignness as a caricature. Ellipsis of the subject pronoun also sometimes occurs as in the following examples (omission of the subject pronoun “It” in the English texts and of articles in Examples 7.19 and 7.20 and omission of the article “I” in the Italian target texts in Examples 7.19 and 7.20 and of the indefinite article “una” in Example 7.21). Example 7.19 Original version

Dubbed version

NORTH Is official. My powers are kaput

NORTH È ufficiale. Miei poteri sono kaput. BACK TRANSLATION It is official. The my powers are kaput.

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Example 7.20 Original version

Dubbed version

NORTH Then is time you take oath. Will you, Jack Frost, vow to watch over the children of the world?

NORTH È tempo di fare giuramento. … Giuri tu, Jack Frost, di proteggere bambini di tutto il mondo? BACK TRANSLATION It is time to take oath. Will you, Jack Frost, vow to watch over children of the whole world?

Example 7.21 Original version

Dubbed version

NORTH Must be big deal.

NORTH Deve essere cosa seria. BACK TRANSLATION Must be big deal.

Note that North is the only character in the dubbed version of Rise of the Guardians who has a marked accent. His contrived Eastern European/Russian-accented English along with the non-standard grammar of the original version is turned into a stereotypical, nondefined Eastern European/Russian-accented Italian in which grammar mistakes occur such as the frequent omission of articles. Neither the original nor the dubbed version seems to aim at verisimilitude. Instead such linguistic choices contribute to creating character (i.e., they provide a Russian-type identity) and eliciting laughter. The third example of a Russian-accented character is the Siberian tiger Vitaly in DreamWorks’ Madagascar 3: Europe’s Most Wanted (2012). Vitaly is voiced by US actor Bryan Cranston, has a Russian accent, uses a few easily recognisable Russian words and some incorrect grammar. Such a linguistic characterisation is preserved and sometimes emphasised in the Italian dubbed version where Vitaly is dubbed by professional dubbing actor Fabrizio Pucci. The Italian dubbed version adopts the strategies of preservation and hypercharacterisation by replicating the Russian accent and sometimes adding grammatical errors (as shown in Examples 7.22 and 7.23).

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Example 7.22 Original version

Dubbed version

VITALY Absolut no outsiders. So wipe that smirn off your face and pop off!

VITALY Assolutamente niente estranei. Quindi leva tuo sorrisetto da faccia e sparisci. BACK TRANSLATION Absolutely no outsiders. So wipe the your smirk off the face and disappear.

Here Vitaly is addressing Alex the lion and telling him that they cannot get on the train to escape from the French police. Vitaly’s dialogic turn contains puns on Russian cultural references and English phrasal verbs: “Absolut” may refer to a brand of vodka (Absolut Vodka), the homophony-paronymy between “smirk off ” and Smirnoff (another brand of vodka) and another homophony between “pop off ” and Popov (a common Russian surname and a possible reference to a famous physician). Although the Italian version cannot retain and reproduce the cultural references and puns, it does convey humour by recreating Vitaly’s Eastern European linguistic identity, reproducing a contrived Russian pronunciation and using non-standard grammar. In particular, Vitaly’s Italian displays syntactic errors such as the omission of articles or prepositions plus articles. Examples are: “leva tuo sorrisetto” rather than leva il tuo sorrisetto and “da faccia” rather than dalla faccia. In Example 7.23 Vitaly utters the Russian word nyet, uses an incorrect negative construction and omits the determiner for “Circus owner.” In the Italian dubbed version nyet is retained (it is a loanword from Russian that has become part of the Italian language) and definite articles are omitted (il proprietario del circo becomes “proprietario di circo”). Example 7.23 Original version

Dubbed version

VITALY Nyet! Circus owner no allow stowaways!

VITALY Nyet! Proprietario di circo non ammette clandestini! BACK TRANSLATION Nyet! Owner of circus does not allow stowaways!

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The Italian dubbed version clearly hypercharacterises Vitaly by emphasising his ethnolect and exaggerating his Russian accent. It is a comic caricatural portrayal aimed at triggering humour. The tiger speaks with a fake Russian accent in both versions. As explained by dubbing director Alto, the Russian accent was feigned for two reasons: first, they had to maintain the effect of the original dialogue and respect the intentions of the producers and, second, no language advisor was employed in dubbing since this would have raised costs considerably (Alto, p.c. 25 January 2016) (see Minutella 2018, pp. 150–151).

7.6

Other Foreign Accents

We pointed out in Chapter 4 that some of the animated films in the corpus also contain instances of Indian-accented English. In Disney’s The Wild a flock of pigeons dance to an apparently Indian musical piece and speak with a fake Indian accent and with some non-standard grammatical features typical of Indian English. Their ethnolect is a colonial legacy and is conveyed in the Italian dubbed version through a contrived Indian accent and through what can be described as ungrammaticalities rather than regional variants (as can be seen in Example 7.24) since the Italian language has no colonial connections with India.

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Example 7.24 Original version

Dubbed version

HAMIR Benny! I’m needing till Friday before I am paying you back. […] That is not good, not good at all. […] The green boxes go to the big water where stiff lady with spikes on her head …

HAMIR Benny, io prega te aspettare venerdì prima che io paga debito di gioco. […] Che bruta coosa. Che bruta cooosa. […] Le casse verdi vanno alla grande agua. Dove signora con bracio alzato e puntine in testa … BACK TRANSLATION HAMIR Benny, I pray you wait Friday before I pay debt. What a bad thing. What a bad thing. The green boxes go to the big agua. Where woman with raised arm and little spikes on her head …

In the original English version the Indian linguistic identity of Hamir is quickly built up by using some phonetic and syntactic features typical of Indian English such as the Indian pronunciation of the trilled ‘r’, the pronunciation of ‘th’ as /d/ or /t/, the lengthening of some vowel sounds, the use of the progressive aspect rather than the present simple and the arbitrary use of articles (Kachru 1983, pp. 76–81). In the Italian dub this supposed Indianness is conveyed through a contrived undefined Indian accent and intonation and through a broken Italian in which infinitive verbs rather than conjugated verbs are used, articles are omitted and even the Spanish word agua is used. The Italian dialogues cannot replicate authentic Indian features. Instead, the impression is created of an overthe-top, exaggerated and caricatural foreign speech that is potentially offensive but somehow manages to capture the flavour of the original dialogue, even if it is a little overdone. It is an example of hypercharacterisation in dubbing similar to that used in the Italian dubbing of The Simpsons for Apu. As pointed out by Ferrari: “the translation has Apu speaking Italian with a marked Indian accent, as in the original. In addition, however, his grammar is poor and his Italian broken and incorrect” (2010, pp. 93–94). The same strategy of hypercharacterisation that emphasises certain features of the ethnolect can be found in the dubbed persona of some Indian characters in the film comedy Bend It Like Beckham (dir. Chadha, 2002) (see Minutella 2012). On the other hand,

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note that the Indian-accented English spoken by Sacha Baron Cohen for King Julien in the Madagascar films is neutralised in Italian dubbing where dubbing actor Oreste Baldini gives King Julien a linguistic characterisation devoid of any regional, national or ethnic connotation. Baldini achieved comic characterisation through voice modulation and performance. The slight Indian-accented English of Ishani in Planes and of Nangi in Zootopia are also neutralised in the dubbed versions. The Hotel Transylvania films feature foreign-accented Dracula (‘Drac’) as the main protagonist. Drac is supposed to speak with a ‘Transylvanian’ accent that is obviously a contrived stylised performance of an Eastern European/Slavic-accented English conveyed by US actor Adam Sandler. Although the vocal performance does not claim any authenticity or pretend or aim to be a realistic portrayal of the way people from Transylvania speak, it has the aim of triggering humour by suggesting the character’s otherness or his being ‘from there’. In the original version Dracula’s use of a foreign accent in his non-native variety of English such as the pronunciation of ‘th’ as /d/ is matched in the Italian dubbed version by a similarly humorous foreign characterisation recreated by star talent Claudio Bisio, who worked on intonation and pronunciation. A mock and comic foreign-accented English is thus recreated in the dubbed version as a mock and comic foreign-accented Italian. This is a further example of preservation of a non-native variety of English in dubbing.

7.7

When Dubbing Erases Difference: The Case of Gru in Despicable Me 2 and Rochelle in Planes

In the whole corpus of animated films analysed an interesting and quite rare case of neutralisation and loss of a foreign identity is provided by the character Gru in the Despicable Me films. Gru is voiced by comedian Steve Carell who contrives an undefined foreign accent. In an interview on this role Carell insisted on defining his accent as not a proper foreign accent, but a characterisation or a vocal performance, claiming that Gru’s voice is not based on any real existing accent that points to a

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specific nationality or ethnicity. As he puts it: “I didn’t want it to be any nationality, so it’s just vaguely eastern European.”2 Gru is represented as a non-native speaker of English. Therefore, even if the voice actor did not specifically mean to mimic any specific real foreign accent, his characterisation was meant to suggest a kind of otherness and foreignness. He is perceived as a foreign-accented speaker from Eastern Europe and his otherness and foreign identity is expressed through phonological features (rather than any syntactic interference or any lexical borrowings from a specific language). In the Italian dubbed version of the film Gru completely loses this linguistic characterisation and otherness since he speaks standard Italian. As can be seen in Example 7.25, Gru’s marked foreign pronunciation in the original version (e.g., he pronounces ‘th’ as /d/) is neutralised in dubbing. Example 7.25 Original version

Dubbed version

GRU I’m sorry I did not see you der.

GRU Scusami, non avevo visto che eri lì. BACK TRANSLATION I’m sorry. I hadn’t seen you were there.

Gru’s Italian is marked by a slight regional Italian accent and voice quality rather than by any kind of foreign accent. The decision to eliminate his foreign identity in Italian dubbing was taken for marketing reasons. In fact, the marketing department wanted to cast an Italian star talent—comedian and TV presenter Max Giusti—as the Italian voice for Gru and did not deem it important to retain a foreign identity for Gru (Izzo, p.c. 4 March 2019). The strategy of neutralisation is thus adopted for Gru in the Italian dubbed version. This choice determines a change in characterisation and has repercussions for translation of the dialogue. When Gru goes on a date with a fitness-obsessed woman, during their dinner in an Italian restaurant she comments on Gru’s exotic accent. Since Gru speaks standard Italian with no exotic accent in the Italian 2 ‘Steve

Carell on How He Created His Despicable Me 2 Character’s “Terrible Accent”’: https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=V-e72bwapPk (accessed on 23 December 2019).

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dubbed version, dialogue writer Izzo had to modify the content of the lines (see Example 7.26). Example 7.26 Original version

Dubbed version

SHANNON Your accent is so exotic. […] I know someone who can fix that for you. And you’ll be talking normal in no time!

SHANNON Hai un fisico così pittoresco. […] Il mio personal trainer potrebbe allenarti e ritroverai la forma in un battibaleno! BACK TRANSLATION Your body is so picturesque. […] My personal trainer could train you and you would be back in shape in a jiffy!

Shannon’s offensive comment on the weird foreign accent of Gru that can be fixed by someone she knows who can correct his pronunciation and help him speak “normal” is turned into an equally offensive comment on Gru being unfit in the Italian dubbed version. This is coherent with the images since Shannon is actually obsessed with fitness (see Minutella, forthcoming). Further instances of the foreign identity of a character being neutralised by using standard Italian are Canadian Rochelle and Indian Ishani in Planes and Nangi in Zootropolis. As explained in Chapter 6, Disney decided to localise Rochelle’s character by changing her nationality in various countries. As a result, her Canadian identity was transformed into an Italian one in the dubbed version, thereby abandoning her linguistic characterisation in favour of a neutral standard Italian. Ishani’s slight Indian accent in Planes is also neutralised by making her speak standard Italian, as is Nangi’s slight Indian accent in Zootopia. These represent the very few cases in the whole corpus in which a nonnative variety of English is neutralised in dubbing by using standard Italian.

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Concluding Remarks

By providing several examples from films in which characters speak foreign-accented English and are portrayed as foreign in the original version, this chapter has demonstrated that non-native varieties of English or ethnolects (Salmon Kovarski 2000) are almost always conveyed and often strengthened in the Italian dubbed version. Whether preservation, hypercharacterisation, quantitative reduction or neutralisation is applied in dubbing appears to depend on the function of the ethnolect within the film and on factors such as the type of character, the choice of dubbing actor and whether the accent is mock in the original version (i.e., contrived by an actor or not). Foreign-accented characters tend to remain foreign-accented characters in dubbing. Moreover, hypercharacterisation through phonological and sometimes syntactic features often takes place in dubbing. Cases in which a character’s foreignness is reduced or neutralised are rare and determined by specific requests by the client, especially by the marketing department. These affect voice casting and thus linguistic characterisation, as in the case of Gru in Despicable Me 2. The choice of whether or not to give a character an accent in the dubbed version is affected by a variety of factors such as the function of the accent in the film (whether it is meant to provide setting, characterisation, stereotypes or comedy), who the dubbing actor is (whether a native speaker of the foreign language or not) and specific requests by the client. If the foreign-accented English has the function of indicating the setting of a story (i.e., if the story has only one setting), then it is usually neutralised. If the setting of the story changes, then the foreign accent might be kept to signal the change of setting, the different nationality of the speakers or a different location. If the foreignaccented English provides comic characterisation and stereotypes or if the nationality or ethnicity of the character is stated in the film, then it is always kept in some form. However, Ratatouille shows that the dubbing team can decide to go against the choice made by the producers in order to provide a less parodic portrayal of the characters when the film is set in a foreign country. Coco also shows that some degree of foreignness can be maintained in terms of use of the foreign language

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to suggest the specific setting of the story without resorting to foreignaccented Italian that tends to emphasise comedy. Although foreign words are kept in the Italian dialogues for signposting or audio-postcarding purposes, the characters speak standard Italian with no marked foreign accent. On the other hand, when foreign-accented English is used for a prevailing comic purpose, the strategy of preservation and often hypercharacterisation is applied to ethnolects and comic characters. A further element that appears to emerge is that Russian and Indian characters tend to speak with broad accents and non-standard grammar in both the English version (regional variants in the case of Indian English and a kind of ‘foreigner speak’ in the Russian case) and the Italian version (ungrammaticalities in both cases).

References Coupland, Nikolas. 2001. Dialect Stylization in Radio Talk. Language in Society 30 (3): 345–375. Di Giovanni, Elena. 2007. Disney Films: Reflections of the Other and the Self. Cultura, Lenguage y Representaciòn/Culture, Language and Representation 4: 191–209. Ferrari, Chiara Francesca. 2010. Since When Is Fran Drescher Jewish? Dubbing Stereotypes in the Nanny, the Simpsons and the Sopranos. Austin: University of Texas Press. Kachru, Braj. 1983. The Indianization of English: The English language in India. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Minutella, Vincenza. 2012. ‘You Fancying Your Gora Coach Is Okay with Me’: Translating Multilingual Films for an Italian Audience. In Audiovisual Translation and Media Accessibility at the Crossroads. Media for all 3, ed. Pilar Orero, Aline Remael, and Mary Carroll, 313–334. Amsterdam, NY: Rodopi. Minutella, Vincenza. 2014. Translating Verbally Expressed Humour in Dubbing and Subtitling: the Italian Versions of Shrek. In Translating Humour in Audiovisual Texts, ed. Gian Luigi De Rosa, Francesca Bianchi, Antonella De Laurentiis, and Elisa Perego, 67–87. Bern: Peter Lang. Minutella, Vincenza. 2015. ‘It ain’t ogre til it’s ogre’: The Dubbing of Shrek into Italian. In Audiovisual Translation: Taking Stock, ed. J. Díaz Cintas and J. Neves, 140–158. Newcastle Upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

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Minutella, Vincenza. 2016. British Dialects in Animated Films: The Case of Gnomeo and Juliet and Its Creative Italian Dubbing. In North and South. British Dialects in Fictional Dialogue, ed. I. Ranzato. Special Issue Status Quaestionis 11. Retrieved from http://statusquaestionis.uniroma1.it/index. php/statusquaestionis/article/view/13838. 20 November 2017. Minutella, Vincenza. 2018. Translating Non-native Varieties of English in Animated Films: The Italian Dubbing of Madagascar 3: Europe’s most wanted . Cultus Journal 11: 144–157. Retrieved from https://www.cultusjou rnal.com/files/Archives/Vincenza-Minutella.pdf, 20 May 2020. Minutella, Vincenza. forthcoming. Translating Foreign Languages and Nonnative Varieties of English in Animated Films. Dubbing Strategies in Italy and the Case of Despicable me 2, Journal of Audiovisual Translation 3 (3). Morville, Roberto. 2018. Traduzione e creatività. La sottile linea rossa. Lecture, University of Torino. 26 April 2018. O’Sullivan, Carol. 2011. Translating Popular Film. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan. Parini, Ilaria. 2009. The Transposition of Italian-American in Italian Dubbing. In Translating Regionalised Voices in Audiovisuals, ed. F.M. Federici, 157–176. Rome: Aracne. Planchenault, Gaëlle. 2015. Voices in the Media: Performing French Linguistic Otherness. London and New York: Bloomsbury. Ramírez Berg, Charles. 2002. Latino Images in Film: Stereotypes, Subversion and Resistance. Austin: University of Texas Press. Rampton, Ben. 1999. Styling the Other: Introduction. Journal of Socilinguistics 3 (4): 421–427. Romero Fresco, Pablo. 2012, Dubbing Dialogues Naturally: A Pragmatic Approach to the Translation of Transition Markers in Dubbing. MonTI 4: 181–205. Salmon Kovarski, Laura. 2000. Tradurre l’etnoletto: come doppiare in italiano ‘l’accento ebraico. In Traduzione multimediale: quale traduzione per quale testo? ed. R. M. Bollettieri Bosinelli, C. Heiss, M. Soffritti, and S. Bernardini, 67–84. Bologna: Clueb. Villalobos, Brian. 2007. Janeane Garofalo Talks Ratatouille. MTV News, June 29. Retrieved from http://www.mtv.com/news/2756227/janeane-garofalotalks-ratatouille/. 20 May 2020. Wahl, Chris. 2005. Discovering a Genre: The Polyglot Film. Cinemascope 1. Wahl, Chris. 2008. ‘Du Deutscher, Toi Français, You English: Beautiful!’— The Polyglot Film as a Genre. In Shifting Landscapes: Film and Media in

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European Context, ed. Miyase Christensen and Nezih Erdo˘gan, 334–350. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

Online References Steve Carell on How He Created His Despicable Me 2 Character’s ‘Terrible Accent’ (26 June 2013) YouTube video, added by PopSugar Entertainment [online] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V-e72bwapPk. 23 December 2019.

Websites https://www.antoniogenna.net/. https://www.imdb.com/.

Filmography Atlantis (2001). Gary Trousdale, Kirk Wise, Walt Disney Feature Animation, Walt Disney Pictures. Bend It Like Beckham (2002). Gurinder Chadha, Kintop Pictures, Film Council, Filmförderung Hamburg, British Sky Broadcasting (BskyB), British Screen Productions, Bend It Films. Cars 2 (2011). John Lasseter, Brad Lewis, Walt Disney Pictures, Pixar Animation Studios. Coco (2017). Lee Unkrich, Adrian Molina, Walt Disney Pictures, Pixar Animation Studios. Despicable Me 2 (2013). Pierre Coffin, Chris Renaud, Universal Pictures, Illumination Entertainment. Ferdinand (2017). Carlos Saldanha, Blue Sky Studios, Davis Entertainment, 20th Century Fox Animation. Gnomeo & Juliet (2011). Kelly Asbury, Rocket Pictures, Arc Productions, Touchstone Pictures, Miramax, Starz Animation. Hotel Transylvania (2012). Genndy Tartakovsky, Columbia Pictures, Sony Pictures Animation. Lilo and Stitch (2002). Dean DeBlois, Chris Sanders, Walt Disney Pictures.

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Madagascar 3: Europe’s Most Wanted (2012). Eric Darnell, Tom McGrath, Conrad Vernon, DreamWorks Animation, Pacific Data Images. Mr. Peabody and Sherman (2014). Rob Minkoff, Bullwinkle Studios, Classic Media Productions, DreamWorks Animation, Pacific Data Images. Planes (2013). Klay Hall, Prana Studios, Disneytoon Studios. Puss in Boots (2011). Chris Miller, DreamWorks Animation, Pacific Data Images. Rango (2011). Gore Verbinski, Paramount Pictures, Nickelodeon Movies, Blind Wink Productions, GK Films, Industrial Light & Magic. Ratatouille (2007). Brad Bird, Jan Pinkava, Walt Disney Pictures, Pixar Animation Studios. Rise of the Guardians (2012). Peter Ramsey, DreamWorks Animation. Shrek (2001). Andrew Adamson, Vicky Jenson, DreamWorks Animation, DreamWorks, Pacific Data Images, Vanguard Films. Shrek 2 (2004). Andrew Adamson, Kelly Asbury, Conrad Vernon, DreamWorks, DreamWorks Animation, Pacific Data Images. Sing (2016). Garth Jennings, Cristophe Lourdelet, Illumination Entertainment, Universal Pictures, Dentsu, Fuji Television Network. The Book of Life (2014). Jorge R. Gutiérrez, 20th Century Fox Animation, 20th Century Fox, Reel FX Creative Studios, Chatrone, Mexopolis. The Wild (2006). Steve ‘Spaz’ Williams, C.O.R.E. Feature Animation, Contrafilm, Freewill Entertainment, Hoytyboy Pictures, Nigel Productions, Sir Zip Studios, Walt Disney Pictures. Turbo (2013). David Soren, DreamWorks Animation.

TV Series and Programmes Saturday Night Live (1975–ongoing). Lome Michaels, NBC. The Simpsons (1989–ongoing). James L. Brooks, Matt Groening, Sam Simon, Gracie Films, 20th Century Fox Television, 20th Century Fox.

8 (Re)Positioning Italianness in Animated Films: No Accent, Foreign Accent, Regional Italian or Dialect?

8.1

Introduction

This chapter explores what happens when the third language in the original film (L3) coincides with the second language or the language of the dubbed version (L2) (i.e., when the characters are represented as being Italian or of Italian origin and speak English with an Italian accent, an Italian-American ethnolect and use Italian words and expressions). As previous chapters have pointed out, both scholarly research and dubbing practitioners agree that when the original films contain characters who are represented as being Italian and who are linguistically characterised by making them speak Italian-accented English that is contrived and comic, such a linguistic differentiation and identity is maintained and conveyed in the dubbed version by making them speak Italian with a regional accent or foreign-accented English. This chapter provides examples illustrating the various strategies adopted in the animated films in our corpus to recreate characters who speak Italian-accented English in the original film within Italian dubbing.

© The Author(s) 2021 V. Minutella, (Re)Creating Language Identities in Animated Films, Palgrave Studies in Translating and Interpreting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56638-8_8

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Italian American English and Italian-Accented English in Animated Films

In the films analysed several characters display certain linguistic features that are typically associated with the Italian variety spoken by Italian Americans and often used in Hollywood films. This variety can be defined as an ethnolect since it represents the ethnic origin of the speaker, signalling that he/she is not a native speaker of the language (Salmon Kovarski 2000). Although this Italian American ethnolect is exaggerated in films, it has specific phonological and intonational features, lexical features (the insertion of Italian words and expressions and Italianised English words) and certain syntactic features such as the use of non-standard grammar (especially the omission of the third-person singular -s; the ellipsis of auxiliaries, verbs or subjects; and multiple negation). Parini has described the typical elements of the Italian American ethnolect in terms of pronunciation (as represented in mafia comedies and in Shark Tale) as follows: – – – –

/th/ interdental voiceless fricative pronounced as /t/ instead of /θ/ /th/ interdental voiced fricative pronounced as /d/ instead of /ð/ /er/ in word endings pronounced as /A/ instead of /ђ/ silent /h/ in words beginning with aspirated /h/ (Parini 2019, p. 254).

Such features are also found in the animated films analysed where they are often exaggerated. Furthermore, Parini’s comments about mafia comedies equally apply to animated films: “these peculiar phonological traits are over-emphasized if compared to dramatic mafia films. This, once again, is related to the purposes of comedies, as a heavy and exaggerated use of accents adds to the comicality of the character” (2017, p. 105). A phonological element that appears to be overused in the speech of characters represented as Italian in our corpus of animated films should be added to the above characteristics: the stereotypical addition of an extra schwa (i.e., ‘uh’) sound pronounced between words. This is sometimes described by non-linguists as a kind of vowel sound that is

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pronounced between words. In manuals for actors and in English film scripts this is indicated as an ‘a’ sound inserted between some words ending and starting with a consonant. This seems to be a stereotypical trait of how Italians speaking English are aurally represented. This is confirmed by Herman and Herman’s Foreign Dialects: A Manual for Actors, Directors, and Writers (1997, p. 147). This sound is considered the most salient feature/characteristic of the Italian dialect (English spoken by Italians). It may be due to the fact that Italian words end in vowels, while many English ones do not (at least when spoken). Herman and Herman describe this feature as follows: To compensate for the lack of vowel-sound word-endings, Italians, in speaking English, insert an aspirate “uh” between their words when the first word ends with a consonant and the following word begins with a consonant. This is, perhaps, the most important distinguishing characteristic in the entire Italian dialect. (Herman and Herman 1997, p. 147)

Herman and Herman also warn actors that “the aspirate ‘uh’ is the most important identification tag in the Italian dialect and one which is easily overdone because of its simplicity” (1997, p. 151). This phonological feature appears to be extensively used when non-Italian actors put on an Italian accent in order to portray Italian or Italian American characters and thus signal their Italian identity. In his Accents: A Manual for Actors, Blumenfeld points out that “[t]he most well-known phenomenon in a standard Italian accent […] is the insertion of a schwa in between consonants” (2002, p. 216). Our analysis of representations of Italianness in the animated films of the corpus confirms that this is one of the most evident features of the speech of characters. Moreover, it adds a certain caricatural comicality to them since this pronunciation is often exaggerated in the performance of non-native speakers of Italian compared with Italian speakers of English. Moreover, the English Dialogue Lists of animated films sent to the translator and dialogue writer sometimes transcribe the lines of Italian characters by adding ‘-a-’ between words and explain in a note that ‘-a-’ is the stereotypical addition of an extra vowel sound at the end

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of some words when Italians speak English. Examples 8.1, 8.5 and 8.8 demonstrate this. Certain characters represented as being Italian or of Italian origin are discussed in what follows. Their linguistic characterisation and the dubbing strategies adopted in the Italian dubbed versions will be pointed out.

8.3

Italian -Accented English: Foreign-Accented Italian in Madagascar 3

In the original version of Madagascar 3: Europe’s Most Wanted the sea lion Stefano and the leopard Gia present features of this type of contrived Italian American variety. This mock Italian-accented English, which evokes stereotypes of Italians and Italian Americans speaking English, is turned into an equally mock Spanish-accented Italian in the dubbed version, thus retaining the foreignness and European identity of the speakers. Such a translation strategy enables the dubbed version to highlight Stefano and Gia’s linguistic otherness from the American zoo animals (who speak General American in the original version and standard Italian in the dubbed version) and from the French-accented Chantel Dubois and the Russian tiger Vitaly. Nevertheless, such a stylised representation plays a part in enhancing the film’s comedy. As a result, “the unlikely Italian accent or Italian-American spoken by Stefano is thus turned in the dubbed version into an equally unlikely and exaggerated Italian with a Spanish accent, interspersed with some Spanish and Spanish-sounding words (escappò, escussame, el, no le guste)” (Minutella 2018, p. 151). Dubbing director Alto felt that a fake, mock Spanishaccented Italian was chosen because it replicated the function of the fake Italian-accented English of the original version and because the function of such a characterisation was to show that they were foreign and make the audience laugh—not to provide a realistic portrayal of Italian speakers of English. No attempt was thus made to aim at realism (Alto, p.c. 26 January 2016). Stefano’s lines in Example 8.1 illustrate this point and show how the strategy of hypercharacterisation was applied in the

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dubbed version by replacing phonetic features that index Italianness in English with elements that index Spanishness in Italian. Example 8.1 Original version

Dubbed version

STEFANO I don’t-a-tink Vitaly likes dat idea!

STEFANO Oh, no! Credo che a Vitaly no le guste esta idea. BACK TRANSLATION Oh, no! I think Vitaly doesn’t like this idea.

Example 8.1 illustrates that Stefano’s speech contains the stereotypical salient features of an Italian ethnolect (/d/ and /t/ for ‘th’, addition of a schwa sound /ђ/ between words, ungrammaticalities). In the dubbed version the pronunciation of some consonants and the use of Spanish words and expressions are features of Spanish-accented Italian. The relevant strategy appears to be compensation since in some utterances “the non-native traits are neutralised in the dubbed version, but this loss is compensated by introducing foreign features in other parts of the dialogue” (Minutella 2018, p. 152). Both Stefano and Gia speak Spanishaccented Italian interspersed with Spanish and Spanish-sounding words and exaggerate the Spanish accent. In other words, hypercharacterisation is the strategy adopted (see Minutella 2018). The Italian American ethnolect of Gia characterised by ‘h’ deletion and ‘th’ pronounced as /d/ is transformed and emphasised in dubbing by using a higher number of non-native foreign features such as foreign/Spanish-sounding pronunciation, Spanish-sounding words and ungrammaticalities. Changing the identity of Stefano and Gia and having them lose their Italianness does not create major problems in the film since their nationality is never mentioned and is not essential to the plot. Dubbing director Alto explains that the only visual reference to Stefano’s Italian identity are the colours of the Italian flag on his collar. However, it is a minor detail that was not noticed by the dubbing team when they dubbed the film since they watched it in black and white (Alto, p.c. 26 January 2016), as is often the case.

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Italian-Accented English and Italian American: Regional Italian or Italian Dialect

As previously pointed out, Italian with a regional accent or Italian dialects are often used in dubbed animated films to convey the linguistic differentiation of characters who are marked in the original version by speaking Italian-accented English. Moreover, we have noted that the varieties of Italian frequently used in the dubbed films are Southern. The dubbing professionals consulted also admitted that they often use a Sicilian variety to connote characters, especially when the character is Italian American and at the same time a mobster or criminal. Previous studies have stressed the large use of Sicilian and Neapolitan in Italian dubbing because of their associations with organised crime and their supposed comic effect. Several scholars (Pavesi 1994, 2005; Rossi 2006; Chiaro 2008, 2009; Parini 2009, 2017, 2019; Ferrari 2010; Iaia 2015 among others) have argued that there is a tendency in dubbed Italian to use just a few regional varieties of Italian and that a Sicilian regiolect is often stereotypically associated with mobster characters being Italian American in mobster comedies and animation as well—not only in dramas. Ferrari (2010) and Iaia (2015) have highlighted that Italian dubbing tends to perpetuate Italian stereotypes of the South, thus marking the “Otherness of the South.” As argued by Ferrari, “the separation between northern and southern Italy […] is both accepted and hard to overcome not only because it is rooted in Italian history, but also, and more problematically, because such separation is perpetrated in the stereotypical and often comical representation of southern characters” (2010, pp. 96– 97). A similar point is made by Iaia in his analysis of the translation of humorous discourse in films, sitcoms and cartoons where regional stereotypes of southern people and their diatopic and diastratic varieties are reused “to represent the characters’ otherness, producing humorous discourse” (Iaia 2015, pp. 80–81). The norm of making mobsters and thugs speak a stereotyped Sicilian is confirmed for animated films too. However, other southern Italian regional varieties are also used, as

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will be illustrated below. The following analysis explores the type of characterisation that emerges in dubbed animated films in the corpus.

8.4.1 Vinny in Atlantis In Disney’s Atlantis one of the members of the expedition, Vincenzo ‘Vinny’ Santorini, is a bomb demolition expert who was born in Palermo and “spent some time in a Turkish jail.” In the original version Vinny is voiced by Don Novello, a comedian popular for his Saturday Night Live character Father Guido Sarducci. He also appeared in The Godfather Part III . Novello gives Vinny a clear linguistic characterisation by using an Italian American accent. In the dubbed version Vinny is dubbed by Calabrian-born Pasquale Anselmo who usually dubs Italian Americans and whose voice is often associated with Sicilian characters, as he contrives a Sicilian accent. The Italian American ethnolect spoken in the English version is turned in dubbing into a Sicilian regiolect and Sicilianaccented Italian with the use of Sicilian words (for a detailed account of the linguistic features typical of the Sicilian regiolect see Parini 2009, 2019). Examples 8.2–8.4 illustrate that Vinny’s speech is localised in the dubbed version to a great extent and that he speaks a Sicilian regiolect at the phonological, syntactic and lexical level by using Sicilian regionalisms such as piccirì and picciriddo (they both mean ‘kid’). Example 8.2 Original version

Dubbed version

VINNY Hey, junior, if you’re looking for the pony rides, they’re back there.

VINNY Ehi, piccirì, se tte vuoi fare un giro sulle giostrine sono laddietro. BACK TRANSLATION Hey, kid. If you want to go on the merry-go-round, they’re back there.

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Example 8.3 Original version

Dubbed version

VINNY Maybe I should do this later, huh?

VINNY Cheddisci è mmeglio se continuo dopo? BACK TRANSLATION What do you say, is it better if I do this later?

Example 8.4 Original version

Dubbed version

VINNY Kid, relax. We don’t get paid overtime.

VINNY Picciriddo statti calmo. Gli straordinari non ce li pagano. BACK TRANSLATION Kid, relax. They don’t pay us overtime.

Converting Vinny’s Italian American ethnolect in the original version into a Sicilian characterisation in the dubbed version also features a particularly intense representation of Sicilian features by means of hypercharacterisation. The common dubbing convention equating thugs, mobsters, criminals or men involved in dubious dealing with a Sicilian regiolect is thus also applied in this film. Disney’s creative director Morville (p.c. 28 January 2016) explains that he had tried to avoid such an association. When they dubbed the trailer for the film he chose a dubber from Abruzzo who would use his regional accent and dialect. However, once he watched the full film he noticed that the visuals showed Vinny’s ID on which his birthplace was given as Palermo. Hence the character had to be Sicilian in order not to clash with the images. The ethnolect spoken in the original version is thus conveyed and emphasised in the Italian dubbed version of Atlantis and associating speaking with an Italian American accent like Sicilian with criminality is maintained.

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8.4.2 Don Lino and Sykes in Shark Tale In the dubbed version of Shark Tale (2004) the Italian American ethnolect of the original film is again turned into a Sicilian regiolect since the film openly alludes to The Godfather films. Italian American mobster shark Don Lino (dubbed by Stefano De Sando), his son Frankie and his entourage speak Italian with a broad Sicilian accent and use several dialect words such as amuninne (let’s go) and cu’mmia (with me). Moreover, Examples 8.6 and 8.7 show that the ethnolect is emphasised not only through hypercharacterisation (exaggerating Sicilian phonological, syntactic and lexical features) but also by adding creative and comic neologisms combining Sicilian words and words pertaining to the fish world such as pesciotti (pesci + picciotti), squalozzi (squali + scagnozzi ), trinchia (triglia + minchia) and cucozze (cucuzze + cozze). Example 8.5 Original version

Dubbed version

DON LINO Now, you’re making-a-fun of me?

DON LINO Ehi, ti vuoi divertire cu’mmia? BACK TRANSLATION Hey, do you want to make fun of me?

Example 8.6 Original version

Dubbed version

DON LINO (to the piranhas) How are my little babies this morning?

DON LINO Come stanno i mei pesciotti stamattina? BACK TRANSLATION How are my little fish-kids this morning?

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Example 8.7 Original version

Dubbed version

DON LINO What did I ever do to you?

DON LINO Ma io a te che trinchia ti ho fatto? BACK TRANSLATION But what the shell did I do to you?

Furthermore, the pufferfish Sykes who works for Don Lino and speaks Italian American in the original version is dubbed by dubbing director and actor Marco Mete using a Neapolitan accent. He also uses several Neapolitan words such as guagliò and guaglioni (guy/guys). The Italian dubbed version of the film maintains the American gangsterspeak and retains the stereotype, adopting the Sicilian and Neapolitan regiolects to connote the negative yet comic characters. Although such translation strategies render the characters and the dialogues more comical, they still exploit Italian stereotypes of the South and reaffirm the connection Sicilian and Neapolitan have with organised crime. As pointed out by Parini: Italian professionals seem to have followed the tendencies which have become established in the Italian dubbing industry when it comes to translating the variety spoken by Italian American gangsters in American films, relying on certain specific strategies that allow them to maintain the stereotype. Therefore, it is possible to talk about stereotyping also in translation. (2019, p. 260)

As pointed out in Chapter 3, the dubbing professionals consulted for this study—even those who fiercely criticise the use of negative stereotypes in films and in dubbing—believe that the Sicilian variety of Italian must be adopted and is justified if the film makes allusions to previous mafiarelated films. It might be argued that use of the Sicilian ethnolect is called for not only by the original film itself but also by the filmmakers’ intentions since they deliberately created the characters as animated and comic allusions to The Godfather characters. The film met with critical reactions by Italian American associations in the United States for its negative portrayal of ethnic stereotypes (see Parini 2019). On the other hand, the

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Italian dubbed version of the film was not criticised. As explained by Parini: In Italy no protests whatsoever have been made against the use of specific regiolects or dialects (such as Sicilian or Neapolitan) in its dubbed version – although the same concern expressed by Italian Americans regarding the potential danger of exposing children to the message that people of Italian descent are criminals may apply to a corresponding association with Southern Italians for Italian viewers. (2019, p. 260)

8.4.3 Mr Big in Zootopia/Zootropolis In the original version of the 2016 Disney film Zootopia an Italian American accent is given to the tiny arctic shrew Mr Big whose behaviour and speech are again clearly inspired by The Godfather films. The stereotypical and caricatural representation of Mr Big is conveyed through visual and verbal elements. The visual elements in the scene provide intertextual links to previous representations of mobsters and add a layer of humour to the scene. Despite his name, Mr Big is minuscule, but he is powerful (he has huge polar bears as bodyguards) and scary (he threatens to kill Nick and Judy by “icing them”; i.e., throwing them into iced water). Moreover, Nick must kiss his hand as a sign of respect. In the English version Mr Big is voiced by Maurice LaMarche, who contrives an Italian accent, using lexis and syntactic structures typical of this ethnolect. In the Italian dubbed version Mr Big is given a Sicilian accent and is voiced by Sicilian actor Leo Gullotta who emphasises his original Sicilian accent. This confirms the stereotype and the dubbing professionals’ common practice/convention: if the character is a thug or alludes to The Godfather, then he must have a Sicilian accent. Note, however, that an attempt at realism and naturalness was made since a dubbing actor from Sicily was chosen. Gullotta and Teresa Mannino (cast to dub Mr Big’s daughter Fru Fru) are in fact comedians known for their Sicilian identity. Linguistic features typically associated with the Italian American ethnolect in the original performance are transferred to the Sicilian variety of Mr Big, while Fru Fru speaks with a less marked accent both in the original and dubbed version. The linguistic characterisation of Mr Big in the

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original version uses Italian American phonetic features, the Italianised word Gram-mama and the Italian word cannoli (a Sicilian sweet). In the Italian dubbed version Gullotta’s interpretation of the character involves hypercharacterisation by using marked lexical, syntactic and phonological features. The Sicilian actor appears to exaggerate his own natural Sicilian accent, producing a stylised performance of the Sicilian regiolect, but without using real dialect words. As explained by Dore: The Italian version adopts a literal approach to the translation of Mr Big’s speeches, with hints of informal spoken Italian (e.g. the contraction of ‘ti ha’ as ‘t’ha’, ‘chiappe’ for butt). In addition, actor and dubber Leo Gullotta emphasises his own Sicilian accent in order to achieve the maximum humorous effect. The most distinctive phonetic traits in his performance are connected to the use of typical Sicilian phonology in standard Italian words. (2019, p. 5)

The phonological and syntactic elements exploited by the dubbing actor emphasise the Sicilianness of Mr Big, conveying humour and a caricature of the godfather Vito Corleone and resulting in a comic yet exaggeratedly stereotypical portrayal. The representation of Mr Big’s character in this film provides an example of how “the existing stereotypes regarding Italians in the source culture and Sicilians in the target culture are […] maintained and reinforced” (Dore 2019, p. 5).

8.4.4 Luigi in the Cars Films To recap, in the Cars films the character Luigi is an Italian Fiat 500 car who owns the Casa della Tires and is a huge fan of Ferraris. Due to his Italianness he is linguistically characterised by speaking English with a broad Italian accent. Luigi is voiced by American actor Tony Shalhoub who affects an Italian American ethnolect: his lines display phonological and syntactic features typically found in this variety such as the schwa (‘-a-’, /ђ/ or ‘uh’) sound between words and other elements (as described above after Parini 2019). His utterances are often ungrammatical and he sometimes uses Italian words. In the Italian dubbed version Luigi is voiced by stand-up comedian Marco Della Noce who gave him a marked

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regional accent without using dialect words and improvised some comic gags and lines while dubbing in the studio. The Italian-accented variety of the original version (filled with several ungrammaticalities) is turned into grammatically correct Italian whose markedness and funniness is conveyed by the dubbing actor’s modulation of his voice and his use of the Emiliano accent (which is typical of the region where Ferrari is located). In Example 8.8 (from Cars) the Italian identity of Luigi and thus his being a non-native speaker of English is exaggerated in the original version by inserting ungrammaticalities (“he fix”, “Luigi take,” “you not”) and using a marked Italian accent. In the dubbed version the comic identity of Luigi is conveyed only through the regional Emiliano accent (non-standard syntactic features, marked pronunciation and Italian words in English are all in italics). Example 8.8 Original version

Dubbed version

LUIGI (Italian accent) You have a slow leak. Guido, he fix. You make-a-such a nice-a-new road. You come-a-to my shop. Luigi take-a-good care of you. Even though you not a Ferrari.

LUIGI (Emiliano accent) Hai la valvola che perde. Guido te la ripara. Hai fatto giù una strada molto bella. Entra nel mio negozio. Luigi ti tratterà bene, vedrai, anche se non sei una Ferrari. BACK TRANSLATION You have a slow leak. Guido will fix it. You’ve made such a nice new road. Come into my shop. Luigi will take good care of you, you’ll see. Even though you are not a Ferrari.

8.4.5 Francesco Bernouilli in Cars 2 In Cars 2 the arrogant Italian racing car Francesco Bernouilli is represented as stereotypically Italian through visual and verbal means that are highly caricatural. He is voiced by Italian American Brooklyn-born John Turturro who provides the Italian-accented English of the character. The features of this variety (as described above) can be found in the lines uttered by Francesco who speaks with a marked Italian accent

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and pronunciation (‘h’ deletion, ‘-a-’ or schwa sound added between words, ‘th’ pronounced as /d/, etc.), uses some Italian words and some ungrammaticalities. In the Italian dubbed version Francesco’s comic Italianness is transformed into Neapolitan. Since a celebrity dubbing actor was requested for this role, the well-known Neapolitan actor and director Alessandro Siani was cast because of his popularity and perhaps because he has personified a cunning old devil and a braggart in his previous roles. It might be argued that the American stereotype of Italians is translated with a similar Italian stereotype of Neapolitans (loud, flirtatious, boastful, rude and comic). Moreover, choosing a Neapolitan regiolect to represent the Italian stereotype may be perceived as further emphasising the negative connotations attached to southern Italian varieties. In Example 8.9 Francesco’s English in the original version is characterised by a marked Italian accent, while in the dubbed version a Neapolitan accent is matched with dialectal words and expressions such as “nun ce sta” rather than non c’è (there isn’t), “guagliò” (kid, used here as ‘man’ or ‘guys’) and “assai” (a lot). Example 8.9 Original version

Dubbed version

FRANCESCO BERNOULLI (Italian accent) Lightning McQueen would not have a chance against Francesco! I can go over three-hundred kilometers an hour! I-i-in miles that is like, uh … w-w-w-way faster … than McQueen!

FRANCESCO BERNOULLI (Neapolitan accent) Per Saetta McQueen nun ce sta Speranza … contro Francesco. Guagliò, io posso andare oltre i trecento chilometri all’ora! Che in migliaaa sarebberooo … assai! C-comunque molto più veloce di McQueen! BACK TRANSLATION Lightning McQueen would not have a chance against Francesco! Kid, I can go over three-hundred kilometers an hour! In miles that would be like … a lot! Anyway much faster than McQueen!

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In Example 8.10, on the other hand, Francesco speaks English in the original version with an Italian accent, makes ungrammaticalities (omission of the subject pronoun ‘it’) and uses Italian or Italian-sounding words (“mama,” “amico”). In the dubbed version, the most evident features are the Neapolitan accent and the use of “u” rather than il (the). Example 8.10 Original version

Dubbed version

FRANCESCO BERNOULLI (Italian accent) Is no insult. When Francesco is away from home, he misses his mama … just like you miss your tow truck, amico.

FRANCESCO BERNOUILLI (Neapolitan accent) Non era un insulto. Quando Francesco è lontano da casa, gli manca la sua mamma, proprio come a te manca u carro attrezzi, amico tuo. BACK TRANSLATION It was not an insult. When Francesco is away from home, he misses his mamma … just like you miss the tow truck, your friend.

Example 8.11 Original version

Dubbed version

FRANCESCO BERNOULLI (Italian accent) (yelling) Mama! Don’t worry, Mama! McQueen is very sad! I will beat his cry-baby bottom today!

FRANCESCO BERNOULLI (Neapolitan accent) Mamà! Tranquilla, mamà! McQueen è molto triste! E quando vincerò, se metterà a chiagne comm nu criatur! BACK TRANSLATION Mama! Don’t worry, mama! McQueen is very sad. And when I win, he’ll start crying like a baby.

In Example 8.11 we can see how the offensive line uttered by Francesco in the English dialogue is rendered less vulgar in the dubbed version where the humour is conveyed by an expression in Neapolitan meaning ‘to cry like a baby’. The translation/adaptation strategy adopted in the Italian dubbed version of Cars 2 in order to recreate the comic yet slightly negative Italian character of Francesco therefore appears to be one

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of localisation using regional Italian and at times also hypercharacterisation since added humour is provided by the dubbing actor’s performance and extensive use of Neapolitan words and expressions.

8.4.6 Leonardo and Mona Lisa in Mr. Peabody and Sherman In Mr. Peabody and Sherman the WABAC takes the protagonists back in time to Renaissance Florence where they meet Leonardo and Mona Lisa exactly when the Italian painter was working on the famous painting. In the original version Leonardo and Mona Lisa are voiced by US actors Stanley Tucci and Lake Bell, whereas in the Italian dubbed version they are voiced by Italian actors from Tuscany Luca Biagini and Lisa Poccardo. When Leonardo and Mona Lisa speak, their English displays a series of peculiarities at the phonetic, lexical and syntactic level that are typical of the variety spoken by Italians and Italian Americans described above. Their language contributes to creating a comic, caricatural portrayal of the stereotype of Italians speaking English. Their speech also contains some Italian words (“abbondanza,” “perfetto”) and some ungrammaticalities (Leonardo: “Believe-a-you me,” “No move, no move!”), which connote them as being Italian non-native speakers of English living in Italy rather than Italian Americans living in the United States. The comic effect of the exchange between Leonardo and Mona Lisa is enhanced by their physical appearance and their actions and movements: Leonardo’s exaggerated gesticulations (hand and arm movements), their loud voices and Leonardo’s cries when Mona Lisa asks him to say something funny. The visual and verbal representations of the historical characters seem to adopt the stereotypical characteristics of Italians. The film provides a caricatural, stereotypical verbal and visual portrayal for humorous purposes. It is a case of complex humour since the filmmakers play with the audience’s world knowledge and provide a comic, absurd explanation of the origin of the painting, combining cultural references with aural and visual comedy. In the Italian dubbed version the (Tuscan) dubbing actors speak a Tuscan regional variety/regiolect that has its own specific pronunciation and intonation and colloquial words pertaining

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to the local dialect such as “grullo” (stupid) and “questa bischeraccia” (this silly woman). This domesticating and localising choice renders the linguistic representation more believable since it provides naturalness to the interaction, perhaps a kind of faithfulness to Leonardo’s Tuscan identity and a further layer of humour. The exaggerated Italian traits of the English dialogues are turned into an equally marked Tuscan regional variety (Tuscan vernacular) in the Italian dubbed version. Phonological features stereotypically associated with Italians or Italian Americans speaking English and a few ungrammaticalities are inserted in the original version to show the non-native use of the English language. This provides a caricatural portrayal that highlights the already parodic visual representation. In the Italian dialogues several phonological features and words typical of the Tuscan regiolect are used and the dubbing actors’ vocal performance heightens the sense of authenticity. An important difference between the English and the Italian versions is that the Italian dialogue is a natural-sounding, authentic Tuscan, while in the English version an Italian American ethnolect is contrived by the actors and is therefore obviously fake. The enjoyment of the scene in English and in Italian might be affected by the fake nature of the former and the naturalness of the latter.

8.4.7 Creative Transformations, or When Dubbing Adds Italian Regional Dialects The corpus of animated films analysed contains two (and therefore rare) cases of regionalisation, added localisation and domestication since the Italian dubbed versions contain various characters speaking regional Italian with some dialect words, although no Italian American or Italian characters are present in the original films. A very creative, exceptional and extreme case of localisation is Gnomeo & Juliet (2011). As pointed out in Chapters 4 and 5, in this film several native varieties of mainly British English are used and the translation strategy adopted in the dubbed version is to turn each of them (except for the statue of Shakespeare’s lines) into broad regional Italian varieties with some dialect words. Lord Redbrick’s Cockney is thus

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transformed into Sicilian, Tybalt’s into Calabrese, Lady Bluebury’s posh accent becomes regional Italian from the Veneto-Lombardia area, the General American of the Chorus becomes Pugliese, Nanette’s Scottish English becomes Neapolitan, etc. Professional dubbing actors from various regions were cast and creative director Morville and dubbing director Baldini asked them to speak with their own regional accents and have a go at experimenting with dialects. The choice to completely domesticate and “indigenise” (Ferrari 2010) the film was taken by Morville who thought that transposing the story of the lovers back to an Italian context and reinterpreting it as a north–south divide could be an interesting and amusing dubbing strategy. The final result is perhaps an over-the-top, not always easily understandable mixture of Italian dialects that betrays the original’s Britishness, but is definitely an interesting and creative attempt to localise the film and connote the characters through regional accents and dialects in the same way in principle as they are in the original version. It can be considered a case of “creative dubbing” (La Polla 1994). It is generally the case that dubbing is criticised for levelling out variation and not being able to convey and reproduce the nuances of various English varieties. However, if all the varieties were to be conveyed through Italian ones in a single film we would hear several regional accents, each carrying specific local connotations and cultural stereotypes. They would have nothing specific in common with American or British accents and different connotations would therefore be imposed on the film characters. The dubbed version of Gnomeo & Juliet can be interpreted as an attempt to break with norms in dubbing and to try experimenting with Italian regiolects, which was possible because of the type of film and its comic plot1 (for a detailed description of the film in English and its Italian dubbed version see Bruti and Vignozzi 2016; Minutella 2016; Grochowska-Reiter 2017). Another exceptional case of a film in which regional Italian is added and used to a certain extent is Zootopia/Zootropolis (2016) despite there 1A

small reception study carried out with 10 Italian students from different regions taking a master’s degree (April–May 2020) showed that the use of regional Italian and dialects in this film was not well received. The students were quite critical of the choices made in the dubbed version that they considered exaggerated, parodic and fake, and too distant from the original film.

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being no characters speaking Italian or Italian American in the original dialogues. As previously pointed out, a Sicilian regiolect is used for the mobster Mr Big. Moreover, star talents were cast for cameo roles: Frank Matano (from Campania) dubbed Duke Weaselton and Paolo Ruffini (from Tuscany) dubbed Yax. Although they have only a few lines of dialogue, they speak with accents from their native regions. This has the aim of adding comedy and making the characters funny since regional Italian is often used in cinema to provide humour. However, the final result also reinforces specific Italian stereotypes, in particular the Sicilian mobster and the Neapolitan criminal (Dore 2019) and the “Otherness of the South” (Iaia 2015). The thief Duke Weaselton speaks a non-standard variety of English, displaying stigmatised features such as “ain’t,” double negation (“ain’t nothin’”) and “them” rather than those. Combining such linguistic features with his behaviour provides a negative characterisation that is recreated in the dubbed version by making the weasel speak with a marked Neapolitan accent and dialect words. The dubbed version of Zootopia also contains another character who speaks regional Italian: the yak Yax (a hippie receptionist at the yoga centre). The fact that a Tuscan accent was given to the hippie Yax and not to Duke Weaselton shows that voice casting was probably motivated by considerations about the type of character that the star talents had to dub and the origins of the star talent. The dubbing team probably thought that a Tuscan accent would be a better fit for a laid-back hippie receptionist at a yoga centre than for a thief in Little Rodentia (an allusion to Little Italy) and that a Neapolitan accent would be more suitable for a thief and pirate DVD seller. The exploitation and re-use of Italian national stereotypes in Italian dubbing is thus still a common practice which is resorted to in order to trigger humour and to accommodate a large number of non-professional star talent dubbers who are called on to dub minor roles in animated films by the marketing department. Since their Italian is unlikely to be ‘polished’ and impeccable, they are often asked not only to speak with their own accent but also sometimes to emphasise it in order to add comicality to their character.

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Concluding Remarks

This chapter has shown that strategies differing from the norms characterising the findings in the previous chapters are applied when L3 in the original version is Italian American or Italian-accented English. The Italian American ethnolect is spoken by characters who are stereotypically presented in the original films as being Italian and whose looks and behaviour allude to mafia films, to criminals or to those involved in dubious dealings. However, an Italian American ethnolect or Italianaccented English is also given to other types of characters to indicate their Italianness and personality. Even if the characterisation in the original is not necessarily criminal but nevertheless negative, the “Otherness of the South” is still applied in the dubbed version where Sicilian, Neapolitan or Calabrese regiolects are used. If, on the other hand, other (more positive) connotations are attached to the characters or the characters are Italian living in Italy or the film plot provides hints at their regional origin, then other Italian regiolects are used. This is the case for Leonardo and Mona Lisa (Tuscan) and for Luigi (Emiliano) in Cars for historical and plot-related reasons, respectively. Regardless of character type, the presence of Italian-accented English usually calls for a strategy in which L3 is maintained and the character and his/her Italianness are linguistically differentiated. We also noted the rare use of a broad range of Italian regiolects in dubbed versions where characters in the original film had no Italian connections, but where the varietal distinctions reflected in principle those of the original film. The preferred option in the animated films in the corpus is to make the dubbing actors speak Italian with a slight or marked regional accent or to mix standard Italian and Italian dialect. Longstanding stereotypes are indeed triggered by specific Italian regional accents. As admitted by Morville, dubbing professionals are fully aware that stereotypes exist and they deliberately re-use them in dubbing. In the animated films analysed such stereotypes continue to be applied, perhaps in order to provide quick characterisation and trigger humour, since they are usually given to minor characters. A revolutionary translation practice would be to subvert these associations and use regional accents for completely different characters. However, it is likely that current Italian stereotypes

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will continue to be applied in order to provide a quick way to build and recognise a character. What clearly emerges is that native speakers of an Italian regiolect are usually selected as dubbers. Leonardo and Mona Lisa, Mr Big, Fru Fru, Don Lino and Francesco are cases in point. This confirms the dubbing professionals’ comment that they aim at authenticity of accent. When they decide to deviate from the norm of using standard Italian with a neutral accent and opt instead for characters with a regional Italian accent, they ask the dubbing actors to speak with their natural native accent and look for native speakers of specific regiolects. The examples analysed have shown that the purpose behind using a regional Italian accent, regional Italian with a regional lexis or regional Italian dialects is almost always to render the characters comical. This confirms the dubbing professionals and scholars’ claims that there is a close relationship between dialect/regional accent and comedy (on the functions of dialect in Italian cinema see Rossi 2015). Sicilian is often used for negative characters and is associated with the mafia and criminality. Neapolitan also carries negative connotations. The negative stereotypes attached to dialects from the south, especially Sicilian and Neapolitan, seem to be reinforced in the dubbed versions of the various animated films analysed. Nevertheless, generally speaking, regional Italian and dialects are mostly exploited to convey humour. However, dialects should be used with caution in order to avoid unintended comic and parodic overtones. The main functions of Italian dialects in dubbing appear to be character portrayal (if the character is defined as Italian), unintelligibility (other characters do not understand them) and humour, and Italian accents may also signal Italianness and convey humour.

References Blumenfeld, Robert. 2002. Accents. A Manual for Actors. New York: Limelight Editions.

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Bruti, Silvia, and Gianmarco Vignozzi. 2016. Voices from the Anglo-Saxon World: Accents and Dialects Across film Genres. In North and South. British Dialects in Fictional Dialogue, ed. I. Ranzato. Special Issue Status Quaestionis 11. Retrieved from http://statusquaestionis.uniroma1.it/index.php/sta tusquaestionis/article/view/13838. 20 November 2017. Chiaro, Delia. 2008. Where Have All the Varieties Gone? The Vicious Circle of the Disappearance Act in Screen Translations. In Dialect for All Seasons, ed. I. Helin, 9–25. Münster: Nodus Publikationen. Chiaro, Delia. 2009. Issues in Audiovisual Translation. In The Routledge Companion to Translation Studies, ed. J. Munday, 141–165. London: Routledge. Dore, Margherita. 2019. Revoicing Otherness and Stereotypes via Dialects and Accents in Disney’s Zootopia and Its Italian Dubbed Version. In InTRAlinea, ed. Klaus Geyer and Margherita Dore. Special Issue The Translation of Dialects in Multimedia IV . Online at: http://www.intralinea.org/specials/art icle/2465. Last accessed 5 February 2020. Ferrari, Chiara Francesca. 2010. Since When Is Fran Drescher Jewish? Dubbing Stereotypes in The Nanny, The Simpsons and The Sopranos. Austin: University of Texas Press. Grochowska-Reiter, Anna. 2017. Gnomeo, Gnomeo, perché parli dialetto, Gnomeo? Uso del dialetto nei film d’animazione. Annales Universitatis Paedagogicae Cracoviensis Studia de Cultura 9 (3): 24–32. Herman, Lewis, and Marguerite Shalett Herman. 1997. Foreign Dialects. A Manual for Actors, Directors, and Writers. New York: Routledge. Iaia, Pietro Luigi. 2015. The Dubbing Translation of Humorous Audiovisual Texts. Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. La Polla, Franco. 1994. Quel che si fa dopo mangiato: doppiaggio e contesto culturale. In Il doppiaggio. Trasposizioni linguistiche e culturali, ed. R. Baccoli, R.M. Bollettieri Bosinelli, and L. Davoli, 51–60. Bologna: CLUEB. Minutella, Vincenza. 2016. British Dialects in Animated Films: The Case of Gnomeo and Juliet and Its Creative Italian Dubbing. In North and South. British Dialects in Fictional Dialogue, ed. I. Ranzato. Special Issue Status Quaestionis 11. Retrieved from http://statusquaestionis.uniroma1.it/index. php/statusquaestionis/article/view/13838. 20 November 2017. Minutella, Vincenza. 2018. Translating Non-native Varieties of English in Animated Films: The Italian Dubbing of Madagascar 3: Europe’s Most Wanted . Cultus Journal 11: 144–157. Retrieved from https://www.cultusjou rnal.com/files/Archives/Vincenza-Minutella.pdf. 20 May 2020.

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Parini, Ilaria. 2009. The Transposition of Italian-American in Italian Dubbing. In Translating Regionalised Voices in Audiovisuals, ed. F.M. Federici, 157–176. Rome: Aracne. Parini, Ilaria. 2017. When Benny the Groin and Tommy the Tongue Whacked Lou the Wrench: Cultural and Linguistic Representation of Italians in Mafia Comedies. In The Mediterranean Dreamed and Lived by Insiders and Outsiders, ed. Antonio C. Vitti and Anthony Julian Tamburri, 103–127. New York: Bordighera Press. Parini, Ilaria. 2019. Sleeping with the Fishes. Italian-Americans in Animation. In Reassessing Dubbing. Historical Approaches and Current Trends, ed. Irene Ranzato and Serenella Zanotti, 246–262. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Pavesi, Maria. 1994. Osservazioni sulla sociolinguistica del doppiaggio. In Il doppiaggio. Trasposizioni linguistiche e culturali, ed. R. Baccolini, R.M. Bollettieri Bosinelli and L. Gavioli, 129–142. Bologna: Clueb. Pavesi, Maria. 2005. La traduzione filmica. Aspetti del parlato doppiato dall’inglese all’italiano. Rome: Carocci. Rossi, Fabio. 2006. Il linguaggio cinematografico. Rome: Aracne. Rossi, Fabio. 2015. La riduzione del caos. Storia e tipologia dei dialetti cinematografici. In Lingue e linguaggi del cinema in Italia, ed. Marco Gargiulo (a cura di), 37–76. Rome: Aracne. Salmon Kovarski, Laura. 2000. Tradurre l’etnoletto: come doppiare in italiano ‘l’accento ebraico. In Traduzione multimediale: quale traduzione per quale testo? ed. R.M. Bollettieri Bosinelli, C. Heiss, M. Soffritti, and S. Bernardini, 67–84. Bologna: Clueb.

Websites https://www.antoniogenna.net/. https://www.imdb.com/.

Filmography Atlantis. 2001. Gary Trousdale, Kirk Wise, Walt Disney Feature Animation, Walt Disney Pictures. Cars. 2006. John Lasseter, Pixar Animation Studios, Walt Disney Pictures.

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Cars 2. 2011. John Lasseter, Brad Lewis, Walt Disney Pictures, Pixar Animation Studios. Coco. 2017. Lee Unkrich, Adrian Molina, Walt Disney Pictures, Pixar Animation Studios. Gnomeo & Juliet. 2011. Kelly Asbury, Rocket Pictures, Arc Productions, Touchstone Pictures, Miramax, Starz Animation. Madagascar 3: Europe’s Most Wanted . 2012. Eric Darnell, Tom McGrath, Conrad Vernon, DreamWorks Animation, Pacific Data Images. Mr Peabody and Sherman. 2014. Rob Minkoff, Bullwinkle Studios, Classic Media Productions, DreamWorks Animation, Pacific Data Images. Ratatouille. 2007. Brad Bird, Jan Pinkava, Walt Disney Pictures, Pixar Animation Studios. Shark Tale. 2004. Bibo Bergeron, Vicky Jenson, Rob Letterman, DreamWorks Animation, DreamWorks. The Godfather. 1972. Francis Ford Coppola, Paramount Pictures, Alfran Productions. The Godfather: Part III . 1990. Francis Ford Coppola, Paramount Pictures, Zoetrope Studios. The Wild . 2006. Steve ‘Spaz’ Williams, C.O.R.E. Feature Animation, Contrafilm, Freewill Entertainment, Hoytyboy Pictures, Nigel Productions, Sir Zip Studios, Walt Disney Pictures. Zootopia/Zootropolis. 2016. Byron Howard, Rich Moore, Jared Bush, Walt Disney Pictures, Walt Disney Animation Studios.

TV Series and Programmes Saturday Night Live (1975–ongoing). Lome Michaels, NBC. The Sopranos (1999–2007). David Chase, HBO.

9 Conclusion

This book has described the dubbing process of a selection of animated Hollywood films in Italian. It has attempted to shed light on the various people, factors and stages that impinge on the final dubbed product. Chapter 2 showed that, contrary to what happens for other audiovisual texts, the localisation or dubbing process of animated films produced by big majors is always controlled by the production house and/or distributors. These overseeing parties provide guidelines on how to address specific translation issues or elements in the film dialogue (including the use of languages and accents), supervise and guide the whole process, providing advice on voice casting and revising adaptation and dubbing sessions. The role of specific people involved in the dubbing process and of the texts accompanying the film (i.e., the English Dialogue List and other documents such as the creative letter) were also described. Chapter 3 dealt with how to translate multilingualism and linguistic variation (both regional and social) in dubbing. Previous research was summarised, common dubbing strategies were outlined and comments made by dubbing practitioners on the language of dubbing and on their approach to standard Italian and varieties of English and Italian were documented on the basis of personal interviews. Chapter 4 looked at © The Author(s) 2021 V. Minutella, (Re)Creating Language Identities in Animated Films, Palgrave Studies in Translating and Interpreting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56638-8_9

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the ways in which linguistic variation and multilingualism were used in the selected corpus of Hollywood animations and how they often interacted with the visual mode to create identities. The use of languages and language varieties in each of the 37 films in the corpus was briefly described as a basis for the following chapters that analysed the dubbing strategies used in the Italian versions of these films. Patterns in character portrayal in the original films emerged, in particular the dominance of a standard American English variety, General American (GenAm), and of several stereotypes relating to specific groups and languages or language varieties, including native and non-native varieties of English as well as languages other than English. The remaining chapters dealt with these three linguistic characterisations: native varieties of English (Chapter 5), languages other than English (Chapter 6) and non-native varieties of English (Chapter 7) in terms of the dubbing strategies identified in the corpus. The interesting but tricky case of non-native English with clear Italian features was dealt with in Chapter 8. In what follows the norms identified in the corpus are set out and broadly follow these four groupings. The distinction between native varieties and non-native varieties of English proved useful in accounting for the dubbing strategies adopted to deal with linguistic variation. Whether a character speaks English natively or non-natively actually appears to determine the strategy adopted by dubbing professionals to (re)create the linguistic identity of characters. It was also shown that the multimodal nature of animated films exploits verbal and visual stereotypes by combining them to create humorous characters and that the visual elements of the animation must be taken into account when analysing the way characters speak and when deciding how to transfer such identities to another language. The analysis conducted for this book has shown that it is indeed possible to find patterns and regularities in the way identities are created in the original films and recreated in Italian dubbing using language varieties. For instance, characters who speak a native variety of English in the original version tend to speak standard Italian with no marked regional accent in the dubbed version in keeping with previous research findings for feature films. A clear regularity found in the dubbed films making up the corpus is that this so-called “homogenising norm” emphasised by Chiaro (2008, 2009) only applies to native varieties of English.

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Chapter 5 showed that the various British, American and Australian accents that provide identity and characterisation in the original versions of the films are indeed neutralised, homogenised and levelled out into standard Italian. With very few exceptions, all the characters speaking English natively—whether standard national varieties, regional and social varieties or non-standard varieties—follow this pattern in the dubbed versions. Differences between speakers of native varieties of English thus tend to be almost always levelled out and standardised. This confirms the dubbing practitioners’ comments provided in Chapter 3 and previous research on the translation of regional and social varieties of English. The very rare exceptions to this norm consist of a few English-accented characters with a clear English identity, a few characters with an Italian regional accent (in specific films), a formal register for some speakers of RP, a colloquial register for the speech of AAVE and for the Southern American English of Mater, and a southern Italian variety for characters speaking with a New York/Brooklyn accent. The homogenising norm proposed by Chiaro (2008) is thus applied for most native varieties of English. As far as native varieties of English are concerned, neutralising and homogenising linguistic variation by using a standard variety of the target language can therefore be considered a dubbing norm in animated films. A second norm is that the presence of a foreign language (i.e., a language other than English) is retained as in the original film, sometimes with subtitles or translation by another character. The strategy of preserving the language and foreign identity of the character appears to be a dubbing norm in animated films, whereas for other audiovisual products research has shown that a variety of strategies are adopted. Expressions in languages other than English inserted into the English dialogue also tend to be maintained. Furthermore, the dubbed versions respect and reproduce the choices made by the filmmakers for the original version when neither translation nor subtitles are used. However, analysis of the corpus has shown that the use of foreign languages and of subtitles is quite limited in animated films, as one would expect from a genre aimed largely at children. Our analysis has also shown that when the foreign language is Italian and therefore L3 in the original film coincides with L2 (the language of the dubbed version), then an Italian dialect is usually adopted to maintain the Italianness of the character

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while still fulfilling the function of the foreign language such as making characters incomprehensible to one another, showing the diversity of characters (contrary to the homogenisation norm established for native varieties of English) and conveying humour. The strategy of preservation (De Bonis 2014) is thus applied to languages other than English. Another important pattern and thus a norm found in the dubbed animated films analysed is that foreign-accented speech (i.e., non-native English) is retained in dubbing by making use of foreign-accented Italian. A preservation strategy is often adopted. Such varieties of English are retained and often strengthened in dubbing. The many examples examined in the present study have shown that foreign-accented English or “ethnolects” (Salmon Kovarski 2000) tend to be recreated by using the same foreign accent in the dubbed language as in the original language, by replicating the same quantity of words and expressions from the foreign language or even by hypercharacterising (exaggerating the accent/foreign-sounding character and adding other foreign words). The cases of “hypercharacterisation” (Parini 2009) discussed show how this strategy is adopted, especially when the characters in the original films are represented through a combination of verbal and visual stereotypes (since they are meant to be caricatures). Stylised representations in the animated films of the corpus do indeed abound when the function of the accent is to enhance comedy. The linguistic identity of Mexican, Spanish, Italian, Russian and German characters is almost always recreated in Italian dubbing often by means of hypercharacterisation. Neutralisation of a foreign linguistic identity seldom occurs in our corpus, although it is sometimes adopted for specific reasons such as for Gru in Despicable Me and Rochelle in Planes. Note that characters who are represented as being Russian, German and Indian speak Italian laced with ungrammaticalities in the dubbed versions (replicating and amplifying the choices made in the original versions). This highlights their poor command of the language or, in the case of Indian characters, a stylised non-standard variety, thereby apparently making them appear somehow ‘inferior’ and funnier compared with characters from other countries. Note also that the analysis conducted on characters speaking foreignaccented English has shown that dubbing strategies can vary according to the function of the language and accent in the original film. In fact,

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if the function of foreign-accented English is to establish the setting of the whole film, then in the dubbed version the characters do not speak with a marked foreign accent since this would result in an unintended caricature. An alternative strategy is to give only a few characters a foreign accent in the Italian dubbed version. Our analysis coupled with information gathered from the dubbing professionals has thrown light on the dubbing process and translation policies regarding films such as Ratatouille and Coco in which the French and Mexican settings were important to the plot and French-accented English and Spanishaccented English had specific functions. In such cases the dubbed versions avoid hypercharacterisation. Although foreign words and expressions are replicated in the dubbed version by transferring the same words and expressions, there is a tendency to avoid marked accents. The dubbing of Ratatouille has been taken as an example of this since the strategies adopted by the dubbing team did not reproduce the filmmakers’ approach to linguistic diversity and characterisation. Although French-accented English is largely used in the original version where it has a comic and parodic intent and effect, in the Italian dubbed version the marked French accent of most of the characters is either completely eliminated or considerably reduced. In the case of Coco, the filmmakers did not aim at providing caricatures, hence the Spanish accent is not too marked in the original version except for some comic characters. In the dubbed version Spanish words are used, but the Mexican characters do not speak Spanish-accented Italian. Chapter 8 has explored what happens in dubbing if the characters speaking a foreign language speak Italian or if characters speaking foreign-accented English are Italian or Italian American. If the foreign identity of the character in the original version is Italian and therefore coincides with the language of the dubbed version, then in the dubbed version this third language (L3) is turned into a regional Italian variety. It may also be turned into a different foreign identity such as Spanish, although this strategy occurs only once in the corpus (i.e., in Madagascar 3). If the foreignness of a character achieved by use of the Italian language implies incomprehension and miscommunication (because the character speaks Italian instead of Italian-accented English in the original version), then a real Italian dialect is used (as shown in the examples of

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the Cars films). A further norm thus appears to be that of resorting to regional Italian (marked regional accents) and, to a lesser extent, Italian dialects to convey Italianness with a comic function. Note that no protagonists (except for Gnomeo and Juliet) speak with a regional Italian accent and that only secondary/minor characters do so. Standard Italian tends to be used for the protagonists. Italian characters in the original films sometimes play the part of foreigners who have a poor command of English. However, this lack of verbal proficiency is lost in dubbing by getting characters to speak regional Italian with broad accents and to use dialect words. This results in a difference in linguistic identity, though it may be argued that the use of a marked regional variety is associated with a lower level of education within an Italian cultural context since dialects tend to be spoken in rural areas—not in educated or more formal contexts. The link between the choice of language variety and certain characterisations is important when it comes to dubbing choices. For the animated films analysed in our corpus there appears to be a quantitative prevalence of diatopic/diastratic varieties from the Italian south and centre–south. Moreover, the tendency to make mobsters and thugs speak with a stereotyped Sicilian accent and use dialect words is noteworthy. It usually signals criminality, especially associated with the mafia, and also connoting a lack of education. Neapolitan is also often used for negative characters, but also exceptionally for Juliet’s comic helper, the frog Nanette. It thus has a double function, connoting both criminality and comedy. Since these diatopic and diastratic varieties are associated with characters whose representation is not entirely positive, the dubbing of the animated films studied appears to perpetuate some negative stereotypes of people from the south, particularly Sicilian and Neapolitan (but also Calabrese). Regional stereotypes of Italians are thus applied in dubbed animated films. This supports previous studies on animated TV series and videogames by Iaia (2015, pp. 80–81) and on The Simpsons by Ferrari (2010) (see also Dore 2019; Parini 2019). Nevertheless, the analysis conducted here has shown that dubbing also uses other Italian diastratic and diatopic varieties. These are usually the native dialects and regional varieties of the dubbing actors/voice talents dubbing animated characters who may be cast exactly because

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of their origins or may be asked to use their own accent in order to make the character funnier. For instance, the Tuscan of Yax in Zootopia and Leonardo and Mona Lisa in Mr. Peabody and Sherman is conveyed by Tuscan star talents chosen because of their origins and popularity; the Neapolitan of Francesco Bernoulli in Cars 2, Duke Donnolesi in Zootopia and Nanette in Gnomeo & Juliet is performed by actors from Campania. This confirms the dubbing practitioners’ comments that they prefer to provide a believable and authentic-sounding performance when they resort to Italian with a regional accent or dialect, (Izzo, p.c. 4 March 2019; Morville, p.c. 1 March 2019, quoted in Chapter 3). Although departures from the above norms can be found, they can be considered exceptions. Dubbing strategies that diverge from the above patterns are linked to specific factors related to individual films and their context of production/distribution. Although the dubbing professionals have explained that each film is unique and decisions must be taken on a case-by-case basis, the analysis carried out here shows that dubbing strategies do indeed appear to follow accepted norms. If we consider the existing literature on dubbing strategies in nonanimated films, the suggestions put forward in Chapter 3 and apply the theoretical framework of Zabalbeascoa and Corrius (2014) to systematise how dubbing renders linguistic differentiation or heterogeneity, then we can schematise the relevant patterns in the animated films in our corpus broadly as follows: – When L3 is a native variety of English, linguistic differentiation in the source text disappears from the target text and native varieties of English are homogenised into a neutral standard Italian. This means that national, geographical or social varieties of English are neutralised and standard Italian with no accent is spoken by the characters in the dubbed version (L1 + L3 ST = L2 TT). This is the prevailing norm in Italian dubbing. – When L3 is a non-native variety of English or a language other than English (either a foreign natural language or a made-up language), linguistic heterogeneity is maintained, conveyed and often emphasised (L1 + L3 ST = L2 + L3 TT).

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– When L3 is Italian or Italian American and coincides with L2 of the target text, linguistic differentiation is conveyed through adaptation, in a slightly modified way. In this case an Italian dialect or regiolect (Italian with a regional accent) is used in the dubbed version (L1 + L3 ST = L2 + L3 TT). In rare cases L3 (Italian) is turned into a different language (e.g., Spanish). There is an alternative schematisation to that of Zabalbeascoa and Corrius (2014) based on the findings of our analysis which borrows from and merges the terminology used by Parini (2009) and De Bonis (2014, 2015a, b) in addition to the homogenising and standardising convention of Chiaro (2008), as suggested in Chapter 3. The macrostrategies adopted in dubbing in our corpus to deal with multilingualism and linguistic variation are neutralisation/homogenisation, preservation, quantitative reduction, adaptation/domestication/localisation and transformation, as well as hypercharacterisation. A more nuanced schema than the three-part framework presented above follows (a few exceptions to these tendencies can be identified and are due to a variety of factors): – Native varieties  neutralisation. When the linguistic identity of a character in the original film is conveyed through native varieties of English, the dubbed version applies a neutralisation strategy. The current study has illustrated some exceptions to this norm such as wellknown people, literary/historical figures, star talents with an accent and an English identity relevant to the plot/caricature. – Language other than English  preservation. When a character speaks a language other than English, the strategy of preservation of the language is always adopted in dubbing by following and replicating the original method of presentation that may or may not have subtitles or a diegetic interpreter. – Non-native varieties of English  hypercharacterisation. When the linguistic identity of a character is conveyed through non-native varieties of English or foreign-accented English, the most frequent strategy adopted is that of hypercharacterisation (especially if the function of the accent is comic and is combined with visual stereotypes). This occurs in several films and for several characters where the foreign

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accent and foreign words are amplified in the dubbed version and additional foreign words are often inserted in the dubbed dialogue. Although this is especially the case with Spanish-speaking characters, it is also often the case with Russian, German and Indian characters. – Non-native varieties of English  preservation. In many cases the strategy of preservation is used in which the foreignness of the character is kept, the same number of foreign words is used and the same accent is maintained. – Non-native varieties of English  quantitative reduction/neutralisation. In some cases the strategies of quantitative reduction or neutralisation may occur, especially when the foreignaccented English has the function of establishing the setting. This happens in the dubbed versions of Coco in which Spanish words are preserved but there is quantitative reduction/neutralisation of the Spanish accent to avoid caricatures and The Book of Life in which the accent is neutralised and some Spanish words are used. However, it might be argued that in the original English films the presence of Spanish-accented English was not meant to provide a caricature of Mexicans but rather an audio-postcarding effect (The Book of Life) and postcarding and realism (Coco). Ratatouille represents a case of its own since the broad, clichéd French-accented English spoken by some characters in the original version was meant not only to establish the setting but also to convey humour. In the dubbed version the quantitative reduction of such foreignness and the neutralisation of the accent for Colette and other characters (though still keeping French words and expressions) represents the way in which the dubbing team recreated a different, less comic linguistic characterisation for the French characters. The present study has demonstrated that the homogenising norm in which variation is levelled out and standard Italian is used for all varieties thus applies only to what we have called native varieties of English. Preservation and hypercharacterisation are the main strategies used for non-native varieties of English. The strategies of quantitative reduction and neutralisation are used for non-native varieties/foreign-accented English only in a few cases such as when the foreign accent has the function of signalling the setting, thereby avoiding a parodic representation (Ratatouille and Coco).

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There are a number of gains and losses in translation when it comes to dubbing the Italian version. Dubbing has been criticised for levelling out variation and not being able to convey and reproduce the nuances of various English varieties (especially distinctions between native varieties and internal social and regional variation within British English and American English). In such cases there is definitely a loss of regional and social variation. However, were all the varieties conveyed in a single film by Italian ones, we would hear several regional accents each carrying specific local connotations and cultural stereotypes distant from the American or British ones. Additional new connotations would be imposed on the film characters and their identity would be changed. However, the levelling out of variation is also a gain when it comes to stigmatised, non-standard varieties of American English such as Southern American English and African American Vernacular English since the negative connotations attached to such varieties are neutralised in the dubbed version. Although there is a certain synergy between verbal and visual elements when it comes to establishing character identities, the neutralisation of connotations attached to these non-standard varieties does not appear to cause major problems for the visual–verbal interaction. The loss of variation in the case of Ratatouille can also be seen as a gain since the Italian version manages to eliminate the negative and caricatural stereotypes attributed to the French as well as the negative portrayal of the female protagonist. Another element that emerges from the present study is that the exploitation and re-use of Italian national stereotypes in Italian dubbing is still a common practice. They are resorted to as a comic means and often to accommodate a large number of non-professional, star talent dubbers who are called on to dub minor roles in animated films by the marketing departments of the production company or distributor. Since the Italian pronunciation of star talent dubbers is not neutral and difficult to change, they are often asked to speak Italian using their own accent and sometimes to emphasise it in order to add comicality to the character they are dubbing. One last remark should be made about the dubbing process and its agents. The author’s interactions with the dubbing professionals have highlighted the important role played by the client in the choices made

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regarding languages and accents. During these interactions it was noted that the dubbed version we watch is the result of several phases, that the interpretation and translation of the source text is controlled and guided by the client, and that constraints such as voice casting, economic factors (budget), marketing strategies and the specific requirements of the client affect the final dubbed product. All these elements contribute to the creation of the Italian dubbed version of animated films, and the dubbing professionals argue that each film is unique. Nevertheless, the fact remains that norms in translational practice have been found to exist in our study of animated films regarding the way in which multilingualism and language varieties are recreated in dubbing. This book has provided a comprehensive account of how animated films produced by big US majors are dubbed in Italy. It has described the post-production process of dubbing, the agents and texts involved and the strategies adopted to deal with language variation and multilingualism. It has also highlighted the presence of dubbing norms in translation behaviour. Studies on the perception and reception of the linguistic representation of characters in animated films in the original and dubbed versions and on the use of standard Italian, regional Italian and dialects as well as foreign-accented Italian in dubbing enable us to provide a fuller picture of the language identities, linguistic variation and translation involved in dubbing. Future projects may well find it worthwhile to investigate the impact such strategies have on how children perceive specific nationalities and accents through the original and dubbed versions. Since the accents of native speakers of English are erased in dubbing, an Italian audience will not be exposed to such richness of accents and varieties as those presented in the original English such as Australian, Scottish, Cockney, General American, Southern American and African American varieties. They would be exposed to less varied and rich lingua-cultural identities. On the other hand, since the foreign accents of non-native characters in dubbed versions are conveyed and often hypercharacterised and visual stereotypes often interact with verbal ones in order to provide caricatures, the Italian audience will be exposed to similarly negative stereotypes of the Spanish and the French, but especially the Russians, Germans and Indians. In dubbed films, where many characters speak standard

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Italian and there is less diversity and variety compared with the original films, characters who are ‘foreign’ or ‘other’ are often hypercharacterised stereotypes. It might be argued, however, that dubbing practitioners are sensitive to the parodic function of a French accent or a Spanish accent and try to reduce it in Italian dubbing, especially when the story is set in a French-speaking or a Spanish-speaking country. When it comes to the use of broad regional Italian accents and dialects, getting criminal or negative characters to adopt Sicilian, Neapolitan and southern varieties implies that the audience is exposed to such stereotypes. The negative stereotypes and discrimination found in the original versions where criminals are portrayed as Italian American or hailing from New York is therefore transposed to an Italian cultural context. Although the main function of animated films is to entertain the audience and make them laugh, poking fun at specific nationalities or regions is problematic, especially when such products have children as their main audience. How such animated films and their characters are received is thus worth exploring (on reception studies in audiovisual translation see in particular Di Giovanni and Gambier 2018).

References Chiaro, Delia. 2008. Where Have All the Varieties Gone? The Vicious Circle of the Disappearance Act in Screen Translations. In Dialect for All Seasons, ed. I. Helin, 9–25. Münster: Nodus Publikationen. Chiaro, Delia. 2009. Issues in Audiovisual Translation. In The Routledge Companion to Translation Studies, ed. J. Munday, 141–165. London: Routledge. De Bonis, Giuseppe. 2014. Dubbing Multilingual Films Between Neutralisation and Preservation of Lingua-cultural Identities: A Critical Review of the Current Strategies in Italian Dubbing. In The Languages of Dubbing: Mainstream Audiovisual Translation in Italy, ed. Maria Pavesi, Maicol Formentelli, and Elisa Ghia, 243–266. Bern: Peter Lang. De Bonis, Giuseppe. 2015a. Translating Multilingualism in Film: A Case Study on Le concert. New Voices in Translation Studies 12: 50–71.

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De Bonis, Giuseppe. 2015b. Tradurre il multilinguismo al cinema: Lingue, identità culturali e loro rappresentazione sullo schermo. Forlì: Università di Bologna, Unpublished Ph.D. thesis. Online at http://amsdottorato.unibo. it/7201/1/debonis_giuseppe_tesi.pdf. Retrieved 5 February 2020. Di Giovanni, Elena, and Yves Gambier (eds.). 2018. Reception Studies and Audiovisual Translation. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Dore, Margherita. 2019. Revoicing Otherness and Stereotypes via Dialects and Accents in Disney’s Zootopia and Its Italian Dubbed Version. In InTRAlinea Special Issue: The Translation of Dialects in Multimedia IV , ed. Klaus Geyer and Margherita Dore. Online at http://www.intralinea.org/specials/article/ 2465. Retrieved 5 February 2020. Ferrari, Chiara Francesca. 2010. Since When Is Fran Drescher Jewish? Dubbing Stereotypes in The Nanny, The Simpsons and The Sopranos. Austin: University of Texas Press. Iaia, Pietro Luigi. 2015. The Dubbing Translation of Humorous Audiovisual Texts. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Parini, Ilaria. 2009. The Transposition of Italian-American in Italian Dubbing. In Translating Regionalised Voices in Audiovisuals, ed. F.M. Federici, 157–176. Rome: Aracne. Parini, Ilaria. 2019. Sleeping with the Fishes. Italian-Americans in Animation. In Reassessing Dubbing: Historical Approaches and Current Trends, ed. Irene Ranzato and Serenella Zanotti, 246–262. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Salmon Kovarski, Laura. 2000. Tradurre l’etnoletto: come doppiare in italiano ‘l’accento ebraico’. In Traduzione multimediale: quale traduzione per quale testo? ed. R. M. Bollettieri Bosinelli, C. Heiss, M. Soffritti, and S. Bernardini, 67–84. Bologna: Clueb. Zabalbeascoa, Patrick, and Montse Corrius. 2014. How Spanish in an American Film Is Rendered in Translation: Dubbing Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid in Spain. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 22: 255–270. https://doi.org/10.1080/0907676x.2012.695380.

Websites https://www.antoniogenna.net/. https://www.imdb.com/.

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Filmography Atlantis. 2001. Gary Trousdale, Kirk Wise, Walt Disney Feature Animation, Walt Disney Pictures. Brave/Ribelle. 2012. Mark Andrews, Brenda Chapman, Steve Purcell, Walt Disney Pictures, Pixar Animation Studios. Cars. 2006. John Lasseter, Pixar Animation Studios, Walt Disney Pictures. Cars 2. 2011. John Lasseter, Brad Lewis, Walt Disney Pictures, Pixar Animation Studios. Coco. 2017. Lee Unkrich, Adrian Molina, Walt Disney Pictures, Pixar Animation Studios. Gnomeo & Juliet. 2011. Kelly Asbury, Rocket Pictures, Arc Productions, Touchstone Pictures, Miramax, Starz Animation. Madagascar 3: Europe’s Most Wanted. 2012. Eric Darnell, Tom McGrath, Conrad Vernon, DreamWorks Animation, Pacific Data Images. Mr. Peabody and Sherman. 2014. Rob Minkoff, Bullwinkle Studios, Classic Media Productions, DreamWorks Animation, Pacific Data Images. Ratatouille. 2007. Brad Bird, Jan Pinkava, Walt Disney Pictures, Pixar Animation Studios. Shark Tale. 2004. Bibo Bergeron, Vicky Jenson, Rob Letterman, DreamWorks Animation, DreamWorks. The Book of Life. 2014. Jorge R. Gutiérrez, 20th Century Fox Animation, 20th Century Fox, Reel FX Creative Studios, Chatrone, Mexopolis. The Wild. 2006. Steve ‘Spaz’ Williams, C.O.R.E. Feature Animation, Contrafilm, Freewill Entertainment, Hoytyboy Pictures, Nigel Productions, Sir Zip Studios, Walt Disney Pictures. Zootopia. 2016. Byron Howard, Rich Moore, Jared Bush, Walt Disney Pictures, Walt Disney Animation Studios.

TV Series and Programmes The Simpsons. 1989–Ongoing. James L. Brooks, Matt Groening, Sam Simon, Gracie Films, 20th Century Fox Television, 20th Century Fox.

Appendix 1: List of Films Analysed (in Alphabetical Order)

This appendix contains information about the films analysed in this book.1 The title of the film is followed by the year of production, the name of the director(s) and the name of the production company. The following column contains the budget and cumulative worldwide gross. The last column contains the names of the Italian dialogue writer and dubbing director. When the dialogue writer is also the dubbing director, only one name is provided.

1 Information

about the original versions of films is taken from the Internet Movie Database (www.imdb.com) and information about the Italian dubbed versions is taken from Antonio Genna’s website (https://www.antoniogenna.net/).

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2021 V. Minutella, (Re)Creating Language Identities in Animated Films, Palgrave Studies in Translating and Interpreting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56638-8

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Appendix 1: List of Films Analysed (in Alphabetical …

Production company

Film title

Year Director

Atlantis: The Lost Empire/Atlantis: L’impero perduto

2001 Gary Disney Trousdale, Kirk Wise

Brave/Ribelle-The Brave

2012 Mark Andrews, Brenda Chapman

Cars

2006 John Lasseter

Cars 2

2011 John Lasseter, Bradford Lewis

Coco

2017 Lee Unkrich, Adrian Molina

Despicable Me 2/Cattivissimo me 2

2013 Pierre Coffin, Chris Renaud

Budget and cumulative worldwide grossa

Italian dialogue writer and dubbing director

Carlo Valli Budget $120,000,000 (estimated) Cumulative worldwide gross $186,053,725 Carlo Valli Disney Pixar Budget $185,000,000 (estimated) Cumulative worldwide gross $538,983,207 Disney Pixar Budget Carlo Valli $120,000,000 (estimated) Cumulative worldwide gross $461,983,149 Carlo Valli Disney Pixar Budget $200,000,000 (estimated) Cumulative worldwide gross $559,852,396 Disney Pixar Budget Massimiliano $175,000,000 Manfredi (estimated) Cumulative worldwide gross $807,082,196 Fiamma Izzo Budget Illumination Entertainment, $76,000,000 (estimated) Universal Cumulative Pictures worldwide gross $970,766,005 (continued)

Appendix 1: List of Films Analysed (in Alphabetical …

391

(continued)

Production company

Film title

Year Director

Ferdinand

2017 Carlos 20th Saldanha Century Fox, Blue Sky Studios

Finding Dory/Alla ricerca di Dory

2016 Andrew Disney Pixar Stanton, Angus MacLane

Finding Nemo/Alla ricerca di Nemo

2003 Andrew Disney Pixar Stanton, Lee Unkrich

Gnomeo & 2011 Kelly Juliet/Gnomeo&Giulietta Asbury

Rocket Pictures, Touchstone Pictures

Hotel Transylvania

2012 Genndy Sony Tartakovsky Pictures

Hotel Transylvania 2

2015 Genndy Sony Tartakovsky Pictures

Budget and cumulative worldwide grossa

Italian dialogue writer and dubbing director

Budget Marco $111,000,000 Guadagno (estimated) Cumulative worldwide gross $296,069,199 Carlo Valli Budget $200,000,000 (estimated) Cumulative worldwide gross $1,028,570,889 Budget Carlo Valli $94,000,000 (estimated) Cumulative worldwide gross $940,343,261 Cinzia De Budget Carolis, $36,000,000 Oreste (estimated) Baldini Cumulative worldwide gross $193,967,670 Budget Cecilia $85,000,000 Gonnelli, (estimated) Alessandro Cumulative Rossi worldwide gross $358,375,603 Cecilia Budget Gonnelli, $80,000,000 Alessandro (estimated) Rossi Cumulative worldwide gross $474,800,000 (continued)

392

Appendix 1: List of Films Analysed (in Alphabetical …

(continued)

Production company

Film title

Year Director

How to Train Your Dragon/Dragon trainer

2010 Dean DeBlois, Chris Sanders

Ice Age 2: The Meltdown/L’era glaciale 2: il disgelo

2006 Carlos 20th Saldanha Century Fox, Blue Sky Studios

Ice Age 3: Dawn of the Dinosaurs/L’era glaciale 3: l’alba dei dinosauri

2009 Carlos 20th Saldanha, Century Mike Fox, Blue Thurmeier Sky Studios

Lilo and Stitch

2002 Dean DeBlois, Chris Sanders

Madagascar

2005 Eric DreamWorks Darnell, Tom McGrath

Madagascar 2: Escape to Africa/Madagascar 2

DreamWorks 2008 Eric Darnell, Tom McGrath

DreamWorks

Disney

Budget and cumulative worldwide grossa

Italian dialogue writer and dubbing director

Budget Marco Mete $165,000,000 (estimated) Cumulative worldwide gross $494,878,759 Budget Marco $80,000,000 Bardella, (estimated) Marco Guadagno Cumulative worldwide gross $667,036,530 Budget Marco $90,000,000 Bardella, (estimated) Marco Cumulative Guadagno worldwide gross $886,686,817 Carla Budget Vangelista, $80,000,000 Leslie La (estimated) Penna Cumulative worldwide gross $273,144,151 Budget Carlo Valli, $75,000,000 Massimiliano (estimated) Alto Cumulative worldwide gross $542,063,846 Carlo Valli, Budget $150,000,000 Massimiliano Alto (estimated) Cumulative worldwide gross $603,900,354 (continued)

Appendix 1: List of Films Analysed (in Alphabetical …

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(continued)

Production company

Film title

Year Director

Madagascar 3: Europe’s Most Wanted/Madagascar 3: ricercati in Europa

2012 Eric DreamWorks Darnell, Tom McGrath, Conrad Vernon

Mr. Peabody and Sherman

2014 Rob Minkoff

DreamWorks

Planes

2013 Klay Hall

Prana Studios, Disneytoon Studios

Puss in Boots/Il gatto con gli stivali

2011 Chris Miller

DreamWorks

Rango

2011 Gore Paramount Verbinski Pictures

Ratatouille

2007 Brad Bird, Jan Pinkava

Disney Pixar

Budget and cumulative worldwide grossa

Italian dialogue writer and dubbing director

Budget Carlo Valli, $145,000,000 Massimiliano (estimated) Alto Cumulative worldwide gross $746,921,274 Marco Budget $145,000,000 Guadagno (estimated) Cumulative worldwide gross $275,698,039 Budget Carlo Valli $50,000,000 (estimated) Cumulative worldwide gross $239,258,712 Marco Mete Budget $130,000,000 (estimated) Cumulative worldwide gross $554,987,477 Budget Fiamma Izzo $135,000,000 (estimated) Cumulative worldwide gross $245,724,603 Carlo Valli, Budget $150,000,000 Massimiliano Alto (estimated) Cumulative worldwide gross $623,722,818 (continued)

394

Appendix 1: List of Films Analysed (in Alphabetical …

(continued)

Production company

Film title

Year Director

Rio

2011 Carlos 20th Saldanha Century Fox, Blue Sky Studios

Rio 2

2014 Carlos 20th Saldanha Century Fox, Blue Sky Studios

Rise of the Guardians/Le cinque leggende

2012 Peter Ramsey

Shark Tale

2004 Bibo DreamWorks Bergeron, Vicky Jenson, Rob Letterman

Shrek

2001 Andrew DreamWorks Adamson, Vicky Jenson

Shrek 2

DreamWorks 2004 Andrew Adamson, Kelly Asbury

DreamWorks

Budget and cumulative worldwide grossa

Italian dialogue writer and dubbing director

Budget Marco $90,000,000 Guadagno (estimated) Cumulative worldwide gross $483,866,518 Marco Budget $103,000,000 Guadagno (estimated) Cumulative worldwide gross $498,781,117 Budget Marco Mete $145,000,000 (estimated) Cumulative worldwide gross $306,941,670 Ruggero Budget Busetti, $75,000,000 Marco Mete (estimated) Cumulative worldwide gross $363,530,196 Budget Francesco $60,000,000 Vairano (estimated) Cumulative worldwide gross $484,409,218 Francesco Budget $150,000,000 Vairano (estimated) Cumulative worldwide gross $923,075,336 (continued)

Appendix 1: List of Films Analysed (in Alphabetical …

395

(continued)

Film title

Year Director

Shrek the Third/Shrek terzo

2007 Chris Miller, Raman Hui

Sing

The Book of Life/Il libro della vita

The Wild/Uno zoo in fuga

Toy Story 3

Turbo

Production company

Budget and cumulative worldwide grossa

Italian dialogue writer and dubbing director

DreamWorks

Budget Francesco $160,000,000 Vairano (estimated) Cumulative worldwide gross $804,438,141 2016 Garth Illumination Budget Marco Mete Jennings, Entertainment $75,000,000 Christophe (estimated) Lourdelet Cumulative worldwide gross $634,151,679 2014 Jorge R. 20th Budget Marco Gutiérrez Century $50,000,000 Guadagno Fox (estimated) Cumulative worldwide gross $99,783,556 Simona Izzo, 2006 Steve Disney Budget ’Spaz’ $180,000,000 Fiamma Izzo Williams (estimated) Cumulative worldwide gross $102,338,515 2010 Lee Disney Pixar Budget Carlo Valli Unkrich $200,000,000 (estimated) Cumulative worldwide gross $1,066,969,703 Marco 2013 David DreamWorks Budget Soren $135,000,000 Guadagno (estimated) Cumulative worldwide gross $282,570,682 (continued)

396

Appendix 1: List of Films Analysed (in Alphabetical …

(continued)

Production company

Film title

Year Director

Zootopia/Zootropolis

2016 Byron Disney Howard, Rich Moore, Jared Bush

a The

Budget and cumulative worldwide grossa

Italian dialogue writer and dubbing director

Budget Massimiliano $150,000,000 Manfredi (estimated) Cumulative worldwide gross $1,023,784,195

budget estimates and the cumulative worldwide gross of each film throughout this appendix are taken from the Internet Movie Database (www. imdb.com)

Appendix 2: List of Italian Dubbing Experts Consulted About Their Professional Practice (2015–2020)

Several Italian dubbing professionals were consulted about their professional practice and provided information about the dubbing process of animated films. Such interactions took place between 2015 and 2020 and consisted of personal communications (face to face, email, telephone) and lectures. The dubbing professionals are listed below in alphabetical order by surname followed by the role or roles they play and the type of interaction I had with them. 1. Massimiliano Alto: dubbing director, dubbing actor, singer (face to face, telephone) 2. Oreste Baldini: dubbing actor, dubbing director (telephone) 3. Stefano Brusa: dubbing actor, dialogue writer, dubbing director (email, telephone) 4. Elena Di Carlo: translator and dialogue writer (email, face to face, lectures) 5. Chiara Gioncardi: dubbing actress (telephone) 6. Marco Guadagno: dubbing director, dubbing actor, dialogue writer (email, face to face, telephone) © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2021 V. Minutella, (Re)Creating Language Identities in Animated Films, Palgrave Studies in Translating and Interpreting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56638-8

397

398

Appendix 2: List of Italian Dubbing Experts …

7. Fiamma Izzo: dubbing director, dialogue writer, singer (email, face to face, telephone) 8. Leslie La Penna: dubbing director, dubbing actor, dialogue writer (email, face to face) 9. Massimiliano Manfredi: dubbing director, dubbing actor, dialogue writer (email, face to face, lectures, observation of dubbing sessions) 10. Marco Mete: dubbing director, dubbing actor, dialogue writer (email, telephone) 11. Roberto Morville: creative director, translator and dialogue writer (email, face to face, lectures, telephone) 12. Maria Grazia Napolitano: dubbing assistant (email, face to face, lectures, observation of dubbing sessions) 13. Serena Paccagnella: translator and dialogue writer, dubbing assistant (email, face to face) 14. Alessandro Rossi: dubbing director, dubbing actor, dialogue writer (email, telephone) 15. Francesco Vairano: dubbing director, dubbing actor, dialogue writer (face to face, telephone) 16. Carlo Valli: dialogue writer, dubbing director, dubbing actor (email, observation of dubbing sessions).

Index

A

Accent 1, 3, 5–7, 14, 15, 25, 41, 43, 52, 55, 58–60, 62, 66, 67, 75, 77, 79–88, 90–113, 123, 127, 128, 130, 132–134, 136, 138, 139, 141–143, 145–147, 149–157, 159–161, 163, 172, 173, 176, 180, 182, 184, 186–191, 193, 196, 198–201, 217–226, 228, 230–233, 235–245, 247–250, 252, 259, 261–264 Actor 3, 8, 9, 38, 40–44, 49, 54, 56–62, 64, 92, 96–98, 101– 104, 108, 127, 130, 132–134, 138, 145–147, 149–151, 153, 157, 159, 165, 169, 173, 175, 178, 179, 184, 187, 189, 191, 194, 196, 199, 220, 224, 226, 233, 235, 237, 239–241, 243,

246, 247, 250, 258, 259, 261, 264, 270, 283, 288, 297, 300, 305, 311, 321, 324, 327, 332, 335, 338, 342, 345, 353, 360, 362, 364, 366, 367, 381, 397 Adaptation 4, 20, 24–30, 32, 34, 36–39, 44, 48, 49, 51–54, 78, 81, 261, 267, 296, 299, 329, 375, 382 African American Vernacular English (AAVE) 127, 129–133, 135–138, 140, 155, 156, 170, 172, 174, 181, 183–186, 217, 250, 254, 255, 257–259, 271, 377, 384 American English (AmE) 14, 93, 127, 130, 132, 133, 135, 136, 139, 142, 143, 151, 152, 157, 162, 168, 169, 172, 173, 180–182, 185–188, 217–219,

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2021 V. Minutella, (Re)Creating Language Identities in Animated Films, Palgrave Studies in Translating and Interpreting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56638-8

399

400

Index

224, 226, 231, 235, 247, 249, 250, 252–255, 257, 258, 261, 268, 290, 384 Animated films 1–4, 7–9, 12–15, 19–22, 24–26, 30–32, 38, 42, 43, 45, 47, 50, 53, 55–62, 65–67, 75, 77, 81–86, 88, 92, 95, 96, 98, 99, 101, 103, 105, 107–110, 124, 126, 128, 165, 180–182, 186–189, 192, 195, 197, 199, 202, 203, 217–220, 239, 240, 242, 254, 255, 262, 268, 269, 280, 284, 293, 300, 303–305, 311, 313, 317, 325, 332, 335, 340, 342, 351–353, 356, 367, 369–371, 375–378, 380, 381, 384–386, 397 As recorded 44, 46 Australian English (AusE) 14, 127, 133, 135, 160, 161, 182, 189, 217, 219, 238, 247–249, 268, 269 Authenticity 95, 99, 101, 102, 108, 163, 182, 191, 192, 196, 197, 233, 266, 270, 306, 307, 324, 342, 367, 371

B

British English (BrE) 5, 14, 92, 93, 127, 130–135, 139, 141, 143–145, 147, 148, 153, 154, 157, 158, 160, 161, 163–166, 173, 174, 176, 178, 180–182, 187, 188, 217, 219, 220, 223, 225, 226, 230–232, 236, 238, 247, 248, 254, 263–265, 268, 269, 328, 329, 367, 384

C

Celebrities 43, 58, 60–64, 107, 109, 155, 186, 191, 266, 269, 270, 364 Characterisation 1, 3, 6, 8, 14, 25, 30, 36, 45, 52, 55, 66, 86, 90, 91, 93, 95–97, 99, 100, 102, 104–106, 108, 109, 111, 124, 126–128, 132, 136, 139, 142, 143, 146, 148, 150, 153, 157, 159, 162, 163, 165, 167, 169, 172, 173, 177, 180, 181, 185, 186, 188, 189, 191–193, 195–199, 203, 217, 221–224, 226, 231–233, 235, 238–242, 247, 250, 253, 254, 257–259, 261, 269, 305, 306, 310–313, 316–318, 324, 325, 327, 329, 330, 332, 336–338, 342–345, 354, 357, 358, 361, 369, 370, 376, 377, 379, 380, 383 Client 13, 24–26, 31, 32, 39, 44, 45, 49, 51–56, 58, 67, 85, 87, 88, 91, 96, 104, 112, 113, 200, 308, 309, 311, 316, 345, 384, 385 Cockney 81, 127, 134, 153, 154, 157, 158, 166, 173, 176, 188, 189, 217, 218, 236–240, 268, 367, 385 Collaborative dubbing 64 Comedian 44, 61–63, 102, 107, 110, 111, 139, 161, 162, 186, 191, 199, 261, 264, 294, 311, 324, 329, 333, 342, 343, 357, 361, 362 Comedy 2, 3, 7, 80, 82, 83, 95, 96, 100–102, 104, 105, 108, 162, 196, 197, 202, 203, 245, 246,

Index

263, 271, 300, 325, 335, 341, 345, 346, 352, 354, 356, 366, 369, 371, 378, 380 Consistency sheet 51 Constraints 9, 21, 29, 58, 385 Contrived 81, 97, 101, 102, 106, 111, 112, 130, 138, 160, 161, 165, 177, 191, 198, 201, 270, 294, 306, 316, 320, 324, 327, 337–342, 345, 351, 354, 367 Creative director 8, 13, 26, 31, 38, 39, 44, 46, 56, 57, 60, 63, 67, 85, 88, 97–99, 104, 107, 108, 223, 235, 294, 300, 326, 336, 358, 368, 398 Creative letter 46, 54–56, 67, 87, 326, 336, 375

D

Dialect 3, 5–7, 14, 25, 36, 41, 64, 67, 75–82, 84, 85, 88, 91, 93, 94, 99–113, 127, 128, 130, 153, 159, 182, 188, 217, 219, 232, 239, 241–243, 252, 253, 259–261, 266, 268, 270, 271, 280, 293–300, 303, 317, 318, 336, 353, 356, 358, 361–363, 367–371, 377, 379–382, 385, 386 Dialogue List 30, 37, 47–49, 87, 235 Dialogue writer 4, 8–10, 13, 22–26, 28–39, 44–47, 49, 52, 53, 55, 59, 86–88, 100, 103, 106, 107, 246, 249, 253, 290, 307, 311, 314, 322, 323, 353, 389, 397, 398

401

Diction 5, 41, 58, 60, 66, 89, 90, 97, 106, 109–111, 223, 252, 253, 267 Distributor 21–28, 30, 33, 39, 45, 56, 58, 64, 67, 85, 86, 96, 136, 253, 268, 308, 375 Diversity 378, 379, 386 Domestication 81, 261, 367 Dubbed version 2, 8, 10, 14, 20, 22, 24, 26–29, 37, 38, 42, 49, 50, 52–58, 60–63, 65, 67, 76, 78, 79, 81–83, 85–88, 92, 93, 95–102, 105–107, 109, 111, 128, 200, 218, 221–224, 226, 227, 231–235, 237–247, 249, 251–254, 257–264, 266–268, 270, 279–287, 289–292, 294–299, 303, 305–312, 314–318, 320, 321, 323–333, 335–340, 342–345, 351, 354, 355, 357–371, 376–379, 382, 383, 385, 389 Dubbese 89, 249, 258 Dubbing 4, 6–10, 13, 14, 19–22, 24–28, 31–33, 37–39, 43, 45, 50, 52, 53, 55, 59, 63–67, 75, 78, 80, 81, 83, 84, 86–91, 97, 99, 102–104, 106, 108, 109, 111–113, 203, 217–219, 222, 223, 227, 235, 240–242, 249, 253–255, 259, 261–263, 268–271, 279, 280, 283, 288, 293, 294, 300, 304, 307, 309, 310, 313, 316, 318, 320, 323–326, 329, 332, 336, 341–343, 345, 351, 355–358, 360, 363, 368, 369, 371, 375, 377–382, 384–386, 398

402

Index

Dubbing actor 8, 9, 13, 22, 23, 31, 32, 39–45, 55–60, 63, 66, 89, 90, 93, 95, 97, 99, 100, 106, 112, 113, 231, 235, 237, 239, 242, 246, 259, 269, 270, 283, 303, 308, 310, 311, 314, 317, 323, 324, 329, 335, 337, 338, 342, 345, 361–364, 366–368, 370, 371, 380, 397, 398 Dubbing agent 22 Dubbing assistant 9, 13, 22, 24, 31, 32, 39, 41, 42, 45, 54, 55, 103, 298, 398 Dubbing booth 9, 30, 32, 38, 39, 42, 44, 45, 59, 90 Dubbing director 8–10, 12, 13, 22, 24–30, 32, 34, 36, 38–41, 43–45, 52, 53, 55, 56, 59–61, 63–65, 86–88, 90, 96, 99–101, 104, 105, 107, 110, 111, 113, 200, 221, 231, 238, 253, 258, 261, 288, 307, 311, 312, 314, 316, 326, 335, 337, 340, 354, 355, 360, 368, 389, 397, 398 Dubbing process 3, 7–9, 13, 19, 21–27, 30–34, 43, 52, 55, 58, 60, 66, 67, 85, 99, 319, 375, 379, 384, 397 Dubbing professional 8, 9, 13–15, 20–26, 28, 29, 31, 33, 43, 45, 49, 50, 53–55, 58, 84–86, 89–92, 94, 95, 103–106, 108, 109, 112, 113, 185, 218, 226, 242, 254, 255, 262, 263, 268–270, 320, 356, 360, 361, 370, 371, 376, 379, 381, 384, 385, 397

Dubbing script 3, 4, 9, 37, 43, 50, 51, 53, 231, 298 Dubbing stage 24, 26, 53 Dubbing studio 4, 9, 10, 22, 24, 26, 31, 37–39, 43–46, 63, 239, 269, 298, 307 Dubbing supervisor 21, 23, 25–32, 36, 38, 52, 56, 60, 67, 85, 88, 104, 268, 311

E

Eastern European accent 102, 161, 166, 191, 201, 335 Ethnicity 95, 147, 292, 310, 343, 345 Ethnolect 77, 82, 83, 136, 138, 142, 172, 204, 304, 305, 308, 310–312, 319, 324, 326, 335, 337, 340, 345, 346, 351, 352, 355, 357–362, 367, 370, 378

F

Fake accent 98, 100, 102 Foreign accent 5, 77, 79, 82–87, 92, 95–100, 102, 108, 111–113, 123, 165, 167, 169, 190, 191, 200, 201, 266, 268, 270, 284, 290, 303, 304, 313, 314, 316, 317, 323, 326–328, 335, 336, 342–346, 378, 379, 383, 385 Foreign-accented English 5, 14, 15, 77, 82–84, 112, 124, 127, 129, 132, 134, 138, 161, 164–167, 177, 183, 190, 191, 203, 303, 304, 316, 324, 342, 345, 346, 351, 378, 379, 382, 383

Index

Foreign-accented Italian 83, 304, 325, 342, 346, 378, 385 Foreign language 5–7, 15, 52, 77, 79, 84, 88, 91, 95, 99, 103, 107, 112, 113, 149, 164, 165, 175, 193, 202, 203, 279, 283, 284, 287, 292–297, 310, 316, 345, 377–379 French 21, 25, 49, 91, 92, 96, 98, 101, 106, 127–129, 131, 134, 138, 143–147, 161, 162, 164, 166–168, 192, 193, 202, 218, 226, 279–283, 285, 287, 288, 291–294, 300, 319–332, 339, 379, 383, 385, 386 French-accented English 79, 129– 131, 135, 138, 140, 143, 145, 147, 162–164, 168, 192, 193, 287, 292, 319, 323, 327, 328, 330, 332, 379, 383 French-accented Italian 79, 321, 323, 325, 326 Frenchness 187, 320, 323–325

G

General American (GenAm) 14, 92, 127–129, 131, 133, 135–138, 140, 141, 144, 145, 147–149, 151, 152, 154–158, 161–164, 166–170, 172–174, 176, 179, 181, 183, 185, 188, 195, 217, 226, 230, 248, 255, 264, 268, 290, 326, 354, 368, 385 German 61, 64, 82, 91, 92, 95, 100, 101, 111, 127, 130, 131, 139, 141, 143–145, 164, 168, 174–176, 179, 198, 327, 332–335, 378, 383, 385

403

German-accented English 130, 131, 141, 143, 144, 147, 164, 168, 175, 176, 179, 199, 332 German-accented Italian 145, 296, 332, 335

H

Head of dubbing 23–25, 30, 38, 39, 56, 67 Heterolingualism 6, 77 Homogenisation 218, 378, 382 Humour 2, 37, 48, 96, 104, 105, 123, 124, 137, 139, 142, 153, 159–161, 163, 164, 167, 182, 188, 189, 191, 192, 194, 196–199, 201, 202, 225, 234, 240, 241, 246–248, 259, 264, 266–268, 270, 304–306, 310, 312–314, 318, 324, 325, 332, 339, 340, 342, 361, 362, 365–367, 369–371, 378, 383 Hypercharacterisation 79, 96, 260, 261, 304, 305, 307, 308, 310, 311, 313, 320, 324, 325, 334–336, 338, 341, 345, 346, 354, 355, 358, 359, 362, 366, 378, 379, 382, 383

I

Identity 1, 3, 7, 15, 55, 78, 95, 96, 101, 107, 109, 129, 130, 145, 153, 159, 164, 175, 177, 190, 194, 195, 199, 201–203, 219, 236, 238, 241, 247, 250, 254, 261, 264, 266, 269, 270, 284, 285, 290, 291, 293, 294, 296, 299, 300, 304, 305, 310,

404

Index

311, 313, 315, 317, 318, 320, 323–325, 330, 332, 335, 338, 342–344, 351, 353–355, 361, 363, 367, 376, 377, 379, 382, 384, 385 Indian English 138, 139, 141, 340, 341, 346 Interpreting 34, 78, 264, 280, 298 Interviews 58, 96, 193, 220, 242, 342, 375 Invented language 76–79, 167, 202, 203, 279, 281 Italian 2, 4–6, 9, 10, 14, 15, 22–24, 27, 29–32, 34, 36–39, 41, 44, 46, 49, 52, 53, 56, 59–63, 66, 67, 76, 78, 80–82, 85, 86, 89, 92–94, 97, 99–102, 104–109, 111, 112, 127, 129, 136, 142, 172, 174, 197, 200, 202, 217, 219, 221, 226, 227, 232, 233, 238, 242, 245, 247, 253, 255, 258, 259, 261–264, 266, 268–270, 279, 280, 282, 284, 286, 287, 289, 290, 292–300, 305, 307, 308, 314, 316, 318, 320, 323, 325, 326, 329, 332, 334, 335, 337–339, 341–343, 345, 351–371, 376, 377, 379, 381, 383, 384, 386, 389, 397 Italian-accented English 129, 138, 140, 142, 144, 165, 166, 197, 198, 294, 297, 351, 354, 356, 363, 370, 379 Italianness 106, 143, 294, 295, 297, 353, 355, 362, 364, 370, 371, 377, 380 Italian regiolects 79, 86, 368, 370, 371

J

Japanese 153, 154, 175, 176, 202, 203, 279, 288, 289

K

Key names and phrases (KNP) file 46, 49–51, 53, 67, 87, 311

L

L1 76, 77, 177, 295, 381 L2 76, 107, 286, 292, 294, 295, 297, 351, 377, 381, 382 L3 76, 77, 107, 177, 281, 285, 286, 288, 292–295, 297, 299, 313, 316, 323, 351, 370, 377, 379, 382 Language of dubbing 5, 6, 13, 15, 66, 67, 75, 80, 84, 89, 90, 97, 112, 294, 375 Latino 129, 143, 148, 169, 175, 178, 194–197, 304, 307, 310, 313, 314 Lectern 39, 42 Lexis 6, 81, 82, 93, 94, 130, 191, 194, 222, 243–245, 265, 308, 327, 361, 371 Linguistic differentiation 103, 238, 281, 351, 356, 381, 382 Linguistic identity 1, 4, 13, 77, 79, 111, 124, 146, 148, 185, 219, 226, 237, 240, 253–255, 269, 287, 292, 297, 303–305, 312, 313, 319, 320, 324, 325, 331, 339, 341, 376, 378, 380, 382 Linguistic variation 2, 7, 8, 10, 13, 14, 76, 80, 82, 91, 112, 124,

Index

150, 153, 163, 173, 203, 223, 248, 375–377, 382, 385 Localisation 4, 20, 21, 23, 24, 28, 30, 58, 67, 86, 104, 237, 260, 261, 267, 292, 293, 308, 311, 366, 367, 375 Loop 22, 31, 40, 41, 64

M

Majors 1, 20–23, 26, 27, 31, 38, 50, 53, 55, 56, 61, 67, 86, 145, 180, 183, 290, 375, 384, 385 Marked 5, 6, 15, 41, 79–82, 91, 93, 95, 104–107, 127, 128, 134, 138, 139, 150, 157, 164, 172, 181, 183, 186, 187, 201, 221, 223, 224, 236, 238, 241, 243, 247, 248, 252, 261, 269, 271, 279, 281, 284, 290, 304, 310–313, 316, 318, 321, 323, 324, 327, 330, 333–335, 337, 338, 341, 343, 356, 361–364, 367, 369, 370, 379, 380 Marketing (department) 31, 58, 61, 63, 66, 111, 343, 345, 369, 384 Mexican 88, 143, 151, 155, 163– 166, 168, 169, 175, 177, 178, 194–197, 291, 304–306, 310, 311, 314, 315, 378, 379, 383 Mock accent 101, 270 Multilingualism 6, 7, 13, 14, 75–78, 101, 112, 124, 202, 203, 279, 280, 285, 287, 289, 375, 382, 385

405

N

National varieties 4, 14, 77, 112, 182, 377 Native variety of English 14, 77, 84, 92, 112, 124, 127, 133, 139, 141, 145, 147, 150, 155, 160, 172, 180–183, 188, 189, 204, 217, 219, 240, 245, 247, 262, 267, 268, 270, 376–378, 381–383 Natural language 77, 381 Neutralisation 78–81, 83, 244, 293, 300, 304, 342, 343, 345, 378, 382–384 Non-native variety of English 4, 5, 14, 77, 83, 84, 112, 127, 128, 130, 137–139, 141, 143, 157, 160, 162, 163, 165, 167, 173, 174, 181, 182, 190, 204, 303, 304, 311, 325, 337, 342, 344, 345, 376, 381–383 Non-standard 5, 14, 36, 83, 93, 97, 127, 130, 136, 138, 142, 152, 157, 172, 174, 181, 184–186, 217, 219, 234–237, 250–255, 257–259, 268, 306, 329, 333, 339, 346, 363, 377, 378, 384

O

Original version 41, 42, 54, 78, 79, 81, 83, 91, 95, 101, 102, 106–108, 237, 238, 241, 248, 256, 259, 261, 267, 280–283, 286–292, 294–300, 306–308, 311, 313–316, 320, 321, 323, 327–329, 333, 336–339, 342, 345, 354, 356, 358, 360–363,

406

Index

365–367, 370, 376, 377, 379, 383, 386, 389 Otherness 87, 92, 93, 95, 101, 103, 123, 136, 188–192, 200, 202, 203, 217, 281, 282, 288, 290, 295, 296, 298, 304, 305, 308, 310, 312, 320, 325, 329, 342, 343, 354

P

Performance 7, 40, 42, 53, 57, 59, 60, 93, 99–101, 110, 191, 221, 222, 231, 235, 237, 245, 246, 252, 254, 269, 270, 288, 306, 310, 311, 320, 324, 342, 361, 362, 367, 381 Preservation 78, 79, 84, 280, 284, 291, 300, 304, 305, 335, 336, 338, 342, 345, 346, 378, 382, 383

Q

Quantitative reduction 78, 79, 300, 304, 317, 345, 382, 383

R

Received pronunciation (RP) 79, 127, 130, 131, 144, 154, 161, 173, 187, 217, 220–226, 231, 240, 268 Reduction 84 Regiolect 356–362, 364, 366, 367, 369–371, 382 Regionalisation 367 Regional Italian (RI) 5, 6, 67, 75, 82, 85, 93, 105, 109, 111,

259, 261, 262, 268, 271, 300, 343, 366–369, 371, 379, 380, 385, 386 Register 35, 36, 94, 130, 132, 172, 173, 218, 222, 231, 234, 237, 249, 251, 254, 257–259, 269, 284, 377 Revision 26, 46 Rewriting 20, 36–38, 153 Rough translation 22, 32, 33, 35, 64 Russian 64, 96, 97, 127, 138, 140, 165, 166, 174, 177, 199, 200, 202, 287, 335–340, 346, 378, 385 Russian-accented English 133, 140, 177, 199, 337 Russian-accented Italian 338

S

Scottish English (ScE) 127, 154, 159, 179, 182, 189, 218, 240–243, 245–247, 268, 368 Setting 2, 7, 10, 91, 92, 104, 123, 127, 128, 137, 143, 145, 149, 153, 155, 164, 175, 177, 182, 188, 190, 192, 193, 196–198, 202, 203, 226, 241, 243, 249, 287, 289, 291, 305, 310, 315, 317, 319, 323, 325, 332, 345, 346, 383 Sociolinguistics of performance 7 Sound technician 22, 23, 32, 39–41, 45 Source text (ST) 3, 22, 29, 34, 45, 51, 67, 76, 79, 204, 219, 292, 295, 297, 309, 314, 381, 385 Southern American English 94, 127, 129, 142, 144, 152, 157, 158,

Index

172, 181, 183, 184, 217, 232, 250, 253, 271, 377, 384 Spanish 21, 58, 61, 64, 79, 88, 90, 91, 96, 99, 106, 127, 129, 130, 138, 141, 143, 147–149, 151, 152, 157, 164, 165, 169, 170, 177–179, 191, 194–196, 279, 285, 291, 294, 304–308, 310–317, 319, 331, 354, 355, 378, 379, 383, 385 Spanish-accented English 129–131, 143, 145, 148, 151–158, 162–166, 169–171, 177–179, 193, 195–197, 304, 305, 307, 310, 313, 317, 318, 379, 383 Spanish-accented Italian 309, 311, 312, 314, 318, 354, 355, 379 Spectacular fragments 134, 143, 145, 151, 155, 167, 195, 196, 287, 291, 305, 317, 321 Sporcatura 97, 253, 267 Standard Italian 5, 6, 41, 58–60, 62, 75, 79–81, 83, 85, 89–93, 96, 104, 105, 109–111, 217–219, 222, 223, 225, 226, 233, 235, 237, 238, 240–246, 250, 252, 254, 266, 267, 269, 271, 280, 292, 295, 298, 299, 304, 314–318, 326–331, 343, 344, 346, 353, 354, 362, 370, 375–377, 380, 381, 385, 386 Star talent 31, 58–64, 66, 75, 108–111, 261, 264–267, 270, 292, 293, 300, 306, 311, 324, 342, 343, 369, 384 Stereotypes 1–3, 8, 81, 82, 93, 94, 102, 108, 109, 123, 124, 136, 142, 152, 153, 163, 171, 172, 175, 182–185, 188–190,

407

192–198, 200, 201, 219, 226, 234, 239, 250, 255, 260, 261, 264, 265, 269, 304, 305, 310, 313, 320, 323, 325, 327, 345, 354, 356, 360, 361, 364, 368–371, 376, 378, 380, 382, 384, 385 Stylisation 7 Subtitling/Subtitles 2, 7, 46, 78, 96, 97, 101, 203, 218, 280–286, 288, 289, 295, 296, 377, 382 Supervisor 25, 27–31, 39, 56, 86, 96, 294, 308 Syntax 6, 81–83, 234, 251, 254, 329, 333

T

Target text (TT) 20, 45, 46, 219, 292, 295, 297, 337, 381, 382 Test screening 88, 316 Time code 64 Transformation 261, 267, 286, 318, 319, 382 Translation strategies 14, 36, 77, 112, 124, 204, 226, 245, 255, 279, 303–305, 312, 354, 360, 367 Translator 4, 7–9, 13, 22, 32–36, 47, 49, 52, 76, 78, 87, 311, 323, 353, 397, 398

U

Undefined 101, 102, 111, 158, 165, 166, 341, 342 Ungrammaticalities 47, 142, 143, 146, 153, 191, 199, 253, 266, 294, 295, 318, 329–333,

408

Index

335–337, 340, 346, 355, 363–367, 378 Unmarked 80, 217, 269, 279, 290 Untranslated 88, 96, 177, 202, 203, 280–282, 287–289, 291, 297, 316 V

Varieties 1, 3, 5–7, 13, 14, 24, 75, 77, 79–82, 91, 93, 94, 96, 113, 123, 124, 127, 128, 130, 134, 135, 137, 140, 141, 144, 145, 149–153, 155, 157, 160, 165, 169, 172, 173, 178–183, 185, 188, 194, 203, 217–219, 221, 223, 226, 236, 247, 250, 252, 254, 258, 268, 269, 271, 328, 356, 364, 367, 375, 377, 378, 380, 384, 385 Voice 7, 21, 32, 39, 42, 43, 55–58, 60, 61, 66, 77, 93, 94, 101,

103, 109–111, 132, 134, 148, 169, 219, 221, 231, 233, 240, 242, 256, 261, 263, 283, 288, 300, 305, 311, 342, 343, 366 Voice actor 1, 3, 42, 56, 129, 131, 133, 135, 137, 140, 141, 144–152, 154, 156, 158, 159, 161–164, 166–168, 170, 171, 173–179, 191, 195, 242, 247, 286, 318, 343 Voice casting 24, 25, 43, 54, 56, 57, 60, 65, 108, 183, 221, 345, 369, 375, 385 Voice quality 1, 43, 54, 56, 57, 62, 93, 175, 220, 222, 223, 238, 239, 252–254, 343 Voice talent 22, 26, 39, 40, 42, 59, 64, 152, 178, 185, 241, 269, 323, 329, 380 Voice test 21, 31, 55–57, 63, 100