Reconstruction of the Bronze Age of the Caspian Steppes: Life styles and life ways of pastoral nomads 9781407303567, 9781407333830

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BAR S1876 2008 SHISHLINA

Reconstruction of the Bronze Age of the Caspian Steppes Life styles and life ways of pastoral nomads

RECONSTRUCTION OF THE BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Natalia Shishlina

BAR International Series 1876 2008 B A R

Reconstruction of the Bronze Age of the Caspian Steppes Life styles and life ways of pastoral nomads

Natalia Shishlina

BAR International Series 1876 2008

ISBN 9781407303567 paperback ISBN 9781407333830 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407303567 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

BAR

PUBLISHING

To my family

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My thanks are due to all the members of the Archaeological department of the State Historical Museum and the Steppe archaeological expedition. I would also like to thank my friends and colleagues: A.V. Borisov, A.N. Usachuk, Yu.Yu. Piotrovsky, V.A. Trifonov. M.A. Turetsky. M.V. Andreeva, O.A. Chichagova, E.P. Zazovskaya, J. van der Plicht, I.V. Kirillova, G.A. Klevezal, A.A. Bobrov, M.M. Pakhomov, A.A. Khochlov, S.B. Borutskaya. V.R. Filin, O.V. Orfinskaya, A.Yu. Radaef. Helpful discussions with A.N. Gey, E.I. Gak, R. Hedges and J. Bintliff are appreciated. For financial support I am grateful to the National Geographic Society, Russian Fund for the Basic Research, the Wenner-Gren Foundation, and the State Historical museum.

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Contents Introduction. ........................................................................................................................................................... 1 Geography, Geomorphology and Geobotany of the Modern Caspian Steppes ........................................................ 1 History of Research .................................................................................................................................................. 8 Chapter 1. Funeral rite and material culture: origin and development of cultural tradition. ................................................................................................................................................. 15 Steppe Eneolithic ................................................................................................................................................... 15 Steppe Majkop culture. ......................................................................................................................................... 28 Yamnaya Culture ................................................................................................................................................... 43 Steppe North Caucasus Culture ............................................................................................................................. 86 Early Catacomb Culture ....................................................................................................................................... 105 Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural Groups ................................................................................................... 114 Chapter 2. Exploitation of the Caspian Steppes from the Eneolithic to the Middle Bronze Age: a change of cultural tradition......................................................................................... 157 Methodology for Culture Sequence Identification ............................................................................................... 157 Topography of Archaeological Sites of the Caspian Steppes: General Character of Exploitation of Steppe .......................................................................................................................................... 157 Planigraphy of Kurgan Burial Grounds of the Caspian Steppes: Local Exploitation of the Environment............................................................................................................................................... 176 Stratigraphic Sequences of the Eneolithic-Bronze Age Cultures of the Caspian Steppes ................................................................................................................................................................. 192 Absolute Chronology of Eneolithic–Bronze Age Cultures of the Caspian Steppes ............................................. 200 Comparative Analysis of Main Features of the Funerary Rite and Offerings of Eneolithic-Bronze Age Cultures of the Caspian steppes ...................................................................................... 209 Seasonality of Kurgans and Graves of the Kuma-Manych Depression, the Stavropol Hills, the South Yergenui Hills and Western Slopes of the Middle Yergueni Hills............................................. 212 Results of Comparative Analysis: Discussion...................................................................................................... 213 Chapter 3. Pastoral exploitation of the Caspian Steppes during EneolithicBronze Age periods. ........................................................................................................................................... 218 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 218 Paleoclimate of the Caspian Steppes during the end of the 5000-3000 millennia calBC .................................................................................................................................................................. 219 Exploitation of the Caspian steppes: economic system, industries, diet system and cultural links ........................................................................................................................................................ 222 Steppe Eneolithic Age .................................................................................................................................... 222 Steppe Majkop Culture ................................................................................................................................... 227 Yamnaya Culture............................................................................................................................................ 230 Steppe North Caucasus Culture ...................................................................................................................... 238 Early Catacomb Culture ................................................................................................................................. 240 Yamnaya-Catacomb Group and Multicultural Groups ................................................................................... 247 East Manych Catacomb Culture ..................................................................................................................... 248 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................... 257 Bibliography ....................................................................................................................................................... 259

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Appendix 1. Sex and age determination of the dead from the Caspian Steppes kurgan burial grounds .......................................................................................................................................... 280 A.A. Khokhlov, S.B. Borutskaya, A.A. Kazarnitsky Appendix 2. Radiocarbon data base of the Bronze Age Caspian Steppes........................................................... 284 N.I. Shishlina, J. van der Plicht, E.P. Zazovskaya, V.S. Sevastyanov, O.A. Chichagova, R.M. Hedges Annex 3. Seasonality data of the Bronze Age Caspian Steppes graves .............................................................. 296 N.I. Shishlina, G.A. Klevezal. I.V, Kirillova, M.M. Pakhomov

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LIST OF FIGURES Fig. 1. Caspian Steppes Fig. 2. Kuma-Manych Depression Fig. 3. Southern Yergueni Hills Fig. 4. Middle Yergueni Hills Fig. 5. Salt lakes near village Priyutnoye Fig. 6. Western slopes of the Middle Yergueni Hills Fig. 7. Black Lands Fig. 8. Eneolithic graves of the Caspian Steppes. Arkhara 2: k. 27: 1 – plans of the graves: a – 1, b – 2; c – 3; grave offerings: 2 – scepter, g.1, 3 – vessel, g. 2; Ulan-Tolga: k.1, g. 3: 4 – adze, 5 – knife-shaped blades, 6 – scepter; VMLBII,66: 7 – k. 17, g. 16; k. 16, g. 12: 8 – arrow head, g. 12, 9 – stratigraphic correlation between Eneolithic grave 12 (a) and Early Majkop grave 13 (b) 2, 6 – stone; 3 – clay; 4, 5, 8 – flint Fig. 9. Eneolithic artefacts obtained from localities and graves from the Caspian Steppes. Surface finds along the Chogray reservoir: 1 – knife-shaped blade, scrapers and a core; 2 – arrow head; 3 – knife-shaped blade; 4 – pottery sherd; 5 – knifeshaped blade, Tau-Tyube; 6 – knife-shaped blade, Salt Lake, Kalmykia; 7 – Zunda-Tolga-1: k. 2, destroyed grave?, knifeshaped blade; 8 – arrow head, the North Caspian Steppes 1 – 3, 5-6 – flint; 4 – clay Fig. 10. Eneolithic graves of the Caspian Steppes. Nikolskoye VI: k. 1: g. 11 – 1 – plan of the grave, 2 – harpoon; 3 – g. 13; 12 – g. 6; Staritsa: k. 7, g. 25: 4 – plan of the grave, 5, 6 – beads, 7 – bracelet; Nikolskoye V: k. 1, g. 7: 8 –perforator, 9 – knife-shaped blade, 10-11 – beads 2, 5, 8, 10 – bone; 5, 6, 11 – shell; 7 – copper; 9 – flint Fig. 11. Eneolithic graves of the Caspian Steppes and comparable data. Krivaya Luka XV: k. 3, g.1: 1 – plan of the grave, 2 – arrow heads; KVCH-27: k. 1, g. 2: 3 – plan of the grave, 4 – fragment of the knife-shaped blade, 5 – scraper; 6-7 – arrow heads from the survey finds in the North Caspian Steppes; 8-14 – arrow heads, Kumyska site 2, 4 – 14 – flint, quartzite Fig. 12. Eneolithic graves of the Northern Yergueni Hills. Shlyakhovsky II: k. 3: plans of graves: 1 – g. 4, 2 – g. 3, grave offerings: g. 3: 3-5 – scrapers, 6 – javelin head, 7a – knife-shaped blade, 9 – axe, 10 – adze, 11 – sceptre, 12 – abrasive; g. 4 – 7b – knife-shaped blade, 8 – axe; 13 – sceptre, survey find, Kuibyshev museum; Peregruznoye I: k. 13, g. 7: 16 – plan of the grave, 14 – knife-shaped blade, 15 – scraper 3 – 9, 14, 15 – flint; 11– diorite; 12, 13 – stone Fig. 13. Eneolithic graves of the Volga area and the North Caucasus. Politotdelskoye: k. 12, g. 15: 1 – plan of the grave, 2 – 3 – vessels; 4 – Khvalynsk cemetery: g. 108, sceptre; Komarovo: k. 2, g. 18: 5 – plan of the grave, 7 – adze, 8, 12 – knifeshaped blades, 9 – vessel, 10, 11 – items; 6 – Kubanskaya site, vessel 2, 3, 6, 9 – clay; 4, 7 – stone; 8, 12 – flint; 10-11 – bone Fig. 14. Eneolithic graves of the Lower Don region. Mukhin-2: k. 5: 1 – 9 – g. 9: 1 – plan of the grave; 2, 6, 7 – knife-shaped blades; 3 – awl, 4 – ring, 5 – long bead, 8 – sheep blade, 9 – beads; 10, 13 – 15 – g. 7: 10 – plan of the grave, 13 – scraper, 14 – 15 – vessels; 11 – Vertoletnoye pole: k. 1, g. 2; Kastyrsky VIII: 16 – 19: k. 13, g. 2: 16 – plan of the grave, 17, 18 – arrow heads, 19 – knife-shaped blade; 12, 20 – 22 – k. 14, g. 15: 12 – plan of the grave, 20 – knife-shaped blade, 21 – adze, 22 – astragal 2, 6, 7, 13, 17, 18 – 20 – flint; 3 – 5 copper; 9 – shell; 8, 22 – bone; 14 – 15 – clay; 21 – shale Fig. 15. Steppe Early Majkop graves. VMLBIII,66: k. 16, g. 13: 1 – stratigraphic correlation between Eneolithic 12 (a) and Majkop (b) graves; grave offerings: 2 – beads, 3 – pendants and bead, 4 – amphora, 5 – fragment of a tool, 6 – pointer, 7 – arrow head, 8, 9 – tools; k. 12, g. 12: 10 – plan of the grave, 15 – arrow head; k. 17, g. 11: 11 – plan of the grave, 12 – rings, 13 – amphora, 14 – long beads 2 – shell; 3 – bronze; 4, 13 – clay; 5 –9, 15 – flint; 12 – silver?; 14 – bone Fig. 16. Steppe Early Majkop graves. Zunda-Tolga-1: k. 2, g. 2: 1 – plan of the grave, 2 – vessel, 4 – pithos fragment. 5 – knife, 6 – beads, 7 – ring; 3 – survey finds near Shared river, pithos fragment; Chogray I: k. 5, g. 6: 9 – plan of the grave, 10 – whetstone, 11 – knife; Mandjikiny-1: k. 14, g. 13: 12 – stratigraphic correlation between Early Majkop grave 13 (a) and Yamnaya grave 10 (b), plans, 8 – beads, 13 – whetstone, 14 – knife 2-4 – clay; 5, 11, 14 – bronze; 6 – clay, sandstone, steatite; 7 – silver; 8 – nephrite, marble; 10, 13 – stone Fig. 17. Steppe Early Majkop graves. Sharakhalsun-6: k. 5, g. 7: 1 – plan of the grave, 2 – vessel, 3, 4 – flakes, 5 – beads, 6 – fragment of the item; k. 2, g. 17: 8 – knife-shaped blade, 9 – plan of the grave, 11 – vessel; k. 2, g. 12: 7 – plan of the grave, 10 – flake, 12 – vessel 2, 11, 12 – clay; 3, 4, 8, 10 – flint; 5 – steatite; 6 – bronze Fig. 18. Steppe Early Majkop graves. Evdyk: k. 4, g. 20: 1 – plan of the grave, 2 – bead, 3 – vessel; g. 16: 4 – plan of the grave, 5 – pendant, 6, 7 – beads; g.19: 8 – stratigraphic correlation between the primary grave 20 (a) and secondary grave 19 (b), plans, 9 – rings, 10 – splinter, 11 – knife-shaped blade, 12 – bead, 13 – perforator, 14 – flake, 17 – fragment of vessel; g. 17: 15 – plan of the grave, 16 – pendant 2, 6 – 7, 13 – bone; 3, 17 – clay; 9 – silver; 10, 14 – flint; 11 – chalcedony; 12 – shell? stone? clay?; 5, 16 – deer tooth Fig. 19. Steppe Late Majkop graves. Zunda-Tolga-1: k. 1, g. 14: 1 – plan of the grave, 4 – vessel, 5 – flakes; g. 13: 2 – plan of the grave, 7 – vessel; g. 15: 3 – plan of the grave, 8 – flakes; g. 16: 6 – plan of the grave 4, 8 – clay; 5 – 6 – flint Fig. 20. Steppe Late Majkop graves. 1 – Chogray II: k. 14, g. 9; 2 – Chogray I: k. 4, g. 3; 3 – KVCH-56: k. 6, g. 12; 4 – Tsatsa: k. 7, g. 2; Evdyk 1: k. 5, g. 11: 5 – mortar, 6 – pin, 7 – plan of the grave 5 – stone; 6 – bone

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Fig. 21. Steppe Late Majkop graves.Evdyk 1: k. 4, g. 23: 1 – plan of the grave, 2 – hook, 3 – temple ring, 4 – stone, 5 – flake, 6 – adze, 7 – knife, 8 – pestle, 12 – cauldron, 12a – ornamentation of the cauldron; g. 22: 9 – plan of the grave, 10 – awl, 11 – vessel, 13 – splinters, 14 – temple rings, 15 – beads, 16 – awl 2, 6, 7, 10, 12, 14, 16 – bronze; 3 – gold; 4, 8 – stone; 5, 13 – flint; 15 – shell? steatite? Fig. 22. Yamnaya graves of the Kuma-Manych Depression. Zunda-Tolga-3: k. 1, g. 4: 1 – mat, 2 – plan of the grave, 3 – brazier; 4 – k. 1, g. 8; 6 – VMLBII,65: k. 21, g. 3; 7 – VMLBII,65: k. 43, g. 7; VMLBII, 66: k. 43, g. 18: 5 – temple ring, 8 – plan of the grave; 9 – VMLBII,65: k. 18, g. 1 1 – plant fibres (reed); 3 – clay; 5 – bronze Fig. 23. Yamnaya graves of the Kuma-Manych Depression. Chograysky-V: k. 9, g. 6: 1 – plan of the grave, 2 – hammerheaded pin; 3 – k. 9, g. 2; 4 – k. 9, g. 7; VMLBII,66: k. 33, g. 11: 6 – incense burner, 8 – plan of the grave; 7 – VMLBI,65: k. 13, g. 10; 9 – VMPB,65: k. 1, g. 9; VMLBI,65: k. 1, g. 6: 10 – vessel, 11 – plan of the grave 2 – bone; 6, 10 – clay Fig. 24. Yamnaya graves of the Kuma-Manych Depression. 1 – VMLBII,66: k. 40, g. 2; 2 – VMLBII,65: k. 38, g. 5; 3 – VMLBII,65: k. 9, g. 5; 4 – VMLBII,66: k. 18, g. 3; 5 – VMLBII,65: k. 14, g. 6; Zunda-Tolga-6: k. 1, g. 2: 9 – plan of the grave, 6 – beads, 7 – fragment of hammer-headed pin, 8 – brazier 6 – bronze; 7 – bone; 8 – clay Fig. 25. Yamnaya graves of the Southern Yergueni Hills. Mandjikiny-1: k. 3, g. 2: 1 – knife, 2 – plan of the grave; 5 – k. 3, g. 1; Mandjikiny-2: k. 11, g. 3: 3 – plan of the grave, 4 – hammer-headed pin; 6 – Mu-Sharet-4: k. 12, g. 1 1 – bronze; 4 – bone Fig. 26. Yamnaya graves of the Southern Yergueni Hills. Mu-Sharet-4: k. 1, g. 3: 1 – plan of the grave, 2 – axe; 3 – g. 4; g. 2: 4 – hammer-headed pin, 5 – plan of the grave; g. 5: 6 – amphora, 7 – vessel, 8 – hammer-headed pin, 9 – plan of the grave 2 – stone; 4, 8 – bone; 6, 7 – clay Fig. 27. Yamnaya graves of the Southern Yergueni Hills. Mu-Sharet-4: k. 10, g. 4: 1 – plan of the grave, 2 – hammer-headed pin; 3 – k. 11, g. 4; k. 11, g. 3: 4 – plan of the grave, 6, 7 – plant mats; 5 – k. 12, g. 6 2 – bone; 6, 7 – reed, cane Fig. 28. Yamnaya graves of the Southern Yergueni Hills. Mu-Sharet-1: k. 5, g. 3: 1 – upper level of the grave, 2 – lower level of the grave, 3 – mat placed on the roof; Mandjikiny-1: k. 14, g. 10: 4 – plan of the grave, 5 – cord pendants, 6 – temple pendant 3 – cane; 5 – bronze; 6 – antimony Fig. 29. Yamnaya graves of the eastern part of the Stavropol Hills. Chogray IX: 1 – k. 15, g. 7; k. 9, g. 8: 2 – plan of the grave, 4 – hammer-headed pin, k. 15, g. 10: 5 plan of the grave, 6 – hammer-headed pin, 7 – long beads; k. 5, g. 8: 3 – plan of the grave, 8 – hammer-headed pin; 9 – k. 4, g. 3; 10 – k. 8, g. 2 2, 5, 6, 8 – bone Fig. 30. Yamnaya culture of the Middle Yergueni Hills and the Sarpa Plain. Kurgan mounds. 1 – Arkhara: k. 19; 2 – Lola II: k. 8; Lola I: 3 – k. 21; 4 – k. 20; 5 – Arkhara: k. 2; Tsatsa: 6 – k. 6, 7 – k. 4. Fig. 31. Yamnaya graves of the Middle Yergueni Hills. Peschany V: k. 1: 1 – g. 3; g. 2: 2 – plan of the grave, 3 – flat cake; 4 – Arkhara, k. 2, g. 7; Lola II: k. 8, g. 8: 4 – plan of the grave, 6 – hammer-headed pin; Lola I: 7 – k. 20, g. 2; 8 – k. 18, g. 6; 9 – Arkhara: k. 10, g. 8 3 – clay; 6 – bone Fig. 32. Sarpa Plain. Tsagan-Usn-VII: k 2, g. 1:A – plan of the grave; B – grave offerings: 1 – amulets location in situ, 2 – beads, 3 – ring, 4 – hammer-headed pin, 5 – long beads, 6 – long beads,7 – beads, 8 – hammer-headed pin, 9 – pendants, 10 – plaques, 11 – plaques, 12 – awl, 13 – fragment of an item, 14 – incense burner 2, 4, 7, 10, 12 – bronze; 3, 5, 6, 8, 11, 13 – bone; 9 – shell; 14 – clay Fig. 33. Yamnaya graves of the Caspian Plain. KVCH-56: k. 13, g. 9: 1 – plan of the grave, 2 – temple ring, 4 – plant mat; 5 – awl, 6 – pointer; 3 – KVCH-53: k. 1, g. 2; KVCH-56: k. 10, g. 7: 7 – plan of the grave, 8 – vessel, 9 – bird bones and hammer-headed pins; Krivaya Luka IV: k. 1, g. 14: 10 – plan of the grave, 11 – knife, 12 – pestle 2, 5, 11 – bronze; 4 – plant fibres; 6, 9 – bone; 12 – stone Fig. 34. Yamnaya graves of the Caspian Plain. Krivaya Luka XXI: k. 5, g. 1: 1 – plan of the grave, 2 – pestle; 3 – horn fragment; k. 4, g. 1: 4 – plan of the grave, 5 – amulet-pendants; k. 2, g. 7: 6 – vessel, 7 – plan of the grave 3 – stone; 3, 5 – bone; 6 – clay Fig. 35. Clay vessels of the Yamnaya culture: group I, sub-group I, types 1 and 2. 1 – VMPB,67: k. 18, g. 3; 2 – Djangr: k. 31, g. 1; 3 – KVCH-56: k. 17, g. 3; 4 – Khar-Nuurin-Tolga: k. 28, g. 7; 5 – Krivaya Luka XXIII: k. 1, g. 22; 6 – Krivaya Luka XXX: k. 1, g. 19 Fig. 36. Clay vessels of the Yamnaya culture: group I, sub-group I, type 3. 1 – VMLBIII,66: k. 15, g. 13; 2 – VMLBII,66: k. 22, g. 2; 3 – KVCH-56: k. 10, g. 7: 4 – Nikolskoye: k. 3, g. 13; Tsatsa: k. 6: 5 – g. 4; 6 – g. 3 Fig. 37. Clay vessels of the Yamnaya culture: group I, sub-group I, type 4; sub-group II, type 1. 1 – Mu-Sharet-4: k. 4, g. 5; 2 – VMPB,65: k. 13, g. 4; 3 VMLBI,65: k. 54, g. 3; 4 – Three Brothers: k. 9, g. 13; 5 – Chograysky IV: k. 3, g. 3; 6 – Lola-I: k. 23, g. 1; 7 – Krivaya Luka XII: k. 2, g. 13; 8 – Chograysky: k. 7, g. 1 Fig. 38. Clay vessels of the Yamnaya culture: group I, subgroup III – amphorae. 1 – Three Brothers: k. 9, g. 13; 2 – MuSharet-4: k. 1, g. 5; 3 – VMLBII,66: k. 81, g. 6; and similar vessels from other Yamnaya sites: 7 – Bryukhovetskaya II: k. 6, g. 15; 4 – Vysokoye: k. 19, g. 6; 5 – Starogorozheno: k. 3, g. 4; 6 – Urukh-1: k. 3, g. 3 Fig. 39. Clay vessels of the Yamnaya culture: group II, sub-group I, types 1 and 2 attributed to the Yamnaya and Poltavka cultures. 1 – KVCH-42: k. 1, g. 4; 2 – Prepolovenka: k. 9, g. 1; 3 – Krivaya Luka XV: k. 9, g. 1; Krivaya Luka XI: k. 7: 4 – g. 9; 6 – g. 8; 5 – Idjil: k. 1, g. 1 Fig. 40. Clay pot-shaped vessels of sub-group I, goblets of –sub-group II, flat bottom jars of sub-group III and a funnel of sub-group VI. Group II of vessels from Yamnaya graves. 1 – Krivaya Luka XIII: k.3, g.8; 2 – Chograysky V: k.6, g.4; 3 – Djangr: k.26, g.5; 4 – Evdyk I: k.9, g.4; 5 – VMLBIII,66: k.29, g.8 Fig. 41. Clay vessels of the Yamnaya culture: group II, sub-group V – large earthenware pots. 1 – KVCH-56: k. 8, g. 7; 2 – VMLBII,65: k. 1, g. 6; 3 – VMLBII,66: k. 82, g. 1; 4 – Zunda-Tolga-3: k. 1, g. 4

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Fig. 42. Clay incense burners from Yamnaya graves: group II, sub-group VII. 1 – Chograysky V: k. 11, g. 4; 2 – VMLBII,65: k. 22, g. 3; 3 – VMLBII,66: k. 11, g. 11; 4 – Tsagan-Usn VII: k. 2, g. 1 Fig. 43. Clay vessels Caspian Steppes Yamnaya culture classification: group I. 1 – KVCH-56: k. 17, g. 3; 2 – Djangr: k. 31, g. 1; 3 – Krivaya Luka XXIII: k. 1, g. 22; 4 – Khar-Nuurin-Tolga: k. 28, g. 7; 5 – VMLBII,66: k. 22, g. 2; 6 – Krivaya Luka XXI: k. 2, g. 7; 7 – Chograysky IV: k. 3, g. 3; 8 – Three Brothers: k. 9, g. 13; 9 – Lola-1: k. 23, g. 1; 10 – Chograysky V: k. 7, g. 1; 11 – VMLBII,66: k. 81, g. 6; 12 – Mu-Sharet-4: k. 1, g. 5; 13 – Three Brothers: k. 9, g. 13 Fig. 44. Clay vessels Caspian Steppes Yamnaya culture classification: group II. 1 – Idjil-1: k. 1, g. 1; 2 – KVCH-42: k. 1, g. 4; 3 – Krivaya Luka XV: k. 3, g. 7; 4 – Krivaya Luka XI: k. 7, g. 8; 5 – Krivaya Luka XXI: k. 8, g. 3; 6 – Chograysky V: k. 6, g. 4; 7 – Djangr: k. 26, g. 5; 8 – Evdyk-1: k. 9, g. 4; 9 – VMLBIII,66: k. 29, g. 8; 10 - KVCH-56: k. 8, g. 7; 11 – VMLBII,65: k. 1, g. 6; 12 – VMPB,67: k. 5, g. 6; 13 – KVCH-37: k. 8, g. 1; 14 – Chograysky V: k. 11, g. 4; 15 – VMLBII,65: k. 22, g. 3; 16 – Tsagan-Usn-VII: k. 2, g. 1. Fig. 45. The decorations of the headdress (1 – 7), front part of the garment (8 – 13) and the arms (14) of the Caspian Steppes Yamnaya culture. 1 – temple ring, VMLBII,65: k. 43, g. 7; 2, 3 – cord and temple pendants, Mandjikiny-1: k. 14, g. 12; 4, 9 – 12 – decorations of the headdress and the front part of the garment, Krivaya Luka XXI: k. 4, g. 1; 5 – temple ring, VMLBII,66: k. 10, g. 3; 6 – temple rings, KVCH-56: k. 9, g. 13; 7 – cord pendants, Chogray VIII: k. 29, g. 2; 8 – spiral spectacle-shaped pendants, Krivaya Luka XXXV: k. 1, g. 19; 13 – long beads, Krivaya Luka XI: k. 7, g. 9; 14 – ring, Krivaya Luka XV: k. 6, g. 5 1, 2, 5 – 8 – bronze; 3 – antimony; 4, 9 – 11, 13 – 14 – bone; 12 – stone Fig. 46. Hammer-headed pins of the Caspian Steppes Yamnaya culture. 1 – VMLBIII,66: k. 13, g. 7; 2 – VMLBI,66: k. 6, g. 8; 3 – VMLBIII,66: k. 3, g. 6; 4 – VMLBI,66: k. 43, g. 15; 5 – Lola II: k. 8, g. 8; 6, 7 – Chograysky III: k .2, g. 3 1 – 5, 7 – bone; 6 – bronze Fig. 47. Hammer-headed pins and long beads of the Caspian Steppes Yamnaya culture. 1 –Zunda-Tolga-1: k. 3, g. 4; 2, 3 – KVCH-56: k. 10, g. 7; 4 – Chograysky V: k. 11, g. 4; 5 – Chograysky V: k. 6, g. 4; 6 – VMLBII,65: k. 54, g. 3 1 – 6 – bone Fig. 48. Hammer-headed pins of the Caspian Steppes Yamnaya culture. 1 – VMLBII,66: k. 6, g. 1; 2 – 3 – Chograysky V: k. 11, g. 4; 4 – Zunda-Tolga-6: k. 1, g. 2; 5 – VMLBI,65: k. 55, g. 4; 6 – VMLBII,66: k. 33, g. 6; 7 – VMLBI,65: k. 29, g. 3; 8 – VMLBIII,66: k. 8, g. 8 1 – 8 – bone Fig. 49. Hammer-headed pins of the Caspian Steppes Yamnaya culture. 1 – VMPB,67: k. 25, g. 7; 2 – Kermen-Tolga: k. 30, g. 6; 3 – VMLBI,66: k. 39, g. 1; 4 – VMPB,65: k. 4, g. 15; 5 – VMPB,65: k. 26, g. 4; 6 – Chograysky V: k. 6, g. 4; 7 – VMLBII,65: k. 37, g. 5; 8 – 9 – Chogray VIII: k. 5, g. 4 bone Fig. 50. Hammer-headed pins of the Caspian Plain Yamnaya culture. 1 – Krivaya Luka XXXV: k. 5, g. 1; 2 – Krivaya Luka XV: k. 3, g. 7; 3 – Krivaya Kuka XXXV: k. 1, g. 19; 4 – Krivaya Luka XI: k. 7, g. 9 1 – 4 – bone Fig.51. Metall tools and weapons of the Caspian Steppes Yamnaya culture. 1 – knife, Mandjikiny-1: k. 3, g. 2; 2 – stem, Krivaya Luka XIV: k. 6, g. 7; VMLBIII,66: k. 4, g. 10: 3 – stem, 4 – knife; 5 – knife, VMLBIII,66: k. 22, g. 5; 6 – knife, Krivaya Luka IV: k. 1, g. 14 1 – 6 – bronze Fig. 52. Stone tools and weapons of the Caspian Steppes Yamnaya culture. 1 – axe, Mu-Sharet-4: k. 1, g. 3; 2 – pestle, Krivaya Luka XXXV: k. 1, g. 19; 3 – pestle, Krivaya Luka XXI: k. 1, g. 8; 4 – pestle, Krivaya Luka XIV: k. 6, g. 7; 5 – pestle, Krivaya Luka XVIII: k. 2, g. 8; 6 – pestle, Zunda-Tolga-1: k. 2, g. 1; 7 – grinding stone, Mu-Sharet-4: k. 10, g. 3; 8 – rectifier for an arrow shaft, VMLBII,65: k. 2, g. 3 1 – 8 – stone Fig. 53. Flint tools and weapons of the Caspian Steppes Yamnaya culture. 1 – blanks of an arrow head, VMPB,67: k. 29, g. 10; Zunda-Tolga-3: k. 2, g. 4: 2 – arrow head, 3 – knife-shaped blade; 4 – arrow head, Krivaya Luka XIV: k. 6, g. 7 1 – 4 – flint Fig. 54. Plant mats from Caspian Steppes Yamnaya graves. Ostrovnoy: k.3: 1 – g. 33: a – graphic sketch, b – reconstruction of the weaving pattern; 2 – g. 34; 4 – Mandjikiny-1: k. 11, g. 2: a – graphic sketch, reconstruction of two possible variation of mat design: b – cloth with plain weave, c – cloth with a knobless net; 4 – Zunda-Tolga-3: k. 1, g. 4 1 – reed; 2 – reed, sedge; 3 – wood, plant fibers; 4 – plant fibers Fig. 55. Plant mat from Mu-Sharet-4: k. 5, g. 3: 1 – graphic sketch, 2 – the scheme of the weave, warp, weft – directions of warp and weft threads; 3 – variant of cloth using plain and twill weave (reconstruction of O.V. Orfinskaya) Fig. 56. Ritual clay items. 1 – funeral mask, Kermen-Tolga: k. 43, g. 3; clay flat cakes: 2 – Chograysky V: k. 11, g. 4; 3 – Peschany V: k. 1, g. 2 Fig. 57. Steppe North Caucasus graves of the Kuma-Manych Depression. 1 – Zunda-Tolga: k. 1, g. 10; 2 – Ostrovnoy: k. 6, g. 13; VMLBI,65: k. 42, g. 3: 3 – plan, 4 – braziers; VMLBI,65: k. 21, g. 12: 5 – plan of the grave, 6 – knife, 7 – rectifier for an arrow shaft, 8 – knife-shaped blade; Zunda-Tolga-3: k. 1, g. 11: 9 – rings, 10 – plan of the grave; 11 - Zunda-Tolga-1: k. 3, g. 2; VMLBII,66: 12 – k. 3, g. 1; 13 – k. 10, g. 1; 14 – k. 5, g. 10 4 – clay; 6 – bronze; 7 – sandstone; 8 – flint; 8 – bone Fig. 58. Steppe North Caucasus graves of the Southern Yergueni Hills. 1 – Mandjikiny-2: k. 11, g. 4; 2 – Mu-Sharet-1: k. 5, g. 5; Mandjikiny-2: k. 7, g. 2: 3 – plan of the grave, 4 – button; Mu-Sharet-1: k. 6, g. 4: 5 – plan of the grave, 6 – 13 – grave offerings: 6 – vessel, 7 – pendants, 8 – pendants, 9 – ring, 10 – ring, 11 – long beads, 12 – rings, 13 – long beads 4, 12, 13 – bone; 6 – clay; 7, 10 – bronze, silver; 8 – shell Fig. 59. Steppe North Caucasus graves of the western part of the Stavropol Hills. Chograysky IX: k. 1, g. 11: 1 – plan of the grave, 3 – pin and plaque; 2 – k. 5, g. 7; 4 – k. 10, g. ; 6 – k. 9, g. 13; 7 – k. 14, g. 5; 5 – Chogray VIII: k. 3, g. 6 3 – bronze

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Fig. 60. Steppe North Caucasus graves of the Middle Yergueni Hills and the Caspian Plain. Arkhara: 1 –3 – k. 20, g. 2: 1 – plan of the grave, 2 – braziers, 6 – axe; 7 – k. 20, g. 1; 11 – 12 – k. 13, g. 3: 11 – brazier, 12 – plan of the grave; Tsagan-Usn IV: k. 1, g. 4: 8 – plan of the grave, 9 – arrow head, 10 – temple ring 2, 5, 11 – clay; 3 – bone; 6 – stone; 9 – flint; 10 – silver Fig. 61. Main types of table wear of the Caspian Steppes North Caucasus culture. 1 – VMPB,67: k. 13, g. 2; 2 – Lola-1: k. 23, g. 1; 3 – VMLBI,65: k. 2, g. ; 4 – Chograusky VI: k. 1, g. 8; 5 – Mu-Sharet-1: k. 6, g. ; 6 – Tsatsa: k. 7, g. 4 1– 6 – clay Fig. 62. Main types of kitchen pottery of the Caspian Steppes North Caucasus culture. VMLBII,66: 1 – k. 42, g. 3, 3 – k. 69, g. 2; Arkhara: 2 – k. 20, g. 2, 5 – k. 14, g. 3; 7 – k. 18, g. 2; 4 – Mu-Sharet-4: k. 6, under the mound; 6 – Elista: k. 25, g. 4; 8 – VMLBIII: k. 19, g. 3 1 – 8 – clay Fig. 63. Main types of ritual vessels of the Caspian Steppes North Caucasus culture. 1 – VMLBIII,66: k. 4, g. 14; 2 – ZundaTolga-6: k. 2, under the mound; 3 – VMPB,67: k. 16, g. 10 1 – 3 – clay Fig. 64. Main types of decorations of the headdress, the front part of the garment and a button of the Caspian Steppes North Caucasus culture. Mu-Sharet-4: k. 6, g. 4: 1 – 9 – decoration of the band; 10 – reconstruction of the headdress in the form of a band; 11 – rings; 12 – temple ring, VMPB,65: k. 26, g. 5; 13 – VMLBIII,66: 16 – beads, k. 12, g. 7; 17 – beads, k. 18, g. 8; 18 – button, Mandjikiny-2: k. 7, g. 2; 19 – pendants from the deer tooth, Lola-1: k. 23, g. 1; 20 – umbo, VMLBII, 65: k. 18, g. 5 1 – 5, 9, 14, 16 – 17, 20 – bronze; 5, 7 – shell; 8, 13 – silver; 12 – antimony; 11, 15, 18 – 19 – bone Fig. 65. Main types of belt-sets and “rosary” amulets from the Caspian Steppes North Caucasus culture. Mu-Sharet-1: k. 4, g. 6: 1 – belt set made of plaques and perforated fangs of steppe fox, 2 – 3 – ornamentations of the belt, 11 – reconstruction of the belt-set; 4 – 6 – belt-set made of plaque and a crook-shaped pin, VMLBI,66: k. 9, g. 2; 7 – 9 – rosary consisted of spoonshaped pendant, beads and a medallion, VMLBII,66: k. 73, g. 4; 10 – crook-shaped pins, VMLBII,65: k. 8, g. 5 1, 3, 4 – bone; 2 – shell; 5 – 10 – bronze Fig. 66. Pins of the Caspian Steppes North Caucasus culture. 1 – Mu-Sharet-1: k. 2, g. 3; 2 – VMPB,67: k. 2, g. 4; 3 – Chogray IX: k. 1, g. 11, 4 – VMLBIII,66: k. 18, g. 8 1, 2 – bone; 3, 4 – bronze Fig. 67. Bronze crook-shaped pins of the Caspian Steppes North Caucasus culture, VMLBII,65: k. 18, g. 5 Fig. 68. Main types of metal items of the Caspian Steppes North Caucasus culture. Bronze knives: 1 – VMPB,67: k. 4, g. 5; 2 – VMLBI,65: k. 21, g. 12; 3 – VMLBIII,66: k. 12, g. 13; 5 – VMPB,67: k. 16, g. 10. Awl: 4 – Chogray IX: k. 1, g. 1 1 – 4 – bronze Fig. 69. Stone axes of the Kabarda-Pyatigorie type. 1 – Arkhara: k. 20, g. 2; 2 – Mu-Sharet-1: k. 13, g. 2 Fig. 70. Early Catacomb graves of the Kuma-Manych Depression. 1 – Zunda-Tolga-2: k. 1, g. 1; 2 – Ostrovnoy: k. 3, g. 26; Zunda-Tolga-3: k. 1, g. 9: 3 – funnel, 4 – a piece of ocher, 5 – the fragments of wooden fence, 6 – beads, 7 – plan of the grave 3 – clay; 6 – bone Fig. 71. Early Catacomb graves of the Kuma-Manych Depression. Baga-Burul: k. 5, g .6: 1 – plan of the grave, 2 – vessel; VMLBI,66: k. 41, g. 3: 3 – plan of the grave, 4 – braziers; Baga-Burul: k. , g. 19: 7 – plan of the grave, 5 – pendant; VMLBI,66: 6 – k. 9, g. 6; 8 – k. 3, g. 2; Baga Burul: k.5, g.19 Fig. 72. Early Catacomb graves of the Kuma-Manych Depression. VMLBII,66: k. 67, g. 5: 1 – plan, 2 – braziers; 3 – VMPB,65: k. 29, g. 3; VMLBII,66: k. 22, g. 2: 5 – plan of the grave, 8 – braziers; 6 – VMLBII,66: k. 19, g. 8; VMLBI,66: k. 21, g. 2: 4 – spindle wheel, 7 – plan of the grave; 9 –Zunda-Tolga-2: k. 2, g. 5; 10 – Chograysky IV: k. 5, g. 1 2, 8 – clay; 4 – bone Fig. 73. Early Catacomb graves of the Southern Yergueni Hills. Mandjikiny-2, k.54. 1 – the plan of kurgan and its central profile; plans of graves: 2 – g.5, 3 – g.6; 4 – g.3; grave offerings: g.5: 7 – perforator, 6 – beads, 9 – long beads; g.6: 5 – bead, 8 – hammer-headed pin 5,6 – bronze; 7-9 – bone Fig. 74. Early Catacomb graves of the Southern Yergueni Hills. Mandjikiy-2, k. 37. 1 – plan of the kurgan and its central and western profile; plans of the graves: 2 – g. 3, 3 – g. 4; 4 – g. 1; grave offerings g. 1: 5 – cord pendants, 6 – braziers 5 – bronze; 6 – clay Fig. 75. Early Catacomb graves of the Southern Yergueni Hills. Mandjikiny-2, k. 45: 1 – plan of the kurgan and its central profile, 3 – vessel under the mound, g. 5: 2 – braziers, 5 – plan; k. 42, g. 4: 4 – plan, 6 – braziers 2, 3, 6 – clay Fig. 76. Early Catacomb graves of the Southern Yergueni Hills. Mandjikiny-1: k. 14, g. 6: 1 – plan, 2 – fragments of mat, 4 – pin, 5 – k. 2, g. 1; k. 2, g. 2: 3 – vessel, 6 – plan of the grave 2 – plant fibers; 3 – clay; 4 – bone Fig. 77. Early Catacomb graves of the eastern part of the Stavropol Hills. Chogray VIII, k. 3, g. 3: 1 – plan of the grave, 2 – pin; 3 – cord pendant; 4 – wagon-cradle model; 5 – plaques; 6 – wagon model; 7 – bird bones. Chogray IX, k.2, g 8: 8 – plan of the grave, 9 – fish-shaped pendants; 10 – pin; 11 – cradle model, 12 – fish bones 2, 5, 7, 9, 10, 12 – bone; 3 – bronze; 4, 6, 11 – clay Fig. 78. Early Catacomb graves of the eastern part of the Stavropol Hills. Chogray VIII: 1 – k. 4, g. 2; 2 – k. 15, g. 2; k. 17, g. 5: 3 – pin, 4 – plan of the grave; 5 – k. 18, g. 6; k. 16, g. 2: 6 – pendant, 7 – plan of the grave; k. 20, g. 3: 9 – plan, 10 – pins, 11 – plaques 3, 10, 11 – bone; 6 – bronze Fig. 79. Early Catacomb graves of the Middle Yergueni Hills. Temrta III, k. 1: 3 – plan of the kurgan; 4 – plans of the central profile; 2 – plan of g. 1; grave offerings from grave 1: 1 – cord pendant, 5 – incense burner, 6 – pin 1 – bronze; 5 – clay; 6 – bone

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Fig. 80. Early Catacomb graves of the Middle Yergueni Hills. Temrta III, k. 1, g.4: 1 – plan of the grave, 4 – temple ring; g. 2: 2 – plan of the grave, 3 – vessel, 5 – long beads 3 – clay; 4 – silver; 5 – bone Fig. 81. Collective graves of the Early Catacomb culture. VMPB,65: k. 20, g. 3: 1 – plan, 7 – vessel;2 – VMPBII,65: k. 13, g. 11; 3 – VMPB,65: k. 17, g. 8; 4 – VMLBIII,66: k. 40, g. 4; Peschany V: k. 2, g. 3: 5 – plan of the grave, 13 – pin; Mandjikiny-2: k. 42, g. 1: 6 – plan of the grave, 8 – button, 9 – ornamentation of the band, 10, 11 – hammer-headed pins, 11 – braziers 7, 11 – clay; 10, 12, 13 – bone, 8 – wood; 9 – bronze Fig. 82. Main types of table-wear of the Early Catacomb culture of the Caspian Steppes. 1 – VMPB,65: k. 20, g. 3; 2 – VMLBIII,66: k. 28, g. 7; 3 – Baga-Burul: k. 5, g. 6; 4 – VMPB,67: k. 11, g. 28; 5 – VMLBIII,66: k. 2, g. 2; 6 – Mandjikiny1: k. 1, g. 3; 7 – Temrta III: k. 1, g. 2; 8 – Mandjikiny-1: k. 2, under the mound; 9 – Mandjikiny-2: k. 45, ritual place; 10 – Chograysky VI: k. 1, g. 9; 11 – Chogray IX: k. 9, g. 2 1 – 10 – clay Fig. 83. Main types of kitchen vessels of the Early Catacomb culture of the Caspian Steppes. 1 – Mandjikiny-1: k. 11, g. 7; 2 – Elista: k. 27, g. 1; 3 – Zunda-Tolga-3: k. 1, g. 9: 4 – VMLBIII,66: k. 26, g. 4; 5 – VMLBI,66: k. 41, g. 3; 6 – Mandjikiny-1: k. 37, g. 1; 7 – Mandjikiny-1: k. 42, g. 2; 8, 9 – Mandjikiny-2: k. 42, g. 2 1 – 9 – clay Fig. 84. Main type of kitchen (1 – 3) and ritual (4 – 5) vessels of the Early Catacomb culture of the Caspian Steppes. 1 – VMLBIII,66: k. 28, g. 3; 2 – VMLBI,66: k. 41, g. 3; 3 – Zunda-Tolga-6: k. 3, g. 1; 4 – Peschany V: k. 5, g. 2, 5 –Temrta III: k. 1, g. 1; 6 – VMPB,67: k. 11, g. 28 1 – 6 – clay Fig. 85. Headdress ornamentations of the Early Catacomb culture of the Caspian Steppes. 1 – cord pendant, VMPB,67: k. 2, g. 5; Mandjikiny-2: 2 – cord pendants, k. 11, g. 7; 3 – cord pendant, k. 11, g. 6, 4 – cord pendant, k. 37, g. 1; 5 – temple ring, k. 37, g. 4; 6 – barrel-shaped bead, k. 54, g. 6; Temrta III: 7 – temple ring, k. 1, g. 1; 8 – cord pendant, k. 1, g. 4; 9 – 14 – decorations of the band from Mandjikiny-2: k. 42, g. 1: 9 – button, 10, 12, 13 – cord pendants, 11 – bead, 14 – temple ring. A, B – reconstruction of the headdress 1 – 6, 8, 10 – 13 – bronze; 7 – silver; 9 – wood; 14 – silver? Fig. 86. Headdress decorations, Yashkul-1: k. 24, g. 2 bronze Fig. 87. Decorations of the front part of the garment of the Early Catacomb culture of the Caspian Steppes. 1 – bronze bead, VMLBI, 65: k. 45, g. 2; 2 – double-disks, VMPB,67: k. 7, g. 14; 3 – cord pendants, Chograysky VIII: k. 3, g. 3; 4, 5 – cord pendant and bead, VMPB,67: k. 5, g. 8; 6 – 13 – VMLBII,65: k. 13, g. 11: 8, 9, 12 – long beads, 6 – spoon-shaped pendant, 7 – plaque in a form of a cow head , 10 – plaque, 11 – ring, 13 – pendant, 15 – puncheon plaque, 16 – crook-shaped pin; cord pendants, Chogray VIII: 14 – k. 3, g. 3; 17 – k. 16, g. 2 1 – 7, 14 – 17 – bronze; 8-12 – bone; 13 – shell Fig. 88. Bone pins of the Early Catacomb culture of the Caspian Steppes. 1, 3 – Kermen-Tolga: k. 31, g. 2; 2 – VMLBI,66: k. 21, g. 3; 4 – VMPB,67: k. 30, g. 7 Fig. 89. Bone pins and amulets of the Early Catacomb culture of the Caspian Steppes.Mandjikiny-2: k. 11, g. 6: 1 – pendants from steppe fox tooth, 2 – long beads, 3 – location of long beads and stem-shaped pin near the palm of the left hand of the child; 4 – Mandjikiny-2: k. 54, g. 6; 5 – Temrta III: k. 1, g. 1; 6 – Mandjikiny-2: k. 11, g. 7; 7 – Peschany V: k. 2, g. 3 Fig. 90. Main types of decorations of the Early Catacomb culture of the Caspian Steppes. Pins, long beads and plaques: VMLBI,65: k. 43, g. 3; 1 – 2 – crook-shaped and hammer-headed pins, Gashun: k. 10, g. 1: 3 – hammer-headed pin, 4 – long bead; 5 – stem-shaped pin, VMLBI,66: k. 27, g. 2; 6 – fragments of hammer-headed pins, Ostrovnoy, k. 3, g. 37; 7 – rings and long beads, Arkhara: k. 20, g. 2; 8 – long beads, Mandjikiny-2: k. 54, g. 6; 9 – 11, 13 – set of pendants, plaques and pins, Peschany V: k. 2, g. 1; 12 – cord pendants, VMLBIII,65: k. 43, g. 2; 14 – long beads, Temrta III: k. 1, g. 2 1 – 11, 13 – 14 – bone; 12 – bronze Fig. 91. Weapons and transport models of the Early Catacomb culture of the Caspian Steppes. VMLBI,65: k. 45, g. 2: 1 – awl, 2 – knife; 3 – Elista: k. 27, g. 1, model of a wheel; 4 – Mandjikiny-2: k. 54, g. 5, awl, 5 – VMLBII, 66: k. 21, g. 2, spindle whorl 1 – 2 – bronze; 3 – clay; 4 – 5 – bone Fig. 92. Reconstruction made on the Early Catacomb male skull found at Peschany V: k. 3, g. 2, according to A.I. Nechvaloda Fig. 93. Reconstruction made on the Early Catacomb male skull found at Peschany V: k. 3, g. 2, according to A.I. Nechvaloda Fig. 94. Reconstruction made on the Early Catacomb male skull found at Temrta III: k.1, g.4, according to A.I. Nechvaloda Fig. 95. Reconstruction made on the Early Catacomb male skull found at Temrta III: k. , g. 4, according to A.I. Nechvaloda Fig. 96. Yamnaya-Catacomb graves of the Kuma-Manych Depression. Chograysky V: k. 6, g. 2: 1 – plan of the grave, 2 – hammer-headed pins; 4 – g. 1; 3 – Zunda-Tolga: k. 2, g. 1 2 – bone Fig. 97. Yamnaya-Catacomb graves of the Kuma-Manych Depression. Zunda-Tolga-5: k. 1, g. 7: 1 – plan of the grave, 2 – hammer-headed pin; VMLBI,65: 3 – k.36, g.4; 4 – k.60, g.5; 5 – k.4, g.8; 6 – VMLBII,65: k.11, g.3; 7 – ChograyskyV: k.8, g.2 Fig. 98. Yamnaya-Catacomb graves of the Southern Yergueni Hills. Mu-Sharet-1: k. 8, g. 3: 1 – plan of the grave, 2 – braziers, 3 – hammer-headed pin; Mandjikiny-1: k. 19: 4 – g. 1, g. 2 – 5 – plan of the grave, 6 – ring, 7 – the plan of the kurgan and its central profiles 2 – clay; 3, 6 – bone Fig. 99. Yamnaya-Catacomb graves of the Middle Yergueni Hills. Elista: k. 8, g. 8: 1 – plan of the grave, 2 – hammer-headed pins, 3 – k. 31, g. 7; Lola II: k. 12, g. 2: 4 – ring, 5 – plan of the grave; 6 – g. 1; 7 – k. 13, g. 3 2, 4 – bone

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Fig. 100. Yamnaya-Catacomb graves of the Caspian Plain. 1 – Krivaya Luka XXI: k. 1, g. 8; 2 – Krivaya Luka XXIII: k. 2, g. 4; 3 – Tsagan-Usn III: k. 5, g. 5; 4 – Krivaya Luka XXII: k. 3, g. 7; 5 – Tsatsa: k. 3, g. 2; 6 – Iki-Zegista: k. 4, g. 5 Fig. 101. Multicultural graves in A- and T-catacombs and pits with grave offerings of Catacomb culture types, KumaManych Depression and the Middle Yergueni Hills. VMLBI,65: 1 – k. 5, g. 4; 4 – k. 14, g. 1; 2 – VMLBII,66: k. 20, g. 4; 3 – VMLBII,65: k. 34, g. 4; 5 – Elista: k. 2, g. 8; Arkhara: 6 – k. 2, g. 5; 7 – k. 31, g. 1; VMLBI,66: k. 28: 8 – g. 7, 9 – g. 9 Fig. 102. Vessels from the Yamnaya-Catacomb graves of the Caspian Steppes. 1 – Iki-Zegista: k. 4, g. ; 2 – Djangr: k. 5, g. 3; Djangr: k. 36, g. 7; 4 – Evdyk I: k. 9, g. 2; 5 – Sholmun-Tolga: k. 1, g. 12; 6 – Krivaya Luka XIV: k. 6, g .6 1 – 6 – clay Fig. 103. Vessels from Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural graves of the Caspian Steppes. 1 – KVCH-41: k. 3, g. 1; 2 – VMLBI,66: k. 8, g. 2; 3 – VMLBI,66: k. 28, g. 9; 4 – Krivaya Luka XXXIV: k. 1, g. 13; 5 – Krivaya Luka XXI: k. 8, g. 3; 6 – VMLBI,65: k. 8, g. 2; 7 – VMLBII,66: k.6 7, g. 2; 8 – 9 – Arkhara: k. 31, g. 1 1 – 9 – clay Fig. 104. Clay braziers from Multicultural graves of the Caspian Steppes. 1-3 – KVCH-56: k.6, g.16; 4 – VMLBIII,66: k.20, g.8 1 – bone; 2-4 – clay Fig. 105. Pins and amulets of the Yamnaya-Catacomb graves of the Caspian Steppes. 1 – Three Brothers: k. 5, g. 4; 2 – VMPB,67: k. 29, g. 4; 3 – VMLBIII,66: k. 15, g. 10; 4 – Chograysky V: k. 6, g. 2; 5 – Tsagan-Usn III: k. 5, g. 5; 6 – VMLBII,66: k. 39, g. 4 1 – 6 – bone Fig. 106. Ornamentations from Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural graves of the Caspian Steppes. 1 – Krivaya Luka XIV: k. 6, g. 6; 2 – Evdyk I: k. 6, g. 4; 3 – Tsagan-Usn V: k. 5, g. 5: 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10 – VMLBIII,66: k. 4, g. 13; 5 – Mandjikiny-1: k. 19, g. 1; 8 – KVCH-41: k. 3, g. 1; 11 – VMLBII,66: k. 67, g. 2; 12 – 14 – VMLBIII,66: k. 2, g. 10; 15 – Chogray VIII: k. 23, g. 2 1 – 4, 6 – 9, 10 – 14 – bronze; 5, 9, 15 – bone Fig. 107. Mesolithic-Neolithic sites of the Caspian Steppes (according to Koltsov 1990): 1- Kharba; 2 – Djangr; 3 – Guva 1; 4 – Guva 2; 5 – Khanata 1; 6 – Khanata-2; 7 – Zakhanata; 8 – Obilnoye 1; 9 – Obilnoye-2; 10 – Yashkul 1, 11 – Yashkul 2; 12 – Yashkul 3; 13 – Yashkul 4; 14 – Yashkul 5; 15 – Tu-Buzgu-Khuduk 2; 16 – Tu- Buzgu-Khuduk 1; 17 – Molodezhnoye 1; 18 – Molodezhnoye 2; 19 – Molodezhnoye 3; 20 – Ulan-Tug; 21 – Ulan-Tug 2; 22 – Basy; 22 – Zenzeli; 24 – Adyk; 25 – Pereshkino; 26 – Komsomolskoye; 27 – Ulan-Tug-3; 28 – Ulan-Tug-4; 29 – Artezian; 30 – Manty; 31 – Yasta-Khuduk; 32 – Yashkul 6; 33 – Yashkul 7; 34 – Yashkul 8; 35 – Achukulak; 36 – Bazhigan; 37 – Turksad; 38 – Makhmud-Mekteb Fig. 108. Eneolithic sites of the Caspian Steppes: 1 – VMLBIII,66; 2 – Zunda-Tolga-1; 3 – Chogray II; 4 – Arkhara; 5 – Three Brothers; 6 – Nikolskoye V and VI; 7 – Staritsa; 8 – Krivaya Luka XV; 9 – KVCH-27; 10 – Ulan-Tolga, 11 – survey finds near the Chogray reservoir (left bank of the Eastern Manych); 12 – survey finds along Lake Koltonur; 13 – survey finds near Kumskaya MZHK; 14 – survey finds near Lake Adyk; 15 – survey finds in Yastak-Khuduk Gorge; 16 – Ulan-Tug; 17 – survey finds near Yashkul River; 18 – Lake Salt; 19 – Djangr; 20 – survey finds near Caspian Sea; 21 – Levokumsk; 22 – Bazhigan; 23 – Achikulak; 24 – Peregruznoye I; 25 – Shlakhovsky II; 26 – Basinskoye and Zenzeli villages; 27 – Tipki-I; 28 – Zolotarevka-5; 29 – Saygachy a – Caspian Steppes; b – Kuma-Manych Depression and northeastern part of the Stavropol Hills, Southern Yergueni Hills and Black Lands; c – Middle Yergueni Hills and western part of the Caspian Plain; d – Sarpa Plain Fig. 109. Early Majkop sites of the Caspian Steppes. 1 – VMLBIII,66; 2 – Zunda-Tolga-1; 3 – Mandjikiny-1; 4 – Sharachalsun-6; 5 – Chogray I; 6 – Evdyk; 7 – Chograysky VI; 8 – Shared; 9 – Lake Koltan-Nur; 10 – Achikulak; 11 – Bazhigan; 12 – Machmut-Mekteb; 13 – survey finds near Lake Adyk; 14 – Primorsky II a – Caspian Steppes; b – Kuma-Manych depression and northeastern part of the Stavropol Hills, Southern Yergueni Hills and Black Lands; c –Sarpa Plain Fig. 110. Late Majkop and Early Yamnaya kurgans of the Caspian Steppes: 1 – Zunda-Tolga-1; 2 – Chogray; 3 – UlanTolga; 4 – Evdyk; 5 – Tsatsa; 6 – KVCH-56; 7 – Koltan-Nur Lake; 8 – Adyk; 9 – Achikulak; 10 – Bazhigan; 11 – MachmutMekteb; 13 – Ajgursky 2; 14 – Zolotarevka-1; 15 – Mu-Sharet-4; 16 – Khar-Zukha-1; 17 – VMPB,67 a – Caspian Steppes; b – Kuma-Manych Depression and northeastern part of the Stavropol Hills, Southern Yergueni Hills and Black Lands; c – Middle Yergueni Hills and western part of the Caspian Plain, d – Sarpa Plain Fig. 111. Yamnaya culture sites of the Caspian Steppes. 1 – VMLBI,65: 2 – VMLBII,65; 3 – VMPB,65; 4 – VMLBI,66; 5 – VMLBII,66; 6 – VMPB,67; 7 – VMLBIII,66; 8 – Zunda-Tolga-1; 9 – Chograysky; 10 – Ostrovnoy; 11 – Zunda-Tolga-5; 13 – Zunda-Tolga-6; 14 – Mu-Sharet-4; 15 – Mu-Sharet-1; 16 – Mandjikiny-1; 17 – Mandjikiny-2; 18 – Shupta; 19 – UlanZukha; 20 – Chogray; 21 – Khar-Zukha; 22 – Lola-1; 23 – Kermen-Tolga; 24 – Three Brothers-I, I kurgan burial ground 17 km far from Elista; 25 – Elista; 26 – Arkhara; 27 – I northeastern group, Elista; 28 – Bichkin-Buluk; 29 – Tsagan-Elsin; 30 – Peschany V; 31 – Krivaya Luka; 32 – Staritsa; 33 – Nikolskoye; 34 – Iki-Orva; 35 – Tsatsa; 36 – Balkin chutor; 37 – Kuptsin-Tolga; 38 – Iki-Zegista; 39 – Kyuyukin-Tolga; 40 – Bolshoy Tsarin; 41 – Sazonkin bugor; 42 – Ulan-Tolga; 43 – Evdyk; 44 – Djangr; 45 – Idjil; 46 – Tachin-Tsarang; 47 – Kanukovo; 48 – Tsagan-Nur; 49 – Zachanata; 50 – KVCH-56; 51 – Khar-Nuurin-Tolga; 52 – Tsagan-Usn; 53 – Yashkul 3 and 1; 54 – Chilgir; 55 – Verkhnee Pogromnoye; 56 – kh. Kuzina; 57 – kh. Kapitansky; 58 – KVCH-27; 59 – KVCH-53; 60 – Gorkaya Balka; 61 – Shared; 62 – Sharakhalsun; 63 – Tipki a – Caspian Steppes; b – Kuma-Manych Depression and northeastern part of the Stavropol Hills, Southern Yergueni Hills and Black Lands; c – Middle Yergueni Hills and western part of the Caspian Plain, d – Sarpa Plain Fig. 112. Steppe North Caucasus sites of the Caspian Steppes: 1- VMLBI,65; 2 – VMLBII,65; 3 – VMPB,65; 4 – VMLBI,66; 5 – VMLBII,66; 6 – VMPB,67; 7 – VMLBIII,66; 8 – Zunda-Tolga-1; 9 – Chograysky; 10 – Ostrovnoy; 11 – Zunda-Tolga-3; 12 – Zunda-Tolga-6; 13 – Mu-Sharet-1; 14 – Mandjikiny-2; 15 – Chogray; 16 – Lola; 17 – Elista; 18 – Arkhara; 19 – Three Brothers; 20 – Kermen-Tolga; 21 – kurgans near Elista; 22 – Chere-Churul; 23 – KVCH-56; 24 – Tsagan-Usn; 25 – Tsatsa; 26 – Iki-Orva; 27 – Sholmun-Tolga; 28 – Gorkaya balka a – Caspian Steppes; b – Kuma-Manych Depression and northeastern part of the Stavropol Hills, Southern Yergueni Hills and Black Lands; c – Middle Yergueni Hills and western part of the Caspian Plain, d – Sarpa Plain

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Fig. 113. Early Catacomb sites of the Caspian Plain: 1 – VNLBI,65; 2 – VMLBII,65; 3 – VMPB,65; 4 – VMLBI,66; 5 – VMLBII,66; 6 – VMPB,67; 7 – VMLBIII,66; 8 – Chograysky; 9 – Ostrovnoy; 10 – Zunda-Tolga-2; 11 – Zunda-Tolga-2; 12 – Zunda-Tolga-5; 13 – Zunda-Tolga-6; 14 – Mandjikiny-q; 15 – Mandjikiny-2; 16 – Chogray; 17 – Kermen-Tolga; 18 – Khar-Zukha; 19 – Lola; 20 – Elista;21 – Peschany-V; 22 – Gashun; 23 – Baga-Burul; 24 – Temrta-III; 25 – Shared; 26 – Sharakchalsun; 27 – Tipki; 28 – KVCH-56; 29 – Yashkul a – Caspian Steppes; b – Kuma-Manych Depression and northeastern part of the Stavropol Hills, Southern Yergueni Hills and Black Lands; c – Middle Yergueni Hills and western part of the Caspian Plain Fig. 114. Yamnaya-Catacomband Multicultural graves of the Caspian Steppes: 1 – VMLBI,65: 2 – VMLBII,65; 3 – VMPB,65: 4 – VMLBI,66: 5 – VMLBII,66: 6 – VMLBIII,66; 7 – VMPB,67; 8 – Chogray, 9 – Chograysky; 10 – ZundaTolga-2; 11 – Zunda-Tolga-5; 12 – Zunda-Tolga-6; 13 – Mu-Sharet-1; 14 – Mu-Sharet-4; 15 – Mandjikiny-1; 16 – KermenTolga; 17 – Elista; 18 – Lola-2; 19 – Ulan-Zukha 2; 20- Evdyk; 21 – Krivaya Luka; 22 – Tsatsa; 23 – Tsagan-Usn; 24 – KVCH-37; 25 – Djangr; 26 – Iki-Zegista a – Caspian Steppes; b – Kuma-Manych Depression and northeastern part of the Stavropol Hills, Southern Yergueni Hills and Black Lands; c – Middle Yergueni Hills and western part of the Caspian Plain, d – Sarpa Plain Fig. 115. Eastern Manych Catacomb sites of the Caspian Steppes: 1 – VMLBI,65; 2 – VMLBII,65; 3 – VMPB,65; 4 – VMLBI,66; 5 – VMLBII,66; 6 – VMPB,67; 7 – VMLBIII,66; 8 – Zunda-Tolga-1; 9 – Chograysky; 10 – Ostrovnoy; 11 – Sharakhalsun; 12 – Tipki; 13 – Zunda-Tolga-2; 14 – Zunda-Tolga-3; 15 – Zunda-Tolga-4; 16 – Zunda-Tolga-5; 17 – ZundaTolga-6; 18 – Kevyudy; 19 Mu-Sharet-1; 20 – Mu-Sharet-4; 21 – Shared; 22 – Mandjikiny-1; 23 – Mandjikiny-2; 24 – Gashum; 25 – Ulan-Zukha; 26 – Chogray; 27 – Khar-Zukha; 28 – Kermen-Tolga; 29 – Three Brothers-1; 30 – Lola; 31 – Elista; 32 – Arkhara; 33 – I northeastern group in Elista; 34 – I kurgan burial ground 17 km far from Elista; 35 – Elista, survey finds; 36 – Bichkin-Buluk; 37 – Tsagan-Elsin; 38 – Peschany-V; 39 – Priyutnoye; 40 – Yergueni; 41 – Ovata-V; 42 – Zakhanata; 43 – Balkin khutor; 44 – Kuptsin-Tolga; 45 – Bolshoy Tsarin; 46 – Krivaya Luka; 47 – Staritsa; 48 – Nikolskoye; 49 – Iki-Orva; 50 – Tsatsa; 51 – Iki-Zegista; 52 – Kuuykin-Tolga; 53 – Ulan-Tolga; 54 – Evdyk-1; 55 – Djangr; 56 – TsaganNur; 57 – Idjil 2; 58 – Kanukovo; 59 – Tsagan-Nur-2; 60 – Khar-Nuurin-Tolga; 61 – Chilgir; 62 – Temrta III; 63 – KVCH37; 64 – KVCH-27; 65 –KVCH-56; 66 – KVCH-53; 67 – KVCH-57; 68 – Yashkul; 69 – Sazonkin Bugor; 70 – kh. Kapitansky; 71 – Ulan-Erge; 72 – KVCH-239; 73 – KVCH-240; 74 – Tsagan-Usn; 75 – Yashkul; 76 – Baga-Burul; 77 – survey finds along Chogray Reservoir; 78 – Ulan-Kheech; 79 – Chernozemelsky; 80 – Zenzeli-1; 81 – survey finds near Nara-Khuduk; 82 – Gorkaya Balka; 83 – Achikulak; 84 – survey finds near Kumskaya MZHK; 85 – Yastak-Khuduk, 86 – Tavn-Gashun, Saygachy; 87 – Tav-Gashun a – Caspian Steppes; b – Kuma-Manych Depression and northeastern part of the Stavropol Hills, Southern Yergueni Hills and Black Lands; c – Middle Yergueni Hills and western part of the Caspian Plain, d – Sarpa Plain Kurgans: 1 – Early Majkop culture 2 – Late Majkop culture, 3 – Eneolithic, 4 - Yamnaya culture, 5 – Steppe North Caucasus culture, 6 – Early Catacomb culture, 7 – East Manych Catacomb culture, 8 – Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural groups Fig. 116. Planigraphy of the kurgan burial ground East Manych, Left Bank, kurgan group I, excavation of 1965: a – plan of the kurgan burial ground; b – Yamnaya culture; c – Steppe North Caucasus culture; d – Early Catacomb culture; e – Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural groups; f – East Manych Catacomb culture Kurgans: G - Yamnaya culture; ’ - Steppe North Caucasus culture; M – Early Catacomb culture; Ã -Yamnaya- catacomb culture; Â - East Manych Catacomb culture Fig. 117. Planigraphy of the kurgan burial ground Eastern Manych, Left Bank, kurgan group II, excavation of 1965: a – plan of the kurgan burial ground; b – Yamnaya culture; c – Steppe North Caucasus culture; d – Early Catacomb culture; e – Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural groups; f – East Manych Catacomb culture Kurgans: G - Yamnaya culture; ’ - Steppe North Caucasus culture; M – Early Catacomb culture; Ã -Yamnaya- catacomb culture; Â - East Manych Catacomb culture Fig. 118. Planigraphy of the kurgan burial ground Eastern Manych, Write Bank, excavation of 1965: a – plan of the kurgan burial ground; b – Yamnaya culture; c – Steppe North Caucasus culture; d – Early Catacomb culture; e – Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural groups; f – East Manych Catacomb culture Kurgans: G - Yamnaya culture; ’ - Steppe North Caucasus culture; M – Early Catacomb culture; Ã -Yamnaya- catacomb culture; Â - East Manych Catacomb culture Fig. 119. Planigraphy of the kurgan burial ground Eastern Manych, Left Bank, kurgan group I, excavation of 1966: a – plan of the kurgan burial ground; b – Yamnaya culture; c – Steppe North Caucasus culture; d – Early catacomb culture; e – Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural groups; f – East Manych Catacomb culture Kurgans: G - Yamnaya culture; ’ - Steppe North Caucasus culture; M – Early Catacomb culture; Ã -Yamnaya- catacomb culture; Â - East Manych Catacomb culture Fig. 120. Planigraphy of the kurgan burial ground Eastern Manych, Left Bank, kurgan group II, excavation of 1966: a – plan of the kurgan burial ground; b – Yamnaya culture; c – Steppe North Caucasus culture; d – Early Catacomb culture; f – Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural groups; g – East Manych Catacomb culture Kurgans: G - Yamnaya culture; ’ - Steppe North Caucasus culture; M – Early Catacomb culture; Ã -Yamnaya- catacomb culture; Â - East Manych Catacomb culture Fig. 121. Planigraphy of the kurgan burial ground Eastern Manych, Left Bank, kurgan group III, excavation of 1966: a – plan of the kurgan burial ground; b – Eneolithic and Early Majkop cultures; c - Yamnaya culture; d – Steppe North Caucasus culture; e – Early Catacomb culture; f – Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural groups; g – East Manych Catacomb culture Kurgans: ± - Eneolithic culture; ∆ - Early Majkop culture; G - Yamnaya culture; Ú - Steppe North Caucasus culture; M – Early Catacomb culture; Ã -Yamnaya-Ctacomb culture; Â - East Manych Catacomb culture Fig. 122. Planigraphy of the kurgan burial ground Eastern Manych, Write Bank, excavation of 1967: a – plan of the kurgan burial ground; b – Early Majkop culture; c - Yamnaya culture; d – Steppe North Caucasus culture; e – Early Catacomb culture; f – Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural groups; g – East Manych Catacomb culture Kurgans: ± - Eneolithic culture; ∆ - Early Majkop culture; G - Yamnaya culture; Ú - Steppe North Caucasus culture; M – Early Catacomb culture; Ã -Yamnaya-Ctacomb culture; Â - East Manych Catacomb culture

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Fig. 123. Planigraphy of the Zunda-Tolga-1 burial ground: a – plan of the kurgan burial ground; b – Eneolithic and Early Majkop cultured; c – Late Majkop culture; d - Yamnaya culture; e – Steppe North Caucasus culture; f – East Manych Catacomb culture Kurgans: ± - Eneolithic culture; ‚ - Early Majkop culture; > - Late majkop culture; G - Yamnaya culture; Ú - Steppe North Caucasus culture; M – Early Catacomb culture; Ã -Yamnaya-Catacomb culture; Â - East Manych Catacomb culture Fig. 124. Planigraphy of Ostrovnoy burial ground: a – plan of the kurgan burial ground; b Yamnaya culture; c – Steppe North Caucasus culture; d – Early Catacomb culture; e – East Manych Catacomb culture Kurgans: G - Yamnaya culture; Ú - Steppe North Caucasus culture; M – Early Catacomb culture; Â - East Manych Catacomb culture Fig. 125. Planigraphy of Mu-Sharet-4 burial ground: a – plan of the kurgan burial ground; b – Yamnaya culture; c – East Manych Catacomb culture Kurgans: G - Yamnaya culture; Â - East Manych Catacomb culture Fig. 126. Planigraphy of Mu-Sharet-1 burial ground: a – plan of the kurgan burial ground; b – Yamnaya culture; c – Steppe North Caucasus culture; d – Ã -Yamnaya-Catacomb culture; e - Â - East Manych Catacomb culture Kurgans: G - Yamnaya culture; Ú - Steppe North Caucasus culture; Ã -Yamnaya-Catacomb culture; Â - East Manych Catacomb culture Fig. 127. Planigraphy of Mandjikiny-1 burial ground: a – plan of the kurgan burial ground; b –Early Majkop cultured; c – Yamnaya culture; d – Early Catacomb culture; e – East Manych Catacomb culture Kurgans: ‚ - Early Majkop culture; G - Yamnaya culture; M – Early Catacomb culture; Ã -Yamnaya-Catacomb culture; Â East Manych Catacomb culture Fig. 128. Planigraphy of Mandjikiny-2 burial ground: a – plan of the kurgan burial ground; b – Yamnaya culture; c – Steppe North Caucasus culture, d – Early Catacomb culture; e – East Manych Catacomb culture Kurgans: G - Yamnaya culture; Ú - Steppe North Caucasus culture; M – Early Catacomb culture; Â - East Manych Catacomb culture Fig. 129. Planigraphy of Chogray VIII kurgan burial ground: a – plan of the kurgan burial ground; b – Yamnaya culture; c – Steppe North Caucasus culture, Early Catacomb culture; d –Yamnaya-Catacomb culture, e - East Manych Catacomb culture Kurgans: G - Yamnaya culture; Ú - Steppe North Caucasus culture; M – Early Catacomb culture; Ã -Yamnaya-Catacomb culture; Â - East Manych Catacomb culture Fig. 130. Planigraphy of Elista kurgan burial ground: a – plan of the kurgan burial ground; b – Yamnaya culture; c – Steppe North Caucasus culture, d - Early Catacomb culture; e –Yamnaya-Catacomb culture, f - East Manych Catacomb culture Kurgans: G - Yamnaya culture; Ú - Steppe North Caucasus culture; M – Early Catacomb culture; Ã -Yamnaya-Catacomb culture; Â - East Manych Catacomb culture Fig. 131. Planigraphy of Lola kurgan burial ground: a – plan of the kurgan burial ground; b – Yamnaya culture; c – Steppe North Caucasus culture, d - Early Catacomb culture; e – East Manych Catacomb culture Kurgans: G - Yamnaya culture; Ú - Steppe North Caucasus culture; M – Early Catacomb culture; Â - East Manych Catacomb culture Fig. 132. Planigraphy of Arkhara kurgan burial ground: a – plan of the kurgan burial ground; b – Eneolithic, c - Yamnaya culture; d – Steppe North Caucasus culture, e - East Manych Catacomb culture Kurgans: M – Eneolithic culture; G - Yamnaya culture; Ú - Steppe North Caucasus culture; Â - East Manych Catacomb culture Fig 133. Kuma-Manych Depression. Stratigraphic Matrixes: 1 – Eneolithic culture; 2 – Early Majkop culture; 3 – Late Majkop culture and Early Yamnaya culture; 4 – Yamnaya culture, 5 – Steppe North Caucasus culture; 6 – Early Catacomb culture; 7 – Yamnaya-Catacomb group; 8 – Multicultural group; Zunda-Tolga-1: 9 – kurgan 2; 10 – kurgan 1, 11 – ZundaTolga-3: kurgan 1; 12 – Baga-Burul: kurgan 5; 13 – Ostrovnoy: kurgan 3 Cultures: E – Eneolithic; EM – Early Majkop; LM – Late Majkop; EY- Early Yamnaya; Y – Yamnaya; NC – Steppe North Caucasus; EC – Early Catacomb; YC – Yamnaya-catacomb; P – Multicultural, EMCC – East Manych Catacomb culture, L – Lola culture; S – Srubnaya culture Fig. 134. Southern Yergueni Hills. Stratigraphic Matrixes: 1 – Early Majkop culture; 2 –Yamnaya culture, 3 – Steppe North Caucasus culture; 4 – Early Catacomb culture; 5 – Yamnaya-Catacomb group; 6 – Mandjikiny-1: kurgan 14; Mu-Sharet-1: 7 – kurgan 5; 8 – kurgan 1; 9 – Shared: kurgan 4; Mandjikiny-2: 10 – kurgan 11, 11 – kurgan 37; 12 – kurgan 42, 13 – kurgan 2; 14 – Mandjikiny-1: kurgan 3 Cultures: E – Eneolithic; EM – Early Majkop; LM – Late Majkop; EY- Early Yamnaya; Y – Yamnaya; NC – Steppe North Caucasus; EC – Early Catacomb; YC – Yamnaya-Catacomb; P – Multicultural, EMCC – East Manych Catacomb culture, L – Lola culture; S – Srubnaya culture Fig. 135. Stratigraphic Matrixes. I. Northeastern part of the Stavropol Hills: 1 – Eneolithic culture; 2 – Early Majkop culture; 3 – Late Majkop culture; 4 – Yamnaya culture, 5 – Steppe North Caucasus culture; 6 – Early Catacomb culture; 7 – Yamnaya-Catacombgroup II. Middle Yergueni Hills.: 1 – Eneolithic culture; 2 – Yamnaya culture, 3 – Steppe North Caucasus culture; 4 – Early Catacomb culture; 5 – Yamnaya-Catacomb group; Peschany V: 6 – kurgan 1; 7 – kurgan 3; 8 – Temrta III: kurgan 1; 9 – Arkhara: kurgan 2 Cultures: E – Eneolithic; EM – Early Majkop; LM – Late Majkop; EY – Early Yamnaya; Y – Yamnaya; NC – Steppe North Caucasus; EC – Early Catacomb; YC – Yamnaya-Catacomb; P – Multicultural, EMCC – East Manych Catacomb culture, L – Lola culture; S – Srubnaya culture Fig. 136. Stratigraphic Matrixes. I. Sarpa Plain: 1 – Eneolithic culture; 2 –Late Majkop culture; 3 – Yamnaya culture, 4 – Yamnaya-Catacomb group. II. Western part of the Caspian Plain: 1 – Eneolithic culture; 2 – Late Majkop and Early Yamnaya cultures; 3 – Yamnaya culture, 4 – Yamnaya-Catacomb group

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Cultures: E – Eneolithic; EM – Early Majkop; LM – Late Majkop; EY – Early Yamnaya; Y – Yamnaya; NC – Steppe North Caucasus; EC – Early Catacomb; YC – Yamnaya-Catacomb; P – Multicultural, EMCC – East Manych Catacomb culture, L – Lola culture; S – Srubnaya culture Fig. 137. Stratigraphic Matrixes of six environmental niches of the Caspian Steppes Cultures: E – Eneolithic; EM – Early Majkop; LM – Late Majkop; EY- Early Yamnaya; Y – Yamnaya; NC – Steppe North Caucasus; EC – Early Catacomb; YC – Yamnaya-Catacomb; P – Multicultural, EMCC – East Manych Catacomb culture, L – Lola culture; S – Srubnaya culture Fig.138. Diagram of spreading grave offerings across cultures, i.e. Yamnaya, Steppe North Caucasus, Early Catacomb, Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural cultures of the Caspian Steppes Fig.139. Relative and absolute chronology of Eneolithic and Bronze Age cultures of the Caspian Steppes Fig.140. Model of economic development of the Caspian Steppes during the Bronze Age

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LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Wood identification. Yamnaya culture of the Caspian Steppes. Table 2. Plants obtained from the pillow under the skull of the Yamnaya dead of the Caspian Steppes Table. 3. Distribution of pins in Yamnaya burials of the Caspian Steppes. Table 4. Mats of Yamnaya culture of the Caspian Steppes Table 5.Botanic identification of pillows found in Steppe North Caucasus graves of the Caspian Steppes Table 6. Plants obtained from the pillow under the skull of the Early Catacomb dead of the Caspian Steppes Table 7. Wood identification. Early Catacomb culture of the Caspian Steppes. Table. 8. Early Catacomb burials with grave offerings and without grave offerings. Table 9. Mats of Early Catacomb culture of the Caspian Steppes Table 10. 14С dates of the Kchvalynsk I and II cemeteries Table 11. 14С dates of the Majkop culture of the North Caucasus Table 12. Results of 14C dating of human bone and wood from the Yamnaya culture of the South Yergueni Hills Table 13. Results of 14C parallel dating of human and animal bone, and fresh-water shell from Steppe North Caucasus graves Table 14. 14С data of wood obtained for the North Caucasus graves of the Ust-Dzheguta burial ground (Nechitaylo 1978) Table. 15. Results of 14C parallel dating of human and animal bone from Temrta-V burial ground, kurgan 1, grave 1 and 3 Table 16. Results of 14C dating of human bone and a bone pin (made of angular bone) from Zunda-Tolga-5 burial ground: kurgan 1, grave 7 Table 17. Reservoir effect in fish bones from the Shakchaevskaya burial ground, kurgan 4, grave 32, West Manych Catacomb culture Table 18. Parallel dating of samples taken from the same or similar context Table 19. Mean values of 13δC and 15δN, and reservoir effects to be expected in 100% diets in each of the listed categories (after Lanting & van der Plicht 1998) Table 20. Stable isotope ratio measurements for human bones from the Steppe Majkop culture Table 21. Comparison on the data on residue in Bronze Age vessels and organic residue in the stomach area of a male from the Steppe Majkop graves. The measurement to calculate the phosphorus residues were taken on samples from the bottom and from the upper part of the vessels. Table 22. Data on organic residue the stomach area, area between teeth and one coprolite of the Yamnaya population Table. 23. Stable isotope ratio measurements for human and animal bones from the Yamnaya cultures Table 24. Data on organic residue of the stomach area of the North Caucasus population Table. 25. Stable isotope ratio measurements for human and animal bones, and the shell from the Steppe North Caucasus culture Table. 26. Stable isotope ratio measurements for human and animal bones from the Early Catacomb culture Table 27. Data on organic residue in the stomach area, in the area between teeth and in vessels of the Early Catacomb population Table 28. Organic residues in the stomach area of the skeleton from the Yamnaya-Catacomb Burial ground Mandjikiny-1 Table 29. Stable isotope ratio measurements for human and animal bones from the Yamnaya-Catacomb group Table 30. Organic residues in East Manych Catacomb vessels, in the stomach area and in area between teeth of some skeletons Table 31. Stable isotope ratio measurements for human and animal bones from the East Manych Catacomb cultures

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INTRODUCTION over much of the region is 3-8 cm, up to 10-11 cm in the north. In winter, thaw periods are quite often (Agroclimatic resources 1974).

Geography, Geomorphology and Geobotany of the Modern Caspian Steppes The Caspian Steppes located in the southern sub-zone of dry steppes, transitional to semi-desert (Fig.1), are covered with wormwood steppe of the EuropeanKazakhstan type (Lavrenko et al. 1991; Bobrov 2002). The climate is continental and arid. Summer is hot and dry, in winter the snow cover is thin and frost is sometimes bitter. The average temperature in January is 4-5°C, in July it is +25.5-26°C, with the average annual temperature of +10°C. The average annual rainfall is between 180 and 350 mm. The average snow cover

Several landscape areas with different geology, relief, climate, vegetation and soil need to be singled out. Their geomorphologic description is given below. These are the Kuma-Manych Depression, the Southern Yergueni Hills, the Eastern part of the Stavropol Hills, the Middle Yergueni Hills, the Sarpa and Caspian Plains, the Yergueni Plain, the Lower Volga valley, the Black Lands and the littoral area of the Caspian Sea. The conditions of these areas are described below.

Fig. 1. Caspian Steppes

1

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 2. Kuma-Manych Depression

The Kuma-Manych Depression spreads in northwestern– southeastern (Fig.2). Its northern slopes gradually merge with those of the Southern Yergueni Hills and the SalskManych range, and in the south with the Stavropol Hills. In the western area of the Depression there is a valley of the Western Manych, the eastern part is covered by the Eastern Manych and the lower areas of the Kuma. The terrain is rough, with large watersheds having flattened tops and flattened slopes ending with lowlands, characteristic for the southwestern and western areas. These are crossed by shallow narrow ravines.1 The largest among numerous lakes is Lake Manych-Gudilo. The Manych valley is located in the east; it is flat and is covered with limans and humps, especially near Lake Gudilo. The Salsk-Manych range, which borders with the Kuma-Manych Depression in the north, stretches in a northeast–southwest direction to the Southern Yergueni Hills (Agro-climatic resources 1974).

The Southern Yergueni Hills (Fig.3) is an elevated erosion plain with mixed steppe plants and wormwood on bright-chestnut soils. A narrow local linear elevation Choloi-Khamur, which stretches in northwest direction, is the southernmost part of the Yergueni Hills; the southwestern slope of the Choloi-Khamur is northeastern rim of the Kuma-Manych Depression. Mount Shared, the highest point of the Hills, is 222 m. high. The northeast flank of the Hills is steeper and short; it borders on to the fault area. The Ravine Shared, which descends in an east-south-east direction, goes along this fault. To the north, there is an elevated plain of the Southern Yergueni Hills, whose altitude rises toward the northern from 159 m near the village of IkiBurul to 179 m near the village Primanych. There is a large Ravine Ulan-Zukha 14 km to the north from the Shared; it stretches toward westnorthwest, and direction of its stream is opposite to that of the Manych.

Desert steppes or northern semi-deserts with wormwood, fescue2 and feather-grass cover the Kuma-Manych Depression.

A preliminary spatial analysis of the ravine network has shown that rectilinear lengths towards the west and northwest are predominant. Ancient river valleys about 20-45 km long create a modern relief frame pattern. These ancient valleys are not connected with each other. However, they follow the same direction though with some gaps. The segments of the valleys are stable in contemporaneous relief, and they form a patchwork of watershed areas.

The Yergueni Accumulative-Denudation Hills are divided into several landscapes; i.e. the Southern, Middle and Northern Yergueni Hills. The archaeological sites under consideration are located within two first landscapes. 1

In Russian, ravines are divided into proper ravines and balkas, i.e. flatbottom valleys. In steppes, balkas represent the later stage of ravine development. 2 With dominant grass “tipchak”, that is Walsh festuca (Festuca valesiaca).

2

INTRODUCTION

Fig. 3. Southern Yergueni Hills

In the Yergueni Hills latitudinal and semi-latitudinal valleys and ravines prevail. Valleys of the Ulan-Zukha and the Shared are parallel to each other. All main ravines in the Yergueni Hills are now dry valleys with slight seasonal drainage, but they emerged and were formed as valleys with permanent high-flow rivers. Their width, and belts of meanders and two terraces indicate their fluvial origin. Ancient rivers, probably, had much more water than modern ones, and climate then was much more

humid. To the south of the Ulan-Zukha all contemporaneous watercourses are dry ravines, where water flows only during spring melting of snow (Agroclimatic resources 1974). Modern flora of watershed plateaus includes both steppe and semi-desert elements, with domination of wormwood-fescue-feather-grass and wormwood-fescue steppes. 3

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 4. Middle Yergueni Hills

The Middle Yergueni Hills (Fig.4) are more trenched with ravines than the elevated plain of the Southern Yergueni Hills. Valleys of small rivers drain the steppe. The ravines stretch in the latitudinal direction without permanent watercourses. Their length reaches 20-80 km, and their maximal incised depth from the watershed is 70-100 m. Traces of washout are apparent on both their steep and flattened slopes. Surface runoff, ground and

underground waters feed the water of the Yergueni rivers and ravines. Alimentation of rivers with ground waters strongly fluctuates with seasons, depending on rainfalls and droughts. Some rivers may flow all the year, shrinking during a rainless year. Upstream of such ephemeral small rivers is located on the eastern slope of the Yergueni Hills, and they disgorge at the Yergueni bottom into ephemeral lakes and limans.

4

INTRODUCTION

Fig. 5. Salt lakes near village Priyutnoye

The river valleys dry during a rainless years and may be large enough, as they have terraces and their alluvial plains may be as wide as 1 km. Near the village Priyutnoe, there are several lakes (Fig.5) with a 5-20 cm thick layer of white crystal salt at the riverbed, there is no vegetation at all (Agro-climatic resources 1974).

The plateau-like elevation is 50-80 km wide, and the altitude of the Yergueni Hills in the north of Kalmykia is 120 m, whereas in the south it is 218 m. Towards the east, the elevation abruptly drops to the Caspian Plain from 200-250 m height.

5

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 6. Western slopes of the Middle Yergueni Hills

Grass steppes with chamomile and wormwood over bright-chestnut alkali soils cover the Yergueni Hills (Lavrenko et al. 1991; Agro-climatic resources 1974).

valley. There are the Terek and the Kuma valleys to the east; it is the southern part of the Caspian Plain; there are Azov and Kuban Plains to the west, and the piedmont of the Big Caucasus to the south. The elevation has its depressed areas on borders with lowlands, but its steep southern edge is 500-800 m high. The eastern part of the elevation has a dry climate, and feather-grass steppe turns here into a dry fescue-feather-grass steppe and a wormwood-fescue-feather-grass semi-desert.

The western Yergueni slope, which gradually turns into the Salsk Steppes, is a dry steppe over dark-chestnut and bright-chestnut soils (Fig.6). It descends by degrees toward the Don and Manych steppes. The eastern slope, a semi-desert with bright-chestnut soils, abruptly falls toward the Caspian Plain. Ground water lays here at the depth of 10 to 25 m.

Numerous tributaries of the Kuma drain the eastern part of the elevation. Some of them are close to the Kalaus, which is connected with the Eastern Manych (Okhonko 1988; Dzybov 1988).

The vegetative cover of the Yergueni Hills is rather diversified. It is a xerophytes version of dry steppes (Lavrenko et al. 1991). Grass associations occupy minor surface elevations, and wormwood grows on alkali soils. Whereas vegetation of elevations is poor, limans and flatbottom depressions enjoy higher diversity of vegetation cover (Demkin et al. 2002a). Associations with white wormwood,3 fescue and feather-grass dominate. Fescue and feather-grass associations prevail also on the upper Salsk basin, to the west of the Yergueni Hills, with occurring mixed grass and with various wormwood species on alkali soils.

The Caspian Accumulative Plain occupies northeastern and eastern parts of the Caspian Steppes. To the west it is limited by the Yergueni Hills, to the north it extends as far as the Ryn-Sands. It is cut by the system of Sarpa chains of lakes, which in the south run into the Davan Depression. The Plain includes the Sarpa linear Depression, the North Sarpa Plain, the Yergueni Plain, the Black Lands Plain, and a modern littoral belt of salt marshes (Tashninova 2000). The Sarpa Sea Accumulative Plain, located in the north of the region, is a component of the watershed between the Volga and the Sarpa. It stretches as far as the Volga Right Bank. The Sarpa chain of lakes (Barmantsag, Prishib, Sarpa) cuts off this Plain from the Yergueni. The chain of lake basins belongs to a single depression, which stretches as a valley, first in southern, and then in southeastern directions. It is a flat plain with broad ancient valleys, limans and lakes, connected with streams. Spring

The eastern section of the Stavropol Hills is a large rolling plain, as much as the Southern Yergueni Hills trenched with ravines. Dry steppes form local landscape. The Stavropol Hills is a wide flat elevation, which declines toward the north, where it borders the Manych 3 In the Caspian region, white wormwood associations with Artemisia maritima dominates as well as with black wormwood associations with Artemisia pouciflora.

6

INTRODUCTION

Fig. 7. Black Lands

kochia, fescue, oats, bluegrass and sedge (Tashninova 2000; Agro-climatic resources 1974).

rains and ground waters provide alimentation for the lakes (Alexandrov 1996; Tashninova 2000). Associations of desert-gramineous plants and black wormwood associations grow in the northern outskirts of the Caspian Plain (Lavrenko et al. 1991).

Downstream Volgograd, where Volga bifurcates with its big branch Akhtuba, the river reaches the Caspian Plain. The Volga and Akhtuba flood plain is 12-40 km wide; its terrain is broken, trenched with ephemeral lakes. To the south, the flood plain broadens and passes into the Volga delta. This is a separate physical-geographical province. The landscape of the Volga-Yergueni region is a rolling hummocky plain, slightly dissected. In its upper part it penetrates into a semi-desert zone, and its lower part reaches a desert. Here feather-grass and fescue prevail, semi-desert grasses predominate; Salsola and undershrub are also of frequent occurrence (Gavrilov et al. 1901; Lavrenko et al. 1991). Precipitations are low, but the Volga brings much water during the flood. With the normal maximal supply of water, contained in 20-30 cm deep snow, , and 90-100% of the average annual runoff (5-10 mm) takes place in the spring. Meadow, bush and forest vegetation covers the flood-plain. Willows, poplars and maples grow near the water, and gramineous grass, mixed grass and reed are frequent in littoral limans (Agro-climatic resources 1974).

The easternmost side of the Caspian Plain is almost absolutely flat, with slight positive landforms. The absolute height in the north is 50 m, and in the south it is 29 m. Numerous small lake depressions, sand ridges and Baer’s mounds are dispersed across the plain. The flat littoral plain with flood-plains and low terraces, covered with reed, stretches along the coast for 30-40 km. All small lakes are salty; reed grows around them. In 1847 there were around 700 salt lakes in the Lower Volga and the Caspian Steppes; by 1901 their number increased up to two thousand (Ososkov 1901). Semi-deserts with white wormwood, fescue and Stipa capillata on bright-chestnut soils cover the part of the Caspian lowland, which boarders with the sheer Yergueni slope (Demkin et al. 2002a). The Black Land Plain (Fig.7) with its underdeveloped minor surface landforms and the brown semi-desert soils is located to the southeast (Gennadiev, Puzanova 1996). Two large depressions are located here: the Davan Depression to the northwest and the Adyk Depression to the southwest. On the Black Lands there is no permanent snow cover in winter. There are several salt lakes, but most lakes dry in summer and turn into saline lands. Sands cover about 18% of the Black Lands. Small salt lakes are located along the Eastern Manych riverbed, to the southwest. Vegetation is represented by wormwood,

Hence, the steppe of the Caspian Steppes is a patchwork of different landscapes, geomorphologic structures and main (zonal) types of vegetation. This natural background must be taken into account when reconstructing paleoclimate of Eneolithic and Bronze Ages. Various environmental areas of the Caspian Steppes differed from the Black Sea Steppes, the North Caucasus Steppes, and the forest-steppe of the Don and the Volga basins. Changes in their environmental conditions deeply 7

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES Caspian Steppes during the Bronze Age. Questions of the sequence of archaeological cultures, their origin and the economic structure were raised for the first time. The idea of autochthonic development dominated in suggested solutions of the issue on the cultures’ origin. Archaeologists’ adherence to this approach was mostly predetermined by prevalence of the stage concept of cultural development, with focus on evolutionism and autochthonism. The migration theory, on the contrary, was virtually rejected at that time.

influenced appearance, development and disappearance of prehistoric archaeological cultures. And in spite of increase of human economic power, development of human ideas and the social structure, dependence of man on nature did not weaken. History of Research The initial period of the material collection and first concepts. V.A. Gorodtsov’s studies became a turning point in investigations of the South of Russia’s Bronze Age. Gorodtsov believed three archaeological cultures followed each other: Yamnaya (Pit-grave), Catacombgrave and Srubnaya (Timber-grave) (Gorodtsov 1907). He assumed that change of cultures meant complete ousting of one group by another. This work attracted attention of many scholars who had been studying Scythian and Sarmatian antiquities before, so that they focussed on the cultures of the earlier period.

After the Second World War the amount of data was substantially extended, which helped researchers reinterpret the accumulated material. New concepts of historic development of the region in the Bronze Age were formulated as a result of substantial increase in archaeological data. On the one hand, it allowed scholars to think in terms of broad categories applied to large cultural and historical regions or communities. On the other hand, such an approach resulted in delution of some narrow local distinctions in the historical picture of particular geographical areas that most likely were already independent in the prehistoric age. As a result, cultures were either divided into local versions or united into chronological horizons (Yudin et al. 1996). Besides, new cultures were brought to light, which significantly extended the panorama of cultural and historical development in Northern Eurasia.

Until 1920 all information about antiquities of the Caspian Steppes was incidental and incomplete (Tsutskin 1985). In the late 1920s–early 1930s, however, numerous data on the Bronze Age were offered for scientific review thanks to systematic excavations under the guidance of Professor P.S. Rykov, of Saratov University. Scholars focused on studies of the burial rites, which confirmed the existence of all three cultures of Gorodtsov’s triad on the Caspian Steppes (Rykov 1929). The numerous materials were sufficient to define their traits (Rykov 1931). At the same time scholars received earlier data on the Neolithic and the Eneolithic Ages (Shishlina 2007).

In the 1960s archaeological excavations on the Kalmyk steppes were resumed by the expedition headed by Professor I.V. Sinitsyn, of Saratov University, and then continued by others. Since the late 1980s the Steppe (former Kalmykia) Archaeological Expedition of the State Historical Museum, Moscow, headed by the author, also took part in the studies of archaeological sites in different areas of the Caspian Steppes.

Summarizing his materials in essays on the history of the Lower Volga region, Rykov analyzed them based on a commonly accepted “stage” concept. He divided Yamnaya burials into early (“hut burials”), and Yamnaya burials proper (Rykov 1936: 20). He believed the Yamnaya population lived under conditions of a matriarchal tribal system, whilst its transition towards a patriarchal system was marked by appearance of Catacomb groups. Rykov considered the transition from the Yamnaya culture to the Catacomb culture not as a change of population, but as a transformation of the mode of life and the economic structure of the same nomadic community. In his opinion, this idea was confirmed by similarity of funeral offerings discovered in Yamnaya and Catacomb burials. His relative chronology included five cultural-chronological stages; different features of the burial rite–from the burial construction to the orientation of the dead were used as its criteria. Rykov supposed that the Catacomb culture of the Lower Volga region had been replaced by the Srubnaya culture.

As a result, a huge database was set up. This made it possible to formulate and solve the issue of the chronological sequence, origin and evolution of the Neolithic and Bronze Age cultures, and specific issues of burial rite development (Fisenko 1967); to propose classifications of various categories of grave offerings (Korenevsky 1978; Latynin 1967; Safronov 1973), and to discuss chronology and origin of cultures as well as their economic models (Merpert 1974; Shilov 1975). A number of generalizing classifications were published. These dealt with the North Caucasus and the Don region and were based on analysis of burial rite elements and funerary offerings (Bratchenko 1976; Nechitailo 1978; Safronov 1974; Derzhavin 1991; Trifonov 1991 а), and basic categories of metal objects (Yessen 1950). A number of chronological systems were proposed for Ukraine, too (Manzura 1994; Subbotin 2000). Systematization of the material allowed scholars to articulate a number of research problems, and propose generalized cultural and historical development patterns for these regions in antiquity (Kiyashko V. 1974; Bratchenko 1976; Gening, 1986; Nechitailo 1978; Trifonov 1991 а; Derzhavin 1991; Sanzharov 2001). It was important for studies of the Caspian Steppes as well.

Prior to the Second World War many scholars believed that the Bronze Age steppe cultures were genetically related, for instance, the Catacomb culture was formed on the basis of the Yamnaya culture (Krivtsova-Grakova 1938). Thus, this period was the time of accumulation and understanding of the material on the history of the 8

INTRODUCTION In the post-war period the materials found by new expeditions were used to confirm earlier hypotheses concerning genetic relations of main Bronze Age cultures (Krivtsova-Grakova 1962). It becomes especially clear in analyzing historiography on the Yamnaya and Catacomb cultures. Gradually a situation developed when, as L.S. Klein put it, the very term “the Yamnaya-Catacomb culture” implied that the Yamnaya and Catacomb cultures were just different evolutionary stages of the same superculture, which was proved by presence of the transition period graves that combined traits of two different cultures (Klein 1962).

historical process as a whole was considered as particularly discrete. Scholars used development and change of the burial rites as the basis for studies of the aforesaid issues. They singled out the Volga-Manych culture (Yessen 1950), and subsequently the North Caucasus Piedmont Catacomb culture (Mongait 1955).

A number of scholars criticized the autochthonic theory of the Bronze Age culture evolution. Instead they suggested a virtually contrary view on the origin and development of Yamnaya and Catacomb cultures denying any relationship between them (Artamonov 1950). They helped revive the theory of ancient peoples’ migration, which was a step forward. At the same time, some scholars overestimated the historical importance of migrations, their theories being too schematic (Klein 1962; Artamonov 1950; Fisenko 1967).

The basic concepts of cultural and chronological development of the Caspian Steppes of that time were related to the typological analysis of the burial rite, grave offerings, and sequences of archaeological cultures based on stratigraphy of burial mounds, i.e. kurgans.

As a result, there appeared a tendency to reflect the concept of a single centre of Bronze Age culture development. The scholars were interested in searching local substrata and working out patterns for specific regions including the Caspian Steppes.

I.V. Sinitsyn (Sinitsyn, Erdniev 1966; 1971) thought that diagnostic traits of the Bronze Age burial rite consisted in the character of burial construction, funeral rite and offerings. He defined three main groups of burials: ● In rectangular ground pits; ● In catacombs and square-rectangular pits; ● In mounds.

A real dispute raged around the origin of the Yamnaya culture. D.Ya. Telegin singled out sites of the Novodanilovka type and the Sredny Stog culture (1973). A point of view was put forward that the Sredny Stog culture had a genetic base of the Yamnaya culture (Lagodovska et al. 1962; Telegin 1973). V.N. Danilenko proposed his own pattern of the Steppe Neolithic development and singled out two independent “cultural lines of origin and development”, i.e. the Azov-Pontic culture line and the Yamnaya culture line (1974). The discovery and investigation of the Khvalynsk cemetery on the Volga (Agapov et al. 1990) made it possible to state that the Yamnaya culture in the Volga region developed on the basis of the Khvalynsk culture. However, when the horizon of the Steppe Eneolithic burials was defined, the boundaries of the Yamnaya culture, as described by Gorodtsov, narrowed. A chronological gap of almost thousand years long separated the sites of the Khvalynsk culture and Gorodtsov’s classical Yamnaya culture, which contradicted the idea of genetic continuity in development of the Eneolithic and the Early Bronze Age cultures.

Sinitsyn included into the first group burials of both Yamnaya and Steppe North Caucasus cultures that were subsequently singled out by V.A. Safronov (1974) as well as burials of the Steppe Eneolithic Age. He compared Yamnaya and Majkop burials, but he considered the Yamnaya-Catacomb group as a separate group, and rejected genetic relationship between the Yamnaya and Catacomb cultures. Later Sinitsyn defined the Early Yamnaya and the Late Yamnaya groups in his monograph on the East Manych region (1978); he considered Late Yamnaya burials to be synchronous with Catacomb burials. Sinitsyn included into the Late Yamnaya burials performed in catacombs with the dead in a position extended or flexed on the back (Sinitsyn 1978. Vol. I: 9). He believed that as a result of further development of the Catacomb culture it completely replaced Yamnaya groups. He also thought that Srubnaya burials (he considered the Srubnaya population to be descendants of the Yamnaya culture) were absent on the Caspian Steppes.

A similar dispute raged around the origin of the Catacomb culture. Gradually the migration theory prevailed. M.I. Artamonov believed Catacomb antiquities to have originated from the North Caucasus (1950), L.S. Klein thought its primal homeland had to be sought in the Balkans (1962). Ideas were developed concerning cultural centres and peripheries, the role of marginal zones where a number of cultural traditions could interact. Such terms as “diffusion”, “adaptation”, “acculturation” were widely used. Scholars concentrated on chronology and cultural interaction in different regions, including the Caspian Steppes. There appeared a cultural, historical and chronological patterns and the

The dissertation of V.A. Fisenko was dedicated to the analysis of Catacomb burials on the Caspian Steppes. The paper began with the analysis of the Yamnaya culture that he considered to be earliest in the region. Fisenko divided the materials of the Yamnaya culture into two groups according to the position of the dead–a flexed position on the back and an extended position on the back. The scholar denied any chronological or cultural differences between the burials, considering them as a single ritual group. Fisenko proposed a two-stage pattern of the Bronze Age culture development: the Yamnaya culture was the early culture, the Catacomb culture followed it. He defined two groups of catacomb burials: flexed 9

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES including into it other cultures proposed, i.e. the Steppe Eneolithic, Majkop, Lola cultures.

skeletons and skeletons extended on their backs, and he believed that they formed a single culture. When analyzing these burials, the author raised a number of important issues, such as cultural attribution of this group, the time when the catacomb burial rite appeared in the North Caucasus Piedmont area, and the role the Yamnaya culture played in development of the Catacomb burial ritual. He pointed out that at a certain stage the Yamnaya and Catacomb cultures coexisted (Fisenko 1966).

This pattern was proposed for the territory of Kalmykia (according to the excavations of 1962-1966); some followers either applied Safronov’s model, though simplified, to their materials from the Central Stavropol region (Derzhavin 1991) or used it to establish a chronological correlation with materials from other regions, such as the Volga-Don area, with the Kalmykia data, disregarding numerous new data (Kiyashko A. 1999; 2002).

N.Ya. Merpert in his doctoral dissertation analyzed the North Caucasus Piedmont variant of the Yamnaya culture; he defined a group of burials performed in pits with skeletons extended on their backs. He considered them culturally related to the North Caucasian traditions and believed that these associations were the latest ones among Yamnaya burials. Stratigraphically they preceded Catacomb graves and coexisted with Yamnaya burials, with skeletons placed extended on their backs with heads oriented to the north or to the south (Merpert 1968: 227233).

Some scholars criticized Safronov’s model when it was published (Klein 1976; Shilov 1975). However, cultural groups proposed by Safronov became part of archaeological issues. Many scholars interested in working out new chronological systems for other regions kept using terms everybody was accustomed to, though they introduced new names for groups they singled out. For instance, A.N. Gey, when working out a general line of development for the steppe zone of the North Pontic region (1999a), included Safronov’s group II into the North Caucasian sites, and group IV into the North Caucasus Catacomb culture. The latter term was picked up by M.V. Andreeva (Andreeva, Petrenko 1998). V.A. Trifonov proposed a cultural and chronological sequence for the Kuban region based on synchronization of the cultures he had defined with Kalmyk groups I-VII (1991 а).

The next stage is related to the research conducted by V.A. Safronov who dedicated a chapter of his paper to chronology of the sites dating to 2000 BC in the South of Eastern Europe to the Bronze Age of Kalmykia (1974). He concentrated his attention on the combination of main traits of the burial rite–the shape of the grave construction and the position of the dead. Safronov singled out seven burial groups that correlated with six chronological horizons:

V.L. Derzhavin extrapolated Safronov’s sequence onto the Central Stavropol materials, having noted that there were no Catacomb burials, with skeletons placed flexed on their backs, (group III) in his selection. The author’s stratigraphic observations were more specific, and his local scheme turned out to be simplified, though improved. The author defined some burials with the attributes of the Majkop and Yamnaya cultures; he came to the conclusion that within a certain period of time population of group II coexisted with the Early Catacomb population, so he singled out burials of group IV as the Early Catacomb graves.

A–Yamnaya culture (group I), B–North Caucasus culture (group II), С–Yamnaya-Catacomb group (III) and Catacomb group with skeletons in an extended position (VI), D–North Caucasus Piedmont Catacomb culture (groups V and VI), Е–Srubnaya culture (group VII). Safronov advanced a little farther than Fisenko; he correctly drew a logical pattern of burial rite change in Kalmykia. Following N.Ya. Merpert, he rightly singled group II of the North Caucasus origin out of the Yamnaya culture, as viewed by Fisenko; he was the first to single out group VII, i.e. the Srubnaya culture, in the region, although subsequent studies showed that such burials were not homogeneous either (Mimokhod 2005). However, Safronov presented the change of cultures as a rigid and inflexible process; since he considered the whole process as completely discrete. He just emphasized a chronological isolation of groups I, II, III-IV, V and VI, VII, and absence of any chronological transgression between them. He noted a number of cases of reverse stratigraphy (for groups I and II), this fact was left beyond the limits of his theory.

It should be noted that concepts of cultural and chronological development of the Caspian Steppes he proposed corresponded as a whole to the general pattern of studies of the Eurasian Eneolithic and the Bronze Age based on the ethno-cultural approach. Similar schemes were proposed for the Don region (Kiyashko V. 1974; Bratchenko 1976); the Kuban region (Nechitailo 1978; Trifonov 1991 а); the Seversky Donets region (Smirnov A. 1991). The method of singling out ritual groups in accordance with their stratigraphic position was used to identify the Bronze Age cultures development (Gey 1999). The next stage of studies is characterized by concentration on specific cultures, or groups of cultures, whose principal significance in the historic process was specially emphasized by the scholars. In the 1980s-1990s a number of important publications appeared. They dealt

New materials now available obtained by Safronov himself (Shishlina 2007) and other scholars (Shilov, Bagautdinov 1998; Shishlina 2002a; Mimokhod 2005) provide an opportunity to improve Safronov’s sequence, 10

INTRODUCTION this scheme. He shared Safronov’s views, and he thought it incorrect to refer burials of groups II, III and IV into one horizon, based on discovery of the same artefacts. He believed that stratigraphy pointed to the earlier appearance of burials of group II comprehend to groups III or IV and also opposed defining the pre-Donets horizon in the Central Caucasus Piedmont region (Derzhavin 1989).

with the analysis of Catacomb cultures in the basin of the Seversky Donets region (Smirnov A. 1996); the boundaries of the Majkop culture were extended northward, further to the steppe area (Gey 1989; Trifonov 1991 а); a number of papers on the Eneolithic horizon on the Eurasian steppe were published (Nechitailo et al. 1998; Rassamakin 1999). Archaeologists resumed discussion on many issues of the origin of cultures both in specific regions and within the entire belt of the Eurasian Steppes.

One of the papers of the author of this book was devoted to the analysis of the burial ritual of the Bronze Age cultures in Kalmykia (Shishlina 1992). The analyzed database focused on the Early Stage of the Middle Bronze Age and studies of burial rite elements. Types of burials performed in pits and catacombs, and consecutively referred to different cultural traditions. New associations as related to the Majkop culture were considered; specific Multi-cultural burials were reviewed. The method of mapping different types of burials revealed irregularity in the distribution of different burial rites in the region under discussion. Further differentiation of the studied burials was carried out with application of the clustering method of multidimensional statistic analysis. Types of funerary offerings were determined as alternative attributes that may be used to determine similarity and dissimilarity of objects (burials) analyzed. The results of cluster analysis were compared with the stratigraphic column, which helped define five chronological horizons, and suggest a new relative chronology of Kalmykia artefacts of the Early Stage of the Middle Bronze Age. As a result, V.A. Safronov’s sequence was completely rejected. On the basis of the cluster and stratigraphic analysis it was established that a number of cultures, i.e. the Late Yamnaya, Early Catacomb, Steppe North Caucasus, Yamnaya-Catacomb, Multi-cultural, and the East Manych Catacomb groups, coexisted within the chronological horizons proposed for the Caspian Steppes. The principal evidence of their coexistence is the presence of identical sets of grave offerings in the burials.

At that time the issue on the Catacomb culture origin came under the highlight. The issue of the pre-Catacomb horizon was open to discussion. V.A. Trifonov (1991 а) raised this issue for the steppe Kuban region; he believed that the pre-Catacomb population was related either to the Late Yamnaya population (by such typical indications as an identical shape of graves, remains of funeral feasts, wagons placed on the shoulders of the graves), and to the Early Catacomb population (an identical position of the dead, altars made of sheep bones, bone pins). That is why, he considered the pre-Catacomb groups to be descendants of the earlier population and the starting point for the Catacomb culture formation. According to Trifonov, the pre-Catacomb horizon was replaced by Early Catacomb burials of the pre-Donets stage and the North Caucasus burials of the second period. Hence, the aforesaid discussions and accumulation of new archaeological data on the Caspian Steppes that did not correspond to the conservative sequence proposed by Safronov induced some scholars to revise old concepts. The idea of a fixed sequence of cultures did not suit the scholars any more, so they tried to combine cultures in wide chronological horizons. Using the Kalmyk Steppes data, V.P. Shilov singled out a horizon of large pits with shoulders and placed it between the Late Yamnaya and the Caucasus Piedmont (the East Manych) Catacomb burials of the developed stage. Then, however, he combined them in a single horizon with the burials of Safronov’s groups I, II, III and IV. He called this horizon after the site of Arkhara, and thought these burials be synchronous with the first stage of the North Caucasus culture and the sites of the Poltavka type. The Caucasus Piedmont burials (the East Manych Catacomb culture) followed this horizon. These sites preserved many traditions of the preceding Yamnaya culture. By this postulate, as well as by definition of a special preCatacomb horizon and a group of the Late Yamnaya burials, Shilov emphasized certain continuity registered in successive Yamnaya and Catacomb cultures in Kalmykia (Shilov 1985 а). Meanwhile, he did not present sufficient diagnostic indicators of the Arkhara horizon, which he sometimes called pre-Catacomb, and sometimes the first stage of the East Manych (the Caucasus Piedmont) Catacomb culture. Shilov attributed groups III and IV of Safronov’s classification to the Catacomb culture (Shilov 1987: 17).

However, some important cultural elements, such as topography and planigraphy of kurgan burial grounds, more detailed analysis of funerary offerings and their position in the grave, data of physical anthropology were left outside this new scheme. Many details of absolute chronology of sites were reduced to brief analysis of few radiocarbon data available. As M.V. Andreeva truly put it, specific archaeological associations appeared unnoticeable against the background of the proposed chronology (Andreeva, Petrenko 1998). As a result, the chronological horizons proposed were not used. Hence, we can talk of a real information revolution: a huge amount of factual materials has gone beyond all previous spatial cultural boundaries. That is why, coming back to ethno-cultural characteristics of regions in the Bronze Age, including Caspian Steppes, is still relevant. General concepts of absolute chronology of the region. The issue of establishing the absolute age of Bronze Age cultures was very relevant throughout the entire history of research. Practically, all scholars who presented relative

Some scholars accepted the model suggested by Shilov (Andreeva 1989). Derzhavin, however, came out against 11

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES It became evident that it is impossible to develop an absolute chronology of the Bronze Age cultures only on isolated radiocarbon data. This means that it is necessary to continue radiocarbon dating of samples taken from a clear cut archaeological context and combined with compiling and analyzing radiocarbon databases. Nonetheless, such studies did not help resolve the problem either.

chronology of their own tried to distribute the artefacts they studied along a temporal scale. P.S. Rykov, having divided burials of the Bronze Age, proposed absolute chronological intervals for them: he dated early “hut burials” back to the interval from 10000 to 6000 BC, while he dated Yamnaya burials proper to the mid 3000 BC (Rykov 1936: 20).

V.A. Trifonov collected a large amount of material, and while considering the issues of the Bronze Age cultures chronology in the steppe and forest-steppe zones of Eastern Europe and the North Caucasus, a large database was at his disposal. He proposed a chronological column based on non-calibrated dates, and defined an individual column for steppe cultures of Southern Russia (Trifonov 1994: Fig. 1). He was the first to use calibrated dates to determine absolute ages of cultures. As a result, the intervals turned out to be rejuvenated (Trifonov 1996 а; 2001). Since then all cultures have been dated 400-500 years earlier. Based on the results of his comparative analysis of spatial and temporal distribution of average of radiocarbon data, Trifonov proposed a comparative regional chronological table for cultures of the Caucasus, the steppe and forest-steppe zones of Eastern Europe; an absolute chronological column in this table was dedicated to the Bronze Age of Kalmykia (Trifonov 2001: Table 1).

А.А. Ierusalimskaya dated the first stage of the North Caucasus Piedmont Catacomb culture (the East Manych Catacomb culture) back to 1700-1500 BC; the second stage to 1500-1200 BC; the third stage to 1200-800 BC (Ierusalimskaya 1958). V.A. Fisenko proposed a chronology of the Caspian Steppes Catacomb culture; in his view, its early stage falls within 2200/2100-1900 BC, the developed stage falls within 1900-1500 BC, and the late stage falls within 1500-1200 BC (Fisenko 1967). V.A. Safronov worked out an ultra-short chronology. According to his classification, all Yamnaya sites except final stage sites should be dated to 2100-2000 BC; and the final stage sites with hammer-headed pins should be dated to 1900-1750 BC. He dated all burials of YamnayaCatacomb type (groups II and IV) to 1700 BC, all Catacomb burials (groups V and VI) to the 1600-1400 BC. He referred Srubnaya burials (group VII) to 1300 BC (Safronov 1979).

Under a long-term research project of the State Historical Museum and the Institute of Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences an absolute chronology for cultures of the Caspian Steppes based on the analysis of calibrated radiocarbon data was worked out. As a result, in 1997 the data on 45 dates of the Bronze Age of the Caspian Steppes were published (Alexandrovsky et al. 1997). This work on compiling a radiocarbon database for the region under investigation continued (Chichagova et al. 1999; Shishlina et. al. 2000b; Shishlina et al. 2003a).

Such chronological systems were based on a traditional relative chronology of sites built on typological and stratigraphic analysis and the search of external analogies interpreted as chronological markers. The latter comprised certain types of artefacts from the associations with the most reliable chronology originating from other archaeological cultures in the adjacent regions. However, correlation of similar items found in different regions, sometimes quite distant from one another, establishing chronology of cultures on the basis of specific finds as well as a controversial nature of data in regions resulted in discrepancies in all proposed chronological intervals (Merpert 1957).

The subsequent comparative analysis of the database revealed a number of significant contradictions between relative and absolute chronology of the Bronze Age cultures of the studied region, and the verification of database became evident. It turned out that such situation could be caused by a reservoir effect, and other factors (Shishlina et al. 2006 а, b; Plicht et al. 2007c).

V.P. Shilov was the first to use a series of radiocarbon dates to define a chronological position of the Bronze Age cultures of the Caspian Steppes. The dating of samples obtained from the Yergueni burial ground allowed him to extend the lower chronological boundary of the Caucasus Piedmont (East Manych) Catacomb culture to the end of 3000 BC, and to maintain the upper boundary at the mark of the 1200 BC (Shilov 1990). Hence, the East Manych Catacomb culture, which was later considered to be the Late Catacomb culture and dated to 1800-1700 BC (Bratchenko 1976), filled up the space between Early Catacomb and the Late Catacomb sites.

We suppose that the chronological column for Kalmykia based on statistical analysis of published data proposed by E.N. Chernykh (Chernykh et al. 2000; Chernykh, Orlovskaya 2004), should be also revised in the light of necessity of verification of each dated sample, and correlation of the age obtained (correction for isotope fractionating and the reservoir effect) (Shishlina et. al. 2006 а, b; Plicht et. al. 2007). Main concepts of economic development of the region in the Bronze Age were related to the issue of establishment and development of producing economy. Practically since the very start-up of the Bronze Age culture study scholars who analyzed archaeological materials tried to present

The main result of these studies is the absence of strict correlation between absolute and relative chronology of the cultures in question. 12

INTRODUCTION engaged in animal raising all-year-round (Pustovalov 1994). Special consideration was given to the issue of evolvement and development of crafts in the Eneolithic and the Bronze Age (Crafts of the Bronze Age 1994; Pustovalov 1994). Such factors as results of archaeological excavations, studies of paleoenvironment of regions, demographic reconstructions, paleodiet data, development of crafts and trade, ethnic and social reconstructions were also taken into consideration (Rassamakin 1994; Pustovalov 1994). Meanwhile, scholars often emphasized that development of nomadic and semi-nomadic pastoralism depended on agricultural economy. Hence, the pastoral economic pattern was defined as a ‘satellite of agriculture’ (Pustovalov 1994).

historical interpretations of economic development of the population living in the Eurasian steppe. P.S. Rykov believed that the Yamnaya population included hunters and gatherers, who gradually began domesticating animals (1936b). A.P. Kruglov and G.V. Podgaetski thought Yamnaya groups were settled fishermen and hunters (Kruglov, Podgaetsky 1936). Very few scholars believed the Bronze Age Steppe cultures population to have been familiar with the practice of producing economy (Shishlina 2007). Only when data on the settlement pattern came to light, it became possible to affirm definitely that the Yamnaya population was pastoral (Lagodovska et al. 1962). The archeozoological approach aimed at the study of animal bones from archaeological sites, information on the role of domestic animals in the economy of the Bronze Age steppe population contributed to development of a concept of a new economic model practiced by Eneolithic and Bronze Age groups, namely, pastoral economy (Danilenko 1974; Rassamakin 1994; Pustovalov 1994; Korobkova, Shaposhnikova 2005).

The recent trend is to work out more detailed models based on results obtained from archaeological excavations, while the field work is organized at a principally new level. Special attention is paid to studies of human paleopathology that could have been caused by various stresses including nutrition stress (Dobrovolskaya 2005). Seasonality of sites is actively discussed; correlation of data on natural, environmental, cultural and economic processes is also actively used (Barynkin 2002).

Having studied the data provided by written sources from Antiquity, V. P. Shilov correlated ethnographic data on the nomadic economy typical for historical nomads of the New Time, i.e. the Kalmyks, with archaeological data. The scholar came to the conclusion that the Yamnaya population might be considered to be the first nomadic herders of the Bronze Age (Shilov 1975; 1985c).

Paleobotanical data have shown that the Yamnaya and Catacomb population on the Black Sea Steppes practiced early agriculture (Pashkevich 2000), while groups inhabiting the eastern periphery of the Caspian Steppes were at that time just gatherers of wild gramineous plants and other steppe plants (Shishlina, Pakhomov 2002a; Novikova et al. 2002). Lebedeva, who studied carpological data from various Bronze Age sites of the Eurasian steppe, has found no information concerning agricultural economy of many steppe cultures of the Early and Middle Bronze Ages (Lebedeva 2005).

This conclusion matched the economic pattern proposed by N.Ya. Merpert: in his view, development of the Eurasian Steppes started with appearance of a new economic model, i.e. the nomadic economy of the Yamnaya culture. The interaction of agriculturalists and pastoralists was a multi-component process (Merpert 1974). The subsequent Catacomb population actively developed nomadic forms of animal raising, freely moving across all exploited environmental areas (Shilov 1975).

The number of sources has extended; not only kurgan, but also settlement data are now used for paleoeconomic reconstructions (Nikitin 1991; Sanzharov 2004). Seasonality of sites, i.e. settlements, camps, and burials, has also supplemented archaeological data (Kirillova et al. 2000; Klevezal et al. 2006).

Hence, a multi-year successful historical and theoretic study of paleoeconomy of Bronze Age steppe cultures was based on the analysis of the general climate change patterns, the study of domestic animals’ bone remains from archaeological sites, and identification of archaeological indicators of the mobile way of life of first pastoralists cultures, such as wagons (Shilov 1975; Kozhin 1997), temporary nomadic camps (Merpert 1974; Shilov 1975). As a result, scholars proposed a number of reconstructions of economic systems: continuous daily moves of large social groups from place to place (Gryaznov 1955); seasonal migrations of specific small groups within the exploited area (Shilov 1975); pastoral animal raising within the framework of settled multicomponent agricultural and animal raising economy (Rassamakin 1994); multi-component semi-nomadic economy divided into two separate branches: settled population that lived in settlements and practiced crafts and farming, whilst semi-nomadic population was

A fundamental study conducted at the Mikhailovka settlement in the Lower Dnepr region has allowed scholars to examine the system of population subsistence throughout a long period of time. The interdisciplinary approach is based on paleogeography, ethnobotany, archeozoology data, and a number of methods studying numerous objects of material culture that reveal many aspects of everyday life, economy, crafts, organization of production, production technology, the level of technical and functional development, and specifics of different branches of economy (Korobkova, Shaposhnikova 2005). We have been developing this trend applying a modern environmental approach to traditional archaeological material; paleoreconstructions made for individual environmental areas, ethnographic data on nomads, and also results of special studies aimed at identifying a 13

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES archaeological sources that have appeared recently as a result of new excavations. The detailed analysis of key features of the burial rite and general categories of the material culture, i.e. grave offerings, provides a possibility to present in Chapter 1 characteristics of archaeological cultures and cultural groups of the Caspian Steppes in the Eneolithic–Middle Bronze Age. We can determine their place within the framework of overall cultural development of the Eurasian Steppes through a wide-scale comparative analysis. Application of the complex method of establishing culture sequence in Chapter 2 is aimed at revealing changes of cultural traditions in the region and establishing their absolute chronology. The database obtained gives grounds to evaluate the ethno-cultural historical process in the region under discussion through models of the economic cycle and production developed by ancient population is presented in Chapter 3. The issue of the culture genesis forms an independent series of aspects related to the overall pattern of cultural genesis of the East European Bronze Age, therefore it is left beyond the scope of this book.

seasonal character of pastoral movements; as a result, we have proposed two models of the economic cycle practiced by the Bronze Age population of the Caspian Steppes for discussion (Seasonality studies 2000). These new approaches are promising: they provide opportunities to apply numerous data obtained with the help of various methods and natural sciences to analysis, and to consider many issues of formation and development of economic models at the micro-level, using individual groups that lived in different environmental areas and depended on many specific regional conditions as examples. It does not lead to the total revision of generalized models of economic development proposed before, but verifies, improves and specifies many of their characteristics, and makes it possible to conduct comprehensive comparative analysis of regional paleoeconomic reconstructions, in the future. *** The Caspian Steppes have been attracting attention in the focus of many scholars for more than a hundred years, because the steppes that lie between the Lower Volga and the Lower Don regions, and border with the North Caucasus is an area where many cultural traditions formed and developed. Multiethnic and multicultural groups are behind such traditions. Studies of these groups are still relevant. New data combined with the results of a number of new methods and approaches may enable us to discover new knowledge, even though at the “microlevel” in the process of studying of individual groups and types, real communities of prehistory can be already seen behind them (Gey 1999a: 36).

The book is based on the Bronze Age collections from the Eurasian Steppe and the Caucasus of the Archaeology Department of the State Historical Museum in Moscow, and data obtained from the excavation of the Steppe Archaeological Expedition of the State Historical Museum. We have also used collections from the Department of Archaeology of the Eastern Europe and Siberia of the State Hermitage Museum, the Kalmyk Palmov Museum of Regional Studies, the State Unitary Enterprise Naslediye, the Stavropol Museum of Regional Studies, the Rostov Museum of Regional Studies, collections of the Rostov-on-Don archaeological laboratories.

Therefore, the task of this book is to systematize Caspian Steppes’ sites dating to different cultures, based on new

14

CHAPTER 1 FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE: ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURAL TRADITION Middle Yergueni Hills

Steppe Eneolithic At present only isolated kurgans and ground burials and survey finds date back to the Steppe Eneolithic on the Caspian Steppes (18 burials and 9 locations) (Fig. 108).

Arkhara 2: kurgan 27. A kurgan 15 m in diameter and 0.65 m in height is located in the centre of the burial ground. Three burials have been uncovered in the central part of the mound (Fig. 8, 1).

Kurgan and ground (?) burials The Kuma-Manych Depression

Secondary burial 1 destroyed burial 2 and burial 3. A rectangular pit is oriented to the west–east, 1.5 m by 1.2 m, 0.8 m deep. A skeleton of an adult was placed flexed on the back, oriented to the east. The legs were bent so tightly that the thigh and shin bones were pressed close to the stomach and the chest part of the skeleton. The arms were placed on the stomach under the leg bones, the hands rested on the pelvis. The initial position of the skeleton was probably a sitting position, with the arms bent and pressed to the stomach, and the legs bent in the knees, with the feet pulled up to the pelvis. Subsequently the skeleton must have fallen on its back. A stone polished sceptre ornamented with ribs all over its perimeter, with another diametrical rib in its wide part and a projection on the butt was placed on the right side of the skull of the dead (Fig. 8, 2). A front shoulder-blade of the cow has been uncovered on the left. The floor of the grave and all bones were sprinkled with red ochre.

Zunda-Tolga-1: kurgan 2, a destroyed burial. A flint blade (Fig. 9, 7) has been uncovered there. VMLBIII,66: kurgan 12, grave 15 dates to the Eneolithic. It was made in a quadrangular pit, 2 m by 1.6 m, oriented to the west–east. An adult was placed flexed on the back, with the arms pressed close to the body and the hands placed under the pelvis. The skeleton was covered by ochre; a plant mat was placed on the floor of the pit. VMLBIII,66: kurgan 16, grave. 121 also dates to the Eneolithic group (Fig. 8, 9 a). A primary burial was made in a rectangular pit, 1.65 m by 1.35 m, oriented to the west–east. There was a skeleton of an adult, placed flexed on the back, oriented to the east on the bottom of the pit. The legs were painted red. A triangular flint arrowhead was placed to the right of the pelvis (Fig. 8, 8).

Grave 2 is located at the same level with the first burial, on the southern part from it. A rectangular pit, 1.4 m by 1 m, 0.8 m deep, is oriented east–west. The burial was destroyed; only feet bones were preserved, and by their position it is possible to reconstruct that the dead was lying flexed on the back, with the legs bent, oriented to the east. A clay egg-shaped vessel has been uncovered in the southeastern corner of the pit. The neck and the upper part of the body are decorated with an incised herringbone pattern, their points turned down, there are three horizontal lines below them (Fig. 8, 3). Traces of red ochre have been recorded on the skeleton’s bones.

VMLBIII,66: kurgan 17, grave 16. This primary burial was performed in a rectangular pit oriented to the west– east (Fig.8, 7). The dead was placed in a flexed position on the back and oriented to the east. The feet were painted red. The burial did not contain any grave offerings. Most likely, the mounds were rather small (Sinitsyn, Erdniev 1987). Northeastern Stavropol Hills Chogray II: kurgan 8, grave 3.2 The burial was performed in a rectangular pit, 1.33 m by 0.93 m. A skeleton of a child was placed flexed on the back, the legs formed a rhomboid position, and the skull was oriented to the northeast. The child’s left arm was bent, the right arm was stretched. There was a bracelet consisting of 17 long bone beads with rough edges on the left wrist. Yamnaya burial 11 overlies a small burial mound.

Primary grave 3 was made in a rectangular pit oriented to the north–south, 1.6 m by 1.7 m and 1.2 m deep. Two skeletons were placed there. The first one was lying along the western wall flexed on its back, the legs were initially bent, and later fallen into a diamond-shape position, the skull rested on the shoulder bones, with the facial bones on the chest; the arms were bent in the elbow joints, the hands rested on the pelvis. The second skeleton was lying along the eastern wall, flexed on its back; its legs were initially bent and then fell to the left, the skull rested on the chest, the arms were bent in the elbow joints, the hands were placed on the pelvis bones. The position of skulls shows that high pillows were placed under the heads of the dead. The skulls were orientated to the north.

1 14

С analyses of secondary burials of kurgan 16 and 17 at VMLBIII,66 dating to the Early Majkop culture, and a flint arrowhead of the Eneolithic type allow us to date primary burials of these kurgans to the Eneolithic. 2 I express my gratitude to V.A. Korenyako for the possibility of making references to his materials.

15

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 8. Eneolithic graves of the Caspian Steppes. Arkhara 2: k. 27: 1–plans of the graves: a–1, b–2; c–3; grave offerings: 2–scepter, g.1, 3–vessel, g. 2; Ulan-Tolga: k.1, g. 3: 4–adze, 5–knife-shaped blades, 6–scepter; VMLBII,66: 7–k. 17, g. 16; k. 16, g. 12: 8–arrow head, g. 12, 9–stratigraphic correlation between Eneolithic grave 12 (a) and Early Majkop grave 13 (b) 2, 6–stone; 3–clay; 4, 5, 8–flint

16

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE

Fig. 9. Eneolithic artefacts obtained from localities and graves from the Caspian Steppes. Surface finds along the Chogray reservoir: 1–knife-shaped blade, scrapers and a core; 2–arrow head; 3–knife-shaped blade; 4–pottery sherd; 5–knife-shaped blade, Tau-Tyube; 6–knife-shaped blade, Salt Lake, Kalmykia; 7–Zunda-Tolga-1: k. 2, destroyed grave?, knife-shaped blade; 8–arrow head, the North Caspian Steppes 1–3, 5-6–flint; 4–clay

17

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES of 162 small (stone?) disk-shaped beads and two bone long beads that were found under jugular vertebrae. Three additional strings were tied up to the main string at the neck sides, hanging down to the breast; each string consisted of about 100 disc-shaped beads. One string was made of mother-of-pearl beads; another consisted of small (stone?) beads. There were three bone beads on the right side of the outer string, with three drilled cockleshells in the centre. There was a small bone tube with its end cut off, under the left shoulder. A copper bracelet of almost double-twist widening in the middle part was placed on the bones of the right forearm. There was a string of long marl beads that most likely were sewn on clothes or a belt (Fig. 10, 4-7) (Shishlina 2007: 32).

Hence, three Eneolithic burials form a single stratigraphic horizon in a rather small burial mound. Three Brothers 1: kurgan 9, destroyed burial 5. A set of flint artefacts is of interest: a blade, a knife on the blade, an oval scraper and two abrasive stones. All the artefacts were probably related to destroyed burial 5, which is considered to be an Eneolithic grave. The burial was made in a quadrangular pit, 1.80 m by 1 m, orientated to the north–south. The height and diameter of the primary mound were not reconstructed. The subsequent stratigraphic horizon dates to the Yamnaya culture (Shishlina 2007: 29). Sarpa Plain and the Western Part of the Caspian Plain

Krivaya Luka ХV: kurgan 3, grave 1 (Fig.11, 1). The primary burial was built in a rectangular pit, 1.35 m by 0.9 m, oriented to the west-east. The dead was placed flexed on the back, the right arm bent at the right angle, and the hand under the left side of the pelvis; the left arm bent at the obtuse angle, with the hand turned inside. The head was oriented to the west. Grave offerings consisted of six flint arrowheads: long leaf-shaped and long triangular-shaped arrowheads with a straight or truncated base; long triangular arrowheads with a truncated concave base (Fig. 11, 2) (Shishlina 2007: 31). The kurgan was rather small; the initial height of the mound was up to 50 cm, later a Yamnaya burial was added, so the mound reached 60 cm in height and 27 m in diameter.

Nikolskoye V: kurgan 1, grave 7. The burial was made in a rather shallow rounded pit, 0.75 m by 0.60 m. The position of a child skeleton cannot be reconstructed. A small vessel with a pointed bottom and stamped ornamentation; a fragment of a hand-made vessel of grey clay; a big blade; a bone awl; bone long beads, and 143 bone disk-shaped beads were placed in the centre of the pit (Fig. 10, 8-11). Bones were sprinkled with ochre in profusion (Dvornichenko, Fedorov-Davydov 1989: 16117). It is difficult to find out in the field report whether the burial mound was built above burial 7 or not. It could have been destroyed when a subsequent group of burials was performed. Construction of a new mound and a ditch is linked to this group (Shishlina 2007: 29-31).

KVCH-27, kurgan 1, grave 2 (Fig. 11, 3). The burial was partially destroyed; it was made in an oval pit, 2.1 m by 1.1 m, oriented to the west–east. The dead was placed flexed on the back, the head was oriented to the west. A flint fragment, a retouched knife and a blade fragment (Fig. 11, 4-5) have been uncovered. The mound above the burial was about 15 m in diameter and 60 cm high.

Nikolskoye VI, kurgan 1. Primary burial 13 occupied the central part of a small kurgan. The size of the rectangular pit was 1.75 m by 1.15 m. The dead was placed flexed on the back, oriented to the northeast, and painted with red ochre. There was a layer of ochre under the skeleton. Secondary grave 11 was added into the southeastern part of the kurgan. The dead was placed flexed on the back, the left arm was stretched, the right arm was bent, the head was oriented to the northeast. The skeleton and the floor of the grave were covered with red ochre. A bone harpoon was placed near the left shoulder (Dvornichenko, Fedorov-Davydov 1989: 129-130) (Fig. 10, 1-2). Secondary grave 6 also dates to the Eneolithic horizon of the kurgan. A quadrangular pit, 2.4 m by 1.76 m, was oriented to the northeast-southwest. A floorless wooden coffin was placed inside the pit: along the pit walls there were traces of boards placed on their edges. Two skeletons were lying flexed on the back, oriented to the northeast. Sheep bones have been uncovered on the floor of the pit within a spot 0.4 m by 0.45 m.

Ulan-Tolga, kurgan 1. Burial 3 was not related to the primary mound of the kurgan, and according to the site’s excavator N.A. Nikolaeva, there was no mound over it. The quadrangular pit was 1.80 m by 0.87 m in size; its depth was 1.45 m from the buried soil level. There was a skeleton of an adult male about 40 years old lying flexed on the back on the floor of the pit; the head was oriented to the east. The legs were bent in the knees and initially raised, then they fall to the right; the right arm was extended, the left arm was bent at the obtuse angle, the hand resting on the hip. The grave contained grave offerings (Fig. 8, 4-6): a smoothed stone sceptre was placed under the left part of the pelvis (Safronov 1989). It was of different type compared to the item uncovered at Arkhara, and similar to the sceptre at the Khvalynsk cemetery, but larger. There was a flint knife near the left shoulder; three little stone faceted posts between the ribs and the right elbow; a flint scraper and a slate stone near the hand. Flint flakes and microlithic tools–blades, points, a knife, a scraper, arrowheads–were placed around the head and to the south of the skeleton.

Staritsa: kurgan 7, grave 25. The burial was performed on the ancient horizon in the southeastern part of a small kurgan and was partially destroyed in the process of constructing burial 21. A skeleton of an adult, all painted with red ochre, was lying flexed on the back on a spot of red ochre 0.65 m by 1.35 m, the skull was oriented to the southeast. The left arm was stretched; the right arm was bent in the elbow joint. Two blades were placed to the left of the skull. There was a necklace of four strings of beads on the neck of the dead. The first string was made

Burial 8 was determined by the researchers as a primary one and dated to the Early Yamnaya culture. The analysis 18

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE

Fig. 10. Eneolithic graves of the Caspian Steppes. Nikolskoye VI: k. 1: g. 11–1–plan of the grave, 2–harpoon; 3–g. 13; 12–g. 6; Staritsa: k. 7, g. 25: 4–plan of the grave, 5, 6–beads, 7–bracelet; Nikolskoye V: k. 1, g. 7: 8–perforator, 9–knife-shaped blade, 10-11– beads 2, 5, 8, 10–bone; 5, 6, 11–shell; 7–copper; 9–flint

19

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 11. Eneolithic graves of the Caspian Steppes and comparable data. Krivaya Luka XV: k. 3, g.1: 1–plan of the grave, 2–arrow heads; KVCH-27: k. 1, g. 2: 3–plan of the grave, 4–fragment of the knife-shaped blade, 5–scraper; 6-7–arrow heads from the survey finds in the North Caspian Steppes; 8-14–arrow heads, Kumyska site 2, 4–14–flint, quartzite

of the artefacts gives grounds to date it to the Eneolithic group. The grave was destroyed while constructing burial 6, but it was supposedly oriented to the northwestsoutheast. The skeleton was lying flexed on its left side; the skull was oriented to the southeast and painted with red ochre. There were fragments of flint flakes and microlithic tools on the floor of the grave as well as a fragment of a hand-made clay vessel, with the rim bent outward. Its surface was decorated with incised ornament consisting of parallel vertical lines on the rim and a netshaped pattern, the edge of the rim was decorated with incisions (Shishlina 2007: 31).

Locations. The surface finds collected in the seasons of 1996–2001 during archaeological surveys in the area of the Khar-Zukha ravine–the Chogray reservoir in the IkiBurul district of Kalmykia date to the Eneolithic Age as well. As a result of surveying the left bank of the Chogray reservoir, a collection of artefacts was formed comprising pottery fragments, flint and quartz artefacts made on blades that correspond to the aforesaid Eneolithic items (Fig. 9, 1-4). They include a fragment of a high neck of a vessel, with the rim bent outward and decorated with grooved ornament formed by incised lines and inclined imprints of denticulate stamp, tempered with 20

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE crushed shells (Fig. 9, 4); blades (Fig. 9, 1); a tanged leafshaped arrowhead with a straight base (Fig. 9, 2); endscrapers made on flint blades; flint flake-scrapers; a subprismatic flint core (Fig. 9, 1). A rim fragment of a grey clay vessel may be associated with pottery fragments at Ulan-Tolga, kurgan 1, grave 8, and with Sredny Stog ceramics (Fig. 14, 14-15), the flint artefacts are similar to those uncovered at Sredny Stog burials (Telegin et al. 2001; Movsha 2000), and to a flint item found at the Khvalynsk cemetery (Agapov et al. 1990: Fig. 25-27). Probably, these finds could be related to destroyed burials or seasonal sites in the valley of the East Manych River (now the Chogray reservoir).

finds collected in the areas of the Astrakhan Region situated close to the Caspian steppes (Fig. 9, 8).4 ENEOLITHIC CASPIAN STEPPES FUNERAL RITE TRADITIONS AND MATERIAL CULTURE The burial rite of the Steppe Eneolithic group of the Caspian Steppes is characterized by simple quadrangular, or, in rare cases, oval pits oriented to the west–east or northeast–southwest, more rarely to the northwest– southeast. The dead were mainly placed flexed on their backs, their arms extended, or bent in the elbow (or only one arm was bent); on the back with the turn to the left side; extended on the back, and flexed on the left side. At Arkhara and Nikolskoye VI double burials of adult individuals have been uncovered. The dead were mostly oriented to the east and northeast, more seldom to northwest, west, and north. Ochre was used practically in all burials. Sometimes pillows made of plant fibre could have been placed under the heads of the dead, while the floor of the grave could have been covered with a mat.

There are blades similar to those from the Chogray region, cores of the Eneolithic type, and flake-scrapers among the items collected during the land survey around the Koltonur Lakes in the Black Lands area. Identical flint blades with retouched edges and a fully retouched obsidian arrowhead were found near the Kuma MZHK (Vinogradov at al. 1982: Fig. 5). Such items could have originated from destroyed burials or temporary sites. Moving further to the south–to the area of Bazhigan, Achikulak, and Levokumsk–long blades, arrowheads and fragments of the Eneolithic pottery have been found (Markovin 1992).

The majority of burials yielded grave offerings, but some graves did not contain any offerings.5 Funeral offerings are made of stone and flint; mostly they represent pieces of weaponry: arrowheads, javelin heads, and knives. Big blades and sceptres stand out against other items, but their detailed analysis is not included into this study.6 Tools are represented by flint scrapers, microlithic tools, flakes, and a bone harpoon. Some burials are characterized by numerous dress ornamentations, with prevalence of beads made of stone, shells and bone as well as bone long incised beads and bronze grooved bracelets.

The surface finds collected along Lake Adyk 3 include blades, arrowheads and a javelin head similar to the aforesaid arrowheads and typologically similar to flint objects uncovered at the Khvalynsk cemetery and other Eneolithic sites (Agapov et al. 1990; Brityuk 2001; Telegin et al. 2001; Kiyashko V., Poplevko 2000). There are flint tools among the finds at the Yastak-Khuduk in the Black Lands (Minayeva 1955), while finds from Ulan-Tug include pottery fragments and flint tools dating to the Eneolithic Age (Koltsov 1985).

The Eneolithic group was the first in the region to construct burial mounds. The kurgans were rather small. Probably, sometimes small natural hills were used instead.

During the land survey along the right and the left banks of the Yashkul River some flint items were found, some of them (blades and arrowheads) also date back to the Eneolithic Age (Koltsov 1984). A blade of the Khvalynsk type comes from the finds collected near Lake Solyenoye in the Yashalta district of Kalmykia (Fig. 9, 6). Flint items of Eneolithic type were also found on the right side of the Volga delta near the Asy and the Zenzeli villages in the Astrakhan Region (Shishlina 2007: 33).

COMPARATIVE MATERIAL The burial rite and grave offerings of the Eneolithic group of the Caspian Steppes can be compared with the materials uncovered at Early Steppe Eneolithic sites of adjacent regions. The Volga-Don area. The closest to the above considered sites are the burials excavated by V.M. Klepikov near

P.M. Koltsov, who explored the Djangr Neolithic site, noted that its upper layers contained a small number of finds (comb-impressed pottery, flint blades) that correlated with Eneolithic items of the Middle Volga and Don, and also the North Caspian Regions (Koltsov 1988: 89–90).

4

The collection of the State Historical Museum, No. А399. In this sense it should be noted that some primary burials without grave offerings could be compared on the basis of their burial rite both with Eneolithic burials (first of all, with those performed in quadrangular pits, with the dead flexed on their backs and oriented to the east), and Yamnaya ones without funeral gifts. In such cases it is difficult to establish their cultural attribution; some conclusions may be suggested only after obtaining 14С dates from the burials, analysis of their stratigraphic position, or making some special analyses in order to reveal “invisible archeological details”. The latter research is just at its starting point and requires further justification and revealing specific ‘non-material” attributes typical of the Steppe Eneolithic culture. 6 cf: Govedarica, Kaiser 1996; Manzura 2000. 5

Finally, there are flint objects of the Eneolithic appearance: a javelin head with a convex base among the

3

Collection of the Palmov Kalmykian Republican Museum of Regional Studies.

21

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES Peregruznoye 7 and Shlyakhovsky in the North Yergueni Hills (Klepikov 1994; 2004).

and oriented to the northeast (the Sredny Stog site near Staraya Tishanka on the Don) (Sinyuk 1999).

The burial mounds at Peregruznoye are located on a high watershed plateau. Traits of the burial rite in five Eneolithic burials are the following: quadrangular grave pits, skeletons extended on their backs, usage of ochre, small mounds. Funeral offerings include a flint scraper on an oval-shaped flake and a blade 24.6 cm long (Fig. 12, 11-13).

Grave offerings include rounded beads made of Unio shell (Cherkasskaya), triangular flint arrowheads, and knives made on blades (Staraya Tishanka on the Chirr River), hand-made clay vessels tempered with shell, with high grooved rims, comb-stamped ornamentation in the upper part of the body, the prevailing ornamental pattern is a zigzag of incised lines. The finds are comparable with the artefacts uncovered at the Steppe Eneolithic burials mentioned earlier. Stone zoomorphic sceptres, one of which is similar to the Arkhara item (Fig. 12, 13), and heads of the Eneolithic type (Tsutskin, Lidzhieva, 1979; Tsutskin 1981) have been recorded in this area.

One of the two Eneolithic burials near Shlyakhovsky (Fig. 12, 1-10) is very similar in terms of its rite and grave offerings to burial 3 in kurgan 1 at Ulan-Tolga. It was made in a quadrangular pit; a male of 35–40 years old was placed flexed on his back on its floor; the skull was oriented to the northeast; the skeleton was sprinkled with ochre. An elongated flint axe and a stone axe-adze were found under the right shoulder of the dead, there was a stone sceptre behind his left leg, flint end-scrapers and a point near it; a pointed blade fragment was found by the right elbow. The blade itself was discovered in burial 4. A grindstone was placed near the right leg. A skeleton of an adult was placed on his back in a contracted position on the floor of a quadrangular pit of grave 4; the head was oriented to the northeast, the skeleton was covered with ochre. There was a blade by the pelvis, and a flint axe by the legs. The burials were synchronous, the mound diameter was up to 20 m, and its height reached 0.68 m (Klepikov 1994). The flint axe, blade, and end-scrapers are identical to those found at Ulan-Tolga. The sceptre is of the same type as the Arkhara sceptre and the item from the Samara Museum (Fig. 8, 2, 6; 12, 13).

The Steppe Volga region. I.I. Dremov and A.I. Yudin have analyzed twenty earliest kurgan burials from the Trans-Volga Steppe region (Dremov, Yudin 1992). The typological similarity of pottery8 from the Volga collection to the vessels from the Khvalynsk cemetery allows us to date these burials to the Late Eneolithic Age. We suppose that these burials might correlate with the group of Eneolithic kurgan burials of the Caspian Steppes by the following elements of the burial rite and funeral gifts: • small burial mounds constructed above the graves; • grave constructions in the shape of quadrangular pits oriented to the west–east and northeast–southwest; • position of the dead flexed on their backs, the arms were extended along the body, or one arm was extended, another was bent in the elbow; • the dead were oriented to the northeast and northwest; • the dead were sprinkled with red ochre; • grave offerings from the Caspian sites correlate with those uncovered in the Volga area: flint blades, sceptres, long beads made of shell and bone, clay vessels.

Northward from the Volga and the Don watershed sites of the Eneolithic type, both sites and burials are greater in number. The sites are located on dune outliers, low and high river floodplains, edges of riverside terraces, and by the riverside (Sinyuk 1999; Kozmirchuk, Chivilyev, 1999; Yudin, 1999 а). The Eneolithic Nizhnedonskaya culture sites have been excavated in the Upper and Middle Don and its tributaries (Sinyuk 1999); Sredny Stog sites have been uncovered in the basins of the Oskol and the Upper Don rivers as well as on the right bank of the Volga, i.e. Universitetskaya 1 and 3, Kopanische, Cherkasskaya sites. Pottery of the Khvalynsk type has been uncovered at such sites (Sinyuk 1999).

Hence, some Eneolithic burials and ground cemeteries are located in the forest-steppe area on the Volga right bank (Khlopkovsky, Khvalynsk, etc.) (Malov 1982), occupying high river banks. In the Trans-Volga area some Eneolithic sites have been uncovered, and some of their artefacts correlate with those described earlier: the Kumyska site on the left bank and Pshenichnoye site on the right bank of the Torgut River (Yudin 1999 а; b), the Ozinki-II and Lebyazhy Dol sites (Yudin 1996). Such sites were located on high promontories, and on the slopes of riverside terraces. Quartzite and flint elongated triangular arrowheads with a truncated concave base, and low triangular arrowheads with a straight base have been found at Pshenichnoye, Kumyska, Lebyazhy Dol, similar to those uncovered at Krivaya Luka and the East Manych River (Yudin 1989: Fig.8; 1996: Fig. 2-18, 19) (Fig. 11, 8-14).

Necropolises are located on the riverside terraces and on the slopes of high promontories. The burial rite is more varied; some local differences have been reported. Ground burials in shallow pits with ochre-coloured infill have been found near an Eneolithic construction at Cherkasskaya,with skeletons extended on their backs (a site near the Chirr River, the right bank of the Lower Don area). Sometimes graves formed linear structures, and burials contained skeletons, placed flexed on their backs

7

Thanks to V.M. Klepikov for his 14C dating of a sample of human bone from burial 17 of kurgan 13 at Peregruznoye.

8 The vessel from kurgan 5, burial 22 at Berezhnovka in the Volga area is similar to the pot uncovered at Arkhara, kurgan 27, grave 2.

22

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE

Fig. 12. Eneolithic graves of the Northern Yergueni Hills. Shlyakhovsky II: k. 3: plans of graves: 1–g. 4, 2–g. 3, grave offerings: g. 3: 3-5–scrapers, 6–javelin head, 7a–knife-shaped blade, 9–axe, 10–adze, 11–sceptre, 12–abrasive; g. 4–7b–knife-shaped blade, 8–axe; 13–sceptre, survey find, Kuibyshev museum; Peregruznoye I: k. 13, g. 7: 16–plan of the grave, 14–knife-shaped blade, 15–scraper 3–9, 14, 15–flint; 11–diorite; 12, 13–stone

23

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 13. Eneolithic graves of the Volga area and the North Caucasus. Politotdelskoye: k. 12, g. 15: 1–plan of the grave, 2–3–vessels; 4–Khvalynsk cemetery: g. 108, sceptre; Komarovo: k. 2, g. 18: 5–plan of the grave, 7–adze, 8, 12–knife-shaped blades, 9–vessel, 10, 11–items; 6–Kubanskaya site, vessel 2, 3, 6, 9–clay; 4, 7–stone; 8, 12–flint; 10-11–bone

24

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE 1987; Nagler 1996), in the Piedmont Stavropol Region (Nechitaylo 1979: Fig. 3, 1-2), in Kabardino-Balkaria (Miziev 1984: 106. Fig. 10-17, 18). A characteristic trait of funeral gifts is presence of long blades similar to those found on the Caspian Steppes, the Northern Yergueni Hills. Almost all of them were placed either in the right hand of the dead (Suvorovo), in the left hand (Kyzburun III, grave 23), or close to the right shoulder-bone (Komarovo, kurgan 7, grave 9). A stone flat axe uncovered at Komarovo is typologically similar to the tool found at Ulan-Tolga, while a clay vessel resembles a pot uncovered at Veselaya Roscha II, kurgan 15, grave 1 (Korenevsky, Nagler 1987: 77). The earliest stage of constructing burial mounds in this region is also linked to the local Eneolithic group (Korenevsky, Nagler 1987).

The Northern and North-Eastern Caspian Steppes. Some locations and sites have been uncovered to the southeast of the Steppe Eneolithic group of the Northern and NorthEastern Caspian Steppes. These items are similar and could be synchronous to the items described earlier. Pottery of the Khvalynsk type, big blades, stone flat axes, scraper-shaped tools, partly painted with ochre come from the area around villages Koshalak and Karauzek of the Ganyushinsky district of the Guryevsk Region (Dubyaguin et al. 1982); from the Caspian Sea northern coastline: villages Dosang, Isatay and others in the Astrakhan and Guryevsk regions (Galkin 1982). A large blade 21.4 cm long has been uncovered in a site located on the right bank of the Volga River (Novichikhin, Trifonov 2006). It is similar to the tool found at Peregruznoye. Another item from the same place is a stone zoomorphic sceptre that may be attributed to a group of such offerings dating back to the Steppe Eneolithic Age (Govedarica, Kaiser 1996). Large flint blades have been uncovered at Tau-Tyube (Dubyaguin et al. 1982) (Fig. 9, 5). Flint and quartz items originate from Kair-Shak VI Eneolithic site (Astrakhan Region). Blades with the edge retouch, end-scrapers on blades, arrowheads and other artefacts (Barynkin 1989: Fig. 7-8) as well as similar objects uncovered at Kara-Khuduk correlate with flint and quartzite surface finds that come from the Chogray reservoir. Quartz tools are characteristic for regional North Caspian Steppes Eneolithic sites. Flint and quartzite elongated triangular arrowheads from Kombak-te, Burovaya 16, Biyali sites (Barynkin 1992: Table 39, 1-3) are stylistically similar to those found at Krivaya Luka. P.M. Barynkin pointed to similarity of Eneolithic items from the North Caspian Steppes and the Lower Don (1992: 92). Caspian Steppes sites geographically situated between these areas can be analysed in the overall context of the Eneolithic Age of the Steppe and the North Caucasus regions.

Some small Eneolithic mounds constructed above oval or rectangular pits without roofing have been uncovered on the Stavropol Steppes, in Tolmuzovka kurgans located in the basin of the Tolmuzovka River, a left tributary of the Kuma River. The dead were placed flexed on their backs, with the arms extended or resting on the pelvis, the heads oriented to the east. Ochre frequently accompanied the burials; as for grave offerings, they are not identical to those described earlier. They include flint knives on blades and tools (Veselaya Roscha); a breast plaque made of wild boar tusk, an egg-shaped vessel, bronze boatshaped pendants (Trifonov 1991 а; Derzhavin 1991). Eneolithic burials have been discovered in the Kalaus River valley (Tipki-1, Zolotaryevka-5) containing long flint blades similar to those uncovered at Zunda-Tolga-1. The sites’ characteristic trait is absence of the buried (Korenevsky, Kalmykov 2003). Probably, such rite was practiced also in kurgan 2 at Zunda-Tolga-1, where only one flint blade was found below the mound of an ancient kurgan.

The North Caucasus: This region comprises the Steppe Kuban Region, the Stavropol Region, and the Central Caucasus. The Eneolithic group of the Steppe Kuban Region has been investigated by V.A. Trifonov. Its characteristic traits are as follows: 1) oval, quadrangular or rectangular pits; 2) wooden roofing placed lengthwise or crosswise the grave; 3) a flexed position of the dead placed on their backs, with the arms bent in the elbows, hands resting on the pelvis, or an extended or flexed position on the right side, with one arm bent, and another arm extended; a flexed position on the left side, hands placed by the face; an extended position on the back; 4) eastern and southern orientation; 5) presence of ochre; 6) grave offerings include long blades, pottery tempered with shell; vessels include the egg-shaped pot with incised ornamentation from the village Kubanskaya (Fig. 13, b), fragments of flint tools, bone tools, shells (Trifonov 1991 а). Hence, these burials could be analysed in the context of the overall Steppe Eneolithic horizon.

Sceptres have been also recorded in the North Caucasus. A sceptre from Vladikavkaz is typologically very similar to the Arkhara item (Telegin et al. 2001: Fig. 28; Govedarica, Kaiser 1996). The Don Region. V.Yu. Kiyashko in his papers devoted to the Eneolithic sites of the Lower Don (1974; 1994 а) has presented collected materials comparable with the aforesaid material. More Eneolithic burials have been recently excavated on the right and left banks of the Don (Nechitaylo et al. 1998; Zhitnikov 2000; Bratchenko, Sharafutdinova 2000; Zhitnikov, Ilyukov 2002; Parusimov 2004; Vlaskin 2002). Burials uncovered near villages Yarsky, Popov, Karataevo, the Likhaya River, Rozhok, Mukhin-1 and Mukhin-2 (Fig. 14), Liventsovka, Kastyrsky VIII, and Kholodny correlate with typologically similar Eneolithic burials of the Caspian Steppes through the following traits: •

Typologically similar burials made in quadrangular pits with skeletons placed flexed on their backs have been uncovered on the Mozdok steppe of the Central (NorthEastern) Caucasus (Fig. 13, 5, 7-11) (Korenevsky, Nagler

•

25

topographically they are situated on river banks, on first river terraces above floodplains, and on watershed plateaus; small mounds were constructed over burials, or burials were added to natural hills;

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 14. Eneolithic graves of the Lower Don region. Mukhin-2: k. 5: 1–9–g. 9: 1–plan of the grave; 2, 6, 7–knife-shaped blades; 3– awl, 4–ring, 5–long bead, 8–sheep blade, 9–beads; 10, 13–15–g. 7: 10–plan of the grave, 13–scraper, 14–15–vessels; 11– Vertoletnoye pole: k. 1, g. 2; Kastyrsky VIII: 16–19: k. 13, g. 2: 16–plan of the grave, 17, 18–arrow heads, 19–knife-shaped blade; 12, 20–22–k. 14, g. 15: 12–plan of the grave, 20–knife-shaped blade, 21–adze, 22–astragal 2, 6, 7, 13, 17, 18–20–flint; 3–5 copper; 9–shell; 8, 22–bone; 14–15–clay; 21–shale

26

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE •

• •

the dead were placed flexed on their backs, sometimes on wooden lattice-shaped floor, their heads oriented to the east or northeast. The dead was buried in a wooden coffin at Kholodny, kurgan 1, grave 12, similar to the one discovered at Nikolskoye VI, kurgan 1; ochre was used often and in significant quantities; graves have a standard set of items, i.e. flint knives made on large blades, polished axes, wedge-shaped flat axes, rounded bone beads; belts composed of shells; sceptres; copper rings, beads, awls; egg-shaped vessels of the Sredny Stog type tempered with shell (Kiyashko V. 1994 а: 72-73; Parusimov 2004; Vlaskin 2002) (Fig.14).

the North Yergueni Hills are shown in Figs. 8–14. Though some elements of the burial rite seem to be identical, or similar, items of material culture are diverse; one can clearly notice regional differences in groups. We believe that artefacts from the North Yergueni Hills (Peregruznoye and Shlyakhovsky II) are the closest, though not identical, to the group of Eneolithic burials of the Middle Yergueni Hills and the Caspian Plain, in terms of the burial rite and grave offerings. The kurgans were possibly built by culturally and chronologically similar populations that began exploiting the open steppe spaces. V.M. Klepikov has highlighted the chronological closeness of these groups (1994: 101). Hence, at present we may put forward a hypothesis concerning the relationship of the population from the northern areas of the Volga and Don regions. The movement of the Khvalynsk population from the southern steppe areas to the forest-steppe Volga zone was already noted before (Stavitsky 2003; 2005). Another trajectory of relationships is directed to the south–to the North Caucasus. It is confirmed by discussed parallels in grave offerings and the burial rite traced in the burials of the Central Stavropol region and the Mozdok steppes. Probably, we may also conclude that artefacts uncovered in the East Manych and the Kalaus areas of the NorthEastern Stavropol region are synchronous. The third direction of relationships points to the southwest, to the Lower Don. The pottery resembles Sredny Stog vessels (Telegin et al. 2001: Fig. 2-2; 22-2). Flint artefacts, ornaments, sceptres are similar to those from Novodanilovka graves (Telegin et al. 2001: Fig. 31-108).

However, other traits may be singled out for the Lower Don group, such as ground cemeteries (Liventsovsky I), an extended position of the dead, burials with dismembered remains (Vertoletnoye pole), and also a catacomb burial construction (Mukhin-2) (Nechitaylo et. al. 1998; Bratchenko, Sharafutdinova 2000). The materials obtained from Lower Don burial sites are comparable to the finds from settlements (Rakushechny Yar, Samsonovka, Liventsovka). Thus, the horizon formed by the Eneolithic burials of the Don region is determined to be multi-component. OVERALL CULTURAL CONTEXT The presented comparative materials show that the Caspian Steppes Eneolithic group formed a part of a general steppe Macro-Eneolithic horizon (Vasilyev 2003). Recently Eneolithic sites of the Eurasian Steppe have been considered within two cultural traditions: the Sredny Stog and the Danilovka traditions (Telegin et al. 2001); or four cultural traditions related to the sites of Suvorovo, Novodanilovka, the North Caucasus Piedmont, and the Lower Volga (or Berezhnovka) types (Nechitaylo 2000). Some scholars consider the discussed sites within smaller cultural groups related to Skelya, Kvityanoe, Dereivka, the lower layer of Mikhailovka, and Zhivotilovka-Volchanka groups (Rassamakin, 2000; 2004).

Probably, at a certain period of time there existed marginal contact zones that could have promoted spread of various traditions in the Caspian region, introduction of innovations, and gradual penetration of a new culture population into vacant environmental areas. The earliest mounds and a new burial rite were introduced. This regional Steppe Eneolithic group was not numerous, but probably homogeneous. We believe new data would help work out its cultural traits better. Physical anthropologic materials9 are insufficient; still, they also point to heterogeneous character of the Steppe Eneolithic horizon under discussion. A group of broadfaced Europeoid population; a group of the hypermorphic dolichocephalic broad-faced variant of the Protocaucasoid type; and a group of individuals of narrow-faced gracile mesocephalic appearance are singled out (Potekhina 1995). The study of skulls from Ukrainian Sredny Stog and other Eneolithic sites has also shown that their anthropological structure is not uniform (Telegin et al. 2001). The skulls from Eneolithic burial 12 uncovered at Vertoletnoye Pole are of the Protocaucasoid type similar to Sredny Stog and Novodanilovka skulls by their massive structure and other anthropologic attributes (Zhitnikov, Zherebilov 2005). Comparison of the Eneolithic physical anthropological series with

We take the view, though, that Caspian Steppe data (18 burials and 9 locations) are not as representative and striking, and the entire macro-horizon looks heterogeneous and multicultural, which has already been highlighted by some scholars (Trifonov 1991 а; Nechitaylo et al. 1998; Gey 1999 а; Kiyashko V. 1994). The Eneolithic steppe horizon probably comprises a number of cultural traditions that could have corresponded to different periods within it. Their relationships could have been either of cross-cultural nature or, on the contrary, might correlate both geographically and chronologically. The 14С data obtained for Eneolithic burials of the discussed area (Appendix 2, table 1) allow us to synchronize a series of different burial traditions of the Eneolithic Age. Typical Eneolithic items of the Caspian Steppes, the Lower Don region, the Mozdok Steppes, the Stavropol Steppes, and

9 Skulls from Eneolithic burials of the Unakozovskaya cave and the Suvorovo burial ground have been subjected to analyses.

27

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES chamber, flexed on the right side, the head oriented to the east. The right arm was extended in front of the body; the left arm was bent at the right angle, so that the hand rested on the right arm radii (Fig. 15, 1).

synchronous, earlier and later materials would probably help solve the issue of interaction and relationships of different Eneolithic populations. Steppe Majkop culture

VMLBIII,66: kurgan 17, grave 11 (a secondary grave in the primary Eneolithic kurgan; a primary grave in mound 2). The entrance of the catacomb is 1.85 m by 0.85 m, oriented to the west–east; an oval chamber, 1.65 m by 1.10 m, was made in the northern wall. The entrance and the chamber are parallel, the chamber is 0.75 m deep. The juvenile was placed flexed on the right side and oriented to the east, the right arm was extended along the body, and the left arm was bent in the elbow, the hand rested on the left femoral bone (Fig. 15, 11).

Another cultural tradition was linked to the appearance of new population on the Caspian Steppes related to a different cultural environment, i.e. the Early Bronze Age of the North Caucasus. This group is known as the Steppe Majkop culture (Gey 1989; Resepkin 2000; Trifonov 1991 а; Korenevsky 2001), which characterises “the periphery of the Majkop culture” at the middle and late stages. It is important to analyze the Majkop sites of the Caspian Steppes against the background of their regional context. Two Majkop groups may be singled out, i.e. the Early Steppe Majkop and the Late Steppe Majkop groups.

Burials contained various grave offerings. There was a flint arrowhead with a side slot behind the back near the shoulder of the adult male (kurgan 12, grave 12) (Fig. 15, 15); ram bones were found (vertebrae and ribs) by the legs and feet. Pottery is represented by small amphorae with two handles (kurgan 16, grave 13) (Fig. 15, 4, 13) and a small ovoid vessel. One amphora is ornamented by a burnished grid pattern (kurgan 17, grave 11). Ornaments are rather varied. Sixty pendants made of deer teeth, six small round shell beads and ten flat bronze subrectangular pendants and one bronze barrel-shaped bead have been uncovered in burial 13 of kurgan 16. They were located near the hands and on the pelvis of the skeleton (Fig. 15, 2, 3). Four silver pendants (Fig. 15, 12) and twenty long chest bone beads segment-shaped in the cross-section (Fig.15, 14) have been uncovered in burial 11 of kurgan 17 near the right temporal bone of the dead. Grave offerings from burial 13, kurgan 16 include small flint artefacts, i.e. tools, a point, a flake scraper, a leafshaped arrowhead with a side slot (Fig. 15, 5-9). The sheep astragalus has been uncovered near the foot of the dead in grave 11 of kurgan 17 (Sinitsyn, Erdniev 1987; Shishlina 2002 а, b). Plant mats were placed on the floors of the catacomb chambers; skeletons were sprinkled with red ochre.

The Early Steppe Majkop group Fourteen burials dating back to the Early Steppe Majkop group have been uncovered in the Kuma-Manych Depression, the Eastern Part of the Sravropol Hills, the Southern Yergueni Hills and the Caspian Plain. The Kuma-Manych Depression Kurgan mounds were built over graves found in the Kuma-Manych Depression. Some of such graves are primary; others are secondary burials added to Majkop and Late Eneolithic kurgans. There are no regular patterns identified in the kurgans’ planigraphy, or specific kurgan constructions. All burial mounds were rather small, no more than 10-12 m in diameter, and 0.4-0.5 m high. At Zunda-Tolga-1, kurgan 2, Majkop grave 2 had a ritual place containing animal bones and fragments of red-clay pithos (Fig. 16, 4). The population of this group practiced burials in catacomb constructions, which is a specific feature of the burial rite.

Zunda-Tolga-1, kurgan 2, grave 2 (a secondary grave in the primary Eneolithic kurgan (?), primary grave in mound 2). The grave was destroyed (Fig. 16, 1). The upper part of the skeleton was placed flexed on the left side, oriented to the south; the arms were bent, the hands were placed in the front of the facial bones. There was an earthenware hand-made flat-bottomed vessel placed by the skull; with impressions of comb and burnishing (Fig. 16, 2). A silver ring (Fig. 16, 7) and two bronze barrelshaped beads were found at the base of the vessel; there was a bronze tanged knife with a leaf-shaped triangular blade (Fig. 16, 5) and forty-six cylinder beads located to the south of the skull (Fig. 16, 6). Three beads have been analyzed; one of them is made of baked clay, another is made of natural limestone, and the third bead is made of steatite.

VMLBIII,66: kurgan 12, grave 12 (a secondary burial in the Eneolithic mound, a primary burial for mound 2). The burial is made in the catacomb. A rectangular entrance, 2 m by 1.25 m, 1.65 m deep, is oriented to west–east. There is an oval chamber in the northern wall, 1.95 m by 1.3 m. An adult was placed flexed on the right side, with the face and the chest turned down, the left arm bent in the elbow, the hand located by the left knee, the right arm extended to the hips (Fig. 15, 10). The skeleton was sprinkled with ochre. VMLBIII,66: kurgan 16, grave 13 (a secondary grave in the primary Eneolithic kurgan; a primary grave for mound 2). The burial construction consists of a catacomb with a rectangular entrance; 2 m by 1.25 m, 1.1 m deep, oriented to the west–east. In the southern wall an oval chamber, 2.10 m by 1.10 m, was made; the entrance and the chamber are parallel. An adult was placed in the

Chogray VI: kurgan 1, grave 2. The primary grave was made in a rectangular pit oriented to the northwestsoutheast, 1.4 m by 0.8 by 0.65 m. A juvenile was placed 28

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE

Fig. 15. Steppe Early Majkop graves. VMLBIII,66: k. 16, g. 13: 1–stratigraphic correlation between Eneolithic 12 (a) and Majkop (b) graves; grave offerings: 2–beads, 3–pendants and bead, 4–amphora, 5–fragment of a tool, 6–pointer, 7–arrow head, 8, 9–tools; k. 12, g. 12: 10–plan of the grave, 15–arrow head; k. 17, g. 11: 11–plan of the grave, 12–rings, 13–amphora, 14–long beads 2–shell; 3–bronze; 4, 13–clay; 5–9, 15–flint; 12–silver?; 14–bone

29

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 16. Steppe Early Majkop graves. Zunda-Tolga-1: k. 2, g. 2: 1–plan of the grave, 2–vessel, 4–pithos fragment. 5–knife, 6–beads, 7–ring; 3–survey finds near Shared river, pithos fragment; Chogray I: k. 5, g. 6: 9–plan of the grave, 10–whetstone, 11–knife; Mandjikiny-1: k. 14, g. 13: 12–stratigraphic correlation between Early Majkop grave 13 (a) and Yamnaya grave 10 (b), plans, 8– beads, 13–whetstone, 14–knife 2-4–clay; 5, 11, 14–bronze; 6–clay, sandstone, steatite; 7–silver; 8–nephrite, marble; 10, 13–stone

30

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE flexed on the left side, the arms directed to the facial bones. The pelvis was sprinkled with red ochre.

flakes (Fig. 17, 3-4, 8, 10) and a fragment of bronze items (Fig. 17, 6) behind the skulls of the dead.

Eastern Part of the Sravropol Hills

Chogray-1 (Shishlina 2007: 47). Two burials of kurgan 5 (grave 4 and grave 6) date to the Majkop culture (Korenevsky 2004: 94. Fig. 27-4, 7, 8).

Burials of the Kuma-Manych Depression show significant similarity to the graves at Sharakhalsun-6 (Yakovlev, Samoylenko 2002) and Chogray (Shishlina 2007: 47). All the burials are either primary or secondary graves added to the Majkop kurgans. Ancient mounds reached 20 m in diameter and 0.5 m in high. We focus on two types of burial constructions: catacombs and pits.

Primary burial 6 was made in an oval pit. An adult was placed on the right side, oriented to the south, the arms bent, the hands placed near the facial bones (Fig. 16, 9). A quadrangular whetstone and a bronze knife have been found in the grave. They are similar to those uncovered at Zunda-Tolga-1 (Fig. 16, 10-11).

Sharakhalsun-6: kurgan 5, grave 7 (a primary grave) (Yakovlev, Samoylenko 2002). A rectangular entrance of the catacomb is oriented to the northeast–southwest; the floor descends to the northeastern wall by two uneven steps. A segment-shaped chamber, 1.65 m by 1.05 m, was made in the northeastern wall parallel to the entrance. Two individuals were placed in the chamber. An adult was placed flexed on the left side, oriented to the south, the right arm was bent in the elbow, the left arm was placed to the right. A child was set flexed on its right side, oriented to the south, the left arm was bent in the elbow, the hand was placed in the front of the chest, the right arm was extended toward the knees (Fig. 17, 1). Pillows stuffed with steppe plants, i.e. Chenopodiaceae, Asteraceae, Cichoriaceae, Artemisia, Poaceae, Silenaceae, Ephedra, were placed under the heads of the dead.

Secondary burial 4, which was destroyed, was located in the southern part of the kurgan. It contained human bones and a spherical flat-bottomed amphora with a perforated loop-handle; with traces of burnishing. The Southern Yergueni Hills Mandjikiny-1: kurgan 14, grave 13. The northern corner of the primary grave was disturbed by a secondary burial of the subsequent period (Fig. 16, 12). A rectangular pit, 1.5 m by 1.18 m, and 0.7 m deep, was oriented to the north–south. The pit was roofed with maple and elm boards placed lengthwise and crosswise. The man of 45– 55 years old was placed flexed on the right side, oriented to the south. The arms were bent so that the hands were placed in front of the face (Fig. 16, 12 а). There was a construction made of diatomaceous silt and crushed rock under the skull. There was a bronze knife with a narrow leaf-shaped triangular blade (Fig. 16, 14) and an oval grindstone nearby (Fig. 16, 13). Cylinder beads made of black nephrite and white marble, apparently, the parts of the embroidered belt or the upper part of the trousers have been uncovered on the pelvis and under it. A mound about 1 m high and up to 20 m in diameter was built above the burial.

Sharakhalsun-6: kurgan 2, grave 17 (a primary grave). The catacomb entrance is rhomboid in shape, oriented to the west–east; 0.85 m by 1.10 m. Its sloping floor descends to the eastern wall, where an oval chamber was made, 1.18 m by 0.5 m, with a segment-shaped vault oriented to the north–south. A child was placed flexed on its back, oriented to the north. Both arms were bent in the elbows (Fig. 17, 9). Something made of crushed rock was placed under the head.

The Caspian Plain Sharakhalsun-6: kurgan 2, grave 12 (a secondary grave in Majkop mound 1). A burial construction has not been found. A child was placed flexed on the right side, oriented to the northeast (Fig. 17, 7). The head rested on a pillow stuffed with steppe plants: Asteraceae and Cichoriaceae.

A group of Majkop burials has been recorded at Evdyk. The most ancient stratigraphic horizon of kurgan 4 is formed by burials 20, 16, 19, and 17 (Shilov, Bagautdinov 1998). The burials formed a circle under the kurgan, encircled by a ditch, almost circular in a shape and up to 1 m deep. Infill animal bones have been found in the ditch. The ancient kurgan was round in shape, 10-17 m in diameter; it overlies primary grave 20. Burials 16, 19, and 17 were added into the primary mound.

Plant mats have been found as well as wooden fences in the chamber entrances. The skeletons and grave floors were abundantly sprinkled with ochre. Like the burials of the similar Kuma-Manych Depression type, the discussed graves contained hand-made ceramics, i.e. a high-neck jar with burnished netlike decoration (Fig. 17, 2), a spherical amphora-shaped vessel with three loop handles and netlike decoration (Fig. 17, 11); a small spherical vessel with burnished decoration on the surface forming an ornamental belt in the upper part of the body (Fig. 17, 12). Burial 5 of kurgan 7 contained eight cylinder beads made of heattreated clay tempered with quartz sand (Fig. 17, 5); flint

Burial 20 was made in the oval pit oriented to the north– south. An adult was placed flexed on the left side, the hands were placed in front of the facial bones. The head was oriented to the southwest (Fig. 18, 1). Double burial 16 with skeletons of an adult and a child was disturbed by burial 19 of the subsequent period (Fig. 18, 4). The skeletons were placed flexed on their backs (or left sides?), and they were oriented to the northeast. Burial 19 31

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 17. Steppe Early Majkop graves. Sharakhalsun-6: k. 5, g. 7: 1–plan of the grave, 2–vessel, 3, 4–flakes, 5–beads, 6–fragment of the item; k. 2, g. 17: 8–knife-shaped blade, 9–plan of the grave, 11–vessel; k. 2, g. 12: 7–plan of the grave, 10–flake, 12–vessel 2, 11, 12–clay; 3, 4, 8, 10–flint; 5–steatite; 6–bronze

was adjacent to primary burial 20 and it was made in a round pit. An infant was placed flexed on the right side, oriented to the east (Fig. 18, 8). Burial 17 was made in a rectangular pit oriented to the west–east. A child was

placed flexed on the back, oriented to the east (Fig. 18, 15). The characteristic feature of the burial rite of the studied group are plant mats placed on the grave floor and 32

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE catacombs,11 the second group is characterized by simple rectangular or oval pits. The dead were placed flexed on their left side (more rarely on the right side), sometimes flexed on their back (Evdyk).

roofing. The dead and the mats were sprinkled with red pigment. Numerous finds have been found in the burials. Pottery is represented by a red-clay vessel with a rounded body and a burnished surface (kurgan 4, grave 20) (Fig. 18, 3); a vessel with a vertical rim and a bulging body (k. 4, b. 19) (Fig. 18, 17). Ornaments include a polished barrel-shaped bone bead and a rounded bone bead (Fig. 18, 6), perforated deer teeth (Fig. 18, 5, 16), small cylinder beads10 (Fig. 16, 7). These items have been found near the legs, around the wrists, on thigh bones (on the child skeleton in burial 19 beads formed two rows), on the neck and the pelvis. Presumably, the beads were parts of clothes embroidery or funeral shrouds. Some adornments may have been parts of headdresses, breast plaques, and belt-sets. The remains of such a belt have been found on an adult. They include alternating white and black long beads. A similar clothes part has been found at a Majkop burial at Mandjikiny-1. Another belt set made of perforated deer teeth has been found on an adult. Two silver rings with unclosed ends (Fig. 18, 9) have been uncovered near the jugular vertebrae of the dead in burial 19. Stone artefacts are represented by a chalcedony blade (Fig. 18, 11) and flint flakes (Fig. 18, 10, 14); bone artefacts are represented by a perforator (Fig. 18, 13).

The first subgroup is located around the valleys of the East Manych and the Kalaus. The area of the second subgroup is much wider and includes the Kuma-Manych Depression, the Southern Yergueni Hills, reaching as far as the Caspian Plain. Burials of each subgroup contain finds of similar types: knives with a short triangular tang, a clay wheel-made pithos, ornaments (clothes or shroud embroidery), and whetstones, implying that the settled areas of the both subgroups overlapped, and the sites dating to them coexisted. Therefore, we can single out a series of chronologically and culturally similar traditions dating to the Majkop culture of the North Caucasus. COMPARATIVE MATERIAL Most scholars consider the Majkop culture within a multi-cultural phenomenon (Trifonov 1991 а; Gey 1991). The search for the closest similarities to the burials of the Caspian Steppes has resulted in the following observations. Our comparative analysis is based on the correlation between basic elements of the burial rite and types of grave offerings.

Burial 19 contained 10 feet-bones of sheep, including 7 astragali. Four astragali painted with ochre have been found in burial 17.

The group studied correlates with the Majkop burials and settlements of the North Caucasus in many features of the burial rite: shallow oval pits; the position of the dead flexed on their side, with the hands placed by the face; southern orientation; the use of ochre; ritual places in kurgans containing fragments of pottery and animal bones; types of grave offerings are also similar: bronze knives, silver ornaments, whetstones, wheel-made pottery, numerous beads, flint arrowheads with a side slot. Items similar to bronze knives uncovered at Mandjikiny-1 and Zunda-Tolga-1 have been found at Sereguino and Galyugay settlements, in the burial near the Rassvet village, and at Ust-Djeguta, kurgan 13 and Chernyshev II, kurgan 2, grave 10 (Dneprovsky, Yakovlev 1988; Korenevsky 2004: Fig. 7-2, 5; 80-1; 131, 32-2). Burials with a knife and a whetstone have also been found (Mostovskaya, kurgan 3, grave 1) (Korenevsky 2004: Fig. 50-3, 5). Fragments of wheelmade red-clay pottery found at Zunda-Tolga-1 and the location found at the Shared River, small amphorae and a high-necked vessel uncovered at East Manych and Sharakhalsun are similar to many Majkop vessels of the North Caucasus (Munchaev 1975; Korenevsky 2004).

According to the sex and age determination, the dead were men of old age, more seldom women. Locations. In addition to the described kurgans and burials there are some finds that could be compared with the studied cultural group. A fragment of the rim of a wheel-made red-clay Majkop pithos has been found near a dry riverbed of the Shared River in the Southern Yergueni Hills (Fig. 16, 3). Majkop-type arrowheads with a side slot have been found in the region of Lake Koltannur and Lake Adyk, and in the area further to the south, in the Kuma River valley (Markovin 1992). A bronze knife similar to those uncovered at Zunda-Tolga-1 and Mandjikiny-1 has been found in the Bazhigan region (Markovin 1992: Fig. 5-30). EARLY MAJKOP CASPIAN STEPPES FUNERAL RITE TRADITIONS AND MATERIAL CULTURE The studied Early Steppe Majkop burials of the Caspian Steppes are important for the reconstruction of the stages of exploration of environmental areas. These burials may be divided into two subgroups. The first group is characterized by burial constructions in the shape of H10 The beads were supposed to have been be made of shells (Shilov, Bagautdinov 1998: 163), but this conclusion was made by visual examination only. Seven white beads alternate with one black. It resembles compound ornaments from the sites described above. We may suppose that the discussed beads as well as the ornaments uncovered at Zunda-Tolga-1 and Sharakhalsun-6 were made of clay or stone rather than shells.

11

33

The entrance shaft axis is parallel to that of the chamber.

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 18. Steppe Early Majkop graves. Evdyk: k. 4, g. 20: 1–plan of the grave, 2–bead, 3–vessel; g. 16: 4–plan of the grave, 5– pendant, 6, 7–beads; g.19: 8–stratigraphic correlation between the primary grave 20 (a) and secondary grave 19 (b), plans, 9–rings, 10–splinter, 11–knife-shaped blade, 12–bead, 13–perforator, 14–flake, 17–fragment of vessel; g. 17: 15–plan of the grave, 16– pendant 2, 6–7, 13–bone; 3, 17–clay; 9–silver; 10, 14–flint; 11–chalcedony; 12–shell? stone? clay?; 5, 16–deer tooth

34

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE of the Caspian Plain. Pottery from site Kzyl-Khak II, located near the eastern channel of the Volga-Akhtuba delta is similar to the Majkop-Novosvobodnaya ceramics (Barynkin, Kozin 1998: 191). At the same time they also penetrated into northwest areas reaching the Don. A typical Majkop vessel has been found in one of the burials at Primorsky II. Probably, the Early Majkop population groups tried to settle in flood plains of small steppe rivers of the Southern Yergueni Hills and lake valleys of the Caspian Plain, explore spacious steppe areas, and adapt their economic system to new landscapes (the river and lake flood plains–the watershed plateaus). The environmental areas of the Terek plains and the Kuban Piedmont did not differ much from steppe landscapes of the areas situated further to the north (Korenevsky 2004: 72), at least in the period when the Early Steppe Majkop traditions spread so far northward from the homeland.

Glossy decoration is an ornamental tradition typical for the Majkop pottery, it is also a characteristic feature of the pottery found on the steppe (Trifonov 2003). Flint arrowheads with a side slot are known both from burials and settlements of the Majkop culture of the North Caucasus (Korenevsky 2004: Figs. 84-85). But stone constructions in kurgans (stone circles, domelike constructions, pebble pavements and platforms, forming walls with stone and wood) have not been identified in the studied steppe group. The main characteristic feature of the group is a burial construction in the form of a catacomb. Typologically close graves have been defined by S.N. Korenevsky as rare forms of Majkop burials (Korenevsky 2004: 20). Such constructions have been discovered only on the Mozdok steppe and the Kuban area. Two catacomb graves have been investigated in kurgan 1 at Komarovo (Nagler 1996). The axes of the entrance and the chamber are parallel. These constructions could be similar to Нcatacombs, though they have some features different from Early Majkop catacombs of the Stavropol region and the East Manych described above: their entrance pits are much deeper (1.8 and 2 m), while chambers are small. At Komarovo the dead were placed flexed on their left sides, their backs turned to the entrance, the heads oriented to the south (Korenevsky 2004: Figs. 38-39). The flexed position on the right side dominates, though the left-side position was also used in the catacombs of the Caspian Steppes. In three cases the dead were placed with their back turned to the entrance, similar to Komarovo burials. The use of ochre is a characteristic feature of the burial rite both on the Mozdok and on the Caspian Steppes.

The North Caucasus Early Majkop burial rite comprises such characteristic traits as the use of timber and stone for reinforcing mounds; stone dome-like constructions in kurgans; a small size of mounds; rather shallow pits; timber roofing, plant mats on the floor of the graves; the position of the dead flexed on the left side, with the arms bent in the elbows and placed by the facial bones; the heads oriented to the south/southeast. Grave offerings include bronze cauldrons, awls, knives, adzes, axes; clay vessels, flint arrowheads and knives, stone, gold and silver beads. The rite practiced by the Early Majkop Steppe population was somewhat different. The craniological material from the Caspian Steppes burials (Appendix 1, table 1) is limited, nevertheless it has some correlation with paleocraniological materials from the Caucasus (Klady, Nezhinskaya group), and the Near East. These remains are attributed to the southern Caucasoid (Shevchenko 1983; 1986; Khokhlov 2002; Korenevsky 2004). The two dolichocephalic male skulls (Evdyk and Mandjikiny-1) are characterized by a narrow frontal bone (in relation to the upper part of the face), and a relatively high, orthognate face with a characteristically distinct profile in the nasomolar zone (Shevchenko 1986; Khokhlov 2002).

A Majkop burial in the catacomb has been studied in kurgan 2 at Dneprovskaya in the Kuban region. There were ritual places containing fragments of Majkop wheelmade pottery like in kurgan 2 at Zunda-Tolga-1 (Korenevsky 2004: Fig. 40-1). OVERALL CULTURAL CONTEXT The correlation of burials of the Southern and the Middle Yergueni Hills with materials of the Early Majkop culture of the North Caucasus Piedmont (the Majkop culture of the Galyugay-Sereguino type, according to S.N. Korenevsky, or the Majkop culture of the Ust-Djeguta type, according to V.A. Trifonov) allows us to suppose that probably in that particular period separate groups of the Majkop population began to explore the steppe.

Hence, the studied area was inhabited by groups of the traditions directly related to the Majkop culture; one of its components was a Near Eastern component. Probably, at that time the Caspian Steppes were vacant, and the Early Majkop population could freely move in the northern direction.

The Galyugay settlements are situated in the southeast of the Stavropol region, right on the border of the Caspian Plain and along the inhabited valleys of the Terek and the Kuma (which is confirmed by finds of identical bronze knives, flint artefacts, and pottery). The Early Majkop population penetrated as far as the Stavropol steppes (Korenevsky, Kalmykov 2003), reached the East Manych, and the Kalaus, and the nearest watersheds (Shared, Mandjikiny), and then advanced to the northeastern part of the Caspian Steppes up to the lakes

The group of the Early Steppe Majkop burials singled out correlates with the beginning of the Early (Ust-Djeguta) stage of the Majkop culture. A short Majkop culture period 100–150 years long should be singled out; it is marked by a “northern expansion” of Majkop population groups. This expansion is implied by such phenomena as the Early Steppe Majkop burials in catacombs, and similar catacomb burials on the Mozdok steppe and the Kuban region uncovered at Komarovo and near the Dneprovskaya village in the North Caucasus as well as 35

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES oval pit, 1.88 m by 1.05 m, oriented to the northeast– southwest. The individual was placed on the floor of the grave, flexed on the right side. The arms were bent, and the hands were placed in front of the facial bones; the head was oriented to the northeast (Fig. 19, 3). Burial 16 was added to the southern part of the early kurgan and it was made in an oval pit oriented to the west–east. An adolescent was placed flexed on the left side, oriented to the west, the hands placed in front of the facial bones (Fig. 19, 6).

the craniological similarity of the skulls from Kalmykia and the Middle East collections, and the skull of the subsequent period from Klady dating to the Novosvobodnaya culture. Probably, there could have been some direct descendants of the newcomers from the Middle East among the migrants that had settled down in the environmental areas of the North Caucasus Piedmont. The differences in the skulls from Mandjikiny-1 and Evdyk (Khokhlov 2002) confirm the suggestion on a seasonal rather than permanent nature of movements of the Early Steppe Majkop groups far into open steppe areas. They reached the East Manych and the Kalaus, explored the adjacent steppe watersheds and the shores of Lake Tsagan-Nur. Such independent groups differed not only by their burial rite, but also by their physical anthropological type (Shishlina 2002а). Heterogeneity is a characteristic feature of a group set of skulls from the Majkop-type burials in the Stavropol region as well (Ipatovo-3, Zolotarevka 1, Sharakhalsun 6, Aigursky 2) (Gerasimova et al. 2002). The similarity observed between the skull from Mandjikiny-1 and that from the later burial at Klady of the Novosvobodnaya type (Khokhlov 2002) suggests that northern expansion into faraway areas was of short duration. A common comparative characteristic of Majkop and Novosvobodnaya skulls that are few in number reduces the genetic distance separating the people who left behind such burials (Khokhlov 2002: 176). We believe that new 14 С dating of the Early Majkop sites in the North Caucasus similar to the steppe sites by their type, seasonality of numerous steppe and Caucasus burials as well as other special studies would help find North Caucasus materials, which were synchronous with the steppe sites.

Mats and ochre were the part of the grave interior, ochre could be used as a funeral gift (in lumps). Grave offerings are represented by flat-bottomed clay vessels: a bowl with a burnished surface (b. 13) (Fig. 19, 7) and a potshaped vessel (b. 14) (Fig. 19, 4); numerous flint flakes were also used (Fig. 19, 5, 8). A similar burial has been uncovered at VMPB,67, kurgan 4, grave 14: an adult was placed in a sitting position on the floor of a square pit, the face was oriented to the south; the grave was not furnished with any artefacts (Erdniev 1982a: 12). The burial was a secondary one in the primary mound overlying a Yamnaya burial. Eastern Part of the Sravropol Hills Burial constructions of this region show one characteristic feature, namely, catacombs of a very rare A-type uncovered at Chogray I, kurgan 4, grave 3; Chogray II, kurgan 12, grave 3; kurgan 14, grave 9. Tshape catacombs have been found less frequently at Chogray II, kurgan 14, grave 6. Pits have also been uncovered at Chogray I, kurgan 12, grave 7 (Shishlina 2007: 52–53).

The Late Steppe Majkop group Such burials are primary ones, underlying Yamnaya graves (Chogray I, kurgan 4 and 5), North Caucuses graves (Chogray II, kurgan 12), or similar burials in a catacomb, with the dead placed in a sitting position (Chogray II, kurgan 14). The primary mounds are rather small: up to 20 m in diameter and about 1 m high.

The Late Steppe Majkop group includes 18 burials different from the Early Majkop ones. The graves are not numerous and are more heterogeneous and multicultural. Several cultural subgroups may be singled out.

Catacombs of the Late Majkop group are essentially different from H-shape catacombs typical for the Early Majkop burials of the Caspian Steppes. The entrance of A-catacombs are small pits, square or oval-shaped and oriented to the west–east (sometimes with the sloping floor), while oval or square chambers are noted for their large size. The entrance shaft and the chamber are in some cases connected by the dromos. The dead were placed in a sitting or a half-sitting position at the end of the chamber, with the faces turned to the entrance, in two cases to the west, in one case to the northwest (Fig. 20, 12). Such graves have been uncovered at Chogray II, kurgan 14, grave 9 and at Chogray I, kurgan 4, grave 3.

The Kuma-Manych Depression Several burials of this group have been uncovered at Zunda-Tolga-1: kurgan 1. The earliest stratigraphic horizon of the kurgan consists of primary burial 13 and secondary burials 14, 15, and 16 arranged in a circle. The kurgan built above the central burial was rather small: up to 1 m high and 16–20 m in diameter (Shishlina 1997a). Burial 13 was added into a small steppe hill. A square pit is 1.2 m by 1.2 m and 1.5 m deep. Two adults were placed on the floor in a sitting position. Initially their faces were oriented to the southwest (Fig. 19, 2). Burial 14 adjoined the primary grave from the northwest and slightly displaced its corner. A round pit was oriented to north–south, its walls narrowed to the floor. The pit was 1.48 m by 1.36 m at the upper edge, and 1.21 m by 1.1 m at the floor. One adult was placed flexed on the left side (Fig. 19, 1). Burial 15 was added later. It was made in an

The entrance shaft of the Т-shape catacomb at Chogray II, kurgan 14, grave 6 is rectangular in shape and oriented to the north–south, an oval chamber oriented to the west– east was made under the eastern wall.

36

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE

Fig. 19. Steppe Late Majkop graves. Zunda-Tolga-1: k. 1, g. 14: 1–plan of the grave, 4–vessel, 5–flakes; g. 13: 2–plan of the grave, 7–vessel; g. 15: 3–plan of the grave, 8–flakes; g. 16: 6–plan of the grave 4, 8–clay; 5–6–flint

37

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 20. Steppe Late Majkop graves. 1–Chogray II: k. 14, g. 9; 2–Chogray I: k. 4, g. 3; 3–KVCH-56: k. 6, g. 12; 4–Tsatsa: k. 7, g. 2; Evdyk 1: k. 5, g. 11: 5–mortar, 6–pin, 7–plan of the grave 5–stone; 6–bone

At Chogray I: kurgan 12, grave 12 the dead was placed in a sitting position on the floor of a quadrangular pit oriented to the west–east. The burial was added to a primary mound overlying an Early Yamnaya burial.

Three burials of the first subgroup are similar to each other, i.e. KVCH-56, kurgan 6, grave 12; Evdyk, kurgan 5, grave 11; Tsatsa, kurgan 7, grave 2 (Shishlina 1997b; Shilov 1985a).

The Caspian Plain

At KVCH-56, kurgan 6 and Tsatsa, kurgan 7 the burials were added to primary mounds overlying Early Yamnaya graves. At Evdyk, kurgan 5, burial 11 is a primary grave.

In this region eight burials have been singled out that may be considered within the framework of three conditional subgroups.

All burials are made in large square pits (one pit has an oval shape) with ledges. They were oriented to the 38

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE fragment of flint flake were placed near the child (Fig. 21, 5).

northeast–southwest, the floors were covered with plant mats sprinkled with ochre and charcoal. The adults were placed in a sitting position with their faces turned to the southeast or southwest. A horse skull was placed on the edge of the grave and sheep bones were found at Tsatsa (Fig. 20, 4). The dead at Evdyk, kurgan 5, grave 11 probably was wrapped up in a shroud, his skull was sprinkled with ochre (Fig. 20, 7).

Constructively, burial 22 is a catacomb with a quadrangular entrance, a sloping step and a rounded chamber with a layer of ochre on the floor. Two skeletons, of an adult and a child, were placed on the floor in a sitting position; both were sprinkled with ochre (Fig. 21, 9). Two bronze rings with open ends were found near the skull of the adult (Fig. 21, 14), cylinder beads (of shell?) were located around the arms and the pelvis (Fig. 21, 15). A bronze awl with a stop (Fig. 21, 10) was found behind the skull of the child in the layer of ochre, there were four flint flakes, seven small foot-bones and five sheep astragali by his legs, a clay hand-made pot were found as well (Fig. 21, 11). There was a bronze awl 2 cm long with the traces of a wooden handle nearby (Fig. 21. 16). A hand-made burnished vessel was found near the pit.

Funeral offerings are rather poor: a bronze awl with a rectangular cross-section, a bone awl (Fig. 20, 6), and a small stone mortar (Fig. 20, 5) (Evdyk 1, kurgan 5, grave 11). Two burials form the second subgroup. The first uncovered at Djangr-I, kurgan 25, grave 13 was made in a pit, 1.84 m by 1.43 m by 1.28 m; the adult was placed on its floor, the face oriented to the west (Shishlina 2007: 54-55). The second burial was destroyed (Evdyk, kurgan 6, grave 11) (Shilov, Bagautdinov 1998): separate human bones were placed disorderly; there was a flint knife and a clay cylindrical object among the bones.

Locations. Elongated triangular arrowheads with a side slot of the Novosvobodnaya type have been found in the area of Lakes Koltan-Nur and Adyk, and to the south in the Kuma (Markovin 1992: Fig. 6, 4-5; 7, 4-5).

The third subgroup is singled out on the basis of the use of pits with a small chamber or catacombs, and a sitting position of the dead. One burial stands aside and is similar to the catacomb burials of the northeast Stavropol Hills considered above (KVCH-56, kurgan 13, grave 5) (Shishlina 2007: 54-55). It was a secondary grave added to the primary Yamnaya kurgan. The square entrance was 1.9 m by 1.9 m large; a rectangular chamber was made in its eastern wall; a man of 30–35 years old was placed on the mat on its floor in a sitting position. His face was oriented to the west, towards the chamber exit. There was a layer of red ochre on the right shoulder.

The physical paleoanthropological materials analyzed dating to the Late Majkop period are few in number. A.V. Shevchenko has examined a male skull from Evdyk, kurgan 4, grave 22. It is similar to the Novosvobodnaya skull at Klady in the Kuban region, the skull is attributed to a hypermorphic craniological type with a high face and a projecting nose (Shevchenko 1986). CASPIAN STEPPE LATE MAJKOP FUNERAL RITE TRADITIONS AND MATERIAL CULTURE

Two burials in kurgan 4 at Evdyk are of special interest. An Early Majkop kurgan was used. Burial 23 cut through an ancient ditch arranged inside the mound, burial 22 was located next to it (Shilov, Bagautdinov 1998: 176).

This comparative analysis of burial rites points to a multicultural nature for the group of burials described above. Some of them are characterized by simple rectangular or oval pits with plant mats on the floor; the dead were placed flexed on their sides with the arms bent and hands resting by the face, or sitting. Other burials are characterized by large pits with ledges; the dead were also placed in a sitting position. A similar position is typical for catacomb burials as well. Burial constructions are impressive, with typically large quadrangular pits and passages between the entrance and the chamber. Such graves are different both from the Eneolithic “niche” graves (Rassamakin 1987), and from Н-catacombs of the Early Majkop culture.

Burial 23 was made in a rectangular pit with a small chamber. Along the eastern wall seven post-holes forming a screen between the entrance pit and the small chamber were identified. There was a bronze adze with the remains of a wooden shaft preserved by the central post-hole (Fig. 21, 1). The construction had timber roofing; the floor was sprinkled with charcoal and ochre. An adult male and a child were placed in the grave in a sitting position. There was a bronze cauldron, imprints of thin swatches 0.5 cm in diameter that could be part of a wooden framework were traced by the pelvis of the adult skeleton. The upper part of the cauldron was ornamented (Fig. 21, 12). A bronze shaft-hole hook with the remains of a wooden shaft was inside the cauldron (Fig. 21, 2). A double-twist golden ring (Fig. 21, 3) and a bronze knife with an elongated leaf-shaped blade were lying near the bones of the adult (Fig. 21, 7). A stone pestle (Fig. 21, 8), a piece of ironstone (a whetstone?) (Fig. 21, 4), and a

Grave offerings consist of clay vessels and flint flakes. Two burials at Evdyk are an exception: items of Novosvobodnaya type have been found there with large amounts of ochre. COMPARATIVE MATERIAL The burials considered above were excavated before we started to use a complex analysis in studying the burial

39

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 21. Steppe Late Majkop graves.Evdyk 1: k. 4, g. 23: 1–plan of the grave, 2–hook, 3–temple ring, 4–stone, 5–flake, 6–adze, 7– knife, 8–pestle, 12–cauldron, 12a–ornamentation of the cauldron; g. 22: 9–plan of the grave, 10–awl, 11–vessel, 13–splinters, 14– temple rings, 15–beads, 16–awl 2, 6, 7, 10, 12, 14, 16–bronze; 3–gold; 4, 8–stone; 5, 13–flint; 15–shell? steatite?

40

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE rite. Therefore, the comparison of these materials is based on the traditional method of searching similar or close elements in the burial rite and grave offerings.12

Kurgans at Kastyrsky are rather small: up to 1 m high, up to 20 m in diameter on average. Burials of Novosvobodnaya type were made in simple rectangular pits oriented to the west–east; the adults and children were lying flexed on their backs and oriented to the east or southeast. Grave offerings include silver rings and cylinder beads; a bronze ring with closed ends; an trapeze-shaped adze, an awl rectangular in the crosssection; a double-edge knife; a stone slab; small beads of a cylindrical shape sewn on clothes; red-clay and greyclay burnished pottery similar to Majkop and Novosvobodnaya ceramics, and to pots from Konstantinovka settlement (Zhitnikov, Ilyukov 2002: Fig. 1-4). There are also typical steppe artefacts, i.e. a handmade vessel with an ovoid body decorated with rows of string impressions uncovered at Kastyrsky (Zhitnikov, Ilyukov 2002: Fig. 2), and a round vessel with string impressions found at Tankin (Gamayunov 1987).

Yu.Ya. Rassamakin has singled out type IV of burials in the Molochnaya River region; it comprises burials in rectangular, less frequently oval pits, with the dead flexed on their sides, hands placed in front of the face. A halfsitting position of the dead has also been recorded. The dead were oriented to the east, south, or southwest. Pottery is represented by bowl-shaped pots (Rassamakin 1987). Stratigraphically, such graves occupy an intermediate position between Eneolithic and Yamnaya burials. They have been uncovered as far as the Kuban area (Rassamakin 1993; Maksimenko 1973). V.Ya. Kiyashko in his book on the Bronze Age cultures has singled out group IV of the Eneolithic Age in the Lower Don. It is characterized by rectangular pits with ledges, single and double burials, a flexed position of the dead on their sides with the hands placed by the face, southern, southwestern, and southeastern orientation; a sitting position of the dead; the use of ochre; vessels with handles and bowls, and numerous flint flakes (waste) (Kiyashko V. 1974). Basic diagnostical traits of the burial rite of the Lower Don group include a sitting position of the dead and Novosvobodnaya-type items, which reflects the influence of the Early Bronze Age traditions of the North Caucasus population on the steppe groups. The graves at Zunda-Tolga-1, kurgan 1 are the most similar to such burials. The pottery from burials 13 and 14 of this kurgan is similar to the vessels from the Early Bronze sites of the North Caucasus (Chechenov 1984; Gadzhiev 1991).

A group of Late Majkop burials has been uncovered at Vertoletnoye pole, kurgan 1, graves 11, 8 and 7 (Zhitnikov 2000).13 The burial rite of the Don group is characterized by rectangular pits and a flexed position of the dead on their backs, which is similar to the steppe burial rite (Nechitaylo 1991 б). A similar situation is characteristic for the Steppe Stavropol area as well (Veselaya Roscha, Zhukovsky): the burial Steppe Yamnaya rite is combined with Novosvobodnaya-type artefacts (Rezepkin 2000). A group of burials in rectangular pits with the dead flexed on their backs with Majkop pottery and metal items has been uncovered at Zhukovsky II (Derzhavin 1991). One of the burials at Ipatovo is similar to the grave at ZundaTolga-1, i.e. two adults were placed in a sitting position in a rectangular pit (or a pit with a chamber) lined with vertical stone slabs by its perimeter; the grave contained a clay vessel of the Majkop type (Belinskij et al. 2000. Fig. 2; Korenevsky at al. 2007: Fig.66-67). Wattle setting of Novosvobodnaya-type cauldrons is known mainly from Majkop burial at Inozemtsevo (Korenevsky, Petrenko 1982). “Flag-shaped” arrowheads with a side groove are similar to items uncovered at Novosvobodnaya sites of the Kuban area (Kondrashev, Rezepkin 1988).

In the Lower Don area V.Ya. Kiyashko has also singled out group VI of burials uncovered at Koisug. Its characteristic features are rather shallow quadrangular pits with fired walls; a sitting position of the dead; grave offerings include flint flakes, bone perforators, roundbottomed pottery similar to pots from the Trans-Caucasus as well as Kura-Araxes ceramics. Stratigraphically, these burials are overlaid by graves of group VII similar to Yamnaya burials of the Caspian Steppes. Some burials of the studied group (Zunda-Tolga-1) also correlate with Don Group VI (pits with ledges and a flexed position of the dead, which V.Ya. Kiyashko links to preceding group IV (Kiyashko V. 1974). The rite as well as finds look archaic; the stratigraphic data suggest that the Don group coexisted with the traditional Yamnaya population.

OVERALL CULTURAL CONTEXT The second group conditionally termed the Late Majkop group is very small. The term refers to the chronological span and synchronism with the Late Steppe Majkop and piedmont sites of the North Caucasus, rather than directly mirrors a clear cultural attribution of such burials; moreover, the group is multicultural and its burial rite does not show stable characteristics. It is difficult even to single out close analogies to a burial rite. The sitting position of the dead together with some rare types of

The items uncovered at Evdyk are similar to Novosvobodnaya-type artefacts (Rezepkin 2000). Artefacts of the Novosvobodnaya type have been also uncovered in the Lower Don area (Zhitnikov, Ilyukov 2002; Gamayunov 1987). 12

In this book 14С dates are used, though not numerous (see below). These dates allow us to propose an accurate synchronization of the Late Steppe Majkop culture, on the one hand, and both non-Yamnaya cultural traditions that appeared in the steppe at that time and the earliest Yamnaya burials of the Caspian Steppes, on the other hand.

13

14 С date obtained from burial 8 (Appendix 2, table 3) shows synchronism of this group and the steppe group of the Caspian Steppes.

41

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES group related by its origin to the Trans-Caucasus (Kiyashko V. 1974), but in the Don area this group seems to have been independent. Now we may suppose that a small group of the Don burial tradition exploited eastern areas located in the environmental areas of the Caspian Steppes and used river routes. It is of interest that the majority of the migrants were males.

catacombs and pits with ledges are apparently the most characteristic ritual attributes, but these should not be regarded as a cultural diagnostic feature, as has already been indicated (Shishlina 1997b). The stratigraphic position the group occupies, and comparison of 14С dates obtained from some of the analyzed burials with the stratigraphy and the 14С database of Early Yamnaya graves help identify three burial traditions within the considered cultural horizon on the Caspian Steppes.

The third group is represented by Early Yamnaya burials described below.

The first tradition is related to the burials in A- and Tshape catacombs of unclear cultural attribution, with the dead placed in a sitting position, and no grave offerings. The second tradition is not marked by distinct cultural traits either, and is characterized by pit burials with the dead in a sitting position. Finally, the third tradition could be dated to the Early Yamnaya culture. All these traditions are alien for the Caspian Steppes and have different origins.

It is worth presenting analysis of the burial rite of three burials in kurgan 19 at VMPB, 67.14 The primary burial was made in a rectangular pit oriented to the west–east and surrounded by stone circles. The adult was placed on the floor flexed on the back and oriented to the east. Two secondary burials were added into the northwestern and southwestern parts of the kurgan. Burial 7 was made in a quadrangular pit oriented to the west–east and roofed with a shell rock slab. The adult was placed on the floor of the pit, flexed on the back and oriented to the east. Two flint arrowheads were uncovered near the left hand; a bone awl with a groove in its upper part was placed between the legs; a stone was located near the jugular vertebrae. The skeleton was sprinkled with ochre, a lump of ochre was found in the palm. Burial 8 was also made in a rectangular pit oriented to the southeast–northwest. The adult was placed on the floor in the same position, i.e. flexed on the back and oriented to the southeast. A vessel was placed by the legs (Erdniev 1982 а: 39–40. Fig. 17–4).

Burials in catacomb are not homogeneous, though the sitting position of the dead is a common feature. Some burials are characterized by the presence of the Novosvobodnaya type of grave offerings (Evdyk). This is confirmed by the already mentioned similarity of skulls from some burials, i.e. Evdyk, kurgan 4, grave 22, and Klady, kurgan 28, grave 1. We may suppose that local conditions of the Caspian Plain were not favourable for reproducing a traditional Novosvobodnaya rite (no pebble pavements, stone circles, stone platforms, and cists), and that catacomb graves unusual for the Novosvobodnaya population may point to a certain small group isolated from the main cultural community. At present it is possible to draw certain parallels with catacomb burials, including those with skeletons in a sitting position uncovered in the Steppe Stavropol area. At Ipatovo-3, grave 2/195, a male of 18–19 years old and a girl of 11– 12 years old were placed in a square chamber of the catacomb in a sitting position and painted with red ochre. Vertical stone slabs were placed around the buried; sheep/goat meat and a wheel-made vessel were placed in the grave. In the same region at Aigursky, Zolotarevka, and Ipatovo-2 typical Majkop burials have also been uncovered (Korenevsky, Kalmykov 2004).

All three burials described above were made in pits; another feature in common is the position of the dead flexed on the back, which relates them to the ritual tradition of the local Yamnaya groups. But the grave offerings (a clay vessel and flint arrowheads of the Novosvobodnaya type) evidence the spreading of the Novosvobodnaya artefacts among the Early Yamnaya groups. The Early Yamnaya and Novosvobodnaya groups probably developed relationships beyond the Caspian Steppes as well; in the first place they interacted on the steppe and in the piedmont areas of the North Caucasus. Such relationships are mirrored by similar burials in quadrangular pits with skeletons flexed on their backs with artefacts of the Majkop type also uncovered in the Stavropol region (Zhukovsky II, kurgan 1, grave 9; kurgan 2, grave 1); ovoid vessels with corded ornamentation were found in a number of Majkop sites, i.e. the Ust-Djeguta necropolis and settlement, Galyugay and Bolsheteginskoye settlements (Nechitaylo 1991b).

The main trait of other burials are A- and T-shape catacombs of a sophisticated design, including such elements as a passage, a large chamber, and the entrance screens that have no analogues of the earlier age on the Steppe, or in the Caucasus. Grave offerings have been rarely uncovered; they resemble Eneolithic artefacts rather than imported artefacts of the Novosvobodnaya and Late Majkop types, and their imitations spread across the steppe. No psychical anthropological data are available, which does not allow us to compare the subgroups in question with each other and with other burials of that period.

The primary Yamnaya burial at kurgan 4 at VMPB, 67 is similar to the primary grave of kurgan 19: it is also performed in a pit with stone roofing surrounded with an enclosure of the “dolmen” type. It was overlaid by a burial in a simple pit with the sitting skeleton dating to the Late Majkop group.

The second group of pit burials with skeletons in a sitting position is most similar to Lower Don burials. V.Ya. Kiyashko believed that such burials had appeared in the Don area as a result of direct migration of a cultural

14 Unfortunately, it is impossible to present full analysis of grave offerings: the State Historic Museum in Moscow has only flint artefacts.

42

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE Caucasoid. The skull from a Novosvobodnaya grave at Evdyk, kurgan 4, grave 22, is hypermorphic, which is more characteristic for Yamnaya steppe population; this might indicate both participation of the Majkop population in the racial genesis of the steppe groups including the Yamnaya group and introduction of steppe population genes in the Novosvobodnaya people living in the North Caucasus (Khokhlov 2002: 177–179). The male skull from Novosvobodnaya burial at Klady (Shevchenko 1983) also differs from Yamnaya skulls. This points to the independence of the populations that lived in the discussed region and the adjacent areas.

The two groups–the Early Yamnaya and the so called “Late Majkop” groups–probably coexisted. This is true for at least the environmental areas of the Kuma-Manych Depression and the West Caspian Plain. Probably, the group of sites on the right bank of the Lower Don (Kastyrsky etc.) is the result of the North Caucasian population exploiting this area. Scholars believe that the Konstantinovka settlement was a kind of trade outpost that functioned for a short period of time (Zhitnikov, Ilyukov 2002). Burials with combined “Yamnaya-Majkop” traits appeared on the Stavropol steppe as well (Derzhavin 1991). Comparative analysis enable us to date the studied groups of burials on the Caspian Steppes to the period of spatial expansion of the Majkop culture and movement of its population into the northern, northwestern, and northeastern steppe areas (Trifonov 2004). During this time of expansion Majkop imports were spreading far beyond the core of the culture area, as far as the Black Sea Steppes to the west (Sokolovka in the Nikolaev region) (Nechitaylo 1991a: Fig. 1-2). Apparently some population groups from the North Caucasus piedmont migrated or tried to colonize the Lower Don area, the Manych and the Kuma regions, and the Caspian Plain. The invasion of the Majkop population into the steppe caused numerous imitations of Majkop pottery accompanied by replicas of basic shapes of metal artefacts made by local steppe craftsmen (Nechitaylo 1991 а). Apparently, such burial constructions as simple pits lined with stones and supplied with stone roofing uncovered in the East Manych valley may be considered as a version of the kurgan stone cist, a typical Majkop burial construction (Trifonov 1991 а). Arrowheads similar to the items from the Majkop and Novosvobodnaya sites of the North Caucasus have been found in such burials. But the dead in the “steppe burials” are placed flexed on their backs, oriented to the east, whilst the principal diagnostic traits of the Majkop burial rite is the position of the dead flexed on the side, with the hands located by the face and with the southern orientation (Trifonov 1991 а). Probably, these burials mark a period of cultural transformations that affected the Caucasus piedmont and the adjacent steppe regions at Late Majkop time: a reverse process of ousting the Majkop population from the steppes back to the south unfolded under the pressure of the Yamnaya groups (Trifonov 1996b).

Yamnaya Culture

At the final stage of Majkop culture decline some Yamnaya groups probably migrated to the south, to the North Caucasus piedmont areas, as indicated by Yamnaya burials and kurgans located in the Majkop core area, i.e. on the Kuban Left Bank, in Kabardino-Balkaria, Ossetia, Ingushetia, and Chechnya (Nechitaylo 1991a).

The reconstructions of several Yamnaya mounds are presented below.

Numerous Yamnaya kurgans and 732 graves have been uncovered on the Caspian Steppes. They are localized in six environmental areas. Each local group is characterized by a specific funeral rite and grave offerings. Funeral Rite of the Yamnaya Culture of the Caspian Steppes Kuma-Manych Depression Fourteen Yamnaya burial grounds, 193 kurgans and 411 graves have been uncovered in the Kuma-Manych Depression. Kurgan mounds. All primary graves are located in the centre of kurgans; secondary burials were added into different parts of the mound. In some cases Yamnaya secondary graves formed a circle (Sinitsyn et al. 1978: Fig.1-8) or a line. The average diameter of primary kurgans is approximately 12–18 m and their height is 0.65–1.10 m. Few architectural construction, soil filing-in have been recorded. Most mounds were round-shaped. In some cases the top of the kurgan could be flat. Ritual places are typical for this region and they contained bones of domesticated and wild animals, small fragments of clay pots, flint flakes. For example, bones of Saiga tatarica and Bos Taurus accompanied by a flint flake and a knifeshaped chip have been found in the ritual place at Ostrovnoy, kurgan 3; small sherds of clay pots and a flint flake have been found at Zunda-Tolga-3, kurgan 3.

Chograysky V, kurgan 9. A primary Yamnaya grave was built, a small wall made of blocks of sandstones was constructed nearby, a human sacrifice was made, i.e. a young woman was killed, and her body was placed near the edge of the primary pit. Two graves underlie the mound.

From the physical anthropology, at least two groups– Novosvobodnaya and Yamnaya–are different: the Yamnaya population in Kalmykia is attributed to the northern Caucasoid, while the Majkop and Novosvobodnaya population groups were southern

Zunda-Tolga-3, kurgan 3. A secondary Yamnaya grave overlies a primary North Caucasus grave. It was made in 43

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES a pit, around which a square was cleared. The pit and the square were covered by a reed mat. A secondary kurgan, diameter of which was 16–18 m and the height was 1 m, overlies two graves. The top of the kurgan was flat. The upper square was opened; horse, saiga, and gazelle bones were left there as well as a ceramic sherd without ornamentation. Bones of a horse or a kulan (Equus sp.) were uncovered around the Yamnaya graves. On the top of the kurgan birds began to nest. Egg shells of 10 eggs and bird bones were found there. Three secondary Yamnaya graves were added into the western edge of the kurgan later.

Table 1. Wood identification. Yamnaya culture of the Caspian Steppes. Burial ground, kurgan, grave Mu-Sharet-4, k. 10, g. 3 Mu-Sharet-4, k. 10, g. 4 Mu-Sharet-4, k. 12, g. 2 Mu-Sharet-1, k. 5, g. 3 Mandjikiny-1, k. 3, g. 2 Mandjikiny-1, k. 4, g. 10 Mandjikiny-1, k. 1, g. 12 Zunda-Tolga-3, k. 1, g. 4 Zunda-Tolga-3, k. 1, g. 8

The predominant burial construction is a rectangular pit (Fig. 22, 2, 4, 6, 8-9). Oval and round pits are rare (Fig. 23, 1, 3-4).

Wood Ulmus, Querqus, Fraxinus Fraxinus Fraxinus Acer, Fraxinus Ulmus, Fagus L. Acer Fraxinus Acer, Fraxinus Fraxinus

Plant mats were lying very often above the wooden beams (Fig. 22, 1). They could cover the whole floor of the pit or could be placed in the centre forming a square; from 60 by 80 to 90 by 120 cm. Mats put in several layers were placed very close to each other. Sometimes an earthen “platform” made of soil or wooden slabs placed parallel along the long walls were built. It is possible that animal skins covered the floor as well. Mats also hung on the walls (Orfinskaya, Shishlina 2002). They could be nailed by wooden pegs. Other composite wooden constructions in the form of a railing made of twigs or a fence have been uncovered. They could be parts of wagons, the side parts or a fragment of a shed. Such parts could be placed on the floor of the pit as well (Chograysky V). A pillow stuffed with flowers or dry steppe plants (table 2) was placed into the pit. A folded animal skin could serve as a pillow as well.

Pits with ledges are characteristic for the Yamnaya groups of the Kuma-Manych Depression as well. Such constructions though have not been uncovered at ZundaTolga, Ostrovnoy and Chograysky. Pits with batter have also been recorded (Fig. 23, 9). Stone cromlechs were built around primary graves in four cases (Fig. 23, 7). In one case a small wall was built near the pit and a human sacrifice was made (Chograysky-V, kurgan 9) (Fig. 23, 3). Interior parts of funeral constructions include wooden ceilings placed on wooden pillars (Table 1). Plant mats could be placed above in some cases (Fig. 22, 3). Several skeletons of snakes were lying parallel between wooden beams at Ostrovnoy, kurgan 3, grave 33.

Table 2. Plants obtained from the pillow under the skull of the Yamnaya dead of the Caspian Steppes Burial ground, kurgan, grave Ostrovnoy: k. 3, g. 33 Mu-Sharet-4: k. 8, g. 1 Mu-Sharet-4: k. 11, g. 4 Mu-Sharet-4: k. 12, g. 1 Mu-Sharet-4: k. 12, g. 2 Mu-Sharet-4: k. 12, g. 5 Mu-Sharet-1: k. 2, g. 1 Mu-Sharet-1: k. 3, g. 1 Mandjikiny-2: k. 11, g. 3 Mandjikiny-1: k. 14, g. 10 Mandjikiny-1: k. 14, g. 12 Zunda-Tolga-3: k. 1, g. 8 Zunda-Tolga-3: k. 1, g. 4 Peschany-V: k. 1, g. 2 Peschany-V: k. 1, g. 3

Pollen and phytolith Pollen of Artemisia, Varia, Poaceae, hornbeam Carpinus, birch-tree Betula Pollen of Artemisia is predominant, pollen of Chenopodiaceae is rare Low concentration of pollen of Artemisia, Cichoriaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Poaceae, Asteraceae; it is possible that dry plants were under the skull Almost no pollen, few pollen grains of Artemisia, Chenopodiaceae, Asteraceae Almost no pollen, few pollen grains of Chenopodiaceae, many burned organic material (dry plant?); thin phytolith of plant stems Pollen of Chenopodiacea, Ephedra, Artemisia, Asteraceae, Liliaceae, Tulipa, one case of pollen of Pinus, Corylus Few pollen grains of lime-tree, alder-tree and pine-tree; pollen of Chenopodiaceae is predominant, pollen of Poaceae Many pollen of Leonurus, Varia (Silenaceae, Asteraceae, Iris) No pollen A small quantity of pollen of Varia, Chenopodiaceae, Artemisia, Poaceae (dry plants?) Few pollen of Varia, more pollen of Artemisia, few pollen of Chenopodiaceae, Poaceae, pollen of trees, i.e. Tilia, Betula, Pinus, Polypodiaceae Many pollen of Poaceae, Silenaceae, Varia A moderate quantity of pollen, pollen grains of Poaceae are predominant, Varia, Chenopodiaceae; many siliceous remains of scales of grains of gramineous plants No pollen A small quantity of pollen, Varia, Poaceae, Asteraceae, Chenopodiaceae, Artemisia, Cichorieceae (dry plants)

44

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE

Fig. 22. Yamnaya graves of the Kuma-Manych Depression. Zunda-Tolga-3: k. 1, g. 4: 1–mat, 2–plan of the grave, 3–brazier; 4–k. 1, g. 8; 6–VMLBII,65: k. 21, g. 3; 7–VMLBII,65: k. 43, g. 7; VMLBII, 66: k. 43, g. 18: 5–temple ring, 8–plan of the grave; 9– VMLBII,65: k. 18, g. 1 1–plant fibres (reed); 3–clay; 5–bronze

45

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 23. Yamnaya graves of the Kuma-Manych Depression. Chograysky-V: k. 9, g. 6: 1–plan of the grave, 2–hammer-headed pin; 3– k. 9, g. 2; 4–k. 9, g. 7; VMLBII,66: k. 33, g. 11: 6–incense burner, 8– plan of the grave; 7–VMLBI,65: k. 13, g. 10; 9–VMPB,65: k. 1, g. 9; VMLBI,65: k. 1, g. 6: 10–vessel, 11–plan of the grave 2–bone; 6, 10–clay

46

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE The position of the dead. Usually the grave was built only for one person. Among 411 graves only 19 burials were collective graves, i.e. 14 graves were double; 4 graves were triple; in one case seven persons were placed in one grave, i.e. four adults and three children (Fig. 24, 4). Three double graves were made for children; five double graves were made for an adult and a child (Fig. 24, 2), and there were two adults in each of six other graves (Fig. 24, 9). Two graves were built for three adults (Fig. 24, 12); one grave was built for two adults and one child. The position of the dead flexed on the back is predominant. There are only variations in the position of hands. Both hands could be extended; both hands could be flexed at the elbow; the left hand could be flexed; the right hand could be extended and vice versa. The position of the dead flexed on the left side with a turn to the back was rarely used while the position of the dead extended on the back has been identified only in collective graves. In two cases the dead were lying extended on the stomach (Fig. 23, 3). The burials with only a human skull have also been uncovered. In two cases the skeletons were dismembered. In the grave with seven skeletons the dead were lying flexed on the back and on the side; and extended on the stomach (Fig. 24, 4).

added into Majkop kurgans. The kurgans built over one Yamnaya primary grave is a characteristic feature of this local group (seven isolated kurgans). In two cases human sacrifices were made. Primary kurgans were small, only 0.50–0.60 m high and from 10 to 20 m wide. In some cases a mound was built over two primary graves; in one case a kurgan was built over three primary graves. In such kurgans graves are located near each other and oriented to the north–south. One or two, less frequently, three Yamnaya secondary graves were added into the mound. Due to addition of secondary graves and fillingin, the kurgan was enlarged. A small flat square could be built on the top of the mound. Primary graves were located in the centre; secondary graves were added into all parts of the kurgan.

The stratigraphic analysis of the graves with different positions of the dead indicates that a typical posture of the dead in the Kuma-Manych Depression is flexed on the back with extended hands. Other positions can be considered as variations. Cenotaphs have not been uncovered.

Mandjikiny 1, kurgan 3. A primary grave was built in winter or in spring. A fire was made near the grave to warm the soil. The pit is roofed by Carpinus and elm tree beams (Fig. 25, 1). No kurgan was built after the funeral ceremony. In June or May a funeral human sacrifice was made, i.e. 15 year old girl was killed and placed near the primary grave (Fig. 25, 5). Only after that a small one meter high, 14 m in diameter kurgan was built. Remains of a ritual place consisting of a tooth of a horse, sheep and cattle bones have been found.

Ritual places with clay sherds, unbroken pots, flint flakes and animal bones could be left under the mound. Animal bones come from large and small ungulates, horse, saiga, kulan, sheep, and wild birds. They were arranged in a circle around primary graves on the soil surface. Several reconstructions presented below.

The orientation to the east is predominant. The southeastern, southern, northern orientation of the dead in primary graves was used rarely as well. In the collective graves one of the dead could be oriented to the east; another could be oriented to the north or to the west. The eastern orientation of the dead in secondary graves is predominant, though southeastern, northeastern, southwestern, northwestern and western orientations have also been recorded.

of

Yamnaya

kurgans

are

Mu-Sharet-1, kurgan 5. A pit was built in the centre of a rectangular square. During the funeral ceremony a head of a male victim was cut off, his body without the head extended on the stomach was placed inside. A composition made of steppe plant Amarantus sp. was placed instead of the head. Seeds of Madicago Arabica were found near the legs. After a funeral ceremony a small kurgan was built.

The analysis of stratigraphy of graves, with the dead differently oriented, indicates that if the skeleton was oriented to the east in the primary grave, other persons buried in secondary graves could be oriented to the north, north-east and south-east. The orientation of the dead in collective graves could be in opposite directions.

Mandjikiny 2, kurgan 11. A small mound overlies a primary Yamnaya grave (Fig. 25, 3). Its diameter was 20 m and its height was 0.8 m. The top of the mound was flat and formed a square. Bird bones of Tetrax tetrax and Tadorna tadorna found on this square indicate that the surface of the kurgan was open for a long time, i.e. birds began to build their nests. A fragment of a wooden beam was found on the ancient soil surface in the southeastern part of the kurgan. It can be one of the beams used to roof the primary grave. Later one more Yamnaya grave was added into the northeastern part of the mound with soil filling-in, which caused centre of the kurgan to move to the north. Sheep bones were found nearby.

Ochre was used to colour the whole skeleton and the floor. Sometimes only the skulls, the hands, the legs below the knees were coloured. There were also pieces of ochre as a part of funeral offerings in some graves. Southern Yergueni Hills Twenty three Yamnaya kurgans with 41 Yamnaya graves in 8 burial grounds of the Southern Yergueni Hills have been uncovered.

The burial construction is represented by a rectangular pit (Fig. 25, 3, 6; 26, 1, 3, 5, 9). Oval pits have been rarely uncovered (Fig. 25, 1).

Kurgan mounds underlying primary Yamnaya graves are predominant, in rare cases they are secondary graves 47

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 24. Yamnaya graves of the Kuma-Manych Depression. 1–VMLBII,66: k. 40, g. 2; 2–VMLBII,65: k. 38, g. 5; 3–VMLBII,65: k. 9, g. 5; 4–VMLBII,66: k. 18, g. 3; 5–VMLBII,65: k. 14, g. 6; Zunda-Tolga-6: k. 1, g. 2: 9–plan of the grave, 6–beads, 7–fragment of hammer-headed pin, 8–brazier 6–bronze; 7–bone; 8–clay

48

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE

Fig. 25. Yamnaya graves of the Southern Yergueni Hills. Mandjikiny-1: k. 3, g. 2: 1–knife, 2–plan of the grave; 5–k. 3, g. 1; Mandjikiny-2: k. 11, g. 3: 3–plan of the grave, 4–hammer-headed pin; 6–Mu-Sharet-4: k. 12, g. 1 1–bronze; 4–bone

49

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 26. Yamnaya graves of the Southern Yergueni Hills. MuSharet-4: k. 1, g. 3: 1–plan of the grave, 2–axe; 3–g. 4; g. 2: 4– hammer-headed pin, 5–plan of the grave; g. 5: 6–amphora, 7– vessel, 8–hammer-headed pin, 9–plan of the grave 2–stone; 4, 8–bone; 6, 7–clay

50

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE

Fig. 27. Yamnaya graves of the Southern Yergueni Hills. Mu-Sharet-4: k. 10, g. 4: 1–plan of the grave, 2–hammer-headed pin; 3–k. 11, g. 4; k. 11, g. 3: 4–plan of the grave, 6, 7–plant mats; 5–k. 12, g. 6 2–bone; 6, 7–reed, cane

The interior sections of funeral constructions include plant mats placed on the floor (Fig. 27, 6-7). Sometimes the walls of the pit were decorated with mats as well (Table 4). A fence made of twigs covered the wall at Mandjikiny 1, kurgan 14, grave 12. A pillow stuffed with

plants was placed under the skull of the skeleton (Table 3). The roofing could be supported by poles placed at each corner of the pit. Such wooden construction could be diametrical, longitudinal, lattice-shaped or diagonal. A plant mat was often placed above it (Fig. 28, 1, 3). It is 51

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 28. Yamnaya graves of the Southern Yergueni Hills. Mu-Sharet1: k. 5, g. 3: 1–upper level of the grave, 2–lower level of the grave, 3–mat placed on the roof; Mandjikiny-1: k. 14, g. 10: 4–plan of the grave, 5–cord pendants, 6–temple pendant 3–cane; 5–bronze; 6–antimony

52

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE uncovered at Lola-1 and Lola-2 as well as at Arkhara. Only at Kermen-Tolga kurgans with two secondary Yamnaya graves have been found.

possible that in some cases a wooden side of the wagon was used for this purpose. The position of the dead was flexed on the back. Each grave except one case (Mu-Sharet-4, kurgan 12, grave 1, a double grave) was built for one person. Positions flexed on the right side with the turn to the back, extended on the stomach, flexed on the back with the turn to the left, flexed on the left side have also been identified (Fig. 25, 5). The burials with skulls only have also been uncovered.

Primary graves were located in the centre of the kurgan. Secondary graves were added only into the western part of the kurgan at Lola-1, into all parts at Kermen-Tolga; primary and secondary graves were arranged in a line oriented to the northwestern–southeastern at Arkhara, kurgan 2 (Sinitsyn, Erdniev 1966: Fig. 18) (Fig. 30, 5). Kurgan mounds were small, reaching 0.8-1 m in height and having diameter 15-18 m. Filling-in over secondary graves (Arkhara, kurgan 2), ditches and stones over earthen (Lola-1, kurgan 23) were additional elements.

A typical orientation of the dead in primary graves is eastern (at Mu-Sharet-4 southeastern orientation is predominant); orientation of the dead in secondary graves is to the east, north, southeast and only in one case to the west.

A predominant construction of the grave is a rectangular pit; large pits with ledges were built as well; oval and round pits have not been found.

Ochre was often used to colour the floor; in other graves it was used to colour the whole skeleton or the legs, the skull, and the hands. A piece of ochre could be placed into some graves.

Interior areas of funeral constructions are presented by plant mats placed on the floor and fixed on the walls; wooden roofing. For this purpose parts of a wagon could be used as well (Shilov 1985b: 18). Pits with ledges were covered by wooden beams, over which a plant mat was placed; the third level of the roof was made of a sandstone slab (Shilov 1985b: 25). The characteristic feature of the Yamnaya group of the Middle Yergueni Hills is the predominance of stone constructions. Stone was used in seven burial grounds; at Lola 2 and Lola 1 in much greater quantity. The cromlech was a typical construction; the pit was furnished with sandstone or slabs (Sinitsyn 1948: Fig. 203). A stone slab or wooden beams overlie the pit itself. A stone circle was built around primary graves; their diameter was 3.5-6 m (Fig.30, 1-4).

Eastern Section of the Sravropol Hills The Stavropol region database used in this book includes only 39 Yamnaya burials from 18 kurgans. Kurgan mounds at Chogray VIII and IX were small; their height was below one m. They were predominantly built over primary Yamnaya graves and did not have any secondary graves. Kurgans with two or three Yamnaya graves have been uncovered in rare cases. Both primary and secondary graves were located in the centre. Seven secondary Yamnaya graves were added only into kurgan 3 at Chogray IX. They were arranged in a circle around the primary graves. Ritual places under mounds consisted of sheep bones (Andreeva 1989; Shishlina 2007).

The position of the dead was flexed on the back (Fig. 31, 2; 6-9), with variations of the position of the hands, both hands could be extended or flexed at the elbow; the right hand was flexed and the left hand was extended or vice versa. A burial made for one person was predominant. However three double graves (two adults or one adult and a child) and one grave with four persons (two adult and two children) have been uncovered at Kermen-Tolga, Lola 1 and Lola 2.

Funeral constructions are rectangular pits: oval pits or pits with ledges in rare cases (Fig. 29, 9-10). Pillows placed on the floor and wooden roofing were used as well. Ochre was sprinkled on the floor. The position of the dead was flexed on the back with extended hands. Only in a triple grave at Chogray IX, kurgan 5, grave 10, one of the dead was placed extended on the side. Predominant orientation of the dead in both primary and secondary graves was eastern; northern and northwestern orientation was also used. In one grave a juvenile, a woman and a child were buried.

The dead flexed on the left side with hands extended to the hips and a grave with a dismembered skeleton have been uncovered at Kermen-Tolga; one person was placed on the left side with a turn to the back at Peschany V (Fig. 31, 1).

Middle Yergueni Hills All dead in primary graves except the one were oriented to the east, the eastern orientation is predominant in secondary graves where northern and southern as well as western orientations could also be used. Ochre was used to colour the whole skeleton, the floor, less frequently, feet and the skull. A piece of mineral could be placed inside the grave.

The Yamnaya culture of the Middle Yergueni Hills is represented by 79 graves from 54 kurgans uncovered in 12 burial grounds. Kurgan mounds overlie only primary Yamnaya graves at Khar-Zukha. Many isolated kurgans have been

53

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 29. Yamnaya graves of the eastern part of the Stavropol Hills. Chogray IX: 1–k. 15, g. 7; k. 9, g. 8: 2–plan of the grave, 4–hammer-headed pin, k. 15, g. 10: 5 plan of the grave, 6–hammer-headed pin, 7–long beads; k. 5, g. 8: 3–plan of the grave, 8–hammer-headed pin; 9–k. 4, g. 3; 10–k. 8, g. 2 2, 5, 6, 8–bone

54

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE

Fig. 30. Yamnaya culture of the Middle Yergueni Hills and the Sarpa Plain. Kurgan mounds. 1–Arkhara: k. 19; 2–Lola II: k. 8; Lola I: 3–k. 21; 4–k. 20; 5–Arkhara: k. 2; Tsatsa: 6–k. 6, 7–k. 4.

55

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 31. Yamnaya graves of the Middle Yergueni Hills. Peschany V: k. 1: 1–g. 3; g. 2: 2–plan of the grave, 3–flat cake; 4–Arkhara, k. 2, g. 7; Lola II: k. 8, g. 8: 4–plan of the grave, 6–hammerheaded pin; Lola I: 7–k. 20, g. 2; 8–k. 18, g. 6; 9–Arkhara: k. 10, g. 8 3–clay; 6–bone

Caspian Plain

Primary graves are predominant, although secondary graves added into Early or Late Majkop kurgans have rarely been uncovered. The maximum number of secondary graves in one kurgan is 4-5 burials. More than half were added into the southern part of the kurgan. Primary graves were located in the centre. One primary and three secondary graves were arranged in a line oriented to the northwest–southeast at Tsatsa, kurgan 6 (Fig. 30, 6).

The description of the Yamnaya groups living on the Caspian Plain is based on analysis of 123 burials from 76 kurgans uncovered in 19 burial grounds. Kurgan mounds were small, reaching 0.4–0.9 m in height and 20–22 m in diameter. A fire was made on the buried surface near primary graves at Tsatsa, kurgan 1.

56

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE

Fig. 32. Sarpa Plain. Tsagan-Usn-VII: k 2, g. 1:A–plan of the grave; B–grave offerings: 1–amulets location in situ, 2–beads, 3–ring, 4–hammer-headed pin, 5–long beads, 6–long beads,7–beads, 8–hammer-headed pin, 9–pendants, 10–plaques, 11–plaques, 12–awl, 13–fragment of an item, 14–incense burner 2, 4, 7, 10, 12–bronze; 3, 5, 6, 8, 11, 13–bone; 9–shell; 14–clay

has been identified in few cases (Krivaya Luka). Two cenotaphs have been found. Only one double grave with two adults has been found.

The main construction of the grave is a rectangular pit; an oval pit, oval or rectangular pits with ledges or with a batter were built less frequently (Fig. 33, 3, 10; 32, 1; 34, 8). Interior parts of funeral constructions are represented by plant mats, wooden roofing (Shilov 1982: 47). Mats were used to decorate the walls as well.

The predominant orientation of the dead in primary graves is to the east; northwestern or southeastern orientations were rare. The unusual northeastern orientation of the dead in primary graves has been identified at Balkin Khutor.

The position of the dead flexed on the back is predominant; variations are in the position of the hands. They could be extended, flexed at the elbow, in some cases one arm was flexed, another was extended. The position on the back with the turn to the left or right side

Ochre was used to colour the whole skeleton and more rarely the skull and the legs. A piece of mineral could be the part of funeral offerings.

57

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 33. Yamnaya graves of the Caspian Plain. KVCH-56: k. 13, g. 9: 1–plan of the grave, 2–temple ring, 4–plant mat; 5–awl, 6– pointer; 3–KVCH-53: k. 1, g. 2; KVCH-56: k. 10, g. 7: 7–plan of the grave, 8–vessel, 9–bird bones and hammer-headed pins; Krivaya Luka IV: k. 1, g. 14: 10–plan of the grave, 11–knife, 12–pestle 2, 5, 11–bronze; 4–plant fibres; 6, 9–bone; 12–stone

58

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE

Fig. 34. Yamnaya graves of the Caspian Plain. Krivaya Luka XXI: k. 5, g. 1: 1–plan of the grave, 2–pestle; 3–horn fragment; k. 4, g. 1: 4–plan of the grave, 5–amulet-pendants; k. 2, g. 7: 6–vessel, 7–plan of the grave 3–stone; 3, 5–bone; 6–clay

the primary graves has been uncovered at KVCH-56, kurgan 13. Ritual places contain flint flakes and small items (KVCH).

Western Part of the Caspian Plain Only 39 Yamnaya graves found in 26 kurgans have been uncovered in six burial grounds in this part of the Caspian Plain.

The form of the funeral construction is a rectangular pit, the pit with ledges or batter has been found in rare cases (Fig. 34, 1, 4, 7).

Almost all small Yamnaya kurgans were built over primary Yamnaya kurgans (17 mounds). Their height was 0.5–0.9 m; the diameter was 16–18 m. Two or three secondary graves could be added in some cases. The location of the primary graves in the centre and secondary graves in the eastern part of the kurgan has been identified. A ditch in the form of a circle arranged around

The interior areas of funeral constructions are represented by plant mats placed on the floor and on the walls (Fig. 33, 4). Pits underlie wooden and cane constructions (Fig. 32, A). The ledges of the pit were covered by felt (?) rugs and cane mats. A composite 59

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES Group 1: Yamnaya vessels. Three sub-groups have been singled out on the basis of the shape of the body: eggshaped round bottom pots; saucers; amphorae (Fig. 43). Sub-group 1: egg-shaped round bottom pots. The neck and the rim are main features; the size is also taken into account. Four types have been singled out.

wooden construction covered by a mat could be built on the pit floor. The wooden roofing was supported by poles. A pillow stuffed with plants was placed under the skull of the skeleton. The position of the dead was flexed on the back with the hands extended or flexed at the elbow. In some cases one hand could be flexed, the other could be extended. In several cases the body was wrapped into the cloth (KVCH). Eastern and southeastern orientation is predominant, western orientation has been rarely recorded. The skull and the feet of the dead as well as the floor could be coloured by ochre. Large pieces of mineral could be placed inside the graves.

● type 1: a round-bottom miniature pot without a neck, the surface is not ornamented or the upper part is decorated with tooth stamps or parallel lines of cord stamps (nine vessels) (Fig. 35, 1-3). ● type 2: a round bottom pot with a long body without a neck, the upper part of the body is decorated with cord or line incisions, or the whole body is decorated with cord stamps and bulges (three vessels) (Fig. 35, 4-6).

Material culture

● type 3: a long medium size egg-shaped vessel, with a straight small neck and an angular middle part, the bottom is round. Such pots can be ornamented with fingernail marks, cord impressions; or they can be without any ornamentation (Fig. 36, 1-6).

Graves without any offerings are predominant in all environmental areas except the Caspian Plain group. Grave offerings enable us to characterize the material culture of the Yamnaya population. Ceramics, tools, weaponry, decorations and parts of the dress, cult items, and transport are analyzed in this book through proposed typological schemes (Bratchenko 1976; Gey 2000; Turetsky 1988; Gak 2005). Such data help us evaluate the overall pattern of production and the economical system of population.

● type 4: a round bottom pot with a globular lower part of the body and the angular in the middle part of the body, a high neck, of medium size, without ornamentation. In some cases stamp impressions are located near the rim (Fig. 37, 1-5).

Ceramics

Sub-group II: saucers. The shape of the bottom defines two types.

Ceramics is one of the most important elements of the material culture of many peoples. Several types are presented in nomadic cultures. Vessels could be made of clay, leather, wood, mats, and metal. Not all materials could survive in Yamnaya graves. The analysis of textile and woven items indicates that baskets and woven vessels could be used as well.

● type 1: a small round saucer, with a segment-like body (2 vessels). The surface can be ornamented with cord impressions located in the upper part (Fig. 37, 6-7). ● type 2: a flat bottom saucer ornamented with cord impressions arranged in triangles and horizontal lines (one vessel) (Fig. 37, 8).

Clay Vessels Sub-group III: amphorae. The key element is two handles. This type is represented by three sub-types singled out on the basis of the shape of the bottom and handles.

Of the c. 60 vessels come from the Yamnaya graves of the Caspian Steppes, 52 have been used in the classification. Classifications proposed by other scholars are used (Turetsky 1988; Bratchenko 1976; Gey 2000). Morphological features of vessels, i.e. the shape of the body; the rim; the bottom; the presence or absence of the neck; the rim; the handles as well as the type of ornamentation are used in the classification. The shape of the bowl and its pedestal, the presence or absence of a dividing section as well as the type of ornamentation are used in the classification of incense burners. The shape of the vessel is a key classification feature; the size and the type of ornamentation are additional characteristics.

● type 1: medium size amphora with two ear-shaped handles (three vessels). ● sub-type 1a: a flat bottom amphora with a neck and an oval body; with two long vertical handles with perforated holes (Fig. 38, 3); the surface is ornamented with lines of cord impressions. ● sub-type 1b: a round bottom amphora with two flat handles with vertical holes, the surface is ornamented with incised lines arranged in zigzags and horizontal zones (Fig. 38, 1).

All pots are handmade, slightly fired, chamotte, sand and shell tempered. They can be divided into two separate groups. The first group dates back to the Yamnaya culture (Fig. 43); the second group dates to the Catacomb culture (Fig. 44).

● sub-type 1c: a round bottom amphora with a bi-conical shape, flat ear-shaped handles with holes, without ornamentation (Fig. 38, 2).

60

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE All types of egg-shaped round bottom pots, saucers and amphorae refer to tableware. They are small, and do not have a uniform scale. Similar pots have been uncovered in many Yamnaya cultures, i.e. from Moldavia as for as the Urals (Morgunova, Turetsky 1998; Bogdanov 2004; Samoylenko 1988). Group II: non-Yamnaya vessels. This group is represented by pots similar to ceramics of the Poltavka, Early Catacomb and Catacomb cultures. A specific type of vessels, i.e. incense burners, belongs to this group as well. Seven sub-groups are singled out (Fig. 44). Sub-group I: medium size pot-shaped vessels. The shape of the body, the presence or absence of the neck, the rim on the shoulders are main features of this sub-group. Proportions of vessels and the type of decorations are also taken into account. ● type 1: a pot-shaped flat bottom vessel with a small neck and a rib, a round, oval or conical body (four vessels). The surface is ornamented with comb impressions or notches across the entire body (Fig 39, 3); fingernail marks (Fig. 39, 5) or zones of parallel lines or zigzags (Fig. 39, 1). ● type 2: a pot-shaped vessel without a neck, with a round jar-shaped body and a narrowed upper part, without a rim (three vessels). The surface is decorated with comb incisions (Fig 39, 6) or lines of cord impressions (Fig. 39, 4). ● type 3: a long pot-shaped flat bottom vessel with a jarshaped body and a small neck and a convex rim (one vessel). The surface is ornamented with stamp incisions (Fig. 40, 1). Sub-group II: medium size goblets are represented by three types, singled out on the basis of the body shape. ● type 1: a flat bottom goblet with a bi-conical body, the rib is located in the lower part of the body, with a high neck, without ornamentation (Fig. 40, 2); ● type 2: a flat bottom asymmetrical goblet with a cut out herring-bone ornamentation (Fig. 40, 3). Sub-group III: flat bottom jar-shaped vessels are represented by one type. ● type 1: a jar-shaped flat-bottom vessel, with the walls slightly expanding towards the top, ornamented with horizontal zigzag lines (Fig. 40, 4). Sub-group VI: funnels. ● type 1: a medium size funnel (Fig. 40, 5).

Fig. 35. Clay vessels of the Yamnaya culture: group I, subgroup I, types 1 and 2. 1–VMPB,67: k. 18, g. 3; 2–Djangr: k. 31, g. 1; 3–KVCH-56: k. 17, g. 3; 4–Khar-Nuurin-Tolga: k. 28, g. 7; 5–Krivaya Luka XXIII: k. 1, g. 22; 6–Krivaya Luka XXX: k. 1, g. 19

Sub-group V: large earthenware pots. Only fragments, i.e. side parts or bottoms are presented in the graves. They were used as braziers. Only one unbroken pot has been

61

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 36. Clay vessels of the Yamnaya culture: group I, sub-group I, type 3. 1–VMLBIII,66: k. 15, g. 13; 2–VMLBII,66: k. 22, g. 2; 3–KVCH-56: k. 10, g. 7: 4–Nikolskoye: k. 3, g. 13; Tsatsa: k. 6: 5–g. 4; 6–g. 3

Fig. 37. Clay vessels of the Yamnaya culture: group I, sub-group I, type 4; sub-group II, type 1. 1–Mu-Sharet-4: k. 4, g. 5; 2– VMPB,65: k. 13, g. 4; 3 VMLBI,65: k. 54, g. 3; 4–Three Brothers: k. 9, g. 13; 5–Chograysky IV: k. 3, g. 3; 6–Lola-I: k. 23, g. 1; 7– Krivaya Luka XII: k. 2, g. 13; 8–Chograysky: k. 7, g. 1

62

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE

Fig. 38. Clay vessels of the Yamnaya culture: group I, subgroup III–amphorae. 1–Three Brothers: k. 9, g. 13; 2–Mu-Sharet-4: k. 1, g. 5; 3–VMLBII,66: k. 81, g. 6; and similar vessels from other Yamnaya sites: 7–Bryukhovetskaya II: k. 6, g. 15; 4–Vysokoye: k. 19, g. 6; 5–Starogorozheno: k. 3, g. 4; 6–Urukh-1: k. 3, g. 3

uncovered. This type of the vessels is based on reconstructions of several vessels.

located on the shoulders (Fig. 41, 1-2) or a wide belt near the bottom have been found (Fig. 41, 4).

● type 1: a large earthenware pot with a small cylindrical neck, with round shoulders and a wide body, and a flat bottom. Pots without ornamentations (Fig. 41, 3) and with ornamentation in the form of the geometric pattern

Sub-group VI: jugs. A loop handle is the element used to single out different types. ● type 1: a flat bottom jugs with a one loop-shaped handle. Two subtypes have been singled out.

63

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 39. Clay vessels of the Yamnaya culture: group II, sub-group I, types 1 and 2 attributed to the Yamnaya and Poltavka cultures. 1–KVCH-42: k. 1, g. 4; 2–Prepolovenka: k. 9, g. 1; 3–Krivaya Luka XV: k. 9, g. 1; Krivaya Luka XI: k. 7: 4–g. 9; 6–g. 8; 5–Idjil: k. 1, g. 1

if there was a dividing section or not (one vessel) (Fig. 42, 1).

● sub-type 1a: a jug with a wide neck, a globular body, a convex bottom and a loop-shaped handle. One vessel of this type is decorated with a horizontal line and hatched triangles (Fig. 44, 14).

● type 2: an incense burner in the form of a bowl with a dividing section, on a pedestal in the form of four legs joint together, the surface is ornamented with one or double cord impressions, forming parallel lines or triangles (three vessels) (Fig. 42, 2-3).

● sub-type 1b: flat bottom jugs, with a high neck and a thick rim, without ornamentation (Fig. 44, 15). Sub-group VII: ritual vessels, i.e. incense burners. The presence or absence of a dividing section, the shape of the legs, and the type of decorations are used to single out the types described below.

● type 3: an incense burner in the form of a wide bowl on a pedestal in the form of the legs, the surface is ornamented with deep drawn pattern arranged in triangles (Fig. 42, 4).

● type 1: an incense burner in the form of a wide bowl with an everted rim, on a flat pedestal made in the shape of a cross, without ornamentation. It is impossible to say

Pot-shaped vessels of types 1, 2 and 3, goblets of type 1 and 2, jar-shaped vessels of type 1, jugs were used both as tableware and cooking pots. Pot-shaped vessels of type 64

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE

Fig. 40. Clay pot-shaped vessels of sub-group I, goblets of–sub-group II, flat bottom jars of sub-group III and a funnel of sub-group VI. Group II of vessels from Yamnaya graves. 1–Krivaya Luka XIII: k.3, g.8; 2–Chograysky V: k.6, g.4; 3–Djangr: k.26, g.5; 4– Evdyk I: k.9, g.4; 5–VMLBIII,66: k.29, g.8

The distribution of ceramic types across the Caspian Steppes is presented below.

4 and funnels were used as cooking pots. Large earthenware pots could be used as container vessels. Incense burners were ritual ceramics.

The Kuma-Manych Depression is characterized by 30 vessels of typical Yamnaya types, i.e. egg-shaped; round bottom pots; saucers and amphorae as well as goblets; braziers made of large earthenware pots, jugs, funnels and incense burners characteristic for a non-Yamnaya ceramic tradition. Yamnaya pots are found in child graves (more than a half burials), they were placed into adults graves as well. All of them were placed to the left or to the right of the shoulder. Non-Yamnaya vessels are predominant in adult graves and they were placed near the legs or the head. As a rule, only one pot was placed into a grave. Egg-shaped pots of type 2, flat bottom potshaped vessels of types 1-3, jar-shaped vessels of type 1 have not been found in this region.

Pot-shaped vessels of types 1 and 2 are similar to the Poltavka ceramics of the Middle and Lower Volga region (Fig. 39, 2) (Stashenkov 1999: Fig. 6; Bagautdinov and Pyatykh 1987). Such vessels are contained in Catacomb and Yamnaya-Catacomb graves as well. Pot-shaped vessels of type 3 represent a specific ceramic tradition, not linked to Yamnaya pots. Goblets, flat jar-shaped vessels, jugs and funnels are similar to the Catacomb ceramics of the Lower Volga, Stavropol and Lower Don regions. The same types of large earthenware pots were used by the Early Catacomb, North Caucasus and Catacomb population of the same regions. The earliest incense burners date back to Early North Caucasus graves (Derzhavin 1991) and they have not been found in Yamnaya graves. Only the incense burner of type 1 has features, i.e. a low wide bowl with an everted rim and a cross-like pedestal, which are characteristic for the earliest type of Early Catacomb and North Caucasus incense burners. The incense burner of type 3 is characterized by deep cut pattern, which is typical for the earliest ritual vessels as well. Incense burners of type 3 are a common find in East and West Manych Catacomb graves.

The Southern Yergueni Hills are characterized only by one grave of juvenile with an egg-shaped pot of type 1 and an amphora of type 1b. Only one brazier made of a large earthenware pot has been found in Yamnaya graves in two burial grounds of the Stavropol Hills. It is similar to braziers recorded for graves dating back to the Early Stage of the Middle Bronze Age.

65

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES The Yamnaya graves from the Middle Yergueni Hills are characterized by typical Yamnaya vessels, i.e. eggshaped, round bottom pots of type 4, an amphora of type 1b as well as by non-Yamnaya pots, i.e. braziers made of large earthenware pots and incense burners. They could be placed near the left hand, the wall, to the right of the skull, near the grave. They are always present in adult graves. Yamnaya graves of the Caspian Plain often possess one or several vessels. There are 27 burials ceramic offerings. Many typical Yamnaya egg-shaped round bottom pots have been uncovered. Type 2 of this sub-group has been recorded only for the environmental region of the Sarpa Plain and the Right Bank of the Volga River basin. Eggshaped pots of type 4, cups and amphorae have not been uncovered. This region is characterized by the spread of non-Yamnaya vessels, pots of Poltavka and Catacomb types, pot-shaped vessels of types 1-3, across Yamnaya burials at Krivaya Luka, Khar-Nuurin-Tolga and Nikolskoye. It is likely that related groups of the Yamnaya population exploited a small area of the Sarpa Plain. They made ceramics of their own types. The vessels were placed near the head or the hands of the dead. Catacomb funnels, braziers and incense burners have also been uncovered in this region. The western part of the Caspian Plain, i.e. the Yergueni Plain, is characterized by egg-shaped Yamnaya pots that are few in number, braziers made of large earthenware pots and one fragment of the incense burner. All of them were placed near the skull or the hands. Ornamentations and details of the garment Ornamentations are rarely found in Yamnaya graves of the Caspian Steppes. Nevertheless a specific set of items can be identified; their location on the skeleton allows us to interpret them as details of the garment. Ornamentations of the headdress are not characteristic for the Yamnaya population. They have been uncovered only in 26 burials out of 732 burials. They are mostly made of metal. Bronze items are predominant; items made of gold and silver are also present. The main type is a small temple round ring turned in 1.5, 2 or 2.5 coils; rings are round or oval in the cross-section. Other types include rings round in the cross-section, with a bulge in the centre of the ring, with open sharpened ends, such rings could be small or large (Fig. 45, 1, 3, 5-6). Bronze small pendant-stems round in the cross-section, with a smooth straight stem with a ball-shaped or cap-shaped head at the end (cord pendants) were also in use (Fig. 45, 2, 7). Pendants with a twisted stem in the form of a one-turn cord as well as bronze barrel-shaped beads were also used as headdress decorations. All of them are found near the left temple; less frequently near the right temple or on the forehead. There are cases when two rings were located on

Fig. 41. Clay vessels of the Yamnaya culture: group II, subgroup V–large earthenware pots. 1–KVCH-56: k. 8, g. 7; 2– VMLBII,65: k. 1, g. 6; 3–VMLBII,66: k. 82, g. 1; 4–ZundaTolga-3: k. 1, g. 4

66

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE

Fig. 42. Clay incense burners from Yamnaya graves: group II, sub-group VII. 1–Chograysky V: k. 11, g. 4; 2–VMLBII,65: k. 22, g. 3; 3–VMLBII,66: k. 11, g. 11; 4–Tsagan-Usn VII: k. 2, g. 1

characteristic for the Yamnaya population of the KumaManych Depression, the Middle Yergueni Hills, the Sarpa and the Caspian Plains. Bronze cord pendants were in use in the Stavropol Hills region, the Southern Yergueni Hills and the Kuma-Manych Depression. Female headdress items decorated with numerous beads and pendants are typical for the Caspian Plain.

the right and on the left side of the headdress. Rings are often found with cord pendants (Fig. 45, 2-3), they were located around the skull; cord pendants could be located on the forehead as well. Specific bone polished ornamentation was a detail of the headdress at Krivaya Luka, kurgan 4, grave 2 (Fig. 45, 4). Pendants and rings could be sewn on the forehead band, a cord or they could be used as details of embroidery along the edge of the cap. One of such headdress found at Krivaya Luka XV, kurgan 3, grave 7, was decorated with beads of different size, a bronze semi-ring and a button (Shishlina 2007: 95). Skulls were often coloured by red ochre. It is possible that the front part of the skull was covered by red cloth or red headdress.

Almost all graves with decorations are adult burials, though some decorations have been uncovered in child and juvenile burials as well. Headdress items with decorations are characteristic for both women and men. Silver round temple rings turned in 1.5 coils and rings with non-closed ends are typical for women of fertile age, they also decorated headdress of children and juveniles. In one case a gold ring was used to decorate a headdress piece of a newborn baby.

Distribution of different types of ornamentations shows that bronze and silver round temple rings turned in several coils and one-turn rings with open ends are

Decorations of the front part of the garment are represented by bone and bronze ring-shaped and barrelshaped beads, bone long beads with carved 67

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 43. Clay vessels Caspian Steppes Yamnaya culture classification: group I. 1–KVCH-56: k. 17, g. 3; 2–Djangr: k. 31, g. 1; 3– Krivaya Luka XXIII: k. 1, g. 22; 4–Khar-Nuurin-Tolga: k. 28, g. 7; 5–VMLBII,66: k. 22, g. 2; 6–Krivaya Luka XXI: k. 2, g. 7; 7– Chograysky IV: k. 3, g. 3; 8–Three Brothers: k. 9, g. 13; 9–Lola-1: k. 23, g. 1; 10–Chograysky V: k. 7, g. 1; 11–VMLBII,66: k. 81, g. 6; 12–Mu-Sharet-4: k. 1, g. 5; 13–Three Brothers: k. 9, g. 13

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FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE

Fig. 44. Clay vessels Caspian Steppes Yamnaya culture classification: group II. 1–Idjil-1: k. 1, g. 1; 2–KVCH-42: k. 1, g. 4; 3– Krivaya Luka XV: k. 3, g. 7; 4–Krivaya Luka XI: k. 7, g. 8; 5–Krivaya Luka XXI: k. 8, g. 3; 6–Chograysky V: k. 6, g. 4; 7–Djangr: k. 26, g. 5; 8–Evdyk-1: k. 9, g. 4; 9–VMLBIII,66: k. 29, g. 8; 10 - KVCH-56: k. 8, g. 7; 11–VMLBII,65: k. 1, g. 6; 12–VMPB,67: k. 5, g. 6; 13–KVCH-37: k. 8, g. 1; 14–Chograysky V: k. 11, g. 4; 15–VMLBII,65: k. 22, g. 3; 16–Tsagan-Usn-VII: k. 2, g. 1.

69

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 45. The decorations of the headdress (1–7), front part of the garment (8–13) and the arms (14) of the Caspian Steppes Yamnaya culture. 1–temple ring, VMLBII,65: k. 43, g. 7; 2, 3–cord and temple pendants, Mandjikiny-1: k. 14, g. 12; 4, 9–12–decorations of the headdress and the front part of the garment, Krivaya Luka XXI: k. 4, g. 1; 5–temple ring, VMLBII,66: k. 10, g. 3; 6–temple rings, KVCH-56: k. 9, g. 13; 7–cord pendants, Chogray VIII: k. 29, g. 2; 8–spiral spectacle-shaped pendants, Krivaya Luka XXXV: k. 1, g. 19; 13–long beads, Krivaya Luka XI: k. 7, g. 9; 14–ring, Krivaya Luka XV: k. 6, g. 5 1, 2, 5–8–bronze; 3–antimony; 4, 9–11, 13–14–bone; 12–stone

decorated the front part of a female (her age was 16–17 years old) dress found at Krivaya Luka XXI, kurgan 4, grave 1 (Fig. 45, 9-12).

ornamentation. Stone beads made of cornelian or agate is a rare find and are found together with faience beads dating back to later periods. Beads were located around the neck or they were found on the chest. Maybe they were used to embroider a collar or the front part of the garment, or they were the part of a necklace. The necklace found at Krivaya Luka XI, kurgan 7, grave 9, consisted of bone cylindrical carved, round and barrelshaped beads, long beads made of bird bones and a hammer-headed pin. Another necklace found at Krivaya Luka XXXV, kurgan 1, grave 19 (Fig. 45, 8), consisted of two bronze spiral spectacle-shaped pendants and a bone hammer-headed pin. The necklace found at TsaganUsn VII, kurgan 2, grave 9, consisted of 54 faience cylindrical and triangle beads and 16 egg-shaped beads (made of Lifospermum officinale?) (Fig. 32).

The distribution of chest jewellery shows that various beads and long beads were used by the Caspian Plain Yamnaya population (Krivaya Luka, KVCH). They were used as details of garment ornamentation or as a part of necklaces of adults and less frequently of the child. Little ornamentation has been recorded for the Kuma-Manych Depression and the Middle Yergueni Hills burials. Only at Krivaya Luka bone hammer-headed pins were a part of chest necklaces. Hand jewellery includes round bone polished rings. They were located on the middle finger of the right or the left hand of adults. Stone cylindrical or bone beads are found around the left hand or the left elbow of adults. They could be parts of bracelet or details of embroidery. As a whole, hand jewellery is not typical for the Yamnaya

Pendants made of deer teeth, bone round rings, flat round bone plaques are found rarely. Such items could be used as amulets, pendants or details of embroidery. Specific anthropomorphic bone and stone pendant-amulets 70

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE dress. It has been found only in the Kuma-Manych Depression or the Caspian Plain graves.

Sub-group I: hammer-headed pins. Four types have been singled out.

Leg jewellery, i.e. ten cylindrical bone pendants, has been found rarely; for example, such jewellery has found near feet of the adult at VMLBII,65, kurgan 34, grave 5. They are details of the embroidery made along the hem of the cloth or the hem of trousers.

● type 1: a hammer-headed pin with a cylindrical stem, ornamented with zone pattern made of horizontal lines or hatched stripes; ● type 2: a hammer-headed pin with a thin rod stem without ornamentation;

Accessories include amulets, mostly pins. They have been found in 72 graves (Table 3).

● type 3: a hammer-headed pin with a long large cylindrical stem without ornamentation;

Table. 3. Distribution of pins in Yamnaya burials of the Caspian Steppes. Region Kuma-Manych Depression Southern Yergueni Hills Stavropol Hills Middle Yergueni Hills Caspian Plain Western part of the Caspian Plain (Yergueni Plain) Total

Total number of graves 411 41 39 79 123 39

Graves with pins

732

72

● type 4: a hammer-headed pin with a spindle-shaped stem and variations of geometric ornamentations, i.e. hatched triangles, stripes, zigzags and rhomb arranged in different patterns.

44 5 7 9 5 2

Sub-group II: stem-shaped pins. Two types and one subtype have been singled out. ● type 1: a nail-shaped pin with a straight stem, the head is made in the form of a cap with a hole, with geometric ornamentation; ● type 2: a stem-shaped pin ended by a round head with a hole, with geometric ornamentation;

The development of a new typology of pins goes beyond this book,15 where such items are considered to be a supracultural element. Bone and metal pins have been found in a wide chronological and regional space (Gey 2000: 164; Gak 2005). The Caspian Steppe population was not the first and the only designer of such items. Such pins are represented in almost all cultural groups of population. The set of pins can be used as ethnographic features of specific cultural groups.

● sub-type 2a: the upper part of the stem is ended by two horns with a hole between them. Sub-group III: crook-shaped pins. Two types have been singled out. ● type 1: a pin with a bent stem with a hole in the upper part, with geometric ornamentation; ● type 2: a pin with a bent stem with a mushroom-shaped head with a hole, with geometric ornamentation.

The description of bone pins proposed by Gey (2000:165168) and the description of metal pins proposed by Gak (2005) are used.

Group II: metal pins. Five types and five sub-types have been singled out.

Group I: bone (horn) pins. Seven types and one sub-type have been singled out.

Sub-group I: hammer-headed pins. Two types and one sub-type have been singled out.

15

The classification of bone pins is presented in the following papers: Latynin (1967); Safronov (1973); Shilov (1987); Gey (2000); Kovaleva (1991); the classification of bronze pins is presented in the following papers: Markovin (1960); Korenevsky (1984); Derzhavin (1991); Gak (2005). The first paper devoted to hammer-headed pins was written by Latynin. He dated graves with pins to the Majkop and the Yamnaya cultures (1967). Safronov used metrical characteristics of such pins and on the basis of this feature presented his own classification (1973). The type of decoration is a chronological feature according to Gey (Gey 2000; Smirnov A. 1991; 1996). Pins with a straight stem decorated with ring carved lines and stripes with hatching are considered to be the earliest. Variations of pins decorated with geometrical ornamentations are considered to be the latest. Pins without ornamentation seem to occupy the middle of the chronological series. Nevertheless it should be noted that many types of pins existed in the common Steppe space. This idea is confirmed by the presence of pins of different types in the same graves as well as the examples of stratigraphic correlations. The type of the stem cannot be used as a strong classification feature, though there are ornamented pins with a cylindrical or spindle-shaped stem. The shape of the head and the stem was used in the bronze pin classification (Gak 2005).

● type 1: a hammer-headed pin with a straight stem decorated with cast ornamentation; ● sub-type 1a: a hammer-headed pin with a straight stem, the hammers are small, the stem is not ornamented; ● type 2: a pin with a straight stem and four hammers located above each other in pairs, the stem is decorated with cast ornamentation. Sub-group II: crook-shaped pins. Three types and four sub-types have been singled out. ● type 1: a pin with a slightly bent stem ended with a globular head with a hole;

71

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 46. Hammer-headed pins of the Caspian Steppes Yamnaya culture. 1–VMLBIII,66: k. 13, g. 7; 2–VMLBI,66: k. 6, g. 8; 3– VMLBIII,66: k. 3, g. 6; 4–VMLBI,66: k. 43, g. 15; 5–Lola II: k. 8, g. 8; 6, 7–Chograysky III: k .2, g. 3 1–5, 7–bone; 6–bronze

Fig. 47. Hammer-headed pins and long beads of the Caspian Steppes Yamnaya culture. 1–ZundaTolga-1: k. 3, g. 4; 2, 3–KVCH-56: k. 10, g. 7; 4–Chograysky V: k. 11, g. 4; 5–Chograysky V: k. 6, g. 4; 6–VMLBII,65: k. 54, g. 3 1–6–bone

72

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE

Fig. 48. Hammer-headed pins of the Caspian Steppes Yamnaya culture. 1–VMLBII,66: k. 6, g. 1; 2–3–Chograysky V: k. 11, g. 4; 4– Zunda-Tolga-6: k. 1, g. 2; 5–VMLBI,65: k. 55, g. 4; 6–VMLBII,66: k. 33, g. 6; 7–VMLBI,65: k. 29, g. 3; 8–VMLBIII,66: k. 8, g. 8 1–8–bone

Fig. 49. Hammer-headed pins of the Caspian Steppes Yamnaya culture. 1–VMPB,67: k. 25, g. 7; 2–Kermen-Tolga: k. 30, g. 6; 3– VMLBI,66: k. 39, g. 1; 4–VMPB,65: k. 4, g. 15; 5–VMPB,65: k. 26, g. 4; 6–Chograysky V: k. 6, g. 4; 7–VMLBII,65: k. 37, g. 5; 8– 9–Chogray VIII: k. 5, g. 4 Bone

73

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES Pins could be arranged in a set consisting of 2 to 3 pins of type 4, or could be found without any items. Pins often belonged to older women.

● sub-type 1a: the stem is not decorated; ● sub-type 1b: the stem is decorated with cast ornamentation;

The location of pins is traditional, near the shoulder, the forearm or the palm of the left arm. In one grave the pin and pin fragments were lying between the ribs and the palm of the left hand, one pin was planted into the floor near the legs of the dead (Chogray IX, kurgan 15, grave 10).

● type 2: a pin with a slightly bent stem ended with a capshaped end with a hole, ornamented. ● type 3: a pin with a very bent stem ended with a globular head with a hole;

Twenty more pins of group I have been recorded for the Middle Yergueni Hills. Two pins of type 1 (Fig. 45, 5) have been uncovered in adult graves. In one grave 42 beads made of fish teeth have been found together with a pin. In another grave the head of the pin was placed between two large bronze round puncheon plaques. Sets consisting of 4 pins of type 2 have been found in juvenile or child graves or in double graves, where a child and an adult were buried. The rest of the pins with a geometric pattern, belonging to type 4 (Fig. 49, 2), have been found in adult graves. The predominant position of the pins is near the left hand.

● sub-type 3a: the stem is not decorated; ● sub-type 3a: the stem is decorated with cast ornamentation. Seventy seven bone pins have been found in the KumaManych Depression Yamnaya graves. All of them belong to sub-group I and represent four types. Only one pin of type 1 has been uncovered at Chograysky III, kurgan 2, grave 3 together with two bronze round puncheon plaques (Fig. 46, 6-7). Pins of type 2 are found in a set consisting of 2 to 5–6 items. Forty five pins of this type have been found (Fig. 47, 1, 3-6). Nine pins of type 3 have been uncovered (Fig. 46, 1-4). In one grave such a pin has been found together with a bronze round puncheon plaque and 20 beads. It is possible that all jewellery pieces formed a sort of “rosary” set. Pins of type 4 with geometric ornamentation have been found in 22 graves (Fig. 48; 49, 1, 3-7). At VMLBI,65, kurgan 17, grave 2, such a pin has been uncovered together with two bronze slightly convex puncheon plaques and five bone long beads. It is possible that all items were arranged in one set.

On the Caspian Plain pins have been uncovered only at Krivaya Luka (nine pins). Non-ornamented pins with a cylindrical stem are imitations of classical pins of type 3 (Fig. 50, 1, 3). They are smaller, with variation in the proportion and the shape of the head. The design is the same, but they were made by local craftsmen. Other pins are modification of pins of type 4 with a simpler geometrical pattern (Fig. 50, 2, 4). Such items were used for a long time; two hammers of the pin were broken. On the Caspian Plain pins were placed into the adult grave forming a necklace.

In some cases the hammers of the head were broken and have additional holes, which indicate the long use of pins. The predominant location of pins is on the left, i.e. on the radius or hands of the left arm, between the arm and the pelvis or the ribs, in some cases near the forearm. This location is traditional for the Yamnaya population of the Kuma-Manych Depression. The location of the pin on the right near the legs has been rarely recorded. Only in one grave a pin of type 2 was placed under the skull of the dead. Pins are found in graves of both sexes and ages.

Five pins and their fragments have been uncovered in two graves of the Yergueni Plain and they are represented by three types. Three pins of type 2 were accompanied by bird bones; the pin of type 4 with an intricate geometrical pattern was an element of a composite “rosary” (Fig. 32, 8). Another part of such amulets was a bronze hammerheaded pin of type 1 with cast ornamentation (Fig. 32, 4), a round and petal-shaped slightly convex puncheon plaques; bone round and oval shell plaques with holes, bronze barrel-shaped beads; bone smooth and grooved long beads (Fig. 32, 5-11). All ornamentations were located on the left of the left hand.

Six bone hammer-headed pins of group I of type 2 and 4 have been recorded in Yamnaya Southern Yergueni Hills burials (Fig. 26, 8; 27, 2). Pins of types 1 and 3 have not been uncovered. The traditional Yamnaya location of pins, i.e. near the elbow or the palm of the left hand, is predominant. Only in one grave the pin was lying near the right forearm. Two bronze puncheon plaques have been found in the graves containing pins of type 2 at MuSharet-4, kurgan 1, grave 2. Broken pins were also used. Pins are found in adult graves, in two graves they belonged to women of 15–22 and 45–60 years.

Hence, a pin is a key type of ornamentation used by the Yamnaya population of the Caspian Steppes. In many cases pins belong to older women or women of reproductive age. Pins had a high value and they were used even when they were broken. The earliest hammerheaded pins of type 1 found in the Kuma-Manych Depression and the Middle Yergueni Hills are similar to the pins uncovered in Yamnaya and Novotitarovka graves of the Kuban River region (Gey 2000). Bone hammerheaded pins of types 2 and 3 are characteristic for Yamnaya graves of the North Caucasus, the Lower Don region and the Black Sea Steppes (Latynin 1967). Pins of type 4 were widely spread in numerous Yamnaya graves

The analyzed dataset of the eastern part of the Stavropol Hills 14 contains pins and their fragments. They belong to group I, types 2 and 4. Three pins of type 2 have been found together with thin bone long beads (Fig. 29, 6-7). 74

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE Tools and Weapons Tools and weapons are very rarely found in Yamnaya graves of the Caspian Steppes. They were made of metal, stone, flint, bone and horn, clay and textile. Metal tools and weapons Items found in Yamnaya graves include knife-blades, stems, hooks. Knife- blades are represented by 10 items. Two types are singled out. ● type 1: a knife with a flat long leave-shaped blade and sloping shoulders16 with a forged shaft (9 items), with more (Fig. 51, 1, 6) or less (Fig. 51, 5) emphasized shoulders; a short (Fig. 51, 1) or long (Fig. 51, 6) shaft. The fragments of a wooden case were preserved on the surface of one knife. The case was made of thin wooden plaques arranged diagonally. These wooden parts were attached to a cloth (Fig. 51, 1). According to Korenevsky (1978) such knives belong to the Yamnaya type and they are presented in all local Yamnaya cultures (Vasilyev et al. 2000: Fig. 10; Teslenko 1998). They have also been found in the Poltavka and Catacomb cultures. ● type 2: a knife with a flat wide-leaf-shaped blade, with sloping slightly emphasized shoulders, with a flat shaft (Fig. 51, 4) (1 item). Knives are found in primary and secondary adult graves. In the grave of a man of 20–30 years old at Mandjikiny-1, kurgan 3, grave 1, the knife was placed on the belt. In other graves knives were placed near the shoulders, with the point oriented upwards. The position of the knife behind or under the skull, near the shoulder blade behind the back can be treated as an ethnographic trait of the Yamnaya burials at Krivaya Luka. A knife at Tsatsa, kurgan 5, grave 10 was placed near the right hand.

Fig. 50. Hammer-headed pins of the Caspian Plain Yamnaya culture. 1–Krivaya Luka XXXV: k. 5, g. 1; 2–Krivaya Luka XV: k. 3, g. 7; 3–Krivaya Kuka XXXV: k. 1, g. 19; 4–Krivaya Luka XI: k. 7, g. 9 1–4–bone

Stems17 are represented by two types based on the size and the cross-section. Nine items have been uncovered, two types are singled out. ● type 1: a short stem rectangular in the cross-section, the average size is 3-4 cm (6 items) (Fig. 33, 5; 51, 2).

as well as in burials of various cultures at the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age of the North Caucasus, the Lower Don region and the Black Sea Steppes (Gey 2000). Hammer-headed pins of types 2 and 4, a bone pin of type 4 and a bronze hammer-headed pin of type 1 could be found in the same graves. It indicates that such items were used at the same time. Pins from the Caspian Plain are a local imitation of “classical” pins.

● type 2: a long stem rectangular in the cross-section, the average size is 7.5-8.5 cm (3 items) (Fig. 51, 3). Stems are found in adult primary and secondary graves. Almost all short stems were located near the right or the left shoulder or the elbow; some of them had a wooden handle. Such items could serve as points or heads of the arrow. In some graves stems are found with knives or with hooks.

Pins as a type of ornamentation are found in graves of all sex and age groups. But in some burial grounds pins are found predominantly in female adult graves (Chogray, Mu-Sharet, Mandjikiny-1). They were worn on the belt, more often on the left side, or on the left arm, more rarely, on the right arm. Pins were the part of a composite “rosary” or sets of amulets, less frequently necklaces.

16 Type 4 according to the classification of the knives proposed by Korenevsky (1978). 17 According to the Gak classification (2005).

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BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig.51. Metall tools and weapons of the Caspian Steppes Yamnaya culture. 1–knife, Mandjikiny-1: k. 3, g. 2; 2–stem, Krivaya Luka XIV: k. 6, g. 7; VMLBIII,66: k. 4, g. 10: 3– stem, 4–knife; 5–knife, VMLBIII,66: k. 22, g. 5; 6–knife, Krivaya Luka IV: k. 1, g. 14 1–6–bronze

Hooks is not an invention of the Yamnaya craftsmen, they were widely spread in the subsequent Catacomb cultures. In very rare cases items with a socket and a stem with a sharpened and bent end have been recorded (Gak 2005). Such hooks are a rare find in Yamnaya graves (Sinitsyn, Erdniev 1987: Fig. 32, 2). They have been found with stems of type 2.

Stone weapons are represented by a butt of a narrowblade wedge axe at VMLBII, kurgan 9, grave 1. A globular-shaped mace-head made of marble or chalk can be considered as a symbolic weapon. Such weapons were placed near the arm or the elbow of the left hand of an adult. Flint Items

Stone Tools and Weapons

Flint tools and weapons is a rare find in Yamnaya graves of the Caspian Steppes. Items found in sacrifice places include flakes. Tools such as scrapers, a blade with one end made in the form of a point and another point used as a scraper, a knife-shaped blade, seven blanks of an arrow head (Fig. 53, 1), a rhombic arrow head as well as a triangle arrow head with a straight and slightly convex base (Fig. 53, 1, 4) have been uncovered.

The main stone tools represented in all environmental areas include oval pestles without a handle with a round base (Fig. 52, 2-6), rectangular small slabs, millstones and upper kern stones (Fig. 52, 7). Dark stones were used to make them. Simple stones could be used for grinding. Sometimes such items are found with ochre. This implies their use as pigment grinding stones. Other small slabs could be used as whetstones. One of the pestles placed in a plaited case has been found on the belt of a man of 3035 age old at Mu-Sharet (Fig. 52, 1). Stone tools have been uncovered in both adult and child graves. Pestles are often found at Krivaya Luka. Textile devices are represented by a stone spindle whorl found at Krivaya Luka VIII, kurgan 4, grave 8. A typical catacomb stone rectifier for an arrow shaft is a rare find (Fig. 52, 8).

Clay Items Clay items are represented only by a special textile device, i.e. a round spindle whorl uncovered at VMPB,65, kurgan 7, grave 4 (Shishlina 1999b: Fig.16, 1).

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FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE

Fig. 52. Stone tools and weapons of the Caspian Steppes Yamnaya culture. 1 – axe, Mu-Sharet-4: k. 1, g. 3; 2 – pestle, Krivaya Luka XXXV: k. 1, g. 19; 3 – pestle, Krivaya Luka XXI: k. 1, g. 8; 4 – pestle, Krivaya Luka XIV: k. 6, g. 7; 5 – pestle, Krivaya Luka XVIII: k. 2, g. 8; 6 – pestle, Zunda-Tolga-1: k. 2, g. 1; 7 – grinding stone, Mu-Sharet-4: k. 10, g. 3; 8 – rectifier for an arrow shaft, VMLBII,65: k. 2, g. 3 1 – 8 – stone

Fig. 53. Flint tools and weapons of the Caspian Steppes Yamnaya culture. 1 – blanks of an arrow head, VMPB,67: k. 29, g. 10; Zunda-Tolga-3: k. 2, g. 4: 2 – arrow head, 3 – knife-shaped blade; 4 – arrow head, Krivaya Luka XIV: k. 6, g. 7 1 – 4 – flint

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BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES Bone Items Bone tools are represented by tubes, which could be used as handles, awls, and horn millstones (Fig. 34, 3). Symbolic items are represented by a round mace-head uncovered at Krivaya Luka XXXV, kurgan 1, grave 19. Textiles Many plant mats have been uncovered in Yamnaya graves (Orfinskaya et al., 1999; Shishlina 1999 a, b). Phytolith analysis indicates that only plant fibres were used, i.e. stems and leaves of reed, sedge, gramineous plants (Table 4). Fibers were twisted and non-plied. The thickness of the so called “non-classical” threads was from 0.2 to 1 cm. Warp threads were two-ply threads, with individual spun. They consisted of two compressed and twisted strips, which helped obtained the yarn of necessary length (Fig. 54, 3). Warp threads of one ply have been uncovered at Mandjikiny-1, kurgan 10, grave 12. Very thick twigs are likely to have been used. Weft threads were flat, made of plant strips, which were compressed during weaving to have plain weave (Fig. 54, 1, 3). Mats with knotless netting made of non-plied fibres have also been uncovered (Fig. 54, 2). Some mats were made of twigs or thick wooden planks or threads (Fig. 54, 4). They were joined together either using a plain weave or by adding one row of planks like in a knotless net. Two types of mats have been uncovered at Mu-Sharet-4, kurgan 11, grave 3. The first mat (Fig. 55, 1) was made of warp and weft threads of Z-twist, 0.2-0.3 mm thick. Threads could be twisted with the help of a whorl and a spindle whorl. The cloth is very flimsy, the distance between the warp threads is 0.3-0.7 cm, and between the weft threads – 0.5-1.2 cm. Bunches of grass which were not less than 28 cm wide were under this cloth. It is possible that the cloth was made of wool (Fig. 27, 6). The second mat was made of wooden planks. They were placed in three layers perpendicular to each other, then fixed with the help of S- and Z-twisted cords 0.1-0.2 cm thick. Cord could be made of wool fibres (Fig. 27, 7). Large twigs of ash-tree and maple placed parallel to each other roofed the pit at Mu-Sharet-1, kurgan 5, grave 3. The distance between them was 10 cm; they were 30 cm long and 3-5 cm thick. A mat was placed above them. Warp non-plied threads were 1.5-2 cm thick; the distance between threads was 0-1.4 cm. Weft non-plied threads were 1-2 cm thick; the distance between the threads was 0-0.8 cm. The cloth was of plain or twill weaves. The cloth was decorated with a woven pattern made by crossing warp threads with weft threads not as 1:1 as in the plain weave, but as 1:3 (or more) as in the twill weave. Fig. 54. Plant mats from Caspian Steppes Yamnaya graves. Ostrovnoy: k.3: 1 – g. 33: a – graphic sketch, b – reconstruction of the weaving pattern; 2 – g. 34; 4 – Mandjikiny-1: k. 11, g. 2: a – graphic sketch, reconstruction of two possible variation of mat design: b – cloth with plain weave, c – cloth with a knobless net; 4 – Zunda-Tolga-3: k. 1, g. 4 1 – reed; 2 – reed, sedge; 3 – wood, plant fibers; 4 – plant fibers

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FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE Table 4. Mats of Yamnaya culture of the Caspian Steppes Burial ground/kurgan/grave Ostrovnoy, k. 3, g. 33 Ostrovnoy, k. 3, g. 34 Mu-Sharet-4, k. 11, g. 3, mat 1 Mu-Sharet-4, k. 11, g. 3, mat 2 Mu-Sharet-4, k. 10, g. 3 Mandjikiny-1, k. 14, g. 10 Mandjikiny-1, k. 14, g. 12, cloth on the chest

Botanical identification Phytoliths of reed are predominant Phytoliths of stem of reed with the presence of phytolith of sedge Phytoliths of gramineous plants, non-identified phytoliths Phytoliths, few phytoliths of gramineous plants Phytoliths, few phytoliths of leaves of reed Phytoliths of stem of reed Phytoliths of leaves of reed and stems of gramineous plants

Fig. 55. Plant mat from Mu-Sharet-4: k. 5, g. 3: 1 – graphic sketch, 2 – the scheme of the weave, warp, weft – directions of warp and weft threads; 3 – variant of cloth using plain and twill weave (reconstruction of O.V. Orfinskaya)

Transportation Devices

Specific Cult Items

Details of wagons are present in small numbers in the Yamnaya graves of the Caspian Steppes, i.e. a case of a wagon or their details such as sides or an awning. Only in one grave a wooden wheel was placed on the stone slabs of the cromlech at VMPB, 67, kurgan 11, grave 22. A solid wheel with a large nub was made of three segments joined together by a wooden pin (Erdniev 1982 a: 27). A clay model of the wagon was placed at VMLBI,65, kurgan 58, grave 1 (Sinitsyn 1978. Vol. 2: Table 56, 12). The wagon has straight sides and a straight back wall, the front part is cupola-shaped. The side walls are decorated with incised triangles; the cupola part is ornamented with vertical incised lines and round stamp impressions.

Specific cult items are represented by clay flat cakes and a mask. Oval flat cakes coloured by red ochre were made of clay that was not fired (Fig. 56, 1). They were uncovered in two children graves. A clay mask is a rare find in all Yamnaya cultures. At Kermen Tolga, kurgan 42, grave 3, in Kalmykia the facial part of the skull of a male skeleton was covered by a clay mask that covered the cheeks, the chin, and the temples (Fig. 56-1). All skull apertures, i.e., the ears, the nose, the eye sockets, and the mouth, were filled up with clay. A straight nose with slightly marked nostrils preserved 79

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES The similar mask was found in Volga region Yamnaya culture (Turetsky 2006). CASPIAN STEPPE YAMNAYA FUNERAL RITE TRADITIONS AND MATERIAL CULTURE Six local Yamnaya groups have been singled out on the Caspian Steppes. They differ from each other in details of the funeral rite and grave offerings. Burial grounds or groups of burial grounds have their specific traits as well. Many scholars considered such clusters of kurgans as isolated family necropoli. Besides, identified differences can highlight differences in the funeral rite and offerings among different social groups; a different chronological position (Late or Early) of the clusters, or a regional funeral rite of local (family? kin?) traditions (Ivanova 2003). The analysis of kurgan mounds from six regions helped make the following observations. Yamnaya kurgans are architectural constructions of the Bronze Age. They Fig. 56. Ritual clay items. 1 – funeral mask, Kermen-Tolga: k. 43, consist of a segment-shaped mound, a round g. 3; clay flat cakes: 2 – Chograysky V: k. 11, g. 4; 3 – Peschany V: k. 1, g. 2 or an oval ditch. Sometimes the upper part of the mound was built in the form of a flattened top. Other constructive details include a stone mound, a ritual site, a stone wall and a traces of polishing and painting. The internal surface of cromlech as well as filling-in related to secondary graves. the mask is painted red, while the external part is painted Stone kurgan constructions are characteristic for the pink with a wide red stripe placed in the centre. The eye Middle Yergueni Hills, and less frequently for the Kumasockets were covered by oval pieces of clay, with Manych Depression. horizontal lines drawn on the right surface. These lines may have denoted closed eyelids. From the interior part In some cases Yamnaya groups used kurgans of their these details are rough; from the exterior part they are predecessors, i.e. the Majkop kurgans (the Kuma Manych polished and painted. All preserved parts of the mask are Depression, the Southern Yergueni Hills and the Caspian either thick or massive, up to 1.8 cm thick, or thin and Plain). There are many secondary graves added to fragile, 0.3 cm thick. Some fragments preserved nail primary Yamnaya kurgans in the Kuma-Manych impressions and finger prints. The mask was made of a Depression (up to 6 – 7 graves). Kurgans with two or very plastic substance composed of the mixture of three three primary kurgans have been uncovered only in this clays: primary kaolin, iron plated clay with small region and in the Southern Yergueni Hills. Ritual places impurities of limonite, and slightly iron-plated refractory is a characteristic trait of both regions as well. The size of clay. The external part of the mask was painted with kurgans is very small, i.e. less than 1 m in height and 12 – ochre; in the internal part the ochre coat was preserved 15 m in diameter. Primary graves in all regions are only on some segments. The mask was not fired. located in the centre; secondary graves were added to all parts of the mound, except for several cases. The study of the preserved fragments of the mask indicates that it was made after the skull had lost its soft Ritual places with flint items, clay sherds, bones of wild tissues. When the nasal part of the mask was being and domesticated animals is another typical feature of shaped, the nose bones were missing, and a piece of clay Yamnaya kurgans of the Kuma-Manych Depression and was stuck into the nose hole, which then was shaped as a the Caspian Plain. nose. Judging by the fragments, at first the surface of the skull was heavily sprinkled with ochre, after which it was Analyses of graves from six regions help identify coated with clay and the face was modelled over the similarity and differences as well. “framework.” The surface of the mask was polished and then painted red and pink. A simple rectangular pit is a typical grave construction. The Yamnaya population of the Caspian Plain built only 80

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE such pits. Pits with shoulders is a very rare find, they have been uncovered only in southern regions, there are no pits of this kind in the north. The stratigraphical position of the pits with shoulders or with a batter indicates that they should be dated to the Late Yamnaya period. Stone boxes and cromlechs are typical for several burial grounds of the Middle Yergueni Hills. This is a regional feature of the funeral rite used by local groups. Five stone constructions were built by the Yamnaya population of the Kuma-Manych Depression as well. Most variations of funeral constructions have been identified for this region, which implies the existence of several funeral traditions.

own specific traditions. Stone cromlechs are typical for the Middle Yergueni Hills and the burials of skulls have been found in the Southern Yergueni Hills, while the line planigraphy of graves has been identified for Caspian Plain groups. Numerous variations of funeral rites of the Yamnaya groups living in the Kuma-Manych Depression are explained by the fact that these groups lived side by side (a large number uncovered graves, 411 burials in total). Each group practiced its own funeral rite. The Kuma-Manych Depression is located very close to the Lower Don region, the Stavropol Hills, the Kuban River region, etc. The population of these regions communicated with each other. It is possible to combine several regions into larger areas, i.e. the Kuma-Manych Depression and the Middle Yergueni Hills (according to the funeral rites with stone constructions and pits with shoulders); the Kuma-Manych Depression and the Southern Yergueni Hills (according to the funeral rites with human sacrifice places and burials of the skull).

Graves are characterized by numerous details of the interior, i.e. plant mats placed on the bottom, walls and roofing of the pit; wooden constructions; pillows; wooden sides of wagons or doors of dwellings could be used for roofing the pits.18 Stone slabs were used for this purpose at Three Brothers and Tsagan Elsin in the Middle Yergueni Hills.

Differences are singled out in specific burial grounds, left by small groups of population, probably, small family groups. It is possible that the origin and the destiny of these specific Yamnaya groups were different as well. The comparative archaeological analysis of funeral offerings confirms that some regional Yamnaya groups lived on their own, in isolation.

The typical position of the dead was flexed on the back with the extended arms. Yamnaya groups of the Caspian Plain and the Middle Yergueni Hills placed their dead only this way. The Kuma-Manych Depression Yamnaya population used other postures as well, i.e. extended on the back and the stomach; flexed on the back with the turn to any side. The Southern Yergueni Hill groups used other positions very rarely. The burials of human skulls have been recorded only in the Kuma-Manych Depression and the Southern Yergueni Hills. The tradition of graves with dismembered skeletons has been identified only for the Kuma-Manych Depression. Cenotaphs have been uncovered only on the Caspian Plain. The predominant orientation of the dead in both primary and secondary graves is eastern, though other directions were used. Western orientation of the dead was practiced in the Kuma-Manych Depression, and very rarely in the Southern Yergueni Hills. Groups that left behind some local burial grounds oriented their dead only to the southeast (Balkin Khutor) or to the east (MuSharet). Collective graves are rarely recorded only among Yamnaya groups of the Kuma-Manych Depression; few such graves have been uncovered in the Southern Yergueni Hills and on the Caspian Plains. Two males have been often buried in double burials of adults. Ochre is a characteristic feature of all local groups. It was used for colouring the skull, legs, hands, and grave offerings as well as the bottom of the pit. Sometimes a piece of ochre was placed in the grave.

Ornamentation items include ethnographic elements of a funeral garment. Each local Yamnaya group had its own way of decorating the garment. Various headdress pieces including female caps, peculiar front decorations are typical for Caspian Plain Yamnaya groups. Some elements survived until later periods. Pins are found in small numbers, with no early types. Pins seem to be primitive imitations of the pins spread in the southern regions. Local Yamnaya groups used pins not as an accessory (“rosary” or sets of amulets) but as parts of necklaces worn by adults. Sets of bronze and bone hammer-headed pins with other amulets characteristic for the non-Yamnaya groups as well as a fragment of the clay incense burner indicate that such graves should be dated to the Late Yamnaya period. Metal round temple rings of 1.5 – 2 turns and rings with open ends as the parts of headdress of adults are characteristic for the southern regions. They could decorate a forehead band. Bronze cord stem-pendants were used in the same way by the Yamnaya population of the Kuma-Manych Depression, the Southern Yergueni Hills and the Stavropol region.

Results obtained help consider the Yamnaya sites of the Caspian Steppes not as a monolithic archaeological culture, but as an aggregate of specific local Yamnaya groups of population. Some features of the funeral rite were common, i.e. a rectangular pit and its interior; the position of the dead and its orientation; the use of ochre. However, the population of each local region practiced its

Type 1 of pins, which is the earliest has been found only in the southern and the central regions of the Caspian Steppes; type 3 has been uncovered only in the KumaManych Depression; type 2 and 4 were spread across all regional groups. Very often pins are the only items in the graves, however they could be accompanied by numerous jewellery pieces, braziers and incense burners. Pins of types 1 and 3 were often accompanied by bronze round or petal-shaped puncheon plaques in the Kuma-Manych

18

Such rites were identified during the excavation of an old Kalmyk burial dating to the 19th century at Mandjikiny-1

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BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES 1986; Subbotin 2000; Yarovoy 1985). The brief characteristic of some regional groups is presented below.

Depression and in the Middle Yergueni Hills and only in one case on the Caspian Plain. Often pins are recorded in graves of women of the productive age. Bone rings were worn by Yamnaya women of the Kuma-Manych Depression.

The Lower Volga Yamnaya culture is characterized by rectangular pits roofed by beams; the position of the dead is flexed on the back or on the right side; the sitting position or the position flexed on the left side was also used; the eastern or northeastern orientation of the dead; the use of ochre. Burials with skulls or graves with skeletons without a skull have also been uncovered. Grave offerings include axes, leaf-shaped knives, adzes, chisels, rectangular awls made of Urals bronze; stone axes. Ceramics is represented by pots without a neck, with a flat bottom; egg-shaped pots with a low straight neck; bowls. Beads made of Unio shells, long beads made of bent copper plaques were used as ornamentation (Sinitsyn 1966; Merpert 1974; Turetsky 1999).

Clay vessels rank second in terms of their number among grave offerings reflecting regional ceramic traditions. The Yamnaya groups of the Middle Yergueni Hills placed clay pots into adult burials, groups of the Caspian Plains placed vessels into child graves; traditional Yamnaya pots have been uncovered in Yamnaya child burials and pots of non-Yamnaya types have been found in graves of adults in the Kuma-Manych Depression. Yamnaya pots similar to the vessels uncovered in Yamnaya graves of neighbouring regions are typical for Early Yamnaya burials of the southern and the central regions. Groups of the northern Caspian Plain population produced original types of vessels as well as pots similar to the Poltavka type of the Middle Bronze Age. Some typical Yamnaya pots have not been identified in this region. Large earthenware pots are predominant in Kuma-Manych graves, where other non-Yamnaya pots have also been uncovered. Such pots are not found in the Southern Yergueni Hills.

The Volga-Urals region. Tributaries of the Volga and Samara Rivers were exploited by Volga-Urals Yamnaya groups. Their sites were located near rivers. This population had very stable funeral traditions (Turetsky 1999), though some variations among sex, age and social groups have been identified (Morgunova, Turetsky 1998). Specific groups built their own burial grounds. The kurgan built over each grave is a specific feature of the regional Yamnaya population. Main characteristics of the funeral rite include the location of the grave in the southern part of the kurgan; simple pits and pits with shoulders; the position of the dead flexed on the back, flexed on the back with the turn to the right side, standing on the knees; the eastern orientation of the pit and the dead; the use of ochre; a plant-made roof of the pit; the ritual of burning the wooden and plant roof; mats on the bottom and the walls of the pit, plant pillows (Turetsky 1999; Bogdanov 2004; Morgunova et al. 2003). Grave offerings are very specific and include sets of copper tools, i.e. battle axe-hammer tools, chisels, and pieces of copper ore; specific bone ornamentations (Turetsky 1999; Morgunova, Turetsky 1998; Bogdanov 2004). Such items have not been uncovered on the Caspian Steppes. A bronze spectacle-shaped pendant similar to the item uncovered in the Late Yamnaya grave at Krivaya Luka has been found at Tamar-Utkul VII, kurgan 4, grave 4 (Bogdanov 1998: Fig. 11, 3). Clay vessels, which are few in number, located not in the graves but on the shoulders of the pit, ritual places and squares around the grave. Some grave offerings are similar to the items recorded on the Caspian Steppes, i.e. round-bottom pots without a neck; braziers made of large earthenware pots; leafshaped knives with a narrow blade. The difference with Yamnaya Caspian Steppe sets is the absence of traditional bone hammer-headed pins and few jewellery pieces.

Tools and weapons uncovered in the Yamnaya graves of the Caspian Steppes are few in number. Some regional differences can be singled out. Pestles and grinding stones were often among grave offerings in the Caspian Plan graves as well as bronze knives, which were placed under the head of the adult. A set consisting of a bronze knife and a stem as well as axes is rare find. Metal and stone items dating back to the Catacomb culture, i.e. bronze hooks, specific types of knives, stone rectifiers for an arrow shaft, appear only in the Late Yamnaya graves from the southern regions of the Caspian Steppes. The characteristic feature of the funeral rite is the use of plant mats. Wagons or their details or models have been found very rarely. The model wagon uncovered in one of the Late Yamnaya grave is similar to the model wagon identified recorded for Catacomb and North Caucasus burials. A clay mask is a unique item. The mask of a slightly different type has been uncovered in the Yamnaya grave of the Middle Volga (Tutetsky 2006). Hence, the spread of main types of grave offerings confirms that several Yamnaya groups of population lived on the Caspian Steppes. Several variations can be singled out for burial grounds as well. COMPARATIVE MATERIAL

Key elements of the funeral rite of the Volga-Urals Yamnaya culture survived until the end of this culture existence, i.e. the Middle Bronze Age, though these rites incorporated new features linked with the increased role of warriors. Some weaponry was similar to Abashevo and Balanovo items (Morgunova 2002).

N.Y. Merpert considered the Yamnaya culture as a cultural-historical unity consisting of several variants (1968). Other scholars believed that it was more correct to look at this culture as a “block” of synchronous cultures with similar funeral rites and economy and specific regional characteristics (Shaposhnikova et al. 82

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE decorations of both adults and children. Bone hammerheaded pins of type 1 – 4 could be details of rosaryamulets; the same can be said about beads and long beads. Such amulets were located near the right hand (Kiyashko V., 1974; Fedorova-Davydova, Gorbenko 1974; Stolyar 1958; Parusimov 1997; 2005; Bespaly E., Bespaly G. 2002; Kiyashko A. 2002).

The Steppe Stavropol Yamnaya culture is very similar to the Yamnaya population of the Kuma-Manych Depression. The main features of the funeral rite include rectangular pits roofed by wooden beams; the position of the dead flexed on the back; and the eastern orientation. Southern and, more seldom, western orientation of the dead appeared at the Late Stage as a result of changing traditions. Ochre was used for colouring the dead. One, sometimes two secondary graves were added into primary Yamnaya kurgans. Few collective graves or cenotaphs have been uncovered. Grave offerings include roundbottom egg-shaped pots similar to those uncovered on the Caspian Steppes; braziers made of large earthenware pots ornamented with tooth incisions; flint scrapers and knives made on the blade; some hammer-headed pins similar to the pins of type 1 and 4 of the proposed classification; as well as some bronze rings with open ends and knives of type 4 according to Korenevsky (1978). Some Yamnaya graves of this region contained Novosvobodnaya items as well (Derzhavin 1991).

The Middle Don Yamnaya culture is represented by three groups according to the Sinyuk classification (1983). They are characterized by small kurgans, round ditches; rectangular pits roofed by beams covered by plant mats; pits with shoulders appeared at the Late stage; skeletons lying flexed on the back and oriented to the east (1st group), to the west (2nd group) and to the south (3rd group); the use of ochre. Grave offerings include roundbottom egg-shaped vessels, leaf-shaped bronze knives and awls, stone items, carpentry tools; jewellery pieces are not numerous and include bronze temple rings turned in 1.5 coils and long beads (Sinyuk 1983). No bone pins have been uncovered. The analysis of the Pavlovsky kurgan burial ground enabled Sinyuk to forward a proposal, according to which two similar ethnographic groups of the Yamnaya population coexisted. The first group left behind the “early” graves; the second group left behind the “late” graves, though both groups coexisted for a while. Ritual group 3 is characterized by Poltavka and Catacomb culture features and was the last. Kurgans of this group formed an isolated cluster.

The Kuban region. V. Trifonov has singled out the Early and the Late Yamnaya cultures of this region. Rectangular pits with the dead flexed on the back, oriented to the east are characteristic for the Early Stage. A square was built over the pit where demountable parts of wooden wagons were placed. Ochre was used to colour the head of the adult; the bodies of children were sprinkled with ochre as well. Few grave offerings have been uncovered, i.e. round-bottom egg-shaped clay pots with or without a neck, scoops; bronze knives of several types: with the blade convex in the cross-section, a blade with a round end of the blade and slightly projected shoulders; chisels and awls. Jewellery pieces include silver round rings of 1.5 turns with open ends; gold flat rings, trapezium in the cross-section with open ends and round rings. Late Yamnaya groups are characterized by the extended position and western orientation of the dead. A high pillow was placed under the skull. New types of pots appeared, i.e. flat jar-shaped pots, flasks, braziers made of large earthenware pots. Ethnographical parts of headdress include double silver temple rings of 1.5 turn, rings with open or joined ends. Bronze round plaques with bone hammer-headed pins of type 4 and one hornshaped pin were used as jewellery pieces. Few tools and weapons have been uncovered, i.e. a bronze razor and knives, grinding stones and axes, flint arrow heads (Trifonov 1991 a).

The Bug-Dnestr area was exploited by the Yamnaya population as well. It left behind small kurgan burial grounds consisting of 4-7 small mounds up to 1 m high. Mounds were segment-shaped; sometimes a flat square was built on the top of the kurgan. The mound construction included ditches and filling-in over the secondary graves, the number of which could vary from 1 – 2 to 16 graves in one kurgan. Graves were built in rectangular pits roofed by beams covered by mats as well as stone slabs or stalae. Sometimes pits with shoulders were built. Fragments of ceramics and remains of wooded wagons were left on the roof of the grave. The interior of the pits consisted of mats on the walls, pillows, plant coverlets and wooden platforms. Ochre was used for colouring the whole skeleton or its skull as well as the bottom of the grave. Sometimes a piece of ochre was placed into the grave. The predominant position of the dead was flexed on the back, on the right or the left side. It could be oriented to the east, northeast, more seldom, to the west. Pair graves of a woman and a baby is a very typical feature. Grave offerings, few in number, include round and flat-bottom egg-shaped vessels, flat pots with a short neck, round and flat-bottom amphorae, bowls, jagshaped vessels. All ceramic items were placed near the legs or the head of children. Jewellery pieces include necklaces consisting of perforated fangs of wolves or dogs, bone beads and hammer-headed pins found together with bronze puncheon plaques. Pins are usually uncovered in female graves and they are similar, though not identical, to the steppe pins of type 2, 3 and 4. One of the pins was a nail-shaped pin with no analogues in the eastern areas. Stone pestles and grinding stones; bronze

The Lower Don Yamnaya culture is characterized by primary graves in rectangular pits roofed by wooden beams, over which a mat could be placed; the position of the dead flexed on the back and orientation to the west; the dead could be also lying flexed on the left side and oriented to the north. Walls of the pits and skeletons were coloured by ochre. Grave offerings include clay eggshaped vessels, bone hammer-headed pins of type 1 decorated with horizontal lines found together with bronze round puncheon plaques; bone pins of type 2 without ornamentation have also been uncovered; bronze rectangular awls. Jewellery pieces include silver round rings of 1.5 – 2 turns, which were used as headdress 83

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES small and they were built over graves where the single funeral rite was used, i.e. simple rectangular pits roofed with timber and specific parts of interior, i.e. mats, skins, ochre. It is likely that Early Yamnaya groups wanted to use kurgans as family necropolis. It is reflected in kurgan’s planigraphy. Traditions of the Early Yamnaya culture developed on the Caspian Steppes, the Stavropol Steppes, in the Lower Don area at the final stage of the Late Majkop culture. Grave offerings are absent or, in some rare cases, include hammer-headed pins of type 1, bronze temple round rings with open ends or rings with 1.5 – 2 turned coils; perforated deer or fish teeth. Subsequently, Yamnaya pots of type 1 – 4, bronze leafshaped knives and short stem-awls appeared. They were replaced by bone hammer-headed pins of type 2 and 3. It is possible that all stone kurgan constructions date back to this earliest period. Hence, all graves with such features date back to the Early Yamnaya culture and they were spread in the Kuma-Manych Depression and in the Middle Yergueni Hills.

leaf-shaped knives, awls, copper and silver temple rings, stone mace-heads, flint spear-heads are found in rare cases (Shaposhnikova et al. 1986). The North-western Black Sea coastline area. Small Yamnaya primary kurgans and kurgans with secondary graves are characterized by filling-in, ditches, cromlechs and stone facing of the mound. Rectangular pits is a predominant construction, though pits with a batter or shoulders were also built. They are roofed by timber or stone as well as mats. Mats were also used to cover the bottom, where pillows were placed as well. Ritual squares and graves of dogs is another characteristic feature. The position of the dead was flexed on the back, flexed on the back with the turn to the right, flexed on the right or on the left side. The sitting position was used as well, in rare cases, though five types of graves with different positions of the dead are synchronous. Western orientation of the dead is predominant. Traditional Yamnaya egg-shaped pots were placed into graves. Specific types of ceramics are represented by flat-bottom pots, amphora-shaped flat-bottom vessels, earthenware pots and bowls (Ivanova 2001: Fig. 9). Tools and weapons are represented by bronze leaf-shaped knives, razors and awls; bone hoes, tubes, awls and perforators; stone arrowheads, knife-daggers; grinding stones, pestles, and axes. Ornamentations include copper bracelets, temple rings, silver rings, gold spiral pendants; three bone hammer-headed pins have been uncovered. Entire wagons or their parts could be placed into graves. Anthropomorphic stalae could be used as a roof of the grave. Specific ritual groups used their own sets of grave offerings (Ivanova 2001; Ivanova et al. 2005).

The subsequent period is characterized by formation and development of all regional Yamnaya groups across the Caspian Steppes; their funeral tradition began to incorporate new positions and orientations of the dead. It could be the result of population movements, incorporation of northern Middle Volga groups and southern groups from the Stavropol Hills, Kuban and the Lower Don regions; and gradual changing of archaic funeral traditions. Development of specific groups of the Yamnaya population exploiting different environmental areas of the Caspian Steppes led to the formation and development of specific ritual traditions and changes in the material culture.

OVERALL CULTURAL CONTEXT Yamnaya groups of the Caspian Steppes are considered to form a part of the North Caucasus Piedmont Yamnaya population (Merpert 1968). This population is characterized by the common origin of the material culture and rites (funeral rites, ceramics and their ornamentation) as well as by common economic and social development (Shaposhnikova et al. 1986). Now it is becoming evident that numerous regional Yamnaya groups exploiting different geographic zones had specific features, development and destiny. They existed against the background of different cultural population groups, with which they could interact in marginal zones of the forest-steppe of the Middle Volga region; in the Urals region, in the desert of the North Caspian steppes, on the steppes of the Don region etc. (Vasilyev et al. 2000). These groups could be looked at as local regional groups of population. Most likely, not all these groups were synchronous. There was no unity inside regional groups of the Yamnaya population either (Chernykh L. 2005).

The historical situation in the Kuma-Manych Depression could be taken as an example. Continuous infiltration of southern groups led to numerous variations in the position of the dead, a new western orientation; pits with shoulders, numerous bronze ornamentations of the North Caucasus types, bone hammer-headed pins of type 4 and bronze hammer-headed pins of type 1. These innovations were gradually spreading to the northern areas, though the Yamnaya population of the Caspian Plain and the Middle Yergueni Hills still had a lot of archaic traditions in the funeral rite. The subsequent Yamnaya stratum is marked by the appearance of non-Yamnaya ceramics, i.e. fragments of large earthenware pots, which were used as braziers and vessels typical for the Middle Bronze Age period. The latest Yamnaya groups of the same area were linked with the Catacomb and North Caucasus cultures, the northern groups of the Caspian steppes were linked with the Poltavka population. This situation reflects the impact of these cultural groups on the regional Yamnaya population.

Comparative analysis of diagnostic features of the funeral rite and key items of grave offerings, results of the cluster analysis (Shishlina 1992) were used to identify qualitative differences between regional Yamnaya groups as well as impact made by different cultural groups. The earliest Yamnaya kurgans of the Caspian Steppes are

The broad geographical ethno-cultural background of the Caspian Steppe Yamnaya culture was changing during the time as well as the system of interrelations of specific Yamnaya groups between themselves and their neighbouring population. It is evident that the destiny of specific Yamnaya groups exploiting specific 84

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE Stavropol Hills and the Lower Don region. The Yamnaya groups of the southern regions of the Caspian Steppes incorporated new cultural ideas of this population. This led to the spreading of the same types of ornamentations, some types of ceramics, tools and weapons as well as wagons. However, details of the ethnographic clothes and ceramic traditions were local.

environmental areas was different. The analysis of subsequent cultural groups, their relative and absolute chronology confirms such situation. It is very important to present not only the general archaeological context but to synchronize different regional groups of the Yamnaya population (Trifonov 1991 a).

The Yamnaya groups of the Middle Yergueni Hills located in the central part of the Caspian Steppes were more homogeneous, though they were very similar to the Kuma-Manych Depression Yamnaya population. Stone cists and cromlechs, specific types of early bone hammerheaded pins were spread only in these two regions.

Comparative analysis shows that the Yamnaya groups of the Caspian Steppes are characterized by specific ethnographical funeral rites, grave offerings and dress. They are similar to the Yamnaya groups of the Middle and the Lower Volga regions. Spectacle-shaped bronze pendants have been uncovered in one of the Yamnaya grave at Krivaya Luka (Fig. 45, 8). The similar pendants have been recorded in Balanovo, Fatyan, Middle Dnieper graves of the forest-steppe zone (Artemenko 1967) as well as in the Late Yamnaya graves of the Middle Volga region (Skorbovenko 1999), at Karabudakhent (Artemenko 1987) and Gemetyube, at the Chirkeyskaya site in Dagestan (Gadjiev 1991: Fig, 27-30, 34-11), at Ventsy in the Kuban region (Kiyashko V. 1992: Fig. 2, 2). Such pendants were made according to a standard. Their presence in graves of the Middle and Lower Volga region, coastline steppes of Dagestan and in the foreststeppe zone helps us suggest that such items were not only details of different ethnographic outfits, but, like bronze crook-shaped pins, were used in exchange operations. Metal ingots, ornamentations, faience and amber beads, knives and axes were exchanged (Artemenko 1967: Fig. 25, 4-5; 1987). Bone pins seem to be replicas of steppe items, made by local craftsmen who were not able to reproduce original forms.

Hence the analysis of different local Caspian Steppe Yamnaya groups shows that the Yamnaya population of the southern regions appears to be more similar to the Yamnaya groups of the North Caucasus and the Lower Don region; the northern groups were similar to the Lower and Middle Volga population. Some groups of the southern region date back to the Early stage of the Yamnaya culture, some groups of the northern region date back to its Late stage. Maybe at the first the Early Yamnaya groups began to exploit the Kuma-Manych Depression and the Middle Yergueni Hills; then they moved to the north where they settled for a long time without changing funeral rites and production traditions. Items dating back to other cultures appeared in the southern environmental areas reflecting the process of interaction and development of the exchange network. Later such processes reflected the penetration of specific cultural groups. They ousted the Yamnaya groups and began to exploit regions previously occupied by the Yamnaya groups. The southern Yamnaya culture became extinct. The existence and development of “classical” Yamnaya groups in the northern environmental areas of the Caspian Steppes is marked by the remakes of traditional types of grave offerings.

Some pots is an ethnographic feature of the Caspian Plain group. They are similar to the pots uncovered in the Yamnaya-Catacomb graves of the same region as well as to Poltavka ceramics of the Middle and the Lower Volga regions. Similar items help us synchronize different groups, behind which stood the Late Yamnaya as well as the Poltavka and Balanovo population. The same historical situation is characteristic for the Southern Urals region; similar axes have been uncovered in both Late Yamnaya and Balanovo graves of the Middle Bronze Age (Morgunova 2002).

The Middle Don region is characterized by a similar historical situation. During the first stage the Yamnaya groups were penetrating from the Lower Don region and began exploiting the Middle Don area (group 1 according to Sinuyk). The population, whose origin was linked with the western Salsk Steppes left graves of group 2. Age and sex determination of the population at Pavlovsky burial ground indicates that specific ethnographic family groups participated in such movements. Group 3 was the result of coexistence or interaction of the Yamnaya and Catacomb population (Sinuyk 1983).

Late Yamnaya groups of the Caspian Plain were incorporated into the Poltavka culture influence, the population of which produced some specific decorations. The spread of similar items in two cultures could be a result of exchange, cross-cultural marriages, changing funeral traditions. Coexistence of different cultures led to the development of a multi-cultural tradition and the appearance of the Yamnaya-Catacomb graves. It seems that the Late Yamnaya population was driven back to the northern and northwestern regions, which were exploited by the Poltavka population at the same time.

Two stratigraphic Yamnaya horizons singled out in the Bug-Dnestr region is the result of the chronological development and coexistence of several ritual population groups (Shaposhnikova et al. 1986). Differences in rite traditions and grave offerings reflect the existence of several ethnographic Yamnaya groups, which exploited different environmental areas, i.e. the Ingul River, Ingulets River, Bug River basins. The Late Yamnaya period is characterized by the appearance of the

The destiny of the Yamnaya groups of the Kuma-Manych Depression, the Southern Yergueni Hills was different. They were historically linked with the population of the 85

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Three regional Yamnaya culture centres have been singled out in the Northwestern Black Sea steppes. Each centre is characterized by specific funeral features. Smaller clusters inside such centres can be identified as well (Ivanova 2001).

from the steppe areas of the Volga and Ural regions are smaller; they are dolycephalic, very similar to the Volga Eneolithic skulls. Specific morphological peculiarities of Early Yamnaya skulls of the Middle Volga region is the sloping forehead, with a high occiput and a low cranium (Khokhlov 2000). The steppe group including Volgograd region sites is represented by medium size broad-faced European skulls (Khochlov 2001).

Physical anthropology of the Yamnaya culture from the Caspian Steppes confirms the independence of specific regions and specifies their ethno-genetic history. Many anthropological groups participated in the formation of local Yamnaya population (Shevchenko 1986).

The Urals Yamnaya group is characterized by dolycephalic, more or less hypermorphic European skulls with a low or moderate face, low rectangular eye-sockets. Skulls obtained from different sites differ from each other (Yablonsky, Khokhlov 1994).

In general, the Yamnaya population is characterized by brachycephalic skulls with a low and orthognathic face, low eye-sockets, a protuberant nose (Khokhlov 2000). Several specific groups have been singled out as well.

The comparative analysis of the data obtained from different regions shows that the Yamnaya population of different regions is characterized by its own specific features. It helped Kruts put forward a proposal that the Yamnaya population groups living in small environmental areas differed from each other (1972).

Catacomb population and the spreading of new funeral traditions among local Yamnaya groups.

The Yamnaya culture of the Caspian Steppes is characterized by large brachycephalic skulls with a broad middle-high face, wide and low eye-sockets, a mezorine nose, with a protuberant nose. Differences in skulls imply significant group differences, i.e. there are several craniological types of skulls in Yamnaya groups. Differences can be found in one kurgan as well (Shevchenko 1986: 123-125). Skulls from VMLBII helped Shevchenko single out three craniological types and come to the conclusion that a group, which buried its relatives in this burial ground, was not a genetically related population. Type A according to Shevchenko classification is represented by moderate mesocephalic skulls, with a very long and wide cranium, with large occiput, with a very wide and sloping forehead, a very orthognathic face, with wide and high eye-sockets, with a relatively narrow and high nose. Type B is characterized by a short, wide, moderate cranium, very brachycephalic, with the moderately straight forehead, with a wide low moderately orthognatic face, with an absolutely narrow, mezorine nose, with low eye-sockets. Type C is similar to type A based on the form of cerebral capsule; and to type B based on size and proportions. The morphological dominant of this type is a very high bridge of the nose (Shevchenko 1986: 128-132). The planigraphy of this burial ground presented below confirms that there were five clusters of specific Yamnaya groups.

The subsequent Poltavka population is more heterogeneous. This implies existence of cross-cultural marriages (Khokhlov 2000). The Yamnaya groups of the northwestern Black Sea coastline were not homogeneous either and they represent both proto-European and eastern-Mediterranean physical anthropological types (Ivanova et al. 2005). Steppe North Caucasus Culture Kurgans of the Steppe North Caucasus culture are located in six environmental areas of the Caspian Steppes. Analysis of 149 graves helps us establish specific features of the funeral rite and the material culture of this group. Funeral Rite of the Steppe North Caucasus Culture of the Caspian Steppes Kuma-Manych Depression Eighty graves have been uncovered in 64 kurgans of 12 kurgan burial grounds dating back to the Steppe North Caucasus culture in the Kuma-Manych Depression.

Specific Yamnaya groups built kurgans at Krivaya Luka. The skulls of this population have a large cranium, a less convex forehead and a broader face, a high bridge of the nose (Shevchenko 1986:143-144). It is possible that the origin of such groups is different (Shevchenko 1986: 154155). For example, the specific character of Krivaya Luka Yamnaya skulls implies isolation of a small group of the Yamnaya population (Yablonsky, Khokhlov 1994). This is confirmed by archaeological analysis as well.

Kurgan mounds. Steppe North Caucasus culture kurgans are small. The average diameter is 17 – 20 m, and the average height is 0.65 – 0.95 m. For example, Steppe North Caucasus kurgan 1 at Zunda-Tolga is 20 – 25 cm high and 5 – 6 m in diameter. Kurgans are segmentshaped. As a rule, there is only one grave; more rarely, there are two graves under such mounds. All primary graves are located in the centre. Secondary graves were added to the eastern part of the kurgan in some burial grounds, others were added in the western or northern parts. Sometimes filling-in has been added over such graves and ritual places were arranged, i.e. clay sheds of pots or incense burners were left under the mound.

The Yamnaya population of the forest-steppe zone of Trans-Volga region is characterized by large maturized skulls, mesocephalic features of the faces. The skulls

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FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE Table 5.Botanic identification of pillows found in Steppe North Caucasus graves of the Caspian Steppes Burial ground-kurgangrave Mu-Sharet: k. 6, g. 4 Ostrovnoy: k. 3, g. 36 Zunda-Tolga-3: k. 1, g. 11

Pollen data Artemisia, Chenopodiaceae, Varia, few pollen grains of Alnus and Corylus Artemisia, Chenopodiaceae, Tulipa, Liliaceae, Typha, pollen grain – Betula, Pinus, Alnus, Carpinus Varia, Chenopodiaceae, Artemisia, Poligonaceae, Fabaceae, spores of Polypodiaceae, siliceous remains of grains of gramineous plants

Southern Yergueni Hills

The funeral construction is characterized by narrow rectangular pits (Fig. 57, 1-2), more rarely by oval pits or pits with shoulders (Fig. 57, 5).

Six Steppe North Caucasus graves in six kurgans have been uncovered in the Southern Yergueni Hills.

The interior parts of funeral constructions. Mats were placed on the bottom of pits. Phytolith analysis suggests that they were made only of plant fibers. Such textile items were also used to cover the shoulders and the ceiling of the pits as well as the pit walls. In the grave at VMLBII, 65 the pit was covered by wooden planks and poles, above which coarse fabric and a mat were placed. Wooden poles were installed at four corners. They were used to fix the mat on the wall (Sinitsyn, Erdniev 1987). A special pillow stuffed with steppe herbs or cut plants was placed under the skull of the dead.

Kurgan mound. All primary graves are located in the centre; one secondary grave is placed in the southwestern area. The diameter of primary kurgans is 14.5-15 – 17-18 m, the height is from 0.50 to 0.80 m. Additional soil filling-in overlies secondary graves. A ritual place was left on the top of kurgan 6 at Mu-Sharet-1, i.e. a brazier (a large fragment of a clay vessel) with charcoal. Each kurgan in this area has only one Steppe North Caucasus grave. The funeral construction is represented by a rectangular pit (Fig. 58, 1 – 2, 5); one pit with shoulders has been uncovered as well (Fig. 58, 3).

The dead. Almost always the pit was built for one individual. Only nine collective graves among 76 graves of the database obtained have been uncovered, i.e. nine double graves (six graves of two adults, one grave of two children, one grave of two juveniles, one triple grave of two adults and one child) (Fig. 57, 1, 12 – 14).

The interior parts of funeral constructions. A plant mat was placed on the bottom of each grave. Walls were covered by mats as well. In one grave (Mu-Sharet-1, kurgan 6, grave 4) walls were reinforced by wooden rods, planks were placed on the bottom of the pit. Probably, a wagon body was placed inside the grave. Similar wooden construction has been recorded at Mandjikiny-2, kurgan 11, grave 4. All pits were covered by planks made of ashtree (Fraxinus), mountain ash (Sorbus), apple-tree (Malus) or pear-tree (Purus). Sometimes plant mats were placed above such construction. Plant pillows were placed on the bottom of the pits.

The predominant position of the dead is extended on the back, with arms extended along the body. Sometimes arms could be flexed at the elbow (BMLBI,66), or one arm was contracted, the other was extended. The position of the legs and fasteners indicates that often legs were tied at the knees (Ostrovnoy), or they were tied from the knees to the ankles. Textile remains were found on some skeletons (VMLBIII,66: kurgan17, grave 6). It is possible that the body of the dead was wrapped in textile cloth. Several graves, where the dead were lying in different positions, i.e. one was extended on the back, the other was flexed on the back, have been uncovered (Zunda-Tolga-III: kurgan 1, grave 11). In another grave a child was lying on the left side and two adults were lying in the extended position on the back (VMLBI,66: kurgan 24, grave 3). Cenotaphs have not been uncovered.

The dead. Four graves were built for individuals; other two were built for double child (Fig. 58, 4) and juveniles graves. All skeletons were lying in the centre of the grave in the extended position. Two dead persons were wrapped in cloth. (Fig. 58, 1, 3) In one grave the skull shifted and it was lying near the skeleton. It is assumed that a special design pillow was placed under the head of the dead. Cenotaphs have not been uncovered.

The orientation of the Steppe North Caucasus dead of the Kuma-Manych Depression was eastern. The dead in secondary graves could be oriented to the west, south, northwest, southwest, north, and southeast. Ochre was used to cover legs, very often, only feet; sometimes the whole skeleton was covered by ochre. A piece of mineral could be put as an offering.

Orientation of the dead in the Southern Yergueni Hills is unstable, i.e. to the northeast, north and south (for primary graves) and to the northeast and east (for secondary graves). Ochre was often used for covering feet, hands or the whole body as well as the bottom of the pits.

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Fig. 57. Steppe North Caucasus graves of the Kuma-Manych Depression. 1 – Zunda-Tolga: k. 1, g. 10; 2 – Ostrovnoy: k. 6, g. 13; VMLBI,65: k. 42, g. 3: 3 – plan, 4 – braziers; VMLBI,65: k. 21, g. 12: 5 – plan of the grave, 6 – knife, 7 – rectifier for an arrow shaft, 8 – knife-shaped blade; Zunda-Tolga-3: k. 1, g. 11: 9 – rings, 10 – plan of the grave; 11 - Zunda-Tolga-1: k. 3, g. 2; VMLBII,66: 12 – k. 3, g. 1; 13 – k. 10, g. 1; 14 – k. 5, g. 10 4 – clay; 6 – bronze; 7 – sandstone; 8 – flint; 8 – bone

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Fig. 58. Steppe North Caucasus graves of the Southern Yergueni Hills. 1 – Mandjikiny-2: k. 11, g. 4; 2 – Mu-Sharet-1: k. 5, g. 5; Mandjikiny-2: k. 7, g. 2: 3 – plan of the grave, 4 – button; Mu-Sharet-1: k. 6, g. 4: 5 – plan of the grave, 6 – 13 – grave offerings: 6 – vessel, 7 – pendants, 8 – pendants, 9 – ring, 10 – ring, 11 – long beads, 12 – rings, 13 – long beads 4, 12, 13 – bone; 6 – clay; 7, 10 – bronze, silver; 8 – shell

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BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES in the centre. Secondary graves at Kermen-Tolga are located in the southwestern part; at Lola and Arkhara they are located in the southern part of the mound. After construction of secondary graves filling-in was added. As a rule, there is one, more rarely, two Steppe North Caucasus graves in each kurgan. Ritual places are not a characteristic feature of the funeral ritual.

Eastern Part of the Stavropol Hills There are 22 Steppe North Caucasus graves uncovered in 14 kurgans at Chogray VIII and Chogray IX (Andreeva 1989; Shishlina 2007: 127). Kurgan mound. The majority of Steppe North Caucasus graves of this area are secondary graves added to Yamnaya kurgans. Filling-in was added over them. Primary kurgans were built as well. The diameter of primary kurgans was 15 – 20 m; the height is about 1 m. There are one/two graves and only one kurgan contains 4 graves (Chogray IX, kurgan 9). Primary graves are located in the centre of kurgans; secondary graves are mainly located in the southern; more seldom, in the northwestern parts of Yamnaya kurgans. After constructing secondary graves filling-in was added into the mounds.

The main form of the funeral construction is a narrow rectangular pit (Fig. 60). The interior parts of funeral constructions. The pit floor as well as walls were covered by plant mats. A wooden construction made of rather narrow boards was placed on the floor at Lola-1, kurgan 4, grave 6. Pits were roofed by wooden planks, over which plant mats were placed. The dead. Most of graves were made for one individual, collective graves have been recorded as well, i.e. six double graves and one triple grave of adults. The predominant position of the dead is extended on the back with the extended arms (Fig. 60, 1, 4, 12 – 13). At Arkhara there are two graves, with the persons lying extended on the stomach, in another grave from the same site the legs of the skeleton are missing. Sometimes the dead persons were lying in different positions in double graves, i.e. one person was lying in the extended position on the back and another person was lying in the flexed position on the right side (Arkhara), at Kermen-Tolga one dead person was lying flexed on the back, another person was lying extended on the back.

The main form of the funeral construction is a narrow rectangular pit, more seldom, a round pit (Fig. 59). The interior parts of funeral constructions. Pits were covered by wooden planks; a plant mat was placed above. A stone roof was built in one grave. A plant mat was placed on the floor of each pit. At Chogray IX, kurgan 1, grave 11, a composite construction has been identified: a framework made of timber logs of 15 cm in diameter; several layers of cane were placed above. Animal bones were scattered above, horse bones were found between the logs. A stone stela was found nearby. This roof was supported by small columns; the walls were covered by wood or bark. The position of the skulls indicates that a special high pillow could be placed under the head of the dead.

The orientation to the east is predominant in primary graves. Southern and northeastern orientations of the dead were also used. The dead in secondary graves were oriented to the east; in rare cases they were oriented to the south, southwest and west. Cenotaphs have not been uncovered. Ochre was used to sprinkle the legs of the dead at Kermen-Tolga and Three Brothers, the whole body of the dead at Arkhara and Elista or the bottom of the grave at Elista and Arkhara.

The dead. Most graves of this group were made for one individual. Two double graves (two juveniles and two adults) have been uncovered. The predominant position of the dead is extended on the back, with the extended arms. Sometimes the body of the dead was wrapped in cloth (Chogray IX) (Fig. 59, 4,7). At Chogray IX, kurgan 1, grave 11, the skeleton was wrapped in cane and bark. Almost all dead were oriented to the east; very seldom they were oriented to the north or southeast. Cenotaphs have not been uncovered. Ochre was used to cover hands (1), feet (1), bottom of the pit (2), sometimes the whole skeleton was sprinkled with ochre (3).

Caspian Plain The Steppe North Caucasus group of the Caspian Plain is not numerous, i.e. seven graves in seven kurgans located in seven kurgan burial grounds. Kurgan mound. All graves of this area can be identified as isolated secondary graves added to Yamnaya kurgans. They are located in the centre of the mound. No ritual places have been uncovered. The main form of the funeral construction is a narrow rectangular pit. The decoration of funeral constructions includes only plant mats, which were placed on the bottom of the pit.

Middle Yergueni Hills Thirty four Steppe North Caucasus graves have been uncovered in 28 kurgans in 7 kurgan burial grounds of this area. Kurgan mound. Almost all graves of this culture are primary graves; secondary graves have been uncovered as well. Kurgans are higher than in the Kuma-Manych Depression and the Southern Yergueni Hills, i.e. their diameter is from 13 – 16 to 21 – 24 m, and the height is from 0.75 to 1.25 – 1.4 m. All primary graves are located

The dead. All skeletons were lying in the extended position on the back. The legs of the dead at Tsagan-Usn were tied at the knees (Fig. 60, 8). Dead persons were oriented to the east and north. Sometimes skeletons were sprinkled with ochre.

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Fig. 59. Steppe North Caucasus graves of the western part of the Stavropol Hills. Chograysky IX: k. 1, g. 11: 1 – plan of the grave, 3 – pin and plaque; 2 – k. 5, g. 7; 4 – k. 10, g. ; 6 – k. 9, g. 13; 7 – k. 14, g. 5; 5 – Chogray VIII: k. 3, g. 6 3 – bronze

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Fig. 60. Steppe North Caucasus graves of the Middle Yergueni Hills and the Caspian Plain. Arkhara: 1 –3 – k. 20, g. 2: 1 – plan of the grave, 2 – braziers, 6 – axe; 7 – k. 20, g. 1; 11 – 12 – k. 13, g. 3: 11 – brazier, 12 – plan of the grave; Tsagan-Usn IV: k. 1, g. 4: 8 – plan of the grave, 9 – arrow head, 10 – temple ring 2, 5, 11 – clay; 3 – bone; 6 – stone; 9 – flint; 10 – silver

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Fig. 61. Main types of table wear of the Caspian Steppes North Caucasus culture. 1 – VMPB,67: k. 13, g. 2; 2 – Lola-1: k. 23, g. 1; 3 – VMLBI,65: k. 2, g. ; 4 – Chograusky VI: k. 1, g. 8; 5 – Mu-Sharet-1: k. 6, g. ; 6 – Tsatsa: k. 7, g. 4 1– 6 – clay

tableware, kitchen pots, and ritual vessels, i.e. incense burners.

Material Culture Items obtained from graves of the Steppe North Caucasus population is the main resource for the reconstruction of the material culture of this group, though such items are not numerous. Very often no funeral offerings have been found in graves. There have been offerings only in 52 (1/3) graves and they include ornamentations (details of costumes, bone and bronze pins) as well as clay vessels. Therefore, it is impossible to propose a classification of such items. A description of diagnostic items has been prepared and comparison analysis with similar collections obtained from synchronous North Caucasus graves from the neighbouring areas has been conducted.

The tableware is represented by small flat bottom pots (16 – 18 cm in height and 6 – 9 in diameter). The following types of pottery have been found in this group: 1) a pot with a pointed body and a high cylindrical neck, without ornamentation (Fig. 61, 1); 2) a pot with convex shoulders and a straight small neck, with an everted rim, there is a line ornamentation made by drawn lines, which form triangle with small rings below the neck on the shoulder (Fig. 61, 2); 3) a pot with a bi-conical body and a “metope belt ornamentation” on the shoulders. This ornamentation belt is covered by parallel and crossed cord impressions and spiral stamps (Fig. 61, 3); 4) a similar pot with a bi-conical body is decorated with a horizontal line located below the angular middle part and the triangle filled with cord impressions (Fig. 61, 4); 5) a pot with a round body and a vertical neck, the edge of the pot is turned outside. The ornamentation is located on the neck and is formed by round cord impressions and stamps (Fig. 61, 6) a small conical bowl with rich ornamentation (Fig. 61, 5).

Pottery The Steppe North Caucasus collection does not have rich pottery. Only clay vessels have been uncovered. Clay Vessels Only 11 vessels, 13 clay vessel fragments and 4 incense burners have been obtained from this culture. All of them are handmade. Ceramics can be divided into three groups:

Kitchen pots are represented by large earthenware pots. They are reconstructed by large fragments. Only large 93

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 62. Main types of kitchen pottery of the Caspian Steppes North Caucasus culture. VMLBII,66: 1 – k. 42, g. 3, 3 – k. 69, g. 2; Arkhara: 2 – k. 20, g. 2, 5 – k. 14, g. 3; 7 – k. 18, g. 2; 4 – Mu-Sharet-4: k. 6, under the mound; 6 – Elista: k. 25, g. 4; 8 – VMLBIII: k. 19, g. 3 1 – 8 – clay

bottom parts and side parts have been uncovered in the graves. Two types have been defined:

of legs and decoration. Four incense burners have been found.

● type 1: a large flat bottom earthenware pot with wide shoulders and a wide body, a small neck and a convex rim. Such pots can be ornamented by a comb stamped herring-bone pattern across the upper part of the body (Fig. 61, 1) or they can have no ornamentation (Fig. 62, 2).

The incense burner in the form of a low bowl without a dividing section, standing on a pedestal made of four round legs has been found. The inner surface is decorated with four carved triangle festoons; the edge of the bowl is ornamented with oval vertical incisions (Fig. 63, 1). Another incense burner is a wide round bowl with a dividing section on the rectangular pedestal with two holes. The surface and the wide brim of the bowl are ornamented with carved lines, which form triangle as well as round and arch-shaped impressions (Fig. 63, 3). A fragment of a round bowl with a low side has been uncovered. It is not clear if there was a dividing section or not. Only one round leg has been preserved though examination of the surface demonstrates that it had six legs forming a circle. There are two holes on the bowl. It is decorated with triangles made by cord impressions.

● type 2: a large flat bottom pot with a wide round body, zigzag comb stamp lines forming herring-bone ornamentation located on the entire body (Fig.62, 7), the upper (Fig. 62, 6,8) or the middle part of the body (Fig. 62, 5). Ritual vessels are represented by the incense burner. These vessels are represented by a wide bowl with or without a dividing section, standing on a pedestal made 94

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE

Fig. 63. Main types of ritual vessels of the Caspian Steppes North Caucasus culture. 1 – VMLBIII,66: k. 4, g. 14; 2 – Zunda-Tolga-6: k. 2, under the mound; 3 – VMPB,67: k. 16, g. 10 1 – 3 – clay

pots are very often found in child graves as well as in adult graves. There is no regular pattern of ceramics location inside the graves. Large earthenware pots have been found among child as well as adult offerings. Pots can be located near the head or the legs of the skeleton, in the corner of the pit. One fragment of such pot has been found in the ritual place (Mu-Sharet-1, kurgan 6). Incense burners are characteristic only for child and adult graves of the Kuma-Manych Depression. There are burial grounds of the Steppe North Caucasus culture, with no ceramics found.

The central part is decorated with four rows of cord impressions (Fig. 63, 2). This is a specific “Steppe North Caucasus” type of the incense burner: ● type 1: a round bowl with four or six round legs on the pedestal (VMLBIII,66 and Zunda-Tolga-6); ● type 2: a round bowl on a rectangular pedestal (VMPB,67). Main characteristics of these two types are as follows: a pedestal, round legs which form a circle; and main elements of the design, i.e. multi-rows triangles, round ornamentation on the pedestal.

Ornamentations and details of the garment Decorations are predominant items among funeral offerings in Steppe North Caucasus graves. During the funeral ceremony the population of this culture dressed their dead in funeral cloth decorated with ornamentations. Such items were found near the skull, on the chest, on the waist and near the legs. Headdress parts, ornamentation of the breast, belt and legs will be described below. A

The distribution of different types of ceramics across the environmental areas of the Caspian Steppes is the following. Tableware is often found in graves of the Kuma-Manych Depression. Other types are very rarely found in other regions, i.e. large fragments of earthenware pots in the Middle Yergueni Hills, pots in the Southern Yergueni Hills and on the Sarpa Plain. Such 95

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 64. Main types of decoration of the headdress, the front part of the garment and a button of the Caspian Steppes North Caucasus culture. Mu-Sharet-4: k. 6, g. 4: 1 – 9 – decoration of the band; 10 – reconstruction of the headdress in the form of a band; 11 – rings; 12 – temple ring, VMPB,65: k. 26, g. 5; 13 – VMLBIII,66: 16 – beads, k. 12, g. 7; 17 – beads, k. 18, g. 8; 18 – button, Mandjikiny-2: k. 7, g. 2; 19 – pendants from the deer tooth, Lola-1: k. 23, g. 1; 20 – umbo, VMLBII, 65: k. 18, g. 5 1 – 5, 9, 14, 16 – 17, 20 – bronze; 5, 7 – shell; 8, 13 – silver; 12 – antimony; 11, 15, 18 – 19 – bone

headdress. Bronze cord stem-pendants, round in the cross-section, ending with a ball, bone rings (Fig. 64, 11, 15) and shell necklaces (Fig. 64, 5,7) are present in small numbers. At Mu-Sharet-1 (Fig. 64, 1-9) types of decorations include details of the band worn on the forehead.

special group of accessory – pins and amulets – are described as well. Parts of headdress have been recorded in 15 out of 149 burials. Most of them are made of metal (bronze and silver). Half of the collection presents small and large round earrings of 1.5 – 2 coils, more seldom of 3 coils (Fig. 64, 1, 14). They can form a pair and be placed near the temples. Single parts of the headdress located on the right or on the left have also been found. Large and small round rings, round in the cross-section with open and flattened or sharpened ends have been found in seven graves (Fig. 64, 2 – 4, 6, 8, 12 – 13). They are made of bronze or silver, can form a pair or be single as well as can be combined with other types of decorations of the

Chest and neck ornamentation are represented by beads, pendants and plaques. Bronze cylindrical beads were located on the chest and around the neck of adult and child skeletons. Such beads can be a part of necklaces or they can be used for embroidery of the collar or the upper part or the front part of the clothes. Located on the chest, bone rings can be also a part of such decoration design. Two bronze semi-spherical plaque-umbos have been 96

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE

Fig. 65. Main types of belt-sets and “rosary” amulets from the Caspian Steppes North Caucasus culture. Mu-Sharet-1: k. 4, g. 6: 1 – belt set made of plaques and perforated fangs of steppe fox, 2 – 3 – ornamentations of the belt, 11 – reconstruction of the belt-set; 4 – 6 – belt-set made of plaque and a crook-shaped pin, VMLBI,66: k. 9, g. 2; 7 – 9 – rosary consisted of spoon-shaped pendant, beads and a medallion, VMLBII,66: k. 73, g. 4; 10 – crook-shaped pins, VMLBII,65: k. 8, g. 5 1, 3, 4 – bone; 2 – shell; 5 – 10 – bronze

Fig. 66. Pins of the Caspian Steppes North Caucasus culture. 1 – Mu-Sharet-1: k. 2, g. 3; 2 – VMPB,67: k. 2, g. 4; 3 – Chogray IX: k. 1, g. 11, 4 – VMLBIII,66: k. 18, g. 8 1, 2 – bone; 3, 4 – bronze

97

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES rectangular pendant were lying around the pelvis of the skeleton at Mu-Sharet-1, kurgan 4, grave 6. They are details of a belt. The second belt set consists of a flat bone plaque, a bronze round plaque decorated by a cast solar pattern and a bronze crook-shaped pin (type 1, subtype 2) (Fig. 65, 4 – 6). All belts belonged to children. Accessories. Pins from Steppe North Caucasus graves is a very seldom find.19 They have been found only in 10 out of 149 graves and they are represented by bone hammerheaded pins of type 2 (2 items) (Fig. 66, 1); large pins with a cylindrical or cigar-shape stem of type 4 and their fragments, decorated by a geometric pattern (5 items and 5 fragments) (Fig. 66, 2); a bronze hammer-headed pin of type 1 (2 items) (Fig. 66, 3) and crook-shaped pins of type 1-3 (Fig. 66, 4; 67) (18 items). Bone hammer-headed pins were found together with round protuberant plaques with a puncheon pattern. Pins have been found near the right or left hands. Bronze small points-awls rectangular in the cross-section have been found in sets, with bone hammer-headed pins. It is possible that pins were inside some “small bags” and they were used as fasteners. A bronze hammer-headed pin of type 1, subtype 1 (Chogray IX, kurgan 1, grave 11) has been found together with two bronze rectangular, rather protuberant perforated plaques with a puncheon pattern on the pelvis of a juvenile skeleton. The location of crook-shaped bronze pins of type 1 – 3 is on the pelvises on the left. A set consisting of 15 crookshaped pins has been found in the grave of an adult male and is considered to be unique. Such items were elements of belt sets or they were found near the elbow of the right hand. Therefore, pins of the Steppe North Caucasus population were accessories of a garment. They were amulets and served as a symbol of protection, peculiar “rosary” worn on the belt or in the right or left hand (or they were worn on the hand like a bracelet). There are no sex and age differences identified so far. Bronze item sets could be also considered as “rosaryamulets”. One set consists of three cast round beads, a spoon-shaped pendant with a hole for suspension and disk pendant-medallions with a loop-ear for suspension (Fig. 65, 7 – 9). Another set consists of a spoon-shaped pendant and a crook-shaped pin of type 1 (Three Brothers). A bronze long bead has been found near the hand of a juvenile skeleton at Mu-Sharet-1. These accessories have been found in adult and juvenile graves and they were probably worn on the wrist of the left hand or on the belt from the left side.

Fig. 67. Bronze crook-shaped pins of the Caspian Steppes North Caucasus culture, VMLBII,65: k. 18, g. 5

found near the left shoulder of the dead and can be considered as a part of the set of chest decorations with beads (Fig. 64, 20). Perforated deer teeth have been found on the chest of the adult skeleton at Lola-1.

Rings made of tubular animal bones and bone long beads with a carved pattern have also been found either in sets (10 items at Mu-Sharet-4; 27 and 11 items at Arkhara; 21 items at Tsatsa: k. 7, g. 4) or one ring near the left hand (Arkhara), near the head or around the neck (Mu-Sharet4; Zunda-Tolga-3), near the legs (Arkhara). It is possible that such rings were also accessories and they were used

Belt sets. Ornamentations of belts are not numerous and are represented by bone and bronze plaques. Four bone oval and round perforated plaques, six polished perforated fangs of steppe fox (corsar) and one

19

98

See description of types on pp. 71 and 74.

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE as “rosary-amulets”, or they were worn on the neck or on the hand (Arkhara).

passed through the holes tightening the loop (Usachuk 2001). The legs of the man were tied.

A unique bone button with a mushroom-shaped head has been found near the ankles of a man at Mandjikiny-1. The shaft of the button is decorated with fine ornamentation and the button disk has two perforated holes (Fig. 64, 18). Trace analysis has shown that two small straps were

Sex and age identification has helped describe fashion traditions of the Steppe North Caucasus population of the Caspian Steppes. Various headdress parts of different types were typical for the costume of the Kuma-Manych population of this culture; bronze or silver round rings

Fig. 68. Main types of metal items of the Caspian Steppes North Caucasus culture. Bronze knives: 1 – VMPB,67: k. 4, g. 5; 2 – VMLBI,65: k. 21, g. 12; 3 – VMLBIII,66: k. 12, g. 13; 5 – VMPB,67: k. 16, g. 10. Awl: 4 – Chogray IX: k. 1, g. 1 1 – 4 – bronze

Fig. 69. Stone axes of the Kabarda-Pyatigorie type. 1 – Arkhara: k. 20, g. 2; 2 – Mu-Sharet-1: k. 13, g. 2

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BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES with open ends were predominant decorations in other areas. Headdress parts have been often found in child graves. In three adult male graves a silver round ring with open ends has been uncovered and they are always located on the right (fixed on the band?). Brest decorations have been found very rarely and they were spread only in the Middle Yergueni Hills and in the Kuma-Manych Depression. They are typical for both child and adult outfits. Two belt sets were the details of the dress of small children in the southern areas, i.e. in the Kuma-Manych Depression and the Southern Yergueni Hills. Pins have been uncovered in child and adult graves of the Kuma-Manych Depression, the eastern part of the Stavropol Hills and the Middle Yergueni Hills. Bone rings have been uncovered in the Kuma-Manych Depression and they are the only type of decorations of Steppe North Caucasus population in the Arkhara burial ground in the Middle Yergueni Hills.

sedge and reed mace were used for braiding. Judging by the width of three mats, which is 80-90 cm, it can be suggested that it was made with the help of very primitive textile devices such as a rectangular frame 90 cm wide. By intertwining fibers the length of the mat could determined by the weaver and could reach 190 cm. A textile red-yellow item (a small bag?) with black stitches has been found at Mu-Sharet-1, kurgan 1, grave 2. CASPIAN STEPPE NORTH CAUCASUS FUNERAL RITE TRADITIONS AND MATERIAL CULTURE The Steppe North Caucasus kurgans and graves have been uncovered in six environmental areas of the Caspian Steppes. Its funeral rite is very traditional for all regional groups. Only some peculiarities are characteristic for specific regions and kurgan burial grounds.

Tools and Weapons Primary kurgans are small. The height of kurgans reached only 1 m or less, the diameter was 13 – 24 m. Soil fillingin over secondary graves was not typical. Kurgans with a large number of Steppe North Caucasus graves are few in numbers. Primary graves are predominant. Secondary graves were added to old kurgans. The population of this culture built its own kurgans very seldom. Ritual places are not typical.

There is less information about items, which were in use in everyday life of the Steppe North Caucasus population. A few types of tools and weapons made of stone, bone and metal have been uncovered. Stone items are represented by a pestle, three rectifiers for the arrow shaft (Fig. 57, 7), one arrow head with a triangular bottom (Fig. 60, 9), two small flint knifeshaped chips (Fig. 57, 8), small slabs, a flint flake. Only one stone axe has been uncovered (Arkhara, kurgan 18, grave 2) (Fig. 69, 1). It has a polished surface, there is a small rib at the front of the butt. The more exquisite axes have been found on the Kalmykia steppes. The axe from the Middle Bronze Age kurgan Mu-Sharet-1 is ornamented with a carved pattern (Fig. 69, 2).20

The main form of the grave is a narrow, long, rectangular and rather shallow pit. Pits with a special construction – shoulders – have been uncovered only in the KumaManych Depression and in the Southern Yergueni Hills. Other types of the pit grave have not been recorded. The interior decoration of the funeral pit includes plant mats on the bottom, which were used for decoration of the walls and the ceiling. Sometimes the walls were reinforced by wooden constructions in the form of a fence or a box. A pillow stuffed with steppe herbs or cut plants was placed under the skull of the dead. Composite wooden constructions have been uncovered as well. It is possible that the body of a wagon or wooden “doors” of dwellings were used to roof the grave.

There are four bronze stem-awls rectangular in the crosssection obtained from the Steppe North Caucasus graves. They are of two types: short (up to 3 cm) (Fig. 68, 3) and long (up to 16 cm). Four bronze double-edged knives have been found. Two items are of type 2 according to the Gak knife classification (2005): with sloping shoulders and a narrow leaf-shaped sharpened blade (Fig. 68, 1, 4). Two other knives with a pentagonal blade with a sharpened point, steep shoulders and a short shaft correspond to type 4 according to the Gak knife classification (Fig. 68, 2-5). All knives have been recorded in adult graves and they have been found near their shoulders.

Skeletons were lying extended on the back with the extended hands. Very seldom and only in the KumaManych Depression and in the Southern Yergueni Hills the dead could be placed flexed on the side or extended on the stomach. Eastern orientation is predominant in both primary and secondary graves, though other orientations were used as well. The tradition of colouring the dead with ochre is typical for this group.

Bone items which were not ornamentations are represented by very well polished tubes.

The tradition of collective graves (two children, two juveniles) is an exception. Primary graves could be double; one triple grave has been uncovered.

Textile Textile plant mat has been uncovered at Zunda-Tolga-3, kurgan 1, grave 11. It was made of gramineous plants, St. John’s wort and Artemisia. Leaves and stems of reed,

Grave offerings are few and were placed into both child and adult burials. As a whole, they are represented equally across all regional groups. However, some differences could be identified.

20 The axe comes not from the kurgan but from the ritual place under kurgan mound. Therefore, the cultural attribution is difficult.

100

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE characteristics can be defined for small Steppe North Caucasus clusters in large kurgan burial grounds. Therefore we can suggest that kurgans and graves of such large kurgan burial grounds were left not by one but by several groups of population. Such groups were, probably, not related by blood.

Ceramics were placed into the Steppe North Caucasus graves very seldom and were predominant in child graves. It is possible that tableware was made by craftsmen exclusively for the need of small groups (families, a group of families). Practically each pot represents an independent type. Therefore kitchen and packing pottery – large earthenware pots - are widely represented in many cultures of the neighbouring areas. A special type of a Steppe North Caucasus ritual incense burner has been singled out, i.e. a low round bowl without a dividing section, placed on a round pedestal surrounded by four or six round legs; or on a rectangular pedestal. The main pattern of the decoration is double triangles.

COMPARATIVE MATERIAL Analysis of the funeral rite and “ethnographic” elements of the clothes confirms the statement put forward by V. Safronov, according to which a specific cultural group is behind such traditions (Safronov 1974). A tradition of graves in the form of a narrow rectangular pit is a typical feature of the population of the North Caucasus culture of the Bronze Age. The same type of the funeral pit is characteristic for the Steppe population. Numerous cultural parallels have helped identify possible regions, from which alien groups could have arrived in the steppe areas and with whom those newcomers could have had relationship. The closest groups of the North Caucasus population were living in the Kuban River basin as well as in the Stavropol area (Gey 1999 a).

The Steppe North Caucasus population is characterized by numerous ornamentation of “ethnographic” adult and child headdress pieces, the front part of the clothes, child belts and amulets-rosaries. Large and small round temple rings often made of silver are typical for this group. They are often found with other small decorative items used for ornamentation of a cap or a band. Such headdress was characteristic for the southern groups. Headdress decorations used by groups from other areas are simpler and are represented by temple rings. A special male forehead band decorated by a silver round ring fixed on the right side has been found. There are numerous beads and typical North Caucasus plaques-umbos, decorating the front part of the clothes. Only child belt sets have been uncovered and they consisted of plaques, beads and perforated animal fangs. Such decorations were also predominant in the southern regions. Accessories are represented by pins. Bone hammer-headed pins of type 1 and 3 have not been found; pins of type 2 and 4 as well as bronze hammer-headed pins of type 1 subtype 1 and crook-shaped pins of type 1 – 3 have been found seldom. Both bone and bronze pins were found with round or rectangular bronze plaques and with other types of pendants. There were 15 crook-shaped bronze pins with blunt ends in one grave. They could be used as trade/exchange items (Gak 2005: 90). One bone button has been uncovered. Bone rings and long beads is the only known type of decorations found in the Steppe North Caucasus groups of the Middle Yergueni Hills.

The Stavropol Region. The following funeral traditions are typical for the population of the northeastern Stavropol region. They buried their relatives in narrow long pits, roofed by wooden logs and plant mats. The position of the dead was extended on the back, orientation was to the east, and western orientation was also used. Ochre was used to colour the dead and the bottom of the pit. Funeral offerings include numerous details of the clothes decoration, i.e. bone fish-shaped pendants and rings; a silver temple ring with open ends (decorations of a forehead band); flat-bottomed vessels with an angular middle part, braziers made of fragments of large earthenware pots; and clay models of wagons. The Central Stavropol Region was also occupied by the North Caucasus population. Variations in the funeral rite indicate that North Caucasus groups lived across the entire Stavropol Hills for a long time. Some of kurgans were left behind by the Early North Caucasus population, i.e. Svetlogradsk and Spasskoye burial grounds (Andreeva and Novikova 2001). Groups of this local area built kurgans with a stone mound and a cromlech (Andreeva 1986; Derzhavin 1991). In the subsequent period North Caucasus population built a lot of primary mounds (more than 40), less frequently, the same population added their graves to the Yamnaya or North Caucasus kurgans (Derzhavin 1991).

Tools and weapons are found very seldom. Finds include a stone axe, short rectangular stems-awls, very often with decorations. Such items were in use among the population of many cultures. Therefore, main items of grave offerings as well as their distribution across the Caspian Steppes show that different small Steppe North Caucasus groups exploited this region practically at the same time. This correlates with the uniformity of funeral rituals. Variations in the so called “ethnographic” elements of the clothes allow us to suggest that the population of this culture was represented by several independent groups (family groups), the origin of which could be linked to different regions of the North Caucasus. Kurgans and graves of the same burial ground, as a rule, are characterized by the funeral ritual and grave offerings of the same type. However, special funeral

The main ritual feature is the type of a burial pit. This group built pits with shoulders or batters, or narrow long rectangular pits. Burials were roofed with timber; edges were furnished with small flat slabs forming a border. The bottom of the pit was covered by ochre and ash. Composite wooden constructions made of vertical and horizontal logs have also been found (Spasskoye, kurgan 5, grave 5). Both positions of the body, i.e. extended on the back and flexed on the back, were used. Andreeva believes that the flexed position on the back was linked 101

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES for the Caspian Steppes. Pendants with a long straight stem with a round head at the end; flat pendants rectangular in the cross-section decorated by cord imitation were spread in the Stavropol region (Gak 2005: 100).

with the Yamnaya population rite (Andreeva and Novikova 2001). Eastern orientation of the dead was predominant; northeastern, southeastern and western orientation was also used. Ochre was used to colour the legs of the dead. Collective graves with different positions of the dead have been uncovered. Another funeral rite consisted in placing dog, sheep and cow bones into the graves.

North Caucasus groups of the Central Stavropol region were located along banks of steppe rivers. Probably these groups were mediators between three regions, i.e. the Caspian Steppes, the Upper Kuban area and the foothills of the Central North Caucasus Piedmont area.

A specific feature of the funeral rite are grave offerings placed in every second grave. A shape of vessels is various and vessels are represented by different types. The Steppe North Caucasus population also used different types of pots. Decoration pattern is almost the same for both regions, i.e. impressions of a round stick made at the lower part of the pots; fingernail marks forming a horizontal herring-bone pattern decorated the entire body of the vessel. Fragments of large earthenware pots decorated by cord impressions which formed triangles and holes made with a stick were used as braziers. Incense burners in the form of a low round bowl without a dividing section, on a pedestal in the form of four legs arranged in a circle (Veselaya Roscha) are very similar to the incense burners from the Caspian Steppe. They are decorated with particular pattern formed by one, double and triple cord impressions arranged in parallel lines, hatched triangles and rhombus. More seldom a tooth-like stamp was used (Derzhavin 1991. Fig.4: 1-4). Therefore ordinary tableware and kitchen pots were made using individual design, ritual incense burners were made according to specific standards. Typological similarity of incense burners obtained from the North Caucasus graves of both the Caspian Steppes and the Central Stavropol region helps us come to the conclusion that the population groups of the two regions were not only synchronous but that they interacted with each other. Kindred relationship was developed through this interaction as well as through the economic system, the trade/exchange network and population movements from the Central Stavropol region to the Caspian Steppes.

The Central North Caucasus Piedmont and KabardaPyatigorie areas located in the Mineralniye Vody area, Stavropol Hills and steppe areas of Kabarda. This area was also exploited by the North Caucasus population, whose funeral rite differed from the rite discussed above. Main forms of the funeral construction included a stone box and a pit with shoulders (Nechitaylo 1978). In the Kabarda-Balkaria region a kurgan was made in the form of a stone mound surrounded by a stone cromlech (Chechenov 1984; Betrozov and Nagoev 1984). Rectangular pits were often filled up with cobble-stones. Primary graves made in pits or burials on the surface of the earth beneath a mound with white pebbles under it date to the Early North Caucasus culture. The position of the dead in such graves was flexed on the right side or extended on the back. Orientation was to the south. Ochre was used for skeleton decoration. Rectangular pits with the dead placed extended or flexed on the back date to the late period of this culture. Stone pavement disappeared. The position of the dead in the collective graves, i.e. extended or flexed on the back, implies that both traditions were synchronous. Eastern orientation of the dead was predominant but western orientation was used as well. Colouring of the feet of the dead by ochre is a characteristic feature of the funeral rite. Presumably, kurgans were family cemeteries. Grave offerings include different types of clay flatbottom vessels: biconical pots, pots with concave walls with one or two handles; global-shaped vessels with a large neck richly decorated with a stamp pattern. As in the case with the Caspian Steppes it is impossible to define specific types of pottery, which was probably made by small family groups individually. Bronze double edge knife-daggers and awls, bronze crook-shaped, hammer-headed, volute-shaped pins, pendants, beads, spiral bracelets; sets of belts; stone axes of the KabardaPyatigorsk type are typical for this group. Very often ornamentations were combined in a set, i.e. two crookshaped pins and one hammer-headed pin (Cheguem II, kurgan 35); bronze tubes and semi-spherical plaques (Cheguem II, kurgan 34); bronze tubes, beads, semispherical plaques (Cheguem II, kurgan 23) (Betrozov and Nagoev 1984; Miziev 1984). Numerous bronze and stone beads, metal two-spiral disks, corded pendants and medallion-pendants were used as headdress decorations (Cheguem II, kurgan 35). Therefore there were more types of decoration used by the North Caucasus population of the Kabarda-Balkaria region and they were used in the so-called “ethnographic” clothes differently.

The spreading of a similar type of ornamentation, i.e. bone hammer-headed and stick-shaped pins with a mushroom-shaped head, rings and long beads were in use by both regional groups. They decorated their clothes. Round rings with open ends were used to decorate male headdress (a band). Such rings were placed on the right side of the item. Faience, cornelian beads, bronze medallions with cord relief ornamentation and plaques, disks with a hole in the centre used as decorations by the North Caucasus population imply that such graves date to the subsequent period. Such ornamentation items have not been uncovered in the Steppe North Caucasus graves of the Caspian Steppes. Bronze corded pendants were used by the Caspian Steppe population to decorate only headdress. Stavropol groups of the North Caucasus culture used them as parts of necklaces (Veselaya Roscha I), to embroider the edge of the clothes or a shroud near the shin as well as parts of child headdress (Korenevsky, Petrenko 1989). Such corded pendants are of different types as well. A simple stem-pendant in the form of a single twisted cord with a round head at the end is typical 102

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE Early, the Middle and the Late groups (1978). Trifonov has analyzed this culture sites as well (1991 a).

Some types of ornamentation though (corded pendants and crook-shaped pins) were similar to the types of decorations spread among Steppe North Caucasus groups.

The earliest group is the most important for comparative analyses. The population of this group built kurgans in flood plains. Kurgans are characterized by stone constructions such as stone mounds, stone belts made of pebbles, limestone, shell rocks and sandstone, stone cromlechs, round ditches. Such constructions have not been found in North Caucasus kurgans of the Caspian Steppes. However, on the northern edges of the Upper Kuban River region, which were located very close to the open steppes, only earth mounds of this culture have been uncovered. The North Caucasus population used earlier kurgans as well. Primary kurgans are small, the average diameter is 15 – 16 m, and the height is 0.7 m. The main type of the grave is a very narrow pit and a pit with shoulders. The position of the dead is extended on the back; the orientation is to the west. The interior of grave pits include timber, thick wooden or stone roofings, which could be made of logs, poles, cane, stone slabs and pebble. A plant mat was placed on the bottom of the pit (Nechitaylo 1978). Few collective burials have been recorded. Ochre was used to colour the skeleton.

The Kavminvody North Caucasus group’s funeral rite is characterized by primary kurgans with secondary graves arranged in a circle; narrow pits or pits with shoulders as well as wooden frames made of blocks or timber placed inside the graves. Stone constructions have been also uncovered. A plant mat was placed on the grave bottom; a pillow was placed under the head of the dead. Graves with one dead were common, though double graves with the position of the dead extended or flexed on the back also existed (Konstantinovskoye plateau; Nezhinsky) (Korenevsky 1990). Half of burials have yielded grave offerings. There was no tradition of making vessels of the same type, all pots are individual. Only packing pottery was of the same type spread in many regions. Ritual braziers were made of large earthenware pots, decorated by cord impressions arranged in a triangle pattern as well as by tube holes and herring-bone impressions. A fragment of an incense burner in the form of a large bowl supported by four round legs (Nezhinsky II, kurgan 4) is very similar to the Early North Caucasus ritual vessels from the North Caucasus Stavropol graves (Korenevsky 1990: Fig. 26 – 3).

Half of the graves possess grave offerings. They include clay pots of various types, such as flat bottom mugs, small bowls, jars; bone pins, tubes and beads; metal awls, sledgehammers, pendants, beads; stone, whetstones, anvils, axes of the Kabarda-Pyatigorie type, flint arrow heads and scrapers. Specific types of ornamentation were used to decorate headdress items in the form of textile or leather bands or caps. Sets consisted of three, more seldom, two bronze rings turned into 1.5 turns that could be located on the right and on the left side of the band. A set consisting of 7 rings has also been uncovered. Two rings with open ends could be fixed behind the headdress. Sometimes two types of rings could be used in one set or one ring with open ends could decorate the headdress on the right side.

According to the use of “ethnographic” elements of the clothes, the Kavminvody group is not identical to the Steppe North Caucasus population. Similar headdress decoration was very popular and it included bronze temple round rings of 1.5 turns. From one to three rings could be placed on the right and on the left side of the band of a female or child headdress. Single silver round rings with open ends often decorated male headdress. Women necklaces could be made of mother-of-pearl, bronze, bone or cornelian beads, bronze rings, diskmedallions, stem-pendants and plaques. Women could often wear hand bracelets made of bronze stem-pendants, beads, spirals and segments; and men and child could wear leg bracelets made of bronze stem-pendants, cord and drop-shaped pendants. Bronze hammer-headed and crook-shaped pins were located near the elbow. The main element of the unisex belt sets were long chains, which consisted of bronze parts fixed on the leather cord with a crook-shaped pin at the end. Bronze cast bulging plaques with two holes as well as trapezium cast plaques could be parts of the belt. Such ornamentations have not been recorded among decorations of the Caspian Steppes North Caucasus groups.

Numerous bronze pendant-medallions, rings and zoomorphic pendants, barrel-shaped beads, spoon-shaped and double-disk pendants could decorate the front part of the clothes. Such ornamentation could be also used as details of bracelets or details of the embroidery pattern located on the sleeves of a garment. Bronze cord pendants and stem-pendants from 7 to 10 have been found near the hips of the dead. Ornamentations could include a long-flap cloth or details of a cord, with the help of which legs of the skeleton were tied at the knees (Suvorovsky, kurgan 17, grave 15). Bronze crook-shaped pins found with the plaque as well as multi-hammerheaded pins could be details of belt-sets (Suvorovsky). Mother-of-pearl and bronze beads could be used in adult belt sets and bone long tubes could decorate child belts.

Stone axes of the Kabarda-Pyatigorsk type are characteristic for these North Caucasus groups. Bronze knives and awls, clay models of wagons and wheels have also been found (Korenevsky 1990; Berezin, Korenevsky 2002).

Some details of the clothes are similar to those recorded for the Caspian Steppes North Caucasus items, i.e. bronze stems rectangular in the cross-section found with ornamentation located near the hands; a bronze round ring with open ends as a decoration of a head band;

The Kuban River Region. Nechitaylo has analyzed the North Caucasus culture of the Upper Kuban River region and has defined three groups within this culture, i.e. the 103

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES regional groups was different. This was caused by difference in resources, exploited lands as well as interaction with the local network. Some geographically isolated groups could be only mediators, others were participants of migrations. This is confirmed by the socalled “ethnographic” details of the clothes (belt sets with bronze crook-shaped pins; single bronze and silver temple rings with open ends as well as the decoration of men’s headdress of the North Caucasus population, whose graves were located far from each other in different regions). Often, types of decoration were very similar, but their use for ornamentation of local clothes was different. For example, there were many types of headdress and breast ornamentation sets consisting of small rings and pendants made of metal, bone, shell; child belt sets were made of bone amulets; amulet-rosaries consisted of bronze crook-shaped pins and pendants found in the Steppe North Caucasus graves. Standard ethnographic clothes of the Central North Caucasus are decorated by collars made of numerous beads and pendants; bracelets and belts; numerous temple rings is the main ornamentation of the headdress. Pins, bracelets, plaques, some types of medallions are main details of the ethno-local clothes (Korenevsky 1984; 1990). Some types of utensils, weapons and decorations are characteristic for the entire “North Caucasus cultural horizon” dating to the Middle Bronze Age and were used by other cultures of the North Caucasus and the neighbouring regions. There are some similar finds in the composition of grave offerings, i.e. sets of axes of the Kabarda-Pyatigorie type, bone rings and pestles or an anvil were found both on the Caspian Steppes (Arkhara, kurgan 18, grave 2) and on the North Caucasus (Nezhinskaya I, kurgan 1, grave 6; Konstantinovskaya, kurgan 1, grave 2) (Korenevsky 1990: 78).

bronze pins found with the puncheon bronze plaque. But in general there were few coincidences in the so-called “ethnographic” North Caucasus clothes of the Caspian Steppes and the Kuban River region. The clay incense burner in the form of a low bowl supported by four round legs and with two holes on the body at Khatazhukhaevskaya (Popova 1957; Trifonov 1991 a) is very similar to incense burners obtained from North Caucasus graves of the Caspian Steppes. The Steppe Trans-Kuban River basin. The Early North Caucasus population of this region built large rectangular pits or pits with a butter. The position of the dead is extended on the back; the orientation is to the east. Western ornamentation of the dead and stone constructions under kurgans (main features of the Upper Kuban River North Caucasus groups) is not typical. Grave offerings included bronze knives and an awl with a stop; flint items (Bolshoy Petropavlovsky). The subsequent North Caucasus population placed their dead extended on the back into narrow pits or pits with butters. Orientation of the dead is to the east or to the northeast. Numerous bronze hammer-headed pins, medallions, cord and glass pendants decorated with a relief cord pattern, knives and awls are among grave offerings. Necklaces consist of bone tubes and fish teeth (Gey and Kamenetsky 1986). OVERALL CULTURAL CONTEXT The Steppe North Caucasus group of the Caspian Steppes looks very homogeneous. Comparative analyses of this group with the North Caucasus groups of the Central North Caucasus Piedmont region, the Stavropol region and the Kuban River region show that the steppe groups were less impressive. It is possible that several small groups of the North Caucasus population were exploiting pastures located to the north far from the homeland of this culture. These groups, though, were linked with the main territory by their origin and by participation in the migration movement. Probably it was not a one-time penetration of some pastoral groups, but a long process of seasonal infiltration of separate families from different regions of the steppe and foothill regions of the North Caucasus. Such movements were caused by specific economic and environment reasons. This penetration to the north was facilitated by existing routes located along river systems. Such routes formed a network of eastwestern and northsouthern areas.

Mapping of crook-shaped pins shows the distribution of such items in the graves of different cultures in the Central North Caucasus Piedmont region. Such pins were in use for a long time. The main area of distribution of bronze hammer-headed pins included the Central North Caucasus Piedmont region as well. At the same time such pins are characteristic for many other cultures located in the neighbouring areas. Main types of pendant-beads and plaques worn on the clothes as well as axes of the Kabarda-Pyatigorie type were the same in the Central Caucasus region. Pendants in the form of a medallion, a double spiral, a spoon, and round-plaque medallions are main details of North Caucasus population cloth. It is important to note that many types of bronze ornamentation appeared in the Steppe Early Catacomb graves, though such ornamentation was not very well elaborated. It is possible that the Steppe North Caucasus population penetrated to the steppe at the time when numerous standards of bronze items were not introduced yet. Such bronze ornamentation dated to the second stage of the North Caucasus culture (Miziev 1984).

The Steppe North Caucasus groups of the Caspian steppes, the Central-Stavropol region, the Upper Kuban region, the Kavminvody region, the Trans-Kuban region differed from each other in their funeral rites and offerings. Some groups, though, could look similar as they had graves made in narrow pits, with skeletons lying extended on the back, uncovered in the Upper Chelbas River area in the Kuban region, Kalmykia steppes and the Stavropol region as well (Gey 2000). The origin of such groups could be the same, but subsequent development of

Important differences between regional North Caucasus groups were based on their geographical isolation as well as differences in chronology. Foothills and the Uplands 104

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE of the North Caucasus were characterized by a different habitat, where environmental areas were exploited by separate groups, i.e. Kuban, Upper Kuban (UstDzheguta), Kabarda-Pyatigorsk, Central-Stavropol and Caspian Steppe groups. Those groups could be linked through economic and social links.

hammer-headed pins with a cigar-shaped stem and bronze pins with a cylindrical stem are indicators of movements of specific groups at the early stage of their existence. Large ring medallions with cord ornamentation and small disks ornamented by concentric pattern mark movements of subsequent population (Trifonov 1991 a).

The presence of Steppe North Caucasus groups on the Caspian Steppes was not long. The spread of early types of ornamentation and the earliest type of incense burners indicates that penetration from the North Caucasus to the steppe took place at the earliest stage of the North Caucasus culture existence. By that time steppe ceramics with cord ornamentation appeared in the North Caucasus graves as well (Markovin 1994). The area of the Early North Caucasus sites was located along the Main Caucasus Ridge, foothills, the Stavropol Hills and stretched as far as steppe areas in the north and the east. Isolated North Caucasus graves on the Caspian Plain marked the northern boundary of this culture population penetration to the steppe. Though an attempt to move further to the north could also take place. One grave of two children buried according to the funeral tradition of the North Caucasus culture has been uncovered at Verbovsky located on the western slopes of the Northern Yergueni Hills. A gold ring turned in 1.5 turns has been found (Shishlina 2007). Some representatives of the North Caucasus population were looking for vacant pastures and they could move to the west lands where they apparently interacted with the local Catacomb population. The aforesaid type of ornamentation and similar use of it for the decoration of clothes mark such routes and indicate that groups, which exploited different regions, could be treated as synchronous. A set of amulets consisting of bronze and bone beads, long spiral tubes made of a bronze strip, a bronze spoon-shaped pendant and a crook-shaped pin have been uncovered near the right hand of a child in an Early Catacomb grave in the Samara River area in Ukraine (Marina 1999: Fig.3). A very similar set of amulets has been found at Three Brothers on the Caspian Steppes in a Steppe North Caucasus grave.

Mobile North Caucasus groups began to exploit not only vacant northern steppe regions but fully occupied southern environmental areas. Physical anthropological analysis of humans confirms that such migrants consisted of different groups of population. A collection of North Caucasus skulls was analyzed by Shevchenko (1986) and by Khokhlov. Both scholars argue that this collection is hypermorphic (Shevchenko 1986: 165). North Caucasus skulls are very similar to Yamnaya ones, but they differ from Catacomb skulls (Shevchenko 1986; Shishlina 2007). These skulls are brachycephalic (broad-headed) and represent mechanical and biological mixture of the two components, i.e. moderately hypermorphic and dolichocephalic hypermorphic components (Shevchenko 1986: 172). A skull of 30 – 40 year old man from Mandjikiny-2: kurgan 7, grave 2 is large, of greater size, with a straight forehead and a protuberant occiput, the face has a strong horizontal profile, the nose is wide and very protuberant. Skulls coming from the Middle Yergueni Hills (Lola-1) and the Kuma-Manych Depression (East Manych) sites differ from each other. Shevchenko defined two groups of different origin (1986: 165). He believed that the origin of one of the group could be linked with the Majkop population (Shevchenko 1986: 166). Khokhlov believes that some male North Caucasus skulls from the Caspian Steppes are similar to Yamnaya Caspian Steppes skulls. They are brachycephalic. In conclusion, it can be noted that several groups are behind the Caspian Steppe North Caucasus population. They penetrated to the north from different geographical regions. Steppe North Caucasus groups formed a part of the so called North Caucasus culture of the Bronze Age.

Appearance of steppe ceramics, i.e. typical East Manych Catacomb pots, in the foothill areas of the Central Caucasus (Cheguem and Kishpek) indicates that such contacts could last for a long time (Betrozov and Nagoev 1984) and that the subsequent steppe population penetrated to the Caucasus.

Early Catacomb Culture The analysis of 190 graves from 133 kurgans helps us establish specific features of the Early Catacomb funeral rite of the Caspian Steppes.

A funeral rite characterized by pits where the dead were placed in an extended position on their back survived in the North Caucasus. Some groups left behind settlements, which indicates that those groups were settled there (Lesgor, Svetlovodskoye, Zolskoye settlements in Kabarda-Balkaria; Zmeyskoye in North Osetia; Alchasta in Ingushetia; Pelagiada in the Stavropol region) (Markovin 1994).

Funeral Rite of the Early Catacomb Culture of the Caspian Steppes Diagnostic features of the funeral rite practiced by the Early Catacomb population are the following: 1) a funeral construction in the form of a catacomb and its construction parts; 2) a predominant position of the dead extended on the back; positions flexed on the back with the turn to the left side; flexed on the left side with the turn to the back; extended on the left side are found as

Trifonov was correct to emphasize that the Early North Caucasus population penetrated to the Caspian Steppes through the Stavropol region (Trifonov 1991 a). Bone 105

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES the stratigraphy, all types of catacombs were used in parallel. The bottom of the entrance pit could be flat, stepped or slopping; it could be connected with the chamber through a passage. H-type catacombs with a rectangular entrance pit and a round chamber have been recorded at VMLBII,65. Only in one case the bottom of the entrance was sloping, with two steps. A-type catacombs have also been uncovered, though they are few in this burial ground.

well. The traditions of using ochre as well as collective graves were also very important. Many scholars believe that the issue of Catacomb cultures is linked to the problem of the catacomb construction origin (Kiyashko A. 1999). A catacomb is an architectural construction consisting of two parts, i.e. an entrance pit and a chamber made in its wall. A passage can link the entrance and the chamber. The entrance can be closed by different types of a screen or by beams. The other constructive parts of the catacomb are steps, the pattern of decoration of the walls and the floor of the chamber.

Three Early Catacomb graves at VMPB,65 are made in H-type catacombs, with a stepped entrance; one burial is made in the A-type catacomb, another is made in the Ttype catacomb. Catacombs of the T-type are predominant at VMLBI,65. Such constructions are characterized by a sloping bottom of the narrow entrance and the oval chamber. Such burials can be both primary and secondary. Catacombs of the H-, G- and A-types have also been uncovered. A round chamber is characteristic for H-type catacombs, which are predominant at VMLBII,66, though catacombs of the T- and A-types have also been found. Half of burial constructions at VMLBIII,66 are H-catacombs, others are T-catacombs, though catacombs of the G-type have also been uncovered. The catacomb entrance can be oval, round, arch-shaped, triangular or rectangular. It is often made in the butt-end of a short wall (T- and A-catacombs) or shifted to the corner (Y-, Ch- or T-catacombs).

The catacomb construction classifications have been proposed by Andreeva (1989) and A. Kiyashko (1999). This paper presents another classification on the basis of correlating the axis of the entrance and the chamber (Shishlina 1997 c). Seven types of catacombs are singled out: ● type H – the axes of the entrance and the chamber are parallel, the entrance is located in the centre of the wall; ● type Ch – the axes of the entrance and the chamber are parallel, the entrance is settled towards the corner of the wall; ● type Y – the axe of the entrance is located at an angle to the axe of the chamber; ● type T – the axe of the entrance is perpendicular to the axe of the chamber, the entrance is located in the centre of the wall; ● type A – axes of the entrance and the chamber coincides with each other; ● type G – the axe of the entrance is perpendicular to the axe of the chamber, the entrance is shifted to the corner of the wall; ● type D – the axes of two chambers and one entrance pit are parallel.

Catacombs of the T-, H- and Y- types have been uncovered at Chograysky and Ostrovnoy (Fig. 70, 2). Sometimes the bottom of the entrance and the bottom of the chamber are located at the same level, in other catacombs the entrance is rectangular, with the sloping or stepped bottom. Catacombs of the T-, Ch-, D- and H-type with a passage have been uncovered at Zunda-Tolga, catacombs of the A- and T-types have been recorded at Baga-Burul (Fig. 71, 1, 7).

The primary approach to the funeral rite examination is to determine all construction parts of catacombs, the position of the dead and their orientation in each burial ground.

The interior decoration of funeral constructions includes wooden screens, plant mats for covering the bottom of both the entrance pit and the chamber. A special pillow stuffed with steppe plants was placed under the skull of the deceased (Zunda-Tolga, Ostrovnoy).

Kuma-Manych Depression Shoulders were built along the longitudinal walls of the entrance pit at Zunda-Tolga-2, kurgan 1, grave 1 (Fig. 70, 1). The bottom of the entrance pit is sloping; the entrance pit is built in the eastern wall. Wooden constructions were placed along the side walls of the entrance pit. A plant mat was placed near the entrance pit; pieces of charcoal were placed over it. The oval entrance was covered by a screen made of nine beams, in front of which a plant mat was placed. The chamber and the entrance are connected by a small sloping passage. The chamber with a vaulted ceiling as well as walls was reinforced by vertically placed twigs. A plant mat was placed on the bottom of the chamber. The rectangular entrance at Zunda-Tolga-3, kurgan 1, grave 9 (Fig. 70, 7) was covered by beams, plant mats were used to cover pit walls. An arch-shaped entrance was built in the southern wall, which led to a passage. The walls of the chamber

There are 108 Early Catacomb graves and 75 kurgans uncovered in the Kuma-Manych Depression. Primary kurgan mounds of the Early Catacomb culture are small, the average diameter is approximately 14 – 20 m and the height is 0.40 – 1.10 m. The additional soil filling-in overlies secondary graves. At Zunda-Tolga-2, kurgan 1 a semi-round ditch has been uncovered. Horse bones have been found on its bottom. Primary graves are located in the centre. Secondary graves can be located in the southern part of the mound, in the northern or in the western parts. The burial constructions are catacombs of different types. Catacomb of T-, Ch-, H-, G- as well as A-types have been uncovered at VMLBI,65 (Fig. 72, 3). According to 106

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE

Fig. 70. Early Catacomb graves of the KumaManych Depression. 1 – Zunda-Tolga-2: k. 1, g. 1; 2 – Ostrovnoy: k. 3, g. 26; Zunda-Tolga-3: k. 1, g. 9: 3 – funnel, 4 – a piece of ocher, 5 – the fragments of wooden fence, 6 – beads, 7 – plan of the grave 3 – clay; 6 – bone

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Fig. 71. Early Catacomb graves of the Kuma-Manych Depression. Baga-Burul: k. 5, g .6: 1 – plan of the grave, 2 – vessel; VMLBI,66: k. 41, g. 3: 3 – plan of the grave, 4 – braziers; Baga-Burul: k.5, g. 19: 7 – plan of the grave, 5 – pendant; VMLBI,66: 6 – k. 9, g. 6; 8 – k. 3, g. 2

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Fig. 72. Early Catacomb graves of the Kuma-Manych Depression. VMLBII,66: k. 67, g. 5: 1 – plan, 2 – braziers; 3 – VMPB,65: k. 29, g. 3; VMLBII,66: k. 22, g. 2: 5 – plan of the grave, 8 – braziers; 6 – VMLBII,66: k. 19, g. 8; VMLBI,66: k. 21, g. 2: 4 – spindle wheel, 7 – plan of the grave; 9 –Zunda-Tolga-2: k. 2, g. 5; 10 – Chograysky IV: k. 5, g. 1 2, 8 – clay; 4 – bone

back; the legs are oriented to the exit (Fig. 71, 1; 72, 3). The position of the dead extended on the back has also been identified. Very seldom such position is recorded in T-catacombs. Arms could be placed flexed at the elbow, with palms on the pelvis; the left arm extended, the right arm flexed, the palm on the pelvis.

were reinforced by thick twigs; a mat made of reed stems was placed on the bottom. It was sprinkled with ochre. A composite construction was placed on the bottom of the chamber at Baga-Burul, kurgan 5, grave 19. It was made of wood and plants. A mat made of twisted plant leaves, an animal skin or a leather coverlet was placed on the bottom of the chamber in burial 6 of the same kurgan. The extended position of the dead on the back, with the arms located along the body, is predominant. A slightly flexed position on the back with the extended arms has also been recorded. All deceased were placed parallel to the exit of the chamber. The predominant position of the dead in the A-type catacomb is slightly flexed on the

The stratigraphic position of catacombs of different types with a different position of the dead indicates that all types were synchronous. The positions of the dead extended on the side (ZundaTolga-2) (Fig. 70, 1), flexed on the left side (Ostrovnoy),

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BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES Southern Yergueni Hills

flexed on the back, semi-sitting, on the left side with the turn to the back (Chograysky, East Manych, Baga-Burul) have also been identified. In some collective graves the dead were placed in different positions, i.e. one dead was extended on the back, another dead was flexed on the back (Chograysky).

The Early Catacomb group of the Southern Yergueni Hills consists of 25 graves obtained from 16 kurgans. This group is characterized by almost identical funeral rites. Kurgan mounds are not large, the average diameter is around 10 – 18 m and the height is 0.5 – 0.6 m (Fig. 73, 1; 74, 1; 75, 1). Shallow ditches are located around the kurgans. Ritual places were left under the mound. They consist of clay pots and braziers as well as bones of domesticated animals. Secondary graves are accompanied by soil filling-in that enlarged the mound. One or two, more rarely, three secondary graves were added into primary Early Catacomb kurgans. Primary graves are located in the centre. The arrangement of secondary graves in a circle indicates that the Early Catacomb population used the same kurgans as an independent family necropolis (Fig. 73, 1; 74, 1).

The placement of a plant pillow under the skull of the skeleton caused the shift of the skull in some cases. Cenotaphs as well as a large number of child graves is a specific feature of the Early Catacomb culture of the Kuma-Manych Depression (Fig. 70, 2). Different types of orientation of the deceased are singled out for burial grounds. At VMLBI,65 and VMLBIII, 66 skeletons were oriented to the east in primary graves and to the south and north in secondary graves. At VMPB,65 all dead were oriented to the east. The predominant orientation at VMLBI,66 was to the east, the southern orientation was identified only in one grave made in a Tcatacomb. At Chograysky the eastern orientation is predominant; at Zunda-Tolga all dead were oriented to the southeast.

Main constructions of burials are catacombs of T-, H-, Yand A-types. Classical T-type catacombs with a sloping or stepped entrance and a passage predominate. The entrance to the chamber can be round, rectangular or arch-shaped. It is located in a small wall of the entrance (catacombs of the T- and A-type), it could be shifted to the corner (G- and Y- catacombs) or it could be located along the long wall (H-type). Burials made in different types of catacomb construction can be uncovered under one kurgan mound.

Ochre is one of the key characteristic of the funeral rite. It was used to colour the skull and the legs. Collective graves is a typical feature of Early Catacomb graves of the Kuma-Manych Depression, but they have been uncovered only in some burial grounds. Most graves are double burials, i.e. graves of two juveniles, an adult and a child, two adults. In a triple grave one adult and two children were buried. Skeletons were lying extended on the back, flexed on the left side, on the back with the turn to the left side, flexed on the back. This implies different “canons” of the position of the dead used in parallel.

The interior decoration of funeral constructions include wooden screens or plant mats, which were used to close the entrance to the chamber as well as pillows stuffed with steppe plants (table 6) placed under the skull of the dead.

Table 6 . Plants obtained from the pillow under the skull of the Early Catacomb dead of the Caspian Steppes Burial ground, kurgan, grave Peschany-V: k. 1, g. 1 Peschany-V: k. 1, g. 5 Peschany-V: k. 2, g. 3, skeleton 3 Peschany-V: k. 2, g. 3, skeleton 2 Peschany-V: k. 3, g. 1 Peschany-V: k. 3, g. 2 Peschany-V: k. 5, g.2, child Peschany-V: k. 5, g.6 Temrta-I: k. 1, g. 4 Temrta-V: k. 1, g. 2 Zunda-Tolga-2: k. 1, g. 1 Mandjikiny-2: k. 11, g. 6 Mandjikiny -2: k. 11, g. 7 Mandjikiny -2: k. 37, g. 1 Mandjikiny -2: k. 54, g. 5 Mandjikiny -1: k. 2, g. 1 Mandjikiny -1: k. 5, g. 1

Pollen and phytoliths No pollen Concentration of non-identified pollen, early ephemeras Pollen of Varia in small quantity Pollen of Varia in small quantity No pollen Artemisia, Poaceae, Ranunculaceae, Cannabis, spores of Polypodiaceae in small quantity Few pollen of Pinus Solvestris, Betula, Alnus, Artemisia, Ephedra, Chenopodiaceae, Poaceae, Herbetum mixtum Pinus Solvestris, single pollen grains of Betula and Quecus robur, pollen of Artemisia, Asteraceae, Chenopodiaceae, few pollen of Ephedra, Brassicaseae, Cariophyllaceae, Fabaceae, Poaceae No pollen Few pollen of Chenopodiaceae, Artemisia, Asteraceae, Zimonium Abundance pf pollen of Varia, Artemisia, Ephedra, Asteraceae, Chenopodiaceae, Rumex, Lamiaceae No pollen No pollen No pollen, phytoliths of Artemisia Pollen of Chenopodiaceae, more seldom, pollen of Poaceae, Artemisia, Asteraceae, nonidentified pollen of Varia No pollen No pollen

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Fig. 73. Early Catacomb graves of the Southern Yergueni Hills. Mandjikiny-2, k.54. 1 – the plan of kurgan and its central profile; plans of graves: 2 – g.5, 3 – g.6; 4 – g.3; grave offerings: g.5: 7 – perforator, 6 – beads, 9 – long beads; g.6: 5 – bead, 8 – hammerhedaed pin 5,6 – bronze; 7-9 – bone

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Fig. 74. Early Catacomb graves of the Southern Yergueni Hills. Mandjikiy-2, k. 37. 1 – plan of the kurgan and its central and western profile; plans of the graves: 2 – g. 3, 3 – g. 4; 4 – g. 1; grave offerings g. 1: 5 – cord pendants, 6 – braziers 5 – bronze; 6 – clay

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Fig. 75. Early Catacomb graves of the Southern Yergueni Hills. Mandjikiny-2, k. 45: 1 – plan of the kurgan and its central profile, 3 – vessel under the mound, g. 5: 2 – braziers, 5 – plan; k. 42, g. 4: 4 – plan, 6 – braziers 2, 3, 6 – clay

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Fig. 76. Early Catacomb graves of the Southern Yergueni Hills. Mandjikiny-1: k. 14, g. 6: 1 – plan, 2 – fragments of mat, 4 – pin, 5 – k. 2, g. 1; k. 2, g. 2: 3 – vessel, 6 – plan of the grave 2 – plant fibers; 3 – clay; 4 – bone

114

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE One of typical features of the rite is location of the skull near the skeleton. We believe that a special high pillow stuffed with steppe plants was placed under the head of the dead, when plants decayed the skull was displaced. The rite of wrapping the legs was also used. Burials with dismembered skeletons have also been uncovered (Mandjikiny-1 and 2) (Fig. 75, 5) as well as one cenotaph (Mandjikiny-1, kurgan 12).

At Mandjikiny-1, kurgan 14, grave 6, the entrance to the chamber was closed by beams and a woven plant mat. Another plant mat was used to cover the entrance of the chamber (Fig. 76, 2). The chamber walls were reinforced by wooden frames made of twigs of Salix of 1 – 2 years old. It could be a side of a wagon. Leaves of reed mace were placed on the bottom of the chamber. Wood identification is presented at Table 7.

The eastern orientation of the dead is predominant, southern and more seldom northern orientations were used as well. Ochre was not used in all burials and, if so it was used only for covering skeletons or the bottom of the grave.

Table 7. Wood identification. Early Catacomb culture of the Caspian Steppes. Burial ground, kurgan, grave Mandjikiny-1: k. 14, g. 6 Mandjikiny-2: k. 37, g. 1 Mandjikiny-2: k. 37, g. 4 Peschany-V: k. 1, g. 1 Peschany-V, k. 1, g. 5 Peschany-V: k. 2, g. 2 Peschany-V: k. 2, g. 3 Peschany-V: k. 4, g. 1 Peschany-V: k. 5, g. 2 Peschany-V: k. 5, g. 3 Peschany-V: k. 5, g. 4 Peschany-V: k. 5, g. 6 Temrta-1: k. 2, g. 9, bead Temrta-1: k. 2, g. 9, charcoal in the incense burner Temrta-1: k. 2, g. 3 Temrta-1: k. 1, g. 3, wood on the skeleton Temrta-1: k. 1, g. 3, wood on the skeleton Temrta-1: k. 1, g. 3, wood in the chamber Temrta-1: k. 1, g. 2, wood from the entrance pit Temrta-1: k. 1, g. 2, under the skeleton Temrta-1: k. 1, g. 4, wood from the entrance pit Temrta-1: k. 1, g. 4, wood on the mat

Wood Salix Fraxinus Fraxinus Quercus sp. Quercus sp. Ulmus sp. Ulmus sp. Fraxinus excelsior Fraxinus excelsior, Tilia Salix sp. Fraxinus excelsior Fraxinus excelsior Salix Salix

A large number of child and juvenile graves are very typical for the Southern Yergueni Hills. Three double graves of an adult and a juvenile, a woman and an unborn child, and two adults have been uncovered. Eastern Part of the Stavropol Hills In the Eastern part of the Stavropol Hills 17 graves from 15 kurgans of the Early Catacomb culture have been uncovered. Mounds of kurgans are small and often overlie only one grave. Filling-in was used over secondary graves, which were placed in the eastern part of the kurgan.

Salix Salix

The main form of the burial construction of this local group is a T-type catacomb with a narrow rectangular, round or oval entrance, with a sloping bottom and a large chamber. The passage linked the entrance and the chamber (Fig. 77; 78). The D-catacomb with two chambers and catacombs of the G- and Y-types have also been uncovered. T-catacombs are often primary graves, though primary burials in the H-catacombs have also been found (Andreeva, Petrenko 1998: 20). The entrance to the chamber is located in one of the short wall (Tcatacomb) or could be moved to the corner (G-catacomb). The entrance in the H-catacomb was built in the long wall.

Fraxinus Ulmus Fraxinus Ulmus Fraxinus Salix

The rectangular entrance of the T-catacomb at Mandjikiny-2, kurgan 37, grave 3, had a stepped bottom, an arch-shaped entrance was closed by a wooden screen, the entrance and the oval chamber were linked by a passage, and a plant mat was placed on the bottom of the chamber.

The interior decoration of funeral constructions include screens made of wooden planks, used to close the entrance as well as plant mats placed on the steps and bottoms. Chambers could be reinforced with wooden constructions.

The position of the deceased was extended on the back with extended arms. At Shared, kurgan 2, the dead in the primary grave was lying flexed on the back, the dead in the secondary grave was lying extended on the back. Almost all dead persons were lying parallel to the exit of the chamber. The position of the legs oriented to the exit has been rarely recorded (Mandjikiny). Hence, the funeral rite of the local Early Catacomb population, exploiting the Southern Yergueni Hills, is characterized by several canons, behind which several family groups could be identified.

The predominant position of the dead was extended on the back with the extended arms, a flexed position on the back, dismembered skeletons have also been uncovered (Fig. 78, 4). The predominant orientation of the dead is eastern (southeastern and northeastern), less frequently, the dead was oriented to the northwest and southwest. The local Early Catacomb group used ochre to colour feet, skulls or the entire skeleton, sometimes a piece of mineral was placed on the bottom of the pit. Collective 115

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 77. Early Catacomb graves of the eastern part of the Stavropol Hills. Chogray VIII, k. 3, g. 3: 1 – plan of the grave, 2 – pin; 3 – cord pendant; 4 – wagon-cradle model; 5 – plaques; 6 – wagon model; 7 – bird bones. Chogray IX, k.2, g 8: 8 – plan of the grave, 9 – fish-shaped pendants; 10 – pin; 11 – cradle model, 12 – fish bones 2, 5, 7, 9, 10, 12 – bone; 3 – bronze; 4, 6, 11 – clay

116

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE

Fig. 78. Early Catacomb graves of the eastern part of the Stavropol Hills. Chogray VIII: 1 – k. 4, g. 2; 2 – k. 15, g. 2; k. 17, g. 5: 3 – pin, 4 – plan of the grave; 5 – k. 18, g. 6; k. 16, g. 2: 6 – pendant, 7 – plan of the grave; k. 20, g. 3: 9 – plan, 10 – pins, 11 – plaques 3, 10, 11 – bone; 6 – bronze

117

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Fig. 79. Early Catacomb graves of the Middle Yergueni Hills. Temrta III, k. 1: 3 – plan of the kurgan; 4 – plans of the central profile; 2 – plan of g. 1; grave offerings from grave 1: 1 – cord pendant, 5 – incense burner, 6 – pin 1 – bronze; 5 – clay; 6 – bone

118

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE

Fig. 80. Early Catacomb graves of the Middle Yergueni Hills. Temrta III, k. 1, g.4: 1 – plan of the grave, 4 – temple ring; g. 2: 2 – plan of the grave, 3 – vessel, 5 – long beads 3 – clay; 4 – silver; 5 – bone

secondary burials were added to the southern part of the kurgan.

burials are represented by a double grave of a woman of 25 – 35 years and a child of 3 months (Chogray VIII, kurgan 20, grave 3).

The predominant burial construction of this region is a Tcatacomb (Khar-Zukha-1, Peschany V, Temrta III). Such catacombs (Fig. 79, 1; 80, 1) are characterized by a narrow rectangular entrance with a sloping bottom, a passage built between the entrance and the chamber. The chamber of a T-catacomb at Peschany V had a tunnelshaped ceiling and a round passage. T-catacombs could be either primary or secondary graves. Catacombs of the H- and Ch-types is a rare find and could be primary or secondary burials. Entrances are oval or round, built in the centre of a short (T-catacomb) or a long (H-catacomb) wall. The floor of the chamber and the entrance could coincide.

Middle Yergueni Hills The burial rite of the local Early Catacomb group of the Middle Yergueni Hills (43 graves in 26 kurgans) differs from other regions. Mounds are small. The diameter is 15 – 18 m (more rarely, more than 20 m), the height is 1 m. Large kurgans have also been uncovered (Temrta III, kurgan 1; Peschany V, kurgan 1). Ritual places were left under such large mounds. They consist of animal bones and clay braziers. Primary graves are located in the centre; 119

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 81. Collective graves of the Early Catacomb culture. VMPB,65: k. 20, g. 3: 1 – plan, 7 – vessel;2 – VMPBII,65: k. 13, g. 11; 3 – VMPB,65: k. 17, g. 8; 4 – VMLBIII,66: k. 40, g. 4; Peschany V: k. 2, g. 3: 5 – plan of the grave, 13 – pin; Mandjikiny-2: k. 42, g. 1: 6 – plan of the grave, 8 – button, 9 – ornamentation of the band, 10, 11 – hammer-headed pins, 11 – braziers 7, 11 – clay; 10, 12, 13 – bone, 8 – wood; 9 – bronze

120

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE The interior decoration of funeral constructions are represented by wooden screens (table 7) or plant mats, which were used to close the entrance (Temrta III); wooden constructions, which cover the chamber walls; plant mats on the floor of the chamber; and pillows stuffed with steppe plants.

braziers. The shape of the body, the rim and the bottom, an angular shoulder part, ornamentation pattern are used to define types and sub-types. The size of the pot is used as well. The shape of the bowl, the type of a pedestal, the presence or absence of a dividing section and the type of ornamentation are used to define type of incense burners. Vessels are divided into 10 groups; 15 types; two subtypes are defined as well. Each type is represented by 1 – 2, more rarely, 3 pots. The working typology is to be further developed. Groups 1 – 6 include tableware, groups 7 – 9 include kitchen and packing pottery, the group 10 includes rite ceramics.

The predominant position of the dead was extended on the back with the extended arms, the position flexed on the back (Temrta III, Peschany V) or flexed on the side as well as extended on the side (Khar-Zukha) was also used. Sometimes the skull was located far from the skeleton. A special high pillow was placed under the skull, which was moved when plants decayed. Ochre was used to colour the legs, skulls, and the floor of the pit.

Tableware Group 1: a pot type vessel of the medium size. Types are defined on the basis of the body shape; subtypes are defined on the basis of the shoulder curve. Three types and one sub-type are singled out. ● type 1: a pot of the medium size (the average height is 11 cm) with a small neck, an everted rim, round shoulders, a flat bottom. Middle and lower parts are decorated with comb tooth stamps arranged in a herringbone pattern (3 pots) (Fig. 82, 1 – 3); ● sub-type 1: a pot is characterized by a small rib on the shoulders and ornamented frieze made of cord impressions placed in the middle of the body (1 vessel) (Fig. 82, 4). ● type 2: a pot of the medium size (the average height is 11 cm) with a high cylindrical neck, round shoulders, a straight rim, a flat bottom, without ornamentation (2 vessels) (Fig. 85, 5); ● type 3: a small pot (the height is 7.2 cm) with a biconical body, an everted rim and a concave bottom, the lower part of the body is ornamented by comb impressions (1 vessel) (Fig. 82, 6);

The tradition of collective graves (double and triple) has been recorded. All graves are made in T-catacombs. At Peschany V, kurgan 3, grave 2, an adult man, a child and a juvenile were buried (Fig. 81, 5). Caspian Plain Only one grave of the Early Catacomb culture has been uncovered in this region. At Yashkul-1, kurgan 1, grave 24, a juvenile in a flexed position on the left side was oriented to the south. He was placed in the secondary Tcatacomb. MATERIAL CULTURE Grave offerings have been uncovered in more than 50% of Early Catacomb burials (Table 8). They are represented by clay pots, ornamentations and details of clothes, more rarely, by weapons and tools. Models of wagons and cradles have also been found. Data obtained help us describe the material culture of the Early Catacomb population.

Group 2: the saucer is represented by one type. ● type 1: a miniature saucer (the height is 5.6 cm), a flat-bottom, with everted sides and a narrow rim (1 vessel) (Fig. 82, 7).

Table. 8. Early Catacomb burials with grave offerings and without grave offerings. region Kuma-Manych Depression Southern Yergueni Hills Stavropol Hills Middle Yergueni Hills Caspian Plain Total

Burials with grave offerings 55

Burials without grave offerings 54

16

9

11 30 1 113

6 15 84

Group 3: the jug is represented by one type. ● type 1: a jug of the medium size, with a high cylindrical neck and a conical body, with a rib. The rim is ornamented by a belt made of vertical parallel lines (1 vessel) (Fig. 82, 8). Group 4: the pitcher is represented by one type. ● type 1: a pitcher of the medium size (the height is 16.7 cm) with a flat bottom, a round body, a high neck, a thick rim, a rib between the neck and the body. The vessel is ornamented by a thin impressed belt placed on the rib (1 vessel) (Fig. 82, 9).

POTTERY

Group 5: the amphora is represented by one type. ● type 1: an amphora of the medium size (the height is 7.3 cm) with a round body with a small cylindrical neck and a round bottom with a small groove. There are two ledge-shaped handles with holes. The vessel is ornamented by horizontal and zigzag vertical cord impressions (2 vessels) (Fig. 82, 10).

The predominant type of pots obtained from Early Catacomb graves are clay pottery. Wooden pots have been also recorded. One of it is a conical shaped large vessel made of small twigs with a cover. Only 21 clay pots have been obtained from 197 graves as well as fragments of large earthenware pots, which were used as 121

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Fig. 82. Main types of table-wear of the Early Catacomb culture of the Caspian Steppes. 1 – VMPB,65: k. 20, g. 3; 2 – VMLBIII,66: k. 28, g. 7; 3 – Baga-Burul: k. 5, g. 6; 4 – VMPB,67: k. 11, g. 28; 5 – VMLBIII,66: k. 2, g. 2; 6 – Mandjikiny-1: k. 1, g. 3; 7 – Temrta III: k. 1, g. 2; 8 – Mandjikiny-1: k. 2, under the mound; 9 – Mandjikiny-2: k. 45, ritual place; 10 – Chograysky VI: k. 1, g. 9; 11 – Chogray IX: k. 9, g. 2 1 – 10 – clay

122

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Fig. 83. Main types of kitchen vessels of the Early Catacomb culture of the Caspian Steppes. 1 – Mandjikiny-1: k. 11, g. 7; 2 – Elista: k. 27, g. 1; 3 – Zunda-Tolga-3: k. 1, g. 9: 4 – VMLBIII,66: k. 26, g. 4; 5 – VMLBI,66: k. 41, g. 3; 6 – Mandjikiny-1: k. 37, g. 1; 7 – Mandjikiny-1: k. 42, g. 2; 8, 9 – Mandjikiny-2: k. 42, g. 2 1 – 9 – clay

123

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Fig. 84. Main type of kitchen (1 – 3) and ritual (4 – 5) vessels of the Early Catacomb culture of the Caspian Steppes. 1 – VMLBIII,66: k. 28, g. 3; 2 – VMLBI,66: k. 41, g. 3; 3 – Zunda-Tolga-6: k. 3, g. 1; 4 – Peschany V: k. 5, g. 2, 5 –Temrta III: k. 1, g. 1; 6 – VMPB,67: k. 11, g. 28 1 – 6 – clay

124

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE Group 6: a round body vessel is represented by one type. ● type 1: a round body vessel of the medium size with a round bottom and shoulders, a small neck, an everted rim. There is a small groove at the bottom of the pot. The body in the centre is ornamented by a geometrical pattern made of cord impressions (2 vessels).

semi-spherical central leg, the ornamentation pattern is cord impressions arranged in triangle festoons (1 vessel) (Fig. 84, 5). ● type 3: an incense burner in the form of a low bowl without a partition, on a cross-shaped pedestal, ornamentation pattern is cord impressions arranged in triangle festoons (1 vessel) (Fig. 84, 6).

Kitchen pots All types of vessels were spread equally across the Caspian Steppes. Pots and large fragments of earthenware pots have been uncovered in primary and secondary child and juvenile graves in the Kuma-Manych Depression, they are less frequently recorded in adult burials or in cenotaphs. Large fragments of earthenware pots were located in the entrances of cenotaphs or in adult graves or near the head, the face, the legs of the dead from all age groups in the chamber of the catacomb. In the Southern Yergueni Hills pots and large fragments of earthenware pots were located in the graves of juveniles, more rarely in burials of one adult and one woman and a juvenile. They were placed in front of the entrance on the bottom of the entrance or near the wall, or in the chamber near the head or behind the legs of the dead. Braziers have been uncovered in both primary and secondary graves. The jar and the pitcher were placed in the ritual places under the mounds. In the Stavropol area large fragments of earthenware pots were placed on the bottom of the entrance near the exit. Pots and large fragments of earthenware pots have been uncovered in both primary and secondary male and child graves in the Middle Yergueni Hills. They were placed near the upper part of the body of the dead. Such incense burners have been found in the burial of adults (in the grave of a senilis man at Temrta III; in the grave of a female of 30 – 40 years at Peschany-V).

Group 7: a funnel. The size is the basis for singling out different types; ornamentation is a feature of sub-types. Two types and two sub-types are defined. ● type 1: a funnel of the medium size (the height is 9.3 cm) with a hole in the body and finger mark ornamentation (1 vessel) (Fig. 83, 1). ● type 2: a large funnel (the height is 16 cm) with a hole in the leg. ● sub-type 2a: a large funnel without ornamentation (Fig. 83, 2) ● sub-type 2b: a large funnel with ornamentation belt at the lower part of the leg (Fig. 83, 3). Group 8: large earthenware pots. No unbroken pots of this type have been uncovered in graves. They are represented by large fragments, which were used as braziers: a side part or a bottom. Ten reconstructions of the shape have been made. One type is defined. ● type 1: a large earthenware pot with a high cylindrical neck and round shoulders, with a wide body and a flat bottom (the average diameter of the body is 34 cm, the maximum size is 48 cm; the average diameter of the neck is 10 cm; the average diameter of the bottom is 12 cm). Ornamentation includes parallel vertical lines, finger marks and a herring-bone pattern made of incised lines, tooth comb or cord impressions. Ornamentation can be located in the upper part of the body, in the centre part on the shoulder or in the lower part of the body near the bottom (Fig. 83, 4-5, 6-9) (24 fragments have been obtained).

Decorations of clothes Decorations is a distinctive element of Early Catacomb clothes. They define an “ethnographical passport” of this cultural group. Location of ornamentation on the human body helps us propose the reconstruction of some details of the garment as well as the accessories.

Group 9: a vessel in the form of a cast iron pot is also represented by large fragments. Two reconstructions are available. ● type 1: a large pot with a tin-shaped body with a flat (?) bottom and the uneven edge of the rim, the upper part of the body is ornamented with herring-bone pattern made of tooth comb impressions (1 pot) (Fig. 84, 1). ● type 2: a large pot with round shoulders, an everted rim, the body is ornamented with incised tooth comb impressions and round sticks (Fig. 84, 2-3).

Jewellery of headdress has been uncovered in 28 out of 197 graves. Cord bronze pendants is a predominant type of decorations (Fig. 85, 1-4, 8, 10, 12-13). Several types were typical, i.e. small stem-pendants round in the crosssection, with a stem in the form of a twisted cord (the number of coils could vary from one to three); flat pendants rectangular in the cross-section, the stem is decorated with relief imitation of a single cord, ended by a mushroom-shaped head. Such jewellery pieces were located near the temples in child headdress (to the right or to the left; to the right and to the left) from one to three items. In some cases they were found together with bone long beads, bronze round rings of 1.5 turns. From two to five cord pendants could decorate adult headdress as well as bronze round multi-turn rings, small bronze or silver round rings with open ends (Fig. 85, 14). Such decorations could be used as details of a forehead band or the edge of a hat (Fig. 85, A, B).

Rite vessels Group 10: the incense burner is represented by 3 types. The type of the bottom, a partition and ornamentation have been used to define different type. Three types are defined. ● type 1: an incense burner in the form of a flatbottom bowl without a partition, with two holes on the wall (1 vessel) (Fig. 84, 4); ● type 2: an incense burner in the form of a bowl with two partitions with holes, with six round legs and one 125

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES medium size medallion decorated with a spiral pattern and disks. All pendants of this type had a loop located in the upper part. The central part of the headdress was decorated with a flat cast plaque in the form of a concave animal with a stylisized head ended by an ear with an eye-hole; the body of the plaque is decorated with five spirals. A spoon-shaped pendant and 41 B-shaped beads decorated with wave lines or cord impressions were also part of this set. It could decorate either the edge of the cap or the forehead band. Special types of male (from 35 – 45 years to senilis) and female (from 15 – 17 to 24 – 30 years) decorations have been defined. Men headdress could include a cord or a band decorated with one bronze pendant located on the left, on the right side or at the back side; a small round silver ring with open ends located on the left part of the band (Temrta III, kurgan 1, grave 1 (Fig. 79, 1). Bronze beads were used for decoration of female headdress (Mandjikiny-2) (Fig. 85, 6). More seldom a band or a cap of a woman could be decorated with round temple rings turned into 1.5 coils. Some skulls were sprinkled with ochre. There could be a tradition of colouring or a tattooing the forehead. It is possible that the headdress could be colored in red as well. Graves of some kurgan burial grounds are characterized by specific types of decorations. Cord bronze stempendants were used at VMLBI,65, VMPB,67, Mandjikiny-2 and Chograysky; silver rings with open ends were used at Chogray IX and Temrta-III. More often headdress ornamentations are uncovered in southern regions of the Caspian Steppes as well as in male and child graves of the Middle Yergueni Hills, but in few cases. Chest ornamentations have been uncovered in 11 graves and they are represented by composite neck and chest necklaces as well as parts sewn on the front part of the clothes. Like headdress ornamentations they are often found in child and juvenile graves (from 3 – 5 to 12 – 13 years). Bronze cord stem-pendants of several types, i.e. in the form of a three-coiled cord (Fig. 87, 3-4, 14); in the form of a straight plain stem with a mushroom or dropshaped end (Fig. 87, 17), could be sewn on the left side or in the front part of the dress. Three cord pendants were located to the left on the man’s body chest at Shared, kurgan 4, grave 5. Four cord stems alternated with mother-of-pearl beads in another garment. All ornamentations could hang on a cord on the front part of the clothes (Chograysky VIII, kurgan 3, grave 3). Single or double bronze rings or double disks medallions with a spiral pattern could ornament the front part of the garment (Fig. 87, 2). Necklaces made of simple bronze round and cylindrical beads are typical for all age groups (Fig. 87, 1-5). One pectoral at VMLBII,65: kurgan 13, grave 11 (Fig. 87, 6-13) consisted of five bronze ring medallions located in the centre; they alternated with bronze semi-spherical umbos. A bronze plaque in a form of a cow head and a spoon-shaped pendant were located

Fig. 85. Headdress ornamentations of the Early Catacomb culture of the Caspian Steppes. 1 – cord pendant, VMPB,67: k. 2, g. 5; Mandjikiny-2: 2 – cord pendants, k. 11, g. 7; 3 – cord pendant, k. 11, g. 6, 4 – cord pendant, k. 37, g. 1; 5 – temple ring, k. 37, g. 4; 6 – barrel-shaped bead, k. 54, g. 6; Temrta III: 7 – temple ring, k. 1, g. 1; 8 – cord pendant, k. 1, g. 4; 9 – 14 – decorations of the band from Mandjikiny-2: k. 42, g. 1: 9 – button, 10, 12, 13 – cord pendants, 11 – bead, 14 – temple ring. A, B – reconstruction of the headdress 1 – 6, 8, 10 – 13 – bronze; 7 – silver; 9 – wood; 14 – silver?

Ornamentations is a common find in burials of children of 1 – 1.5 to 12-13 years (11 graves). A set of ornamentation of child headdress with a wooden button has been found at Mandjikiny-2, kurgan 42, grave 1 (Fig. 85, 9-14). Another set of bronze decorations ornamented the child headdress at Yashkul-1, kurgan 2, grave 24 (Fig. 86). It consisted of a large cast round medallion with a hole in the centre and an ear; two small disk medallions ornamented by a spiral pattern and granules; two large double disks decorated with a spiral pattern with a horizontal plaque-rivet, which fixed two disks; one 126

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE

Fig. 86. Headdress decorations, Yashkul-1: k. 24, g. 2 bronze

Belt sets is a very rare find. At Mandjikiny-1, kurgan 14, grave 6, a man of 55 – 65 years old had a belt embroidered with seeds of Lithospermum officinale. Ornamentations of belts have been found in child graves, i.e. bone long beads (Fig. 80, 5); beads made of shell and bone; bone rings; bone cylindrical long beads. Such items could be used to decorate a child belt, or they were used on a cord with beads, rings and long beads.

on the right side of the garment. The front part of the clothes was embroidered with a bone flat round plaque, thick bone long tubes with a carved pattern, rings and long beads with a crosswise carved pattern, flat round and oval shell beads (Sinitsyn 1978: Vol.2. Table 67). Bone rings and long beads with a carved pattern have been uncovered on the upper part of a juvenile costume at Chogray IX, kurgan 9, grave 12; bronze pendants and beads as well as ten sheep astragali and one vertebra were located on the chest of a child at VMPB,67, kurgan 5, grave 8.

Two pieces of jewellery for arms have been uncovered in one child grave and one adult grave, i.e. a bracelet made of skate teeth; and a bracelet made of bronze beads and a round shell pendant.

All aforesaid types of ornamentations could be decorative elements of the embroidery placed on the upper part of the garment, or details of composite necklaces. Sometimes beads (Fig.71, 5) and pendants were placed in cenotaphs and in graves of dismembered skeletons. A single medallion in the form of a flat shell bead (Fig. 71, 5) or a bronze cord pendant could be placed in the cenotaph as well.

Ornamentations of the legs have been found in four child and two female burials. Eight bronze cord stem-pendants were located near a child ankle; bone long tubes were placed between the knees of an infant; a bone carved long bead was located near the right knee of a senilis woman; two flat bone plaques with a hole were lying under the knees of the dead; three bone long beads were placed near the knees of a child (Fig. 73, 9). Hence, such ornamentations were threaded through a cord, which was 127

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 87. Decorations of the front part of the garment of the Early Catacomb culture of the Caspian Steppes. 1 – bronze bead, VMLBI, 65: k. 45, g. 2; 2 – double-disks, VMPB,67: k. 7, g. 14; 3 – cord pendants, Chograysky VIII: k. 3, g. 3; 4, 5 – cord pendant and bead, VMPB,67: k. 5, g. 8; 6 – 13 – VMLBII,65: k. 13, g. 11: 8, 9, 12 – long beads, 6 – spoon-shaped pendant, 7 – plaque in a form of a cow head , 10 – plaque, 11 – ring, 13 – pendant, 15 – puncheon plaque, 16 – crook-shaped pin; cord pendants, Chogray VIII: 14 – k. 3, g. 3; 17 – k. 16, g. 2 1 – 7, 14 – 17 – bronze; 8-12 – bone; 13 – shell

used to tie the legs of the dead person at the ankles or the knees. This is confirmed by the position of the legs.

88, 1, 3-4; 89, 4-7; 90, 2, 3, 6, 10); a stem-shaped pin is represented by type 1 (Fig. 89, 3) and type 2 (Fig. 90, 5); crook-shaped pins are represented by type 1 and 2 (Fig. 88, 2; 90, 1). Bronze pins are represented by hammerheaded pins of type 1, crook-shaped pins. Bone pins of different types could be arranged in one set, i.e. two hammer-headed pins of type 4 and one crook-shaped pin of type 1; two bone hammer-headed pins of type 4 and one pin of type 2; one hammer-headed pin of type 4 and one stem-shaped pin of type 1; one hammer-headed pin

Accessories. Amulets and pins have been recorded in 46 graves (pins have been found in 38 burials). The Early Catacomb group is noted for a variety of bone and bronze pins. Bone hammer-headed pins (54 items and 7 fragments) are represented by pins of type 2 (Fig. 90, 6) and type 4 (Fig. 128

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE

Fig. 88. Bone pins of the Early Catacomb culture of the Caspian Steppes. 1, 3 – Kermen-Tolga: k. 31, g. 2; 2 – VMLBI,66: k. 21, g. 3; 4 – VMPB,67: k. 30, g. 7

Fig. 89. Bone pins and amulets of the Early Catacomb culture of the Caspian Steppes.Mandjikiny-2: k. 11, g. 6: 1 – pendants from steppe fox tooth, 2 – long beads, 3 – location of long beads and stem-shaped pin near the palm of the left hand of the child; 4 – Mandjikiny-2: k. 54, g. 6; 5 – Temrta III: k. 1, g. 1; 6 – Mandjikiny-2: k. 11, g. 7; 7 – Peschany V: k. 2, g. 3

129

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Fig. 90. Main types of decorations of the Early Catacomb culture of the Caspian Steppes. Pins, long beads and plaques: VMLBI,65: k. 43, g. 3; 1 – 2 – crook-shaped and hammer-headed pins, Gashun: k. 10, g. 1: 3 – hammer-headed pin, 4 – long bead; 5 – stemshaped pin, VMLBI,66: k. 27, g. 2; 6 – fragments of hammer-headed pins, Ostrovnoy, k. 3, g. 37; 7 – rings and long beads, Arkhara: k. 20, g. 2; 8 – long beads, Mandjikiny-2: k. 54, g. 6; 9 – 11, 13 – set of pendants, plaques and pins, Peschany V: k. 2, g. 1; 12 – cord pendants, VMLBIII,65: k. 43, g. 2; 14 – long beads, Temrta III: k. 1, g. 2 1 – 11, 13 – 14 – bone; 12 – bronze

Lithospermum officinale. Such sets can be treated as a rosary or amulets.

of type 2a, two of type 4 and one crook-shaped pin. Such sets of pins imply that pins of different types were synchronous and that pins were a multi-cultural element of the funeral rite and an accessory.

Bronze hammer-headed and crook-shaped pins were used in the following way. A bunch of such pins was located near the left hand or they could hang on the belt. An altar was made at Chograysky VI, kurgan 3, grave 3. A bone hammer-headed pin of type 4 was planted in the ground up to the ornamentation line, it was covered by two bronze puncheon plaques from the both sides, four bone hammer-headed pins were crossed in pairs and they were placed above the altar.

Bone pins have been uncovered in graves of all age groups; bronze pins have been found in adult burials. One pin was usually placed to the left of the body of the dead, between the pelvis and the left hand, near the elbow of the left hand, near the shoulder or the hand of the left arm. The position of the pin on the pelvis or to the right between the shoulder and ribs is found rarely. Hence, the pin was attached to the belt or it hang on the cord on the belt (attached to some details of the garment). It is also likely that the cord with a pin was hanging on the left hand like a rosary. The location of the pin’s head upwards confirms the use of such ornamentation in this way. In child and juvenile burials pins or their fragments were often found together with bone long beads, flat round bone plaques, vertebrae of fish, animal teeth, seeds of

Trace analyses indicate that a thick small strap or a cord was put through the hole of all pins. It means that the pin was hanging on a cord (Usachuk 2002). Five amulet sets have been uncovered in child graves. They consist of numerous bone rings and bone long tubes. 130

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE Table 9. Mats of Early Catacomb culture of the Caspian Steppes Burial ground, kurgan, grave Mandjikiny-2: k. 37, g. 1 Mandjikiny-2: k. 54, g. 5 Peschany-V: k. 2, g. 3 Peschany-V: k. 2, g. 3 Peschany-V: k. 1, g. 1 Peschany-V: k. 1, g. 2 Peschany-V: k. 3, g. 1 Peschany-V: k. 3, g. 2 Temrta I: k. 1, g. 4 Temrta I: k. 1, g. 3 Temrta III: k. 1, g. 1: a mat closing the entrance of a chamber Temrta III: k. 1, g. 1: a mat on the floor Temrta III: k. 1, g. 2 Temrta III: k. 2, g. 1 Temrta V: k. 1, g. 2 Temrta-V: k. 1, g. 3, a mat on the wall Temrta V: k. 1, g. 3, cloth on the human skull Mandjikiny-1: k. 14, g. 6 Zunda-Tolga-3: k. 1, g. 9 Zunda-Tolga-2: k. 1, g. 1 Baga-Burul: k. 5, g. 6

Phytolith data Cylindrical siliceous phytoliths typical for Artemisia Phytoliths of gramineous plants Fragments of plant cloth, few phytoliths of gramineous plants Fossilized plant remains of black colour Fossilized fragments of plant cloth in the form of long bundles Numerous phytoliths of reed stem (Pragmites australis) Colourless fossilized cloths of plant origin, numerous stick-like phytoliths, phytoliths of white Artemisia (Artemisia lerchiana) Single stick-like phytoliths Phytoliths of reed stems Spiculae, sticks, plant cloth Phytoliths of reed Few long phytoliths Few long phytoliths Fossilized plant cloth, few phytolith of Artemisia Sticks Plant cloth, rare phytoliths Numerous short phytoliths of steppe gramineous plant Phytoliths of gramineous plants, numerous thick threads Phytoliths of reed Phytoliths of reed stems Numerous non-identified phytoliths characteristic for plant stems

Textiles

used for weaving. A technique of simple manual weaving was used to obtain a plain weave. The warp threads were cut at the edge of the cloth and they were fixed with the weft threads in two ways. The weft threads were placed evenly, covering the warp threads almost completely; or the weft threads were left in 1 – 3 parallel lines with the warp threads uncovered. All mats of plain weave have a higher density of weft threads than the density of the warp threads.

A lot of mats have been uncovered in Early Catacomb graves.21 Stems and leaves of steppe plants were used to make such mats (table 9). This raw material was cut, and then twisted. At Mandjikiny-1, kurgan 14, grave 6, such a mat was made of non-woven twisted warp “threads” 0.2 – 0.3 cm thick, weft “threads” were flat, multi-layered, 0.5 cm thick. Gramineous and other plants were used. The plain weave was used, the ratio of warp threads was 1 thread per 1 cm (Fig. 76, 2). Another mat of plain weave is made of 2 ply threads, with the uneven step of twisting, the density of weft and warp threads is 2 threads per 1 cm; the distance between the warp threads was 1 cm, there was no distance between the weft threads (Fig. 76, 2).

The size of 18 mats has been identified. Some were narrow plaited, their width varied from 65 to 70 cm; or wider, from 75 to 85 cm. When the width of the mat reached 1.00-1.35 m, two narrow pieces sewn together were placed on the floor. Narrow or wide frames were used to weave them. The length of the cloth varied from 1.20 – 1.35 to 1.90 – 2.20 m. Hence Early Catacomb mats differ from the Yamnaya ones.

One of the mats of plain weave placed in several layers at Zunda-Tolga-2, kurgan 1, grave 1, was made of threads with the uneven step of twisting. The thickness of the warp thread was 0.2 cm, the distance between the threads was 0.2 cm, and the density of the threads was 2 – 3 threads per 1 cm. The thickness of the flat weft threads was 0.3 – 0.4 cm. The density of the warp threads was 2 – 3 threads per 1 cm. Reed was used as a raw material for fibers. The second mat from the same grave is characterized by a different weaving technique: parallel warp threads were twined by weft threads. The density of the warp threads was 4-5 threads per 1 cm; the density of the weft threads was 7 threads per 10 cm.

Tools and Weapons Tools and weapons in the Early Catacomb graves of the Caspian Steppes are uncovered very rarely. One bronze knife with a long leaf-shaped blade has been uncovered at VMLBI,65 (Fig. 91, 2). The grave has also yielded a bronze awl rectangular in the cross-section (Fig. 91, 1). Both items were placed near the left shoulder of an adult person. A micro-chisel has been found at Yashkul-1 (Fig. 86, 1) (Gak 2005: 74). Bone items are represented by tools, i.e. a spindle whorl made of the animal bone (Fig. 91, 5); perforators made of sheep bones (Fig. 91, 4). Flint flakes have also been found.

Technological characteristics of the mats indicate that no special textile devices or a simple rectangular frame was 21

The technological analysis has been made by Olga Orfinskaya.

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Fig. 91. Weapons and transport models of the Early Catacomb culture of the Caspian Steppes. VMLBI,65: k. 45, g. 2: 1 – awl, 2 – knife; 3 – Elista: k. 27, g. 1, model of a wheel; 4 – Mandjikiny-2: k. 54, g. 5, awl, 5 – VMLBII, 66: k. 21, g. 2, spindle whorl 1 – 2 – bronze; 3 – clay; 4 – 5 – bone

CASPIAN STEPPE EARLY CATACOMB FUNERAL RITE TRADITIONS AND MATERIAL CULTURE

Transport It is possible that parts of wagons could be placed into the Early Catacomb graves. They were used to cover entrances to the chamber or to decorate of the floor. A wooden construction, 1.29 x 0.55 m in size, was placed on the floor of the chamber at Baga-Burul, kurgan 5, grave 19. It consisted of thick twigs fixed on wide wooden side planks. This construction can be the side of a wagon. Apparently, the door or the side part of the wagon made of nine planks was used to close the entrance to the chamber at Zunda-Tolga-2, kurgan 11, grave 1. The plaited screen made of twigs of Salix has been found at Mandjikiny-1. It can be the box of the wagon or its imitation.

The analysis of the funeral rite of the Early Catacomb culture helps define distinctive features as well as several local traditions typical for specific environmental areas of the Caspian Steppes. Primary kurgans are predominant; the remaining graves were added to primary mounds. A large number of isolated graves under kurgans indicate that the Early Catacomb population did not use kurgan necropolis regularly. Some Early Catacomb kurgan, though, have from 2 to 5 graves. Ritual places with clay vessels or fragments of pots as well as domesticated animal bones (sheep, cow and horses) have been uncovered only in the Southern and Middle Yergueni Hills.

Models of wagons and wheels placed into graves is the main characteristic of the Early Catacomb group. They have been found in child or juvenile graves in the eastern part of the Stavropol Hills and in the Middle Yergueni Hills.

The appearance of the Early Catacomb groups on the Caspian Steppes was accompanied by the spread of catacomb constructions of different types. Representatives of different Early Catacomb traditions seem to be behind these types, which were originated in different areas. A T-catacomb with a narrow rectangular entrance, a sloping or stepped floor; a large chamber located perpendicularly to it, and a passage between them was predominant. Variations in the size and some constructive details have been defined. Representatives of different groups (separate family-kin groups) appear to have followed several canons; or while building such catacombs as well as catacombs of other types, people did not stick to the tradition. T-type catacombs were spread across the entire Early Catacomb area. Direct

A clay model of the wagon in the form of a rectangular open cart and two other models of wagons have been found at Chogray IX and Chogray VIII (Fig. 77, 4, 11) (Shishlina 2007). The first is a model of a hood-shaped cart or a sledge with a cupola-shaped upper part and slightly everted sides. There are three rectangular window-holes in the front and side walls. The surface is ornamented with a grooved pattern (Andreeva 1989). A small clay model of a cradle-cart was placed inside the big cart. At Elista a clay model of the wheel with a hub has been found (Fig. 91, 3).

132

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE The extended position of the dead is predominant. A slightly flexed position on the back is identified in some burial grounds of the Eastern Manych, the Southern and the Middle Yergueni Hills. Positions of the dead on the back with a turn to the left side, flexed or extended on the left back is an exception. The rite of the dismembered skeletons is characteristic only for the Southern Yergueni and the eastern part of the Stavropol Hills. The extended and slightly flexed position on the back has been identified in all types of catacombs. Legs of the dead in the A-catacomb were often oriented to the exit of the chamber. The stratigraphic correlation of the graves with the different positions of the dead indicates that both traditions coexisted. A specific rite tradition, i.e. a slightly flexed position on the back of the skeleton in Ycatacombs, is a characteristic feature of the Stavropol Early Catacomb population.

analogues to catacomb constructions uncovered on the Caspian Steppes can be found in the Lower Don River region, in the Kuban region as well as in the Stavropol region. The second widespread type is a catacomb of the H-type. Compared with details of the T-catacomb, the H-type catacomb is simpler. H-catacombs of different types have been uncovered. Some constructions are characterized by sloping or stepped entrances, by presence of a passage, i.e. elements, which are typical for T-type catacombs. Such H-catacombs are older than H-catacombs with the horizontal floor, with no passage. In the latter case there were no additional constructions in the chamber, but there were a lot of details in the entrances, i.e. covers and mats. Differences in the size of H-catacombs have been identified as well.

Special rites related to the body were used. It is likely that there was a tradition of decapitation of the head after the death. A special construction pillow was placed under the skull, which led to the replacement of the head. In some burial grounds such traits have been recorded only for male graves, in others they have been recorded for both male and female burials. Another important tradition is the wrapping of the legs of the dead.

The A-catacomb is a specific and rare construction, where the axes of the entrance and the tunnel-shaped chamber coincided. This type was spread only in the Kuma-Manych Depression, the Southern Yergueni Hills, and the Stavropol Hills. Such catacombs have been uncovered in the interfluves of the Yegorlyk and Kalaus Rivers as well. The D-type catacomb is a rare find, i.e. only in the KumaManych Depression and in the eastern part of the Stavropol Hills. Catacombs of the Y- and Ch-types are rarely represented in all regions. A specific type of the Ycatacomb (only few of such graves have been uncovered on the Caspian Steppes) was used by the population who buried their relatives at Chogray as well as at burial grounds located in the interfluves of the Yegorlyk and Kalaus Rivers. Other catacomb constrictions are variations of main types.

The orientation of the dead varies; eastern, southeastern, northeastern directions are predominant. The southern orientation is typical for some burial grounds as well. Collective graves are rare. Only in one case the skeleton was moved to the wall of the chamber. It may indicate that the chamber of the catacomb was opened after the ceremony and that another dead was placed afterwards. But in other cases the penetration to the chamber after the funeral is not confirmed by other data.

The stratigraphic correlation indicates that the earliest burial construction of the Early Catacomb group of the Caspian Steppes is the T-type catacomb. Such catacombs were often primary and they underlie other types of catacombs. Several burial grounds containing only this type have been uncovered. T-catacombs were in use throughout the entire period of the Early Catacomb culture in this region. A-catacombs date to the earliest period as well, but they did not exist for a long time. During some time several Early Catacomb traditions (T-, A-, H-catacombs) coexisted.

A large number of child and juvenile graves is a characteristic feature of the Early Catacomb population. The analysis of the funeral rite indicates that the Early Catacomb population should be considered as a monolithic cultural group, different from other earlier, synchronous or subsequent regional cultures. Nevertheless, sub-groups can be defined. Some groups were earlier, other groups date back to the subsequent period. Independent family groups were behind burial grounds, variations of funeral rites are common. These groups had different cultural links.

Builders of many catacomb graves did their work properly and thoroughly. Most likely, the chamber of the catacomb was reinforced by a wooden construction and mats; the entrance was closed by a screen, a side of the wagon or a mat. Mats were used for decoration of passages, steps, sloping floors of the entrances and chambers. A pillow could be placed on the floor. The entrance was roofed by beams or could be filled up with stones. Ochre was used to colour the floor or mats placed on the floors and the dead; in rare cases a piece of ochre could be placed into the grave as well.

The analysis of the material culture helps us derive some conclusions. Weapons and tools were not often placed in the graves of the Early Catacomb culture. The population of this culture used a lot of ornamentations, which helps identify some “ethnographic elements of the garment”. These details is an important element of the subsequent comparative analysis. Ceramic types are not numerous, but similar pots have been found in the ceramic series, which were spread across the neighbouring areas. However variations of 133

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES COMPARATIVE MATERIAL

ceramic types imply that pottery was home-made. Bowl, jugs, amphora have been uncovered in few cases. Only fragments of large earthenware pots (kitchen and packing vessels of common shape and ornamentation) have been found in each cultural group. Maybe the tradition of placing a vessel into the grave was not widely spread or pottery was made by individuals belonging to different families who did not follow any standards.

Numerous graves characterized by similar grave constructions and specific types of offerings have been uncovered beyond the Caspian Steppes. They are located in the Seversky Donets River basin, the Left Bank Dnieper River basin, the Lower Dnieper River area, the interfluves area of the Bug and the Ingul Rivers, in the steppe Crimea region, in the Northeastern Azov Sea region, in the Lower Don River area (Sanzharov 2001) as well as in the Steppe Stavropol region (Andreeva 1989; Derzhavin 1991). The description of some groups is presented below.

The ritual incense burner is very important in comparative analysis. North Caucasus incense burners of the Stavropol Hills (Derzhavin 1991: Fig. 4) are similar to the incense burner found at Temrta III, kurgan 1, grave 1. In the future the typology of incense burners as well as the identification of burned herbs will help find the relationships between the North Caucasus and Early Catacomb groups.

The Steppe Stavropol region. Early Catacomb graves located in the interfluves area of the Kalaus and Yegorlyk Rivers are most similar to the Caspian Steppes graves of the same culture. Derzhavin dated such graves back to group IV of his periodization (1991); Andreeva dated them back to the North Caucasus-Catacomb culture (Andreeva 1998).

Ornamentations of the garment is another characteristic feature of the funeral offerings of the Early Catacomb culture. Male, female and child sets have been identified, though some types of beads, long beads and pendants are universal. They have been uncovered in other cultural groups of the region, i.e. first of all, in the Steppe North Caucasus group as well as the Yamnaya and Multicultural graves of the Caspian Steppes. But their use as details of the garment differs. A specific male headdress has been identified, i.e. a band worn on the forehead or a cord decorated with a small silver ring with open ends on the left side. Child headdress was decorated with numerous beads, long beads, rings and pendants. Belts with decorations is a common find in male and child graves. Special types of accessories, rosary-amulets consisting of perforated animal fangs and bone pins as well as bronze pins have been uncovered only in adult graves. Variations in using ornamentations have been defined for different burial grounds. Some decorations, i.e. bronze double-disk medallions, stem-pendants with a straight stem round in the cross-section ended with a mushroom-shaped head; B-shaped beads, zoomorphic pendants have been uncovered only in the Early Catacomb graves of the Caspian Steppes. The use of beads made of seeds of Lithospermum officinale as details of ornamentation compositions is a specific feature of the same group.

T-catacombs are predominant in the Steppe Stavropol region, H-, Y- and A-catacombs is a rare find. The construction details of such catacombs are similar to the catacomb construction of the Caspian Steppes. Entrances are oval or rectangular with sloping or even floors. A passage was built between the entrance and the chamber. The arc entrance was closed by a stone slab. The chamber can be oval, round or rectangular. A specific group with graves made in catacombs of T-, G- and A-types has been defined in the region of the Kalaus River and its tributaries. The dead was placed slightly flexed on the back (the legs of the dead were oriented to the exit in the A-catacombs) (Derzhavin 1991; Andreeva, Petrenko 1998; Andreeva 1986; 1989; Andreeva, Novikova 2001). A similar type of graves has been uncovered in the Kuma-Manych Depression and in the Southern and Middle Yergueni Hills. The difference from the Caspian Steppes graves is the use of stone slabs for closing entrances to the chamber. On the Caspian Steppes wooden fences were used for this purpose. Derzhavin believed that T-catacomb graves located in the Central North Caucasus Piedmont area (Tolmuzovka River basin) were the earliest (1991). It is possible, though, that (as has been shown for the Caspian Steppes) in the Stavropol region catacombs of different types are synchronous. This fact is confirmed by the stratigraphic analysis (Andreeva, Petrenko 1998: 20).

Models of wagons and wheels have been found among graves of the Early Catacomb population as well. Hence, the analysis of the material culture confirms a monolithic nature of Early Catacomb groups. They are characterized by common funeral traditions and the use of the same types of items. Nevertheless regional differentiations can be singled out. They are reflected in different types of “ethnographic garment”. Independent Early Catacomb groups (small family units) were behind the variations of funeral traditions and offerings, which are characterized by kurgan burial grounds of different environmental areas.

The position of the dead is also characterized by several variations. The dead could be placed extended or slightly flexed on the back; the position flexed on the left or on the right side has also been recorded. The orientation to the east and to the south is predominant; the western orientation has also been identified. A slightly flexed position on the back has often been recorded in the T- and G-catacombs in the Stavropol Hills region (Belinskij and Kalmykov 2004; Berezin and Kalmykov 1998). Acatacombs, with the dead placed slightly flexed on the back and the legs oriented to the exit of the chamber, 134

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE shaped and hammer-headed pins, and bone rings. They were used as garment decorations. Bronze cord pendants, silver and gold rings with open ends decorated headdress pieces; numerous cord pendants and long beads decorated the front part of the clothes; a rope which was used to tie legs of the dead was decorated with one-rode cord pendants. Composite bracelets (for hands and for legs) consisting of numerous bronze ring pendants, beads and long beads are typical for the Stavropol Early Catacomb group. Such ornamentations could have been in use for a long time (Belinskij, Kalmykov, 2004: Fig.9; Berezin, Kalmykov 1998). The latter are very rarely uncovered on the Caspian Steppes.

have also been uncovered (Andreeva, Novikova 2001: Fig. 29). Two specific funeral rites were used, i.e. the wrapping of the legs of the dead and the shift in the position of the head (Ipatovo-3, kurgan 3, grave 126) (Belinskij, Kalmykov 2004: Fig. 2). Exactly the same graves have also been recorded on the Caspian Steppes. Hence, an almost identical funeral rite was spread among the population of two neighbouring regions. One or two secondary graves located in the western, northwestern, southeastern sectors of the kurgan overlie primary Early Catacomb graves. An arch-shaped location of secondary Early Catacomb graves has been recorded for some kurgans (Andreeva, Petrenko 1998). Sometimes the secondary grave was added not from the surface of the primary kurgan, but from the level of the earliest buried soil accompanied by additional soil filling-in (Andreeva, Petrenko 1998). Collective graves are not characteristic for the Central Stavropol region. Only several double graves of an adult and a child have been recorded (Derzhavin 1991; Berezin, Kalmykov 1998).

The chest female ornamentation recorded at Krasnoye Znamya, kurgan 1, grave 7, consisted of numerous bronze cord and segment pendants, double-disk medallions, barrel-shaped beads and two jet beads (Andreeva, Petrenko 1998: 11). A horizontal plaque-clamp was soldered on the reverse side of a double-disk medallion (Andreeva, Petrenko 1998: Fig. 15-13). The same construction detail is present on two bronze double-disk pendants recorded at Yashkul-1, kurgan 24, grave 2 (Fig. 86, 8-9) as well as on similar items uncovered in North Caucasus graves at Suvorovsky (Nechitaylo 1979: Fig. 55-15; 63-8). Details of the necklaces are similar to the items recorded in Early Catacomb and North Caucasus graves of the steppe and foothill regions of the North Caucasus.

Clay vessels are rarely recorded in Early Catacomb graves and they are represented by different types of pots and their fragments, which were used as braziers. Many types of pots are similar to the types uncovered on the Caspian Steppes. A flat-bottom pot with a globular body, a small conical neck, ornamented with a frieze made of triangular stamps and cord impressions has been uncovered at Krasnoye Znamia, kurgan 1, grave 4 (Andreeva, Petrenko 1998: Fig. 6-1). It is attributed to type 1 of the proposed classification, i.e. a pot of a medium size (Fig. 82, 2-4). However pots uncovered on the Caspian Steppes are characterized by a line and comb pattern as well as cord impressions. A pot uncovered at Tipki-1 located in the Kalaus River valley is similar to one of the pots of type 1, group 1 (a globular pot ornamented by triangle festoons) (Shishlina 2007: 188).

The central part of composite amulet-“rosaries” consisted of bronze crook-shaped pins of types 1 – 3. Sets consisting of round bone rings and large long beads with carved ornamentations are similar to the items found in Caspian Steppe Early Catacomb burials. All types of bone pins, i.e. ornamented hammer-headed, stem-shaped, crook-shaped and mushroom-shaped are represented among accessories from Stavropol Early Catacomb burials. Bone pendants in the form of a fish have been found together with bone hammer-headed pin at Chogray IX, kurgan 2, grave 8. Such pendants are similar to the items uncovered in a North Caucasus burial at Chogray VI, kurgan 5, grave 1.

Braziers are made of large earthenware pots ornamented with finger marks, comb impressions arranged in zigzags. They are similar to the braziers recorded on the Caspian Steppes.

Trapezium-shaped plaques ornamented by a puncheon pattern uncovered at an Early Catacomb grave 3 at Chograysky, kurgan 3, are similar to the items recorded at North Caucasus burials at Nezhinsky near Kislovodsk; and Bolshoy Petropavlovsky in the Kuban region. Such plaques have been found together with a bronze multihammer-headed pins of type 2 and they were used as cult pendants or they could be details of belt sets. Scholars date them back to the final stage of the Early period of the North Caucasus culture (Gey, Korenevsky 1989).

The most interesting item is an incense burner of type 1 and 2. It is likely that these vessels in the form of a low wide bowl, with or without partition, on separate round legs used as a pedestal (from 4 to 6) or without any pedestal is the earliest type. Such rite vessels have been uncovered in North Caucasus graves of the Caspian Steppes (Fig. 63) as well as in the similar graves located between the Yegorlyk and Kalaus Rivers (Veselya Roscha III, kurgan 10, grave 5), and in Early Catacomb burials (in the T-type catacombs with skeletons placed flexed on the back or on the right side) at Temrta III; Svetlogorsk (Andreeva 1986) and Veselya Roscha (Derzhavin 1991).

Bronze double-bladed leaf-shaped knives are typical for Early Catacomb graves of the Steppe Stavropol region (Andreeva, Petrenko 1998: Fig.8-9).

Types of ornamentations are also similar to the Caspian Steppes items. These include pendants in the form of onerode cord; flat stems decorated with cord ornamentations; barrel-shaped beads; double-disk pendants, bronze crook-

Lower Don River region. Kiyashko believed that Early Catacomb graves located in the eastern part of the Lower Don region belonged to the eastern group of this culture 135

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES Caspian Steppes help us forward a proposal, according to which the eastern slopes of the Yergueni Hills is the eastern boundary of the Early Catacomb culture. Isolated graves have also been uncovered on the Caspian Plain. Hence, the Middle Don region could be only the northwestern edge of the Early Catacomb area. The Salsk Steppes was another area of the Early Catacomb population expansion. The comparative analysis of Early Catacomb group funeral rites of the Lower Don River and the western slopes of the Middle Yergueni Hills shows the correlation of main features, i.e. T-catacombs; the position of the dead flexed on the back, postmortem shift in the position of the head; types of accessories.

(Kiyashko A. 2001: 93-109). However many elements of funeral rites of graves at Vesely I and III, Nagaevsky II and other burial grounds are similar to the elements identified in graves at Peschany-V. All burials were made in T-catacombs with large chambers. Such catacombs are correlated with T-catacomb graves located on the Azov Sea coastline steppes (Kiyashko A. 2001). G-type (Ovtsevod) and H-type (Lysyansky) catacombs have also been recorded. The dead were placed flexed on the back or on the back with the turn to the right side, the extended posture on the back has also been identified. Collective graves of adults and juveniles or only juveniles have also been recorded. Sometimes the skull of the dead shifted. This position of the skull has been recorded in both on the Caspian Steppes and in the Steppe Stavropol region. Male graves are predominant over female burials in each region. Grave offerings uncovered in the Lower Don River region are similar as well. Pots is a rare find in adult graves; flat-bottom pots were placed into child burials. Fragments of large earthenware pots similar to the items found on the Caspian Steppes were placed in burials of all age groups. Many amulets, which the dead could “carry” in the hand, have been uncovered. They consisted of bone tubes, flat round plaques, bone hammer-headed pins of type 4, crook-shaped pins of type 1, and bronze hammer-headed pins found together with slightly convex puncheon plaques, bronze and bone beads and long beads. Pins were placed to the left or to the right of the child arm; and under the right hip of the adult. A small silver round ring with open ends decorated male headdress (Stolyar 1958). Such rings with bronze beads and cord pendants were used to decorate child headdress (Parusimov 1997: Fig. 13-4). Numerous metal tools and weapons, knives, plugs, more seldom, adzes, chisels and axes were part of grave offerings in contrast to Caspian Steppes Early Catacomb graves (Kiyashko A. 2002: Fig.2-5).

These data do not confirm the elimination of the Early Catacomb horizon proposed by Kiyashko (Kiyashko A. 2002). The Steppe Kuban region is also characterized by the presence of Early Catacomb groups. Gey has called this group the East Azov Catacomb culture (2000). It is characterized by T-catacombs with a rectangular or trapezium entrance, the sloping floor, a trapezium or oval chamber with a flat ceiling. The entrance to the chamber was closed by a wooden fence or a slab. The position of the dead was slightly flexed on the right side, the position extended on the back was used more rarely (Trifonov 1991 a). The rite of wrapping the body has also been identified (Gey 2000). Ochre was used to sprinkle the body of children and the head and the legs of adults. Ritual places (bones of sheep skull and legs) often accompanied the burial. Ceramics include amphorae and braziers made of fragments of large earthenware pots. Ornamentations are represented by thick round silver rings with open and sharpened ends (adult graves); large silver rings of 1.5 turns; bone and bronze crook-shaped pins; bone hammer-headed pins; bronze pendants in the form of a cord; ring-shaped medallions and rectangular slightly convex plaques with puncheon ornamentations; bone long beads and perforated shells (Trifonov 1991 a). The use of some types of ornamentation was the same as on the Caspian Steppes and on the Eastern Stavropol Caspian Steppes. Numerous silver multi-turn bronze and silver pendants (up to seven) and rings with open ends very often ornamented headdress of all age groups. Pairs of pins (bronze hammer-headed and crook-shaped items) were hanging on the left side on the belt. Bone beads were used to embroider child belts (Gey 2000). A standard item of male headdress with one silver or bronze temple ring turned in 1.5 coils placed on the left or on the right side is typical for some burial grounds (Limberis et al 2001 a; b).

There are other main differences. Some types of early catacombs, i.e. A- and G-types, which are typical for the Caspian Steppes as well as the Steppe Stavropol region, are rarely recorded in the Lower Don River region (Melnik 1991: Fig. 32, 33). The position of the dead flexed on the back with the turn to the right side and the position flexed on the right side are predominant. The posture of the dead extended on the back is very rarely recorded. According to A. Kiyashko, the region between the Don and the Donets Rivers was characterized by combination of Yamnaya and Catacomb funeral rites (Kiyashko A. 1999) based on coexistence of two groups of population. The Catacomb tradition replaced the Yamnaya rite very quickly. It is difficult to accept the view that the Yamnaya population built primary kurgans while Catacomb groups only used old mounds (Kiyasko A. 1999: 161). Many examples of stratigraphy of Early Catacomb primary kurgans will be provided below.

The Steppe Azov region and the right bank of the Don River were occupied by the Azov Early Catacomb groups. One or two, less frequently four graves of the same culture have been uncovered under kurgan mounds. The main funeral characteristics include T-catacombs (more seldom H-type) with deep rectangular, more seldom, oval entrances with the sloping floor (the entrances could have side ledges); the passage and the chamber. The entrance could be closed by

New data collected for the western slopes of the Middle Yergueni Hills and the Lower Don River region (Parusimov 1997; Shef 2004) as well as kurgans of the 136

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE combined in one horizon with other synchronous groups. The issue concerning the cultural identification of such graves is still under discussion (Smirnov A. 1991; Andreeva, Petrenko 1998; Shishlina et al. 2004).

anthropomorphic steale or by logs. The position of the dead was flexed on the side or on the back. In some cases the skeleton was dismembered. The western orientation of the dead is predominant. The ochre was used to sprinkle the body. Early Catacomb graves of this region include three groups with different funeral rites. It implies that Early Catacomb burials are not homogenous (Sanzharov 2001). Grave offerings very seldom include ceramics, i.e. round-bottom pots with a short neck, roundbottom pots without a neck, flat-bottom vessels and fragments of large earthenware pots ornamented with tooth-shaped stamps. Many ornamentations have been found, i.e. bronze stem-pendants, details of composite bracelets, bronze and silver multi-turn temple rings, bone non-ornamented hammer-headed pins with a cylindrical stem combined with bone long beads and shell pendants in one set of amulets (Sanzharov 2001: Fig. 21). A bronze chisel and a leaf-shaped knife have been uncovered as well as wagons and their details (Gey, Korenevsky 1986; Kiyashko A. 2001; Posrednikov, Postnikov 1990; Sanzharov 2001).

The most important thrust in the studies of such groups was to identify the links of separate Early Catacomb groups with their predecessors and with the synchronous population. The Early Catacomb groups of the Lower Don River and Donets River regions were linked with the cultures of the North Caucasus Piedmont area; the Early Catacomb population of the Azov Sea and Dnieper River steppes was linked with the local Yamnaya population. Both funeral traditions, i.e. pits with the dead placed flexed on the back and oriented to the west and catacombs of the early types (T and H) coexisted (Smirnov A. 1991: 78; 1996: 114). Early Catacomb graves of the Northeastern Azov Sea steppes are similar to Lower Dnieper Early Catacomb burials. It is possible that this area was the region of origin and development of the Catacomb cultures, though other scholars placed Early Catacomb groups in the Lower Don River area (Sanzharov 2001: 136). From the point of view of other scholars, the transformation of the Late YamnayaCatacomb group of the steppe population on the basis of technological and ideological changes in the Caucasus led to the appearance of Early Catacomb funeral traditions. The Steppe Azov Sea area was identified as the main cultural centre, from which main elements of Early Catacomb traditions were spreading to other steppe regions (Kiyashko A. 1992: 14).

Donets River Basin. Early Catacomb burials are secondary graves in Late Yamnaya kurgans, primary kurgans of this culture are rarely found. T- and Hcatacombs are characterized by deep entrances, horizontal roofing of the entrance made of stone slabs rested on side ledges, the entrance could be closed by a wooden shield or anthropomorphic stone slabs. Entrances were often filled up with stones. The position of the dead was flexed on the back or on the right side. The predominant orientation of the dead is southern. Sometimes the skull of the dead shifted. The grave offerings include silver round rings in 1.5 – 2.5 turns (the ornamentation of male headdress includes one ring located on the right or on the left side); numerous North Caucasus pendants, bronze stem-cord pendants and medallions; a special type of a bronze knife with a long leaf-shaped or oval-shaped blade, chisels; clay egg-shaped vessels without a neck (Smirnov A. 1991; Sanzharov, Brityuk 1996; Bratchenko 2001).

New data on the funeral rite, the type of grave offerings including ethnographic parts of the garment, physical anthropological data of the Early Catacomb groups help us discuss the issue of independence of the Early Catacomb culture (Gey 1999) and the role of the population of this culture in the history of the Caspian Steppe exploitation. The Early Catacomb population was the earliest among numerous Catacomb groups. The appearance of the Early Catacomb groups on the Caspian Steppes was the result of the penetration of the population from the Northeastern Stavropol area and, probably, from the Eastern Azov Sea steppes (Kiyashko A. 2001) as well as from the Lower Don region (Sanzharov 2001) to the north. The funeral rite and grave offerings of these groups differ from the funeral rite and offerings of other cultural groups living on the Caspian Steppes, i.e. the Yamnaya, East Manych Catacomb, North Caucasus groups. They were the part of the common Early Catacomb horizon of the Eurasian Steppes.

OVERAL CULTURAL CONTEXT A. Smirnov believed that Early Catacomb groups in each region did not represent a new culture, they preserved specific features of their predecessors (1991; 1996: 25). V. Kiyashko was the first to single out an Early Catacomb horizon; other scholars also participated in the discussion (Smirnov A. 1996). Pluralism of proposed interpretations of this horizon underlies its mosaic pattern (Gey 1999 a), which includes the Pre-Donets-Asov Sea Early Catacomb group (Smirnov A., 1996); the Arkhara horizon of Kalmykia (Shilov 1985 b); pre-catacombs of the Kuban River region (Trifonov 1991 a); the Kubanodneprovskaya culture of the North Caucasus Piedmont area, the North Caucasus-Catacomb culture (Gey 1999 a; Andreeva, Petrenko 1998) and other cultural groups.

The homeland of the Early Catacomb culture is confined by the Azov Sea Steppes and the steppe areas of the Stavropol Hills population as well as the Lower Don region groups. Migrations of some groups from these areas to the Caspian Steppes and to the foothills and mountainous regions of the North Caucasus as well as to the Kuban region, the Northern Donets River basin and to the Dnieper River basin took place very quickly

In my Ph.D. dissertation (Shishlina 1991) the Early Catacomb groups were not culturally defined and were 137

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES (Andreeva, Novikova 2001). Hence, two groups could be synchronous.

(Andreeva, Petrenko 1998:18; Sanzharov 2001). Some types of braziers, incense burners, pots and ornamentations are found in both the Early Catacomb and the North Caucasus graves. The tradition of wrapping legs, the shift of the position of the head are common for both groups. This implies that some Early Catacomb and North Caucasus groups coexisted in the North Caucasus as well as in the Central Stavropol region and on the Caspian Steppes (Andreeva, Petrenko 1998).

Some types of ornamentation, i.e. zoomorphic and rectangular slightly convex puncheon plaques recorded for the Early Catacomb graves of the Caspian Steppes are similar to the items uncovered in the North Caucasus graves of the Kuban River basin (Nechitaylo 1979), the Central North Caucasus Piedmont area (Korenevsky 1990). Almost identical bronze double-disk pendants, flat cord pendants and stem-pendants, ring medallions have also been uncovered in the graves of two cultures (Korenevsky 1990: 42). Hence some Early Catacomb graves of the Caspian Steppes were synchronous with the North Caucasus graves of the Central North Caucasus, the Kuban River basin and the Central Stavropol area.

Ethnographic heterogeneity of the population at the stage when this culture started evolving is likely to have led to differences in many diagnostic features of the funeral rite (Sanzharov, Brityuk 1996; Sanzharov 2001) as well as in details of the funeral clothes. Several Early Catacomb sub-groups have been identified for the Caspian Steppes, i.e. different groups which occupied the Kuma-Manych Depression, the Southern Yergueni Hills, the Northeastern Stavropol Hills, the Middle Yergueni Hills. Some of them were not synchronous. The same situation is typical for other regions. One specific (elite) group left behind the Krasnozorinsky burial ground in the Donets River region (Sanzharov, Brityuk 1996); Early Catacomb graves in T-catacombs are earlier than graves of the same culture made in H-catacombs in the Northeastern Azov Sea region (Sanzharov 2001); the so-called Kadamov Early Catacomb group has been singled out for the Lower Don basin (Smirnov A. 1991); the Late Early Catacomb group built the Krasnoye Znamya burial ground in the Stavropol area (Andreeva, Petrenko 1998). Detailed analysis of the funeral rite and grave offerings found in such clusters of the Early Catacomb groups as well as comparative analysis of physical anthropological data will help identify the chronological position of such groups within overall Early Catacomb horizon and define the homeland of the earliest group/groups. They left their homeland and penetrated from the south to the north from this homeland along different river routes and determined a multi-component nature of the entire Early Catacomb culture of the Caspian Steppes.

This differentiation between the Early Catacomb groups of various areas based on archaeological data is confirmed by physical anthropological data. A. Shevchenko (1983) believed that the Early Catacomb population of the Caspian Steppes was homogeneous. Seven male skulls of the East Manych Early Catacomb group are similar to the Late North Caucasus culture skulls. The scholar defined “mixed breed” character of the Early Catacomb culture, the characteristic feature of these groups (a large relative height of nose bones and protuberant nose). He believed that this population was not descendants of the Yamnaya population (Shevchenko 1986). New data from Early Catacomb burial grounds of the Kuma-Manych Depression, the Southern and Middle Yergueni Hills (more than 25 skulls) indicate that the Early Catacomb population of the Caspian Steppes consisted of several craniology types. A series of skulls recorded for Peschany-V (the Middle Yergueni Hills) is represented by large, brachymesocephalic, European skulls. These skulls are characterized by a moderately horizontal profile in the upper facial part, and by a sharp profile in the middle part. Some skulls are more specific, i.e. a skull with a broad face and a high bridge of the nose (kurgan 1, grave 5); a massive meso-cephallic skull with a broad and low face, with a protuberant narrow nose, with a protuberant but narrow chin (kurgan 3, grave 1); a skull with a broad and low face, with a narrow protuberant nose (Fig. 92 – 93) (kurgan 3, grave 2); a skull with a large broad face, of middle-height with a very broad nose (kurgan 2, grave 3, male of 40 – 45).

North Caucasus ornamentations such as bronze cord stem-pendants, medallions, long beads and beads are typical not only for the Early Catacomb groups of the neighbouring areas (Sanzharov, Brityuk 1996). They date back to the subsequent period. Many types were modified, and replicas were made in steppe workshops (Gak 2005). The use of such items for decoration of a garment changed as well. For example, bronze slightly convex round plaques are found together with bone hammer-headed pins in the Yamnaya graves. They were details of accessories. In the Early Catacomb graves of the Lugan area (East Ukraine) they were used differently, i.e. for decoration of headdress or they were used as pieces of jewellery (Sanzharov, Brityuk 1996). The similar use of a silver ring with open ends as a part of headdress has been recorded for the Early Catacomb population of the Middle Yergueni Hills (Temrta) and Yegorlyk River basin in the Stavropol region (Berezin, Kalmykov 1998). Male and child headdress items are decorated with bronze cord stem pendants as well

Craniology series at Temrta burial grounds are different and consist of their own types, though they are close to each other. Brachycephalic (broad-headed) and mesocephalic, hyper-morphic and moderately hypermorphic skulls can be defined (Fig. 94 – 95). They differ from the Peschany series by a sharp horizontal profile of the face, by developed parietal protuberances and substantial flattening of the parietal-occiput part in the area of lambda. Children and a woman buried at TemrtaI, kurgan 1 and 2 have brachycephalic skulls with broad 138

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE

Fig. 92. Reconstruction made on the Early Catacomb male skull found at Peschany V: k. 3, g. 2, according to A.I. Nechvaloda

Fig. 93. Reconstruction made on the Early Catacomb male skull found at Peschany V: k. 3, g. 2, according to A.I. Nechvaloda

Fig. 94. Reconstruction made on the Early Catacomb male skull found at Temrta III: k.1, g.4, according to A.I. Nechvaloda

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Fig. 95. Reconstruction made on the Early Catacomb male skull found at Temrta III: k. , g. 4, according to A.I. Nechvaloda

Eneolithic period. Development of specific regions was different. The Caspian Steppes are characterized by a cultural mosaic (See Chapter 2 of this book). The appearance of the Multicultural group was the result of the coexistence of different cultural groups in this region. The analysis of this group is very important for the reconstruction of the ethno-cultural development of the area under discussion.

faces, i.e. the North Caucasus Piedmont type. The skull of a 12 year old child (kurgan 1, grave 2) is subbrachycephalic, with the straight forehead, and the wedge-like occiput, and it is very close to the North Caucasus type. A short female skull from kurgan 2 is hyper-brachycephalic. Craniology series of the Early Catacomb culture differ from the Eastern and Western Manych Catacomb series and from the local Yamnaya series.

Funeral Rite of the Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural groups of the Caspian Steppes Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural Groups Kuma-Manych Depression The Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural groups of the Caspian Steppes are characterized by several cultural groups’ funeral rites. Many scholars have studied Yamnaya and Catacomb graves. They have noted that there are graves with features characteristic for both Yamnaya and Catacomb cultures. The scholars have used such Yamnaya-Catacomb graves as a proof to their theory of genetic links between the Yamnaya and Catacomb cultures (Krivtsova-Grakova 1938; Popova 1955). Their opponents have considered that such multicultural graves is the result of the coexistence of two cultures, which were not genetically linked.

The Yamnaya-Catacomb group is represented by 50 graves uncovered in 42 kurgans of 10 burial grounds. Kurgan mounds are very small. The average diameter of primary kurgans is 16-18 m, and the average height is 0.9 – 1 m. Secondary graves have filling-in. Primary graves were built in the centre of the kurgan, secondary graves were added to the northwestern and southeastern part of the kurgan (at VMPB,65); or in the southwestern and northeastern part (at VMLBI,66). Burial constructions are represented by several types of catacombs. The Catacomb of the H-type is predominant (Fig. 96, 3 – 4; 97, 1, 3 – 4, 6 – 7). Entrance pits are rectangular or round, the floor could have steps, and there is no passage between the entrance and the chamber. The entrance could be built under the eastern or western walls and, more rarely, under the northern and southern walls. The floor of the chamber is usually located a little bit lower than the level of the entrance pit floor. In some catacombs the floors of the entrance pit and the chamber were built at the same level. One catacomb of the G-type at VMLBI,65, kurgan 4, grave 8, had a long entrance pit

Many scholars have analyzed the funeral rite of the Yamnaya-Catacomb graves (Vasilchenko 1977; Evdokimov 1979; Marina 1982; Pogorelov 1989; Boltrik at al. 1991; Pustovalov 2000). Its main features are the following: catacombs, which is typical for the Catacomb culture; and the position of the dead flexed on the back, which is common for the Yamnaya culture. The analysis of the cultures presented in other sections shows that such features are typical for other cultural groups, for examples, for the Early Catacomb cultures; and that catacombs appeared on the steppes starting from the 140

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE

Fig. 96. Yamnaya-Catacomb graves of the Kuma-Manych Depression. Chograysky V: k. 6, g. 2: 1 – plan of the grave, 2 – hammer-headed pins; 4 – g. 1; 3 – Zunda-Tolga: k. 2, g. 1 2 – bone

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Fig. 97. Yamnaya-Catacomb graves of the Kuma-Manych Depression. Zunda-Tolga-5: k. 1, g. 7: 1 – plan of the grave, 2 – hammerheaded pin; VMLBI,65: 3 – k.36, g.4; 4 – k.60, g.5; 5 – k.4, g.8; 6 – VMLBII,65: k.11, g.3; 7 – ChograyskyV: k.8, g.2

142

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE position extended on the back (Fig. 101, 4, 9). Grave offerings typical for the East Manych Catacomb culture have been found in such graves. The position of the dead placed into the rectangular pits was flexed on the left side and their orientation was northern.

and located under the corner of a large quadrangular chamber (Fig. 97, 5). Other catacombs of the same type have not been uncovered on the Caspian Steppes, but they are typical for the Late Catacomb groups of the Kuban region (Nechitaylo 1978). Few T-type (Fig. 97, 3) and G-type (Fig. 96, 7) catacombs have been found. Details of the interior of funeral constructions include wooden roofs and plant mats as well as pillows stuffed with plants.

Some graves were included into the Multicultural group on the basis of the early types of grave offerings found, i.e. bone hammer-headed pins, bronze ornamentations and some types of clay braziers. Though the burial construction, the position and the orientation of the dead are traditional for the East Manych Catacomb culture (Andreeva 2004; 2005). According to the cluster analysis, such graves refer to the group, which also included the Steppe North Caucasus, Early Catacomb and YamnayaCatacomb graves (Shishlina 1992).

The position of the dead is flexed on the back with the extended arms. Often legs remained in a raised position. In some graves the position of the dead was flexed on the back with the turn to the right or to the left. The orientation of the dead is to the north or to the east, more rarely, to the south. Ochre was used to colour the legs or the whole body of the dead. Only one collective grave containing an adult and a child has been uncovered (Fig. 97, 3).

Such graves were secondary, and rarely primary. They were built in a pit, more rarely, in a pit with shoulders. Braziers of the early types have been found in H-type catacombs. The predominant position of the dead is flexed on the left side; the dead placed in the double grave could be flexed on the right or on the left side. Several cenotaphs have been uncovered. The orientation of the dead was to the east, more rarely, to the south. Small pieces of ochre were placed into the graves or skeletons could be sprinkled with red ochre.

The Multicultural group of this area includes 27 graves. They are characterized by archaic features of funeral rites, i.e. types of catacombs or the position of the dead; sometimes grave offerings include archaic items dating to the earliest cultural groups. For example, several graves were made in the archaic T-type (Fig. 101, 2, 8) and Atype (Fig. 101, 1) catacombs, where skeletons were lying flexed on the left side. This is a predominant position of the dead of the East Manych Catacomb culture. Clay braziers have been found in graves, though such items are not typical for this culture. The Multicultural group does not look very homogenous.

Southern Yergueni Hills The Yamnaya-Catacomb group of this environmental area is represented by four graves. Kurgan mounds are small, the average diameter of primary kurgans is 10 – 12 m, and the average height is 0.40 – 0.45 m. An additional secondary Yamnaya-Catacomb grave was added into the primary Yamnaya-Catacomb kurgan at Mandjikiny-1, kurgan 19 (Fig. 98, 7). Secondary graves added to the earliest cultural groups were placed in the kurgan centre, filling-in was not used. The ditch was built around the mound.

Isolated kurgan mounds, few in numbers, are small. The average diameter is 12 – 15 m, and the average height is 0.6 – 0.8 m (VMLBI,65, kurgan 14). Secondary graves are predominant and they were added into different parts of the kurgan. Burial constructions are represented by catacombs and pits. The predominant type of the catacomb characteristic for the East Manych Catacomb culture is the H-type catacomb. Though this population kept building catacombs of the earliest types, i.e. T- and A- catacombs. Such catacombs are characterized by the stepped bottom and the decoration of the entrance. A passage was rarely built between the entrance pit and the chamber. Other graves of the Multicultural group were made in rectangular pits (Fig. 101, 3 – 4, 9). Plant mats were placed on the bottom.

The burial construction is H-type catacombs with a rectangular entrance pit and round or rectangular chambers built under the long southern or northern wall of the entrance pit (Fig. 98, 1). In such catacombs a passage was built between the entrance pit and the chamber (Fig. 98, 4-5). Only once a T-type catacomb was found at Mandjikiny-1, kurgan 1, grave 4. Interior parts of funeral constructions include plant mats placed on the bottom of the chamber. A pillow was placed under the head of the dead. One of such pillow at Mu-Sharet-1, kurgan 8, grave 3, was stuffed with goosefoot, wormwood, aster, cloves, chicory, i.e. steppe Varia.

The position of the dead varies according to the funeral construction. The dead person was lying flexed on the left side, with the arms extended to the pelvis, oriented to the south in T- and A-types of catacombs. In other graves made in catacombs, which are double, an adult was lying flexed on the left side and a child was lying extended on the back. Specific features are characteristic for double graves made in the pit. The adult was placed flexed on the left side (a typical East Manych Catacomb posture) and the child and juvenile were placed in an archaic

The position of the dead is a typical Yamnaya posture, i.e. flexed on the back with the raised legs. The head was also raised because of a special pillow, the arms were extended, and sometimes they were flexed at the elbow. The dead are oriented to the east or to the west. Ochre was not used either and there was no tradition of collective graves.

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Fig. 98. Yamnaya-Catacomb graves of the Southern Yergueni Hills. Mu-Sharet-1: k. 8, g. 3: 1 – plan of the grave, 2 – braziers, 3 – hammer-headed pin; Mandjikiny-1: k. 19: 4 – g. 1, g. 2 – 5 – plan of the grave, 6 – ring, 7 – the plan of the kurgan and its central profiles 2 – clay; 3, 6 – bone

Only one Multicultural grave has been uncovered in this region at Mu-Sharet-4, kurgan 2, grave 1. The diameter of the primary mound is 20 m; the height is 0.5 m. Domesticated animal bones were placed around the primary grave. The T type catacomb had the sloping floor in the entrance pit, the entrance was closed by a wooden screen and a plant mat. The dead was placed flexed on the left side and oriented to the southwest (Shishlina et al. 2001 b).

Eastern Stavropol Hills Only one Yamnaya-Catacomb grave has been uncovered in this environmental area (Andreeva 1989: 72). It was made in an H-type catacomb, the dead was placed flexed on the back and oriented to the northeast. One grave at Chogray VIII, kurgan 23, grave 2, dates back to the Multicultural group. The dead was placed 144

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE

Fig. 99. Yamnaya-Catacomb graves of the Middle Yergueni Hills. Elista: k. 8, g. 8: 1 – plan of the grave, 2 – hammer-headed pins, 3 – k. 31, g. 7; Lola II: k. 12, g. 2: 4 – ring, 5 – plan of the grave; 6 – g. 1; 7 – k. 13, g. 3 2, 4 – bone

The funeral construction is an H-type catacomb with a rectangular entrance pit oriented to the north – south or to the west – east. An oval chamber located under the long (northern, western and southern) wall was built (Fig. 99, 1, 3, 5 – 7). Plant mats and pillows were placed on the floor of the chamber.

flexed on the left side and oriented to the east in a T-type catacomb. A bone hammer-headed pin was found in this burial. Middle Yergueni Hills The Yamnaya-Catacomb group of this region is represented by 11 graves uncovered in 10 kurgans of 6 kurgan burial grounds.

The dead were placed flexed on the back or flexed on the back with a turn to the left side. Ochre was used to colour the legs or the whole body of the dead. Collective graves have not been found.

The diameter of primary kurgan mounds is 10 m, and the average height is 0.50-0.70 m. Secondary graves added into the earliest kurgans had filling-in (Elista, kurgan 10).

The Multicultural group is small and heterogeneous. It includes three double graves in which one of the dead 145

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 100. Yamnaya-Catacomb graves of the Caspian Plain. 1 – Krivaya Luka XXI: k. 1, g. 8; 2 – Krivaya Luka XXIII: k. 2, g. 4; 3 – Tsagan-Usn III: k. 5, g. 5; 4 – Krivaya Luka XXII: k. 3, g. 7; 5 – Tsatsa: k. 3, g. 2; 6 – Iki-Zegista: k. 4, g. 5

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Fig. 101. Multicultural graves in A- and Tcatacombs and pits with grave offerings of Catacomb culture types, Kuma-Manych Depression and the Middle Yergueni Hills. VMLBI,65: 1 – k. 5, g. 4; 4 – k. 14, g. 1; 2 – VMLBII,66: k. 20, g. 4; 3 – VMLBII,65: k. 34, g. 4; 5 – Elista: k. 2, g. 8; Arkhara: 6 – k. 2, g. 5; 7 – k. 31, g. 1; VMLBI,66: k. 28: 8 – g. 7, 9 – g. 9

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BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES Western Part of the Caspian Plain

was placed extended on the back, i.e. in the archaic posture. Such graves could be both primary and secondary. One Multicultural grave has been uncovered at Arkhara, kurgan 31. Typical for the East Manych Catacomb culture, a ritual place was built one meter above the primary grave. It contained skulls and legs of five cows. Secondary Multicultural graves had filling-in.

The Yamnaya-Catacomb group of this region consists of 9 graves uncovered in 8 kurgans from 4 kurgan burial grounds.

Funeral constructions are represented by the Ch-type catacomb with a very deep entrance pit with shoulders (Fig. 101, 7); the H- and T-type catacombs (Fig. 101, 8) and rectangular pits (Fig. 101, 5 – 6). The interior decorations include plant mats. At Elista, kurgan 2, grave 8, the walls of the pit were covered by plant mats, wooden poles were placed at each corner; at kurgan 8, grave 6, a wooden rectangular wagon was placed into the pit. Four graves are double burials and they are characterized by a specific position of the dead, i.e. the adult was lying on the left side, the child was lying extended in the back. All dead were oriented to the south. Ochre was not used.

The typical funeral tradition of this group is the H type catacomb with round or rectangular entrance pit oriented to the north – south or west – east. The floor of the entrance pit is flat or stepped; the chamber was built under the long northern or northeastern wall. There is no passage between the entrance pit and the chamber (Fig. 100, 3).

Almost all kurgans are primary, the diameter of primary kurgan mounds is around 20 m, and the average height is 0.30-0.70 m. Secondary graves were added into Yamnaya kurgans.

The Caspian Plain

The interior decoration includes mats on the floor, plant covers. All dead were placed flexed on the back and oriented to the east, more rarely, to the southeast. Ochre was used to colour the dead and the floor of the pit.

The Yamnaya-Catacomb group consists of 31 graves uncovered in 27 kurgans from 19 kurgan burial grounds.

Multicultural graves have not been uncovered in this region.

The diameter of primary kurgan mounds is 14 – 20 m, and the average height is 0.60 – 1.00 m (Krivaya Luka, Khanota). A Yamnaya-Catacomb grave was added into a small natural hill at Iki-Zegista, the ditch was built around it. This construction has been found in other burial ground. Secondary graves were added into the southwestern, southeastern parts of the primary kurgans without filling-in.

Material Culture Grave offerings have been found in one-third of Yamnaya-Catacomb graves and they were placed in almost all Multicultural burials.

Ceramic The funeral construction is the H-type catacomb (Fig. 100, 1 – 2, 4 – 6). The entrance pit is rectangular or round, the floor could be stepped, and the passage between the entrance pit and the chamber was not built. In some cases the floor in the entrance pit and in the chamber was built at the same level. The catacombs with the entrance built in the northern walls are predominant. The interior decorations include wooden floors in chambers, bark covers (Krivaya Luka), the wooden door with a reed mat, mats on the chamber floor; pillows under the skull of the dead.

Clay vessels Few clay vessels have been uncovered in both YamnayaCatacomb and Multicultural graves. Jugs, pots and incense burners of the East Manych Catacomb types, incense burners in the form of low bowls without a partition and ornamentation on the pedestal with crossed legs (Fig. 103, 2) have been found in Yamnaya-Catacomb burials (Fig. 104, 2); some vessels are richly ornamented (Fig. 103, 1, 6). Unbroken large earthenware pots have not been uncovered; only their fragments have been found, i.e. bottoms and sides, which were used as braziers. The average diameter of the bottom is 7.7. cm (Fig. 104, 4 – 6). They are ornamented by tooth stamps and fingerprints.

The traditional position of the dead is flexed on the back with the extended arms, the position flexed on the back with the turn to the left or right side was also used. The arms could be flexed at the elbow. Collective graves have not been found. The eastern orientation of the dead is predominant; northern, northeastern, southeastern and northwestern orientations were also used.

One type of pots has been singled out in the Caspian Plain group. It is very similar to the vessels of Group II, sub-group I, type 1 uncovered in Yamnaya burials of the same region, i.e. flat-bottom pots with a small neck and an edge, a round or oval body (Fig. 102, 1 – 5). The upper part of the entire body is ornamented with cord or braid impressions or a tooth-like pattern. The same type of vessels is characteristic for Poltavka graves of the Volga

There are no Multicultural graves in this environmental area.

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Fig. 102. Vessels from the Yamnaya-Catacomb graves of the Caspian Steppes. 1 – Iki-Zegista: k. 4, g. ; 2 – Djangr: k. 5, g. 3; Djangr: k. 36, g. 7; 4 – Evdyk I: k. 9, g. 2; 5 – Sholmun-Tolga: k. 1, g. 12; 6 – Krivaya Luka XIV: k. 6, g .6 1 – 6 – clay

region (Bagautdinov, Pyatykh 1987). A flat-bottom pot without a neck, with four handles located near the bottom, ornamented with cord impression has been also uncovered in a Yamnaya-Catacomb grave of the Caspian Plain. A similar vessel has been uncovered in the Late Yamnaya grave at Sovetskoye in the Trans-Volga region (Barinov 1996: Fig. 4, 5).

Specific forms of vessels are represented by large earthenware pots, whose fragments were used as braziers. Such items are not typical for the East Manych Catacomb culture where incense burners became to be one of specific markers (Panasyuk 2005). Such pots are decorated with small tooth-like stamps and incised lines arranged in a herring-bone pattern (Fig. 104).

East Manych Catacomb vessels are typical for the Multicultural grave offerings, i.e. jugs with handles (Andreeva 1989: Fig. 3, 2), pots with an edge and a round body, richly ornamented; funnels; incense burners (Sinitsyn 1978: Table 5-9, 31-10, 34-11; Sinitsyn, Erdniev 1981; Erdniev 1982) (Fig. 103). One-two, sometimes four vessels were placed into such graves (Sinitsyn, Erdniev 1966: 52).

Braziers were often placed into Multicultural adult graves; more rarely, into child graves; they were located around the dead, i.e. near the knees, the skull, behind the back or legs as well as in the entrance pit. Pots have been often found in child graves. Pots and braziers have been found in Yamnaya-Catacomb adult burials; they were placed near the left or right shoulder; more rarely, near the skull or the knees.

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Fig. 103. Vessels from Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural graves of the Caspian Steppes. 1 – KVCH-41: k. 3, g. 1; 2 – VMLBI,66: k. 8, g. 2; 3 – VMLBI,66: k. 28, g. 9; 4 – Krivaya Luka XXXIV: k. 1, g. 13; 5 – Krivaya Luka XXI: k. 8, g. 3; 6 – VMLBI,65: k. 8, g. 2; 7 – VMLBII,66: k.6 7, g. 2; 8 – 9 – Arkhara: k. 31, g. 1 1 – 9 – clay

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FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE Neck and breast decorations are more diverse. Bone cylindrical and bronze beads, pendants made of fish bones; bone rings have been uncovered around the neck of the dead. In other graves the shoulder of the dead could be decorated with a shell pendant or bronze stemcord pendants. Few details of the arm ornamentation have been found, i.e. a bracelet made of bronze beads, and a bone ring found on the finger of the left arm (Fig. 99, 4). No details of belt-sets or legs decorations have been found in this group. Bone pins (20 items) and one bronze pin were used as accessories. They have been found in 16 burials. Bone pins are represented by hammer-headed pins of type 2 (1 item) and numerous variations of type 4 (Fig. 96, 2; 98, 3; 99, 2). They differ in size, the shape of the head and geometric ornamentation (19 items). One or two pins could be placed into one grave. Bone hammer-headed pins of type 2 and 4 have been found at Chograysky V, kurgan 6, grave 1 (Fig. 96, 2; 105, 4); five hammerheaded pins of type 4 have been uncovered at Arkhara, kurgan 1, grave 3 (Fig. 99, 2). Broken items imply that pins were in use for a long time. One bronze hammerheaded pin of type 1 has been uncovered (Fig. 106, 8). A bone long bead was placed into the same grave. Pins were placed near the hand of the left arm under the hips; near the elbow; on the left side above the pelvis. Other pins were lying on the right hip; between the right shoulder and the body. In one case the pin was placed under the skull. It is possible that it decorated the headdress. Almost all pins have been found in adult graves. Bones of birds were sometimes decorated with carved ornamentation (Fig. 105, 6) or were colored with red ochre; sheep astragali were often colored with red ochre, and if found in child burials, could be considered as amulets as well. Details of the headdress of the Multicultural group have been found only in female graves. They include bronze rings turned in 1.5 coils, which decorated a forehead band or a cap.

Fig. 104. Clay braziers from multicultural graves of the Caspian Steppes. 1-3 – KVCH-56: k.6, g.16; 4 – VMLBIII,66: k.20, g.8 1 – bone; 2-4 – clay

Chest details of the ornamentation have been found in adult (female?) graves. They include a necklace consisting of 65 bronze cylindrical beads; a necklace made of more than 200 faience and cornelian beads. Other chest ornamentations include 10 bronze ring medallions with a hook (Fig. 106, 6), cast pendants with imitation of a cord pattern ended with two spirals (Fig. 106, 4), and three bronze rings turned in 1.5 coils; a bronze pin (Fig. 101, 10) and a spoon-shaped pendant (Fig. 106, 7). Barrel-shaped bronze beads, beads made of fish teeth, a carved long bone bead could have also been details of the front part of the clothes. Child decorations are represented by necklaces consisting of bronze beads made of thick flat plaques (Sinitsyn, Erdniev 1966: Table 12-6), white and blue faience beads.

Ornamentations and details of the garment Few ornamentation pieces have been found in YamnayaCatacomb graves. Details of the headdress have been uncovered in adult and child graves. They are represented by bronze round temple rings; stem-pendants in the form of a twisted cord with a ball at the end. Such pendants decorated a forehead band or a cap. In some graves the headdress was decorated with bronze round temple rings turned in 1.5 coils. A bone hammer-headed pin of type 4 and a carved long bead were placed near the temple of the dead at Djangr, kurgan 4, grave 4.

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Fig. 105. Pins and amulets of the Yamnaya-Catacomb graves of the Caspian Steppes. 1 – Three Brothers: k. 5, g. 4; 2 – VMPB,67: k. 29, g. 4; 3 – VMLBIII,66: k. 15, g. 10; 4 – Chograysky V: k. 6, g. 2; 5 – Tsagan-Usn III: k. 5, g. 5; 6 – VMLBII,66: k. 39, g. 4 1 – 6 – bone

the centre can be considered accessories as well (Fig. 106, 12 – 14). The sets of child amulets consisting of 25 sheep astragali; or 20 bone rings and one bone pin without ornamentation have been uncovered as well.

Accessories are represented by bone and bronze pins. Bone pins have been uncovered only in adult (male?) graves. One bone hammer-headed pin of type 4 and one bronze multi-headed pin have been uncovered at VMLBIII,66, kurgan 4, grave 13 (Fig. 106, 9 – 10). A bone hammer-headed pin of type 4 with carved ornamentation has been uncovered in the grave of a man of 45 – 55 years old, a similar pin has been found at Chogray VIII, kurgan 23, grave 2.

Weapons and Tools Few weapons and tools have been uncovered in Yamnaya-Catacomb group. Only two bronze knives, grinding stones and pestles have been found. Numerous metal and stone items are typical for the Multicultural group representing main types of East Manych Catacomb grave offerings. They include knives with parallel blades or a leaf-shaped blade, rectangular awls, stone rectifiers for an arrow shaft.

The bronze set of ornamentations uncovered at VMLBIII,66, kurgan 2, grave 10, i.e. two round rings turned in 1.5 coils (details of the headdress?), three crook-shaped pins with cast ornamentation, two umbos and more than 50 cast arc-shaped pendants with a hole in 152

FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE

Fig. 106. Ornamentations from Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural graves of the Caspian Steppes. 1 – Krivaya Luka XIV: k. 6, g. 6; 2 – Evdyk I: k. 6, g. 4; 3 – Tsagan-Usn V: k. 5, g. 5: 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10 – VMLBIII,66: k. 4, g. 13; 5 – Mandjikiny-1: k. 19, g. 1; 8 – KVCH-41: k. 3, g. 1; 11 – VMLBII,66: k. 67, g. 2; 12 – 14 – VMLBIII,66: k. 2, g. 10; 15 – Chogray VIII: k. 23, g. 2 1 – 4, 6 – 9, 10 – 14 – bronze; 5, 9, 15 – bone

The Yamnaya-Catacomb group is characterized by the following features.

Textile Items Plant mats have been uncovered in the YamnayaCatacomb group. One of such mat found at Mandjikiny1, kurgan 19, grave 1, was braided from leaves and stems of reed and gramineous plants. Such item is very similar to plant mats of the Yamnaya culture. Its size is 0.50 x 1.35 m.

This population group used Yamnaya kurgans or built small mounds. Additional filling-in overlies secondary graves. A ditch could surround the mound as well (the Southern Yergueni Hills and the Caspian Plain). The Htype catacombs are predominant, details of such catacombs are simple. Catacomb of types A and T have been used only in the Kuma-Manych Depression. G-type catacombs similar to the Kuban catacombs have been uncovered only in this region. H-type catacombs have a stepped entrance pit and separate elements of the interior, i.e. curtains, mats, pillows, plant coverings. The predominant position of the dead is flexed on the back; orientation differs depending on the regions, i.e. northern, eastern and southern orientation have been used in the Kuma-Manych Depression; eastern or western orientations have been used in the Southern Yergueni Hills; the eastern orientation was predominant in the

FUNERAL RITE TRADITIONS AND MATERIAL CULTURE OF THE YAMNAYA-CATACOMB AND MULTICULTURAL GROUPS OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural groups are characterized by a syncretic funeral rite but they date back to different chronological horizons.

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BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES Caspian Plain. Ochre was used to colour the dead. Few collective graves have been uncovered.

Catacomb grave offerings have been found in such graves as well.

The Multicultural group is characterized by the following features.

COMPARATIVE MATERIAL The Volga-Don region. Specific burials of the YamnayaCatacomb type have been uncovered in this area. V. Melnik believed that such graves were synchronous with Poltavka burials due to the coexistence of the Yamnaya, Poltavka and Catacomb populations. These groups interacted with each other. The scholar believed that the origin of the Poltavka culture in the Trans-Volga area was linked with the Yamnaya culture (Melnik 1985).

Few primary kurgans were built; very often the earliest mound was used to build secondary graves. Catacombs of T- and A-types are very archaic against the background of H-type catacombs typical for the East Manych Catacomb culture. These types of graves have been uncovered in the Southern and the Middle Yergueni Hills, the eastern part of the Stavropol Hills, in the KumaManych Depression. Ch-type catacombs and pit funeral constructions are typical for the Multicultural graves of the Middle Yergueni Hills. The position of the dead in the pit construction is flexed and extended on the back and flexed on the side. Very often in collective graves one of the dead lies in the archaic position on the back, another dead lies on the side, i.e. in the typical position of the East Manych Catacomb rite. It is possible that such difference in the position of the dead is the result of social differentiation. Only children and juveniles were placed according to the archaic funeral rite, i.e. they were lying flexed on the back in the Kuma-Manych Depression and extended on the back in the Middle Yergueni Hills. All adult dead were placed according to the East Manych Catacomb rite, i.e. flexed on the side. Rich grave offerings consist of typical East Manych Catacomb items, placed near the child or juvenile.

The Don region. The specific Yamnaya-Catacomb burials have been found in the Lower and the Middle Don area. A specific funeral construction, the position of the dead, the type of grave offerings characteristic for both the Yamnaya and Catacomb groups of population are main features of the syncretic funeral rite. Group III according to the Bronze Age periodization of the Middle Don region proposed by Sinyuk correlates with group IV of the Yamnaya culture according to Merpert and group IX according to Kiyashko (Sinyuk 1983). This group formed during the infiltration of the Catacomb population from different regions and the spread of specific funeral rites, i.e. East Manych Catacomb, Donetsk Catacomb and other cultural groups in the Middle Don region.

Hence, the analyses of both groups indicate that the Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural groups are not characterized by a standard funeral rite. Specific regions and different burial grounds have variations.

One sixth of the Middle Don Catacomb graves (39 out of 234 burials) are characterized by funeral rites of both Yamnaya and Catacomb cultures, i.e. grave constructions in the form of pits or catacombs; the position of the dead flexed on the back or on the right side; clay pots and braziers, bronze leaf-shaped knives, faience and motherof pearl beads; flint arrow heads with a hollow in the base. Yamnaya-Catacomb graves formed isolated clusters of kurgans; according to stratigraphy, they followed the graves of the Developed and Late Stages of the Middle Don Catacomb graves (Pogorelov 1989).

The analysis of the grave offerings shows that they can be divided into two groups. One group consists of items similar to the items found in Yamnaya, Steppe North Caucasus, Early Catacomb burials; another group consists of typical East Manych Catacomb items. Almost all offerings have been found in adult graves of the Yamnaya-Catacomb group and child or juvenile Multicultural burials. Archaic types of such items include pots similar to the Yamnaya or Poltavka groups; numerous bronze ornamentations, i.e. stem-pendants in the form of a twisted cord similar to the items found in Yamnaya, Steppe North Caucasus and Early Catacomb burials; flat stem-pendants similar to the Early Catacomb and North Caucasus items; round medallions, spoonshaped pendants, double-hammer-headed, hammerheaded and crook-shaped pins similar to the items uncovered on the Caspian Steppes as well as in foothill regions of the North Caucasus graves dating to the North Caucasus and Early Catacomb cultures. Such items were used as clothes decorations. Hammer-headed pins of type 4 (see Chapter 2, section 3) have been also uncovered, but they were placed not to the left of the arm as was typical for the earliest cultural groups, but under the skull or on the breast of the dead. Main types of the pins were still in use but their use changed. Numerous East Manych

Multicultural graves have been uncovered in the Lower Don region. Two dead juveniles were placed into a grave made in a pit. The position of the dead was flexed on the right side; they were oriented to the east-southeast. Grave offerings were placed into the grave, i.e. a set of amulets consisting of three bronze crook-shaped pins, the bead and two semi-spherical plaques; a clay incense burner and a model of the wagon similar the model found in the Late Yamnaya grave at VMLBI,65, kurgan 58, grave 1(Kiyashko A. 2002) A man was placed flexed on the side and a child was placed flexed on the back at Koldyri, kurgan 21, grave 3. Typical Catacomb grave offerings were placed in the pit, i.e. five clay pots, an incense burner, a pestle, a bronze awl and beads (Kulik 2004).

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FUNERAL RITE AND MATERIAL CULTURE The Stavropol region. Few Yamnaya-Catacomb burials have been uncovered in the Steppe Stavropol region (Shishlina 2007) similar to the ones uncovered on the Caspian Steppes. Several graves can be correlated with the Multicultural group as well. An adult was placed flexed on the back and two children were placed extended on the back in the pit. Grave offerings include a Catacomb pot and braziers.

several cultural population groups were interacting with each other. This led to the appearance of syncretic graves. Gorodtsov was the first to note the graves in which the orientation and the position of the dead as well as the tradition of using ochre was similar to typical Donetsk graves, though the dead were placed not in a catacomb but in a pit (Gorodtsov 1915). He believed that such graves were accidental. It brought to the foreground the so called Yamnaya-Catacomb issue linked to the issue of the origin of the Bronze Age cultures. Krivtsova-Grakova believed that the Catacomb culture was gradually developing from the Yamnaya culture (1938). She considered Yamnaya-Catacomb graves as a regular phenomenon (Popova 1955). Popova examined graves made in catacombs, where the dead were placed flexed on the back and believed that the Yamnaya and Catacomb cultures were genetically linked (Popova 1955). Some scholars shared her view (Yessen 1954; Smirnov K. 1959). Other scholars believed that graves in catacombs, with the dead placed flexed on the back, were only the result of the coexistence and interaction of the Yamnaya and Catacomb populations (Synitsin, Erdniev 1971); or should be dated back to the Late Yamnaya culture (Fisenko 1967) or Catacomb culture (Moshkova, Fedorova-Davydova 1974). According to Safronov, the Yamnaya population began to use the funeral construction of the Catacomb population (1974). According to Sanzharov, some of Yamnaya-Catacomb graves should be dated to the Early Catacomb period, others should be referred to the subsequent period (Sanzharov 2001).

The Asov-Dnieper Steppes. A number of YamnayaCatacomb graves have been uncovered in this area. They are characterized by mixed funeral rites and they are the result of coexistence of the Late Yamnaya and Catacomb populations in the same region. Some burials can be considered as Multicultural. They were built in pits, the dead was placed flexed on the back, grave offerings include Catacomb items (Marina 1990). The Boug region. Around 1% of uncovered Late Yamnaya graves can be referred to the YamnayaCatacomb group. A specific funeral rite characteristic for both Yamnaya and Catacomb cultures is typical for such graves. The graves were located in the southwestern and southeastern parts of the kurgan; the ochre was used very rarely, grave offerings include typical Catacomb vessels and incense burners though other funeral features are typical for the Yamnaya culture. Such graves are located on the South Boug River Left Bank, in the Ingul and Ingulets Rivers basins and they were the result of migration of the Early Catacomb population from the Lower Dnieper region (Fomenko 1990). The Orel River basin is also characterized by syncretic Yamnaya-Catacomb burials. The dead could be placed into a pit grave following the Catacomb tradition, i.e. flexed on the side;22 one of the dead in the double grave was placed flexed on the side, another dead, a child, was lying flexed on the back. The dead could be placed flexed on the side into the catacomb, but grave offerings include Yamnaya items.23 Other graves contained the dead placed flexed on the back into the catacomb; grave offerings include Catacomb items. Some double graves are similar to Multicultural, Late Yamnaya and Catacomb burials of the Caspian Steppes and reflect the interaction of the local Yamnaya population with the Catacomb groups which moved to the Orel River basin from the Donetsk River basin. Multicultural burials, with two dead placed in different positions, i.e. flexed on the back and on the side also existed (Vasilchenko 1977).

Two features of the funeral rite, i.e. the catacomb construction of the grave and the flexed position of the dead, are not adequate indicators of the YamnayaCatacomb graves.24 Comparative analysis should rely on all features of the funeral rite in order to indicate that in a specific region the local Yamnaya population began to use a new funeral construction under specific conditions.25 Such situation has been reconstructed for the Asov-Dnieper Steppes (Smirnov A. 1991); the Orel and the Ingul regions. Some graves similar to the graves found in the Volga-Don interfluves could be dated to the Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural cultures as well.

GENERAL CULTURAL CONTEXT

The comparative analyses of the funeral rite and grave offerings of many environmental areas of the Black Sea Steppes point to the coexistence of at least three cultures in the Crimea, the Lower Dnieper, the Asov region, the Orel-Samara region, the Ingul and the Southern Boug regions (Pustovalov 2000).

The specific funeral rite of Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural groups of the Caspian Steppes is defined by a general cultural context on the Caspian Steppes during the Early Stage of the Middle Bronze Age. At that time

Child graves with specific items uncovered in the Northern Donetsk basin (clay pots) indicate that a child who was born in the area considered of one parent could be buried according to traditions used by another parent

22 If there are Yamnaya or North Caucasus items among the grave offerings the grave dates back to the Multicultural group. 23 Such graves date back to the Multicultural group according to the periodization proposed in this book.

24 For example, such features are characteristic for the Early Catacomb graves as well. 25 The catacomb construction of the grave began to be used on the Steppe starting from the Eneolithic Age.

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BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES as a result of marriage links (Smirnov A. 1996: 120). A similar situation has been reconstructed for the Orel River basin. The position of a dead child in YamnayaCatacomb graves is archaic, i.e. flexed on the back (Vasilchenko 1977). The appearance of the Yamnaya-Catacomb graves on the margins of Catacomb cultures indicates that in such areas newcomers did not belong to the local Yamnaya population. Catacomb groups began to live in the same areas. The local groups began to use another funeral rite. Physical anthropological data confirm this proposal. Many scholars point to differences in many Yamnaya and Catacomb skull series (Gerasimov 1955). Data from the Caspian Steppes are similar (Shevchenko 1986; Khokhlov 2001). Multicultural graves is the result of immediate interaction of the population belonging to cultural traditions (Marina 1990). Hence, new data allow us to single out local micro-areas in a large Catacomb area where both Yamnaya and Catacomb population lived together in marginal zones of coexistence. The focus of our future studies will be to find out how quickly or how slowly the assimilation and acculturation took place. Multicultural graves against the background of this cultural mosaic look like reminiscence of the archaic ritual preserved in a new Catacomb environment subsequent with items made according to old traditions. The existence of such graves is likely to be the result of social development of Catacomb groups. *** Conclusion. Detailed analyses of the funeral rite and grave offerings have allowed us to propose the description of cultures, whose population exploited the Caspian Steppes throughout several millennia, creating life styles. The relative and absolute chronologies of such groups are presented below.

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CHAPTER 2 EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE: A CHANGE OF CULTURAL TRADITIONS

graves in kurgans (primary/secondary), a precise cultural attribution of graves and the type of the samples, which were taken for radiocarbon dating.

Methodology for Culture Sequence Identification A special methodology has been used to determine the sequence of cultures under investigation. Several techniques of analyses have been selected:

Using comparative analyses of primary features of funeral rites and cultural and chronological markers of funeral offerings, we may also derive sequence of cultures under discussion.

1. Topography of burial grounds and kurgans; 2. Planigraphy of burial grounds; 3. Detailed analyses of the kurgan stratigraphy and the Harris Matrix method; 4. Absolute chronology based on series of calibrated 14 C dates; 5. Comparative analyses of funeral rites and offerings obtained for cultures; 6. Seasonality data of kurgans and graves.

The evidence of relative chronology may find support in the seasonality of kurgans and graves. Each grave is a closed archaeological context which, like the surface of the earliest buried soil covered by the mound, contains important information on the season when the grave and the mound were constructed. The methodology used to determine the season of graves and kurgans is based on the following factors: 1) analyses of dentum and cementum of animal teeth found in burials and kurgans; 2) analyses of dentum and cementum of human teeth found in burials; 3) pollen analyses of a specific archaeological context, i.e. pillow under the skull, vessel and human stomach area residue, analyses of subsoil; 4) analyses of eggshell; 5) osteological analyses of animal bones from graves and kurgans (Kirillova et al. 2000; Klevezal, Shishlina 2001; Shishlina, Pakhomov 2001c; 2002; Klevezal et al. 2006). Data obtained through several methods were correlated for several graves. Seasonality data were derived only for the Kuma-Manych Depression, the Southern and the Middle Yergueni Hills and the Caspian Plain environmental areas.

In order to understand how people settled down and exploited the region under investigation we need to demonstrate the spatial location of archaeological sites over the time period, from c.5000 to 2000 BC. Kurgan burial grounds remain the primary sources used to reconstruct the density of the population settled in the region. However the site location is not a direct reflection of population density but it introduces a ratio of sites of different cultures across environmental areas. The general pattern of spatial exploitation of the Caspian Steppes is defined by topography of archaeological sites. The local pattern of spatial exploitation of specific environmental areas is based on planigraphy of burial grounds.

On the basis of correlation of the general database obtained through these six approaches, a chronological model of sequence of the Caspian Steppes cultures dating to 5000–2000 calBC has been proposed.

A traditional theoretical strategy for studying the sequence of archaeological cultures is based on the analyses of site stratification. The kurgan stratigraphy contains evidences of sequence of cultures of the region. A mound was put up over a primary burial, when this burial was roofed. The population of the same culture as well as subsequent cultures could use the same mound. The sequence of graves against the background of vertical stratigraphy, and the horizontal planigraphy, help us propose a model of relative culture chronology.

Topography of Archaeological Sites of the Caspian Steppes: General Character of Exploitation of Steppe The exploitation of the Caspian Steppes began in the Stone Age. According to the Koltsov model, the Stone Age population preferred to settle down in the area, which is currently within the layers of the Khvalynsk Caspian Sea sediment: along the Lower Volga, numerous full-flowing and fresh-water coastal lakes located on the Caspian and Sarpa Plains (Koltsov 1985). The model advanced by Koltsov suggests that the Black Lands extending to the east coastline of the Caspian Sea, rivers of the eastern slope of the Middle Yergueni Hills, Kuma River steppes were exploited, while the Southern Yergueni Hills, west slopes of the Middle Yergueni Hills, the Kuma-Manych Depression were almost vacant during the end of the Stone Age (Fig. 107).

A series of 14C age measurements of human and animal bones, wood, and plant was made in order to produce an age range for each culture mentioned earlier (Shishlina et. al 2001a). The primary task of this work is to obtain calendar intervals based on calibrated 14C dates for the identified cultures and to determine the time period when such cultures appeared on the Caspian Steppes and the time interval of their possible existence and coexistence. It was also very important to analyze a new 14C database taking into account a distinct stratigraphic position of

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158

EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THEMIDDLE BRONZE AGE

Fig. 108. Eneolithic sites of the Caspian Steppes: 1–VMLBIII,66; 2–Zunda-Tolga-1; 3–Chogray II; 4–Arkhara; 5–Three Brothers; 6– Nikolskoye V and VI; 7–Staritsa; 8–Krivaya Luka XV; 9–KVCH-27; 10–Ulan-Tolga, 11–survey finds near the Chogray reservoir (left bank of the Eastern Manych); 12–survey finds along Lake Koltonur; 13–survey finds near Kumskaya MZHK; 14–survey finds near Lake Adyk; 15–survey finds in Yastak-Khuduk Gorge; 16–Ulan-Tug; 17–survey finds near Yashkul River; 18–Lake Salt; 19– Djangr; 20–survey finds near Caspian Sea; 21–Levokumsk; 22–Bazhigan; 23–Achikulak; 24–Peregruznoye I; 25–Shlakhovsky II; 26–Basinskoye and Zenzeli villages; 27–Tipki-I; 28–Zolotarevka-5; 29–Saygachy

159

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160

EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THEMIDDLE BRONZE AGE

Fig. 109. Early Majkop sites of the Caspian Steppes. 1–VMLBIII,66; 2–Zunda-Tolga-1; 3–Mandjikiny-1; 4–Sharachalsun-6; 5– Chogray I; 6–Evdyk; 7–Chograysky VI; 8–Shared; 9–Lake Koltan-Nur; 10–Achikulak; 11–Bazhigan; 12–Machmut-Mekteb; 13– survey finds near Lake Adyk; 14–Primorsky II

161

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162

EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THEMIDDLE BRONZE AGE

Fig. 110. Late Majkop and Early Yamnaya kurgans of the Caspian Steppes: 1–Zunda-Tolga-1; 2–Chogray; 3–Ulan-Tolga; 4–Evdyk; 5–Tsatsa; 6–KVCH-56; 7–Koltan-Nur Lake; 8–Adyk; 9–Achikulak; 10–Bazhigan; 11–Machmut-Mekteb; 13–Ajgursky 2; 14– Zolotarevka-1; 15–Mu-Sharet-4; 16–Khar-Zukha-1; 17–VMPB,67

163

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES found near the Lake Adyk and the Lake Koltonur and the Yastak-Khuduk gorge on the Black Lands as well as near the coastline of the Caspian Sea. On the basis of these finds, we may suggest that valleys of large rivers and shores of lakes, the Caspian Sea steppes began to be exploited by that time. Five kurgan burial grounds dating to the Early Steppe Majkop culture are located not far from each other on the upper part of the watershed plateaus of the Southern Yergueni Hills, in the valleys of Kuma-Manych Depression rivers (Fig. 109, a) (Zunda-Tolga-1, Sharakhalsun-5, Chogray) (Fig. 109, b). All kurgans were linked to the local river network, i.e. the East Manych, Kalaus and Shared rivers. The Evdyk burial ground is located on the Lake Tsagan-Nur coast on the Sarpa Plain (Fig. 109, c). The offerings, i.e. the Majkop culture red-clay fragment of a large vessel, a bronze knife (Markovin 1992. Fig.530, 42, 6-3), and flint Majkop arrow heads found in the Kuma River valleys, near the Black Lands lakes, on the watershed plateaus of the Southern Yergueni Hills, indicate that the Early Majkop population penetrated from the southern areas of the North Caucasus into the north steppes.

Fig. 107. Mesolithic-Neolithic sites of the Caspian Steppes (according to Koltsov 1990): 1- Kharba; 2–Djangr; 3–Guva 1; 4–Guva 2; 5–Khanata 1; 6–Khanata-2; 7–Zakhanata; 8– Obilnoye 1; 9–Obilnoye-2; 10–Yashkul 1, 11–Yashkul 2; 12– Yashkul 3; 13–Yashkul 4; 14–Yashkul 5; 15–Tu-BuzguKhuduk 2; 16–Tu- Buzgu-Khuduk 1; 17–Molodezhnoye 1; 18– Molodezhnoye 2; 19–Molodezhnoye 3; 20–Ulan-Tug; 21–UlanTug 2; 22–Basy; 22–Zenzeli; 24–Adyk; 25–Pereshkino; 26– Komsomolskoye; 27–Ulan-Tug-3; 28–Ulan-Tug-4; 29– Artezian; 30–Manty; 31–Yasta-Khuduk; 32–Yashkul 6; 33– Yashkul 7; 34–Yashkul 8; 35–Achukulak; 36–Bazhigan; 37– Turksad; 38–Makhmud-Mekteb

Kurgans of the Late Steppe Majkop culture (Fig. 110, a) are located in the Kuma-Manych Depression and to the northeast of the Stavropol Hills (Fig. 110, b), on the Caspian and Sarpa Plains (Fig. 110, g) and along the lake coast located to the south (Fig. 110, v). When we compare the location of the Early Majkop kurgans, the Late Majkop population exploited only flat plains. All kurgans were built near rivers and lakes. Survey objects, such as ceramics or Majkop type flint arrow heads, were found on the Kuma Steppes and the Black Lands (Fig. 110, a, b). By the end of the Late Majkop period the Early Yamnaya kurgans appeared. Such kurgans of the MuSharet, Khar-Zukha, East Manych, Tsatsa burial grounds were located near lake and river coastlines and on the watershed plateaus of the Middle and Southern Yergueni Hills and the Caspian Plain and the Kuma-Manych Depression.

Steppe Eneolithic sites (Fig. 108, a) were located on the watershed plateaus of the North and Middle Yergueni Hills (Fig. 108, b), near narrow gorges, lakes or in the first flood-plains (Arkhara, Ulan-Tolga, Zunda-Tolga, Nikolskoye). It has been suggested that some items found in the upper layers of some Late Neolithic settlements located on the Black Lands (Fig. 108, b) and survey findings from eastern slopes of the Yergueni Hills date to the Eneolithic period.

Yamnaya kurgans of the Caspian Steppes did not form all-round “kurgan field”. They were distributed across six environmental areas: the Kuma-Manych Depression, the Southern Yergueni Hills, the eastern part of the Stavropol Hills, the Middle Yergueni Hills, the Sarpa Plain and the Western Caspian Plain.

All Eneolithic sites are located near the Black Lands and the Sarpa Plain lakes, which might have been fresh-water storages during the Eneolithic period (Koltsov 1985; 1988). Flint and clay objects similar to the Late Khvalynsk and Sredny Stog cultures were found among the survey material of the East and West Manych Rivers valleys in the Kuma-Manych Depression and in the western part of the Caspian Plain (Koltsov 1984). Flint knives on the blade, as well as flint and obsidian arrow heads were found in the southern areas, i.e. in the valleys of the Kuma River and in the desert area of the Achikulak, Bazhigan and other destroyed Eneolithic burials or seasonal sites (Vinogradov and Khashegulgov 1982; Markovin 1992: Fig. 1, 5-8). Similar objects were

In the Kuma-Manych Depression 13 kurgan burial grounds have been excavated (Fig. 111, b). These are located on flood-plain valleys, on flood-plain terraces and are arranged in a line. Each line is formed by 10–20 kurgans, and stretches from 1 to 2 km. Several burial grounds occupied the flood-plain terrace of a large East Manych River valley. Such kurgans were located almost on the open steppes not far from the river.

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EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THEMIDDLE BRONZE AGE groups which occupied several environmental areas, by appearance of the Early Catacomb population that ousted Yamnaya groups, by the Steppe North Caucasus population (Fig. 112, a; 113, a; 114, a).

Many Yamnaya ceramic sherds were found during surface survey along river banks. Another kurgan group is located on the southern flank of the watershed plateau of the Southern Yergueni Hills far from the flood-plains of the East Manych River. These two parts were separated by a vast steppe area with no kurgans. Five kurgan burial grounds were excavated. All of them contained Yamnaya kurgans. All Yamnaya kurgans of this region are located in the upper part of the watershed plateaus, except one Shupta kurgan. It is located in the open steppe area. Kurgan lines are oriented to the east–west, northwest-southeast. Narrow steppe rivers, almost dried up by July, are located 0.8–1 km to the south and 4.0–4.5 km to the north of these kurgan clusters.

The Kuma-Manych Depression was actively exploited by Steppe North Caucasus groups (Fig. 112, b) that began to build their kurgans in the East Manych River valley, flood-plain terraces, and slopes of small plateaus as well as on the open steppe. Steppe North Caucasus graves were found to the south of the Depression, i.e. in the Southern Caspian Plain, between the Kuma and the Terek Rivers. The topography of Early Catacomb kurgans practically coincides with the topography of Steppe North Caucasus kurgans. The former were located on flood-plain terraces, slopes of small plateaus (Fig. 113, b).

The third group of the Yamnaya kurgans occupied a flattened north spur of the Stavropol Hills (Fig. 111, b). They were built in the upper part of the watershed plateaus, 20–30 km away from the East Manych River valley. Some burial grounds were located on the slopes of the flood-plain terraces and were arranged in lines oriented to the northwest–southeast.

Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural groups built kurgans in the same areas. But the group of kurgans of the East Manych Catacomb culture is the most numerous in this region (Fig. 115, b). Watershed plateaus of the Southern Yergueni Hills were not exploited by the Steppe North Caucasus population very actively. Only two kurgan burial grounds included mounds of this culture (Mu-Sharet-1 and Mandjikiny-2) (Fig. 112, b). The number of Early Catacomb kurgans is considerably higher, 13 mounds (Mandjikiny-1 and 2; Shared) (Fig. 113, b). The appearance of YamnayaCatacomb and Multicultural graves is the result of coexistence of several cultures in this region (Fig. 114, b).

The fourth group is located in the Middle Yergueni Hills, i.e. the area extending from the Khar-Zukha gorge to Lake Arshan-Zelmen (Fig. 111, c). Kurgans occupied watershed plateaus. There is an empty steppe area between the Southern and the Middle Yergueni Hills without any kurgans. The borders of these Hills are open steppes between the Khar-Zukha (in the south) and UlanZukha (in the north) River systems. Open steppes may be looked upon as a border between the landscape zones of the Southern and the Middle Yergueni Hills. Some kurgan burial grounds are arranged in lines, others form a circle, and some can be considered as isolated mounds. Very often kurgans are located far from any water sources, in other cases near fresh water wells.

But different groups of the East Manych Catacomb culture became a predominant population in the Southern Yergueni Hills by the end of the period under discussion (Fig. 115, b).

The Sarpa Plain is located in the northwest part of the area under discussion. All 17 Yamnaya kurgan burial grounds are located either on the lake coasts or along river flood-plains, or rarely on small watershed plateaus, very close to steppe rivers. More than 30 wells are known in the area not far from the Djangr site. Isolated kurgans or kurgan lines are located around the southwest coast of the Lake Tsagan-Nur.

Sloping northern spurs of the Stavropol Hills were occupied by a small number of Steppe North Caucasus groups (Fig. 112, b) as well as by Early Catacomb groups (Fig. 113, b). Chogray burial grounds were located on the high watershed plateau and banks of steppe rivers. Coexistence of different types of cultures in this region is confirmed by appearance of isolated Yamnaya-Catacomb graves and kurgans.

Yamnaya kurgans of the Krivaya Luka and Nikolskoye burial grounds occupied high flood-plains terraces, watershed plateaus very close to the Volga River.

There are no kurgans dating to cultures under discussion in the area between the Southern and Middle Yergueni Hills. However, there are many Steppe North Caucasus kurgans in the ravine-gorge Ulan-Zukha River system (Fig. 112, c). Some of watershed plateaus began to be exploited when the Steppe North Caucasus population appeared there.

Yamnaya kurgans of the sixth environmental area, i.e. the West Caspian Plain, were located along lake coasts or on small watershed plateaus, very close to steppe lakes and rivers. Three parallel kurgan lines can be drawn near the southeastern edge of Lake Deed-Khulsun. Some kurgans were built on the open steppes.

Steppe watershed plateaus of the Middle Yergueni Hills began to be exploited by the Early Catacomb population during the same period (Fig. 113, a). They began to build kurgans on the slopes of the Yergueni Hills where

The next period of the Early Stage of the Middle Bronze Age is characterized by presence of Late Yamnaya 165

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166

EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THEMIDDLE BRONZE AGE

Fig. 111. Yamnaya culture sites of the Caspian Steppes. 1–VMLBI,65: 2–VMLBII,65; 3–VMPB,65; 4–VMLBI,66; 5–VMLBII,66; 6–VMPB,67; 7–VMLBIII,66; 8–Zunda-Tolga-1; 9–Chograysky; 10–Ostrovnoy; 11–Zunda-Tolga-5; 13–Zunda-Tolga-6; 14–MuSharet-4; 15–Mu-Sharet-1; 16–Mandjikiny-1; 17–Mandjikiny-2; 18–Shupta; 19–Ulan-Zukha; 20–Chogray; 21–Khar-Zukha; 22– Lola-1; 23–Kermen-Tolga; 24–Three Brothers-I, I kurgan burial ground 17 km far from Elista; 25–Elista; 26–Arkhara; 27–I northeastern group, Elista; 28–Bichkin-Buluk; 29–Tsagan-Elsin; 30–Peschany V; 31–Krivaya Luka; 32–Staritsa; 33–Nikolskoye; 34–Iki-Orva; 35–Tsatsa; 36–Balkin chutor; 37–Kuptsin-Tolga; 38–Iki-Zegista; 39–Kyuyukin-Tolga; 40–Bolshoy Tsarin; 41– Sazonkin bugor; 42–Ulan-Tolga; 43–Evdyk; 44–Djangr; 45–Idjil; 46–Tachin-Tsarang; 47–Kanukovo; 48–Tsagan-Nur; 49– Zachanata; 50–KVCH-56; 51–Khar-Nuurin-Tolga; 52–Tsagan-Usn; 53–Yashkul 3 and 1; 54–Chilgir; 55–Verkhnee Pogromnoye; 56–kh. Kuzina; 57–kh. Kapitansky; 58–KVCH-27; 59–KVCH-53; 60–Gorkaya Balka; 61–Shared; 62–Sharakhalsun; 63–Tipki

167

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168

EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THEMIDDLE BRONZE AGE

Fig. 112. Steppe North Caucasus sites of the Caspian Steppes: 1- VMLBI,65; 2–VMLBII,65; 3–VMPB,65; 4–VMLBI,66; 5– VMLBII,66; 6–VMPB,67; 7–VMLBIII,66; 8–Zunda-Tolga-1; 9–Chograysky; 10–Ostrovnoy; 11–Zunda-Tolga-3; 12–Zunda-Tolga6; 13–Mu-Sharet-1; 14–Mandjikiny-2; 15–Chogray; 16–Lola; 17–Elista; 18–Arkhara; 19–Three Brothers; 20–Kermen-Tolga; 21– kurgans near Elista; 22–Chere-Churul; 23–KVCH-56; 24–Tsagan-Usn; 25–Tsatsa; 26–Iki-Orva; 27–Sholmun-Tolga; 28–Gorkaya balka

169

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170

EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THEMIDDLE BRONZE AGE

Fig. 113. Early Catacomb sites of the Caspian Plain: 1–VNLBI,65; 2–VMLBII,65; 3–VMPB,65; 4–VMLBI,66; 5–VMLBII,66; 6– VMPB,67; 7–VMLBIII,66; 8–Chograysky; 9–Ostrovnoy; 10–Zunda-Tolga-2; 11–Zunda-Tolga-2; 12–Zunda-Tolga-5; 13–ZundaTolga-6; 14–Mandjikiny-q; 15–Mandjikiny-2; 16–Chogray; 17–Kermen-Tolga; 18–Khar-Zukha; 19–Lola; 20–Elista;21–PeschanyV; 22–Gashun; 23–Baga-Burul; 24–Temrta-III; 25–Shared; 26–Sharakchalsun; 27–Tipki; 28–KVCH-56; 29–Yashkul

171

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172

EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THEMIDDLE BRONZE AGE

Fig. 114. Yamnaya-catacomb and Poliritual graves of the Caspian Steppes: 1–VMLBI,65: 2–VMLBII,65; 3–VMPB,65: 4– VMLBI,66: 5–VMLBII,66: 6–VMLBIII,66; 7–VMPB,67; 8–Chogray, 9–Chograysky; 10–Zunda-Tolga-2; 11–Zunda-Tolga-5; 12– Zunda-Tolga-6; 13–Mu-Sharet-1; 14–Mu-Sharet-4; 15–Mandjikiny-1; 16–Kermen-Tolga; 17–Elista; 18–Lola-2; 19–Ulan-Zukha 2; 20- Evdyk; 21–Krivaya Luka; 22–Tsatsa; 23–Tsagan-Usn; 24–KVCH-37; 25–Djangr; 26–Iki-Zegista

173

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EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THEMIDDLE BRONZE AGE

Fig. 115. Eastern Manych Catacomb sites of the Caspian Steppes: 1–VMLBI,65; 2–VMLBII,65; 3–VMPB,65; 4–VMLBI,66; 5– VMLBII,66; 6–VMPB,67; 7–VMLBIII,66; 8–Zunda-Tolga-1; 9–Chograysky; 10–Ostrovnoy; 11–Sharakhalsun; 12–Tipki; 13– Zunda-Tolga-2; 14–Zunda-Tolga-3; 15–Zunda-Tolga-4; 16–Zunda-Tolga-5; 17–Zunda-Tolga-6; 18–Kevyudy; 19 Mu-Sharet-1; 20– Mu-Sharet-4; 21–Shared; 22–Mandjikiny-1; 23–Mandjikiny-2; 24–Gashum; 25–Ulan-Zukha; 26–Chogray; 27–Khar-Zukha; 28– Kermen-Tolga; 29–Three Brothers-1; 30–Lola; 31–Elista; 32–Arkhara; 33–I northeastern group in Elista; 34–I kurgan burial ground 17 km far from Elista; 35–Elista, survey finds; 36–Bichkin-Buluk; 37–Tsagan-Elsin; 38–Peschany-V; 39–Priyutnoye; 40–Yergueni; 41–Ovata-V; 42–Zakhanata; 43–Balkin khutor; 44–Kuptsin-Tolga; 45–Bolshoy Tsarin; 46–Krivaya Luka; 47–Staritsa; 48– Nikolskoye; 49–Iki-Orva; 50–Tsatsa; 51–Iki-Zegista; 52–Kuuykin-Tolga; 53–Ulan-Tolga; 54–Evdyk-1; 55–Djangr; 56–Tsagan-Nur; 57–Idjil 2; 58–Kanukovo; 59–Tsagan-Nur-2; 60–Khar-Nuurin-Tolga; 61–Chilgir; 62–Temrta III; 63–KVCH-37; 64–KVCH-27; 65– KVCH-56; 66–KVCH-53; 67–KVCH-57; 68–Yashkul; 69–Sazonkin Bugor; 70–kh. Kapitansky; 71–Ulan-Erge; 72–KVCH-239; 73– KVCH-240; 74–Tsagan-Usn; 75–Yashkul; 76–Baga-Burul; 77–survey finds along Chogray Reservoir; 78–Ulan-Kheech; 79– Chernozemelsky; 80–Zenzeli-1; 81–survey finds near Nara-Khuduk; 82–Gorkaya Balka; 83–Achikulak; 84–survey finds near Kumskaya MZHK; 85–Yastak-Khuduk, 86–Tavn-Gashun, Saygachy; 87–Tav-Gashun

175

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES Catacomb groups moved to the east as far as the Black Lands Desert, the northwest Caspian Steppes coastline area, crossed the Volga River and appeared on the Left Bank of the Volga River and in the Ryn-sands (Ivanov, Vasiliev 1995) and the Mangyshlak Desert (Galkin 1982). Other Catacomb culture groups moved to the south, exploiting the Kuma and Terek River valleys.

kurgans of the Steppe North Caucasus culture have not been found. The kurgans of the Early Catacomb culture are not found in the northern part of this area. Besides, the north, northwest borders of this culture area stretch from the Elista gorge to the Djurak-Sal River valley. Mixed Yamnaya-Catacomb kurgans found in this area is the indicator of the coexistence of both Yamnaya and Catacomb population.

Planigraphy of Kurgan Burial Grounds of the Caspian Steppes: Local Exploitation of the Environment

Three burials have been found in three kurgans on the Sarpa Plain, i.e. in the Iki-Orva, Sholmun-Tolga and Tsatsa burial grounds (Shilov 1985a). They are located near steppe rivers or lakes (Fig. 112, a). This suggests, therefore, that western flood areas of the Sarpa Plain were the northeast border of the Steppe North Caucasus culture area. This population probably did not penetrate areas to the north of the watershed plateaus of the Middle Yergueni Hills. A small number of the YamnayaCatacomb graves in this area indicate that these two cultures coexisted (Fig. 114, d).

Natural boundaries of the steppe areas were open. Therefore, new settlers began to exploit numerous environmental areas quickly. Analysis of the kurgan burial ground planigraphy gives a unique possibility to retrace how specific groups of population penetrated onto these small environmental areas. Spatial planigraphy analyses were done using the following approach. Different symbols were used for mapping kurgans of various cultures on the plans of each burial ground. We used information about primary kurgans built over primary graves; secondary graves and all cases concerning construction of additional mounds were taken into account. Results obtained for each environmental area of the Caspian Steppes are provided below.

Open steppe areas near the eastern slopes of the Yergueni Hills on the Caspian Plain were also exploited by the Steppe North Caucasus population, but very seldomly. Graves of this culture have been found only in three burial grounds (Fig. 112, c), which were located on the small watershed plateau between coastal salt lakes, near lakes (KVCH; Yashkul-1; Tsagan-Usn). These kurgans are land markers of the eastern border of the Steppe North Caucasus area.

Kuma-Manych Depression Many kurgan burial grounds have been excavated in the Kuma-Manych Depression. The study of their planigraphy helps address the issue of their origin and development.

Only two graves of the Early Catacomb culture located to the east of the Yergueni Hills have been uncovered. Therefore, eastern slopes of the Middle Yergueni Hills are the eastern borders of the Early Catacomb culture (Fig. 115, a).

East Manych, Left Bank, I, excavation of 1965 (VMLBI,65). This kurgan burial ground consists of more than 100 kurgans. They are arranged in two lines (Fig. 116, a). Its first graves date back to the Yamnaya culture. Five subgroups contain 22 Yamnaya kurgans. They form lines oriented to the east–west and north–south (Fig. 116, b).

The topography of the East Manych Catacomb culture is also very important for this study. The Kuma-Manych Depression extending from the Iki-Burul rayon in Kalmykia to the low-lying flood-prone areas of the East Manych River in the Rostov region was fully occupied by various groups of the Catacomb groups, i.e. the East Manych, West Manych Catacomb cultures. Numerous Catacomb kurgans were built in the valleys of the East and West Manych, Kalaus, Chogray, Ulan-Zukha and other steppe rivers, on slopes of flood-plain terraces and nearby open steppe areas (Fig. 115, b).

The Yamnaya population was followed by the Steppe North Caucasus population that built two kurgans in the central and southern part of the area. Kurgans and graves of this culture form a line oriented to the northeast– southwest (Fig. 116, c). The Early Catacomb population used one Yamnaya kurgan in the centre and Steppe North Caucasus kurgan in the southern part for graves and it also built three primary mounds nearby. Therefore, Early Catacomb kurgans form a line oriented to the east–west (Fig. 116, d). The Yamnaya Catacomb kurgans were built on the west edge of the group. Other graves of this culture were added into kurgans of other cultures located in the southeastern and northern parts of the kurgan group.

The density of the East Manych Catacomb population living in the Southern (Fig. 115, b) and the Middle Yergueni Hills (Fig. 115, c) was very high. An overwhelming majority of kurgans and graves of the watershed plateaus of the Middle Yergueni Hills dates to this culture. Initially some plateaus were exploited only by this culture population (Shar-Elen, Ovata watershed plateaus). Almost all kurgans of the Caspian Plain area are overlaid by graves and additional mounds of the East Manych Catacomb culture (Fig. 115, d).

East Manych Catacomb groups built their own kurgans, which were arranged in lines oriented to the east–west

176

EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THEMIDDLE BRONZE AGE

Fig. 116. Planigraphy of the kurgan burial ground East Manych, Left Bank, kurgan group I, excavation of 1965: a–plan of the kurgan burial ground; b–Yamnaya culture; c–Steppe North Caucasus culture; d–Early Catacomb culture; f–Yamnaya-Catacomb and Polyritual groups; g–East Manych Catacomb culture -Yamnaya- catacomb culture; Kurgans: G - Yamnaya culture; Ú - Steppe North Caucasus culture; M–Early Catacomb culture; - East Manych Catacomb culture

Fig. 117. Planigraphy of the kurgan burial ground Eastern Manych, Left Bank, kurgan group II, excavation of 1965: a–plan of the kurgan burial ground; b–Yamnaya culture; c–Steppe North Caucasus culture; d–Early Catacomb culture; f–Yamnaya-Catacomb and Polyritual groups; g–East Manych Catacomb culture Kurgans: G - Yamnaya culture; Ú - Steppe North Caucasus culture; M–Early Catacomb culture; -Yamnaya- catacomb culture; - East Manych Catacomb culture

177

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 118. Planigraphy of the kurgan burial ground Eastern Manych, Write Bank, excavation of 1965: a–plan of the kurgan burial ground; b–Yamnaya culture; c–Steppe North Caucasus culture; d–Early Catacomb culture; f–Yamnaya-Catacomb and Polyritual groups; g–East Manych Catacomb culture Kurgans: G - Yamnaya culture; Ú - Steppe North Caucasus culture; M–Early Catacomb culture; -Yamnaya- catacomb culture; - East Manych Catacomb culture

northeast–southwest. Two more Yamnaya kurgans were built on the west edge of the kurgan field. Yamnaya kurgans (18) form 3–4 separate clusters (Fig. 118, b).

or used mounds of other cultures. There are seven clusters of kurgans belonging to this group (Fig. 116, e). East Manych, Left Bank, II, excavation of 1965 (VMLBI,65). Yamnaya kurgans are located on the western edge. Some of them form a line oriented to the northeast–southwest, others are arranged in a circle (Fig. 117, b). The Yamnaya kurgan line is located on the eastern edge and oriented to the northwest–southeast. Other kurgans form lines in the centre. Therefore, 29 Yamnaya kurgans form 5 mini-clusters. The Steppe North Caucasus population did not build its own kurgans; it used Yamnaya kurgans (Fig. 117, c). Early Catacomb groups built their own kurgan cluster between Yamnaya mounds. Such kurgans form a line oriented to the east– west in the eastern part of the burial ground. The Catacomb population seldom used Yamnaya kurgans for secondary graves. Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural groups of population used only old kurgans (Fig. 117, d). East Manych Catacomb groups used either old kurgans for constructing their graves, or built their own kurgans. Such kurgans form 5–6 separate clusters (Fig. 117, e).

There are 48 kurgans in the East Manych, Left Bank, I (excavation of 1966)(VMLBI,66) (Fig. 119, a). Twenty eight kurgans date to the Yamnaya culture. They are arranged in 5 clusters. East sub-group forms a line oriented to the east–west; southern kurgans form a circle; the west line is oriented to the east–west; and northwest line is oriented to the north–south (Fig. 119, b).

There is only one Yamnaya kurgan in the centre of the East Manych, Right Bank, (excavation of 1965) (VMPB,65) (Fig. 118, a). Yamnaya kurgans located to the northeast form a circle. To the west two small subgroups of kurgans form lines oriented to the

Three Steppe North Caucasus kurgans were built on the western edge of the kurgan field; one was constructed on the east edge. The population of this culture also used Yamnaya kurgans in the western part of the burial ground (Fig. 119, c). The Early Catacomb population built its

One secondary Steppe North Caucasus grave was added to the Yamnaya kurgan (Fig. 118, c). Early Catacomb groups built an isolated kurgan in the southern part of the burial ground and used one of the Yamnaya kurgans in the northern part (Fig. 118, d). Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural groups either used primary Yamnaya kurgans or built their own isolated mounds (Fig. 118, d). East Manych Catacomb groups used almost all old kurgans or built their own kurgans. Such kurgans form four sub-groups (Fig. 118, e).

178

EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THEMIDDLE BRONZE AGE

Fig. 119. Planigraphy of the kurgan burial ground Eastern Manych, Left Bank, kurgan group I, excavation of 1966: a–plan of the kurgan burial ground; b–Yamnaya culture; c–Steppe North Caucasus culture; d–Early catacomb culture; f–Yamnaya-Catacomb and Poliritual groups; g–East Manych Catacomb culture Kurgans: G - Yamnaya culture; Ú - Steppe North Caucasus culture; M–Early Catacomb culture; -Yamnaya- catacomb culture; - East Manych Catacomb culture

southern edge (Fig. 120, d). Both culture groups are likely to have used old kurgans as well. YamnayaCatacomb groups built kurgans that form a northern line oriented to the east–west. Only one grave of these groups was added to the Yamnaya kurgan located in the northeastern part of the burial ground (Fig. 120, d).

kurgans in the northwestern and southern part of the group as well as in the eastern part. The eastern subgroup used the kurgans of other cultures (Fig. 119, d). Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural groups built kurgans, which form a west line oriented to the northwest–southeast. One grave was added to the Yamnaya kurgan located on the east edge (Fig. 119, d). Kurgans and graves of the East Manych Catacomb culture overlie all kurgans and form four lines. Eastern and southern lines are oriented to the east–west; two western lines are oriented to the northwest–southeast and north–south (Fig. 119, e).

East Manych Catacomb kurgans are arranged in three clusters, i.e. the eastern line is oriented to the northeast– southwest; and the southwestern and northern lines are oriented to the east–west. East Manych, Left Bank, III (excavation of 1966) (VMLBIII,66) (Fig. 121, a). This kurgan burial ground began its history with two Eneolithic kurgans which were used later by the Early Majkop population (Fig. 121, b).Yamnaya kurgans form a northern sub-group (15 kurgans are oriented to the east–west), a southern subgroup (5 kurgans are oriented to the northwest–southeast) (Fig. 121, c).

East Manych, Left Bank, II (excavation of 1966) (VMLBII,66). This burial ground dates to the Yamnaya culture. Kurgans of this culture (23) form northern cluster oriented to the east–west, eastern cluster oriented to the northeast–southwest and western cluster oriented to the east–west (Fig. 120, b). All Steppe North Caucasus kurgans and graves are located in the northern part of the kurgan area and form a line oriented to the east–west (Fig. 120 c). Early Catacomb kurgans form three clusters, i.e. the eastern line is oriented to the northeast–southwest; the western line is oriented to the east–west and there are two kurgans in the

Two Steppe North Caucasus kurgans were built on the western edge and five were constructed in the centre (Fig. 121, d). The northern line of kurgans oriented to the east– west was left behind by the Early Catacomb group (Fig. 121, d). This culture population also used Yamnaya and 179

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 120. Planigraphy of the kurgan burial ground Eastern Manych, Left Bank, kurgan group II, excavation of 1966: a–plan of the kurgan burial ground; b–Yamnaya culture; c–Steppe North Caucasus culture; d–Early Catacomb culture; f–Yamnaya-Catacomb and Polyritual groups; g–East Manych Catacomb culture Kurgans: G - Yamnaya culture; Ú - Steppe North Caucasus culture; M–Early Catacomb culture; -Yamnaya- catacomb culture; - East Manych Catacomb culture

The Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural kurgans form three clusters as well, i.e. in the southeastern, in the northeastern and in the western edges (Fig, 122, e). East Manych Catacomb graves overlie all kurgans. They form a long northern line oriented to the east–west; two kurgans of this culture are located on the southeastern edge and other kurgans are arranged in a southern group (Fig. 122, d).

Steppe North Caucasus kurgans. The northern part of the burial ground was occupied by Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural kurgans (Fig. 121, e). East Manych Catacomb graves overlie all kurgans. This culture population built many its own kurgans (Fig. 121, g). It is difficult to single out a specific cluster. East Manych, Right Bank (excavation of 1967) (VMPB,67). This burial ground is formed by three subgroups of kurgans (Fig. 122, a). Majkop kurgans are located in the centre (Fig. 122, b). The central line of 17 Yamnaya kurgans is oriented to the east–west. The subgroup of four Yamnaya kurgans is located to the south. One isolated Yamnaya kurgan was built on the southeastern edge of this group (Fig. 122, c).

Ten kurgans of Zunda-Tolga-1 burial grounds have been excavated. Kurgans form a line oriented to the east–west (Fig. 123, a). Apparently, the first grave of the burial ground is linked to the Steppe Eneolithic kurgan, over which an Early Steppe Majkop kurgan was built in the subsequent period (Fig. 123, b, d). Then the Late Majkop group came and built its own kurgan nearby (Fig. 123, d). Two Yamnaya and two Steppe Majkop kurgans were built later. Kurgans of the East Manych Catacomb culture enlarged the kurgan burial ground. This population forms two lines. The first is oriented to the east–west; the second is oriented to the north–south (Fig. 123, d).

Small Steppe North Caucasus kurgans were built near the Yamnaya mounds, i.e. in the centre, on the western and southern edges (Fig. 122, g). This population also used Yamnaya kurgans. The Early Catacomb population used Yamnaya and Steppe North Caucasus kurgans, and built their own kurgans very rarely (Fig. 122, d). Kurgans of the Early Catacomb and Steppe North Caucasus cultures form the following clusters: the central cluster in the form of a line; two southern clusters (Steppe North Caucasus kurgans form a circle; Early Catacomb kurgans form a northeast–southwest line), several graves were added to the kurgans on the southeastern edge of the burial ground.

The Chograysky burial ground is located almost on the open steppe. It consists of several kurgan clusters, which are located 1.5–2 km away from each other. At first a kurgan of the Early Majkop culture was built. Then the Yamnaya population came and built kurgans which form small lines (from two to eleven mounds). 180

EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THEMIDDLE BRONZE AGE Fig. 121. Planigraphy of the kurgan burial ground Eastern Manych, Left Bank, kurgan group III, excavation of 1966: a–plan of the kurgan burial ground; b–Eneolithic and Early Majkop cultures; c–Yamnaya culture; d–Steppe North Caucasus culture; e–Early Catacomb culture; f– Yamnaya-Catacomb and Polyritual groups; g–East Manych Catacomb culture Kurgans: - Eneolithic culture; ∆ - Early Majkop culture; G - Yamnaya culture; Ú - Steppe North Caucasus culture; M–Early Catacomb culture; Yamnaya-Ctacomb culture; - East Manych Catacomb culture

The Early Catacomb population built either isolated kurgans, or small groups of kurgans. They also used mounds of the Yamnaya culture. All Steppe North Caucasus kurgans should be considered as isolated. Only one group of this population built two kurgans beside each other. The Ostrovnoy burial ground (Fig. 124, a) dates to the time when two Yamnaya kurgans were built, they form a line oriented to the north–south (Fig. 124, b). The Steppe North Caucasus as well as the Early Catacomb population used them to add their graves (Fig. 124, c, d). Kurgans of the East Manych Catacomb culture form a long line oriented to the north–south (Fig. 124, d). The Zunda-Tolga-6 burial ground consists of two isolated kurgans dating to the Steppe North Caucasus and Early Catacomb cultures. They were used later by East Manych Catacomb groups. One Early Catacomb kurgan of the Baga-Burul burial ground is isolated. Five East Manych Catacomb kurgans form a line oriented to the east– west. Southern Yergueni Hills Five kurgan burial grounds have been excavated in this zone. All but one date to the Yamnaya culture. Almost all kurgans at Mu-Sharet-4 date to the Yamnaya culture (Fig. 125, a). They form a line oriented to the northwest–southeast (Fig. 125, b). These kurgans were used later only by the East Manych Catacomb population. Four Yamnaya kurgans at Mu-Sharet-1 (Fig. 126, a) form a circle (Fig. 126, b). The Steppe North Caucasus kurgans form a circle as well (Fig. 126, c). The Yamnaya-Catacomb and East Manych Catacomb graves were added to these mounds (Fig. 26, d). The earliest kurgan at Mandjikiny-1 (Fig. 127. a) dates to the Early Majkop culture (Fig. 127, b). This

181

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES Catacomb culture; -Yamnaya-Ctacomb culture; East Manych Catacomb culture

-

kurgan was used later by the Yamnaya population, that built one kurgan nearby and two kurgans far to the southeast. Therefore, there are two clusters of the Yamnaya kurgans in this burial ground (Fig. 127, c). Kurgans of the Early Catacomb culture form two clusters: on the northeastern and southwestern edges (Fig. 127, g). An isolated Yamnaya-Catacomb kurgan was built on the southwest (Fig. 127, d). Kurgans of the East Manych Catacomb culture form a long line oriented to the northeast–southwest (Fig. 127, e). Three Yamnaya kurgans were built near each other in the western part at Mandjikiny-2 (Fig. 128, a, b). Two Steppe North Caucasus kurgans form a line oriented to the east–west in the west part of the burial ground (Fig. 128, c). This line consists of four Early Catacomb kurgans extending from the centre of the group, along the west edge (Fig. 128, g). East Manych Catacomb kurgans are located in the western part of the burial ground (Fig. 128, d). Isolated Yamnaya kurgans are characteristic for this area (Shupta-1 and Shared). Eastern part of the Stavropol Hills Planigraphy of burial grounds in this area is based on the analyses of two groups of the Chogray burial grounds. Yamnaya kurgans at Chogray VIII form five clusters (Fig. 129, a, b). Nearby kurgans of the Steppe North Caucasus culture were built. The Early Catacomb population used old kurgans of the Yamnaya and Steppe North Caucasus cultures and built their own kurgans nearby. Kurgans of two cultures form lines oriented to the northwest– southeast (Fig. 129, c). One Yamnaya-Catacomb grave was added to one central kurgan (Fig. 129, c). East Manych Catacomb groups built many kurgans and used old mounds. There are two clusters of kurgans of this culture and they form lines oriented to the northwest–southeast (Fig. 129, g).

Fig. 122. Planigraphy of the kurgan burial ground Eastern Manych, Write Bank, excavation of 1967: a–plan of the kurgan burial ground; b–Early Majkop culture; c–Yamnaya culture; d–Steppe North Caucasus culture; e–Early Catacomb culture; f–Yamnaya-Catacomb and Polyritual groups; g–East Manych Catacomb culture Kurgans: - Eneolithic culture; ∆ - Early Majkop culture; G Yamnaya culture; Ú - Steppe North Caucasus culture; M–Early

182

Seven Yamnaya kurgans at Chogray IX form a line oriented to the northwest–southeast. One isolated Yamnaya kurgan was built in the southwest. Steppe North Caucasus kurgans (one primary kurgan and secondary mounds overlying Yamnaya kurgans) and Early Catacomb kurgans (one primary and two secondary mounds overlying primary Yamnaya and Steppe North Caucasus kurgans) form lines oriented to the southeast–northwest. Kurgans of the East Manych Catacomb culture form a long line oriented to the northwest–southeast.

EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THEMIDDLE BRONZE AGE

Fig. 123. Planigraphy of the Zunda-Tolga-1 burial ground: a–plan of the kurgan burial ground; b–Eneolithic and Early Majkop cultured; c–Late Majkop culture; d–Yamnaya culture; e–Steppe North Caucasus culture; f–East Manych Catacomb culture Kurgans: - Eneolithic culture; ‚ - Early Majkop culture; ▲ - Late majkop culture; G - Yamnaya culture; Ú - Steppe North Caucasus culture; M–Early Catacomb culture; -Yamnaya-Catacomb culture; - East Manych Catacomb culture

183

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 124. Planigraphy of Ostrovnoy burial ground: a–plan of the kurgan burial ground; b–Yamnaya culture; c–Steppe North Caucasus culture; d–Early Catacomb culture; e–East Manych Catacomb culture - East Manych Catacomb Kurgans: G - Yamnaya culture; Ú - Steppe North Caucasus culture; M - Early Catacomb culture; culture

184

EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THEMIDDLE BRONZE AGE

Fig. 125. Planigraphy of Mu-Sharet-4 burial ground: a–plan of the kurgan burial ground; b–Yamnaya culture; c–East Manych Catacomb culture Kurgans: G - Yamnaya culture; - East Manych Catacomb culture

185

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 126. Planigraphy of Mu-Sharet-1 burial ground: a–plan of the kurgan burial ground; b–Yamnaya culture; c–Steppe North Caucasus culture; d– -Yamnaya-Catacomb culture; e - East Manych Catacomb culture Kurgans: G - Yamnaya culture; Ú - Steppe North Caucasus culture; -Yamnaya-Catacomb culture; - East Manych Catacomb culture

186

EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THEMIDDLE BRONZE AGE

Fig. 127. Planigraphy of Mandjikiny-1 burial ground: a–plan of the kurgan burial ground; b–Early Majkop cultured; c–Yamnaya culture; d–Early Catacomb culture; e–East Manych Catacomb culture -Yamnaya-Catacomb culture; - East Kurgans: ♦ - Early Majkop culture; G - Yamnaya culture; M–Early Catacomb culture; Manych Catacomb culture

187

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 128. Planigraphy of Mandjikiny-2 burial ground: a–plan of the kurgan burial ground; b–Yamnaya culture; c–Steppe North Caucasus culture, d–Early Catacomb culture; e–East Manych Catacomb culture Kurgans: G - Yamnaya culture; Ú - Steppe North Caucasus culture; M–Early Catacomb culture; - East Manych Catacomb culture

188

EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THEMIDDLE BRONZE AGE

Fig. 129. Planigraphy of Chogray VIII kurgan burial ground: a–plan of the kurgan burial ground; b–Yamnaya culture; c–Steppe North Caucasus culture, Early Catacomb culture; d–Yamnaya-Catacomb culture, e–East Manych Catacomb culture Kurgans: G - Yamnaya culture; Ú - Steppe North Caucasus culture; M–Early Catacomb culture; -Yamnaya-Catacomb culture; - East Manych Catacomb culture

from each other that they can be treated as isolated cases (Fig. 130, d). East Manych Catacomb kurgans form a long line oriented to the northeast–southwest (Fig. 130, e).

Middle Yergueni Hills some burial grounds of this landscape area originally date to the Eneolithic Age. The primary kurgan of this culture is located in the centre of the Three Brothers burial ground. Yamnaya kurgans form two clusters: a northern line cluster oriented to the east–west and a western line cluster oriented to the south–northwest.

Three Yamnaya clusters of kurgans can be singled out at Lola-1 burial ground, i.e. one isolated kurgan in the north, a circle of three kurgans in the southwest and a line of three kurgans in the southeast (Fig. 131, a, b). There is one isolated Steppe North Caucasus kurgan in the northeast and two kurgans in the southeast (Fig. 131, c). There is one isolated Early Catacomb kurgan in the southeast and a cluster of two kurgans located nearby (Fig.131, g). East Manych Catacomb kurgans form a long narrow line of kurgans in the centre and isolated primary and secondary kurgans located far from this line and each other (Fig. 131, d).

An isolated kurgan located in the western part of the Elista burial ground (Fig. 130, a) dates to the Yamnaya culture (Fig. 130, b). A long line of Steppe North Caucasus kurgans is oriented to the northeast–southwest (Fig. 120, c). One isolated Early Catacomb kurgan was built on the southwestern edge; three other kurgans form a small cluster on the northeastern edge (Fig. 130, g). Two Yamnaya-Catacomb kurgans were built so far away 189

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES A central isolated kurgan of the Arkhara burial ground (Fig. 132, a) dates to the Eneolithic Age (Fig. 132, b). Yamnaya kurgans form a line oriented to the east–west (Fig. 132, v). One secondary Early Catacomb grave was added to the central kurgan and Steppe North Caucasus kurgans form a line oriented to the east–west (Fig, 132, g). East Manych Catacomb kurgans formed a long narrow line of kurgans in the central part of the burial ground (Fig. 132, d). Separated clusters of Yamnaya, Early Catacomb and Steppe North Caucasus kurgans can be singled out at Khar-Zukha-1 and Kermen-Tolga burial grounds. In the Middle Yergueni Hills several burial grounds appeared only when the East Manych Catacomb population came to the area. They are either isolated kurgans (Ovata) or kurgan lines oriented to the north–south (Yergueni). Sarpa Plain Eneolithic kurgans of this environmental area can be considered as isolated ones (Nikolskoye V and VI, Staritsa, Krivaya Luka XV). Early Yamnaya kurgan at Tsatsa with a secondary Late Majkop grave can be considered as an isolated one. Many Yamnaya kurgans were isolated as well. Very seldom two-three or more mounds of this culture were built in the same place. Five Yamnaya kurgans at Tsatsa form a line oriented to the northeast; one more kurgan of this culture was built to the northwest. Isolated Steppe North Caucasus graves were a part of some burial grounds (Tsatsa, Iki-Orva, SholmunTolga). There are no Early Catacomb kurgans or graves in this area. The Yamnaya-Catacomb population used Yamnaya kurgans in the same way as East Manych Catacomb population did. The latter also built its own mounds. Caspian Plain

Fig. 130. Planigraphy of Elista kurgan burial ground: a–plan of the kurgan burial ground; b–Yamnaya culture; c–Steppe North Caucasus culture, d–Early Catacomb culture; e–Yamnaya-Catacomb culture, f– East Manych Catacomb culture Kurgans: G - Yamnaya culture; Ú - Steppe North Caucasus culture; M - Early Catacomb culture; -Yamnaya-Catacomb culture; - East Manych Catacomb culture

190

Almost all burial grounds date to the Yamnaya culture. One kurgan of the Late Majkop group was found at KVCH-56 burial ground. There existed isolated Yamnaya kurgans in some places (TsaganUsn-4, KVCH-37 and 57). In other burial grounds Yamnaya kurgans form lines. A line consisted of seven Yamnaya kurgans was oriented to the northwest–southeast at KVCH-56. All Steppe North Caucasus and YamnayaCatacomb graves can be considered to be isolated. The East Manych Catacomb population built kurgans, which form long lines. There also existed burial grounds dating to this culture population (Ulan-Kheyech, Komsomolsky).

EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THEMIDDLE BRONZE AGE

Fig. 132. Planigraphy of Arkhara kurgan burial ground: a–plan of the kurgan burial ground; b–Eneolithic, c - Yamnaya culture; d–Steppe North Caucasus culture, e - East Manych Catacomb culture Kurgans: M–Eneolithic culture; G - Yamnaya culture; Ú Steppe North Caucasus culture; - East Manych Catacomb culture

Fig. 131. Planigraphy of Lola kurgan burial ground: a–plan of the kurgan burial ground; b–Yamnaya culture; c–Steppe North Caucasus culture, d - Early Catacomb culture; e–East Manych Catacomb culture Kurgans: G - Yamnaya culture; Ú - Steppe North Caucasus culture; M–Early Catacomb culture; - East Manych Catacomb culture

191

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES ƒ correlation of all data obtained and demonstration of cumulative Harris Matrix forms for six environmental areas of the Caspian Steppes (Fig. 137).

Stratigraphic Sequences of the Eneolithic-Bronze Age Cultures of the Caspian Steppes Archaeological stratigraphy is a key method for determining the relative chronology of Bronze Age cultures and has been used by many scholars (Merpert 1974; Shaposhnikova et al., 1986; Trifonov 1991a).

The relative chronology of the Eneolithic-Bronze Age cultures of the area under investigation is based on the correlation of such matrix forms. Kuma-Manych Depression

This method is based on data obtained for kurgans, i.e. burial mounds. The method applies to the study of sequences of graves in kurgans of different cultures and their possible chronological links followed by interpretation of their relative chronology. Periodization of one kurgan is based on studying its vertical profile stratigraphy as well as horizontal planigraphy (the plan of the kurgan) of graves. Graves of one or several cultures form different stratigraphic horizons. A kurgan is a “closed complex”. Its first stratum is formed by primary grave/graves and subsequent strata are formed by additional secondary grave/graves. The study of planigraphy (the plan of the kurgan) and stratigraphy (vertical interface) of ritual places, analysis of additional mounds overlying primary grave/graves and other elements constructed above secondary graves help us derive relative sequences of graves uncovered in the kurgan. Any grave below a primary mound must be considered older than subsequent graves above it. Sequences of secondary graves are also determined by studying vertical stratigraphical data (additional mound 1, 2, etc) and planigraphic analyses (analyses of the kurgan plan). Based on this, we may infer that some secondary graves were independent stratum or stratigraphic horizons (for example, see Fig. 133, 10, 11). Reverse stratigraphy too plays an important role in interpretation. It means that a predominant sequence of cultures is broken. Based on this fact, we may assume that several cultures could coexist.

Steppe Eneolithic culture. All graves of this culture are primary. Four Steppe Eneolithic graves underlie Early Majkop burials (Fig. 133, 1). Early Steppe Majkop culture. Four graves of this type are secondary constructed over primary Eneolithic burials, additional mounds were built over them. An Early Majkop grave at Zynda-Tolga-1 underlies a Yamnaya burial (Fig. 133, 2). Late Steppe Majkop culture (Fig.133, 3). Graves of this type are primary. They underlie East Manych Catacomb graves (Zunda-Tolga-1, kurgan 1). These burials can be also secondary graves added to primary Yamnaya kurgans (VMLB,67, kurgan 4). Early Yamnaya graves are identified through their stratigraphic position. They underlie Late Steppe Majkop burials. A primary Early Yamnaya grave at VMPB, 67, kurgan 19, underlies a similar Early Yamnaya grave, followed by a Majkop burial with arrow heads. The next stratigraphic stratum is formed by Yamnaya burials. The predominant startigraphic stratum of Yamnaya graves of the region is formed by primary graves, above which a kurgan was built (175 primary kurgans). The remaining graves are secondary burials added to the Yamnaya kurgans. The maximum number of the Yamnaya graves in one kurgan is seven; in one case the kurgan contained 9 Yamnaya burials, but usually a kurgan contains only two to three graves. There are kurgans with two primary Yamnaya burials that underlie one mound (Chograysky) as well as kurgans with two primary graves and two primary mounds (Ostrovnoy, kurgan 3). Kurgans with two or one Yamnaya graves have been rarely found.

A similar stratigraphic position of graves of the same culture in different kurgans from different kurgan burial grounds indicates the position of this culture in the relative periodization as well as helps demonstrate: ƒ Whether there was a direct stratigraphic relationship between cultures (or none); ƒ Whether sequence of cultures can be determined; ƒ Whether cultures correlate as parts of the same stratigraphic horizon (Harris 1979: Fig. 13).

Several Yamnaya graves are secondary burials in the Eneolithic or Late Majkop kurgans (VMLBIII,66). Several Yamnaya graves are secondary in kurgans built over the Steppe North Caucasus burials. At VMLBIII,66, kurgan 4, Yamnaya graves are located outside mound 1, to which Yamnaya, Steppe North Caucasus, Early Catacomb and Yamnaya-Catacomb graves were added. In kurgan 14 at the same burial ground a Yamnaya grave overlies two East Manych Catacomb graves.

The chronological sequence of Bronze Age cultures will be demonstrated against the background of stratigraphic diagrams for all six environmental areas. This will be done through: ƒ stratigraphic diagrams prepared for specific kurgans (examples can be seen on Fig. 133, 9-13; 134, 6-14); ƒ matrix forms showing all details of the stratigraphic sequence for kurgans of one burial ground and comparison of data obtained for several burial grounds; ƒ Harris Matrix forms for each culture for all environmental areas;

In many cases primary and secondary Yamnaya graves underlie Steppe North Caucasus, Early Catacomb, Yamnaya-Catacomb, Multicultural and East Manych Catacomb graves (Fig. 133, 7).

192

EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THEMIDDLE BRONZE AGE

Fig 133. Kuma-Manych Depression. Stratigraphic Matrixes: 1–Eneolithic culture; 2–Early Majkop culture; 3–Late Majkop culture and Early Yamnaya culture; 4–Yamnaya culture, 5–Steppe North Caucasus culture; 6–Early Catacomb culture; 7–YamnayaCatacomb group; 8–Polyritual group; Zunda-Tolga-1: 9–kurgan 2; 10–kurgan 1, 11–Zunda-Tolga-3: kurgan 1; 12–Baga-Burul: kurgan 5; 13–Ostrovnoy: kurgan 3 Cultures: E–Eneolithic; EM–Early Majkop; LM–Late Majkop; EY- Early Yamnaya; Y–Yamnaya; NC–Steppe North Caucasus; EC– Early Catacomb; YC–Yamnaya-catacomb; P–Polyritual, EMCC–East Manych Catacomb culture, L–Lola culture; S–Srubnaya culture

193

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES was added to the centre. Large mound 2 overlies this grave, and a new kurgan is more than 3 m high and 50 m in diameter. The Steppe North Caucasus grave was added into this second mound, and later three more graves of the East Manych Catacomb culture were added as well (Fig. 133, 10).

The stratigraphic sequence of Steppe North Caucasus graves is as follows. Primary burials exist in 23 cases. Two kurgans have only one Steppe North Caucasus grave. In three kurgans primary Steppe North Caucasus graves underlie secondary Yamnaya burials. In five cases they underlie Early Catacomb graves; in the remaining cases they underlie Steppe North Caucasus, East Catacomb, Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural graves. At Ostrovnoy, kurgan 3, one Steppe North Caucasus grave was added to a primary Yamnaya kurgan earlier than a secondary Early Catacomb burial. Steppe North Caucasus graves are secondary graves in Yamnaya kurgans (22 graves), only in one case Steppe North Caucasus grave overlies a Multicultural burial, twice such graves overlie primary Steppe North Caucasus burials. A primary East Manych Catacomb grave in kurgan 21 at VMPB, 67, underlies a Steppe North Caucasus grave. At Zunda-Tolga-1 a secondary East Manych Catacomb grave underlies another secondary Steppe North Caucasus grave (Fig. 133, 4).

Zunda-Tolga burial ground-I, kurgan 2. A primary grave dates to the Eneolithic period. A small kurgan was built over it. A secondary Early Majkop grave underlies a primary grave. The third grave dates to the Yamnaya culture. The last stratigraphic horizon of this kurgan dates to the East Manych Catacomb culture (Fig. 133, 9). Zunda-Tolga burial ground-3, kurgan 1. A small kurgan was built over a primary Steppe North Caucasus grave. Its height is 20 cm and its diameter is 10 m. Later a secondary Yamnaya grave was added to the northern part of the mound and it overlies a new mound. Two more Yamnaya culture graves were added to this new kurgan as well as one Early Catacomb cenotaph. The latter underlies a large mound (the third stratum). The last level of the kurgan consists of four graves of the East Manych Catacomb culture. The diameter of kurgan is 25–30 m (Fig. 133, 11).

There are 15 primary Early Catacomb kurgans in the Kuma-Manych Depression. Several kurgans are isolated; and seldomly Early Catacomb graves were added to them. Rarely do primary graves underlie secondary East Manych Catacomb graves. In kurgan 17 at VMLBII,66 a primary Early Catacomb grave underlies a North Caucasus grave. Early Catacomb graves were also secondary graves in primary Yamnaya, Steppe North Caucasus or Yamnaya-Catacomb kurgans. At VMLBI,65, kurgan 43 and at VMLBI,66, kurgan 12, Early Catacomb graves overlie primary East Manych Catacomb burials; at VMLBIII,66, kurgan 32 an Early Catacomb grave overlies a Yamnaya-Catacomb burial (Fig.111).

Baga-Burul burial ground, kurgan 5. A primary Early Catacomb cenotaph overlies a small mound of 14–15 m in diameter and 0.3–0.4 m in height. One more cenotaph of this culture was added to the eastern part of the kurgan. Several ritual places were arranged. The subsequent stratum was formed by two Early Catacomb graves. They overlie the new mound. Two Manych Catacomb graves were added later. A new mound overlies the old kurgan. One more East Manych Catacomb grave was added to the southwestern edge of the mound. The size of the new kurgan is 20 m in diameter and 1.3 m in height. All other Manych Catacomb graves were added to this new mound (Fig. 133, 12).

Yamnaya-Catacomb graves can be primary (8 kurgans), in two cases such graves are isolated graves under the kurgan mound. They can underlie graves of the same culture as well as East Manych Catacomb and Early Catacomb graves. Very often primary East Manych Catacomb graves underlie Yamnaya-Catacomb burials (Fig. 133).

Ostrovnoy burial ground, kurgan 3. A square was cleared near the Kalaus River place and was covered by a plant mat. Two primary Yamnaya graves were constructed with. two small mounds above. A large round earthen construction was built around these two kurgans. Stratigraphic level 2 dates to Early Catacomb and North Caucasus graves. They underlie a new mound. The third stratigraphic construction is linked with six East Manych Catacomb graves, which were added to the northeastern and southeastern edges of the mound. A large third mound overlies these burials. A subsequent Early Catacomb grave and additional ten East Manych Catacomb graves were added to the kurgan. The last stratigraphic level dates to the Lola and the Srub cultures (Fig. 133, 13).

Multicultural graves can be primary or overlie East Manych Catacomb burials. In some cases a kurgan can consist of only one Multicultural grave. Secondary graves were added to primary East Manych Catacomb kurgans. At VMLBI,65, kurgan 58, a primary Yamnaya grave underlies a Multicultural grave. In many kurgans at East Manych stratigraphic relationships between secondary Steppe North Caucasus, Early Catacomb and Multi-cultural graves are not clearly defined (Fig. 133, 7). Clear stratigraphic lines are demonstrated below.

Southern Yergueni Hills Zunda-Tolga burial ground I, kurgan 1. A primary Late Majkop culture grave overlies a small mound, 1 m high and 16–20 m in diameter. Three secondary graves of the same culture were arranged in a circle. An additional secondary grave of the East Manych Catacomb culture

There are no kurgans dating to the Eneolithic period in this area. The lower level of the stratigraphy is occupied by Early Majkop kurgan 14 at Mandjikiny-2. The primary grave underlies Yamnaya burials (Fig. 134, 194

EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THEMIDDLE BRONZE AGE

Fig. 134. Southern Yergueni Hills. Stratigraphic Matrixes: 1–Early Majkop culture; 2–Yamnaya culture, 3–Steppe North Caucasus culture; 4–Early Catacomb culture; 5–Yamnaya-Catacomb group; 6–Mandjikiny-1: kurgan 14; Mu-Sharet-1: 7–kurgan 5; 8–kurgan 1; 9–Shared: kurgan 4; Mandjikiny-2: 10–kurgan 11, 11–kurgan 37; 12–kurgan 42, 13–kurgan 2; 14–Mandjikiny-1: kurgan 3 Cultures: E–Eneolithic; EM–Early Majkop; LM–Late Majkop; EY- Early Yamnaya; Y–Yamnaya; NC–Steppe North Caucasus; EC– Early Catacomb; YC–Yamnaya-Catacomb; P–Polyritual, EMCC–East Manych Catacomb culture, L–Lola culture; S–Srubnaya culture

Early Catacomb graves are often primary burials at Mandjikiny-1, Mandjikiny-2 and Shared. Kurgans with only one grave of the same culture have been uncovered. Early Catacomb graves can be secondary burials in primary Early Catacomb kurgans (Mandjikiny-2) and they can also underlie Yamnaya graves (Mandjikiny-2, kurgan 14). In some kurgans Early Catacomb graves underlie East Manych Catacomb and Lola graves (Fig. 134, 4).

1). In this area Yamnaya graves are often primary (17). At Mu-Sharet-4 one mound overlies two primary graves. Kurgans with only one Yamnaya grave are also known (Mu-Sharet-1 and 4). Secondary Yamnaya graves were added to primary Yamnaya kurgans. The reverse stratigraphy cases have also been recorded: a secondary Yamnaya grave underlies a Steppe North Caucasus grave in kurgan 2 at Mu-Sharet-1. The second case is kurgan 12 at Mandjikiny-1: an Early Catacomb grave is primary and underlying a secondary Yamnaya burial.

The Yamnaya-Catacomb culture occupies an intermediate position in the stratigraphic column in this case, i.e. between the Yamnaya and the East Manych Catacomb cultures (Fig. 134, 5). Graves were either primary burials underlying burials of the same culture or they underlie graves of the East Manych Catacomb culture (Mandjikiny-1, Mu-Sharet-4 and Ulan-Zukha). Some also overlie primary Yamnaya graves (Mu-Sharet-1).

Four primary Steppe North Caucasus kurgans have been uncovered in the Southern Yergueni Hills. Secondary graves of the same culture were added to primary Yamnaya kurgans at Mu-Sharet-1, kurgan 5 and Mandjikiny-2, kurgan 11. These burials underlie East Manych Catacomb and Early Catacomb graves (Mandjikiny-2, kurgan 7 and 11) (Fig. 134, 3).

195

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES section. Soil filling-in, (kurgan 2), overlies the primary mound. Secondary Yamnaya graves and one Early Catacomb grave were added to this second mound. Several sacrifices took places and one East Manych Catacomb grave was added forming a subsequent stratigraphic level, which underlies mound 3. The fourth stratigraphic level is formed by four secondary graves of the East Manych Catacomb culture (Fig. 134, 6).

The subsequent stratigraphic horizon dates to the East Manych Catacomb culture. Graves of this culture overlie burials of all cultures mentioned earlier. Examples of kurgan stratigraphic lines are demonstrated below. Mu-Sharet-1 burial ground: kurgan 5. At first, a rectangular square was cleared around a grave pit. A human sacrifice ritual was conducted and the body of a victim was placed on the northern edge of this square. The kurgan mound overlies two primary Yamnaya graves. Its height is 0.5-0.6 m and its diameter is 13 m. A Steppe North Caucasus grave was added to the southeastern part of the mound. It underlies soil filling-in. The size of kurgan 2 is 0.8-0.9 m in height and 21 m in diameter. The third stratigraphic level dates to the East Manych Catacomb culture, two graves of which were added further to the south away from the kurgan centre (Fig. 134, 7).

Mandjikiny-2 burial ground, kurgan 11. The first burial dates to the Yamnaya culture. A kurgan was built over it. It was 0.8 m high and was around 20 m. in diameter. Shortly afterwards two burials (one Yamnaya burial and one Steppe North Caucasus burial) were added to the northern and southern edges of the kurgan. Their construction must have been accompanied by additional filling-in, which enlarged the kurgan. Other two Early Catacomb burials would have been added at the level of the earliest buried soil rather than to the kurgan itself. But absence of soil discharges indicates that these burials were added from the kurgan surface and were accompanied by filling-in, which shifted the centre four meters to the west from the original centre. The stratigraphic horizon is linked to the Lola burial (Fig. 134, 10).

Mu-Sharet-4 burial ground, kurgan 1. A Yamnaya grave underlies a small kurgan. The approximate size of the mound is 10 m in height and 0.4 m in diameter. Shortly afterwards a secondary Yamnaya grave was added to the centre of this small kurgan and subsequently a Steppe North Caucasus burial was added as well. The kurgan mound was enlarged. Now its diameter is 15 m and its height is 1 m. The next stratigraphic horizon dates to the Late Yamnaya culture, with grave added to the southern part of the subsequent kurgan. Filling-in enlarged the size of the kurgan (Fig. 134, 8).

Mandjikiny-2 burial ground, kurgan 37. A primary Early Catacomb grave underlies the kurgan, its diameter is 10 m and height is 0.4–0.45 m. Shortly after construction of the first grave another grave of the same culture was added to the southern part of the kurgan. It underlies soil filling-in. The third grave of the Early Catacomb culture was added to the primary kurgan or was built after the constriction of the second mound (Fig. 134, 11).

Mandjikiny-1 burial ground, kurgan 2. A small kurgan (the diameter is 6 m and the height is 0.18–0.25 m) overlies a primary Early Catacomb grave. Filling-in enlarged the mound. Its height is 0.6–0.8 m and the diameter increased to 14–16 m. Four secondary graves of the Early Catacomb and the East Manych Catacomb cultures were added to the central, northeastern and southeastern parts of the mound. One Early Catacomb grave was added almost to the edge of the mound. Practically all secondary graves are located to the south of the primary grave forming a semi-circle. Soil filling-in was added during their construction.

Mandjikiny-2 burial ground, kurgan 42. A grave of the Early Catacomb culture was built under the mound. The centre of the kurgan was shifted five meters to the north of the centre of the mound. The primary kurgan is oval with diameter of 15×12 m. A similar Early Catacomb burial was added to the edge of the eastern part of the mound. It underlies soil filling-in. Its construction enlarged the size of the kurgan. Its diameter reached 21 m. The East Manych Catacomb grave was added to the centre (Fig. 134, 12).

Mandjikiny-1 burial ground, kurgan 3. A primary grave dates to the Yamnaya culture. During the funeral ceremony a human sacrifice was conducted: a man with his hands tied behind his back, was placed in the ground to the north of the pit of the primary grave. Then two graves were added to the kurgan. Its diameter is 14 m and its height is 0.75 m. A secondary East Manych Catacomb cenotaph was added to the western part of the kurgan. Soil filling-in overlies this secondary grave. A Lola grave was added to the centre of the mound (Fig. 134, 14).

Shared burial ground, kurgan 4. A primary kurgan overlies a Yamnaya grave. The second stratigraphic stratum is formed by two graves of the same culture and the third stratum is formed by an Early Catacomb grave (Fig. 134, 9). The Eastern part of the Stavropol Hills An isolated Eneolithic burial of this area is a primary grave and it underlies Yamnaya graves (Chogray II, kurgan 8) (Fig. 135, I, 1).

Mandjikiny-1 burial ground, kurgan 14. A primary Early Majkop grave was built below a kurgan of 20 m in diameter and 1 m in height. Later the centre of the mound was destroyed. A large pit in the form of a funnel was built and the Yamnaya grave was added to its central

Early Majkop graves are either primary burials or secondary burials added to the kurgans of the same culture (Sharakhalsun VI and Chogray I). This Early 196

EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THEMIDDLE BRONZE AGE

Fig. 135. Stratigraphic Matrixes. I. Northeastern part of the Stavropol Hills: 1–Eneolithic culture; 2–Early Majkop culture; 3–Late Majkop culture; 4–Yamnaya culture, 5–Steppe North Caucasus culture; 6–Early Catacomb culture; 7–Yamnaya-catacomb group II. Middle Yergueni Hills.: 1–Eneolithic culture; 2–Yamnaya culture, 3–Steppe North Caucasus culture; 4–Early Catacomb culture; 5–Yamnaya-Catacomb group; Peschany V: 6–kurgan 1; 7–kurgan 3; 8–Temrta III: kurgan 1; 9–Arkhara: kurgan 2 Cultures: E–Eneolithic; EM–Early Majkop; LM–Late Majkop; EY–Early Yamnaya; Y–Yamnaya; NC–Steppe North Caucasus; EC– Early Catacomb; YC–Yamnaya-Catacomb; P–Polyritual, EMCC–East Manych Catacomb culture, L–Lola culture; S–Srubnaya culture

197

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES Out of 15 primary Early Catacomb kurgans three kurgans have only one grave of the same culture; in five kurgans primary Early Catacomb graves overlie burials of the same culture (Peschany V, Temrta III, Elista). A primary Early Catacomb grave underlies a Steppe North Caucasus grave in kurgan 12 at Elista; in all other cases secondary graves date back to the East Manych Catacomb culture (Kermen-Tolga, Lola-1). Early Catacomb graves are secondary burials in primary Yamnaya kurgans (Peschany V). Reverse stratigraphy cases have also been recorded: secondary Early Catacomb grave overlies primary East Manych Catacomb burial in kurgan 27 at Elista (Fig. 135, II: 4).

Majkop stratum underlies Yamnaya graves (Fig. 135, I, 2). Late Majkop graves are either primary (Chogray II) or secondary added to the same kurgans (Chogray II) and they underlie Yamnaya (Chogray II, kurgans 4 and 14) or Steppe North Caucasus (Chogray II, kurgan 12) burials (Fig. 135, I: 3). Yamnaya graves are either primary (15) or secondary burials added to the same kurgans. They underlie Steppe North Caucasus (4) and Early Catacomb (1) graves (Fig. 135, I: 4).

Yamnaya-Catacomb graves are either primary (but seldom, i.e. Lola-2, kurgan 12) or they overlie Yamnaya (Elista, kurgan 10), Steppe North Caucasus (Elista, kurgan 8) or East Manych Catacomb (Elista, Arkhara, Lola 2) burials, being examples of reverse stratigraphy. Kurgans with only one Yamnaya-Catacomb grave without additional secondary graves have also been uncovered (Arkhara, kurgan 31). There are kurgans with primary Yamnaya-Catacomb graves, which underlie burials of the same culture (Lola-2, kurgan 12) (Fig. 135, II: 5).

Early Catacomb graves were added to three primary Steppe North Caucasus kurgans, and three secondary Steppe North Caucasus graves were added to the same culture kurgans (Fig. 135, I: 5, 6). There are six primary Early Catacomb kurgans in this area. They are either isolated or the second stratum of these kurgans is formed by secondary graves of the same culture. Secondary Early Catacomb graves underlie primary Yamnaya (2) and Yamnaya-Catacomb (1) graves (Fig. 135, I: 5). Two primary Yamnaya-Catacomb graves have been uncovered. East Manych Catacomb graves are either primary and isolated kurgans (2) or secondary graves in Yamnaya, Early Catacomb and Steppe North Caucasus kurgans (Fig. 135, I: 7).

East Manych Catacomb graves form the next stratigraphic level except in cases of reverse stratigraphy. They are secondary graves in primary Yamnaya, Steppe North Caucasus and Early Catacomb kurgans. Mounds with only one East Manych Catacomb grave have been uncovered as well (Lola-1, Arkhara, Elista and others). All other kurgans consist of only burials of the same culture (Lola-1, Arkhara, Elista, Yergueni and others).

Middle Yergueni Hills Eneolithic graves of this area are either primary burials (Arkhara, Three Brothers) or secondary graves in primary Eneolithic kurgans. For example, three Eneolithic graves form only one stratigraphic level at small kurgan 27 at Arkhara (Fig. 135, II: 1).

Examples of kurgan demonstrated below.

stratigraphic

sequences

are

Peschany V burial ground, kurgan 1. A small kurgan (0.5 m in height and 17 m in diameter) was built over a primary Yamnaya grave and shortly afterwards an additional burial of the same culture was added to the mound. The kurgan could have been built over two primary Yamnaya graves. One Early Catacomb grave was added to mound 1, it underlies new mound 2. The second Early Catacomb grave cuts into 1 and 2 mounds in the northwestern part of the kurgan, it underlies mound 3. The diameter of the kurgan is 25 m and the height was increased to 1 m. Small and large blocks of sandstones were used for the funeral construction and to built mound 3. Two ritual places (one contains a fragment of a large earthenware pot and the other has a horse jaw) were left on the surface of mound 2. The last stratigraphic level dates to the East Manych Catacomb culture (Fig. 135, II: 6).

Primary Yamnaya burials (43) form a second stratigraphic level. Kurgans with only one Yamnaya grave without any secondary graves have been uncovered as well. But boundaries of this second stratum are not well defined. The majority of Yamnaya graves are secondary burials in this culture kurgans (Lola-1, Arkhara) and they underlie Early Catacomb and East Manych Catacomb graves (Fig. 135, II: 2). In 16 primary Steppe North Caucasus kurgans stratigraphic sequences are the following: North Caucasus graves underlie the burials of the same culture (Arkhara, Elista) or Early Catacomb (Lola-1), YamnayaCatacomb (Elista), East Manych Catacomb (Arkhara, Kermen-Tolga, Elista) graves. Reverse stratigraphy cases have been recorded: a primary Steppe North Caucasus grave underlies the Yamnaya burial in kurgan 14 at Kermen-Tolga; a secondary Steppe North Caucasus grave overlies a primary Early Catacomb grave in kurgan 12 at Elista. In all other cases graves of the same culture are secondary burials in Yamnaya kurgans (Kermen-Tolga, Lola-1 and 2, Arkhara) (Fig. 135, II: 3).

Peschany burial ground V, kurgan 3. A primary Early Catacomb grave underlies a soil mound of 0.4 m in height and 16–17 m in diameter. Shortly after its construction one more grave of the same culture was added (Fig. 135, II: 7).

198

EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THEMIDDLE BRONZE AGE Almost all Yamnaya graves are primary (9), and very seldom these are secondary graves in Yamnaya kurgans. They underlie Yamnaya-Catacomb and East Manych Catacomb graves (Fig. 136, II: 3).

Temrta III burial ground, kurgan 1. A kurgan was built over a primary Early Catacomb grave. Later a secondary Early Catacomb burial was added to the southern edge of the mound. The third grave dates to the same culture. The next stratigraphic level is formed by one grave of the East Manych Catacomb culture, which underlies a Srub grave (Fig. 135, II: 8).

Only one Early Catacomb grave at Yashkul is a secondary burial in a Yamnaya kurgan, it underlies East Manych Catacomb graves.

Arkhara burial ground, kurgan 2. A primary Yamnaya grave underlies a kurgan mound, the height of which is 1 m and the diameter is 28 m (Fig. 135, 9). Three Yamnaya culture graves are secondary burials. One was destroyed by a Multicultural grave, which underlies soil filling-in. East Manych Catacomb graves were added to mound 2 later (Sinitsyn, Erdniev 1966).

Yamnaya-Catacomb graves are either primary (KVCH37, kurgan 6), underlying East Manych Catacomb graves (Tsagan-Usn III, kurgan 4) or they overlie Yamnaya (KVCH-56, kurgan 10) or primary East Manych Catacomb burials (Tsagan-Usn III, KVCH-57). They can be secondary graves in primary Yamnaya-Catacomb kurgans (KVCH) (Fig. 136, II: 4).

Sarpa Plain Reverse stratigraphy cases have been recorded at TsaganUsn III and in isolated kurgan 1 at Tsagan-Usn IV, i.e. primary East Manych Catacomb graves underlie Steppe North Caucasus burials (Fig. 136, II: 4).

Eneolithic graves of this area are primary graves. The earliest kurgans were built over such graves (Nikolskoye V and VI, Staritsa, Krivaya Luka XV, Ulan-Tolga). Eneolithic graves underlie either graves of the same culture (Ulan-Tolga, kurgan 1; Nikolskoye VI, kurgan 1), or Yamnaya graves (Krivaya Luka XV, kurgan 3, Nikolskoye V, kurgan 1) (Fig. 136, I: 1).

*** The Early Majkop stratigraphic level is formed by one primary and several secondary graves of the same culture in kurgan 4 at Evdyk. This level underlies one grave, which dates to the Late Majkop culture (Fig. 136, I: 2). Other Late Majkop burials were added to Early Yamnaya kurgans, the former underlie Steppe North Caucasus graves (Tsatsa, kurgan 7) (Fig. 136, I: 3).

Accumulative statigraphic Harris Matrixes of the Caspian Steppe six landscape zones are presented in Figure 137. According to the data, the lower stratigraphic level in all regions except the Southern Yergueni Hills is formed by the Steppe Eneolithic culture. It is followed by the Early Majkop culture in the Kuma-Manych Depression, in the eastern Stavropol Hills and in the Sarpa Plain; by the Yamnaya culture in the Middle Yergueni Hills; by the Early Yamnaya and Late Majkop cultures in the western part of the Caspian Plain.

Primary Yamnaya kurgans are predominant over secondary burials of the same culture (there are almost 60 primary Yamnaya kurgans in this area). Often isolated Yamnaya kurgans with only one grave were built (almost all kurgans at Krivaya Luka). Secondary Yamnaya graves were added to these kurgans only in 13 cases (Fig. 136, I: 4). Early Catacomb graves have been identified. Only one Steppe North Caucasus grave was added to Yamnaya kurgan 7, it underlies East Manych Catacomb grave at Tsatsa (Fig. 136, I: 4). There is a group of primary Yamnaya-Catacomb kurgans in this area (Krivaya Luka, Iki-Zegista). Other graves of this type are secondary burials in Yamnaya-Catacomb (Krivaya Luka) or Yamnaya kurgans (Krivaya Luka) (Fig. 136, II: 4). The next stratigraphic level is formed by East Manych Catacomb graves. They can be secondary burials in Yamnaya or Yamnaya-Catacomb kurgans or primary graves.

The Early Yamnaya culture coexisted with the Late Majkop culture in the Kuma-Manych Depression. Specific Yamnaya horizons are characteristic for each landscape zone. Stratigraphic correlation of the Early Catacomb, Steppe North Caucasus and the Yamnaya cultures has been identified for each region, except the Sarpa Plain and the western part of the Caspian Plain where only isolated Steppe North Caucasus graves were added to Yamnaya kurgans and they underlie East Manych Catacomb burials. Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural groups correlate with the Early Catacomb and the Steppe North Catacomb cultures in the southern areas and in the Middle Yergueni Hills. They can be arranged in one stratigraphic layer, though some of such graves date to the subsequent stratigraphic position. Yamnaya-Catacomb graves are placed between Yamnaya and East Manych Catacomb graves in the Sarpa Plain.

Western Part of the Caspian Plain One isolated Eneolithic kurgan has been uncovered in this area (KVCH-27: k.1) (Fig. 136, II: 1).

Stratigraphic columns constructed for each region end up with East Manych Catacomb graves.

Early Yamnaya graves underlie secondary Late Majkop burials (KVCH-56). The third stratigraphic level in these cases is formed by Yamnaya graves (KVCH-56, kurgan 6) (Fig. 136, II: 2). 199

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig. 136. Stratigraphic Matrixes. I. Sarpa Plain: 1–Eneolithic culture; 2–Late Majkop culture; 3–Yamnaya culture, 4–YamnayaCatacomb group. II. Western part of the Caspian Plain: 1–Eneolithic culture; 2–Late Majkop and Early Yamnaya cultures; 3– Yamnaya culture, 4–Yamnaya-Catacomb group Cultures: E–Eneolithic; EM–Early Majkop; LM–Late Majkop; EY–Early Yamnaya; Y–Yamnaya; NC–Steppe North Caucasus; EC– Early Catacomb; YC–Yamnaya-Catacomb; P–Polyritual, EMCC–East Manych Catacomb culture, L–Lola culture; S–Srubnaya culture

Absolute Chronology of Eneolithic–Bronze Age Cultures of the Caspian Steppes

kurgans were in use during several generations. The 14C database is presented in Appendix 2.

Absolute chronology of Eneolithic–Bronze Age cultures of the Caspian Steppes is based on a series of 14C age measurements of samples taken from kurgans and graves. It is important to set up a 14C database, which defines specific a distinct stratigraphic positions of graves in kurgans (i.e. a primary or secondary burial), and a precise cultural attribution of graves as well as the type of sample material selected for radiocarbon dating.

Chronology based on a series of calibrated dates should be carefully and critically evaluated, as all corrections should be used. To verify the 14C database established, additional research of the possible reservoir effect should be conducted. For the area of the Caspian Steppes such reservoir effect has been identified (Shishlina et al. 2006a; Plicht et al. 2007) and reservoir effect corrections have been proposed. This helps us propose a revised 14C chronology of Eneolithic and Bronze Age cultures.

An age range for each of the cultures and groups is important to identify the time when the population of cultures appeared on the Caspian Steppes, and their relative chronology. We do that in order to create comparison analyses of the time range of their existence in the area under discussion and in the neighbouring areas, to identify coexistence of population of different cultures as well as to confirm that different groups of

Steppe Eneolithic Culture The calibrated 14C dates of Eneolithic graves yield chronological time intervals for this period such as 4700– 3700 calBC (Trifonov 1996a; 2000) or 4500–3800 calBC (Telegin et al. 2001).

200

EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THEMIDDLE BRONZE AGE

Fig. 137. Stratigraphic Matrixes of six environmental areas of the Caspian Steppes Cultures: E–Eneolithic; EM–Early Majkop; LM–Late Majkop; EY- Early Yamnaya; Y–Yamnaya; NC–Steppe North Caucasus; EC– Early Catacomb; YC–Yamnaya-Catacomb; P–Polyritual, EMCC–East Manych Catacomb culture, L–Lola culture; S–Srubnaya culture

201

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES Table 10. 14С dates of the Khvalynsk I and II cemeteries 14 C (BP)

δ13C (‰)

δ15N (‰)

-20,336

+13,965

-20.04

+7.51

6015±85

[4448:4416] 0,44 [4405:4362] 0,56 [5009 :4794 ] 1,

-22,363

+13,580

OxA-4312

5840±85

[4795 :4586 ] 1,

-20,237

+13,758

OxA-4313

5920± 80

-20,578

+10,260

35 human bone

OxA-4310

6040± 80

[4906 :4863 ] 0,18 [4856 :4709] 0,82 [5047 :4835] 0,99 [4812 :4810] 0,01

-21,921

+13,792

127 animal bone? 147 ring made of ungulate bone

GrA-26899

5840±40

-20,77

+14,57

GrA-29178

5565 ± 40

[4779 : 4683 ] 0,92 [4633 : 4621 ] 0,08 [4447 BC:4417 BC] 0,41 [4403 BC:4360 BC] 0,58

-17,86

+11,69

Graves And sample

Lab №

10 human bone

OxA-4311

Khvalynsk II [4763 :4759 ] 0,01 5790± 85 [4727 :4536 ] 0,99

10 cow bone 18 human bone 24 human bone 34 human bone

GrA-34100

5570±40

OxA-4314

calibrated range (1σ, calBC) [start: end] relative area

Khvalynsk I

The calibrated 14C dates obtained for human bone samples associated with the Caspian Steppes and Lower Don Eneolithic graves have allowed us, first, to narrow the time interval proposed for the overall Eurasian Steppe Eneolithic horizon, and, second, to date the regional Eneolithic culture group to 4500–4000 calBC (Shishlina 2003).

Calibrated radiocarbon dates and chronology of the Khalynsk cemetery is based on human bones and river and sea shells (Dentalium, Penctunculus, Unio sp., Viviparus and Glycymeris) (Agapov et al. 1990; Kirillova and Popov 2005). Therefore 14C dates of human bones obtained for cultures whose representatives used seafood and/or freshwater food as a major dietary component can be older due to the “reservoir effect” (e.g., Lanting and van der Plicht 1998; Cook et al. 2002; Plicht at al. 2007). This reservoir effect for human bone collagen (both human and animal) is well documented (Arslanov 1987; Khassanov, Savinetsky 2002).

The earlier time interval is relative and is based on 14C dates of the Peregruznoye Eneolithic grave from the North Yergueni Hills, on 14C dates from the Eneolithic Khvalynsk culture kurgans (Agapov et al. 1990; Barynkin 1989) and on 14C date obtained for the Nalchik cemetery in the North Caucasus. There are typological similarities between the Caspian Steppe Eneolithic graves and Eneolithic graves from the neighbouring areas. 14C dates of animal bones from the upper layer of the Neolithic/Eneolithic site Djangr in Kalmykia (Koltsov 1988; Telegin at al. 2001) as well as 14C dates obtained for the Eneolithic Svobodnoye site have also been used. A relative sequence of cultures in the steppe area suggests that steppe Eneolithic sites extend beyond the time frame of the Djangr site and the Khvalynsk cemetery.

Stable isotope information for human bones taken from the Khvalynsk and Nalchik cemetery is available. All humans except the Nalchik man consumed many river products. These data evaluated by sheat-fish bones and special fishing tools, i.e. hook and harpoons, found at Khvalynsk I cemetery (Agapov et al. 1990). Thus all 14C dates of human bones obtained for Khvalynsk graves are older, they have an “apparent age” (Shishlina et al. 2006b). Parallel 14C dating of different materials (human bones, sheep and cow bones, and shell) taken from Khvalynsk graves was employed to identify the reservoir effect correction for the Steppe Eneolithic culture, i.e. ∆R=300– 350 years (220±45 for the Khvalynsk II, grave 10) (Appendix 2. Table 1). Dates obtained for human bone show an “apparent age” due to the reservoir effect and are older than 14C dates of other terrestrial samples, which are not affected. An approximate regional reservoir effect correction is based on difference of dates obtained for human bone and sheep and cow that 14C data obtained

14

A series of C dates of samples from the Khvalynsk cemetery and similar graves produced an age range of 5500–4700 calBC (Chernikh et al. 2000; Telegin et al. 2001; Trifonov 2001). It is accepted that the Khvalynsk Eneolithic culture (as well as similar sites) is older than Steppe Eneolithic graves with the same grave offerings and similar funeral rituals. We have also obtained a 14C date for a human bone from a Nalchik cemetery grave, located in the North Caucasus, which is consistent with the time frame discussed (Appendix 2).

202

EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THEMIDDLE BRONZE AGE for this culture should be verified, 14C dates of terrestrial samples and stable isotope ratio of humans and terrestrial animals should be conducted and chronology of the Eneolithic culture must be revised.

emergence of the Steppe Eneolithic culture. This point of view is shared by Bogdanov (2004). Therefore due to an approximate reservoir effect correction during the Steppe Eneolithic period, i.e. ∆R=300–350 years, the historical time interval for the Caspian Steppe Eneolithic group is 4300–3800 calBC.

For example, the 14C dating of the Eneolithic DnieperDonetsk and Sredny Stog cultures has been debated (Lanting and van der Plicht 1998). On the basis of the statistic method age ranges for these cultures have been proposed, i.e. for the Dnieper-Donetsk culture: 5000– 4200 calBC; for the Sredny Stog culture: 5300–3300 calBC (Chernykh, Orlovskaya 2004). However, due to the reservoir effect, 14C ages of human bones can be 300 years older. The same applies to 14C dates of freshwater mussel shells from the Eneolithic Dereivka Sredny Stog culture settlement. Thus the proposed time intervals should be evaluated. Bones of fish and turtle (Kotova 1992: Table 2) as well as fishing equipment suggest that the diet of local population was largely based on river food.

Early Steppe Majkop Culture Chronology of the Early Steppe Majkop culture is based on 14C dates of human bones and a bead made of animal bone (Shishlina et al. 2003; Yakovlev, Samoylenko 2003; Korenevsky, Kalmykov 2004) (Appendix 2. Table 2). The stable isotope ratios for human bone of an adult male at Mandjikiny-1, kurgan 14, grave 13, are available. They suggest that 14C date turns out to be older, presumably, due to the reservoir effect. Values of δ13C are available for other dates and suggest that they may be older as well. Reservoir effect correction must be used to verify radiocarbon dates. To this end, additional isotope identification and 14C dating of terrestrial samples should be conducted.

The upper chronological point of Steppe Eneolithic Caspian Steppe graves is obtained by 14C dating of human bones from Eneolithic steppe graves of the Lower Don region (Vertoletnoye pole, child bones) and Peregruznoye burial ground in the North Yergueni Hills. The funeral ritual and offerings of these graves are similar to those found on the Caspian Steppes. Unfortunately, isotope values for human bones are not available. But economy of this population based on fishing and diet components such as fish, molluscs and water plant suggests that 14C dates of human bones may have an apparent age and must be verified.

Comparison of the Early Steppe Majkop culture 14C dates with 24 14C dates of the Majkop culture of the North Caucasus (Trifonov 2000; 2004; Shishlina et al. 2003; Korenevsky 2004) suggests that steppe dates are close to the North Caucasus dates or older. According to Trifonov, the age range for the Majkop culture of the North Caucasus is 3600-3000 calBC. Unfortunately, isotope values for most of the dates are not available and the verification of the database is not possible. In Table 11, we present additional radiocarbon dates of bone items, deer teeth and a textile fragment from the Majkop graves of the North Caucasus.

Results of isotope values of human bones and reservoir effect correction 14C dates of humans taken from the Khvalynsk cemetery must be revised and corrected due to the reservoir effect. If ∆R=300–350 years identified for the Khvalynsk graves is confirmed by future investigation, the dating of Khvalynsk I and II cemeteries should be 4400–4300 calBC. In this case the age range for the Steppe Eneolithic culture should belong to the subsequent period, i.e. after 4300 calBC. Such chronology is verified by 14C dates of animal bones obtained for the North Caucasus Eneolithic Svobodnoye site (Appendix 2. Table 1).

Four 14C dates which are not affected by the reservoir effect provide a historical time interval, which is 3650– 2800 calBC, and correspond to the time age proposed by Trifonov. New 14C dates obtained for items made of animal bone are 300–400 years younger than 14C dates of human bones, and are very close to radiocarbon data obtained for animal and charcoal (Guamsky Grot; Novosvobodnoye site) (Trifonov 2000). 14C dates of humans (Klady and Dneprovskaya) are older than 14C dates of samples, which are not affected by the reservoir effect. An approximate reservoir effect correction for the Early Steppe Majkop culture is ∆R=300–400 years. Thus, an approximate historical interval for this culture due to the reservoir effect correction is 3800–3500 years. Parallel dating and identification of isotope values of human and animal bones remains to be carried out to verify this time interval.

Additional studies of the local reservoir effect, identification of the paleodiet of the Eneolithic culture population and parallel dating of different samples taken from the same or similar context will provide more correct intervals for different steppe Eneolithic groups. If such reservoir correction is defined, it will resolve the issue of the time-gap, which now exists between the Eneolithic Khvalynsk culture (based on fishing and hunting economy with the introduction of productive economy) and the steppe pastoral Eneolithic cultures. This conclusion finds some support in the model proposed by V. Stavitsky and A. Khrekov (2003: 130), in which several groups with different funeral traditions and grave offerings may be defined in the Khvalynsk cemetery. The latest group appeared at the time of the

Late Steppe Majkop Culture The historical time interval of the Late Steppe Majkop culture is based on a few 14C dates of human bones taken from the Caspian Steppe graves as well as from similar graves of the Lower Don and the Stavropol areas 203

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES Table 11. 14С dates of the Majkop culture of the North Caucasus №

Lab. No.

Sample

1

GrА21336 GrA24441 GrA21334

Stick made of animal bone Deer teeth

GrA21372

Stick made of animal bone

2 3

4

Textile fragment (cotton, wool)

14

Calibrated range 1σ (BC)1 [start: end] relative area Novosvobodnaya/Klady k. 31, sacrifice 4810±70 [3660:2871]1,0 place k. 2 [2924:2871]0,90 4270±45 [2802:2779]0,10 k. 2 [2893:2849]0,27 4200±60 [2841:2841]0,004 [2813:2740]0,47 [2730:2693]0,21 [2688:2679]0,04 Inosemtsevo primary grave [3511:3425]0,76 4630±50 [3382:3355]0,24 Kurgan/ Grave

C age (BP)

δ13C, ‰

δ15N, ‰

-21.43

–

-22.10

+4.01

-29.23

–

-20.87

–

Table 12. Results of 14C dating of human bone and wood from the Yamnaya culture of the South Yergueni Hills C age (BP)

Lab. No.

Sample

1.1.

IGAN2275

woman senilis

k. 5, g. 3

Mu-Sharet-1 4240±60

1.2.

GrА17461

wood (Acer)

k. 5, g. 3

4045±35

2.1.

IGAN1850 IGAN1891

wood

k. 3, g. 2

Mandjikiny-1 3980±110

man 20-30

k. 3, g. 2

3910±50

3.1.

IGAN2492

man 17-25

k. 14, g. 12

4033±76

3.2.

IGAN3228

wood (Fraxinus)

k. 14, g. 12

3770±60

4.1.

IGAN2058

man 35-45

k. 11, g. 2

Mandjikiny -2 4189±49

4.2.

IGAN2042

wood

k. 11, g. 2

3920±70

2.2.

Kurgan/ grave

14

№

1

CALIB RADIOCARBON CALIBRATION PROGRAM Copyright 1986-2005 M Stuiver and PJ Reimer 2 CALIB RADIOCARBON CALIBRATION PROGRAM Copyright 1986-2005 M Stuiver and PJ Reimer

204

Calibrated range 1σ (BC)2 [start: end] relative area

δ13C, ‰

δ15N, ‰

[2915:2857] 0,47 [2811:2749] 0,40 [2723:2699] 0,13 [2620:2561] 0,53 [2536:2491] 0,47

–

–

–

–

[2831:2820] 0,02 [2631:2297] 0,98 [2470:2339] 0,95 [2321:2318] 0,02 [2315:2309] 0,03 [2836:2815] 0,07 [2672:2468] 0,93

–

–

–

–

-18.61

+14.13

[2332:2327] 0,01 [2299:2031] 0,99

–

–

[2887:2850] 0,25 [2813:2742] 0,51 [2728:2694] 0,22 [2686:2680] 0,02 [2546:2544] 0,01 [2488:2294] 0,99

-17.56

+15.29

–

–

EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THEMIDDLE BRONZE AGE for human bones suggests that 14C dates of human bones have an apparent age and are older due to the reservoir effect. Consumption of fish caused reservoir effects in Yamnaya culture human bone collagen. Dates show reservoir effects.

(Korenevsky, Kalmykov 2004) (Appendix 2. Table 3). Isotope ratios of several bone samples show that dates have an apparent age and are older due to the reservoir effect. For two humans from the Aigursky and Zolotarevka burial grounds who consumed fish, their radiocarbon age is older, presumably, due to the reservoir effect and must be corrected. The reservoir effect correction is identified by conducting parallel dating of different materials taken from the same or similar archaeological context (Plicht at al. 2007).

Parallel dating of human bones and wood (Fraxinus, Ulmus, Acer) from the same or similar context (the same grave, the same burial mound) show that 14C dates of humans are older than 14C dates of wood. Based on the difference in age between human bone and wood samples, the reservoir correction for the Southern Yergueni Hill Yamnaya culture would be 195±25 (MuSharet-1: k. 5, g. 3), 263±16 (Mandjikiny-1: k. 14, g. 12) and 268±70 (Mandjikiny-2: k. 11, g. 2); the reservoir correction for the Sarpa Plain is ∆R=290 (Tsatsa: k. 6, g. 3 and 4). An approximate reservoir effect correction for the regional Yamnaya culture would be ≈ 200 years.

14

C date of a human bone (child) from Vertoletnoye pole seems to be correct according to δ13C=-20.7 ‰ . The mean value of 13δC in 100% diet based on C3 plants is 21 ‰. We may propose only an approximate historical interval for the Late Steppe Majkop culture based on a few radiocarbon dates, i.e. 3400–3000 calBC.

At present the historical time interval for the Caspian Steppes Yamnaya culture would be 3000–2350 cal BC. But analyses of the database obtained for different environmental areas suggest that the Yamnaya culture time interval for the Kuma-Manych Depression would be 3000–2400 calBC; for the Southern Yergueni Hills it is 2900–2400 calBC; for the Sarpa Plain and western part of the Caspian plain the time interval for the Yamnaya culture group is more narrow and is 2500–2350 calBC.

Yamnaya Culture The dataset for the Yamnaya culture includes 35 14C dates of human bones, wood, charcoal and vegetable mats taken from 28 graves. Combined dates (of human bone and wood, two samples of wood) obtained for five graves and three dates (wood and human bones) have been obtained for an additional burial. Isotope data obtained

Table 13. Results of 14C parallel dating of human and animal bone, and fresh-water shell from Steppe North Caucasus graves №

Lab. No.

Sample

Kurgan/ grave

14C age (BP)

1.1.

ИГАН2404

man 15–17

k. 1, g. 11

Zunda-Tolga-3 4136±85

1.2.

GrA32893

ring made of ungulate (sheep) bone

k. 1, g. 11

4050±35

Calibrated range 1σ (BC)3 [start: end] relative area

δ13C, ‰

δ15N, ‰

[2872:2801] 0,30 [2793:2785] 0,03 [2780:2621] 0,67 [2827:2825 ] 0,02 [2624 :2562] 0,57 [2535 :2492] 0,41

-18.40

+12.2

-18.19

+8.25

-16.52

+11.38

-8.46

-

Mu-Sharet-1 2.1.

GrA34098

Ring made of ungulate bone (sheep)

k. 6, g. 4

4065±40

2.1.

Gr32795

Unio shell

k. 6, g. 4

8420±40

[2834:2817] 0,10 [2663:2647] 0,08 [2636:2565] 0,57 [2532:2495] 0,25 [7543:7478] 1,

Ring made of ungulate bone (sheep)

k. 6, g. 4

-

-20.25

3 CALIB RADIOCARBON CALIBRATION PROGRAM Copyright 1986-2005 M Stuiver and PJ Reimer

205

+13.06

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Thus, a possible reservoir effect was verified by 14C dates obtained for the samples, which are not affected. At present, the historical time interval for the Caspian Steppe North Caucasus culture would be 2500–2300 cal BC.

North Caucasus Steppe Culture Samples of wood, plant mat and human bones taken from four Steppe North Caucasus burials of the Kuma-Manych Depression and the Southern Yergueni Hills were dated (Appendix 2. Table 5). Two pairs of parallel dating have been obtained (Table 13) and data from Zunda-Tolga-3 show the difference of 85±50 radiocarbon age, the difference between 14C dates of shell and animal bone is much larger, i.e. 4355 radiocarbon years.

Early Catacomb Culture Analyses of 14C dates cause significant problems, in particular concerning the Early Catacomb culture (Plicht et al. 2007). A series of 14C dates on human bones (33 samples from 27 graves) taken from this culture are unexpectedly old: 3300–2900 calBC. One date of wood has been obtained. This database has allowed us to propose a time span for the culture, i.e. 3300/2900–500 calBC.

Isotope values obtained for human bones (Zunda-Tolga-3 and Mu-Sharet-1) indicate that 14C dates of samples turn out to be older, presumably, due to the reservoir effect. Both persons consumed river food. This evidence is supported by carp bones found in the North Caucasus graves (Suvorovsky: k. 17, g. 7) (Nechitaylo 1978: 77). The Groningen date of wood correlates with 14C dates obtained for the North Caucasus graves of the UstDzheguta burial ground in the Stavropol area (Nechitaylo 1978; Chernikh et al. 2000) (Table 14).

The stable isotope ratios δ13C and δ15N have helped us investigate the possibility for correction of the 14C ages for human bones. The data suggest that all individuals must have had a diet largely based on river and lake food, such as fish, molluscs and water plants. This also means that a non-terrestrial component of the diet of the ancient population can explain the apparent age of the bones. The 14 C dates of these bones are shown in table 4 (Appendix 2). Such dates are too old, and must be corrected for the reservoir effect.

Table 14. 14С data of wood obtained for the North Caucasus graves of the Ust-Dzheguta burial ground (Nechitaylo 1978) Lab. No Lе693

Kurgan/grave к. 32, g. 10

14 C (BP) 4110±60

2

Lе687

к. 24, g. 1

4040±60

3

Lе692

k.33, g. 2

3900±60

№ 1

1σ interval cal BC [2859:2809]0,25 [2753:2721]0,15 [2702:2578]0,60 [2832:2820]0,05 [2657:2654]0,01 [2632:2474]0,94 [2468:2332]0,86 [2326:2299]0,14

For the Early Catacomb culture, estimates of the reservoir correction can be made by comparative analyses of 14C dates of human bones and wood from graves of the KharZukha burial ground (Appendix 2. Table 4). Graves of this site are characterized by very similar funeral rituals, and were made by a small independent group of Early

Table. 15. Results of 14C parallel dating of human and animal bone from Temrta-V burial ground, kurgan 1, grave 2 and 3 №

Lab. No.

Sample

Kurgan/ grave

14C age (BP)

1.1.

GrA 30051

Pin made of ungulate bone

k. 1, g. 2

4110±45

1.2.

IGAN3414 IGAN 3318

Female 17–25 man 40–50

k. 1, g. 2

4333±76

k. 1, g. 3

4597±85

GrA32893

sheep bone

k. 1, g. 3

4110±35

2.1

2.2.

4 CALIB RADIOCARBON CALIBRATION PROGRAM Copyright 1986-2005 M Stuiver and PJ Reimer

206

Calibrated range 1σ (BC)4 [start: end] relative area [2856:2812] 0,25 [2747:2725] 0,12 [2698:2617] 0,48 [2610:2581] 0,15 [3088:3058] 0,12 [3030:2885] 0,88 [3516:3398] 0,41 [3384:3322] 0,25 [3272:3269] 0,01 [3235:3171] 0,19 [3162:3116] 0,15 [2852:2812] 0,26 [2744:2726] 0,10 [2696:2618] 0,52 [2608:2598] 0,06 [2594:2583] 0,06

δ13C, ‰

δ15N, ‰

-18,28

+8,75

-17.97

+12.49

-17,74

-18.60

+12,79

+8.24

EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THEMIDDLE BRONZE AGE Table 16. Results of 14C dating of human bone and a bone pin (made of angular bone) from Zunda-Tolga-5 burial ground: kurgan 1, grave 7 Sample material

Lab. №

14

Calibrated range 1σ (BC) [start: end] relative area

Human bone Woman 50-55 years old Bone pin

IGAN2494

4866±57

[3708 : 3632] 0,86 [3558 : 3538] 0,13

-17,77

+14,93

GrA 29135

4110±45

[2856 : 2812] 0,25 [2747 : 2725] 0,12 [2698 : 2617] 0,48 [2610 : 2581] 0,15

-21,01

+5,36

C age (BP

Catacomb culture pastoralists. Comparison of the younger 14C date of wood with 14C dates of human bones shows that the dates obtained for human bones are probably not correct and do show apparent ages. Carbon and nitrogen isotope ratio measurements obtained for these samples show that humans consumed many river products. From the small number of data we can only derive an approximate correction for the reservoir effect of 400-500 years, but this value should be confirmed by additional parallel dating of Early Catacomb culture samples, for which we already have measured δ13C and δ15N.

δ13C, ‰

δ15N, ‰

correlate with the proposed time interval. Similar bone pins were in use among the Yamnaya and North Caucasus population. This correlation helps us identify the coexistence of different cultures, whose population occupied areas of the Caspian Steppes. One date of wood (a wheel fragment) has been obtained for the Multicultural group and has not been affected by the reservoir effect. Thus, at present, we do not use the dates which show the apparent age, and propose the following time interval for the Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural groups of the Caspian Steppes, i.e. 2600–2200 calBC.

Two dates of terrestrial samples are available (Table 15). The difference between pin made of ungulate bone and human bone is 223.31 years (grave 2), and between human and sheep bones is 487.5 years (grave 3). Radiocarbon ages of a pin from the primary grave and sheep bone from the secondary grave are the same.

East Manych Catacomb Culture A series of 14C dates on human bones, wood, plant remains and charcoal (66 samples) has been obtained for the East Manych Catacomb culture. Comparative analyses of AMS dates of plant remains, charcoal and wood with conventional dates of human bones from Zunda-Tolga-1 burial ground have allowed us to re-date this culture back to 2600–2000 calBC (Shishlina at al. 2000). Van der Plicht noted that conventional dates of human bones are older sometimes than AMS dates of wood and plant remains. But in the past conventional dates were not refined by correcting for isotopic fractionation with 13C. When it was done (Appendix 2. table 7) 14C dates on human bones became older up to 160 years (up to 100 years for Zunda-Tolga-1 dates).

Using the proposed correction, we conclude that the historical time interval for the Early Catacomb culture is 2600–2350 calBC. Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural Groups Radiocarbon dates for some human bones taken from the Yamnaya-Catacomb culture group are significantly older than expected (Appendix 2. Table 6). These dates do not correlate with the relative cultural chronology of the region. Parallel dating has been carried out for a human bone and a bone pin taken from Zunda-Tolga-5 burial ground: kurgan 1, grave 7 (Table 16). A woman of 50–55 years old was buried in this grave. Isotope data confirm that she consumed many fish.

New 14C dates of human bones (Zunda-Tolga-1, 2, 3, Mandjikiny) led to the contradiction: in some localities, evidence for this culture appeared much earlier than the Early Catacomb culture population and even Yamnaya culture groups, i.e. 2900/2800 calBC. Radiocarbon dates for some human bones are significantly older than the range for wood, plants as well as for other human bones. Furthermore, wood and human bone samples taken from the same graves were dated by 14C, with human bones appearing older than 14C dates of contemporaneous wood. We believe that these higher values can be explained by the “reservoir effect” in bone samples.

The 14C date of the human bone shows an exceptionally large apparent age. Based on the difference in age between a human bone and a bone pin made of animal bone, the reservoir correction would be 750 years. This correction is individual and can not be in general. It is very important that 14C dates of a bone pin have been obtained. Similar pins were found in Early Catacomb graves, one of them with the same radiocarbon age that 207

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES Table 17. Reservoir effect in fish bones from the Shakhaevskaya burial ground, kurgan 4, grave 32, West Manych Catacomb culture5 Sample

Lab №

14 C (BP)

Calibrated range 1σ (BC) [start: end] relative area

δ13C, ‰

δ15N, ‰

seeds (Lithospermum officinale)

Ua21407

3745±45

-20.7

–

pike bones

GrA26902 GrA32796

4390±40

[2268:2260] 0,04 [2206:2124] 0,65 [2091:2043] 0,31 [3084:3065] 0,14 [3028:2924] 0,86 [2905:2883] 1,

-16.54

+14.95

-8.48

-

Fresh-water river shell Poludina 5

4265±30

This grave dates to the West Manych Catacomb culture which is contemporaneous with the East Manych Catacomb culture.

To investigate the possibility of a local reservoir effect during the Bronze Age, bones of pike, fresh-water shell Poludina and seeds of Lithospermum officinale taken from the same grave have been dated (Table 17).

river basin) during the Catacomb culture to be 645 years (seeds–fish bones) and 519±85 (seeds–fresh-water shell). However this correction cannot be used as a general correction valid for the region. It changes through time and appears to be different for different regions (Savinetsky and Khasanov 2004).

The difference in the 14C ages obtained enables us to establish the local reservoir effect (the West Manych

Table 18. Parallel dating of samples taken from the same or similar context Kurgan/ grave

14 C (BP)

##

Lab№

Sample

1.1.

GrA10045

k. 9, g. 1

Zunda-Tolga-1 3910±40

1.2

IGAN -3117

charcoal from the incense burner Sheep bone

k. 9, g. 1

3922±104

2.1.

IGAN -2421

female 50-60

k. 10, g. 2

4256±75

2.2

Bln5529

male around.35

k. 10, g. 3

3858±32

2.3

IGAN -3118

sheep bone

k. 10, g. 3

3809±150

3.1.

IGAN -2130

adult

k. 3, g. 10

Ostrovnoy 3977±67

3.2.

IGAN -3115

sheep bone

k. 3, g. 38

3743±67

Calibrated range 1σ (BC) [start: end] relative area

δ13C, ‰

[2468:2390] 0,65 [2385:2345] 0,34

–

–

[2569:2516] 0,15 [2500:2280] 0,78 [2250:2230] 0,05 [2219:2212] 0,02 [3008:2986] 0,06 [2933:2849] 0,47 [2813:2741] 0,32 [2729:2694] 0,13 [2687:2679] 0,02 [2454:2419] 0,19 [2405:2377] 0,19 [2350:2285] 0,54 [2247:2234] 0,07 [2468:2113] 0,87 [2101:2037] 0,19

-17.38

+9.70

-16.56

+16.31

-18.20

+14.15

-18.83

+5.13

-17.69

+12.77

-19.21

+6.65

-16.59

+17.69

–

–

[2579:2433] 0,82 [2422:2403] 0,07 [2380:2349] 0,11 [2277:2252]0,11 [2228:2222]0,03 [2210:2109]0,53 [2105:2035]0,33

δ15N, ‰

South Yergueni Hills Mandjikiny-1 4.1.

IGAN -2493

male 30-35

k. 14, g. 1

4.2

IGAN -3229

wood (Fraxinus)

k. 14, g. 1

4025±113

3760±90

208

[2859:2809] 0,12 [2752:2721] 0,07 [2701:2457] 0,76 [2418:2407] 0,02 [2375:2367] 0,01 [2361:2352] 0,02 [2289:2131] 0,87 [2085:2054] 0,13

EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THEMIDDLE BRONZE AGE different cultures and allow us to observe movements of separate groups across the region under discussion. Furthermore, these reflect a regional network of exchange, indicating possible intercultural marriages and, thus, indicate the coexistence of several cultures. Redesign of some objects and elements of ritual practices characterize the preservation of old traditions in a new cultural environment.

The next step was to investigate stable isotope ratios in human bones taken from the East Manych Catacomb cultures. These were compared with isotope data obtained for animal bones taken from the same kurgans and graves. The stable isotope ratios δ13C and δ15N have helped us investigate the possibility for correction of the 14C ages for human bones. First, dates were refined by correcting for isotope fractionation with δ13C. Data suggest that all individuals must have had a diet largely based on river and lake food, such as fish, molluscs and water plants. Dates must be corrected due to reservoir effect. Parallel 14 C dating of animal and human bone samples from the same or similar East Manych Catacomb graves was performed in order to identify the reservoir effect correction.

Each of the analyzed items of the material culture could have several temporal characteristics: 1) the date of origin; 2) the period, during which the object was in use and 3) the date of the closed context where this object was “locked in” (the grave construction in our case) (Harris, 1979). There are several chronological funeral items, which include items that have special boundaries and cultural identity. From this we may deduce that the chronology of funeral offerings may change and therefore, we propose a relative chronology of analyzed cultural groups as well as state a possible coexistence of different cultural groups.

14

C dates of human bones show an apparent age. The reservoir effect correction for this individual, based on the difference between ages of human bone and bone pin, has been derived to be from 243 to 650 radiocarbon years.

However, it is not always possible to identify whether material objects indicate interaction of several cultures. For example, there is no evidence of coexistence of the Steppe Eneolithic and Steppe Early Majkop populations of the Caspian Steppes. Burial rites of these two cultural groups do not seem to overlap. We may assume that groups of the Early Majkop culture began to penetrate into the northern steppes when main environmental areas were vacant, or that Steppe Eneolithic groups were so small in numbers, that no changes in rituals or offerings could have occurred even if they were in contact.

We also used a standard 14C database of different materials such as seeds, textile, charcoal, and wood and sheep bone, obtained for the East Manych Catacomb culture in order to compare them with 14C data of human bones (Appendix 2. Table 7). Comparative analyses of 14 C dates obtained for different types of materials show substantial variation in ages. However we have to emphasize again that archaeological data samples from specific locations (type of the grave, grave offerings, stratigraphic position) strongly suggest that these finds were contemporaneous. The 14C dates of human bones turn out to be older, presumably, due to the reservoir effect compared to 14C dates of other terrestrial samples.

Archaeological evidences of the Late Steppe Majkop period define similar funeral rituals among this culture population and Early Yamnaya groups, i.e. rectangular pits, position of the dead flexed on the spine, east orientation as well as spreading of Majkop items, i.e. vessels and arrow heads among the Yamnaya population (Derzhavin 1991). The same could be said about the Lower Don and the Stavropol areas. Similar grave offerings and similarity in funeral rites are indications of possible coexistence of the Late Steppes Majkop and Yamnaya population in the Kuma-Manych Depression environmental area.

The data allow us to make an approximate correction for the reservoir effect during the East Manych Catacomb culture of 250–400 years. This correction needs to be verified. It may differ in different local environmental systems of the Caspian Steppes. Using these corrections, we conclude that the historical time interval for the East Manych Catacomb culture is 2500–2000 calBC. Comparative Analysis of Main Features of the Funeral Rite and Offerings of Eneolithic-Bronze Age Cultures of the Caspian Steppes

The funeral rite of the subsequent Yamnaya population of the whole Caspian Steppes indicates that during several hundreds years this population predominated across the area. Yet, variations in ritual practices existed as is clear from offerings of Yamnaya groups of different environment areas.

Independent groups of cultural traditions are behind stable combinations of diagnostic features of the funeral rites and types of offerings. Changes in main funeral rules indicate a relative chronology of regional cultural traditions. Identical ethnographic elements of the funeral rite (types of burials and the interior) and spreading of the same type of items could reflect a spatial and chronological unity; and point to the nature of interrelations of the population occupying the same environmental areas. Similar or identical funeral offerings suggest possible interregional links between groups of

A mixed character of funeral rituals is mostly characteristic for the early stage of the Middle Bronze Age. Different cultural groups used a similar type of graves and the interiors. The rituals were accompanied by using similar or even identical material objects in the multicultural environment.

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BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Fig.138. Diagram of spreading grave offerings across cultures, i.e. Yamnaya, Steppe North Caucasus, Early Catacomb, YamnayaCatacomb and Multicultural cultures of the Caspian Steppes

such as crafts specialization during the Middle Bronze Age (Gak 2005: 26). This led to a spread of the similar decorations, tools and weapons across a large area of the Steppe and the North Caucasus.

A correlation between items found in different types of graves based on cluster analyses was identified. Five types of graves were singled out. Each group is linked through similar grave offerings dating to the early stage of the Middle Bronze Age (Shishlina 1992).

The presence of the same type of items in graves of different cultures implies that many types of weapons, tools and decorations existed during a long period across a vast area. Their disappearance (especially decorations as the part of the ethnographic dress) indicates that the production of such items terminated and they were no longer in use (Gak 2005).

Such sets of funeral offerings characteristic for the East Manych Catacomb culture include: bone and bronze pins, bronze plaques, bone flat plaques with a drilled hole, bronze and silver temporal ring-pendants, bronze cord stem-pendants, braziers made of fragments of large earthenware pots, bronze decorations, double discs, ring medallions, spoon-shaped pendants, ritual incense burners, tools, weapons and ceramics. We may say that diagnostic archaeological categories include numerous types of decorations and a few types of ceramics, and most do not include weapons and tools. On the basis of these sets of funeral offerings, multicultural synchronous graves were combined into several horizons (Shishlina 1992).

Figure 138 presents the main items and their spread in a multicultural environment. This helps identify the correlation between cultural groups at the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age. Different funerary rituals, which belonged to independent cultural groups, were behind identical items of the material culture. The first set of items common for cultural groups of the early Middle Bronze age includes bone hammer-headed pins of all types except the first and second types of classification proposed in chapter 1. They were spread in Yamnaya, Steppe North Caucasus, Early Catacomb, Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural types of graves. According to the stratigraphic position of the graves with pins, the earliest items appeared in the Yamnaya culture.

The spread of a similar productive practice based on similar environment and raw materials resources is accompanied by the spread of similar types of objects. It was a result of “collective productive experience” (Ryndina 1998). A multi-stage exchange network between the North Caucasus and the Catacomb population was caused by activization of cultural events 210

EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THEMIDDLE BRONZE AGE items appeared in Early Catacomb graves much earlier than in the North Caucasus (1991: 80), where such items were rarely recorded (Andreeva, Petrenko 1998). Development of such jewellery evolved from a simple coiled piece of metal rod converted into a cord to the imitation of a cord in the cast ornamentation. Bronze stem-pendant with a mushroom-shaped end date to a later period and were found in necklaces with bronze and faience long beads in Late Catacomb graves (Mokry Kerchik, kurgan 2, grave 9) (Parusimov 2002: Fig. 56-6).

Later, pins were spread among other cultures where they existed for a long time. The fact that pins of types 1 and 2 were absent in graves of the Steppe North Caucasus, Early Catacomb and others cultures indicates that Yamnaya graves date to the earliest period. The latest types of pins were found in the Multicultural graves. In general, all types are standard with all variations linked to the ornamentation pattern. Bone crook-shaped and stem-shaped pins have been found in graves of the Steppe North Caucasus, Early Catacomb, seldomly in Yamnaya cultures. Such items, according to stratigraphic data, appeared later than hammer-headed pins. It is difficult to discern what culture craftsmen who made such items belonged to.

Non-decorated bone hammer-headed pins (remakes of bone pins of the second type) have been recorded in Early Catacomb graves in Lugansk (Krasnoozorinsky, kurgan 3, grave 4). Such decorations were accompanied by bronze stem-pendants with cast cord ornamentation (Sanzharov, Brityuk 1996). Similar stem-pendants with relief ornamentations have been found among Early Catacomb grave offerings in the Southern Yergueni Hills. Several types of bronze jewellery, i.e. plaques, medallions and pendants, are characteristic of Early Catacomb, North Caucasus and Multicultural groups.

Archaeological evidence for the appearance of bronze hammer-headed pins in Yamnaya, North Caucasus, Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural groups confirm that some of these graves were synchronous. Bronze crook-shaped pins were in use among North Caucasus, Early Catacomb and Multicultural populations. Thus we may assume that Yamnaya groups began to use accessories with pins, which were widespread in the North Caucasus.

A spoon-shaped pendant from a Steppe North Caucasus Piedmont grave has a local design. Such ornaments as well as zoomorphic pendants were manufactured during the Early Catacomb period. It was a time when canons of such decorations were established in the North Caucasus (Gak 2005). Such items appeared in Steppe North Caucasus, Early Catacomb and Multicultural graves of the Caspian Steppes. Some types of decorations appeared at the early stage of the Bronze Age, remaining in use until the Late Bronze Age (Korenevsky 1990; Gak 2005).

As has been mentioned earlier in Chapter 2, bronze hammer-headed and crook-shaped pins appear as one of the main markers of the Early Catacomb horizon and are linked to the North Caucasus population. This group penetrated into the steppe areas. Such items could play a role of “trade items” in the exchange network (Gak 2005). Bronze crook-shaped and hammer-headed pins were spread in many cultures at the turn of the Early and Middle Bronze Ages in the North Caucasus Piedmont area and in the neighbouring areas. However, their patterns differ. It is possible that they were produced in different workshops and at different times. Their use in costume design was different as well. We may deduce that only part of Steppe North Caucasus, Early Catacomb and Multicultural graves were synchronous.

The tradition of using braziers made of large fragments of earthenware pots is also a common feature. We assume that centres of production existed and a trade network of such ceramics developed. There are a few Yamnaya graves with such braziers, but it is a common find in North Caucasus and Early Catacomb graves. They have been found in Multicultural and Yamnaya-Catacomb groups as well. But they are rare in East Manych Catacomb burials.

Bronze puncheon plaques (round, petal-shaped or square) are typical for Yamnaya, Steppe North Caucasus and Early Catacomb groups of the Caspian Steppes. In some graves flat round bone plaques have been found as well.

Special types of ritual incense burners have been found in the Early Catacomb and in the Steppe North Caucasus cultures of the Caspian Steppes. They indicate the synchronous position of two cultural groups.

Temporal round rings with open ends were among the headdress decorations of Steppe North Caucasus and Early Catacomb grave offerings. Bronze cord-stem pendants of different types have been found in all these cultures. A simplified type of pendant in the form of a coil cord ended by a small ball has been uncovered in Yamnaya graves. However pendants with the stem decorated with imitation of triple, double or one cord are absent. Such decorations are typical for Early Catacomb grave offerings recorded for the Caspian Steppes, the Stavropol area as well as the Donetsk River basin (Andreeva, Petrenko 1998: Fig. 15-9, 11; Smirnov A. 1991). Only cord pendants of the first type have been uncovered in Steppe North Caucasus, Late Yamnaya and Yamnaya-Catacomb graves. Smirnov assumes that such

Some items at least, which belong to the East Manych Catacomb culture are also indicative of the synchronous position of graves of different cultures. Some types of ceramics, such as flat jugs, funnels, braziers; bronze knives and hooks, or clay models of wheels have been found in Late Yamnaya, Steppe North Caucasus, Early Catacomb, Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural graves. Sets such as these indicate that these cultures coexisted for a long time. From the comparative analyses we may deduce that spreading of the same set of items in graves of different cultures (decorations, ceramics, tools) indicates that some 211

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES of the Southern Yergueni Hills we have found burials dating to all seasons, from autumn-winter to springsummer (Mandjikiny-1; Mu-Sharet-4, 1). Local Yamnaya groups occupied these areas all year round. Family groups (men, women, and children) were buried in large kurgan cemeteries. Two Yamnaya burials from the Shupta burial ground, which is located far from other kurgans, practically in the open steppe area, date to late autumn-winter. From this we may deduce that this kurgan belongs to another family group, which occupied the slope of a small watershed plateau, or migrated across this area only in cold seasons.

groups of these cultures population were synchronous and coexisted on the Caspian Steppes. An exchange network and marriage alliances provided such interrelation between population groups of different cultures. It led to the spread of similar offerings in the multi-cultural environment. Yet, appearance of “imported items” in the graves of various cultures indicates a later period of grave construction. For example, bronze hammer-headed pins and North Caucasus decorations in Yamnaya graves of the Caspian Steppes indicate that some groups of the Yamnaya population coexisted with the Early Catacomb and Steppe North Caucasus population. Clay braziers, jugs, funnels, Catacomb knives in Yamnaya graves indicate that at least a small part of the population survived until the appearance of East Manych Catacomb groups.

The season we have determined for the Steppe North Caucasus culture is late spring-summer (Appendix 3. Table 5). Physical anthropological data suggests that small family groups occupied the watershed plateau of the Southern Yergueni Hills only during warm seasons. The Early Catacomb groups buried their relatives in lowlying flood-prone areas of the East Manych and Kalaus Rivers in late spring-early summer, in the upper part of the watershed plateaus, located far from water resources,– in the second half of spring-summer and early autumn. We suggest that seasonal migrants were buried in kurgans of the Kuma-Manych Depression and western slopes of the Middle Yergueni Hills. The predominance of male graves implies that adult males performed special economic tasks when they entered new areas. All year round male, female and child burials in kurgans of the Southern Yergueni Hills are the evidence that small family groups were settled in this area.

Offerings found in Multicultural and Yamnaya-Catacomb groups are also typical for Early Catacomb, Steppe North Caucasus and Yamnaya graves (pins, decorations). From this we may suggest that some graves were synchronous. In Yamnaya-Catacomb graves there are no numerous types of decorations which are characteristic for the Early Catacomb and Steppe North Caucasus population. But type 3 and 4 hammer-headed pins are found in all types of graves. Seasonality of Kurgans and Graves of the KumaManych Depression, the Stavropol Hills, the Southern Yergueni Hills and Western Slopes of the Middle Yergueni Hills

A local small Early Catacomb group occupied the valley of the Djurak-Sal River and the neighbouring watershed plateau all year round and buried its relatives in Peschany V burial ground. Other groups of the same culture shared with them small watershed plateaus located nearby, but they buried their relatives only during the warm seasons (Temrta). The mixed Yamnaya-Catacomb culture group of the Southern Yergueni Hills buried its relatives only in summer (Appendix 3. Table 6). Seasonality of the East Manych Catacomb culture is very important as well.

Seasonality data for cultures can be also used for identifying their relative chronology. However, seasonality data are not available for the Eneolithic steppe kurgans and graves. Recent seasonality data obtained for the Majkop culture are interesting (Appendix 3. Table 1). Based on that data we assume that the Early Steppe Majkop population was penetrating at least to the eastern part of the Stavropol Hills, the Kuma-Manych Depression and watershed plateaus of the Southern Yergueni Hills only during warm seasons. Physical anthropological analyses of the skeletons (sex and age determination, see Appendix 1. Table 1) indicate that they were small family groups.

Small family groups occupied the valleys of the East Manych and Kalaus Rivers during the whole year (Zunda-Tolga-1). Burials of this culture from ZundaTolga-2 and the Ostrovnoy burial ground date to spring– the first half of summer. Physical anthropological analysis indicates that such burials contained female and child bodies. From this we may deduce that men could be absent during warm seasons. A small family group of Zunda-Tolga-3 burial ground occupied the valleys of the Kalaus River during the first half of summer and then migrated elsewhere.

There are no seasonality data on the Late Majkop population. But for the Early Yamnaya groups of the Southern Yergueni Hills such data are available (Appendix 3. Table 2).These data suggest that Yamnaya small family groups occupied the watershed plateau all year round (Appendix 3. Table 3). The season of the Yamnaya graves from the valleys of the East Manych River and the Kalaus River is late spring and summer (Zunda-Tolga-1,3; Ostrovnoy). Physical anthropological determination suggests that these graves belong to males. Adult men only rather than small family groups migrated across these areas (Zunda-Tolga-3). In the watershed area

Male, female and child burials of the Baga-Burul burial ground occurred in summer. One woman died in childbirth. These data suggest that migrations of the population along the West Manych River took place during warm seasons.

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EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THEMIDDLE BRONZE AGE Some groups of the East Manych Catacomb culture exploited pastures of the Southern Yergueni Hills in spring, while others exploited pastures in summer and autumn. Winter burials have not been identified. Physical anthropological analysis indicates that small family groups participated in seasonal migrations.

East Manych Catacomb culture (2500–2000 calBC) ↑ Early Catacomb, Steppe North Caucasus, Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural and Late Yamnaya groups (2600–2300 calBC.) ↑ Yamnaya culture (3000–2350 calBC.) ↑ Late Majkop, Early Yamnaya cultures (3400–3000 calBC.) ↑ Time gap (3500–3400 calBC.) ↑ Early Majkop culture (3800–3500 calBC.) ↑ Steppe Eneolithic period (4300–3800 calBC)

The valley of the Yalmta River was exploited by small family groups during all year around. Some data imply that pastures of the Black Lands were exploited during winter. Results of Comparative Analyses: Discussion Data obtained through interdisciplinary analyses of archaeological resources and comparative analyses relates to the issue of relative chronology of archaeological cultures of the Eneolithic and Bronze Age on the Caspian Steppes. The spatial distribution of archaeological sites across the Caspian Steppes environment allows us to identify which areas were developed by which cultures, and then to compare cultural groups. Comparative analyses of such cultural areas with the planigraphy of burial grounds point to the level of exploitation of different environmental areas. Additional seasonality information is used for verification of planigraphical clusters of kurgans. Stratigraphic analyses and radiocarbon dating demonstrate relative and absolute chronology. Stratigraphical chains are verified by planigraphy of burial grounds and seasonality data. Six periods have been identified6 (Fig. 139).

Fig. 139. Relative Chronology and Historical Time-Intervals of the Caspian Steppes Bronze Age cultures

Planigraphy analysis of burial grounds shows that most Eneolithic kurgans are isolated. Very seldom are two or three kurgans located in one place. Hence we conclude that the population was not numerous. Stratigraphic analysis suggests that Eneolithic kurgans occupy the lower level of the discussed periodization. There are no planigraphic and stratigraphic evidence of existence of other cultural groups during the Eneolithic period on the Caspian Steppes. The historical time span of these groups too is still not clearly defined, i.e. 4300–3800 calBC.

Each period is characterized by appearance of one or several cultures whose population exploited the environmental areas of the Caspian Steppes in their own way. The Steppe Eneolithic population exploited the watershed plateaus of the Northern and Middle Yergueni Hills, lake shores of the Sarpa and Caspian Plains, lake flood-plain terraces, and river valleys of the Kuma-Manych Depression. Location of Neolithic and Eneolithic sites shows that the Neolithic and Eneolithic population can be linked to each other, as they exploited the same areas, but the Steppe Eneolithic population moved to vacant western environmental areas, i.e. watershed plateaus of the Middle Yergueni Hills, and to southern areas. It is possible that the upper level of such sites as the Djangr site was left by Eneolithic newcomers. Survey materials including flint and clay items found in floodplains and lake shores indicate that the steppe population exploited river routes. However Eneolithic groups were the first to begin to exploit areas located far from large rivers and lakes. Little evidence of such items are gathered across the region under investigation. Thus the boundaries of the Eneolithic culture are not clearly defined.

Few Steppe Early Majkop kurgans have been found on steppe watershed plateaus and they are linked to a large river network i.e. west-to-east (latitude) river system of the Manych–Kalaus–Don, and south-to-north (meridian) river system, through chains of Lakes Sarpa. Early Steppe Majkop sites have not been uncovered in the Lower Volga area. It is assumed that eastern areas, first of all, the southern part of the Caspian Plain might have been swamped by that time perhaps caused by a high level of the Caspian Sea. Thus, the littoral area was not available for population movements. This suggests relative boundaries of the Steppe Majkop area within rivers and lake tributaries: Lakes Sarpa, East Manych, Kalaus, West Manych Rivers. This area also includes neighbouring watershed plateaus of the Southern Yergueni Hills and eastern slopes of the Stavropol Hills. The southern boundary is a more open area. Kuma and Terek Rivers valleys could be used as linked water routes which led to the southeast and south from the area under investigation. Mapping of Majkop kurgans indicates that gradual penetration of the Majkop population took place through watershed plateaus from the south to the north. But

6 Srubnaya and Lola cultures of the Bronze Age have not been included in the analyses.

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BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES boundaries of this culture on the steppe are still not clearly defined, as there is little data.

interval is approximate, i.e. 3400–3000 calBC and will be revised to take into account the reservoir effect correction.

Almost all Early Steppe Majkop kurgans can be defined either as isolated kurgans or small kurgan groups. They were built either close to the Eneolithic kurgans or occupied vacant spaces and formed new groups. The population was not numerous but they exploited the Sarpa Plain, the Southern Yergueni Hills, the KumaManych Depression and the Stavropol Hills. The stratigraphic position of the Early Majkop graves indicates that this population did not come across Eneolithic groups and that they exploited micro-areas, which were vacant, when they penetrated to the northern areas from the North Caucasus. On the basis of seasonality data we may assume that movements to the southern flood-plains and watershed plateaus took place only during warm seasons. Early Majkop groups are considered to be seasonal migrants rather than permanent settlers. There are few kurgans of this culture on the Caspian Steppes. Boundaries of this cultural group are not clearly defined. The proposed time span for this culture, i.e. 3800–3500 calBC, is approximate and must be discussed in the future. It might be lowered to reflect a certain historical situation in the North Caucasus and the neighbouring steppe areas during the Early Majkop period.

During the first period the Yamnaya population began to exploit this area and its expansion opened a new era. This population left behind hundreds of kurgans and it easily moved across the exploited area. The topography of kurgan burial grounds inside the landscapes zones has identified the following differences: 1) clearly defined exploited zones in the south–flood-plain river valleys and the neighbouring watershed plateaus of the KumaManych Depression, the Southern Yergueni Hills and the Eastern Stavropol Hills, sometimes isolated kurgans were erected in deep steppe areas; 2) all kurgans of the central Caspian Steppes occupied only some watershed plateaus of the Yergueni Hills (western slopes), and at the east foot of the Yergueni Hills Yamnaya kurgans were built on the Caspian Plain, while some watershed plateaus were vacant, this area was not exploited; 3) in the northern Caspian Plain Yamnaya kurgans occupied coastal lakes and river flood-plains, they were not built on watershed plateaus and they were absent on the vast open steppe areas, which stretched as far as the Lower Volga and Lower Don areas. Isolated kurgans were put up in large river valleys and near their tributaries; 4) landscape zones were separated by “vacant” areas where Yamnaya kurgans have not been found. These areas are characterized by absence of any water resources and poor vegetation; 5) Yamnaya kurgans have not been found in the eastern Caspian Plain, in the deserts of the Black Lands, along the Caspian littoral areas.

Hypothetically, during the subsequent period all landscape zones of the Caspian Steppes were abandoned. Cultural traditions were broken off. It is possible that some groups moved across the vacant areas but the exploitation of the Caspian Steppes came to a halt. A historical frame of this period is defined by intervals proposed for the Early and Late Majkop cultures. Therefore, the gap period dates to 3500–3400 calBC. This interval could be revised due to the reservoir effect correction of the time spans for both cultures.

Therefore, the larger area of the Yamnaya culture overlies the Eneolithic as well as Steppe Majkop areas. By mapping the sites we may assume that the Kuma-Manych Depression and the closest watershed plateaus of the Southern Yergueni Hills were first to be exploited. Later the Yamnaya population occupied vacant environmental areas of the Caspian and Sarpa Plains, the Lower Volga valley and its tributaries. Planigraphy of the Yamnaya kurgan clusters, long stratigraphic chains consisting of only Yamnaya (primary and secondary) graves are evidences of long existence of the Yamnaya population on the Caspian Steppes.

The Late Majkop groups are not homogeneous and seem to be linked to several cultural traditions. Data are not numerous; boundaries of separate groups are not clearly defined. Mapping of the sites indicates the expansion of the exploited area compared with the Early Majkop period. By the time of the Late Majkop culture the Northern Yergueni Hills as well as the northern areas of the Caspian Plain had been occupied. The planigraphy of sites shows that such graves and, more rarely, kurgans, are linked to already existing kurgan burial grounds. Isolated kurgans and graves indicate that the Late Majkop population was small in size.

At first the Yamnaya population used kurgans, which had been left behind by the previous population. Later in the Kuma-Manych Depression and in the Southern Yergueni Hills this population began to put in place their own necropoleis with numerous kurgans. Exploited areas as well as new vacant areas were used for this purpose. Kurgan burial grounds of these environmental areas consisted of many kurgans; sometimes their number reached 30 mounds. Analysis of planigraphy of such sites suggests that clusters of Yamnaya kurgans should be considered as separate groups. The seasonality of such kurgans and graves confirms this proposal. Seasonal routes of small groups were not similar. We assume that separate families were behind such clusters of kurgans. A difference in physical anthropological remains supports the idea that a large kurgan burial ground was not a

This stratigraphic analysis indicates that by the Late Majkop period first kurgans of the Yamnaya culture had appeared. They were located in the southern area, i.e. the Kuma-Manych Depression and edges of the Southern Yergueni Hill plateaus. Small Early Yamnaya groups appeared in the Sarpa Plain. The area of Early Yamnaya groups was not large as there were many vacant areas. The Yamnaya population settled down, left behind new kurgan burial grounds and exploited small micro-areas during the year. Based on 14C dates, the historical time 214

EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THEMIDDLE BRONZE AGE Hills. Some groups penetrated into the watershed plateaus of the Southern Yergueni Hills, other groups occupied plateaus of the Middle Yergueni Hills, only few individuals moved to the Caspian Plain.

cemetery of one kin. It was a necropolis of several population groups (Shevchenko 1986: 142). A large-scale exploitation of different environmental areas of the Caspian Steppes started at the beginning of the Yamnaya period. This culture population built many kurgans arranged in clusters in the Middle Yergueni Hills and on the Sarpa Plain. There are many isolated kurgans near the foothills of the Middle Yergueni Hills and in the Volga valley. A small number of Yamnaya kurgans indicates that exploitation of these areas was not stable. Meanwhile the Kuma-Manych Depression, the Stavropol Hills, the Southern and the Middle Yergueni Hills were very densely populated.

The location of kurgans of this group on the western slopes of the Middle Yergueni Hills, in the valleys of such large steppe tributaries as the Dzhurak-Sal and Sal Rivers indicates that western and south boundaries were practically “transparent”. Therefore, the area of the Early Catacomb cultures is definitely smaller than the area of the Steppe North Caucasus culture. Its southern border is marked by the eastern part of the Stavropol Hills, the western border is marked by western slopes of the Middle Yergueni Hills and the eastern border is marked by central watershed plateaus of the Middle Yergueni Hills. The northern border is defined by a ravine system of steppe rivers of the Middle Yergueni Hills.

The appearance of the Yamnaya groups changed the nature of the Caspian Steppe exploitation. This population settled down not only on the already developed lands but also moved to new areas. The Yamnaya period covers the time span 3000–2350 calBC. In the subsequent period the cultural situation on the Caspian Steppe changed drastically. The landscape mosaic expanded to include cultural mosaic.

Newcomers penetrated to a large area of the Yamnaya culture. The Late Yamnaya population was forced out. But this process does not mean that new groups gradually ousted the Late Yamnaya population to the north of the Caspian Steppes. At the same time it is in the north, in river and lake valleys as well as in Lower Volga basin that many Late Yamnaya kurgans have been found. The Late Yamnaya population reserved for itself traditionally developed outposts located in the south, i.e. East Manych and Kalaus valleys and nearby watershed plateaus of the Southern Yergueni Hills as well as the eastern part of the Stavropol Hills.

Open southern boundaries and developed river routes (east-west) direction: Kalaus–East Manych–West Manych–Lower Don Rivers; south-north (meridian) direction: Terek - Kuma–lakes of the Western Caspian Plain–Lakes Sarpa) are linked with the spreading of the new North Caucasus population. Some groups were exploiting valleys of the East Manych and Kalaus Rivers; others were penetrating into the nearest watershed plateaus of the Southern Yergueni Hills. The third large group of newcomers was moving towards the north, occupying vacant as well as already exploited watershed plateaus of the Middle Yergueni Hills. A small number of individuals reached the northern areas of the Sarpa Plain and the eastern part of the Caspian Plain. Therefore, the cultural boundaries of the Steppe North Caucasus culture are marked by the East Manych and Kalaus River valleys in the south. The Steppe North Caucasus group exploited watershed plateaus of the eastern Stavropol Hills as well. The boundary was open and it is assumed that main transit routes of the North Caucasus population to the north and to the northeast crossed this boundary. The west boundary is defined by the central part of the Southern and Middle Yergueni Hills; the northern boundary is defined by lakes of the Sarpa Plain; and the eastern boundary is defined by the eastern foothills of the Yergueni Hills located on the Caspian Plain. Therefore, the Steppe North Caucasus population settled down in the southern and central parts of the Caspian Steppes, and it did not move to the east, i.e. to the Black Lands and towards the coastal line of the Caspian Steppes; as well to the west, i.e. to the western slopes of the Middle Yergueni Hills. This population did not exploit the Lower Volga and the Lower Don valleys.

During a relatively short period several cultural groups, i.e. the Late Yamnaya, Early Catacomb and Steppe North Caucasus, must have coexisted. It led to the appearance of syncretic graves, which is a result of simultaneous use of the same or neighbouring environmental areas, cultural traditions and boundaries of the cultural areas. The planigraphy of separate burial grounds points to cultural mosaic at the beginning of the Early Stage of the Middle Bronze Age. Kurgans of Early Catacomb and Steppe North Caucasus cultures form independent clusters within large kurgan burial grounds. Such kurgans were left behind by separate family groups, which penetrated to the traditional Yamnaya area in small clans rather than as a stream of migrant-colonists. Moreover, even inside such large kurgan burial grounds as the East Manych kurgans, many kurgans can be treated as isolated kurgans. For example, there is one isolated Steppe North Caucasus kurgan at VMPB,65; only two Early Catacomb graves were added to one kurgan at Ostrovnoy. At first small family groups of different cultures who started to penetrate into the steppe did not use Yamnaya kurgans. Probably, there existed some “laws, prohibiting the use of other kurgans” located in the areas where these groups moved. These groups came to large necropoleis located on watershed plateaus or on river terraces; they built their own kurgans far from the main location of the earliest kurgans, but very close to each other. Thus, they formed a cluster of their own family necropoleis which

The southern border of the Early Catacomb area coincides with the area of the Steppe North Catacomb culture. Early Catacomb groups exploited the KumaManych Depression and the eastern part of the Stavropol 215

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES led to the expansion of the area of kurgan burial grounds. Numerous small kurgan groups dating to such cultures have been identified in large kurgan burial grounds of the Kuma-Manych Depression, the Yergueni and Stavropol Hills. This explains why few examples of so called “reverse stratigraphy” exist.7 Stratigraphic matrixes show that all graves and kurgans of the Steppe North Caucasus and the Early Catacomb cultures follow the group of the Yamnaya graves and kurgans (they underlie primary as well as secondary Yamnaya graves). Intra-stratigraphic links are not so evident. Therefore, several examples of reverse stratigraphy of many cultures mean that the Steppe North Caucasus, Early Catacomb, Early East Manych Catacomb and Yamnaya-Catacomb groups coexisted in the Kuma-Manych Depression, in the Southern and Middle Yergueni Hills and in the Stavropol Hills. The cultural context of the Sarpa and Caspian Plains is more monotonous–Early Catacomb groups did not reach these areas, the Steppe North Caucasus population was not numerous. It is very important to emphasize that clusters of kurgans dating to the Steppe North Caucasus, Early Catacomb, Yamnaya-Catacomb cultures were built by different population groups.

actively exploited southern and central environmental areas of the Caspian Steppes. Examples of reverse stratigraphy confirm that these groups coexisted in the same areas. This led to the appearance of kurgans of Multicultural and Yamnaya-Catacomb groups left behind by small groups that represented new traditions. Such kurgans and graves reflect a special funeral rite, which was spread during the period of coexistence of several cultural traditions in some environmental areas. Comparative analysis of a number of Yamnaya, Steppe North Caucasus, Early Catacomb, Early East Manych Catacomb and East Manych Catacomb graves shows that a large-scale exploitation of the Caspian Steppe was taking place during the Yamnaya and the East Manych Catacomb periods. Newcomers, i.e. the Steppe North Caucasus and Early Catacomb population, arrived in small numbers. This concept is confirmed by planigraphic and stratigraphic analyses as well as seasonality data. Most likely, at first mobile newcomers of the Steppe North Caucasus and Early Catacomb cultures penetrated into the steppes only during warm periods and by then that they began to settle down on new areas.

We may suppose that only under special circumstances (i.e. an urgent need to conduct a funeral ceremony and come back home; or move to another place; or unsafe conditions) people could use mounds erected earlier. The second possible reason why migrants began to use earlier kurgans to add secondary graves is that another group of the same culture moved to the area, but they came from a different geographical area. For such groups it was easier to use the old mounds rather than built new kurgans.

The Steppe North Caucasus period is 2500–2300 calBC, the Early Catacomb period is from 2600 to 2350 calBC. These historical intervals almost overlap with each other. They also correlate with the historical timeline proposed for the Yamnaya-Catacomb and the Multicultural groups, i.e. 2600–2200 calBC; and with chronology of the Late Yamnaya and the Early East Manych Catacomb cultures. The analysis of the East Manych Catacomb culture is outside the scope of this book.8 Therefore, it is important to estimate the overall level of exploitation of Caspian Steppe environmental areas by this culture population. I assume that representatives of the East Manych Catacomb culture appeared in the southern areas of the region under investigation. But very quickly they started to exploit almost the entire Kuma-Manych Depression, the eastern part of the Stavropol Hills, the Southern and the Middle Yergueni Hills. They began to build many kurgans in flat areas of the Sarpa and the Caspian Plains, moved to vacant Black Lands and reached the Caspian Sea coastline. Some Catacomb groups crossed the Lower Volga River and began to exploit the Left Bank Steppes and semi-desert environmental areas. Other groups occupied vacant watershed plateaus of the Middle Yergueni Hills and moved further to the north. Eastern and south-eastern boundaries of the Catacomb groups are marked by survey items found in the Ryn-sands and in the Mangyshlak peninsula on the East Caspian coastline Steppes. The western border of the East Manych Catacomb culture is linked to the eastern border of the West Manych Catacomb culture, i.e. the West Manych and the Sal Rivers and their tributaries. The East Manych

Most likely, individual representatives of such groups were behind isolated (or additional mounds and isolated secondary graves) Steppe North Caucasus and Early Catacomb kurgans. Apparently individual small groups of the Steppe North Caucasus culture penetrated into the north of the Caspian Steppe, to the Caspian Plain. The Early Catacomb population felt comfortable only in the Kuma-Manych Depression, in the Southern and Middle Yergueni Hills. Kurgans of this culture were absent in other areas. Arrival of new population at the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age marked the launch in a new stage in the Caspian Steppes exploitation. Newcomers belonging to different cultures began to build their own kurgans, and later they began to use old mounds as their necropoleis. As has been emphasized earlier, there are few cases of reverse stratigraphy. By that time some Yamnaya groups were ousted back to the north and northeast. Representatives of the Steppe North Caucasus, Early Catacomb, and Early East Manych Catacomb cultures 7 A theoretical strategy for studying the relative chronology of the Bronze Age cultures of the Eurasian steppes was based on kurgan stratigraphy and on single examples of reverse stratigraphy, in particular (Safronov 1974; Shilov 1975). My Ph.D. dissertation was devoted to the Early Stage of the Middle Bronze Age of Kalmykia. It was based on cluster analyses of funeral offerings and graves, which allowed me to single out seven chronological horizons. I also used a few examples of reverse chronology. Based on this study I came to the conclusion that in the middle of the third millennium BC several cultural groups coexisted in the Kalmyk Steppes (Shishlina 1992).

8 In this book maps of the East Manych Catacomb culture as well as seasonality data and 14C dates were used for comparative analysis only.

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EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THEMIDDLE BRONZE AGE Stratigraphical analyses show that a small number of East Manych Catacomb graves are synchronous with Steppe North Caucasus, Early Catacomb and YamnayaCatacomb graves. Therefore, origin and spread of the East Manych Catacomb population started at the time of extensive population movements and appearance of migrants belonging to different cultures on the Caspian Steppes.

Catacomb population exploited Kuma and Terek Rivers valleys located to the south of the East Manych River. Therefore, the area of the East Manych Catacomb culture is the most extensive. By the last quarter of the third millennium BC the population of this culture exploited all environmental areas of the Caspian Steppes. Planigraphy of this culture is different. Catacomb kurgans and graves overlie kurgans of their predecessors, as is clearly seen in kurgan burial ground maps. The Catacomb population also organized new kurgan necropoleis on vacant areas. Seasonality of the groups is different. I assume that there were representatives of separate family groups behind such “seasonal clusters of kurgans”. Their seasonal routes did not coincide.

The historical interval of the East Manych Catacomb culture is well defined, i.e. 2500–2000 cal BC. It overlaps with the intervals proposed for the Late Yamnaya, Steppe North Caucasus, Early Catacomb, Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural groups and indicates that these cultural groups coexisted in many environmental areas of the Caspian Steppes during 2600–2300 calBC.

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CHAPTER 3 PASTORAL EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THE BRONZE AGE Yet, if the temperature drops down significantly below zero and the snow cover is not deep, or if there is no snow at all, the soil becomes thoroughly frozen through and the fodder becomes inaccessible for cattle as well.

Introduction A historical and theoretical approach used to study Eurasian steppe Bronze Age population defines economy of this population as “nomadic herding” (Merpert 1974; Shilov 1975; Morgunova, Kravtsov 1994; Shishlina, Bulatov 2000). Eurasian steppe pastoralism was an absolutely new economic phenomenon. It included regular seasonal migrations, alternative use of different grasslands and water resources. Development of such an economy was a complex process, which led to establishment of technological and social levers of control over the pastoral mode of life.

Under contemporary landscape conditions a major part of the Caspian Steppes can be used as summer grasslands. These grasslands could be used as winter pastures only under certain conditions: (i) If a warm enough winter does not provide a stable or deep snow cover; (ii) Insignificant amounts of precipitation prevents the formation of the stable or deep snow cover; (iii) Tall grasses (cat-tail, reed) stand high over the snow covered surface. Winter grasslands of the first type are located on the Stavropol Plateau and the western part of the KumaManych Depression. The Black Lands are winter grasslands of the second type. River valleys are referred to as the third type of winter pastures. The first two types of pastures are characterized by -5°C as the average temperature of the coldest month and an annual precipitation below 250 mm. Under the average annual January temperature of -6°C the snow cover is stable in those areas where an annual precipitation is 320 mm; if the temperature drops down to -7°C, the cover is stable when the precipitation is 290 mm (-8°C and 260 mm).

This economy was based on a specific adaptive system. Its major components were as follows: (i) human populations; (ii) environment (landscape, climate, hydrological network); (iii) domesticated and wild animals and plants; (iv) settlements and dwellings; (v) a technological base (accumulated knowledge that includes diverse industries, the food acquisition system, the system of grassland seasonal use, exchange with neighbouring cultures, etc.); (vi) social relationship; and (vii) ideological structure (accumulated ideological concepts and views on the surrounding world).

Ethnobotanical studies indicate that there are different types of vegetation pastures on the Caspian Steppes: pastures located on sands, alkaline soils, and watershed plateau, in river and lake valleys, flood plains and along the coastline. Different vegetation conditions were taken into account in pasturing (Fedorovich 1973). All water resources were used: rivers and lakes throughout the year; rich grasslands in spring and snow in winter (Fedorovich 1973; Masanov 1995). Animal stock raising using pastures during the whole year is the main characteristic of the nomadic pastoral economy (Masanov 1995).

Each component of this system is linked with other components. The nomadic pastoral economy was strongly affected by economic, environmental, social, demographic and ideological factors (Tortika et al. 1994). For example, the adaptation of population groups to a specific environmental area, such as a steppe area with its specific landscapes and climatic features would result in a certain technological level. The productivity of different grasslands changed due to season, black ice, and drought. Pastures with steppe vegetation are more productive in spring and have less vegetation in early winter. Saltwort (Salsola) desert pastures are more productive in autumn, but they cannot be used in spring and summer. Grasslands with ephemeral vegetation are most productive during rainy summer and autumn, while wormwood grasslands are more productive in autumn after the first frost. Saline soil pastures with saltwort (Salsola) vegetation are used in autumn and winter. Sand grasslands are productive throughout the year, but they are in use only when other pastures are inaccessible, for example, because of the depth of snow.

The steppe people also learned to use wheel transport; they began to raise certain types of domesticated animals and learned to use the horse as a mounted animal. They acquired craft skills in metallurgy (Ryndina 1998; Gak 2005), textile industry (Shishlina 1999), wood processing (Chernyakov 1994) and developed a new labour organization as well as production techniques (Korobkova, Shaposhnikova 2005). A specific subsistence system evolved based on regional natural characteristics, the type of interaction with settled agricultural population and the use of local natural resources. All these features combined to result in gradual development of specific forms of pastoral economy based on a new system of economic, social and political links, trade and cultural exchange.

Knowledge of the location of water resources is one of the key landscape characteristics. The depth of snow cover provides evidence as to whether it is possible to use various areas as winter pastures. Sheep and cattle cannot get fodder from under deep snow. But horses have an ability to break the snow cover for smaller animals.

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PASTORAL EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THE BRONZE AGE PERIODS increased atmospheric humidity. It was the time of dry steppe soil formation and domination of chestnut soil bare of sodium (Na). Atmospheric humidity was 50–70 mm higher than today, i.e. 400–420 mm. Under such conditions, dark chestnut soils rich in humus were formed. On the Caspian Steppes, instead of modern desert-steppe landscapes, dry steppes on chestnut soils prevailed. Examination of soils from under the Eneolithic kurgans near the village Peregruznoe (the Northern Yergueni Hills) shows that climate was more humid than today (Demkin et al. 2002a).

Reconstruction of economy is based on defining: (i) local environmental areas; (ii) settlement patterns; (iii) seasonality of archaeological sites; (iv) humans (age and sex); (v) animals and plants; (vi) dwellings; (vii) a diet system; (viii) crafts and an exchange system. It is important to conduct comparative analyses of systems presented in this book and economic systems proposed for other areas. Results of analyses are provided in subsequent sections. Yet, the proposed systems are regional and are based on analyses of data taken from archaeological sites of the Eneolithic-Bronze Age population living on the Caspian Steppes. The population of other environmental areas, i.e. the North Caucasus, the Lower Don, the Lower Volga, the Azov Sea Steppe, the Dnieper areas that had different local environmental conditions developed a different mode of life characterized by different economic systems.

Though the data are scarce, we may suggest that the region was warm and wet, with abundant sweet-water lakes and rivers. The dry steppe was a zonal type of vegetation, and mixed forest with oak (Quercus), birch (Betula), linden (Tilia) grew in ravines (Kremenetsky 1997: 32-33). Presence of linden and birch pollens also indicates much more humid climate (Spiridonova et al. 1999: 31). Lake and river valleys as well as watershed plateaus with their high productive meadows were favourable habitats. Sweet ground water was not especially deep, and there were practically no alkali soils (Ivanov, Demkin 1999).

Paleoclimate of the Caspian Steppes during the end of the 5000–3000 millennia calBC The climate and its changes determine under which conditions and how emergence and development of pastoral cultures took place in the region under investigation, and which resources did the Caspian Steppes provide for both migrants and aborigines. The land, such as rationally used seasonal pastures, is an economic basis for nomadic society, and pasture is an environmental basis for pastoral ecosystem (Tortika et al. 1994).

In the Caspian Plain there was also a climatic optimum during the Eneolithic (5600±150 BP, 4670–4660 calBC; 5110±45 BP, 3965–3935 calBC (UPI-430); 4900±40 BP). Cooling of climate was accompanied by decrease of aridity, and both mixed grass steppes and flooded desert landscapes (Lavrushin et al. 1998: 57-58; Barynkin et al. 1998: 71) with their grass-wormwood associations covered all the area from the Caspian coastline, including modern steppe regions (Spiridonova et al. 1999: 26).

Research of regional paleoclimate has revealed frequent and sometimes very sharp climatic changes such as alternation of relatively humid and dry periods, that might have lasted for several centuries (Demkin et al. 2002 а: 118-122; 2002b). Even slight variances in the groundwater level may have caused changes in main landscape components: vegetation, soil, fauna (Golyeva 2000). Numerous environmental areas of the Caspian Steppes were exploited by different cultures, and nomadic economy developed.

Relatively well watered dry sand steppes with higher humidity dominated in the Caspian Steppes, in the RynSands as well (Ivanov, Vasilyev 1995). The Dagestan transgression of the Caspian Sea expedited the increase in the number of lakes; small sweet-water lakes spread over the Caspian area (Spiridonova 1991: 26; Lavrushin et al. 1998).

We discuss economy of the Caspian Steppes and environmental changes in the time interval of 4300–2000 BC. Time limits of the intervals are based on calibrated 14 С data discussed earlier.

Time interval II: the Early Majkop Steppe culture: 38003500 BC. The data suggest that the climate of this period was similar to that of the earlier period. Comprehensive examination of buried soils from two Early Majkop kurgans, as well as a section in the Kharabuluk bog, shows that the climate was mild and continental, and annual precipitation reached 400–450 mm (Kremenetsky 1997: 43). Analysis of phytolyth and pollen in buried soils of kurgan 2 at Zunda-Tolga-1 in Iki-Burul district in Kalmykia shows that the climate was more humid than today, and steppe plant associations flourished (Golyeva 2000).

Time interval I: the Steppe Eneolithic Period: 4300–3800 BC. Data on paleoenvironmental situation in the region during time interval I are scarce. Research has been carried out on the Caspian Steppes, including coastal Caspian Plain (Lavrushin et al. 1998; Barynkin et al. 1998; Spiridonova et al. 1999); in the Northern Yergueni Hills, namely a section in a bog called Kharabuluk, located in northern Kalmykia, at the left bank of the Zelmen river flood-plain (Kremenetsky 1997); in Volgograd region, in an area adjacent to northern Kalmykia (Demkin et al. 2002a).

Humus layer of paleosoils at Manjikiny-1 is rather thick, therefore attesting humid climate with precipitation of 400–420 mm (Demkin et al. 2002a).

The final stage of the Holocene Atlantic optimum (8000– 5000 BP) fell on 5000 BC and was characterized by 219

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES Investigation of the buried soils near the Lake DeedKhulsun, formed during this time period reveals expansion of salt meadow soils (Gennadiev, Puzanova 1996).

Presumably, the local landscape around Early Majkop kurgans at Sharakhalsun near the Kalaus (Yakovlev, Samoilenko 2003) was mixed grass steppe, including chicory (Cichoriaceae), geranium (Geraniaceae), aster (Asteraceae), carnation (Caryophyllaceae), campion (Silenaceae), Poaceae and ferns (Polydiaceae); and occasionally goosefoot (e.g., Atriplex) and wormwood (Artemisia).

In the Lower Don, flood-plain broad-leaved and smallleaved forests with mixed grasses predominated. The climate was more humid than today, and winters were milder. This facilitated growth of such plants as grapes. The average January temperature was -4°, that is 3° higher than today (Kremenetsky 1991: 124, 132-133, 158).

On the Caspian Steppes the period under consideration was the paleoenvironmental optimum with its lower temperature, lower aridity and change in paleolandscape: expansion of mixed grass steppe with numerous lakes (Lavrushin et al. 1998: 57). For the local landscape near the Kzyl-khak 1 site dominance of Poaceae and wormwood associations as well as mixed grass meadows Cichoriaceae, Asteraceae, is characteristic. The Kzylkhak 2 landscape with gramineous plants and wormwood vegetation, with birch groves with tamarisk scrubs were located close by (Lavrushin et al. 1998: 59).

Time interval V: the Yamnaya culture 3000–2600 BC. Many scholars reconstruct dry steppe landscapes for this age in the region (Alexandrovsky 1997; Demkin et al. 2002a). The climate was more humid than during previous Time interval IV and today. Analyses of grounds Mu-Sharet-1, Mu-Sharet-4 and Mandjikiny-1 allows us to find out the type of vegetation on watershed plateaus: dry steppes with wormwood (Artemisia), leguminous (Fabaceae), grass Poaceae, goosefoot (Chenopodiaeceae), lily (Liliaceae), dicotyledonous mixed grasses (Silenaceae, Asteraceae, Polygonaceae). Sod steppe grasses were also widespread. The pollen of motherwort (Leonorus), which grows in overgrazed pastures, obliquely indicates soil damage. Thus, mixed grass steppes dominated high terrains in the early 3000 Millennium BC.

The data presented correspond to data obtained for Majkop layers of the Galugai settlements on the Terek, i.e. the westernmost environmental area of the Caspian Plain: mixed grass steppes and meadow vegetation predominant. Considerable reduction in wormwood share (from 81.8% to 6.9% in the layer of Majkop Zamok site) is an evidence of a change in the vegetation cover (Korenevsky 2004). The climate was more humid and cooler than today (Korenevsky 1993: 96-97). There is a good reason to assume that the climate became more arid at the end of the Eneolithic Period. Characteristics of the Majkop soil (Manjikiny-1, kurgan 14) testify that it had formed when relatively humid conditions of soil formation were replaced by arid conditions. This conclusion is confirmed by emergence of the Cl-Na type of soil layer salinization with low content of readily soluble salts and absence of salt accumulation. The number of dust storms is known to have increased in the Lower Volga during the arid periods while impulverization of salt from the Caspian Sea intensified (Demkin et al. 2002a).

Analysis of the soil buried under kurgan 3 at ZundaTolga-1 (terrace 1 of the Eastern Manych) has also revealed a broad floristic spectrum (phytolyths of steppe plans, namely goosefoot (Chenopodiaeceae) and aster family (Compositae). Abundance of Compositae is especially important, as it reflects humidity of the climate (Kremenetsky 1991: 33). Soil samples from the relevant archaeological context contain many pollen of goosefoot, leguminous, wormwood, gramineous plants, sedge, Carryophilaceous, Rosales. It helps us reconstruct the landscape, contemporary with the kurgan construction, as dry steppe, and suggest that the climate was more humid than today. Abundance of sponges’ Spicules, which were introduced into burials with fresh reed, cane and meadow grasses, indicates proximity of water reservoir (Golyeva 2000).

Time interval III: the Gap: 3500–3400 BC. This period is presumably related to an abrupt change on climate (Kremenetsky 1997: 35). Reduction on valley forests in the Middle Yergueni Hills (Kharabuluk swamp) may indicate a local aridization. Pollen data for the Terek valley, located in the west of the Caspian Plain, also point to climate aridization (Korenevsky 1993: 97). Absence of any archaeological sites is also an indirect indication of local aridization of climate. The relative sequence of cultures was broken; the Caspian Steppes seem to have been abundant.

Mixed forest grew in ravines. The pollen and spore spectrum of the section in the Kharabuluk swamp (Kremenetsky 1997) as well as identification of elm and alder pollen from the Zunda-Tolga burial ground (Golyeva 2000: 21) coincides with identifications of tree species, which belong to Time interval V: oak (Quercus), poplar (Populus), ash (Fraxinus), elm (Ulmus).

Time interval IV: the Late Majkop Steppe culture: 3400– 3000 BC. This period enjoyed a mild and more humid climate, than the previous one. The pollen-and spore spectrum of Khara-buluk swamp, which corresponds to this time period (Kremenetsky 1997) shows that the dry steppe occupied the main part of the Caspian Steppes.

Data on climatic optimum, acquired for the Caspian Steppes are correlate well with corresponding data on the Northern Caspian region, 4107±201 BP, 2915–2405 calBC (UPI-557): pollen and spore spectrum evidence shows favourable environmental conditions, analogous to

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PASTORAL EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THE BRONZE AGE PERIODS upper limit of the zone of salt accumulation has been 70 cm deep. Examination of paleosoil reveals an abrupt climate aridization, i.e. an environmental disaster.

the modern northern steppe landscapes with their numerous streams (Barynkin et al. 1998: 79). The landscape which surrounded the Kzyl-Khak-2 site is characterized by abundance of wormwood-grass associations and mixed grass (Asteraceae, Chicoriae, Astragalus, dock) (Lavrushin et al. 1998: 79). The same situation is typical for the steppe Volga region (Barynkin et al. 1998: 81).

Dry steppes were replaced with semi-desert landscapes with their wormwood and fescue associations, which correspond to a very dry climate, and the forest area over ravines was reduced (Kremenetsky 1997; Lavrenko et al. 1991). Annual precipitation was 40-60 mm lower than today, and 140-160 lower than it was during the previous period, i.e. 300 mm (Kremenetsky 1997: 43). Findings of fish bones of carp (Cyprinus), sturgeon and pick-perch (Lucioperca) in Catacomb burials indirectly point to warmer climate and higher average annual temperature (Shilov 1975; determination by E.K. Sychevskaya). Spawning of carp, which is sensitive to quality of the spawning ground, water temperature and depth, takes place in water temperature at less than 18-20°С. Pickperch is also a thermophilic fish; since spawning occurs in March to April in temperatures of 10–12°С.

The analysis of paleosoil uncovered at Abganerovo-3 in the Northern Yergueni Hills also illustrates a more humid environment (Demkin et al. 2002a: 108–109). Nevertheless, at the end of this time period the climate has suffered another aridization. The soil formed during the final stage of the Yamnaya culture has a thinner profile, and its separate genetic horizons are also thinner. Zones of accumulation of readily soluble salts and gypsum are located high in the profile. At the same time, the humus horizon is well developed as there is no structural differentiation in the upper part of the profile. Neoformations are present mainly with big white spots of lime; and gypsum in the layer of its maximum concentration forms large hollow spheroid concretions and plates. All these characteristics point to relatively humid conditions of soil formation, and we may consider them as relict. The short time period, which preceded the burial of the soil, was characterized by increased aridity. The grounds for such a conclusion are as follows: high bedding of the salt horizon; availability of neoformations in the form of carbonaceous spots in the upper layer of the ВССа horizon, which become visible after drying; and gypsum spots at facets of soil structural elements in Сgs horizon. Therefore, the soil formed during the final stage of the Yamnaya culture reflects two stages of the process of soil formation, so that the characteristics of increased aridity were superimposed over the soil profile developed under relatively humid conditions. This soil was buried when the boarders between soil- and climate zones moved toward their modern position (Borisov 2002).

As a whole, the average annual temperature of that period was close to the modern one (+10°) (Tashninova 2000), but the precipitation was lower. In the Caspian Plain, mineralization of ground water increased, while their level dropped, which resulted in salinization of dominant meadow and chestnut-meadow soils. Yield of pastures might have reduced twice, or more (Ivanov, Demkin 1999; Demkin et al. 2002a). Draught, intense negative processes of salt accumulation, humus destruction and alialinization1 of soil, accompanied by subsequent reduction of grass vegetation yield, generated an environmental disaster (Demkin et al. 2002a). Analyses of soils buried under Catacomb kurgans, have displayed an abrupt climate aridization and shift from mixed grass steppes to goosefoot deserts (Gennadiev, Puzanova 1996: 26). This event is confirmed by the pollen and spore spectrum, obtained from the archaeological soil samples from Catacomb burials at Chilgir, located in the Yashkul district of Kalmykia. Goosefoot and wormwood associations prevailed there. According to the analysis of buried soils and the phytolyth profile of Early Catacomb kurgans at Peschany-V and Temrta-III, soils formed in a climate dryer and colder than today.

Time interval VI: Early Stage of the Middle Bronze Age: 2600–2300 BC. This time period is characterized by an abrupt aridization of the climate: summer temperature increased and winter temperature became lower, and precipitation was reduced. Analysis of paleosoils buried under Early Catacomb mounds (kurgan 1 and 2 at ZundaTolga-2) has displayed that their salinity is higher than that of modern soils. Nevertheless, the content of gypsum in the soil-forming rock is limited by 1%. Contradictions of this kind are to be explained by the beginning of aridization after relatively humid conditions of the previous period (Demkin et al. 2002a). A sharp, nearly critical climate change is reflected in a paleosoil of kurgan 10 at Zunda-Tolga-1, which is buried under a Catacomb mound. Analysis of buried soil of kurgan at Zunda-Tolga-2, which dates to the Catacomb Age, helps indicate that the steppe was covered with mixed grass, wormwood and goosefoot. Paleosoil of kurgan 5 at BagaBurul is highly salinized, has a thinner humus horizon, which also contains less organic carbon. Prismatic structure of the horizon B has been preserved, but the content of exchangeable sodium has been reduced. The

Data obtained by V.A. Demkin through analysis of soils buried under kurgans dating to previous Time interval V in the Northern Yergueni Hills (Abganerovo) and in the Southern Yergueni Hills, correspond to the aforesaid data. The buried soils under Catacomb kurgans at MuSharet and Manjikiny-1 suffered significant transformation. Degradation of the vegetation cover was accompanied by emergence of barren spots, enhancement of deflation, annihilation of upper fertile soil horizons, and intensification of salt accumulation (Golyeva 2000: 26; Demkin et al. 2002a: 115). Altogether, this means sharp aridization. 1

221

Soil degradation, caused by infiltration of free Na+ ions.

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES In the Lower Don region, the area under flood-plain forest was considerably reduced, and goosefoot became dominant plant, thus indicating poorer conditions of humidification (Kremenetsky 1991: 124–125).

Exploitation of the Caspian steppes: economic system, industries, diet system and cultural links

Shift in climate, soil and humidity encouraged xerophytic (drought-resistant) vegetation. The description of the vegetation cover on a flood-plain ground plot, located in an island between the Kalaus and the Eastern Manych, dates to the Time interval VI. Wormwood (Artemisia), goosefoot (Chenopodiaceae), grasses (Poacea), sedge (Cyperaceae), orach (Atriplex), nymphaea (Nymphaeae), lily (Liliaceae), ephemeras (Tulipa, Holosteum, Ceratocephala), spore of lichen, and dicotyledon mixed grass (Silenaceae, Asteraceae, Polygonaceae) grew on this spot. We may conclude that during this period this part of the steppe was a semi-desert with domination of goosefoot (Chenopodiaceae) and wormwood (Artemisia). Presence of moonworth’ pollen (Botrychium lunaria) indicates that dry meadows were located nearby. There were brooks and flood-plain lakes in close proximity, reed (Phragmites Adans) grew in abundance.

Before analyzing the economic potential of the Steppe Eneolithic group, this section summarizes the main systems developed for the preceding Neolithic Age.

Steppe Eneolithic Age

The economic system of Caspian Steppe Neolithic population has been proposed by P.M. Koltsov (1982; 1985; 1988; 2004). Several dozen camps and locations have been found on the Sarpa Plain, on the Black Lands, in the Caspian coastline areas. Scrapers, knives and cutters predominate among tools uncovered in graves. The economy was based on hunting wild animals, i.e. saiga, kulan, bison, horse. Fishing and gathering of molluscs and wild plants and their processing with stone hoes enriched the diet. Industry sectors included flint processing, bone cutting, and pottery industry. Bones of domesticated sheep and bull appear only in the upper Eneolithic occupation layer of the Djangr settlement, which is evidence of an evolving producing economy.2

A flood-plain terrain of the Eastern Manych (ZundaTolga-1) is also characterized by the drought-resistant vegetation and domination of wormwood and goosefoot (Golyeva 2000: 21); it indicates soil salinization (Lavrushin et al. 1998: 47). Some bushes and reed, used for making mats found on the floor of graves must have been found nearby (Golyeva 2000: 22–23).

In accordance with the system developed by A.I. Yudin (1989, 1996), a non-producing economy that included fishing and hunting the ungulate, small predators and waterfowl, formed the basis of the Trans-Volga Neolithic population. A thick occupation layer, dwellings and debris pits as well as a large collection of ceramics and flint goods confirm that the population was sedentary. The final stage of the Orlovskaya Neolithic culture is characterized by the presence of domesticated sheep bones, the absence of wild animals in the camp upper layers, a likely use of horse in the economic life (Yudin 2004).

Abundance of goosefoot in pollen spectrums from archaeological sites dating to this period indicates higher summer temperatures, with corresponding higher evaporation, lower ground water level and emergence of salt crust in small concave landforms (Golyeva 2000: 22– 23). The main species of forest trees found in Catacomb graves include elm (Ulmus), alder (Alnus), and oak (Quercus), namely the dry steppe species. Lime tree, which had grown in this area during the previous period, was absent. The trees of this kind are widespread in a wetter climate of the forest zone (Spiridonova et al. 1999: 31).

The gathering and producing economy of the Samara people living in the Middle Volga area relied on cattle raising, hunting and fishing. People from some sites subsisted only on hunting, for instance, the population of the Vilovatovskaya camp predominantly hunted beavers and elks. Horse and cattle raising also seems possible. Main industries included pottery industry, flint industry and bone cutting (Vasilyev et. al. 2000).

Data on paleoecologic reconstruction of the region (six time intervals) as well as on spatial distribution of archaeological sites of different cultures within steppe environmental areas of the Caspian Steppes (chapter 2) help to determine capacity of environmental areas, define ways where areas were used and how environment changes impacted development of various cultures groups.

The Caspian Steppe Neolithic population hunted kulan, horse, wild bull and saiga. Hunting was widespread. Finds of perch bones demonstrate that fishing was an important activity as well. A small collection of sheep bones suggests a gradual penetration of production economic elements in a predominantly gathering economy. Flint processing, bone cutting and pottery industry gradually evolved (Ivanov, Vasilyev 1995). The Kotova system (2002) suggests that hoe agriculture, cattle raising as well as a gathering economy could have been the economic basis of the Neolithic population settled in the Black Sea steppes and forest-steppe areas. 2 There are no archeological data confirming the use of a subsistence agricultural economy by the Djangr site population.

222

PASTORAL EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THE BRONZE AGE PERIODS Either only males (adults and adolescents were buried at Ulan-Tolga, Peregruznoye and Shlyakhovskoy) or small family groups moved from place to place. It is difficult to present a detailed pattern of the economy and describe technical capacity of the Eneolithic people on the basis of the few uncovered burial sites. Sheep and cattle bones (Arkhara 2, Nikolskoye VI) indicate that these bovines were raised during the Eneolithic Age in this region. Location of kurgans and burials near watersheds and river valleys coincides with topography of Yamnaya sites of a later period and suggests that only river and lake valleys and adjacent watershed plateaus were likely to have been used during the Steppe Eneolithic Age. No study of plant remains in burials has been conducted yet; therefore it is impossible to say what role was played by gathering. Yet, fishing would have been important, as indicated by a bone harpoon found in the Nikolskoye burial ground. There are no data on hunting, but it is likely that hunting wild animals enriched the local diet with meat. Funeral offerings include many flint arrow points. No information on dwellings has been collected, as settlements dating back to the Eneolithic Age have not been examined.

This population grew such domesticated plants as millet, barley, einkorn (Triticum monococcum), emmer (Triticum dicoccum), and, possibly, flax, peas, and lentils. In arid periods sheep and goats were raised in steppe areas, and as humidity increased in the south of the steppes, people started raising predominantly cattle. Domesticated animals were kept in stalls in winter, which necessitated preparation of fodder for winter. But in steppe environmental areas almost six-month-long growth of plants and a low snow cover would have provided for grazing grasslands throughout the entire year. Twelve herd compositions are singled out for differently exploited natural and climatic areas. People hunted such steppe animals as saiga, donkey, bison, tarpan and small fur animals. Neolithic fishermen used nets, flat weights, fish hooks, fish spears, harpoons. River and land mollusc gathering was an additional diet source. Numerous developed industries, such as pottery, stone and bone cutting, and a textile industry, were aimed to provide people with tools, weapons, and vessels for cooking and storing food. Comparison of these systems presented with the economic potential of the subsequent period helps identify substantial differences.

We can put forward only a working hypothesis stating that a small number of burials dating to the Caspian “Steppe Eneolithic Age” were left behind by people from other areas rather than by the local population, since the number of such burials and the number of permanent camps or seasonal camps should be much larger. This “other” population could have come from “sedentary camps” located near large rivers, such as the Volga and the Don and their tributaries (Ozinki II; Koumyska, Universitetskaya); the forest-steppe Volga and Don regions; semi-deserts and Caspian dry steppes (Kair-Shak VI and Kara-Khuduk) as well as plain areas of the North Caucasus with numerous river valleys. A.T. Sinyuk believes that topography and planigraphy of Eneolithic sites point to seasonality of grasslands and likelihood of migrations of separate groups as such sites are located near river estuaries and in the middle area of the valleys, very close to the water (1999: 24–25).

The Eneolithic population (4300–3800 cal. BC) exploited watershed plateaus of the Northern and Middle Yergueni Hills, lacustrine coasts of the Sarpa Plain and the Caspian Plain, Lower Volga flood plains under favourable climatic conditions with a prevailing grassland and steppe landscape, spread of mixed forests in the ravines, an average annual precipitation rate of 400–420 mm. This rate of rainfall had an impact on the average annual temperature, the snow cover depth (it was substantially deeper and could last longer); the depth of ground waters, and variability of the vegetation cover. Therefore, all exploited areas could be used as summer grasslands. Winter grasslands were located on the Sarpa Plain, the Volga valley, the western part of the Kuma-Manych Depression and under certain weather conditions there was a threat of a deep snow cover. A large part of the area could be covered with snow in winter, making it impossible for animals to graze during this time of the year. For example, the snow cover in the Northern and Middle Yergueni Hills, the forest and steppe area of the Volga and the Don valleys, particularly, in riverine valleys could exceed 50 cm, and even horses could not break the cover to find fodder.

This hypothesis is strengthened by topography and planigraphy and by stratigraphy of Eneolithic burial grounds3: isolated kurgans were built over one burial, and, in very rare cases, over two-three burials. The stylistic similarity of shell-tempered ceramics from the Lower Dnieper (Strilcha Skelya), the Lower Don (Razdorskoye), sites near Chogray, Ulan-Tolga (Kalmykia), and Koumyska (the Volga Region) seem to point to a chain of links or, rather, moves of steppe Eneolithic people in their south-north interactions along the following route: the Dnieper-Don–Kuma-Manych Depression rivers (the Western Manych, the Eastern Manych, the Kalaus)–the Caspian Steppes. Stone sceptres and large flint objects on knife-shaped chips have been found at such sites as Peregruznoye and Shlyakhovskoy (the Northern Yergueni Hills), Arkhara (the Middle Yergueni Hills), Tau-Tyube (the Astrakhan Oblast),

Southern areas of dry steppes, i.e. the Kuma-Manych Depression, western Manych lacustrine rich grassland steppes, southern semi-deserts of the Caspian Plain and North Caucasus river valleys were exploited by pastoral groups during winter. These areas practically did not have snow, microareas rich with high vegetation contained such plants as reed, cat-tail. Perhaps that is the main reason why there were no permanent settlements on the Caspian Steppes, while survey items (Eneolithic ceramics and flint items) are found in landscape areas near river and lake valleys as well as desert sand dunes of the Black Lands.

3

223

See Chapter 2.

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES were used to compare the system under discussion with existing systems.

stylistically similar flint chip goods from Khvalynsk (the Saratov Oblast), Chogray (the Kuma-Manych Depression), Kara-Khuduk, Kair-shack VI (the Astrakhan Oblast). Such finds are indicative of east-west links. Other, more detailed crossroads of cultural contacts may be better defined in the future.

Residents of the sedentary Samsonovskoye site raised cattle in the Don valley located along the slope of a watershed. The palinospectrum indicates that there were grasslands with high mesophyte vegetation and a large proportion of goosefoot (Chenopodium) (Kremenetsky 1991: 127–130) typical for watershed steppe hills. People living at this site were engaged in pottery and flint industries.

The similarity of funeral practice and artefacts from the Caspian Steppe sites and neighbouring sites such as those at Late Khvalynsk and Sredny Stog suggests that a small steppe Eneolithic group engaged in a multicomponent economy. This included elements of mobile herding (supposedly, sheep raising; while bulls are more likely to have been used as pack animals); gathering of wild gramineous plants and other edible herbs, molluscs; fishing and hunting. The isotope composition of collagen of bones of skeletons buried in the Khvalynsk cemetery indicates that river fish was an important component in their diet system (Shishlina et al. 2006, b). Shells of edible river molluscs were identified as well (Kirillova, Popov 2005). Such food resources were probably utilized by Eneolithic population living on the Caspian Steppes.

Herding is an underlying element of the Lower Don Eneolithic economy. The small size of dwellings (without hearths) and the presence of temporary, seasonal camps suggest a tradition of seasonality (Kozmirchuk, Chivilev 1999) and a mobile mode of life (Sinyuk 1999). The result would have been a wider cultural diaspora and the appearance of temporary (seasonal) camps not only within the main area where this culture was spread but beyond it. Moreover, numerous camps dating to the Lower Don culture, as was noted earlier, are near first terraces located over the flood plains and to low-lying flood-prone areas flooded in spring and covered with snow, making natural grazing of domesticated animals impossible. If the season of such camps were defined, it would help refine the system proposed by Sinyuk.

Assemblages of grave offerings (scrapes, knives, perforators) indicate that people could treat hides and skins and make such items as pillows and embroidered clothes ornamented with beads. Domestic industries evolved as well, such as weaving and braiding, production of bone and shell beads as well as tools (harpoons); pottery; wood processing (primitive coffins, simple bows) and flint processing (production of tools and weapons). Artefacts indicating rank such as copper bracelets, ochre, stone sceptres would have been bought through exchanges.

Camps and settlements have been found in the northern and northeastern part of the Caspian Steppes. Kair-shak VI and Kara-Khuduk could be permanent with their wide occupation layers, dwellings, hearths, while others (Koshalak and Karauzek) could be seasonal camps with a thin occupation layer, and no dwellings. They were located on fresh water lakefronts in the Eneolithic Age when the climate became more humid. Hence, areas that today are covered by sand were probably rich with fresh water streams, which appeared when the Caspian Sea level increased. The latter resulted in a drastic change in climatic conditions and the evolution of a new economic system when the mobile herding took over the huntinggathering (non-producing) economy (Galkin 1982: 143– 145; Barynkin 1998). Bones of domesticated sheep found at Kara-Khuduk I account for 6% of bone assemblage, though hunting saiga and kulan continued to play a major role in economy. I.E. Kuzmina notes that Caspian sheep were larger than species raised in other areas, which is explained by favourable climatic conditions linked to higher average annual temperatures, higher humidity and abundance of rich grasslands (Kuzmina I. 1988: 182– 183). The presence of perch species shows fishing while the presence of fresh water molluscs suggests that the local people were engaged in gathering (Ivanov, Vasilyev 1995).

The economic life of the Khvalynsk population can be characterized as pastoral (with predominance of sheep) with continued reliance on traditional subsistence elements such as hunting, fishing and gathering. The economy of the Eneolithic steppe group living on the Caspian Steppes probably had similar features. As has been noted in Chapter 2, the temporal gap between the Khvalynsk culture and the Steppe Eneolithic culture appears to be quite small. Only 18 burials on the Caspian Steppes can be considered as linkage points within a triangle, with Eneolithic camps located along its sides. These are: the Lower Don-the Lower Volga and the Caspian Steppes-the North Caucasus Steppes. In accordance with one view, mobile pastoralists belonging to the Khvalynsk culture ousted people belonging to a different culture from good grassland areas moving gradually from the North to the South (Stavitsky, Khrekov 2003). In this case the Khvalynsk population raising predominantly sheep (Barynkin 1998) could have moved deep into the steppe, migrating with their herds. Many scholars see a linkage between mobility of the Khvalynsk population and a mobile nature of their pastoral economy (sheep raising) (Astafiev, Balandina 1998).

The system that characterizes the economy of the NorthEastern Caucasus during the Eneolithic Age is different. A multi-sector economy that included agriculture, range herding (predominantly, sheep) and hunting was adapted to diverse landscape areas: permanent settlements were located in river valleys, pasturing was possible in winter as well. In summer cattle were herded to mountainous

Economic systems developed for neighbouring areas 224

PASTORAL EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THE BRONZE AGE PERIODS extending several hundred kilometres long. It has been suggested that special expeditions were organized during the Steppe Eneolithic Age. Members of such expeditions made multi-step exchange transactions. The migratory routes of metal bars could be as long as 2,000 km (Movsha 2000: 40). Yet, variability of the burial rite from Eneolithic burial grounds analyzed earlier (small family burial grounds, with the number of Eneolithic kurgans hardly exceeding one or two mounds) and the typological similarity of funeral offerings can be attributed to the existence of separate small pastoral groups, presumably, family groups within a single steppe and forest-steppe area. Similarity of burials and grave offerings that come from the Northern and Middle Yergueni Hills (UlanTolga and Shlyakhovskoy) or from the Northern Yergueni Hills and the Astrakhan Steppe could have resulted from seasonal moves of separate groups of the Eneolithic (male?) population within the region and adjacent areas.

grasslands with seasonal campsites. M.G. Gadgiev points out that this system is similar to that of the agricultural and herding economy used in Dagestan in ancient times. Domestic industries such as bone cutting, metal processing, carpentry, processing agricultural produce and meat products were important as well; the same can be said about the dwelling construction (Gadgiev 1991: 34–50, 86). People living along the Don River engaged in domestic herding based on raising cattle and pigs and range herding of sheep when flocks were moved to summer grasslands. Hunting wild animals and birds, gathering fresh water molluscs and turtles, and fishing (river species and sturgeon) were important activities as well. E.P. Sekerskaya describes seasonal variations of the diet that included both domesticated and wild animals: sheep were killed for food in January-February and in OctoberNovember while hunting wild animals prevailed in MayJune and August-September (Sekerskaya 1993).

This system is consistent with the reconstructed economy proposed by S.B. Bogdanov for the Orenburg Steppes in the Late Eneolithic Age (late 5000 BC), where summer camps existed in the steppe Urals area in the northern exploited area. Climatic conditions of this environmental area characterized by much snow in winter did not allow domesticated animals such as cattle, sheep, and, possibly, horses, to break down the snow cover enough in search of fodder. Occupation layers at Ivanovskaya, Bolsherakovskaya-2 and other camps contain few Sredny Stog type ceramics. Winter settlements were located further to the south from the Useni area and in semi-deserts of the Caspian Steppes (Bogdanov 2000). Additional diet resources came from gathering wild gramineous plants, hunting kulan and saiga (Gaiduchenko 2000).

Hence, if we suppose that mobile forms of pastoralism started playing a substantial role in economy of steppe, forest-steppe and the North Caucasus population of the Eneolithic Age, the appearance of a small group that left behind Eneolithic burials on the open Caspian Steppes is quite logical. Looking for better grasslands and sources of water, predominantly, in spring and water, but, possibly, in winter as well, small pastoral male groups migrated away from the main area of “sedentary Eneolithic cultures” (the Middle and the Lower Volga area, the Caspian Steppes, the Lower Don area, and the North Caucasus piedmont) together with their herds. Cattle raising made herders who tried to exploit open spaces take into account such environmental factors of new landscape areas as grasslands productivity, seasonal exploition, and availability of water sources. Not all areas of the Caspian Steppes could be used both in summer and in winter. This element pushed forward development of major elements of the new economic system.

Morgunova suggested that the Eneolithic population of the Urals area belonged to the Samara culture, and subsisted mainly on cattle raising. Hunting was not important and fishing was a secondary occupation. No forms of crop growing have been identified. Possibly, the population engaged in gathering. Several types of industries have been identified: stone processing, bone cutting, pottery (Morgunova 1995; Morgunova, Kravtsov 1994).

The early period of the Eneolithic Age saw a strong impact of Volga and Caspian Steppes population on those living in the steppe Don area (Sinyuk 1999). These areas are included in the economic orbit of the Don sedentary population. Overall topography of steppe and foreststeppe settlements and burial grounds, for example, in the Don valley, confirms this system, since such settlements and burial grounds are located along extended river systems. A.T. Sinyuk suggested that such landscape areas could be exploited on a seasonal basis (Sinyuk 1999: 24). This idea is consistent with the system of seasonal grassland use during the Eneolithic Age that we propose. Short-term sites with a thin occupation layer located to the north, the northeast, the northwest and the south of the Caspian Steppes could be used as spring/summer and winter camps.

Several economic systems have been proposed for the Black Sea Steppes as well. The best system is the one that has been developed on the basis of analyzing the lower layer of the Mikhailovka site in the Dnieper valley. During the Eneolithic Age it was a small temporary camp of herders who raised sheep, in an ancient ravine. A small community lived in four semi-subterranean dwellings with a gable roof made of reed that were heated by open hearths. Fishing (individual and collective with nets), hunting and gathering (plants and molluscs) were additional economic sectors. There are no data on agriculture since no tools to work the soil or harvest crops have been found. Grinding stones were used to grind plant roots. A set of tools is evidence of herding and hunting by-products (treatment of hides and skins; cutting and sewing of leather pieces, likely production of mats

This might explain why the number of similar items found over a vast area (Figure 108) is quite low, as during migration of the herd pastoralists could use routes 225

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES and blankets, clothes); textile industry (production of fibers and weaving4) with the use of primitive weaving devices with weights; bone cutting and stone cutting crafts to manufacture numerous tools and weapons and pottery. Most likely, there were no specialized buildings, all industries were domestic. They did not require much time and specialized skills. Hence, multi-sectoral economy provided everything needed by such a small community to survive and develop (Korobkova, Shaposhnikova 2005).

hooks and harpoons were used for fishing. Community crafts such as pottery, bone cutting, metal working, were developed as well, with flint processing playing a special role (Movsha 2000). Hence, the Eneolithic Caspian Steppe population developed a specific type of economic activity different from the economic system used by the Neolithic sedentary population of the region under investigation. Most likely, seasonal (summer?) groups of small communities (predominantly male) moved flocks of sheep to rich steppe mixed grass pastures. Fishing and wild gramineous plant gathering provided additional diet resources. Winter camps were located beyond the main area of the summer migratory routes. Perhaps, permanent settlements will be found one day. A small number of burials in Eneolithic kurgans and burial grounds suggest that such moves were not frequent and regular. No data on local crafts and their nature are available. Most likely, they developed outside this region.

Analyzing the economic system developed for the Caspian Steppe Eneolithic population, it would be interesting to check the seasonality of a small campsite located near the Podpolnaya River. Scholars believe that its inhabitants were mobile sheep herders (stall animal stock raising and range herding) (Korobkova, Shaposhnikova 2005: 250). But if sheep predominated in the herd it necessitated a frequent change of grasslands since sheep graze off the area very quickly as they eat everything. When the slaughter season is defined for the campsite, maybe it will be interpreted as a summer camp or a winter camp. We can also suppose that the campsite was short-term because its residents engaged in sheep raising, when grasslands located nearby degraded, its residents moved to another place. In order to assess the role of fishing in the entire economy of the Eneolithic population, we need to have additional verification of data. The authors of this system believe that despite the location of the site in the area of active fishing, residents of the Mikhailovka lower occupation level site were not active fishermen (Korobkova, Shaposhnikova 2005: 251). But data on the diet system of all cultures described below show that fish was a staple food in the diet system of ancient people who sometimes lived far from river systems. Additional ethnobotanical studies (soil floatation, phytolith and pollen analyses) can help reveal the mix of plants that were important in various economic areas and formed part of the diet of the earliest residents living at the campsite. So far, only wild barley seed impressions have been identified on ceramics from the lower occupation layer of Mikhailovka I (Pashkevich 2000).

This potential system is correlated with observations of nomadic economy used by Kalmyks and Kazakhs (Seasonality studies 2000), but it covers a wider area with no clear borders between economic regions. This system is still a hypothesis since it is based on indirect data, such as overlap of the topography of Eneolithic burials and subsequent archaeological and historical sites; analysis of osteological remains uncovered in permanent camps; climatic characteristics of the Eneolithic Age. The system points to exploitation of the steppe for economic purposes, raising of domesticated animals; existence of interaction based on some common features typical for a specific group of Eneolithic steppe cultures that was most vividly expressed in the system of exchanges of different goods, such as sets of flint items (Brityuk 2001), stone sceptres (Govedarica, Kaizer 1996) that became landmarks on the steppe Eneolithic horizon. Mapping of the Novodanilovka group demonstrates that its burials were located along ancient transit routes, near river crossings and fords while Sredny Stog burials were located near fords and ferries (Movsha 2000). Presumably, it defines marginal areas where such exchanges could take place. During the steppe Eneolithic Age exchanges could be made possible only by use of large river systems, this idea is strengthened by the topography of Eneolithic sites on the Caspian Steppes. A special study of seasonality of burials and settlements dating back to the Steppe Eneolithic Age will help us prove this hypothesis. Intertribal exchange transactions played an important role in economy of Eneolithic groups, including the Novodanilovka group. The male population participated in expeditions (Movsha 2000). This is in accord with our understanding of the composition of males migratory groups on the Caspian Steppes.

Some scholars believe that fishing and river product gathering played were more important in economy of the Dereivka settlement population than hunting (Telegin 1973). Artefacts from many Eneolithic settlements in Ukraine suggest that river fish species (carp, cat fish and pike) and river molluscs (Unio and Drisenna polymorphia) and turtles enriched the diet system. Nets, 4 The paper mentions use of wool fiber. But it should be noted that this statement requires a special technical study of impressed fibers, cords on clay, identification of the type of fiber through phytolith and other analyses. Only plant fiber was used at the early stages of textile industry because sheep and goats raised at the early stage of herding development did not have wooly cover. It took more than one millennium to breed sheep through selection with wooly cover. Wool fibers did not appear in the Near East until 4000 BC in developed urban centers while Western Europe population learnt to obtain it as late as the middle of 3000 BC. A multi-year project aimed to study ancient weaving in Bronze Age cultures enabled us to identify woolen cloths only among Catacomb population (Bronze Age Textile 1999).

In summary, results of comparative analysis indicate that an absolutely new stage in exploitation of the steppe began, with a new economic system that included forms of mobile pastoralism and new knowledge and 226

PASTORAL EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THE BRONZE AGE PERIODS technologies, exploitation of pasture resources, exchange of high status manufactured goods, and, possibly, food products. New knowledge and traditions were disseminated by a small group of the Eneolithic population that started utilizing the potential of the Caspian Steppes.

one place to another enabled herders to keep intact winter grasslands in river valleys and along the mountainous slopes of the North Caucuses. This means that people were on the move during several months, which is quite possible given a long period of warm weather typical for southern steppe areas.

Steppe Majkop Culture

Additional studies have shown that the Early Steppe Majkop population used other resources as well to obtain food. Pendants made of deer teeth, point to hunting as a possible activity. Shell decorations suggest that edible river molluscs were collected by local population.

Early Steppe Majkop Culture Steppe Early Majkop kurgans containing a small number of burials have been found on watersheds and are linked to large waterways. The builders exploited the Caspian Steppes under favourable climatic conditions, namely, the predominance of mixed gramineous plant steppes and increased humidity (400–500 mm of annual precipitation). There are no sites dating to the Early Steppe Majkop culture along the coastline of the Caspian Sea. Perhaps, during the Early Steppe Majkop culture its level was raised making exploitation of coastline areas impossible.

The diet system. Scholars studying isotope fractionation in connection with radiocarbon dating have shown that δ13C values in bone collagen can be determined by the man’s and animal’s diet system. Using δ15N values as an additional element, reliable data can be obtained since the δ15N has higher values for fish compared to food of terrestrial origin. Table 19 presents average values of δ13C and δ15N in bone collagen in different diet systems (Lanting, van der Plicht 1995/1996). Table 19. Mean values of 13δC and 15δN, and reservoir effects to be expected in 100% diets in each of the listed categories (after Lanting & van der Plicht 1998)

The seasonal and economic system is composed of burials that contain only bones of domesticated sheep (Eastern Manych and Evdyk). This means that the economy of this population was based on sheep raising. It should be noted, though, that grasslands located in river and lake valleys probably could not be used in winter due to a potentially high snow cover. Similar to mixed grass pastures of high watershed plateaus, they were not accessible until warm weather arrived. This suggestion is confirmed by results of the analysis conducted to identify the season of burials at Mandjikiny-1 and Sharakhalsun-6 (Appendix 3. Table 1) where all four burials were made in late spring or in summer.

13

C3 plants meat herbivores C3 C4 plants marine food fish rivers fish lakes

δC (‰) -21 -18 -7 -13 -24 -20

15

δN (‰) +5 +8 +5 +18 +16 +16

Reservoir effect C (years) 0 0 0 400 1500-2500 500-1500

14

Examining data from this table and the isotope composition in the bone collagen of the Steppe Majkop population demonstrates that river products including fish constituted a larger share of its diet (Table 20).

Burials of the Early Caspian Steppe Majkop group contain both adults (including elderly), children and infants. Most likely, small family groups migrated in spring and summer in search of grasslands, penetrating deep into the north away from the main cultural diaspora, i.e. the North Caucasus piedmont. Such movements were made along river valleys, though in search of grasslands, groups of herders exploited both watersheds and open steppe areas of the western parts of the Black Lands. Such long distance movements were based on the use of wheel transport (Trifonov 2004). Wagons were, possibly, made of maple or elm tree. In summer people could move from place to place on foot. But presence of a large number of various tools in the burials implies that either wagons or traction animals were used to transport things needed in travel. There are no data on dwellings used by the Steppe Majkop group. Supposedly, wagons could be used as dwellings.

Table 20. Stable isotope ratio measurements for human bones from the Steppe Majkop culture Kurgan, burial, sex, age Mandjikiny-1: k. 14, g. 13 male 45–55 Sharakhalsun-6: k. 5, g. 7, child Sharakhalsun-6: k. 2, g. 17, child

δ13C, ‰ -18.8 -16.77 -18.35

δ15N, ‰ +11.64 +15.23 +13.49

Information about the diet system and exploited food resources can be also derived from analysis of the content in vessels uncovered in Majkop burials from Sharakhalsun-6 burial ground where only scale microcilia of wild gramineous plants such as oats and perennial oat (Avenastrum) were found in large quantities. Plant remains did not contain pollen of domesticated plants (Table 21).

The average daily distance of the move with a flock of sheep when sources of water are known is from 20 to 30 km (Shishlina 1997d). Nomadic peoples of ancient times moved away from the North Caucasus areas to the north as far as the forest-steppes and such routes were as long as 1500 km per year (Fedorovich 1973). Moving from

Data from Table 21 indicate that vessels contained something similar to porridge: wild gramineous plants cooked in water including sorrel, legumes and other plants. Course ground grain was also eaten. Steppe grass pollen and Arthropod parasites that contaminate 227

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES Table 21. Comparison of the data from residue in Bronze Age vessels and organic residue in the stomach area of a male from the Steppe Majkop graves. The measurement to calculate the phosphorus residues were taken on samples from the bottom and from the upper part of the vessels. Context (kurgan, grave)

k. 2, g. 17

k. 5, g. 7

k. 14, g. 13 male 45–55

Phosphate residue

Pollen analysis Sharakhalsun-6 amphora, near the arm of a child Very few pollen grains of Asteraceae, Cichoriaceae, Varia, Rumex, Poaceae, Chenopodi aceae, Pinus, Picea, Abies; many remains of grains of gramineous plants, most likely wild barley (Hordeum). jug, near the north wall of the grave behind an adult skeleton Very few pollen grains of Varia, Liliaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Cichoriaceae, Ephedra, Poaceae, Polypodiaceae, more often pollen of Pinus, Poceae, remains of grains of gramineous plants were found. Mandjikiny-1 Stomach area Pollen of Artemisia, Cichoriaceae, Varia, Chenopodiaceae, Ephedra, very few pollen grains of Pinus, Querqus, remains of Arthropod parasites

0.2 - water

0.5 - water

-

would have caused an economic crisis among the population belonging to the Early Steppe Majkop group.

gramineous crops were discovered in large quantities in the region of the stomach of the skeleton from Mandjikiny.

Late Steppe Majkop Culture Industries. A rich assemblage of tools indicates that this population group used numerous items of pottery, metal items, bone-cutting, stone-cutting, and textiles. Similarity to other weapons and tools suggest that these items were manufactured in North Caucasus workshops. All potential cultural links are related to the North Caucasus.

Late Majkop sites (3400–3000 BC) are heterogeneous. Most likely, they have been left by several independent groups. Representatives of such groups appeared on the Caspian Steppes when climatic conditions changed, i.e. when climate became more humid and cold. As climate changed, newcomers appeared promptly in the region. But they exploited only plain areas adjacent to rivers and lakes. Data of topography, planigraphy of burial grounds and stratigraphy of kurgans indicate that new groups came in small numbers. Hence, migrants followed the routes previously exploited by the Early Majkop population. There are practically no data on the type of economy of new population groups, age and sex profile; data on season, types of dwelling, and the system of interaction with the sedentary population.

Therefore, the economic system of the Early Steppe Majkop group was based on a multi-element economy that included (i) seasonal range sheep raising; (ii) fishing, and gathering of river molluscs and wild plants. Small family groups or groups composed of only adult males and adolescents could participate in migrations. Data of topography, planigraphy and stratigraphy of kurgans dating to the Early Majkop group from one grave only are consistent with the system. Data from future studies will help improve the proposed working system or offer a new one.

We might suppose that the steppe environmental area contributed to development of a pastoral rather than an agricultural economy. Most likely, sheep raising was spread out here, as indicated by horse and sheep bones found at Tsatsa.

Time Gap The Early Majkop and the Late Majkop periods are divided by a time gap of about one hundred years (35003400 BC). There are no archaeological artefacts that can be dated to this period. Most likely, the region was abandoned due to deteriorated climatic conditions. Abandonment could have been caused by other reasons. The artefacts collected to date can only point to the fact that cultural traditions were interrupted. Some population groups might have passed by these vacant lands, but the exploitation of the Caspian Steppes was terminated.

The comparative analysis of funeral traditions and offerings demonstrates that economic and cultural links might have existed between a very small Late Majkop group and the sedentary population living much further to the south and to the west, i.e. the Don region, the Stavropol Hills, the Kuban region. New data will help rework the economic system of these groups. The first groups of the Yamnaya culture appeared on the high watershed plateaus of the Middle and Southern Yergueni Hills and adjacent areas of the Caspian Plain and the Kuma-Manych Depression at the very end of the Late Steppe Majkop culture. These were small pastoral family groups consisting of fertile age women, adult men and children. Such families exploited small grasslands

Pollen data from the Caspian Steppes confirm the supposition that there was an arid interval between specific Eneolithic and Early Bronze landscapes (Barynkin 1998, 2002). This environmental disaster

228

PASTORAL EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THE BRONZE AGE PERIODS It is clear that the Majkop population developed a multicomponent economy that included, among other things, both expeditions to find sources of goods and pastoralism. Data on density of population are few. Some 300-400 people are believed to have lived in a triangle between the Azov Sea coast, the Kuban region and the Chelbas River (Gey 1989), which is around 15000 km2. Other environmental areas would have had a similar density of population. We can only speculate why some Early Majkop groups penetrated so deeply into the north and the steppes. It might be explained by an environmental factor: the number of fertile lands between the mountains and the exploited river systems was too small while mountainous pastures were not used (Gey 1989).

areas all year round (Appendix 3. Table 2). A more detailed analysis of the Yamnaya population economic system is presented below. We now compare the economic systems developed for the Early and Late Majkop populations who exploited the Caspian Steppes with the economic system devised for the Majkop population settled in the North Caucasus. The sedentary population that lived in a narrow piedmont strip of the North Caucasus subsisted on dry farming and cattle, sheep and goat raising (Trifonov 2002). The assemblage of domestic animal bones includes horse and pig bones. Small Majkop settlements with an occupation layer of up to 40 cm were located in river valleys. River pastures and steppe watershed grasslands were used for grazing animals near settlements. Most likely, high mountainous areas were not exploited. Various subsectors of sedentary animal stock raising could develop in several landscape areas, such as pig raising, sheep raising, a mixed type of pastoralism with raising of cattle and sheep and goats (Munchaev 1975). Dry and warm climates with moderate winters having a small snow cover supported this type of economy.

During a short presence of the Early Majkop group natural conditions and local landscapes in riverine and lacustrine valleys of the Caspian Steppes could be quite similar to the environmental area, to which comers from the North Caucasus were accustomed to, with a prevalence of open steppe landscapes and predominance of mixed grass and gramineous plants (Spiridonova et al. 2001).

Dwellings contain many grinding stones, hoes and adzes. It is difficult to say what crops were grown as no botanical data are available. Palinospectrum of Zamok and Industria settlements yielded only pollen of gramineous plants and trees. There is no pollen of domesticated crops (Korenevsky 1998: Table 2; 2001, 2004). One of the vessels found at Galyugai I contained seeds of a wild plant called Camelina (Korenevsky 1995). An additional food was provided by hunting and, apparently, fishing and gathering. Isotope data in the collagen of human bones from Late Majkop burials at Aigursky-2 and Zolotarevka-1 indicate that the population living in the Central Stavropol Region ate fish (Appendix 2. Table 3). People hunted wild boar, kulan, hare, bear and deer (Spasovsky 1996; Korenevsky 1998).

Most likely, such moves deep into the steppe were seasonal and were linked to development of sheep raising in some North Caucasus areas. Typically, these were not only valley pastures but also northern steppe grasslands. In summer high temperatures predominated in North Caucasus piedmont areas with a shortage of water supplies, while winter conditions did not allow the snow cover to become too high (Spiridonova et al. 2001). In this situation the intention to use summer grasslands located beyond potential winter pastures was quite reasonable. In addition, animal raising near the settlements, flooding, and climate fluctuations in the North Caucasus could lead to destruction of agricultural lands and dictated a need to search for new lands. There is no data on agriculture in northern areas. But wild gramineous plants were collected. Fishing would have been an additional element of the seasonal economy. This system occurs for over a hundred kilometres during the year, but is definitely not feasible without wheeled transport, the use of which by the Majkop population has been documented by archaeological sources (Trifonov 2004).

The Majkop population attained a high level in developing numerous industries. Of special importance were such industries as pottery (with the use of the potter’s wheel), metallurgy, and jewellery making (Munchaev 1975). Analysis of the cloth from the Klady suggests that people grew flax and had a highly developed weaving industry. Weavers could make fine yarn and then weave high quality cloth using a primitive rectangular frame or weaving tablets (Shishlina et al. 2003b).

Whether it was an attempt to colonize new lands or just seasonal exploitation of vacant “virgin” lands located along riverine and lacustrine valleys by small family groups is still an unanswered question. The topography of camps discovered in Kalmykia is similar to the topography of Majkop sites uncovered in the main area where the occupation layer hardly reaches 30–40 cm. But such camps could have been left behind by the Majkop population. We will be able to understand what their economic orientation was only after conducting additional studies. Supposedly, a semi-nomadic mode of life in isolation of other population groups did not develop at the early stage(Gey 1989).

Imported dyed wool and cotton, the mineral montroydite (Shishlina et al. 2003b), lapis lazuli items and numerous golden and silver jewellery (Munchaev 1975) suggest that the Majkop population living in the North Caucasus could engage in multi-step exchange transactions with the population from not only the Southern Caucasus but even from the Central Asia (montroydite deposits in Turkmenistan), Iran (lapis lazuli), the Levant (wool and dyed cotton).

229

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES Penetration of the Early Majkop population into the Lower Don area might have followed a different pattern as data available for the Don Plain are from settlements (Razdorskoye, Samsonovskoye) (Gey 1991).

links with the main centre of the Majkop culture located in Northern Caucasus.

It is clear that the period of northern area exploitation was short. It was disrupted by a drastic worsening of the climate. Aridization changed migration routes, making moves with even a small number of domesticated animals economically difficult. The climate underwent changes in the main area of the Majkop culture spread as well; from humid to arid (Spiridonova et al. 2001). Late Majkop groups appeared on the Caspian Steppes, in the Stavropol Hills, in the Lower Don region (Trifonov 1991b; Gey 1989; 1991). The climatic period of the optimum contributed not only to maintaining traditional economy in the Northern Caucasus, but also developing new economies.

The economic potential of mobile pastoralism seems to have been developed by the preceding population, which tried to exploit specific steppe environmental areas. But it was not until appearance of Yamnaya people that this economic system of an absolutely new type became predominant.

Artefacts from the Konstantinovskoye site on the Don support one of the economic systems for this period. Its residents raised cattle, sheep and goats and supposedly, horses. Pollen of gramineous plants in the occupation layer indicates that there were arable lands nearby. Hunting deer and wild boar as well as fishing in rivers and lakes (finds of harpoons and catfish, tench and pike bones) played an important role in the diet. Various industries were developed at the settlement (Kiyashko V. 1994). The presence of linen cloth in Lower Don Majkop graves suggests that local agriculturalists are likely to have grown flax. High quality of cloth demonstrates that weaving traditions were preserved and further developed.

Together, the exploited environmental areas provided all possibilities for supporting a year-round cycle of pastoral economy. Winter temperatures exceeded contemporary temperatures by 1ºC while the amount of the annual precipitation was some 100 mm higher. Many riverbeds that are dry today were full of water; a greater part of saline soils was covered by lakes. Due to the more humid climate winters did not have much snow and a larger part of the Kuma-Manych Depression, the Southern Yergueni Hills, and the Caspian Plain was used as winter grasslands in the same way as riverine and lacustrine areas of the Middle Yergueni Hills, and lake areas of the Sarpa Plain. Practically the entire area could be used as summer grasslands, with less strict requirements made to such grasslands compared to winter grasslands. The most important thing was to ensure access to sources of fresh water during dry summer months. There was a shortage of winter grasslands therefore it was not advisable to use them in summer because of potential degradation of valuable lands. The productivity of ancient pastures was higher than today (Shishlina, Bulatov 2000).

Yamnaya Culture

The seasonal and economic system. The development of the Caspian Steppe Yamnaya culture took place during a favourable climatic period which was humid and warm. But as early as the end of the first half of 3000 BC the process of gradual aridization of climate started unfolding.

Late Majkop culture groups appearing on the open Caspian Steppes were rather small. Probably, these people were seasonal herders who, most likely, interacted with the Yamnaya population living on the steppes. It is confirmed by Yamnaya burials containing Majkop arrow heads and ceramics. Some Late Majkop graves of the Steppe Stavropol region include sheep bones (Korenevsky et al. 2007: 75).

The spatial location of Yamnaya sites points to an inconsistency between the potential (optimal) exploitation of grasslands and a predominant number of Yamnaya kurgans, which are located in flood plains of rivers, along lake coasts, and on the plateaus of watersheds closest to rivers. No large permanent settlements that would date back to the Yamnaya culture have been found. Finds include only few ceramic fragments, animal bones, and flint chips from the Yergueni Hills and in the KumaManych Depression (Figure 111).

Therefore, artefacts examined help us advance a working system of economic and cultural mode of life typical for the Steppe Majkop population (Early Steppe Majkop and Late Steppe Majkop groups): ƒ seasonal pastoralism, supposedly, sheep raising that resulted from development of sedentary cattle raising and agricultural economy of the Northern Caucasus Majkop culture that included a separate sector of mobile herding; ƒ fishing and gathering of wild plants were additional activities in spring and summer; ƒ small family groups led by adult males (or groups of males and adolescents) engaged in seasonal migrations.

The season when Yamnaya burials and kurgans were made in several landscape zones demonstrates how areas were exploited (Appendix 3. Table 3). Yamnaya burials were made in flood plains of the Kuma-Manych Depression, riverine and lacustrine areas of the Caspian Plain in late spring and summer. Finds of bones of wild duck, goose, bustard (Otis gen.) imply that Yamnaya burials at Staraya Poltavka (Volga flood plains), Kudinov (Don flood plains), and the KVCH (coast of Lake Deyed Khulsun) were made in spring and summer. Apparently,

Some groups of the Majkop population were linked to the sedentary groups of the Don Region. There are no data on any industries that migratory groups were involved in. The analysis of artefacts demonstrates strong cultural 230

PASTORAL EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THE BRONZE AGE PERIODS herders migrated across flood plains of the river in spring and summer. The season when Yamnaya burials were made in watershed plateaus of the Middle and Southern Yergueni Hills is different: winter, summer, and autumn. Age and sex characteristics (burial grounds were left behind by all age and sex groups) point to migrations of small family groups. For example, kurgan 12 at MuSharet-1 contains graves of a male, a female and a child buried using the same burial rite. Graves of males and females of various age and sex groups were uncovered in Yamnaya kurgans at Mu-Sharet-1, Mandjikiny-1, Mandjikiny-2, Chogray VIII and Chogray IX. There are burials of children but they are few in number (Appendix 1. Table 2).

Sharet-4). Cattle bones (Mu-Sharet-4; Mandjikiny-1) and horse bones (Mandjikiny-1) have been found as well. A small number of Yamnaya graves from burials in the Stavropol Hills have yielded sheep bones (Chogray VIII and IX).

Analysis of the burial ground planigraphy has revealed that in almost all cases Yamnaya kurgans form small clusters (on average from five to seven kurgans), which can be treated as tribal or family necropolis. Variations in the burial rite of mini-kurgan groups reflect distinctive features characterizing rituals used by such groups. The fact that one or more subgroups of Yamnaya mounds gradually appeared near Yamnaya kurgans, sometimes quite away from them, might also indicate that the Yamnaya population was constantly on the move, and this mobility changed the area of land use (due to environmental, economic, social consequences). In analyzing the Yamnaya group location, isolated Yamnaya kurgans (for example, kurgans in the Southern Yergueni, the Caspian Plain) can be treated as landmarks of specific migratory routes that seems to have been seasonal rather than permanent. Yamnaya groups singled out in six environmental areas in the region reflect the distribution pattern. This pattern may also indicate routes of traditional seasonal migrations (Gey 2000).

Some burial grounds uncovered on the Caspian Plain contain Yamnaya burials with ritual places. Such ritual places have yielded sheep bones (legs, full skeletons of sheep, astragali at Krivaya Luka) and horse bones (Tsatsa).

Finds of domesticated animals found in burial grounds of the Middle Yergueni Hills include sheep bones (astragali (Kermen-Tolga: k. 37, b. 4), scapulae and legs (Lola I: k. 20, b. 2), and cattle bones (Arkhara: k. 10, b. 8, where a bull hide with the head and the legs was placed near the wall). There are remains of ritual places where a sheep skin with the head and the leg was placed (Lola-2: k. 16, b. 5).

On the basis of funeral artefacts we define a regional pastoral specialization: Yamnaya groups inhabiting the Kuma-Manych Depression and the Southern Yergueni Hills had a mixed herd (sheep and cattle). The snow cover at winter pastures could have been broken by horses from the herd. There are few data on the Stavropol Hills and the Middle Yergueni Hills, it is assumed that sheep were raised there. Sheep were also raised on the Caspian Plain in the Volga valley. Presumably, the population that left behind the Tsatsa Burial Ground specialized in horse raising (these data need additional verification). Sheep raising was facilitated by predominance of mixed grassland steppes in the north (Shilov 1975; 1985) and wormwood and gramineous plant steppes, which are the best for sheep raising, in the south.

In this connection, data on animals raised by various Yamnaya groups are of great value. In the absence of settlement artefacts (only survey findings, i.e. animal bones that are not related to occupation layers of camps and settlements), bones of domesticated animals are found in ritual places used for sacrifices or in Yamnaya burials.5

The issue of the role played by horses acquires a particular significance. The first data on the use of horse, except for economic purposes, among herders date to the Middle Bronze Age. But by identifying winter burials in the regions with a potentially high snow cover we may suggest that it was not possible to exploit such areas without using horse ability to break the snow cover in search of food leaving some fodder both for sheep and cattle. Yamnaya groups that inhabited northern areas and raised horse and sheep could migrate across riverine and lacustrine valleys and, if there was a need, as far as the high watershed plateaus of the Yergueni Hills where the show cover did not persist due to strong winter winds.

Sheep bones predominate in the Kuma-Manych Depression. They have been found in the form of separate ritual places with an abundance of astragali (VMPB, 65; VMPB, 67), scapulae and lower jaws (VMPB, 65), pelvis bones (VMLBI, 66) as well as sets of astragali (up to 40, VMLBI, 66). Cattle bones too could be put inside the burial as a separate ritual place (VMPB, 67) or nearby (Ostrovnoy). Horse bones rank third (Zunda-Tolga-3).

In summary, Yamnaya groups migrated along rivers in winter moving away for short distances in summer. It allowed them to bury their relatives in tribal burial grounds located in the area of winter migration. The Yamnaya group migration pattern can be characterized as river flood plain → watershed. People moved within a small area not more than 10–20 km away from the river where they lived in winter towards the nearest watersheds where they went from place to place in summer and autumn. They selected sites where reed and cane stood

Sheep bones predominate in the Southern Yergueni Hills: they have been found in numerous ritual places near primary burials (Mandjikiny-1; Mandjikiny-2). Some burials contained hoofs (five hoofs of sheep at Mu5 It is clear that animal bones from graves and kurgans do not reflect fully the composition of the herd raised by the population in question, but nevertheless they help define what animals were raised by ancient herders and what animals received a special status in the burial rite.

231

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES mats or light framework walls were covered and shielded with braided mats, coarse cloths, felt covers or simply by leather pieces the way walls of a grave were covered. Grave roofing imitating a dwelling roof was often covered by mats. It is quite possible that roofs of demountable dwellings were covered by reed mats as well.

high over the snow cover. As they lived near a water source, they did not have to build artificial water installations. This system resulted in overgrazing of grasslands within the limited region of exploitation. A lack of permanent settlements indicates that such moves within the region were quite usual. Substantial differences in the funeral rite and offerings found at Yamnaya burial grounds located in different environmental areas confirm that Yamnaya pastoral groups were not widely mobile and their migration took place within a limited space. Yet, there are no data relating to the south-north movements. Entire regions, such as the Black Lands, coastal areas, some watershed plateaus of the Yergueni Hills remained vacant and unexploited. Systems of cultural interaction reviewed above that characterize Yamnaya groups living in different environmental areas also suggest that moves occurred within a limited steppe space. There were marginal zones as well since areas did not have natural boundaries. Both longer distance migrations and short moves made by some groups or individuals related to exchange transactions or caused by some other reasons could occur on the Caspian Steppes as well.

The diet system that provided all groups of population with necessary food products is an essential element of the everyday economic system. Livestock products (both meat and dairy products), presumably, were a major diet component. One of the Yamnaya cooking vessels (Mandjikiny-1, kurgan 9, ritual place 1) contained a quantity of black non-plant organic matter, which, on analysis, is interpreted as remains of a meat clear soup. Pollen of steppe plants (Ephedra, Chenopodiaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Pinus, Alnus) as well as cysts and mycelia from mold have been identified in the same sample. New data provide an opportunity to reconstruct a plant component in the everyday diet of the Yamnaya population. Sorrel pollen (Rumex) has been discovered in a soil sample from the walls of a large earthenware pot brazier (Zunda-Tolga-3). Soil samples from the stomach of the dead also provide data on food components.6 Table 22 presents results of the contingency analysis (pollen and phytolith methods) of soil and subsoil samples that help reconstruct everyday food of the Yamnaya population. Plant food remains predominate in all samples. It is important to note the role of wild gramineous plants (oats, perennial oat, wild barley) collected by herders for cooking. Coarsely ground grain was the main component of such food. None of the samples contain pollen or phytoliths of domesticated grains. Soft psychoactive plants such as wormwood, chicory and harder psychoactive plants, such as Ephedra, were present and presumably used, they had a psychotropic function.

A wooden wagon wheel was found in a Yamnaya burial at Eastern Manych, the Right Bank, in 1967. Possibly, some sides of wagons or cabin parts were placed in some graves. Use of wheeled transport, draught animals, bulls and horses as pack animals determined the technical potential of such moves. Wagons could have been made by local craftsmen from trees that grew in abundance in river valleys and ravines. Housing. What dwellings and constructions could be used by the Yamnaya population? During mild winters there was no need to construct special shields against the wind for the herd, if winter camps were located near “naturally occurring shields” formed by cane and reed thickets. It is these plants that were traditionally used by nomads as construction material for temporary dwellings. Wooden wagons were used as dwellings as well (Kozhin 1997; Gey 2000). The remains of construction parts of the burial pit interior help reconstruct a dwelling design. Thick plant mats, wooden shields, wattle fences coated with clay could be used as parts of demountable dwellings. There are traces of small holes in the corners and along the walls in some burial pits that were made by stakes installed to support wooden roofing covered by mats. These mats could be sewn together. Plant mats were quite long and thick. This design could look like a shelter made of branches (Ivanova 2001). The interior of primitive “houses” could consist of numerous mats and pillows, plank-made platforms or shields were used to keep the floor warm. All these items have been found in burial pits. The steppe population could have used light framework dwellings, which were easily and quickly disassembled and transported to any distance on pack animals the way it was done by nomadic Kalmyks, Mongols, and Kazakhs. If we compare the walls and the floor, the roofing of burial pits with these dwellings, we can assume that the walls of such dwellings were made of

Table 22 presents results of the analysis of the soil sample collected from the teeth of a Yamnaya individual (Peschany V). The sample contains rod-shaped phytoliths which are fragments of transparent fossilized plant tissue. The coprolite of another individual (Mandjikiny-1) contains of many fragments of plant tissue of an unidentified plant, that look like shapeless particles of a black organic substance. Hence, the steppe population satisfied its need in dietary food by collecting and cooking steppe plants, roots and seeds. Wild grains were ground for coarse flour and used to cook something like porridge. It could have been cooked not only using water, but also using a meat clear soup. Food was not always healthy. A young man from Zunda-Tolga-3 suffered from a gastro-intestinal disease 6

We assume that the stomachs of the dead people have preserved food components (Shishlina, Pakhomov 2002 а; Shishlina et al. 2007a). Background soil samples taken from the floor and the walls of the grave, are not similar to samples taken from under the skull, as they do not have such plant components.

232

PASTORAL EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THE BRONZE AGE PERIODS Table 22. Data on organic residue the stomach area, area between teeth and one coprolite of the Yamnaya population. Burial ground/ kurgan/ grave/ age/ sex Ostrovnoy: k. 3, g. 33 male, adult

Ostrovnoy: k .3, g. 34 adult Mandjikiny-1: k. 12,g. 4 male 25–35

Peschany V: k. 1, g. 3 male 40–50

Zunda-Tolga-3: k. 1, g. 4 male 18–25

Mandjikiny-1: k. 14, g. 10 male 20–25 Mandjikiny-1: k. 14, g. 12 male 17–25

Pollen data

Phytolith data

stomach area remains of grains of gramineous plants

stomach area pollen of: Chenopadiacea, Poaceae, Cyperaceae, Lamiaceae, Atriplex, Fabaceae stomach area Pollen of steppe plants: Chenopadiacea, Poaceae, Fabaceae, Asteraceae, Artemisia, Cichoriaceae, Silenaceae, Ephedra, Varia) and water plants: Typhia, Potamogeton); anthers of flowers remains of grains of gramineous plants, few pollen of Polypodiaceae, and wood pollen of Corulus, Alnus, Carpinus, Pinus (elements of Caucasus flora) Stomach area Abundant pollen of Poaceae, Cichoriaceae, Ephedra, Zygophyllaceae, Artemisia, Varia, siliceous remains of non-thrashed grains of gramineous plants stomach area Abundant pollen of Poaceae, more seldom– pollen of Fabaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Artemisia, Polygonaceae, Rosaceae, Varia; various chitinous remains of microscopic Arthropoda, spors stomach area Few pollen of Varia, Artemisia, Chenopodiaceae, Poaceae, very few pollen grains of Poceae; one chitious feeler of insect stomach area Few pollen of, Poaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Artemisia, Silenaceae, very few pollen grains of Alnus, Polypodiaceae; chitinous remains of microscopic Arthropoda

caused by grains infected with fungi (Shishlina et al. 2007 а). Tea made of steppe plants, many of which had.medicinal properties (e.g. wormwood, Ephedra) could have been used to cure diseases.

stomach area Many morphologically variable phytoliths; phytoliths of stems of reed and gramineous plants; large- fragments of transparent fossilized plant tissue of brown colour – stomach area Few phytoliths of gramineous plants

Area between teeth rod shaped phytoliths, few fragments of transparent fossilized plant tissue, speculae –

–

Coprolite many fragments of plant tissue of unidentified plant, shapeless particles of a black organic substance.

+15.29‰; in the group of elderly males extreme values of δ13C (-15,43‰) and δ15N (+17.68‰) have been identified; in the group of young females the value of δ13C varies from -16.55 to -16.08‰ and the value of δ15N varies from +13.74 to +15.36 ‰, in the group of elderly females the value of δ13C is -16.62 and the value of δ15N is +18.09 ‰. It is clear that river products accounted for a large share of food consumed by males and females. This conclusion is confirmed by finds of river bones and shells of edible molluscs (pearl oysters etc.) in Yamnaya burials (Krivaya Luka IX and XXI). The diet system was differentiated by sex and age. This differentiation could have been caused by the fact that representatives of different groups occupied and exploited different environmental areas of the Caspian Steppes. Some individuals could experience food stress caused by hunger and a shift towards one component diet system or they belonged to different family groups that lived not only on the Caspian Steppes and could use different culinary recipes.

The stable isotope study of buried human bones has helped identify that a river fish component accounting for a large share in the diet system of the Yamnaya population living on the Caspian Steppes (Table 23). Data provided in Table 23 indicate that values of δ13C derived for collagen of the Yamnaya male bones vary from -19.03 to -15.43 ‰, while the values of δ15N vary from +10.59 to +18.09 ‰; data obtained for sheep are as follows: δ13C is -23.59-18.80; δ15N is +7.23-11.80‰. Age and sex variations have been identified. In the group of males that are 17-25 years old the value of δ13C varies from -19.03 to -18.08 ‰, while the value of δ15N varies from +10.59 to +14.30 ‰; in the group of males that are 35-45 years old the value of δ13C varies from -18.89 to 17.56‰, while the value of δ15N varies from +13.22 to 233

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES Table. 23. Stable isotope ratio measurements for human and animal bones from the Yamnaya cultures Kurgan, burial, sex, age Mu-Sharet-4: k. 12, g. 1, male 17–20 Mandjikiny-2: k. 11, g. 2, male 35–45 Mandjikiny-2: k. 11, g. 3, females 45–50 Mandjikiny-1: k. 14, g. 12, male 17–25 Mandjikiny-1: k. 14, g. 10, male 20–25 Mu-Sharet-4: k. 11, g 3, woman 14–17 Khar-Zukha: k. 2, g. 3, female 20 Poludny: k. 2, g. 7, male 45 Chilgir: k. 2, g. 3, male maturus Peschany V: k. 1, g. 3, male 30– 40 Grachevka: k. 5, g. 2 , juveniles Mu-Sharet-4: k. 1, g. 3, sheep Zynda-Tolga-3: k. 1, g. 4, sheep

δ13C, ‰

Our analysis of artefacts has shown that pottery was local, with each region producing its own type of cooking and table utensils. Perhaps there were centres that manufactured such vessels.

δ15N, ‰

-18.082

+14.31

-17.57

+15.29

-16.62

+18.09

-18.61

+14.13

-18.16

+14.00

-16.55

+15.36

-16.08 -17.41 -15.43

+13.74 +15.05 +17.68

-18.89

+13.22

-19.03 -18.80 -23.59

+10.59 +7.23 +11.80

Bone-cutting and other arts were quite well developed. The trace analysis of a small collection of Yamnaya bone jewellery conducted by A.N. Usachuk has demonstrated that metal tools with a fine blade were used to produce hammer-headed pins, while augers were used for drilling purposes. This scholar has noted that ornamentation was made in a sloppy manner (Usachuk 2001). Apparently, industry of such amulets was a common business and did not require special skills. There are no direct data showing that local steppe Yamnaya population engaged in metal working. So far only one knife has studied, which is a flat leaf-shaped blade with inclined shoulders found at Mandjikiny-1. A cast semi-product was subjected to cosmetic reworking by forging with small metal shrinkage. The original casting mold had low heat conductivity and was heated before it was filled with liquid melt. Cold forging eliminated casting flaws, trimmed the blade and made its edges even (Gak 1999).

It is important that stable isotope data together with the 14 C reservoir effect help us evaluate the role of fishing in the economic system developed by the Caspian Steppe population; Yamnaya groups living on high plateaus were fishermen. In conditions of a higher level of humidity steppe rivers would have had an abundance of fish. In the 1990s local herders (Kalmyks, representatives of North Caucasus peoples) made ponds by putting dikes over small steppe rivers that often had temporary flow, and such ponds were rich with fish. Supposedly, fish were caught with nets; mats in the form of a knotless net have been found in some graves. Ethnographic data show that woven mats could be used to catch fish (Rybina 2003); similar items have been identified in the collection of mats coming from Yamnaya graves we have studied. Shells of river molluscs and bird eggs were collected for food.

Wood processing was a common industry. Carpenters made tool handles, baskets, grave roofing, wheeled wagon parts, and, possibly, wheeled wagons themselves. Local carpenters made wooden vessels and exquisite cases for tools (Mandjikiny-1). Skin and hide treatment is a traditional sector of any pastoral economy. In the absence of direct data, such as fragments of leather and fur items, hide and skin treatment tools, we can, nevertheless, suppose that this industry developed among the Yamnaya population as well. Skin and hide fleshing was an activity typical for the preceding population and, most likely, continued as a traditional steppe craft. Weaving and plaiting were important crafts in everyday life. There are no data on wool fibers used by Yamnaya weavers. The study of textile fragments has shown that to produce various threads only plant fibers were used: cattail (Typha), rush (Juncus), reed, feather grass (Stipa), and gramineous plants. Supposedly, leather, sinew and horse hair were used as raw materials as well. Twisting varies. A spindle with a spindle-whorl was used to produce fine threads. Technological characteristics of textile fragments and their impressions indicate that there were no community textile shops, since textile industry was a domestic affair. Cords were used in ceramic ornamentation. Almost all mats were made manually by intertwining threads, no special devices were used. Some items were plaited on a horizontal beam or a frame, i.e. a primitive loom. The size of the mats indirectly points to the width of the weaving device used. Mats are divided into two groups: mats from 60 to 80 cm wide and mats from 90 to 120 cm wide. Therefore, the width of all items was around 60 cm, but they could be placed in two rows

Finally, hunting provided an additional source of protein. People living in the Kuma-Manych Depression hunted wild ungulates, such as saiga, gazelle and kulan; the population of the Southern Yergueni Hills hunted ungulates, saiga and kulan, wild birds, for example, little bustard; the population of the Middle Yergueni Hills hunted saiga. Therefore, proteins in their diet probably included meat of domesticated and wild animals, in addition to dairy products and fish. Industries were important in the economy of the Yamnaya population. Industries provided necessary goods for major sectors of economy and were aimed to process produce and create proper living conditions in the habitat (Gadjiev 1991). Most likely, all industries were domestic and were based on the labour of several family groups that worked in small teams. 234

PASTORAL EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THE BRONZE AGE PERIODS inside a grave (like floor covering in a village house); maybe, several pieces were sewn together. But mats of various sizes could be made with the help of primitive wooden devices. It depended exclusively on the frame width.7

metal, prestigious types of jewellery such as beads, pendants; possibly, wagons. Therefore, our analysis makes it possible to suggest an economic system of the Yamnaya population living on the Caspian Steppes. The local Yamnaya population developed an absolutely new multi-component economy that was predetermined by geographic and climatic features of the region in question and included the following elements:

Primitive textile devices could be disassembled and easily transported to another place. There are many variations of weaving skills, such as plain weaving, knotless net, and serge, indicating the high level of weaving attained by these people.

ƒ raising domesticated animals, such as sheep, cattle, horses; ƒ fishing, hunting, and gathering wild plants and river products that played a secondary role; ƒ developed domestic industries necessitated by a new life style and intended to meet everyday needs of a small family; ƒ an exchange system dictated by a need to obtain metal, possibly, metal tools and weapons as well as social position and status indicating objects, i.e. jewellery.

Weavers working at home could have made not only the cloth, but also sewed to make different items such as bags for keeping utensils, tools, cases, and packing bags (Shishlina 1999); wattle fences and wagon cabins. Stone cutting industry provided people with weaponry (arrow heads, combat axes), tools (pestles, grinding stones, knives) and tools. Apparently, dyeing can be singled out as an industry as well. Practically all Yamnaya burials are characterized by the presence of items dyed with the use of various minerals, such as ochre, cinnabar; pieces of minerals subjected to treatment, grinding stones covered with colour have been found as well.

None of numerous soil samples examined contained traces of domesticated gramineous plants. In our view, only one explanation is possible: agriculturalists of the areas located further to the south, firstly, in the North Caucasus, grew grains and vegetables in fairly small amounts that barely helped them meet their own needs. In these conditions grains are unlikely to have become an item of exchange transactions.

So far, it is impossible to determine the distribution by age and sex for these industries. Pottery, hide and skin treatment, and weaving might have been female occupations. More mature nomadic communities, for example, in Senegal, are known to have had male weavers’ communities (Shishlina 1999a). Most likely, bone cutting, metal working, wood working were male occupations as physical strength had to be applied. But it is likely that in small family groups most members possessed diverse industry skills regardless of sex.

Steppe pastoralism was based on short-distance local moves of small family groups linked to a system of alternating summer and winter grasslands that allowed herders to use the potential of a rather small area in the most efficient way. A monotonous system of migrations was supported by climatic conditions and soft winters with low snow cover, and many technical attainments such as wheeled transport; pack animals, i.e. oxen and horses; use of horses to break the snow cover and light demountable dwellings.

The cultural links of the Yamnaya population can be reconstructed based on the presence of imported goods among grave offerings. Groups living in specific environmental areas maintained links with various regions: steppe and piedmont areas of the North Caucasus; steppes, forest-steppe areas of the Lower and Middle Volga; the Lower Don. There are accurate data on exchange items. Yamnaya people living on the Caspian Steppes could offer for exchange domesticated animals, some food products (smoked and dry meat and fish, dairy products), or home-made products (leather and textile items, bone jewellery). It will be interesting to look into the issue of salt import by the steppe population since the environmental area of dry and semi-desert steppes was abundant with salty lakes.8 In exchange they recieved

The viability of such an economy is clear. The Yamnaya population was quick to occupy vacant environmental areas; it led to a real demographic explosion compared to the preceding period. Age determinations indicate that many Yamnaya people died at a quite old age (50-60 years). The welfare indicator, i.e. life expectancy, is high. The analysis of paleopathology has not revealed any specific stress, dystrophy linked to a shortage of food or injuries from combat actions or diseases. Diseases recorded include osteochondrosis and, in rare cases, dental calculus and gastrointestinal diseases. Secondary sectors producing food products such as fishing, gathering, and hunting were intended to insure against potential losses of animals in the herd caused by a lack of winter fodder for animals due to icing of pastures and some other factors.

7 The technological analysis of the mats has been conducted by O.V. Orfinskaya under the Wenner-Gren Project. 8 Salt is still imported by some Kalmykia areas to the North Caucasus and the Lower Don. Local people provided information about recovery and import of salt from salty lakes near village Priyutnoye in Kalmykia. Salt is loaded into trucks by spades and is sold in the south. This salt is used in preparing salt fish and meat.

But this system was not without its flaws. Mobile sheep raising within a confined area ultimately led to 235

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES degradation of many winter and summer grasslands. This situation persisted for quite a long time, though some vacant areas still remained on the Caspian Steppes. Drastic aridization of the climate that started developing around the middle of 3000 BC caused deterioration of environment, which, in turn, resulted in a shortage of water sources, reduction in grasslands resources and a potential reduction in sources of additional food resources. In these conditions the main task was to maintain overall economic stability. But newcomers appeared and the autochthonic Yamnaya population could not counteract stronger and more mobile groups that had come from the south and brought with them an improved economic system adapted to rapidly changing natural conditions.

secondary occupation. Sheep provided the main stock of meet. Cattle are likely to have been used as traction animals. Horse bones have been found rarely (Kosintsev, Roslyakova 2000; Merpert 1974). There are no data on the presence of any domesticated grains in any Yamnaya grave from this region. Supposedly, the Yamnaya people gathered wild gramineous plants and herbs.10 They could also eat edible river molluscs as pearl shells (Unio) have been found in graves (Merpert 1974). North Caucasus. There are few data on the economy of the Yamnaya population and the synchronous North Caucasus population. Yamnaya groups living in the Kuban region exploited limited resources of the river valley and its tributaries (Trifonov 1991 а). Seminomadic herding with a small range of moves was typical for the Novotitorovka population living in the Kuban region. Winter camps were located in low areas of rivers and the coastline areas where some population groups lived permanently (Gey 1989). The analysis of the element composition of buried male bones has indicated that a plant component did not play a significant role in the diet system and that the Novotitorovka economy was more specialized compared to economy of the Yamnaya population (Kozlovskaya 2002). But we take the view that this conclusion needs to be further developed and verified since data on the East Manych Catacomb culture provided further in the text are indicative of a more sophisticated economy compared with other economies such as Yamnaya.

Systems for comparison It is important to compare the system described above with economic systems developed by Yamnaya population groups and synchronous population from other areas. The Volga-Urals Region. Yamnaya groups from the Volga-Urals Region did not use the entire area and the areas they exploited were confined to water sources (Turetsky 2001). Their economy was based on sheep raising, cattle raising and, supposedly, horse raising. The absence of permanent sites and a wide use of wooden wagons point to a mobile nature of the economy that was, most likely, seasonal. Industries were developed, with metallurgy being particularly important. Pure copper was extracted from the Kargaly field; a long production tradition resulted in unification of treatment techniques (Morgunova et al. 2003). Three major technological schemes in tool and jewellery production have been identified: casting and forging of the body; shape-forming forging with reduction; casting with no reworking. Local smiths used open and composite casting forms; they knew how to weld things. Therefore, they had a full set of tools and weapons (Degtyareva 2003). Carpentry and wagon making is a distinctive feature of the local Yamnaya population (Morgunova, Kravtsov 1994; Morgunova et. al 2003). The study conducted using methods similar to the methods tested for the first time in analyzing Caspian Steppes artefacts (Golyeva 1999) provided evidence of primitive weaving developed by the local Yamnaya population (Morgunova et al. 2003).9 Pottery, manufacturing of bone and stone tools and weapons were local as well. Most likely, all industries were domestic.

The Yamnaya population living in the Stavropol Hills raised sheep (Derzhavin 1991) and, most likely, also exploited only valley areas and the nearest watershed plateaus. The economy of synchronous sedentary population, living in the northeastern part of the North Caucasus, Dagestan, relied on raising cattle, sheep and goats, pigs (Antipina, Morales 2004); fishing and hunting marine animals (Velikent II: 3300-2800 BC, distribution of animals, fish and birds identified is as follows: mammals (95%); birds (1%); fish and Caspian seal (Phoca caspica) (1%); Velikent I: 2700-1800/1700 BC: mammals (98%); fish (1%); bird bones (1%) (Antipina, Morales 2004). The Lower Don. Most likely, raising cattle and sheep was the basis of pastoral economy developed by the Lower Don population (Fedorova-Davydova, Gorbenko 1974); hunting would have played some part (Farmstead Popov, kurgan 51, burial 19 with a hare skeleton) (Stolyar 1958). Other data on the Yamnaya economy in this region are not available.

The Middle and Lower Volga Region was actively exploited by Yamnaya groups that engaged mostly in sheep raising. Cattle bones have been found far more rarely in graves. Presence of bones of wild animals, such as saiga, fox, hare and birds suggests that hunting was a

10 This statement can be easily verified if soil from sites is floated or special studies of the content of Yamnaya vessels and “the stomach” of the dead people are conducted. Similar studies with materials from the Caspian Steppes have shown that there are no domesticated grains in Yamnaya burials from this region. The study conducted by E.Yu. Lebedeva (2005) indicates that many steppe cultures did not engage in agriculture.

9 In our view, the conclusion on the use of wool fibers in Yamnaya textile industry in the Urals Region is too premature. In addition to biomorphous analysis, additional studies need to be conducted to identify non-plant fibers (Shishlina et al. 2003b).

236

PASTORAL EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THE BRONZE AGE PERIODS operations. Bone cutting and pottery industries were directly linked to life of the site. But it was metal working that became the most innovative. Mikhailovka inhabitants were skilled craftsmen. The site had specialized shops that produced jewellery and small items and there were stone cutting and leather shops at the site as well (Korobkova, Shaposhnikova 2005).

The Steppe Black Sea coastline area. The economic system proposed for the Steppe Black Sea coastline area includes mobile herding combined with agriculture. Migrations took place during the warm months of the year. People raised sheep, goats, horses and cattle. Additional food resources were provided by hunting deer and birds, such as bustard, white heron; and by gathering river edible molluscs (pearl shells). A few ethnobotanical studies using Yamnaya culture artefacts from the Black Sea coastline area show that during the Yamnaya period wheat, oats, barley and millet were grown in river valleys of this area (Pashkevich 2000). Numerous industries such as bone cutting, stone cutting, carpentry, pottery, braiding, weaving, and metallurgy were developed (Ivanova 2001; Samoylenko 1988).

Comparison of the economic system proposed for the Yamnaya population living on the Caspian Steppes with the economic systems developed for adjacent areas indicates that the new mobile herding-based economic system with a comprehensive use of all diet resources from a partially exploited environmental area was, first of all, typical for eastern regions of the Eurasian Steppe Belt. Seasonal use of pastures within a rather limited area with moves along short routes, such as from the river to the nearest watershed and back to the river, was a key component of such an economy. This system spread quickly across dry steppes and semi-deserts where people of a different culture lived.

The best system for Yamnaya subsistence has been proposed for the Mikhailovka site on the Dnieper (the middle stratum). Its inhabitants developed a multicomponent economy based on herding, with secondary sectors such as hunting, fishing and gathering. The predominance of cattle points to changes in the type of animal stock raising, a percentage share of sheep decreased substantially, but the role of the horse increased; bones of pig and dog were found as well. These data suggest that two forms of livestock raising were developed: range herding and stall livestock raising. Livestock provided a sufficient amount of high calorie and protein food, hides and skins, raw material for tools and wagons, animals were used as traction and pack animals. People hunted kulan, deer, saiga, wild boar, fur animals and wild birds; collected tortoise, pearl shells; caught sheat-fish (Silurus glanis) and pike in the river (with a harpoon, net; one of the graves contained a fish knife). Grinding stones, pestles, and horn hoes imply agriculture as a business activity but there are no ethnobotanical data. Eleven different industries reconstructed are predetermined by major raw materials. Industries include hide and skin treatment, leather production, leather cutting, sewing and dyeing. A large collection of spindle-whorls or looms weights is indicative of developed weaving. It appears that wool fibers were used (but this statement needs to be proven as has been mentioned earlier). Stone treatment industry became more specialized; new tools appeared such as drilling devices, abrasive saws and reamers. Wood processing tools were intended for nine production

This system has also been reconstructed for pastoral groups from a different culture, who lived in Kazakhstan in 3000 BC. It is based on using both summer and winter pastures located in the same area (Logvin et al. 1989). The population of western areas on the Black Sea steppes developed a different economic system, which was based on the integrated combination of agriculture within the area surrounded by valleys (or complex gathering?) and raising of domesticated animals. It should be noted that there is little data on development of agriculture on the steppes during the Yamnaya period (Lebedeva 2005). But the seasonal pasture cycle dominated on the Black Sea steppes as well. Various Yamnaya groups are supposed to have developed both stall animal stock raising (cattle raising) and range seasonal sheep raising on summer grasslands. Advantages of the seasonal system are clear. Some Yamnaya groups, which settled down in Thrace, used the same system in the new region: Yamnaya groups moved from north-eastern regions to the south in winter and migrated to the north in spring (Nikolova L. 2000).

Table 24. Data on organic residue of the stomach area of the North Caucasus population Burial ground/ kurgan/ grave/ age/ sex k. 2, g. 3 child 5–6

k. 3, g. 36 adult

Pollen data

Phytolith data

Mu-Sharet-1 Pollen of Artemisia, Asteraceae, Poaceae, Liliaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Silenaceae, Plumbaginaceae; more seldom pollen of Alnus, Pinus; siliceous remains of non-thrashed grains of gramineous plants Ostrovnoy –

–

Abundance of phytolith, possible phytoliths of gramineous plants

Zunda-Tolga-3 k. 1, g. 11 male 15–17

–

Few phytoliths of gramineous abundance of fossil conductive tissue

237

plants,

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

Dwellings. Light surface constructions or wagons could be used as dwellings. Numerous wooden frameworks and constructions found in graves are likely to have been parts of dwellings. Mats and pillows were used to make the living space comfortable.

Most likely, each Yamnaya group developed its economic potential within domestic industries and secondary sectors such as fishing, hunting, and gathering. Steppe North Caucasus Culture

The diet system. The North Caucasus group might have obtained additional food products by complex gathering. The data are few, but they indicate that people gathered wild gramineous plants, such as spicy steppe herbs (Table 24) in late spring-summer. No evidence of grains and seeds of domesticated plants is available. Apparently, mobile groups had to satisfy themselves with local food resources.

At the turn of the ages, during the Middle Bronze Age environment on the Caspian Steppes changed drastically. Deterioration of climate led to a genuine environmental disaster. The final stage of the Yamnaya culture and appearance of population representing new cultures such as the North Caucasus and the Early Catacomb population, coincided with a drastic deterioration of climatic conditions. At the same time climate aridization and a change of landscapes affected not only the Caspian Steppes but adjacent areas as well. It led to reduction in the number of potential winter and summer grasslands, arable lands and lands suitable for growing vegetables on the steppe, piedmont and coastline areas of the North Caucasus (Gey 1989). Ultimately, it became a main reason that made North Caucasus inhabitants address their economic issues by starting to exploit areas located to the north.

Data provided in Table 24 indicate that seeds of wild gramineous plants were used to make pottage or bread, to which spicy steppe herbs were added. Herbs were used to infuse tea. People are likely to have collected wild fruit (crab apples, pears, mountain ash) outside steppe environmental areas. It is these tree species that have been identified for the Steppe North Caucasus group. In accordance with new data on the isotope composition of human bone collagen that are not numerous, river products such as fish and molluscs were important elements of the diet system of the Steppe North Caucasus population (Table 25).

The seasonal and economic system. Sex and age determination, seasonality data and data on burial ground topography are very important for reconstruction of the economic system developed by a small Steppe North Caucasus group. In accordance with the system being reconstructed, very small groups of the North Caucasus population (each group consisting of one family) moved across the Caspian Steppes, with these moves taking place only in warm seasons of the year (Appendix 3. Table 4). Possibly, some groups of seasonal herders were composed only of adult males and adolescents. As has been noted earlier, topography of North Caucasus burial grounds is indicative of compact settlement and helps propose two main directions of moves: south-north movements (the Terek–the Kuma–lakes located in the western part of the Caspian Plain–Sarpa Lakes) and eastwest movements (the Kalaus–the Eastern Manych–the Western Manych–the Lower Don) (Fig. 112). There are some burial grounds with isolated kurgans or single burials (for example, child burials). In some kurgan groups, but not everywhere, North Caucasus kurgans form clusters. Topography, planigraphy of burial grounds and stratigraphy of kurgans, therefore, confirm that North Caucasus groups penetrated into some areas, visited other areas very seldom (seasonally), while there were areas that they exploited over some time.

Table. 25. Stable isotope ratio measurements for human and animal bones, and the shell from the Steppe North Caucasus culture Kurgan, burial, sex, age Zunda-Tolga-1: k. 1, g. 11, male 15–17 Zunda-Tolga-1: k. 1, g. 11, ring made of ungulate bone Mandjikiny-2: k. 7, g. 2, male 30–40 Mu-Sharet-1: k. 6, g. 4, ring made of ungulate bone (sheep) Mu-Sharet-1: k. 6, g. 4, ring made of ungulate bone (sheep) Mu-Sharet-1: k. 6, g. 4, Unio shell

δ13C, ‰ -18.40

δ15N, ‰ +12.28

-18.19

+8.25

-17.77

+16.03

-16.52

+11.38

-20.25

+13.06

-8.46

-

Fishing could be both seasonal and all year round. The area of the North Caucasus culture is covered by many river systems. No sex and age differences in the diet system have been noted. Industries. As has been noted earlier in the section presenting results of artefacts analysis of the Steppe North Caucasus group, grave offerings include predominantly jewellery, ceramics; tools and weapons are represented by few items. Metal jewellery items, most likely, manufactured in North Caucasus workshops, predominate. Bone items include hammer-headed pins, which were quite common in Yamnaya groups, suggesting an exchange between two cultures. There are no data on production of such amulets in the Caucasus. Presumably, bone cutting and leather production developed as a family business. The trace analysis of

Paleozoological data show that these could be pastoral groups of sheep raisers. It fits the general idea on range sheep raising when herders sought to preserve rich winter pastures in valley and piedmont areas moving flocks into other areas during a warm time of the year. Horses and oxen could be used as pack animals; some of the graves contained a small number of bones of such animals. Mobility of Steppe North Caucasus groups would have been determined by the use of wagons and pack animals.

238

PASTORAL EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THE BRONZE AGE PERIODS parts of composite sickles, stone mortars (there are no paleobotanical data on developed agriculture); industries (metallurgy, pottery and the textile industry (Betrozov, Nagoev 1984). Numerous impressions of mats, course cloth and net on the bottom of clay vessels, spindle whorls (Bronze Age Textile 1999; Chechenov 1984); jewellery; clay vessels imply that the sedentary population developed not only domestic crafts, but also had a community industry aimed to meet the needs of local population and needs of other population groups, which sought to acquire luxury goods and household items used by their neighbours. Such craftsmen centres are likely to have required construction of some defence infrastructure: a construction fenced with a powerful defence system has been identified at the Bylym site.

several bone items has indicated that craftsmen used metal blades and razors for cutting, carpentry, ornamentation; drills for drilling holes; abrasives for polishing goods. Traces of a leather strap have been left on a bone button from Mandjikiny-2, k. 7, g. 3. Bone pins were made using the same technology as Yamnaya artefacts. To produce rings, a primitive turning tool was used. Flint tools were used as a cutters. Cutting, drilling, sawing and polishing techniques were developed (Usachuk 2001; 2002). As all items in the ceramics collection differ from each other, it implies that the pottery industry was exclusively domestic, and did not follow any strict rules. Carpentry was particularly important. Results of nonsteppe tree species determination (ash tree, mountain ash tree, apple tree, pear) are likely to indicate that all wooden constructions (supposedly, parts of demountable dwellings or wagons) were made in other environmental areas of the North Caucasus with more forests rather than on the Caspian Steppes.

Additional diet and economic resources were provided by fishing (trout from the Konstantinovskoye plateau (Markovin 1994); carp from North Caucasus graves of the Kuban region (Nechitailo 1979)); hunting (wild boar from the kurgan at Krasnogvardeiskaya village (Berezin, Kalmykov 1998); saiga at Suvorsky (Nechitailo 1978)); and gathering.

The textile industry is likely to have developed as a family business. There are no data on the use of wool fibers, only plant mats were used. A primitive rectangular frame that could be as long as 80–90 cm was used for weaving and plaiting. Weavers could also sew and make clothes such as caps, forehead bands, belts as well as parts of the interior, such as pillows and bags. Items cut from stone could also be produced by families or in North Caucasus centres.

The presence of sheep and cattle in the local North Caucasus environment and the presence of only sheep (or rarely horses) in the steppe environment indicate that deterioration of climatic conditions that led to reduction in the area of adequate grasslands resulted in changes in the economic system. Range sheep raising became a dominant type of animal stock raising among the North Caucasus population and in some environmental areas of the North Caucasus (the Kuban region, the Stavropol Hills). The only possible way to recover from the crisis was to exploit new pastures. It was possible to move flocks of sheep from one grassland to another. The result is the appearance of North Caucasus migrants on the Caspian Steppes.

These data help propose an economic system of the Steppe North Caucasus population living on the Caspian Steppes. Its small groups can be referred to as seasonal nomads who raised sheep, they moved to summer grasslands located in the north and north-east and used all diet resources of the area they exploited to the maximum extent possible. Such moves would have been caused by an economic factor that forced them to reorganize their economy and engage in seasonal movements. East-west migratory routes could be as long as several hundred kilometres. Auxiliary types of economic activities included fishing, hunting, gathering and few domestic industries. Supposedly, sheep raising provided a possibility for subsequent exchange and acquisition of numerous household items and prestigious jewellery. Such an exchange was put in place with both the sedentary (semi-sedentary) population living in the North Caucasus and the autochthonous Yamnaya population settled on the Caspian Steppes. Other groups could have been also involved in exchange transactions.

There are no data on seasonality with regard to the graves found in the Stavropol Hills and the Kuban region, but there are a large number of primary kurgans referring to the North Caucasus culture. Available sex and age determinations (representatives of all sex and age groups have been buried in burial grounds) indicate indirectly that North Caucasus groups migrated all year round, and that burials were made during autumn and winter. Not only ordinary people participated in resettlement and search of new lands. A number of burials have yielded rich funeral offerings, including offerings such as a gold pendant one-and-a half-turn ring from a North Caucasus child grave at Verbovsky III and silver rings from Caspian Steppe burials.

Systems for comparison. Comparison of the proposed system with the reconstructed economic system used by the North Caucasus population (the so called North Caucasus culture) helps evaluate its potential.

Such seasonal colonization did not last long. Separate groups colonized lands penetrating deep into the steppes from the south and the southeast. Possibly, some migrants tried to settle down in some watershed plateaus of the Middle Yergueni Hills, but, most likely, their attempt failed. This economic system was not without flaws, as these migrants were predominantly seasonal (summer),

Economy of the North Caucasus tradition that evolved in the piedmont areas of the Central Caucasus was based on raising sheep, goats and cattle as well as agriculture (flint 239

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES fertile age; one grave contained a skeleton of a young woman who died in childbirth; there are graves with babies; several age groups of children and adolescents have been identified that migrated across the area they exploited throughout the year. This conclusion is strengthened by planigraphy of fully excavated burial grounds. Early Catacomb burial grounds formed independent clusters within the burial area and seasonality of burials. But in terms of number, Early Catacomb kurgans and graves are not so numerous as Yamnaya and East Manych kurgans and graves. That is why, it might be suggested that small family groups penetrated into the steppes where they lived during roughly one generation (20-30 years). Another explanation is that independent groups of herders moved to the Yergueni watershed plateaus only in summer and stayed there if winters were warm and with little snow. Herders from this culture raised predominantly sheep.

with their migration routes linked to old trading routes. The capacity of Caspian Steppe grasslands was not used to the full. It would have resulted in conflicts with the local population and with other settlers that occupied the same areas. Attempts to move further into the north, to the middle part of the Volga-Don Region also failed. There are few North Caucasus burials found in these areas. Additionally, long-term moves could lead to undesirable death of animals, risks and the increased death rate among migrants. It is possible that the local population made inroads against small summer migrant groups and captured their animals. Colonization did not succeed, the economic system used by the Steppe North Caucasus group was flawed, therefore it was short-lived. The Early Catacomb population that coexisted with both the Late Yamnaya population and the Steppe North Caucasus population tried to streamline their economic system.

Roughly the same system exists in modern Kalmykia: a family including immediate relatives of settlers from the North Caucasus11 moves to a steppe herding area where this family lives for 10–15 years, sometimes longer.

Early Catacomb Culture The initial period of climate aridization that affected the Caspian Steppes coincided with arrival of new population related to the Early Catacomb culture in the steppe areas. The area of this culture spread on the Caspian Steppes almost coincides with the area of seasonal moves of North Caucasus groups (Fig. 113). Early Catacomb kurgans are concentrated along large water routes, high watershed plateaus. Western and southern areas turned out to be the most accessible to migrants.

Most likely, the range of moves was wider compared to the Yamnaya population, as some details of the funeral rite and parts of the clothes used by the Early Catacomb groups in the Southern Yergueni Hills overlap with those of the Catacomb groups from the Middle Yergueni Hills. But there are no age, sex and seasonality data for the collection of artefacts from excavations conducted by I.V. Sinitsyn, and therefore, a large group of burials are not included in the comparative analysis. Stylistic similarity of burial dress components and some elements of the burial rite imply that these groups had links with the Early Catacomb population of the Stavropol Hills. In this case, seasonal or annual migratory routes could be as long as several hundred kilometres. Independent Early Catacomb groups composed predominantly of adult males exploited mostly the western slope of the Middle Yergueni Hills (Peschany, Temrta III, Temrta V). There were few children, adolescents and women in such groups. Possibly, groups led by males moved to grasslands of the Salsk Steppes in various periods of the year depending on the economic situation and annual climatic temperatures that determined the height of the snow cover. Their family or other relatives could stay in other areas with more favourable conditions. Severn Early Catacomb graves of the Ipatovo kurgan in the Stavropol region with similar burial rite were made for three children, four women of the productive age (from 25 to 55 years old) and one man of 45–55 years old (Korenevsky et al. 2007: 100).

The seasonal and economic system helps us understand how new environmental areas were exploited by the groups whose origin is linked to the Azov steppes, and, possibly, the Stavropol region. Anyway, comparative analysis presented above indicates that the Caspian Early Catacomb group was close to the population from the aforesaid regions. Age and sex determinations as well as burial seasonality data (Appendix 1 and 3) suggest that various groups penetrated into the steppes in different times and their fate varied as well. A small number of Early Catacomb graves at ZundaTolga contain male skeletons or cenotaphs; they were made during a warm seasons of the year. All graves at Ostrovnoy were also made in summer, though the burial ground has yielded both male and female graves. Two summer graves at Baga-Burul are referred to the group of the population under discussion. Therefore, groups, small in number, penetrated into the Kuma-Manych Depression during a warm seasons of the year. Possibly, these were seasonal groups, predominantly, male herders on their way back home to the south where they spent winter.

A mixed herd consisted predominantly of sheep, but also included cattle and, in rare cases, horses. The difference in physical anthropological characteristics between Early Catacomb groups of the Middle and Southern Yergueni

Early Catacomb graves at Mandjikiny-1 and Manjikiny-2 were left behind by small family groups (males and females of various age groups; many women were of

11 Dagestan, Chechnya, some other areas of the North Caucasus in rare cases. Interviews were conducted in the Iki-Burulsky rayon of the Republic of Kalmykia in 1994–2001.

240

PASTORAL EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THE BRONZE AGE PERIODS Hills and the Kuma-Manych Depression as well as between individuals who left behind various burial grounds in the same environmental area (the western slope of the Middle Yergueni Hills: Peschany V and Temrta) suggests that Eastern Salsk groups moved in from other areas, supposedly, from the Lower Don or adjacent areas of the Kuban Region and the Azov Steppes.

carry heavy load. They walked a lot and did not ride animals. No injuries except for occupational injuries (a broken elbow of the male right arm) have been recorded.13 Dwellings. There are practically no data. In the absence of any settlement artefacts we can suppose that, first, winter camps with permanent constructions (dwellings, habitational debris pits, enclosures and pens for cattle and sheep) were located outside the open steppes in valleys of steppe or North Caucasus rivers; second, in case of need, closed ravines could be used to construct temporary simple fences and shelters. In this case there was no need to construct enclosures and pens, or such enclosures and pens were made of pickup materials, such as materials found in burials: mats and wattle fences, plank scaffolds, simple wattle and daub constructions. A.N. Gey believes that Early Catacomb groups lived in wagons with wide platforms of up to 1.75 x 2.20 m, that were large enough to accommodate three persons (Gey 1999b).

Results of age and sex determination, provided in the table (Appendix 1. Table 3) indicate that Early Catacomb groups living in different areas had many elderly males and females. In this connection, one can offer a different interpretation of available data. After moving to vacant areas of the Caspian Steppes, the Early Catacomb population was quick to settle down in new areas. But their pastoral economy relied on seasonal use of grasslands that were few in number since high plateaus of the Middle and Southern Yergueni Hills, the Eastern Manych valley were already inhabited by the autochthonous Yamnaya population while aridization that had started developing led to depletion of water sources and pastures. The North Caucasus population moved to these areas in summer from the south. The same situation persisted on the Kalmyk Steppes up to 1950s. For example, winter grasslands on the Black Lands were used both by Kalmyks who lived on the Sarpa Plain in the north and inhabitants of the western slope of the Middle Yergueni Hills (Remontnoye rayon) who moved with flocks of sheep composed of thousands of animals during winter.12 In case of well organized transport communications it is quite likely that clearly defined areas where Early Catacomb burial grounds are concentrated were family and tribal centres. Migrations along different routes to grasslands that provided fodder to herds of animals and sources of fresh water started from here. Such centres remained burial sites for relatives of one family, or two families in rare cases.

The dietary system was determined by many factors. Animal stock raising provided necessary meat and, most likely, diary and high calorie protein products. There are no data on hunting as an additional sector of meat food. But fishing was quite important. Isotope data on representatives of several Early Catacomb groups are provided in Table 26. Table 26 shows that the value of δ13C human bone collagen varies from -21.54 to 15.29‰, while the value of δ15N varies from +10.73 to +18.13‰. Accordingly, the value of δ13C in bones of herbivorous animals varies from -21.58 to 17.91‰, while the value of δ15N varies from +4.66 to +12.60‰. Differences in collagen of human bones have been recorded in burial grounds as well: Peschany-V: δ13C (- 21.54-16.26 ‰) and δ15N (+14.1316.63‰); Temrta-III: 13C (-18.34-17.85‰) and δ15N (from +14.12 to 14.95‰); Baga-Burul: 13C (-18.79 ‰) and δ15N (+12.64‰); Zunda-Tolga: 13C (-18.62-17.53 ‰) and δ15N (+13.92-16.13‰); Temrta-V: 13C (-20.60-17.18 ‰) and δ15N (from +10.73-15.61‰), Mandjikiny-2: 13C (-17.59-15.29 ‰) and δ15N (from +15.04-18.13‰). Most likely, it is a result of variations in the diet system developed by the Early Catacomb groups that lived in various environmental areas. Therefore, the results obtained correlate with the conclusion that representatives of various ethnic communities are behind Early Catacomb burial grounds uncovered on the Caspian Steppes. The diet of such groups differed as well.

Planigraphy of Early Catacomb burial grounds and stratigraphy also confirm that small groups of population, most likely, relatives (burials of pregnant women or women died in childbirth) rather than individuals participated in both seasonal moves and resettlement. Clusters of Early Catacomb kurgans have several mounds, which means that people lived in this area for some time or visited it regularly. Isolated mounds or single secondary burials, most likely, mark routes of moves (resettlement) or migrations. Sheep bones predominate in burials and ritual places under the kurgan. Therefore, resettlement of some Early Catacomb groups was predetermined by mobile sheep raising and a need to expand a grassland area. Oxen and horses were also in the herd, they could have been used as pack animals. Analysis of long bones of males from Early Catacomb population that lived on western slopes of the Middle Yergueni Hills has shown that they were of middle height or tall with wide shoulders. They had to

Sex and age variations have been noted as well. Males of 15-25 years show the value of δ13C in the range from 20.60 to 16.52‰ and the value of δ15N in the range of +16.52-17.50‰; males of 30–35 years show the value of δ13C in the range from -18.79 to 18.10‰ and the value of δ15N in the range of +12.64-14.15‰; respective values for males of 40–45 years are as follows: δ13C (-21.5417.62‰) and δ15N (+12.79-15.61‰); for males above 45

12 Results of the interviews conducted among local herders in 1992– 2005 in various areas of Kalmykia and the Rostov Oblast.

13

241

Analysis performed by S.B. Borutskaya.

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES years: δ13C (-18.65-17.02‰) and δ15N (+14.03-17.16‰). Data for females of 17–20 are as follows: δ13C (-17.97 ‰) and δ15N (+12.49 ‰) for females of 25–35 years: δ13C (-18.25-17.59‰) and δ15N (+14.13-15.04‰); females of above 40-50 years: δ13C (-17.98-15.42‰) and δ15N (+10.73-18.10‰). Data for a child of 3–4 years from Mandjikiny-1 are as follows: δ13C (-15.29 ‰) and δ15N (+18.3‰). The isotope composition of bone collagen indicates that seafood predominated in the diet system of this child.

Table. 26. Stable isotope ratio measurements for human and animal bones from the Early Catacomb culture Kurgan, burial, sex, age Peschany-V: k. 1, g. 1, female 25–35 Peschany-V: k. 1, g. 5, male 50–55 Peschany-V: k. 2, g. 3, male 40–45 Peschany-V: k. 3, g. 1, male 45–50 Peschany-V: k. 3, g. 2, male 40–45 Peschany-V: k. 1, ritual place 1, horse Peschany-V: k. 4, g. 1, male 50–60 Peschany-V: k. 5, g. 6, child 4 Temrta III: k. 1, g. 1, female 30–35 Temrta III: k. 1, g. 4, male 40–45 Temrta III: k. 2, g. 1, male? 45–50 Temrta III: k. 1, ritual place 7, sheep Temrta III: k. 1, ritual place 1, horse Temrta-I: k. 1, g. 3, ring made of sheep bone Temrta-I: k. 1, g. 2, female 20–25 Temrta-I: k. 1, g. 3, child 10–11 Temrta-I: k. 1, g. 3, sheep bone Temrta-I: k. 2, g. 3, child 10 Baga-Burul: k. 5, g. 6, male 30–35 Baga-Burul: k. 5, g. 19, cow Mandjikiny-2: k. 37, g. 3, male 15–16 Mandjikiny-2: k. 42, g. 1, female 40–45 Mandjikiny-2: k. 42, g. 4, child 3–4 Mandjikiny-2: k. 45, g. 2, male 17–20 Mandjikiny-2: k. 54, g. 6, female 25–35 Mandjikiny-1: k. 54, ritual place, sheep Mandjikiny-1: k. 14, g. 6, male 55–65 Zunda-Tolga-2: k. 1, g. 1, male adultus Zunda-Tolga-2: k. 2, g. 3, male around 35 Zunda-Tolga-5: k. 1, g. 4, sheep Zunda-Tolga-5: k. 1, g. 5, male senilis Temrta V: k. 1, g. 2, female 17–20 Temrta V: k. 1, g. 2, male 20–25 Temrta V: k. 1, g. 3, female 40–50 Temrta V: k. 1, g. 3, female 40–50 Temrta V: k. 1, g. 3, male 40–50 Temrta V: k. 1, g. 3, male 40–50 Temrta V: k. 1, g. 2, pin made of ungulate animal bone Khar-Zukha -1: k. 5, g. 3B, female senilis Khar-Zukha -1: k. 7, g. 4, male 30–35 Khar-Zukha -1: k. 1, g. 5, male 45–50 VMLBII,66: k. 80, g. 3, ring made of sheep bone

δ13C, ‰ -18.25 -16.26 -18.15 -17.02 -21.54 -21.16 -17.30 -17.71 -18.34 -18.15 -17.85 -19.47 -19.92 -21.58

δ15N, ‰ +14.13 +16.63 +15.79 +17.16 +15.24 +4.66 +16.19 +16.12 +14.95 +14.73 +14.12 +9.57 +5.96 +12.49

-17.55 -17.65 -18.25 -17.59 -18.79 -18.5 -16.52 -17.16 -15.29 -17.10 -17.59 -18.63 -17.53 -17.46 -18.62 -17.9 -18.65 -17.97 -20.60 -17.98 -17.49 -17.74 -17.18 -18.28

+13.17 +15.50 +11.29 +16.26 +12.64 +9.92 +16.52 +17.28 +18.13 +17.50 +15.04 +7.45 +15.4 +16.13 +13.92 +12.6 +14.03 +12.49 – +10.73 +15.40 +12.79 +15.61 +8.75

-15.42 -18.10 -17.62 -17.91

+18.10 +14.15 +15.66 +9.07

The main conclusion of data provided in Table 26 is that important: fish products accounted for a large part of the everyday diet of all Early Catacomb groups. This conclusion is reinforced by finds of fish vertebrae (Fig. 77, 12) (Chogray IX; Chograysky VI). Much data have been obtained for the plant component of the Early Catacomb diet system. Subsoil from the region of the stomach, interdental space and dental calculus as well as from the bottom of vessels (Table 27) has been analyzed. Data from Table 27 show that in all exploited regions Early Catacomb groups collected wild plants. They used such plants to infuse herbal teas, soft psychoactive herbs were frequently used, cannabis pollen has been identified as well. There is no pollen of domesticated plants in the pollen spectrum, which is quite diverse. In the view of M.M. Pakhomov (per. comment; Shishlina et al. 2007), wild gramineous plants were collected, since if these plants had been domesticated the sample would have contained morphological uniform microcilia. Samples studied have various species of gramineous plants. Results of comparative analysis of several samples reveals that microcilia of wild gramineous plants have also contained phytoliths of wild gramineous plants; often the range of plants identified for samples from the region of the stomach coincides with the range of plants preserved in the interdental space or in a vessel and differs from the range of samples taken from the background (from the floor, the walls of the grave, from under the skull).

Table 27. Data on organic residue in the stomach area, in the area between teeth and in vessels of the Early Catacomb population Burial ground/ kurgan/ grave/ age/ sex

Pollen data

Phytolith data

Kuma-Manych Depression Baga-Burul

k. 5, g. 6 male 45–55

Vessel: There was water in the vessel, pollen of Poaceae, Asteraceae, Artemisia, Chenopodiaceae as well as remains of plant lice (Rhopalosiphoninus). stomach area: Many cists and spores of mushrooms, pollen of Asteraceae, Poaceae, Chenopodiaceae, pollen of Sparganium (water plant), seldom pollen of Almus, Ulnus.

242

Vessel: Few phytoliths.

PASTORAL EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THE BRONZE AGE PERIODS

Zunda-Tolga-2 k. 1, g. 1 male, adultus k. 1, g. 9 cenotaph

k. 3, g. 37 female 17–20

k. 37, g. 3 male 15–16 k. 42, g. 1 female 40–45 k. 54, g. 3 juveniles 11–13

k. 54, g. 6 female 25–35

k. 2, g. 3 male 40–45

k. 2, g. 3 child 7–8 k. 2, g. 1 child 8–9

k. 3, g. 1 male 45–50 k. 3, g. 2 male 40–45

–

stomach area: large- fragments of transparent fossilized plant tissue, speculae, phytolith of Artemisia

Zunda-Tolga-3 Clay funnel: (plant cover? of the vessel, or pollen saved inside the walls) abundance of pollen of Varia, several species of Chenopodiaceae, two or three species of Asteraceae, Liliaceae, Ephedra, Cichoriaceae, many pollen of Pinus, more seldom pollen of Betula, Polypodiaceae Ostrovnoy stomach area: Pollen of Chenopodiaceae, Artemisia, Cichoriaceae, Asteraceae, gramineous plants, Typha, remains of scales of grains of gramineous plants South Yergueni Mandjikiny-2 stomach area: Abundance pollen of Varia, pollen of Chenopodiaceae, Asteraceae, Liliaceae, Iridaceae , Typha, Betula и Pinus stomach area: few pollen of Chenopodiaceae, more seldom– Fabaceae, Asteraceae, single pollen of Liliaceae, abundance of scales of grains of gramineous plants stomach area: pollen of Silenaceae, Liliaceae, Iridaceae), Asteraceae, Chenopodiaceae, Artemisia, Poaceae, and non-identified plants, remains of grains of gramineous plants, animal tissue stomach area: often pollen of Liliaceae, Iridaceae; pollen of Chenopodiaceae, Poaceae, Asteraceae, Silenaceae Cichoriaceae, Geraniaceae; few pollen of Polypodiaceae, Betula; many remains of grains of gramineous plants Middle Yergueni Hills Peschany-V stomach area: few pollen of identified plants

Tooth: Few pollen of Poaceae, Varia; wooden pollen of Betula, Pinus (honey?) stomach area: few pollen of Asteraceae, Chenopodiaceae, Cichоriaceae, Varia; several pollen grains of Alnus

stomach area: pollen of Asteraceae, Chenopodiaceae, Varia, more seldom pollen of Cichоriaceae, Fabaceae, Artemisia; few pollen of Pinus, Alnus, spors of Polypodiaceae stomach area: few pollen of Asteraceae, Cichоriaceae, often remains of grains of gramineous plants Tooth: Pollen of Varia, Ephedra, Cichоriaceae, Сannabis, Artemisia, few pollen of Chenopodiaceae, Poaceae, several pollen grains of Betula, Pinus, Tilia, Alnus (honey?)

243

Clay funnel: No phytoliths

stomach area: few phytoliths

–

Soil from the bottom of the brazier: Phytoliths of gramineous plants –

stomach area: Background residues of phytoliths. (stickshaped phytoliths)

Tooth: Abundant fragments of fossilized plant tissue, few stick-shaped phytoliths, many fragments of fossilized cellular plant tissue of grey-brown colour; light-brown tissue of animal origin – Tooth: Much tissue with longitudinal threads, flackshaped clots of dark-brown colour; transparent fossilized plant tissue; few stick-shaped phytoliths, several phytoliths of gramineous plants, spiculae –

–

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES k. 4, g.1, male 50–60 k. 1, g. 1 female 25–30 k. 1, g. 5 male 50–55

k. 1, g. 1 female 35–45

k. 1, g. 4 male 40–45

k. 1, g. 3 juveniles 10–11

k. 1, g. 2 juveniles around 12

stomach area: few pollen of Astaraceae, Ephedra, Poacea, Pinus stomach area: pollen of Cichоriaceae, Artemisia, Silenaceae, Asteraceae, Varia stomach area: pollen of Rosaceae, Fabaceae, few pollen of Betula

Temrta-III Tooth: 30 pollen grains including 60-65% of wooden pollen, the rest is pollen of spors and grass, the content of the sample is Betula (1), Picea (2), Pinus (5), Alnus (3), Corylus (1), remains of coniferous (4), grasses: Asteraceae (1), Geraniaceae (1), Liliaceae (2), Plantaginaceae (1), Cannabis (1), Polygonaceae (1), Cichoriaceae (1), Polypodiaceae (2) = honey? stomach area: few non-identified pollen stomach area: few pollen of Dipsacaceae (Scabiosa), Allium and Chenopodiaceae, one pollen grain of Alnus, abundance of scales of grains of gramineous plants of 3-4 species Temrta-I stomach area: pollen of grass is 91%, predominance of pollen of goosefoot (Chenopodiaceae) (37,6%), asters (Asteraceae) (20,2%), pollen of chicory (Cichoriaceae) (7,3%), lily (Liliaceae) (7,3%) and gramineous plant (Poaceae) (5,5%); few pollen of carex (Cyperaceae), crucifers (Brassicaceae), pinks (Caryophyllaceae), umbelliferous (Apiaceae) and possible wild rye (Secale); pollen grains of pine (8%); one spore of sphagnum Tooth: Pollen of Plumbaginaceae (Liminim), (Chenopodiaceae), (Brassicaceae), (Silenaceae); many wooden pollen of pine (Pinus), nut-tree (Corylus), birch (Betula), fir-tree (Picea)–honey? –

k. 2, g. 9 female 20–25

–

k. 1, g. 3 female 45–50

–

k. 1, g. 3 male 45–50

–

k. 1, g. 2 male 17–25

–

– – stomach area: grey-brown tissue of plant origin with dark regular points, transparent fossilized plant tissue with rectangular-shaped phytoliths characteristic for gramineous plants, few phytoliths of gramineous plants and stickshaped phytoliths Tooth: fossilized plant tissue of elongated shape, nonidentified о

Tooth fossilized plant tissue of elongated shape, nonidentified

–

stomach area: Artemisia Lerhiana Tooth: Speculae, sticks, diatoms stomach area: Artemisia Lerhiana Tooth: diatoms

Temrta-V stomach area: Non-identified phytoliths, sticks Tooth: Few sticks stomach area: Many sticks, few phytoliths Tooth: Few sticks stomach area: No phytoliths, many small pieces of tissue of animal origin (collagen tissue?) Tooth: Few sticks, fossilized plant tissue of elongated shape, non-identified

244

PASTORAL EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THE BRONZE AGE PERIODS

k. 2, g. 1 male 45–50

–

stomach area: Few sticks Tooth: Few sticks

pendants. Weavers could also sew clothes and make different items (e.g. hats, belts, outer clothes and trousers) and decorated them with numerous amulets. Early Catacomb designers used all pickup materials, including seeds of Lithospermum. They also made pillows and other parts of the interior. Possibly, these people knew how to tan skins and hides to produce leather. The analysis of paleopathology among Early Catacomb groups inhabiting western slopes of the Middle Yergueni Hills conducted by S.B. Borutskaya indicates that many men had teeth defects due to the fact that they cut off hard materials (sinew, leather) with their teeth.

Determination of pollen spectrum in the interdental space and dental calculus of some individuals is quite interesting. In the view of M.M. Pakhomov, the pollen spectrum in the soil samples from teeth of people found at Temrta III and Peschany V shows that they lived in a tree and bush belt of the Caucasus rather than on the steppes (Pakhomov, pers. comment). Supposedly, these people ate honey. Dental calculus is typical for a small physical anthropological sample from burial grounds uncovered on the western slope of the Middle Yergueni Hills. It is produced on the basis of alkali compounds that are formed during decomposition of protein food by saliva (Dobrovolskaya 2005). S.B. Borutskaya believes that calculus is formed when people eat fat food (pers. comment).

Wood processing attained a high level of development. Most likely, carpenters made wagons and utensils (dishes, trunks). Trace analysis of a wooden button that comes from Mandjikiny-2 shows that such items as the button were made with techniques similar to those used in cutting out bone or horn items with turning tools.

In conclusion, diet components of the Early Catacomb population were diverse. There are no data on food stress caused by hunger.

Strong cultural links were established between Early Catacomb groups of the Caspian Steppes and neighbouring regions, such as the Left Bank of the Don, the Azov Steppes and some Kuban areas and the Stavropol Hills. Both tribal Early Catacomb groups living in the North Caucasus and the population of other synchronous cultures, such as the Novotitorovka culture (Gey 1999a) and the North Caucasus culture were involved in such interaction, based on the system of seasonal moves and exchange transactions.

Industries are believed to have played an important part in the economic system of the Early Catacomb population, but there is little data. Most likely, pottery and stone cutting were domestic. No industry centres have been found in Early Catacomb graves on the Caspian Steppes and nothing can be said about craft specialization. There are many metal jewellery items of North Caucasus types and bone items. Possibly, some goods could be imported through exchange transactions.

During the subsequent period (antiquity, early Middle Ages) the Don River was one of the most important trading routes. Nomads of the Don region and the Azov Steppes played one of the leading roles in transit trade, supplying livestock products, fish and caviar. During the Scythian period the so called Elizavetinskoye hilltop fortress was used as a large winter camp and as early as the fifth century BC. Its residents engaged in animal stock raising and fishing, supplying high quality fish species to the Greeks (Zhitnikov 1992). Exchange trade in fish and livestock products changed routes of Turkic tribes across the North Azov Sea Steppes and led to distribution of some areas among tribal groups (Larenok 1994). During the time of the Golden Horde, seven species of fish were caught: starred sturgeon, carp, bream, roach, aspius, cat-fish, and pike-perch (Vasilieva 1998). Early Catacomb and Catacomb burials of the Don River, the Donets River and the Caspian Steppes have yielded pike-perch bones and beads made of teeth of the carp family (Cyprinidae) that includes aspius, bream and carp (Vangorodskaya, Sanzharov 1991). As mentioned earlier, the fish component was important in the diet system of the Bronze Age population. During the Late Bronze Age

Some members of small groups would have possessed bone cutting skills. Trace analysis of bone hammerheaded pins has shown that such pins were made by different people. Craftsmen used several techniques. First, a bone item was shaved, then the surface was improved with an abrasive, a hole was drilled, then an ornamentation pattern scratched, and finally the pattern was cut out with a fine metal blade. There are some exquisitely made pins, while others are noted for their sloppy finishing. Perforators were made of horse bone (Mandjikiny-2, k. 54, g. 5); bones and teeth of other domesticated and wild animals were used to make long beads, plaques and suspension rings (Usachuk 2001; 2002). More data have been collected about the textile industry. Mats were made of plant fibers by braiding. A rectangular frame was used in primitive weaving operations. The length of textile items exceeded two meters. An abundance of headdress and pectoral ornamentation pieces is indicative of widespread sewing, possibly, embroidery with the use of many beads and 245

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES sedentary population of the Don Region from Kobyakovo and other sites traditionally engaged in both fishing and animal stock raising (Sharafutdinova 1973).

population are quite common (Andreeva, Novikova 2001). Fishing occupies an important place among producing activities, there are no data on hunting. Gathering of wild gramineous plants and numerous steppe plants as well as molluscs was extremely important in everyday life and provided both food and raw material for making textile items and jewellery. No data on agriculture are available, which is confirmed by results of ethnobotanical studies in other areas (Lebedeva 2005).

These data suggest that fish could also become an item of exchange transactions with some Early Catacomb groups of the Caspian Steppes.14 A cautious suggestion can be made that both salt and some domestically produced goods could be imported. In exchange the Early Catacomb population received metal in the form of ingots, semi-manufactured goods and, possibly, goods made in North Caucasus shops. So far there are no data on any agricultural product exchanges. Honey is an exception, but it was collected by local people living in North Caucasus piedmont areas who exchanged it for cattle, or the Early Catacomb population collected it during seasonal moves.

Practically all industries could be domestic. Necessary goods, though, were obtained in exchange. Exchange goods included domesticated animals; domestically produced items, first of all, leather and textile items; possibly, smoked fish and salt fish, and, supposedly, salt. The system described is more progressive and flexible compared to the system of the Yamnaya and Steppe North Caucasus populations. It takes into account multiple resources of the steppe environmental area, it can be adapted to changing conditions and was developed in conditions characterized by a severe environmental disaster, and, as a whole, is typical for a stable life style. But it was not without its flaws, as not all capacity of the Caspian Steppes was put to use. It is confirmed by spatial analysis of Early Catacomb kurgans (Fig. 112). Its population did not take into account all resource capacity of the environmental areas and moved within boundaries of the exploited area. This type of economy could not but lead to quick depletion and degradation of soils and water sources.

Hence, these data are used in reconstruction of the economic system of the Early Catacomb population living on the Caspian Steppes. The economy of the Early Catacomb groups was based on mobile animal stock raising, predominantly, range sheep raising of several types. The initial type of animal stock raising seems to be the same as the one practiced by the Steppe North Caucasus group. It is based on summer moves from southern areas where this population lived permanently to the north, i.e. vacant environmental areas of some watershed plateaus of the Middle and Southern Yergueni Hills and the Kuma-Manych Depression and coming back to winter camps in the Lower Don region, the Azov Steppes and the Stavropol Hills. Data of isotope analysis of human skeleton bones imply the direction of such moves: sea food predominated in the diet system of one child (Mandjikiny-1). The economic factor provided incentives for family migrations. As a result, some Early Catacomb groups settled down in new areas, and small family or tribal groups started migrating with their flocks and herds within a small area in accordance with the principle similar to the one tested by the Yamnaya population, i.e. from the flood plain to the watershed. This conclusion is strengthened by a compact settlement of Early Catacomb groups within small exploited environmental areas of the Kuma-Manych Depression, the Southern and Middle Yergueni Hills.

Now we shall compare the previous system with the reconstructed economic system of other Early Catacomb groups. The localization of burial grounds indicates that Early Catacomb groups of the Left Bank of the Don, the Stavropol Hills, and the Azov Sea inhabited river valley areas, open steppe areas, and maritime steppes. In accordance with paleoenvironmental data, exploitation of steppe environmental areas took place in the conditions of increasing aridization. In the absence of data on seasonality of burials and kurgans we can only suppose that, apparently, seasonal moves underpinned the economic system. Planigraphy of Early Catacomb burial grounds confirms this statement. For example, in the Donets area one Early Catacomb grave was added to Late Yamnaya kurgans (Krasnaya Zorya) (Sanzharov, Brityuk 1996).

Finally, the third type of animal stock raising had one distinctive feature: some plateaus of the Middle Yergueni Hills and flood plains of the Kuma-Manych Depression of the Caspian Steppes became a tribal or family centre of the Early Catacomb groups. Such areas were used both as winter and summer grasslands and moves took place from the areas exploited to the south and the south-east. For example, to the valley areas of the Stavropol Hills, where Early Catacomb burial grounds left behind by male

The absence of permanent settlements, predominance of sheep, more rarely, the presence of horse and cattle in the herd (Veselaya Roscha (Derzhavin 1989), Krasnogvardeyskoye (Berezin, Kalmykov 1998); Popov (Stolyar 1958) indicate that these people were mobile sheep raisers. Sex and age data that are not numerous suggest that small families participated in migration. It is these families that left behind Early Catacomb burial grounds whose planigraphy is similar to that of Early Catacomb burial grounds found on the Caspian Steppes.

14 In accordance with the appeal to fishermen from Novorossiysk in the 1920s, 50,000 puds (one pud is a Russian weights & measures and is equal to 16 kg) of fish could equal to 4,000 heads of cattle (Rybina 2003).

246

PASTORAL EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THE BRONZE AGE PERIODS

Table 28. Organic residues in the stomach area of the skeleton from the Yamnaya-Catacomb Burial ground Mandjikiny-1 Kurgan, burial, sex and age k. 19 , g. 1 female ≥55

Pollen data

Phytolith data

Rich collection of herbs: Tulipa (frequently), Asteraceae (frequently), Chenopodiaceae, Lamiaceae, Poaceae, Rosaceae, water plants: Sparganium (bur reed) and Potamogeton (pond weed), onion (Allium); fragments of flower anthers as well as outside pollen of tree blossom have been found: Corylus, Alnus, Pinus; microcilia of gramineous plants

Rare finds of phytoliths (fossil fascicle)

Manych group. First, these groups formed as a result of interaction of several cultural traditions, including economic traditions; second, representatives of these groups are unlikely to have developed their own economic system. We can talk only about some specialization of economy.

Wagons and light surface constructions were used as dwellings, additional sectors of economies targeted to obtain food would have been developed, the same can be said about numerous industries, for example metal working (Gak 2005). In the Yamnaya and Catacomb period on the dry Azov Steppes herds of cattle and flocks of sheep grazed in the watersheds of the rivers in spring; the land was covered with fescue and wormwood in full flower in May and June. In summer animals grazed in river valleys with water and mash and grassland vegetation such as leguminous and gramineous plants. Paleosoil studies conducted in the Azov region have shown that due to a dry climate during the Bronze Age there was 2-2.5 times less herbage than today, and only 50 sheep could get enough fodder within one square kilometre compared with 200–300 sheep that can find enough fodder in the same area today. Therefore, changes in the climate changed the overall environmental conditions on the Azov Steppes and made the local population organize long-term moves. It became a determinant of livestock composition where sheep were dominant (65%) (Mikhailov 1991).

Available data that are not numerous help single out the Yamnaya-Catacomb group that inhabited the Sarpa Plain and adjacent Volga valley areas (Evdyk, Khanota, Djangr, Krivaya Luka). This group evolved in deteriorating climatic conditions. Clusters of YamnayaCatacomb kurgans in some burial grounds demonstrate that it was an independent group. A large paleozoological collection indicates that this population would have specialized in sheep raising, as is indicated by the presence of sheep bones in many graves (ankle bones, jaws, limbs, scapulae); several dog burials contained in such graves have been found as well (Krivaya Luka VIII: k. 3, g. 7). Additional food was provided by hunting (Krivaya Luka XXXIV: k. 2, g. 4 (marten bones); k. 2, g. 5 (saiga bones), fishing and gathering. Specific forms of artefacts suggest only domestic industries, such as pottery, weaving, bone cutting, flint and stone treatment. The presence of particular types of jewellery is the result of either exchange transactions with the population from several regions such as the forest and steppe belt; possibly, the North Caucasus, or production of this jewellery locally.

As has been mentioned earlier, stylistic similarity of clothes ornamentation, similar burial constructions as well as burial seasonality data indicate that originally many Early Catacomb groups that inhabited the KumaManych Depression, the Salsk Steppes, the watershed plateaus of the Middle Yergueni Hills developed on the basis of ‘common’ Early Catacomb economy, i.e. steppe northern areas could be used as spring and summer grasslands, winter grasslands were located in the south where climate in autumn and winter and landscape conditions were milder and supported pastoral economy.

The sex and age composition of Yamnaya-Catacomb graves found in this environmental area indicates that this economy was typical for small family groups. Southern Yamnaya-Catacomb groups consisted of families that had a tribal relationship (Appendix 1, table 5) and whose economy was based on seasonal pastoralism (Appendix 3, table 6). Available data on South Yergueni Hills burial grounds demonstrate that people buried their relatives in watershed plateaus only in summer. Most likely, these groups spent winter and autumn in other places. Ethnobotanical data confirm that gathering of steppe gramineous plants, fruit and herbs (Table 28) was important in the economic system.

Ethnobotanical studies, the study of the isotope composition of human bone collagen, thorough physical anthropologic analysis should help specify this system that is still very schematic. Yamnaya-Catacomb Group and Multicultural Groups The economic potential of the Yamnaya-Catacomb group and the Multicultural group should be examined in the context of the economic system developed by groups representing other cultures that lived in Caspian Steppe environmental areas, first of all, such groups as the Yamnaya group, the Early Catacomb group and the East

Data from Table 28 indicate that the Yamnaya-Catacomb group population was engaged in complex gathering of wild gramineous plants and other steppe plants, meeting thereby its need in food.

247

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES Isotope data (Table 29) indicate that the diet system of this group had a large fish component.

Perhaps during the Catacomb Age watering places existed where now there are artesian wells. Large East Manych Catacomb burial grounds are located near almost all wells (60 in total) shown on the Kalmykia map.

Table 29. Stable isotope ratio measurements for human and animal bones from the Yamnaya-Catacomb group Kurgan, burial, sex, age Zunda-Tolga-V: k. 1, g. 7, female, 50–55 years Zunda-Tolga-V: k. 1, g. 7, pin made of animal bone Zunda-Tolga-2: k. 2, g. 2, male, ≥50 years Mu-Sharet-1: k. 8, g. 3, female, 17– 19 years Ulan-Zukha: k. 3, g. 8, adult

δ13C, ‰ -17.77

δ15N, ‰ +14,93

-21.01

+5.36

-17.24

+16,69

-17.40

+15.54

-17.56

+14.45

The seasonal and economic system. As has been noted earlier in Chapter 2, the spatial location of burial sites indicates that it is the Eastern Manych Catacomb population that exploited all environmental areas of the Caspian Steppes. Adaptation to rapidly changing natural conditions, degradation of previously used grasslands,16 caused by short distance moves, reduction in vegetation biomass in some grassland ecosystems; a need to search fodder and water resources led to a situation when previously vacant areas of the Middle Yergueni Hills, the Sarpa Plain and the Caspian Plain as well as the Caspian Sea coastline were included into the migration patterns. Alkali soils gradually formed on low terraces of steppe rivers resulting in soil salinization, which reduced productivity of pastures substantially (Ivanov, Demkin 1999). But changes in the climatic pattern led to increase in winter grasslands in the region as reduction in the precipitation level reduced the depth of the snow cover. With the depth of the snow cover not exceeding 10-12 cm, both sheep and goats could break down the snow cover in search of food (Fedorovich 1973; Masanov 1995).

Most likely, industries were domestic, cultural links and the exchange system were determined by the fact that representatives of several cultures coexisted in similar environmental areas. The absence of comparable data on Yamnaya-Catacomb groups from adjacent areas does not make it possible to conduct comparative analysis. The economic relations of multicultural groups would have been determined by the economic system developed by the East Manych Catacomb population.

Sex and age determinations obtained for some burial grounds in the Kuma-Manych Depression and the Southern Yergueni Hills indicate that numerous small groups, supposedly, individual families or groups that consisted of several families engaged in seasonal pastoral economy on the Caspian Steppes. East Manych Catacomb kurgan burial grounds can be treated as family or tribal necropolis. Population representing this cultural tradition built its own kurgans both in new exploited areas (some remaining vacant watershed plateaus of the Middle Yergueni Hills) and in the areas adjacent to numerous kurgan groups consisting of mounds erected by populations of different cultures that had lived in various environmental areas long before Catacomb population.

East Manych Catacomb Culture The analysis of the East Manych Catacomb culture goes beyond the scope of this book. But development and evolvement of a new economic system, i.e. nomadic seasonal pastoralism, on the Caspian Steppes cannot be evaluated without data gathered on this culture. That is why, a brief analysis of its seasonal and economic system is presented below. Spread of the population representing this tradition across the entire Caspian Steppes that was accompanied by rapid ousting of cultural groups of the preceding period and even their disappearance, coincides with the environmental disaster. Global aridization that affected many Eurasian regions led to severe climatic cataclysms, a change in landscapes, changes in the hydrological network, affecting thereby human life activities. Drier climate resulted in many rivers and lakes becoming dry in summer. It necessitated a search of additional water sources. Aridization that occurred on the Sarpa and Caspian Plains brought about a higher level of ground water mineralization and its level dropped (Ivanov, Demkin 1999). It led to shortages in portable water and a greater dependence on availability of water sources compared to a more humid period of the Majkop or the Yamnaya cultures. The overall technological engineering and construction level of Catacomb groups that built deep catacombs, grave pits and high kurgans suggests that they could make wells, erect retaining dams on steppe rivers.15

Data on seasonality of burials and kurgans (Appendix 3. Table 7) are used in defining several migratory routes. We assume that seasonality of burials indicates that steppe grasslands located nearby were used. East Manych burials at Zunda-Tolga-1 differ in the burial rite and grave offerings. It means that burial grounds were erected by different population groups. Early East Manych burials in kurgan 8 and kurgan 9 were made in early spring (possibly, in early spring or autumn-winter) (Shishlina 2002c). These are burials of an elderly male Hills. Supposedly, Catacomb builders could erect retaining dams on steppe rivers, which allowed them to create water storages and address the issue of watering places for animals even in dry climatic conditions as well as replenish fish stocks. 16 Analysis of soils buried under kurgans has demonstrated complete degradation of many grasslands by the time the East Manych Catacomb culture appeared in areas exploited mostly by Yamnaya, Early Catacomb, North Caucasus populations.

15 In the future we plan to conduct a detailed geomorphologic analysis of a pilot area located on the western slope of the Middle Yergueni

248

PASTORAL EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THE BRONZE AGE PERIODS At the same time the available list of seasonality data taking into account topography and planigraphy of burial grounds, age and sex determinations helps reach the conclusion that the system of seasonal land use underwent changes: 1) the area of grasslands was substantially expanded, and, apparently, new water sources were found by including new areas in the exploited region; 2) most likely, seasonal move routes changed greatly: their distance increased due to a need for grasslands or water sources; summer moves could be shorter and less regular depending on major requirements to summer grasslands which were required to be rich with diverse fodder resources, mixed gramineous plants, and characterized by alternation of various plants and alkali soils; 3) due to the natural and seasonal situation, small family groups participated in migrations; but other variants are also possible when elderly males and females and children stayed in valley areas near water in spring and early summer while male population gradually moved herds and flocks from the flood plains to remote watersheds; males and adolescents moved animals to winter camps while the remaining population stayed in the exploited area.

and an elderly female. Men, women and children of different sex and age groups from kurgans 1, 4, 5, and 10 (the developed East Manych Catacomb culture) were buried in summer and in spring during the warm seasons of the year. Some of these kurgans have symbolic burials, i.e. cenotaphs. Zunda-Tolga-2 has graves of males (from 20–25 to the old age) buried in summer and a child grave; Zunda-Tolga-3 has graves of an elderly man, an adolescent and a young woman (the first part of summer); Ostrovnoy has graves of children, young and elderly women (spring-summer), there are cenotaphs as well. Data provided suggest that several independent East Manych Catacomb groups exploited valley areas only in spring and summer (the first part of summer; early spring-summer). Apparently, these groups spent other seasons elsewhere, as is indicated by the presence of a cenotaph. Representatives of family groups are likely to have died in other places but were later buried in the tribal necropolis. The cenotaph tradition, burials of dismembered skeletons seem to have become quite common in the burial rite of the East Manych Catacomb culture.

To trace migratory routes in greater detail, a comprehensive analysis of the archaeological site needs to be conducted to identify links of population that left behind burial grounds located in different environmental areas on the Caspian Steppes. We plan to conduct a genetic analysis of the East Manych Catacomb population buried in graves (collective burials), kurgans and burial grounds and in the burial grounds located far from each other but characterized by similar burial rites and similar funeral grave offerings.

A small (family?) group left behind the Baga-Burul burial ground in the western part of the Kuma-Manych Depression. All sex and age groups participated in summer migrations (young women; one woman died in child birth; elderly males). Winter camps of this pastoral family would have been located in other places. Another picture can be drawn for several fully excavated East Manych Catacomb burial grounds located in the Southern Yergueni Hills. Males, females and children of all age groups were buried in summer at Mandjikiny-1. But a small number of graves from Mu-Sharet-4 has burials of only adult males. These data suggest two variants of summer migrations: 1) migrations of the entire family; 2) migrations of only adult males (and, possibly, adolescents). It has been found out that two camps of the Early Iron Age, i.e. Gashun-Sala and Manych, were visited in summer. The occupation layers of these camps contain Catacomb ceramics that are few in number. It is an indirect indication that these watershed plateaus of the Southern Yergueni Hills were used predominantly in summer (Shishlina et al. 2008).

Data on paleozoological collections from graves and kurgans17 indicate that the East Manych population raised cattle and sheep, and, in rare cases, horses. Materials from funeral complexes do not point to any particular grazing pattern, yet sheep and goats predominated. Sheep are known to eat 167 out of 288 plant species growing in the desert, while cattle and horses eat only 109 species (Masanov 1995). Therefore, sheep raising was a better adapted form of livestock raising in environmental areas that experienced a likely shortage of both fodder and water sources. In addition to that, obvious predominance of sheep and goat bones in a number of burial grounds is likely to indicate that people stayed for a short period of time: sheep destroy grasslands much faster than any other domesticated animals. Supposedly, different landscape areas within the Caspian Steppes could have some specialization in raising different domesticated animals.18

The Chilguir burial ground located on the Sarpa Plain has graves of individuals belonging to all sex and age groups buried during the year. Moves of the local group took place using the pattern similar to the one developed by Yamnaya herders (from the valley to the nearest watershed to the valley). But, possibly, some people migrated away from the main centre in summer because the burial ground has yielded mostly graves made in the warm time of the year.

17

All collections have been analyzed by I.V. Kirillova, data provided by V.P. Shilov are used as well. 18 Such data are available for only two summer camps mentioned earlier that are located in the region under investigation, their main finds date to the Iron Age. Absence of sheep and goat bones among bone assemblage at Manych points to a certain degree of specialization. Cattle and horses were raised there. Wild animals were practically not included in the meat ration of the camp residents in contrast to the diet of Gashun-Sala whose inhabitants engaged in hunting the ungulate, in addition to raising cattle, sheep, and horses.

Supposedly, kurgan 1 at Ulan-Kheyech located on the Black Lands was made in winter. The picture of seasonal moves remains incomplete. The database needs to be expanded.

249

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES The interior of funeral constructions helps reconstruct dwellings. The Catacomb population might have known how to build light demountable dwellings, something like igloo. Wooden constructions, wattle fences, mats were used as construction materials. The presence of a large number of wooden wagon parts and wagons in Catacomb graves suggests that wagons could serve as temporary or permanent shelters.

The presence of sheep and cattle bones in burials indicates that people engaged in animal stock raising to produce meat and milk. Animal bones have been found in burials in the form of ritual places, in vessels, on large wooden plates. The second main diet component included wild gramineous plants and numerous fruit, roots, flowers and stems of wild plants (Table 30).

Main components of the diet system used by East Manych Catacomb population are reconstructed on the basis of data obtained by natural science methods. Table 30. Organic residues in East Manych Catacomb vessels, in the stomach area and in area between teeth of some skeletons Context (kurgan, grave)

Pollen analysis

Phytolith analysis

Phosphate residue of vessels

Kuma-Manych Depression Ostrovnoy k. 3, g. 8, cenotaph

k. 3, g. 10 pot, near the head of a child k. 3, g. 23 child? k. 3, g. 24 one year old child k. 3, g. 32 female 40–45

k. 6, g. 6 female 30–35

k. 6, g. 10 male 35–45

k. 10, g. 2 female 50–60 k. 10, g. 3 male 35

k. 1, g. 4 adult skeleton

Vessel: Concentration of goosefoot (Chernopodium), wormwood, plantain plants (Plantaginaceae), mixed grass, very rarely pollen of pine and spruce. One spore of wood fern (Dryopteris) and abundant siliceous remains of non-thrashed grains of gramineous plants.

-

Vessel: Phytoliths of different shape, non-identified plant remains with large pores. Vessel: Rare phytoliths. Vessel: Rare phytoliths.

Vessel: Pollen of goosefoot (Chernopodium), Ephedra, chicory, wormwood, asters, catchfly (Silene), legumes. In rare cases, spores of fern and pollen of pine. Abundant siliceous remains of scales of wild gramineous plants. Vessel: Very few pollen grains of Liliaceae, Silenaceae; rare Chenopodiaceae as well as Betula, Аlnus. Few siliceous remains of scales of grains of gramineous plants (Hordeum?). Vessel: Very few pollen grains of Chenopodiaceae, Artemisia, rare Pinus, Abies, many siliceous remains of scales of grains of gramineous plants. Zunda-Tolga-1 Vessel: Abundance of pollen grains, siliceous remains of scales of grains of gramineous plants Vessel: Abundance of pollen grains of Fabaceae, Astragalus, Oxitrpis, Glycyrrhiza; chitinous segments of ticks, protozoa parasites Zunda-Tolga-2 Vessel: Abundance of pollen grains, predominance of bits of stamen with undecomposed and underdeveloped pollen. In very rare cases, pollen of Artemisia, Chenopodiaceae; in one case, Polypodiaceae.

250

0.80 - water

0.80 - water 0.0 - water 0.66 - water

Vessel: Rare phytoliths.

0.40 - water

Vessel: Background residues of phytoliths.

0.1 - water

Vessel: Background residues of phytoliths.

1.0 - water

– –

Vessel: Phytoliths of gramineous plant, wormwood, hemp.

1.1 - water –

26.2 narcotics

PASTORAL EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THE BRONZE AGE PERIODS

k. 1, g. 5 adult male and female

k. 1, g. 5 adult male and female k. 2, g. 2 male 20–25

k. 1, g. 1 child about 10

k. 1, g. 3 juveniles 17–20 k. 1, g. 5 juveniles 16 k. 1, g. 6 adult female

k. 1, g. 2 adult skeleton k. 1, g. 2 adult skeleton k. 5, ritual place 11 k. 5, ritual place 21

k. 5, g. 5 male 45–55 k. 5, g. 5 male 45–55

Vessel: Abundant siliceous remains of scales of grains of gramineous plants (Hordeum, Helictotrichon), few pollen grains of Poaceae, Chenopodiaceae, chitinous remains of insects Vessel: Few pollen grains of Varia, Chenopodiaceae, Artemisia, Ephedra (in rare cases), Asteraceae. Poaceae is found quite frequently. Many chitinous remains of microplates of fish scales, morphologically different. Vessel: Abundant siliceous remains of scales of grains of gramineous plants, few pollen of Varia, Chenopodiaceae, single pollen grains of Cyperaceae, Liliaceae; one spore of Botrychium lunaria; chitinous remains of ticks Zunda-Tolga-3 Vessel: Very few pollen grains of Chenopodiaceae, Ephedra; in one case, Carpinus, Corylus. In contrast to other subsoils, with dark to black organics, the organics are of a golden colour, maybe of animal origin. Primitive parasites, such as echinococcus, traces of grains of gramineous plants, siliceous remains of scales of grains of gramineous plants. Vessel: Pollen of Varia, Chenopodiaceae, Artemisia, Poaceae, Polygonaceae, chitinous remains of ticks. Vessel: Pollen of Chenopodiaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaseae, Varia, siliceous remains of scales of grains of gramineous plants. Vessel: Abundance of pollen grains of Varia, Chenopodiaceae, Artemisia, very seldom Abies, Pinus, no grains. Baga-Burul Vessel: Few pollen grains of Poaceae, Asteraceae, Chenopodiaceae, Silenaceae, Cichоriaceae, Geraneaceae. In very rare cases, siliceous remains of grains of gramineous plants, abundance of fragments of animal tissue. – Vessel: Few pollen grains of Ephedra, Poaceae, Asreraceae, Artemisia. Vessel 3: Few pollen of Asteraceae, Chenopodiaceae, Artemisia, Cichiriaceae, Silenaceae, Varia, several pollen grains of Pinus, chitinous remains of microscopic arthropoda, remains of animal tissue Vessel 1: Very few pollen grains, but large spots with underdeveloped pollen of Varia (from buds), in very rare cases, pollen of Malva. Vessel 2: Abundance of pollen, many pollen of sorrel (Rumex), Rosaceae, more seldom pollen of Asteraceae, Artemisia; Rutaceae (Tetradiclis), few pollen grain of Scrophulariaceae, remains of grains of gramineous plants

251

Vessel: Phytoliths of gramineous plant.

-

-

71.3 narcotics

Vessel: Phytoliths of gramineous plants.

16.1 - cereal (porridge)

Vessel: Phytoliths of gramineous plants, fossil conductive tissue, concentration of fossil ball-like phytoliths

5.0 - clear soup

-

3.4 - clear soup

Vessel: Phytoliths of Cannabis, gramineous plants.

39.5 narcotics

-

1.0 - water

-

12.3 - porridge

Vessel: Phytoliths of hemp (Cannabis) Vessel: Background residues of phytoliths. Vessel 3: Few phytoliths

–

Few phytoliths.

0 - water

–

–

–

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

k. 5, g. 5 male 45–55 k. 5, g. 5 male 45–55

k. 5, g. 7 cenotaph k. 5, g. 8 male?

k. 5, g. 11 female 25–35 k. 5, g. 12 female 18–25

k. 12, g. 4 male 50–60

Vessel 3: Spots with concentration of pollen grains of Asteraceae, Silenaceae, Artemisia. Vessel 4: Very few pollen grains of Artemisia, Varia, in rare cases Alnus, Pinus. Vessel: Very few pollen grains of statice (Plumbaginaceae), Silenaceae, Artemisia, Asteraceae, Poaceae, Cichoriaceae, Ehpedra, very seldom Chenopodiaceae, Polipodiaceae, Alnus, Pinus, few remains of grains of gramineous plants. Vessel: Few pollen grains of Asteraceae, Chenopodiaceae, Artemisia, spores of mushrooms, abundance of remains of arthropoda and remains of grains of gramineous plants. Vessel: Practically no pollen grains (in rare cases, Chenopodiaceae, Poaceae). A quite common find are chitinous limbs, maybe of plant lice, common siliceous cilia of grains of gramineous plants. The vessel appears to have contained cooked foodstuffs. Vessel: Abundance of siliceous cilia of grains of gramineous plants, few pollen of Ephedra, Artemisia, Chenopodiaceae, abundance of pollen of Varia Southern Yergueni Hills Mu-Sharet-4 Vessel: Very few pollen grains of Chenopodiaceae, Artemisia, Asteraceae, Varia; rare pollen of Alnus, Pinus, Betula (trees). There are chitinous remains of microscopic Arthropoda and microscopic cilia of grains of gramineous plants. Mu-Sharet-1

k. 5, g. 2 female 25–40 years

-

k. 6, g. 1 female 30–40

-

k. 6, g. 1 female 30–40

---

k. 14, g. 5 adult k. 14, g. 7 adult

k. 1, g. 6 male 30–35

Vessel 3: Large numbers of brown stick-shaped phytoliths that cannot be used to identify the plant. ---

0 - water

Few phytoliths.

---

Vessel: Many phytoliths

–

Vessel: Phytoliths from the upper part of the soil.

5.1 - clear meat soup

-

-

-

Vessel: Background residues of phytoliths. Vessel: Background residues of phytoliths. Oval, flattened artefacts of unclear genesis (non-phytoliths) were found. Vessel: Background residues of phytoliths.

Mandjikiny-1 Vessel: Few pollen grains of Chenopodiaceae, Artemisia, Asteraceae, spores of Asplenium, Polypodiaceae, Botrychium lunaria Vessel: Many siliceous remains of scales from grains of gramineous plants as well as Varia, Chenopodiaceae, Artemisia, Rosaceae, Brassicaceae, Labiatae (mint, sage). Middle Yergueni Hills Peschany V Stomach area: Predominant of pollen of Fabaceae; few pollen of Rosaceae, Polygonaceae, Artemisia

252

12.1 - porridge

---

Vessel: Phytoliths of Cannabis, gramineous plants.

-

13.4 - porridge

0.3 - water

3.5 - clear soup

0.0 - water

0.8 - water

-

-

PASTORAL EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THE BRONZE AGE PERIODS Wooden bawl: Few pollen of Chenopodiaceae, Rosaceae, Asteraceae,, Ephedra, Artemisia, single pollen grains of Pinus, Betula; abundance of cists Area between tooth: Abundant pollen of Fabaceae and Rosaceae Temrta III

k. 1, g. 6 male? 25–30

k. 2, g. 4 male 40–45

k. 5, g. 1 male 45–55 k. 3, g. 2 ?

Area between tooth: Abundant pollen of Chenopodiaceae; pollen of Poaceae, Artemisia, Polygonaceae,, Rumex, Ephedra, Cichoriaceae, Lamiaceae, Varia : single pollen grains of Pinus, Corylus, one spore of Polypodiaceae; abundance remains of scales from grains of gramineous plants Temrta-I Vessel: remains of scales from grains of gramineous plants; predominance of grass pollen (92,2%): Chenopodiaceae , Asteraceae (10,4 %), Poaceae (1,3%), Ephedra (0,9 %), Primulaceae Plumbaginaceae; pollen of Pinus; one pollen grain of Ulmus; one spore of Ophioglossum vulgatum Area between tooth: Few pollen of Chenopodiaceae, Brassicaceae; , remains of scales from grains of gramineous plants; many tissue of animal origin (meat); spores; cists Caspian Plain Chilgir Vessel: Few pollen of Chenopodiaceae, in rare cases Apiaceae, Ephedra, Asteraceae Vessel: Predominance of pollen of Poaceae and Chenopodiaceae, few pollen grain of Artemisia, Liliaceae, Alnus, Pinus

Area between tooth: fossilized plant tissue of elongated shape, nonidentified Vessel: fossilized plant tissue of elongated shape, nonidentified; phytoliths with small-tooth surface

Vessel: Pant remains of brown colour; spiculae, sticks (vegetable food)

Vessel: Few phytoliths

–

Vessel: Few phytoliths

–

Developed industries are typical for the economic basis of the East Manych Catacomb culture. An abundance of various vessels indicates that pottery was domestic. People made table utensils, vessels to carry and keep food as well as ritual vessels and wheels. The study conducted by E.I. Gak has demonstrated that steppe metal production centres were operational on the Caspian Steppes (2005). Craftsmen specializing in wood working made wood vessels and dishes (dishes from Baga-Burul, a cauldron from Yergueni, a vessel from Peschany V); weapons (a shield from Yergueni, wagons from Chograysky and Elistinsky); possibly, parts of demountable dwellings (boards from Zunda-Tolga I, KVCH-56). The study of textile fragments (Bronze Age Textile 1999) has shown that East Manych Catacomb weavers did not only support and develop traditional areas of weaving using plant fibers but also were first to use and spread wool fibers (Orfinskaya et. al. 1999; 2003). This was certainly one of innovative inputs in development of the textile industry. The use of wool fibers introduced new types of weaving devices: improved looms, special tablets used for tape braiding. Ancient designers were quick to appreciate advantages of new cloths and used them to make parts of clothes that

Data from Table 30 show that funeral vessels often contained everyday food rather than some special food. Isotope data expand ideas about main components of the diet system (Table 31). This table shows that the values of δ13C in the collagen of human bones vary from -19.35 to -15.44‰, and the values of δ15N vary from +9.45 to +18.65‰. Therefore, the values of δ13C in the bones of herbivorous animals constitute -24.17-14.27‰, while the values of δ15N amount to +6.22-11.99‰. Though these values are below the values defined for the Early Catacomb culture, nevertheless they mean that river products accounted for a large share in the East Manych Catacomb diet. Hunting would have provided for additional food. Therefore, the data analyzed indicate that the East Manych Catacomb diet was based on food products obtained through animal stock raising and complex gathering, hunting and fishing. All possible sources of food were exploited to the full during the East Manych Catacomb Age.

253

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES Table 31. Stable isotope ratio measurements for human and animal bones from the East Manych Catacomb cultures Kurgan/grave/sex/age Baga-Burul k. 5, g. 11, female 25–35 k. 5, g. 21, male < 45 k. 5, ritual place 4, horse k. 5, ritual place 4, cow k. 5, ritual place 15, sheep k. 1, g. 3, cow k. 1, g. 3, sheep k. 5, g. 12, sheep k. 5, g. 8, sheep Ostrovnoy k. 3, g. 10, male 35 k. 3, g. 39, female 20–30 k. 3, g. 38, sheep k. 3, g. 9, sheep k. 3, g. 9, sheep k. 6, g. 8, sheep k. 6, g. 8, sheep Zunda-Tolga-1 k. 9, g. 1, male 50 k. 10, g. 2, female 50–60 k. 10, g. 3, male 35 k. 8, g. 1, sheep k. 9, g. 1, sheep k. 10, g. 3, sheep Zunda-Tolga-5 k. 1, g. 5 male 50–60 Chilgir k. 1, g. 4, female < 45 k. 1, g. 4, sheep k. 2, g. 5, sheep k. 3, ritual place B, cow Temrta V k. 1, g. 4, female 25–35 k. 1, g. 4, sheep Temrta III k. 1, g. 6 female? male? 25–30 Peschany-V k. 1, g. 6, male 30–35 k. 5, g. 5, male 50–60 Yergueni k. 6, g. 3, sheep k. 6, g. 2, sheep k. 6, g. 5, sheep k. 6, g. 10, sheep Mandjikiny-I k. 10, g. 2, female 45–40 k. 14, g. 1, male 30–35 k. 14, g. 1, sheep k. 14, ritual place 21, astragal of the sheep Chogray IX k. 14, g. 8, adult k. 8, g. 2, adult

δ13C, ‰

δ15N, ‰

-16,94 -17.86 -20.65 -20.65 -19.35 -19.19 -19.39 -16.6 -17.44

+15.82 +14.20 +6.22 +6.22 +8.28 +9.20 +7.39 +10.72 +9.2

-17.69 -17.30 -19.21 -17.77 -18.11 -19.50 -18.20

+12.77 +16.08 +6.65 +6.43 +7.64 +8.18 +7.54

-16.98 -16.58 -19.35 -16.74 -17.38 -18.83

+14.19 +16.31 +14.15 +11.60 +9.70 +5.13

-18.65

+14.03

-17.24 -15.53 -21.58 -16.18

+15.71 +12.01 +9.22 +11.99

-17.76 -17.76

+9.45 +9.45

-15.44

+18.65

-16.09 -17. 58

+16.14 +15.23

-14.27 -15.59 -16.28 -15.96

+12.76 +12.02 +13.12 +10.36

-16.78 -16.59 -16.37 -24.17

+17.25 +17.69 +10.33 +10.39

-17.75 -17.93

+14.54 +15.44

for example, beads, pearls, and pendants. Leather and felt carpet production would have developed domestically. Studies of beads have shown that production of faience goods is likely to have been started by the Catacomb population. At least, some faience beads are sure to have been made either in steppe or North Caucasus shops (Shortland et. al. 2007). Craftsmen who worked with bone and stone produced numerous tools, jewellery and weapons. Scholars link the appearance of craft specialization and specific burials of craftsmen specializing in production of bows, wagons, jewellery and weaving to the group of Catacomb cultures including the East Manych culture. The interaction system of the East Manych Catacomb culture was developed. Grave offerings include items obtained through trade transactions, some items were imported such as a snake-shaped pendant from Yergueni, a turquoise button from Zunda-Tolga-I, a kauri shell and beads from East Manych and Tyulpan; stone axes and maces from North Caucasus porphyrite and serpentine (Sinitsyn 1978); numerous table vessels used during festive occasions, similar vessels have been found at Bronze Age sites in the North Caucasus (Shishlina 2002c). Hence, the economic system proposed for the East Manych Catacomb culture is multicomponent and is characterized by the presence of mobile pastoral groups that sought to meet all their needs using all natural resources they could find in Caspian Steppe environmental areas. It is based on mobile pastoralism (raising cattle, sheep and goats); complex gathering of wild plants, first of all, gramineous plants, roots, seeds and fruit; fishing and hunting as additional sources of food. Studies of the pilot area, the Kuma-Manych Depression– the Southern Yergueni Hills, show that moves across riverine values and the first flood plain terraces took place predominantly in spring. Intensive growth of vegetation in these areas was supported by snow melting and flooding of rivers. Watershed plateaus where snow melted quickly and hills were covered with ephemeral plants were also exploited in spring. Overgrazing of spring grasslands necessitated moves into open steppes together with herds and flocks. Short summer moves took place along the following route: from a water reservoir to open steppe areas. Watershed and floodplain grasslands, most likely, were not used in autumn and winter. Apparently, it is explained by the presence of deep snow and inability of animals to break down the snow cover. Winter grasslands would have been located in the east, on the Black Lands, in the Volga delta, in North Caspian deserts, possibly, in valley areas of the Kuma and the Terek, in the Stavropol Hills, vacant areas of the Left Bank of the Don, located to the north of the Northern Yergueni Hill plateaus (Fig. 115). East Manych Catacomb pastoral groups were more mobile. This mode

indicated a social status, such as belts, headdress, decorating them with whatever materials were at hand,

254

PASTORAL EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THE BRONZE AGE PERIODS millet, soft and dwarf wheat. But even if we presume that residents of Mikhailovka engaged in agriculture, it was a limited activity. Diverse fishing tools and fish bones are indicative of collective and individual fishing; while hunting was not common. Numerous industries were developed, such as the leather production that reached the level of community craft; stone treatment, which was a family business; wood processing including felting, carpentry and joinery; metal working (smith’s work, jewellery’s art); bone cutting; weaving. Therefore, the economy of this population was based on two forms of herding. Sedentary population engaged in animal stock raising near the site, fishing, possibly, agriculture and hunting; while the other part of population led a semimobile mode of life, changing grasslands during seasons and coming back to the permanent settlement (Korobkova, Shaposhnikova 2005).

of life did not require permanent settlements; a system of intercultural economic and subsequently social (political links) was reinforced. The analysis of constructive parts of catacombs, artefacts provides convincing evidence that some East Manych groups moved away from the Caspian Steppes for quite a long distance, penetrating the Donetsk region, the Kuban region, Chechnya and Ingushetia, deserts of the North-East Caspian Steppes and Mangyshlak across the Don. Supposedly, there were both summer and winter camps. They were used for several years. But kurgan burial grounds are most likely to have been used as main permanent tribal and family centres. No agricultural practice and growing of vegetable crops were developed. Numerous crafts developed by mobile herders provided all necessary everyday items and prestigious items.

***

A multi-step exchange, through which required raw materials, first of all, metal as well as status-indicating luxury goods such as jewellery and symbols of power were imported to the steppe areas, provided an additional support to this system. Nevertheless there are no data on purchase of any agricultural produce (grains) through exchange transactions.

Proposed systems of economic development (Fig. 140) developed by population groups representing many cultures, which lived on the Caspian Steppes throughout almost two millennia, show that this region, its natural and climatic conditions, potential reserves of resources facilitated evolvement and development of new economic systems based on:

This system differs from systems proposed for synchronous Catacomb cultures of other regions where there are many settlements, and where, supposedly, a different economic specialization developed.

ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ

Population of another Catacomb site, Matveyevskoye-1, located on the Southern Bug River consisted of agriculturalists and herders. Herding provided meat and milk due to the predominance of cattle in the herd. The age composition of the domesticated bull shows that there was enough fodder for livestock, and the presence of the pig is indicative of a sedentary life style (Zhuravlev 1991).

It is likely that herding was developed in the system of gathering economy (Shnirelman 1992). All dominant sectors preserved their importance in each system proposed for review, first of all, such sectors as complex gathering, fishing and hunting. No specialization by cultural groups has been revealed in these sectors: populations across all cultures gathered numerous plants, hunted and fished, regardless of livestock specialization or seasonal and economic moves.

The economy of another Catacomb site Planernoye is characterized by meat and milk specialization: numerical remains of the cattle, sheep and goats are roughly the same. The analysis of bone remains coming from the Catacomb layer demonstrates that cattle accounted for 84.4% of animals used for meat. It is presumed that cattle grazed near the camps while sheep grazed in distant pastures. There are no pathologies on animal bones, which means that animals were not kept in the stalls.

grassland range animal herding; complex gathering, fishing and hunting; development of domestic industries; exchange systems (Fig. 138)

It is the seasonal use of grasslands and other natural resources that made the economic system described optimal and became a factor ensuring that many cultures reached the highest level in their development in arid climate conditions prevailing in the middle of 3000 BC. Animals grazed in pastures all year round, there are no data on hay storage. Depending on the historical situation, this economic system was implemented by different groups, such as seasonal pastoral groups (Steppe Eneolithic groups, the Early and Late Steppe Majkop group, the Steppe North Caucasus group and some Early Catacomb groups); population that settled on the Caspian Steppes (Yamnaya population, some Early Catacomb groups, the East Manych Catacomb group); some family and tribal groups or some communities that reached a higher level of organization.

The economic system of population that left behind the upper layer of the Mikhailovka site on the Dnieper (the Middle Age, the Late Yamnaya culture) was based on the all-year-round exploitation of resources available in the surrounding area. Agricultural tools include those used to cultivate soil, to treat grain, and reaping tools. Items found include hoes, sickle pieces, grinding stones; impressions of emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccum), barley,

255

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES CONCLUSIONS The comprehensive analysis of archaeological sources presented in the book returns to the discussion of ethnocultural history for one of the largest and the most important regions of the Steppe Eurasian belt.

East Manych Catacomb culture all-year-round seasonal moves of family groups within all exploited environmental areas; development of complex gathering, hunting and fishing; domestic industries, beginning of craft specialization (2500–2000 BC) ↓ Early Catacomb culture summer moves of male and juvenile groups; settlement of small family groups; development of seasonal moves; complex gathering and fishing; domestic industries (2600–2300 BC) ↓ North Caucasus culture summer moves of small family groups or groups of adult males engaged in mobile sheep herding; complex gathering and fishing (2500–2300 BC) ↓ Yamnaya culture exploitation of environmental areas under mobile animal stock raising (sheep, horses, cattle) organization of moves along the route river flood plain→watershed→river flood plain by independent family groups; development of complex gathering, hunting and fishing, domestic industries (3000–2350 BC) ↓ Late Steppe Majkop culture seasonal moves of small groups (sheep herders?), complex gathering (3400–3000 BC) ↓ Time Gap (3500–3400 BC) ↓ Early Steppe Majkop culture summer seasonal moves of some groups of herders and small family groups (sheep herders?), fishing, complex gathering (3800–3500 BC) ↓ Steppe Eneolithic Age seasonal moves of separate groups of herders (sheep herders), fishing and gathering (4300–3800 BC)

Starting from the Eneolithic Age onward and throughout the Bronze Age, the Caspian Steppes became a peculiar historical and cultural province that developed in its own way. Throughout several millennia groups of various traditions swept across the plains of this region, in some cases making stops for no longer than several months. Who would have agreed to live in the wilderness “with no rains, where only dew makes soil look alive, and where only inexhaustible fertility of land puts some green gloss on this soil in spring”. These bleak words were written by German philosopher Johan Gottfried Herder in his diary, he visited Russian steppes at the end of the 18th century (Herder 1977). But some peoples who chose to use valleys of meandering steppe rivers and wide steppe watershed pastures rich with aromatic plants stayed on these steppes. They put in place a new economic system, i.e. mobile nomadic animal stock raising, based on the use of all natural resources, crafts, a multi-level system of interaction. These events are verified by thousands of kurgans, the main social constructions that became genuine temple complexes for population groups constantly on the move. A genetic memory of “earthenware pyramids” was reflected in traditions of subsequent periods. Kalmyks, the last typical nomads of the New Age, started using high kurgans of the Bronze Age as the place of adoration and traditional rites, such as calling for rain during hot summer and burial of Lam Buddhists. The cult of kurgans called ova is included in the list of Buddhist rites (Bakaeva 2004). The Caspian Steppes is unique as it helps us check our ideas about how Bronze Age pastoralists could exploit natural and economic space of numerous Caspian areas by studying experience of typical nomadic groups that lived in the same area in a similar environment. But use of ethnographic material requires caution in approach as nomadic peoples of the Late Middle Ages lived in an different economic, social and philosophical environment (Bulatov 1999; Masanov 1995; 1999), and such comparisons are not always correct, though many traditions of pastoral land use, seasonality, diet patterns and bans survived throughout centuries. A broader ethnographic background with results of numerous data of natural sciences have provided an opportunity to cast a different glance at the historical development of Bronze Age peoples unknown to us, confirm hypotheses advanced many years ago and propose new reconstructions.

Figure 140. System of Economic Exploitation of the Caspian Steppes during the Bronze Age

256

PASTORAL EXPLOITATION OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES FROM THE ENEOLITHIC TO THE BRONZE AGE PERIODS and social causes. If during the Eneolithic Age and Early Majkop Age there were few groups exploiting steppe environmental areas, but when a new economic system, i.e. producing pastoral mobile economy, became predominant, the density of population increased quickly. A high potential of this type of economy helped overcome consequences of a prolonged period of droughts that began in the second half of 3000 BC, and utilize all natural resources of the region. If later ages are used as comparators, the historical picture will be roughly the same: starting from late 1000 and throughout 2000 AD numerous nomadic tribes and peoples lived on the steppes during two-three centuries replacing each other, such as Polovtsy, Pechenegs, Khazars, Golden Horde population, Nogais, and starting from the seventh century onward, Kalmyks, living side by side with Ukrainians, Germans, Russians, settlers from the Northern Caucasus. A similar multi-layer stratum of cultures has been reconstructed for the Bronze Age as well. None of the population groups that inhabited the Caspian Steppes during the Bronze Age or during subsequent historical periods can be treated as autochthonous.

Strengths and Weaknesses Analysis of the artefacts from many kurgans and burials has provided convincing evidence that many cultural groups inhabited the Caspian Steppes throughout two millennia, from late 5000 BC to late 3000 BC. These groups performed different funeral rites, wore different clothes, used different tools, and belonged to different anthropological types. The main conclusion of the comparative analysis is that the studied region did not develop in isolation from adjacent areas. It was a part of a large oikumene that included valleys of large rivers, such as the Volga and the Don, maritime coastlines of the Great Seas, the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus Range being its southern border, and the forest steppes of the middle belt of Russia being its northern border. But within this exploited region different cultural groups chose their own way to develop. After reaching the Caspian Steppes, many population groups were forced either to cross them quickly or to get adapted to new environmental conditions. The broad comparative background presented has helped evaluate specific features of local variants of many cultures whose representatives at first were just alien settlers.

Finally, the study of the issue of steppe environmental area exploitation by different cultural groups, reconstruction of variants of their economic systems, the degree of impact on each other enables us to evaluate degree and quality of changes in early society caused by mobile pastoralism, crafts, and the system of intercultural exchange. Many of these issues must, of course, be considered from the point of view of the social structure of societies under investigation. But such issues so far have been left outside this book. The weaknesses of many reconstructions include their schematic nature, inadequate representation of their components. Pilot sites under new studies, unfortunately, do not cover the whole area. Environmental areas of the Kuma-Manych Depression, the Southern Yergueni Hills, and the Middle Yergueni Hills are among the best studied areas. At the same time data obtained indicate that Steppe Eneolithic population still linked to the preceding society of hunters, gatherers and fishermen put in place an absolutely different economic system, i.e. mobile pastoralism, whose success was predetermined by those environmental conditions that were created by steppe environmental areas. Ethnobotanical data gathered throughout many years using materials of Caspian Steppe Bronze Age cultures, demonstrate that there are no indications of agriculture development in this region during the Eneolithic Age and the Bronze Age. Most likely, dry steppes and semideserts with insufficient water storages were not suitable for extensive agriculture. But complex gathering of wild gramineous plants and numerous water and steppe plants provided a good source of diet resources, river and sea food became an additional component of everyday food. Physical appearance of individuals representing different cultures indicates that steppe people did not experience any food stresses while the absence of traumas and injuries caused by military actions points to a relatively calm and peaceful mode of life. Many Yamnaya and Catacomb people lived until old age. They engaged in physical work, were endurant and walked a lot.

Analysis of the issue of culture genesis provided in Chapter 1 leaves outside this study such issues as the reasons that made people representing these traditions first exploit vacant lands and subsequently start using environmental areas of the Caspian Steppes used by other cultures. But this topic needs a separate book. The second main task was to identify sequence of cultures. Viability of the complex method used is obvious. Though some statements are hypothetical. Frequently data from an archaeological source are fragmented while new methods are applied in a limited area of pilot sites. This is explained by the fact that development of science mandates selection of new sources, while it is not always possible to restore such sources using materials from previous excavations. Science develops and what seemed unquestionable a short while ago, needs verification and even revision. First of all, it applies to the historical time intervals of different cultures. But it is this issue that may help us understand better the ethnocultural situation in the region in the past, and how it changed over a long period of time, what marginal time and spatial borders can be drawn in our attempts to reconstruct complex processes that explain why one culture was replaced by another culture, how population groups interacted, and reconstruct their migratory routes or seasonal moves within the exploited area. Perhaps the sequence of cultures may seem to be too schematic at first glance, or look like a kaleidoscope. It appears that the Caspian Steppes had a strong appeal for people inhabiting other areas, since some cultures replaced other cultures. But cultural paradigms were born, developed and withered away during several centuries, and this period is long enough for a culture whose development depended on many natural, economic 257

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES Exploitation of natural zones, with rather harsh conditions from the environmental point of view, required development of technology: use of traction force of oxen and horses; wheeled transport; domestic industries; the exchange system; introduction of new seasonal exploitation of grasslands; identification of convenient migratory routes.

more comprehensive analysis of all available data. Many systems can be verified using artefacts from cultures of a similar time period or similar area. But such comparative analysis is not possible without identical databases of sources. Such potential systems will provide an opportunity to shed light on new aspects of the complex historical process of Eurasian steppe belt exploitation and get insight in individual input made by each cultural group analyzed in this book.

Economic systems proposed differ from each other and need additional clarifications that would be based on

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Khokhlov, Alexander A. 2001. Craniological data from Mu-Sharet-1 and Mu-Sharet-4 kurgan burial ground graves (Kraniologicheskiye materialy iz pogrebeny mogilnikov Mu-Sharet-1 i Mu-Sharet-4). Mu-Sharet kurgan burial grounds in Kalmykia: interdisciplinary investigation. Ed. by E.V. Tsutskin, N.I. Shishlina. Moscow-Elista: State Historical Museum: 94–99 (In Russian).

Gorodtsov, Vasily A. 1915. Bronze Age cultures in the Middle Russia. Moscow: Russian Imperial museum. (In Russian).

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Herder, Iohann G., 1977. Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit. Moscow: Nauka. (In Russian). Ierusalimskaya, Anna A. 1958. North Caucasus Piedmont variant of the Catacomb culture (O predkavkazskom variante katakombnoy kultury). Soviet archaeology. Vol. 2: 34–48. (In Russian).

Khokhlov, Alexander A. 2002. Craniological type of the man buried in accordance with the traditions of the Majkop culture of the Early Bronze age (Kalmykia, site Mandjikiny-1, 14/13) (Kraniologichesky tip cheloveka, pogrebennogo po traditsiyam majkopskoy kultury epokhi ranney bronzy). The Lower Volga Archaeological Bulletin. Ed. by A.S. Skripkin. Volgograd: Volgograd State University: 174–179. (In Russian).

Ivanov, Igor V. and Igor B. Vasiliev. 1995. Man, environment and soils of Ryn-sands located in the VolgaUrals interfluves during the Holocene period (Chelovek, priroda i pochvy Ryn-peskov Volgo-Uralskogo mezhdurechya v Golotsene). Moscow: Intellect. (In Russian).

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Klepikov, Valery M. 2004. Peregruznoye Eneolithic graves (Eneoliticheskiye kompleksy mogilnika Peregruznoye). Archaeological notes. Vol. 4. Ed. By V. Ya. Kiyashko. Rostov-na-Donu: DAO: 21–23. (In Russian). Klevezal, Galina. A. and Natalia I. Shishlina. 2001. Assessment of the Season of Death of Ancient Human from Cementum Annual Layers. Journal of Archaeological Sciences, 28: 481–486.

Kiyashko, Alexey V. 1999. The origin of the Catacomb Culture of the Lower Don region. Volgograd: Volgograd University Publishing House. (In Russian).

Klevezal, Galina A., Natalia I. Shishlina, Michael M. Pakhomov and Alexander A. Khokhlov. 2006. Establishing of season mortality of the Bronze Age man according to dental cement layers (Identifikatsiya sezona smerti cheloveka po sloyam v tsemente zubov (epokha bronzy). Russian Archaeology. Vol. 2: 15–23. (In Russian).

Kiyashko, Alexey V. 2001. Eastern boundaries of the Early catacomb funeral rite spreading in the Volga-Don area (O vostochnikh predelakh rasprostraneniya rannekatacombnogo obryada na territorii VolgoDonskogo mezhdurechya). Materials on Volga-Don Steppe archaeology. Vol. 1. Ed. by I. V. Sergatskov. Volgograd: Volgograd State University: 93–109. (In Russian).

Klien, Lev S. 1962. Brief substantiation of the migration theory on the origin of the Catacomb culture (Kratkoye obosnovaniye migratsionnoy gipotezy o proiskhozhdenii katakombnoy kultury). Bulletin of Leningrad State University, 2: 74–87 (In Russian).

Kiyashko, Alexey V. 2002. The origin of cultures on the eastern border of the Catacomb world (Kulturogenez na vostoke katakombnogo mira). Volgograd: Volgograd University Publishing House. (In Russian).

Klien, Lev S. 1976. Yamnaya and Catacomb graves of Kalmykia Cultural determination and restoration of social structures (Yamnye i katakombnye pogrebeniya Kalmykii. Kulturnaya determinatsiya i vosstanovleniye sotsialnikh struktur). Problem of archaeology of the Volga and the Ural regions. Ed. by E.I. Medvedev. Kuibyshev: Kuibyshev State Pedagogical Institute: 27– 30. (In Russian).

Kiyashko, Vladimir Ya. 1974. The Lower Don region during the Eneolithic and the Early Bronze Age (Nizhnee Podonye v epokhu eneolita i ranney bronzy). The abstract of the Ph.D dissertation. Moscow: Institute of Archaeology. (In Russian). Kiyashko, Vladimir Ya. 1992. The hammer-headed pin issue (K voprosy o molotochkovidnykh bulavkakh). Don Antiquities. Vol. 1. Ed. by V.Ya. Kiyashko, V.E. Maksimov. Azov: Azov museum of local lore, history and economy: 4–57. (In Russian).

Koltsov, Petr M. 1982. Results of archaeological survey in 1976–1980 on the Kalmyk ASSR (Resultaty arkheologicheskikh razvedok 1976–1980 gg. na territorii Kalmytskoy ASSR). Stone and Bronze Age sites of Kalmykia. Ed. by U.E. Erdniev. Elista: Kalmykia Publishing House: 100–107. (In Russian).

Kiyashko, Vladimir Ya. 1994. Between the Stone and the Bronze Age (The Lower Don region during the V-III millennia BC) (Mezhdu kamnem i bronzoi) (Nizhnee Podonye v V-III tysyacheletiyakh do n.e.). Don Antiquities. Vol. 3. Ed. by V. Ya Kiyashko. Azov: Azov museum of local lore, history and economy: 5–131. (In Russian).

Koltsov, Petr M. 1984. The Djangr site in the Sarpa Plain (Poseleniye Djangr v Sarpinskoy nizmennosti). The Copper Age of the south part of the Eastern Europe. Ed. by A.A. Vybornov. Kuibyshev: Kuibyshev State Pedagogical Institute Publishing House: 79–91. (In Russian).

Kiyashko, Vladimir Ya. and Galina N. Poplevko. 2000. Flint arrow heads from Konstantinovka site (Kremnevye nakonechniki strel Konstantinovskogo poselenya). Historical-archaeological investigations in Azov and in the Lower Don regions in 1998. Vol. 16. Ed. by A.A. Gorbenko. Azov: Azov museum of local lore, history and economy: 241–258. (In Russian).

Koltsov, Petr M. 1985. New sites dating to Neolithic and Eneolithic of the Black Lands (Noviye pamyatniki neolita i eneolita Chernykh zemel). Kalmykia Antiquities. Ed. by. K.N. Maksimov. Elista: Elista Publishing House: 34–42. (In Russian). Koltsov, Petr M. 1988. Neolithic Djangr site (Neoliticheskoye poseleniye Djangr). Archaeological cultures of the North Caspian area. Ed. by A.A.

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Vybornov. Kuibyshev: Kuibyshev State Pedagogical Institute: 52–92. (In Russian). Koltsov, Petr M. 2004. The Djangr Site. Man and the Neolithic culture of the Northwestern Caspian Steppes (Poseleniye Djangr. Chelovek i ego kultura v neolite Severo-zapadnogo Prikaspiya. Moscow: Novy khronograph. (In Russian).

Korenevsky, Sergey N. and Anatoly О. Nagler. 1987. Some issues concerning the investigation of the Eneolithic of the Central North Caucasus Piedmont area and the Mozdock Steppes (Nekotoriye voprosy izucheniya eneolita Tsentralnogo Predkavkazya i Mozdokskikh stepey). Issues of the archaeological data interpretation. Ed. by T.B. Turgiyev. Ordzonikidze: Ordzonikidze State University: 74–86 (In Russian).

Kondrashov, A.V. and Alexey D. Rezepkin. 1988. The Novosvobodnaya grave with a wagon (Novosvobodnoye pogrebeniye s povozkoy). Kratkiye soobscheniya instituta arkheologii. Vol. 193: 91–97. (In Russian). Korenevsky, Sergey N. 1978. Metal knives of the Yamnaya, Poltavka and Catacomb cultures (O metallicheskikh nozhakh yamnoy, poltavkinskoy i katakombnoy kultur). Russian Archaeology, 2: 33–48. (In Russian).

Korenevsky, Sergey N. and Velemira G. Petrenko. 1982. A Majkop-culture mound in Inozemtsevo (Kurgan majkopskoy kultury u poselka Inozemtsevo). Soviet Archaeology, Vol. 2: 96–112. (In Russian).

Korenevsky, Sergey N. 1984. New data on metal production of the pre-Koban period in the KabardaBalkaria region (Noviye danniye po metalloobrabotke dokobanskogo perioda v Kabardino-Balkarii). Archaeological investigation on the new construction project of the Kabarda-Balkaria in 1972–1979. Vol.1. Ed. by V.I. Markovin. Nalchik: Elbrus: 254–299. (In Russian).

Korenevsky, Sergey N. and Velemira G. Petrenko. 1989. Kurgans near Vorovskolesskaya village (Kurgany u st. Vorovskolesskoy). Stavropol Antiquity. Ed. by R.M. Munchaev. Moscow: Nauka: 195–232. (In Russian). Korenevsky, Sergey N. and Alexey A. Kalmykov. 2003. New data on Eneolithic and Early Bronze Age kurgans of the North part of the North Caucasus Piedmont area (Noviye danniye o kurganakh epokhi eneolita i rannego bronzovogo veka severa stepnogo Predkavkazya). Readings devoted to the 100 anniversary of V.A. Gorodtsov in the State Historical Museum. Vol. 1. Ed. by N. Shishlina. Moscow: State Historical Museum: 70–74. (In Russian).

Korenevsky, Sergey N. 1990. Bronze Age sites of the Central North Caucasus Piedmont area (Pamyatniki naseleniya bronzovogo veka Tsentralnogo Predkavkazia). Moscow: Institute of Archaeology RAS. (In Russian). Korenevsky, Sergey N. 1993. Ancient settled population of the Middle Terek River (Drevneyshee osedloye naseleniye na srednem Tereke). Moscow: Stamm. (In Russian).

Korenevsky, Sergey N. and Alexey A. Kalmykov. 2004. Ancient chamber graves and catacombs of the North Caucasus Piedmont region (Drevneyshiye podboi i katakomby Predkavkazya). Ancient Caucasus: the retrospective cultural review. XXIII Krupnov Readings devoted to the North Caucasus Archaeology. Ed. by L.T. Yablonsky. Moscow: Institute of Archaeology: 101–106. (In Russian).

Korenevsky, Sergey N. 1995. Galugay I–the Majkop site (Galugay I–poseleniye majkopskoy kultury). Moscow: Institute of Archaeology RAS . (In Russian). Korenevsky, Sergey N. 1998. The “Zamok” site near the Kislovodsk (the lower layer) (Poseleniye “Zamok” u goroda Kislovodska (nizhny sloy). Materials of the study of historical-cultural heritage of the North Caucasus. Ed. by A.V. Belinsky. Vol. 1. Archaeology. Stavropol: Heritage committee “Naslediye: 96–147. (In Russian).

Korenevsky, Sergey N., Andrey B. Belinsky and Alexey A. Kalmykov. 2007. The Big Ipatovo Kurgan in the Stavropol Region as an Archaeological Source of the Bronze Age of the Steppe Boundary of East Europe and the Caucasus (Bolshoy Ipatovsky kurgan na Stavropolye kak arkheologichesky istochnik po epokhe bronzovogo veka na stepnoy granitse Vostochnoy Evropy i Kavkaza). Moscow: Nauka. (In Russian).

Korenevsky, Sergey N. 2001. Paleoenvironment and dynamics of economic and cultural type of archaeological cultures in the foothill-steppe areas of the North Caucasus during the Eneolithic-Early Bronze Age (the issue development) (Paleosreda i dinamika khozyastvennokulturnogo tipa arkheologicheskikh kultur v predgornostepnoy zone Severnogo Kavkaza v epokhu eneolita– rannego bronzovogo veka (k postanovke problemy). Bronze Age of the Eastern Europe: culture characteristics, chronology and periodization. Ed. by Yu. I. Kolev. Samara: OOO “NTTs”: 94–99. (In Russian).

Korobkova, Galina F. and Olga G. Shaposhnikova. 2005. Mikhailovka site. The Standart Yamnaya culture site (Poseleniye Mikhailovka. Etalonny pamyatnik drevney Yamnoy kultury). St. Petersburg: Evropeisky dom. (In Russian). Kotova, N.S. 1992. Sociological characteristic of the Upper Dnieper and Asov burial grounds of the Neolithic266

BIBLIOGRAPHY Krivtsova-Grakova, Olga A. 1962. Graves of the Bronze Age and Pre-Scythian Age uncovered at Nikopol kurgan field (Pogrebeniya bronzovogo veka and predskifskogo vremeni na Nikopolskom kurgannom pole). Material and investigation in archaeology. Ed. by K.F. Smirnov. Vol. 115. Moscow: Nauka: 5–55. (In Russian).

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Kruglov, A.P. and G.V. Podgaetski. 1936. The Kin society of the Eastern Europe Steppes (Rodovoye obschestvo stepey Vostochnoy Evropy).Moscow. (In Russian). Kruglov, A. P., Boris B. Piotrovsky and G.V. Podgaetski. 1941. Burial ground in Nalchik city (Mogilnik v g. Nalchik). Materials and investigations in archaeology, 3. Ed. by M.I. Artamonov. Moscow-Leningrad: Izdatelstvo AN SSSR: 67–148. (In Russian).

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Kozintsev, Pavel A. and Natalia V. Roslyakova. 2000. The cattle raising of the Samara Volga Region population (Skotovodstvo naseleniya Samarskogo Povolzhya). History of the Samara Volga region from the Prehistory till nowadays. Ed. by P.S. Kabytov. Samara: Samara State Pedagogical Institute: 302–308. (In Russian).

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Lagodovskaya, Olga F., Olga G. Shaposhnikova and M.L. Makarevitch. 1962. Mikhailovka settlement. Kiev: Naukova Dumka (In Ukrainian). Lanting, J. N. and van der Plicht J. 1998. Reservoir effect and apparent 14C-ages. The Journal of Irish Archaeology, 9:151–165.

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Kremenetsky, Konstantin V. 1997. Holocene Environment of the Lower Don and the Kalmyk area (Prirodnaya obstanovka golotsena na Nizhnem Donu i v Kalmykii). Steppe and the Caucasus (cultural traditions). Papers of the State Historical Museum. Vol. 97. Ed. by P. Kozhin. Moscow: State Historical Museum: 30– 45. (In Russian).

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BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES Lavrenko, E.M., Z.V. Karamysheva and R.I. Nikulina. 1991. Eurasian Steppes (Stepi Evrazii). Leningrad: Nauka. (In Russian).

Manzura, I. 1994. Cultural groups from the steppes of Eastern Europe in the Eneolithic period and Early Bronze Age. Oxford Journal of Archaeology, 13: 265–277.

Lavrushin, Yury A., Elena A. Spiridonova and Leopold D. Sulerzhitsky. 1998. Geological-paleoecological events in the northern part of the arid zone in the past 10 000 (Geologo-paleoecologicheskiye i kulturnodemograficheskiye protsessy severa aridnoy zony v posledniye 10 tysyach let). Environmental, climate and cultural-demographic processes in the Northern Caspian region during the Early and the Middle Holocene. Problems of ancient history of the North Caspian Steppes. Ed. by I.B. Vasiliev. Samara: Samara State Pedagogical Institute: 40–65. (In Russian).

Manzura, I. V. 2000. Possessors of sceptres (Vladeyuschie skipetramy). Stratum Plus. Vol. 2. Ed. by I. V. Manzura: 237–295. (In Russian). Marina, Z.P. 1982. Yamnaya-Catacomb graves (O pogrebeniyakh yamno-katakombnogo tipa). Antiquities of the Steppe Dnieper region (III–I millennia BC). Dnepropetrovsk: Dnepropetrovsk State University: 46– 50. (In Russian). Marina, Z.P. 1990. Late Yamnaya graves of the Left Bank Dnieper region and their correlation with Catacomb culture sites (Pozdneyamnye pogrebeniya Levoberezhya Dnepra i ikh sootnosheniye s pamyatnikami katakombnoy kultury). Issue of Catacomb culture unity investigation. Ed. by V.V. Otroschenko. Zaporozhye: Zaporozhye State University: 45–46. (In Russian).

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Markovin, Vladimir I. 1992. Some archaeological data from the Steppe Stavropol area and the nearby territories (O nekotorykh arkheologicheskikh materialakh iz stepnogo Stavropolya i blizhaishikh zemel). Investigation of the Eastern Europe Archaeology. Ed. by Markovin V.I. Elista: Kalmykia Publishing House: 22–57. (In Russian).

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Masanov, Nurbulat. 1995. Nomadic civilization of the Kazaks (the base of the vital functions of nomadic society) (Kochevaya tsivilizatsiya kazakhov) (osnovy zhiznedeyatelnosti nomadnogo obschestva). AlmatyMoscow: Sotsinvest-Gorizont. (In Russian). Melnik, Valery I. 1985. The Steppe Volga region during the Middle Bronze Age (continuity and interrelation between cultures) (Stepnoye Povolzhye v epokhu sredney bronzy (preemstvennost i vzaimodeistviye kultur). 268

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Vinogradov, V.B. and B.M. Khashegulgov. 1982. Some North-East Caucasus locations dating to IV–III millennium BC (Nekotoriye nakhodki IV–III tysyacheletiy do n.e. na Severo-Vostochnom Kavkaze). New sites of the Bronze Age on the Chechnya-Ingushetia area. Ed. by M.B. Muzhukhoev. Grozny: Institute of History, Sociology and Philology of Chechnya-Ingushetia Autonomous Republic: 16–29. (In Russian).

Yudin, A.I. 1999 b. Multi-level Kumyska site on the Turgut River (Mnogosloinoye poseleniye Kumyska na reke Torgut). Archaeological Heritage of the Saratov country. Heritage and investigation in 1997. Vol. 3. Ed. by A. I. Yudin. Saratov: Saratov State Pedagogical Institute: 122–157. (In Russian).

Vlaskin, Mikhail V. 2002. Investigation of the Mukhin-1 kurgan burial ground in 1995 and 1998 (Issledovaniye kurgannogo mogilnika Mukhin-1 in 1995, 1998 gg.). Aksay Antiquities. Ed. by V.Ya. Kiyashko. Asov: Asov museum of local lore, history and economy: 60–61. (In Russian).

Yudin, A.I. 2004. Varfolomeyevskaya Site and Neolithic of the Steppe Volga region (Varfolomeyevskaya stoyanka i neolit stepnogo Povolzhya). Saratov: Saratov State University.

Yablonsky, Leonid T. and Alexander A. Khokhlov, 1994. Craniological characteristics of the Orenburg Yamnaya culture (Kraniologiya naseleniya yamnoy kultury Orenburgskoy oblasty). Morgunova, Nina L., Kravtsov, A. Yu., 1994. Yamnaya sites on the Ilek River. Yekaterinburg: Yekaterinburg: UIF “Nauka”: 116-152. (In Russian).

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Zhitetsky, I.A., 1890. Archaeology of the Kalmyk Steppes. Reports of the Peter’s Society of the Astrakhan investigators dating to the March-December of 1888. Astrakhan: Astrakhan Historical society: 25–34. (In Russian). Zhitnikov, V.G., 1992. Fishing industry in economy of the Elizavetovskoye Don settlement (Rybny promysel v khozyastvennoy sisteme Elizavetovskogo gorodischa na Donu). Don Antiquity. Vol. 1. Ed. by V.Ya. Kiyashko and V.E. Maksimenko. Azov: Azov museum of lore, history and economy: 68–78. (In Russian). Zhitnikov, V.G. 2000. Excavation of kurgans of the “Vertolyetnoye pole” kurgan burial ground in Rostov-na Donu (Raskopki kurganov mogilnika “Vertolyetnoye pole” v Rostove-na-Donu). History and archaeological investigation in Asov and on the Lower Don area in 1998. Vol. 16. Ed. by V.Ya. Kiyashko. Azov: Azov museum of local lore, history and economy: 88–91. (In Russian). Zhitnikov, V.G. and Sergey E. Zherebilov. 2005. Syncretical graves of the Eneolithic-Bronze Age from the “Vertolyetnoye Pole” kurgan burial ground in Rostov-naDonu (Sinkreticheskiye pogrebalnye kompleksy eneolitaranney bronzy iz mogilnika “Vertoletnoye Pole” v Rostove-na-Donu). The Fourth Kuban archaeological conference. Ed. by I.I. Marchenko. Krasnodar: Administration of Krasnodar krai: 84–88. (In Russian). Zhitnikov, V.G. and Leonid S. Ilyukov. 2002. New Early Metal Age sites located on the right Bank of the Lower Don River (Noviye pamyatniki epokhi rannego metalla na pravoberezhye Nizhnego Dona). The Don Archaeology, 1–2: 17–27. (In Russian). Zhuravlev, O.P. 1991. Domesticated and wild mammals data based on animal bones obtained from Catacomb culture Matveyevka-1 site (Domashniye i dikiye mlekopitayuschiye po kostnym ostankam iz poseleniya katakombnoy kultury Matveyevka-1). The Steppe Black Sea and the Crimea Antiquity. Ed. by G.N. Toschev. Zaporozhye: Zaporozhye State University: 188–189. (In Russian).

279

APPENDIX 1 SEX AND AGE DETERMINATION OF THE DEAD FROM THE CASPIAN STEPPES KURGAN BURIAL GROUNDS A.A. Khokhlov, S.B. Borutskaya, A.A. Kazarnitsky, A.V. Shevchenko Table 1. Steppe Majkop Culture Kurgan/grave sex age Kuma-Manych Depression: VMLBIII,66 k. 16, g. 13 female 30–40 VMPB67 k. 19, g. 8 female 18–20 Southern Yergueni Hills Mandjikiny-1 k. 14, g. 13 male 45–50

Kurgan/grave Caspian Plain KVCH-56 k. 6, g. 12 k. 13, g. 5 Evdyk k. 4, g. 20 k. 4, g. 22

sex

age

male male

senilis ad.-mat.

male male

Adult Adult

Table 2. Yamnaya Culture Kurgan/grave sex Kuma-Manych Depression VMLBI,65 k. 36, g. 9 male? k. 1, g. 3 male k. 25, g. 2 male k. 27, g.3 male k. 29, g. 5 male VMLBI,66 k. 43, g. 15 female k. 49, g. 2 male k. 49, g. 2 k. 9, g. 7 k. 9, g. 8 VMPB,67 k. 15, g. 4 k. 12, g. 5 k. 6, g.8 k.6, g.9 k. 6, g. 13 k.19, g.7 VMLBII,65 k. 10, g.3 k. 13, g. 7 k. 21, g. 3 k. 21, g. 4 k. 23, g. 6 k. 26, g. 7 k. 26, g. 8

age

20–22 senilis maturus maturus senilis 20–22 18–20

female? male male

18–20 mat.–sen. 22-–0

male female female? male female male

maturus adultus senilis around 60 mat.–sen. around 60

female male female male male male female

maturus maturus 22–24 adultus senilis mat.–sen. maturus

Kurgan/grave sex Northeast Stavropol area Chogray VIII (Andreeva 1989) k. 1, g. 1 male k. 1, g. 3 male k. 1, g. 4 male k. 1, g. 5 male k. 5, g. 4 male k. 5, g. 4 child k. 8, g. 1 juvenilis k. 19, g.1 female

40–50 50–60 45–50 30–40 40–50 5–6 12–14 20–25

k. 25, g. 2 k. 29, g. 1 k. 29, g. 2 k. 29, g. 3 k. 30, g. 4 k. 31, g. 2 k. 31, g. 3

16–20 50–60 3–4 20–30 1–1,5 6–8 30–40

k. 1, g. 8 k. 2, g. 5 k. 3, g. 5 k. 3, g. 11 k. 3, g. 11 k. 3, g. 11 k. 3, g. 13 k. 3, g. 14 k. 3, g. 15 k. 3, g. 16

female female child female child child female Chogray IX child child female female female child male male juvenilis child male male child male female female juvenilis male juvenilis female child

k. 38, g. 5 k. 42, g. 4 k. 42, g. 5 k. 42, g. 6 VMLBIII,66 k. 1, g. 9 k. 3, g. 6 k. 13, g. 7 k. 15, g. 4 k. 17, g. 8

male male female female

senilis ad.–mat. adultus 18–20

male male female female male

senilis maturus 20–22 maturus senilis

k. 3, g. 18 k. 3, g. 19 k. 3, g. 20 k. 4, g. 3 k. 4, g. 8 k. 8, g. 2 k. 15, g. 7 k. 15, g. 8 k. 15, g. 10 k. 15, g. 10

k. 23, g. 4

female?

maturus

k. 15, g. 10

280

Age

Infantilis 11–14 juvenilis-adultus adultus adultus infant П adultus matures-senilis infant II 5 years±16 months adultus-maturus adultus ? adultus adultus adultus ? adultus-maturus 15–18 35–45 (45–55) 6–8

APPENDICES k. 23, g. 5 male Zunda-Tolga-3 k. 1, g.4 male k. 1, g.7 male k. 1, g.8 male? Zunda-Tolga-5 k. 2, g.1 male Ostrovnoy k. 3, g.33 female? k. 6, g.11 female Chograysky IV k. 2, g. 2 male Southern Yergueni Mandjikiny-1 k. 1, g.4 male k. 3, g.1 female k. 3,g.2 male k. 12, g.4 male k. 11, g.2 male Mandjikiny-2 k. 5, g.3 female k. 8, g.1 male k. 11, g.3 female k. 16, g.1 male Shupta k. 1, g.2 male k. 1, g. 5 female? Mu-Sharet-4 k. 1, g. 2 female k. 1, g. 3 male k. 1, g. 4 -

senilis 18–25 ≥45 ≥50 mat.–senil. 17–25? 15–16 senilis

40–50 15 20–30 25–35 35–45 senilis 35–45 45–60 35–45 20–30 18–20 15–22 30–45 30–45

k. 15, g. 13 juvenilis Middle Yergueni Hills Khar-Zukha I** k. 2, g. 3 female Khar-Zukha-II k. 3, g. 8 child Peschany-V k. 1,g. 2 child k. 1, g. 3 male Arkhara k. 2, g. 7 male male k. 3, g. 2 Caspian Plain Chilgir k.2, g.3 male Kanukovo k. 7, g.2 female Yashkul-1 k.1, g. 13 child k.1, g.18 juvenilis k.1, g.21 male KVCH-56 k. 13, g.19 male k. 1, g. 3 juvenilis k. 11, g. 2 male k. 12, g. 2 male k. 6, g. 3 male Krivaya Luka XI k. 7, g. 8 male Krivaya Luka III k.1, g.31 male

k. 6, g. 3 k. 7, g. 1 k. 8, g. 1 k. 9, g. 2 k. 9, g. 3 k. 11, g. 2

male child male female child adult

45–55 6–7 30–40 20–30 ? 25–35?

Idjil II k.1, g.1 Tsatsa k. 5, g. 10 Southern Yergueni Mu-Sharet-4

k. 11, g. 3 k. 11, g. 4 k. 11, g. 5 k. 12, g. 1 k. 12, g. 2 k. 10, g. 3

female? female? female female? male child

14–17 25–30 25–30 14–17 35–45 –

k. 10, g. 4 k. 12, g. 3 k. 12, g. 4 k. 12, g. 5 k. 12, g. 6

juvenilis

20 3–4 – 40–50 maturus maturus

matures 20–25 9–10 13–15 50–60 – 18 MI senilis around 30 maturus senilis

male

ad.-mat.

male

maturus

child male male child female

8–12 30–35 50–60 6–7 30–35

Table 3. Early Catacomb culture Kurgan/grave sex Kuma-Manych Depression VMLBII65 k. 19, g.1 male? k. 25, g. 2 male k. 25, g. 3 male k. 36, g. 3 female VMLBI66 k. 27, g. 1 female VMLBII66 k. 14, g. 3 male k. 7, g. 2 male k. 7, g. 3 Male? VMLBIII66 k. 4, g. 11 male k. 9, g. 1 male

age

senilis adultus maturus adultus mat.–sen. ad.–mat. maturus maturus mat.–sen. senilis

Kurgan/grave sex North-east Stavropol area* Chogray VIII (Andreeva 1989) k. 3, g. 2 juvenilis k. 4, g. 2 child k. 6, g. 3 child

12–13 6–7 6–7

k. 6, g. 4 k. 11, g. 2 k. 15, g. 2 k. 15, g. 6 k. 16, g. 2 k. 17, g. 5 k. 18, g. 6 k. 20, g. 3 k. 23, g. 4

30–40 13–15 35–40 6–7 3–5 60–70 4–5 25–35 30–40

281

male juvenilis male child child male child female male

age

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES k. 32, g. 5 VMPB67 k. 2, g. 5

male

24–26

male

adultus

k. 5, g. 9 male Zunda-Tolga-2 k. 1, g. 1 male k. 2,g. 3 male Zunda-Tolga-5 k. 1, g. 4/5 child k. 1, g. 4/5 male Chograysky VI k. 4, g. 5 male k. 4, g. 6 male k. 6, g. 4 male Baga-Burul k. 5, g. 6 juvenilis Southern Yergueni Hills Mandjikiny-1 k. 2, g. 1 male k. 5, g. 1 female? k. 14, g. 6 Mandjikiny-2 k. 37, g. 1 k. 37, g. 3

mat.-sen. adultus ≈ 35 ≈5 50–60 ad.–mat. 30–35 adultus 5–6

45–55 ≈40–45

k. 26, g. 2 k. 26, g. 2 k. 30, g. 9 Chogray IX k. 2, g. 8 k. 9, g. 12 k. 14, g. 8 Middle Yergueni Khar-Zukha I k. 1, g. 5 k. 4, g. 3 k. 5, g.3 (a, b) k. 7, g. 4 Khar-Zukha II k. 1, g. 2 Temrta III k. 1, g. 1 k. 1, g. 2 k. 1, g .4 k. 2, g. 1

male

55–65

child male?

7–9 15–16

k. 2, g. 2 Temrta V k. 1, g. 2 k. 1, g. 2

k. 37, g. 4 k. 41, g. 2 k. 42, g. 1 k. 42, g. 1 k. 42, g. 4 k. 45, g. 2 k. 47, g. 1 k. 54, g. 3 k. 54, g. 5

child child female child child male child juvenilis child

7–8 1–2 40–45 1–1,5 3–4 17–20 9–14 11–13 9–10

k. 1, g. 3 k. 1, g. 3 Temrta I k. 1, g .2 k. 1, g. 3 k. 1, g. 4 k. 2, g. 3 k. 2, g. 9 k. 2, g. 9

k. 54, g. 6 k. 54, g. 6

female child

25–35 newborn

Peschany-V k. 1, g. 1

female male child

35–45 40–50 6–7

juvenilis juvenilis child

15–18 infant II -

male female female male

45–50 senilis senilis 25–30

male

≈40

female child male male? female? child

35–45 ≈7 40–45 35–40

male female

20–25 17–20

female male

40–50 40–50

male child child child female child

15–17 10–11 ≈2 ≈1,5 20–25 0–several weeks

female

25–30

≈4

Middle Yergueni Hills

k. 1, g. 5

male

50–55

Lola

k. 2, g. 1

child

8–9

k. 2, g. 3

child

12–13

k. 2, g. 3

child

7–8

k. 4, g. 6

male

ad.–mat.

Peschany-V k. 4, g. 1

male

50–60

k. 2, g. 3

male

40–45

k. 5, g. 2

female

30–40

k. 3, g. 1

male

45–50

k. 5, g. 2

child

≈6 months

k. 3, g. 2

male

40–45

k. 5, g. 4

?

45–55

k. 5, g. 6

child

≈4

Table 4. Steppe North Caucasus Culture Kurgan/grave sex Kuma-Manych Depression Zunda-Tolga-3 k. 1, g. 11 female? k. 1, g. 11 VMLBI65 k. 21, g. 12 VMPB67 k. 2, g. 4 k. 3, g. 2 VMLBIII66

age

14–15?

male?

15–17

male

adultus

female? male

16–20 maturus

Kurgan/grave sex North-east Stavropol area Chogray VIII (Andreeva 1989) k. 1, g. 2 child k. 1, g. 5 k. 9, g. 2 k. 10, g. 4 k. 12, g. 4 k. 12, g. 5 k. 17, g. 7 Chogray IX

282

male child juvenilis child male male

age

3 30–40 3–4 adultus 16–20

APPENDICES k. 12, g. 8 Southern Yergueni Mandjikiny-2 k.7, g.2 k.11, g.4 Mu-Sharet-1 k. 1, g. 2 k. 2, g. 3 k. 2, g. 3 k. 5, g. 5 k. 6, g. 4 k. 6, g. 4

male

senilis

male male

30–40 12–14

child child child female child child

5–6 5-6 2–4 35–45 6–8 4–5

Middle Yergueni Hills Lola k. 4, g. 6 male k. 23, g. 1 female?

adultus

k. 1, g. 11 k. 1, g. 11 k. 2, g. 6 k. 5, g. 7 k. 9, g. 3 k. 9, g. 5 k. 9, g. 12 k. 9, g. 13 k. 10, g. 5 k. 13, g. 2 k. 13, g. 3 k. 14, g. 5 k. 14, g. 7 k. 15, g. 14 k. 15, g. 14

male child male male male child juvenilis child male juvenilis male female? male? child male juvenilis

adultus adultus adultus-maturus adultus-maturus infant II infant adultus infant II maturus 25 - 5 -

Table 5. Yamnaya-Catacomb Group Kurgan/grave sex Kuma-Manych Depression Zunda-Tolga-5 k. 1, g. 7 female? Zunda-Tolga-2 k. 2, g. 1 VMPB67 k. 14, g. 7 VMLBIII66 k. 1, g. 9 k. 8, g. 8 k. 15, g. 10 k. 17, g. 15 k. 22, g. 4 k. 22, g. 5 k. 27, g. 4

age

50–55

male

≥50

male

mat.-sen.

female? female female? male female male male

senilis maturus adultus 20–22 senilis adultus senilis

Kurgan/grave sex Southern Yergueni Mu-Sharet-1 k.8, g.3 female Mu-Sharet-4 k.13, g.3 k.13, g.3 Mandjikiny-1 k.19, g.1 k.19, g.2 Middle Yergueni Arkhara k. 17, g. 3 Elista k. 31, g. 7

283

age

17–19

male child

senilis 8-9.

female male

≥55 35–40

female

20–22

Female?

adultus

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

APPENDIX 2 RADIOCARBON DATABASE OF THE BRONZE AGE CASPIAN STEPPES1 N.I. Shishlina, J. van der Plicht, E.P. Zazovskaya, V.S. Sevastyanov, O.A. Chichagova, R.M. Hedges Steppe Eneolithic: 4300–3800 calBC Table 1. 14С data of the Steppe Eneolithic graves of the Saratov, Volgograd, Rostov regions, the Nalchik burial ground, the Late Eneolithic site of the Caspian Steppes №

Lab. No.

Sample

Kurgan/ Grave

14

C age (BP)

North Yergueni: Peregruznoye: N -48º10´, E - 043º90´ 1 IGANmale adult k. 13, g. 7 5890±153 2401 2 GrAmale adult k. 13, g. 7 5430±50 19260 Lower Volga: Khvalynsk II: N 52°50′, E 48°20′ 3 OxAhuman bone g. 10 5790± 85 4311

Calibrated range 1σ (BC)2 [start: end] relative area

δ13C, ‰

δ15N, ‰

[4941 : 4581] 0,97 [4571 : 4555] 0,03 [4339 : 4253] 1,

-18.15

n/a

-18.15

n/a

[4763 : 4759 ] 0,01 [4727 : 4536 ] 0,99

-20.336

+13.965

-20.04

+7.51

6015±85

[4448 : 4416] 0,44 [4405 : 4362] 0,56 [5009 : 4794 ] 1,

-22.363

+13.580

5840±85

[4795 : 4586 ] 1,

-20.237

+13.758

5920± 80

[4906 : 4863 ] 0,18 [4856 : 4709] 0,82 [5047 : 4835] 0,99 [4812 : 4810] 0,01

-20.578

+10.260

-21.921

+13.792

[4779 : 4683 ] 0,92 [4633 : 4621 ] 0,08 [4447 : 4417] 0,41 [4403 : 4360] 0,58

-20.77

+14.57

-17.86

+11.69

[4225 : 4206 ] 0,05 [4163 : 4130 ] 0,09 [4111 : 4106 ] 0,02 [4072 : 3927 ] 0,61 [3877 : 3804 ] 0,23 North Caucasus, Kabarda-Balkaria, Nalchik cemetery: N 43°29′, E 43°37′ 12 GrAMale adult g.86 [4830 : 4813 ] 0,16 5910±45 24442 [4807 : 4724 ] 0,84 Kalmykia, Djangr settlement: N 47°90′, E 45°70′ 13 Le-2564 charcoal cultural level [4900 : 4864 ] 0,11 5890±100 2 [4854 : 4653 ] 0,83 [4639 : 4617 ] 0,06 North Caucasus, Svobodnoye settlement: N 45°20′, E 39°62′ 14 Le-4531 animal bone cultural level [4495 : 3960 ] 1, 5400±250

n/a

4

GrAcow g. 10 34100 5 OxAhuman bone g. 18 4314 6 OxAhuman bone g. 24 4312 7 OxAhuman bone g. 34 4313 8 OxAhuman bone g. 35 4310 Lower Volga: Khvalynsk I: N 52°35′, E 47°90′ 9 GrAanimal bone? g. 127 26899 10 sheep bone g. 147 GrA29178 Lower Don: Vertoleytnoye pole: N 45°′, E 44° 11 IGANchild k.1, g.12 2516

15

Le-4532

animal bone

cultural level

5570±40

6040± 80

5840±40 5565 ± 40

5180±100

5480±100

1

[4450 : 4237 ] 1,

This work was done under the support of RFFI grants, number 08-06-00069, 08-06-10001 CALIB RADIOCARBON CALIBRATION PROGRAM Copyright 1986-2005 M Stuiver and PJ Reimer 2

284

-20.75

n/a

+8.97

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

APPENDICES Early Steppe Majkop culture: 3800–3500 calBC. Table 2. 14С data of the Caspian Steppes Early Steppe Majkop culture №

Lab. No.

Sample

14

C age (BP)

Kurgan/ Grave

Calibrated range 1σ (BC) [start : end] relative area Kuma-Manych Depression, East Manych (VMLBIII): N 45°34′, E 44°19′ 1 GrAbone bead k. 17, g. 11 5095±45 [3961 : 3927] 0,30 24434 [3916 : 3916] 0,01 [3877 : 3804] 0,69 Southern Yergueny, Mandjikiny-1: N 45°42′32б5″, E 44°42′32,5″ 2 GrAmale 45–55 k. 14, g. 13 4950±45 [3773 : 3693] 0,85 19521 [3681 : 3664] 0,15 3 IGANmale 45–55 k. 14, g. 13 5199±59 [4220 : 4212] 0,03 2400 [4151 : 4134] 0,06 [4055 : 3952] 0,91 Stavropol Hills, Sharakchalsun-6: N 45°259′, E 43°419′ 4 GrAChild k. 5, g. 7 4710±100 [3632 : 3559] 0,33 19258 [3537 : 3491] 0,22 [3470 : 3373] 0,45 5 IGANchild k. 5, g. 7 5219±94 [4228 : 4199] 0,11 2399 [4171 : 4089] 0,29 [4082 : 3956] 0,60 6 IGANchild k. 2, g. 17 5297±76 [4234 : 4042] 1, 2517

δ13C, ‰

δ15N, ‰

-20.95

n/a

-18.33

n/a

-18.844

+11.648

-16.95

n/a

-16.77

+15.23

-18.35

+13.49

δ13C, ‰

δ15N, ‰

Late Steppe Majkop culture: 3400–3000 calBC Table 3. 14С data of the Caspian Steppes Late Steppe Majkop culture №

Lab. No.

Sample

Kurgan/ Grave

14

C age (BP)

Kuma-Manych Depression, Zunda-Tolga-1:N 45°34′36″, E 44°19′16″ 1 IGANhuman bone k. 1, g. 5 4586±77 1528

Lower Don, Vertolyetnoye pole: N 45°, E 44° 2 BLnchild k. 1, g. 8 5530

4556±50

Central Stavropol area, Aygursky-2: N 44°38′, E 43°40′ 3 GINhuman bone k. 22, g. 8 4460±80 12405 4

GIN11811

human bone

k. 22, g. 15

4480±50

5

GrA22172

human bone

k. 17, g. 6

4740±60

Central Stavropol area, Zolotarevka-1: N 45°50′, E 42°70′ 6 GrAhuman bone k. 22, g. 11 4640±60 22174 Central Stavropol area, Ipatovo: N 44°229′, E 40°249′ 7 GINhuman bone k. 2, g. 195, 4610±140 10298 skeleton 1

8

GIN10301

human bone

k.2, g. 195, skeleton 2

4410±170

285

Calibrated range 1σ (BC) [start : end] relative area [3500 : 3440] 0.27 [3380 : 3316] 0.27 [3292 : 3289] 0.01 [3237 : 3266] 0.02 [3237 : 3168]0.24 [3164 : 3110] 0.18

n/a

n/a

[3369 : 3321] 0.33 [3272 : 3268] 0.02 [3236 : 3170] 0.37 [3163 : 3113] 0.28

-20.7

n/a

[3334 : 3211] 0.46 [3190 : 3153] 0.13 [3136 : 3023] 0.41 [3335 : 3211] 0.61 [3191 : 3152] 0.18 [3137 : 3093] 0.21 [3633 : 3555] 0.55 [3539 : 3511] 0.19 [3425 : 3382] 0.26

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

[3500 : 3430] 0.82 [3380 : 3363] 0.18 [3624 : 3602] 0.05 [3524 : 3309] 0.57 [3301 : 3282] 0.04 [3276 : 3265] 0.03 [3240 : 3104] 0.31 [3341 : 2901] 1,

-18.53

+15.9

-18.57

+14.16

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES Yamnaya culture: 3000–2350 calBC Table 4. 14С data of the Caspian Steppes Yamnaya culture 14

Calibrated range 1σ (BC) [start : end] relative area

Kuma-Manych Depression Ostrovnoy:N 45°44′44,6″, E 44°0,6′53.0″ 1 IGANplant mat k. 3, g. 34 2105 2 IGANplant mat k. 3, g. 33 2106

6330±400

[5631 : 4824] 0.99 [4815 : 4802] 0.01 [2388 : 2386] 0.003 [2345 : 1664] 0.99 [1650 : 1642] 0.007

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

Zunda-Tolga-1: N 45°34′36″, E 44°19′16″ 3 IGANhuman bone k. 3, g. 3 1634

3955±40

[2566 : 2524] 0.33 [2497 : 2454] 0.44 [2419 : 2406] 0.08 [2377 : 2350] 0.15

n/a

n/a

Zunda-Tolga-3: N -45º42´17,5´´, E - 044º08´15,5´´. 4 IGANmale 18–25 k. 1, g. 4 2422

4423±104

[3325 : 3233] 0,29 [3223 : 3220] 0,01 [3173 : 3161] 0,04 [3118 : 2921] 0,66

-17.33

+12.87

4240±60

[2915 : 2857] 0,47 [2811 : 2749] 0,40 [2723 : 2699] 0,13 [2620 : 2561] 0,53 [2536 : 2491] 0,47 [1928 : 1865] 0,45 [1849 : 1773] 0,55

n/a

n/a

-25.65

n/a

n/a

n/a

-24.61

n/a

n/a

n/a

-18.08

+14.30

n/a

n/a

-18.98

+8.75

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

-18.15

+13.997

-18.613

+14.125

№

Lab. No.

Sample

Kurgan/ Grave

Southern Yergueni Mu-Sharet-1: N 45°41′43,6′′, E 44°37′01,2′′ 5 IGANfemale senilis k.5, g.3 2275 6

C age (BP)

3620±260

GrАwood Acer k. 5, g. 3 17461 7 IGANwood Acer k. 5, g. 3 2228 Mu-Sharet-4: N 45° 41′46′′, E 044°32′04′′ 8 GrАcharcoal k. 11, g. 3 17462

4045±35

9 10 11

12

16 17

4180±35

IGAN1851 IGAN2274 IGAN1890

wood

k. 1, g. 4

4770±120

male 17–20

k. 12, g. 1

4551±76

female 15–22

k. 1, g. 2

3720±90

GrА32892

sheep bone

k. 1, g. 3

4160±35

Mandjikiny-1: N 45°42′32б5″, E 44°42′32,5″ 13 IGANwood k. 3, g. 2 1850 14 IGANmale 20–30 k. 3, g. 2 1891 15

3530±50

3980±110 3910±50

IGAN2402 IGAN2492

male 20–25

k. 14, g. 10

4350±76

male 17–25

k. 14, g. 12

4033±76

IGAN3228

wood (Fraxinus)

k. 14, g. 12

Mandjikiny-2 N 45°41′28,2′′, E 44°40′ 49,4′′ 18 IGANmale 35–45 k. 11, g. 2

3770±60

4189±49

286

[2880 : 2853] 0,21 [2811 : 2745] 0,57 [2726 : 2696] 0,22 [3653 : 3495] 0,68 [3466 : 3375] 0,32 [3370 : 3264] 0,42 [3242 : 3103] 0,58 [2280 : 2250] 0,08 [2230 : 2219] 0,03 [2211 : 2012] 0,82 [1999 : 1978] 0,07 [2872 : 2848] 0,17 [2843 : 2840] 0,01 [2813 : 2797] 0,11 [2795 : 2738] 0,37 [2733 : 2693] 0,28 [2689 : 2678] 0,06 [2831 : 2820] 0,02 [2631 : 2297] 0,98 [2470 : 2339] 0,95 [2321 : 2318] 0,02 [2315 : 2309] 0,03 [3090 : 3047] 0,18 [3033 : 2893] 0,82 [2836 : 2815] 0,07 [2672 : 2468] 0,93

δ13C, ‰

δ15N, ‰

[2332 : 2327] 0,01 [2299 : 2031] 0,99

n/a

n/a

[2887 : 2850] 0,25

-17.56

+15.294

APPENDICES 2058 19 20

21

IGAN2042 GrA12690

wood

k. 11, g. 2

3920±70

wood

k. 11, g. 3

4060±50

IGAN2056

female 45–60

k. 11, g. 3

4050±50

Shupta-1: N 45°41′07,7′′, E 44°45′50,5′′ 22 IGANmale 20–30 k. 1, g. 2 1890 Middle Yergueni Peschany V: N 46º33´21,7´´, E 043º40´36,8´´ 23 IGANmale 30–40 k. 1, g. 3 2880 Khar-Zukha: N 45°80′, E 44°40′ 24 OxAfemale 20 k. 2, g. 3 4732 Sarpa Plain Tsatsa: N 48°18′, E 44°67′ 25 UCLAwood 1270 26 Le-? wood 27 Le-? human bone Kanukovo: N 47°78′, E 44°10′ 28 IGANfemale 20–25 2653 Western part of the Caspian Plain KVCH-56: N 40°00′, E 43°75′ 29 IGANhuman bone 1006

30

IGAN1005

human bone

31

IGANhuman bone 1004 Chilgir: N 45°34′36″, E 44°19′16″ 32 IGANmale 2705 «matures» Middle Volga Grachevka: N 53°36′, E 50°34′ 33 IGANhuman bone 2875

34

IGANhuman bone 2876 Poludni II: N 53°25′, E 51°41′ 35 IGANmale 45 3233

[2813 : 2742] 0,51 [2728 : 2694] 0,22 [2686 : 2680] 0,02 [2546 : 2544] 0,01 [2488 : 2294] 0,99 [2835 : 2817] 0,10 [2665 : 2644] 0,10 [2639 : 2557] 0,52 [2555 : 2550] 0,03 [2537 : 2491] 0,27 [2832 : 2820] 0,06 [2657 : 2655] 0,01 [2632 : 2488] 0,93

n/a

n/a

-24.33

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

3860±90

[2464 : 2270] 0,80 [2259 : 2206] 0,20

4312±94

[3095 : 2866] 0,90 [2804 : 2761] 0,10

-16.76

+13.22

4480±75

[3339 : 3205] 0,54 [3195 : 3089] 0,41 [3049 : 3032] 0,05

-16.08

+13.74

k. 6, g. 3

4210±85

n/a

n/a

k. 6, g. 3

3690±120

n/a

n/a

k. 6, g. 4

3980±50

[2904 : 2835] 0,32 [2816 : 2667] 0,68 [2279 : 2250] 0,07 [2230 : 2220] 0,02 [2211 : 1913] 0,91 [2576 : 2460] 1,

n/a

n/a

k. 7, g. 2

4093±41

[2849 : 2813] 0,22 [2741 : 2730] 0,05 [2694 : 2687] 0,03 [2679 : 2575] 0,70

-16.7

n/a

k. 17, g. 3

3850±40

n/a

n/a

k. 8, g. 7

3610±90

n/a

n/a

k. 13, g. 9

3500±150

[2451 : 2446] 0,03 [2436 : 2420] 0,09 [2405 : 2378] 0,16 [2350 : 2276] 0,51 [2253 : 2228] 0,15 [2223 : 2209] 0,06 [2234 : 2080] 0,18 [2061 : 1878] 0,79 [1839 : 1829] 0,03 [2024 : 1636] 1,

n/a

n/a

k. 2, g.3

4213±57

[2900 : 2852] 0,34 [2812 : 2744] 0,49 [2726 : 2696] 0,16

-16.71

+17.68

k.5, g.2

4422±67

-19.3

+10.59

k. 5, g. 1

4050±70

[3313 : 3294] 0,07 [3287 : 3274] 0,05 [3265 : 3238] 0,11 [3166 : 3166] 0,01 [3106 : 2922] 0,79 [2836 : 2816] 0,08 [2669 : 2475] 0,92

n/a

n/a

k.2, g.7

4542±75

[3365 : 3264] 0,41 [3241 : 3104] 0,59

-17.41

+15.05

287

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES Early Catacomb culture: 2600–2350 calBC Table 5 14С data of the Caspian Steppes Early Catacomb culture №

Lab. No.

Sample

Kurgan/ Grave

Kuma-Manych Depression Zunda-Tolga-2: N 45º35´37´´, E 044º 16´19´´ 1 IGANmale adultus k. 1, g. 1 2406 2

IGAN2547

male around. 35

k. 2, g. 3

Zunda-Tolga-5 :N 45º38´0,7,0´´, E 044º 14´ 20,6´´ 3 IGANmale 50–60 k. 1, g. 4-5 3116

14

Calibrated range 1σ (BC) [start : end] relative area

4531±104

[3484 :3476] 0,01 [3370 : 3089] 0,94 [3051 : 3031] 0,05 [3326 : 3232] 0,21 [3224 : 3219] 0,01 [3174 : 3160] 0,02 [3119 : 2883] 0,74

C age (BP)

4363±123

δ13C, ‰

δ15N, ‰

-17.46

+16.13

-18.616

+13.917

4102±114

[2871 : 2802] 0,23 [2779 : 2568] 0,71 [2519 : 2499] 0,06

n/a

n/a

Southern Yergueni Hills Mandjikiny-2: N 45°41′28,2′′, E 44°40′ 49,4′′ 4 Bln-5615 male 15–16 лет k. 37, g. 3

4095±58

-16.65

n/a

5

Bln-5628

male 15–16

k. 37, g. 3

4007±33

[2857 : 2811] 0,22 [2749 : 2723] 0,10 [2699 : 2573] 0,64 [2510 : 2506] 0,01 [2569:2516] 0,74 [2500:2480] 0,26

-16.65

n/a

6

IGAN 2273 IGAN 2272 IGAN 2277

female 40–45

k. 42, g. 1

3706±41

-17.16

+17.28

male 17–20

k. 45, g .2

3987±48

-17.10

+17.50

female 25–35

k. 54, g. 6

4319±41

-17.58

+15.042

GrA35809

pin made of ungulate bone

k. 54, g. 6

4135±35

[2190 : 2181] 0.06 [2141 : 2034] 0.94 [2572 : 2511] 0,62 [2505 : 2466] 0,38 [3010 : 2980] 0,28 [2957 : 2952] 0,03 [2940 : 2891] 0,68 [2862 : 2831] 0,18 [2821 : 2807] 0,09 [2758 : 2718] 0,26 [2707 : 2631] 0,47

-18.77

n/a

7 8 9

Mandjikiny-1: N 45°42′32б5″, E 44°42′32,5″ 10 IGAN male 55–65 k. 14, g. 6 2403

4040±70

[2835 : 2817] 0,07 [2665 : 2644] 0,08 [2639 : 2472] 0,85

-17.53

+15.4

Middle Yergueni Hills Khar-Zukha-1: N 46°10′, E 44°10′ 11 IGAN wood 1273 12 OxAfemale senilis 4734

k. 4, g. 1

3561±308

n/a

n/a

k. 5, g. 3А (3B)

3940±70

-15,42

+18,10

13

k. 1, g. 5

4178±155

-17,62

+15,66

k. 7, g. 4

3186±82

[2336 : 2323] 0,01 [2308 : 1519] 0,99 [2565 : 2532] 0,15 [2528 : 2525] 0,01 [2496 : 2338] 0,80 [2322 : 2309] 0,04 [2920 : 2563] 0,93 [2534 : 2493] 0,07 [1605 : 1584] 0,07 [1535 : 1383] 0,90

-18,10

+14,15

k. 1, g. 2

4270±55

[3006 : 2990] 0,06 [2930 : 2864] 0,71 [2806 : 2759] 0,22 [2716 : 2714] 0,01

n/a

n/a

Peschany-V: N 46º33´21,7´´, E 043º40´36,8´´ 16 Bln-5616 male 45–50 k. 3, g. 1

4073±35

[2834 : 2817] 0,13 [2664 : 2645] 0,11 [2638 : 2569] 0,64 [2516 : 2500] 0,11

IGAN male 45–50 1420 14 IGAN male 25–30 1424 Khar-Zukha-2: N 46°20′, E 44°30′ 15 OxAmale 40 4731

288

-19.5

+14.3

APPENDICES 17

IGAN2946

male 40–45

k. 3, g. 2

3788± 57

18

IGAN2881

male 50–55

k. 1, g. 5

3940 ± 200

19

IGAN2878

male 40–45

k. 2, g. 3

3908 ± 117

20

IGAN3422

Wood Fraxinus

k. 5, g. 4

4200±110

Temrta III: N 46º33´03,0´´, E 043º39´53,7´´ 21 IGANfemale 35-45 k. 1, g. 1 2945 22 OxAfemale 35–45 k. 1, g. 1 15172

3987 ± 42 4224±31

23

IGAN2947

male 40–45

k. 1, g .4

4100 ± 50

24

OxA15209

male 40–45

k. 1, g. 4

4169±31

Temrta V: N 46º32´52,1´´, E 043º40´15,2´´ 25 GrA pin made of k. 1, g. 2 30051 ungulate bone

4110±45

26

4333±76

27

28

IGAN3414 GrA32893

female 20–25

k. 1.g. 2

sheep bone

k. 1, g. 3

4110±35

IGAN 3318

man 40–50

k. 1, g. 3

4597±85

Temrta-I: N 46°31′15,60′′, E 043°36′18,50′′ 29 GrAsheep dung? k. 2, g. 9 34099 30 IGANwood k. 1, g. 4 3359 Salix 31 IGAN wood k. 1, g. 3 Fraxinus 32

OxA18352-

sheep bone

Stavropol area Chograi IX: N 45°44′, E 44°0,6′ 33 IGANchild 3148

3635±40 3900±50 4140±110

k. 1, g. 3

4171±32

k. 14, g .8

4066±95

289

[2335 : 2324] 0,03 [2306 : 2304] 0,00 [2301 : 2135] 0,94 [2076 : 2075] 0,00 [2069 : 2064] 0,01 [2848:2813] 0,05 [2739:2730] 0,01 [2693:2688] 0,01 [2679:2192] 0,88 [2180:2142] 0,05 [2567 : 2522] 0,11 [2498 : 2265] 0,74 [2261 : 2205] 0,14 [2905:2828] 0,28 [2824:2625] 0,72

-17.63

+17.04

-16.26

+16.63

-18.15

+15.79

-21.11

n/a

[2569 : 2516] 0,62 [2500 : 2469] 0,37 [2896 : 2866 ] 0,56 [2804 : 2774] 0,37 [2770 : 2762 ] 0,07 [2855 : 2812] 0,23 [2746 : 2725] 0,09 [2697 : 2577] 0,67 [2855 :2812 ] 0,23 [2746 :2725 ] 0,09 [2697 :2577 ] 0,67

-18.34

+14.95

-17.0

n/a

-18.15

+14.73

-17.3

12.87

[2856 : 2812] 0,25 [2747 : 2725] 0,12 [2698 : 2617] 0,48 [2610 : 2581] 0,15 [3088 : 3058] 0,12 [3030 : 2885] 0,88 [2852:2812] 0,26 [2744:2726] 0,10 [2696:2618] 0,52 [2608:2598] 0,06 [2594:2583] 0,06 [3516:3398] 0,41 [3384:3322] 0,25 [3272:3269] 0,01 [3235:3171] 0,19 [3162:3116] 0,15 [2114 : 2100] 0,09 [2037 : 1941] 0,91 [2467 : 2338] 0,91 [2322 : 2309] 0,08 [4533 :4543] 0,03 [4548 :4557] 0,03 [4567 :4825] 0,94 [2877 : 2851] 0,18 [2813 : 2743] 0,55 [2727 :2695] 0,24 [2683 : 2681] 0,01

[2856 : 2812] 0,16 [2747 :2725] 0,06 [2698 : 2486] 0,78

-18.28

-17,97 -18.60

-17.74

+8.75

+12, 49 +8.24

+12.79

-11.190

n/a

- 24.90

n/a

-23.14

n/a

-18.25

-17.75

+11.29

+15.54

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES Steppe North Caucasus culture: 2500–2300 calBC Table 6. 14С data of the Caspian Steppes North Caucasus culture №

Lab. No.

Sample

Kurgan/ Grave

14

C age (BP)

Calibrated range 1σ (BC) [start : end] relative area

Kuma-Manych Depression East Manych, Left Bank, burial ground III, 1965 (VMLB,III, 65), N 45°44′44″, E 44°0,6′50″ 1 GrAPlant mat k. 12, g. 13 [1948:1744] 1, 3520±80 10683 Zunda-Tolga-3: N 45º42´17,5´´, E 044º08´15,5´´. 2 IGANmale 15–17 k. 1, g. 11 [2872:2801] 0,30 4136±85 2404 [2793:2785] 0,03 [2780:2621] 0,67 3 GrAring made of k. 1, g. 11 [2827:2825 ] 0,02 4050±35 32893 ungulate (sheep) [2624 :2562] 0,57 bone [2535 :2492] 0,41 Southern Yergueni Hills Mandjikiny-2: N 45°41′28,2′′, E 44°40′ 49,4′′ 4 GrAwood k. 7, g. 2 [2834:2817] 0,1 4060±45 15688 [2664:2646] 0,08 [2637:2561] 0,54 [2536:2492] 0,28 5 IGANmale 30–40 k. 7, g. 2 [2456:2419] 0,28 3870±30 2054 [2407:2376] 0,24 [2351:2293] 0,48 6 IGANmale 12–14 k. 11, g. 4 [2277:2252] 0,15 3760±40 2057 [2228:2222] 0,03 [2209:2133] 0,70 [2081:2060] 0,12 Mu-Sharet-1: N 45°41′43,6′′, E 44°37′01,2′′ 7 GrAring made of k. 6, g. 4 [2834:2817] 0,10 4065±40 34098 ungulate bone [2663:2647] 0,08 (sheep) [2636:2565] 0,57 [2532:2495] 0,25 8 GrUnio shell k. 6, g. 4 8420±40 [7543:7478] 1, 32795

δ13C, ‰

δ15N, ‰

-27.89

n/a

-18,40

+12,2

-18.19

+8.25

-25.46

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

-16.52

+11.38

-8.46

n/a

Yamnaya-Catacomb and Multicultural groups: 2600–2200 calBC Table 7.14С data of the Caspian Steppes Yamanya-Catacomb and Multicultural groups №

Lab. No.

Sample

Kurgan/ Grave

Kuma-Manych Depression Zunda-Tolga-2: N 45º35´37´´, E 044º 16´19´´ 1 IGANmale≥ 50 k. 2, g. 1 2548 Zunda-Tolga-5, N 45º38´0,7,0´´, E 044º 14´ 20,6´´ 2 IGAN female 50–55 k. 1, g. 7 2494 3 GrA pin made of k. 1, g. 7 29135 ungulate bone Southern Yergueni Hills Mu-Sharet-1: N 45°41′43,6′′, E 44°37′01,2′′ 4 IGAN female 17–19 k. 1, g. 8 2055 Middle Yergueni Hills Ulan-Zukha: N 45°78′, E 44°38′ 5 OxAmale adultus

k. 3, g. 8

14

Calibrated range 1σ (BC) [start : end] relative area

3995±133

[2840 : 2813] 0,06 [2678 : 2298] 0,94

C age (BP)

4866±57

δ13C, ‰

δ15N, ‰

-17.24

+16.69

[3708 : 3632] 0,86 [3558 : 3538] 0,13 [2856 : 2812] 0,25 [2747 : 2725] 0,12 [2698 : 2617] 0,48 [2610 : 2581] 0,15

-17.77

+14.93

-21.01

+5.36

3790±30

[2284 : 2248] 0,40 [2234 : 2196] 0,38 [2169 : 2147] 0,22

n/a

n/a

4180±65

[2883 : 2838] 0,23

n/a

n/a

4110±45

290

APPENDICES 4733

[2814 : 2675] 0,77

Elista: N 46°33′, E 44°17′ 6 GrAfragment of 10682 wooden wheel

k. 8, g. 6

3980±70

[2616 : 2612 ] 0,01 [2580 : 2431 ] 0,80 [2424 : 2402 ] 0,07 [2381 : 2348 ] 0,11

-25.86

n/a

East Manych Catacomb culture: 2500–2000 calBC №

Lab. No.

Sample

Table 8.14С data of the Caspian Steppes East Manych Catacomb culture 14 C age (BP) Kurgan/ Calibrated range 1σ (BC) Grave [start : end] relative area

Kuma-Manych Depression Ostrovnoy: N 45°44′44,6″, E 44°0,6′53.0″ 1 IGANhuman bone adult k. 3, g. 10 2130 2

IGAN 3115

sheep bone

k. 3, g.38

3977±67 3743±67

Zunda-Tolga-1: N 45°34′36″, E 44°19′16″ 3 IGANwood k. 1, g. 1 1533

4486±136

4

Ki-5213

wood

k. 1, g. 1

3690±70

5

wood

k. 1, g. 9

3964±77

6

IGAN1559 Ki-5211

wood

k. 1, g. 9

3740±85

7

Ki-5210

charcoal

k. 2, g. 1

3820±90

8

IGAN 1635

human bone

k. 2, g. 3

3754±63

9

Ki-5212

charcoal

k. 3, g. 1

3710±90

10

GrA10050 IGAN 1653 IGAN 1639 IGAN 1638 IGAN 1723

charcoal

k. 3, g. 1

4025±40

human bone

k. 3, g. 1

3786±76

human bone

k. 3, g. 1

5083±381

human bone

k. 3, g. 6

2288±114

male 60–65

k. 4, g. 1

4064±93

GrA10694 Ki-6090

charcoal

k. 5, g. 1

3700±80

charcoal

k. 5, g. 1

3810±50

17

GrA10051

k. 7, g. 1

3880±40

18

Ki-6089

burnt branches from the incense burner charcoal

k. 7, g. 1

3750±60

11 12 13 14 15 16

291

[2579 :2433 ] 0,82 [2422 :2403 ] 0,07 [2380 :2349 ] 0,11 [2277 : 2252 ]0,11 [2228 : 2222 ]0,03 [2210 : 2109 ]0,53 [2105 : 2035 ]0,33 [3363 : 3011] 0,97 [2977 : 2971] 0,01 [2964 : 2961] 0,01 [2949 : 2943] 0,01 [2197 : 2168] 0,12 [2148 : 2008] 0,76 [2003 : 1976] 0,12 [2575 : 2388] 0,84 [2385 : 2345] 0,16 [2286 : 2247] 0,14 [2243 : 2238] 0,01 [2236 : 2029] 0,85 [2456 : 2418] 0,12 [2407 : 2375] 0,11 [2367 : 2363] 0,01 [2351 : 2192] 0,63 [2180 : 2142] 0,13 [2282 : 2249] 0,16 [2232 : 2217] 0,06 [2214 : 2121] 0,53 [2094 : 2041] 0,25 [2273 : 2257] 0,05 [2207 : 1965] 0,95 [2578 : 2484 ] 1, [2341 : 2130] 0,89 [2086:2050] 0,11 [4336 : 3513] 0,97 [3424 : 3383] 0,03 [514 : 191] 1, [2853 : 2812] 0,14 [2745:2726] 0,06 [2696:2481] 0,80 [2202 : 2007 ] 0,89 [2004 : 1975 ] 0,10 [2339 : 2315] 0,10 [2310 : 2195] 0,75 [2174 : 2145] 0,15 [2457 : 2417 ] 0,29 [2409 : 2334 ] 0,54 [2324 : 2300 ] 0,15 [2279 : 2250] 0,13

δ13C, ‰

17.69 -19.21

δ15N, ‰

12.77 +6.65

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

-24.49

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

-26.38

n/a

n/a

n/a

-12.96

n/a

n/a

n/a

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

19

GrA10165

wood from the grave floor

k. 8, g. 1

3970±50

20

IGAN 1793 GrA10043 GrA10575

female > 55

k. 8, g. 1

3680±40

reed from the floor of the grave branches from the covering

k. 8, g. 1

3975±40

k. 8, g. 1.

3840±60

23

GrA10046

organic from the floor

k. 8, g. 1

3870±40

24

GrA10045 IGAN 1792 IGAN 3117

charcoal from the incense burner male 40–45

k. 9, g. 1

3910±40

k. 9, g. 1

3709±44

sheep bone

k. 9, g. 1

27

GrA10685

fragment of wooden screen

k. 9, g. 2

3980±80

28

IGAN 2421

female 50–60

k. 10, g. 2

4120±70

29

Bln-5529

male around 35

k. 10, g. 3

3858±32

21 22

25 26

3922±104

30

IGAN sheep bone k. 10, g. 3 3809±150 3118 Vostochny Manych, Left Bank, I, 1965 (VMLBI,65): N 45°34′, E 44°19′ 31 GrAplant mat k. 29, g. 1 4170±80 10679

[2230 : 2220] 0,04 [2211 : 2119] 0,54 [2096 : 2040] 0,29 [2573 : 2457] 0,92 [2418 : 2408] 0,04 [2374 : 2368] 0,02 [2135 : 2023] 0,97 [1990 : 1984] 0,03 [2568 : 2518 ] 0,56 [2499 : 2465 ] 0,43 [2452 : 2445 ] 0,02 [2437 : 2420 ] 0,07 [2405 : 2378 ] 0,12 [2350 : 2204 ] 0,77 [2456 : 2418 ] 0,26 [2408 : 2374 ] 0,23 [2368 : 2361 ] 0,03 [2356 : 2292 ] 0,46 [2468 : 2390 ] 0,65 [2385 : 2345 ] 0,34 [2193 : 2178] 0,10 [2143 : 2034] 0,90 [2569 : 2516] 0,15 [2500 : 2280] 0,78 [2250 : 2230] 0,05 [2219 : 2212] 0,02 [2619 : 2607 ] 0,03 [2599 : 2593 ] 0,01 [2585 : 2392 ] 0,83 [2385 : 2346 ] 0,12 [2863 : 2807] 0,26 [2758 : 2717] 0,18 [2709 : 2616] 0,43 [2614 : 2580] 0,13 [2454 : 2419] 0,19 [2405 : 2377] 0,19 [2350 : 2285] 0,54 [2247 : 2234] 0,07 [2468 : 2113] 0,87 [2101 : 2037] 0,19

[2881 : 2834 ] 0,21 [2818 : 2663 ] 0,73 [2648 : 2636 ] 0,04 Vostochny Manych, Left Bank, III, 66 (VMLBIII,66): N 45°34′36″, E 44°19′16″ 32 GrAplant mat k. 16, g. 3 [2469 : 2279 ] 0,88 3880±80 10696 [2250 : 2230 ] 0,07 [2220 : 2211 ] 0,03 Baga-Buru: N 46º23´38,4´´, E 042º13´46,8´´ 33 IGANfemale 25–35 k. 5, g. 1 [4325 : 4286] 0,03 5079 ± 341 2765 [4269 : 3623] 0,87 [3604 : 3523] 0,08 Southern Yergueni Hills Mandjikiny-1: N 45°42′32б5″, E 44°42′32,5″ 34

IGAN 2279

female 45–50

k. 10, g. 2

4092±48

35

IGAN 2281

female 50–60

k. 15, g. 1

4060±50

36

IGAN 2493

male 30–35

k. 14, g. 1

4025±113

292

[2852 : 2812] 0,21 [2744 : 2726] 0,08 [2696 : 2573] 0,71 [2835 : 2817 ] 0,10 [2665 : 2644 ] 0,10 [2639 : 2557 ] 0,52 [2555 : 2550 ] 0,02 [2537 : 2491 ] 0,30 [2859 : 2809] 0,12 [2752 : 2721] 0,07 [2701 : 2457] 0,76 [2418 : 2407] 0.02

-25.23

n/a

n/a

n/a

-26.80

n/a

-24.43

n/a

-23.35

n/a

-24.05

n/a

-16.98

+14.19

-17.38

+9.70

-24.37

+9.70

-16.56

+16.31

-18.20

+14.15

-18.83

+5.13

-29.52

n/a

-30.40

n/a

-16.94

+15.82

-16.78

+17.25

n/a

n/a

-16.59

+17.69

APPENDICES

37

IGANwood (Fraxinus) 3229 Middle Yergueni Hills Khar-Zukha: N 46°10′, E 44°10′ 38 IGAN wood 1274 Yergueni: N 47°13′, E 44°48′ 39 Le-2431 charcoal?

k. 14, g. 1

3760±90

n/a

3508±59

[1899 : 1750] 1,

n/a

n/a

k. 6, g. 2

3280±40

[1609 : 1514] 1,

n/a

n/a

[2334 : 2325] 0,04 [2300 : 2197] 0,86 [2168 : 2148] 0,10 [1520 : 1442] 1,

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

[1628 : 1527] 1, [2616 : 2616] 0,01 [2580 : 2481] 0,99 [2548 : 2539] 0,05 [2489 : 2400] 0,70 [2382 : 2347] 0,25 [2568 : 2519] 0,59 [2499 : 2467] 0,41 [2573 : 2471 ] 1,

n/a n/a

n/a n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

[2011 : 2000] 0,06 [1977 : 1881] 0,94 [2434 : 2422] 0,03 [2403 : 2380] 0,05 [2349 : 2034] 0,92 [2470 : 2391] 0,66 [2385 : 2345] 0,34

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

[2458 : 2416 ] 0,19 [2411 : 2277 ] 0,63 [2252 : 2228 ] 0,11 [2223 : 2209 ] 0,05

-23.5

n/a

-16.09

+16.14

GIN

charcoal?

k. 6, g. 2

3810±40

41

Le-2432

charcoal?

k. 6, g. 3

3220±40

42 43

Le-2434 Le-2521

wood wood

k. 6, g. 5 k. 8, g. 3

3310±40 4030±40

44

Le- 2523

wood

k. 10, g. 2

3940±40

45

GIN-590

wood (Ulmus)

k. 10, g. 2

3980±40

46

IGAN2472 Lе

wood (Ulmus)

k.10, g.2

4000±50

wood

k. 11, g. 1

3570±40

48

IGAN 5175

wood

k. 11, g. 1

3780±120

49

Le-4030

charcoal

k. 12, g. 1

3915±40

k. 26, g. 1

3855±75

Kermen-Tolga: N 46°33′, E 44°17′ 50 Uaseeds of 21406 Lithospermum officinale

n/a

k. 4, g. 4

40

47

[2375 : 2367] 0.01 2361 : 2352] 0.02 [2289:2131] 0,87 [2085:2054] 0,13

Peschany-V:N 46º33´21,7´´, E 043º40´36,8´´ 51 IGAN male 30–35 k. 1, g. 6 2879

4133±172

[2906 : 2472] 1,

Temrta-I: N 46°31′15,60′′, E 043°36′18,50′′ 52

OxA18384

male 35–45

k. 2, g.4

3850±31

[2434 : 2421] 0,06 [2403 : 2379] 0,14 [2349: 2278] 0,58 [2251 : 2229] 0,14 [2221 : 2210] 0,05

3824±40

[2342 :2201] 1,

-15.44

+18.65

3795±25

[2284 : 2247] 0,48 [2234 : 2199] 0,44 [2161 : 2153] 0,08

-17.76

+9.45

k. 3, g. 1

3318±85

n/a

n/a

k. 4, g. 5

3703±59

n/a

n/a

k. 4, g. 7

3628±94

[1726 : 1724] 0,01 [1691 : 1500] 0,99 [2198 : 2165] 0,17 [2151 : 2023] 0,81 [1990 : 1984] 0,02 [2138 : 1884] 1,

n/a

n/a

Temrta III: N 46º33´03,0´´, E 043º39´53,7´´ 53 IGAN female? k. 1, g. 6 2948 25–30 Temrta V: N 46º32´52,1´´, E 043º40´15,2´´ 54 KIAsheep bone k. 1, g. 4 31798 Sarpa Plain Tsagan-Nur: N 47°37′, E 45°17′ 55 IGAN human bone 1101 56 IGAN human bone 1104 57

IGAN1103

human bone

293

-17.42

+14.99

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES Western part of the Caspian Plain KVCH-56: N 46°00′, E 43°75′ 58 IGAN human bone 1005 59 GINhuman bone 5899 Chilgir, N 45°34′36″, E 44°19′16″ 60 IGAN female ≥45 2652 61 KIA sheep bone 31797

k. 6, g. 10

3360±180

[1883 : 1453] 1,

n/a

n/a

k. 6, g. 10

3890±40

[2462 : 2339] 0,95 [2321 : 2320] 0,01 [2314 : 2310] 0,04

n/a

n/a

k. 1, g .4

4295±41

-17. 24

k. 1, g. 4

4043±25

[3003 : 2992] 0,08 [2929 : 2880] 0,92 [2618 : 2609] 0,08 [2598 : 2594] 0,03 [2583 : 2562] 0,29 [2534 : 2493] 0,60

-15.53

+12.01

[2851 : 2813] 0,18 [2743 : 2727] 0,06 [2695 : 2684] 0,04 [2680 : 2566] 0,60 [2523 : 2497] 0,12 [2848 : 2813] 0,10 [2740 : 2731] 0,01 [2693 : 2688] 0,01 [2679 : 2460] 0,88

-18.893

n/a

-17.475

n/a

[2268 : 2260] 0,04 [2206 : 2124] 0,65 [2091 : 2043] 0,31 [3084 : 3065] 0,14 [3028 : 2924] 0,86 [2905:2883] 1,

-20.7

n/a

-16.54

+14.95

-8.48

n/a

62

IGAN 2666

female 25–35

k. 3, g. 6

4078±59

63

IGAN 2700

male 40–50

k. 4, g. 2

4021±85

k. 4, g. 32

3745±45

k. 4, g. 32

4390±35

k. 4, g. 32

4265±30

Rostov area Shakhaevsky-1: N 47°, E 39° 64 Uaseeds of 21407 Lithospermum officinale 65 GrApike bone 26902 66 GrAfresh-water river 32796 shell Poludina

+15.71

Lola culture: 2200–1900 calBC Table 9.14С data of the Caspian Steppes Lola culture №

Lab. No.

Sample

Kurgan/ Grave

Kuma-Manych Depression Ostrovnoy:N 45°44′44,6″, E 44°0,6′53.0″ 1 GrAsheep shoulder k. 3, g. 39 32895 blade 2 IGANfemale 20–30 k. 3, g. 39 3234 Southern Yergueni Mandjikiny-1: N 45°42′32б5″, E 44°42′32,5″ 3 ИГАНmale 35–40 k. 9, g. 1 2278

14

C age (BP)

3740±35 4824±66

3864±41

4

ИГАН2227

wood

k. 9, g. 1

3850±60

5

IGAN1900

male 40–50

k. 3, g. 4

3600±90

6

IGAN1887

male 45–55

k. 4, g. 1

3720±90

294

Calibrated range 1σ (BC) [start : end] relative area

[2201:2130] 0,70 [2086:2050] 0,30 [3693:3681] 0,1 [3664:3623] 0,33 [3604:3523] 0,61

[2457:2418] 0,24 [2408:2374] 0,22 [2368:2288] 0,54 [2456:2418] 0,18 [2407:2375] 0,16 [2367:2364] 0,01 [2351:2274] 0,42 [2256:2208] 0,23 [2129 : 2087] 0,13 [2047 : 1876] 0,76 [1842 : 1820] 0,07 [1797 : 1781] 0,04 [2280 : 2250] 0,08 [2230 : 2219] 0,03 [2211 : 2012] 0,82 [1999 : 1978] 0,07

δ13C, ‰

δ15N, ‰

-16.37

+12.3

-17.30

+16.08

-17.31

+15.03

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

APPENDICES 7

IGAN2280

male 45–55

k. 5, g. 6

Middle Yergueni Hills Khar-Zukha-1: N 46°10′, E 44°10′ 8 IGANhuman bone k. 5, g. 3B 1419 Temrta-I: N 46°31′15,60′′, E 043°36′18,50′′

3840±50

[2433 : 2422] 0,05 [2403 : 2380’ 0,11 [2348 : 2205] 0,84

n/a

n/a

3106±90

[1493 : 1475] 0,06 [1461 : 1263] 0,94

n/a

n/a

9

OxA18387

bos taurus teeth

k. 2, g. 8

3949±32

10

OxA18388

male 40–50

k. 2, g. 8

3945±31

[2563 : 2534] 0,20 [2493 : 2437] 0,49 [2420 : 2404] 0,11 [2378 : 2350] 0,18 [2549 : 2538] 0,08 [2490 : 2449] 0,51 [2446 : 2438] 0,05 [2420 : 2404] 0,13 [2378 : 2350] 0,21

-18.65

+9.72

-18.47

+12.94

Srubnaya culture: Table 10.14С data of the Caspian Steppes Srubnaya culture: 1900–1700 calBC №

Lab. No.

Sample

Caspian Plain Kanukovo: N 47°78′, E 44°10′ 1 IGANhuman bone 2704

Chilgir: N 45°34′36″, E 44°19′16″ 2 IGANhuman bone 2706

Kurgan/ Grave

14

Calibrated range 1σ (BC) [start : end] relative area

δ13C, ‰

k. 7, g. 3

3460±40

[1876 : 1841] 0,30 [1822 : 1796] 0,20 [1781 : 1737] 0,41 [1710 : 1695] 0,09

n/a

n/a

k. 3, g. 3

3548±50

[1953 : 1870] 0,62 [1846 : 1811] 0,21 [1804 : 1776] 0,17

-18.3

n/a

C age (BP)

295

δ15N, ‰

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES

APPENDIX 3 SEASONALITY DATA OF THE BRONZE AGE CASPIAN STEPPES GRAVES N.I. Shishlina, G.A. Klevezal. I.V. Kirillova, M.M. Pakhomov Table 1. Seasonality data of Steppe Majkop graves Kurgan/grave Sex/age Southern Yergueni Hills Mandjikiny-1 k. 14, g. 13 male 45–55 Eastern part of the Sravropol Hills Sharakhalsun-6 (Yakovlev, Samoilenko 2003) k. 2, g. 17 Child k. 2, g. 12 Child k. 5, g. 7 adult, child

season

summer

summer summer late spring, early summer

Table 2. Seasonality data of the Yamnaya graves at Mu-Sharet 4. Kurgan/grave Southern Yergueni k. 12, g. 1 k. 12, g. 2 k. 12, g. 5

Sex/age

Season

male 17–20 female? 14–17 male 35–45 child 6–7

autumn - late winter late autumn - winter late spring–beginning of summer

Table 3. Seasonality data of the Yamnaya graves and kurgans Kurgan/grave Kuma-Manych Depression Zunda-Tolga-1 Kurgan 3 Zunda-Tolga-3 k. 1, g. 4 k. 1, g. 8 Ostrovnoy k. 3, g. 33 k. 3, g. 34 Southern Yergueni Mandjikiny-1 k. 3, g. 2 k. 3, g. 1 k. 12, g. 4 k. 14, g. 10 k. 14, g. 12 Mandjikiny-2 k. 11, g. 3 k. 11, first east profile Mu-Sharet-4 k. 8, g. 1 k. 11, g. 3 k. 11, g. 4 Mu-Sharet-1 k. 1, g. 2 k. 3, g. 1 k. 2, g. 1 Shupta-1 k. 1, g. 5 k. 1, g. 2

Sex/age

Season

-

Summer

male 18–25

late spring–early summer

male≥ 50

summer

? 17–25 ?

late spring–early summer Summer

male 20–30 female ~ 15 male 25–35 male 20–25

winter - early spring Summer Summer deep autumn–winter? end of spring- beginning summer? late autumn

male 17–25? female 45–60 buried soil A1

Winter Winter

male 30–40 female? 14–17 (17– 18) female 25–30

middle–second half of the summer late spring–summer

child 5–6 ? male adult

late autumn or winter late spring–early summer Summer

female 18–20 male 20–30

late autumn–winter late autumn–winter

late autumn or winter

296

of

APPENDICES Middle Yergueni Hills Peschany -V k. 1, g. 3 male 40–50 k. 1, g. 2 child Western art of the Caspian Plain Chilgir k. 2, g. 3 ?

late summer - autumn winter

summer

Table 4. Seasonality of Steppe North Caucasus graves Kurgan/grave Kuma-Manych Depression Zunda-Tolga-3 k. 1, g. 11 Ostrovnoy k. 3, g. 36 Southern Yergueni Hills Mu-Sharet-1 k. 2, g. 3 k. 6, g. 4 Mandkikiny-2 k. 11, g. 4

Sex/age

Season

female? 14–15? male? 15–17

summer

adult

late spring

juvenilis juvenilis child 6–8 child 4–5

summer

juvenilis 12–14

spring–beginning of summer

summer (May–June)

Table 5. Seasonality data of the Early Catacomb graves Kurgan/grave Kuma-Manych Depression Zunda-Tolga-2 k. 1, g. 1 Zunda-Tolga-3 k. 1, g. 9 Ostrovnoy k. 3, g. 26 k. 3, g. 37, skeleton 1 k. 3, g. 37, skeleton 1 Baga-Burul k. 5, g .6 k. 5, g. 19 Southern Yergueni Hills Mandjikiny-1 k. 2, g. 1 k. 2, g. 2 k. 2, g. 7 k. 12, g. 2 k. 14, g .6 Mandjikiny-2 k. 11, g. 6 k. 11, g. 7 k. 37, g. 1 k. 37, g. 3 k. 37, g. 4 k. 42, g. 1 k. 45, g. 2 k. 54, g. 1 k. 54, g. 3 k. 54, g. 6

Sex/age

Season

male adultus

summer

cenotaph

second half of spring–early summer

male adult male 17–25 female 17–25

summer end of spring–beginning of summer February? March? summer?

male 30–35 cenotaph

summer summer

male 45–55 juvenilis child 3–5 male 45–55 female 40–55 juvenilis

winter late spring spring late summer–beginning of autumn

juvenilis juvenilis child 7–9 male? 15–18 child 6 female 40–45 child 1–1,5 male 17–20 child 9–10 child 11–13 female 25–30 newborn child

second half of spring - summer late autumn- winter late autumn- winter winter early spring End of summer summer late autumn - winter late autumn May - July late spring–early summer

Middle Yergueni Hills Peschany-V

297

BRONZE AGE OF THE CASPIAN STEPPES k. 1, g. 1 k. 1, g. 5 k. 2, g. 1 k. 2, g. 3 k. 3, g. 1 k. 3, g. 2 k. 4, g. 1 k. 5, g. 2 k. 5, g. 6 Temrta-III k. 1, g. 1 k. 1, g. 4 Temrta-V k. 1, g. 2

juvenilis? 11–13 male 50–55 child around 9 female 30–40 child 10–11, child 8 male 45–55 male 40–55 male 50–60 female 30–40 child 6 months child ≈4

winter early spring early spring? summer? late winter–early spring

female 35–45 male 40–45

summer summer

male 17–25 child 17–25

summer

winter late summer - autumn summer summer summer

Table 6. Seasonality data of the Yamnaya-Catacomb graves Kurgan/grave Southern Yergueni Hills Mandjikiny-1 k. 5, g. 1 k. 19, g. 1 k. 19, g. 2 Mu-Sharet-1 k. 8, g. 3

Sex/age

Season

female? ~ 40–45 female > 55 male 35–40

First half of summer summer summer

female 17–19

early summer

Table 7. Seasonality data of the East Manych Catacomb graves Kurgan/grave Kuma-Manych Depression Zunda-Tolga-1 k. 11, g. 11 k. 4, g. 1 k. 5, g. 1 k. 7, g. 1 k. 8, g. 1 k. 9, g. 1 k. 10, g. 2

Sex/age

Season

? male 60–65 female ~ 18 cenotaph female > 55 male? 40–45 female 50- 60 child 1,5–2 male ~ 35

spring summer spring summer autumn, winter or early spring spring second half of summer

child male? mat-senil female? adult-maturus ?

end of spring–beginning of summer summer

child 12-14? male adultus female? 17–25 ?

first half of summer first half of summer first half of summer first half of summer

cenotaph cenotaph ?

summer summer winter or early summer

k. 3, g. 21

child 6–8 months

summer

k. 3, g. 24 k. 3, g. 28 k. 3, g. 30 k. 3, g. 32

child 1–2 female 17–25 ? female? 40–45

summer summer late spring–early summer late spring–early summer

k. 10, g. 3 Zunda-Tolga-2 k. 1, g. 4 k. 1, g. 5 k. 2, g. 2 Zunda-Tolga-3 k. 1, g. 1 k. 1, g. 2 k. 1, g. 3 k. 1, g. 6 Ostrovnoy k. 3, g. 8 k. 3, g. 9 k. 3, g. 10

summer (May–July)

June

298

APPENDICES Baga-Burul k. 1, g. 2 k. 4, g. 1 k. 5, vessel, ritual place 11 k. 5, g. 8 k. 5, vessel, ritual place 5 k. 5, g. 5 k. 5, g. 7 k. 5, g. 11 k. 5, g. 12 k. 5, g. 21 Southern Yergueni Hills Mandjikiny-1 k. 1, g. 2 k. 2, g. 7 k. 3, g. 3 k. 14, g. 1 k. 5, g. 2

k. 14, g. 5 Mandjikiny-2 k. 11, ritual place 16 Mu-Sharet-4 k. 2, g. 4 k. 9, g. 1 k. 12, g. 4 Mu-Sharet-1 k. 2, g. 4 k. 5, g. 2 Middle Yergueni Hills Peschany-V k. 1, g. 6 k. 4, g. 3 k. 4, g. 5 k. 5, g. 5 Temrta V k. 1, g. 4 Caspian Plain Staritsa k. 12, g. 3 k. 30, g. 5 Chilgir k. 2, g. 1 k. 3, g. 2 k. 3, g. 4 k. 3, g. 6 k. 4, g. 2 k. 4, g. 3 k. 4, g. 7 k. 5, g. 1 Black Lands Ulan-Kheech k.1, buried soil A1

? ? male? male 45–55

summer late spring –summer summer (June?) summer summer summer

cenotaph female 25–35 unborn child female? 18–25 male ≥ 45

summer summer summer summer

female 35–45 ? cenotaph male 30–35 female adultus-maturus child 4–6 child 6–8 newborn child ?

spring - summer spring summer late summer–beginning of autumn April, May

second half of spring - summer

-

late summer

? male 40–45 male 50–60

July summer summer

? female 25–40

late spring late spring–early summer

male 30–35 child 3–4 child 8–9 male 50–60

summer summer summer summer

female 30–35 newborn child

summer

? ?

summer Second half of May–June, August– beginning of September

? child 9 ? female 25–35 male 40–50 ? ? ?

summer May - June May - June late summer summer early Autumn winter summer (June)

-

winter?

299