Public Relations in the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries: An Arab Perspective 9781138479708, 9781351064989

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Public Relations in the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries

The Arab world has engaged in public relations for thousands of years, and the public relations literature provides multiple examples extending from ancient times. However, modern public relations is much more vaguely defined. This is partly because the research surrounding public relations practice in the Middle East remains sparse, especially in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. This book presents a clear picture of contemporary PR practice in this region, providing a background on the evolution of public relations in each GCC country. It shows how environmental factors (historical, cultural, socio­political, and economic) influence practice in the region. It also contributes to public relations scholarship, education, and practice worldwide by providing new perspectives to those unfamiliar with its practice in this region. This book will benefit scholars and practitioners alike through its informed analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of practice in the GCC countries, as well as being of great benefit to the development of professional practice in the region. Talal M. Almutairi is Assistant Professor at Saad Alabdulla Security Academy, Kuwait. Dean Kruckeberg is a professor in the department of communication studies at UNC Charlotte. He is former co-­chair of the Commission on Public Relations Education and is a past member of PRSA’s national board.

Routledge New Directions in Public Relations and Communication Research Edited by Kevin Moloney

Current academic thinking about public relations (PR) and related communication is a lively, expanding marketplace of ideas and many scholars believe that it’s time for its radical approach to be deepened. Routledge New Directions in PR & Communication Research is the forum of choice for this new thinking. Its key strength is its remit, publishing critical and challenging responses to continuities and fractures in contemporary PR thinking and practice, tracking its spread into new geographies and political economies. It questions its contested role in market-­orientated, capitalist, liberal democracies around the world, and examines its invasion of all media spaces, old, new, and as yet unenvisaged. We actively invite new contributions and offer academics a welcoming place for the publication of their analyses of a universal, persuasive mind-­set that lives comfortably in old and new media around the world. Books in this series will be of interest to academics and researchers involved in these expanding fields of study, as well as students undertaking advanced studies in this area. Social Media, Organizational Identity and Public Relations The Challenge of Authenticity Amy Thurlow Protest Public Relations Communicating Dissent and Activism Edited by Ana Adi Public Relations in the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries An Arab Perspective Edited by Talal M. Almutairi and Dean Kruckeberg For more information about the series, please visit www.routledge.com/ Routledge-­New-Directions-­in-Public-­Relations–Communication-­Research/ book-series/RNDPRCR

Public Relations in the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries An Arab Perspective

Edited by Talal M. Almutairi and Dean Kruckeberg

First published 2019 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2019 selection and editorial matter, Talal M. Almutairi and Dean Kruckeberg; individual chapters, the contributors The right of Talal M. Almutairi and Dean Kruckeberg to be identified as the authors of the editorial matter, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-­in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-­in-Publication Data A catalog record has been requested for this book ISBN: 978-1-138-47970-8 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-351-06498-9 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Wearset Ltd, Boldon, Tyne and Wear

Contents



List of figures List of tables List of contributors

1 Introduction

vii viii ix 1

T alal  M .   A lmutairi and D ean  K ruckeberg

2 The status and new directions of public relations practice in Bahrain

5

L ayla  A l S a q er and S ama ’ a  A l  H ashimi

3 Public relations in Kuwait: a historical, practical, and theoretical perspective

31

T alal  M .   A lmutairi and A li  A .   D ashti

4 Public relations units in the Omani civil service sector: historical background and current characteristics

53

A bdullah K . A l - ­K indi

5 Qatar public relations: in focus

74

T alal  M .   A lmutairi , M ahmoud M .   G alander , O mar  A .   A l - ­B alushi and R awdha  A .   A l  B alushi

6 Public relations in Saudi Arabia: an Islamic perspective Y a z eed A bdullah A lmahra j

98

vi   Contents 7 A critical snapshot of the practice of public relations in the United Arab Emirates

118

B adran A . B adran

8 Conclusion

145

T alal  M .   A lmutairi and D ean  K ruckeberg



Index

147

Figures

2.1 Media-­related specialisations register at the Ministry of Labour 2.2 Number of establishments with media activities 2.3 The most important skills required to work in a PR firm

10 23 26

Tables

2.1 The employees’ rankings of functions that are typically performed in public relations firms in Bahrain. 2.2 The number of employees who are currently registered as specialists in public relations or in media-­related fields in Bahrain 2.3 The employees’ rankings of standard skills that are typically required by a public relations firm in Bahrain 3.1 Amount of money spent by the State of Kuwait from the 1970s to date on US public relations firms, as reported in the Foreign Agent Registration Act (FARA) 4.1 Early public relations units in the Omani ministries 4.2 Contemporary public relations units in the Omani Ministries 5.1 The involvement of Qatari practitioners in strategic management 5.2 Public relations models in Qatar 5.3 Knowledge potential of public relations practitioners in Qatar 6.1 Internet penetration rate 7.1 Most used social media platforms in UAE 2016 7.2 Area of public relations practice

22 23 25 42 64 67 80 81 83 101 125 132

Contributors

Talal M. Almutairi: Assistant Professor at Saad Alabdulla Security Academy, Kuwait. Dean Kruckeberg: APR, Fellow PRSA, is a tenured full professor in the Department of Communication Studies at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. Layla AlSaqer: Assistant Professor of Public Relations at the Department of Mass Communication, Tourism and Fine Arts, University of Bahrain, Bahrain. Sama’a Al Hashimi: Assistant Professor of Graphic Design and Interactive Media at the Department of Mass Communication, Tourism and Fine Arts, University of Bahrain, Bahrain. Ali A Dashti: Associate Professor in the Mass Communication Department, Gulf University for Science and Technology, Kuwait. Abdullah K. Al-­Kindi: Associate Professor of Journalism, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) – Oman. Mahmoud M. Galander: Associate Professor Department of Mass Communication College of Arts and Sciences Qatar University. Omar A Al-­Balushi: Marketing Lecturer at Business Studies Department, Gulf University for Science and Technology, Al-­Musanna College of Technology Sultanate of Oman. Rawdha A. Al Balushi: Human Resource Lecturer at Business Studies Department, Al-­Musanna College of Technology Sultanate of Oman. Yazeed Abdullah Almahraj: Assistant Professor in Communication and Media Faculty at Imam University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Badran A. Badran: Professor College of Communication and Media Sciences Zayed University, United Arab Emirates.

1 Introduction Talal M. Almutairi and Dean Kruckeberg

A pressing need exists for studies that identify unique cultural dimensions that impact public relations practice, not only in Asia, but also in societies elsewhere throughout the world (Sriramesh & Verčič, 2012, p. 18). This is what this book is attempting to address for the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. The book also adds to the meagre contribution to public relations that has been made in the Middle East overall (Al-­Kandari & Gaither, 2011). For thousands of years, Arabs have engaged in what today would be considered public relations; indeed, today’s public relations literature provides multiple examples of Arab practice that has extended from ancient times. However, modern practice in Arab countries has had a more vague character. This is partly because research surrounding public relations practice in the Middle East remains sparse, especially in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. This book seeks to enrich the existing body of knowledge by exploring the status of public relations practice in GCC countries. The book’s primarily aim is to present a clear picture of contemporary practice in this region, providing a background on the evolution of public relations in each GCC country. The GCC countries are Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Qatar, Bahrain, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE). What they share in language and dialogue (known as Khaleeji dialogue), culture, history, and economic background differentiates them from other Arab countries, and their common characteristics prompted the initial establishment of the GCC in 1981. This absence of literature has led to vagueness in the region’s academic community concerning the definition and practice of public relations in Arab countries, in particular the GCC countries. For example, the word ‘public’ (that is, a group of people) does not exist in Arabic public relations textbooks. Al-­Enad (1990) provides two possible explanations for this: it could be a result of political sensitivity to the word, which may be shunned to distinguish it from the similar concept of ‘public opinion’, or it could be the result of unintentional mistranslation in the past, which no one has attempted to correct. However, the fact that this concept is missing from Arabic texts hints at vagueness in the field. Al-­Enad (1990) notes the differences between developed and developing countries, in which modern public relations has been imported from Western

2   Talal M. Almutairi and Dean Kruckeberg societies that are predicated on democratic foundations, technological development, a growing middle class, and large-­scale business. Furthermore, many Arab-­centric conditions are unique, including the region’s relatively short history of modern public relations practice, the perception of public relations as a governmental tool, and the collective nature of Arab culture and its effect on the idea and practice of individual freedom and opinion. Therefore, this book is intended to add to the sparse literature of Arab public relations, which scholars can read, discuss, critique, and hopefully on which they can build to create further understanding. However, the first step is to provide a critical account of public relations in GCC countries. Although each author presents the uniqueness of public relations practice in his or her country, a unified conceptual framework exists in this book, including an introduction, an overview of each country (including its history, politics, economy, and media), a brief introduction to the evolution of public relations in each country, and the cultural factors and unique contexts that have influenced each country’s public relations practice. The Bahrain chapter explores the extent to which organisations in Bahrain have employed public relations as a communicative function of mutual influence that reflects the view of senior management and the management perspective for all concerned audiences through the use of all possible means, forms, channels, and methods of communication. The data, which are based on 11 interviews and 34 completed survey questionnaires, reflect expert opinions regarding the practices and the experiences of Bahraini public relations professionals, including academicians and the practitioners who have contributed to the advancement of this professionalised occupation. The Kuwait chapter focuses on the evolution of public relations in that country and its influence in shaping current practice. Culture, tradition, historical places, historical events, and religion were key components in this endeavour. The authors adopted a qualitative approach, conducting ten interviews that included a public relations historian, a Kuwaiti historian, public relations practitioners, media and political academicians, former members of the Kuwait National Assembly, female activists, and members of the Kuwait Public Relations Association, as well as that professional ­association’s chairperson. The Oman chapter investigates the history of the Omani civil service sector and its current practice. Twenty-­three ministries under the Omani Civil Service System (CSS) were studied, drawing on previous literature and on reports and documents that were available about public relations units (PRUs) in these ministries. The study monitored and documented the emergence and establishment of PRUs in the CSS in the Sultanate of Oman, highlighting the most prominent contemporary developments of CSS public relations activities in the Sultanate of Oman from 1975 to 2018. The authors of the Qatar chapter outline the status of public relations in that country, recognising the challenge posed by Qatar’s lack of public relations literature. The authors reported original data from surveys and in-­depth

Introduction   3 interviews with public relations scholars, practitioners, and historians. Qatar’s education and economy are distinctive environmental factors that are discussed in relation to the status of public relations. Within the unique context of Qatar’s public relations, Al Jazeera is discussed as an internationally recognised institution. Additionally, the significance of Qatari public relations practitioners is worth noting because, in 2022, Qatar will be the first GCC country to host the global mega-­event, the World Cup. The Saudi Arabia chapter examines how Islam influences everyday practice and how it is used in communication with the public. Using a constructivist paradigm, the chapter offers insights into the development of Saudi public relations and the current practice of that country’s public relations practitioners. The study uses a socio-­cultural approach to examine the influence of social interactions on public relations practice. The chapter demonstrates that local culture has an ethical influence on public relations practice. Religious ethics are present in all sectors of Saudi life, including the workplace and in all occupations. Consequently, public relations practitioners use religion as a moral guide. No official guides of behaviour exist from the government, from public relations professional associations, or from the companies for which Saudi public relations practitioners work. The chapter on the United Arab Emirates provides a brief historical narrative of the evolution of UAE public relations practice, highlighting the prevailing perceptions and early uses of UAE public relations that intersect in many places with traditional hospitality functions. Also discussed are the socio-­cultural factors that have impacted the evolution of public relations, including the communication and public relations dimensions of indigenous poetry and the ‘majlis’. Hospitality is another socio-­cultural antecedent of public relations in the UAE that is discussed in this chapter.

Conclusion The editors and authors hope that this volume will make a contribution to the further understanding and the continuing evolution of public relations practice by providing a better understanding of its practice in the GCC countries, in which public relations has evolved and is practiced in a distinct, if not unique, cultural environment. The book adds to the body of knowledge on public relations in the Middle East, specifically in the GCC. This expanded knowledge will help round out existing public relations literature by adding a GCC perspective to Western and other regions’ theories and practices. The book demonstrates how environmental factors (historical, cultural, socio-­political, and economic) influence public relations practice. Finally, the editors and authors hope that this volume will help scholars in the GCC in public relations curriculum development, moderating the influence of predominant ethnocentricities of public relations education and practice.

4   Talal M. Almutairi and Dean Kruckeberg

References Al-­Enad, A. H. (1990). Public relations’ roles in developing countries. Public Relations Quarterly, 35(1), 24–26. Al-­Kandari, A., & Gaither, K. (2011). Arabs, the west and public relations: A critical/ cultural study of Arab cultural values. Public Relations Review, 37, 266–273. Sriramesh, K., & Verčič, D. (2012). Culture and public relations: Links and implications. New York, NY: Routledge.

2 The status and new directions of public relations practice in Bahrain Layla AlSaqer and Sama’a Al Hashimi

Introduction Public relations is a social phenomenon that has inevitably established itself within Bahraini society because of the society’s strong social ties among its members, institutions, and associations. Public relations in Bahrain has emerged and has developed together with the increasing complexity of human relations and cultures in various fields, the diversity of religions, and the development of democracy that has allowed for freedom of expression. During the past decade or so, there has been an increased focus on public relations in Bahrain. The profession has become the focus of the government and is of interest to many companies and institutions (Al Tamimi, 2014). Organisations have realised that their success is linked to their ability to communicate with their publics, to create positive images of themselves, to improve their reputations, and to influence public opinion. Thus, this chapter examines the extent to which organisations in Bahrain have employed public relations as a communicative function of mutual influence, reflecting the public view of senior management and reflecting the management point of view for all concerned audiences through the use of all possible means, forms, channels, and methods of communication. Several factors have raised the need for public relations in Bahrain and have led to the development of its practice and its increasing importance in public and private sector institutions. Among these factors is the increasing awareness of the importance of the individual in society, the emergence of democracy and the concept of public opinion, and public relations’ role in influencing the characteristics of communication in society. Another factor is the increased population growth that has contributed to economic growth, thereby increasing the level of competition in society and increasing productivity in public health, education, housing, and transport services. All of this has led to progress in production methods, an improvement of individuals’ living standards, and their increased awareness and need for services and privileges, as well as to their increased participation in social, political, cultural, and economic activities. It has subsequently led to the need to direct and formulate social interaction processes in building positive relationships between

6   Layla AlSaqer and Sama’a Al Hashimi individuals and communities and between organisations and members of the public in Bahrain. Moreover, an increasing level of education and the reduction of cultural distances and geographical boundaries among communities and the emergence of the information society has exposed Bahrain to various areas of progress and development in the world and has widened its citizens’ social relations. Ultimately, with the tremendous progress in media, printing, broadcasting, and cinematography, the press, radio, cinema, advertising, and digital media have become an extension of public relations. These dimensions have contributed to the evolution of public relations into its strategic communication role as an indispensable management function within every organisation. This evolution is reflected through the tendency towards adding a strategic dimension to public relations, which has led the practice to become closely related to the organisation’s management and decision-­making processes. Based on Grunig and Grunig (2000), strategic public relations should no longer be limited to its traditional role, which was mainly concerned with the planning and execution of social functions, ceremonies, and special events. This chapter describes and reflects upon the development and institutionalisation of public relations practice and education in Bahrain. It seeks to understand, describe, and analyse contemporary public relations practices, both within organisations and between organisations and their publics within Bahrain society. The chapter begins with an overview of the historical development of public relations in Bahrain. It then explores and analyses how emerging global patterns are influencing Bahraini public relations practice, setting new directions towards the evolution of public relations into a strategic communication process. Then the chapter explores the development of public relations in the socio-­cultural context of Bahrain by examining the influence of social customs, traditions, beliefs, values, ethics, language, gender roles, female stereotypes, family ties, and other factors on the evolution of public relations in Bahrain. The chapter presents data based on 11 interviews and 34 completed survey questionnaires that reflect expert opinion regarding the practices and the experiences of public relations professionals in Bahrain, including academicians and practitioners who have contributed to the advancement of this professionalised occupation. It attempts to study the academic positioning of public relations in Bahrain and to investigate the mapping between public relations practice, education, and research in Bahrain. Finally, the chapter refers to Western public relations literature to make global associations and comparisons and to evaluate global influences on the changing face of public relations in Bahrain.

The historical development of public relations in Bahrain It is difficult to identify specific dates that denote various stages in the historical development of public relations in Bahrain. Aldemiri (1988) claimed that

Public relations in Bahrain   7 public relations has its roots in Arab culture 1,200 years ago during the Prophet Mohammed’s era when he began building relationships with different regions to disseminate the new message of Islam, which is based on interacting and living peacefully with others. Historically, the discovery of oil in the Arab Gulf in the 1930s put the Arab Gulf countries face-­to-face with the challenge of development (AlSaqer, 2016). Based on Badran’s (2014) research, Al Muqla, one of the pioneer public relations practitioners in Bahrain, explained that the Bahraini government relied mainly on foreign affairs ministries for their external relations before establishing government PR departments. Interviewee X, a Public Relations Manager in a governmental department, argued that public relations had its roots in traditional Bahraini etiquette, good manners and conduct that are derived from traditional Islamic and Arabic values. This is stressed by Badran (2014), who explained that the traditional practice of public relations was expressed through ‘hospitality, poetry, oratory, the majlis or diwaniyya, the mosque, emissaries and various local customs that prescribed internal and external relationships among tribes and between rulers and their subjects’ (p. 5). The managers who were interviewed explained that, although public relations has different patterns and functions in the Arab culture historically, public relations began to be looked at as an organisational position since the eighties and nineties. This is emphasised by AlSaqer (2003), who observed that public relations departments had been formed in many government units since the late eighties and the nineties. Rabab A’ashoor, Head of Media Unit at a governmental organisation, explained: PR departments started in the nineties in governmental organisations in Bahrain. The development of the practice of PR is connected to its development as a specialisation taught in the Arab universities. I think Egypt and Lebanon are the pioneers among Arab countries and they transfer the notion of public relations to the Arab Gulf region through Aramco Company, in Saudi Arabia, that was one of the first organisations that established a PR department in the Arab Gulf during the seventies. However, the interviewees argued that early public relations departments in the nineties used to have merely the title of public relations, while performing a mixture of technical tasks such as secretary, sales, and marketing. This might be attributed to the fact that many public relations practitioners lack academic specialisation in public relations, which results in a vague notion of public relations in many departments in Bahrain. Interviewee II, Public Relations Manager in a governmental organisation, said: ‘When PR departments started in Bahrain, it used to be the job of the ones who don’t have a job or a qualification.’ Based on the interviews conducted with female public relations participants in Bahrain, AlSaqer (2003) found that many public relations practitioners in the eighties and the nineties not only lack academic certificates, but they also perform a mixture of technical tasks such as secretary and hospitality that are

8   Layla AlSaqer and Sama’a Al Hashimi only vaguely associated with public relations. Dr Fahad Al-­Shahabey, Head of the Bahrain Public Relations Association, noted: Although Bahrain was one of the first Arab Gulf countries that practiced PR, this practice was limited historically to traditional reception and vague technical procedures. I think PR has developed rapidly in the last two decades, especially in 2011 after the political crisis in Bahrain. One of the transforming points in the history of public relations development in Bahrain was the launch of the Media and Public Relations Bachelor’s Degree Programme at the University of Bahrain in 1997, followed by the establishment of the public relations track/specialisation in 2001. The establishment of the Media and Public Relations Bachelor’s Degree Programme at the University of Bahrain led to the establishment of new educated generations of public relations practitioners who had acquired both education and skills to develop the strategic practice of public relations in Bahrain. Dr Hiba Musa’ad, a public relations and advertising academic, stressed: The importance of PR education is that it has changed the old cultural perception that PR is the job of people who don’t have a job because most PR practitioners in the eighties and the nineties came from other specialisations. I think Bahraini society nowadays has a better perception and respect to PR. Furthermore, Dr Fahad Al-­Shahabey, Head of the Bahrain Public Relations Association, explained that the launch of the Association on 30 November 2006, by 14 public relations practitioners was an important step to move towards a more strategic practice of public relations. According to Dr Al-­ Shahabey: The association of Bahraini PR was launched to achieve various objectives including increasing awareness about the significance of PR in public and private institutions, connecting all PR practitioners, upholding the standards of proficiency of all PR practitioners, establishing cooperation with like-­minded Gulf, Arab, and international organisations, and advancing and promoting public relations practices and activities. The Bahrain Public Relations Association organised several activities such as seminars, lectures, and training workshops on public relations and participated in activities and events that helped emphasise the importance of public relations in the Arab Gulf.

Public relations in Bahrain   9

The evolution of public relations into a strategic communication process While the early practice of public relations in Bahrain was based on traditional personal skills, it is significant to raise the question about the development of strategic practice of public relations in private and governmental organisations in Bahrain. According to Grunig’s (1992) Excellence Theory, public relations can improve successful practice through developing strategic management. Based on Grunig and Grunig’s (2000) definition, ‘strategic public relations refer to managed public relations as opposed to public relations as a set of communication tactics supplied by communication technicians’ (p.  308). Dozier, Grunig, and Grunig (1995) defined strategic management as ‘the balancing of internal processes of organizations with external factors’ (p. 27). Plowman (2005) argued that strategic public relations ‘begins when communication practitioners can identify potential problems in relationships with the organization’s stakeholders’ (p.  132). Hence, strategic management can be achieved through developing proactive communication through researching the main issues and problems with the key stakeholders, rather than reacting to the problems (Grunig, Grunig, & Dozier, 2002). Therefore, it is significant in this section to discuss the extent to which strategic public relations is practiced in Bahraini organisations. Historically, AlSaqer and Al-Rashed (2018) indicated that organisations in Bahrain took some time before allocating strategic functions and tasks to their public relations employees. Safa Abdulghani Ali, Senior Public Relations and Media Manager, defined strategic planning as ‘setting communication goals based on the public needs’. Amani Al-­Buflasa, Senior Public Relations Practitioner in a governmental organisation, argued: ‘Although most governmental organisations nowadays develop a corporate strategic plan through setting objectives and strategies to improve the organisation, it is mainly developed at the top-­management level, while PR has limited role in strategic planning’. Fifteen of the surveyed participants (47 per cent) reported a strategic plan in their organisations, which indicates a growing awareness of the role of strategic planning in public relations in Bahrain (Figure 2.1). Based on the research, a considerable difference exists in Bahrain between the strategic practice of public relations in the governmental and the private sector. Several interviewed public relations managers in governmental units explained that strategic planning is not the responsibility of the public relations department. Amani Al-­Buflasa explained: ‘In some governmental organisations, PR is still traditional and almost secretarial; it depends mostly on traditional reactive communication channels. It lacks strategic communication and the use of new technology.’ Interviewee III, Public Relations Manager in a governmental organisation, added: ‘In the governmental sector, there is a separation between PR and strategic planning. I think most governmental organisations don’t have a strategic planning unit in the PR department; we don’t set

10   Layla AlSaqer and Sama’a Al Hashimi

Media, TV and radio

2 3

Educational media 1 6 1 Media 10 Media and journalism 0 17 Multimedia systems 9 40 Electronic media 7 Media and PR

48 160

695

Males

Females

Figure 2.1 Media-related specialisations register at the Ministry of Labour.

s­trategic objectives to evaluate our events and campaigns’. Some participants attributed the lack of strategic planning to the lack of top management’s understanding of the strategic role of public relations in decision-­making. For instance, Amani Al-­buflasa explained: Most of the top management professionals in the governmental sector still don’t understand the strategic role of PR. It doesn’t have any role in decision making. To improve the practice of PR in Bahrain, corporate culture should support PR; we need appreciation of the strategic role of PR. In private public relations consultancies, managers stressed the importance of the strategic role of public relations. Safa Abdulghani Ali, Senior Public Relations and Media Manager, stressed: ‘We have an annual strategic plan which involves a feasibility study to determine if our goals have been achieved and to identify the best communication channels and strategic target audience’. Interviewee IV, Public Relations Manager in a public relations consultancy, said: ‘Strategic relationship-­building is important in PR. You have to be up-­to-date with the economic, social, and technological developments; you have to research what the target audience want and the best media channels to deliver the message.’ Interviewee III, Public Relations Manager in a governmental organisation, compared the practice of public relations between government and private sectors: ‘In the private sector, you have to assign specific target audience and

Public relations in Bahrain   11 strategic goals and objectives, while in the governmental sector, the practice of PR adheres to the routine practice of performing technical tasks assigned by the top-­management.’ This is explained by Dr Fahad Al-­Shahabey, Head of the Bahrain Public Relations Association, who said that, ‘[c]orporate culture affects the practice of PR. In the private sector, qualifications and years of PR experience are more important than in governmental sectors where PR participants come from various specialisations.’ Although some governmental institutions in Bahrain still do not integrate strategic planning with public relations functions, we expect the global implications to lead to the elevation of the demand for organisational decision-­making and strategic planning of global and local affairs. The instability of the global market will stretch the boundaries of public relations and will increasingly present new challenges that will demand adding a new strategic dimension to the industry. For instance, at the economic level, the world economic crisis has resulted in the merger between public relations and marketing in many institutions in Bahrain. Moreover, at the technological level, the wide use of social media and rapid technological development in Bahraini society requires updating strategic tools to deal with these challenges.

Sociocultural factors influencing public relations practice in Bahrain The effects of female stereotypes and gender roles on public relations practice According to the Supreme Council for Women statistics, employed Bahraini women accounted for 48 per cent (compared to men) in the public sector and 32 per cent in the private sector in 2018. Based on a survey conducted by the Organisation for Economic Co-­operation and Development, Bahrain has achieved the highest level in women’s participation in middle management positions in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), with a percentage of 59 per cent, and reached 45 per cent in the public sector in senior management positions (Statics and indicators of Bahraini women, 2018). This advanced participation of Bahraini women in public life might be attributed to the high level of women’s education. The percentage of women to men during the academic year (2013–2014) reached 50.1 per cent in primary education, 49.8 per cent in intermediate education, and 50.4 per cent in secondary education. The percentage of female graduates from public higher education institutions represents 58 per cent, while it was 49 per cent at the private higher education institutions during the academic year of 2011/2012 (Statics and indicators of Bahraini women, 2018). Based on the survey that was conducted as part of this study, 18 of the surveyed public relations participants said that the number of females is more than males in their organisations, 13 participants said that men are in the

12   Layla AlSaqer and Sama’a Al Hashimi majority, while six participants noted that there is an equal number of men and women in their public relations departments. The increasing number of women working in public relations in Bahrain has raised questions related to their roles and stereotypes. Correspondingly, several studies have raised issues concerning female stereotypes and women’s role in public relations in Arab Gulf culture (e.g. AlSaqer, 2008; Al-­Jenaibi, 2011, AlSaqer & Al-Rashed, 2018). AlSaqer (2008) observed that Bahraini female practitioners have performed a mixture of technical tasks, such as secretary, sales, and marketing jobs, under the public relations job title. Kirat (2005) raised further questions, noting that, [i]n the Arab World, public relations has been practiced within the boundaries of the status of man, the state of democracy and the practice of communication – who controls it, who manipulates it and what forces in the society are setting the agenda? (p. 330) It is worth noting that 24 (67 per cent) of the surveyed participants said that there is no influence of gender on their profession. This result might be attributed to the early entrance of Bahraini women to public life, compared to women in other Arab Gulf countries. AlSaqer (2003) observed that, historically, the launch of the feminist movement in Bahrain started in the fifties, an example of which includes the burning of Abayahs (a traditional black cloth that covers women from head to feet) by a group of Bahraini and Kuwaiti women at the establishment of Al Nahdah Association, the first feminist association, in 1955. However, several participants believe that the influence of gender and the traditional stereotype of female public relations practitioners exists, but has started to change in Bahrain. Safa Abdulghani Ali, Senior Public Relations and Media Manager, explained that [i]n the eighties and nineties, there used to be a negative stereotype of women working in PR associated with their attractive physical appearance and their readiness to work in public places like hotels and staying late at night with men, which is against our cultural traditions. Nowadays this stereotype has changed and people started to respect the work of women in PR. Interviewee V, Senior Public Relations Specialist in a governmental organisation, observed: People used to judge a PR woman based on her physical appearance, but in the last two decades this stereotype has changed because of two factors: the increasing number of educated PR participants who graduated from the University of Bahrain, and the launch of the Supreme Council of Women in Bahrain in 2001.

Public relations in Bahrain   13 AlSaqer & Al-Rashed (2018) attributed the change of the role of women in Bahrain to the educational and political reform that accompanied the establishment of the Supreme Council for Women, which  considers the gender stereotype as a main barrier to women’s advancement to senior managerial positions and has set challenges that would be tackled through long term planning that aims at changing the society’s perspective of women through media, educational curriculums and public awareness programs. (AlSaqer & Al-Rashed, 2018, p. 230) Although literature has focused on the negative impact of gender on the practice of public relations, it is worth noting that Interviewee II, a Public Relations Manager in a governmental organisation, explained the positive influence of gender on her practice of public relations: ‘As a woman, I think people have more trust in me in doing hard work.’ Most of the participants emphasised that women in Bahrain have succeeded in achieving managerial roles in public relations departments and have launched private businesses in the industry. Interviewee IV, Public Relations Manager in a public relations consultancy, explained that ‘Bahraini women are very strong and they started public life earlier than women in other Gulf countries.’ Amani Al-­Buflasa, Senior Public Relations Practitioner in a governmental organisation, noted:  The number of women is more than men especially in media relations and event management tasks. I think women are more suitable to work in PR than men because they are patient, precise and care about details. I think women have the same roles in PR as men; it is nothing to do with gender. It is related to women’s flexibility. Although most of the interviewed participants stressed the advancing role of women in public relations, they highlighted some restrictions in the work of women in Bahrain. Interviewee V, Senior Public Relations Specialist in a governmental organisation, explained: The only sector in which the number of men is more than women is the protocol sector as it is based on airport reception and procedures. Men do the jobs that need more physical effort like working until night to finish technical procedures regarding events management. This cultural restriction is related to cultural restrictions on the work of a female until a late time of day and her ability to balance her work and her family. Safa Abdul Ghani stressed: ‘It is challenging for a woman working in PR to balance between her work and her family as I find it difficult to attend night events and meetings’. However, Amani Al-­Buflasa argued:

14   Layla AlSaqer and Sama’a Al Hashimi Nowadays, there is no difference when you are practicing PR whether you are a man or a woman; the difference is in your belief in yourself. I think a woman can decide if she wants to put restrictions for herself or not. Moreover, the participants stressed the role of political reform in Bahrain in empowering women, especially the establishment of the Supreme Council for Women in 2001. This goes along with Fitch, James, and Motion’s (2016) argument that feminist scholarship in public relations should be developed to take a more theoretical approach towards power relations and structural influences that affect female jobs in public relations. The correlation between traditions and cultural etiquettes and public relations practice Sriramesh and Verčič (2012) stressed the interrelated relationship between public relations and culture. Kirat (2005) argued: ‘Cultural differences among societies affect how public relations is practiced by people within different societies’ (p.  330). This is stressed by Gaither and Al-­Kandari (2014), who noted that ‘[p]ublic relations [PR] practice in the Middle East is as varied as the cultures of the region’ (p. 34). According to the survey that was conducted as part of this study, nine participants said that Bahraini traditions have affected their practice of public relations, 21 respondents found no influence of traditions on their profession, while six participants stated that Bahraini traditions have affected their practice of public relations to some extent. The interviewed participants discussed the influence of culture on the practice of public relations in Bahrain from different angles. Interviewee II, Public Relations Manager in a governmental organisation, emphasised the positive influence of the Arabic culture of hospitality and other traditions on the practice of public relations: ‘We have our unique way of welcoming the guest, wearing the national clothes and offering the guests Arabic coffee and dates.’ Interviewee X, Public Relations Manager in a governmental organisation, emphasised: ‘In Bahrain, people are still proud of their traditional ceremonies such as ‘ghergaoon’ in Ramadan and Eid, so PR should be part of these events through sending greetings.’ The participants explained that sometimes it is challenging to keep a balance between cultural traditions and the open nature of public relations. For instance, Interviewee V, Senior Public Relations Specialist in a governmental organisation, highlighted the cultural restrictions regarding the work of women in public relations with other customers coming from different cultures: ‘In Bahraini traditions, a woman can’t receive male guests at night from the airport. It is still a man’s job!’ Safa AbdulGhani explained that, despite some cultural traditions, Bahraini women have succeeded in playing different roles in public relations:

Public relations in Bahrain   15 In the past, the society was more conservative regarding the work of women in PR, and people thought that the most important thing is for the woman to be ‘beautiful’ rather than to be educated or qualified. Nowadays, people have started to accept the work of a woman in public jobs based on her education and experience. Moreover, the participants explained that cultural traditions are still strong in Bahraini society, which is sometimes challenging for public relations practitioners. For instance, Safa Abdulghani explained: We don’t have absolute freedom to design the content of our messages because of religious, political and cultural considerations. For example, if I’m arranging a campaign for sexual education, I should be careful about the vocabularies and photos in order to respect our cultural traditions. Thus, respecting Bahraini culture is essential to the practice of public relations in Bahrain. The significance of family ties and social relationships in building a strategic public relations foundation in Bahrain Kirat (2005) claimed that ‘public relations is a reflection of the society in which it operates, it is as well a cultural act. In other words, it is a subsystem that reflects the way the whole society thinks and works’ (p. 328). Hofstede (1984, 1994) identified five dimensions of societal culture: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity–femininity, and individualism–collectivism, and Confucianism, or ‘long-­term orientation’. Hofstede explained that ‘[i]ndividualism pertains to societies in which the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and his or her immediate family’ whereas ‘[c]ollectivism pertains to societies in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-­groups, which throughout people’s lifetime continue to protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty’ (Hofstede, 1994, p. 51). As a collective society, individuals from Bahraini culture show high respect and appreciation for the family. This is stressed by most of the public relations participants who talked about the challenge of balancing their work in public relations with their family responsibilities. For instance, Safa Abdulghani noted: ‘The only thing that limits my role in PR is balancing my time between my work and family’. Interviewee V explained: ‘Sometimes my family criticises me because I don’t have time to attend many social events’. This is stressed by Badran, Turk, and Walters (2003), in a UAE context, who explained: ‘For most, the rule of the family is the norm. There are no political parties and no freedoms other than those the ruler offers his ‘family’ or those that the head of a household offers his wife and children’ (p. 54).

16   Layla AlSaqer and Sama’a Al Hashimi In Bahraini culture, individuals do not live only to fulfil their individual interests, but hold high loyalty to their families. This tendency stems from the Islamic ethics where ‘the family is the corner stone of society’ (Kirat, 2015, p. 100). In such a collective culture, individuals have to spend time with their larger family through visiting relatives and neighbours and conducting certain social duties. According to the survey that was conducted as part of this study, 23 participants (64 per cent) explained that family relationships have not influenced their jobs in public relations, five respondents (14 per cent) said family relationships have affected their jobs in public relations, while eight respondents (22 per cent) said that such relationships have influenced their jobs to some extent. This influence was considered to be negative by seven participants, while two participants considered it to be positive. When asked about the attitudes of their spouses towards their jobs in public relations, 14 respondents said that they are encouraged by their spouses, eight respondents’ spouses were neutral, and none of them indicated that their spouses opposed their jobs. As for social relationships, 12 participants stated that their social relationships have influenced their jobs in public relations, 19 participants said social relationships have not affected their jobs in public relations, while five respondents said that social relationships have influenced their jobs to some extent. This influence was considered to be positive by most (11) of the respondents, while four respondents described this influence to be negative. This positive influence may be attributed to the loyalty of Bahraini individuals to their families and social ties. Moreover, the participants showed loyalty to their organisations and their departments through considering their colleagues as ‘one family’, which shows the collective practice of public relations in the Bahraini culture. Social relationships in Bahrain are best defined by the Islamic view of collectivism. AlSaqer (2016) explained that [f]rom an Islamic point of view, the core system is the society, not the individual. This is best described by the concept of Islamic ‘Ummah’ where Muslims everywhere are united by being Muslims regardless of their ethnicities or nationalities. Prophet Mohammed described the Islamic Ummah as a ‘one body’; if any part of this body, any individual, is in pain, the whole body will suffer. Therefore, every member of this community is responsible for the others. (p. 4) This concept of ‘Ummah’ emphasises collectivism and participation, not individualism, and it is incorporated in the collective nature of Bahraini society, as well as the Islamic values and ethics, that affect the strategic practice of PR and are therefore discussed in the following section.

Public relations in Bahrain   17 The role of Islamic values and ethics in shaping public relations practice Although Bahrain has been influenced by globalisation and a modern lifestyle, the society is still close to its traditions and cultural identity that are derived from Islamic culture. According to the official census for the year 2010, 70.2 per cent of the total population of Bahrain is Muslim, and 29.8 per cent are adherents of other religions and beliefs, such as Christians (10.2 per cent) and Jews (0.21 per cent). This is in addition to Hindus, Baha’is, Buddhists, Sikhs, and others who are mostly from South Asia and other Arab countries. Bahraini citizens are 99.8 per cent Muslim (Population and Demographics, 2014). Islam shapes the ethical identity of Bahraini citizens because Muslims derive their daily life ethics from their Islamic ethics. Several scholars attributed the roots for the ethical practice of public relations to Islamic ethics. Haque (Haque & Ahmad, 2016) argued that the ethical guidelines for public relations are set through the Quran and through ‘da’wah’ activities conducted by Prophet Mohammed (p. 189). These ethical guidelines are based on stressing values of honesty, trust, fair dealing, justice, and forbidding lying, unfaithfulness, and breaking of contracts (Haque & Ahmad, 2016, p.  191). Wang and Ma (2013) argued that, since public relations depends on behavioural principles and values of ethical practice that aims at mutual understanding through being sincere, fair, faithful, honest, responsible, and trustworthy in daily dealings, then it goes along with the Islamic ethics preached by the Prophet (p. 101). Kirat (2015) explained that Prophet Mohammed  used communication and public relations to crystallise public opinion, persuade people and convince them to embrace a new religion with new principles, new rules, new way of life based on the respect of human beings, equality, justice, peace and harmony. (p. 100) The participants showed awareness of these Islamic ethics of public relations. For instance, Interviewee V explained: ‘Building good relationships with people from different cultures and religions is an important Islamic value that leads our practice in PR.’ AlSaqer (2016, pp. 3–4) explained: In the Qura’n, God teaches His prophet that the best way to invite people to new ideas is using reason, wisdom, understanding the public and using the most appropriate ways to talk to them: ‘Invite to the way of your Lord with wisdom and good instruction, and argue with them in a way that is best. (Holy Qura’n, Chapter/Surah 16- An-­Nahl, Verse 125, p. 281) In Islamic culture, these techniques are fundamental and applicable to any place and time.

18   Layla AlSaqer and Sama’a Al Hashimi Furthermore, several participants stressed applying some Islamic values in their daily practice of public relations, such as ‘being honest’, ‘telling the truth’, ‘serving the society’, and ‘working for the community’. It is observed that the notion of social responsibility is strong in Islamic ethics and is demonstrated by the responsibility of individuals towards their families, neighbours, and communities. Kirat (2015) stressed: Corporate social responsibility in Islam is conceived of as a vehicle of creating a healthy environment and atmosphere for both the individual and the organisation to set up and establish the Islamic Umma which should be characterised by harmony, mutual understanding, mutual respect and mutual interest governed by the Islamic principles and values. (p. 111) Moreover, some participants explained that Islamic ethics have influenced the small details of their practice of public relations. For instance, one of the interviewed public relations managers said: ‘Islamic values affect our writing style in PR as we should use accepted words that respect our Islamic ethics. We used Islamic phrases in our communication messages in traditional ceremonies.’ Interviewee III, a Public Relations Manager in a governmental organisation, talked positively about keeping the balance between their Islamic beliefs and working in an open job such as public relations: ‘There are some Islamic restrictions for Bahraini women regarding the relationship with men as they should not shake hands with men, but female PR practitioners should be smart and flexbile when dealing with different customers from different cultures.’ There is no doubt that Islam as a predominant religion in Bahrain has been influencing the relationships among public relations practitioners and the relationships between them and the public. Islam has also been a significant driver of the influence of social customs, traditions, beliefs, values, ethics, language, gender roles, female stereotypes, family ties, and other factors that have been discussed in the previous sections, which has contributed to shaping public relations practice in Bahrain. The next section investigates yet another important factor, which is education and its implications on the cultural perception of public relations in Bahrain. The implications of education on the cultural perception of public relations Some scholars have associated public relations professionalism with the beginning of public relations education (L’Etang & Pieczka, 1996) and have emphasised the importance of education to enhance the growth of public relations (Newsom, Turk, & Kruckeberg, 2000). Dr Fahad Al-­Shahabey, Head of the Bahrain Public Relations Association, stressed that, ‘PR education is essential to practice PR. Have you ever seen a legislative consultant or

Public relations in Bahrain   19 accountant without qualifications? Employing unspecialised PR participants would have negative influence on the organisation’s reputation.’ Some public relations managers emphasised that acquiring an educational specialisation in public relations is important because the work requires media writing, research, and planning in addition to multimedia skills. However, other interviewed public relations managers explained that public relations is a practical specialisation that requires ‘practical skills’ and ‘practical experience’, rather than university specialisation. Amani Al-­Buflasa said: ‘I think it’s more important for a PR practitioner to have communication and writing skills than to have a degree in PR.’ Freberg, Remund, and Keltner-­Previs (2013) explained that, ‘[a]cademics and practitioners often differ in how they view the public relations field, how they define the discipline, and how they view the major pedagogical approaches’ (p. 235). This is emphasised by Dr Ashraf AbdulMogeth, who argued: ‘I think most of the organisations nowadays don’t believe that PR specialisation is important to work in PR and they focus on personal skills. There is still limited awareness of PR education.’ Therefore, working in public relations requires establishing a balance between education and improving personal skills. Rabab A’ashoor stressed: ‘Education is important to guide communication skills.’ Dr Hiba Musa’ad, a public relations and advertising academician, said that  the modules we are teaching within the PR curriculum in Bahrain are related to the PR market such as crisis management, PR research, writing for PR, PR campaigns and diplomacy communication. We are merging the theoretical knowledge with the practical skills. Several participants explained that public relations education results in a better understanding of the role of public relations in any organisation. Badran (2014) explained: Today, modern PR practice thrives, supported by professional associations and extensive education. Although best practices still come from private practitioners, the public sector in most of the GCC is showing better understanding of the role that PR plays in nation-­building, human development and global relations. (p. 5) Moreover, public relations education has paved the way for new opportunities in developing the practice of public relations in Bahrain. Kirat (2005) noted: Organizations are adapting themselves to a new environment that requires strong and effective public relations departments. Universities and colleges are responding to the new demands of the job markets.

20   Layla AlSaqer and Sama’a Al Hashimi Schools and departments of journalism, mass communication and public relations are mushrooming in the region. (p. 325) Safa Abdulghani Ali, Senior Public Relations and Media Manager, said that, ‘[n]owadays, new graduates are implementing interactive digital media applications, which improve the practice of PR. Additionally, young graduates are more familiar with the utilisation of social media in PR to research public opinion and interact with the public.’ Other public relations managers emphasised the convergence between public relations and digital media skills. For example, Interviewee IV noted: ‘With the increasing numbers of PR graduates, I think new specialised tasks will occur in the organisation.’ Interviewee X, Public Relations Manager in a governmental organisation, explained: ‘Nowadays PR participants should have skills in multimedia, photography and social media coverage.’

The current status, challenges, and prospects of public relations in Bahrain Widening the spectrum of public relations has been of gradually increasing importance for many organisations in Bahrain. This section overviews present challenging issues and trends that impact the future of public relations in Bahrain. Recruitment and sourcing new talent seems to be the greatest challenge and concern worldwide, according to a survey conducted by The Holmes Report and ICCO as part of the World PR Report (2015). The report cited ‘staff recruitment’ as one of the biggest challenges facing public relations firms (World PR Report, 2015). The Holmes Report indicated that concerns related to sourcing new talent were strongest in Asia and the Middle East and that most public relations firms find it easier to focus their recruitment on rival public relations agencies than to look elsewhere (World PR Report, 2015). This also seems to be one of the most significant challenges facing the growth of public relations in Bahrain. According to a survey conducted by the Ministry of Labour and Social Development (2017), job seekers in the public relations industry have been facing several challenges. These include competition between Bahraini and foreign workers due to income disparity, the skills gap between educational outcomes and labour market needs, overall look and appearance, and the ability to speak the English language. The same survey indicates that the public relations industry, itself, is facing several challenges. One of these is being able to keep pace with technological development in the profession. Another challenge is sourcing talents with experience and diversity in practical skills (design, writing, social communication, and photography). Moreover, the industry is challenged by the relationship between public relations and culture.

Public relations in Bahrain   21 The results of the survey in this chapter emphasise many of the above-­ mentioned challenges. Public relations practitioners in Bahrain are expected to have a range of skills that qualify them to perform several functions. The employees we surveyed were asked to indicate the association between the type of functions performed by their company and five standard functions that are typically performed by a public relations firm. The employees were asked to indicate the level of association on a scale between 0 (not associated) and 5 (highly associated). The average scores indicated that coordination (4) and media and communication (3.8) were the most-­associated functions with their public relations departments, followed by design and production (3.2) and marketing functions (2.9). The research-­associated functions in their organisations were significantly less (2.6) than all other functions (Table 2.1). These findings accentuate and reflect the major global concern that was highlighted in the World PR Report (2015) regarding the declining role of research as a growth driver in public relations. The report indicated that relatively few firms expect growth in research and a small number of respondents considered research to be a critical skill for public relations professionals (World PR Report, 2015). The lack of attention to research might soon be one of the challenges that organisations in Bahrain will face if they do not invest more in their research capabilities. The role and function of public relations are being redefined as a strategic communication function, which relies considerably on building relationships with stakeholders through research. According to The Holmes Report, only the agency with the best strategic insight, which comes from sound research, can overcome the challenges of the modern world and play a real strategic role (World PR Report, 2015). Thus, public relations should have a strategic role and, to achieve this role, public relations employees should possess the education, professionalism, and skills to be able to contribute effectively to organisational strategic management, communication, marketing, and policy making. Dr Heba Messa’d, an academician at the University of Bahrain, noted: Nowadays, PR is a strategic tool to manage crisis, conflicts and negotiation in the global scene. In Bahrain, the tendency of many PR employees is to acquire a degree in PR. Organisations started to believe in the importance of academic qualification in media and PR. In accordance with Dr Heba Messa’d’s statement, 46 of the public relations practitioners we surveyed had a degree in public relations (or a degree associated with public relations) and 38 of them believe in the importance of having an academic qualification in public relations to practice the job. This belief in the importance of having an academic qualification in public relations has led to an increased number of students who specialise in public relations. The number of employees who are currently registered as public relations specialists in Bahrain is 855 (Table 2.2), while the number of organisations that perform public relations functions and activities are 364, according to the Ministry of Labour and Social Development (2017) (Figures 2.1 and 2.2).

Number of respondents Percentage of respondents

Number of respondents Percentage of respondents

Number of respondents Percentage of respondents

Number of respondents Percentage of respondents Number of respondents Percentage of respondents

Coordination functions (organisation and communication)

Media functions (new publishing, etc.)

Production functions (designing printed materials and producing digital applications, etc.)

Research functions (conducting studies and reports)

Marketing functions (marketing campaigns, etc.)

Respondents

Functions

4 10.26

5 12.82

12.20

17.07

9.52

0.00 5

4

11.90

4.76 0

5

9.52

0.00 2

4

0

1

7

0

Score

8

7.14

3

4.76

2

17.95

7

21.95

9

19.05

2 5

15.38

6

9.76

4

33.33

14

4.76

2

11.90

3

17.95

7

24.39

10

16.67

7

19.05

8

28.57

12

4

25.64

10

14.63

6

21.43

9

52.38

22

45.24

19

5

2.9

 

2.6

 

3.2

 

3.8

 

4.0

Weighted avg. score

Table 2.1 The employees’ rankings of functions that are typically performed in public relations firms in Bahrain (between 0 = not important and 5 = very important)

Table 2.2 The number of employees who are currently registered as specialists in public relations or in media-related fields in Bahrain Specialisation

Females

Males

Total

Media and public relations Electronic media Multimedia systems Media and journalism Media Educational media Media, TV, and radio

695 48 40 17 10 6 3

160 7 9 0 1 1 2

855 55 49 17 11 7 5

Total

819 82%

180 18%

999

Art and drama training Other arts and entertainment activities TV and radio production Graphic designers Live production and art event organisers Photo and video Tour organisers Film, video and TV production PR agencies Travel agencies Private event organisers

18 23 26 111 161 223 258 329 364 393 563

Conference and exhibition organisers Advertisment agencies

Figure 2.2 Number of establishments with media activities.

1,159 1,806

24   Layla AlSaqer and Sama’a Al Hashimi However, despite the suggested importance of having a degree in public relations to become a practitioner in the field, nine practitioners out of the 34 we surveyed indicated that they have a degree in business-­related fields (for example, marketing, finance, banking), and 8 practitioners have a degree in digital production-­related fields (for example, TV, graphic design, advertising). This indicates that public relations firms in Bahrain are beginning to also have an interest in recruiting employees who are specialised in business, marketing, and digital production. This tendency emphasises that the public relations profession in Bahrain, just as in many other countries, is being reshaped by the emergence of digital media and by its convergence with marketing. Public relations is evolving into a more marketing-­centric profession, and the integration of digital media with this marketing-­centric evolution is redefining the relationship between public relations and digital marketing as the demand for tracking, monitoring, and performing web analysis of customer activities on social media platforms increases. Thus, public relations is being dominated by the use of new public relations tools and techniques, including the use of content creation, automated report generation, big data, social media monitoring and web analytics, but most importantly digital storytelling (Cartwright, 2017). Digital and social media in Bahrain may lag slightly behind the developed countries, but there is no doubt that digital media is becoming a critical driver of change. Social media, big data, and digital technologies have opened up a wide range of opportunities for the contemporary public relations practitioner in Bahrain. Companies that will be first to acquire those technologies will have a competitive advantage that will allow them to increase their audiences enormously. Therefore, a paradigm shift has become vital, both on a global as well as a local level: ‘Public relations offices are now expanding their staff to include specialists in interactive media, and many agencies that deal strictly with online PR have arisen’ (Gross, 2012, p. 2). Many public relations organisations are increasingly realising the importance of mastering digital media skills, among many other important skills. To identify the core set of fundamental skills that potential employees need in the public relations workplace in Bahrain, the employees we surveyed were asked to rank the most important skills required by their companies. The employees were presented with a list of standard skills that are typically required by a public relations firm and were asked to rank the skills on a scale between 0 (not important) and 5 (very important). The average scores indicated that working under pressure (4), Arabic language (3.8), and communication, presentation, and persuasion skills (3.8) were the most important skills required by their companies, followed by digital production skills (3.7), management and organisation skills (3.7), and writing skills (3.7). English language skills (3.3) and research skills (3) in their organisations were significantly less required than all the other skills (Table 2.3 and Figure 2.3). The concern for the declining significance of research skills seems to be global, as indicated in the World PR Report (2015), in which only 5.6 per cent

Number of respondents Percentage of respondents

Number of respondents Percentage of respondents

Number of respondents Percentage of respondents

Communication, presentation, and persuasion skills

Writing skills

Management and organisational skills

Number of respondents Percentage of respondents

Number of respondents Percentage of respondents

Number of respondents Percentage of respondents

Number of respondents Percentage of respondents

Arabic language skills

English language skills

Research skills

Technical, production, and design skills

Working under pressure skills Number of respondents Percentage of respondents

Respondents

Functions

0 0.00

0 0.00

14.29

14.29

4.76

9.52 2

1

15.15

0.00 2

5

2.78

2.78 0

1

5.56

2.78 1

2

5.88

2.94 1

2

8.33

0.00 1

3

0

1

2

0

Score

5

21.43

3

0.00

0

9.52

2

6.06

2

8.33

3

5.56

2

14.71

5

13.89

2 4

14.29

2

21.43

3

23.81

5

9.09

3

11.11

4

19.44

7

20.59

7

11.11

3 7

35.71

5

28.57

4

28.57

6

24.24

8

27.78

10

38.89

14

5.88

2

19.44

4

28.57

4

21.43

3

23.81

5

45.45

15

47.22

17

27.78

10

50.00

17

47.22

17

5

3.7

 

3.0

 

3.3

 

3.8

 

4.0

 

3.7

 

3.7

 

3.8

Weighted avg. score

Table 2.3 The employees’ rankings of standard skills that are typically required by a public relations firm in Bahrain (between 0 = not important and 5 = very important)

26   Layla AlSaqer and Sama’a Al Hashimi

Technical, production, and design skills Research skills

3.7 3.0

English language skills Arabic language skills

3.3 3.8 4.0

Working under pressure skills Management and organisational skills

3.7

Writing skills

3.7

Communication, presentation, and persuasion skills

3.8

Figure 2.3 The most important skills required to work in a PR firm.

of the respondents cited research as one of the critical and relevant skills for public relations professionals in the next decade. The respondents considered social media community management (39.7 per cent), creativity (39.3 per cent), multimedia content creation (38.9 per cent), insight and planning (38.9 per cent), measurement and analytics (31 per cent), and digital build production (23 per cent) to be less relevant for the next decade, respectively. These skill sets are expected to undergo a radical change as technology and other global trends take hold and start transforming the public relations profession in Bahrain gradually. The significance of seeking research skills, which enable practitioners to guide the policies of their organisations, will become more vital as the strategic role of public relations becomes progressively prominent. In addition, mastering English language skills will become a necessity for business communication among public relations professionals as the profession evolves into a marketing-­centric practice. Although digital media, storytelling, social networking, and big data may be the major growth and transformation drivers for the next decade, they pose for the public relations practitioner the challenge of managing the gamut of data and keeping up-­to-date with the astounding speed of content generation and emerging digital tools. They also present new challenges as they expose public relations firms to new forms of crisis, possibly caused by the anonymity of the audience on the internet, which may lead

Public relations in Bahrain   27 to mistrust and may make communication between the users and public relations firms highly risky and sometimes unreliable. These major growth and transformation drivers may introduce many ethical concerns and will pose further challenges related to legislation, transparency, and governance, especially due to the absence of robust legislation regulating the practice of public relations and digital media in Bahrain. The Telecommunications Regulatory Authority of the Kingdom of Bahrain (TRA), which was established in 2002, is currently the regulator of telecommunications laws in Bahrain (TRA Annual Report, 2016). It issued and implemented a set of regulations to protect the local consumer and to address worldwide issues and challenges, such as cyber bullying, information security, and internet safety. However, innovative solutions and new technologies have led to substantial shifts and evolving changes in the telecommunications and digital media infrastructure, which has posed further concerns and challenges. In light of all these challenges, the public relations practitioner in Bahrain stands at a crucial and defining juncture: whether to become proficient in all aspects of digital and social media communication and to endure the challenges that digital media are bringing to public relations practice or to remain outside the realm of the technologically oriented global public relations landscape.

Conclusion Public relations in Bahrain has lately witnessed a significant growth. This chapter has examined the history and evolving role of Bahraini public relations and has traced some of the most significant changes that have taken place in the industry, keeping in mind the changing local and global economic, societal, cultural, political, religious, and educational contexts. The chapter has described and has reflected upon the development and institutionalisation of public relations practice and education in Bahrain, based on the results of a pilot study that involved a purposive sample of 34 participants in governmental and non-­governmental (i.e. private sector) public relations consultancies in Bahrain. The key findings and results have indicated that a considerable difference exists in Bahrain between the strategic practice of public relations in the governmental and the private sector. Many governmental organisations do not have a research unit in their public relations departments. On the other hand, research and planning seemed to be more significant in public relations private consultancies in Bahrain, which indicates a growing awareness of the role of strategic planning in public relations in Bahrain. Moreover, the chapter has identified the core set of fundamental skills that potential employees need in the public relations workplace in Bahrain. The key findings indicated that working under pressure, Arabic language, and communication, presentation, and persuasion skills were, respectively, the

28   Layla AlSaqer and Sama’a Al Hashimi most important skills required by their companies, followed by digital ­production skills, management and organisation skills, and writing skills. However, the global and technological developments added new multidisciplinary tasks and responsibilities to the public relations professional who is expected to demonstrate interdisciplinary skills in marketing, advertising, and technical skills, especially now that the lines between public relations, social media, marketing, and advertising are rapidly disappearing. Concurrently, public relations firms in Bahrain are beginning to have an interest in recruiting employees who are specialised in business, marketing, and digital production. The chapter also has focused on the impact of traditions, cultural etiquettes, family ties, societal culture, Islamic values, corporate culture, and gender stereotypes on public relations practice in Bahrain. The findings indicated that traditional stereotypes of female public relations practitioners have begun to change in Bahrain and that women in Bahrain have succeeded in achieving managerial roles in public relations departments and have launched private businesses in the industry. Finally, the chapter has attempted to shed light on the current status, challenges, and prospects of the profession locally, in light of the rapid global development. With the ongoing establishment of public relations firms and educational programmes at various universities, the industry will certainly continue to mature and to gain prominence in Bahrain.

References Aldemiri, M. (1988). Public relations in the Prophet’s era. Mecca, SB: Maktabat AlManar (in Arabic). Al-­Jenaibi, B. (2011). Gender issues in the diversity and practice of public relations in the UAE: Case Study of PR male managers and female PR practitioners. International Journal of E-­Politics (IJEP), 2(3), 35–56. AlSaqer, L. (2003). Experience of female public relations practitioners in Bahrain. Master’s thesis, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK. AlSaqer, L. (2008). Experience of female public relations practitioners in Bahrain. Public Relations Review, 34(1), 77–79. AlSaqer, L. (2016). History and sociology of public communication in the Arab gulf. Cross-­Cultural Communication, 12(3), 1–13. AlSaqer, L., & Al-Rashed, M. (2018). Bahraini women in PR managerial positions: Challenges and empowerment strategies. In E. Al-­A’ali, M. Al-­Shammari, & H. Masri (Eds.), Arab women and their evolving roles in the global business landscape (pp. 209–238). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Al Tamimi, J. (2014). An investigation into the experiences of public relations practitioners in Bahrain comparing with understanding public relations from Western concepts – A case study within the Ministry of Education. Unpublished Master’s thesis, University of Leeds Metropolitan, Leeds, UK. Badran, B. A. (2014). The Arab states of the Gulf. In T. Watson (Ed.), Middle Eastern and African perspectives on the development of public relations: Other voices (pp.  5–21). London, UK: Palgrave Pivot.

Public relations in Bahrain   29 Badran, B. A., Turk, J. V., & Walters, T. N. (2003). Sharing the transformation: Public relations and the UAE come of age. In K. Sriramesh & D. Verčič (Eds.), The global public relations handbook: Theory, research, and practice. (pp.  46–67). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Cartwright, V. (2017). The changing role of public relations: 5 insights from the Global Communications Report 2017. Creating the future of PR. Retrieved from http://creatingthefutureofpr.com/the-­changing-role-­of-public-­relations-5-insights-­ from-the-­global-communications-­report-2017 Dozier, D. M., Grunig, L. A., & Grunig, J. E. (1995). Manager’s guide to excellence in public relations and communication management. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Fitch, K., James, M., & Motion, J. (2016). Talking back: Reflecting on feminism, public relations and research. Public Relations Review, 42(2), 279–287. Freberg, K., Remund, D., & Keltner-­Previs, K. (2013). Integrating evidence based practices into public relations education. Public Relations Review, 39(3), 235–237. Gaither, T. K., & Al-­Kandari, A. J. (2014). The cultural-­economic model and public relations in the Middle East: An examination of the Islamic banking system in Kuwait. Public Relations Review, 40(1), 33–41. Gross, S. (2012). Public relations and the internet. Student project. Interactive Media Lab. College of Journalism & Communication. University of Florida. USA. Retrieved from http://iml.jou.ufl.edu/projects/STUDENTS/Gross/frameset.htm Grunig, J. E. (1992). Excellence in public relations and communication management. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Grunig, J. E., & Grunig, L. A. (2000). Public relations in strategic management and strategic management of public relations: Theory and evidence from the IABC Excellence project. Journalism Studies, 1(2), 303–321. Grunig, L. A., Grunig, J. E., & Dozier, D.  M. (2002). Excellent public relations and effective organizations: A study of communication management in three countries. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Haque, M. S., & Ahmad, J. H. (2016). Islamic ethics in public relations. Journal of Education and Social Sciences, 4(6), 189–193. Hofstede, G. (1984). The cultural relativity of the quality of life concept. Academy of Management Review, 9(3), pp. 389–398. Hofstede, G. (1994). Cultures and organizations: Intercultural cooperation and its importance for survival. London, UK: Harper Collins Publishers. Kirat, M. (2005). Public relations practice in the Arab World: A critical assessment. Public Relations Review, 31(3), 323–332. Kirat, M. (2015). The Islamic roots of modern public relations and corporate social responsibility. International Journal of Islamic Marketing and Branding, 1(1), 97–112. L’Etang, J., & Pieczka, M. (Eds.). (1996). Critical perspective in public relations. London, UK: International Thomson Business Press. Population and Demographics (2014, 2 September). Ministry of Information Affairs. Retrieved from www.mia.gov.bh/en/Kingdom-­of-Bahrain/Pages/Population-­ and-Demographic-­Growth.aspx Ministry of Labour and Social Development. (2017). Media and public relations challenges and ambitions in Bahrain. (Unpublished survey). Newsom, D., Turk, J. V., & Kruckeberg, D. (2000). This Is PR: The realities of public relations. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co. Plowman, K. D. (2005). Conflict, strategic management, and public relations. Public relations review, 31(1), 131–138.

30   Layla AlSaqer and Sama’a Al Hashimi Sriramesh, K., & Verčič, D. (2012). Culture and public relations: Links and implications. New York, Routledge. Statics and indicators of Bahraini women. (2018). Supreme Council for Women. Retrieved from www.scw.bh/en/SupportCenter/Databases/Statistics/Pages/ default.aspx TRA Annual Report. (2016). Global achievements, local talents. Retrieved from www.tra.org.bh/media/document/TRA-­Annual-Report-­2016.pdf Wang, Y., & Ma, Y. (2013). Public relations consultancy potential in the Muslim world: Public relations from Islamic perspective. Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 18(6), 98–105. World PR Report. (2015). The changing role of public relations: 5 insights from the Global communications report 2017. Retrieved from www.holmesreport.com/ ranking-­and-data/world-­pr-report

3 Public relations in Kuwait A historical, practical, and theoretical perspective Talal M. Almutairi and Ali A. Dashti

Introduction This chapter presents a picture of public relations practice in Kuwait, based on descriptions of historical, social, political, and economic factors. Each is critically analysed and is linked with the formation and development of public relations within the Kuwaiti context. Culture, tradition, historical places, Public Relations historical events, and religion are key components to be studied when attempting to gain an overview of the evolution of public relations practices in Kuwait. Unfortunately, little has been written about Kuwaiti public relations. The authors of this chapter have, therefore, adopted a qualitative approach to investigate its practice in Kuwait, examining the history of Kuwait’s birth as a nation, the events constituting that country’s historical background, and conducting ten interviews. The interviewees included a public relations historian, a Kuwaiti historian, public relations practitioners, media and political academicians, former members of the Kuwait National Assembly, female activists, and members of the Kuwait Public Relations Association, along with its chairman. In the course of these interviews, the interview guide was dramatically changed from a semi-­structured format to that of a dialectical interview. This change was necessitated by the interviewees’ diverse backgrounds, which affected their concept of public relations based on their previous experience. An intensive literature review of related fields, such as history, political science, sociology, and the media was also conducted to contextualise the subject of this chapter. An overview of Kuwait as a nation will first be presented to familiarise the reader with the context of the study. This will include Kuwait’s political structure, socio-­economic situation, and media infrastructure. The uniqueness of Kuwait’s culture, people, ruling families, trading history, maritime culture, and royal courts have all been influenced by public relations practice. Therefore, although public relations practice is the main subject of this chapter, the Kuwaiti historical, cultural, political, economic, and social context is also explored in detail, with special attention being given to that country’s unique political environment.

32   Talal M. Almutairi and Ali A. Dashti

Kuwait: an overview Kuwait is a small country located in the northwest corner of the Arabian Peninsula. It shares its borders with the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (to the south and southwest) and Iraq (to the north and west) (Kuwait Government Online, 2018). According to the latest data, the country’s population is 4,695,203, of which 1,406,159 (30 per cent) are Kuwaiti, with 678,138 of these being male. Meanwhile, 3,289,004 non-­Kuwaitis are living in the country, consisting of 70 per cent of the population, with 2,217,348 of these being male (PACI, 2019). Of the entire population, however, Muslims constitute 85 per cent, including both Sunnis and Shi’ites. The remainder of the population consists of Christians, Hindus, and Parsis. Finally, although the official language of Kuwait is Arabic, English is widely spoken. In brief, Kuwait’s political history can be collapsed into three main periods: the pre-­oil era, from the early eighteenth century to 1961; the dawn of independence in 1961 until the invasion of Kuwait in 1990; and post-­liberation since 1991 (Olimat, 2011). It is during the era of independence that Kuwait has become a society having a wealthy, autonomous government, while, at the same time, facing the domestic, regional, and international challenges that would shape its politics and policies (Olimat, 2011). In the early eighteenth century, a group of tribes travelled from the south of the Arabian Peninsula – a region known as the ‘Najid’ – to a place called Kut in the north, now known as Kuwait (Al-­Nakib, 2016; Al-­Rushaid, 1936). In 1756, a consensus among the people led to the nomination of Kuwait’s first elected ruler, Sabah I, a direct ancestor of the current ruler. Sabah I became Emir (leader), and ‘joint governing’ followed (Alnajjar, 2000, p.  243). After Sabah’s authority was established, the settlement witnessed rapid growth (Abu Hakima, 1965). In 1884, one French observer commented that ‘[t]he people of this Republic (Kuwait) are one of the freest peoples in the world’ (Tétreault, 2000, p. 35). The political stability at this time also fostered rapid economic growth. Furthermore, Kuwait was considered as one of the safest, most stable places to live and trade in the region (Alhabib, 2010). Its minimal fees and tax-­free market were other important factors attracting traders and visitors (Alhabib, 2010). Furthermore, Kuwait’s growing prosperity became attractive to British and Ottoman imperial powers during this period. The Ottoman Empire claimed Kuwait as part of its territory, and the Emir was brought under its authority (Abu Hakima, 1965). Later, in 1899, the ruler of Kuwait signed a protection agreement with Great Britain, giving Kuwait ‘British support in exchange for exclusive control over its foreign policy’ (Al-­Hatim, 1980; Ashton, 1998, p. 163). From 1899 to 1961, Kuwait was consequently a British protectorate, prior to gaining full political independence. Meanwhile, fishing, shipbuilding, marine trade, and pearl-­diving constituted the pillars of Kuwait’s economy during the period described above (Casey, 2007). It leveraged its coastal location, and an expert merchant class

Public relations in Kuwait   33 established and controlled a large-­scale Gulf trading industry. For example, Kuwaiti merchants offered transit-­trading services, with ships carrying cargo from Iraq to India and the east coast of Africa. Nevertheless, the discovery of oil in Kuwait was to completely transform the economic and social life of the nation, as it became the owner of the world’s third-­largest oil reserves. This new economic boom strengthened Kuwait’s position in negotiating its independence from Britain (Ashton, 1998), which came into effect on 19 June 1961, with the termination of the 1899 Agreement (Abu Hakima, 1984). In the coming decades, the country continued to prosper and develop, which may be noted from the significant increase in its national income, allowing it to offer its citizens free health care, education, and housing (Kuwait Petroleum Corporation, 2018). The presence of oil as an economic factor also caused a shift away from a simple administrative government towards a more complex, relatively large management structure (Al-­Dekhayel, 2000). Furthermore, the government supported and sponsored plans to benefit Kuwaiti citizens, such as providing retirement pensions, marriage bonuses, housing loans, virtually guaranteed employment, free medical services, and free education at all levels, with zero income tax (Alajmi, 2002). However, in 1990, Kuwait was invaded by its neighbour, Iraq, which committed atrocities such as killing, torturing, and raping civilians and destroyed the country’s infrastructure (Tawfiq, 1991). For example, nearly 750 Kuwaiti oil wells were set ablaze by the retreating Iraqi army, resulting in a major environmental and economic catastrophe (Tawfiq, 1991). This onslaught against Kuwait paralysed its economic and development activities for some time, but the country was gradually able to regain its strength. It, thus, resumed its various activities across all domains, once more attaining a high rate of development, comparable to those of other high-­income, oil-­ exporting developing countries (Alajmi, 2002). Today, Kuwait’s GDP stands at $302.5 billion, with a per capita income of $69,700, making it the seventh-­ richest country in the world (Segarra, 2017; Central Intelligence Agency, 2018). Meanwhile, Kuwait ranks 56 in the Human Development Index (HDI), with a score of 0.803 (UN Development Programme, 2018). Kuwait is a constitutional monarchy, with the oldest directly elected parliament from among the Arab states of the Arabian Peninsula. The Head of State is the Emir, which office is hereditary. A Council of Ministries – also known as the Cabinet Ministers – assists the Prime Minister in his task as Head of the Kuwaiti government (Al-­Diwan Al-­amiri, 2018). The power of the legislature in Kuwait is vested in the National Assembly (Majlis Al-­ Umma). This consists of 65 seats, with 50 directly elected members and 15 ex-­officio members, comprising cabinet ministers appointed by the Prime Minister for four-­year terms. In addition, the power of the judiciary is vested in the Supreme Court of Kuwait, which is responsible for operating the nation’s courts. In many ways, Kuwait’s legal system is similar to those of Western countries, but some of its laws are derived from Islamic teachings (Khedr, 2016).

34   Talal M. Almutairi and Ali A. Dashti Because Kuwait is a relatively open, democratic society, the media represent a strong, dominant force. Freedom of speech and of the press is protected in the Constitution, specifically under Article 36, which states that ‘[e]very person shall have the right to express and propagate his opinion verbally, in writing or otherwise, in accordance with the conditions and procedure specified by law.’ Article 37 then stipulates that ‘freedom of the press, printing, and publishing shall be guaranteed in accordance with conditions and manner specified by law’ (Kuwait Constitution, 1962). William Rugh, former United States Ambassador to several Arab countries, considers Kuwait’s press to be ‘diverse’, with a range and freedom that sets it apart from other press systems in the Arab world (Rugh, 2004). A Freedom House Report from 2008 (Freedom House, 2008) observed that Kuwait has a diverse media environment that is ‘one of the most open in the Middle East’. Nevertheless, this appeared to have changed by 2016, with Freedom House reporting that the ‘[m]edia operate in a restricted environment … and the government sustains efforts to stifle criticism of its actions and policies’ (Freedom House, 2016). Furthermore, in 2017, Freedom House awarded Kuwait a score of 60 out of 100 for freedom of the press, while, in 2008, Kuwait scored 54. Similarly, Reporters without Borders ranked Kuwait 104 out of 180 countries in press freedom in 2017, whereas it had previously placed Kuwait at 61 in 2008. Despite this, however, Kuwait still has the freest and most diverse and liberal media in the Arab region. Currently, its media landscape consists of 12 daily print newspapers (10 Arabic and English language), 10 government TV channels, 11 private TV channels, 14 government-­run radio stations, 1 private radio channel, and 213 licensed online news outlets (Ministry of Information, 2018). The internet was introduced to the Kuwaiti public in 1994, and the number of users has continued to multiply exponentially ever since. Moreover, once social media applications had begun to appear in Kuwait, they became a normal part of most people’s daily lives. In 2000, there were only 150,000 users, but, by 2017, the number had risen to 3,214,347, with a 76.6 per cent population penetration (Internet World Stats, 2018). Similarly, when social media applications appeared, these were also widely taken up by internet users, private companies, and even the government sector. In 2016, the Kuwait News Agency (KUNA) conducted a survey of social media usage, finding that 72 per cent of Kuwaitis spend over five hours a day using social media applications and websites, the most popular being WhatsApp (90 per cent), followed by Snapchat (40 per cent), Instagram (38 per cent), and Twitter (25 per cent). The survey results also showed that 25 per cent of users log on to social media applications about 50 times a day, with social issues being the top topics discussed (81 per cent) (Kamal, 2016). Meanwhile, Bashir and Aldaihani (2017) found that social media have positively expanded the field of public relations in a discourse environment, bringing organisations into mainstream culture. In fact, Kuwait and Bahrain have the highest penetration rate of active Twitter use in the Arab world, with Kuwait being the most active, producing an average of 4.2 tweets

Public relations in Kuwait   35 per user every day (Salem, 2017). Al-­Sharif (2017) also asserts that social media are an important factor enhancing public relations practice in Kuwait, stating that ‘practitioners in Kuwait, especially in the governmental sector, were forced to enhance their communication skill and move away from one-­way communication to dialectical and transparent public relations communication, because of social media’ (Al-­Sharif, 2017).

The Kuwaiti cultural context Kuwait is considered to have a collectivistic high-­context culture, in which the emphasis is on the group rather than on the individual. In this sense, the majority of Kuwaitis are primarily concerned with the needs of the group and therefore view ‘self ’ as entrenched in group relationships (Al-­Husaini, 2004). This feeling strengthens the rule of ‘obligations’ over ‘rights’. For example, the core decisions of a person’s life, such as those concerning marriage or career, are influenced by group decisions and are likely to be more group-­ oriented than is the case in a low-­context community (Al-­Krenawi & Graham, 2005). This high-­context culture influences communication styles, which, in turn, impact the public relations role in Kuwait. Furthermore, messages in this context must be supported by strong, accepted clues, such as quotes from the Quran, as opposed to other statements from credible sources. A long trading history, especially in maritime trade, has given Kuwaitis a unique acquaintance with other countries, communities, cultures, and civilisations, resulting in an openness and willingness to accept new values and to progress and develop with ease (National Assembly, 2003). Hofstede’s Cultural Framework (1984, 1991, 2003, 2018) proposes a further approach to examining national culture, and his work is considered as the most influential study of cultural effect (Steenkamp, 2001). In his model, Hofstede (1984, 1991, 2003) develops five dimensions of culture: power distance, individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance, and long-­term orientation. In the Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI), Kuwait is identified as a society that has a low-­level of tolerance for uncertainty. To reduce the level of uncertainty, a society will be driven to adopt and implement strict rules, laws, policies, and regulations, all aimed at reducing the likelihood of unanticipated reactions. Al-­ Kandari and Gaither (2011) believe that, in such a culture, ‘public relations practitioners tend toward employing communications modalities that do not challenge existing societal beliefs and values and carefully consider the role of religion in how Arabs are likely to use an information subsidy’ (p. 270). Aside from this, the masculinity (MAS) dimension appears to be highest in Kuwait, while the lowest-­rated dimension in the Arab world overall is individualism (IDV), in comparison with the average worldwide. However, Hofstede (2003) identifies this low level of individualism as evidence of a close and long-­term commitment to family members, including the extended family and extended relationships, because, in collectivist culture, loyalty is of the utmost importance, overriding other social rules (Hofstede, 2003).

36   Talal M. Almutairi and Ali A. Dashti Kuwaiti society is, therefore, highly family-­oriented, with the family generally being very closed and private (Al-­Thakeb, 1985). This family unit will consist of a close-­knit, yet extended, family circle, with some members being only distantly related. Thus, the typical Kuwaiti family is a cohesive institution, with individuals helping one another to perform many different tasks within the family, supporting each other, rallying around in times of difficulty, and often pooling resources for business ventures or to overcome hardship (Al-­ Mekaimi, 2003). Therefore, in Kuwait, the extended family is an accepted social structure and determines individual identity. Moreover, it includes the nuclear family, immediate relatives, distant relatives, members of a tribe, friends, and even neighbours (Al-­Thakeb, 1985). This characteristic of Kuwaiti culture emphasises interpersonal communication in relationships, and so public relations practice needs to acknowledge such a perspective in communications with the Kuwaiti community. Furthermore, the approach adopted in public relations communications in Kuwait should contain emotional clues that appreciate the corresponding cultural values. In this regard, Al-­Kandari and Gaither (2011, p.  271) explain that, ‘[f]or Westerners, communication is generally a conduit for information transmission; for Arabs, almost all forms of communication are infused with emotions, even petty and quick messages.’ Further to the above, Kuwait’s cultural and political context has traditionally given rise to the establishment of specific places as part of two-­waycommunication. For instance, Al-­Safat is a historical commercial square in Kuwait City, which became a place for conducting government activities, decision-­making, carrying out executions, and even screening films (Al-­ Nakib, 2016). Additionally, the Suq is a hive of social and commercial activity, where people can exchange, socialise, and interact with others and with their ruler, becoming the ‘hub of the town’ (Al-­Nakib, 2016, pp. 52–53). Al-­ Nakib (2016, p. 54) writes: It (suq) was where one went to learn the news of the world by reading the foreign newspapers available in the missionaries’ Bible shop … the suq was where public opinion was formed and expressed… the suq that gave form to the Habermasian public sphere. Meanwhile, the port, or Sahel, was a shared space, frequented by diverse social groups, while the Farij represented the social space between neighbours. In addition, there was the traditional Gahwat (coffee shop), with Bo Nnashi being considered as one of the oldest in Kuwait, located to the west of the entrance to the merchants’ market and facing the Grand Mosque. Historically, its most prominent customers have been the rulers of Kuwait, who would visit this coffee shop every day to spend time drinking coffee, receiving citizens, hearing complaints, and resolving disputes. It has, therefore, resembled a general symposium, with the prince meeting his subjects in the morning and evening, ending rivalries, resolving problems, and issuing verdicts within its walls.

Public relations in Kuwait   37 In more modern times, namely 1924, a group of young Kuwaiti intellectuals established a literary club (Al-­Nadi Al-­Adabi), serving as a forum for exchanging ideas, giving lectures, and disseminating useful scientific or other knowledge among young people. It was the first club to be established in the history of Kuwait, and it was chaired by a member of the ruling family, Sheikh Abdullah Al-­Jaber Al-­Sabah (Al-­Rushaid, 1936). The Al-­Safat, Suq, Sahel, Farij, Gahwat, and Al-­Nadi Al-­Adabi can, thus, be described as influential spaces for communication and for forming public opinion. However, the power of these spaces has since faded and now barely exists, while other institutions have maintained their influence on communication across Kuwaiti society, such as the Dewaniya. The Kuwaiti institution known as the Dewaniya consists of a large reception room in a home, which is used for social gatherings, mainly by close male family members (Al-­Kandari, 2002). It represents the roots of Kuwait’s consensual political and social system (Al-­Kandari, 2002) and plays the role of a political forum, where the population can discuss their concerns. Throughout the history of Kuwait, the Dewaniya has proved to be of great political influence on numerous occasions (Al-­Kandari, 2002). The Dewaniya is, in fact, quite unique to Kuwait, with no other country in the Middle East displaying such a social arrangement on a day-­to-day basis. Despite prominent changes in Kuwait’s economic, social, and cultural life, the Dewaniya remains one of the few constant and enduring traditional legacies to which Kuwaitis faithfully hold fast. The word originally signified the section of a Bedouin tent where male family members and their male visitors would sit apart from the family to discuss the pertinent issues of the day. However, the concept has now evolved into a more established, but informal, area, where male members of families or tribes can gather, together with any male outsiders who care to attend. The hosts of the Dewaniya tend to be the well-­known, usually local, recognised male heads of extended families. In the past, the ownership of a Dewaniya was exclusive to prominent members of society, since incomes were generally lower in real terms than they are in modern Kuwait. Second, owning and maintaining a Dewaniya carries a significant financial cost (Al-­Kandari, 2002). For example, it is an obligation to serve tea and Arabic coffee to male guests, as well as food. In 1992, Kuwait University (a public institution) opened its Mass Communication Department and began admitting students into programmes having two main emphases: journalism, and radio and TV. In 1996, the first cohort was graduated from this Department, with females constituting the majority. In 2006, public relations was introduced as a major subject, and, in 2006, the private Gulf University for Science and Technology (GUST) established its own Mass Communication Department, offering programmes with three main emphases, one being public relations/advertising, again with a largely female majority. In 2011, 308 female (compared to 210 male) students graduated from GUST with an emphasis on public relations. Now, the

38   Talal M. Almutairi and Ali A. Dashti Amer­ican University in Kuwait and the Public Authority for Applied Education and Training (PAAET) also offer courses in public relations. The nature of the government’s female empowerment policy has given women access to education, civil rights, politics, technology skills, and other fields, thus enabling them to compete with men (Dashti & Mesbah, 2016). Due to cultural perceptions of women working in TV and the masculine orientation of the press environment, the public relations field has been more attractive for women, providing them with the chance to work in a broad range of professional areas in Kuwait after graduation. However, despite the fact that women make up 30 per cent of all public relations practitioners in Kuwait, they tend to only handle simple public relations administration work in the public sector, while, in the private sector, their responsibilities generally include more productive activities, where they display a higher level of self-­confidence (Al-­Yasin, 2013).

The public relations context in Kuwait The Gulf States were already practicing public relations years before the formal introduction of the concept to the Arabian Peninsula. In fact, public relations was practised at the dawn of Islam, when the Prophet Mohammed used such techniques and tactics to form public opinion and to persuade the population of the Arabian Peninsula to adopt Islam and its new way of life (Kirat, 2015). Therefore, public relations began to infiltrate Arab culture, without being professionally defined, albeit limited to its publicity function (AlSaqer, 2016; Kirat, 2005). The nature of Kuwaiti culture and Kuwait’s geographic location caused public relations practices to become part of its political system. Looking back at the early days of Kuwait’s formation as a nation, the practice of public relations was part of the political communication between the ruler and his people. The term ‘public relations’ was not in use at that time, but, due to its nature and context, it could be considered as public relations in current practice. In short, looking back at the events of 100 years ago, there is the impression that public relations was being widely practiced in Kuwait within its diplomatic sphere, both locally and internationally. Thus, public relations practices date back years before Kuwait’s independence in the 1960s. Unfortunately, not much has been written about the history, practice, and theory of public relations in Kuwait. Therefore, this chapter will play a pioneering role in shedding more light on the subject. Nevertheless, it is clear that interpersonal communication was used as a public relations tool in Kuwait’s earlier history, even though the existence of public relations as a professional and academic area was not acknowledged. Early settlers in the territory now known as Kuwait initially had no ruler (Al-­Nakib, 2016). Therefore, the first communities survived and functioned via interpersonal communication. Moreover, the dynamics of these early communities were influential upon this communication, whereby Crystal (2005) states:

Public relations in Kuwait   39 The order of the past was far more localised and transient, consisting of multiple, overlapping hierarchies that were maintained in multiple, overlapping ways: neighbourhoods organised around mosques, family elders watching youngsters, merchants monitoring markets, ship captains monitoring divers. (p. 166) Once the population had increased, it became necessary to appoint a ruler to deal with problems, disputes, and outside threats. Al-­Sabah’s rule was intended to establish the safety and stability of the first settlement, while merchants provided financial revenue (Al-­Nakib, 2016). However, this new centralised power did not disturb the communication dynamic, but rather elevated it to more developed public relations tools. Al-­Sabah worked towards building Kuwait’s image in a way that was described by one official at the British East India Company as indicating ‘more a father than a governor’ (Al-­Nakib, 2016, p. 29). For instance, each morning, the ruler would hold a majlis, or a public audience, to settle disputes among the people and ‘hear the news, superintend trade, and administer justice’. The public sphere and two-­way communication were, thus, characterised within the Kuwaiti community by the majlis shura, who consulted the ruler and merchants over serious matters that were likely to affect the internal functioning of the Kuwaiti community, which by then had become a town (Al-­ Nakib, 2016). These practices in the public sphere are described by Al-­Nakib (2016, p. 30): The ruler therefore held a second majlis every evening in his own residence, which gave the urban notables direct access to the decision-­making process. This political arrangement and balance of power between the rulers and the merchants maintained a high level of socio-­political stability in Kuwait that remained relatively undisrupted until the rise of Mubarak I. (p. 30) Mubarak’s reign (1837–1915) differed from that of his successors, because power was more centralised, to the point in which some Kuwaiti merchants left the country to escape his authoritarian regime. For example, Mubarak created a Kishk or kiosk in the town market to observe and monitor all activity there, while holding a daily majlis with the townspeople (Al-­Nakib, 2016). As Al-­Nakib (2016, pp. 53–54) states: Official notices relating important political and commercial information – such as the start and end dates of the pearling season, as well as Municipal announcements after 1930 – were written out and posted on a wall near the Kishk. Whenever a new notice was put up, the townspeople would gather around and one of the literate men would read it to the crowd. (pp. 53–54)

40   Talal M. Almutairi and Ali A. Dashti It should be noted here that the authors do not consider the Kishk to have been a tool of two-­way communication between the ruler and the people, as is commonly believed. After researching and interviewing experts, it was concluded that the Kishk was rather a tool of governance and surveillance, but had become the government’s centre for news and public announcements. It is therefore clear that Mubarak was unaware of the advantages of gaining the loyalty of his people to strengthen his rule over them. It was only after the Towawish incidents involving the pearl merchants that he realised what power he could derive from this loyalty. To illustrate this point, when the pearl merchants protested, Mubarak decided to withhold permission for the pearling fleet to leave Kuwait. The pearl merchants subsequently withdrew their finances to move to Bahrain. The majority of the townspeople subsequently supported them in this, because it was these merchants who provided public welfare (as part of their social responsibility). The incident awoke Mubarak to the importance of public welfare as a means to win the loyalty of his people, whereby he started to follow the pearl merchants’ example in this regard (Al-­Nakib, 2016). However, Mubarak’s propensity for centralised governance began to decline, and the people demanded more involvement in decision-­making. The Dewaniya then surfaced as an institution of the public sphere to fulfil the public’s demand for more freedom and political participation. Citizens began to gather in the more prominent Dewaniyas to lobby for political rights. The outcome of these movements was an elected council or Majlis, which was formed in 1938 to share decision-­making between the ruler and the people, especially after the discovery of oil. Unfortunately, the Majlis proved to be short-­lived, as it was dissolved in December 1938. Nevertheless, despite its failure, it raised awareness of the people’s need to be consulted over the way in which affairs were dealt with in their country (Al-­Hatim, 1980, pp. 221–222). Furthermore, the population also understood the power of the Dewaniya as a public sphere, where public opinion could be moulded. History then witnessed major events that would change Kuwait’s political environment. Immediately following the death of Mubarak, few historical events related to public relations practices or development were documented until the era of Abdullah Al-­Salem Al-­Sabah (1950–1965), the ‘father of independence’. It was under the reign of Abdullah Al-­Salem that public relations practices were applied in building an image of Kuwait as a self-­governing country, thus refuting the allegations made by Iraq that Kuwait was merely a ‘Sheikdom’, not an independent state (Al-­Nafisi, 2018). For Kuwait to be recognised as a self-­governing country, Abdullah Al-­Salem created Kuwait’s Constitution at the end of 1961 and shared power over the nation’s affairs with the people through the National Assembly. In the process, he launched a massive public relations campaign, branding Kuwait’s new image to the rest of the world (Al-­Nafisi, 2018). Oil production and the surplus revenue that it had created made Kuwait rich, and this was a pivotal factor in Abdullah Al-­Salem being

Public relations in Kuwait   41 able to achieve his goals. For example, he established a Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development (KFAED) at the end of December 1961, offering loans to finance development projects in the Arab world and developing countries worldwide. In 1958, using the media for this task, Kuwait launched the Al-­Arabi magazine, known as the ‘Arab cultural magazine for all Arabs’. It contained articles on Arabic culture, literature, art, politics, society, and economics, becoming the most popular magazine in the Arab world. Abdullah Al-­Salem’s much-­quoted announcement in relation to this was ‘Kuwait’s wealth belongs to the people and I am the guardian’, demonstrating the relationship between the Kuwaiti ruler and his subjects (KUNA, 2015). The establishment of a governing body and public relations unit represented a major public relations development in Kuwait, in which public relations began to become recognised as a bona fide professional area. However, Al-­Rujaib (2018), the public relations historian, said public relations activities were limited in government departments at the time, with public relations staff working without any job descriptions or clear descriptive programmes (Al-­Rujaib, 2018). Nevertheless, these were the seeds of public relations development in Kuwait. At the end of the 1940s and the beginning of the 1950s, foreigners from Egypt, Syria, and England introduced public relations practices into Kuwait (Al-­Rujaib, 2018), although no specific job descriptions were defined until 1953–1954, when the Kuwait Oil Company (KOC) had issued its first public relations job description, although this was for a role that corresponded more to that of a promotions and events manager (Al-­Rujaib, 2018). In the mid-­1960s, the first public relations agency was established by the former protocol director of a Kuwaiti government Ministry. As far as is currently understood, the expatriate employees who came to work in the petroleum sector in Kuwait were responsible for introducing public relations techniques into the private sector (Al-­Kholaifi, 2017; Al-­ Rujaib, 2018). However, their approach was functional, focusing on activities such as press releases, media relations, event organisation, and other hospitality activities (for example, receiving guests, booking tickets). These hospitality activities started to become standard practice for the newly established public relations unit (Al-­Kholaifi, 2017), which actual role was a mystery to everyone else. In all fairness, certain activities emerged in the 1960s that were considered to be sound public relations practices. For example, Kuwait Airways’ Alburaq magazine was launched in 1965 to enhance and promote the airline’s image, both locally and internationally (Al-­Kholaifi, 2017). During the 1970s, the image and purpose of public relations began to become more familiar in Kuwaiti society and at the government level (Al-­ Rujaib, 2018). Interestingly, the data reveal that international public relations expertise was valued in Kuwait, with the hiring of US public relations agencies for various public relations activities (Al-­Yasin & Dashti, 2009). For example, the Industrial Bank of Kuwait hired Kearns International for a seven-­month finance consultancy contract worth $44,500 (United States Department of Justice, 1978). Since then, the trend has continued, with

42   Talal M. Almutairi and Ali A. Dashti Table 3.1 Amount of money spent by the State of Kuwait from the 1970s to date on US public relations firms, as reported in the Foreign Agent Registration Act (FARA)

Kuwait

1970s

1980s

1990s

$44,500.00

$6,138,689.36 $25,490,224.44

2000–June 2017 Total $23,734,023.92

$55,407,397.72

Kuwaitis hiring numerous US public relations agencies for various purposes, as illustrated in Table 3.1. In 1982, Al-­Rujaib organised the first convention for public relations practitioners, attended by more than 170, mainly non-­Kuwaiti, practitioners. These professionals continued to gather five times a year in growing numbers, with the goal of introducing strategic public relations (Al-­Rujaib, 2018). Moreover, in 1984, international public relations practitioners visited Kuwait to deliver lectures and run workshops in public relations. (Al-­Rujaib, 2018). Aside from this, in 1983, public relations practitioners in Kuwait felt the need to establish an organised professional body representing the public relations profession in that country, although, unfortunately, they did not obtain a license for the resulting Kuwait Public Relations Association (KPRA) until 2006. KPRA’s mission was to establish excellence across the field of public relations, to serve as a professional umbrella for public relations practitioners, to develop public relations skills amongst those interested in practicing public relations, to provide consultancy for the government and private sectors, and to conduct scientific research corresponding to technological and business leadership (Kuwait Public Relations Associations, 2018a). However, even since obtaining its license, KPRA has struggled to survive without funding. As explained by Al-­Mansouri: ‘Our first office existed in a room at an engineering association. Then we rented on our own money a small apartment in Hawally, a highly populated area not suitable for professional activities’ (Al-­Mansouri, 2018). However, it should be mentioned that KPRA now has its main office within the government building in Al-­Shamiya. Almderees (2018), the former chair of KPRA, emphasised how this lack of funding caused a problem when organising public relations conferences, noting that: ‘We end up paying around 44,000 KD ($146,000) from our own pocket without sponsorship or government support for the conference’ (Almderees, 2018). However, KPRA’s efforts to develop public relations have produced noticeable results. For example, that organisation established an annual prize for the best public relations practice in 2015, under the patronage of the Emir of Kuwait, Sheikh Sabah Al-­Sabah (KPRA, 2016). In 1984, the first affiliation of Kuwaiti public relations practitioners to the International Public Relations Association (IPRA) took place. IPRA was established in 1955, and the first speech by a public relations practitioner at IPRA was delivered in 1984, titled ‘Media crisis management: hijacking the Al-­Jabrriya airplane.’ In 1987, the Civil Service Commission (a government

Public relations in Kuwait   43 organisation) asked active public relations practitioners in Kuwait to provide them with a public relations job description, but it was not applied as a job title in the state until 1993 (Al-­Rujaib, 2018). The 1990s then witnessed a major event, which would revolutionise the public relations profession in Kuwait. The invasion of Kuwait in 1990 forced the country to seek international help to restore its sovereignty. Kuwait, therefore, hired numerous public relations and lobbying agencies to work on its behalf. The most frequently cited case involved the United States, when Citizen for a Free Kuwait hired Hill+Knowlton Strategies (and, among others, the Knightsbridge Publishing Company, Rendon Group, Neill & Co., Pintak/Brown International, and Keene Shirley & Associates) to conduct a campaign aimed at forming Amer­ican public opinion concerning the liberation of Kuwait (Al-­Yasin & Dashti, 2009). Hill+Knowlton Strategies used various public relations tools, including media relations, lobbying, public speaking, video news releases (VNR), speech preparation, and polling (Al-­ Yasin & Dashti, 2009). These efforts were successful, not only in restoring Kuwait’s government, but also in gaining recognition for the key role of the public relations profession amongst the Kuwaiti government and society in general. The possible reasons for this acknowledgment included the success of public relations work during the invasion of Kuwait and its contribution to Kuwait’s restoration. Moreover, following the liberation of Kuwait, the Kuwaiti government needed to maintain the positive image of its democratic political system to the world, and also the exposure of the Kuwaiti people to Western culture made them aware of the public relations function in Western society (Al-­Kholaifi, 2017; Al-­Rujaib, 2018; Al-­Nafisi, 2018). In 1992, as had been mentioned earlier, the Mass Communication Department was established at Kuwait University, offering just two major subjects: journalism, and radio and TV. In contrast, only one public relations course was offered: Introduction to Public Relations. The first Public Relations Conference was held in Kuwait in 1995, which was organised by the University of Kuwait, with a second conference taking place in 1997. At the end of the 1990s, Kuwait University sent students to doctoral programmes in public relations. Since then, public relations has rapidly accelerated. In 1995, Tarik Al-­Rujaib published Kuwait’s first book on public relations, titled Public Relations Way of Life: 20 Years Practical Experience in Public Relations and Media (Al-­Rujaib, 1995). Furthermore, in 2006, Kuwait University (a publicly funded institution) and the private Gulf University for Science and Technology began offering degree programmes in public relations. That same year, Etedal Al-­Ayyar became the first woman Kuwaiti public relations board member of IPRA’s Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) branch. This branch was established in 2003 for the entire GCC region (KUNA, 2006). More recently, in 2018, to enhance professional public relations skills among the youth, KPRA and the State Ministry for Youth have opened an academy to develop communication skills amongst the new generation of Kuwaitis, delivering theoretical lectures and practical

44   Talal M. Almutairi and Ali A. Dashti training in public relations and crisis management in preparation for the local public relations market (KUNA, 2018). After reviewing the history of public relations, it is now time to present a clear picture of current public relations practice and public relations professions in Kuwait. Today, public relations is still evolving in Kuwait, but nevertheless is gaining more and more recognition in society. Al-­Nasrallah, current Chairman of KPRA, explains that ‘[a]wareness of public relations power is emerging in Kuwaiti society, in which we have more than 700 members at KPRA and there is a high volume of applications’ (Al-­Nasrallah, 2017). Furthermore, the positive reputation of Kuwaiti public relations practitioners has been ascending, whereby, ‘[r]ecently, international public relations agencies who were hired to do campaigns in Kuwait seek out help from Kuwaiti practitioners’ (Al-­Nasrallah, 2017). Another distinction of the current status of public relations in Kuwait is that the private sector is more advanced and professional than is the public sector, due to its value-­driven mentality and exposure to the international sphere through partnerships (Al-­Mansouri, 2018). Al Nasrallah stresses that such difference exists due to budget allocation and an awareness of the value of public relations and corporate social responsibility (CSR) in the private sector (Al-­Nasrallah, 2017). Furthermore Al-­Sharif (2017) observed that the closed-­system characteristic of the public sector is the main factor holding it back from developing as fast as is the private sector (Al-­Sharif, 2017). Al-­ Kholaifi (2017) credits the private sector with an efficient quality control management style and high employee motivation. He adds that ‘[t]he private sector perceives public relations to be an essential part of building the organisation’s image, whereas the public sector is still involved in the hospitality functions of public relations “muscles” ’ (Al-­Kholaifi, 2017). Muscles, according to him, means the reliance on the technical part of public relations, which includes writing, events, receiving people, etc., not the strategic party. Another distinction of current public relations in Kuwait is the debate over the contribution made to public relations advancement by academic background versus life experience: ‘Real life experience has taught us how to practice public relations … this is why public relations graduates struggle in their careers … where academics are still in a dispute over what public relations is’ (Al-­Nasrallah, 2017). Al-Sharif (2017) agrees that this is a dominant view, in which public relations is seen as a ‘practice not a science’ (Al-­Sharif, 2017). Al-Sharif (2017) also believes that such a view has negatively influenced the evolution of public relations, in which a ‘trial and error’ approach is adopted (Al-­Sharif, 2017). On the other hand, Al-­Ayyar (2018), an experienced female public relations practitioner, claims that ‘[t]he personal characteristics of a public relations practitioner far outweigh academic background’ (Al-­Ayyar, 2018). In contrast, Al-­Kholaifi (2017), a former public relations director at Kuwait Airways, believes that a ‘public relations employee with an academic background, even without experience, is better where there is room for development, since the basic knowledge is there’ (Al-­Kholaifi,

Public relations in Kuwait   45 2017). Al-Sharif (2017) believes that the reason for this disagreement lies in a lack of academic research and evaluation, in which two factors are at play: the dominant view of practice over science and the lack of faith in public relations amongst senior management. Nevertheless, organisations have started to hire public relations practitioners with an academic background, ‘not because of their looks and appearance as it used to be and started to give their employees training courses in public relations’ (Al-­Sharif, 2017). Social connections, referred to as wasta in Kuwait, play an important role in public relations practice. In Arabic, this relates to favouritism or nepotism, intended to create trust before engaging in business (Fraij, 2016). It can also refer to facilitating service provision by bypassing laws and regulations (Alnajjar, 2000) or to a force for significant decision-­making in Arab culture (Alawadhi & Morris, 2009; Hutchings & Weir, 2006). Al-­Enzi, Rothwell, and Cooke (2017) define wasta as ‘a set of personal networks based on family or connections in which power and influence is used to achieve objectives’ (p. 23). Public relations in Kuwait is not remote from this concept in practice, as wasta can facilitate, accomplish, and create relationships between public relations practitioners and decision-­makers. In fact, the concept of wasta is not new to public relations scholars in general. Sriramesh (1992) developed a personal model based on the observation that public relations in certain cultures involves cultivating relationships with key segments of the public (for example, media personnel, legislators, and government officials), to benefit their organisations (Sriramesh, 1992). In Kuwait, this model takes the form of wasta, which is an essential part of the public relations dynamic in Kuwait. It is common in Kuwait for public relations practitioners to give gifts, perform favours, and host banquets for media personnel, which they perceive to be a way of strengthening their relationship. Such connections give public relations practitioners leverage and open up short-­cuts towards their organisation’s goals. For example, a good relationship with the media is likely to make a journalist hesitate before publishing negative coverage of an organisation. However, one obstacle to public relations practice in Kuwait is the absence of a code of ethics. Public relations practitioners mainly rely on their organisation’s regulations to define their ethical practices. Nonetheless, the KPRA formulated a code of ethics for public relations practitioners. However, it has not been successful in ensuring compliance among its members within their practices, because compliance with the code is purely voluntary. Drawing upon the Venice Charter of 1961, the Athens Charter of 1965, and the Brussels Charter of 2007, it merely states that ‘[t]he code of ethics of the Kuwait Public Relations Association is an affirmation of the conduct, professionalism and moral commitment of the members of the association which is adopted by public relations practitioners worldwide’ (Kuwait Public Relations Associations, 2018b). For those practising public relations, the code invites consideration of these moral principles: respect, impartiality, dialogue, transparency, avoidance of conflict of interests,

46   Talal M. Almutairi and Ali A. Dashti secrecy, accuracy and truth, respect for competition, diplomacy, and objectivity and neutrality. A public relations culture has not yet been fully established in Kuwait’s institutions. In other words, the public relations position in any organisation is still aligned with the mentality and mode of operation defined by the senior management (Al-­Sharif, 2017). The upper management’s view of public relations, therefore, has an enormous effect on public relations performance, because public relations in Kuwait is not yet a systematic process. In other words, public relations is not yet established as an entrenched profession in other departments, such as human resources, accounting, and marketing. Al-­Mansouri (2018) confirms that, ‘[t]he most important factor in successful public relations is the direct relation [sic] with upper management’ (Al-­Mansouri, 2018). In relation to other subjects, public relations practice in Kuwait remains technical, rather than a communications strategy. It, therefore, mainly involves publicity, such as the production of communication materials (for example, press releases, media consultancy, fact sheets, brochures, speeches, and audio-­visual materials), coordinating press conferences, and organising hospitality events. Meanwhile, strategic public relations practice extends beyond this to include research and the analysis of public relations programmes; helping the management to identify issues, contributing to the goals and objectives of organisational missions and policies; and identifying both internal and external publicity strategies.

A unique political context It is widely accepted that the unique political atmosphere in Kuwait is the most liberal in the Gulf States (Herb, 2016). Even though the Kuwaiti Constitution has provided for political freedom since the Constitution’s establishment in 1961, its roots go back to the very beginnings of Kuwaiti society (Zahlan, 2016). Herb (2016) explains that the tribes who had migrated to Kuwait elected a family to rule over them, which set the stage for the modern National Assembly, in which the power of the ruler is limited and shared with the people. However, this is also a process that may be observed in the history of the Dewaniya. Thus, the authors believe the Dewaniya is the cultural equivalent to the National Assembly and should, therefore, not be overlooked when discussing the political history of Kuwait’s National Assembly. In fact, the Dewaniya played a primary role in drafting the Constitution and in facilitating Kuwait’s other political achievements (Alhajeri, 2010). To elaborate on this further, most significant and celebrated events in Kuwait’s political history, such as the election of Sabah I (the first ruler of the Al-­Sabah dynasty), the establishment of the first Legislative Council in 1938, and the Monday Dewaniya (a protest movement against the government’s dissolution of Parliament) all took place in the Dewaniya. As mentioned, throughout the history of Kuwait, the Dewaniya has served as a political forum, where the people could freely discuss their political,

Public relations in Kuwait   47 e­ conomic, and social views (Al-­Kandari, 2002). Public opinion is an important concept for public relations scholars and the discipline itself. In Crystallizing Public Opinion, Bernays (1923) provides an early clear example of such an aim. However, the current authors put forward a different concept of public relations and public opinion, which goes beyond the functionalistic perspective, in which it is merely seen as a means to manage and manipulate public opinion. Instead, a more critical view is presented, highlighting the need to understand how public opinion is formed. This approach originates in the belief that public relations can contribute to democracy through its ability to ‘create (and recreate) the conditions that enact civil society’ (Taylor, 2010, p. 7). Therefore, the Dewaniya, as a platform of civil society, provides Kuwaitis with a vital public sphere, a concept proposed by Habermas, who defines it as ‘a discursive space in which individuals and groups associate to discuss matters of mutual interest and, where possible, to reach a common judgment about them’ (Hauser, 1999, p. 61). Aside from the above, one of the elements that characterises Kuwait is its National Assembly, which is a source of honour and pride for the nation. Herb (2016) eloquently states that: Today, of course, Kuwait really is distinguished by its greater degree of freedom and political participation, especially by the middle class. But that is arguably a product of a half-­century under the 1962 constitution, rather than an explanation for the constitution in the first place. That said, after half a century, the National Assembly has set deep roots in Kuwaiti political culture. (p. 20) In addition to managing the flow of information between the National Assembly and the public, public relations can play an important role in improving trust in the institution, enhancing the effectiveness of the Assembly’s relationships, encouraging commitment, promoting a focus on long-­ term goals, increasing satisfaction, and building institutional relationships (Chege, 2014). Johar (2018), former Minister of Parliament and Head of the Political Science Department at Kuwait University, believes that ‘any human gathering needs an art (public relations) to connect them together’ ( Johar, 2018). The authors also concur with Verčič (2005) that public relations practitioners have a responsibility towards society in helping to enhance democracy and to preserve and develop a systematic approach to social change. Johar (2018) adds that the National Assembly (Majlis Al-­Umma) utilises public relations in different ways to connect to the outside world, in an effort to market the example of Kuwaiti democracy. Examples of such efforts may be seen in Kuwait’s endeavours as an active founding member of the Arabic and Islamic Parliament, the establishment of ‘Friendship Committees’ with the world’s parliaments, and the hosting of various international conferences,

48   Talal M. Almutairi and Ali A. Dashti such as the Iraqi Opposition Conference of 2002 ( Johar, 2018). Johar (2018) is of the view that: The usage of public relations inside the National Assembly is fundamental. For several reasons: first, all our work at the National Assembly is a collective work that needs collaboration, persuasion, switching roles, negotiation and lobbying; especially as we lack the existence of political parties, whereby most of that work falls on the MP’s interpersonal social connections. In the relationship between MPs and their communities, public relations is consequently a decisive factor, assisting political candidates in their campaigns. In this regard, Johar (2018) insists that a candidate needs to visit Dewaniyas, funerals, weddings, and other social gatherings ( Johar, 2018). The dilemma between public diplomacy and public relations continues in the research arena, whereby diplomats differentiate between the two. Kristian Bonnici (2014) explained the similarities and differences between public relations and public diplomacy. The similarities between them include building reputation, managing relationship, creating a dialogue, transparency and trust, creating an engagement, managing conflict and crisis, using systematic strategic campaign programmes, and lobbying and negotiation. However, there are not many different activities between the two, but their differences remain around their functions. Public diplomacy cares more about state relationships, which are ‘fundamentally determined by content and quality of formulizing and implementing the foreign policy’ (Krajnc, 2004), while PR is more about people’s lives (Bonnici, 2014). Meanwhile, public relations practitioners believe public diplomacy to be part of their mandate. The necessary skills and knowledge, as well as the objectives of these two areas of activity, are certainly similar and their functions overlap, especially where propaganda is concerned (Fitzpatrick, Fullerton, & Kendrick, 2013; L’Etang, 2009). As part of government strategy, public relations plays an important role in dialogue with citizens over policy (Hopkins, 2015). This supports the notion that public relations has long been practised in Kuwait, but purely within the framework of diplomacy.

Conclusion This chapter is intended to shed light on public relations practices in Kuwait, which is examined from historical, political, economic, and cultural perspectives. Various historical events, traditional spaces, interpersonal communication, external threats, and internal freedom have all been factors of public relations practice. The current status of public relations in Kuwait could, thus, be seen as a manifestation of the nation’s history and previous events, a concept that the current authors have attempted to demonstrate. As a result,

Public relations in Kuwait   49 the uniqueness of Kuwait’s culture, location, and political context has helped shape what public relations represents in Kuwait. As such, this study is the first to investigate the evolution of Kuwaiti public relations in light of the factors giving rise to its existence and influencing its practice. However, the concept of publicity continues to dominate public relations practice, while communications strategy is barely practised at all. Public relations has now gained some acceptance amongst top-­level management in the Kuwaiti context, but its significance in strategic and decision-­making processes is not yet fully understood in the context that has been examined in this chapter.

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4 Public relations units in the Omani civil service sector Historical background and current characteristics Abdullah K. Al-­Kindi Introduction This study provides an historical background of the emergence and gradual development of public relations in the Sultanate of Oman. The chapter will provide an analytical and critical description of current public relations structures, functions, and characteristics in 23 ministries under the Civil Service System (CSS) in Oman, drawing on previous literature and on reports and documents available about public relations units (PRUs) in these ministries. Contemporary studies have indicated that PRUs have become widespread in the Omani government entities and private institutions, but to a lesser extent in civil society institutions (Al-­Hinai, 2012). This may be because civil society institutions are relatively new in Oman and because public relations activities cost money and, thus, these activities may be unaffordable in such institutions. Despite variations in the functions of the Sultanate’s PRUs, a uniformity does exist in their organisational structures. Public relations in the Sultanate has seen many developments that have influenced its practice. Previous studies have confirmed the growing number of PRUs in government institutions and the increasing numbers of human cadres working in these units (Al-­Qamshoi, 2015). The number of private public relations agencies is also growing in the Sultanate (Al-­Belushi, 2016). These developments were accompanied by the academic qualifications of those working in PRUs in the Sultanate. The beginnings of academic activity date back to the founding of the Mass Communication Department at Sultan Qaboos University in 1987, which began to offer a general degree in journalism and mass communication; journalism, radio, and television; and public relations and advertising. In 2004, public relations and advertising became an independent specialisation. In 2008, the department began to offer a master’s degree in public relations and advertising, in addition to other mass media specialisations. This study reviews these developments and provides background information as well as analytical and critical readings of current public relations practices in 23 ministries under the CSS in the Sultanate of Oman. This is the first study to provide a general overview of public relations in Civil Service

54   Abdullah K. Al-Kindi Institutions (CSI) in the Sultanate of Oman and public relations’ historical development since 1975. Previous studies have focused on specific phenomena, case studies, and time intervals. This study links the historical development of public relations in the CSI in the Sultanate of Oman with its contemporary trends. The analysis and critical reading in this study can provide a better understanding of public relations and its contemporary developments in Oman, which may encourage other researchers to investigate related public relations issues and topics. The study monitors and documents the emergence and establishment of PRUs in the CSI in the Sultanate of Oman. It will also analyse the characteristics of the organisational structures of these PRUs and their development from 1975 to 2018. Furthermore, the study will highlight the most prominent contemporary developments of public relations activities in the CSI in the Sultanate of Oman from 1975 to 2018. Two developments regarding government public relations in Oman will be highlighted. The chapter will put forward some main questions, such as: what are the features of the emergence and establishment of the PRUs in the CSI in the Sultanate of Oman; what are the characteristics of the organisational structures of the PRUs in the CSI in the Sultanate of Oman and their development from 1975 to 2018; and what are the most prominent contemporary developments of public relations in the CSI in the Sultanate of Oman? The study will use two methodologies: (1) historical method, which will trace the history and development of the PRUs in the Omani CSS; and (2) the critical method, in which the researcher uses literature, reports, and other available information to present his own critical readings and explanations (Taie, 2013).

Overview of Oman The history of Oman dates back thousands of years, having been mentioned in the Romans’ writings between the third century bc and the second century ce as ‘OMANA’ (Ministry of Heritage and Culture, 2013a). The Omani peninsula lies in the southeast of the Arabian Peninsula and overlooks long coasts on the Arabian Gulf, the Sea of Oman, and the Arabian Sea. Oman has practised the State system institutionally for centuries, having been the cradle of many civilisations and kingdoms and has been ruled by states and kings. Today, it is a hereditary kingdom (or Sultanate) ruled by the Al Said family since 1744 (Ministry of Information, 2015). Al-­Hinai (1999) mentioned how the Omani state was established, especially from 1861 to 1971, and even before that in the seventeenth century, identifying the main factors and components in the Omani state. In the eighteenth century, the Omani state became an empire that included states and territories from East and Central Africa and the Indian Subcontinent (Al-­Qasimi, 2015). This empire once had two capitals, Muscat and Zanzibar, until it began to split after 1856. Contemporary Oman took advantage of this cultural and historical legacy  when Sultan Qaboos bin Said took power in 1970. He emphasised

Public relations in Oman   55 comprehensive development, especially in education, health, and social development. In various degrees of legislation, he also consolidated the idea of a civil state or state of law through various legal systems and an independent judiciary. Organisations in the civil service sector have witnessed significant developments since 1970. Gradually, many CSI have been established (ministries and authorities). These institutions are serving diverse sectors of work, being directed and instructed by organisational structures for specific responsibilities. Oman’s National Center for Statistics reports that the population of the Sultanate had reached 4,667,878 at the end of July 2018. Citizens comprise 56 per cent of the total population, and 44 per cent are expatriates (National Center for Statistics in the Sultanate, 2018). Oman consists of 11 governorates (geographical regions), including 61 local states. Modernity in Oman includes interest in education, health, parliament, arts and literature, and other areas in which results have been achieved. In this study, the status of PRUs (departments, directorate, and general directorate) in 23 ministries in Oman will be examined. The status and importance of PRUs in these ministries will be highlighted, together with their functions and size in each organisational structure. Civil service system (CSS) in Oman The CSS in Oman has witnessed both institutional and legislative developments since 1970, after Sultan Qaboos bin Said had taken power in the country. Although Oman had some administrative systems before this date, the organisation and expansion witnessed by this sector since 1970 is considered an important development in contemporary Oman. The Ministry of Civil Service describes the administrative situation before the 1970s in the Sultanate as ‘simple’ and ‘traditional’. The State administrative bodies responsible for managing the affairs of the State were limited in number. They included: the Royal Palace, the Governor of Muscat, the Ministry of Interior, the Foreign Affairs Administration, the Electricity Directorate, the Water Directorate, as well as other governmental bodies concerned with municipality, treasury, endowments, customs, education, and police (Ministry of Civil Service, 2014, p. 32). Since 1970, this sector had witnessed a number of developments, including the emergence of new administrative institutions and legislations regulating the sector. The new political system, which had begun when Sultan Qaboos bin Said took power in the Sultanate on 23 July 1970, established a small number of ministries and government bodies: the Ministry of the Interior, the Ministry of Justice, the Ministry of Education, and the Ministry of Health. Other ministries were added later: Ministry of Information, Social Affairs and Labour, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and Ministry of Economy (Ministry of Civil Service, 2014). However, the number of ministries and government bodies remained limited in the new political system and were unregulated until 1975, when the Sultanate began to regulate the organisational structure

56   Abdullah K. Al-Kindi of its governmental institutions by issuing the Civil Service Law No. 27/75 and the Law of Regulating the State Administrative Structure issued by the Royal Decree No. 26/75 of 28 June 1975 (Ministry of Royal Court Affairs, 1975). Article 13 of this Decree stipulates the necessity of defining the scope of work and areas of authorities of any ministries that are functioning or that are going to be established. Articles 16 and 17 of the same Decree refer to the government entities’ constituents of units and sections at different levels, as well as the procedures of their establishment and their responsibilities. Article 17 explicitly refers to the organisational structures and how they are formed at the level of the ministry in general or at the level of each unit. This advanced institutional regulatory framework provided an important platform for establishing the organisational structures of government institutions, including departments, directorates, and general directorates, employing, of course, PRUs. The law regulating the administrative structure no.  26/75, which was issued on 28 June 1975, provides the organisational structures of ten ministries in Oman. The previous studies on public relations in Oman did not mention these structures that represent the beginning of the government administrative organisation of PRUs. Establishing the Civil Service Council in 1975 according to Article 6 of the Civil Service Law in 1975 was a very important step in the development of the civil service sector in the Sultanate (Ministry of Royal Court Affairs, 1975). Over time, the responsibilities and authorities of this Council have evolved. Some of its most prominent current functions are (Ministry of Civil Service, 2018b): 1 Drawing up public policies for the civil service and related administrative development plans and administrative reform and determining means of implementation. 2 Approving laws, regulations, and other legislations related to the civil service and recommending them to the related authorities. 3 Developing civil service systems and increasing their efficiency and work procedures. 4 Adopting the administrative control systems to verify the proper application of laws and regulations related to the civil service. 5 Determining the policies and rules governing employment and rehabilitation plans and training to rationalise the use of the workforce in the civil service and to raise its productivity. According to the Omani CSS currently in practice, the number of institutions under the civil service law are 38, of which 23 are Ministries, four are Authorities, three are Councils, two are Offices, two are Institutes, and one is an institution from each of the following: Fund, Committee, Centre, and Governorate (Ministry of Civil Service, 2018c.). In this study, the focus will be on the 23 ministries under the Omani civil service law for two reasons. First, the largest number of institutions in the Omani civil service law are

Public relations in Oman   57 ministries comparing to other types of institutions. Second, it is more scientifically logical and objective to study and compare between institutions of similar characteristics and almost identical structure. Mass communication in Oman The beginnings of mass communication activities through press and broadcasting outlets in contemporary Oman go back to the 1970s, with the beginning of a new political era led by Sultan Qaboos bin Said. He took power on 23 July 1970 (Al-­Abed, 1995, p.  43), and newspapers and magazines have gradually appeared since that time, which are one of the hallmarks of this new political era. The media were among the first major projects launched by the new Omani government, which were to be used to monitor and to showcase development in the economic, social, and political spheres, as well as to invite some Omanis to return home and to participate in the development of their country (Al-­Kindi & Al-­Hasani, 2008). The first radio transmission in the Sultanate began with a radio transmission of one kilowatt on 30 July 1970 (Al-­Mashiaki, 2015), one week after Sultan Qaboos bin Said had taken power. This transmission covered a very limited area of the capital city Muscat. Technical developments followed in increasing the strength of radio transmission and broadcasting hours, together with developments in radio content and programme diversity. Today, government radio offers five parallel programmes: (1) the general programme, (2) the foreign programme, (3) the youth programme, (4) the Holy Quran programme, and (5) the classical music programme. Omani government television began its first broadcast on 17 November 1974, from Muscat, covering limited areas of the capital’s suburbs (Al-­ Mashiaki, 2015). It then began broadcasting from Salalah (South Oman, about 1,000 kilometers from Muscat) in 1975. Although, at that time, the television transmission was only four hours a day, today it reaches nearly all of Oman and broadcasts 24/7. Today, there are four TV governmental channels under the Public Authority for Radio and Television: (1) Oman TV General, (2) Sport Channel, (3) Oman Live Channel, and (4) Cultural Channel (Public Authority for Radio and Television, 2018). Mass media institutions and outlets were established and have gradually emerged. The Omani News Agency (ONA) was established in 1986. In 1996, Oman Internet Network (OIN) was established, in line with technological developments locally, as well as globally. One year after that, the internet was available for public use. In addition, journalist communities in Oman established the Omani Association for Journalists in 2004. This association reflected and symbolised journalists’ efforts to form a professional framework and to develop the related professions of press and journalism in the Sultanate (Al-­Kindi & Al-­Hasani, 2008). In 2007, the private sector began investing in broadcasting (radio and television). The first private radio channel was Hala FM, which was launched in

58   Abdullah K. Al-Kindi 2007. Another private radio channel, Al Wisal, was launched in 2008 (Al-­ Mashiaki, 2015). In 2009, Majan TV launched its satellite broadcast as the first private TV channel in Sultanate (Al-­Mashiaki, 2015). The private sector’s recent superiority in establishing public radio channels, as well as their clear tendency to focus on features and music is obvious. Furthermore, most of the radio and TV channels, both governmental and private, are using Arabic language, which is the official language of the state and the language of the majority of Oman’s population. English is the only foreign language used in the Omani radio channels, with a clear absence of other foreign languages spoken by large minorities in the Sultanate, especially the minorities from the Indian subcontinent. Contemporary Omani journalism dates back to 1971, when Al- Watan was founded as the first Omani daily newspaper (Al-­Kindi & Al-­Hasani, 2008). Since then, many private and government publications have been issued, reaching at least 84 publications at the beginning of 2018, according to the Ministry of Information (Ministry of Information, 2018). This report refers to seven daily newspapers in the Sultanate. The private sector in the Sultanate surpasses the government sector in the establishment and ownership of daily newspapers. The government has only two daily newspapers, one in Arabic and another in English. Arabic-­language newspapers outnumber slightly those published in English.

Public relations in Oman One of the highly cited Arabic studies that dealt with the functions of public relations in government institutions in developing countries, including the Arab countries, is the study of Abdul-­Rahman Al-­Enad (1990), which linked these functions to the political, social, and cultural frameworks in these countries and the media theories that frame the transfer of information as well as the nature and source of such information. Al-­Enad describes public relations’ unities in ministries and other governmental agencies in the developing countries as ‘information offices’. Public relations communicates with the public to achieve mainly one or both of two goals: (1) to educate the public on subjects related to a client’s field of work and to increase the public’s knowledge about pertinent issues and to persuade it to behave or act differently; and (2) to publicise the achievements of a client and/ or society as a whole and to make the public feel satisfied (Al-­Enad, 1990, p. 26). El-­Sarayrah (2016) notes that governmental public relations consists of units and departments that aim at developing the administrative process of the governmental entities. These units seek to achieve these main objectives: inform citizens about government activities; help citizens present their views to government officials; conduct public opinion surveys, as well as draw a positive image of the state and its governmental entities; promote the state’s concepts and principles; and gain support for government policies and activities.

Public relations in Oman   59 These objectives, which public relations aspire to achieve, reflect the functions carried out by public relations units in government institutions that include research and studies, communication, persuasion, defence, correction and consultation (Suliman, 2009, pp. 12–13). Omani cultural factors over public relations practice Before forming and establishing PRUs in its various government institutions in 1975, Oman had conducted public relations activities through some institutions representing the state or the local community in different regions and governorates of the Sultanate, such as a local government institution called the Wali Office, which still functions today (Al-­Hinai, 2012). The Wali Office mediates between government institutions and the local community. It is headed by a Wali (a type of local governor), who is appointed by the government and holds the rank of undersecretary. The state also has encouraged the establishment and consolidation of another socio-­ local institution called ‘Sablah’ (a meeting hall where members of the local community meet to exchange news and to discuss their local affairs), which has spread to all Omani governorates. The researcher believes that some of the public relations activities conducted by these institutions are continuing, such as communicating between government entities and the local community, preparing local members for the government’s decisions and convincing them to accept such decisions, supporting the government’s decisions and facilitating their implementation, and creating positive images of government institutions in the local community. Traditionally, over a long historical period, the ‘Sablah’ organisation in Omani society has been a place for exchanging opinions and preparing decisions at the local community level, as well as for discussing the impacts of these decisions on citizens’ daily lives. In contemporary language, this institution has been a place to form local opinion on various issues. Sablah has traditionally been a place to resolve conflicts between individuals, to reconcile adversaries, to host guests, to educate children, and to raise children to the local norms, traditions, and customs of the nation (Ministry of Heritage and Culture, 2013b, p.  1719). In addition, the Sablah has been, and continues to be, a place for social events such as weddings, condolences, and other social events. Although there is no specific date for the establishment of this social institution, its history is deeply rooted in Omani society, and it is considered as a school where manners and norms are continuously transferred from fathers to children (Alkuwaityah Newspaper, 2017). The Omani Sablah, from a socio-­cultural perspective, is the venue for men in a local community, and the ownership of this place could be public, belonging to the local community in general, or to a family or tribe. Besides that, there is an official or governmental Sablah, which exists in the local governor’s office, or the so-­called ‘Wali’s Office’. Public or tribal local councils of these kinds are usually led by tribal chiefs and community

60   Abdullah K. Al-Kindi figures. Those community leaders act as the link between the government and the local community. Despite the historical roles played by the Omani Sablah in discussing the political, social, and cultural issues of the Omani society, the researcher believes that its role today is limited only to social roles and mainly to being a place for public meetings on various occasions. This has happened gradually and over time, when public opinion issues, especially those of a political nature, moved from the Sablah to official institutions that were established by the Omani government, such as the local governor’s office (‘Wali’s Office’), and then the State’s administrative entities, which began to emerge and spread from 1970 onwards. Omani public relations: previous studies Previous studies have examined public relations in the Sultanate of Oman from several angles, such as the functional structure of the PRUs or the communicator characteristics from a general perspective, or according to specific case studies, as will be detailed in this section. These studies have provided an understanding of public relations activities and practices in the Sultanate and public relations development from 1975 to 2018, that is, for nearly half a century. The author will rely on these studies to provide a historical and critical reading of the development of public relations in the Sultanate of Oman, the nature of its activities, and public relations’ contemporary developments. The focus of the current study will be on the 23 ministries under the supervision of the Sultanate’s CSS. Using qualitative methodology, Al-­Khayat (1995) discussed the roles and functions of public relations practitioners in 11 private-­sector institutions in the Sultanate of Oman. The study resulted in several findings, most importantly the lack of a clear understanding of public relations practices as well as shortages in qualified public relations practitioners in the Omani institutions under study. Another study by Al-­Shamaki (2001) assessed the performance of government public relations departments in the Sultanate of Oman from the perspective of the directors of other departments in the ministries under study. Among several findings, most important was the impact of weak financial allocations on the performance of public relations departments and these departments’ limited use of modern tools of public relations in their public relations activities. Al-­Lawati (2001) performed two cases of public relations practice on the Ministry of Health (a government institution) and Petroleum Development of Oman (a government company) to identify the public relations roles and activities in these two institutions. In addition, the study aimed at analysing how the two institutions practice public relations and exploring the level of qualifications of the public relations practitioners in both institutions. The study emphasised the superiority of the practice of public relations in the government company compared to the ministry. Al-­Lawati (2001)

Public relations in Oman   61 observed that in the government company, the role of public relations is very clear. It has the authority to make decisions without consulting with higher management, and its specialised staff are more qualified than in the ministry. Al-­Hinai (2012) studied the functional, organisational, and communication characteristics of public relations in CSI in the Sultanate of Oman. The study used survey methodology and a questionnaire to collect information. The results of the study confirmed the existence of public relations units in 93 per cent of the civil service units in the Sultanate. However, study results also confirmed a misconception of public relations in these institutions. The public relations activities in most of these units focused on services related to passports and visa applications as well as the organisation of events and ceremonies. Al-­Zadjali (2012) conducted a study about communication strategies for public relations in Oman’s government. The study used quantitative content analysis on a sample of 26 government units. Results of the study confirmed the increased number of government institutions that have websites. Although these sites provide organisational, legal, analytical, and service information, they do not provide strategic information. These government public relations units apply mostly one-­way communication from the institutions to the public, with less interactivity. Al-­Moqbali (2015) examined the communicative function of public relations in the Sultanate of Oman through a comparison of a sample of institutions in the public and private sectors, as well as by identifying traditional and new means of communication used in these institutions. The study used survey methodology and a questionnaire as a data collection tool. The results of the study showed that, in conducting the communicative function of public relations, planning and scientific research occupy important positions in the private sector institutions to perform public relations’ communication function. On the contrary, planning and scientific research are less important in the government institutions. The results of the study also showed the need for support and enhancement from the higher administrations to enable these units to carry out their public relations function. A study by Al-­Qamshoi (2015) analysed the communicative, functional, and training dimensions of public relations practitioners or communicators in the Omani government. The study used survey methodology and two main tools: a questionnaire and unstructured interviews. Results of this study indicated that the most prominent public relations activity is event management, which topped the list among other important and frequent activities that were conducted by these public relations units. Some of the most frequent activities organised by public relations practitioners in the Omani ministries include: conferences, lectures, social gatherings, and sport activities. The results also showed limited use of scientific research to plan public relations and media activities in these institutions. Such research includes issues such as institutions’ images, strategic planning, media content, and media effectiveness.

62   Abdullah K. Al-Kindi Al-­Siyabi (2015) analysed the practices of public relations at Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) as a case study, using a qualitative approach. The study examined public relations practices at SQU from organisational, communication, cultural, social, and facilitative aspects, as well as the most important challenges that faced public relations activities in this institution. The most important finding of this study was the absence of policies and principles that govern public relations in the university, as well as the absence of scientific evaluation of the activities conducted by the public relations unit. The study confirmed that the public relations unit’s organisational structure in the university is flexible, comprehensive, and includes many departments and sections covering a variety of specialisations. The public relations unit is participating in the strategic role played by the university. Al-­Yahyai (2017) examined the characteristics of the Twitter accounts of 28 government units in the Sultanate of Oman, 21 of which were ministries. The study was based on survey methodology and used content analysis and interviews of those supervising these Twitter accounts. The study found a high level of interaction between government public relations entities and the public through the features of Response, Retweets, and Likes. The study also found that social media accounts by government entities, mainly Twitter, focus more on the communication function. These accounts heavily use text and images much more than other types of media formats. The most important challenges in these government units’ use of social networks are lack of staff and, most importantly, lack of those who are qualified in social media. Adding to these challenges is continuing negative criticism of government entities. These studies have dealt with various issues related to public relations activities and phenomena in the Sultanate of Oman from the organisational, administrative, structural, and communication perspectives. This study will benefit from these previous studies to provide an overview and an analytical and critical reading of the activities and organisation of public relations in the Sultanate of Oman, with a special focus on the 23 ministries under the CSS. The current study goes beyond previous studies to highlight the most important developments in public relations during the past three years in Oman. The beginnings of PRU in Oman Our Company News, a newsletter published by Petroleum Development of Oman (PDO) in 1967 for the company’s employees and contracting companies’ workers, is considered the first public relations bulletin in the Sultanate (Al-­Abed, 1995). By mid-­2016, about 697 private companies in Oman performed public relations or related activities, such as promotion, advertising, marketing, and media (Al-­Belushi, 2016). This number of companies is significant for a small country such as Oman, but it also points to the evolution of interest in public relations and related

Public relations in Oman   63 activities, as well as the professionalism of Oman’s public relations. The governmental and semi-­governmental institutions, namely the ministries, authorities, and governmental companies in the Sultanate of Oman, have public relations departments and directorates that have engaged in communication with the public through mass communication outlets, but their activities are not limited to those media. The government entities have published specialised periodicals that provide news and features about their activities. These publications can be called ‘public relations periodicals’. The Ministry of Information reported 44 public relations periodicals that have been issued by governmental and semi-­governmental entities in the Sultanate through March 2018 (Ministry of Information, 2018). These periodicals represent 52 per cent of the total periodicals published, that is, 88 periodicals. Following the introduction of the internet and its public use since 1997, and the development of related applications, civil service entities in Oman have tended to establish websites and to employ social networks to communicate with the public. A study reports that 21 out of 23 ministries under the CSS have initiated official social media accounts, which are the new tools of public relations in these ministries (Al-­Yahyai, 2017). Moreover, government entities began to establish and to organise public relations activities and to emphasise their presence in their organisational and institutional structures in the form of public relations and media departments or directorates. Enhancing communication between these entities and their internal and external audiences is one of their main functions. Table 4.1 shows that the oldest organisational structures of ten ministries in Oman explicitly mentioned the establishment of PRUs in nine out of ten ministries. The Ministry of Commerce and Industry is the only entity at that time that did not mention a unit of public relations. Statistically speaking, 90 per cent of the government ministries in Oman established PRUs in 1975. Table 4.1 also indicates that more than half of the PRUs in the Omani ministries at that time took the form of departments, compared to those established as directorates, which, according to the administrative organisation adopted in the Sultanate of Oman, are larger in size and capacity. The adopted model of the administrative units’ size and capacity in Oman from the smallest to the largest is: department, directorate, and general directorate (Ministry of Royal Court Affairs, 1975). This trend in determining the size of PRUs at the level of a department (the smallest administrative unit) in most of the ministries in Oman in 1975 reflects the modest beginnings of these units. In addition, the country’s administrative organisation was in its early stages at that time and might not have sufficiently considered the important roles and functions of public relations. However, this initial establishment of PRUs in ministries under the supervision of the CSS in the Sultanate remains important. Table 4.1 also confirms that Omani ministries used the scientific term known to designate units dealing with public relations activities. The departments, directorates, and general directorates were established and named

Ministry of Commerce and Industry Ministry of Transportation

Ministry of Health

Ministry of Education

Ministry of Information and Directorate Culture Ministry of Agriculture, Department Fisheries, and Oil and Mining

5

7

8

9

Department

Directorate

Directorate

None

Department

Department

Source: The Official Gazette (1975, May), pp. 66–167.

10

6

4

3

Department

Ministry of Endowments and Islamic Affairs Ministry of Social Affairs and Labour Ministry of Justice

2

Department

Types of PRUs

Ministry of Lands Affairs

Ministries

1

No.

Directorate of Public Relations and Statistics Directorate of Public Relations Department of Public Relations Directorate of Public Relations Department of Public Relations

Department of Public Relations Department of Public Relations Department of Public Relations Department of Public Relations None

Name

Table 4.1 Early public relations units in the Omani ministries

Under the Office of the Ministry’s Under-secretary

Under the Office of the Ministry’s Under-secretary

Under the Minister’s Office

Under the Office of the Ministry’s Under-secretary

Under the Office of the Ministry’s Under-secretary

None

Under the Directorate of Administrative Affairs

Under the Directorate of Administrative and Financial Affairs Under the Directorate of Administrative and Financial Affairs Under the Office of the Ministry’s Under-secretary

Affiliation

Public relations in Oman   65 independently as ‘public relations’ units, with one exception in which ‘statistics’ was added to the unit’s name. This is a positive sign of understanding and using public relations as a term right from the beginning of establishing these units in Oman. Nevertheless, public relations functions were difficult to identify during that early stage because of the absence of a clear vision of what these units could do and the ambiguity of these units’ scope of work. The researcher did not find any information on the functions of public relations units in any official documents that had been accessed. In their early stages, most of the ministries’ public relations units under the CSS were placed high in the organisational hierarchy. Table 4.1 indicates that one of these units was under the supervision of a minister, the highest administrative position in terms of hierarchy and importance in the context of the Omani administrative structure. In addition, five PRUs at that period were under the supervision of an under-­secretary, the second person in the administrative hierarchy in the Omani ministries. However, the researcher cannot ensure that this highly political and administrative supervision of the two highest-­ranking figures in the Omani ministries during that time reflects the importance and deep understanding of the public relations units in these ministries. Information about functions and scope of work assigned to these units is important in determining whether the supervision and functions were acting harmoniously or whether the two factors were not connected. The existence of PRUs under the supervision of the first or second most important rank in the institution is a good indicator, but may reflect a tendency to use or even abuse those units to focus primarily on the high-­ranked individuals (ministers and under-­secretaries) and to serve them first or most, rather than serve the institution as a system. Development of PRUs in Oman, 1975–2018 The structure of public relations in Oman’s CSS has witnessed several developments and noticeable transformations since 1975. In the beginning, there were only nine PRUs, as indicated in Table 4.1. Today, there are PRUs in 23 ministries under the CSS in Oman. The Ministry of Civil Service in Oman, as a reference regarding job descriptions and organisational structures, identified 17 functions of the PRUs in all governmental bodies. These were formulated as general terms that could be used by most of the governmental bodies, but autonomy is provided for any of these bodies to add more functions (Ministry of Civil Service, 2018a). These functions can be divided into three main categories. Category one: media and communication functions Facilitating the work of various media in obtaining information about the unit, covering its news, coordinating communications with foreign embassies

66   Abdullah K. Al-Kindi in the Sultanate, arranging media interviews with ministry officials, and other media and communication functions. Category two: service functions Receiving guests, organising ceremonies and events, issuing visas and other services. Category three: other functions Consolidating friendly relations among staff, liaison with other government units, participation in public relations conferences, and other sporadic functions. Table 4.2 shows the characteristics of the organisational structure of contemporary PRUs in 23 ministries under the CSS in Oman. The following observations can be recorded according to the above-­ mentioned table. First, all 23 ministries under the CSS in Oman have independent PRUs or are linked with media in one unit. Thus, PRUs are in 100 per cent of the Omani ministries under the CSS. More than half of these units (57 per cent) are independent PRUs without links with media or other fields. This reflects the evolution of interest in public relations and the importance of its presence in the organisational structure of the Omani governmental bodies. Second, most PRUs in the Omani ministries are directorates. There are 21 public relations directorates in the 23 ministries, that is, 91.3 per cent, compared to two ministries in which the PRUs were established as departments, that is, 8.7 per cent only. This indicates a growing interest in the size and capacity of PRUs in the Omani ministries. It also indicates the evolution of the size of these ministries and the nature of their functions and scope of work. The size of the PRUs in an organisation’s organisational structure affects its ability to perform its functions and the degree to which it is close to the decision-­making authority of the organisation. According to the administrative system in Oman, the general directorate is the largest unit in the organisational structure of any governmental institution in the Sultanate. Although the general directorate is not more powerful than the Office of the Minister or the Office of the Under-­secretary in any institution, it is larger in most cases. Accordingly, the general directorate and then the directorate are closer to the decision-­making authority, and they accommodate multiple subsections and large numbers of staff. Furthermore, 14 PRUs in the Omani ministries, that is, 60 per cent, are directly affiliated with the Minister (in ten ministries) and the Ministry’s Under-­secretary (in four ministries), compared to nine PRUs; that is, 39.1 per cent are only affiliated with the Directorate-­General for Administrative

Ministry of Justice

Ministry of Trading and Industry Ministry of Transportation and Communication Ministry of Health

Ministry of Education Ministry of Information Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Affairs Ministry of Sports Affairs

3

4 5

7 8 9

Ministry of Legal Affairs

Ministry of Environment Affairs Ministry of Foreign Affairs Ministry of Interior Ministry of Finance Ministry of Higher Education Ministry of Manpower Ministry of Civil Service Ministry of Oil and Gas Ministry of Tourism

Ministry of Housing

Ministry of Culture and Heritage

12

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

22

23

11

10

6

2

Ministry of Endowments and Religion Affairs Ministry of Social Development

Ministries

1

No.

Directorate

Directorate

Directorate Directorate Directorate Directorate Directorate Directorate Directorate Department Department

Directorate

Directorate

Directorate

Directorate Directorate Directorate

Directorate

Directorate Directorate

Directorate

Directorate

Directorate

Types of PRUs

Under the Minister’s Office Under the Minister’s Office Under the Directorate of Administrative Affairs

Under the Minister’s Office

Under the Minister’s Office Under the Minister’s Office

Under the Directorate of Administrative Affairs

Under the Minister’s Office

Under the Office of the Ministry’s Under-secretary

Affiliation

Directorate of Media and Public Relations Directorate of Media and Public Relations Directorate of Public Relations Directorate of Protocols Directorate of Public Relations Directorate of Public Relations Directorate of Public Relations Directorate of Public Relations Directorate of Public Relations Department of Public Relations Department of Media and Public Relations Directorate of Media and Public Relations Directorate of Public Relations

Under the Directorate of Administrative and Financial Affairs

Under the Minister’s Office

Under the Directorate of Administrative and Financial Affairs Under the Office of the Ministry’s Under-secretary Under the Office of the Ministry’s Under-secretary Under the Directorate of Administrative and Financial Affairs Under the Minister’s Office Under the Minister’s Office Under the Directorate of Administrative and Financial Affairs Under the Directorate of Administrative and Financial Affairs Under the Directorate of Administrative and Financial Affairs

Under the Directorate of Administrative and Financial Affairs

Under the Office of the Ministry’s Under-secretary

Department of Public Relations Under the Minister’s Office

Directorate of Public Relations and Media Directorate of Public Relations Directorate of Public Relations Department of Public Relations

Directorate of Media and Public Relations Directorate of Media and Public Relations Directorate of Media Directorate of Public Relations

Directorate of Public Relations

Name

Table 4.2 Contemporary public relations units in the Omani Ministries

68   Abdullah K. Al-Kindi and Financial Affairs. This indicates the interest in PRUs of the political and administrative leadership in these ministries. However, the researcher was expecting the majority of PRUs in these ministries to be under the direct supervision of these leaders, especially after a long period of these units’ history, since 1975 (as noted in Table 4.2). It can be argued that PRUs should be elevated to the decision-­making position in the ministries’ organisational structures. In practice, the researcher noted that the functions of PRUs in the Omani ministries have witnessed limited development. Despite the development of public relations concepts and activities, both locally and internationally, sections operating under PRUs in these ministries are still using job descriptions that reflect traditional functions. Some of these are repeatedly used in many ministries, such as: reception and hospitality, bookings and visa issuing, and activities and events, while the functions of strategic planning, image building, and the management of electronic content are absent, both as job descriptions and as functions. The only exception was the Public Relations and Media Directorate in the Ministry of Housing, in which a section was established under the name ‘Electronic Content Management’. The Ministry of Information also recently established the ‘General Directorate of Electronic Content’, although it works independently from the public relations directorate. In many Omani ministries, a new unit has emerged under the name ‘international relations’ or ‘international relations and organisations’. This new trend reflects an increasing interest in public relations at the international level. Most of these new units are under the supervision of the first or second top official in the government entity, reflecting their place and importance in the administrative structures of these entities.

Omani public relations: two developments Two important developments in the last three years are related to public relations activities in Omani ministries. Dealing with media: training programme This programme was launched by the Ministry of Information in October 2015 through a strategic partnership with Sultan Qaboos University and an international institution, the British Thomson International Media Training Foundation. The programme aimed at training public relations and media staff in 24 ministries in the Sultanate. The programme was divided into five phases, the last of which was completed in November 2017. The programme proposal was initially called ‘Spokespersons’, but was changed to ‘Dealing with Media’ (Ministry of Information, 2017a). Twenty trainees from 24 ministries participated in the programme. Their opinions and attitudes were expressed through a questionnaire distributed at

Public relations in Oman   69 the end of the first phase of the programme. The participants’ opinions and comments covered many issues related to both theory and practice. The participants pointed out the need to better clarify the concepts and practices of government public relations and to link them to policies and the internal and external environments. The participants confirmed that this programme should continue training more media and public relations practitioners (Ministry of Information, 2017b). The researcher believes that, through this training programme, the Omani government has realised the need to train employees in the government public relations and media units and to empower them to perform better in the future. Before designing and conducting this programme, public criticism, especially through social media, was rising against many policies and activities that were being carried out by government entities. The question has been constantly asked about the role of PRUs in defending and supporting government policies and activities and whether PRUs are capable of playing their roles and performing their functions efficiently and effectively. But is the efficiency of these units related only to the human cadres working in those units? Or is the competency of these units related to their status in the organisational structure and the degree to which they can play their roles in the given entities? The importance of training and continuous development of the human cadres working in PRUs cannot be disputed. The training programme that was organised by the Ministry of Information for public relations and media staff in 20 government ministries was important and necessary. However, training alone is not enough; there is a need to enable these departments and employees, that is, to empower them to reach the decision-­making level and to be near the decision-­makers in these entities. The functions of these units should be redrafted to include functions of contemporary public relations. Centre for Government Communication Services (CGCS) On 23 October 2017, the Omani government officially announced the establishment of the ‘Center for Government Communication Services (CGCS)’ under the direct supervision of the General Secretariat of the Cabinet Council. From the researcher’s point of view, the centre is a central governmental public relations unit aimed at directing activities and efforts to improve the image of the state and its entities. In doing so, the centre is in direct contact and consultation with public relations units in all governmental entities to improve and organise public relations activities conducted by these entities. The CGCS founded and launched its vision based on political directions from Sultan Qaboos bin Said, who said that  the establishment of the Center for Government Communication Services under the General Secretariat of the Cabinet Council is considered

70   Abdullah K. Al-Kindi to be a tool to monitor the government performance. The Center should use and apply modern technical mechanisms, and receive information and evaluation about government services from different society sectors. The Center should follow up the responses from the considered governmental bodies. (Center for Government Communication Services, 2018a) This directive statement is important for two reasons: 1) it comes from the Sultan himself, the head of the state, who is also the Prime Minister; and 2) the statement named the centre as a tool for monitoring government performance. Monitoring as a mission goes beyond the idea of defending the policies adopted by government institutions. This centre will be able to build positive images that are more balanced and realistic about the government entities in the Sultanate. The centre’s vision focuses on emphasising ‘direct and effective communication between government and society through different channels using the most accurate information in the most appropriate time’ (Center for Government Communication Services, 2018b). The key words in this vision are: direct communication, effective communication, accurate information, and appropriate time. These key words reflect the current shortcomings in the governmental communication within society, one of the functions of public relations and media units. The centre’s vision also highlights the importance of accurate information in presenting institutions to the society, in addition to the importance of timing. There should be no delay in providing correct and accurate information. A balance should be maintained between quick and direct responses and adequate and proper preparation before presenting any information. The key words ‘accurate information’ and ‘appropriate time’ reflect the new centre’s efforts to confront some of the problems that are experienced by some governmental institutions in Oman in dealing with stories and topics that are published mainly in the new media. Some government entities have been ignoring published stories or have provided stories about some decisions and activities without proper preparation. The centre has developed a monitoring system consisting of four elements (Center for Government Communication Services, 2018c): 1 Following-­up on what has been published in media and communication outlets and reporting immediately on urgent events and issues. 2 Using the latest techniques to measure and to analyse trends in public opinion and extracting quantitative indicators to help in the decision-­ making process. 3 Forecasting and presenting proposals on important topics that are expected to escalate in the near future. 4 Preparing periodic reports on the topics that are addressed through various media and communication outlets, and proposing solutions and appropriate treatments.

Public relations in Oman   71

Conclusion PRUs in ministries under the CSS in the Sultanate of Oman have developed since the CSS began in 1970. Today, PRUs have become widespread in ministries and other governmental bodies in the Sultanate of Oman. Most PRUs are directly supervised by the heads of the government entities. However, most PRUs have remained traditional and have not developed significantly, that is, they are still dominated by a functionalistic public relations approach. PRUs in the Omani ministries need to be restructured and reoriented, and new tasks and functions must be identified to reflect the evolution of public relations and the government’s needs for professional public relations services. Among the new functions that can be developed in public relations in the Sultanate of Oman are those related to: image building, organising and conducting communication campaigns in specific areas, and preparing the public for government decisions. Also, some other functions should be enhanced, such as: research, defending the institution, correcting the false information widely spread about the institution, and providing consultation and counselling services. This chapter has presented a general overview of the development of public relations units in the ministries in the Sultanate of Oman since its inception in 1975 and the most prominent developments in this field. In contrast to a number of previous studies, the study has presented a critical and analytical reading of the functions of public relations units in the Sultanate and of how the practice of public relations has developed from a socio-­ cultural framework through popular and formal community institutions, namely the ‘Sablah’ and the ‘Wali Office’, to an institutional and formal occupation through public relations units in various government institutions. The current study is partially considered as a historical review of the beginning of public relations activity in the Sultanate in general and in government institutions in particular. Future studies should explore: the emergence and development of public relations in the Omani private sector and how the earliest companies that have practised public relations activities in the Sultanate emerged; public relations practitioners in the Sultanate; the effect of international public relations trends on Omani public relations; and related topics that will be an accumulative addition to the Omani literature on public relations.

References Al-­Abed, A. (1995). Studies on Omani media. Cairo, EG: Al-­Fecer Al-­Arabi Publishing House. Al-­Belushi, K. (2016). Practices of public relations agencies and companies in the Sultanate of Oman in light of Excellence Theory. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, OM. Al-­Enad, A. (1990, Spring). Public relations’ roles in developing countries. Public Relations Quarterly, 35(1), 24–26.

72   Abdullah K. Al-Kindi Al-­Hinai, A. (1999). State formation in Oman 1861–1970. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of London, London, UK. Al-­Hinai, T. (2012). Functional, organizational and communication characteristics of public relations in civil service institutions in the Sultanate of Oman. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, OM. Al-­Kindi, A., & Al-­Hasani, A. (2008). Studies on Omani journalism. Al-­Ain, AE: Al-­ Falah Books for Publishing and Circulation. Al-­Khayat, H. J. (1995). Public relations in the Sultanate of Oman. Unpublished Master’s thesis, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK. Alkuwaityah Newspaper. (2017). The Omani Sablah and its role in society. Retrieved from www.alkuwaityah.com/Article.aspx. Al-­Lawati, O. (2001). Public relations practice in Oman: Case studies on Ministry of Health and Petroleum Development of Oman. Unpublished Master’s thesis, University of Westminster, Westminster, UK. Al-­Mashiaki, M. (2015). Media in the Gulf: Current and future. Al-­Ain (UAE): Al-­Falah Books for Publishing and Circulation. Al-­Moqbali, A. (2015). Communication role in public relations: Comparative study on sample from governmental and private sectors entities. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, OM. Al-­Qamshoi, M. (2015). The communicator in public relations in the Ministries of Sultanate of Oman (A descriptive study of the communicative, functional, and training dimensions). Unpublished Master’s thesis, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, OM. Al-­Qasimi, S. (2015). Dividing the Omani empire 1856–1862 (6th edition). Al-­Sharjah, AE: Al-­Qasimi Publications. Al-­Shamaki, K. (2001). Evaluating performance of public relations units in the Omani governmental entities from the perspectives of the directors of the other units in the entities under study. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Al-­Albait University, Amman, JO. Al-­Siyabi, M. (2015). The practice of public relations in institutions of higher education: Department of Public Relations and Information at Sultan Qaboos University: A case study. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, OM. Al-­Yahyai, A. (2017). Characteristics of twitter accounts of governmental units in the Sultanate of Oman: An analytical study. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, OM. Al-­Zadjali, M. (2012). Communication strategies for public relations through websites in the governmental units in Sultanate of Oman. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, OM. Center for Government Communication Services. (2018a, March). Unpublished document. Center for Government Communication Services: Establishment and Future Plans. Muscat, OM. Center for Government Communication Services. (2018b, March). Unpublished document. Center for Government Communication Services. (2018c, March). Unpublished document. El-­Sarayrah, M. (2016). Public relations basics and principles. Amman, JO: Al-­Raeid Publishing and Distribution. Ministry of Civil Service. (2014). The establishment and development of the civil service sector. Muscat, OM: Ministry of Civil Service.

Public relations in Oman   73 Ministry of Civil Service. (2018a, March). Unpublished document. Public relations and media units. Muscat, OM Ministry of Civil Service. Ministry of Civil Service. (2018b). Civil Service Council functions. Retrieved from www.mocs.gov.om/council.aspx. Ministry of Civil Service. (2018c). ‘Governmental entities’ webpages. Retrieved from www.mocs.gov.om/ Ministry of Heritage and Culture. (2013a). Omana. In The Omani encyclopedia. (Vol. VII, pp. 2557–2568). Muscat, Sultanate of Oman: Ministry of Heritage and Culture. Ministry of Heritage and Culture. (2013b). Al-­Sablah. In The Omani encyclopedia. (Vol. V, p. 1719). Muscat, Sultanate of Oman: Ministry of Heritage and Culture. Ministry of Information. (2015). Oman in history (p.  408). Muscat, OM: Al-­Nahdh Press. Ministry of Information. (2017a). Unpublished report about the training programme ‘Dealing with media’. Muscat, OM: Ministry of Information. Ministry of Information. (2017b). Unpublished report on the questionnaire’s results by the participants in the training program ‘Dealing with Media’. Muscat, OM: Ministry of Information. Ministry of Information. (2018, March). List of periodicals in the Sultanate of Oman. Unpublished report. Muscat, OM: Sultanate of Oman. Ministry of Royal Court Affairs. (1975, May). The Official Gazette, 16(4). Matrah, OM: Mazoon Press. National Center for Statistics in the Sultanate. (2018). Monthly statistical bulletin. Retrieved from www.ncsi.gov.om/Elibrary/LibraryContentDoc/bar.pdf Public Authority for Radio and Television. (2018). Home. Retrieved from http:// part.gov.om/part/english/index.jsp. Suliman, S. (2009) Communication and public relations roles in electronic government (Dubai as a case study). Emirates Center for Strategic Studies and Research: Abu Dhabi. Taie, S. (2013). Mass communication researches. Cairo, EG: Arab Renaissance House.

5 Qatar public relations In focus Talal M. Almutairi, Mahmoud M. Galander, Omar A. Al-­Balushi and Rawdha A. Al Balushi

Introduction Qatar shares many similarities with other Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, but has its own distinctive identity. This chapter therefore provides an overview of Qatar’s politics, economy, and history. It also outlines the status of public relations in Qatar, recognising the challenge posed by the country’s lack of public relations literature. The authors consequently report original data from surveys and in-­depth interviews with public relations scholars, practitioners, and historians. To be more precise, Qatar’s education and economy are distinctive environmental factors, which are discussed in relation to the status of public relations in the corresponding context. The Qatari government’s investment in education has placed Qatari’s education system among the best in the world. What is more, Qatar is one of the richest countries globally, with one of the highest gross domestic product (GDP) per capita. Furthermore, within the unique context of Qatar’s public relations, Al Jazeera is discussed as an internationally recognised institution. Additionally, in 2022, Qatar will be the first GCC country to host the global mega-­event, the World Cup. Therefore, the significance of the context for Qatari public relations practitioners is worth noting, and this current chapter constitutes the first item of literature to address the status of public relations in Qatar. The authors have consequently endeavoured to present a clear and accurate picture of the status of public relations practice in the country, to investigate the environmental factors and evolution that have influenced this status, as well as to identify the distinctive characteristics of Qatari public relations.

Overview of Qatar Qatar is a peninsula in the Arabian Gulf that borders on the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). Its total land surface area is approximately 11.5 square kilometres, with a population of (approximately) 2.7 million (Ministry of Development Planning and Statistics, 2018). Most of this population resides in the capital city, Doha. Moreover, while Arabic is the official language of

Public relations in Qatar   75 Qatar, English is also spoken. Aside from this, Islam is the official religion of the country and Sharia (Islamic Law) is the main source of its legislation. The nation’s currency is the Qatari riyal (QR), which is pegged to the US dollar. As mentioned above, Qatar currently has one of the highest per capita GDPs in the world (Kanady, 2017). Qatar is a state characterised by deeply rooted traditions, but, at the same time, it is experiencing rapid social change and is striving to maintain its heritage while developing a new and modern identity. Thus, it should be noted that traditional culture, such as national dress in the form of the thobe (for men) and abaya (for women) have been largely retained, despite growing modernity in all facets of life in Qatar. Moreover, as Arabic is closely associated with the Islamic faith, its use reinforces the nation’s Islamic identity. In addition, the traditional nature of Qatari society supports the legitimacy of several social institutions, such as the Majlis, where relatives and peers are brought together in regular gatherings for the purpose of social communication and to discuss matters of social and sometimes political importance. Qatar’s head of state is the Emir, Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad bin Khalifah Al Thani. His position as ruler is a hereditary one within the Al-­Thani family, whereby power is transferred from father to son. The Emir of Qatar is head of the constitutional authorities, possessing both legislative and executive powers. He is also Commander in Chief of the armed forces, assisted by the Defence Council. Aside from this, a Council of Ministers assists with implementing general state policy, while an Advisory Council makes recommendations and gives advice on any public matters referred to it by the Council of Ministers. Qatar’s first provisional system of governance was established in 1970. This was revised after the nation had gained its independence in 1972 (Constitution of Qatar, 2004). On 8 June 2004, the Emir of Qatar laid down the Permanent Constitution of the State of Qatar, under which an Advisory Council now assumes legislative authority in the State, approves general government policy and the State budget, and exercises control over the executive authority, as specified in the constitution (The Permanent Constitution of Qatar, 2004). This Advisory Council consists of 45 members, 30 of whom are elected directly by a general secret ballot, while the Emir appoints the remaining 15 members from among his ministers or other individuals. Meanwhile, the judicial authority is vested in courts of law, in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution, and court judgments are pronounced in the name of the Emir. Article 129 of the Constitution stipulates that the supremacy of law is the basis of State rule, and the judiciary’s honour and integrity, and the impartiality of its judges, are intended to safeguard rights and liberties. Moreover, the judicial authority is independent and vested in courts of different types and grades (The Permanent Constitution of Qatar, 2004).

76   Talal M. Almutairi et al. Media The history of mass media in Qatar is relatively recent. For instance, the first publication appeared in 1969, when the newly established Department of Information began publishing the Al Arab newspaper, Al Doha magazine, and Al Ahd weekly (Mellor, 2013). Currently, four Arabic and three English dailies are published by private companies in the country. In addition, the state-­run Qatar Broadcasting Service (QBS) launched its Arabic radio services in 1968, followed by English, Urdu, and French programmes in the 1970s and 1980s. Meanwhile, television was first introduced in 1970 and, like radio, all television channels were government-­owned except for Al Jazeera, which is considered to be a private entity, even though the Qatari government is its main financier. A major development in Qatar’s mass communication landscape occurred in May 1997, when the Qatar General Broadcasting and Television Corporation was established to replace the Ministry of Information. Currently, the Corporation owns Qatar Radio and TV, Sout al Khaleej radio station, and the Al Dawri Wal-­kas television channel (Mellor, 2013). Aside from that, landmark Qatari media organisations include the Qatar News Agency (QNA), which receives and diffuses local news throughout the world, 24 hours a day; the Doha Centre for Media Freedom, established in 2008 as a non-­governmental organisation; and the Aljazeera Network, which stands today as the most significant (and perhaps the most controversial) media organisation in the Arab World.

Public relations in Qatar No reliable source specifies when public relations was first practised as a profession in Qatar. However, the development of the profession throughout the entire Arabian Gulf may be related to Saudi Aramco’s introduction of personnel-­oriented programmes and activities in the early 1930s (Al-­Anzi, 2013). Based on Aramco’s experience, it could be inferred that the era of oil exploration in Qatar may have also brought public relations to the attention of the companies involved, due to the small size of the local population and the need for a workforce drawn from amongst Arab and Asian workers from throughout the State. Qatar’s economic boom has attracted major international businesses to the country, including public relations firms and related communication companies. Almost all government ministries and departments retain a section dedicated to or engaged in public relations activities. Some departments and organisations even have well-­established public relations units that are comparable to those found in international companies and organisations. Among these are Qatar Airways, Qatar Petroleum, Qatar Gas, the Qatar National Bank, the Al Jazeera Network, the Qatar Foundation, and the Qatar Financial Centre. In addition, the number of private public relations companies has also increased, alongside improvements in the State’s economy since the 1980s. Currently, several major international public

Public relations in Qatar   77 r­ elations companies have established offices and branches in Qatar that provide advisory services to organisations and companies, including to Memac-­Ogilvy, Hill+Knowlton Strategies, Forbes Associates, and TRACCS, amongst others. Therefore, in general, there is an increased trend towards public demand for public relations training and education in the country. As a result of this public need, several educational institutions have begun offering workshops, forums, and training seminars, which are open to the public at large. Since 2010, several training centres have announced and offered introductory and intermediate levels of public relations education. Moreover, attendance at such training courses is not necessarily confined to those practicing the profession, but is also open to anyone who is interested. Several training centres are well-­known for this provision, especially the Al Jazeera Training Institute, the Al-­Sharq Media Training Centre, and the Major Training Centre. These centres specialise in providing training in various communication and media-­ related areas (Fakhro, 2018). Nevertheless, the main hub of public relations education in Qatar is Qatar University. The university’s Mass Communication Department has offered a strategic communication (public relations) focus as part of its communications programme since 2007. Furthermore, aware of their future need for these graduates, several companies welcomed the students as interns and trainees and offered them occasional seminars and workshops. These companies included Oreedoo, Vodafone, the Ministry of the Interior, and Hill+Knowlton Strategies, amongst others. A wide range of internship opportunities, especially in organisations seeking to employ students after graduation, assisted in training interns. One example of efforts made by Qatar University’s Public Relations Department to assist in preparing public relations professionals was the sponsoring of strategic communication students to attend the International Public Relations Association (IPRA) Annual Forum in Dubai in 2012. In addition, the Qatari Chapter of IPRA is still very actively involved with the university’s Mass Communication Department, in the area of training and academic evaluation. Almost every semester, graduation projects by students specialising in public relations are subject to scrutiny and evaluation by either the chair, or a member of Q-­Chapter (Fakhro, 2018). Conversely, Q-­Chapter assists the Mass Communication Department in locating venues for internships in organisations and departments that perform first-­rate public relations activities. Other academic venues for public relations education in Qatar include Northwestern University in Qatar (NW-­Qatar), which offers a degree in journalism and strategic communication. The International Public Relations Association (IPRA)-Qatar Chapter With increased awareness of the importance of human relations in organisational activities, Qatar has made significant strides forwards in the realm of

78   Talal M. Almutairi et al. public relations, both in the sphere of training and in the extension of relations with public relations associations and councils. As such, Qatar joined the IPRA-­Gulf Chapter in 2005 (Fakhro, 2018), together with Bahrain, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Kuwait, and Oman, as well as KSA, which hosts the headquarters. The Chapter was established by the Saudi Arabia Oil Company, Saudi Aramco, in 2003, as a branch of the main IPRA, to which several public relations activists in other Gulf countries are now affiliated. Among those joining IPRA-­Gulf was the prominent Qatari public relations expert, Jassim Fakhro (Chair of Qatar Chapter from 2005 to 2015) and, soon afterwards, a local Qatar Chapter of IPRA-­Gulf was established to promote the profession and to enhance awareness among managers and business owners in the country. Since its inception, the Qatar Chapter has been able to develop close relations with the parent association and has successfully hosted major events for the International Association, such as the 2016 IPRA Golden Prize Award, which recognises and celebrates the achievements of companies or organisations in areas of public relations. Additionally, in May 2016, the President of IPRA visited Qatar and participated in several activities, including delivering a speech to students in the Department of Mass Communication and Public Relations at Qatar University, and visiting high profile organisations in the country (Qatar Tribune, 2016). According to Fakhro, the previous chair of the IPRA-­Qatar Chapter, his organisation has been actively engaged in staging local, regional and international public relations events in Qatar and throughout the Gulf region (Fakhro, 2018). Locally, to facilitate relations with the growing business and services market in the country, the Chapter has signed memoranda of understanding with several organisations based in Qatar. These memoranda have enabled Q-­Chapter to include the relevant entities as partners in both regional and international public relations activities and events, including training programmes and workshops that the Chapter has held to advance the profession. As a result, the Chapter has secured sponsorship from these organisations for major public relations events held in Qatar. Q-­Chapter has successfully organised several public relations activities aimed at practitioners and the public at large. The most significant of these are (Fakhro, 2018): • • •

The Third Regional Public Relations Conference, 2013. The Second Doha Public Relations Forum, 2014. The IPRA Golden Prize Event, 2016.

Several major Qatari businesses and government departments, including Qatar Gas, Qatar Petroleum, Qatar Airways, and Oreedo, collaborated with Q-­Chapter at these events (Fakhro, 2016). As a vibrant economy and with increased local and regional awareness of the role of strategic communication in competitive markets, Qatar has witnessed a surge in the status of public relations as a necessary element of marketing for successful businesses and services. Both private and public

Public relations in Qatar   79 companies, departments, and organisations in Qatar have consequently acknowledged the importance of improving relations and communication with their corresponding public and strive to win them over in their hearts and minds (IPRA to hold first Golden World Awards outside Europe in Doha, 2016). A noticeable trend among the younger generation of Qataris is their aspiration to learn the art of persuasion and to embrace the profession as an important aspect of successful business ventures. Public relations campaigns are often run by ministries and departments that deal with the public at large; in particular, the Ministries of Health, Municipalities, and the Interior. Several campaigns organised by these organs of government in Qatar have addressed issues of public health, public safety, and civil public conduct. One such campaign was conducted in 2014 by the Ministry of Municipalities. It was titled Kulana Nishoofek (We All See You) and sought to improve public conduct with regard to littering, spitting, and other uncivilised habits (Hahez, 2014). Moreover, several health-­related campaigns have been launched by the Supreme Health Council (currently, the Ministry of Health) to raise awareness of health and to promote physical fitness and healthy eating. Meanwhile, the latest campaign by the Ministry of the Interior is called Hasib (Beware) and is aimed at reducing the number of road accidents on Qatar’s highways. This campaign is the result of official statistics that show an increase in motor-­vehicle–related accidents in the country (Al-­Sharq, 2018).

Generic principles in Qatar In this section, the first author provides key findings from research dedicated to understanding current public relations practice in Qatar. The above-­mentioned study relied on an established model of excellence in research to collect data and interpret results. Verčič, Grunig, and Grunig (1996), for example, developed nine principles from 14 characteristics of excellence in public relations programmes, drawn from the Excellence Study (Grunig, 1992). Verčič et al. (1996) consequently asserted that these principles were applicable to different cultures and contexts, once localised. Other studies have similarly utilised these principles in different contexts (Watson & Sallot, 2001; Rhee, 2002; Wu & Taylor, 2003; Lim, Goh, & Sriramesh, 2005; van Gorp & Pauwels, 2007; Yun, 2007; Ni, 2008; Yeo & Sriramesh, 2009). In designing the questionnaire for the research that is described in this section, three generic principles were applied: (1) the involvement of public relations in strategic management, (2) the use of a two-­way symmetrical model of public relations, and (3) the knowledge potential for the managerial role. A self-­administered survey and qualitative interviews were consequently used to collect data from a sample consisting of practitioners from governmental, private, and non-­profit organisations, as well as public relations agencies. As a result, 370 questionnaires were sent out by electronic means, of

80   Talal M. Almutairi et al. which 40 were completed, representing a response rate of 11 per cent. Including the five interviewees, the total number of participants was 45. The findings from the interviews and questionnaires were subsequently analysed to fulfil the study objectives. Strategic management factor The strategic management factor is concentrated on understanding the extent to which Qatari public relations practitioners employ effective strategies in their public relations programmes, whereby several indictors may be applied (some of these are illustrated in Table 5.1). The corresponding data reveal that Qatari public relations practitioners are generally more inclined towards the technical, rather than the strategic, aspects of public relations. For example, the highest score achieved in the Strategic Management Index related to practitioners contributing to routine operations (M = 4.60, SD = 0.6). Meanwhile, other statements concerning management valuing the judgement of public relations practitioners when making decisions or plans produced a low mean (M = 3.57, SD = 1.15). The management seeking the opinions of public relations practitioners when decision-­making also generated a low mean (M = 3.8, SD = 1.04). However, 65 per cent of the participants agreed that the management attached high value to public relations. However, such contradictory results could relate to social bias, whereby participants sought to project a positive image of their organisation. The qualitative data revealed that, although the public image of public relations as a profession is evolving, public relations is still undervalued by management, in which its role and mission are questioned. One of the interviewees stated that the ‘positive movement of public relations, although slow, is underway. However, we are still being recognised by management and community in general, as suitcase carriers and front desk receptionists.’ Another finding revealed that the amount of research performed by public relations practitioners is minimal. The use of informal research generated the lowest mean (M = 3.50, SD = 1.2), while formal research gave rise to the second lowest mean (M = 3.35, SD = 1.2). Table 5.1 The involvement of Qatari practitioners in strategic management Indicator

M

SD

Routine operations (e.g. internal communication, media relations) Formal research and its use in decision-making Informal research and its use in decision-making Public relations involvement in decision-making The value of public relations involvement in decision-making by    the management

4.60 3.50 3.35 3.80 3.57

0.60 1.20 1.20 1.04 1.15

Public relations in Qatar   81 Models of public relations in Qatar Grunig and Hunt (1984) categorise four models of public relations, according to practice. These include press agentry/publicity, public information, and the two-­way asymmetric and two-­way symmetric models. In accordance with these models, this study investigates the existence of four of them in Qatar, based on several indictors (some of these are illustrated in Table 5.2). Among all proposed models of public relations practice (the public information and two-­way models), the press agentry model index scored the highest mean (M = 3.93). The staging of events, tours, and receiving guest activities, as well as one press agentry index item, scored the highest mean and displayed the lowest standard deviation (M = 4.15, SD = 0.92). This indicates a high level of agreement among participants. Another indicator of the pervasiveness of the press agentry model is the high score awarded to another indicator (‘organising banquets’), which generated the second highest-­scoring item (M = 4.05, SD = 0.96). Furthermore, 65 per cent of participants agreed (30 per cent agreed, 35 per cent strongly agreed) that the purpose of public relations is to gain publicity for the organisation (see Table 5.2). Table 5.2 Public relations models in Qatar The press agentry/publicity model


M

SD

Publicity is an essential part of public relations job. The public relations department is responsible for organising events, receiving guest activities. The public relations department is responsible for organising banquets. The public information model The public relations is objective when dealing with media and general publics. Social responsibility is part of the public relations department Public welfare is more important than private economic gain.

3.85 4.15

0.97 0.92

4.05

0.96

3.25

1.00

3.40 3.45

1.03 1.37

3.25

1.14

3.30

1.24

3.85 3.60

1.21 0.87

3.90

0.70

3.15

1.36

3.45

1.37

Two-way asymmetrical model Before implementing a new program or policy, it is the responsibility of public relations to conduct surveys and gather information to ensure the success of the programme. Research is the first step in conducting a public relations programme. We conduct research. Evaluate is the last step in a public relations programme. Influencing public opinion and attitude is an essential part of the job of public relations. Two-way symmetrical model The mission of public relations is to create mutual understanding between the public and organisations. Public relations should influence management and the public’s attitudes towards each other. A code of ethics is essential and enforceable in a public relations department.

82   Talal M. Almutairi et al. Meanwhile, the qualitative data were consistent with the questionnaire results, in which the interviewees agreed that public relations departments were units that were mainly intended to promote an organisation’s image. In addition, ‘establishing a good relationship with the media’ was repeatedly mentioned by the interviewees as essential to the success of public relations. The public information model index scored the second-­highest mean (M = 3.36), after press agentry and above the two-­way models (see Table 5.2). The interviewees appeared to have a positive perception of this public information model, with a sense of patriotism. However, they did see a contradiction between serving their organisations and serving the community, although their organisations were viewed as part of Qatari society and, as such, their advancement formed part of the progress of the whole country. Two-­way models scored the lowest mean, compared to the top two models (see Table 5.2). The quantitative data seemed to exaggerate the usability of the two-­way models, thus contradicting the findings of the qualitative analysis. However, during the interviews, the Qatari public relations practitioners demonstrated the most knowledge of the two-­way models in relation to best practice from among the four models. The practitioners’ desire and continuous effort to establish a public relations association, serving as an umbrella over Qatari public relations practitioners, represents a clear example. The role of public relations practitioners in Qatar Collaborative research among public relations scholars (Grunig & Hunt, 1984; Newsom, Turk, & Kruckeberg,1996; Cutlip, Center, & Broom, 1985, 2000), conducted to conceptualise the role of public relations practitioners in their organisations, has pointed to the importance of the role of the manager and technician. This study aims to understand the extent to which Qatari public relations practitioners fulfil these roles, using several indictors (some being illustrated in Table 5.3). The role of public relations practice is in fact strongly skewed towards the technician’s role. The data illustrate the results for the technician’s role index (M = 4.3, SD = 0.59) versus those for the managerial role (M = 3.5, SD = 0.84). All indicators of the technician’s role produced means above M = 4, as illustrated in Table 5.3. Items such as producing communication materials (M = 4.55, SD = 0.59) and organising press conferences (M = 4.5, SD = 0.98) also generated some of the highest means out of all the data (see Table 5.3), whilst the managerial role produced lower means. The highest mean was indicated for preparing a departmental budget (M = 3.8, SD = 0.88), whereas the lowest mean was for publishing research papers (M = 2.9, SD = 1.15). These results were anticipated and confirmed by the qualitative data, in which the interviewees attributed such a difference to the image of public relations practice and its exclusive association with publicity and image-­building. None of the interviewees held an academic degree in public relations, and almost all favoured experience over an academic background.

Public relations in Qatar   83 Table 5.3 Knowledge potential of public relations practitioners in Qatar Knowledge potential for the technician’s role

M

SD

Press releases, brochures, audio-visual and others are part of public    relations department activities Organising press conferences Understanding journalists’ news values

4.55

0.59

4.50 4.20

0.98 0.88

3.35 3.80 2.90

1.02 0.88 1.15

Knowledge potential for the managerial role Evaluation research Departmental budget Publishing academic research

The unique context of Qatar Qatar’s education, economy, Al Jazeera, and Qatar’s hosting of the World Cup are distinctive environmental factors, which are discussed in relation to the status of the country’s public relations. The Qatari government’s investment has placed Qatar’s education system among the best in the world, due to the presence of over 300 international schools in the country. Qatar is among the richest countries in the world, with the highest per capita GDP. Moreover, in the unique context of Qatar’s public relations, Al Jazeera is described as an internationally recognised institution. Because Qatar will be the first GCC country to host the World Cup, projected for 2022, Qatari public relations practitioners find themselves in a unique context, which is worthy of examination. Education Qatar’s rich fossil fuel resources have enabled it to develop and grow rapidly, even in its population. Additionally, Qatar has invested heavily in developing its national infrastructure, cultural institutions, and human and social capital (Kalra et al., 2011). Due to globalisation, a free market economy, and responses to changing labour needs, there has been a need to redesign the education system of most Arab countries, including Qatar, so as to improve their global economic competitiveness through their education systems. Many Arab states have consequently set in motion educational reforms to produce a highly skilled and knowledge-­based workforce, Qatar’s education reform efforts have been monitored by both Qatari and non-­Qatari decision-­makers and internationally benchmarked curriculum standards (Al-­Fadala, 2017). Historically, no specific formal system of education existed in Qatar. Instead, there was only informal education through kuttb (travelling educators), who travelled from one location to another to teach the Quran and the Arabic language. Formal and more comprehensive education began in 1948, with a school being established exclusively for boys. Government

84   Talal M. Almutairi et al. support for schools then began in 1950, which was extended to the first girls’ school six years later, with the aim of eradicating illiteracy (Nasser, 2017). By the 1990s, several efforts were made to improve education, such as the introduction of educational technology and new courses. Although the education system was moving forwards with changes in some areas, there were issues in the preparation of students for either post-­secondary education or the workplace. For instance, even in 2001, there was still a failure rate of 20 per cent for students sitting their high-­school examinations, and those who passed did not perform well in university (Zellman et al., 2009). In 2003, Qatar’s government engaged the services of RAND, a US-­based non-­profit research institution, to examine the strengths and weaknesses of schooling in Qatar and to improve education quality in the nation (Brewer et al., 2006). A noticeable step was subsequently taken to reform Qatar’s education system, referred to as ‘Education for a New Era’, which introduced new curriculum standards from Grades 1 to 12. Teachers were given more flexibility to enhance the learning environment and were trained to be guides and facilitators, rather than merely transmitting knowledge (Koc & Fadlelmula, 2016). Aside from this, however, with Qatar’s relatively small population, it was challenging to prepare citizens to drive and manage the country’s growth in senior positions across the nation’s major industries. The Qatari government thus initiated a program of ‘Qaterisation’ (to replace expatriates with Qatari nationals), although many positions were filled with foreign employees, in the absence of qualified Qataris (Zellman et al., 2009). An ambitious national strategy, known as the Qatar National Vision, aims to transform Qatar into an advanced country by 2030, diversifying the economy away from oil dependence towards an emphasis on scientific knowledge and innovation. To achieve this vision, an exceptional educational system is required (Said, 2016), and Qatar therefore considers education to be the basis for innovation. Its aspiration is consequently to transform the country from a resource-­based to a knowledge-­based economy by 2030 (Abdulwahed & Hasna, 2017). After approaching RAND, the Qatari government identified a number of weaknesses in Qatar’s education system, such as a lack of vision and mission, absence of leadership, and lack of technology to support instruction. As a result, certain questions arose about the type of schools and curricula that were required and the methods necessary for effectively evaluating student achievement (Nasser, 2017). Based on the weaknesses revealed, RAND recommended the provision of more responsive and decentralised schools. Hence, the Qatari government encouraged qualified professionals with innovative ideas to establish and run new independent schools alongside government schools, funded and supported by the Supreme Education Council (SEC), the Institute of Education, and the Institute of Evaluation. This new reform constituted the so-­ called ‘Education for a New Era’ (Zellman et al., 2009). The ‘Education for a New Era’ reform for both Ministry of Education (MOE) and independent schools has subsequently been introduced to meet

Public relations in Qatar   85 the country’s changing needs by developing a national curriculum. Four principles were incorporated into this reform: (1) autonomy for schools; (2) accountability; (3) variety in schooling alternatives; and (4) choice for parents, teachers, and school operators. RAND also introduced a new organisational structure to supervise Qatar’s education system (Al-­Banai & Nasser, 2015). Conversely, in higher education, there was a link established between the K-­12 curriculum and the labour market. In addition, reforms were implemented in Qatar’s universities to support Qatar’s economic and social development, with an emphasis on teaching quality and enhanced student and teacher engagement (Qatar National Development Strategy 2011–2016, 2011). In fact, Qatar University is now one of the leading universities in the Middle East and North African (MENA) region. By 2015, the University had a body of alumni consisting of over 30,000 graduates in engineering, business, economics, and pharmaceuticals. It is also important to mention that Qatar University has separate campuses for male and female students, although its foreign universities in Education City are not segregated in this way (Breslin & Jones, 2010). The second public-­sector university is Hamad bin Khalifa University for science, engineering, technology, and public health up to postgraduate level, while Qatar’s third publicly funded university is the Doha Institute for Graduate Studies (Koc & Fadlelmula, 2016). The Qatar Foundation One significant step towards human development in Qatar has involved the establishment of the Qatar Foundation for educational, scientific, and community development, beginning at school level and extending to university education, to provide leadership and support and to prepare Qatari students for engagement in the country’s development (Said, 2016). The Qatar Foundation is a leading Qatari umbrella organisation for education, research, and social development. Its aim is to prepare Qatari citizens for leadership roles in various sectors, with a view to enhancing economic growth by empowering young people through knowledge and skills development, so that they will have the aptitude to make an outstanding contribution to their nation. To achieve this, Qatar has established partnerships with international research centres to launch branch campuses of top Western universities in its Education City (Koc & Fadlelmula, 2016). Qatar’s Education City is managed by the Qatar Foundation. Six US universities have established their campuses there: Weill Cornell Medical College, Georgetown, Northwestern, Carnegie Mellon, Texas A&M, and Virginia Commonwealth. In addition, University College London and HEC Paris also have branch campuses in Education City. Furthermore, the Qatar Foundation opened a Science and Technology Park in 2004 and has financed the first academic medical institute, the Sidra Medical and Research Centre (Bertelsmann Stiftung’s Transformation Index, 2016). Qatar Foundation’s Education City has consequently established a cluster of top-­class international

86   Talal M. Almutairi et al. universities for continuous expansion and progress, thus placing Qatar at the forefront of innovative education and research in the region (Qatar National Development Strategy 2011–2016, 2011). Nevertheless, Qatar’s educational reforms have also encountered certain challenges, which are not only emphasised by RAND, but also by many researchers and senior professionals in the country. These are mainly identified as follows: •

•

•

The reforms have been structured according to foreign systems and it may not be suitable for Qatar’s culture, especially where children are concerned. This has been noted in the independent school system, where English is the chosen language of instruction for subjects such as science, mathematics and IT. However, English-­medium instruction runs counter to Qatari culture (Al Turik, 2008). The population of Qatar is undergoing a high growth rate, recorded as 2.5 per cent between 2011 and 2013. This presents numerous challenges for education, as sufficient numbers of suitably qualified teachers are required, in a country that is currently facing a shortage of qualified teachers (Lazar, 2013). The greatest challenge cited is, in fact, to hire and train teachers. This is identified as an important factor determining student achievement. Qatar still works hard to implement programmes that will boost teaching quality and produce competent school leaders, through education to support professionals, and by preparing educational leaders to guide and mentor candidates for licences to teach (Nasser, 2017).

Since the turn of the century, Qatar has consequently made dramatic moves to transform its education system. It has been able to implement its education reform projects quickly by investing extensive government funding and other resources. Meanwhile, the decentralisation of Qatar’s independent schools and its higher education reforms have given rise to some of the most reputable schools and universities, not only in the GCC, but also worldwide. Today, Qatar occupies a position amongst the top 40 education systems in the world, according to the World Economic Forum’s Competitiveness Report. Its ranking peaked in 2012, when it was fourth among 144 countries globally in terms of the quality of its education system, and it was one of the top five in the Middle East (Schwab, 2017). The road towards total reform will undoubtedly be long and challenging, but Qatar has already come a long way in building a strong foundation of reform, laying down a path for the future (Al-­Fadala, 2017). Al Jazeera The establishment of Al Jazeera in 1996 was a milestone development for Qatari television media. Indeed, Al Jazeera has been central to the revolution

Public relations in Qatar   87 in satellite television in the Arab world. Since its launch, Al Jazeera has therefore stirred up some turbulence in the hitherto tranquil waters of Arab media. Al Jazeera came into existence on 1 November 1996, with six hours of programming per day, which was broadcast to the immediate region as a terrestrial signal, as well as by cable and via satellite. Al Jazeera’s main area of interest consists of programmes offering scope to express opinions. It has consequently emerged as a free media channel, where controversial topics may be addressed, often touching upon sensitive areas. Its slogan is, in fact, translated as, ‘The opinion … and the other opinion.’ Since its inception, Al Jazeera has consistently endeavoured to expand its global reach with unique editorial content and attempts to enhance information exchange (Abdelmoula, 2016). In 2002, a report on Middle East Communication published by Spotbeam Communications reported that Al Jazeera is a pioneer in the modernisation of Arab broadcasting (Zayani, 2005). Later, in 2006, Al Jazeera’s management announced plans for massive expansion, with the addition of various channels. This resulted in replacing Al Jazeera Arabic with the Al Jazeera Network Corporation. The Corporation now includes Al Jazeera Arabic, Al Jazeera English, Al Jazeera Mubasher, Al Jazeera Media Training and Development Centre, Al Jazeera Centre for Studies, Al Jazeera Mobile, Al Jazeera.net, and Al Jazeera Balkans. Furthermore, the Al Jazeera’s network reach is growing rapidly and now broadcasts to 320 million households worldwide, with a workforce of over 4,000 staff drawn from 70 nations throughout the world. Furthermore, using the most sophisticated technology, Al Jazeera appears in mobile apps, on YouTube, and on Facebook. It also has a digital, exclusively online news channel called AJ+, which is primarily available on its mobile app and YouTube. This is operated by Al Jazeera New Media out of San Francisco (Fusing the latest technology with good old-­fashioned journalism, 2018). The AJ+ channel is largely comprised of on-­demand content. However, the Al Jazeera Network Corporation’s latest initiative is the impressive launch of a Mandarin-­language news website, which targets China’s massive population. Introduced on 1 January 2018, this is the first-­ ever project launched by an Arab news provider to engage with China’s population of 1.4 billion. In an interview, Dr. Yaser Bishr, Al Jazeera’s Executive Director of Digital Media, said that ‘[t]he website aims to fill the media gap in China to build bridges between Arab and Chinese people’ (Al Jazeera launches Mandarin-­language website, 2018). Al Jazeera officially announced the launch of Al Jazeera English on 31 October 2006, with the Channel going live on 15 November 2006. It was introduced with the aim of providing both a regional voice and a global perspective for a potential world audience of over one billion English-­language speakers, who do not necessarily share an Anglo-­Amer­ican worldview (Tischler, 2006). In a personal interview with an anonymous employee from Al Jazeera, during which the organisation’s achievements were discussed, the interviewee pointed out that Al Jazeera English was the first English-­language news channel to be established in the Middle East and that it was ranked

88   Talal M. Almutairi et al. among the world’s top three English-­language news channels. Moreover, it reaches 270 million homes in over 140 countries (Personal interview, 2018). Al Jazeera was conceived as an independent channel with a considerable margin of freedom. Today, its popularity among Arabs and other audiences across the world appears to be increasing. It is claimed that 70 per cent of Arabs with satellite television rely on Al-­Jazeera for news, documentaries, and politically related programs (Al-­Hail, 2000). As from 2015, digital statistics demonstrate that views of Aljazeera Media Network Websites reached 1,098,300,909, with 193,738,397 visitors to Aljazeera Media Network. Meanwhile, Al Jazeera Media Network’s Facebook following reached about 43,623,013, with Aljazeera Media Network’s YouTube channel attracting 285,207,033 views (Personal interview, 2018). Therefore, although Al-­ Jazeera has been criticised for many reasons, it has a strong and loyal following among Arab and non-­Arab viewers alike, as it is the first Arab news source to offer viewers a largely uncensored 24-hour news service, in which audiences are offered an opportunity to express their views through live phone-­in shows ( Johnson & Fahmy, 2010). Consequently, studies have found that Al Jazeera ranks extremely high in credibility among Arab audiences ( Johnson & Fahmy, 2010). Furthermore, the Al Jazeera network is a source of knowledge about Arab culture for Westerners. As a result, the network has altered the perception of Arabs worldwide and conveys the reality that Arabs are normal people who wish to live in peace (Ramdane & Souad, 2011). Moreover, through its female journalists and correspondents, the network has succeeded in demolishing the perception that Arab women are consigned to live in the shadow of men, which is generally how they are portrayed by Western media. This has conveyed the message that women have a say in their communities, can be assigned sensitive duties, and are working side-­by-side with their male counterparts (Saker, 2005). In short, Al Jazeera has helped close the gap between East and West (Ramdane & Souad, 2011). It consequently follows that the Al Jazeera Network has played a vital role in shaping the image of Qatar as a liberal, modern nation that allows freedom of expression in a conservative region. Although Al Jazeera is state-­financed, it attempts to distance itself from the Qatari government; thus, despite the government’s financial influence and some criticism of the network’s coverage of Qatar, Al Jazeera continues to maintain its reputation among viewers as the most credible news channel in the region. Al Jazeera has contributed tremendously to developing civil society in Qatar (Al-­Hail, 2000). One of its contributions has been to raise awareness amongst women of their political rights. This was manifested in the participation of Qatari women in the 1998 municipal elections. Also gender equality in the labour market has been promoted and enacted in Qatar, with regard to the equal treatment of female employees in the workplace, job privileges, and opportunities for career advancement (Felder & Vuollo, 2008). Qatari women currently outnumber men in the workplace, at 51 per cent of the workforce.

Public relations in Qatar   89 This is the highest proportion of women in employment among all the Arab nations (Al-­Thani, 2017). It is also a reflection of what Al Jazeera Media Corporation endorses across the Arab region via its dedicated programs, such as Lil Nisa Faqat ( Just for Ladies), which aims to empower women, especially Qatari women, in society (Saker, 2005). As of 2018, more than 60 Qatari women are the backbone of Al Jazeera; among them are two journalists and two broadcasters (Personal Interview, 2018). Moreover, in 2013, Qatari citizens had their voices heard for the first time in a parliamentary election – the election of the Shura Council – representing a move towards democratisation (Gengler, 2011). In terms of freedom of expression, Al Jazeera has indirectly imposed heightened demands upon the domestic press and put forward justifications for lifting press censorship (Al-­Hail, 2000). From its beginnings as a channel broadcasting for just six hours a day, Al Jazeera is now a fully-­fledged network corporation with a powerful global brand that covers the whole world via over ten subsidiaries. Although it has raised debate as a media phenomenon over the past few decades, its effect is undeniable. Al Jazeera has done what no other media corporation has ever been able to achieve previously, which is to bring all Arabs together under one umbrella to speak their minds (Eliades, 2006). As a reflection of the passion that Qataris and Arabs in general have for football, Al Jazeera Sport was launched during the network’s seventh anniversary celebrations, giving its viewers the opportunity to watch European League games, such as those played in the Spanish League, free of charge (Al Jazeera launches sports channel, 2003). In 2009, Al Jazeera Sport acquired Arab Radio and Television (ART) for approximately one billion US dollars, a deal that included the right to televise coverage of the 2010 World Cup in South Africa (Cherian, 2009). Al Jazeera Sport was subsequently acknowledged for having provided unique coverage of the tournament by hosting football opinion leaders and commentators. It was also the first sports channel to introduce a 3-D service in the history of the game. In fact, the channel succeeded in delivering an impressive and very special experience via its coverage and facilities in South Africa, whereby football fans travelled far to see the studios of Al Jazeera Sport and to take some memorable photographs (Al-­Bader, 2011). Two years later in 2012, Al Jazeera made an ambitious move to establish an iconic sports channel when Qatar planned to host the World Cup in 2022. This was announced in 2010, and the nation showed the world that it was working confidently towards the kick-­off (Abboud & Barzic, 2012). In 2014, beIN Sport was subsequently born out of Al Jazeera Sport and the English Premier League was added to its basket of programmes at a cost of US$300 million (Shane, 2014). In response to one interview question, beIN television presenter Al Kawari said that the purpose of rebranding Al Jazeera Sport as beIN Sport was to dissociate it from the main Al Jazeera channel, which is known for the political flavour of its news. Al Kawari added that creating this distance would assist in negotiations with the West

90   Talal M. Almutairi et al. and foster the Channel’s progress (Al-­Kawari, 2014). At present, beIN Sports privileges football fans in the Arab world with 22 matches aired free of charge in an encrypted service (Hawkes, 2018). It could eventually exceed 14 sports channels and deliver its media promise to FIFA (Nicolls, 2010). World Cup Qatar 2022 Since last century, Qatar has been a well-­known sports destination, due to sporting icons such as Pelé and Muhammad Ali. This growing reputation as a sports destination has been supported and enhanced by the honour of hosting the World Cup for the first time in the history of the Middle East – an event scheduled for 2022. The following section will shed light on Qatar’s experience in the sports sector, with regard to hosting mega-­events, thus strengthening its position through historically significant tournaments. The section will then examine the challenges presented by staging such events and explain how the organising bodies have dealt with these through public relation practices. Qatar’s attachment to sport, particularly football, is not a new phenomenon. Football’s popularity in the nation dates back to 1973, when Brazilian football legend Pelé played a friendly game with his Santos team against Ahli football club in Qatar (Zein, 2016). Moreover, boxing legend Muhammad Ali participated in an outdoor exhibition in Doha in 1971. Qatar was then the first to pay tribute to Mohammed Ali just months after his death by organising a temporary exhibition to honour his legacy (Qatar Olympic Committee, 2016). Aside from that, Qatar has hosted several important sports events, such as the U-­20 World Cup in 1995, the Asian Games in 2006, and the AFC Asian Cup (Scharfenort, 2012). In fact, Qatar invests heavily in sport through Qatar Sport Investment (QSI), which is the sovereign fund behind the takeover of Paris-­Saint Germain and London’s Olympic Village, amongst other investments, in a bid to diversify the Qatari economy and move away from oil dependency (Amara, 2013). Qatar therefore has a strong connection with sport, particularly football. In particular, 2 December 2010, was a remarkable day in the history of FIFA, when Qatar was selected as the first Middle Eastern country to host the World Cup (Scharfenort, 2012; Brannagan & Giulianotti, 2015). Qatar has consequently injected US$95 billion over the past five years into preparations to host the tournament in 2022 and to transform the country into a leading sports centre (Scharfenort, 2012). The total estimated cost of this event is expected to reach around 23 billion QR, which is equivalent to 6.3 billion US$ (Harmi, 2016). Nevertheless, hosting the World Cup is not without its challenges. For example, one of the first things to enter people’s mind whenever the GCC countries are mentioned is their hot and sometimes humid climates in summer, where temperatures can exceed 50°C. This was the case in July 2010 in Qatar, when temperatures reached 50.4°C (El-­Chaarani, 2017). Hot weather is consequently a major concern for many footballers and fans.

Public relations in Qatar   91 ­ ortunately, after years of debate, FIFA declared that World Cup 2022 would F be rescheduled from its usual period in June–July to November–December, with the number of days of play being reduced to 28 from the 32 days played in Brazil in 2014 and in Russia in 2018. This was a historic decision, unique since the inception of the World Cup tournament in 1930 (Youd, 2014; Borden, 2015). However, Qatar’s hosting of the World Cup in 2022 will not only be special because of the shift from summer to winter, but also because it could be the first World Cup tournament with 48 instead of 32 nations competing. This change is intended to be implemented in full by 2026, but the current proposal was raised by the South Amer­ican Football Confederation (Conway, 2018). However, even though Qatar is considered to be relatively liberal as a nation and Qataris are known to be welcoming people, cultural clashes are anticipated during the event (Scharfenort, 2012). The Community Engagement Unit is, therefore, exchanging views and opinions with Qataris over the process of preparing for the World Cup, mainly to try to identify the concerns of local people over the atmosphere of the World Cup, including the contrast between the cultural backgrounds of those visiting Qatar for the event. In this regard, the significance of the event to the nation is being emphasised (Supreme Committee for Delivery & Legacy, 2015). The Supreme Committee has also extended its local reach to ethnic communities living in Qatar, with the aim of gaining their support and involving them in the event. This is being undertaken by signing memoranda of understanding with various communities in Qatar, including European communities, such as Polish and Croatian expatriates (Supreme Committee for Delivery & Legacy, 2017) Approaching the local population and community leaders is a public relations practice, which is drafted as a community relations objective that focuses on shaping the community’s opinion in favour of an organisation, building personal ties with community leaders and working towards altering the views or perceptions of a local population regarding an organisation’s operations. In this current context, the organisation is the Supreme Committee (Seitel, 2017). A study revealed that both Qataris and expatriates were found to be happy about Qatar hosting the World Cup, as it was seen as a way to develop tourism, which would be witnessed during the event and could continue afterwards. Moreover, the study participants stated that there would be knowledge and cultural exchange via the interaction between fans of the participating teams. Finally, it was considered to be a major motivating factor for Qataris, as the honour and prestige of hosting such a mega-­event would reflect on them (Al-­Emadi, 2017). In addition, the Supreme Committee’s Community Engagement team approached Qatari students in Britain to update them on the progress of preparing for the World Cup. This move was vital for establishing a positive reputation through the interaction of Qatari students with their counterparts across the United Kingdom (Supreme Committee for Delivery & Legacy, 2018a). The initiative is anticipated to melt differences and close the cultural

92   Talal M. Almutairi et al. gap, because students are potential World Cup spectators. The Supreme Committee for Delivery & Legacy’s Inclusive Generation Programme is intended to encourage students to value diversity and to respect others, thus winning fan support for Qatar 2022 (Supreme Committee for Delivery & Legacy, 2018b). What has worked in Qatar’s favour for hosting the World Cup is that Qataris respect other cultures (Amara, 2013). This is attributed to the fact that Qataris have a passion for travel, as supported by a survey covering six Middle Eastern nations, including the UAE and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). The survey revealed that Qataris travel more frequently than any other Middle Eastern citizens (Everette, 2016). The Qatar World Cup 2022 will be a landmark event in the history of football and it is likely to be a conversation topic for a long time to come, due to the fact that it is a ‘first’ for the Middle East and even worldwide. The run-­up to the World Cup 2022 is giving out a positive signal about Qatar’s ability to host the event successfully, since it has already had experience of hosting major sports competitions, such as the Asian Games. However, two serious challenges face the organising body, the Supreme Committee, namely the weather and the local culture. The World Cup 2022 will be 28-day winter event for the first time in the history of the World Cup, agreed upon by FIFA. In terms of culture, the Supreme Committee is making appreciable efforts by approaching Qataris both within and outside Qatar. This has included inviting residents to open sessions to discuss the current status of the World Cup 2022 preparations as part of recognised public relations practice. Both Qataris and expatriates have demonstrated an interest in the World Cup developments and the knowledge that is likely to be gained by interacting with others. As a result, many people are counting the years until the Qatar’s first World Cup tournament.

Conclusion Generally speaking, the concept of public relations is evolving in Qatar. A noticeable trend among younger generations of Qataris is their aspiration to learn the art of persuasion and to embrace the profession as an important aspect of a successful business venture. However, technical expertise and press agentry dominate practice in Qatar. The discipline and profession of public relations in Qatar is therefore still in a process of development, with obstacles related to misconceptions of its purpose and mishandling of tools by management and society in general. Except for one interviewer, the study currently under scrutiny shows that none of the participants were members of, or had any association with, public relations organisations in Qatar. This actually relates to the fact that Qatar has no established professional public relations bodies of its own. Nevertheless, the country is witnessing a movement among public relations practitioners towards advancing their profession, starting with the establishment of a Qatari public relations organisation. However, more studies are required, dedicated to describing current public relations practice in Qatar.

Public relations in Qatar   93

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94   Talal M. Almutairi et al. Bertelsmann Stiftung’s Transformation Index, BTI. (2016). Qatar Country Report. Retrieved from: www.bti-­project.org/en/reports/country-­reports/detail/itc/ QAT/ Borden, S. (2015). FIFA confirms Winter World Cup for 2022. New York Times. Retrieved from www.nytimes.com/2015/03/20/sports/soccer/fifa-­confirmswinter-­world-cup-­for-2022.html Brannagan, P., & Giulianotti, R. (2015). Soft power and soft disempowerment: Qatar, global sports and football’s 2022 World Cup Finals. Leisure Studies, 34(6), 703–719. Breslin, J., & Jones, T. (2010). Qatar. In S. Kelly & J. Breslin (Eds.), Women’s rights in the Middle East and North Africa (pp. 397–420). Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers Inc. Brewer, D. J., Goldman, C.A., Augustine, C. H., Zellman, G. L., Ryan, G., & Stasz, C. (2006). An introduction to Qatar’s primary and secondary education reform (Working Paper Number WR-­399-SEC). Retrieved from: www.rand.org/ content/dam/rand/pubs/working_papers/2006/RAND_WR399.pdf Cherian, V. (2009, 25 November). Al Jazeera sport buys up ART’s sports content. Digital Studio Me.com. Retrieved from: www.digitalstudiome.com/article-­2040al-­jazeera-sport-­buys-up-­arts-sports-­content Constitution of Qatar. (2004, 8 June). Retrieved from www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/ details.jsp?id=9626 Conway, R. (2018, 13 April). Qatar 2022: World Cup in Gulf State could be 48-team tournament. BBC Sport. Retrieved from: www.bbc.com/sport/ football/43750266 Cutlip, S. M., Center, A. H., & Broom, G.  M. (1985). Effective public relations (6th ed.). Eaglewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-­Hall. Cutlip, S. M., Center, A. H., & Broom, G.  M. (2000). Effective public relations (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-­Hall. El-­Chaarani, N. (2017, 11 July). Revealed: The highest temperatures ever witnessed in the GCC. Gulf Business. Retrieved from http://gulfbusiness.com/revealed-­ highest-temperatures-­ever-witnessed-­gcc/ Eliades. N. (2006). The rise of Al Jazeera, University for Peace, Costa Rica. Peace & Conflict Monitor. Retrieved from www.monitor.upeace.org/archive.cfm?id_article=370 Everette E. (2016). Media use in the Middle East 2016, a six-­nation survey (Report). Northwestern University in Qatar. Retrived from: www.qatar.northwestern.edu/ docs/publications/research-­media-use/2016-middle-­east-media-­use-report.pdf Fakhro, J. (2016). Naataz bima hagagthu al Alagat alAmeh (We are proud of what PR has achieved). Al Sharq. Retrieved from www.al-­sharq.com/article/14/12/2016/% D9%81%D8%AE%D8%B1%D9%88-%D9%86%D8%B9%D8%AA%D8%B2-%D8% A8%D9%85%D8%A7-%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%82%D8%AA%D9%87-%D9%85% D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%84%D8% A7%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85% D8%A9-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%AD%D8% A9-%D9%85%D9%86-%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%A7% D8%AA Fakhro, J. (2018, 26 March). Personal interview, Doha, QA. Felder, D., & Vuollo, M. (2008). Qatari women in the workforce (Working Paper Number WR-­612-Qatar). Retrieved from: www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/ pubs/working_papers/2008/RAND_WR612.pdf

Public relations in Qatar   95 Fusing the latest technology with good old-­fashioned journalism. (2018). Al Jazeera Media Network. Retrieved from: https://network.aljazeera.com/aj Gengler, J. (2011). Qatar’s ambivalent democratization. Foreign Policy. Retrieved from: https://foreignpolicy.com/2011/11/01/qatars-­ambivalent-democratization/ Grunig, J. E. (1992). Excellence in public relations and communication management. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc. Grunig, J. E., & Hunt, T. (1984). Managing public relations. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Hahez, M. (2014, 10 November). Hamlet Kulluna Nashoofek Da’eeefa (Kullana Nishoofek Campaign is weak). Retrieved from: www.raya.com/news/ pages/0e924190-89c8-4625-b18b-60b20df6dc08. Harmi, J. A. (2016, 8 November). Al-­Thawadi interview with Al-­Sharq: The World Cup is an opportunity to make history for Qatar. Al Sharq Electronic Gate. Retrieved from www.al-­sharq.com/news/details/453897 Hawkes, R. (2018). beIN takes Middle East by surprise with free-­to-air World Cup offer. Rapid TV News. Retrieved from: www.rapidtvnews.com/2018061452504/bein-­ takes-middle-­east-by-­surprise-with-­free-to-­air-world-­cup-offer.html#axzz5IhbHZc62 IPRA to hold first Golden World Awards outside Europe in Doha. (2016, 4 August). Qatar is Booming. Retrieved from: www.qatarisbooming.com/article/ipra-­holdfirst-­golden-world-­awards-outside-­europe-doha. Johnson, T., & Fahmy, S. (2010). Who is winning the hearts and minds of the Arab Public? An examination of how Arab viewers judge the credibility of Al-­Jazeera, Al Arabiya, Al-­Hurra and local Arab stations. International Communication Research Journal, 45(1–2), 24–48. Kalra, N., Younossi, O., Al-­Dorani, S., Cecchine, G., Curtright, A., Feng, C., Litovitz, A., Johnson, R.  D., Makki, M., Nataraj, S., Ortiz, S.  D., Roshan, P., & Samaras, C. (2011). Recommended research priorities for the Qatar Foundation’s Environment and Energy Research Institute (Report number MG-­1106-QF ). RAND Corporation. Retreived from: www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/ monographs/2011/RAND_MG1106.pdf Kanady, S. (2017, 30 December). Qatar GDP accelerates. The Peninsula. Retrieved from www.thepeninsulaqatar.com/article/30/12/2017/Qatar-­GDP-growth-­ accelerates-in-­third-quarter Koc, M., & Fadlelmula, F. K. (2016). Overall review of education system in Qatar compared to national and international outcomes. Saarbrucken, DE: LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing. Lazar, M. (2013). Education in Qatar: Reality and prospects. Doha, QA: Al Jazeera Centre for Studies. Lim, S., Goh, J., & Sriramesh, K. (2005). Applicability of the generic principles of excellent public relations in a different cultural context: The case study of Singapore. Journal of Public Relations Research, 17, 315–340. Mellor, N (2013). The future is Khaliji. In K. Al-­Jaber & K. Al-­sayed (Eds.), Arab media in turbulent world (61–89). Qatar: Qatar National Library. Ministry of Development Planning and Statistics (2018, April). Monthly figure on total population. Retrieved from: www.mdps.gov.qa/en/Pages/default.aspx Nasser, R. (2017). Qatar’s educational reform past and future: Challenges in teacher development. Open Review of Educational Research, 4(1), 1–19. Newsom, D., Turk, J., & Kruckeberg, D. (2012). Cengage advantage books: This is PR: The realities of public relations. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.

96   Talal M. Almutairi et al. Ni, C. (2008). Internal/Employee communication and organizational effectiveness: A study of Chinese corporations in transition. Journal of Contemporary China, 17(54), 167–189. Nicolls, H. (2010). 2022 FIFA World Cup bid evaluation report: Qatar (Evaluation Report). Retrieved from: https://img.fifa.com/image/upload/fd4w8qgexnrxmquwsb7h. pdf Qatar National Development Strategy 2011–2016. (2011). Qatar national development strategy (Report). Retrieved from www.mdps.gov.qa/en/nds/Documents/ Downloads/NDS_EN_0.pdf Qatar Olympic Committee. (2016). ‘Muhammad Ali: Tribute to a legend’ – Doha prepares for unique exhibition. International Sports Press Association. Retrieved from www.aipsmedia.com/2016/07/10/19092/muhammad-­aliqatar-­boxing Qatar Tribune. (2016, 11 May). Qatar public relations professionals welcome IPRA president. Retrieved from: www.qatar-­tribune.com/news-­details/id/651/d/20160513 Ramdane. T., & Souad. M. (2011). Between orientalists and Al Jazeera: Image of Arabs in the West (comparative inquiry). International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 1(4), 160–169 Rhee, Y. (2002). Global public relations: A cross-­cultural study of the Excellence Theory in South Korea. Journal of Public Relations Research, 14(3), 159–184. Said, Z. (2016). Science education reform in Qatar: Progress and challenges. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science & Technology Education, 12(8), 2254–2265. Saker, N. (2005). Women, development and Al Jazeera: A balance sheet. In M. Zayani (Ed.), The Al Jazeera phenomenon, critical perspectives on new Arab media (pp. 127–146). London, UK: Pluto Press. Scharfenort, N. (2012). Urban development and social change in Qatar: The Qatar national vision 2030 and 2022 FIFA World Cup. Journal of Arabian Studies: Arabia, the Gulf, and the Red Sea, 2(2), 209–230. Schwab, K. (2017). The global competitiveness report 2017–2018. Retrieved from: www3.weforum.org/docs/GCR2017-2018/05FullReport/TheGlobalCompetitive nessReport2017%E2%80%932018.pdf Seitel, F. P. (2017). The practice of public relations (13th Edition, Global Edition). Harlow, UK: Pearson Education Limited. Shane, D. (2014). Al Jazeera Sport rebrands as beIN Sport. Arabian Business. Retrieved from: www.arabianbusiness.com/al-­jazeera-sport-­rebrands-as-­bein-sport-­533189.html Supreme Committee for Delivery & Legacy. (2015). SC continues visits to majalis of Al Khor and Al Thakhira. Retrieved from: www.sc.qa/en/news/sc-­continuesvisits-­to-majalis-­of-al-­khor-and-­al-thakhira Supreme Committee for Delivery & Legacy. (2017). SC Secretary General lauds commitment of Qatar’s Communities towards 2022. Retrieved from: www.sc.qa/ en/news/sg-­lauds-commitment-­of-qatar-­s-communities-­towards-2022 Supreme Committee for Delivery & Legacy. (2018a). Inclusive generation. Retrieved from: www.sc.qa/en/opportunities/generation-­amazing/inclusive-­generation Supreme Committee for Delivery and Legacy. (2018b). SC shares 2022 FIFA World Cup™ updates with UK-­based Qatari students. Retrieved from Supreme Committee for Delivery & Legacy: www.sc.qa/en/news/sc-­shares-fifa-­world-cup-­planswith-­uk-based-­qatari-students The Permanent Constitution of Qatar. (2004, 8 June). Retrieved from www. almeezan.qa/LawPage.aspx?id=2284&language=en

Public relations in Qatar   97 Tischler, L. (2006). Al Jazeera’s global mission. Fast company. Retrieved from www. fastcompany.com/55936/al-­jazeeras-global-­mission Van Gorp, B. & Pauwels, L. (2007). Positioning and role of public relations in large Belgian organizations. Public Relations Review, 33(3), 301–305. Verčič, D., Grunig, L. A., & Grunig, J. E. (1996). Global and specific principles of public relations: Evidence from Slovenia. In H. Culbertson & N. Chen (Eds.), International public relations: A comparative analysis (pp.  31–66). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc. Watson, D. & Sallot, L. (2001). Public relations practice in Japan: An exploratory study. Public Relations Review, 27(4), 389–402. Wu, M., & Taylor, M. (2003). Public relations in Taiwan: Roles, professionalism, and relationship to marketing. Public Relations Review, 29(4), 473–483. Yeo, S. L. & Sriramesh, K. (2009). Adding value to organizations: An examination of the role of senior public relations practitioners in Singapore. Public Relations Review, 35(4), 422–425. Youd, K. (2014). The winter’s tale of corruption: The 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar, the impending shift to winter, and the potential legal actions against FIFA. Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business, 35(1), 167–197. Yun, S. (2007). Exploring the embassy sampling strategy for a large-­scale cross-­ national study in replicating the normative theory of global public relations. Public Relations Review, 33(2), 224–226. Zayani, M. (2005). Introduction – Al Jazeera and the vicissitudes of the new Arab mediascape. In M. Zayani (Ed.), The Al Jazeera phenomenon: Critical perspectives on New Arab media (pp. 127–146). London, UK: Pluto Press. Zein, A. E. (2016). Pelé: Global legend reflects on 40-year-­history with 2022 FIFA World Cup™ hosts. Supreme Committee for Delivery and Legacy. Retrieved from www.sc.qa/en/news/pele-­global-legend-­reflects-on-­40-year-­history-with-­2022fifa-­world-hosts Zellman, G. L., Ryan, G.W., Karam, R., Constant, L., Salem, H., Gonzalez, G., Orr, N., Goldman, R. C., Al-­Thani, H., & Al-­Obaidli, K. (2009). Implementation of the K-­12 education reform in Qatar’s schools. Santa Monica, US: Rand Corporation.

6 Public relations in Saudi Arabia An Islamic perspective Yazeed Abdullah Almahraj

This chapter provides an overview of Saudi Arabia’s cultural background, history, economy, and media, offering insights into the development and current practice of Saudi public relations practitioners. Also analysed will be the way in which public relations practice, communications, and ethical practices are affected by Islam as an environmental factor. No previous study has explored the integration of religion into public relations, or the way in which religion influences public relations practice. For this reason, the aim here will be to examine how Islam influences culture, how it reflects into everyday public relations practice, and how it is used in communications transmitted to the public. This present research applies the theories formulated by Jackson (1970), Yang and Taylor (2013) and Larson (1979), in order to ascertain the extent to which public relations occupations in Saudi Arabia display the ethical features of the profession. As a result, the constructivist paradigm will be adopted to offer insights into the development of public relations in the area, as well as the current practice of Saudi public relations practitioners. This will be achieved by applying a socio-­cultural approach to examine the influence of social interaction on public relations. For the purposes of this research, in-­ depth unstructured interviews were used to collect data from 27 practitioners. The chapter begins with an overview of Saudi Arabia’s history, politics, economy, and media, including its censorship and Islamic laws. It goes on to introduce the topic of public relations and its development, as well as the predominant cultural and environmental factors, such as the influence of Islam and Saudi exceptionalism.

Overview of Saudi Arabia (its history, politics, and media) Saudi Arabia is located on the Arabian Peninsula and occupies an area of 2,000,000 square kilometres, with a population of 32 million. It borders on the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Qatar to the east; Kuwait, Iraq, and Jordan to the north, and the Yemen and Oman to the south (General Authority for Statistics, 2017). Until the eighteenth century, the region where

Public relations in Saudi Arabia   99 Saudi Arabia is located was occupied by several independent tribes. However, during the eighteenth century, religious scholar Muhammad Ibn Abdalwahhab began the process of reviving Islam, out of a desire to see the early Islamic teachings being practised as originally preached by the Prophet Mohammed (Beg, 2008). At this point, Muslims in the area were once again practising animism, which included worshipping at sites considered to be sacred and following cults founded on saints. Therefore, Abdalwahhab wished to see the people return to the true principles of Islam and to reform society (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2016). Aside from this, Abdalwahhab became an ally of Muhammad Ibn Saud, governor of the town of Diriyah. Together, they worked towards establishing a new state based on Islamic teachings (Beg, 2008). Nevertheless, until the nineteenth century, the region was unstable, with numerous battles and invasions taking place. For example, in 1818, Muhammad Ali Pasha of Egypt invaded the country and the Al Sauds were driven into exile. However, in 1902, Abdulaziz Ibn Abd al-­Rahman, head of the Al Saud family, recaptured Riyadh and united its 88 tribes (Wilson and Graham, 1994; Beg, 2008). In 1929, the King subsequently created the General Presidency of the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vices to promote Islamic values and Saudi laws. The purpose of this institution was to monitor social behaviour and ensure that Islamic moral law was respected, such as observing proper dress code and gender separation. In 1932, King Abdulaziz Al Saud officially united the independent tribes as one nation, whereby the country’s legal system and Constitution were established on the basis of the Quran and the Prophet’s Sunnah. Therefore, officially, Saudi Arabia is an Arab Muslim monarchy, governed by the divine law known as Shari’ah (Beg, 2008; Sardar, 2014). Moreover, the influence of religion on the formation of the modern state of Saudi Arabia is clear. For example, although the King is not considered as a religious leader, his official title of ‘Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques’ clearly reveals a religious connection. Politics The Saudi political system differs from most established political structures across the world. This uniqueness may be attributed to its evolution, culture, and religious position. Several actors have in fact played a key role in influencing its political map, including the King, members of the Royal Family, tribal and family leaders, and religious scholars. The political system in Saudi Arabia is structured in such a way that the King is responsible for all judicial rulings and implementing policy in the country. He also fulfils the role of Prime Minister, whereby Members of the Council of Ministers assist him in his decision-­making. Government Ministers are also responsible for implementing state and Shari’ah law. Nevertheless, each Ministry has different departments and areas of authority. Moreover,

100   Yazeed Abdullah Almahraj every region has a governor who is directly answerable to the Ministry of the Interior (Alturaiqi, 2008). The Al Sauds – the Saudi Royal Family – have governed Saudi Arabia since the foundation of the Kingdom. The law states that the Al Sauds have right of succession to the throne, which means that the future kings will all be direct descendants of Ibn Saud. The King is the elected by the Bay’ah Council, made up of senior royals. Other members of the Al Saud family occupy various positions in the public sector, although the King has full authority over political decisions (Vietor & Forrest 2009). In addition, the Shura Council originally established by King Fahd in 1992 is responsible for drafting and enacting laws, as well as reviewing the country’s national budget (Vietor & Forrest, 2009). The King consults tribal leaders when making decisions that will have an economic or political effect on the country (Beg, 2008). This means that the King is not only the head of state but is also recognised as the head of all the nation’s tribes (Wilson & Graham, 1994). The King has a strong relationship with the country’s religious leaders, who likewise have political authority and participate in decision-­making (Awad, 2010). These religious leaders are even able to delegitimise government decisions by issuing fatwas, which are religious rulings (Awad, 2010). Fatwas can affect all decisions, including those that influence media content (Al-­Kahtani, 1999). Media The latest statistics from 2015 reveal that there are 47 foreign newspapers published in English, Urdu, and Hindi in Saudi Arabia, as well as 537 printed magazines. Aside from this, in 2017, there were 757 electronic international and 77 electronic national newspapers available in the Kingdom (General Authority for Statistics, 2017). Dennis, Martin, and Wood (2015) observe that there are a large number of newspapers available in Saudi Arabia, compared to Western countries. The reason for this is because literacy has increased in recent years and demand is high for the newly accessible publications. Aside from print, Saudi Arabia has nine state TV channels and six state radio stations, including MBC TV (Shoult, 2006). Television is relatively popular, with over 80 per cent of the population possessing a cable TV with over 700 channels broadcasting both Western and Arabic programmes (Dennis et al., 2015). Nowadays, Arab media companies create programmes that can be accessed in Arabic-­speaking countries and which will appeal to different cultures. In addition, Arab media stations create their own versions of popular Western shows, which are adapted for local audiences (Kraidy, 2006). Despite the popularity of traditional media, however, the internet is gaining ground in Saudi Arabia, with social media platforms becoming widely used, especially in the Gulf and more specifically, Saudi Arabia (Kemp, 2016). As can be seen in Table 6.1, below, the internet penetration rate is quite high

Public relations in Saudi Arabia   101 Table 6.1 Internet penetration rate

2013 2014 2015 2016

The Emirates

Qatar

Saudi Arabia

Lebanon

88 96 94 100

85 78 89 84

81 85 91 93

58 62 79 84

Source: table created with data adapted from Dennis et al., 2016.

in this zone. The table presents percentages for the proportion of the population with internet access in 2013, 2014, 2015, and 2016. In the entire Middle Eastern region, Saudis are the most active on the internet, whereby the majority of Saudis browse for items and read articles in Arabic, with a tendency to access regional rather than international news (Kemp, 2016). Online, 87 per cent of Saudis search for Arabic content, compared to 63 per cent of Emiratis. As mentioned previously, in Saudi Arabia, the laws regulating the media and censorship are inspired by Islamic Shari’ah. This law guarantees freedom of opinion for all and encourages dialogue. However, it is a law that forbids any statements that might affect the honour and rights of others (Ataf, 2016). Article 2 on Media Policy states that ‘the Saudi media shall resist and disclose the falsity of destructive movements, disbelieving trends, hostile philosophies, and attempts that aim at diverting Muslims from their faith’ (Alturaiqi, 2008). Media law in Saudi Arabia may indeed be relaxed about news reporting, but it is strict where criticisms of policy are concerned, including criticism of foreign policy and the reporting of fake news (Duffy & College, 2014). Nevertheless, Duffy and College (2014) do not believe that there are any laws in Saudi Arabia to stop the media from publishing information. However, if news is viewed as problematic, such as when news or published information incites criminal acts and has a negative effect on the economy, or if fake news is published, the government can take certain measures, such as fining journalists or closing down media organisations. Abozayd (2007) cites Saudi Law No. 24, which refers to freedom of speech. It provides that any type of communication in any medium should be in accordance with Islamic values and comply with the government’s regulations (Abozayd, 2007). In recent years, due to technological development and high internet penetration, the majority of the Saudi population have begun to subscribe to online media, rather than traditional media. Interestingly, however, recent studies have shown that despite having access to the internet, most of the Arab world prefers to read local Arabic language media (Dennis et al., 2015). In addition, a survey conducted in 2015 among over 6,000 respondents in the Middle East revealed that most of the population in the region believed that news was reported accurately by the media (Dennis et al., 2015).

102   Yazeed Abdullah Almahraj

An analysis of the public relations revolution in Saudi Arabia Public relations professions were first introduced into Saudi Arabia by the national oil company, ARAMCO, in the 1930s, when oil exploitation began (Freitag & Stokes, 2009). The need for modern public relations practices was ascertained by Amer­ican workers, who encountered problems when attempting to communicate with local Saudis. Public relations departments were therefore established for the purpose of helping the local Arab population to understand and communicate with Amer­ican workers and vice versa (Freitag & Stokes, 2009). It is also essential to look at the introduction of public relations into the Gulf region, as similar public relations models are adopted all across this zone, particularly in Oman, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE. In the neighbouring Gulf countries, advertising agencies appeared first and public relations units were subsequently established in those agencies (Algalab, 2011; Badran, 2014). Public relations was therefore initially part of the advertising industry, which developed to an international standard in the 1970s and 1980s, alongside the growth of the local economy (Badran, 2014). However, the concept of public relations has only begun to assume any importance in the last 30 years, as private companies have opened branches in Saudi Arabia (Abu Osba’a, 1998). John (2009) considers that the Arab public relations industry originated in Dubai, given its extensive foreign investment. It is an environment where public relations practice has become essential for local businesses. John (2009) claims that from Dubai, the Arab public relations sector expanded to nearby countries, including Saudi Arabia, where there were already several private public relations units, established by foreign oil companies in the 1970s. Government institutions had observed these and decided that they were important for enabling and enhancing communications (Pearce, 2008). Pearce (2008) does not indicate why the Saudi government should consider this to be the case, but it was decided that all institutions should have public relations departments. In 2013, 92 per cent of companies had established their own public relations departments (Arab News, 2013). In addition, statistics issued by the Saudi Arabia Business Directory (2016) show that the number of public relations companies in the country is increasing and in 2016 there were over 219 local, regional, and international agencies. Some of these international agencies are branches of larger public relations companies, such as MEMAC Ogilvy, Hill+Knowlton Strategies and Burson-­ Marsteller (PR Week, 2014). Unfortunately, only a few studies on public relations in Saudi Arabia date back to the period 1970 to 2000, but those that exist provide some illustration of the evolution of Saudi public relations. One such example is Alanazi’s (1996) examination of public relations in the Kingdom. What is more, most studies in the region have tended to focus on the Gulf countries, where researchers have identified similar public relations practices and models across

Public relations in Saudi Arabia   103 the zone. Despite this, however, the public relations industry has continued to develop and expand, and the number of public relations agencies in the Middle East as a whole increased by 63 per cent between 2006 and 2010. This was due to development, as well as foreign and national investments in the region and a rise in consumerism (Pearce, 2008). Since the 1970s, the Saudi government has stipulated that all government institutions establish public relations departments and, thus far, this is the case in 81.7 per cent of Saudi government institutions (Pearce 2008). In 2006, the public relations industry in Saudi Arabia was worth US$25 million a year, increasing exponentially to US$100 million in 2008 (Pearce, 2008). By 2016, there were 219 local, regional and international public relations agencies in the Kingdom (Saudi Arabia Business Directory, 2016), with 92 per cent of private companies also running their own public relations departments (Arab News, 2013). Nevertheless, even though there would appear to be growth and development in the Saudi public relations sector, research shows that public relations practitioners in the Gulf still understand public relations to mean protocol and secretarial duties (Badran, 2014). Consequently, Saudi public relations practitioners do not organise campaigns or communicate with the media (Badran, 2014). Moreover, the senior management of an organisation is highly unlikely to communicate with the corresponding public relations department, while public relations officers are generally unaware of their company’s activities and events. The result of this is that public relations practitioners are unable to communicate any information about their companies to the media or the general public (Algalab, 2011). In fact, there seem to be a number of common issues surrounding public relations practice in the Gulf countries; for example, many public relations departments do not actually undertake any public relations duties (Alanazi, 1996; Abu Osba’a, 1998; John, 2009). In contrast, public relations departments in foreign companies seem to understand the purpose of in-­house public relations practice, even though public relations practice in local and public-­sector companies – those with publicly owned shares – has largely been misunderstood (Creedon, Al-­Khaja, & Kruckeberg, 1995). One study conducted on practitioners in the public relations departments of government institutions in Saudi Arabia categorised the public relations activities undertaken into three models (Algalab, 2011). The first of these was referred to as the ‘hail and farewell’ model; meaning that practitioners were involved in protocol activities, such as receiving guests. The second was the ‘government transaction’ model, which meant that public relations officers were involved in paperwork, like arranging government licences and renewing visas. Meanwhile, the third was the ‘media coverage model’, which meant that public relations officers communicated the government’s activities to the media. Research conducted in Saudi Arabia has revealed that there are positive as well as negative views of public relations practice in that context. For

104   Yazeed Abdullah Almahraj example, Alanazi (1996) notes that public relations is developing, but it often encounters obstacles. This usually means that the company management do not support the company’s own public relations department. As a result, public relations practitioners are not invited to participate in company decision-­making. The reason for this is perhaps because businesses are organised and decisions are made in a hierarchical way, passing through a chain of command (Mazawi, 2005; Buchele, 2008). Moreover, public relations departments do not receive management support and their budget is often limited (Al-­Anazi, 2011). Another issue arises from the fact that there is generally an overlap between public relations departments and other units in a company (Al-­Anazi, 2011). Therefore, although public relations officers do indeed perform their duties, these are often viewed as minor or secondary, such as communicating with the public, writing press releases and organising conferences, or undertaking protocol duties and building social relationships (Al-­ Anazi, 2011). Active PR (2012) magazine published an article stating that private companies in Saudi Arabia want to use public relations, but government institutions have departments that are only partially developed. This means that they do not implement any public relations strategies and do not send press releases. Neither do they have a media strategy or any media relations tactics and only rarely use media briefings. Moreover, public relations practice is viewed by companies and the public as an unproductive activity (Al-­Anazi, 2011). Besides, individuals hired as public relations practitioners by companies are not required to have any educational background in public relations (Al-­ Anazi, 2011). Thus, there is a lack of specialists and trained public relations practitioners, and public relations departments do not draw upon the available public relations knowledge (Al-­Qahtani, 2004). This means that the practitioners employed do not have any public relations skills and lack the necessary technical and organisational knowledge to perform crisis management. In any case, the higher management of companies and organisations do not allow public relations departments to handle crises, which means that when public relations departments are faced with an actual crisis, they do not deal with it themselves, but hire external public relations companies (Al-­Jaralh, 2011). Research by Al-­Jaralh (2011) shows that the public relations departments of 56.3 per cent of companies in Saudi Arabia depend on the company’s higher management to handle crises, while 40 per cent of private companies choose to hire an external consultant, rather than use their own public relations departments. Most of the relevant research (Al-­Anazi, 2011; Algalab, 2011) dedicated to public relations in Saudi Arabia indicates that the majority of public relations duties are administrative. Public relations is even listed under the category of administration by the General Authority of Statistics (2017), which does not provide official data on public relations. This indicates that public relations is not viewed as a sufficiently important activity to be considered in the national

Public relations in Saudi Arabia   105 statistics, although there are some signs of change; for example, the Council of Ministers in Saudi Arabia has decided to ask government institutions to assign special spokespeople to keep the media informed (Active PR, 2012). This shows that government institutions are aware of the fact that public relations is a necessity. It also demonstrates that institutions are aware of Saudi society becoming very active in its communications, due to the widespread use of the internet (Lipman, 2012; Muhammad, 2013).

Environmental factors relating to culture: religious influence and Islamic ethics As mentioned briefly above, the moral code and values of Saudi society are inspired by the Islamic religion. Moreover, it is considered that undertaking Islamic duties will enhance an individual’s reputation in Saudi society, as well as eliciting respect and appreciation (Al-­Ahmed, 1987). It is important to note here that Islam not only influences law and politics, but also an individual’s lifestyle, including the consumption of food and drink, as well as dress code (Irani, 1999). Buchele (2008) describes Islam as being embedded in everyday life: ‘Before embarking on a task, from starting their car to sitting down to a meal, people invoke divine protection by muttering the first word of the Koran (Bismillah) in the name of God’ (p. 93). Saudis feel a special connection to their country, because of the holy cities of Makkah and Madinah, which are considered to be the centres of the Islamic world; whereby Saudis perceive that they have a duty to protect them. King Abdulaziz also highlighted the importance of these mosques: This sacred land of ours makes it a duty binding on us that we should work hard to ensure all that serves its interests. We will do our utmost in this regard, until we have achieved all our goals and Muslims are assured of security and comfort. All those who come over to visit the places that witnessed the revelation of God’s message should enjoy equal rights and privileges and be assured of justice. (Cited in Al-­Kilani, 2001, pp. 76–77) This connection to their sacred land is reflected in Saudi identity. For example, Saudis have a dual sense of identity, because they view themselves as simultaneously Saudi and Muslim. As highlighted by Kenney (2014), there is consequently no sense of national identity, unlike citizens in Europe. This is because, at one time, the Saudi people lived in tribes before Arab countries attained their modern form. These tribes were characterised as very close-­knit communities, within which an individual would feel a sense of belonging. Aside from the above, most Muslims find an identity in Islam, as well as their local community. In a way, this can be considered to be compatible with nationalism, in terms of a common land, language, and religious culture (Kenney, 2014). Nevertheless, Doumato and Posusney (2003) suggest that

106   Yazeed Abdullah Almahraj Middle Eastern countries have been influenced by Western lifestyles, but there have also been reactions against globalisation. For example, individuals have become aware of their Muslim and Saudi identity and this awareness has been reinforced through conservatism. The way in which Saudis feel spiritually connected to their land through Islam and their perception of their country can also be said to resemble Amer­ican exceptionalism. This term is adopted here because Saudis have a similar perception of uniqueness; according to Madsen (1998), Amer­ican exceptionalism is explained as the USA’s self-­perception of having an exceptional status compared to other nations, due to the belief that God has given them a unique spiritual destiny. Therefore, the concept of exceptionalism is based on a religious idea that has been preserved over time. In fact, exceptionalism can now be considered as part of the Amer­ican identity. In addition, Madsen (1998) points out that the concept of exceptionalism means that the USA is presented as a model for the rest of the world in terms of its values and political system. Saudis have a similar sense of uniqueness because they feel responsible for protecting Makkah and Madinah. Furthermore, Al-­Kilani (2001) declares that the government of Saudi Arabia expresses a desire to make Islamic worship easy and safe. The term, ‘exceptionalism’ therefore implies that the members of a particular society see themselves as responsible for saving the world (Madsen, 1998). Therefore, due to their connection to the land, Saudis view Islam as part of their identity. This means that religion influences their way of life, moral values, and laws, which will be discussed further in the next section.

Islamic influence on the lives of individuals in Saudi Arabia Religion is present in everyday activities in the Kingdom and plays a key role in strengthening family ties, with religious rituals being performed at work and in the home (Al-­Ahmed, 1987; Buchele, 2008; Abdullah, 2010). For example, it should be emphasised here that the Saudi flag bears a religious quote: ‘There is no deity except God, Muhammad is God’s messenger’ (Al-­ Kilani, 2001). Similarly, Islam influences education and work. Nevo (1998) points out that a third of the content taught in school is centred upon Islam and many students pursue studies in Islamic subjects. Some researchers (for example, Weber, 1930; McCleary & Barro, 2006) claim that religion can have a positive influence on a country, specifically on its economy. This is because religion promotes a work ethic, honesty, and charity. It is therefore significant that Saudi Arabia has developed both economically and technologically, alongside the progression of Islam (Platteau, 2008). Nevertheless, other scholars, including Al-­Kilani (2001), believe Islam to be incompatible with modernisation, because innovations like radios and cars came from the West, which is considered to uphold un-­ Islamic values.

Public relations in Saudi Arabia   107 Nevertheless, this is contradicted by Al-­Afghani, who argues that Islam does not exclude science (Kenney, 2014). In fact, Al-­Afghani argues that Islam and science complement one another and there have been many examples of Islamic scientists. Falagas, Zarkadoulia, and Samonis (2006) highlight the fact that the ninth to the thirteenth centuries constituted the Golden Age of the Middle East, while Europe was in a period of decline, often referred to as the Dark Ages. During this Golden Age, there was an era of technological advancement and developments in pharmacology, technology, architecture, and the arts. In fact, pharmacology in Europe was influenced by discoveries made by Arab researchers. For example, the terms, ‘alcohol’, ‘alkali’, and ‘drug’ are of Arabic origin. Additional developments were brought about by Arabs in agriculture, with the innovation of irrigation channels and waterwheels (Falagas et al., 2006). These innovations and the research that led to them occurred after the Prophet Mohammed had united the Arab tribes through Islam. As a result, Islamic guidelines were carefully applied in the search for knowledge (Atiyeh & Hayes, 1992). In addition, Islamic reformers such as Jamal al-­Din al-­Afghani (1839–1897), Muhammad Abduh (1849–1905), and Sayyid Ahmad Khan (1817–1898) encouraged Muslims to study sciences and reject any Western values that were in conflict with Islamic values (Kenney, 2014). Nowadays, the impact and practice of Islam are not only evident in everyday face-­to-face interactions between people, but also in online communication. For example, fatwas have been issued to provide guidance on the use of online channels of communication. There are now even Islamic applications available online (Bunt, 2014). Furthermore, the internet is often used for studying and spreading Islamic knowledge. Bunt (2014) notes that sermons delivered by Islamic scholars can be found on the internet, as well as recitations from the Quran and other readings, available for download. Together with this, Islam regulates job performance and professional activities. According to Abdullah (2004) ‘[t]he aim of such regulation is to ensure fair and equitable transactions among parties involved and to prevent injustice and oppression’ (p. 9). Religion is even used in communication, as stated by Buchele (2008): ‘Before embarking on a task, from starting their car to sitting down to a meal, people invoke divine protection by muttering the first word of the Koran, Bismillah [in the name of God]’ (p. 93). In addition, advertisers use religious quotes during important celebrations, such as in the holy month of Ramadan, with advertisements showing families enjoying their food, while messages are broadcast to remind audiences about the significance of Ramadan (Hammond, 2007). Therefore, even the advertising sector is obliged to respect religious values. Specifically, advertisements must not promote alcohol, gambling, or immodest dress. Neither should they be deceptive or misleading to customers (Luqmani, Yavas, & Quraeshi, 1989). The above authors point out that most successful advertising in Saudi Arabia appears to integrate Arab culture and Arabic proverbs, such as ‘choose your companion

108   Yazeed Abdullah Almahraj carefully before you travel’. Moreover, advertisements and promotional material are not transmitted during prayer time. Although a number of studies have been carried out on the use of religion in advertisements, only a very few, such as Kirat’s (2005) examination of the Islamic roots of modern public relations, have examined the use of religion in public relations or the way in which religion influences public relations practice. Therefore, this chapter examines how Islam influences everyday public relations practice and is used in communications with the public.

Clarification of the term ‘profession’ In Saudi public relations practice, the code of ethics and professional standards that are set for the PR occupation derive from Islam. For this reason, it is vital to examine the concept of ‘profession’. According to Larson (1979) professionals require skills that non-­ professionals do not have and for this reason, professional training is necessary. In the opinion of Larson (1979), Yang and Taylor (2013), and Jackson (1970), public relations practice should be viewed as a profession, because it corresponds to the steps leading to professionalisation, such as education, membership of professional associations, abiding by a code of ethics, and assuming responsibility for the ethical dissemination of information in society. Although public relations associations in the West do provide ethical guidelines, they have no legal power to enforce penalties for unethical public relations practice (Grunig & Hunt, 1984). In the Arab world, the concept of a profession is not understood in the Western sense, because Arabs tend not to be career-­driven (Hasan, 2013). Buhannad (1998) explains that the word, ‘profession’ translates as mehna in Arabic, which indicates a career involving advanced skills. However, when the word ‘profession’ occurs in the Western literature, it always relates to a code of ethics, but Buhannad (1998) clarifies that mehna in the Arab world refers to skills rather than ethics. Nevertheless, from an Islamic point of view, all a person’s daily activities and relationship to his or her profession are regulated by Islam. Meanwhile, Abdullah (2004) claims that the word for ‘profession’ in Arabic is synonymous with al-­itqan (diligence). In the Quran, the word al-­ihsan is likewise used to describe the best practice and is consequently applied to engineering and law when indicating approaches or activities as ‘professional’ (Abdullah, 2004).

Culture, ethics, and religion in Saudi public relations practice Saudi public relations practitioners feel that they have their own code of ethics and professional standards, which are derived from Islam and their culture. For this reason, it could be concluded that there is no need for a specific code of ethics for the public relations profession in Saudi Arabia.

Public relations in Saudi Arabia   109 Religion Islam inevitably influences the way in which public relations practitioners communicate with their publics. For example, in Saudi Arabia, religion is inherent within the language. This can be seen from the utterance of the word, Bismillah (in the name of God), taken from the Quran, before undertaking a task. The participants in this current research recognised that they not only used religious quotes in messages to the public at large but also in their business meetings. One participant explained: ‘We had a campaign called Smile and we tried to influence the target audience by using some of the Prophet Mohammed’s statements (smiling at your brother is a good deed)’. Thus, in order to be persuasive in their language, public relations practitioners incorporate Islamic values into it. This then transmits cultural knowledge through cultural signs in the form of religious quotes. Saudi public relations practitioners tend to use Islamic references because they have generally grown up in Saudi cultural and religious contexts. Therefore, their worldview and the way in which they communicate and interact cannot be understood without a connection to this cultural background. Thus, Saudi public relations practitioners integrate religious elements into their communication. In brief, the cultural knowledge possessed by Saudi public relations practitioners is transmitted through cultural signs via religious quotes in their work. One Islamic value that is highlighted in public relations communications is honesty. Although it is promoted and encouraged all over the world, it is most prominent in the Saudi interpretation of Islam. This means that when a practitioner makes a decision on ethical grounds, he or she will examine it from an Islamic point of view. For example, one participant in this study confirmed that ‘Islam encourages us to be trustworthy and honest, so during my work, this value is influencing me when I deal with any subject that is related to my work’. The Islamic religion has a code of ethics that encourages practitioners to be ethical and honest in their work. For example, Islam not only influences communication but also promotes ethical behaviour. Conversely, public relations associations and public relations departments in Saudi Arabia have not drafted or adopted an official code of ethics, which means that Saudi public relations practitioners do not need to comply with a distinct code (Abdullah, 2004; Abdulghafour, 2009; Hasan, 2013; Moosa, 2014). However, Afifi (2007) claims that an official code of ethics is not necessary for companies in Saudi Arabia because Muslims have a general ethical code provided by Islam. Therefore, in Saudi public relations departments, it is assumed that practitioners will follow their own moral code, derived indirectly from their cultural environment. Thus, the performance of high-­quality work in an ethical manner is associated with religious conscience, because Islam encourages individuals to be ethical and professional in their work (Abdullah, 2004; Abdulghafour, 2009; Hasan, 2013; Moosa, 2014). Abozayd (2007) adds that

110   Yazeed Abdullah Almahraj in jobs involving communications, such as journalism, Islamic values must be maintained, as well as observing government rules. Moreover, Abdullah (2004), Abdulghafour (2009), and Hasan (2013) declare that Islam has helped shape the notion of professionalism in the Middle East, which means that individuals are required to be diligent and to perform high-­quality work that is ethical in nature. Ethics Irrespective of the above, according to the criteria for a profession that are outlined by Larson (1979), Yang and Taylor (2013), and Jackson (1970), public relations in Saudi Arabia does not fit the definition. This is because, according to Yang and Taylor (2013), a profession requires a code of ethics, in order for responsibility to be assumed for any information disseminated in the wider society, namely that this information should be ethical in content and distributed in an ethical manner. Nevertheless, Yang and Taylor’s (2013) criteria point to public relations in general being a profession, because it fulfils all the stages towards professionalisation: education, formation of professional associations, compliance with a code of ethics, assuming responsibility for the ethical communication of information to the public, and the ability to finance itself. To elaborate on what was mentioned earlier, Buhannad (1998) states that in the Western world, professionalism often implies the presence of a code of ethics. The existence of such a code is important in a profession because its absence is likely to lead to unethical behaviour (Fitzpatrick & Gauthier, 2001; White, L’Etang, & Moss, 2009). However, although Saudi public relations departments do not have an official code of ethics, Saudi society as a whole is influenced by Islam, which encourages individuals to be professional (Abdullah, 2004; Abdulghafour, 2009; Hasan, 2013; Moosa. 2014). It is important to note here that in the West the role of religion has diminished and. for this reason, there is a distance between the religious sphere and the economic, political, and professional spheres (Kalthoff, 2015). In contrast, religion is part of public life in Saudi Arabia, influencing all its sectors. Therefore, there is no need for an ethical distinction or for a separate code of ethics in a profession. This could even be considered inappropriate because all Saudis are expected to work within the same ethical context. Thus, the Western view of what constitutes a profession or ethics differs from the Saudi view. The Islamic code of ethics is embedded in Saudi society. In a study about business ethics in Islam, Abuznaid (2009) noted that Muslims are encouraged by their religion to be honest, trustworthy, and conscientious in their work. Moreover, Islam forbids behaviour that includes lying, stealing, fraud, or deceit in practice. Similarly, the Public Relations Society of America’s Code of Ethics encourages practitioners to act responsibly; be honest, accurate, and fair in their communication and relationships with clients; and remain loyal to those whom they represent. In addition, they ask practitioners to use their

Public relations in Saudi Arabia   111 knowledge in a responsible manner and to promote respect between public relations professionals (Public Relations Society of America, 2018). Saudi exceptionalism As stated previously, Saudis feel a religious connection to their country, as it hosts the holy mosques of Makkah and Madinah. Saudi exceptionalism is, therefore, a cultural feature with a strong influence on many individuals in the Kingdom, shaping their view of the world and the ways in which they communicate and work. Such exceptionalism is strongly connected to conservatism, privacy, and boundaries. For example, several participants in the present research expressed pride in the fact that Makkah and Medina were located in Saudi Arabia and agreed that this had influenced their culture. One participant stated: ‘Saudi Arabia is a different country from the rest of the world, we have similar habits to the Arab Gulf states, and Saudi Arabia has a unique thing, which is the two holy places: Makkah and Medina’. In terms of public relations practice, exceptionalism is reflected in a conservative view of the world, such as the exercise of self-­censorship and the use of religious themes. Moreover, it is revealed in work practices, including gender separation and respect for privacy and boundaries. Finally, it is connected to the family and tribe. Conservatism In Saudi society, conservatism is expressed in the form of strict social boundaries, such as privacy, gender separation, respect for the wishes of the tribe, commitment to religion, and dedication to culture. The interviewees stated that in their public relations practice, the conservatism of Saudi society meant that, when writing press releases, they were obliged to express conservative views; impose self-­censorship; take into consideration the values of society in their communications; maintain traditions, and uphold cultural values in their public relations work. In addition, they were bound to respect the privacy of others and the reputation of their family and tribe. Therefore, self-­censorship is practiced in order to avoid offending society. The participants in this research noted that when public campaigns or adverts were found to be immoral by society, they were criticised and penalised by that society. This shows that even though Saudi public relations practitioners are aware of the cultural features of Saudi society, their knowledge of their own culture was still incomplete, as Saudi society was still mediating their learning. Therefore, it is evident that Saudi society always penalises those who cross the bounds of morality, sometimes forcing companies to withdraw their campaigns. Moreover, it appears to be far more beneficial to express a conservative point of view in Saudi Arabia, as it is viewed as a feature that offers stability, security, and boundaries. Additionally, conservatism is characterised by a

112   Yazeed Abdullah Almahraj society that only accepts change slowly. One participant in the present study recalled that Saudi society did not initially accept the idea of tourism, but now even its more conservative cities are slowly embracing the idea of carnivals. Although Saudi culture has a tendency to maintain its traditions, change seems to be inevitable. The changes that have occurred in Saudi Arabia so far have been determined by economic and technological development and by extensive government reforms, as well as by the introduction of the internet, and the many Saudi students who travel abroad to study (Facey, Lunde, Mckinnon, & Pledgea, 2006; Kenney & Moosa, 2014; Friedman, 2015). These reforms have been designed and applied by government institutions and religious leaders, working together to bring about change in Saudi society, such as a rise in the quality of life, an increase in the number of women in the workplace, and the shrinking of large families into nuclear family units (Al-­Ahmed, 1987; Al-­Hussain & Al-­Marzooq, 2015). Gorney (2016) believes that Saudi society seeks to preserve its identity, but at the same time accepts the fact that the world is changing. One example of this is the way in which religious leaders have adopted new technology for their own benefit, namely developing smartphone applications with an Islamic theme (Kenney and Moosa, 2014). In addition to the above, conservatism is reflected in self-­censorship, which Saudi public relations practitioners see as a means of protecting themselves. For this reason, self-­censorship is a positive guide for public relations practitioners through knowledge of Islamic values and society’s traditions and customs. One participant in the present research explained this as follows: If I write a report about the discovery of a statue, and in the report I mention this statue was an idol in the era before Islam, I will receive bad feedback from the public, because I touched something holy in their religion, which is mentioning the idol, and the idol goes against the core of Islam. It is important to point out that in Islam, idolatry is a serious issue, due to the fact that it is seen as ‘associating … the relative with the absolute, or the created with the uncreated’ (Burckhardt, 1970, p. 1). This means that there is no attempt to portray prophets, saints, or any other human figures, as these images could lead to the creation of a cult. Therefore, none of the above-­ mentioned individuals are portrayed in paintings or sculptures, out of respect for them and for God. Privacy Besides displaying a conservative view, Saudi society values privacy and boundaries. These concepts include wearing modest clothes and separating people by gender in public places. Public relations practice is influenced by

Public relations in Saudi Arabia   113 this cultural feature because if the rule of gender segregation is not respected, society will penalise the practitioners concerned. To illustrate this, one practitioner taking part in this study noted at a conference organised by their public relations team that there was no wall separating the men from the women. The female participants in the conference subsequently complained. Therefore, when rules are not respected, public relations practitioners are criticised by local society. Privacy is highly valued in Saudi society. For example, the privacy of the family is important, because Saudis prefer to spend most of their time with their families. Public spaces like restaurants and parks, therefore, have private family sections, where families can enjoy some time together shielded from the public eye (Buchele, 2008). This cultural feature of privacy also relates to respecting an individual’s privacy and protecting the reputation of the family and tribe. Thus, the Saudi social environment is heavily influenced by the distinction between private and public spheres of life, which is clearly drawn and, likewise, connected with gender separation. Gender separation Gender separation is in fact enforced by law in Saudi Arabia, which means that public places, such as hospitals and schools, have separate sections for men and women, and male and female students attend separate institutions (World Trade Press, 2010). According to El- Sanabary (1994), this gender separation is intended to preserve Saudi culture and society, but Muslim scholars vary in their views on this. Sidani (2005) points out that Islam encourages both genders to contribute to society. However, the way that this is interpreted will depend on the country and region. In public relations work, the research results show that public relations practitioners are obliged to respect rules of gender separation, or else face penalties from the respective society. For example, when organising conferences, the rooms need to be divided by gender. If this is not observed, the public will intervene and criticise the organisers, with the company image consequently being affected.

Conclusion This chapter attempts to fill in the gap in the literature on Saudi public relations by permitting a greater understanding of the influence of religion and other cultural features, such as gender separation, privacy, and conservatism on public relations in that context. Examining how these cultural factors influence the activities of Saudi public relations practitioners may help researchers to design and develop tools to further develop public relations practice in Saudi Arabia. For this purpose, theorists must consider the cultural factors in Saudi Arabia, such as Saudi exceptionalism, that determine public relations practitioners’ conservative viewpoint and their desire to preserve traditions.

114   Yazeed Abdullah Almahraj In addition, Saudi public relations practitioners use Islam as an ethical code in everyday work. Furthermore, in Saudi Arabia, there is a different understanding of ethics compared to Western ethics. Saudis view ethics from an Islamic point of view, and Islam has a strong influence on their inner moral code. This is why Saudi companies do not have official code of ethics because they assume individuals will respect their own personal code of ethics. The chapter demonstrates that, indeed, local culture has an influence on practises from an ethical perspective. Religious ethics are present in all sector of life, including the workplace and in all occupations. Consequently, public relations practitioners use religion as a moral guide as no official guides of behaviour were created by the government, by public relations associations, or by the companies for which practitioners work.

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7 A critical snapshot of the practice of public relations in the United Arab Emirates Badran A. Badran

Introduction This chapter begins with an overview of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) that includes the highlights of the UAE’s modern history, society, political system, economy, and media landscape. Next, the chapter provides a brief historical narrative of the evolution of public relations practice in the UAE. This narrative also highlights the prevailing perceptions and early uses of public relations in the country, which intersect in many places with traditional hospitality functions. Also discussed are the socio-­cultural factors that have impacted the evolution of public relations, including the role of poetry and the ‘majlis’ as an indigenous Emirati and Gulf institution, with a special focus on their communication and public relations dimensions. Hospitality is another socio-­cultural antecedent of PR in the UAE, and it is discussed in this chapter. Next, the chapter illustrates and critically assesses the unique context and status of public relations in the UAE today. Public relations functions in the UAE’s public and private work environments are discussed, and appropriate case studies are used. Finally, a summative conclusion discusses the implications and future directions of public relations in the UAE.

The United Arab Emirates: an overview The United Arab Emirates is located in southwest Asia, in the east of the Arabian Peninsula, and is bordered on the north and northwest by the Arabian Gulf and to the east by the Indian Ocean. The country shares land borders with the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in the south and west and with the Sultanate of Oman in the southeast. The UAE has a maritime border with Qatar on the northwest. The country has an area of 83,600 km² (Abu Dhabi Chamber, 2018). The UAE is mostly arid, with about 74 per cent of the land area consisting of desert, although the wide variety of landscapes include sand dunes, rugged mountains, oases, and flat coastal plains. Mountains represent 2.6 per cent of the total area. Within the territorial waters of the United Arab Emirates are over 200 islands. The UAE population, according

Public relations in the United Arab Emirates   119 to 2016 official estimates, was 9.1 million, with a gender split of 69 per cent male and 31 per cent female. The majority of the population lives in cities such as Dubai, Sharjah, and Abu Dhabi, which is the federal capital (Federal Competitiveness and Statistics Authority, 2017; UAE population and statistical trends, 2016). An important feature of the UAE population that affects its media landscape is the large expatriate (non-­Emirati) population in the country, which also has implications for the country’s economy, culture, and society (Population and statistical trends, 2016). These demographic realities have created an imbalanced population composition in favour of males (gender) and non-­Emiratis (ethnicity/nationality). Before the foundation of the UAE, the Trucial States (TS) of Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Umm Al Quwain, Ras Al Khaimah, and Fujairah, together with Qatar and Bahrain, had protection treaties with Great Britain. After Great Britain announced in 1968 its intention to end its treaties with these states and to withdraw its forces from the Gulf by the end of 1971, the TS formed the Federation or Union of Arab Emirates in March 1968. However, Bahrain and Qatar decided to secede from the federation in 1971, opting for separate independence. The UAE became independent on 2 December 1971, with six of the seven TS as members. The seventh TS, Ras al Khaymah, joined the federation on 10 February 1972. The Ruler of Abu Dhabi, the late Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, was elected by his fellow rulers as the first President of the UAE (Ministry of Presidential Affairs, 2016). The political system in the UAE includes several federal institutions, including the Federal Supreme Council, comprised of the Rulers of the seven Emirates, being the highest authority. Other federal institutions include the President and Vice President of the federal state, the Cabinet, the Federal National Council (an advisory body), and the Federal Judicial System (Ministry of Presidential Affairs, 2016). The social life of Emiratis was greatly influenced by the harsh climate and the mostly arid terrain of the eastern part of the Arabian Peninsula. Everyone belonged to a tribal group and swore allegiance to it. Thus, everyone was duty-­bound to protect his tribe and, in turn, be assured of the same from the rest of his tribe members. The tribal people settled and moved together in groups. The Bani Yas was the largest tribal group. It wandered the deserts of the emirates of Abu Dhabi and Dubai (Government.ae, 2017a). Heard-­Bey’s book, The Tribal Society of the UAE and its Traditional Economy, considers the availability of water as key to the economic life and, hence, to the social structure of the old UAE. The country can be broadly divided into three regions: (1) the coast and islands; (2) the Hajar mountain range, with its valleys and adjacent gravel plains; and (3) the sprawling desert (Heard-­Bey, 1997). Emirati culture is characterised by sharing and participation. In the old days, the ruling Sheikhs would travel to remote areas and would camp in villages, where they would hold informal meetings in large tents. These meetings largely involved sharing, discussing, and resolving local issues relating to

120   Badran A. Badran society, agriculture, trade and economy, housing, medical, and other topics relating to the well-­being and happiness of their people. These meetings were referred to as ‘barza’ or ‘majlis’ (Arabic words for gatherings) and drew many Emiratis (Government.ae, 2017a). The oil era in the UAE has manifested itself in UAE society in a variety of ways. These include the movement of Bedouins from desert to newly constructed urban areas that offered markets, jobs, and services; an influx of expatriates from other countries and the formation of non-­Arab minorities; the spread of non-­traditional education, including women’s education; the spread of culture and the means of social development and the increase in individual income and improvement of the standard of living (As’eed & Shorab, 2016). As’eed and Shorab (2016) view the main unifying factors of Emirati society as religion, ethnicity, history, geography, customs, traditions, and political structure. Of special relevance is their broad view of the importance of culture in UAE society. Poetry, proverbs, sayings, and anecdotes were influenced by the desert environment and sea life. In addition, music, folk dancing, and fine and applied arts representing the Emirati heritage, such as architecture and ornaments, were also distinctive manifestations of Emirati culture. UAE society is generally divided into two broad social groups: Emirati nationals and foreign expatriates (or expats). One interpretation of Emirati social stratification is to view Emiratis as subdivided into four main social classes: (1) the ruling families of the seven Emirates, whose members hold the highest political positions and power; (2) the merchant or business class, traditionally pearling merchants, who have now moved to the modern economy; (3) the new middle class, represented by public sector professionals and private sector entrepreneurs; and (4) low-­income groups, represented by newly settled Bedouin nomads and former pearl divers and oasis farmers (United Arab Emirates, 2007). Before the discovery of oil in the 1950s, the economy of the pre-­ independent UAE consisted mainly of nomadic farming, date-­palm cultivation, fishing, pearling, and seafaring. Since then, the extraction of oil and gas, trade, real estate, business services, construction, and manufacturing have dominated the UAE economy (Government.ae, 2018). Since the discovery of oil, the economy has been influenced mainly by these sectors (with percentage of contribution to GDP): extraction of crude oil and natural gas (34.3 per cent), wholesale and retail trade (11.3 per cent), repair services (11.3 per cent), real estate (10.3 per cent), business services (10.3 per cent), construction (9 per cent), and manufacturing (9 per cent) (Government.ae, 2018). Considering its post-­oil future, the UAE has adopted a policy of economic diversification. Sectors such as tourism, air transport, trade, financial services, manufacturing, and alternative energy are developed and are highly competitive with the rest of the world. According to the IMD World Competitiveness Rankings, the leading annual report on the competitiveness of nations, the UAE is ranked first regionally and seventh globally amongst 62 countries reviewed for their capability to manage their resources for long-­ term value creation (IMD World Competitiveness Rankings 2018 Results).

Public relations in the United Arab Emirates   121 The World Economic Forum’s (WEF ) Global Competitiveness Report 2017–2018 ranks the UAE seventeenth globally and notes that the country continues to lead the Arab World in terms of competitiveness. This improvement, the WEF notes, shows the resilience of the UAE economy, in part due to increased diversification, which is reflected in its strengthening macroeconomic environment and its ability to endure lower oil and gas prices and reduced global trade. To further increase its competitiveness, the UAE will have to speed up progress in terms of spreading the latest digital technologies and upgrading education where it occupies the thirty-­sixth place globally in both (The World Economic Forum, 2017). Critical issues that will be facing the UAE economy in the next decade include: (1) land degradation and desertification being caused by population increase and consumption systems; (2) rising electricity demand, with consumption considered among the highest per capita in the world; (3) high per-­ capita waste generation, which is also considered among the highest in the world; (4) improving air quality to meet required standards; (5) pollution resulting from human activities such as fuel emissions from energy, water, transport, and industrial activities; (6) high energy, water, and carbon footprints that are considered among the highest in the world due to the hot and dry climate; and (7) over-­fishing, over-­exploitation of natural resources, and climate change (including drought) that affect indigenous marine species and habitats (Abu Dhabi Chamber, 2018). Media landscape The Cultural Sites of Al Ain (Hafit, Hili, Bidaa Bint Saud, and Oases Areas) – which are part of the Emirates of Abu Dhabi – are listed on UNESCO’s World Heritage List because they: provide exceptional testimony to the development of successive prehistoric cultures in a desert region, from the Neolithic to the Iron Age. They establish the existence of sustainable human development, bearing testimony to the transition from hunter and nomad societies to the sedentary human occupation of the oasis, and the sustainability of this culture up until the present day. (Cultural Sites of Al Ain, 2018) Ancient scripts discovered in the cultural sites of Al Ain and throughout the country indicate a degree of literacy, albeit limited. But for millennia, the land now called the UAE has maintained a strong tradition of oral communication. Today, the UAE has a high literacy rate and is one of the most tech-­ savvy societies in the Middle East and North Africa region (MENA) region. It has one of the highest online penetration rates, highest concentration of media free zones, and largest radio market throughout the region (Arab Media Outlook Report, 2016).

122   Badran A. Badran A particularly pertinent feature of the UAE economy is its free zones. In 2017, the country had 45 multi-­specialty free zones (20 in Dubai alone) that offer incentives such as exemption from corporate taxes and import/export duties, full foreign ownership, simpler recruitment and workforce processes, and others. According to a report in Gulf News, free zones contributed one third of the UAE’s non-­oil trade in 2014 (Bitar, 2015). Media free zones (MFZ) exist in the UAE as part of these special zones. They include Dubai’s Media City, Studio City, International Media Production Zone, Abu Dhabi’s twofour54, Sharjah’s Media City (Shams), Fujairah’s Creative City, and others (Cherian, 2017). They include the full spectrum of media industries, including public relations and advertising agencies. A case study of the role that MFZ play in the local and international media landscape is Abu Dhabi’s twofour54 (Twofour54 Abu Dhabi, 2018). It was established in 2008 as a platform to support the development of local media and to encourage Arabic-­language content creation in the private sector. The zone’s responsibility includes laying the foundations for a sustainable industry that attracts top-­name, high-­quality projects, both nationally and internationally, and translates into stronger local production capacity. The free zone’s efforts have been characterised as successful due to several factors. Among these is the reported significant growth of locally produced content in recent years. In addition, the zone has licensed more than 600 companies, 450 businesses, and a freelance community of 600. The zone’s production studios have been described as being utilised up to 92 per cent during the last three years (Twofour54 Abu Dhabi, 2018; Abu Dhabi’s investment in media free zone paying off, 2017). CNN is one of the most high-­profile organisations currently operating out of twofour54, and, in 2016, the broadcaster launched a newly upgraded facility there, which is home to CNN’s top current affairs programme, Connect the World with Becky Anderson (2018). Image Nation is another major subsidiary that is based in the free zone. In a relatively short period, it has joined the world’s leading feature-­film producers through its international division, while also playing a key role in building the foundations of a strong local film industry in Abu Dhabi. To this end, the company’s local division – Image Nation Abu Dhabi – oversees training and internship programmes that are designed to encourage local talent. To date, Image Nation’s major local productions have included the film From A to B and the documentary He Named Me Malala (All Documentaries, 2018), while international co-­productions include The Help, Men in Black, the Bollywood hit My Name is Khan, and others (All Movies, 2018). To support the burgeoning local film industry, the Abu Dhabi Film Commission (ADFC) offers a 30 per cent cash rebate to international production companies for qualifying expenditures on all projects made in the Emirates. The success of the initiative can be measured by the big-­budget productions that have been produced in Abu Dhabi. These include Star Wars: The Force Awakens, Fast and Furious 7, Star Trek Beyond, as well as numerous Bollywood

Public relations in the United Arab Emirates   123 productions and many episodes of international TV shows, including the United Kingdom’s Top Gear and the United States’ The Today Show (Abu Dhabi’s investment in media free zone paying off, 2017; Star Trek beyond, 2016). Among the country’s mass media, newspapers remain the dominant print platform, with eight Arabic and six English-­language dailies. Of the 14 dailies, four are state-­owned, while the remainder are privately owned. Circulation figures are amongst the highest in the Gulf. The Arab Media Outlook Report estimates that 56 per cent of newsreaders in the country read a newspaper every day, compared to 45 per cent in Saudi Arabia and 42 per cent in Egypt. Leading dailies in the UAE in circulation are Gulf News, Al Khaleej, Al Emarat Al Youm, Khaleej Times, Al Ittihad, and Al Bayan. Other foreign papers widely read in the country are The Times of India and Malayalam Manorama. In terms of newspaper content, most readers look for current affairs, politics and news, and sports (Arab Media Outlook Report, 2012). Magazines are another popular print medium in the country. The UAE remains a unique market given its demographic profile, with a mix of international magazines and different editions appealing to various ethnicities (Arab Media Outlook Report, 2012). Fashion journalism, with a focus on women, has remained a primary topic of interest. Top-­rated magazines in the UAE include Friday, Zahrat Al Khaleej, and Gulf News’ Entertainment Plus. The most preferred content for magazine readers in the UAE include fashion, celebrity news, culture, TV programmes, news and current affairs (Arab Media Outlook Report, 2012). A significant development in the last decade is the launch of a number of high-­profile and influential international magazines that significantly chose the UAE as their regional base, including Forbes Middle East, Bloomberg Business Week, Harper’s Bazaar Arabia, Vogue Arabia, Esquire ME, Conde Nast Traveler ME, Grazia Middle East, and Cosmopolitan ME. No reliable independent information currently exists about their circulation figures. The UAE hosts 72 free-­to-air (FTA) television channels and 16 terrestrial channels (Arab Media Outlook Report, 2016). Abu Dhabi Media and Dubai Media Incorporated are the two main media networks in the country, operating 22 local channels in total. Abu Dhabi Media is the largest network in the UAE with 13 TV channels, eight radio channels, four publications, and one digital publication (About Us, 2018; Dubai Media Incorporated, 2018). In addition, the UAE hosts international TV news channels such as Sky News Arabia, CNBC Arabiya, Al Arabiya, and a CNN office that provides local and regional news feeds to CNN in Atlanta. CNN also has a CNN Arabic website based in Dubai. International non-­news channels also operate from the country, such as National Geographic Abu Dhabi, ARY Digital, and Asianet Gulf (Index UAE, 2018). Local content broadcast by these global channels presents the UAE perspective on regional and international affairs and helps global audiences understand the region and UAE better. Top local TV genres are news, drama, entertainment, and sports. Saudi-­owned Pan Arab channels

124   Badran A. Badran such as Middle East Broadcasting Centre (MBC) continue to dominate the most-­watched channels in the UAE, particularly among expat Arabs. MBC operates 11 TV and two radio channels from its Dubai studios. ZEE TV is the leading Asian channel viewed in the UAE. The country has a high Indian expatriate population (Arab Media Outlook Report, 2016). Pay TV such as cable, BeIN Sports, Netflix, and others are available in the UAE, but free-­toair channels dominate the landscape. Market expert Max Signorelli considers that piracy and the offering of free quality content have played their roles in keeping pay TV in MENA very low at just 10 per cent of TV households (Neyra, 2017). The two licensed internet service providers, Etisalat and du, offer high-­ definition cable services to subscribers throughout the UAE. Their offerings include packages tailored for the country’s local and expat residents. The Telecommunications Regulatory Authority (TRA) regulates internet services in the country. Internet content not in line with UAE laws is blocked. This includes adult sites, gambling, and dating sites, illegal drug-­related sites, terrorism-­related sites, sites with anti-­UAE political agendas, and other categories. Since 2017, Qatari sites such as Al Jazeera TV have been blocked following the rift between Qatar and some of its Arab Gulf neighbours (Internet censorship in Dubai and UAE, 2018). The UAE has over 40 radio stations, making it the most developed and diverse radio market in the region. Of the 40 stations, 14 radio stations are in Arabic, and the remainder are distributed across English, Hindi, Tamil, Tagalog, Malayalam, Russian, Persian, and Urdu languages. ‘The majority of UAE radio listeners listen to channels in their cars, due to ease of access, free use, and increase in commuting time’. Music is the primary reason for listening to radio in the UAE, followed by news and religious radio. ‘Radio in the UAE is expected to grow, led by its ability to substitute for expensive media such as print’ (Arab Media Outlook Report, 2016). A lively social media presence has become the order of the day for the region’s media companies as they move to attract and retain consumers. In the UAE, where 34 per cent of the population is under 25 years of age, social media has a penetration rate of 56 per cent, almost double the global average of 29 per cent (Abu Dhabi’s investment in media free zone paying off, 2017). On average, a person in the UAE owns three internet-­connected devices, ranging from a laptop, tablet, smartphone, smart TV, to a set-­top box (Arab Media Outlook Report, 2016). About 91 per cent of UAE residents own a smartphone, while 89 per cent of people access the internet daily (Khamis, 2017). Mobile use is expected to continue rising, with more than 80 per cent of users going online while watching TV, while 84 per cent go online using a mobile rather than using a desktop computer (Khamis, 2017). When it comes to online activities, the Arab Media Outlook Report (2016) says that search, social networking, and video are primary services used by UAE users. Facebook and its services, such as Messenger, Instagram, and WhatsApp, dominate social networking services, a 2016 survey conducted by Northwestern

Public relations in the United Arab Emirates   125 Table 7.1 Most-used social media platforms in UAE 2016 Social media platform

Percentage of UAE nationals who use it

WhatsApp Facebook YouTube Instagram Twitter

95 82 81 60 55

Source: 2016 Media Use in the Middle East Survey.

University in Qatar reveals (Northwestern University in Qatar, 2016). Snapchat is another popular application among the young. The report states that Emirati nationals are highly active on social media. The country has the highest per-­capita mobile phone penetration in the Arab world, estimated at 80.6 per cent, including widespread social media access via smartphones. The advertising industry has had an earlier start in the UAE than has the public relations industry, which grew within an advertising environment (Arthur, 1993; Badran, 2014). Many communication consultancies in the UAE maintain both advertising and public relations units, among other units. According to the International Advertising Association (IAA), the UAE Chapter is the largest IAA chapter in the world, ‘reflecting the dynamic growth of the regional marketing and marketing communications industries. Current membership includes over 150 companies’ (The IAA UAE Chapter, 2018). The MEPRA Benchmark Survey (MEPRA, 2016) found that, traditionally, public relations spending has been subsumed into advertising budgets, either by advertising agencies taking on public relations as part of their integrated services or when a media outlet had promised ‘free PR’ as an add-­on if advertising is purchased. Although the drop in oil prices since mid-­2014 has slowed advertising spending, the UAE remains the largest advertising market in the MENA region, according to the Dubai Lynx MENA Showcase book (Abu Dhabi’s investment in media free zone paying off, 2017). Newspapers and television still lead the way in advertising revenues in the region – accounting for approximately $4.1 billion, or nearly 80 per cent of the region’s total ad spending. A noticeable trend is the steady rise in online advertising, according to the Oxford Business Group that cites a study by Northwestern University in Qatar (Abu Dhabi’s investment in media free zone paying off, 2017). Media law of the United Arab Emirates is articulated through the UAE Constitution, ministerial clarifications, specific laws dealing with media activities, and the practical application of these laws by the National Media Council (NMC) and the Telecommunications Regulatory Authority (TRA). It is through the UAE Constitution that the spirit and tone of the UAE’s media law is firmly established. Articles 30 and 31 of the UAE Constitution lay out the basis upon which the media are understood to play a fundamental

126   Badran A. Badran role in Emirati society. For example, Article 30 of the UAE Constitution guarantees the ‘freedom to hold opinions and express them orally, in writing or by other means of expression shall be guaranteed within the limits of the law’ (United Arab Emirates 1971). Article 31 guarantees the ‘freedom of communication by means of the posts, telegraph or other means of communication and their secrecy shall be guaranteed in accordance with the law’ (United Arab Emirates 1971). Through these constitutional articles, it can be inferred that the UAE has written into the constitution a reference to freedom of the press. Although freedom of communication and freedom of expression are actions that can be related to media, it could be argued that the UAE Constitution does not specifically mention the media and that the freedom to communicate and express do not necessarily apply to them (Piecowye, 2018). The UAE Government has sought to clarify through ministerial clarifications what might be seen as constitutional ambiguity with respect to the media and freedom of communication and expression. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation says: ‘The UAE Constitution outlines the freedoms and rights of all citizens, prohibits torture, arbitrary arrest and detention, and protects civil liberties, including freedom of speech and press …’ (The UAE and Human Rights, 2018). This statement clearly clarifies that the UAE Constitution does, indeed, promote press freedom and that this is the foundation upon which all UAE media law is built. While there are instances of press freedom in the UAE, it is important to note that this freedom does have limits and, as articles 30 and 31 make clear, these limits are clarified through the laws that regulate media and media activities in the UAE. The Penal Code of the UAE serves as the overall guide to all legal matters related to media and is referenced by most, if not all, of the laws that speak to media activity, communication, and expression. Through the Penal Code, legal expectations, fines, and terms of incarceration are outlined. More specifically, two laws are directly related to media activities: Federal Decree & Law No. 15 for 1980 concerning publications and publishing; and Federal Decree & Law No. 5 of 2012 on Combating Cybercrimes. The 1980 law concerning publications and publishing contains 108 articles that set the broad guidelines for all aspects of media activities in the UAE. Chapter 7 specifically outlines what cannot be published. The challenge that the UAE faces with its 1980 law concerning publications and publishing is that this law is outdated and does not account for today’s media environment. The 2012 cybercrimes law specifically speaks to today’s rapid growth of electronic media and the expectations of those using it, whether they are professional media outlets or private citizens. The NMC and TRA further elaborate upon both publications and publishing and the cybercrimes law. These two agencies are tasked with administering UAE media law and, in turn, serve to guide the interpretation of media laws as they relate to current media practice, whether that be in professional or public usage.

Public relations in the United Arab Emirates   127 The UAE has made clear statements through its Constitution as well as through a series of laws about the role and expectations of the local media. The media environment has become more complex both domestically and internationally, in part because of the rise of the internet and, in part, by the rise of social media that have created a more level playing field for the communication and expression of ideas by all in society. The UAE, through its laws and agencies, continues to work to create a climate that is media-­ friendly, but that also has clear expectations that respect the culture, heritage, and the religious basis of the nation (Piecowye, 2018).

Evolution of public relations in the UAE Like elsewhere in the Arabian Peninsula and Gulf region, the UAE has had a long history of traditional public relations practice that has been expressed through, poetry, oratory, the ‘majlis’, the mosque, hospitality, emissaries, and various local customs that prescribed internal and external relationships among tribes and between rulers and subjects. Public relations has developed since the mid-­twentieth century when mass media were basic and when sophisticated public relations practice was almost non-­existent, vague, misunderstood, or defined to mean protocol, hospitality, and general services of various kinds (Creedon, Al-­Khaja, & Kruckeberg, 1995; Badran, 2014). Since the advent of Western public relations practice in the UAE in the 1970s, brought about by the oil industry and associated businesses, a transformation took place. Alliances between multinational communication conglomerates and local advertising agencies began to dominate the local scene. Arthur (1993) commented on the introduction of modern public relations in the UAE: event marketing, the new buzz word in the profession, has led to the mushrooming of public relations cells in the Gulf, which hitherto relied on only a handful of international PR agencies, the three prominent ones being Hill & Knowlton, Burson-­Marsteller Intermarkets and Fortune Promoseven.

Socio-­cultural factors affecting the evolution of PR Mansfield (1981) says that poetry was the most popular art in the Arabian culture and was a model for public communication. Poetry was used extensively for a variety of purposes in pre- and post-­Islamic periods in Arab society. Badawi (1975) argued that the purposes of poetry in the Arab tradition were self-­praise (fakhr), panegyric or praise (madih), satire (hija’), elegy (ritha’), description (wasf ), amatory verse (ghazal), and religious verse (zuhd). These uses of poetry correspond to many uses of public relations in the twenty-­first century. For example, Fakhri, Alsheekley, Zalzala, & Sadiq (1980) considered the poet to be the press secretary of his tribe, attacking the

128   Badran A. Badran tribe’s enemies, praising the tribe’s accomplishments, and strengthening the fighters’ morale. These uses correspond to some tactics often used in modern­day Arab political communication, including in inter-­GCC affairs. Relevant to this discussion are the uses of Nabati poetry, a form of poetry and oratory with colloquial Arabic, which has been considered a feature of life in the Arabian Peninsula since the sixteenth century. Nabati poetry is now prevalent in the Gulf and represents a distinct literary voice for the people of this region. The poetry of Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashed Al Maktoum, UAE Vice President, Prime Minister, and Ruler of Dubai, tends to address themes related to general public events, rather than personal matters. As Sheikh Mohammed said: ‘The subjects closest to my heart are those that are closest to people’. Therefore, he has written several poems in honour of the late Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, the founder of the modern UAE, and his own father, the late Sheikh Rashid Al Maktoum, praising their wise leadership of the UAE (HH Sheikh Mohammad and Nabati poetry, 2018). Such poems were often shared with the public, being published in full pages of the UAE’s Arabic dailies. In an effort to spread awareness of his nation’s cultural heritage, Sheikh Mohammed has participated in a number of poetic ‘contests’ with other high-­profile poets from the region. These contests involve the poets responding to each other’s verses. ‘This poetic art is greatly appreciated by people as it arouses the spirit of competition between poets. I support and encourage this art because it brings about communication between poets,’ he said (HH Sheikh Mohammad Nabati poetry, 2018). Traditionally for millennia, the UAE had an informal participatory process in a public forum called the ‘majlis’ (Arabic for council), in which citizens interacted with rulers and community leaders to highlight problems and concerns in their communities in direct physical gatherings open to the public (Salem, 2015). Heard-­Bey (1997) describes the old Emirati Majlis: [T]he men … have always congregated in the majlis, the publicly accessible part of any household. In the majlis of the sheikh as well as of the businessman or of the fisherman on the coast, matters of state and matters of general interest are discussed, while the tiny cups of unsweetened light coffee with cardamom make the round. (Heard-­Bey, 1997) Al Kindari (2002) notes the Kuwaiti Majlis – called Dewaniya – has played an important role as an informal channel for the dissemination and discussion of news among citizens and between them and the political-­economic elite of the country. It has allowed decision-­makers to interact with public opinion before reaching important decisions. Alanazi (1996) considers the Majlis to be a conduit for the exchange of ideas and for public interaction. The Majlis also had an important socio-­cultural function as a place where fathers taught their sons local norms and traditions. It also represented a social venue in which Emiratis showed their hospitality, not just in welcoming guests but also in

Public relations in the United Arab Emirates   129 offering guests traditional Arab hospitality, including coffee, dates, food, and beverages. Al Shargawi (2015) said that this is part of the Emirati ‘Sana’, which is a set of authentic customs and traditions that govern the actions of the community as a system in which they deal with various aspects of life. The Emirati Majlis has evolved with modernity and technology. Although several such forums still exist throughout the UAE, albeit in modern formats, one form of such evolution is the Mohammed bin Rashid Smart Majlis, a 24/7 open e-­forum (www.mbrmajlis.ae). The site’s rationale is: The majlis has always been a national cornerstone. People gathered to share ideas and create solutions. In time, it grew bigger than ever, discussions had magnitude, solutions transformed the city. Today, in the era of the smart city and the growing community of Dubai, there is an urgent need to launch a smart majlis to continue receiving ideas and comments. A smart majlis that opens its doors to everyone to strengthen the position of Dubai in various fields and sectors. (MBR Majlis, 2018) As twenty-­first-century public relations scholars turn their attention to the centrality of ‘engagement’ with an organisation’s publics, and as organisations prioritise the need for authentic stakeholder involvement ( Johnston, 2014), the Emirati Majlis represents a perfect example of a centuries-­old public forum for engagement, be it social, political, cultural, economic, or otherwise.

Status of public relations in the UAE Today, modern public relations practice flourishes in various degrees in the UAE, principally in the three largest cities of Abu Dhabi, Dubai, and Sharjah, which is supported by a transformed public sector, a thriving private sector, local and multinational agencies, professional associations, and tertiary education. Dubai-­based Middle East Public Relations Association (MEPRA) defines public relations as a strategic discipline that focuses on reaching and influencing an organisation’s stakeholders such as employees, investors, media, bloggers, and government officials. It is the responsibility of public relations to help build an organisation’s relationships to influence stakeholders’ attitudes, opinions, and, ultimately, their behaviour (Bethell, 2018). This definition resembles other modern definitions that are proposed by leading Western public relations scholars, reflecting a fundamental shift in the way in which public relations is understood and practiced in the UAE. Bethell (2018) explains that the public relations profession often faces confusion about how and for what it operates. This confusion arises because individuals whose job it is to perform hospitality functions, or to obtain government permits, visas, and immigration for organisations, are often called ‘public relations officers’, or PROs (Creedon et al., 1995; Kirat, 2006; Badran, 2014). This old reality

130   Badran A. Badran of PR practice was summed up by Badran, Turk, and Walters (2009): ‘What once was viewed as the domain of good-­looking people who received visitors, provided hospitality, and arranged protocol, is now looked at as a business function, dedicated to managing the resources of the organisation for achieving organisational goals’. From a theoretical standpoint, the four models of public relations suggested by Grunig and Hunt (1984) as press agentry-­publicity, public information, two-­way asymmetric, and two-­way symmetric practice have manifested themselves during the evolution of PR in the UAE since the 1970s. In his study of virtual public relations in the UAE, Ayesh (2005) found evidence for a symmetrical model of PR in the country based on two-­way communications between government and private organisations on the one hand and their constituents on the other. This symmetrical function was facilitated by these organisations’ active use of the internet. Of special relevance to the UAE also is the personal influence model of public relations identified by Grunig, Grunig, Sriramesh, Huang, and Lyra (1995). This model described practitioners’ relationships with key individuals in various public and private spheres as a model to cultivate relationships between individuals to achieve an organisation’s objectives. According to Falconi (2011), personal influence is based on a person’s position and power in a social network. According to Sriramesh (2000), most of the PR professionals (in India) practiced what can be called the personal influence model in representing the interests of their organizations. As representatives of their organizations, they use interpersonal communication with strategic individuals to achieve PR objectives by means of developing rapport at the human (personal) level to represent the organization. Many former and present-­day PR practitioners in the UAE would find the personal-­influence model salient and relevant in their experience. MEPRA is one of several professional associations for public relations practitioners in the UAE. The other major organisation is the International Public Relations Association (IPRA), which has a Gulf Chapter that includes the UAE, plus other Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) members. While both have mixed memberships, MEPRA is generally perceived as more representative of the agency side and IPRA is more representative of the client side of the public relations industry in the UAE. In 2018, MEPRA had 350 members, compared to just 58 in 2006 (Hill, 2011). Its membership includes over 100 public relations agencies operating in the UAE alone. Its agency directory lists some of the top public relations, integrated communication, and media monitoring companies in the MENA region. These include small boutique agencies that offer niche products and services and others that are part of a larger advertising and marketing operation. The rest are full-­service agencies with regional presence that are often affiliated with global brands

Public relations in the United Arab Emirates   131 (Middle East Public Relations Association, 2018). On the other hand, The Gulf Chapter of IPRA operates through country chapters in Saudi Arabia, UAE, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, and Oman and claims to be the only association that focuses on the needs of Gulf and Arab nationals’ professional knowledge and growth (International Public Relations Association, 2014). Both MEPRA and IPRA provide similar services to their members. These include training and other forms of professional development, networking opportunities for public relations professionals, codes of ethics, events and conferences, awards ceremonies, and resources. MEPRA also supports public relations education by providing student chapters in local universities (Middle East Public Relations Association, 2018; International Public Relations Association, 2018). In 2011, Hill wrote that the version of public relations that is often practiced in the UAE is media relations ‘with a local twist’ – ‘usually there will be one media relations expert in every agency whose key role is to manage the press relationships’. Hill adds that public relations practitioners at that time were ‘just beginning to deal with stakeholder management and employee engagement’ (Hill, 2011). MEPRA’s 2016 Benchmark Survey reported that there were 122 public relations agencies in the UAE in 2010, up from 58 in 2006. It reported that the 2006 to 2010 period witnessed a 110 per cent growth in the development of the discipline. The report estimates that between 2,000 and 3,000 persons carried out some form of public relations work. The uncertainty as to the precise number has something to do with the lack of a centralised directory of public relations practitioners in the UAE. Even licensing an agency is not required unless it is set up in a free trade zone (MEPRA Benchmark Survey, 2016). MEPRA Chair Ray Eglington estimates that fewer than half of public relations practitioners in the UAE have any professional accreditation or academic qualification in PR. This was the impetus behind the association’s tying­up with the London-­based Chartered Institution of Public Relations (CIPR) to offer members a voluntary ‘new training curriculum’, offering free access to CIPR’s online continuing professional development (CPD) platform. MEPRA hopes to help participants with planning, managing, and recording all the professional activities they do as well as to spread best practices and accountability. Eglington also said MEPRA members are working across all different types of media, and with more stakeholders than ever before (Nair, 2017). MEPRA’s survey considered the UAE, particularly Dubai, to be one of the region’s main hubs for public relations. It has a sizeable community of practitioners – in-­house, freelance, and agency. Within the country, Dubai has provided much of the consultancy power to the capital, Abu Dhabi, although the survey notes that this is changing, with more agencies setting up shop in the capital (MEPRA Benchmark Survey, 2016). Currently, only five MEPRA agencies and nine corporate members give their address as Abu Dhabi (Middle East Public Relations Association, 2018). However, many Dubai-­based agencies also service other cities in the UAE.

132   Badran A. Badran In 2018, the top areas of public relations practice that MEPRA agencies currently undertake in the UAE are shown in Table 7.2, together with the UAE-­based agencies that provide them (MEPRA, 2018). Table 7.2 illustrates the top five areas of current public relations practice that are provided by local agencies. These are (1) media relations, (2) digital communication, (3) integrated strategic communication, (4) reputation management, and (5) crisis communication. Although only two MEPRA agencies are listed as providing social-­media services to clients – Impact Porter Novelli and In2 Consulting – this can be explained by the presence of other non-­ MEPRA agencies that specialise in social media, such as McCollins Media, Neesh, and Seven Media. How do PR agencies get their clients? Hanin Joudieh, communications director at Havas PR, says agencies occasionally receive requests for proposals (RFPs) from clients. Other times, word-­of-mouth referral works because a satisfied and happy customer can give positive feedback about the agency, which could result in getting new clients. Also, independent public relations consultants get small, but substantial, accounts (Tesorero, 2017). While many agencies prefer an annual retainer from a client, companies increasingly find it more cost-­effective to work with agencies on a project basis rather than to commit for an annual retainer contract. The reason for this is that UAE companies now have to justify each expense versus deliverables (Nimer, 2018). According to one public relations executive, what determines the reputation and scale of a public relations agency, to some extent, is whether it works more for corporate clients or for individual clients. Other considerations are the size of the agency’s workforce and its number of clients. In some cases, agencies specialise in corporate or consumer clients. ‘For us, we maintain a balance in a way. If a big client wanted to invite PR agencies to pitch for their brand, they would pick the top 5 or 6 agencies’ (Anonymous, 2018). Table 7.2 Area of public relations practice Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Area of public relations practice

Number of agencies

Media relations Digital communication Integrated strategic communication Reputation management Crisis communication Corporate relations Marketing communication Consumer relations; event management; investor relations; business to business Community relations; corporate social responsibility and employee engagement Employee communication; external relations; internal communications; issues management; public affairs and research

30 28 26 25  8  7  6   5 each   4 each   3 each

Public relations in the United Arab Emirates   133 The short list of top public relations agencies in the UAE today includes Edelman, Memac Ogilvy PR, APPCO, Hill+Knowlton, ASDAA Burson-­ Marsteller, and MEPRA’s Agency of The Year, Weber Shandwick. Another executive argued that perhaps a better way of asking the question would be which public relations agency is the biggest in the UAE for a specific industry, rather than for all clients (Nimer, 2018). Case study: PR agency Weber Shandwick (WS) is a leading global public relations and communications consultancy, with several offices throughout the world. WS MENA is headquartered in Dubai, with a regional network of offices in Dubai, Abu Dhabi, Kuwait, Cairo, Doha, as well as with affiliates across MENA. Weber Shandwick MENA specialises in developing and implementing pan-­Arab, multi-­market, regional, and international campaigns for the region. WS has a client roster that includes many of the world’s most recognised brands (Weber Shandwick MENA, 2018). WS describes itself as a creative studio of writers, designers, builders, strategists, conversation-­starters, and storytellers. It lists 13 specialisations, including aerospace and defence, charity and foundations, communications and media training, consumer technology, education, energy and cleantech, FMCG, industry and manufacturing, mobile and telecommunications, professional services, real estate, retail and leisure, and travel and tourism (Weber Shandwick MENA, 2018). WS’s practices include corporate communications, corporate responsibility, crisis management, digital engagement, government communications, social impact and technology, and others (Weber Shandwick MENA, 2018). WS’s Ghaleb Zeidan emphasises the importance of building personal relations with local media: A personal touch is always welcome in this part of the world, and nothing is more personal than a face-­to-face chat. Media want to feel like they have personal importance to both you and your clients. Giving them face-­time shows that you are keen on maintaining your partnership and interested in working with these specific people. This not only applies to PR practitioners, but also to clients. Media want to feel the same personal attention from an organization and its leadership. (Zeidan, 2014) Zeidan explains how WS goes about pitching and securing client stories in the UAE: We always handpick our media to make sure that we maximise the impact of any media opportunity we work on. We look at the medium that we want to penetrate and tailor our stories accordingly. We always ensure that the message we want to send impacts their readers and relates

134   Badran A. Badran to their daily lives. We research good journalists who would enable us to reach our target audience effectively, read their most recent articles, and try to find out how they work and ensure we pitch them the right story. (Zeidan, 2014) Case study: PR in a government department Dubai’s Department of Tourism and Commerce Marketing (DTCM) was established in 1997, replacing the Dubai Commerce and Tourism Promotion Board that had been in operation since 1989. DTCM is comprised of several entities and functions that work together to plan, supervise, develop, and market Dubai’s tourism industry. The portfolio includes Dubai Corporation for Tourism and Commerce Marketing (DCTCM), Dubai Business Events, and Dubai Festivals and Retail Establishment. In addition to its headquarters in Dubai, DTCM operates 20 offices worldwide from New York to Sao Paolo and from London to Hong Kong (Department of Tourism and ­Commerce Marketing, 2018). The overall goal of Dubai’s tourism strategy is to position the city as the ‘first choice’ for the international leisure and business traveller. This strategy outlines initiatives that are needed for Dubai to successfully drive and serve this visitor growth with multiple initiatives that include regulatory policy, infrastructure development, enhancement of product offering, and destination marketing investments. DTCM implements an integrated marketing communication approach for the branding, promotion, and marketing of Dubai. This approach includes marketing, advertising, promotion, public relations, social media, and other components. Although this is all subsumed under marketing, a better descriptor perhaps is marketing communication. Focusing on public relations, DTCM operates a press centre that regularly issues press releases and tourism news and also provides a gallery of videos and images about destination Dubai. There is also a dedicated media relations email account for press enquiries. In addition, DTCM offers press contacts for local and overseas enquiries. The official DTCM website has fact sheets, documents, and a quarterly magazine with an interactive digital version available for downloading. The Dubai Tourism Call Centre offers visitors up-­to-the-­minute information on all aspects of life in Dubai, including details on hotels, attractions and landmarks, shopping offers, and promotions. Users can also file complaints relating to tourism. The centre has multilingual staff who can deal efficiently with visitors from different countries. Two apps called ‘Visit Dubai’ and ‘Dubai Calendar’ are also available for visitors who wish to plan their visits ahead of their arrival. Moreover, the DTCM plans and implements a programme of international promotions and publicity activities, which includes participation in key exhibitions, marketing visits, presentations, and road shows, familiarisation and assisted visits, and advertising brochure production and distribution (Department of Tourism and Commerce Marketing, 2018). DTCM also has a strong presence on social media to reach its target public

Public relations in the United Arab Emirates   135 worldwide. For example, DTCM’s Visit Dubai Facebook page has over four million followers, 806,000 users follow its Instagram account, its YouTube channel has 170,264 subscribers, and 197,000 people follow its Twitter account. Pinterest, TripAdvisor, and other sites also carry significant content about Dubai, but these sites are mainly user-­driven rather than managed by DTCM. The preceding case studies about a PR agency and a government PR and marketing communication department are probably typical of large organisations in the UAE’s major cities of Dubai, Abu Dhabi, and Sharjah. However, this chapter argues that public relations practice in both the private and public sectors in the other Emirates (Ajman, Um Al Quwain, Ras Al Khaimah, and Fujairah) is less developed and offers fewer services than their counterparts in the country’s larger Emirates.

Public relations in the UAE public sector In the country’s public sector, public relations practice is common and widespread. Hill said that government drives much of this public relations work, but the growing private sector, education, NGOs, and a general influx of people have meant that more, as well as more open, communications are being demanded and provided (Hill, 2011). Also, most local and federal government units today have a department or directorate named either government communication, corporate communication, external communication, marketing communication, or a similar title. These units practise some of the functions of public relations and/or outsource them to an agency if they do not have the resources to do them in-­house. Kirat (2006) summed up some of the issues of public relations practice in the UAE government sector a decade ago. These included top management’s misinterpretation of the nature of the profession; confusion about tasks and prerogatives; inadequate budgets allocated to public relations departments; the small size of a typical public relations department, with limited numbers of employees; and poor qualifications and experience of public relations practitioners. Other issues included a focus limited to publicity and press agentry functions; the lack of research, studies, and opinion polls; and the absence of input from the public relations departments in the organisational decision-­making process. A UAE-­based strategic communication professional with more than 15 years’ experience in journalism, public relations, and corporate communications in the UK and UAE aptly described the early perception and practice of public relations in some public sector organisations: Senior management … regard PR as a cheap form of advertising and think it is all about issuing a press release. They have an expectation that every bit of news from the company – no matter how mundane and uninteresting to the general population – must be covered in the media. The local media oblige by printing every press release they receive verbatim, spelling

136   Badran A. Badran mistakes and all, regardless of the news value of the release. Obviously, this makes it more difficult for PR practitioners to argue this form of PR is not effective. In many companies all that is required of the in-­house PR person, therefore, is to churn out press releases and arrange cake/ribbon cutting ceremonies. They will gain media coverage for their company and their senior executives will be happy. (Astbury, 2013) Alex Malouf, manager of corporate communication for the Arabian Peninsula at Procter & Gamble (P&G), argues that the challenge public relations practitioners have today is across government and business. Industry is a bit better, Malouf argues: We have this generational gap so you look at 15–24s year olds in UAE or Saudi Arabia, they are communicating exclusively through social media such as Instagram and Snapchat. The older leadership have no awareness of how this younger group engages with each other or people outside of that group. There is a gap and I think that we as communicators need to fill it by educating leadership about the new ways of doing thing, getting on these platforms and engaging with youth. Sixty percent of MENA is under the age of 30. We have to narrow that gap…. (Malouf, 2018) So what do public relations agencies do for public sector clients? A PR executive explains: Our clients are either substantive government departments or affiliated organizations that work to promote learning and culture in the country. Our role is to help these bodies promulgate what they do to the widest possible audience by working with the media as an effective mouthpiece.… As we represent the government sphere, what we do is less about marketing and more about performing an important public service. Our goal is to ensure that customers and service users are well acquainted with the functions and activities of the various departments we represent. (Tesorero, 2017) Aside from public relations content and media monitoring activities, public relations agencies also offer other key services, such as consulting, reputation building, crisis management, media training, public-­speaking training, spokesperson development, and internal communication, according to Nidal Abou Zaki, managing director of Orient Planet Group (Tesorero, 2017): ‘We start by brainstorming on the requirements of our clients to formulate an impactful PR plan. During this stage, we establish the objectives, key messages, the target market, communications channels, and the

Public relations in the United Arab Emirates   137 budget, among others. We do research to know how to effectively launch the campaign’, he shares. ‘Next, we devise a proactive plan and a systematic approach to deliver the message and reach the target audience. During implementation phase, we connect with local influencers and identify the most effective spokesperson to give us the leverage and ensure that we reach out to all target stakeholders.’ Several factors encourage optimism for the future. First, there is a better understanding in the public sector of the strategic role that communication plays as an enabler of public policy, change, international reputation, and foreign relations. Second, because of tertiary education and training, the public sector has better-­qualified national human resources today, compared to a decade ago. Third, outsourcing public relations work to agencies, while focusing on the basics in-­house, helps produce professional results. As an example of the first point, the UAE Government Communication Strategy 2017–2021 aims to achieve optimal communication mechanisms and to promote an integrated government communication system for federal entities (Government.ae, 2017b). Over the past decade, the UAE Ministry for Cabinet Affairs has designed an integrated communications system for the federal government, including the 2009 Government Communication Strategy and the federal 2014–2016 Government Communication Strategy that helped develop a roadmap for government organisations to unify their voices and to safeguard the government’s reputation. To this end, the Government Communication Office – established in 2008 ‘to be the key link in streamlining the communication between the Cabinet and the different federal ministries and entities’ – has set unified standards and procedures for government branding and has contributed to building specialised capabilities, among other outcomes (Ministry for Cabinet Affairs and the Future, 2018). An example of how this government approach affects public relations functions in the public sector is the media policy drawn up by the Ministry of Finance (MoF ) to achieve several targets. These include enhancing MoF internal and external communication; responding to media requests; holding press conferences and briefing sessions; managing the image of MoF across all media; developing a balanced system to manage regional and international media relations; and evaluating media messages, including measuring community satisfaction levels, partners’ opinions, employees’ opinions and monitoring media (Ministry of Finance, 2018).

Implications and future directions Public relations in the UAE has developed considerably since its early beginnings. Overall, practitioners expect the practice in the UAE during the next decade to grow further, corresponding to its need by the public, private, and voluntary, non-­profit sectors. Firas Sleem, managing director of Virtue PR &

138   Badran A. Badran Marketing Communications, observes that companies depend increasingly on public relations activities to build their businesses (Media sector at ‘tipping point’, 2018). Brian Lott, head of Corporate Communications at Abu Dhabi’s conglomerate Mubadala, believes the public relations industry is evolving but must prove to the public that it is a positive force for truth, accuracy, and free and open exchange of ideas in a changing media landscape. Lott considers the public still believes in media more than PR, adding that communications had a big role to play in rebuilding trust. ‘Our challenge is to drive people to more authentic and truthful content’, he said (Media sector at ‘tipping point’, 2018). Valerie Tan, vice president of public relations, social media, and internal communications at Emirates Airlines, contends that PR is still struggling to shake off its negative reputation. ‘PR has some way to go to convince we are not “spin doctors”. People know PR comes with an agenda, but it shouldn’t be a negative, it’s actually very helpful’, she said (Media sector at ‘tipping point’, 2018). There is a tremendous opportunity for the public relations industry in the UAE to grow and to develop and, perhaps one day, to secure a spot alongside the more established centres, such as London and New York, said public relations practitioner Heather Astbury (2013).  The entrepreneurial spirit here means that ideas are listened to and taken seriously, which can be very rewarding for those working in the creative industries. However, the lack of professionalism in the industry means it has a long, long way to go. (Astbury, 2013) Alex Malouf says more awareness of what public relations is and what it does is needed in the region. This comes through education, he adds. We need to educate leaders on what communication is about. For many leaders, communication is a speech or a press release. Few leaders in business have a blog or communicate through social media. We need to raise awareness for what communication does for the youth. (Malouf, 2018) Malouf also believes there should be a better focus on merit in hiring, essentially getting the right people into the industry, then into the right positions. They say we need a woman or minority in the leadership team without looking at whether they have the skills. We have to start with skills and ability-­based hiring and then we look at diversity inclusion. We have people who can do the role and then we add truth to that,

Public relations in the United Arab Emirates   139 Malouf adds with a final comment that the process of Emiratisation in the public relations private sector is currently not working (Malouf, 2018). While Malouf ’s observation about the endemic lack of Emiratis in the public relations private sector is accurate, the opposite is true for the public sector, which gives preferential incentives to Emiratis and is favoured over the private sector because of pay, working hours, and the supportive work environment. One issue that taints public relations in the UAE is the practice by some agencies of luring the media to cover their clients’ events by offering gifts. Although most cases are not reported, one such case became public in 2009 when the World Gold Council (WGC) sent invitations to the media promising every media person would receive a gold coin for attending the WGC press conference. Local paper Emirates 24/7 reported that the invitation was made by the WGC’s PR agency, Idea PR, which is not a MEPRA member (Hamadeh, 2009). The responsibility for such ethical transgressions does not fall solely on the shoulders of PR agencies. Without some media practitioners being willing partners, the giving of gifts in exchange for coverage would not be a common or successful practice. A WGC official was reported as saying, ‘a lot of journalists call to know what they would be getting as a gift, and perhaps the agency thought it would be a good strategy to get them to attend’ (Hamadeh, 2009). Similar actions are frowned upon by PR academics who affirm that these practices are unethical. Duffy (2012) quotes Kirat in saying that this practice is a form of bribery. He adds ‘a journalist accepting money or a gift in exchange for positive news coverage violates his or her trust with the audience’.

Conclusion Long before Western practices of public relations arrived in the UAE, Emiratis and their ancestors before them practised local versions of public relations that achieved many of the modern goals of PR. Whether we define public relations as ‘the planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain goodwill and mutual understanding between an organisation and its publics’ (CIPR, n.d.), or use another definition, Emiratis achieved public relations goals by their skilful use of hospitality, poetry, oratory, the Majlis, the mosque, emissaries, and various local customs. The development of the public relations practice paralleled the amazing transformation of the UAE from modest beginnings to a world hub for trade. Within less than half a century, the UAE had developed a flourishing public relations sector with a mix of local and international expertise offering most strategic and tactical services to the public and private sectors within the country. Another feature is the growing specialisation among PR agencies in specific areas, such as technology, aviation, and others. Government PR also expanded, spurred early on by the need for media relations and events ­marketing, and later on other strategic PR functions were added. One of the

140   Badran A. Badran features of public relations in the UAE remains the use by government entities of private agencies for some or most of their public relations functions. Professional associations, including annual awards, and PR education and training, albeit limited, helped the PR sector grow and mature. Issues that the public relations sector needs to address in the decade to come include better awareness by the public and private sectors of what PR is and what it does, learning to work within the UAE’s media laws, especially the cybercrimes law, a renewed focus on professional ethics, producing more authentic and truthful content, better use of social media in PR campaigns, better training and credentialing of PR professionals, stronger rapport with local educational institutions leading to hiring more Emiratis in the private sector, and development of PR in the northern Emirates.

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Conclusion Talal M. Almutairi and Dean Kruckeberg

This book has explored the practice of public relations in GCC countries, describing the current practices in these countries and the environmental factors that have influenced these practices. The shared history, language, and geographic location of the GCC countries differentiate them from other Arab countries, while providing a good sample for the study of public relations. Although these countries share similarities, each nevertheless has distinctive environmental factors that influence the practice of public relations differently. For example, the diwaniya has influenced public practice and has helped form public opinion throughout Kuwait’s history. Indeed, the dewaniya constitutes the roots of Kuwait’s consensual political and social system (Al-­ Kandari, 2002) and has assumed the role of a political forum in which the nation’s citizens can discuss their concerns. On numerous occasions, the dewaniya has proven to be of great political influence in Kuwait (Al-­Kandari, 2002). Although the dewaniya has been the subject of investigation in different disciplines, such as sociology (Al-­Kandari, 2002) and political science (Alhajeri, 2010; Al-­Naser, 2001; Segal, 2014), a dearth of studies has been conducted in this area by public relations scholars. The authors, therefore, discussed the influence of dewaniya on the evolution of public relations in Kuwait. The Saudi chapter, as another example, examines how Islam influences everyday practice and how that religion is used in communication with the public. Thus, religion, as an environmental factor, influences Saudi public relations practice. Saudi practitioners’ sense of religious exceptionalism and personal moral guidance resist the endorsement and applicability of formal public relations codes of ethics. The author of the United Arab Emirates chapter explores poetry and oratory and the majlis. These unique environmental factors are part of the people’s culture and their communication style. The Qatar chapter focuses on the optimistic view of that country’s future of education and economy as distinctive environmental factors. The Qatari government’s investment in education has placed Qatari’s education system among the best in the world. What is more, Qatar is one of the richest countries in the world, with one of the highest gross domestic products (GDP) per capita. These factors have an enormous impact on public relations practice in Qatar. The author of the Oman chapter explores the analytical and critical

146   Talal M. Almutairi and Dean Kruckeberg description of public relations structures, functions, and characteristics of the Civil Service System in Oman from 1975 to 2018. The Wali Office and the ‘Sablah’ were explored as cultural institutions in their relationship to Omani public relations practice. The authors of the Bahrain chapter investigated the role of gender in relation to the practice of Bahraini public relations. They reported original data based on a survey and interviews. The editors of this book believe that context always influences the practice of public relations. This book is the first step in understating the current practice of public relations in GCC the context. Such understanding will contribute to the maturity of public relations, not only as a practice, but as a discipline and area of scholarly inquiry, hopefully motivating public relations scholars to critique and build upon the research presented in this book. Also, the book can help educators in GCC countries to use this research in building and refining their curricula, moderating the influence of predominant ethnocentricities of public relations education and practice. The aspiration is to establish a model of public relations relating to the Arab context in general and GCC in particular. As was argued by Kruckeberg and Vujnovic (2006) the GCC have a distinctive culture that Western theories might not be able to fully grasp. With the perspective presented in this book, future research could get closer to such aspiration of a public relations model. Building on this book, future research could focus on comparative studies that investigate the differences and similarities of the current practice of public relations among GCC countries, representing the next step in studying public relations in the GCC. Scholars from the six countries should collaborate to design research that would provide more understanding to the current practice in these countries.

References Alhajeri, A (2010). The development of political interaction in Kuwait through the ‘Dīwānīyas’ from their beginnings until the year 1999. Journal of Islamic Law and Culture, 12(1), 24–44 Al-­Kandari, Y. (2002). Kuwaiti dewaniya: Al dewaniya and its social functions in Kuwait. Kuwait, KU: Kuwait University Press. Al-­Naser, F (2001). The Diwaniah: The traditional Kuwaiti social institution in political role. Digest of Middle East Studies, 10(2), 1–16 Kruckeberg, D., & Vujnovic, M. (2006). The imperative for an Arab model of public relations as a foundation and framework for Arab diplomatic, corporate and nongovernmental organization relationships: Challenges and opportunities. In M. Kirat & W. I. A. Barry (Eds.), Proceedings of the conference Public Relations in the Arab World in the Age of Globalization: Current Realities and Future Prospects (pp. 36–41). Sharjah, UAE: University of Sharjah. Segal, E. (2014). Political participation in Kuwait: Dīwāniyya, Majlis and Parliament. Journal of Arabian Studies: Arabia, the Gulf, and the Red Sea, 2(2), 127–141.

Index

Page numbers in bold denote tables, those in italics denote figures. A’ashoor, Rabab 19 Abayahs, burning of by Bahraini and Kuwaiti women 12 Abdalwahhab, Muhammad Ibn 99 Abduh, Muhammad 107 Abdulghafour, P.K. 110 Abdul-Ghani, Safa 9–10, 12–15, 20 Abdullah, M.F. 107–108 AbdulMogeth, Ashraf 19 Abozayd, F. 101 Afifi, R.Y. 109 agriculture, Arab influence 107 Ahmad Khan, Sayyid 107 Al-Afghani, Jamal al-Din 107 Alanazi, A. 102, 104, 128 Al-Arabi magazine 41 Al-Ayyar, E. 43–44 Al-Buflasa, Amani 9–10, 13, 19 Aldaihani, A. 34 Al Dawri Wal-kas (Qatari television channel) 76 Aldemiri, M. 6 Al-Enad, A. 1, 58 Al-Enzi, A. 45 Al-Hinai, A. 54 Al-Hinai, T. 61 Al-Jaralh, M. 104 Al Jazeera 86–90; activism 89; criticisms of 88; employment of women 89; establishment of 86–87; impact on Western perceptions of Arabs 88; as internationally recognised institution 74; international recognition 83; as landmark Qatari media organisation 76; launch of Al Jazeera English 87; main area of interest 87; massive expansion 87; popularity and

credibility 88; sports channel 89–90; Training Institute 77 Al-Kandari, A.J. 14, 35–36 Al-Khayat, H.J. 60 Al-Kholaifi, K. 44 Al-Kilani, K. 106 Al Kindari, Y. 128 Al-Lawati, O. 60 Al-Mansouri, M. 42, 46 Al-Moqbali, A. 61 Al Muqla, Khamis 7 Al Nahdah Association 12 Al-Nasrallah, J. 44 Al-Qamshoi, M. 61 Al Rashed, M. 13 Al-Rujaib, T. 41–43 Al-Sabah, Abdullah Al-Salem 40–41 Al Saqer, L.H. 7, 9, 12–13, 16 Al Saud, Abdulaziz 99 Al-Shahabey, Fahad 8, 11, 18 Al-Shamaki, K. 60 Al Shargawi, A. 129 Al-Sharif, A. 44–45 Al-Sharq Media Training Centre 77 Alsheekley, A. 127 Al-Siyabi, M. 62 Al Thani, Tamim bin Hamad bin Khalifah 75 Al-Watan (Omani daily newspaper) 58 Al Wisal radio, Oman 58 Al-Yahyai, A. 62 Al-Zadjali, M. 61 APPCO 133 Arabian Gulf, development of the PR profession 76 Arabs, Al Jazeera’s impact on Western perceptions of 88

148   Index Aramco (Saudi Arabian Oil Company) 7, 76, 78, 102 Arthur, R. 127 ASDA’A Burson-Marsteller 133 As’eed, M. 120 Astbury, Heather 138 Ayesh, M. 130 Badawi, M. 127 Badran, B.A. 7, 15, 19, 130 Bahrain 5–28; challenges for the PR industry 20–27; correlation between traditions and cultural etiquettes and PR practice 14–15; cultural and religious identity 17; effects of female stereotypes and gender roles on PR practice 11–14; evolution of PR into strategic communication process 9–11; family ties and social relationships, significance in building a strategic PR foundation 15–16; feminist movement 12; focus on PR 5–6; future prospects of the PR industry 24; historical development of PR 6–8; implications of PR education on cultural perceptions 18–20; Islamic view of social relationships 16; joins IPRA– Gulf Chapter 78; media-related specialisations register at the Ministry of Labour 10; role of Islamic values and ethics in shaping PR practice 17–18; skills requirements for PR firms 25, 26; social media use 11, 20, 24, 34; sociocultural factors influencing PR practice 11–20; status of PR in 21, 24; treaty with Great Britain 119; women, education and employment statistics 11; women, employment of in PR 11–12; women, Supreme Council for Women 12–13, 14 Bashir, M. 34 beIN Sport 89, 124 Bethell, R. 129 Bonnici, Kristian 48 Buchele, N. 105, 107 Buhannad, N. 108, 110 Bunt, G. 107 Burson-Marsteller 102, 127, 133 CNN 122–123 collectivism 15–16; loyalty and 35 College, B. 101 communication: Arab perspective 12, 36;

Emirati perspective 126–127, 135, 138; freedom of communication 126; importance of skills in for a PR practitioner 19, 24; Islamic perspective 17, 107–108; Kuwaiti perspective 37–38; need for education on 138; Omani perspective 61, 63, 65–66; Qatari perspective 79; Saudi perspective 101, 105, 109–111; strategic role 137 conservatism, role of in Saudi PR practice 111–112 Cooke, L. 45 corporate social responsibility: Islamic perspective 18; value of in the private sector 44 crisis management, as PR teaching module 19 Crystal, J. 38 Crystallizing Public Opinion (Bernays) 47 cultural perspectives: Bahrain 11–20; Hofstede’s five dimensions of culture 15, 35; Kuwait 35–38; Oman 59–60; Saudi Arabia 105–106; UAE 119–120, 127–129 Dennis, E. 100 Dewaniya, Kuwaiti institution 37, 40, 46–48, 128, 145 diplomacy, role in Kuwaiti PR 48 Doha Centre for Media Freedom 76 Doumato, E.A. 105 Dozier, D.M. 9 Duffy, M. 101, 139 Edelman 133 education: implications for cultural perceptions of PR 18–20; of women in Bahrain 11 Eglington, Ray 131 Eid 14 El-Sanabary, N. 113 El-Sarayrah, M. 58 ethics: Islamic 17, 109; professionalisation and 108; role of in PR practice 110–111 event management 13, 41, 61 events marketing 127 Excellence Theory, Grunig’s 9, 79 Facebook 87, 124 Fakhri, S. 127 Falagas, M.E. 107 Falconi, T. 130

Index   149 family ties and social relationships, significance in building strategic PR foundations 15–16 Fitch, K. 14 Forbes Associates 77 Fortune Promoseven 127 Freberg, K. 19 freedom of communication 126 freedom of expression 5, 88–89, 126 freedom of speech 34, 101, 126 Gaither, T.K. 14, 35–36 gender equality 88 gender separation 99, 111–113 ‘ghergaoon’ ceremony 14 gift-giving, ethical perspective 139 global market, potential impact of instability on PR 11 Gorney, C. 112 Great Britain, protection agreement with Kuwait 32–33 Grunig, J.E. 6, 9, 79, 81, 130 Grunig, L.A. 6, 9, 79, 130 Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), countries 1 Hala FM radio, Oman 57 Haque, M.S. 17 Hasan, M. 110 heads of state: Kuwait 33; Oman 70; Qatar 75; Saudi Arabia 100 Heard-Bey, F. 128 Herb, M. 47 Hill, R. 131, 135 Hill+Knowlton Strategies 43, 77, 102, 127, 133 Hofstede, G. 15 Huang, Y.H. 130 Hunt, T. 81, 130 Instagram 34, 124, 135–136 International Public Relations Association (IPRA) 42, 77, 130–131 internet: and anonymity of the audience 26–27; impact on the media landscape 127; introduction 63; penetration rate in selected countries 101; and the spreading of Islamic knowledge 107 Iraq: bordering countries 32, 98; invasion of Kuwait 33; shared border with Kuwait 32 Islam: Abdalwahhab’s revival of 99; and the development of smartphone applications 112; ethical perspectives

16–18, 105–106, 109, 110–111; and the history of PR in the Gulf States 38; influence in Saudi culture 105–106; influence on the lives of individuals in Saudi Arabia 106–108; and online communication 107; perceptions of compatibility with modernisation 106; role of in Saudi PR practice 109–110; and science 107 Jackson, J.A. 98, 108, 110 James, M. 14 Johar, H. 47–48 John, S. 102 Jordan, bordering countries 98 Joudieh, Hanin 132 Kearns International 41 Keltner-Previs, K. 19 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia see Saudi Arabia Kirat, M. 12, 14–15, 17, 19, 108, 135, 139 Kruckeberg, D. 146 Kulana Nishoofek (We All See You), public conduct campaign 79 Kuwait 31–49; Al-Safat Square 36; bordering countries 98; code of ethics of KPRA 45–46; communication spaces 36–37; constitutional structure 33; cultural context 35–38; current economic status 33; Dewaniya 37, 40, 46–48, 128, 145; female empowerment policy 38; government strategy, role of PR in 48; head of state 33; independence 33; invasion by Iraq 43; joins IPRA–Gulf Chapter 78; launch of Al-Arabi magazine 41; media environment 34; Monday Dewaniya protest movement 46; National Assembly 33, 35, 40, 46–48; overview 32–35; political history 32; population 32; PR and the concept of wasta 45; PR context 38, 46; public sector vs private sector PR 44; role of social connections in PR practice 45; role of the extended family 36; social media use 34–35; spending on US PR agency hire 42; unique political context 46, 48 Kuwait Public Relations Association (KPRA) 42 Larson, M.S. 98, 108, 110

150   Index London’s Olympic Village 90 Lott, Brian 138 Lyra, A. 130 Ma, Y. 17 Madsen, D. 106 Majan TV, Oman 58 Malouf, Alex 136, 138–139 Mansfield, P. 127 Martin, J. 100 McCollins Media 132 Memac Ogilvy 77, 102, 133 Middle East Public Relations Association (MEPRA) 130–131 Monday Dewaniya, Kuwaiti protest movement 46 Motion, J. 14 Musa’ad, Hiba 19 Neesh 132 Netflix 124 Nevo, J. 106 oil: discovery of in the Arab Gulf 7, 120; presence of in Kuwait 33; and PR practice in the UAE 127; role of in Saudi PR development 102 oil exploration, and PR in Qatar 76 Oman 53–71; beginnings of PRUs 62–65; bordering countries 98, 118; categories of PR function 65–68; centre for Government communication services 69–70; civil service system 55–57; contemporary Ministry PRU 67; cultural factors over PR practice 59–60; development and functions of PRUs 65–68; early PRUs in Omani ministries 64; first PR bulletin 62; general functions of PRUs in 66; head of state 70; history of 54–55; joins IPRA–Gulf Chapter 78; mass communication 57–58; media and communication functions of PRUs 61, 63, 65–66; media landscape 57–58; media training for ministry staff 68–69; number of companies performing PR related activities 62; official language 58; official social media use 63; overview 54–58; Petroleum Development of Oman (PDO) 60, 62; population 55; PR context 58–68; previous studies on PR in 60–62; professionalism of PR in 63; PR publications 63; role and structure

of governmental PR 58–59; ‘Sablah’ organisation 59–60; service functions of PRUs 66; status of PRUs in 65; ‘Wali’s Office’ 59–60 online communication, Islam and 107 Paris-Saint Germain 90 Pearce, J. 102 Pelé 90 Pinterest 135 Plowman, K.D. 9 poetry 7, 118, 120, 127–128 Posusney, M.P. 105 professionalisation, ethical perspective 108 Prophet Mohammed 7, 16–17, 38, 99, 107, 109 public diplomacy, dilemma between PR and 48 public opinion, as important concept for PR scholars 47 public relations (PR): Arab practice 1; cultural and traditional correlations 14–15; four models of 130; importance of practical skills and experience 19; MEPRA definition 129 Public Relations Way of Life (Al-Rujaib) 43 public sector: Bahrain 11; Kuwait 38, 44; Saudi Arabia 100; UAE 135–137, 139; understanding of PR in the GCC 19 Qaboos bin Said, Sultan of Oman 54–55, 57, 69 Qatar 74–92; Al Jazeera 86–90; attachment to and investment in sport 90; bordering countries 74, 98, 118; border with Saudi Arabia 74; climate 90; currency 75; education landscape 83–86; experience of hosting major sports competitions 92; FIFA World Cup 74, 90–92; generic principles of PR practice 79–83; government PR campaigns 79; head of state 75; independence 75; and the International Public Relations Association (IPRA) 77–79; Islamic identity 75; knowledge potential of PR practitioners 83; media landscape 76; models of PR 81–82; official language 74; overview 74–76; population 74; PR context 76–79; PR models 81; PR training and education

Index   151 initiatives 77; Qatar Foundation 85–86; role of PR practitioners 82–83; strategic PR management factor 80; system of governance 75; technician’s role in PR practice 82, 83; treaty with Great Britain 119; unique context 83–92; US universities with established campuses in 85; women’s political participation 88 Ramadan 14, 107 recruitment, as challenge to PR industry 20 Remund, D. 19 Rothwell, A. 45 Sabah I, Emir of Kuwait 32 Sadiq, F. 127 Samonis, G. 107 Saudi Arabia 98–114; advertising standards 107–108; bordering countries 32, 74, 98, 118; the concept of ‘profession’ 108; conservatism, role of in PR practice 111–112; ethics, role of in PR practice 110–111; exceptionalism 106, 111; flag 106; gender separation, role of in PR practice 113; head of state 100; history 98–99; influence of religion on formation of 99; Islamic influence on the lives of individuals 106–108; joins IPRA–Gulf Chapter 78; media landscape 100–101, 123; overview 98–101; political system 99–100; population and location 98; the PR revolution in 102–105; religion, role of in PR practice 109–110; religious influence and Islamic ethics 105–106; Saudi identity 105; social media use 100 Saudi Aramco 7, 76, 78, 102 scientific research, role of in planning PR and media activities 61 Seven Media 132 Shari’ah: as basis of Qatari legislation 75; as basis of Saudi legal system 99; influence on Saudi media 101 Shorab, Y. 120 Sidani, Y. 113 Signorelli, Max 124 skills requirements for PR firms 25, 26 Sleem, Firas 137 smartphone applications, Islam and the development of 112 Snapchat 34, 125, 136 social media use: Bahrain 11, 20, 24, 34;

generation gap 136; Kuwait 34–35; Oman 62–63; Saudi Arabia 100; UAE 124, 125, 127, 134–135, 136 social relationships: Islamic view of Bahraini 16; significance in building strategic PR foundations 15–16 society, responsibility of PR practitioners towards 47 Sout al Khaleej (Qatari radio station) 76 Sriramesh, K. 14, 45, 130 strategic communication process, evolution of PR into 9–11 strategic management, defined 9 strategic planning 9–11, 61, 68; defined 9 Supreme Council for Women, Bahrain 11–14 Tan, Valerie 138 Taylor, M. 98, 108, 110 Thomson International Media Training Foundation 68 tourism 91, 112, 120, 133, 134 TRACCS 77 TripAdvisor 135 Turk, J. 130 Twitter 34, 62, 135 Ummah, the concept 16 unethical behaviours and practices 108, 110, 139 United Arab Emirates (UAE) 118–140; advertising industry 125; bordering countries 98, 118; Department of Tourism and Commerce Marketing case study 134–135; discovery of oil 120; economic perspective 120–121; evolution of PR 127; film industry 122; founder 128; history 119; implications and future directions for PR practice 137–139; joins IPRA– Gulf Chapter 78; landscape and climate 118, 119; location 118; media landscape 121–127; number of PR agencies 131; overview 118–127; population 118–119; professional associations for PR practitioners 130; public sector PR practice 135–137; role of the majlis 128–129; social life and culture 119–120; social media use 124, 125, 127, 134–135, 136; sociocultural factors affecting evolution of PR 127–129; status of PR 129–135; UNESCO World Heritage Sites 121; Weber Shandwick case study 133–134

152   Index Verčič, D. 14, 47, 79 Vujnovic, M. 146 Walters, T. 130 Wang, Y. 17 wasta (social connections) 45 Weber Shandwick 133–134 Western perceptions of Arabs, Al Jazeera’s impact on 88 WhatsApp 34, 124 women: Al Jazeera’s impact on perceptions of Arab women 88; cultural restrictions in Bahrain 13, 14–15; education and employment in Bahrain 11; employment figures of Qatari women 89; employment of in

PR Bahrain 11–12; empowerment, Kuwaiti policy 38; gender stereotypes as barrier to advancement 13; political participation of Qatari women 88; Supreme Council for Women in Bahrain 12–13, 14 Wood, R. 100 Yang, A. 98, 108, 110 Yemen, bordering countries 98 YouTube 87, 135 Zaki, Nidal Abou 136 Zalzala, F. 127 Zarkadoulia, E.A. 107 Zeidan, G. 133