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Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation IEREK Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development
Haroun Chenchouni · Helder I. Chaminé · Zhihua Zhang · Nabil Khelifi · Attila Ciner · Imran Ali · Mingjie Chen Editors
Recent Research on Hydrogeology, Geoecology and Atmospheric Sciences Proceedings of the 1st MedGU, Istanbul 2021 (Volume 1)
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation IEREK Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development Editorial Board Member Anna Laura Pisello, Department of Engineering, University of Perugia, Italy Dean Hawkes, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Hocine Bougdah, University for the Creative Arts, Farnham, UK Federica Rosso, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy Hassan Abdalla, University of East London, London, UK Sofia-Natalia Boemi, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece Nabil Mohareb, Faculty of Architecture—Design and Built Environment, Beirut Arab University, Beirut, Lebanon Saleh Mesbah Elkaffas, Arab Academy for Science, Technology and Maritime Transport, Cairo, Egypt Emmanuel Bozonnet, University of La Rochelle, La Rochelle, France Gloria Pignatta, University of Perugia, Italy Yasser Mahgoub, Qatar University, Qatar Luciano De Bonis, University of Molise, Italy Stella Kostopoulou, Regional and Tourism Development, University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece Biswajeet Pradhan, Faculty of Engineering and IT, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, Australia Md. Abdul Mannan, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia Chaham Alalouch, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman Iman O. Gawad, Helwan University, Cairo, Egypt Anand Nayyar , Graduate School, Duy Tan University, Da Nang, Vietnam Series Editor Mourad Amer, International Experts for Research Enrichment and Knowledge Exchange (IEREK), Cairo, Egypt
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation (ASTI) is a series of peer-reviewed books based on important emerging research that redefines the current disciplinary boundaries in science, technology and innovation (STI) in order to develop integrated concepts for sustainable development. It not only discusses the progress made towards securing more resources, allocating smarter solutions, and rebalancing the relationship between nature and people, but also provides in-depth insights from comprehensive research that addresses the 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs) as set out by the UN for 2030. The series draws on the best research papers from various IEREK and other international conferences to promote the creation and development of viable solutions for a sustainable future and a positive societal transformation with the help of integrated and innovative science-based approaches. Including interdisciplinary contributions, it presents innovative approaches and highlights how they can best support both economic and sustainable development, through better use of data, more effective institutions, and global, local and individual action, for the welfare of all societies. The series particularly features conceptual and empirical contributions from various interrelated fields of science, technology and innovation, with an emphasis on digital transformation, that focus on providing practical solutions to ensure food, water and energy security to achieve the SDGs. It also presents new case studies offering concrete examples of how to resolve sustainable urbanization and environmental issues in different regions of the world. The series is intended for professionals in research and teaching, consultancies and industry, and government and international organizations. Published in collaboration with IEREK, the Springer ASTI series will acquaint readers with essential new studies in STI for sustainable development. ASTI series has now been accepted for Scopus (September 2020). All content published in this series will start appearing on the Scopus site in early 2021.
Haroun Chenchouni · Helder I. Chaminé · Zhihua Zhang · Nabil Khelifi · Attila Ciner · Imran Ali · Mingjie Chen Editors
Recent Research on Hydrogeology, Geoecology and Atmospheric Sciences Proceedings of the 1st MedGU, Istanbul 2021 (Volume 1)
Editors Haroun Chenchouni Higher National School of Forests Khenchela, Algeria Zhihua Zhang Shandong University Jinan, China Attila Ciner Istanbul Technical University Istanbul, Türkiye Mingjie Chen Sultan Qaboos University Muscat, Oman
Helder I. Chaminé School of Engineering (ISEP) Polytechnic of Porto Porto, Portugal Nabil Khelifi DAAD Alumni Researcher Heidelberg, Germany Imran Ali Jamia Millia Islamia University New Delhi, India
ISSN 2522-8714 ISSN 2522-8722 (electronic) Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation ISBN 978-3-031-43168-5 ISBN 978-3-031-43169-2 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43169-2 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Paper in this product is recyclable.
About the Conference
About MedGU
Steps toward the creation of a Mediterranean Geosciences Union (MedGU) Mediterranean Geosciences Union (MedGU) aims to create a unique federation that brings together and represents the Mediterranean geoscience community specializing in the areas of Earth, planetary and space sciences. MedGU will be structured along the lines of American Geophysical Union (AGU) and European Geosciences Union (EGU). The plan is to establish a large organization for the Mediterranean region that is more influential than any one local geoscience society with the objective of fostering fundamental geoscience research, as well as applied research that addresses key societal and environmental challenges. MedGU’s overarching vision is to contribute to the realization of a sustainable future for humanity and for the planet. The creation of this union will give the Earth sciences more influence in policy-making and in the implementation of solutions to preserve the natural environment and to create more sustainable societies for the people living in the Mediterranean region. It is hoped that the union will also provide opportunities to Mediterranean geoscientists to undertake interdisciplinary collaborative research. MedGU plans to recognize the work of the most active geoscientists with a number of awards and medals. Although MedGU has not yet been officially inaugurated, its first annual meeting is planned for November 2021 in Istanbul. This will provide a forum to achieve a consensus for the formation of this non-profit international union of geoscientists. Membership will be open to individuals who have a professional engagement with the Earth, planetary and space sciences, and related studies, including students and retired seniors. Nabil Khelifi and Attila Ciner have taken an ambitious approach to the launch of the first MedGU Annual Meeting 2021 and hope to develop it in the near future into the largest international geoscience event in the Mediterranean and the broader MENA region. Its mission is to support geoscientists based in this region by establishing a Global Geoscience Congress.
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It is expected that hundreds of participants from all over the world will attend this first MedGU Annual Meeting 2021, making it one of the largest and most prominent geosciences events in the region. So far, over 1300 abstracts have been submitted from 95 countries. The meeting’s sessions will cover a wide range of topics with more details available on the conference tracks. This first 2021 Annual Meeting will have a “hybrid” format, with both in-person and virtual participation. Springer, its official partner, will publish the proceedings in a book series (indexed in Scopus) as well as a number of special issues in diverse scientific journals (for more details, see Publications). The official journal of MedGU is Mediterranean Geoscience Reviews (Springer).
Conference Tracks The scientific committee of the MedGU invites research papers on all cross-cutting themes of Earth sciences, with a main focus on the following 16 conference tracks: • Track 1. Atmospheric Sciences, Meteorology, Climatology, Oceanography • Track 2. Biogeochemistry, Geobiology, Geoecology, Geoagronomy • Track 3. Earthquake Seismology and Geodesy • Track 4. Environmental Earth Sciences • Track 5. Applied and Theoretical Geophysics • Track 6. Geo-Informatics and Remote Sensing • Track 7. Geochemistry, Mineralogy, Petrology, Volcanology • Track 8. Geological Engineering, Geotechnical Engineering • Track 9. Geomorphology, Geography, Soil Science, Glaciology, Geoarchaeology, Geoheritage • Track 10. Hydrology, Hydrogeology, Hydrochemistry • Track 11. Marine Geosciences, Historical Geology, Paleoceanography, Paleoclimatology • Track 12. Numerical and Analytical Methods in Mining Sciences and Geomechanics • Track 13. Petroleum and Energy Engineering, Petroleum Geochemistry • Track 14. Sedimentology, Stratigraphy, Paleontology, Geochronology • Track 15. Structural Geology, Tectonics and Geodynamics, Petroleum Geology • Track 16. Caves and Karst, a special session on the occasion of International Year of Caves and Karst
About the Conference
About the Conference Steering Committee
Executive Committee
Honorary Chair
A. M. Celâl Sengör Associate Editor, Mediterranean Geosciences Reviews (Springer) Eurasia Institute of Earth Sciences, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey
Organizing Chair
Attila Ciner
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About the Conference Steering Committee
MedGU (Interim) President, Founding Editor-in-Chief, Mediterranean Geosciences Reviews (Springer), Chief Editor—Tracks 11 and 14, Arabian Journal of Geosciences (Springer), Eurasia Institute of Earth Sciences, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey
Conference Manager
Mohamed Sahbi Moalla Performer—The Leading Conference Organizer, Tunisia, Journal Coordinator, Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration (Springer), ISET, University of Sfax, Tunisia
Conference Support
Mourad Amer Founder and CEO of IEREK, Editor of ASTI Series (Springer/IEREK), IEREK, Alexandria, Egypt
About the Conference Steering Committee
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Conference Supervisor
Nabil Khelifi Senior Publishing Editor, MENA Program, MedGU-21 Supervisor, Springer, a part of Springer Nature, Germany
Local Organizing Team Attila Ciner, Eurasia Institute of Earth Sciences, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey Cengiz Yildirim, Eurasia Institute of Earth Sciences, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey M. Akif Sarikaya, Eurasia Institute of Earth Sciences, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey Tolga Gorum, Eurasia Institute of Earth Sciences, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey Ömer Yetemen, Eurasia Institute of Earth Sciences, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey Mustafa Üstüner, Artvin Çoruh University, Artvin, Turkey
Online Organizing Team M. Sahbi Moalla, Performer—The Leading Conference Organizer, Tunisia Melek Rebai, Performer—The Leading Conference Organizer, Tunisia M. Bassem Abdelhedi, Performer—The Leading Conference Organizer, Tunisia Oumayma Abidi, Performer—The Leading Conference Organizer, Tunisia Toka M. Amer, IEREK—International Experts for Research Enrichment and Knowledge Exchange, Egypt
Advisory Committee
Hans Thybo
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About the Conference Steering Committee
President of International Lithosphere Program (ILP), Editor-in-Chief of Earth and Planetary Science Letters (EPSL), Professor at: • Eurasia Institute of Earth Sciences, Istanbul Technical University Turkey • Center for Earth Evolution and Dynamics, University of Oslo, Norway
A. M. Celâl Sengör Associate Editor, Mediterranean Geosciences Reviews (Springer), Eurasia Institute of Earth Sciences, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey
François Roure Chief Editor—Track 15, Arabian Journal of Geosciences (Springer), IFP—Energies Nouvelles, France
Giovanni Bertotti
About the Conference Steering Committee
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Associate Editor, Mediterranean Geosciences Reviews (Springer), Geoscience and Engineering, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands
Abdullah Al-Amri Founder and Editor-in-Chief, Arabian Journal of Geosciences (Springer), King Saud University, Saudi Arabia
Akiça Bahri Director for Africa at the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Ghana (2005–2010), Coordinator of the African Water Facility (AWF) at the African Development Bank (2010–2015), Director of Research at the National Research Institute for Agricultural Engineering, Water, and Forestry (INRGREF), Tunisia (since 2016), Professor at the National Agricultural Institute of Tunisia (INAT), Tunisia (since 2017), Awardee of the International Water Association (IWA) Women in Water Prize (2018), Associate Editor, Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration (Springer) (since 2019), Minister of Agriculture, Water Resources and Fisheries in Tunisia (2019–2020)
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About the Conference Steering Committee
Program Committee
Mustapha Meghraoui Editorial Board Member, Mediterranean Geosciences Reviews (Springer), Editor of Arabian Journal of Geosciences (Springer), IPG Strasbourg, France
Sami Khomsi University Tunis El-Manar, Tunis, Tunisia, and King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Scientific Committee
François Roure Chief Editor—Track 15, Arabian Journal of Geosciences (Springer), IFP—Energies Nouvelles, France
About the Conference Steering Committee
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Anastasia Kiratzi Professor of Seismology, Faculty of Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
Broder Merkel Chief Editor—Track 10, Arabian Journal of Geosciences (Springer), Associate Editor of Environmental Earth Science (Springer), Publisher of Freiberg Online Geoscience (FOG), Institute of Geology, Technische Universität Bergakademie, Freiberg, Germany
Elena Xoplaki Chief Editor, Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration (Springer), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Germany
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About the Conference Steering Committee
Publications Committee Chair
Attila Ciner MedGU (Interim) President, Founding Editor-in-Chief, Mediterranean Geosciences Reviews (Springer), Chief Editor—Tracks 11 and 14, Arabian Journal of Geosciences (Springer), Eurasia Institute of Earth Sciences, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey
Zeynal Abiddin Erguler Chief Editor—Track 8, Arabian Journal of Geosciences (Springer), Dumlupinar University, Kutahya, Turkey
Alina Polonia
About the Conference Steering Committee
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The National Research Council (CNR), Institute of Marine Sciences (ISMAR), Bologna, Italy
Amjad Kallel Chief Editor—Track 4, Arabian Journal of Geosciences (Springer), Managing and Development Editor, Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration (Springer), ENIS, University of Sfax, Tunisia
Mourad Bezzeghoud School of Sciences and Technology (ECT), Insititute of Earth Sciences (IIFA), University of Évora, Portugal
Hesham El-Askary Professor of Remote Sensing and Earth Systems Science, Editor of Arabian Journal of Geosciences (Springer),
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About the Conference Steering Committee
Director Computational and Data Sciences Graduate Programs, Center of Excellence in Earth Systems Modeling and Observations, Schmid College of Science and Technology, Chapman University, USA
Zakaria Hamimi President of ArabGU, IAGETH VP for Africa and IAGETH National Chapter for Egypt, Editor of Arabian Journal of Geosciences (Springer), Professor, Benha University, Benha, Egypt
Outreach Committee
Hasnaa Chennaoui Aoudjehane Member of the Nomenclature Committee of the Meteoritical Society, Laureate, “Prix Paul Doistau–Émile Blutet” from the French Academy of Sciences, Editor of Arabian Journal of Geosciences (Springer), Professor, Hassan II University of Casablanca, Morocco
About the Conference Steering Committee
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Catherine Kuzucuoglu Associate Editor, Mediterranean Geosciences Reviews (Springer), Research Director Emeritus, CNRS, Laboratoire de Géographie Physique, UMR 8591, Meudon, France
Preface
The Earth consists of the interlinkages of four spheres: the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere, whose structure and functioning comprise the living environment and diverse ecosystems, including human societies. Climatic conditions, steepness of slopes, river dynamics, groundwater and water systems, soil fertility, diversity of flora and fauna, the abundance of edible species, ecosystem services of a forest, and the aesthetic value of a landscape are some examples of elements of interest to society. Human activities affected the structure and functioning of Earth’s spheres. Societies changed the biosphere and its relationship with other spheres significantly by disrupting the insertion/depletion scheme within these spheres. Societal impacts have long been the subject of observation, concern, and calls for action. They vary in time and space according to demographic, technical, cultural and political criteria. Over the past century, societies have modified ecosystems faster than in history to meet the demand for energy, food, freshwater, timber, fiber, and miscellaneous goods. On the other hand, this degradation of ecosystem services is expected to increase in the forthcoming decades. Although societies are a component of the biosphere, they occupy a specific niche as a unique sphere called the anthroposphere. In fact, societies play a key role in the functioning and interlinkage of other spheres by capturing and changing resources. Human-induced modifications are not limited to the biosphere or certain other spheres’ compartments. They are of unprecedented magnitude, which leads to defining the so-called Anthropocene. In return, the components of the Earth system retrospectively have a spatial organization and functioning that considerably affect the development and functioning of societies, for example, in terms of exposure to hazards, biological productivity, and hydrological potential. Accordingly, these components are structured by natural biophysical and geological processes but are also the subject of law, practices, and social perceptions. This volume provides a wide range of studies on different components of the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere. These original and recent studies examine geo-environmental issues and challenges with a focus on the Middle East and Mediterranean region and surrounding areas, particularly SE Asia. This proceedings volume is based on the accepted papers for either oral/poster presentations or selected for online publication during the first Mediterranean Geosciences Union (MedGU-21), a Springer Conference organized in-person and online in November 2021 in Istanbul, Turkey. The book offers a broad range of recent studies that discuss the latest advances in geo-environmental and hydrogeosciences from diverse backgrounds, including sustainable water resources management, groundwater assessment, biogeochemistry, geoecology, climate change, and atmospheric and oceanic dynamics. In addition, it exposes recent and new visions and ideas of experienced scientists from, but not limited to, research institutes in the Mediterranean and Middle East region on how the understanding of hydrogeological, oceanic, climatological, and ecological processes is the key to improving best design practices in the sustainable and environmental management. The themes of scientific chapters included in this volume are structured into three parts: Part One—Hydrology, Hydrogeology, Hydrogeochemistry, and Water Resources; Part Two—Biogeochemistry, Geobiology, and Geoecology; Part Three—Atmospheric Sciences, Meteorology, Climatology, and Oceanography. The new results published in this volume xix
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cover diverse topics that improve the reader’s understanding of environmental impacts and the state of Earth’s environmental spheres. The volume also maximizes the reader’s insights into emerging bio-geoscientific issues and challenges related to components of the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere. It provides new insights into scientific developments for the natural use and protection of the Earth’s water, air and land resources, the rehabilitation and reclamation of disturbed lands, and the conservation of natural resources. Eminent and high-ranked international scholars presented hydrogeological, ecological, and atmospheric studies to characterize, evaluate, manage, and protect Earth systems. The proceedings volume will interest scientists, practitioners, and policymakers in the fields of hydrology, hydrogeology, ecology, biogeochemistry, climatology, oceanography, engineering, and geosciences. The book will also be of value to under- and postgraduate students and environment-related professionals for advanced studies on the state of the Earth’s spheres. Khenchela, Algeria Porto, Portugal Jinan, China New Delhi, India Heidelberg, Germany Istanbul, Turkey Muscat, Oman July 2022
Haroun Chenchouni Helder I. Chaminé Zhihua Zhang Imran Ali Nabil Khelifi Attila Ciner Mingjie Chen
Contents
Hydrology, Hydrogeology, Hydrogeochemistry and Water Resources Impact of Potential Evapotranspiration Estimation on River Discharge in the Casamance Basin (Southern Senegal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Mamadou Lamine Mbaye, Mouhamadou Bamba Sylla, Samo Diatta, Fatou Khoule and Assane Ndiaye Hydrochemical Attributes and Their Spatial Variation in the Rainwater of Kuwait. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Dhanu Radha Samayamanthula, Chidambaram Sabarathinam and Farah K. Al-Ajeel A Tool in R for Easy Hydroclimatic Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Pedro Rau, Fiorela Castillón and Luc Bourrel Simulation of the Extreme Flood Events Using Historical Data in South-Eastern Tunisia: Case of Wadi El Hamma Catchment, Gabes Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Sabrine Jemai, Christophe Bouvier, Amjad Kallel, Belgacem Agoubi and Habib Abida Study of a Natural Risk Case: The December 2020 Flood and Its Effects on the Infrastructures of El-Kantara River (Jijel, Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Chahra Yellas, Riad Benzaid and Mustapha Tekkouk Study of the Vulnerability to Flooding Risks in the City of Meknes Through the Use of GIS and Hydraulic Modeling by HEC-RAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Ali Essahlaoui, Abdelaziz Rhazi, Narjisse Essahlaoui, Amina Kassou, Abdelhadi El Ouali, My Hachem Aouragh, Abdellah El Hmaidi and Anton Van Rompaey Flood Risk Management Plans in Volcanic Islands: Analysis, Discussion, and Lessons Learned in the Canary Islands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Juan C. Santamarta, Jesica Rodríguez-Martín and Noelia Cruz-Pérez Hydrological Flows and Flood Protection: Case Study of the Mexa Dam (Mafragh River Basin, North-East Algeria). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Samia Affoun Ikhlef, Azeddine Mebarki and Mohamed Taabni Monitoring and Control System for Flood Forecasting Forehead of Climate Change and the “El Niño” Phenomenon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Ángel Ruiz, Richard Serrano, Joseline Espejo, Dannetth Arévalo and Santiago Ordoñez Fixed Mass Analysis for the Assessment of the Multifractal Spectrum of River Networks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Leonardo Primavera and Emilia Florio
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Changes in Runoff Distribution in River Basins on Territory of Slovak Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Jana Poorová, Lotta Blaškovičova and Eugen Kullman Studying Sedimentation of the Ghrib Dam Using Model Builder ArcGIS Application. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Souhila Benkaci and Salah Eddine Ghecham Recharge of the Senonian Aquifer of the Cretaceous Basin of Errachidia (Southeast Morocco): Contribution of Hydrochemical, Hydrodynamic, and Isotopic Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Allal Roubil, Anas El Ouali, Fouad Moudden, Abdelhadi Elouali, Ali Essahlaoui and Abdellah Elhmaidi Hydrogeochemical Perspective of Groundwater of Southwest Punjab, India . . . . . . 61 Shefali Chander, Shruti Bansal, Kritika Sharma, Devanshi Dhiman and Susanta Paikaray Groundwater Quality of Selected Boreholes in Parts of Lagos, Nigeria. . . . . . . . . . . 67 Enovwo Odjegba Multivariate Statistical Analysis for the Assessment of Hydrogeochemical Characteristics of River Ganga at Patna, India. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Anupma Kumari, Mohammed Aasif Sulaiman, Mohammad Masroor Zafar and Ravindra Kumar Sinha Numerical Simulation of Contaminant Transport in Subsurface Soil Using MODFLOW Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 B. Bincy, C.P. Devatha and Arun Kumar Thalla Identifying the Sources and the Contributions of Inland Sediment and Litter Pollutants to Enhance the Black Sea Through Nature-Based Solutions. . . . . . . . . . . 83 George N. Zaimes, Paschalis Koutalakis, Georgios Gkiatas, Valasia Iakovoglou, Mirela Marinescu, Oana Ristea, Andranik Ghulijanyan, Luiza Gevorgyan, Ecaterini Kuharuk, Ilya Trombitsky, Mustafa Tufekcioglu, Mehmet Yavuz, Aydin Tufekcioglu and Ahmet Duman Assessment of Groundwater Non-point Source Pollution of Nitrate in the Braga Aquifer System (Tunisia). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Nour El Houda Boughattas, Anis Gasmi, Samira Maatallah, Zied Borgi, Safa Gammoudi, Hichem Hajlaoui and Mongi Hamdi Hydrogeochemical Groundwater Modeling in Waste Disposal Site, BKB Landfill, Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Sukanlayanee Saengsri, Sarunya Promkotra, Thidarat Cotanont and Tawiwan Kangsadan Prediction Machine Learning Methods for Dissolved Oxygen Value of the Sakarya Basin in Turkey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Hatice Citakoglu, Yusuf Ozeren and Betul Tuba Gemici Contribution of Hydrochemical and Isotopic Tracers to the Investigation of Water Resources in Ouham Watershed (Lake Chad Sub-basin). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Bruno Nguerekossi, Lhoussaine Bouchaou, Eric Foto, Gaétan Moloto-A-Kenguemba, Mohammed Hssaisoune, Barthel Koguengba Kogbo, Gildas Doyemet, Asma Abou Ali and Kamel Zouari
Contents
Contents
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Carbon Footprint in Galleries and Wells in the Canary Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Noelia Cruz-Pérez, Jesica Rodríguez-Martín and Juan C. Santamarta Estimating the Hydraulic Conductivity of Chalk Aquifer Using Slug Tests in Beauvais (Northern Part of France). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Cihan Okutan, Lahcen Zouhri, Michaël Goujon, Pierre-Evan Meurant and Bedri Kurtulus Study of the Underflow and the Deep Water Table by Geophysical Methods (Vertical Electrical Soundings and Electrical Tomography) in the Oum Lagsab Area (Central Tunisia). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Abdelkader Mhamdi, Marwa Ghaib, Mouez Gouasmia, Lahmadi Moumni, Issa Ounissi and Mohamed Soussi Geophysical and Hydrogeochemical Aspects of Two Low-Temperature Geothermal Reservoirs Located in Central Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Mario Alberto Hernández Hernández and Tomás González Morán Integrated Geophysical Characterization of Hot Spring Aquifer in Mantin, Negeri Sembilan (Malaysia). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Xin Yi Lee, Adila Fateha Abdul Mudtalib and Nordiana Mohd Muztaza Assessment of the Geometry of Utilized Aquifers in Kuwait Through Borehole Geophysical Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Amjad Aliewi and Harish Bhandary Assessment of Saltwater Intrusion in a Continental Aquifer in Central-Eastern Tunisia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Soumaia M’nassri, Asma El Amri, Imen M’himdi and Rajouene Majdoub Simulation of Saltwater Intrusion into Coastal Aquifer of the Western Niger Delta. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Oghenero Ohwoghere-Asuma, Felix Mensah Oteng and Duke Ophori Modeling of Seawater Intrusion in Karst Area of Tuban Region, East Java Province, Indonesia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Arief Rachmansyah, Fajar Rakhmanto, Gabriel Listyawan, Adi Susilo and Azizi Dermawan Evaluation of the Geothermal Resources of Esenyurt District (Istanbul). . . . . . . . . . 149 Ali Malik Gözübol, Murat Beren, Hakan Hoşgörmez and Doğacan Özcan The Importance of Sustainable Management of the Geologic Substratum for Exploitable High-Quality Mineral Resources: Mineral Waters in the Călimani Mountains and the Adjacent Areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Ruxandra Ionce and Florin Florea Hydrogeological, Geochemical, and Isotopic Characterization of the Thermal Waters of Hammam Righa (North-Central Algeria). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Messaouda Belaid-Abdelouahab, Rachid Abdelouahab, Adnane Souffi Moulla, Ramdane Said, Mohammed El-Hocine Cherchali, Dalale Khous and SidAli Ouarezki Determining the Geothermal Potential of the Basiskele Field (Kocaeli, Turkey) Using the Soil Gas Method and Hydrogeochemical Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Hakan Hosgormez, Dogacan Ozcan, Ali Malik Gozubol, Murat Beren and Cigdem Cakiroglu
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Management of Groundwater in Overexploited Areas in Gujarat: Use of Micro Irrigation Systems (MIS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Mona Khakhar and Aishani Goswami Achieving Sustainable Development Goal 6 in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Furat Al-Faraj and Mohammed Nanekely Water Pricing: Balance Between Cost Recovery, Social Equity, and Crops Profitability—Tunisian Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Hacib El Amami, Ali Chebil and Abdelaziz Zaïri Dynamic Adaptive Policy Pathways for a Coastal Catchment in an Arid Climate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Abrar Habib, Dilek Eren AKYUZ and Qazi Mahmood Alam Biogeochemistry, Geobiology and Geoecology Plant Biodiversity in Semiarid Regions: Modeling and Importance of Regeneration Methods for Overexploited Plants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Souad Mehalaine 48-Year Carbon and Nitrogen Stocks Variation in Forest and Agricultural Soils in Northern Tunisia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Ahlem Tlili, Imene Dridi, Sergio Saia and Calogero Schillaci Assessing the Dynamics of a South Mediterranean Dryland-Type Forest Kind by Logistic Regression and Cellular Automata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Hassan Chafik, Safae Belamfedel Alaoui and Mohamed Berrada Geographic Object-Based Image Analysis for Mangrove Species Distribution Mapping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Muhamad Faqih Hidayatullah, Muhammad Kamal and Pramaditya Wicaksono Wind Farms Changing the Phenology of Grassland Vegetation in Semi-Arid Areas (China). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Zhe Liu, Guoqing Li and Gang Wang Alien Vascular Flora in Mediterranean Terrestrial Landscapes of Greece. . . . . . . . . 215 Alexandra D. Solomou, Rafaelia Germani, Christos Galanis, Styliani Kakara, Koralia Vallianou and Thomas Sarros Phytochemical Content and Biological Activity of Pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) Shells. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Manel Elakremi, Leyre Sillero, Lazher Ayed, Jalel Labidi and Younes Moussaoui Irrigation Water Requirement and Crop Coefficient of the Desert Plant Cleome amblyocarpa (Cleomaceae). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Suzan Shahin and Mohammed Al Yafei Ecological, Geochemical, and Microbiological Evaluation of Soil Properties in the Territory of Smelovsky Oil Field, Russia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Clement Ngun, Yekaterina Pleshakova, Mikhail Reshetnikov, Sergey Shkodin, Sergey Astarkin, Dler Salam and Maxim Larionov Assessment of Water Quality and Phytoplankton Abundance in Tuba Island, Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Hasmida Muhamad, Ernieza Suhana Mokhtar, Muhammad Akmal Roslani, Noraini Nasirun, Idrees Mohammed Oludare, Masayu Norman and Zuraihan Mohammad
Contents
Contents
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Distribution of Some Rotifers in Algerian Dams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Nassima Doukhandji, Ghiles Smaoune, Sonia Ould Rouis, Djaouida Bouchelouche and Abdeslem Arab Importance of Trophic Functions in the Distribution of Benthic Macroinvertebrates in Rivers: Case of Wadi El Harrach, Algeria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Mouna Hafiane, Mohamed Ayoub Rahal, Amina Zidane, Céria Hamache, Imene Saal, Djaouida Bouchelouche and Abdeslem Arab Atmospheric Sciences, Meteorology, Climatology, Oceanography Trend Analysis of Snowfall Data for the Central Anatolian Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Cavit Berkay Yılmaz, Vahdettin Demir, Mehmet Faik Sevimli and Fikret Demir Assessment of Past Precipitation Extreme Events Over the Qassim Region in Saudi Arabia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Abdullah Alodah Impact of Climate Change on Extreme Precipitation and Flood Flows in the Eastern Black Sea Region-Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Hakan Aksu, Hafzullah Aksoy, Mahmut Cetin, Mehmet Evrens, Said Genar Yaldiz, Omar Alsenjar and Isilsu Yildirim Study and Identification of Areas (Peru) Affected by Agricultural Droughts Using the Vegetation Index and Surface Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Jose Coello and Rodolfo Moreno Forecasting Climatic Stress on Water Security for Different Emission Scenarios in Dhaka (Bangladesh). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 Nazwa Tahsin and Sonia Binte Murshed Analysis of Wind Speed Series at Four Sites in Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Karla Pereyra-Castro, Ernesto Caetano and Ubaldo Miranda-Miranda On the Consistency of Weighted Sum-Based Line-By-Line Models for Efficient Detection of the Forest Fires by the Radiance Enhancement Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Rehan Siddiqui, Rajinder K. Jagpal, Sanjar M. Abrarov and Brendan M. Quine Monitoring of the Modulation of the Sandspits Through Grain-Size Analysis and Satellite Images Observation: Case of the Coast of Reghaia (Algiers). . . . . . . . . 277 Imene Yaiche Temam, Mohamed Bouhmadouche, Yacine Hemdane, Chawki Zerrouki and Souhila Kasmi Observation and Analysis of Nearshore Sediment Transport During the Simultaneous Action of Waves and Swells: A Case of Boumerdes (Algeria). . . . . . . . 281 Souhila Kasmi, Yacine Hemdane, Nacer Kessali and Chawki Zerrouki Annual and Seasonal Variability of the Littoral Drift at Aveiro, Northwestern Coast of Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Paulo A. Silva, Nuno Monteiro, Tiago Oliveira, Tiago Abreu and Carlos Coelho Instability and Evolution of Nonlinearly Interacting Capillary Gravity Waves Over Finite Depth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 Shibam Manna, Tanmoy Pal and Asoke Kumar Dhar
About the Editors
r. Haroun Chenchouni is an associate professor and a reD search scientist (Ecologist) at the Higher National School of Forests (Khenchela, Algeria). He is a former associate professor at the University of Tebessa (Algeria). He holds a M.Sc. (Magister) in Dryland Ecology from the University of Ouargla (Algeria) and a doctorate degree in Ecology and Environment from the University of Batna. He graduated as an engineer in Plant Ecology and Forest Ecosystems from the Department of Biological Sciences (University of Batna, Algeria). His research interests are fairly broad; he uses statistical modeling approaches to understand how natural environments, mainly climatic and edaphic factors, and anthropogenic perturbations influence biological interactions, shape trends in population dynamics, and influence community diversity. He uses various biological models to investigate biological interactions and community ecology of arid and semiarid ecosystems of North Africa. At various universities in Algeria, he teaches forest ecology, biostatistics, and ecological modeling. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed publications and internationally recognized research papers. He is also involved in national and international research projects. In 2017, he joined the Arabian Journal of Geosciences (AJGS) as an associate editor. Then in 2019, he was assigned as a chief editor of Topic 2 (biogeochemistry, geobiology, geoecology, geoagronomy) to handle submissions dealing with various fields of biogeosciences, geoecology, climate change, plant and soil science, agricultural and forest environment, and environmental sciences. rof. Helder I. Chaminé is a skilled geologist and a profesP sor of engineering geosciences at the School of Engineering (ISEP) of the Polytechnic of Porto, with over 32 years of experience in multidisciplinary geosciences research, consultancy, and practice. He studied geological engineering and geology (B.Sc., 1990) at the Universities of Aveiro and Porto (Portugal), respectively. He received his Ph.D. in geology at the University of Porto in 2000 and spent his postdoctoral research in applied geosciences at the University of Aveiro (2001–2003). In 2011, he received his Habilitation (D.Sc.) in geosciences from Aveiro University. Before joining the academy, he worked for over a decade on international projects for mining, geotechnics and groundwater industry and/or academia related to
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About the Editors
geodynamics and regional geology, hard-rock hydrogeology and water resources, engineering geosciences and applied geomorphology, rock engineering, and georesources. His research interests span fundamental to applied fields: GIS mapping techniques for applied geology, structural geology and regional geology, engineering geosciences and rock engineering, slope geotechnics, mining geology and hydrogeomechanics, hard-rock hydrogeology, exploration hydrogeology, urban groundwater, and hydromineral resources. In addition, he has interests in mining geoheritage, the history of cartography, military geosciences, and higher-education dissemination, skills, and core values. He is the head of the Laboratory of Cartography and Applied Geology (LABCARGA | ISEP), the senior researcher at Centre GeoBioTec | U.Aveiro, and a collaborator at Centre IDL | U.Lisbon. Furthermore, he was a consultant and/or responsible for over 70 projects of applied geology, hydrogeomechanics, slope geotechnics, mining geology, exploration hydrogeology, hard-rock hydrogeology, water resources, urban groundwater, and applied mapping (Mozambique, Portugal, and Spain). Furthermore, he served as an invited expert evaluator of the Bologna Geoscience program for DGES (Portugal) and Scientific Projects Evaluation for NCST, 2017–2019 (Kazakhstan) and NRF|RISA, 2019 (South Africa), as well as the coordinator of “Geology on Summer/Ciência Viva” program at ISEP (2005–2019) for geoscience dissemination. He has also been active in teaching and supervising many Ph.D., M.Sc., and undergraduate students. He has co-authored over 220 publications in indexed journals, conference proceedings/full papers, chapters, and technical and professional papers. He co-edited over 16 special volumes and is presently involved in editing themed issues for some international journals (e.g., Springer Nature Applied Sciences, Environmental Earth Sciences, Arabian Journal of Geosciences, Water, Sustainable Water Resources Management) or Springer Series (e.g., Environmental Science and ASTI). In addition, he has a wide activity as a reviewer for several international journals. In 2021, Springer Nature Applied Sciences awarded him an outstanding guest editor and an editorial board member. He is also a topical or associate editor of Discover Water, Springer Nature Applied Sciences, the Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration, and the Arabian Journal of Geosciences. In addition, he has been on the editorial board, among others, of the Geotechnical Research, Mediterranean Geoscience Reviews, Geosciences, Hydrogeology Journal, Journal of Geoethics and Social Geosciences, Revista Geotecnia, and Geología Aplicada a la Ingeniería y al Ambiente.
About the Editors
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Prof. Zhihua Zhang is a Taishan distinguished professor and a leader of “big data mining for climate change” research group at Shandong University, China. His research interests are big data mining, climate change mechanisms, environmental evolution, and sustainability. He has published six first-authored books in Springer/Elsevier/DeGruyter and > 60 first-authored articles, some of which were reported by New Scientist (UK), China Science Daily, and China Social Science Daily. He is a chief editor, an associate editor, or an editorial board member in > 10 known journals on Climate and Environmental Science.
Dr. Nabil Khelifi undertook fellowships at the System for Analysis, Research and Training (START) in 2005 and the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD), as part of his Ph.D. studies in Marine Geosciences at the University of Kiel in Germany (2006–2010). After his Ph.D., he received a research grant from the German Science Foundation (DFG) to conduct research projects at the GEOMAR Ocean Research Centre in Kiel on oceanography and climate reconstructions in the North Atlantic and the Mediterranean (2010–2013). His research findings have been presented at international conferences and published in esteemed journals. From 2009 to 2013, he co-organized with his Kiel colleagues two workshops on the Pliocene climate at the University of Bordeaux, France (2009), and the University of Bristol, UK (2013), funded by the European Science Foundation (ESF). In late 2013, he received the Swiss Government Excellence Scholarship to pursue his postdoctoral research career. In 2014, he joined Springer (now Springer Nature) in Heidelberg, Germany, as an editor, was promoted to a senior editor in 2017 responsible for developing their publishing program in the Middle East and Africa, which consists of managing 20 journals and 2 book series. From 2015 to 2022, he was active in educational seminars for authors, reviewers, and editors to help improve publication output and quality. In 2015, he was also a visiting lecturer at King Saud University, KSA, and University of Sfax, Tunisia, where he gave lectures on publishing techniques. Recently, he launched two international conferences (more details at www.emcei.net and www.medgu.org) aiming at promoting two journals that he was managing at Springer. In 2016, he was awarded the Africa Green Future Leadership Award for my promotion of publications from Africa. In 2020, he received the Saudi Society for Geosciences Award. rof. Dr. Attila Ciner is a sedimentology and Quaternary P geology professor at the Eurasia Institute of Earth Sciences at Istanbul Technical University, Turkey. After graduating from the Middle East Technical University in Ankara (1985), he obtained his MSc degree at the University of Toledo, USA (1988), and his Ph.D. at the University of Strasbourg, France (1992). He works on the tectono-sedimentary evolution of basins and Quaternary depositional systems such as moraines, fluvial terraces, alluvial fans, and deltas. He uses cosmogenic nuclides to
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About the Editors
date these deposits. He primarily focuses on the glacial deposits and landscapes and tries to understand paleoclimatic and paleoenvironmental changes since the Last Glacial Maximum. Lastly, he was part of the Turkish Antarctic Expedition. He spent two months working on the site recognition and decision of the future Turkish scientific research station to be implemented on the continent. He is the editor-in-chief of Mediterranean Geoscience Reviews and the chief editor of Arabian Journal of Geosciences, both published by Springer. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed articles and chapters. Prof. Imran Ali, Ph.D., FRSC, C Chem, London (UK) a highly cited researcher, Clarivate, USA, and with 11 Global ranks in Analytical Chemistry, as per the Stanford University, USA (Global list of top 2% scientists), is a world-recognized academician and researcher. He completed his Ph.D. at the Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India. He is known globally due to his great contribution to pharmaceutical analysis by chromatography and capillary electrophoresis, the development of anticancer drugs, nanotechnology for water treatment, and water splitting for hydrogen green fuel generation. He has published more than 500 papers in reputed journals including papers in Nature and Chemical Reviews of more than 72 impact factors. He has also written six books published by Marcel Dekker, Inc., USA; Taylor & Francis, USA; John Wiley and Sons, USA; John Wiley and Sons, UK; Elsevier, The Netherlands, and Springer, Germany. His total citation is 35,500 with an h-index of 102 and an i10-index of 323. He is a member of various scientific societies globally. He is the editor-in-chief of 02, an editor of 03, an associate editor of 06 journals, and on the editorial board of 40 journals. Dr. Mingjie Chen holds a B.E. in Environmental Engineering (1997) from Tsinghua University (China), an M.Sc. in Environmental Sciences (2000) from Peking University (China), and a Ph.D. degree in Environmental Sciences (2005) from University of California, Santa Barbara (USA). After over 10 years of research experiences in prestigious institutions (Los Alamos National Laboratory, Tufts University, and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory) in USA, he joined Water Research Center, Sultan Qaboos University (Oman), in 2014 as a senior hydrogeologist. His research focuses on using field data, laboratory experiment, and numerical models to study fluid flow and contaminant transport in subsurface area. He has conducted more than 20 research projects and published over 50 peer-reviewed journal papers on underground environment remediation, hydrocarbon reservoirs, CO2 utilization and sequestration, geothermal reservoir, groundwater modeling, and management. He served or is serving as the associate editor for Hydrogeology Journal, Journal of Hydrology, and Arabian Journal of Geosciences.
Hydrology, Hydrogeology, Hydrogeochemistry and Water Resources
Impact of Potential Evapotranspiration Estimation on River Discharge in the Casamance Basin (Southern Senegal) Mamadou Lamine Mbaye, Mouhamadou Bamba Sylla, Samo Diatta, Fatou Khoule and Assane Ndiaye
Abstract
This study assesses the potential evapotranspiration estimations’ impacts on projected hydrological simulations under global warming scenarios (1.5 and 2.0 °C). These warming values are the targets warming of the Paris Agreement in 2015 during the United Nations Climate Change Conference, COP 21. They are used in this study to investigate their potential impacts on one of the fundamental hydrological processes in a West African basin. This is important because the local effects are usually higher than the global mean values given, particularly in one of the most vulnerable regions to climate change, such as sub-Saharian Africa. Then, we use twenty regional climate simulations driven by six global climate models and three evapotranspiration estimations (Hamon, Hargreaves, and Penman) as input for the rainfall-runoff hydrological model GR2M. The results showed that GR2M was successfully calibrated and validated with Nash–Sutcliffe efficiencies of 70.4% and 69.0%, respectively, at the outlet Kolda. The signals of the flow regimes were well reproduced even though the magnitudes were sometimes underestimated. The variations in the simulated flows as a function of those observed displayed coefficients of determination R2 more significant than 0.7. As for projected river discharge, a general decrease was noted for all simulations from RCMs driven by NCC-NorESM1-M, MPI-M-MPI-ESM-LR, ICHEC-EC-EARTH, CNRMCERFACS-CNRM-CM5, and CCCma-CanESM2 GCMs
M. L. Mbaye (*) · S. Diatta · F. Khoule · A. Ndiaye Laboratoire d’Océanographie, des Sciences de l’Environnement et du Climat (LOSEC), Université Assane SECK de Ziguinchor, BP 523 Ziguinchor, Sénégal e-mail: [email protected] M. B. Sylla The African Institute for Mathematical Sciences (AIMS), Kigali, Rwanda
for all PET estimation, except those driven by MOHCHadGEM2-ES that showed a slight increase of streamflow. The discharge decrease was more pronounced with Hamon, Hargreaves, and Penman, respectively. The decline of water with MPI-M-MPI-ESM-LR forcing data was more considerable than with the other input data. Furthermore, the ensemble mean of all forcing data shows that the basin was likely to experience water deficit with all PET estimation and scenarios; however, with Hargreaves estimation under 1.5 °C, we notice a streamflow increase. The changes under 2.0 °C might have the most substantial impact on the water resources of the Casamance basin in the future. The PET estimation and the driven GCM played a considerable role in the simulated discharge. Furthermore, the net irradiance, the theoretical maximum daily insolation, the mean temperature, the temperature range (difference between max and min temperature), and the extra-terrestrial radiation are the main parameters that affect the evapotranspiration processes.
Keywords
Casamance basin · GR2M model · Climate change · Potential evapotranspiration · River discharge
1 Introduction The global average surface temperature increased by 0.85 °C from 1880 to 2012, and the start of the twentyfirst century was the warmest on record (IPCC, 2014). In 2015, the Paris Agreement set a long-term temperature goal of keeping the increase in global average temperature below 2.0 °C. Several sectors (water resources, agriculture, health, etc.) are affected by global warming. This global warming has significant impacts on the hydrological cycle
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 H. Chenchouni et al. (eds.), Recent Research on Hydrogeology, Geoecology and Atmospheric Sciences, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43169-2_1
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(Arnell & Gosling, 2013; Milliman et al., 2008), in particular by modifying precipitation regimes, reducing the average annual flows of rivers, or the increased frequency of extreme hydrometeorological events (Negm et al., 2020a). Water is a natural resource for the survival of human society and economic activities. Climate change will alter the dynamics of water in the years to come. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), extreme episodes will become more frequent, including droughts and floods (IPCC, 2014). Therefore, it is essential to predict the impacts on water resources from a qualitative and quantitative point of view for human and animal consumption and irrigation and water management (Negm et al., 2020b). Flooding and soil erosion. From this point of view, the water resources of the Casamance river basin in Kolda play an essential economic role in Casamance; therefore, it would be interesting to anticipate the impacts of climatic fluctuations for the planning and organization of future uses. These water dynamics encompass complex phenomena such as infiltration, runoff, evapotranspiration, and rainfall (Neitsch et al., 2009). Hydrological models are often used to study the impacts of climate change on water resources. Several previous studies have assessed the effects of climate change on the water resources of specific hydrographic basins in West and Central Africa (Ardoin-Bardin et al., 2009). In Senegal, the model was used by ArdoinBardin et al. (2009) in the Senegal basins (Faye, 2017) in the Bafing-Makana and Falémé sub-basin, Senegal river. Indeed, applying a global hydrological model is not often recommended (Perrin et al., 2001). Only models with spatial use can help to understand the functioning of watersheds better. These allow you to integrate. Multiple data and performed analyses can consider various constraints for optimal water management in a watershed. The GR2M hydrological model was selected for this study range because of its performance in West African basins. It is a simple rainfall-flow model suitable for simulating the flows at the outlet of a basin. The coupling between climate and hydrological models makes it possible to know the future evolution of flows in a section of a river. The general objective is to model the impacts of climate change on the water resources of the Casamance watershed in Kolda.
2 Data and Methods The study area is the Casamance watershed, which extends over the former administrative region of the same name in the south of Senegal. It is located in latitudes between 12° 20′ and 13° 21′ North and in longitudes between 14° 17′ and 16° 47′ West (Fig. 1). The modeling has been done only at the Kolda outlet (green sub-basin).
M. L. Mbaye et al.
The observational data correspond to measurements carried out at the rainfall stations from 1980 to 1992. The monthly observed climatic data used to run the hydrological (rainfall-discharge) model selected for this study was provided by the Climate Research Unit (CRU). The monthly flows observed in Kolda come from the Direction of Management and Planning of Water Resources of Senegal (DGPRE). The climate simulation data are daily data from 20 regional climate models from the CORDEX program, with a spatial resolution of 0.44°. Three cases of warming compared to pre-industrial temperatures were considered: global warming of 0.5 °C (corresponding to the reference period named RP) and global warming of 1.5 °C and 2 °C, called FP1 and FP2, respectively (Sylla et al., 2018). Six global models drove these regional models. We use the GR2M model (Rural Engineering model with two monthly parameters), a global rainfall-flow model with two parameters. Its development was initiated at CEMAGREF at the end of the 1980s, with application objectives in water resources and low flow. This model has been used successfully by Mouelhi (2003) and Mouelhi et al. (2006), which gradually improved the model’s performance.
3 Results and Discussion The results in Table 1 show a slight difference for the two periods (calibration and validation) between the average flow rates observed and the flow rates simulated. The performances of the Nash criterion during calibration are more significant than that obtained in validation. The GR2M model gives better calibration results than validation at the Kolda outlet. This can be explained by the fact that the model is more robust over the period it is set rather than the period it is not. In addition, the degradation of the Nash criterion between calibration and validation is probably linked to the heterogeneity of the two periods. Overall, the results obtained are satisfactory. Moreover, the determination coefficients are more significant than 0.7, showing that simulated river discharge data fit well with the observed river flows. So then, the GR2M model can be considered satisfactory and able to simulate future flow. Figure 2 represents the simulated observed hydrographs during the calibration period (1981–1986). In 1981 and 1985, the model underestimated observation with observation flows of 135 and 63.11 mm/month and simulated flows of 50.73 and 58.69 mm/month. However, from 1982 to 1984, the observed and simulated flows were similar. Thus, the peaks of rainfall in August years (1981, 1985, and 1986) and flows in September are superimposed and relatively proportional. Indeed, the peaks of rains in August
Impact of Potential Evapotranspiration Estimation on River Discharge in the Casamance Basin (Southern Senegal)
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Fig. 1 Location of Casamance river basin at Kolda, Senegal
Table 1 Summary of results on the performance of the hydrological model GR2M during the calibration and the validation Period
Nash (Q) in %
Coefficient of determination R2
Calibration
1981–1986
70.4
0.7139
Validation
1987–1992
69.0
0.7118
1982 and 1983 and July 1984 did not produce much flow in September 1982, 1983, and 1984. Figure 3 represents rainfall hyetograph and hydrographs (simulated and observed) obtained during the validation period (1987–1992). The model reproduces the exact shapes of the observed hydrographs. In 1987 and 1992, we overestimated the model and the precipitation maximum, which reached 481 mm/month. From 1988 to 1991, the GR2M model underestimates observations with precipitation values varying between 274 and 540 mm/month. The
peaks of recorded rain in August 1988 and August 1992 produced considerable runoff. Precipitation is the primary driver of flows at the Kolda outlet. Several remarks concerning the rainfall-flow relationship were noted: Flood peaks result from rainfall with a more or less significant lag. A longer or shorter concentration time of the Kolda watershed depends on the length of the main watercourse of the place where precipitation is recorded, the initial humidity conditions of the watershed, lithological conditions in the basin, and at the end of land use (Drissa et al., 2011). As for the future changes, the climate-forcing data from CNRM, EC-EARTH, MPI, NorESM, and CanEM2 show a negative percentage (decrease), while for the HadGM2 model, the percentage is positive (increase) from May to December (Fig. 4). This percentage variation explains the decrease and the increase of the flow in the future respectively. These findings are similar to those found under the 2 °C warming scenario (Fig. 5). However, the changes
6
M. L. Mbaye et al.
Fig.2 Hyetograph and monthly hydrographs (simulated and observed) during the calibration period (1981–1986)
Fig. 3 Hyetograph and monthly hydrographs (simulated and observed) during the validation period (1987–1992)
under the 2 °C warming scenario are more significant than those under the 1.5 °C warming scenario. The changes obtained with Hamon PET are more pronounced than those obtained from the other climate-forcing data. These differences in river discharge changes come mainly from the different formulas used by the authors (Hamon, Penman, and Hargreaves) to estimate the potential evapotranspiration (Mbaye et al., 2019). Furthermore, the surface radiation balance is the main factor responsible for evapotranspiration (Ferreira et al., 2013). In addition, Penman and Hamon estimated an increase in all seasons (JAS, OND, JFM, AM, in contrast to Hargreaves, when an increase is found in JAS and OND seasons (Mbaye et al., 2019). The main parameters that affect evapotranspiration are the net irradiance, the theoretical maximum daily
insolation, the mean temperature, the temperature range (difference between max and min temperature), and the extra-terrestrial radiation processes. It has to be also considered that the differences in driving GCMs can be due to the differences in the radiation, land surface, and dynamic vegetation schemes used in each model.
4 Conclusion This study investigates the impacts of potential evapotranspiration estimations on river discharge in the Casamance basin (southern Senegal) by using RCMs data and the hydrological model GR2M under two warming scenarios (1.5 and 2.0 °C). The results show that under all scenarios
Impact of Potential Evapotranspiration Estimation on River Discharge in the Casamance Basin (Southern Senegal)
7
Fig. 4 River discharge changes under 1.5 °C warming of each model
Fig. 5 River discharge changes under 2.0 °C warming of each model
and PET estimates, river discharge will likely decrease from 10 to 10.69 to 22.77% in the coming decades. The changes are more pronounced with Hamon Pet input under the 2.0 °C warming scenario. Furthermore, the differences in forcing parameters also affect the sensibility of river discharge simulation. In addition, the results also show divergences for the individual models; more changes (decreases)
are expected with the input from driving models such as MPI, NorESM, EC-EARTH, and CanEM2. However, the HadGEM2 project generally increases river flow. Due to the uncertainties of climate model inputs and the limitation of the hydrological model, bias-corrected climate simulations and physically based hydrological models could be used to investigate hydrometeorological extremes over the basin.
8 Acknowledgements The authors thank the University of Assane Seck of Ziguinchor for their financial subvention. The corresponding author also thanks the Simons Associate program and the One Planet Fellowship program for their support. The editor and the anonymous reviewers are also sincerely thanked for their valuable comments and suggestions to improve the quality of the paper.
References Ardoin-Bardin, S., Dezetter, A., Servat, E., Paturel, J. E., Mahé, G., Niel, H., & Dieulin, C. (2009). Using general circulation model outputs to assess impacts of climate change on runoff for large hydrological catchments in West Africa. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 54(1), 77–89. https://doi.org/10.1623/hysj.54.1.77 Arnell, N. W., & Gosling, S. N. (2013). Les impacts du changement climatique sur les régimes d’écoulement des fleuves à l’échelle mondiale. Journal Hydrologie, 351–364. Drissa, S. T., Soro, N., Oga, Y. M.-S., Lasm, T., Soro, G., Ahoussi, K. E., & Biémi, J. (2021). La variabilité climatique et son impact sur les ressources en eau dans le degré carré de Grand-Lahou (Sud-Ouest de la Côte d’Ivoire). Physio-Géo, 5, 1581. http://journals.openedition.org/physio-geo/1581. https://doi.org/10.4000/ physio-geo.1581 Faye, C. (2017). Variabilité et tendances observées sur les débits moyens mensuels, saisonniers et annuels dans le bassin de la Falémé (Sénégal). Hydrological Sciences Journal, 62(2), 259–269. https:// doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2014.990967 Ferreira, J. P., Sousa, A., Vitorino, M., De Souza, E., & De Souza, P. (2013). Estimate of evapotranspiration in the eastern Amazon using SEBAL. Revista de Ciencias Agrarias, 56, 33–39. IPCC. (2014). Fifth assessment. Report of the intergovernmental panel, climate change 2014: Synthesis report (180p). Contribution of Working. Mbaye, M. L., Sylla, M. B., & Tall, M. (2019). Impacts of 1.5 and 2.0 °C global warming on water balance components over Senegal in West Africa. Atmosphere, 10(11), 712. https://doi.org/10.3390/ atmos10110712
M. L. Mbaye et al. Milliman, J. D., Farnsworth, K. L., Jones, P. D., Xu, K. H., & Smith, L. C. (2008). Facteurs climatiques et anthropiques affectant le débit des rivières dans l’océan mondial, 1951–2000. Journals & Books. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2008.03.001 Mouelhi, S. (2003). Vers une chaîne cohérente de modèles pluie-débit conceptuels globaux aux pas de temps pluriannuel, annuel, mensuel et journalier. Doctoral thesis, ENGREF, Cemagref Antony, France. Mouelhi, S., Michel, C., Perrin, C., & Andréassian, V. (2006). Stepwise development of a two-parameter monthly water balance model. Journal of Hydrology, 318, 200–214. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2005.06.014 Negm, A., Bouderbala, A., Chenchouni, H., & Barcelo, D. (2020a). Water Resources in Algeria - Part I: Assessment of Surface and Groundwater. Springer, Cham. http://doi. org/10.1007/978-3-030-57895-4 Negm, A., Bouderbala, A., Chenchouni, H., & Barcelo, D. (2020b). Water Resources in Algeria - Part II: Water Quality, Treatment, Protection and Development. Springer, Cham. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-3-030-57887-9 Neitsch, S. L., Williams, J. R., & Haney, E. B. (2011). Documentation théorique de l’outil d’évaluation des sols et des eaux version 2009. Texas Water Resources Institute. Perrin, C., Michel, C., & Andréassian, V. (2001). Does a large number of parameters enhance model performance? Comparative assessment of common catchment model structures on 429 catchments. Journal of Hydrology, 242(3–4), 275–301. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S0022-1694(00)00393-0 Sylla, M. B., Faye, A., Giorgi, F., Diedhiou, A., & Kunstmann, H. (2018). Projected heat stress under 1.5 °C and 2 °C global warming scenarios creates unprecedented discomfort for humans in West Africa. Earth’s Future, 6, 1029–1044. https://doi. org/10.1029/2018EF000873
Hydrochemical Attributes and Their Spatial Variation in the Rainwater of Kuwait Dhanu Radha Samayamanthula, Chidambaram Sabarathinam and Farah K. Al-Ajeel
Abstract
Keywords
Rainwater is one of the major sources of freshwater for harvesting to enhance the freshwater resource, especially from the management perspective. The present study has attempted to investigate the temporal and spatial variations of ion chemistry in the rainwater of Kuwait by collecting samples from industrial and residential regions. Fifty samples were collected at 12 different locations during the wet period from November 2018 to December 2019, and the parameters EC, TDS, pH, and major and minor ions were analyzed. The average pH (7.10 and 7.16) of rainwater in each region was alkaline. In industrial areas, SO42− was the most dominant ion, followed by Ca2+ and other ions, whereas in residential, HCO3− and SO42− showed the highest concentrations. Ionic ratios were computed to understand the influence of anthropogenic activity and the neutralizing ions. The enrichment factors calculated for the samples identified that crustal, marine, and anthropogenic sources of the neutralizing ions have influenced the rainwater chemistry. The principal component analysis (PCA) revealed that the anthropogenic influence is more significant from oil refineries, apart from other industrial activities, and sea salt fractions.
Rainwater · Major ions · Industrial and residential regions · Enrichment factor · Principal component analysis
D. R. Samayamanthula (*) · C. Sabarathinam · F. K. Al-Ajeel Water Research Center, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Shuwaikh, Kuwait e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] C. Sabarathinam e-mail: [email protected] F. K. Al-Ajeel e-mail: [email protected]
1 Introduction Kuwait is a semi-arid region with harsh climatic conditions and limited rainfall. But then, global climate change impacted the country and altered the conditions. Rain interacts with the suspended pollutants in the atmosphere. They may be either natural or anthropogenic (Boga et al., 2019). The chemical relationship between particulate matter and precipitation is the primary concern. Rainwater chemistry helps to understand the crustal, marine, and anthropogenic influences (Chenchouni et al., 2022). Therefore, the study aims to determine the wet deposition chemistry collected from rain events in industrial and residential regions and to investigate rainwater harvesting suitability.
2 Methodology The annual rainfall in Kuwait ranges from 110 to 125 mm. Eighteen rainwater samples from industrial regions and thirty-two from the residential areas accounting for fifty were collected from twelve different locations in Kuwait (Fig. 1) during the rainy season between November 2018 and December 2019, according to standard procedures (IAEA/GNIP, 2014). The physical, chemical, and microbiological parameters, such as alkalinity, pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, major cations, and anions, were determined using the standard methods (SMEWW, 2017). To determine the crustal, marine, and anthropogenic influence in rainwater and to assess the interrelationship
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 H. Chenchouni et al. (eds.), Recent Research on Hydrogeology, Geoecology and Atmospheric Sciences, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43169-2_2
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D. R. Samayamanthula et al.
Fig. 1 Study area of the rainwater in industrial and residential regions of Kuwait
between the ions, Spearman correlation and principal component analysis (PCA) were adopted using SPSS. Acidic and neutralization potential (AP and NP), neutralization factor (NF), fractional acidity (FA), ionic ratios, and ammonium availability index (AAI) were calculated. The pollutants present in the rainwater are either natural or artificial and are referred to as marine and crustal enrichment factors. Marine contributions are assessed by sea salt and non-sea salt fractions (Keresztesi et al., 2020).
F− > PO43− > Br− (Fig. 2). Spearman correlation analysis and PCA indicated that Na+ and Cl− were highly correlated, reflecting the influence of sea spray and marine salts. The same was observed in PCA as first-factor loading with a variance of 55.46% and 45.96% (Table 1)
4 Discussion
The average pH of rainwater samples from residential and industrial regions is inferred to be alkaline due to suspended 3 Results particulates in the atmosphere. The elevated concentrations of SO42− in the indusSee Figs. 2, 3 and Table 1. The average concentra- trial region are anthropogenic due to emissions from oil tion of ions in the industrial region reflects the follow- refineries, industries, and traffic (Keresztesi et al., 2020). ing order of dominance SO42− > Ca2+ > HCO3− > Cl− > High concentrations of Cl− and Na+ are observed in a few NO 3 − > Na + > K + > Mg 2 + > NH 4 + > NO 2 − > PO 4 3 − > samples collected near coastal areas, especially in indusF− > Br−, whereas in the residential region, the order of trial areas, indicating sea salts in the rainwater. The AP/ dominance was as follows: HCO3− > SO42− > Ca2+ > NP ratio in the study area ranged between 1.39 and 1.14, Cl− > NO 3 − > Na + > K + > NH 4 + > Mg 2 + > NO 2 − > indicating the samples’ weak acidic character. The highest
Hydrochemical Attributes and Their Spatial Variation in the Rainwater of Kuwait
11
1000.00 100.00 10.00 1.00 0.10 0.01 0.00 Industrial Region Minimum
Industrial Region Maximum
Industrial Region Average
Residential Region Minimum
Residential Region Maximum
Residential Region Average
Fig. 2 Analytical representation of rainwater chemistry data Fig. 3 Enrichment factors with respect to crustal and seawater sources
EF- Seawater Industrial EF-CrustalIndustrial Enrichment Factors
1000.00 100.00 10.00 1.00 0.10 0.01
Table 1 Principal component analysis data of rainwater samples in industrial and residential regions
K
Parameters
Ca
EF- Seawater Residential EF-Crustal Residential
Mg
SO4
Cl
Industrial 1
Br
PO4
NO3
Na
Residential
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
5
pH
0.14
0.81
–0.05
–0.32
0.21
–0.09
0.89
–0.01
0.08
Temperature
0.13
–0.08
0.88
–0.29
0.04
–0.35
0.17
–0.10
0.75
Electrical Conductivity (EC)
0.97
0.21
0.06
0.01
0.86
0.07
0.44
0.10
–0.04
HCO3−
0.42
0.62
0.41
0.57
0.01
0.75
0.10
0.09
Na+
0.97
0.22
–0.01
0.01
0.93
0.01
0.21
–0.003 0.03
NH4+
0.90
–0.1
–0.2
0.07
0.03
0.97
0.05
–0.01
–0.13
K+
0.90
0.22
0.04
–0.07
0.87
–0.09
0.02
0.46
–0.06
Ca2+
0.96
0.23
0.11
0.02
0.86
–0.1
0.30
–0.07
0.19
–0.3
Mg2+
0.30
0.83
0.19
0.29
0.89
0.11
0.28
0.18
–0.13
F−
0.89
0.28
0.20
0.22
0.82
–0.21
0.09
–0.32
0.22
Cl
0.96
0.27
0.02
0.05
0.90
–0.03
–0.08
0.23
0.07
NO2−
–0.19 0.37
0.77
0.34
–0.04
0.93
–0.1
–0.07
0.10
Br−
0.64
0.49
–0.11
0.02
–0.02
0.29
–0.02
0.26
0.75
NO3−
0.99
0.12
0.03
0.03
0.82
0.21
0.36
–0.09
–0.01
0.15
–0.12
–0.08
0.88
0.07
–0.07
0.05
0.94
0.12
SO4
0.98
0.11
Variance (%)
55.16 15.59
3−
PO4
2−
0.04
0.01
0.96
–0.04
0.14
–0.07
–0.11
10.54
8.18
45.96
13.47
12.30
8.79
8.12
Cumulative variance (%) 55.16 70.75 81.29 89.46 45.96 59.43 71.73 80.52 88.64 The bold values represents the variance and cumulative variance of each factor of principal component analysis
12
neutralization potential was mainly from Ca2+, K+, and Na+ in the industrial region, whereas in residential, Ca2+ was predominant, followed by Na+. Although SO42− is responsible for maintaining acidic pH, the samples were neutralized by Ca2+, Na+, and K+. FA is far from the unity in both regions, indicating that neutralizing ions are dominant. The AAI was calculated as the ratio of ammonium ion concentration to the sulfate and nitrate. From Fig. 2, it was evident that irrespective of the regions, NH4+ does not play a significant role in neutralization as AAI is K+ and of anions Cl− > SO42−. In addition, the data analysis using the USSL and Wilcox diagrams indicates that all the groundwater samples in the study area have potential salinity and sodium hazards. A Gibbs plot highlights the most important processes that influence groundwater chemistry. According to the results, all samples plot in the evaporation-precipitation processes. Furthermore, the HFE diagram shows that the samples collected from Pz1 and Pz3 are from the freshening phase. In the diagram’s opposite phase, the samples collected from Pz2 are in the field associated with the intrusion sector (see Fig. 1).
3.3 Assessment of Saltwater Intrusion The relationships between the natural tracers, such as Mg/Ca against Cl and SO4/Cl against Cl reveal that the samples collected from Pz3 have a slightly high ratio of Mg/Ca. In contrast, the other samples have Mg/Ca ratios ranging between 2 and 13 and chloride concentrations higher than 50 meq/L. On the other hand, these samples have SO4/Cl ratios low, suggesting the increased salinity in these monitoring wells (Table 1). Furthermore, Pz1 and Pz2 also show elevated SMI (> 1).
4 Discussion The groundwater samples are thus unsuitable for irrigation purposes, according to the USSL and Wilcox plots. In addition, the results of the Gibbs diagram show that evaporation-precipitation is the primary process controlling groundwater chemistry. Furthermore, the HFE diagram and saltwater mixing index results indicate that the Sebkha of Sidi El Hani impacts groundwater chemistry. These findings confirm the hypothesis of Essefi et al., (2013). They suggested that the salinity increase in the deep layer due to the Messinian salinity crisis affected the geodynamic evolution of the playa during the Quaternary.
133
Assessment of Saltwater Intrusion in a Continental Aquifer …
Fig. 1 USSL and Wilcox plots for irrigation of the study area (a, b), Gibbs diagram (c), and Hydrochemical facies evolution diagram (d) Table 1 Summary of ionic ratios and saltwater mixing index
5 Conclusion
Samples
Depth (m)
Mg/Ca ratio
SO4/Cl ratio
SMI
Pz1D1
6–11
3.50
0.51
1.04
Pz1D2
11–13
3.35
0.32
1.06
Pz1D3
13–25
3.00
0.56
0.94
Pz1D4
25–28
4.00
0.38
1.00
Pz2D1
10–16
2.82
0.57
1.18
Pz2D2
16–17
1.73
0.49
1.12
Pz2D3
17–23
8.62
0.82
1.11
Pz2D4
23–25
13.11
0.43
1.32
Pz3D2
10–18
2.50
1.04
0.53
Pz3D3
18–27
2.00
0.88
0.69
Pz3D4
27–28
2.44
0.76
0.58
The influence of evaporation-precipitation processes on groundwater chemistry is notably pronounced in the continental aquifer, reflecting the intricate balance between natural hydrological factors. The HFE diagram, complemented by the analysis of natural tracers such as Mg/Ca and SO4/ Cl ratios, provides a nuanced perspective, pinpointing the exact locations near the Sebkha Sidi El Hani where saltwater intrusion is most prominent. Additionally, the saltwater intrusion index not only confirms these findings but also quantifies the degree of intrusion, emphasizing the critical need for targeted remediation efforts in these specific areas. This comprehensive assessment, incorporating multiple analytical techniques, forms a robust foundation for designing adaptive strategies to counteract the adverse effects of
134
saltwater intrusion, ensuring the preservation of groundwater quality and the sustained well-being of the local communities reliant on these resources.
References Aladejana, A., Kalin, R., Sentenac, P., Hassan, R. (2021). Groundwater quality index as a hydrochemical tool for monitoring saltwater intrusion into coastal freshwater aquifer of Eastern Dohomey Basin, Southwestrn Nigeria Jamiu. Groundwater for Sustainable Development Journal, 13, 100568. APHA. (1995). Standard method for the examination of water and wastewater (19th ed.). American Public Health Association. Bel Hadj Salem, S., Chkir, N., Zouari, K., Cognard-Plancq, A.L., & Valles, V. (2012). Hydrogeochemical and isotope evidence of groundwater contamination of cultivated fileds of semi-arid environments in Tunisia. Arid Land and Management Journal, 26, 181–199. De Montety, V., Radakovitch, O., Vallet-Coulomb, C., Balvoux, B., Hermitte, D., & Valles, V. (2008). Origin of groundwater salinity
S. M’nassri et al. and hydrogeochemical processes in a confined coastal aquifer. Case of the Thone delta (Southern France). Applied Geochemistry Journal, 23, 2337–2349. Essefi, H., Tagorti, M. A., Touir, J., & Yachi, C. (2013). Hydrocarbons migration through groundwater convergence towards saline depression. A case study Sidi El Hani, discharge playa, Tunisian Sahel. International Scholarly Research Notices, 2013, 709190. https:// doi.org/10.1155/2013/709190 M’nassri, S., Dridi, L., Lucas, Y., Schäfer, G., Hachicha, M., & Majdoub, R. (2018). Identifying the origin of groundwater salinisation in the Sidi El Hani basin in central-eastern, Tunisia. African Earth Sciences Journal, 147, 443–449. M’nassri, S., Lucas, Y., Dridi, L., Schäfer, G., & Majdoub, R. (2019). Coupled hydrogeochemical modeling using KIRMAT to assess water-rock interaction in a saline aquifer in central-eastern Tunisia. Applied Geochemistry Journal, 102, 229–242 (2019). Raja, P., Selvaraj, G., Kumar, S., & Francis, V. (2020). Hydrogeochemical investigations to assess groundwater and saline interaction in coastal aquifers of the southeast coast, Tamil Nadu. Environmental Science and Pollution Research Journal, 28, 5495–5519.
Simulation of Saltwater Intrusion into Coastal Aquifer of the Western Niger Delta Oghenero Ohwoghere-Asuma, Felix Mensah Oteng and Duke Ophori
Abstract
Coastal aquifers by nature are vulnerable to the ingress of saltwater from the adjoining sea consequent upon the intensive abstraction of groundwater. The degradation of coastal aquifers becomes more aggravated by increasing demand for groundwater and climate change. How coastal aquifers respond to the effect and degree of aquifer stressing and recharging conditions is unknown. The extent of movement and the process driving its direction is poorly understood. A 3D numerical model was developed to simulate lateral intrusion of saltwater into groundwater aquifer using SEAWAT. Different pumping and recharge conditions were simulated to determine the effects of these variables on the movement of the position of the freshwater-saltwater interface relative to inland aquifers. The results revealed that the freshwater/saltwater interface is near the sea and has not transgressed into inland aquifers. Realistic pumping rates that ranged from 9558 to 17,058 m3/day have no significant effect on the freshwater/saltwater interface. However, the position of the freshwater/saltwater interface was affected by an unrealistic pumping rate that ranged from 3.9 to 6 million m3/day. This underscores the present rate of groundwater demands and usage in the western Niger Delta is insufficient to trigger saltwater intrusion into groundwater aquifers. In addition, simultaneous simulation of recharge reduction with unrealistic pumping conditions enhanced freshwater/saltwater interface movement toward the inland. The sensitivity analysis showed that the freshwater-saltwater interface responded
O. Ohwoghere-Asuma (*) Department of Geology, Delta State University, Abraka, Nigeria e-mail: [email protected] F. M. Oteng · D. Ophori Department of Environmental and Earth Science, Montclair State University, Montclair, NJ, USA
more to groundwater pumping and recharge than the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer. Understanding how aquifers react to stress and recharge is critical for maximizing the exploitation of coastal aquifers for long-term groundwater resource management and development.
Keywords
Saltwater intrusion · Niger delta · Simulation · Freshwater/Saltwater interface · SEAWAT
1 Introduction Groundwater has gotten a lot of attention worldwide due to its accessibility and wholesomeness, which impacts human existence. However, the world’s ever-increasing population has caused groundwater resources to deteriorate in quantity and quality (WHO, 2017, WWAP, 2006). More groundwater is abstracted from underground geologic formations to meet people’s demands as the population grows. Groundwater stress occurs when the amount of water abstracted is greater than the amount that recharges aquifers. Precipitation in any form recharges groundwater aquifers, and the recharge rate is determined by the kind of geologic materials overlaying aquifers, climatic conditions, and the topography’s slope (Negm et al., 2020). Recent studies have confirmed the impact climate change has on the hydrological cycle, especially the intrusion of saltwater (Duong et al., 2015; Khang et al., 2008, Kumar, 2012). The impact affects spatial availability and quality of groundwater resources, especially among coastal aquifers. Direct influences on uneven precipitation distribution, both at a local and regional scale, have a significant impact. It either reduces or increases the precipitation needed to replenish groundwater aquifers. Model simulations of sea-level rise due to climate change have predicted
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 H. Chenchouni et al. (eds.), Recent Research on Hydrogeology, Geoecology and Atmospheric Sciences, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43169-2_30
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the incursion of contemporary seawater into coastal freshwater aquifers that are hydraulically connected to the sea (Kumar, 2012). Climate change is also responsible for global warming and increased evapotranspiration, particularly in groundwater with water levels close to the ground surface. However, saltwater intrusion is known to be triggered by anthropogenic activities such as high pumping of coastal aquifers (Don et al., 2006). The western Niger delta's coastline area is strategically positioned, so aquifers are vulnerable to anthropogenic and climate change. The area’s domestic and industrial water supplies are primarily from shallow aquifers, with deep aquifers used sparingly. Oil and gas exploration and exploitation are typical activities in the region. This has resulted in a population surge from all around the country. As a result, the exponential need for water to meet the growing population is putting a strain on aquifers. It has been established that the more groundwater is pumped from aquifers, the greater the impact on forcing saltwater encroachment into freshwater aquifers adjacent to the sea. Access to freshwater in the western Niger Delta's coastal area reduces as one moves away from the more densely populated areas to the coast, where seawater intrusion into shallow aquifers is a significant issue. Despite the prevailing deleterious circumstance of saltwater intrusion in the region, it has not been taken seriously by the Federal and the Governments of the coastal states in Nigeria. The region’s groundwater supply is currently inadequately managed; the volumes of groundwater abstracted daily are unknown, and there are no suitable monitoring wells anywhere in the area, not even in coastal areas with a high risk of saltwater intrusion. Recent studies in the western Niger Delta have focused chiefly on physiochemical analysis, vertical electrical sounding (VES), and 2D tomography in the investigation of groundwater resources (Akpoborie, 2011; Ohwoghere-Asuma & Essi 2017a; Ohwoghere-Asuma et al., 2012, 2014, 2017b; Olabaniyi et al., 2007). Unfortunately, none of these studies have been able to give insight into the possible position of SWI (saltwater intrusion), the influence groundwater pumping has on the role of the interface as the distance from the coast increases toward land. The descriptions, understanding, and unraveling of the many processes driving SWI to coastal aquifers have all been greatly aided by numerical simulations of SWI. Unfortunately, there is little or no information about the application of numerical simulation of SWI into coastal aquifers in the Niger Delta. The scarcity of groundwater data required as input parameters for modeling and calibration with observed data explains the absence of numerical simulations of groundwater flow studies in the literature. In addition, inadequate information about the prevalence of SWI from the shore may lead to speculation about the lateral extent of the intrusion.
O. Ohwoghere-Asuma et al.
We use a 3D density-dependent variable saturated groundwater flow model (SEAWAT) to comprehend better and clarify all of the concerns involving SWI into coastal aquifers in the western Niger Delta. In addition, SEAWAT was proposed to model groundwater pumping to determine the SWI’s hydrodynamic position concerning groundwater aquifer development and future development.
1.1 Location and Description of the Study Area The study area is the western Niger Delta (Fig. 1), located in the Delta State coastal region of the Niger Delta. It is circumscribed by the eastern and the western Niger Delta and the ocean physical boundary. Specifically, it is a bounded Delta state by the River Ase and River Niger. The Ase River flows from the north to adjoin River Niger along its flow path to the ocean, and on the western side by rivers of Ethiope connecting Koko and both conjoining the Benin River, which subsequently discharge into the sea. Both the eastern and western rivers discharged into the Atlantic Ocean in the south and bounded by it. The entire western Niger Delta is a tropical rainforest region characterized by wet and dry seasons. The wet seasons stem from April to November, with maximum rainfall recorded in July and sometimes breaking in August for two weeks. The dry season spans from November to March. However, precipitation is recorded throughout the year, especially in the areas adjacent to the coast, which experience more rainfall, which decreases from the beach to the landed area of the region. The estimated mean annual rainfall varies from 2800 to 4000 mm on the coast. Temperature ranges from 23 to 34 °C, while humidity ranges between 60 and 90%.
1.2 Geologic Setting The geology of the Niger Delta has been treated in earlier studies by Allen (1965), Avbovbo (1978), Murat (1970), Reijers (2011), Short and Stauble (1967), and Weber and Daukoru (1975), among others. The geology of the Niger Delta is summarized to consist of Quaternary sediments that mantled the three lithostratigraphic units. From top to base are Benin, Agbada, and Akata Formations. The Quaternary alluvial deposit is recent in age and consists of sands, silts, and clay with spatial variation in thickness across the region. Alluvial deposits of the Niger Delta can be described in five geomorphic forms: active and abandoned coastal beaches, salt water/Mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps, and Sombrerio-Warri deltaic plains. Underlying the alluvial deposit is the Benin Formation,
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Fig. 1 Map showing the coastal region of the western Niger Delta modeled
aged from Oligocene to Pleistocene, with an estimated thickness of 2000m. Compositionally, it consists mainly of coastal plain sands with intercalation of shales and aquiferous, significantly, it served as a source of groundwater. Middle of this stratigraphy is the Agbada Formation, aged Eocene to Oligocene, with a thickness greater than 3000m. It comprises an alternate sequence of sand and shale; the sands are of deltaic deposit and serve as oil and gas reservoirs, while the shales act as seals and source rock, respectively. The Agbada Formation is highly faulted and characterized by depobelts and growth faults. Finally, at the base of the stratigraphy is the Akata Formation, deposited on the Cretaceous basement rock, highly over-pressured and composed mainly of shale deposited in an open marine environment. Importantly, it is regarded as the primary source rock for the Agbada reservoir sands, and its thickness is more than 2000m.
1.3 Hydrogeology Groundwater supply is mainly from shallow hand-dug wells, with depths ranging from 2 to 7 m, and shallow boreholes depths rarely exceeding 30m deep. Public water supply with few boreholes has depths of 100 m; recent boreholes drilled by public water supply managed by Delta State Ministry of water resources have depths of 170 m in Warri, Near the coast around Ogulagha and Ogidigben
with saltwater intrusion potentials, boreholes are drilled to depths rarely exceeding 500 m, especially those owned by multinational oil companies such as Shell and Chevron. These boreholes are drilled to bypass the saltwaterbearing aquifers. The sediments are unconsolidated and composed of aquifer media deposited under different environmental settings such as fluvial, deltaic, marine, tidal, and mudflats. Compositionally, they consist of clay, silt, sand, and occasionally gravel; grain sizes vary from very fine through medium, coarse, and sometimes gravelly. Lithological variations within a short distance are common such as lateral and vertical variations in grain sizes due to interfingering and alternation of sand and clay. Consequently, the aquifers in the area are generally unconfined on a regionally and confined in local scales. Groundwater aquifers are known to be productive and high yielding, characterized by fast recovery. A recovery rate of the 30 s was observed in pumping tests in wells drilled to 170 m deep. Hydraulic conductivities of 2.8 × 10–4 to 3.5 × 10−4 cm/s were obtained by Akpoborie (2011) for aquifers in the area. Groundwater level ranges from less than 0.2–6 m and fluctuates during the two seasons of the year. It is almost at the ground surface in the rainy season and drops by 1–3 m in the dry season. The hydraulic gradient of regional flow is from the north to the south, where it discharges into the ocean as submarine flow. Saltwater and brackish waters in aquifers are hydraulically connected to the sea in areas near the coast like Ogidigben, Ogulagha, Burutu, and Benin river areas. Generally, groundwater
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quality is influenced by a submarine discharge of freshwater into the ocean, tidal and wave forces, and anthropogenic pumping. The aquifer is predominantly recharged by precipitation and return flow from septic tanks. The area is drained by the major rivers of River Niger and its tributaries, River Ase, Forcados River, Warri River, Excravos Rivers, and Benin Rivers and streams, respectively.
the GIS tools in the map module incorporated into the software, aquifer parameters needed for simulation are defined at the conceptual level before grids are generated. While in the gripping approach, aquifer parameters concerning source/sinks are inputted in the international packages. Maps and elevation of modeled areas can be imported into the model domain, and elevation data can be interpolated.
2 Materials and Methods
2.3 Model Description
2.1 Conceptual Model
The model was discretized with a three-dimensional finitedifference grid consisting of 100 rows by 100 columns covering the entire modeled area. The model domain has a location of 1,114,649,641.91 km2, and the model cell size is uniformly spaced with ∂x equals 3400 m and ∂y equals 2000 m. The model has 15 layers that extend from the water table to an impermeable layer at a depth of 1000 m, believed to be the top of the Agbada Formation. A digital elevation model (DEM) covering the entire model was downloaded from Aster global satellite website, and the Minna datum was used.
The groundwater flow system was constructed on the data acquired from borehole logs, general stratigraphy of the area, geophysical data (vertical electrical sounding and 2D electrical tomography), groundwater levels, and literature. The heterogeneity characteristics of the aquifer media and hydraulic gradient mainly influence groundwater flow. Heterogeneity is caused chiefly by the interfingering of clays with sands, either with overlying sand at the top of a confined aquifer or within the aquifer itself. Groundwater level data constrain regional groundwater flow from the north (landward) toward the south (Ocean). Stresses include groundwater abstraction by pumping, discharge into oceans, rivers, and streams, and evapotranspiration. The recharge of an aquifer is by precipitation through the surface into the unconfined layer, and return flows from septic tanks in the coast existence of saltwater-freshwater interface caused by the mixing of modern ocean saltwater and freshwater discharged into the ocean. This saltwater wedge is assumed to be in the ocean's proximity and is controlled by pumping, aquifer hydraulic conductivity and tide.
2.2 Selection of Code SEAWAT was chosen for the numerical simulation of SWI in the western Niger Delta. SEAWAT is a USGS computer program based on Guo and Langevin’s (2002) model. It combines the efficiency of MODFLOW 2000 and MT3D models to provide a solution for 3D variable density-dependent groundwater flow and solute transport problems. The code is created such that the main constituents of hydrologic systems in any basin are considered and used to simulate the model. Water balance and solute budget solutions are provided by solving of surface and groundwater flow as well as mass transport equations during time steps. The visual interface for the SEAWAT code used for this study was created by GMS version 10.0. It has the advantage of using conceptual and grid approaches in constructing groundwater and transport flow models. With the aid of
2.4 Boundary Conditions The fresh groundwater flow numerical model boundary is extended to correspond to the physical limit of the hydrologic flow system of the western Niger Delta. The physical limitations are natural river systems that flow and discharge into the Atlantic Ocean. The water table of the aquifer forms the upper boundary of the model. It was specified as a free surface boundary, which obtains variable freshwater recharge from precipitation. The bottom of the model boundary was extended to 1000m and established as a noflow boundary. This depth is adequately deep enough and considered not to significantly impact the migration and location of the saltwater/freshwater interface. The region where river discharge into the Atlantic Ocean represents the coastal boundary. The model was conceptualized to facilitate the free flow of water into and out of the model, which is an open boundary condition because the phreatic level was not assigned to all boundaries of the model. The salt concentration along the coastal border is seawater. Consequently, a salt concentration of 35 kg/m3, which is representative of saltwater, was assigned to the model cells along the coastal boundary from top to bottom layers. In comparison, another part of the model domain representing freshwater was set to 0 kg/m3 and extended vertically to the bottom of the model. For SEAWAT to simulate saltwater intrusion, equivalent freshwater heads are required to create hydrostatic conditions along the coastal boundary.
Simulation of Saltwater Intrusion into Coastal Aquifer of the Western Niger Delta
Therefore, calculated equivalent freshwater heads which increase with depth were specified along the coastal border using the model vertical thickness. According to Guo and Langevin (2002), these boundary conditions specified along the coastal boundary are essential for SEAWAT to simulate the position and migration of the saltwater-freshwater interface. On the other hand, boundary condition was not specified for the saltwater-freshwater transition zone but was calculated by model since the interface is unknown.
2.5 Initial Conditions The practical simulation of SWI into coastal aquifers depends on the saltwater-freshwater interface position estimate. Precise guessing requires shorter steps to arrive at stable solutions for the interface (Guo & Langevin, 2002; Masterson, 2004). However, with the advent of fast computer processors, long-time simulation is a matter of minutes. Therefore, it may not require guessing to attain a stable interface solution in less time and probably faster. The latter option was used as there was no available well information regarding the positions of the interface that could be guessed. Consequently, lateral movement of salt from the coastal boundary into the model domain was simulated to obtain saltwater-freshwater interface position for the western Niger Delta coast after time steps of 31,025 days (85 years). The SEAWAT code performs groundwater flow and solute transport with transient settings (Guo & Langevin, 2002; Masterson, 2004). Therefore, the 35 kg/m3 initial concentration specified for the coastal boundary was utilized for transient simulation by SEAWAT. A quasi-steady-state condition is reached when there is no noticeable change in the lateral movement of the saltwater/freshwater interface with each successive time step. The attained quasi-steady-state state was subsequently used for pumping and recharging scenarios to determine their effects on the movement of the interface.
2.6 Model Calibration To determine if the groundwater model result represents conceptualized groundwater flow system, calibration is often carried out by comparing simulated model outputs with known observed measured groundwater data. The simulated model output, which perfectly matches or is close to estimated groundwater flow data, is considered accurate and represents the groundwater flow system; as such, it can be used to predict the effect of future developments and other management practices on aquifers. The lack of transient groundwater flow data in the study area compelled the use
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of recharge data in the calibration of the model. The model was designed such that the topography generates recharge and flow. Calibration is done in this study by dividing the model area by two, which was subsequently used to separate the constant source and sink output of the model simulation. The product of the latter division is regarded as the recharge m3/day into the model area. Different recharge rates were obtained by the trial and error of altering initial horizontal and vertical hydraulic conductivity values. The model is calibrated only when the simulated model recharge is equivalent or close to the measured recharge rate of the modeled area. The evapotranspiration of 1000 mm/year suggested by Ophori (2007) for the Niger delta area was used to the derivation of effective recharge. The aquifer system is recharged by 35% of the effective recharges.
3 Result and Discussion 3.1 Groundwater Flow The distribution of hydraulic heads in groundwater aquifer simulated by MODFLOW is presented in Fig. 2. The topography drove flow boundary condition imposed on the model returned hydraulic charges, which varied from 0 m (zero meters) at the ocean boundary to 38.6 m in the high-elevation areas of the model domain. The zero hydraulic head corresponds to low-elevation areas of the model domain, the southern section of the modeled site. In the southern provinces of the modeled area, groundwater flows to the surface and discharges into the ocean and other lower-lying surface water bodies, such as wetlands and marshes in the coastal regions. The pattern of groundwater flow simulated follows those affected on a regional scale for the whole of the Niger Delta by Ophori (2007). This indicates that groundwater flow is significantly influenced by the surface water of rivers, streams, and creeks that characterize the study area. This influence is probably attributed to the absence of regional groundwater flow, as suggested by the simulation of Ophori (2007). The nonexistence of restricted flow, as indicated in this study and that of Ophori (2007), strongly supports that groundwater flow in the Niger Delta is more of a local extent than regional. The hydraulic head values of 34.6 and 0 m obtained describes groundwater flow-driven hydraulic gradient from higher elevation areas of the northern parts of the Western Niger Delta to the flat plains of the southern region. The obtained hydraulic heads from the south section of the model are comparable with those obtained by Akpoborie et al. (2014), OhwoghereAsuma et al. (2014) for Warri; Oporoza (OhwoghereAsuma, 2020a) and Burutu (Ohwoghere-Asuma, 2012) areas of the study area.
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Fig. 2 Cross section of heads values calculated by the Modflow
The hydraulic heads simulated by the model for the northern region of the study area are close to those obtained by Akpoborie (2011) and Olobaniyi et al. (2007) for Agbor and Ndokwa areas in the study area. The closeness of simulated hydraulic heads to those from the literature suggests that the model is a good representative of the groundwater flow system in the study area and can be used for management groundwater resources. The result of the groundwater flow simulation revealed groundwater flow characteristics that agree with the conceptualized model. Water budget analysis showed that almost every recharge received in the study area discharged from the model to the physical boundaries, streams, marshes, swamps, and then into the Atlantic Ocean. The hydraulic conductivity values obtained from the model calibration ranged from 2.21 to 5.64 m/day for the upper layer of the model. These ranges of hydraulic conductivities somehow confirm the lithologic heterogeneity of the upper layer of the study area, as shown by the presence of clay intercalation and pinch-out with aquifers and it decreases from the coastal zone to inland areas. The variation in hydraulic conductivity from 2.21 to 5.64 m/day reflects the presence of clay lenses and intercalation of clays and sands that are not regionally continuous. The hydraulic conductivities simulated are similar and are within the range of 1–75 m/day, 8.64 × 10–1 to 86.4 m/day, and 3.0 × 10–6 to 4.1 × 10−6 m/ day obtained by Edet et al. (2014), Ojuri and Ola (2010) and Ophori (2007) for areas of Akwa Ibom, the coastal area of southwestern Nigeria and the Niger Delta regions. The variations in hydraulic conductivities simulated across these areas underscore the import of heterogeneity in aquifers, especially on a regional scale.
Other layers in the model were not considered because groundwater withdrawal in the study area is mainly from shallow aquifers and is regarded as the model's upper layer. Information on deep aquifers penetrated by boreholes is very scarce, except those at Ogulagha and Ogidigben, owned by multinational oil companies, and may be challenging to assess and coupled with the absence of transient data from these wells. The source of recharge into the upper layer of the model is rainfall. After calibration of the model, the amount of rainfall recharges in the aquifer was 1172.17 mm/year or 3.21 × 10−3 m3/day. This amount of rainfall is comparable with the estimated annual rainfall of 1222.57 mm/year or 3.35 × 10 m3/day for the coastal regions. The values of rainfall which recharge the aquifers are slightly higher than the 5.89 × 10–6 m3/day to 1.234 × 10–6 m3/day simulated by Edet et al. (2014) and 750 mm estimated by Akpokodje et al. (1996) for different areas of eastern Niger Delta region. The difference in recharge rate is probably related to the amount of rainfall, infiltration rates, subsurface geologic material, topography, land use pattern, and vegetation cover, which may differ significantly from one area to another. The amount of returned flow from septic tanks contributing to recharge of the upper layer is not known and therefore was not used in the simulation of the model.
3.2 Migration of Saltwater into an Aquifer The result of groundwater flow simulated by MODFLOW in steady-state conditions was subsequently subjected to variable density-dependent simulation using SEAWAT in
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an arid climate with very little rainfall and, consequently, little recharge of aquifers. The distance of 200m position of the saltwater/freshwater interface simulated suggests that the study area is significantly not densely populated, with small groundwater usage and high recharge rate compared with the countries mentioned above, which have experienced saltwater intrusion SWI.
3.3 Effect of Pumping Rate on Saltwater Intrusion
Fig. 3 Model section showing the calculated boundary between freshwater and saltwater concentrations in kg/m3
transient situations. The hydraulic heads obtained from MODFLOW steady-state simulation were used as starting hydraulic heads for the transient simulation. The model was run for a stress period of 31,025 days (85 years), and concentrations of salts were read every 365 days (yearly), making stress intervals of (365, 750, 1095, 7200, …, 3105). The model simulation output revealed decreased salt salinity concentration from 35 kg/m−3 to (− 0.5 kg/m−3) at the ocean boundary inland of the model domain (Fig. 3). This suggests lateral SWI from the ocean boundary to the adjacent aquifer of the inland domain of the model. SWI occurs due to the displacement of freshwater by denser saltwater. At the position where this happens, the thickness of freshwater is zero, and the saltwater/freshwater interface usually corresponds to the water table below the sea level. Therefore, freshwater thickness in the model domain is expected to be zero in the neighborhood of the ocean boundary and thicker in the inland areas. Thus, after the simulation, the saltwater/freshwater interface is found within the coastline vicinity at a 200 m inland or ocean boundary of the model domain. This value is lower than the 5 km distance suggested by Oteri and Atolagbe (2003) for the Ondo, Ogun, and the Dahomey Benin Basin and the 8.5 km simulated by Ojuri and Ola (2010) for the coastal area of southwestern Nigeria. These support the view that the saltwater/freshwater interface has not moved significantly into inland aquifers in the Niger delta compared to the Nile Delta, Tripoli, and Tunisia areas, which are more populated. SWI is mainly driven by the rate of groundwater withdrawal and its uses. In these countries, compared with the coastal region of the western Niger Delta, their coastal areas are characterized by heavy groundwater pumping for industrial, domestic, and irrigation purposes. Also, these areas are characterized by
Managing groundwater resources in coastal aquifers worldwide involves a frequent inventory of freshwater hydraulic heads and salt concentrations in monitoring wells. However, saltwater usually displaced freshwater only when hydraulic heads declined below sea level on the landward side of the shores. Several factors responsible for this include heavy groundwater withdrawal and extreme climatic conditions. Consequently, the model was stressed with pumping rate scenarios to evaluate their effects on the movement of the saltwater/freshwater interface toward the inland aquifer in the western Niger Delta. Figure 4 depicts the first scenario, which involves simulating a pumping rate of (9558–17,058 m3/day) equivalent to the product of multiplying 0.07 m3/day with the population number of the local government area hosting the pumping test well of the model. A 0.07 m3/day was assumed to be the quantity of water used daily by a person. The population number used was that of the 2006 population census report obtained from the National Population Commission (NPC, 2006) website. The result of the first scenario revealed no significant impact on the movement of the saltwater/freshwater interface, as salt concentration in the pumping well did not experience an increase. The scenario's outcome implied that the current rate of groundwater withdrawal in the western Niger Delta is insufficient to impose lateral saltwater intrusion from the modern sea into the groundwater aquifer. This is further supported by the fact that most of the communities are sparsely populated, and the current rate of groundwater withdrawal does not in any way near the first scenario used, even with a population growth rate of ten years; in fact, their population strength is lesser. Also, the entire population of the community inhabiting the vicinity of the coast hosting the well-pumping scenario is not up to one-eighth of that of the LGA population. The second scenario shown in Fig. 5 was used to ascertain the actual volume of groundwater that may be pumped from the aquifer to trigger SWI in the future. Consequently, the pumping rate that ranged from 3 to 6.9 MCM/day was used to simulate the model. As a result, the salt concentration in the pumping well was essentially increased, which indicates
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Fig. 4 Concentration of salt in well simulated with realistic pumping in two scenarios—one, simulated with a pumping rate of 9558 m3/day (left) and two, acted with a pumping speed of 17,058 m3/day (right)
Fig. 5 Concentration of salt in well simulated with unrealistic pumping two scenarios—one, forged with a pumping rate of 3 MCM/day (left) and two, affected with a pumping speed of 6.9 MCM/day (right)
SWI from the ocean into the aquifer. This also implied that SWI might not occur because such a population number is not tenable in the future, especially without irrigation which requires heavy groundwater pumping.
3.4 Effects of Recharge on Saltwater Intrusion The recharge of groundwater by precipitation is an essential component of the hydrological cycle, without which depleted aquifers would not be replenished. Recharge is also crucial in coastal aquifers as it has potent effects on the movement of saltwater and a more devastating effect
on the quality of groundwater aquifers. Consequently, the impact of recharge on the lateral intrusion of saltwater was investigated by simulating the model with two different scenarios; increased and decreased recharge scenarios. The effect of the other scenario simulation is quite apparent and revealing, especially with the recharge reduction. Figure 6 showed a 20% (left) and 50% (right) decrease in recharge rate, depicted with an increase in the concentration of salinity of salt in the pumping well. This underscores the fact that the reduction in recharge has precipitated the movement of saltwater laterally from the sea into the aquifer. Therefore, a decrease in recharge may be imposed by drought conditions caused by climate change, in which there may be no precipitation for a specific period.
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Fig. 6 Concentration of salt in well simulated with unrealistic two scenarios of recharge; one 20% reduction in recharge simulation; two 50% reduction in recharge
4 Conclusion The model has demonstrated the importance of scenario modeling in understanding coastal aquifers prone to seawater influx. According to the scenarios used in this study, the current rate of groundwater demand and usage in the western Niger Delta is insufficient to cause saltwater intrusion into groundwater aquifers located about 200m away. However, simulations of recharge reduction scenarios with unrealistic pumping conditions increased the movement of the freshwater/saltwater interface toward the inland, implying that climate change has a significant impact on saltwater intrusion. Adding deeper aquifers in the water-bearing Benin Formation into the model has been challenging due to a lack of hydraulic heads, pumping, and conductivity data from more profound depths. Despite the shortcomings, we believe the simulation’s output will be valuable for groundwater resource management in the coastal region of the Niger Delta. As a result, we concluded that this research was preliminary and that the model will be improved as additional data became available.
References Akpoborie, I. A. (2011). Aspects of the hydrology of the western Niger Delta wetlands: Groundwater conditions in the Neogene (recent) deposits of the Ndokwa area. In Proceedings of the environmental management conference (p. 17), The Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria. Akpoborie, I. A., Aweto, K. E., & Ohwoghere-Asuma, O. (2014). Urbanization and major ion hydrogeochemistry of the shallow aquifer in the Effurun-Warri area. Nigeria, 4(1), 37–46. Akpokodje, E. G., Etu-Efeotor, J. O., & Mbeledogu,I. U (1996). A study of environmental effects of deep subsurface injection of drilling waste on water resources of the Niger Delta” CORDEC, University of Port Harcourt, Choba, Port Harcourt, Nigeria
Allen, J. R. L. (1965). Late quaternary Niger Delta and adjacent areas. Sedimentary Environments and Lithofacies, 49(5), 547–600. Avbovbo, A. A. (1978). Tertiary lithostratigraphy of Niger delta. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 62, 295–300. Don, N., Hang, N., Araki, H., Yamanishi, H., & Koga, K. (2006). Salinization processes in an alluvial coastal lowland plain and effect of sea water level rise. Environmental Geology, 49(5), 743–751. Duong, T. A., Bui, M. D., & Rutschmann, P. (2015). Impact of climate change on salinity intrusion in the Mekong Delta. In Proceedings of the 14th international conference on environmental science and technology, Rhodes, Greece. Edet, A., Abdelaziz, R., Merkel, B., Okereke, C., & Nganje, T. (2014). Numerical groundwater flow modeling of the coastal plain sand aquifer, Akwa Ibom state, SE Nigeria. Journal of Water Resource and Protection, 6, 193–201. Guo, W., & Langevin, C. D. (2002). User’s guide to SEAWAT: A computer program for simulation of three dimensional variable density groundwater flow (77p). U.S geological open file report 01-434. https://doi.org/10.4236/jwarp.2014.64025 Khang, D. K., Kotera, A., Sakamoto, T., & Yokozawa, M. (2008). Sensitivity of salinity intrusion to sea level rise and river flow change in Vietnamese Mekong Delta—Impacts on availability of irrigation water for rice cropping. Journal of Agriculture Meteorological, 64, 167–176. Kumar, C. P. (2012). Climate change impact on groundwater resources. International Journal of Engineering Science, 1(5), 20–32. Masterson, J. P. (2004a). Simulated interaction between freshwater and saltwater of groundwater pumping and sea level change, Lower Cape aquifer system, Massachusetts (72p). U.S geological survey scientific investigations report 2004a-5014. Murat, R. C. (1970). Stratigraphy and palaeogeography of the Cretaceous and Lower Tertiary in southern Nigeria. In T. F. J. Dessauvagie & A. J. Whiteman (Eds.), African geology (pp. 251– 268). Ibadan University Press. Negm, A., Bouderbala, A., Chenchouni, H., & Barcelo, D. (2020). Water Resources in Algeria - Part I: Assessment of Surface and Groundwater. Springer, Cham. http://doi. org/10.1007/978-3-030-57895-4 NPC. (2006). Nigeria population report for the 2006 national population census. http://population.gov.ng/core-activities/surveys/dataset/. Assessed August 8, 2021.
144 Ohwoghere-Asuma, O., Akpoborie, I. A., & Akpokodje, E. G. (2014). Investigation of saltwater intrusion in Warri-Effurun shallow groundwater aquifer from 2D electrical resistivity imaging and hydraulic gradient data. New York Science Journal, 7(12), 20–29. Ohwoghere-Asuma, O., Aweto, K. E., & Akpoborie, I. A. (2012). Investigation of groundwater quality and evolution in an Estuary environment: A case study of Burutu island western Niger Delta, Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Hydrology, 22(5), 1–14. Ohwoghere-Asuma, O. and Essi, O. E. (2017a). Investigation of Seawater Intrusion into Coastal Groundwater Aquifers of Escravos, Western Niger Delta, Nigeria Journal of Applied. Science and. Environmental Management, 21 (2):362–369. https://doi. org/10.4314/jasem.v21i2.18 Ohwoghere-Asuma, O. (2017b). 2D Electrical Resistivity Imaging of the Effect of Tide on Groundwater Quality in Ogulagha Estuary, Western Niger Delta, Nigeria. Scientia Africana, 1 6(1):122–225 Ohwoghere-Asuma, O., Iserhien-Emekeme, R., Aweto, K.E. (2020a). Geophysical investigation of resistivity and groundwater quality in Ogbe-Ijoh coastal area of the western Niger Delta of Nigeria. Appl Water Sci 10, 70. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-020-1144-0 Ohwoghere-Asuma, O., Iserhien-Emekeme, R., & Aweto, K. E. (2020b). The use of very low-frequency electromagnetic survey in the mapping of groundwater condition in oporoza-gbamaratu area of the Niger Delta. Applied Water Science, 164, 2–14. Ojuri, O.O., Ola, S.A. (2010). Estimation of contaminant transport parameters for a tropical sand in a sand tank model. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 7, 385–394. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03326148
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Modeling of Seawater Intrusion in Karst Area of Tuban Region, East Java Province, Indonesia Arief Rachmansyah, Fajar Rakhmanto, Gabriel Listyawan, Adi Susilo and Azizi Dermawan
Abstract
Keywords
Carbonate aquifer in coastal areas is very susceptible to seawater intrusion, especially if groundwater exploitation is high. To identify the distribution of seawater intrusion both horizontally and vertically, hydrophysics and geophysical-resistivity surveys have been carried out. Investigations were carried out at 143 observation points in the form of dug wells, boreholes, and springs to obtain seawater intrusion’s horizontal and vertical distribution. In situ measurement of groundwater’s electric conductivity and pH is carried out using portable instruments. The geoelectric resistivity investigation using the vertical electrical sounding with Schlumberger array was carried out at 25 points. The results of the hydrophysics survey are presented in the maps of groundwater flow direction, the distribution of electrical conductivity, and pH. These three maps show that the horizontal distribution of seawater intrusion occurs along the tributary pattern. Based on the geoelectric profile, the groundwater conditions in the study area can be classified into three zones; freshwater, saline water in the karst plane, and saline water in the hilly area. The saline water in the hilly region is interpreted as connate water. After this study, it can be concluded that seawater intrusion in the karst plain topography is classified as a natural process, and developing mangrove forests along tidal rivers may be the best option to prevent widespread seawater intrusion.
Seawater intrusion · Hydrophysics · Resistivity geoelectric
A. Rachmansyah (*) Civil Engineering Department, Uniiversity Brawijaya, Malang, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] F. Rakhmanto · G. Listyawan · A. Dermawan Geocentris Consulting, Malang, Indonesia
1 Introduction Tuban District, East Java Province, Indonesia, has coastal areas approximately 150 km long. Almost all the coastal areas are directly adjacent to the karst area. The freshwater for domestic, agriculture, and fisheries along the coast is taken from a limestone aquifer. The increasing exploitation rate in the last two decades has the anxiety for the widespread seawater intrusion. The degradation of freshwater quality due to seawater intrusion is a severe societal issue in most coastal areas (Zghibi et al., 2019). Hydro-physics and geophysical-resistivity methods have been investigated to acknowledge this condition. Seawater intrusion is a process where the seawater mass is transported into zones saturated with freshwater. The movement of the seawater often marks it into the freshwater system (Bear et al., 1999). The altering process of the freshwater into brackish water could be caused by several things, such as seawater intrusion, effects of the presence of deep brine water, The freshwater and salt-contained rocks, or the occurrence of a surface pollutant seeped through to the freshwater table (Khaska et al., 2013). Seawater intrusion is a natural process. However, it could be accelerated by human activities such as the exploitation of freshwater, which has a higher extraction rate than its recharge rate. The phenomena could also be caused by the decreasing rate of rainfall water infiltration at the coastal area and the rise of seawater levels (Kelly, 2006). The movement process of the seawater into the freshwater system could quickly occur at the limestone aquifer because of its high permeability (Linzey, 2011).
A. Susilo Physics Department, Uniiversity Brawijaya, Malang, Indonesia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 H. Chenchouni et al. (eds.), Recent Research on Hydrogeology, Geoecology and Atmospheric Sciences, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43169-2_31
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2 Research Area and Method The investigation site is located within 112° 4′ 42,159″–112° 12′ 21,248″ eastern longitude, 6° 53′ 47,904″–6° 58′ 59,832″ southern latitude. Administratively, it is situated in Tuban District, East Java, Indonesia. Hydrophysics studies are done with 143 observation wells, including 114 dug wells, 25 drilled wells, and four water springs. Both dug and drilled wells can be found almost all over the investigation site except in the southeastern area. The measurement of water table depth, water temperature, pH, and electrical conductivity are taken at each dug well during the hydrophyisics studies. Those measurements are using a hand-held instrument. The geophysical-resistivity measurements have been done on 25 points with Schlumberger configuration. This is to collect the material’s resistivity value vertically at each measurement point. The electro-stratigraphy profiles of the investigation site are obtained by correlating the measurement results from each point. The correlation uses a north– south orientation after the subsurface layer’s inclination model. The profile slicing uses a west–east direction to visualize the seawater intrusion’s horizontal spread.
3 Results 3.1 Physiography and Geology Based on the physiography of Eastern Java Island, the study area is located on the Rembang-Madura Zone, formed by the anticlinorium structure with the axis orientation from Fig. 1 Distribution of electric conductivity values of groundwater
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west to east. The fault structures in this area have a northwest-to-southeast direction. The shallow marine sedimentary rock, carbonate rocks, and land sediment construct this zone. The southern part of the research area is low-sloping hills composed of fine sedimentary rocks with some lenses of carbonate sandstone. The carbonate rock is widely spread in the northern region, forming the karst topographic, marked with mesa and butte, water springs, and karst cave at the western part of the research area. The carbonates material in the northeastern region is advance eroded, thus building an alluvial plain. However, there are several isolated hills composed of reef limestones. Semimeander rivers affected by the sea’s tides flow through the karst plain.
3.2 Hydrogeology and Hydrophysics The depth of the groundwater table in the study area ranges between 0.34 and 92 m from sea level, and groundwater flow generally from the south to the north and northeast. The shallowest point is the springs in the western part of the study area. However, the deepest point is a natural well in the center part that is interpreted as a doline. The groundwater level ranges from the highest point in the middle spring to the lowest point in the dug well in the northeast. The electric conductivity of groundwater lies between 580 µS/cm and 7410 µS/cm. The highest EC value was found on water samples from north and northeastern parts, while the lowest was in the middle. Some high values of EC can be located in the southwest of the study area (Fig. 1). A
Modeling of Seawater Intrusion in Karst Area of Tuban Region, East Java Province, Indonesia Fig. 2 Vertical distribution of resistivity in the northeast part of the study area
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very high EC value (> 7000 μS/cm) was found at the dug wells in the middle part. The high-value EC values in the north and northeast part illustrate a process of mixing seawater with freshwater.
3.3 Resistivity Geoelectric Geoelectrical resistivity has been a favorite geophysical method than other because of the wide range of resistivity values (Barker, 1980). The results of geophysical investigations are described on a profile of groundwater resistivity in two-dimensional modeling of the north–south line (Fig. 2). After this figure, the saline water can be found in the north (coastline) and south (hilly area), also in the middle (karst plane). Saline water is also found in shallow groundwater in the karst plains.
4 Discussion The EC map shows that the horizontal distribution of brackish and brine water takes place along the tributaries’ pattern. Even though in the northeast part, the brine water has been founded in a dug well 4 km from the coastline. The high EC value is probably due to the intrusion of seawater into the groundwater system via rivers during high tide. The geoelectric profile of groundwater conditions can be classified into three zones; fresh water, saline water in the karst plane, and saline water in the hilly area. The saline water in the hilly region is interpreted as trapped seawater while forming fine-grain sedimentary rocks. The saline water in the karst plain topography is a product of seawater intrusion. Developing mangrove forests along tidal rivers may be the best option to prevent widespread seawater intrusion.
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5 Conclusion In light of the findings, it is imperative to recognize the dynamic interplay of natural geological processes shaping the hydrogeological landscape. Seawater intrusion in the karst plains, elucidated as a natural phenomenon, emphasizes the intricate balance between saltwater and freshwater systems in coastal regions. The identification of saline water in the hilly area as connate water signifies its ancient origin, deeply embedded within the geological formations. This insight into the origin and nature of saline water sources not only enriches our understanding of the region’s hydrology but also lays the foundation for informed decision-making in water resource management. These conclusions underscore the necessity for adaptive, nature-based solutions and robust policies to safeguard groundwater quality, ensuring the sustainability of vital water supplies for both current and future generations.
References Barker, R. D. (1980). Application of geophysics on groundwater investigations. Water Survey, 84, 489492. Bear, J., Cheng, A. H. D., Sorek, S., Ouazar, D., & Herrera, I. (1999). Seawater intrusion in coastal aquifers—Cooncepts, methods, and practices (p. 627). Springer. Kelly, J. D. (2006). Development of seawater intrusion protection regulation. In Proceedings 1st SWIM-SWICA Joint Saltwater Intrusion Conference, Sept. 24–29, 2006, Cagliari-Chia Laguna (pp. 135–146). Khaska, M., et al. (2013). Origin of groundwater salinity (current seawater vs saline deep water) i a coastal karst aquifer based on Sr and Cl- isotopes. Case study of the La Clape massif (France). Applied Geochemistry, 37, 212–227. Linzey, D. (2011). Saltwater intrusion and climate change: A primer for local and provincal decision-makers (p. 26). Prince Edward Island Department of Environment, Labour and Justice. Zghibi, A., et al. (2019). Implications of groundwater development and seawater intrusion for sustainability of a Mediterranean Coastal Aquifer in Tunisia. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 191, 696.
Evaluation of the Geothermal Resources of Esenyurt District (Istanbul) Ali Malik Gözübol, Murat Beren, Hakan Hoşgörmez and Doğacan Özcan
Abstract
Esenyurt District of Istanbul Province is one of the important locations of the region in terms of geothermal energy potential. In this context, a geothermal resource determination study was carried out to increase the site’s geological and hydrogeological knowledge. As a result of geological investigations, in the Paleozoic sequence, the effect of the North Anatolian Fault zone existed in all periods. NE-SW directional compressions have folded basement rocks. Especially terrestrial and lagoon sediments deposited in the region, where the basin was formed in the upper Miocene, have been folded and fractured due to the deformations of the North Anatolian Fault Zone. The claystone levels in the flood plain and lacustrine deposits show adequate cap rock features at the strata. The Eocene limestones are determined as reservoir rocks of the field according to these geological characteristics. The low temperature, flow rate, and chemical composition changes of the fluid revealed that the field has a low enthalpy and a long water circulation period due to characteristics of faults and fractures. In the study area, data from two wells were evaluated for the two geothermal fields named Kıraç and Saadetdere. For the Beytepe thermal well drilled in the Kıraç region, the flow rate has been measured as 6 lt/s with a temperature of 35 °C. The pH value has been determined as 7.49, and the EC value has been measured as 7680 μS/cm. The class of the water is NaCl. The total dissolved solid value is 4527.940 mg/L. The depth of the Saadetdere well of only the Saadetdere field was 1200 m. The fluid temperature has been measured as 49 °C, and the flow rate has been determined as 15 lt/s. The total dissolved solid value of the fluid has A. M. Gözübol · M. Beren (*) · H. Hoşgörmez · D. Özcan Geological Engineering Department, Istanbul University-Cerrahpaşa, Istanbul, Turkey e-mail: [email protected]
been 37,248 mg/L. The class of the water is also NaCl. As a result of the geological, geophysical, and hydrogeochemical studies executed within the scope of this study, two new geothermal fields have been discovered in the Esenyurt district.
Keywords
Geothermal energy · Kıraç geothermal field · Saadetdere geothermal field · Water chemistry
1 Introduction Esenyurt District of Istanbul Province is one of the important locations of the region in terms of geothermal energy potential. In addition, the district of Esenyurt, with a population of approximately 1 million, has a larger population than many other provinces in Turkey. Therefore, the need for hot and cold water is increasing daily. In this context, a geothermal resource determination study was carried out to increase the site’s geological and hydrogeological knowledge. The study area is located on the European side of the province of Istanbul and covers the area between Büyükçekmece Lake and Esenyurt. This study aims to investigate geothermal resources with water chemistry and field geology assistance. The physicochemical water analyses of the water samples taken in the study were evaluated, and the rock-water relationship was interpreted. As a result, the low temperature, flow rate, and chemical composition changes of the fluid revealed that the field has a low enthalpy and a long water circulation period due to characteristics of faults and fractures.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 H. Chenchouni et al. (eds.), Recent Research on Hydrogeology, Geoecology and Atmospheric Sciences, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43169-2_32
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2 Geological Background and Hydrogeology In geological studies, sedimentary rock groups formed in the Oligocene and Miocene periods in a vast region in the study area and its surroundings. Paleozoic basement rocks are mostly located in N-NE and N-NW directions. While Istanbul Paleozoic sediments are located in the NE of the region that includes the study area, the metamorphic rocks of the Strandja massif are spread over a wide area in the NW of the region. The sedimentary rocks of the Istanbul Paleozoic sequence and the metamorphics of the Istranca massif are separated by a fault plane called the West Black Sea fault in the N-NW of the study area. All Neogene and post-Neogene deposits cover this fault plane. It is also known that Eocene limestones exist under the Oligocene– Miocene age sedimentary rocks. The carboniferous rock unit Trakya Formation is characterized by graywackes located at the region’s bottom of the strata. Eocene-aged limestones overlie these units. The upper Fig. 1 Geological map of the study area (Yurtsever, 1996)
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Oligocene unit Gürpınar Formation has a lithology consisting of greenish-yellowish colored clay, silt, and clayey siltstones (Sayar, 1979). Intermediate layers of siltstone, pebbly sandstone, and tuff are found between the clayey levels. The average thickness of this formation is about 200 m. The Çukurçeşme Formation, which spreads over a wide area in the study area and its vicinity, is mainly composed of sand and a small amount of gravel. The gray–greenish gray-colored and parallelly laminated clays overlying the Çukurçeşme Formation are named as Güngören Formation. Clays in which locally very well-sorted gray-colored fine sand lenses and green-colored marl interlayers are found at most 120 m reaches thickness. At the top of these units, the Bakırköy Formation, which consists of units in which reef and front reef clastic rocks are observed intermittently, is represented mainly by mactra limestones containing clay and marl interlayers. This formation has an average thickness of 30 m and is covered by younger sediments. In addition, alluvial deposits in stream beds, filling materials, and landslide complexes in different regions have been reported (Fig. 1).
Evaluation of the Geothermal Resources of Esenyurt District (Istanbul)
The region’s Miocene sedimentary sequence consists of general impermeable, non-reservoir lithologies. Due to these features, it does not carry groundwater. However, sandy and gravelly levels in this clayey, silty sequence carry water in their structures when they are in good contact with the surface and feeding areas. If drilling is done from these zones, yields of 1–3 L/s flow rate can be obtained. Kırklareli formation, under the Miocene sediments, has a limestone lithological character. There is advanced karstification in the reef limestones in it. It is a regionally good deep reservoir rock. Due to young tectonism and young faults in the study area, this deep reservoir is warming up in areas with high geothermal gradients. Drilling data in the Harmidere and Kıraç fault zones reveal this result. In geophysical measurements made in the license area, geothermal heating is expected in low-resistivity deep zones.
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Fig. 2 Piper plot of Beytepe and Saadetdere thermal waters
3 Results The physicochemical water analyses of the water samples taken in the study were evaluated, and the rock-water relationship was interpreted. According to the water chemistry analysis of the Kıraç Beytepe thermal well, the well is classified as a thermo mineral water with sodium chloride. If the amount of salt is above the threshold value determined for salty waters, it is also included in the group of salty waters. Sulfur and fluoride values are also above the threshold value. According to the Piper and Schoeller diagrams, the water is classified as NaCl and included in the salty and soda waters class. Saadetdere water sample has the characteristics of thermomineral Water, in general with its properties. Due to the amount of Na and Cl in its content, it has the quality of “saltwater”. According to the Piper and Schoeller diagrams, the water is also classified as NaCl class (Figs. 2 and 3). To use cation geothermometers for determining reservoir rock temperatures, chemical analysis results were evaluated in the Giggenbach (1988) Na–K–Mg diagram. Briefly, the diagram consists of three parts: water where the water–rock relationship is not in equilibrium (raw waters), the water–rock
Fig. 3 Schoeller plot of Beytepe and Saadetdere thermal waters
relationship is partially in equilibrium (mixed waters), and the water–rock relationship is in full equilibrium. According to the Giggenbach diagram, both samples are in the class of nonequilibrium (raw waters) waters (Fig. 4).
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References Giggenbach, W. F. (1988). Geothermal solute equilibria. Derivation of Na-K-Ca-Mg Geoindicators, Geochim. et Cosmo. Acta, 48. Sayar, C. (1979). Ordovician—Silurian boundary in and around the Bosphorus: Turkiye Geo. Bult., 22, 161–167 (In Turkish). Yurtsever, A. (1996). Geology of the Istanbul Peninsula (1/50,000 scale map). MTA Rep. No. 9989, Ankara (In Turkish).
Fig. 4 Giggenbach diagram of Beytepe and Saadetdere thermal waters
4 Conclusion Due to the constantly increasing population, the need for hot and cold water in the Esenyurt district is also increasing. For this reason, various hot water exploration activities are carried out. This study emphasizes the hot waters determined as a result of these activities. According to the geological studies and water chemistry analysis, the field has a low enthalpy and a long water circulation period due to characteristics of faults and fractures. As a result of the geological, geophysical, and hydrogeochemical studies executed within the scope of this study, two new geothermal fields have been discovered in the Esenyurt district.
The Importance of Sustainable Management of the Geologic Substratum for Exploitable High-Quality Mineral Resources: Mineral Waters in the Călimani Mountains and the Adjacent Areas Ruxandra Ionce and Florin Florea
Abstract
The present paper analyzes how the mining operations in the Călimani Mountains and the adjacent areas, historically and in the present day, can influence the exploitation of mineral water resources. The data covers five years and results from continuous monitoring of the natural carbogazeous, non-carbogazeous and balneal waters from 10 sites susceptible to pollution. The study revealed a considerable distance between the water sources and the potentially hazardous mining perimeters, a favorable geologic context preventing the dispersion of pollutants, and a reduced size of the mining sites, except for the sulfur quarry Călimani. Nevertheless, despite an insignificant impact, more robust protective measures and careful monitoring are necessary, given the developing agriculture and industry in the area.
Keywords
Mineral waters · Mining activity · Volcanic processes · Balneal therapy
1 Introduction The natural mineral water resources analyzed belong to the hydrogeochemical province of mineral waters in the fumarole aureole of the Neogene volcanoes CălimaniHarghita, situated in the northeast part of Romania. The R. Ionce (*) Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Iași, Romania e-mail: [email protected] F. Florea S.C. GEOMOLD S.A, Cămpulung Moldovenesc, Romania
mineral waters developed along the Dornelor depression have two main uses: bottled natural carbogazeous and noncarbogazeous waters for consumption and balneal therapy (www.snam.ro). In the past 25 years, Romania has registered a significant increase in mineral water consumption, drawing more attention and focusing the research on extending the exploitation of these resources, and implicitly, their protection. Post-volcanic phenomena, such as fumaroles for this case study are noticeable more than 50 km from the volcanic mountains. A series of important crustal fractures facilitate this overturned folds and support fractures and a generally favorable lithological context. The extensive mining operations in the area significantly negatively impact all environmental factors, the exploitation and preparation of sulfur from the Călimani massif being the most hazardous. Moreover, previous underground mining activities, manganese quarries, and other small-scale mining exploitations of industrial rocks (andesite, diorite) have left their mark on the local environment. The conclusions in the present paper are based on studies performed by specialized institutions, accredited laboratories, and personal analyses.
2 Materials and Methods Due to rich mineral water resources for consumption and balneation, an initial classification based on representativity, position, degree of mineralization, use, research stage, and the geological context of the containing rocks is necessary (Dinelli et al., 2010). For this paper, ten sites were selected: Poiana Negrii, Poiana Vinului, Poiana Coșnei, Dorna Arini, and Păltiniș for natural carbogazeous mineral waters in the exploitation phase and the Diaca perimeter in the exploration phase. In addition, three perimeters in the exploitation
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 H. Chenchouni et al. (eds.), Recent Research on Hydrogeology, Geoecology and Atmospheric Sciences, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43169-2_33
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phase contain balneation waters with fumarole CO2: Șaru Dornei, Vatra Dornei, and Dorna Candreni. The data was collected mainly from SC Carpathian Springs SA Vatra Dornei, SC Geomold SA Câmpulung Moldovenesc, SC Dorna Turism SA Vatra Dornei, and specialized literature.
3 Results The effects of the carbon dioxide are felt along considerable distances (up to 50 km) due to important crustal fractures, overturned folds, and support fractures. The spread of carbogazeous, non-carbogazeous mineral water and fumarole emergences over a NE-SW alignment corresponds to the contact between the Quaternary and Paleogene sedimentary deposits and crystalline deposits (epimetamorphic and mesometamorphic) (Mutihac, 1990). This alignment generally overlaps the major internal dislocation of the crystalline deposits that continue toward the Dornelor region, Bilbor, and Borsec, facilitating the carbon dioxide’s access from the eruptive zone toward the emergences in the vicinity. These carbogazeous emergences also appear along regional and local dislocations connected to the abovementioned major dislocation (Airinei & Pricajan, 1975). The carbon dioxide dissolved in the subterranean waters increases the water’s solubility by modifying its pH and facilitating the mineralization with other anions and cations. Given the local lithology, the dissolving action affects mainly the feldspars in the crystalline rocks, a phenomenon reflected in the high quantities of sodium and potassium in the mineral waters analyzed. Despite abundant precipitation, subterranean meteoric water intake is less than a quarter of the yearly total, the rest mainly resulting from surface run-off and evapotranspiration. The reduced subterranean intake is due to the morphological conditions (slope, slope exposition), forest cover, lithology, and the structural tectonic system (Arar & Chenchouni, 2014). Rocks characterize the geological structure with great storage and conductive capacity, in addition to the intense cracking and fracturing that facilitates water infiltrations (Dinelli et al., 2010), especially in the epimetamorphic and mesometamorphic crystalline rocks, the sedimentary limestone, crystalline, dolomites or sandstone, each according to the storage capacity of the massif. The underground water circulation is generally slow, and its homogeneity increases with depth. The well-functioning of the fractures is also determined by the degree of clogging. The therapeutic mineral waters are known and utilized in Vatra Dornei, Dorna Candrenilor, and Șaru Dornei (Stratulat et al., 2016). Due to infiltration water, the chemical analyses show a strong gradual down-top transition from an alkaline to a calcic-magnesian character. These
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therapeutic mineral waters are bicarbonate, ferruginoussodic-magnesian, carbogazeous, and hypotonic. The main difference between the three sources is the dissolved CO2 content, the degree of total mineralization, and the considerable concentrations of other ions (Mg, K, Fe) in addition to most bicarbonate ions, Cl, Na, and Ca. These characteristics add to the diverse and therapeutic quality of the waters. From a bacteriological point of view, the therapeutic mineral water contains anaerobic sulfite-reducing bacteria Escherichia coli and other coliforms at 37 and 44.5 °C, and several developed colonies at 22 and 37 °C, including the Pseudomonas aeruginosa and fecal streptococci within limits imposed by the legislation. Some ferruginous bacteria are also present but do not affect the human body, contributing to the balneal therapy. The carbogazeous mineral waters were researched and are the main object of exploitation in Poana Negrii, Poiana Vinului, Poiana Coșnei, Păltiniș, and Diaca. From a genetic point of view, most researchers consider the waters to be the result of an interaction between vadose water and fumarole CO2. The waters can be categorized as bicarbonate calcic-magnesian and sodic and are extracted by fracking to depths of over 100 m, offering low flow rates of about 1.0 l/s. The HCO3− content is between 1815.3 and 562.5 mg/L, for CO2 between 2805.1 and 1562.5, for Fe between 12.5 and 0.65 mg/L, and for Mn2+ 3.3–0.1 mg/L. Given these conditions, the waters must undergo deironization and manganization to be consumed. From a bacteriological point of view, the carbogazeous mineral waters conform to the limits imposed by the legislation and are considered potable. The non-carbogazeous natural mineral waters have been studied and exploited in the mining perimeters Păltiniș and Dorna Arini. They are oligomineral, slightly bicarbonate, and calcic, with a weak magnesian character and low sodium content. They are in perfect accordance with the limits imposed by the legislation. The flow rates are generally low, about 1–2 L/s apart from the springs in the Barnar areas, with cumulated flows of cca. 40 L/s. From a bacteriological point of view, the waters also fit within the legal limits.
4 Discussion The qualitative characteristics of the natural carbogazeous and non-carbogazeous subterranean mineral waters in the Călimani Mountains area, the eastern slope, and the adjacent areas have not shown any significant impacts from the mining sites (sulfur quarry Călmani, the manganese mining sites Dealul Rusului, Sărișor, Dealul Boambei, Todireni and the industrial rock exploitations in Dornișoara, Dorna Borcut, Măgura, Sărișor, and Gura Haitei).
The Importance of Sustainable Management of the Geologic Substratum for Exploitable High-Quality …
The transport network of the waters through fractures and subcrustal fissures at low depths protects them from the influences of the local hydrography with surface waters often polluted by sulfur exploitation (e.g., the Neagra Șarului River). Another important protective factor regarding the quality of the mineral waters is the coniferous forests stretching over long distances and constituting a buffer area for the sanogenesis of the pluvio-nival waters. The high iron, manganese, and arsenic content result from the actions of carbon dioxide in the presence of groundwater traveling through fractures, fissures, and interstices of the containing rocks (Chenchouni et al., 2022). The increase of HCO3− content takes place under the same conditions, determining the bicarbonate character of the waters (Bouaroudj et al., 2019).
5 Concluding Remarks Despite their proximity to highly anthropized sites, the natural carbogazeous, non-carbogazeous, and balneation mineral waters are only influenced in an insignificant way by the mining operations. Monitoring the physical, chemical, and microbiological parameters of the mineral waters studied shows their compliance with the national and international legal norms, making them fit for a healthy diet and balneation therapy with notable results. This aspect is reinforced by the influence of fumarole CO2, which creates the conditions for a reduced microbiological charge. However, it is indispensable that further preventive measures are taken together with stronger enforcement of legal prescriptions concerning the protection of the
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hydrogeological perimeters in the areas of sanitary protection of the sources and a more careful monitoring of the implementation of all new industrial or agricultural activities in or in the proximity of the area of interest.
References Airinei, S., & Pricajan, A. (1975). Some geological connections between the mineral carbon and thermal waters and the post-vulcanic manifestations correlated with the deep geological structure of the Est-Carpathians territory—Romania. Institutul de Geologie si Geofizica, Studii Tehnice si Economice, Seria E, 12, 7–12. București. Arar, A., & Chenchouni, H. (2014). A “simple” geomatics-based approach for assessing water erosion hazard at montane areas. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 7(1), 1–12. https://doi. org/10.1007/s12517-012-0782-4 Bouaroudj, S., Menad, A., Bounamous, A., Ali-Khodja, H., Gherib, A., Weigel, D. E., & Chenchouni, H. (2019). Assessment of water quality at the largest dam in Algeria (Beni Haroun Dam) and effects of irrigation on soil characteristics of agricultural lands. Chemosphere, 219, 76–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. chemosphere.2018.11.193 Chenchouni, H., Chaminé, H. I., Khan, M. F., Merkel, B. J., Zhang, Z., Li, P., Kallel, A., & Khélifi, N. (2022). New prospects in environmental geosciences and hydrogeosciences. Springer. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-3-030-72543-3 Dinelli, E., Lima, A., De Vivo, B., Albanese, S., Cicchella, D., & Valera, P. (2010). Hydrogeochemical analysis on Italian bottled mineral waters: Effects of geology. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 107, 317–335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. gexplo.2010.06.004 Mutihac, V. (1990). Structura geologica a teritoriului Romaniei. Ed. Tehnica. Stratulat, I. S., et al. (2016). Balneoclimatologia românească. Istoric şi perspective europene (p. 134). Ed. Academiei Medicale. www.snam.ro. Last accessed 2021/06/18.
Hydrogeological, Geochemical, and Isotopic Characterization of the Thermal Waters of Hammam Righa (North-Central Algeria) Messaouda Belaid-Abdelouahab, Rachid Abdelouahab, Adnane Souffi Moulla, Ramdane Said, Mohammed El-Hocine Cherchali, Dalale Khous and SidAli Ouarezki Abstract
To characterize the thermal waters of Hammam Righa, one of the hottest springs in Algeria (65 °C), the geochemical and isotopic aspects were addressed in this study. The use of the data collected made it possible to highlight chlorinated and sulfated calcium facies, as well as the various interactions that take place during the flow of water, starting from the infiltration of rainwater at the level of the karstic outcrops down to the deep reservoir through a network of faults and fractures that was highlighted by the geological study. Furthermore, the isotopes have confirmed the meteoric origin and a hydrothermal circulation pattern with a deep and relatively long residence time, as evidenced by their depletion in 3H.
Keywords
Thermal waters · Geochemistry · Isotopes · Karst · Hammam Righa · Algeria
1 Introduction The thermal waters of Hammam Righa are among the hottest waters in Algeria. For the sake of characterizing the hydrothermal system of interest, particular attention has been paid in this work to the hydrogeological, geochemical, and isotopic aspects of the emerging hot waters. The studied site extends over the southern part of the Tellian Atlas
M. Belaid-Abdelouahab (*) · R. Abdelouahab · A. S. Moulla · M. E.-H. Cherchali · Dalale Khous · S. Ouarezki Algiers Nuclear Research Centre, 02, Boulevard Frantz Fanon, P.O. Box 399, Alger RP, 16000 Algiers, Algeria e-mail: [email protected] R. Said Djilali Bounaama University, Theniet El-Had St., Khemis Miliana, 44001 Ain-Defla, Algeria
Mountains range, 100 km SW of Algiers, and belongs to the Oued Djer—Bouroumi watershed. The emergence zone is characterized by a highly developed network of faults, with a given number of hot spring emergence areas listed, the hottest being at 68 °C (Issadi, 1992). The climate of Hammam Righa region is of a Mediterranean type with a hot and dry summer season while the winter season is mild and rainy.
2 Local Geological Setting The thermal resurgence area is located east of Hammam Righa in the piedmont and a few kilometers west of the Zaccar Chergui mountain range. This configuration makes it possible to divide the zone into two very distinct units (Nedjaï, 1987): • Hammam Righa’s region Essentially made up of a complex and relatively powerful series of Cretaceous and Miocene layers, the main thermal water springs are located and emerge in the Senonian and Cartenian formations. Significant overlaps of hydrothermal travertine deposits mask most outcrop areas. • Zaccar Chergui massif This massif rises to 1535 masl altitude. The formations that outcrop in Zaccar Chergui massif are of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic age. The Palaeozoic series is located in the heart of the massif. They are surrounded by the Mesozoic layers that form their periphery. The syncline of Hammam Righa has undergone several folding phases. As a result, it is affected by several fault networks. The deep fractures’ system trending North 60−75 would be at the origin of the hot springs, which ascend toward the surface at the intersections of these large fractures (Bouchareb-Haouchine et al., 2012) (Fig. 1).
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 H. Chenchouni et al. (eds.), Recent Research on Hydrogeology, Geoecology and Atmospheric Sciences, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43169-2_34
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M. Belaid-Abdelouahab et al.
Fig. 1 Geological setting and location of the investigated area
3 Hydrogeological Setting
4 Methodology
From a hydrogeological point of view, several formations are likely to be water productive. The most important of which are: The Jurassic's fissured limestones are intensely karstified (Pomel, 1871). The latter is based on impermeable primary quartzitic shales. In the vicinity of Hammam Righa, this formation is absent from the outcrop. Moreover, it constitutes vast expanses in Zaccar, about 8 km southwest of the hot springs of Hammam Righa.
During fieldwork, in situ measurements (Temp., pH, EC, TDS, DO, HCO3−, SiO2) and sampling from the six existing water points (02 boreholes HR1, HR2; 03 springs HR3, HR4, HR5; and one dug well HR6) were performed. The analyses were carried out at the various laboratories of the Algiers Nuclear Research Center (CRNA): major elements (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, Cl−, NO3−, SO42−), minor and trace elements (Li+, F−, Sr2+) as well as isotopes contents (O-18, H-2 and H-3) (Table 1).
Table 1 In situ measured and laboratory-analyzed parameters
Ref.
pH
Temp
EC
TDS
°C
µS/cm
mg/L
6.35
64.1
3.95
1.39
2.2
HR2
6.35
65.6
2.79
1.39
3.0
HR3
6.86
30.9
2.70
1.15
5.6
HR4
6.76
32.2
2.33
1.14
4.8
HR5
5.90
19.6
2.57
1.46
0.9
HR6
6.73
15.7
2.61
1.20
4.4
Ca2+
Mg2+
Na+
K+
δ2H
‰ V-SMOW
HR1
Ref.
δ18O
DO
H-3 TU
− 7.78
− 46.6
1.5
− 7.77
− 47.3
0.9
− 42.9
DL*
− 7.84
− 7.50
− 6.95
− 5.85
− 47.4
0.1
− 46.8
1.2
− 36.3
2.6
Li+
Sr2+
Cl−
SO42−
HCO3−
NO3− F−
SiO2
mg/L HR1
514.8
34.5
239.2 10.65
0.46
8.8
426.2
1297
184
1.54
1.68
34.0
HR2
497.1
40.3
227.6 11.22
0.39
8.8
423.0
1293
276
1.46
1.52
33.4
HR3
428.3
30.5
186.1 9.36
0.36
–
331.0
995
184
4.43
1.24
24.0
HR4
505.6
31.8
224.6 9.95
0.36
–
334.6
1083
175
4.53
1.45
28.1
HR5
584.2
60.3
257.2 16.72
0.46
–
310.1
1067
665
1.87
2.42
13.9
HR6
471.7
55.9
224.9 9.04
0.31
–
335.1
1070
276
134.4
1.02
13.2
* Lower than the detection limit
Hydrogeological, Geochemical, and Isotopic Characterization …
159
5 Results and Discussion 5.1 Chemical Facies The examination of the chemical analyses plotted on a Piper diagram (Fig. 2) shows that almost all water facies are: Cl–SO4–Ca–Mg. The representation of the chemical analyses on the diagram of Schœller-Berkaloff (Fig. 3) confirms the sulfated calcium facies and enables one to confirm the predominance of sulfates. The latter represents more than 50% of the total groundwater mineralization. The characteristic formula for the dominating species is as follows: SO4 2− > Cl− > HCO3 − and Ca2+ > Na+ + K+ > Mg2+ Groundwaters in Hammam Righa exhibit differentiated hydrochemical features. The thermal waters (HR1–HR4) present sulfated calcium facies with SO42− contents exceeding one gram per liter. Chlorides and sodium constitute the second end-member of the hydrochemical facies formulae. Cold waters circulating in the superficial levels are less loaded in minerals (EC 110 °C before rising back to the surface through the existing network of faults. The synthesis of this study allowed one to characterize the hydrothermal circulation in which the Jurassic limestones are considered the thermal reservoir and Mount Zaccar is the main recharge area.
References Arnorsson, S., Gunnlaugsson, E., & Svavarsson, H. (1983). The geochemistry of geothermal waters in Iceland. II. Mineral equilibria and independent variables controlling water compositions. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 47(3), 547–566. Bouchareb-Haouchine, F. Z., Boudoukha, A., & Haouchine, A. (2012). Hydrogéochimie et géothermométrie: apports à l'identification du réservoir thermal des sources de Hammam Righa, Algérie. Hydrological Science Journal, 57(6), 1184−1195. Craig, H. (1961). Standards for reporting concentrations of deuterium and oxygen-18 in natural waters. Science, 133(3467), 1833–1834. Ellis, A. J. (1970). Quantitative interpretation of chemical characteristics of hydrothermal systems. Proc. UN Symp. on the Development and Utilization of Geothermal Resources, Pisa, 1970. Geothermics, 2, 516–528.
Fouillac, C., & Michard, G. (1981). Sodium/lithium ratio in water applied to geothermometry of geothermal reservoirs. Geothermics, 10(1), 55–70. Fournier, R. O., & Rowe, J. J. (1966). Estimation of underground temperatures from the silica content of water from hot springs and wet-steam wells. American Journal of Science, 264(9), 685–697. Fournier, R. O., & Truesdell, A. H. (1973). An empirical Na-K-Ca geothermometer for natural waters. Geochimica Et Cosmochimica Acta, 37(5), 1255–1275. Fournier, R. O. (1977). Chemical geothermometers and mixing models for geothermal systems. Geothermics, 5(1–4), 41–50. Fournier, R. O., & Potter, R. W. (1982). A revised and expanded quartz geothermometer. Geothermal Resource Council Bulletin, 11, 3–12. Issadi, A. (1992). Le thermalisme dans son cadre géostructural, apports à la connaissance de la structure profonde de l’Algérie et de ses ressources géothermales. Thèse de doctorat. Univ. Sciences et de la Technologie, Houari Boumediene, Alger, Algérie. Michard, G. (1979). Géothermomètres chimiques. Bull. du BRGM (2e série), Section III n°2:183−189. Nedjaï, R. (1987). Étude hydrogéologique et hydrochimique des sources thermales du centre algérien (Nord). Thèse de doctorat, Géochimie. Université Scientifique et Médicale de Grenoble, France. Pomel, A. (1871). Description et carte géologique au 200.000e du massif de Miliana. Bull. Soc. Climat. Algérie. p.1, Université d’Alger.
Determining the Geothermal Potential of the Basiskele Field (Kocaeli, Turkey) Using the Soil Gas Method and Hydrogeochemical Studies Hakan Hosgormez, Dogacan Ozcan, Ali Malik Gozubol, Murat Beren and Cigdem Cakiroglu
Abstract
This paper covers the outcomes of hydrogeochemistry and gas geochemistry studies carried out to explore the Başiskele (Kocaeli) geothermal field. In the region that includes the Başiskele geothermal field, the strata include metamorphics belonging to the RhodopePontide, Upper Cretaceous flysch, olistostrome, Middle Eocene volcanic units, Pliocene sedimentary rocks, and Quaternary alluvial deposits, respectively. Many faults and associated geothermal resources within the active North Anatolian Fault Zone have been documented in the literature. In situ radon and soil gas measurements have been made using the sniffing method to detect one of these active faults within this study. Maps created according to the soil gas measurements revealed the active fault zones and locations with geothermal potential. Geophysical studies were focused on these high-potential locations and increased the number of measurements. Çiğdem 1 well-drilled in the study area has shown that the marbles, calcschists, and quartzites belonging to the metamorphics starting after a depth of 830 m gained secondary permeability with fractures. Thus, these units formed the reservoir rocks of the system. According to the Piper and Schöller diagrams, the system’s water is in the Na-Cl water class. Chemical analysis results of the water sample were evaluated in the Giggenbach Na–K–Mg diagram to use cation geothermometers to determine the reservoir temperatures. Giggenbach diagram shows that Çiğdem 1 well sample is in the class of waters that are in full equilibrium (mature). The reservoir temperature was calculated
H. Hosgormez · D. Ozcan (*) · A. M. Gozubol · M. Beren İstanbul University—Cerrahpasa, İstanbul, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] C. Cakiroglu Basiskele Municipality, Kocaeli, Turkey
with the Na–K thermometer, and it was determined that the calculated temperatures vary between 68.64, and 73.42 °C. The water sample taken at 57 °C from the well has a pH value of 9.1. Based on the hydrochemical features and amounts of prominent elements in water, it has been recommended that this resource be used in balneological and hydrothermal therapy.
Keywords
Geothermal survey · Soil gas · Radon · Hydrogeochemistry · Basiskele geothermal field · Balneology
1 Introduction The study area is within the borders of Kocaeli Province, Başiskele District in Western Anatolia. This district is in the North Anatolian Fault Zone and is, therefore, suitable for forming geothermal systems. Soil gases have been used as an exploration tool for geothermal energy (Cardellini et al., 2003; Corozza et al., 1993; Finlayson, 1992; Tonami, 1970; Werner & Cardellini, 2006). A soil gas survey has been carried out in the study area. 222Rn and CO2 concentrations were determined. A first evaluation of the 222Rn (KbBq/m3) and CO2 concentrations was carried out in tectonic activity, and anomalous emissions of soil gases in the particular points were considered. This paper covers the outcomes of soil gas and hydrogeochemistry studies that were carried out to explore the Başiskele (Kocaeli) geothermal field.
1.1 Geological Background Tertiary units outcrops in the study area (Fig. 1). The basement of the units observed in the study area consists of two different metamorphic successions with tectonic
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 H. Chenchouni et al. (eds.), Recent Research on Hydrogeology, Geoecology and Atmospheric Sciences , Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43169-2_35
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contact. Stratigraphically, Iznik metamorphics consist of recrystallized limestone and meta-clastic rocks. Pamukova metamorphics belonging to the Rhodope-Pontid (IstanbulZonguldak) zone are tectonically observed over this unit. In addition, upper Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) flysch and olistostromal Bakacak Formation cover each other with angular unconformity as cover successions, Sarısu Volcanics consisting of Middle Eocene-aged volcanic units and Pliocene Aslanbey formation, again with angular unconformity, overlie this group. The youngest unit observed in the study area is Quaternary-aged alluvial deposits (Fig. 1).
2 Materials and Methods Soil gas measurements were conducted using an infrared gas analyzer. The method consisted of a special probe connected to a portable infrared spectrophotometer (accuracy 2%) that was inserted into the soil to a depth of 80 cm. After 5 min of cleaning, the concentrations of gases reached a constant value. The Markus 10 is a portable instrument for determining the radon content in the soil. A pumping time of about 30 s was chosen to ensure that all fresh air in the system was pumped out. After the pumping phase, the measuring phase began. Radon gases were measured with the same probe after the gas analyses for each point. For water analysis, the samples filtered for cations were acidified and adjusted to bring the pH below 2. For anions,
H. Hosgormez et al.
analysis was made from the filtered sample. The samples were analyzed by ICP-MS.
3 Results 3.1 Soil Gas Survey As a result of the soil gas study, active faults that are not visible on the surface in the study area were determined. First, soil gas distribution maps of the region were created according to soil gas measurements. Regions with the highest positive anomalies in these maps were determined as active fault zones and points with geothermal potential (Fig. 2). It has been determined that active faults in these regions have high outputs of radon gas and carbon dioxide gas compounds. According to the soil gas measurement results, geophysical measurements (resistivity-IP) are envisaged in and around the NW–SE direction active fault zone that traverses the license area as a possible potential area.
3.2 Fluid Geochemistry and Geothermometers According to the Piper diagram, the water sample taken from the region is in the class of Na + K > Ca + Mg (salt and
Fig. 1 Simplified geological map of the study area (modified from Erendil et al., 1991)
165
Determining the Geothermal Potential of the Basiskele Field ……
&2
5Q
Fig. 2 Distribution map of CO2 (ppm) gas and radon gas in the study area and possible fault zones (KbBq/m3)
soda waters), = Cl + SO4 > HCO3 + CO3, and non-carbonate alkalinity > carbonate alkalinity (waters with NaCl, Na2SO4, and KCl). Furthermore, it is seen that the water sample is in the Na–Cl class (Fig. 3). According to the Schoeller diagram, the dominant cation of the Çiğdem 1 well sample is Na, and the dominant anion is Cl. Therefore, according to the diagram, this water is in the class of waters with NaCl (Fig. 3).
Chemical analysis results were evaluated in the Giggenbach Na–K–Mg diagram (Giggenbach, 1988) to use cation geothermometers to determine the reservoir rock temperatures. According to the Giggenbach diagram, the sample of Çiğdem 1 well is fully balanced (mature) waters (Fig. 4). The maturity index (MI) was determined as 3.08 for Çiğdem 1 well sample. As a result, according to the
Fig. 3 Representation of the sample of the Çigdem 1 well in the Piper and Schoeller diagrams
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Fig. 4 Position of the Çiğdem-1 well sample in the Giggenbach diagram
Table 1 Na–K geothermometer calculations of Çigdem 1 sample according to various research Sample
Na mg/L K mg/L Ca mg/L Na–K–Ca oC
Na–K–Ca oC
Na–K Arnorsson (1983)
Na–K Fournier (1979)
Na–K Nivea and Nivea (1987)
Çiğdem-1
130.3
TNa–K–Ca