Public History: A Practical Guide 9781350051300, 9781350051294, 9781350051331, 9781350051317

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Public History



ALSO AVAILABLE FROM BLOOMSBURY What Is Public History Globally?: Working with the Past in the Present, edited by Paul Ashton and Alex Trapeznik A Practical Guide to Studying History: Skills and Approaches, edited by Tracey Loughran Writing Material Culture History, edited by Anne Gerritsen and Giorgio Riello

Public History A Practical Guide 2nd Edition

Faye Sayer

BLOOMSBURY ACADEMIC Bloomsbury Publishing Plc 50 Bedford Square, London, WC1B 3DP, UK 1385 Broadway, New York, NY 10018, USA BLOOMSBURY, BLOOMSBURY ACADEMIC and the Diana logo are trademarks of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc First published in Great Britain 2015 This edition published 2019 Copyright © Faye Sayer, 2015, 2019 Faye Sayer has asserted her right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as Author of this work. For legal purposes the Acknowledgements on p. xii constitute an extension of this copyright page. Cover design by Liron Gilenberg Cover icons: © Freepik The accompanying Public History Toolkit can be accessed online at www.bloomsbury.com/public-history-9781350051294 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc does not have any control over, or responsibility for, any third-party websites referred to or in this book. All internet addresses given in this book were correct at the time of going to press. The author and publisher regret any inconvenience caused if addresses have changed or sites have ceased to exist, but can accept no responsibility for any such changes. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN:

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978-1-3500-5130-0 978-1-3500-5129-4 978-1-3500-5131-7 978-1-3500-5132-4

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CONTENTS

List of Illustrations Acknowledgements

viii xii

1 History beyond the Classroom

1

Background to public history Types of public history Definition of public history A history of public history Public history debates Conclusion

2

2 Museums, Archives and Heritage Centres

6 8 13 17 19

Brief history  21 Museums  23 Working in museums 28 Archives  32 Working in archives 35 Heritage and visitor centres 39 Conclusion44

3 Methods of Communication in Public History

4

45

Exhibitions 46 Audio-visual aids 57 Interactive technologies 62 Handling collections 67 Outreach events 69 Knowing your public69 Quantitative evaluation70 Qualitative evaluation70 Conclusion 71

vi

CONTENTS

4 Media History

73

Popular writing Radio history Film history Television history Working with the media Conclusion

76 82 85 90 102 109

5 Digital Media

111

History of digital media The Internet Social media Employment in the sector Conclusion

111

6 Community History

137

What is community history? The history of community history Methods for community history Community history projects Conclusion

137

7 Teaching History

171

118 125 135 135

138 143 146 168



A history of history education 172 Approaches to teaching 179 Education in museums, archives and historic sites 186 Academic historians and education 201 Evaluation and adaption 205 Conclusion 209

 8 Restoration and Preservation

211



211

History of historic preservation Types of historical sites Methods of historic site management International charters and international conventions Charities and non-profit organizations Assessment of historical sites

222 224 233 237 238

CONTENTS

vii

Techniques of conservation practice Working in restoration and preservation Conclusion

240

 9 Policy, Politics and History

245

241 244

The impact of policy on public history 245 International policy and guidelines 250 National and federal policies and guidelines 255 Indigenous and native remains 269 History’s impact on policy 274 Working in political organizations and government agencies 279 Conclusion 282

10 Beyond History

283

The economics of history 284 Careers  286 The benefits of employing history graduates 295 Getting a job 295

11 The Future of Public History

299

Conclusion

300

Glossary Notes Bibliography Internet Bibliography Index

303 306 348 367 371

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figures 2.1 Photograph of Archivist and Archival Stores at National Archives London. Photo by Scott Barbour/Getty Images 32 2.2 Archivist conserving historical material. Photo by VisitBritain/Britain on View via Getty Images 36 2.3 Stonehenge new visitor access. Photo by Matt Cardy/Getty Images 41 2.4 Stonehenge Visitor Centre © Faye Sayer 42 3.1 Photograph of London before London Gallery at Museum of London, displaying flint assemblages in typological sequences © Faye Sayer 52 3.2 Photograph of students watching historical video clips inside an airplane in War Museum. Photo by Hero Images via Getty Images 55 3.3 Photograph of man teaching history student archery in period dress, Bolton Castle, UK. Photo by Monty Rakusen via Getty Images 59 3.4 Photograph of carriage ride through Colonial Williamsburg. Photo by WMay via Getty Images 60 3.5 Photograph of talking heads at Jersey War Tunnel Museum © Faye Sayer 64 3.6 Object-handling table as part of the prehistoric London before London Gallery at the Museum of London © Faye Sayer 68 4.1 Photograph of hallmark discussion on Time Team © Faye Sayer 100 4.2 Flow chart of the process of book commissioning 104 6.1 War veteran recounting experiences of flying naval airplane to children at War Museum Hangar. Photo by Hero Images via Getty Images 149

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

 6.2 Community excavation at Fortress Louisbourg, Canada. Photo by Pete Ryan via Getty Images  6.3 Shoreditch Park community excavation of nineteenth-century housing © Faye Sayer  6.4 Test pitting in community member’s back gardens as part of wider community heritage project in Somerset with archaeologists Prof. Mike Aston and Teressa Hall © Faye Sayer  6.5 Photograph of test pit at Bellarine Bayside © Faye Sayer  7.1 Teaching history at the British Museum. Photo by Richard Baker/In Pictures via Getty Images  7.2 Students undertaking oral history project. Photo by Sarah L. Voisin/The Washington Post via Getty Images  7.3 History students and teacher at Bolton Castle, UK. Photo by Monty Rakusen via Getty Images  7.4 Photograph of informal learning taking place during family visits to Eltham Palace, London © Faye Sayer  7.5 Eighteenth-century recreated living museum at Mystic Seaport. Photo by Barry Winiker via Getty Images.  8.1 Cologne Cathedral, Germany, 1946. Photo by Hulton Archive/Getty Images  8.2 Street front of historic building in Annapolis. Photo by Glowimages via Getty Images  8.3 Photograph of Angkor Wat, Cambodia. Photo by Boy_Anupong via Getty Images  8.4 Methwold Vicarage © Faye Sayer  8.5 Clandon House. Photo by Peter Macdiarmid/Getty Images  8.6 Photograph of wedding in the marble hall at Clandon House © Faye Sayer.  9.1 Te Papa (National Museum), Maori Exhibit. Photo by Wolfgang Kaehler/LightRocket via Getty Images  9.2 Before and after Palmyra. Photo by JOSEPH EID/AFP/Getty Images  9.3 Destruction of Palmyra Museum 2016. Photo by JOSEPH EID/AFP/Getty Images  9.4 Annapolis, view of state capitol building and historic street. Photo by John Greim/LightRocket via Getty Images

ix

157 159

161 162 172 177 182 186 193 216 218 220 227 229 230 249 251 251 265

x

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

 9.5 Smithsonian, National Museum of the American Indian. Photo by Mark Wilson/Getty Images  9.6 Photograph of military playing cards. Photo by Education Images/UIG via Getty Images. 10.1 Overview of history career pathways

270 276 287

Tables   1.1 Public history strands   3.1 Exhibition proposal form   3.2 Job Division and Staff for Exhibitions   3.3 Professional job roles and descriptions   5.1 Online resources provided by museums and archive facilities   7.1 Evaluation techniques and descriptions   8.1 Types of historic sites   8.2 For and against reconstruction   8.3 International charters and conventions impacting on the management of historic sites 10.1 Table of competencies required by employers

5 55 56 56 118 205 222 229 234 292

Case Studies   1 English Heritage, Stonehenge Visitor Center   2 Their Past Your Future Exhibition   3 British Museum, Pompeii Exhibition   4 Colonial Williamsburg   5 Jersey War Tunnel Museum   6 London Archaeological Archives Research Center   7 Horrible Histories   8 BBC Radio 4, History of the World in 100 Objects   9 History Channels, Sex in the Ancient World  10 ABC, Who’s Been Sleeping in My House?  11 BBC, The Last Kingdom  12 Channel 4, Time Team  13 SketchFab and British Museum

41 47 49 59 63 66 80 83 93 95 97 100 115

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35

September 11 Digital Archive Project History Matters, University of Sheffield Muncy Community Heritage Park Project Google Historypin Shoreditch Park Community Excavation Bellarine Bayside Heritage Project USA History Education Baltimore County Public Schools Programme Chicago History Museum, History Connections and Artifact Collections Project British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) Lesson Plans Mystic Seaport: The Museum of America and the Sea Oakington Heritage Project Coventry Cathedral Clandon House Taiwan: Council for Cultural Affairs English Heritage United States Forest Service Greater Manchester Archeological Service Annapolis, Maryland Smithsonian Institution American History Museum and Natural History Museum The Victoria Aboriginal Act Department of Defense (US) and Department of Defence (UK), Military Training Program

xi

123 132 145 155 158 162 177 184 189 191 193 199 224 229 235 256 259 262 266 270 273 275

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The idea for this publication came from developing and teaching undergraduate courses and student placement units in public history at Manchester Metropolitan University (MMU). It was conversations with colleagues, including Sam Edwards and Martin Hewitt, and their support in developing these courses, which highlighted the lack of material available to support public historians and students of public history, in particular a ‘practical guide’ to the practice of history in a real-world context. My true gratitude for this book should go to the students I have taught and what they have taught me through their feedback and debates. I have immense gratitude to Rhodri Mogford, my editor at Bloomsbury, who approached me to write this book, and for his support and guidance, which has made it possible. I would also like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their feedback and for making me a better historian and archaeologist (I still like to have one foot in each of the two professions). A special thanks to my wonderful colleagues and friends who commented on drafts, including Gervase Phillips, Jon Stobart and Bod Higham, and to all the inspirational people who have written ‘A day in the life’ for this publication. Thank you MMU for providing me with the support to write this, and thanks specifically to Brian McCook and Gervase Phillips for their help. Heartfelt thanks to Alan Outram who taught me how to write and to Alan (the archaeologist) and Gervase (the historian) who have always been there to help me in my career. To Rick, my wonderful, supportive and kind husband, who has read and helped edit countless drafts of this book, and to our children, Hector and Temperance, who have mostly been quiet enough to let Mummy work on her laptop.

1 History beyond the Classroom

The pursuit of public history has become essential to the practice of history. Public history has developed from a separate entity, a sub-discipline, outside of the mainstream of the academic discipline of history, into an integrated and essential element of the subject’s research and communication. Consequently, it is now expected that historians employed in both private and public historical institutes understand, embrace and integrate elements of public history into all components of their work. The introduction of public history into wider historical practice has broadened the impact that history has on the wider world and, conversely, the impact the wider world has on history. The practice of public history and its diverse methods have influenced how historians approach historical research and how, and to whom, it is communicated. As such, developing knowledge of public history and understanding its methods and its application in practice are now an essential component in graduate and undergraduate history syllabi around the world. This book explores what public history is, how it has developed and the mechanisms it uses for its application in practice. It aims to help the reader consider key questions about the nature of public history and its methodological and practical differences from the academic discipline of history; it has raised issues of interpretation, audience response, and the use and exploitation of history in the ‘real world’. It examines the variety of methods and skills that historians use and require to practise history in the public domain. It discusses how, through various modes of interpretation and presentation, a range of institutions, including museums, archives, government agencies, community history, societies and the media, make history accessible to the wider ‘public’ audience. It provides the reader with an overview of the wider world application and communication of history beyond the classroom through core case studies that include ideas for best practice ‘in the field’ and detail the interplay between public history and public archaeology. This book offers a synopsis of the topic in a way that has not previously been covered in an

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accessible and engaging format. Public history is a specialist topic that has changed substantially in the last decade. As such, this book will present a comprehensive overview of its practice and provide ideas for future methodological approaches and a reference point for students planning professional development in order to gain future employment in this sector and beyond. Public historians are individuals, usually trained historians, who work in either a professional or academic capacity and who engage in the practice of communicating the past to the public. Such individuals collaborate with various publics and communities to research and present their histories. Principally, they aim to facilitate open access of history to the public. Furthermore, public historians facilitate the personal involvement of the public in a diverse range of projects, ranging from group projects, such as museums exhibitions, oral history projects and community archaeology excavations, to individually led projects, such as genealogical research, archival research projects and historical blogs. This range serves to highlight the breadth of methodological approaches used to communicate history to and with the public which can include designing exhibitions in museums; interpreting history with aboriginal descendant communities; undertaking oral history projects based upon memories of the Second World War; producing material for living museums; working with local history societies to research and excavate former nineteenthcentury streets; producing educational learning; and presenting television and radio programmes. The central and often deeply personal motivations for this work have been to provide a past that is relevant and accessible to the public in the present. This book draws on first-hand experience, knowledge and selfreflection of practitioners of public history in action from around the world to provide a guide to public history for students, amateurs and professionals. It aims to give advice and guidance on best practice and the practical application of this in the workplace. Different chapters cover distinct subdivisions of public history, museums, archives and heritage centres, media, digital media, community history, education, restoration and preservation, politics and business. In an economic climate where public funding may be uncertain and the graduate employment market is competitive, undergraduate and graduate students are required to understand the broader applications of history beyond university. This book contains the tools and advice needed for them to get one step ahead in terms of knowledge, skills and experience.

Background to public history Historians have been unable to agree on a precise definition of public history. Some historians regard this difficulty as inherent in the subject’s

HISTORY BEYOND THE CLASSROOM

3

nature, asserting that the diversity of mediums and approaches used by its practitioners serves to hamper agreement of a commonly applicable definition.1 As such, public history has become a catch-all phrase that can cover any historical activity that is not regarded as academic history (usually individually produced scholarly research on a specific topic aimed at expanding ‘historical knowledge’ within, but rarely beyond, the academic community).2 Public history is an intrinsic part of history today. It seeks, like all other forms of history, to broaden our understanding of the past and its contested relationship to the present.3 However, its future is uncertain. It could be argued that the failure of historians to agree a satisfactory definition of public history risks the future of the profession by jeopardizing both recognition of its value to wider communities and its status as an academically respectable form of historical research. As such, it is essential to the future practice of public history that it is clearly defined and that the role of the public historian is firmly placed within history’s professional framework. This requires professional, academic and amateur historians to move away from a tradition that has regarded public history as anti-establishment and facilitate the subject’s positioning within history’s overarching theoretical and methodological frameworks. For public history to provide evidence of its success in promoting the wider impact of history beyond university, the university departments should assist this process. The methods developed by public historians have broken down the barriers between history professionals and the public and made history more accessible and relevant to wider society.4 As a result, history has become an agent of social change and has played a role in new forms of historical knowledge creation.5 Public history is active, reactive and relevant in the present, and as such relevant to the wider public, enabling them to connect to the past, present or future. Properly implemented, public history in action acts to counter the novelist L. P. Hartley’s often-quoted assertion that ‘the past is a foreign country’6 and to help communities to understand their place in modern society and the world around them. It removes the subconscious and conscious distance that ‘professional historians’ have from the public.7 Public history seeks to dispel boundaries between professional and the public and open up the past, enabling the public to play a role in the production and consumption of history. Public history has been described as ‘history for the people, by the people, with the people and of the people’.8 This ‘manifesto’ for public history disguises that fact that the idea of ‘with’, ‘for’, ‘by’ and ‘of’ often conflicts in practice. The ‘public’ and, as a result, public history in practice are often geographically defined and politically manipulated and manifest themselves in various guises. Understanding these complex definitions of the ‘public’ and the value that history offers to it enables historians to regain control of the subject and support it to flourish among a wider audience. The concept that public history is the methods and practices used to enable involvement

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and understanding of history by a specific community disguises the potential for collaboration and cooperation between historians and the public. This is increasingly done without historians’ formal input, for example, genealogy and the creation of family trees and digital media projects created by local history societies. It is this book’s premise that public historians search for patterns in human behaviour and provide a link between history and heritage. Where history seeks to explore and explain the past by researching source materials, heritage uses the past in the present, populating and personalizing the past through intangible ideas such as personal stories, folklores and traditions. Public history seeks to be both, blurring the disciplinary boundaries to make the past relevant in the present. Critically, public history is not history becoming heritage9 but is a merging of the two.10 As such, public history enables history to be valued and be valuable to a broad audience and to have significance in the present beyond the creation of knowledge, providing a broader social, political and economic value. Subsequently, a crucial part of a public historian’s role is decoding history’s underlying significance to people outside the profession. To do this, many public historians and sectors of public history, such as those working in the media, listen to stories and ensure, where possible, that the multiple voices are heard as part of the narrative of the past. This leads to new avenues for historical dialog through the understanding that ‘there is not a single unitary voice on the history of the site’.11 Public historians are not arbiters of the ‘past’; rather, they are providers of present past narratives.

Types of public history Public history’s lack of a specific or precise definition has enabled it to develop organically and to use a variety of methods. As such, a diverse range of projects are categorized as public history. These range from school outreach projects, digital media, historical television programmes, museums exhibitions, oral history projects and re-enactments. Each of these diverse public history mechanisms shares overarching aims – that of communication and engagement of the public in the past. To achieve this, a balance must be struck between education and entertainment, but getting that balance right has caused a debate that will be discussed further in this chapter.12 Public history projects adapt to their specific contexts, and thus each one tends to have unique properties. Nevertheless, overarching patterns can be found in their application in practice. As such, three distinct, identifiable approaches exist: grass-roots, institutionally led and researchled projects (Table 1.1). Despite these categorizations, the activities and groups of people involved in these approaches to public history are often more changeable and indistinct. For example, grass-roots projects, such as those led by amateurs, often require and seek support and guidance

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5

TABLE 1.1  Public history strands Type

Description

Example

Grass-roots Also known as bottom ‘History from up, these are run by below’ individuals, local societies or community groups without being initiated by professionals.

Family History Projects, Amateur Projects, Publications and Digital Media Genealogy

Institutional ‘Top down’

Public institutions such as museums or historic sites initiate these projects. They aim to engage the public in history by providing educational or entertaining historical activities. These are also known as top down.

Learning Packs Exhibitions Digital Media Projects (Cybermuseology) Popular Media

Research ‘Top down’

Projects that are initiated by universities, academic and historical researchers. These projects have specific research aims for including community members in historical research.

Oral History Projects Community Excavation Projects

from professional historians, for example, the Muncy Project (Case study 16). Equally, research projects, those run by professionals, often rely on community members to support their research and assist them in data collection, for example, digital media projects such as Google’s Historypin (Case study 17) and the September 11 Digital Archive Project (Case study 14). Each methodological framework for public history uses a variety of different historical research approaches to investigate the past and differs in mechanisms used to incorporate involvement or leadership of the public such as oral history, social media and archival research. These mechanisms aim to support public collaboration and cooperation in the understanding and uncovering of the past. A vital component of all public history projects is engagement with the public in order to communicate history in a relative and accessible manner. Communication is facilitated through multisensory publicly engaging activities that aim to appeal to a broad public audience such as storytelling, exhibitions, learning packs, multimedia, social media, re-enactment and reconstruction.

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Definition of public history The definition and project descriptions found within public history frequently include phrases such as communication, engagement, cooperation and collaboration. Public history could be described as ‘the communication of history to the wider public’ or the ‘the engagement of the public in the practice and production of history’. These statements place professionals in control of the past, and, as previously indicated, public history is not merely a professional endeavour; in many cases, the public are in control and history aims to become a ‘democratic’ process. Until recently, too many historians have used the phrase ‘public history’ to describe the action of historical communication to a specific public, such as interested amateurs, as opposed to a broader public. Consequently, for many academic historians, the ‘public’ often referred to those who are not professionals, anyone who has not formally trained as a historian. Today, the definition of public history is broader yet, in some senses, still restrictive, often referring to engagement with, and of, a geographically, socially and politically determined public with their ‘their history’, for example, the Annapolis Public History Project (Case study 32). Resultantly, the phrase ‘public history’ is highly complex and deeply evocative as it attempts to construct identity. The word ‘public’ means ‘a population and community as a whole’, acting as an umbrella phrase to deliberately hide or homogenize the numerous publics that can and do exist simultaneously within a space. The word ‘public’ in public history usually refers to a geographically constructed public, a group of people linked together within a specific locality, for example, New Yorkers. The phrase can be used to link ‘groups’ of people together that share ideas, beliefs or values; this can include local historical societies or socially disenfranchised groups of people such as African Americans. Resultantly, the word ‘public’ in public history has hidden meanings and political contexts, often used to create an idea of unification and homogeneity of identity, something that is seen as stable and controlled. For example, the public history project in Annapolis, in the United States, promotes the homogeny of the city’s past. This both deliberately and subconsciously hides the multiple publics that exist within the city’s districts, many of whom feel disenfranchised from the city’s history and regard history as irrelevant to their pasts such as the African American population.13 This highlights the potential dangers and ethical considerations in using the phrase ‘public history’ and its practice. Public history as a phrase is highly complex and potentially dangerous and can easily be politically manipulated by individuals or groups of peoples. As such, policymakers have drawn upon history and public history to create concepts of national identity.14 The creation of national identity through history illustrated by Russia and ex-Soviet states creation and/or rebuilding often conflicts national

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identities since the end of the Soviet Union in the 1990s.15 Russia has since faced a national identity crisis with notions of democracy and Western values conflicting against traditional ‘sovki’ history and ideology.16 The fragmentation of ex-Soviet states and changing geographical boundaries has resulted in confusion over which countries are in or out of the Russian nation and state. This destabilization of ‘national’ Soviet identity created a growing propensity to create ‘nationhood’ through ‘homeland’ myths. These homeland myths, directly driven by intellectuals and politicians, are based on historic tales and myths of origins and continuity of peoples, rather than historical facts. Nationhood serves the interests of the ‘country’, providing economic gain, for example, by supplying oil, and serves to prevent national security treats. The concept and creation of ‘national identity’ are not stable and as such have resulted in multiple conflicts, including the Serb-Albania conflict (1991), Russo-Georgian War (2008) and recently Russia-Ukraine conflict (2014).17 Historians often find themselves confronting conceptions (and misconceptions) about the past, which have been shaped by others such as politicians, media figures or even religious leaders. In such cases, they are, therefore, reacting to, rather than initiating, an ongoing discussion about history. Indeed, in the case of professional historians, such as those working in museums, the public often refers to those with whom they wish to engage, rather than those who may wish to engage with them. Historians themselves are often motivated by latent, but no less significant, agendas that can affect how they approach projects designed to engage wider communities. For example, public history in museums frequently aims at communicating to a more ‘diverse audience’, beyond the normative visitor demographics, such as ethnic minorities, out of a laudable desire to be inclusive and to encourage in potentially marginalized social groups a sense of ownership in their community’s past. As such, when using the term ‘public’, historians are often referring to one specific group. Yet this definition has fundamental flaws as it hides the diverse demographics of general populations; the public actually consists of a diverse range of ages, beliefs, socio-economic backgrounds, sexes and cultures. Consequently, rather than historians embracing diversity, the word disguises a lack of engagement with the multiple publics and the divisions in the nature and type of interest of these individuals. The diversity of the public is highlighted by Merriman’s extensive work on the public perceptions and use of museums.18 This research indicated that many public history organizations, such as museums, make assumptions surrounding the term ‘public’ and the subsequent construction of public history.19 This is unwise as the public should not be regarded as a single entity that has a particular understanding of the past. Rather, the public should be seen as a patchwork of individuals, each with their own unique perceptions of history, which are contextually and personally specific. Homogenizing the public hampers historians’ ability to engage with the diverse publics that exist.

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A history of public history ‘Public’ involvement in history was present before the formal academic discipline of history and the historical profession were established in the latter half of the nineteenth century. The involvement and engagement of, by and with the public in history could be regarded as an essential component in the practice of history. History has played a critical role in understanding ourselves and our place in the world. People ‘have a propensity to want to understand themselves through their pasts and endeavour to search for their origins’.20 History explores the human dimensions of life by transforming words into stories;21 it involves looking to the past for answers to existential questions in the present, shedding light on our current and future selves, acting as a form of self-reflection on the human condition. From the earliest historians and chroniclers, including Herodotus, Tacitus and Bede through to the antiquarians of the nineteenth century, such as Flinders Petrie and Thomas Elgin, the collection of stories, historical items and the writing of history narratives has determined, to some extent, what history is and how it has been placed in the public domain (Chapter 2). It could be proposed that from the beginnings of the informal ‘public’ practice of history, individual members of the public have sought to record, collect and research the past for the benefit of not only themselves but for what was perceived as for the wider public good. History was ‘saved’, collected, stored and catalogued by individuals in order to obtain new knowledge about the past and preserve fragments of the past for future generations. Public history has only (re)emerged recently as sub-discipline in its own right. There persists an arbitrary division of public history from the wider discipline of history with public history often being regarded as ‘history practically applied’. This has largely prevented the development of a distinct historiographical framework; there is no extensive literature discussing the practice of public history or establishing its credentials as a legitimate endeavour for university-trained historians.22 This, in part, results from a failure of professional historians to establish such a historiography of public history or to recognize that history can legitimately be communicated in museums, collections and festivals rather than journal articles.23 A starting point for understanding public history, its theories and methods can be found in the formation of museums in the eighteenth century (Chapter 2). By the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, history could be considered a public, albeit one often conducted in private, endeavour. Public-oriented history continued into the nineteenth century with the amateur historical movement, which predated the formal ‘historical’ profession. It was the public’s interest in the past and the search for usable and relevant history that led, in part, to the formal establishment of history as a subject in the late nineteenth century. In many European countries, including Germany and France, and in America, history became linked to science and rigour,

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which was highlighted by the establishment of journals, including Revenu Historic (1876) and the American Historical Review (1895).24 These ‘academic’ historical publications could be perceived as widening the gap between the ‘newly’ established professional historians and ‘wider’ public with peer reviewing, highly specialist topics and writing styles limiting the publications wider appeal and accessibility.25 The professionalization and institutionalization of history during the late nineteenth century have been regarded by some professional historians as limiting histories wider societal value and as such impacting on the production of history.26 Contrary to this, Townsend argued that it was the professionals rather than the public that struggled to create and produce history, academics feeling disconnected from wider historical conversations.27 Professional ‘academic’ historians were forced to find new mechanisms to engage with the public; this spurred historians to apply history to real-world contexts and develop new methods of communication with the wider public such as oral history.28 Perhaps, as Hillard suggested, the ‘prehistoric’ nature of public history meant that professionalization and institutionalization of formal ‘history’ did not negatively impact on the public access and production of history as has often been proposed.29 The early twentieth century saw a rise in local societies and historians; in 1940, the American Association for Archives and Historical Societies was formed. The increase in local history groups and local historians’ potential reflects histories’ perceived wider value and interest in history beyond the professional sphere.30 In the UK and the United States, government agencies and departments employed historians to advise on policy and strategy; for example, the US Navy employed a historian to provide advice of battlefield strategy based on historical knowledge, and in the UK, the Second World War saw the first appointment of an official war historian.31 By 1909, Schambaugh used the term ‘applied history’ for this wider application of history in real-world contexts and to use history to explain contemporary issues; this could be regarded as the first formal recognition of the value of ‘public history’, albeit with a different branding.32 Private sector organizations hired historians to curate and preserve historical archives, including Ford (1929) and Coca-Cola (1950s), and funded public heritage projects; for example, Rockefeller (1930s) invested 80 million in creating 1790s Colonial Williamsburg Village.33 By the mid-twentieth century, local history societies continued to increase, as did the provision for history within education, and access to historic sites outside classroom improved.34 For example, in 1946, the National Trust (UK) was formed, and in 1933, the National Parks Service (USA) took responsibility for historic sites and memorials. Furthermore, the rise of popular media, including written, audio and screen media, engaged wider audiences with historical stories and events. By the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, common roots and links between local history, applied history and public history were increasingly evident.35

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During the twentieth century, many university-trained academic historians began to separate themselves from the public through establishing formal qualifications including undergraduate and doctoral awards – an approach often based solely upon professionally led research. The academic pursuit of history later developed various separate research strands, sub-disciplines with their own specialist vocabularies and methodologies such as economic and political history. The separation of the public from history disguised the original link between the public and the historical discipline, and the public’s formative influence in both research and practice. During the late 1940s and 1950s, oral history emerged formally, which became synonymous with public history.36 This methodological and theoretical development is regarded as a critical juncture in the development of public history and its practice. The recording of people’s memories of historical events dates back to at least Thucydides’s fifth-century recording accounts of Peloponnesian Wars.37 In 1948, Allan Nevins from University of Columbia was the first to audio-record oral history, collecting the memories of persons significant in American life.38 In 1956, George Ewart Evans recorded accounts from workers in Suffolk (UK) villages – ‘ask the fellows who cut the hay’.39 These methods of collective and collaborative ‘bottom up’ history were at the foundation of public history methods and principles. The politically radical climate of the 1960s saw the emergence of novel and challenging sub-disciplines of history that had a profound impact on the work of academics. These rejected the conventional practice of writing history as the story of ‘great men’, politicians, kings and generals. Instead, there was a new emphasis on the history of the poor, of women, of the colonized and of the enslaved. It was the decade that saw the emergence of social, feminist and black history.40 History sought to represent the diversity of past communities and the agency (capacity to control their circumstances) of individuals in the past and present. Social and radical historians, rejecting academic elitism, also sought to be relevant to the public. This emphasis on ‘bottom up history’, or history from below, aimed to research informal and hitherto untold history. For example, the unrecorded, lived experiences of working people, wartime soldiers or grass-roots activists that might otherwise have been lost were preserved as personal stories through mechanisms including oral history. This change in approach to historical research was linked to class conflicts and racial divides; history started playing a role in wider political debates. As a result, history acted as a power negotiator for both individuals and disenfranchised groups. For example, many American historians, such as Woodward, were active in the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s.41 This provided a new perspective on historical study, which changed relationships between the public and history, as the public perception and interpretation of the past were viewed as equal to that of professionals. This practice was later referred to as ‘public history’.42

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The phrase ‘public history’ formally appeared in the United States in the 1970s.43 Public history continued to be linked to wider socialist movements, aligned to professionals mirroring political liberal ideals, championing for more democratic approaches to history.44 These liberal ideas were represented in the actions of the public and in public politicaloriented movements, such as the workshop movements, which included history workshops and workers education programmes organized by trade unions such as the Workers Educational Association.45 This period represented the public fighting for a voice beyond that allowed by traditional authority; this applied to the public representation in history. The National Council of Public History (NCPH) was founded in 1979 with the specific aim of promoting the use of history by the public, and this led to the production of the journal the Public Historian.46 Public history was linked to the political impetus to consider the unified voice of disenfranchised groups, including indigenous rights. In some senses, public history aimed to make the past more consensual with individuals and organizations having a range of interests in the unified past and corporate past.47 The sub-discipline of public history and professionals associated with it are therefore often strongly linked to the social history movement, liberal agendas and anti-elite stances; this includes topics such as racial debates, feminism and working-class histories.48 Historical research in the 1970s combined traditional primary written records and non-written unrecorded sources such as oral testimonies. The newly emergent practice of oral history aimed to uncover historical details that had been hidden, lost or deliberately subverted in written records by engaging the public historical discourse.49 It was this new two-way dialogue through which historians realized the active role the public could play in uncovering hidden and untold stories, which could provide a more balanced and comprehensive story of the past. Subsequently, the multiple ‘publics’ started to play a major role in historical research and the ‘emergence’ of community history (Chapter 6). The practice of public history expanded in the 1980s, particularly in the United States, Australia and Canada.50 Institutions such as University of Maryland and the United States Forest Service integrated public outreach activities specifically linked to communicating and engaging the public in their past. This included the Annapolis Public History Project, which linked local government agencies and universities together to adopt formal approaches to investigating and communicating the history of the city, including working with marginalized groups (Case study 32). There was a focus not just on new research methods but also on communicating this new history and perspectives. During this period, the subfield of public history was academically established as a valid part of history. Yet despite the powerful changes in historical practice in this period, the majority of public history projects in the United States and Canada were still expert-led with elements of community involvement.51

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The 1980s saw national growth of, and support for, public history in Australia and New Zealand, albeit at a slower pace than in the United States.52 Professional historians supported by politicians started formally to organize public history projects.53 The definition and methods of history were broadened as public historians developed links with indigenous and aboriginal rights movements. This included the introduction of intangible elements of history such as folklore and traditions, ideas that were not formally recorded and thus were not conventionally accorded the status of ‘evidence’ (Chapter 9). This open approach to history and the public was not initially reflected in historians’ work in the UK and Europe. To some degree, this was because professional historians in these countries did not have the same political and public impetus such as the indigenous rights movement. As such, it was the ethical and moral debates that acted as a catalyst to change both the approaches and mindsets of historians. In the UK, during the 1980s, the concept of public history was still an activity principally relating to local history groups, private historians and individuals, usually within the museum sector.54 Funding cuts to the humanities sector during this period impacted on the development of public history. These new fiscal pressures required history to justify its wider role in society and, as a profession, engage with the public.55 Historians were required to consider the value of their work, to implement publicly oriented ‘humanistic’ methodological approaches to their research and to engage in wider communication.56 Specifically, professionals were being politically and financially pressured to undertake research that engaged with the public, ‘the taxpayers’. Subsequently, professionals and academics could no longer engage in research for purely personal motivations; this forced historians to move from a private research endeavour to a public enterprise. Historians began to consider their roles in wider policy debates, including history’s ability to predict change and the future in areas of contemporary debate such as the environment or the economy. The financial imperative to justify professional output to the public has been continued under current global government austerity drives. History as a profession and a subject has had to justify itself in terms of fiscal and social value.57 This has led to widespread cuts to museum sectors and public history organizations around the world. In the UK, this has included the closing of government-funded organizations, such as Museums, Libraries and Archives (UK), and funding cuts to large national public institutions, including English Heritage (UK).58 It was not until the late 1990s, and the election of a Labour government in the UK, that public history adopted a more organized approach. This has been linked to the increasing pressure from the trade unions and the working class of Britain for more focus on the history of the common people. During this period, the governance of a more left-leaning, social-democratic political party impacted upon the approach and focus of the historical profession. It could be suggested that this was spurred by increasingly close political

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and professional links to the United States with many historians in the UK adopting approaches to public history that had already been pioneered in North America.59 In the UK, rather than organizations championing for public history through linking it to international debates, public history happened in a more haphazard and less organized manner. This approach had its benefits, enabling it to be flexible and diverse, rising up from the streets and being shaped by amateur historians.60 Public history’s diverse theories and methods reflect a myriad of social and political contexts in which it has developed. As such, each country has a unique approach to public history. A single definition that crosses all geographic and cultural boundaries therefore remains elusive.61 However, despite the vast differences in the motivations for, and application of, public history around the world, all aim to widening public awareness and accessibility to the past.

Public history debates Authenticity Authenticity is associated with ‘truth’, ‘fact’ and ‘evidence’. The nature of historical evidence is considered to influence its level of truthfulness, reliability and authenticity.62 For instance, primary physical documentary evidence, such as census records, is often trusted and believed by historians as ‘true’. Conversely, first-hand accounts of the past, such as oral history testimonies, which are linked to memory and emotions, are believed to be less valid as they are subjective and problematic, relying on individual memory.63 Yet, to the public, it is these personal narrative accounts of history that are often regarded as being the most authentic representations of the past. This demonstrates that authenticity is subjective and constructed at an individual level drawing on emotions and personal responses. Creating history and historical stories about the past requires interpretation and linking together various forms of evidence to make suppositions about the past. Public history is about interpreting and communicating historical stories with and for the public. Therefore, practitioners use a variety of mediums to transpose history into representations of the past; this frequently leads to questions about the authenticity of these representations. For example, ‘living history’ displays, such as re-enactments and recreations, are often at the forefront of the authenticity debate. Conversely, static museum displays and artefact collections are often regarded as authentic and more truthful. If we deconstruct museum displays, these displays range from objects with no narrative context (‘zero degree’) to objects with explanations based on historical knowledge and objects with full museum treatment, including staging and a comprehensive narrative. This ‘full museum treatment’

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acts as an authentication device for historical interpretations.64 As such, museum displays are not autonomously designed; they can be regarded as having ranges of authenticity, which are subjective and based on personal experience.65 For example, the Their Past Your Future exhibition (Case study 2) specifically aims to present the Second World War to the public from the perspective of UK veterans. As such, this specific UK-oriented story of the war has different values and meanings dependent on the viewers’ personal or family experience. It, furthermore, authenticates these veteran memories and stories of the war through placing them alongside historical footage, documents and items. Recently, changing research mechanisms for history, including firsthand accounts and presentations of history, have challenged traditional ideas of authenticity; for example, historical films such as Schindler’s List (directed by Steven Spielberg, 1993) attempted to create an authentic treatment of the human story of Jewish treatment by Nazi Germany during the Second World War by using a mixture of historical facts and first-hand accounts, alongside filming in original locations and in black and white, creating the impression of documentary footage.66 Similarly, the growth and development of cultural heritage tourism has altered how authenticity is defined, taking into accounts multiple perspective of authenticity and dynamics of the audiences.67 As such, the authenticity of public history’s interpretation has become to include elements of nostalgia, emotivism and intangible elements of the past.68 This has changed the use of interpretative techniques, often through the use of methods common in the entertainment industry, to display the past through re-enactment and reconstruction as ‘frozen’, monolithic and simplistic, and even sanitized.69 It relies, perhaps rather dangerously, on nostalgia to authenticate versions of the past. For example, the World War II Living History Association aims to promote, preserve and respect the spirit and memory of the Second World War soldiers through the use of both historical information and personal memories.70 It aims to promote the spirit and memory of the Second World War through nostalgic period–inspired activities such as dinner dances. The authenticity within public history is associated with personal experience, emotions and feelings. Authenticity is thus made problematic; members of the public view and experience the past differently and as such consider authenticity to be attached to different elements, including both of tangible and intangible pasts. The Second World War re-enactors stage mock battles, wearing authentic uniforms, using authentic tactics and fielding authentic equipment, but they do not stage mock genocides or prisoner massacres. In their battles, no one dies; no one is maimed; no one is splattered with the blood and gore of their eviscerated friends. How authentic, then, is their version of the war? Attaining authenticity in the practice of public history is about negotiating the complex juxtaposition between fact and fiction, truth and lies, remembering and forgetting.

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Entertainment versus education Public history has changed the way history is presented and interpreted. It has seen historical communication move away from the nineteenth-century focus on history as a tool for education; for example, museum exhibitions were created to transmit new historical knowledge and professional theories to the public. Subsequently, the late twentieth- and twenty-first-century approach increased focus on history as a form of public entertainment. Heritage centres and museums incorporated media and interactive elements to present the past to the public. These elements aim to transport the public into the past through creating an atmosphere and an emotional reaction about the past. For example, the Jorvik Viking Center, York (UK), takes the visitor on a time train journey from the Viking past to the present day. The visitor experiences a reconstructed village with the noises and smells associated with the period in order to be entertained and to learn about the past. Public history organizations have used entertainment to provide education to a more diverse audience. The concept of history moving beyond education to entertainment is linked to wider debates about commercialization and authenticity. The concept of history as entertainment is supported by research undertaken to investigate why people visit heritage and historic sites.71 It concluded that the main reason was entertainment rather than education.72 The Popcorn Report offers further insights into the need of heritage to provide entertainment, escapism and adventure.73 This has offered insight into what the ‘public’ consumer wants in the future, suggesting history needs to move away from the static museum displays of the nineteenth century (or even twenty-first century) to be more interactive and participatory, something that public history supports. Furthermore, research into community heritage projects has indicated that majority of people visited and returned to heritage sites based on their associated entertainment.74 Entertaining the public through the past has been criticized as the Disneyfication of the past.75 Public historians have been accused of using the media and its techniques to sensationalize and romanticize the past in order to create an unrealistic, yet publicly appealing, version of history. These critiques are often associated with consumerism of the past with heritage sites, in particular, being accused of creating ‘theme parks’ and tourist attractions to attract visitors and bring in revenue with the facts being overshadowed by clever tricks. Public history is about finding a balance between providing both educational and entertainment value, meeting the demands of the public for enjoyment and the ethical requirements of the profession to safeguard and communicate the past. Many public history organizations, such as museums, aim therefore to provide mechanisms for enjoyable learning both within and outside the classroom. For example, the Spy Museum, Washington,

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DC, aims to entertain and educate its visitors, both schoolchildren and tourists, about spy culture through the ages. This is achieved through interactive ‘James Bond’ spy-style training that educates the public about spy technology and historical impacts while fulfilling a commitment to interactive entertainment.

Consumerism Elements of consumerism within the practice of public history have been discussed within the wider debates about entertainment and authenticity. The growth of consumerism directly relates to the changes in how public history organizations and public historians view and engage with the public. The visitors (the ‘public’) and external forces, such as economics and politics, influence how public history is communicated and presented. This has led to changes in the relationship between the professional and the public, as public history organizations face pressure to increase visitor numbers and generate more income, in part, in order to maintain their institutions and their work. Initially the core aims of the first public history organizations were preservation and collection, focusing on the objects rather than the public. Recently, budget squeezes have led to shifts in focus from product driven to visitor driven. As such, the approaches to presenting the past have altered, putting the public, ‘the consumer’, first and drawing on entertainment and media to achieve this. In the consumer-driven economy of heritage, marketing public history organizations through their ‘unique selling points’ has become paramount, which has seen museums host ‘blockbuster’ exhibitions, and World Heritage Sites (WHS) represented unique cultural commodities. The tourism industry and its growth in recent years have also led to changes in how public history is displayed and presented with increasing pressure to commercialize public history organizations, providing visitor services, such as toilets, cafes and shops, all of which bring in additional revenue with ticket sales. As such, the heritage tourism industry has become a major player in the gross national product (GNP) of a nation.76 For example, cultural heritage tourism in the UK makes up to 3 per cent of the GNP.77 Resultantly, public history organizations and their staff are increasingly driven by consumer money, as overarching capitalist systems within the Western world come into the foreground and globally central government funding for heritage decreases. This consumer-driven approach to public history has led to ethical and moral dilemmas among the profession, directly relating to authenticity and authority over the past, and concerns that public history no longer has the power to be unbiased or to speak for the marginalized but the commercialized representations of the past threaten the truthful preservation and presentation of history.

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Ownership Ownership of the past and history is central to the practice of public history. Public history seeks to balance perceived and actual professional ownership of the past alongside developing public ownership and autonomy in its relationship to the past. Achieving this requires public history to engage in the renegotiation of public and professional power relationships through collaboration and consultation with the aim of developing autonomy and community cooperative ownership. The grass-roots movement, indigenous rights movement, racial history and feminist history have all served to influence changes in ownership of past and its interpretation. Wider public ownership of the past has also been enabled through the integration of new historical methodologies for research and communication such as digital media and oral history. These mechanisms applied within public history have enabled the public to participate in historical research, interpretation and presentation and as such have given the public a voice and ownership in the historical narrative. Recent work on the historiography of heritage proposes that public outreach, including public history, is often shaped by political developments and agendas.78 It is Smith who, through the concept of ‘Authoritative Heritage Discourse’, makes reference to the politically determined nature of heritage and suggests that professionals are powerless to work against political context.79 Carman takes a more critical view of the role of politics in heritage management in what he refers to as ‘Authoritative Heritage Management’, suggesting that despite ‘inherent nationalism’ and political influence in heritage management, there is yet scope to consider and apply a diverse range of values and motivations.80 As such, public history has been used and abused by politics to push political agendas, including indigenous rights and socialist agendas, for example, in the Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian (Case study 33). The practice of public history is not democratic; it is heavily influenced by external factors beyond the public or even the professional. Therefore, public historians are often mediators for competing values and different interpretations of history. Their role is to balance the financial and political need to maintain wider support for the subject of history and to provide a voice to communicate the public’s history.

Conclusion The craft of public history, of communicating and enabling public involvement in the past, is intrinsic to the historical discipline.81 As such, seeking to explore the history of the subject requires an understanding of the intrinsic connection between ‘history’ and the public and of the role that

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our interpretations of the past play in social and personal psychology and in a society’s cultural traditions. This section has aimed to provide a summary and brief historiography of the public history movement. It demonstrates that the practice of public history is temporally specific and its development and historiography relate to its unique cultural and social situation. This chapter has introduced the ideas, theories and methods, and key debates surrounding public history. These concepts are introduced to the reader to provide an overview of the complexities of public history and provide a platform for debating the definition, its application in practice and nature of the sub-discipline. This provides a basis for critical evaluation of public history’s application in practice.

2 Museums, Archives and Heritage Centres

This chapter investigates how history is managed and presented within museums, heritage centres and archival facilities. The analysis of the history and complex development of these public history institutions provides an understanding of the complex and institutionally embedded historiography of the subject. The chapter discusses the impact and significance that membership to local, national and international professional organizations has on the practice of public history in this sector and, as such, the impact the professional and ethical codes of conduct members are required to adhere to have on the presentation of history to the public. The chapter critically examines the core principles, methods and practices used in historical ‘institutions’ to present and interpret history to the public, including exhibitions, recreations, reconstructions and multimedia platforms. As such, this chapter provides a skills framework for acquiring jobs in the ‘institutional’ sections of the public history sector. Museums, archives and heritage centres are not only storehouses for history, they are active public history facilities where stories about the past are created and communicated with the public. In simple terms, museums are associated with communicating the past through historical artefacts. Archives are where historical records are stored. Heritage centres are for presenting the recreation and reconstructions of history. In reality, this division is more complex; these facilities and their functions are not mutually exclusive. As organizations, they rely on each other’s historical material to present a comprehensive story of the past; as such, they are intrinsically linked. For example, heritage centres may display artefacts like a museum; museums may hold archival collections, and archives may acquire such array of material that they can create museums. Subsequently, the boundaries between their functions are often blurred.1 These institutions provide some of the first examples of nationally supported and publicly funded public history facilities, even if their origins are

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more closely aligned to private collections; for example, the Musée du Louvre (France) was founded on private collections of the French Royal Family.2 The development and nature of museums and archives are closely linked to changes in dominant social and political ideologies surrounding the subject of history and tend to reflect current approaches to public history. These facilities provide an ideal starting point for understanding the development of public history’s application in practice. Museums and archives, more than any other public history activity, provide a historiography of public history and an ideal starting point to understand the development of public history’s application in practice.3 It is these organizations that first enabled the public to be transformed from being passive consumers of history to being active participants in the ‘interpretation of the past’.4 Consequently, museums are at the forefront of the critical enquiry into public history and provide key examples of innovative approaches to historical communication. Museums and archives are regarded as the ‘powerhouses’ of a nation’s heritage with their collections representing the dominant cultural and national identities.5 They have the potential to control the public’s views of history and the past through influencing national thought.6 The selection of historical items, the creation of archives, their interpretation and their presentation are all driven by individuals, such as curators and archivists, and by internal and external political agents, such as museum boards, national and international governments and non-governmental organizations.7 As a result, decisions concerning what and how history is presented are neither objective nor inconsequential. Curators and archivists create narratives of history based on their personal interests, and embedded world views, including their wider social and political perspectives.8 The artefacts collected and displayed in these ‘public spaces’ are symbols of dominant cultural paradigms that have been specifically interpreted and presented to represent national identity and collective memories. This is also true of the grand architecture of many national museums, which represent ‘corporate images’ of a nation. For example, the neoclassical design of British Museum aimed to reflect the glory of Western civilization through reference to Greek and Roman architecture. The building and its contents sought to highlight the role of British colonial power in the civilization of the modern world in the eighteenth century.9 Curators and archivists often walk a narrow path between being marketing tools for the nation and its political agendas and representing the public.10 In recent years, museums have increasingly sought public ‘stakeholder’ feedback on their contents, and the consumer has begun to exert increasing influence on the direction of public history.11 The public has increasingly been regarded as consumers ‘paying for a service’ through ticket fees or taxpayers’ money. As such, visitor choices, patterns and trends in behaviour and demographics have all been examined in order to influence the ‘production’ of public history such as exhibitions.

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Brief history The concept of the publicly accessible museums, buildings containing collections of historical material including art that are open to public, was developed in Italy in the sixteenth century with one of the premier examples being Vatican Museum. The widespread growth of the public museum originates from the eighteenth-century Enlightenment period. The earliest of these public institutions were based on objects from private collections. For example, the British Museum was formed in part by collections by Sir Hans Sloane.12 These encyclopaedic museums contained items gathered from around the world, objects that represented the reach of Western influence.13 During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, there was a dramatic growth in these historical ‘powerhouses’, as national governments supported their development. Often this was done in direct competition with other nations, becoming national monuments to display power and global influence. Museums dating from this period include the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, and Budapest Museum.14 The museum displays of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were assemblages of material collected, compared and classified based on curator theories and observations.15 This meant objects categorized according to typological development such as changes in shape or type of decoration. These changes were associated with different cultures or time periods. This approach detached objects from their original social and cultural contexts based on the belief that this created an ‘objective’ and scientific approach to history.16 This allowed curators to manipulate and create alternative realities, enabling them to control both the public’s relationship with, and understanding of, history.17 Museums and archives became the agents that controlled and created history. Histories were constructed for the public rather than by the public in a safe, custom-built environment.18 The provision of these facilities was regarded as bettering society through social education.19 Museums have developed as places to educate and entertain the public in specific regional and national narratives. For the public, they became places of curiosity, spaces to experience strange things and to be shocked and astounded.20 In 1889, the Museums Association (MA) (UK) was formed with the aim of developing museums and promoting their value to the public. This supported the sector and provided the tools to establish museums as civic engines and educational facilities.21 Similar associations to support archives at a national level did come into fruition in the 1930s and 1940s with the formation of the Society of American Archivists (SAA) (1936) and Society of Archives, UK (1947). In the late nineteenth century, the first open-air museum was opened in Skansen, Sweden.22 Historic buildings that represented the traditional cultures of Sweden were transported to, and reassembled at, the site and collected from around the country with the aim of sustaining the development

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of cultural identity and regional traditions.23 Two world wars hampered the spread of this practice, and the further development of public history within museums and archives, as many museums closed and put their collections into storage. After the Second World War, the desire to safeguard the future of large-scale historical assets, such as buildings and monuments in Europe and the United States, resulted in the re-emergence of open-air museums. The presentation and interpretation of the past through this form of ‘living history’ supported the development of the public history.24 Public history became a mechanism to represent the story of ordinary people, for example, the ninetieth-century village of Old Sturbridge Village, Massachusetts, a development that echoed the rising interest in social history among academic historians.25 Following the Second World War, and within a year of each other, both the International Council of Museums (ICOM, in 1946–7) and International Council for Archives (ICA, in 1948) were, through the support of United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), formed.26 The emergence of these organizations was a direct response by professionals and politicians to the large-scale destruction of many public history facilities and the loss of many historical items, documents and collections around Europe during the Second World War. The formation of these organizations provided international recognition of the importance of museums and archives to the wider public. It recognized the important role of museum and archival ‘professional’ public historians in the future of the creation, management and communication of history. ICA and ICOM both aimed to promote standards, develop ethical guidelines in collections care and management, and advocate for public access and education, seeking to apply these objectives to museums and archival facilities at an international level. During the late 1960s and 1970s, museums and archives sought to change the public perception of them as symbols of elite power. This was achieved through implementing new approaches to presenting, displaying and accessing history.27 This ‘democratization of museums and archives’ required institutions to be transparent and to justify their use of public funds.28 In an attempt to change history’s public relevancy, curators and archivists drew ideas from the social history and radical history movements.29 For example, the Museum of London was created within the Barbican building complex in 1976 to provide education and social betterment for residents.30 This public-centred approach to the past enabled the development of a new form of public history institution: the heritage centre.31 Heritage centres were spaces specifically designed to explore people’s pasts and create memories within historical contexts through active learning.32 The rise in heritage centres, with new buildings being specifically designed for the use and display of history, was, in part, a response to the rise of consumerism in the public history sector. The past was a growing part of the tourist industry, and the building of heritage centres to cater to

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the needs of tourists represented a way to tap into this new-found financial resource for history.33 During this period, museums and heritage centres introduced new mechanisms for communicating historical knowledge to the public. This involved the adoption of different learning techniques and strategies such as participatory and practical learning. As a result, museums and heritage centres began to use reconstructions and recreations, and audio and visual technology and to incorporate visual aids within their exhibitions. These aimed to introduce the public to a more entertaining educational experience. The 1980s and 1990s saw continued change in the power relationships between museums and archives and the public. Visitor surveys, such as Merriman’s, highlighted a gap in the visitor demographics.34 This demonstrated that museums were failing to engage the majority in history, indicating that low numbers of ethnic minority groups, teenagers and young adults visited museums, which mostly attracted white, middle-class individuals.35 Public history institutions recognized the need to change their approach to public history by implementing new ways of engaging the public in ‘their’ past. Museums were redesigned, refashioned and expanded in order to be a tool for education and cultural betterment.36 This encouraged wider access to museums, in which they also sought to become instruments for the promotion of cultural diversity.37 In the UK, wider access was encouraged through the introduction of free entry to museums, a scheme supported by the national government.38 It is worth noting that, despite this scheme, visitor demographics to museums did not substantially change. Archives also came under pressure to engage with the public and sought new ways of becoming relevant and accessible, for example, by promoting open access and encouraging the use of archives for personal genealogical research. The former ethos of preserving and safeguarding the past for the future changed to one of enabling its use and value in the present. In the early twenty-first century, public history in museums and archives has been increasingly influenced by visitor feedback and the consideration of community values. Organizations sought to alter their relationships with the public through actively encouraging the public to engage in decisions regarding the display, discovery and presentation of the past, often through consultation and partnership projects.39 The role of the curator and archivist changed from keepers of the past to presenters and communicators of multiple pasts.

Museums Each museum is contextually unique, influenced by location, demographics and collection policies. Furthermore, the typology of museums, ranging from encyclopaedic and national museums to local and community and to private

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and institutional, affects a museum’s public remit, collection policy, funding, as well as space and location. Subsequently, these factors and a museum’s context will influence the methods used to communicate and engage the public in history.40

Encyclopaedic and national museums Encyclopaedic ‘society museums’ were developed in the eighteenth century, aimed at presenting collections of historic objects to the interested public.41 In Europe, by the nineteenth century, many of these private collections became national museums, housing internationally important discoveries. They aimed to display a story of ‘the history of mankind’ to the national public, acting as agents to highlight national identity, supremacy and power, such as the Louvre, Paris. National museums are government financed with a percentage of their funding coming from their ‘national’ government.42 There are exceptions to this rule, for example, the Smithsonian, which was set up with private funding given to the government to establish a national museum; however, it has since become a publicly funded body.43 These museums are self-contained, employing thousands of staff within various departments, such as temporally or object-specific curatorial departments; for example, the Metropolitan Museum of Art has departments ranging from ancient Near Eastern and medieval art to modern and contemporary art and photography. Museums departments also included curatorial and museum support departments such as conservation, marketing and education. The structure of museums relates to internal organizational hierarchies. For example, curators report to the heads of their respective departments, who report to directors and the board of trustees. Regardless of individual job descriptions and departments, each member of staff has a specific role in the presentation and communication of public history. These institutions have begun to set standards for smaller museums, working with government and non-governmental bodies including the ICOM.44

Local or regional museums Local museums collect and present historic items from specific local and regional areas. They were formed through the opening up of former private collections to the public such as Geoffrey Museum, London.45 Many of these museums were established to act as educational and communication tools for local history and to develop ‘civic’ pride.46 The central ethos behind local museums is presenting locally relevant ‘public’ history to the local community, encouraging a diverse range of residents to engage with ‘their history’. As such, public history projects, including exhibitions, are created

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in these museums through working closely with community members and amateur history societies to develop relationships, new ideas and new collections. These projects included oral history projects and artistic representations of the past. One example of this approach is the Museum of Dockland’s Thames Foreshore exhibition, which displays items from the River Thames alongside reminiscences and modern photographic images.47 Regional museums receive varying local or state government support and are often heavily subsidized by community grants and private donations. For example, the Museum of the City of New York receives government funding for core activities but requires additional funding for exhibitions, modernization and its public programmes.48 Therefore, exhibitions and public history activities within these museums are closely aligned to both private and public agendas. Funding restrictions in these local and regional museums influence the nature of public history within them. Public history projects often have limited budgets and small numbers of staff working on them and rely heavily on volunteer support. Public historians working in these museums require a broader skill remit to meet these challenges including the ability to undertake all aspects of the day-to-day running of these organizations, their management and design. It is these museums and their staff that face the pressure to adapt regularly to changing budgetary demands and are under highest threat of closure due to regional and local funding cuts. As a result, local museum networks, such as the London Museums Development Team, have been set up to support these smaller museums and their staff. This is often achieved with the support of large national museums in the area and government grants such as the Museums Libraries and Archives, Renaissance in the Regions scheme. These networks aim to provide training in museum management and grants to support mandatory changes such as disabled access and implementation of environmental policies.

University museums University museums store, conserve and present large collections of material derived from individual scholarly research. For example, the Flinders Petrie Museum, University College London, contains collections from Petrie’s research expeditions to Egypt and the Near East in the eighteenth century.49 Originally this material aimed to support future academic research and provide teaching collections for university students.50 Recently, this remit has altered, mirroring changes in university agendas, including widening participation and student diversity. Therefore, these repositories for research material have sought to develop into public history facilities, encouraging engagement from people beyond the institutions. This attempt to open up collections to the wider public aims to provide a balance between wider audience and research needs.51

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University museums have subsequently developed projects in collaboration with local schools and community groups such as Newcastle Museum’s work supporting the creation of school museums52 and provision of spaces by University College London within their university museum facilities for community learning.53 These museums outreach public history projects have involved the creation of out-of-the-case collections used for wider education and training use by schoolchildren and teachers, alongside strategies to encourage a broader ethnic and cultural diversity of users through translation of historical and learning resources into many different languages.54

Open-air museums Open-air museums present history in outside spaces and often in landscape context. They frequently endeavour to bring history to life through the use of recreations or reconstructions of past buildings. These museums often use live interpretation and re-enactment in which history is transposed into the present through real people recreating past historical events or actions.55 These museums focus on hands-on activities and experience learning. A good example of an open-air museum includes West Stow Anglo-Saxon Village, an Anglo-Saxon reconstructed village in Suffolk, UK. Live interpretation, including re-enactment, often struggles to find a balance between historical fact and fiction and as such between entertainment and education. Another technique often used in open-air museums is experimental history or archaeology. This involves testing historical theories and construction techniques today, for example, Butzer Ancient Farm, Sussex (UK), and attempts to understand the technology and techniques used to build items such as Iron Age houses, Roman villas and Anglo-Saxon boats. This creates replicas or reconstructions of originals based on physical evidence both above the ground and underneath, found by both archaeologists and historians. Often this technique is regarded as providing a ‘factual’ element to historical recreation and more authenticity.

Community museums Community museums aim to communicate local and individual stories that are important to the local community.56 These facilities communicate a specific story about a local person or people or specific building or site of historical interest, which a community feels has been under-represented by the establishment or is especially important to their local identity.57 Often, these small local museums are established to tell a story of a particular person, who is perceived as important by the local community; for example, Gaskell House Museum in Manchester tells the story of Elizabeth Gaskell,

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an important nineteenth-century novelist, most famously the author of Cranford.58 Community museums also act as mechanisms to promote and communicate a specific local history such as Washington Head Quarters Museum in White Plains, which aims to promote the role of the community in the American Revolution.59 Community museums arose from the community’s interest in history and community historical activities, including local history society work and the collection of archives and artefacts. These museums developed out of the grass-roots and anti-establishment movement, which saw ‘the public’ taking control of their own ‘heritage’ through creating their own publicly controlled history. Until the 1960s, there were relatively few community museums; the grass-roots movement of this era and the burgeoning volunteer movement supported their growth.60 The public nature of these organizations and management of these museums means although they seek to work again the ‘authoritative heritage discourse’, they can serve individual and local political agendas through their historical representations. Resultantly, they are not only places where dialogues relating to ownership are attested; they are arenas in which the authenticity of established historical accounts comes into question. Consequently, community museums can represent the multiple voices about and of the past in that area such as Wing Hing Long Store Museum in Tingha New South Wales.61 Local community museums provide a space for individuals to research personal histories and genealogies. The majority of community museums are run independently of government organizations by community members, often members of local history societies, who come together to develop a space to present history. These members volunteered their time freely to support the development and communication of local history. The museums, the development of exhibitions, collections and their management were all controlled and maintained by community ‘volunteers’. These community volunteers played a vital part in the continued development of these museums.62 Local museums are establishments for ‘community history’ often combining archives, artefacts, heritage items, art and library material, yet they typically have narrow collecting ranges. From these buildings and public spaces, a range of ‘community history’ work takes place, including community exhibitions, school activities, and archival and genealogical research. Recently, a support network has been established for community museums; for example, in Australia, this network has been supported by the national government.63 These museums rely on private funding and grants specially for their community work from organizations including the Heritage Lottery Fund, UK, a grant scheme to use National Lottery revenue and government guidance. Consequently, community museums increasingly are performing a pivotal role in community history and non-history-related outreach activities, providing spaces for exhibitions, meetings and local groups, and activities.

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Private museums Private museums are often linked to privately owned buildings, and the personal collections of material stored within them are opened up to the public. These museums are frequently located in former residential buildings such as stately and historic homes. The collections formed in these private buildings were usually developed due to an individual’s interest in history, through deliberate collection during their personal travels. These collections, such as those at Tatton Park in Cheshire, formed by the Egerton family from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century, can be esoteric in nature with a range of items from various historical contexts. The opening up of these collections is, in part, a response to the growth of commercial heritage and associated financial gain. This financial benefit gained from opening a former residence to the public often supports the conservation and maintenance of a historic building. Access to these collections, in their entirety, is often on request by individual researchers or members of the public. As a result, public history in these museums can be restrictive and insular, for example, encouraging people to visit to undertake specific research that may be mutually beneficial to the individual and organization or by opening collections up during dedicated open days and through guided tours. The public history model applied in private museums has a greater affinity with the archival model of interaction than that of museums.64 These private collections and museums often lack the funding to engage in more innovative public history projects. Recently, with support of organizations, such as the Historic Houses Association, formally disparate private enterprises have been supported and provided with free advice and funding to enabling wider public access to their historic resources, for example, the John Soane Museum in London.65 These private collections give historians an insight into the creation and formation of public history from its inception at an individual level.66

Working in museums Museums have individual agendas, guidelines and remits that influence their practice and presentation of public history.67 The focus of the institution and the nature of its original collections will affect how they archive, display and present history to the public. Institutions and individuals working in public history are influenced by non-governmental institutions’ guidelines. External guidelines and standards impact on museum policies and professional standards, such as the ICOM Code of Ethics.68 Professional bodies, such as the MA, developed to support curators and museum professionals, influence the development and nature

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of public history within institutions. These organizations have enabled individual institutions and countries to communicate different approaches to public history and consider new and contextually diverse methods to the presentation of the past. It is these non-governmental institutions and professional bodies that have defined the skills required to work in museums. Professional bodies in the museum sector have been established to develop guidelines and codes of conduct for their members. The central aim is to support the future development of museum professionals through training courses such as the Associate of Museum Association Training Scheme (AMA). This course is designed to support future industry leaders and provide graduate training to those wishing to be employed within the sector. AMA membership requires the completion of either an accredited Master’s degree in museum studies or General National Vocational Qualification in heritage management. In addition to these qualifications, individuals are required to undertake continued professional development, which is supported by the AMA mentoring programme.69 The completion of a relevant postgraduate degree prior to employment within the museums sector is increasingly demanded by public history organizations. Despite the prevalence of postgraduate degrees in museum studies, there are a number of different routes to employment within this sector. For example, a museum educational officer may be employed due to their previous degree and postgraduate qualifications or because of previous work as a teacher. Similarly, there are two very distinct routes undertaken to become a curator, despite the fact that this job will require a degree in history or a related subject. Some curators will have obtained this role through completion of a specialist PhD, usually relating to museums or artefacts studies, while others will have gained these positions through exposure to the sector by extensive volunteer work undertaken simultaneously to a Master’s degree in museum studies (see Online Material: Job Description Museum/Exhibition Manager).

A DAY IN THE LIFE Jennifer Thomas, Executive Director, Virginia Association of Museums In the first week of my first professional museum job in a small historical museum in New York State, I suddenly found myself researching how to safely trap a raccoon in the attic. Having graduated from a museum studies programme, ‘other duties as assigned’ were not a part of any syllabus; however, the reality is that most museum professionals spend as much of their time on these ‘other duties’ as they do on public history or collections management (though I might argue that collecting a raccoon

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from the attic could be considered collections management). This is not said to discourage anyone from reaching for a museum position, only to encourage any student of history or museum studies to understand that the world you are exposed to in graduate programmes is only a very small piece of the reality of working in a museum. While graduate programmes may only expose you to a portion of what you will be doing in the daily life of a museum professional, I do believe that in this current climate, it is difficult to secure a position in a museum without such a degree. So the best course of action is to ensure that in addition to that degree, you learn as much as you can outside of the classroom. I found myself with the ability to do this by taking an assistant’s position (a glorified internship, in reality) immediately following graduation. I attended the museum’s fund-raising events and learned how to speak to current and potential donors. I watched the curator develop exhibitions and learned how to balance intellectual accuracy and historical data with interesting stories that would entice and engage the general public. I followed the executive director home in the evenings (he and his wife were loaning me their guest room) and listened to the operational details that he found taking up much of his time, from HVAC systems maintenance to staff morale. Now that I find myself an executive director, I can look back over my 25 years of experience and fully admit that while my degree in Early American Culture may have opened the door to a museum career for me, what has provided me with the success I have enjoyed were those unforgettable experiences with ‘other duties as assigned’. No one asks me today whether I understand how to interpret the difference between a Boston and Philadelphia claw-and-ball foot – though I spent a great deal of time in my graduate programme working on just that – but knowing how to find a raccoon trap, speak to donors, and increase staff morale has been priceless. No matter how good your degree is, never stop exploring ways to uncover those ‘other duties’. Ask those above you what advice they have. Follow them to a donor meeting and take notes. Listen closely to your internship advisor and find out what they learned outside the classroom, and you will find that those titbits become the true basis for your education in public history.

Barbara Fahs Charles, Designer, Staples & Charles I design for museums. There are physical products – exhibitions, banners, catalogues – but in reality, it is design of ideas. I don’t work alone, always in a team – with others in our studio and our museum colleagues. Is there another profession where a history major, with an artistic flare and passion for theatre, could immerse herself in such diversity as beer, coffee, Coca-Cola, Jefferson, Franklin, William Wordsworth, American

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cowboys, American Indians, slavery, segregation, Southern folk art, Islamic fine art, the Qing Dynasty, the Hapsburg Empire, Russian history, Indonesian cultures, the assassination of John F. Kennedy, and Bangladesh’s 1971 Liberation War? Before beginning this multi-decade adventure, I never considered how exhibitions are created. My studio, Staples & Charles, works much like a museum team, with Industrial designers, graphic designers, and researchers/writers/ coordinators. I am not a three-dimensional designer – my partner, multitalented Bob Staples, has ably led that aspect. But I have done virtually everything else from writing proposals, designing graphics, editing texts, producing audio-visual elements, to cleaning cases and positioning artefacts. A ‘typical’ day is anywhere along this spectrum and often a real slog. The magic times are ‘pivotal’ days when something crystallizes and shapes the final outcome. At Monticello, for a small exhibition about the people who laboured in Jefferson’s home, it was the day I sat in the space under the house and started noodling on a floor plan as the curators shared their ideas. We had intense discussions of how to convey both the work and the people who did it. At some point, I suggested life-sized illustrations of specific individuals that visitors could walk up to as equals. A breakthrough, followed by multiple questions of who we should feature. Certainly, butler Burwell Colbert, who was entrusted with keys to the wine cellar, and what about 10-year-old Isaac Gillette, who carried up wood to myriad fireplaces and brought down chamber pots for cleaning? In the end, we selected six – Martha Jefferson Randolph, who oversaw her father’s household, and five slaves, including Harriet, Jefferson’s daughter with Sally Hemings. We would need to provide detailed descriptions of each person from scraps of information in Jefferson’s records and our best assumptions for an artist to prepare sketches: height, weight, age, hair style, clothing, position, with colour swatches for everything, even skin tones. This would be the first time that enslaved persons at Monticello were depicted as unique individuals, and almost certainly, the first for any historic American plantation. Everything that we designed for this exhibition and for all of the other spaces at Monticello that we worked on over two decades was based on extensive research by our Monticello colleagues and our collective instincts of how best to convey our ideas to visitors of all ages. Growing up, there was often a large jigsaw puzzle to be conquered in my family’s living room. Puzzle skills – analysing content, seeing colour and shape relationships, sharing and competing simultaneously, working together on an overall goal – are a microcosm of what is needed to create exhibitions.

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Key skills for working in museums ●●

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Imagination and creativity Team working Communication and interpersonal skills Professional development Project management Budget management Creative writing skills Evaluation skills Independent research skills A postgraduate degree in museums studies.

Archives Archives collect, conserve and manage material from the past, principally including primary documents that record the past.70 Archives were previously regarded as repositories for official documents, places to preserve and store official records (Figure 2.1). This has recently changed to include social history and unofficial historical documents.71 The wider remit of archives pertains to an increasingly diverse range of material records, ranging from audio-visual and digital material to

FIGURE 2.1 Photograph of Archivist and Archival Stores at National Archives London. Photo by Scott Barbour/Getty Images.

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ancient written documents. This demonstrates how the precise nature and definition of archival material are changeable and contextually specific, dependent on organizational acquisition policy and guidelines.72 Many modern archives strive to be less prescriptive in what they select; however, more traditional archives continue to distinguish themselves from museums by only collecting official written texts such as typed script and printed material. The administration of unofficial records, their collection and acquisition into ‘official’ custody validates and authenticates them to become part of history.73 This raises questions as to the function of archives and the authenticity of this ‘official’ history.74 Archives can be a conscious and deliberate collection of material to fit within specific political agendas or based on the acquisition of material with no specific agendas other than personal interest. These two different types of archives offer alternative views of the past. Therefore, it is the role of the archives to ensure that both versions of the past are incorporated into history. As such, many archives seek to be guardians of multiple histories rather than custodians of the official past.

National archives National archives were first created in Europe in the sixteenth century and were the predecessor to museums.75 They were established to collect and collate copies of nationally important documents such as royal decrees and legal documents. This storage was eventually seen as inadequate for long-term survival of these documents, and ideas of conservation became paramount. Subsequently, specific facilities were built to store and conserve original documentary material and to provide copies in a single location. National archives around the world are funded by national governments in order to store the nation’s most important historical documents, for example, the Doomsday Book at the National Archives, London and the Declaration of Independence at the National Archives Museum, Washington, DC. These publicly funded institutions have a wider remit beyond the needs of academic researchers: to present and preserve the past to the national and international public. In the last two decades, the collecting remit of archives has changed to include more esoteric material such as oral history testimonies and personal archival histories. Large-scale national institutions employ a wide range of people to catalogue and conserve the historical material stored within them, including specialist staff to support public history such as educationalists and community outreach officers. It is these often well-funded institutions that have a broader public remit, and they support and develop national standards for archives. They also provide advice and training for regional

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and local archival staff. Their wide remit means they are able to obtain additional funding from the private sector or public grants. Alongside the availability of space and support staff, these funding streams enable such institutions to engage in wider national archive initiatives, including national oral history projects.

Regional archives Regional archives were potentially the first archives to be created in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, for example, in Burgundy and Italian citystates. They aimed to store and conserve regional historical documents such as tithe maps, local newspaper clippings, and birth and death certificates. They contain primary and secondary historical sources that pertain to that region, storing the history of an area within one locality. Each county or state has its own separate archive service, which contains local material; copies of this are frequently also stored in national archives. Local archives aim to be easily accessible and include local historic environment records. They are often linked to local government services such as planning, environment and leisure. These regional history centres are where research starts for historians investigating a specific area, historic building or individual. Increasingly these resources play a role in independent research, including tracing family trees through census records and birth and death certificates. Regional archives are funded by local government and are subject to budget reductions due to national and regional political and economic pressures. They are often located within county council and state government facilities such as town halls, council offices or regional museums. As such, many government facilities and agencies have symbiotic relationships with archives.

Private archives Private collections contain documents, usually pertaining to specific individuals or groups or places. This includes specific archives relating to cultural groups such as the Jewish History Archive, an international archive that is based in the United States and collects and collates primary material relating to Jewish history from around the world.76 Private archives are funded and supported by individuals or charitable trusts. Therefore, they often do not have the same financial constrains as government-funded organizations but consequently do not necessarily have a remit for public access. The nature of public history within these organizations is usually focused on communicating specific pasts and histories to specific interested parties rather than wider demographics.

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Working in archives The process of archiving and the role of archivists are, in part, determined by guidelines and standards established by professional and non-governmental bodies such as the International Council for Archives (ICA), SAA and the Archives and Records Association (ARA). These support the changing and broadening of remit of archives and of archivists, including aiming to encourage the public use of archival facilities and their resources.77 As publicly funded institutions, public use has become part of the core remit of regional and national archives. Therefore, national organizations, such as the SAA, have supported increased public use and value of archival facilities and material to their three key priorities of technology, diversity, and public access and advocacy.78 Archival facilities spend an increasing amount of time and money on marketing themselves to the wider public, producing online resources and providing educational material. They have become major public history institutions by considering individual research needs, including improving access and increasing staff support to individuals and groups involved in historical research. Access requires new partnerships to be developed in order to change the material that is incorporated into archives. Part of the modern remit of archivists includes developing and creating new material to form modern archives, preparing material that will be relevant in the future, for example, the establishment of an Olympic archive, which was facilitated by public involvement in its creation. This has changed the perceived nature and relevance of archives to their wider audience. The role of an archivist has moved beyond archiving and safeguarding historical material to providing and encouraging access to history.79 It is vital that all objects that are either displayed or archived for public use have relevant information contained within them such as provenance (context that the object was found in), classification of object (what the object was used for), date of object and a descriptive passage about its context and story.80 Access to this material has been enabled by the logical categorization of records. This requires a structured and staged approach; the process of the formation of catalogues enables documents to be sorted and accessed for research both by historians and by members of the public81: ●●

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Authenticity: This enables the verification of items for appropriation to formal archives. Acquisition: Historical items are formally acquired through donation or purchase. This requires legal documentation relating to change of ownership. Historical research: This includes detailed background historical research into item, including linking to other primary and secondary sources in collections.

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Accession numbers: Numerical systems enable cross-referencing, easy location and retrieval from storage. A unique reference number is placed on an item or attached label. This number is also placed on a record card and central archive index. Record card: This includes creation of a record card and digitized record of item. This records basic document information and provides a summary of its historical relevance.

There are two main duties of an archivist: firstly safeguarding archives with archivists acting as custodians of the past and secondly supporting the use of archival material for personal and professional researches.82 The philosophy that archivists should not be involved in or deal with policy has changed, especially with the formation of non-governmental advisory groups.83 Policy is increasingly influenced by the first-hand evidence and experience of the archivists. Therefore, national and worldwide bodies such as the International Council on Archives (ICA) are changing definitions of what archives are and what archivist should now do and broadening job descriptions.84 This has included using words like ‘effective’, ‘relevant’, ‘sustainable’ and ‘usable’, with archivists directly responsible for active participation, accessibly and leadership.85 This has broadened the role of the archivist beyond merely historical cataloguing. As archives are no longer just about formative collections but about understanding these collections and developing themes that

FIGURE 2.2  Archivist conserving historical material. Photo by VisitBritain/Britain on View via Getty Images.

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will support public use, archivists are required to have a broad set of skills. These softer social skills need to be balanced against requirements for the conservation, stabilization and preservation of documents and artefacts (Figure 2.2).86 The role of archivists has changed from an ethos of storage and conservation for the future to looking at their use as an educational facility and resource for public usage.87 This has required changing mindsets, increasing collaboration and communication, and modernizing facilities.88 Archivists face new challenges in access, entrance control and safeguarding collections. In order to tackle these issues while maintaining the necessary degree of control to safeguard historical material, the UK National Archives have introduced a pre-access competency test for users of their archives.89 Archives plan and implement a variety of public programmes, both permanent and temporary. These are aimed at communicating archival material and placing it in its correct historical context. The key skill required to be an archivist increasingly focuses on the ability to work with the public and produce public history from archives and records associated with the past and its peoples. This requires personal skills, including innovative thinking and the ability to implement new ideas, while also following national and international guidelines for best practice.90 An archivist requires a broad knowledge of history and the ability to understand, research and respect the past through balancing protection of the archival ‘resources’ and their promotion to the public. Employers of archivists are looking for a balance between the technical skills needed to choose, document and catalogue material and an understanding of how these items can be used by researchers and the public. To acquire a job as an archivist, an individual will require a relevant graduate qualification such as a master’s in archival studies. These master’s courses are in some instances accredited by professional bodies such as the ARA (UK and Ireland).91 The aim of these accredited master’s courses is to bridge the gap between education and employment. They provide the theoretical background and methodological principles required by future professionals and require these to be applied through supervised placement experience. This equips students with the knowledge, experience and skills to work independently as archivists. Professional qualifications also enable membership of professional bodies such as the SAA, the Society of Australian Archivists and the Association of Canadian Archivists. An archival institution as part of employees’ professional development encourages membership to these organizations. These national organizations offer continued professional development training schemes to their members and for new staff in the industry. For example, the Australian Society of Archivists (Inc.) provides continuing professional development (CPD) workshops in ‘Introduction to Accessioning’ and ‘Introduction to Archives and Record Management’.92 These courses

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aim to support the education and training of archivists, provide leadership training and develop standards for the profession.

DAY IN THE LIFE Kevin Bolton, Archivist When I get in a taxi I dread the question ‘What do you do then?’. I find explaining what an archivist does quite difficult. I usually cop out and say I work in or libraries. Business, organizations and people accumulate archives, and these archives are intended to be kept permanently to preserve the past and allow others to discover it. Archivists are found in all types of institutions, and the size of the archives can vary considerably. For the last year I have been working as an archive’s consultant and previously in the Council archive. I helped collect, preserve, promote and make accessible archives relating to the local area. A typical Council Archivist day or week might include: ●●

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Helping visitors to the archive with enquiries and providing access: Including from family historians, academics or people interested in the history of their area. Cataloguing archives and overseeing digitization programmes: Managing and training groups of volunteers to undertake the work. Collecting new archives and working closely with local communities to help fill gaps in collections. For example, I have worked closely with the local LGBT and BAME communities to collect their archives. Undertaking engagement and outreach work: School visits, tours, projects with young people, family activity, exhibitions. Providing advice or even running the council’s records management programme: Providing advice on Freedom of Information and Data Protection. Managing a preservation or conservation programme for the collections.

The role of a twenty-first-century archivist is changing; new skills are becoming important as resources decrease including: ●●

Advocacy and leadership: Articulating the value of archives to senior managers and funders, linking it to local/national priorities, for example, health and well-being, skills development, community cohesion.

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Commercial: Using archives to raise income and external funding. Partnerships: To deliver more with less by working in partnership with other organizations, for example, communities, third sector and artists. Digital: Engaging people with archives online. Collecting the archives of the present and future that are ‘born digital’. Ensuring continued access to digital information in the future.

I hope I have not put you off! Working as an archivist is fun and rewarding. We are facing our greatest challenge as a profession now – how can we ensure the sectors are properly resourced to collect and manage born digital archives? What a great time to become an archivist!

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Being good with people Excellent communication skills Forward thinking Logical Organized Able to undertake research – in order to authenticate resources Committed to professional development Competent in using new digital technology Postgraduate qualification in archival studies

Heritage and visitor centres Heritage and visitor centres are associated with historical or archaeological sites and places of historical significance. They aim to support public visits by providing additional narrative material to add to the historical story of a locality. They move the presentation of the past away from object and document ‘safeguarding’ to focusing on the visitor experience and communicating history in context.93 Unlike museums and archives, which are repositories of cultural objects and documents, these centres are, in their broadest sense, deliberately constructed spaces that present material about a specific site. These centres sought to move away from the museum-oriented approach of preservation and protection of history to a public-centred approach based on the presentation of history as a public ‘attraction’.94

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Many heritage centres were originally constructed with an antiestablishment ethos, creative places that focused on public engagement and experience of place. Throughout the 1990s and 2000s, the word ‘heritage’ was used as a replacement for ‘museum’. This reflected a deliberate act to distance themselves, or at least the public perception of them, from museums. In reality, many of these heritage centres remained focused on history, using objects to present historical narratives. For example, in 2005, the Royal Australian Naval Heritage Center in Pyrmont opened primarily with a remit of displaying naval weapons and to present the history of the service through historical items.95 The central difference to that of museums was that heritage centres did not have the same duties of care to the preservation of these objects of registered museums. Heritage centres had a growth in investment in 1980s, specifically supporting their role in heritage tourism.96 Heritage centres, such as the Jorvik Viking Center in York, opened in 1984, supported through private funding and charitable trust ownership.97 These charities and companies sought to generate income, and in some cases profit, from heritage tourism. Subsequently, these sites have had large amounts of capital invested in the construction of heritage centres to develop them as economic and cultural assets. As heritage centres are usually not publicly funded organizations, their formal remits are often narrower then these institutions, yet they are able to be more adaptive and flexible in their approaches to public history, testing new ideas and taking more risks. Contrastingly, visitor centres have a broad definition and often incorporate elements of museums and heritage centres. They aim to inform the public about the present historical site, its background and its future through visual and textual narratives. Visitor centres at historical sites provide facilities to support visits, including toilets, cafes and shops; these are essential to attract visitors, especially to more geographically isolated historical sites. These centres charge visitors to view sites and use funds raised from ticket sales to maintain, present and conserve history. As such, these facilities are reliant on visitor numbers and associated ticket sales and resultantly have close relationships with the tourist industry of a region (Case study 1). The most successful among them are those that have a unique selling point (USP). Visitor centres are often linked to government-managed and governmentfunded historic sites and properties such as those owned by English Heritage (EH) and the United States Forest Service. During the 1960s and 1970s, these government organizations, particularly in the United States and the UK, invested public funds to build these visitor facilities, for example, English Heritage Stonehenge Visitor Center (1968)98 and the United States National Parks Service Valley Forge Visitor Center (1978).99 The aim of these centres was to both encourage and control public access to historical sites. This sought to provide a means to militate against current and future damage to the site, protecting the heritage through the education and management of visitors from deliberate and accidental destruction and damage to the physical remains.

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CASE STUDY 1. English Heritage, Stonehenge Visitor Center

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tonehenge Visitor Center was originally opened in 1968 by English Heritage as a temporary measure to control and support visit access to this internationally important Neolithic site (Figure 2.3).100 This initial visitor centre provided a means to raise funding to maintain, conserve and research the site and to support visitors’ basic understanding of the site. This was undertaken in a small area by the entrance of the site, and this included interpretation panels, which included reconstructed pictures, descriptive text and audio tours of the site. This earlier visitor centre struggled to cope with visitor numbers despite the relatively few who stopped off prior to walking to the historic site. Furthermore, the visitor centre in an attempt not to confuse visitors did not discuss the multiple and complex interpretations of the site. In December 2013, a new £27 million visitor centre opened, funded by private funding, including the Heritage Lottery Fund (charity), EH and private donors. This centre combined visitor facilities, museum presentation and interactive site elements such as audio guides (Figure 2.4). The centre focuses on telling the story of the site through a central exhibition, displaying the past, present and future of Stonehenge through various mediums, including:

FIGURE 2.3  Stonehenge new visitor access. Photo by Matt Cardy/Getty Images.

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360 video: A CGI video based on laser scans of inside Stonehenge. This aimed to enable an immersive virtual experience to the visitor of an area of the site in which no direct access was able (to the stones themselves). Message totems: Displayed key messages and ideas about the site. 3D models: Laser scans and small-scale reconstructions of the three ages of Stonehenge and its landscape. Timelines: A large-scale timeline was placed on one wall. This highlights the key periods of the site and its related archaeological evidence. Object cases: These displayed original archaeological artefacts from the site. These items have been loaned by local museums. Landscape film: This wall projects film aimed to provide an overview of the historical landscape, including other features. External galley: This area outside the main visitor centre provides the public with large-scale replicas of the stones and Neolithic houses.

The new visitor centre at Stonehenge has struggled to deal with the underlying issues that exist with access and transport to the site. In part, this is a consequence of high visitor numbers, resulting long queues to

FIGURE 2.4  Stonehenge Visitor Centre © Faye Sayer.

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board the ‘land trains’ to site, which is located over 1½ miles away from the visitor centre.101 The location of this visitor centre away from the main site poses questions regarding the purpose and perhaps real nature of a visitor centre when located so far from the vistas and context of the historic site.

Questions 1 What are the key differences between heritage centres and museums?

2 Would you define Stonehenge Visitor Center as a museum or a heritage centre?

3 What benefits and issues does the use of digital technology have for the communication of history on historical sites?

Extended question 1 Does enabling and encouraging more visitors to visit historic sites, such as Stonehenge, impact on the authenticity of the site?

Reading and resources ●●

●●

●●

Besterman, T. (2014), Stonehenge Visitor Center. Museums Journal, Vol. 114 (05), 42–45. Stephens, S. (2013), English Heritage Unveils Stonehenge Visitor Center. Museums Journal. Available at: http://www. museumsassociation.org/museums -journal/news/02102013english-heritage-unveils-stonehenge-visitor-centre#.U8YyOFa3cds [Accessed 1 March 2014]. www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/stonehenge

Extended reading ●● ●●

Macdonald, S. (2013), Memorylands. London: Routledge. UNESCO. (2004), Linking Universal and Local Values: Managing a Sustainable Future for World Heritage. World Heritage Series 13. UNESCO: World Heritage Centres.

Heritage and visitor centres present history that focuses on the user experience. Historians working in these centres create public displays and exhibitions often focusing on learning through practical experiences: ‘experiential learning’. This can involve a range of interpretative innovations

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such as interpretation panels located at specific areas around a site that provides information in context to the viewer. These activities aim to move away from the traditional glass case approach of communicating history to interactive displays and activities that attempt to balance both education and entertainment.102 This can involve using recreations and reconstructions to communicate a story of the past. For example, in Jamestown in the United States, recreated houses and people dressed in period customs re-enact past events using a variety of evidence and supposition, often mixing fact and fiction. These reconstructions and re-enactments serve to transpose the visitor into another period, encouraging the public to learn and experience a version of the past.103

Key skills for working in heritage and visitor centres ●●

●●

●●

●●

●●

●●

●●

●●

●●

●●

Excellent communication skills Innovative and creative thinking Customer service Excellent written communication skills Ability to undertake evaluation Project management Time keeping Financial acumen and budget management Multitasking Teamworking

Conclusion This chapter has discussed public history in museums, archives and heritage centres. It has outlined not only the differences between strategies taken by different institutions at different times but also the commonalities of methods used. Collaboration between different institutions means that the separation between museums, archives and heritage centres is increasingly narrow. This represents not only a blurring between organizational remits but also between official and unofficial history as public history has become about accessibility and usage rather than storage and protection. As a result, professional roles within these organizations have evolved from being custodians of a past to purveyors of the pasts. This has changed the way public historians work at an institutional level and the skills required to work in these organizations. Museums and archives have learnt from each other to enable collections to be accessible places and spaces to explore and access history.

3 Methods of Communication in Public History

This chapter outlines the variety of mediums used by professionals working in museums, archives and heritage centres to communicate and present history to the public. It provides insights into the methods used and skills required to successfully produce public history within these contexts. It will critically examine how various methods work in practice, from more traditional exhibitions to mobile apps that provide images of the past. This chapter, through key case studies, aims to support an understanding of the potential strengths and weaknesses of each approach used to present history to the public. This will seek to provide advice on processes involved in creating public history within these organizations such as working with stakeholders, writing exhibition panels, preparing an exhibition proposal, and using audio and visual media. It investigates the various stakeholders and variety of people these organizations worked with to produce history, including graphic designers, marketing professionals, external contractors and public steering groups, and the skill sets these groups of people provide for the presentation of history to the wider public. Consequently, this will consider the ethical and moral implications of public historians’ work, the management of history in the public domain and the responsibility of the historian. Public history supports the understanding and creation of narratives about the past at a personal level. This can serve to reinforce or question personal memories or test preconceptions about the past.1 The practical and social activities that are associated with public history are regarded as fundamental to the formation of memories and knowledge.2 This suggests that the process of visiting a museum or archive and engaging in active learning through interactive technologies or exhibitions could be crucial. Museums and archives are places where memory and history come together and as such can act as ‘theatres of memory’, where intangible ideas about the past are played out using tangible historical evidence.3 These spaces

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serve to connect items and events with the present, creating new memories, knowledge and perspectives about history for the visitor.4 They can challenge personal beliefs and ideas about the past, providing a space for personal negotiation with the past in the present.5 As such, museums and archives impact upon the production of public history.6

Exhibitions Exhibitions display and present ‘authentic’ cultural material to the public in order to communicate knowledge about the past; these are central public history activities for museums and archives.7 Exhibitions fall under different classifications ranging from permanent, temporary or travelling, sometimes described as ‘blockbuster’ exhibitions such as the British Museum’s 1972 Tutankhamun Exhibition.8 It is exhibitions and the ability to view ‘real’ objects from the past that are the primary motivation for the public visiting museums.9 Creating public exhibitions requires a balance between displaying ‘real’ authentic items and communicating their story within a wider historical context. This requires a consideration of the wider public in order to understand how to present history to diverse groups of people in an accessible and stimulating manner. Creating exhibitions requires negotiations with external organizations and other institutions, both nationally and internationally. Curators arrange the movement and temporary loan of items from other collections around the world and work with other museums’ staff and experts to create a narrative for these items. The ability to move objects around the world is dependent on the preservation and conservational condition of the item. As a result, often objects which are perceived as high status or elite, such as those made of precious metal such as gold or silver or those which have received conservation treatment for previous display, are able to be transported. Yet everyday items, such as pottery, wooden tools or documents, often cannot be transported safely because of their fragility. The movement of objects around the world requires the ability to manage logistics and work with foreign officials to negotiate the loaning of items.10 Political sensitivity and diplomatic skills are key; for example, the Forgotten Empire (Persian) Exhibition at British Museum required negotiation with Iranian government officials.11

Permanent exhibitions Permanent exhibitions are ‘core’ to museums located within the central museum space. Typically, they are found within the museum’s original building and contain material from the museum’s initial inception. These permanent exhibitions reflect the original collection policy of the museum and form part of its main narrative. Permanent exhibitions receive the majority of central museum funding and are primary learning and outreach

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areas. As such, they are subject to revamping and reinterpretation in the hope of rejuvenating museum visitors’ interest and increasing footfall.12 These permanent exhibitions often have a curator who oversees the collections and their maintenance and organizes loans of material.

Temporary exhibitions Temporary exhibitions are created to exist in a space or spaces for a finite amount of time. They fall under the classification of short term (one week to six months) or long term (six months to one year).13 Consequently, financial investment and materials used are often limited.These exhibitions are frequently created either to fit into a specific space within the museum, for instance a community gallery or entrance/foyer, or to act as a platform to communicate a topic and the museum’s work to the wider public. These exhibitions can be situated outside the museum, for example, the Their Past Your Future Exhibition (Case study 2). These movable exhibitions are lightweight, usually involving pop-up displays, or canvases, and have a limited number of items on display. Their size means they usually have minimum audio and visual aids. These temporary exhibitions often coincide with a museum developing a new space and are used to raise visitor numbers and market a museum. When branding these exhibitions, a clear concise message is essential. Despite the ability to present history in new arenas, it has been questioned whether these exhibitions improve visitor experience and diversity.14

CASE STUDY 2. Their Past Your Future Exhibition

T

heir Past Your Future touring exhibition was created in 2005–2006. It was funded by a £1.2 million grant from Big Lottery Fund and created by the Imperial War Museum, designed and constructed by Fraser Randell and Land Design Studio.15 The exhibition aimed to create awareness, specifically in the younger generation, of the Second World War on its sixtieth commemorative anniversary. It created nine identical versions, which toured simultaneously over seventy locations in the UK over twelve months. These exhibitions presented life in the Second World War through memories of the people who lived through it. As such, it contained reminiscences, which were presented in audio and video format within the exhibition spaces. Exhibitions also included passages from personal diaries, photographs and objects from the time period. This was all contained within a pre-constructed tented space that aimed to mirror the army tents of the Second World War. Crucial to this

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was that it was heavily branded and provided a vast array of educational and marketing material that linked all host organizations to a central theme. The exhibition travelled to various localities around the UK and was presented in a variety of public spaces, including libraries, shopping malls and recreational parks. The organization received a £25,000 grant to undertake additional public outreach work, specifically relating to the Second World War within the localities. Outreach projects ranged from additional educational provisions, the use of re-enactors and storytellers, and archaeological excavations of the Second World War Blitz sites in London. Locational choice presented issues as the size, shape and commitment to display for six-week periods meant that many organizations were unable to support this exhibition. Despite the financial investment, marketing strategy, variety of locations and diversity of outreach undertaken, many of these exhibitions failed to attract large visitor numbers or produce diversity in visitor types. Locations such as shopping malls frequently failed to produce large footfall even from accidental visitors.

Questions 1 What are the considerations and restrictions in creating temporary exhibitions?

2 Are there differences between travelling and temporary exhibitions, and can these two forms work successfully together?

3 What defines a successful exhibition?

Extended question 1 What aspects of exhibition and gallery design are critical to providing a positive visitor experience and supporting visitor engagement with history?

Reading and resources ●●

●●

Worthington, C. (2005). ‘A Lost Battle’. Museums Journal, Vol. 105 (10), 38–39. http://archive.theirpast-yourfuture.org.uk/server/show/ nav.00n011

Extended reading ●●

Bradburne, J. (2001), ‘A New Strategic Approach to the Museum and Its Relationship to Society’. Journal of Museum Management and Curatorship, Vol. 19, 75–85.

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Traveling exhibitions Large-scale, travelling ‘blockbuster’ exhibitions grew in popularity in the 1960s.16 These exhibitions were centred on objects and documents beyond the specific museums stores. Items for display are sourced from other museums, private collections, and increasingly from ‘exotic’ locations outside the country. They offer limited and unique visitor access to the public of rare and unusual material; this provides a draw to attract new and repeat audience and acts as a marketing tool for the host museum, for example, the Tutankhamen Exhibition. Temporary exhibitions have limited time spans and rely on movable exhibition panels and temporary display cases rather than expensive, permanent equipment. Larger temporary exhibitions often have huge financial and staff investment, as these exhibitions often charge an additional entrance fee. These serve not only to attract larger audiences but also to market the innovative work of the museum. A recent successful example of this is the Pompeii exhibition at the British Museum (Case study 3).17 Despite temporary ‘blockbuster’ exhibitions demonstrating increased visitor numbers, it has been suggested that they decreased visitor time spent in the museum.18

CASE STUDY 3. British Museum, Pompeii Exhibition

T

he British Museum’s Pompeii: Life and Death – Pompeii and Herculaneum Exhibition opened in June 2013 and ran until September 2013.19 The exhibition, which charged visitors £10.00 for entry and was free for member, was sponsored by Goldman Sachs, an investment banking, securities and investment management firm. The creation of this exhibition involved the staff from the British Museum, including curators, collaborating with the Italian government and archaeological officers in Pompeii and Herculaneum to develop a story through the borrowing of objects, human remains and large architectural features about the history of these Roman towns and of the volcanic eruption that buried them. The Pompeii exhibition aimed to guide visitors through the lives and deaths of the town’s inhabitants through historical and archaeological objects from the site. Visitors were initially guided through the exhibition via a gallery circuit based on movement through different rooms of a Roman house. These rooms had specific recreated copies of the painted wall plaster and architectural features associated with specific rooms, such as fountains and baths, with display cases showcasing key items found within these rooms. For example, in the bedroom, display cases

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presented wooden bed frames and erotic art. The exhibition proceeded to lead the visitor into the town’s shops and temples and into the last days of the cities. In the final gallery of the exhibition, sound and light were used to create the illusion of the darkness of the ash and the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, after which lava casts of the dead inhabitants of Pompeii were presented. The change in atmosphere was supported by lighting with the rooms in the houses lit slightly dimmer than the bright light of the gardens and the red darkness of the moments before and after the volcanic eruption. Displays also aimed to provide mechanisms for learning, including key stage, school learning and family learning. Children’s activity packs were provided for families, which involved find-and-seek elements and pictorial illustrations of key Roman themes such as food, family life and death. Handheld audio guides provided visitors with the choice to access additional information in either audio, textual or visual form. The public was encouraged to engage with the exhibition through curator tours, evening lectures, and music and film nights for members. The Pompeii life and death ‘blockbuster’ exhibition attracted over half a million visitors in six months.20 It was credited with increasing visitor numbers membership to the museum. Despite these positive statistics, these exhibitions do not support repeat visitors and large visitor numbers restrict movement within galleries and often lead to shorter time spent, which could impact on learning. As such, these blockbuster exhibitions could be regarded as merely part of the cultural tourist trail and entertainment rather than education. External sponsorship of these exhibitions does not come without problems for curators, who are responsible for militating against potential ethical and moral implications of external support and agendas and maintaining professional integrity.

Questions 1 How can temporary exhibitions draw in new audiences? 2 Do you think blockbuster exhibitions mean a less worthwhile visitor experience?

3 Why are blockbuster exhibitions financially valuable to both sponsors and museums?

Extended questions 1 Are blockbuster exhibitions encouraging museums to be more ‘exclusive’? What is the potential long-term implication of this to museums as a public space? 2 Is it ethically right to charge the public to see heritage?

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Reading and resources ●●

●●

Lewis, P (2013). ‘Life and Death in Pompeii and Herculaneum, British Museum, London’. Museums Journal, Vol. 113 (06), 46–49. https://www.britishmuseum.org/about_us/news_and_press/press_ releases/2012/pompeii_and_herculaneum.aspx

Extended reading ●●

●●

Belcher, M. (1991), Exhibitions in Museums, Leicester: Leicester University Press. Mason, R., Robinson, A. and Coffield, E. (2018), Museum and Gallery Studies: The Basics. London: Routledge.

Types of display and catalogues Displays often contain items behind glass cases. This was once regarded as the main form of communication of history within museums and archives. Historical items are placed here to create a conscious and subconscious barrier between the viewer and the object, and the viewer and the curator.21 Museums assemble objects together through creating abstract relationships such as object classifications, for example, Anglo-Saxon brooch typologies. These present-day relationships are known as ‘object-hood’ and often link object type with time periods to provide what is perceived as ‘stable classifications’.22 Objects and their arrangement within exhibitions spaces create the illusion of distinctive and stable histories such as ‘Prehistory’, yet in reality these are abstract concepts, which are changeable, situational and highly complex. Exhibition displays include brief textual descriptions of historical items, including what the item is (type), its date (temporal period) and where it was found (context). Descriptions provide the public with additional information and scope for interpretation. Historical items can be arranged temporally, typologically, contextually or thematically. Temporal: Objects are displayed based on chronological sequencing and the development of objects through time periods. Cabinets of items move sequentially through time and display a range of objects based on this section criteria. This traditional temporal format for displaying items in exhibitions can be observed in permanent galleries in Victorian museums such as the British Museum and New York Metropolitan Museum. Typological: Items are displayed based on their function with assemblages created in relation to object type (Figure 3.1). This type of assemblage can be

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FIGURE 3.1  Photograph of London before London Gallery at Museum of London, displaying flint assemblages in typological sequences © Faye Sayer.

free from historical context with artefacts displayed as science and art. These displays often have overarching texts describing nature and function of objects rather than individual textual information for each item, for example, cabinets containing only axe heads; this gives the viewer ideas of stylistic traits and aids identification. Occasionally, this will be linked to the chronology

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of objects highlighting changes in stylistic traits over history; for example, the National Museum of Denmark exhibition displays singular temporally specific object types within an exhibition case such as the exhibition case displaying over fifty bronze axe heads from Bronze Age Denmark. Contextual: Contextual displays involve assemblages of materials arranged on the basis of the location of their discovery. Objects are selected based on sharing commonality through location rather than type or chronology. These may have a secondary under-arching assemblage arrangement within specific cases based on object type. Contextual displays, such as Munich Museum of Archaeology, display items based on where they were found. This gives the viewer a contextual perspective of objects. This display type is frequently used at visitor centres at historic places including Eltham Palace, London. Thematic: Thematic displays are based on concepts and ideas as opposed to time periods and assemblage types. For example, at the National Museum of Scotland, Edinburg, objects in their archaeological gallery are displayed based on themes such as farming and food processing. This resocialization and redeployment of objects involves deconstructing complex assemblages and reassembling them into new narratives. These new narratives can be established through working with the public such as Melbourne Museum’s collaboration with the local aboriginal community. This created objective narratives based on intangible aboriginal stories and traditions rather than temporal frameworks based on Western concepts of linear timelines.23 This form of public history can break down prior relationships, yet it is deeply complex and time-consuming and challenges pre-established and individual thought.24 This action-centred, anti-Western and anti-textual approach questions historical stability in order to construct new realities and not merely re-establish different patterns of historical stability. This lack of a single narrative challenges conventional forms of viewing and forming knowledge and can be deeply confusing and challenging to socially and politically established meaning. For example, the British Museum Living and Dying Exhibition challenges moral ideas through seeking to be anthropological rather than scientific in its approach. As such, it aims to help the visitor understand the human experience of death rather than tangible remains and objects associated with it. This exhibition acts as a social agent to disconnect the practice of public history from mainstream history.25

Logistics Creating exhibitions is a complex process requiring planning and management skills. It is time-consuming and expensive in terms of both staff and materials. Yet creating and maintaining exhibitions and public programmes are part of the main objectives of the museum and will influence public perceptions of history, the institution and public interest. Failing to produce quality and publicly applicable exhibitions and programmes represents a failure to provide a public service. It is important that each stage of a public history programme considers, consults and actively involves the public.

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Creating an exhibition requires a unique idea, carefully researched by the curator, which will present new research or a different perspective on historical knowledge. The ability to start the process of creating exhibitions requires undertaking evaluations of existing exhibitions, visitor surveys and in-depth public consultation (see Evaluation section). These test the validity and appropriateness of a specific exhibition idea. This ‘market research’ provides additional information on the public and institutional ‘value’ and wider impact of public history projects such as social, economic, knowledge and political values. Stages of exhibition management:26 1 Planning: The project team will hold meetings to discuss process, timing and tasks and develop the project aims and objectives. 2 Research and interpretation: Primary and secondary sources will be researched by curators, and ideas interpreted. 3 Design: Choices are made about the format and layout of the exhibition and the use of pictures, texts and objects. Internal architecture and floor layout that will influence flow of people will be considered. Display panels and cases are chosen, as are colours, layout of text, graphics, pictures and lighting. Any additional requirements are considered. 4 Writing of key texts and editing: Information is compiled, evaluated and edited. 5 Production: Cases, panels and displays will be produced; objects and items will be prepared for installation. Loans and insurance will be acquired for objects. 6 Installation: Technicians will install lighting, electrics and sound and place display cases. Curators and conservators will place objects into display cases. Exhibitions are required to work within the core objectives of the museum. Approval requires completing a feasibility study, which assesses the appropriateness of objects, their stability, ownership and availability; the space; resources of staff and money; timing; cost; and core team (Table 3.1). On approval, budgets will be set and objectives formalized. Larger exhibitions with significant financial investment and risk may bring in an externally contracted project manager. This person will have appropriate experience and may be required to have management qualifications such as PRINCE2 and APM. This person will develop a project brief, which will include timescales, task lists, team roles and risk assessments (Figure 3.2). The risk assessments provide evidence of viability and prevent risks of noncompletion.

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TABLE 3.1  Exhibition proposal form Project name Contact name and email Contact address Summary of conceptual approach and subject of the exhibition Describe key collections used Describe visitor experience that the exhibition will support Identify the key audiences of the exhibition Estimate square footage required Timescale required and dates for exhibition opening and closing Funding required (does the exhibition require additional external funding?) Key team members (partners) and brief overview of roles and experience Ideas adapted from Museum of Vancouver Exhibition Proposal Application. Available at: http://www.museumofvancouver.ca/about/exhibitionproposals [Accessed 10 December 2013].

FIGURE 3.2  Photograph of students watching historical video clips inside an airplane in War Museum. Photo by Hero Images via Getty Images.

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Curators and archivists do not work in isolation to produce public history projects. They work with a range of professionals and members of the public to produce public history (Tables 3.2 and 3.3). The motivation for this is to produce publicly relevant projects, which have value to a diverse public audience. This requires the skills not only of the curators but of those who are not specifically trained in history. These people bring new ideas, enabling

TABLE 3.2  Job Division and Staff for Exhibitions Administration

Professionals

Technicians

Craftspeople

Board members

Curators

Photographer

Preperators

Director

Conservators

Lighting engineer

Electricians

Project manager

Designers

Sound engineer

Marketing team

Education specialist

Security

Herreman, ‘Display, Exhibits and Exhibitions’, p. 96.

TABLE 3.3  Professional job roles and descriptions Project teams

Skills

Designers

Advise on effective use of space, visual design and interpretative selection

Marketing

Support production of advertising material Advise text/pictures – market appeal of project Conduct and support market research

Press team

Provide and contact media in order to reach a large audience Write press releases Support and develop communication skills

Conservators

Prepare and stabilize objects Advise on the appropriateness of objects chosen

External contractors

Lighting and develop exhibition equipment Media equipment and expertise

IT/graphics

Support the development and digitization of material for the web and develop interactive material, including games for exhibitions

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TABLE 3.3  (Continued) Project teams

Skills

Registers/loans/admin

Support the acquiring and inter-museum loans of material for exhibition Provide legal advice and insurance both for objects and public programmes

Outreach officer

Liaise with community groups and members Encourage collaboration and coordinate with volunteers

Educational specialists

Advise on national curriculum and community learning

Finance

Provide budgets and financial advice and hire external contractors

Other stakeholders

Support exhibitions and provide content

Membership team

Arrange events to encourage repeat visits Supports and encourage members to donate money to support the museum

Visitor services

Organize the logistics of booking and ticketing

Technicians

Advise on logistics of display, including the creation of display cases, and, if external contractors are not being used, installation, lighting and electrics

new interpretations and presentations of objects, displays and museums to be formed.27 It is after the exhibition is open to the public that public history has a ‘real’ impact on the people viewing and experiencing the history. At this point, the role of the public historian is to develop mechanisms to facilitate public engagement and enable the public to form personal relationships and memories with history.

Audio-visual aids Recent technological developments in the methods curators use to communicate history to the public have involved the use of multimedia and audio-visual technologies within the exhibition spaces. This has supported, in some cases, history moving from a passive process to an active public activity (Figure 3.2).

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Audio clips Audio clips can be used at specific points in the exhibition or played as background noise. These audio aids are created by compiling pre-recorded audio narratives that provide additional information about specific displays or objects. These can be accessed by the visitor while viewing the exhibition either through lifting up a receiver, pressing a button or accessing narratives through mobile Bluetooth technology such as smartphones. These delivery methods are linked to specific displays or objects.28 This technique removes weighty texts and enables the viewer to focus on the items and displays. Unlike a tour guide, these narratives can be accessed and experienced at the visitor’s own pace. For museums, the recent addition of personal audio devices is relatively cost-effective in comparison to the previous static audio instillations. Audio tours have been used extensively in open-air museums and heritage centres as they mitigate the need for interpretation panels and intrusive items on site. The incorporation of ‘real’ oral history testimonies into exhibitions has become increasingly prevalent within museums. This aims to provide a ‘social’ historical view of the past and provide a diverse set of narratives to engage the public in history. Museums use music and sound clips to create atmosphere in a static space. The National Museum of Denmark bog bodies exhibition uses sound clips to create a dynamic and tense atmosphere. This sensory medium can contextualize displays with background noise such as wind and waves helping to transport visitor to the context and time period in which the objects were found. For example, the Jorvik Viking Centre in York helps to recreate Viking streetscapes through using historically associated street noises such as animal sounds and reconstructed voice clips of Viking villagers. This was combined with pumping smells associated with manure and rotten food into the reconstructed area.29 These approaches require a careful balance between sound and volume as too much of either can distract the viewer from the ‘factual’ evidence on display. It is important to note that they can also prove problematic for visitors with hearing impairments and those using hearing aids. These multisensory techniques have been criticized of providing the public with a false reality of the past in the present and accused of creating people who fail to truly engage, who ‘look but not see’ and who fail to imagine or critically engage.30

Visual aids Reconstructions, re-enactments and replicas seek to visually communicate history to the public. These techniques are frequently used in heritage centres and open-air museums (Case study 4) and aim to support the public in visualizing and experiencing a version of the past (Figure 3.3).31 They create a feeling of ‘time travel’ for the viewer, treading a precarious line between education and entertainment. As such, they run the risk of

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FIGURE 3.3  Photograph of man teaching history student archery in period dress, Bolton Castle, UK. Photo by Monty Rakusen via Getty Images.

becoming theme parks that sensationalize and simplify history rather than provide historically authentic reconstructions.32 Government organizations, such as the United States Forest Service, have a reluctant relationship with re-enactors and until recently have banned this activity on all their sites. This ban was in part due to issues with historical authenticity and validity of re-enactors and attempts to maintain and control professional standards and truthful representations of the past. Despite this, re-enactors, living historians and storytellers are increasingly employed in museums and places of historic interest to support learning, including on some governmentowned sites, for example, those owned by English Heritage such as the Battle of Hastings. These living historians frequently work with public historians, using historical evidence to develop accurate stories of the past, which are entertaining and educational.33

CASE STUDY 4. Colonial Williamsburg

C

olonial Williamsburg, Virginia, is a heritage attraction that has recreated and reconstructed a former eighteenth-century village that existed within the locality of a 301-acre landscape (Figure 3.4).34 Within this site, the recreated streetscapes, which include churches,

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FIGURE 3.4  Photograph of carriage ride through Colonial Williamsburg. Photo by WMay via Getty Images.

taverns and schools, are peopled by re-enactors, also known as ‘costumed interpreters’, who are in essence modern-day people wearing period ‘authentic’ replica customs. Re-enactors aim to bring the past to life through recreating potential scenarios and activities from eighteenth-century history through acting out religious and social situations.35 The reconstructions of the past, using re-enactment, recreations and replicas, are in Williamsburg based around historical and archaeological evidence. Archaeological excavations, conducted by the Department of Archaeological resource on the three colonial settlements in Virginia – Williamsburg, Jamestown Island and Yorktown – have provided artefacts and building evidence that have aided reconstruction of buildings and replica items used in the reconstructed village.36 Furthermore, historical research of documentary sources and paintings from the period has supported the ‘peopling of the past’ and the recreation and the re-enactment. Both historical and archaeological evidence use here is limited, especially in regard to understanding the people of the past, their actions and specific activities. This evidence is creatively interpreted to provide an exciting historical story, one that is ethnically diverse and socially acceptable, rather than accurate. For example, the treatment and living conditions of slaves and indentured servants are overlooked potentially due to being too ‘off’ putting and morally uncomfortable for visitors. Furthermore, re-enactments and

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reconstructions must adhere to organizational constraints such as the health and safety requirements, which influence the physical situations they are able to recreate and the potential historical ‘authenticity’ of the site to eighteenth-century life.37

Questions 1 Can re-enactment be authentic? If so, how is this achieved? 2 What are the ethical considerations of undertaking re-enactments and recreations?

3 How can reconstructions and replicas seek to be more historically accurate?

Extended question 1 As a practice of historical conservation, when is reconstruction of historical buildings appropriate for historical preservation and presentation?

Reading and resources ●● ●●

http://www.colonialwilliamsburg.com Robertshaw, A. (2006), ‘Live Interpretation’. In A. Hems and M. Blockley (eds), Heritage Interpretation. London: Routledge, pp. 41–54.

Extended reading ●●

●●

●●

Stanley Price, N. (2009) ‘The Reconstruction of Ruins. Principles and Practice’. In A. Richmond and A. Bracker (eds), Conservation: Principles, Dilemmas and Uncomfortable Truths, Amsterdam: Elsevier. Diefendorf, J. (1993) In the Wake of the War: The Reconstruction of German Cities after World War II, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Addyman, P. V. (1990), ‘Reconstruction as interpretation: The example of the Jorvik Viking Centre, York’. In P. Gathercole and D. Lowenthal (eds.), The Politics of the Past. One World Archaeology. London: Unwin Hyman, pp. 257–264.

Replicas are copies of original artefacts often used within museum exhibitions. This is usually due to conservation issues with the original items too unstable or fragmented to be put on public display. Many items from the Staffordshire Hoard, displayed at Birmingham Museum, fall into these

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categories and as such have been replaced by replicas. Replicas enable items to be present in multiple locations, a technique useful for objects that are nationally significant, for example, the Sutton Hoo Anglo-Saxon hoard, a collection of items found during the archaeological excavations of a sixthto seventh-century Anglo-Saxon royal burial site and ship burial in Suffolk. These items include highly ornate gold and precious stone items such as the ceremonial helmet and the great buckle, which are, through replicas, simultaneously displayed at Ipswich Museum, Sutton Hoo and the British Museum. The production of ‘authentic’ replicas and reconstructions are timeconsuming and expensive and can potentially mislead the public into believing fakes are real. It is essential, when using replicas, to provide appropriate labels and descriptions with clear statements about authenticity and provenance of the object so as to not mislead the viewer. Research into teaching and learning, ‘pedagogical research’, indicates that visual and audio aids support learning through enabling active engagement in history.38 This assists the public in the acquisition of new knowledge and the development of transferable skills such as confidence and communication.39 Public historians have been criticized for their reliance on visual aids and accused of supporting the commodification and ‘Disneyfication’ of the past.40 It has been suggested that an overreliance on visual aids neither challenges nor stimulates the audience, failing to give them credit for their ability to think and form their own interpretations and memories.41 Audio-visual technology has been criticized for prioritizing entertainment over education and failing to be authentic and factually accurate.42 This is part of a wider ‘antiheritage’ standpoint that has argued that public history dilutes historical authenticity and opens history up to biased and uncontrolled misuse.43 The existence of this countermovement demonstrates the complexity of managing and presenting the past and shows how the modern public historian must balance the use of modern techniques against the inclusion of factual evidence.44

Interactive technologies Museums have been at the forefront of adapting new technologies to actively engage visitors with history such as visual and touchscreen technology (Case study 5). This has included the use of iPads in the permanent galleries such as the Grant Museum of Zoology in London45 and the temporary ‘Treasure’ exhibition at National History Museum in London.46 This interactive touchscreen technology has replaced many permanent interactive screens and stand-alone computers. These moveable and interactive panels are of lower cost and benefit from being easily replaced and reused.

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Social media provide the visitor with an on-demand service, encouraging personal interaction with the displays and enabling access to additional historical information. They can include hyperlinks connecting to web resources and social media sites such as Twitter, Facebook and Instagram. This provides a facility for the public to develop instant online forums, conversations and blogs with public historians and engage in wider historical discourse.47 For example, the Grant Museum of Zoology in London uses iPads located at specific points within the gallery to encourage the public ask the curator questions relating to items on display, using their online discussion forum.

CASE STUDY 5. Jersey War Tunnel Museum

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he Jersey War Tunnel Museum aims to tell the story, from both sides, of the occupation of Jersey during the Second World War by Nazi Germany.48 The museum is located in tunnels ‘Hohlgangsanlage 8’, which were originally created by German prisoners of war to act as a barracks and ammunition store and later as an underground hospital for the German occupying forces. The various galleries within the museum use audio-visual technology such as ‘talking heads’ to communicate both sides of a complicated story about war, occupation, integration and liberation. The talking head technique uses digital screens as replacements for mannequin heads (Figure 3.5). These talking mannequins are positioned around the exhibition and dressed in historically accurate costumes. The screen displays a clip of an actor talking to the viewer as if a specific historical character from the past. This enables multiple views of the past to be presented through visual and audio means. In this particular example, the mannequins depict German soldiers from the Second World War, which are positioned throughout the exhibition. Each mannequin represents a different character in keeping with different exhibition themes, for instance, a medical solider in the infirmary. The use of different video clips aims to provide a human face and story to the German soldiers positioned in Jersey during the Second World War and gives a personal narrative of history.49 The use of this audio-visual technology within exhibitions is not without issues as it is prone to breakdowns as seen at Agincourt, France. Furthermore, this technology could be suggested to distract the visitor from the ‘factual’ historical evidence, as such failing to balance historical education alongside entertaining fictional gimmicks.

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FIGURE 3.5  Photograph of talking heads at Jersey War Tunnel Museum © Faye Sayer.

Questions 1 What benefits does the use of audio-visual technology have within traditional museum exhibitions?

2 Do visual media, such as talking head, aid contemporary understanding of the past?

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3 Is it possible for audio-visual media to portray a ‘balance’ view of the past to the public, and if so how?

Extended question 1 Does audio-visual technology aid or hinder engagement in ‘real’ historical objects within the museum setting? Discuss.

Reading and resources ●●

●●

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Heal, S. (2005), ‘Living with the enemy’. Museums Journal, Vol. 105 (8), 40–41. Simpson, R. (1998). ‘Multimedia special: Effective audio-visual’. Museums Practice, Vol. 9, 44–46. http://www.jerseywartunnels.com

Touchscreen software programs, such as mobile phone and tablet apps, are used to support access to historical material in external public history environments. For example, the Museum of London ‘StreetMuseum’ app enables the user, based on their location, to view contemporary London alongside its historical vistas. This program has been created using archival photographs, drawings and historical descriptions. Another technique used in museums and public history sites is Quick Response (QR) codes. These codes store data that can be scanned by the visitor via their mobile phone to access and link to information on screen about specific historical items or locations. This technology benefits from being contextually adaptable and providing the public with a choice about where to access information and what they wish to access information about. The use of digital technology to create open-source historical material has changed the nature of public interaction with history.50 The digitization of material to create online catalogues and digital archives, known as ‘cybermuseology’, provides public access to official and unofficial historical material (Case study 6).51 This technology has enabled public engagement with the creation of historical collections, supporting the access to and public interaction with history.52 The use of autoCAD technology and 3D laser scanning has created digital archives and museums, providing virtual tours of buildings and objects. This has enabled the public to view history in micro detail and at multiple angles from the comfort of their home. For example, the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History offers a panoramic virtual online tour of the museum and its galleries. This tour enables virtual visitors to move from room to room and explore collections from a desktop computer or handheld device in external, non-museum environments.53

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Technology has the potential to bring multiple collections together and save existing technologically redundant collections. For example, the British Library, British Museum, Museum of London and Victoria and Albert Museum immigration project has used digital technology to collate and communicate multi-format resources to the public.54 Digital technology provides a method to record history, for instance, the September 11 Digital Archive Project uses digital media as a tool to collect oral history and photographic records of the terrorist attack on the Twin Towers, New York (Case study 29).55 This approach does not come without issues; large unfocused scatters of information lacking coherent themes can be difficult to meaningfully translate and authenticate any provenance.56 These resources have security issues and require careful mediation and control.

CASE STUDY 6. London Archaeological Archives Research Center

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ondon Archaeology Archives Resource Center (LAARC) opened in 2002 to present and promote access to the Museum of London’s archival material.57 It contains 8,500 items from 3,500 sites from within the Greater London area, and as such, it is the largest archive in the world.58 It was established to provide international standards for the deposition, safe storage and conservation of historical and archaeological collections, as well as public access to support research and teaching. The archiving of such a large and internationally important collection has required the use of innovative ideas and technology. This has included the use of movable storage units, online catalogues and locational systems, and the creation of a glass and pottery typology and research room. The online catalogues provide public search engines to access detailed information about specific objects; these can be searched for under themes, object type, location or date, and they provide detailed descriptions and photographs of objects. Initiatives such as the volunteer learning programme (AVLP) and volunteer inclusion programme (VIP) demonstrate LAARC’s commitment to public history. The VIP is an ongoing programme developed to encourage diverse audiences to use and be trained in collections care and management through on-site training. Part of this programme has involved mini borough-led archive initiatives which aimed to encourage the utilization of existing collections by community members to tell the history of their local areas. These online and public archival projects have sought to encourage members of the public to provide material from their personal collections for archive use. This ‘crowd-sourced’ history has provided a tool to

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collect more diverse histories beyond usual archival remit. Yet this is not without issues as it challenges professional collections remits and standards. As such, the maintenance of the quality of data stored and cataloguing of material can be problematic.

Questions 1 Are digital archives a valid mechanism for providing public access to historical and archaeological resources?

2 Cybermuseology has changed the way the public interact with history. What implications has this had for the presentation and communication of the past to the public? 3 Can ‘crowd-sourced’ historical data provide a valid and truthful form of historical material?

Reading and resources ●●

●● ●●

Hogsden, C. and Poulter, E. (2012), ‘The Real Other? Museum Objects in Digital Contact Networks’. Journal of Material Culture, Vol. 17, 265–286. http://archive.museumoflondon.org.uk/laarc/catalogue/ http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/collections-research/laarc/

Extended reading ●●

De Groot, J. (2009), Consuming History: Historians and Heritage in Contemporary Culture. London: Routledge.

Handling collections Handling collections used within and outside public history facilities support educational activities.59 These collections of historical material are based around specific time periods and are often linked to national curriculum themes. These can be combined with storytelling sessions in which objects are used by specialists to illustrate historical stories, stimulating the imagination and encouraging children to engage with items through drawing, handling and group discussion. Object-handling tables have been set up in museum galleries, often run by curators or volunteers, which enable visitors to touch and ask questions about historical items (Figure 3.6). For example, in the Smithsonian National Museum of American History, the Price of Freedom Gallery uses an objecthandling table, manned by volunteers, to present and discuss specific items of clothing and weapons used during the American War of Independence.

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This enables visitors to touch and explore different objects associated with this period of history and learn through interaction with the object and the trained volunteer. Handling collections are developed for use outside the museum setting such as to support classroom learning. Canterbury Archaeological Trust

FIGURE 3.6  Object-handling table as part of the prehistoric London before London Gallery at the Museum of London © Faye Sayer.

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has developed Roman handing collections for use in schools to support children’s learning Roman history through the tactile activity of handling archaeological and historical items.60 These handling collections are developed to be used alongside activities and to combine education and entertainment such as guessing the object or creating an object timeline. The use of conservationally stable originals or replicas enables objects to be touched by the public, providing a ‘real’ sensation of their size, use and function, and encourages the public to interpret and discuss history.

Outreach events Communicating with the public requires curators and archivists to undertake public lectures and to engage with the wider media. The communication of history to the public is increasingly important within public history institutions. The creation of after-hour events, such as a night at the museum and singles social nights, has been used to encourage new audiences to engage with history, specifically young adults. Events are often ticketed or ‘members only’ to provide a unique opportunity to have ‘elite’ access to history and converse with curators in an informal setting. These social events place history within a dynamic social arena and aim to break down the barriers between the public and the professionals. Museums increasingly undertake more diverse and multidisciplinary public history outreach events, which aim to encourage a wider audience to be interested in the past. As such, museum outreach events are frequently linked to community history and include elements of archaeology and heritage such as community archaeology excavations, for example, the Museum of London’s Shoreditch Park Excavation.61

Knowing your public The evaluation of users and non-users is a central component of the work undertaken by public history institutions. This allows organizations to understand the public and assess and provide evidence as to what techniques do and do not work. Evaluation enables a public history project to recognize its real and potential public values. This can help justify the necessity for the application of new approaches. These evaluations are undertaken prior to, during and after public history programmes, supporting the continual development and adaption of approaches based on public feedback.

Market research Market research of stakeholders prior to exhibitions has become standard practice within public history organizations.62 This approach has been

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defined as ‘a visitor-centred approach’.63 The reliance on external grants to fund public history activities requires organizations to undertake preevent consultation with the public. These involve the use of focus groups with potential stakeholders to test new ideas and receive feedback on public history initiatives. Museums, such as the Victoria and Albert Museum, use professional external organizations to arrange focus groups outside the museum environment and to provide public feedback and input on forthcoming exhibitions. These visitor and non-visitor surveys enable the adaption of public programmes in order to mitigate the risk of failure.

Quantitative evaluation Quantitative surveys provide statistical data, which can indicate visitor trends to inform future practice.64 These often take the form of visitor surveys, which provide demographic information about the visitor, time spent and roots of movement. This type of analysis gathers empirical data through closed-question interviews and multiple-choice questionnaires. This produces quantitative information that can be subjected to statistical analysis such as Merriman’s museum visitor survey.65 This ‘quantitative’ approach is based on questions that guide the participants into producing limited answers; these usually focused on market values.66 The results from quantitative surveys provide numerical estimates of the ideas of the person who designed the survey and can simplify complex concepts. Hopper Greenhill’s application of quantitative survey methodology for investigating the educational role of museums firmly establishes this technique as a tool for museum evaluation. This survey analyses school demographics and uses sets of multiple-choice questions to develop an understanding of the impacts of museums learning, such as development of skills including numeracy, literacy and communication, on learners.67 These surveys do not allow for open-ended responses or the specific detail needed to assess the multiple and often unquantifiable and interwoven personal values of the public history.68 Rather, a quantitative approach can lend itself to accentuating predetermined research biases, which affects the formulation of questions and only allows for participants to provide the answers that have been preselected by the researcher.

Qualitative evaluation Qualitative methodologies draw on anthropological and sociological methods to enable the broader analysis of social and personal values.69 This approach produces specific individual responses rather than numbers and generalizations.70 Qualitative evaluation uses various techniques such as visitor conversations and observations. It can involve analysing visitor

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comment cards, recording open interviews, or watching visitor footfall and interaction. For example, footfall surveys test the time the visitor spends with the exhibition space and their movement around the museum. This can help to illuminate visitor engagement, attention and interest and therefore consider the relative merits of different design strategies.71 This enables analysis of what a visitor thinks and how visitors use the space, supporting the development of public history for the users rather than passive receivers. Museums have set a precedent for research into the social learning outcomes of public history.72 Quantitative research can apply psychologically accredited measures, such as Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) and Visual Analogy Scale (VAS), to measure the impact of public history. For example, the Centre for Museum Studies, University College London, has used both techniques to investigate the impact on hospital patients of handling historical objects, suggesting that practical engagement with history directly impacts upon personal well-being.73 Similarly, the Happier Museum’s project suggests that tactile activities enable ‘practical learning’.74 This social research is playing a crucial role in the development of public history as public historians seek to understand their audiences and to have a wider social impact.

Conclusion This chapter has discussed the methods of communication used in public history. It has highlighted how external and internal influences within and beyond the sector have altered the practice of public history in museums, archives and heritage centres. The introduction and development of digital technology and social media have influenced the nature and practice of public history in these organizations. New modes of historical communication have altered the way these organizations interact with, and engage, the public in historical dialogues. Critically, it is the changing political and financial pressures at regional, national and global levels that have affected the public remits of these organizations, increasing their scope as educational and social spaces, and as such have changed the style of communication and access remits.

4 Media History

This chapter explores how and why historians are using popular media, including television, film, radio, newspapers and popular fictional books. It will investigate how these media have provided an easily accessible platform for the communication of history to the public. It will be divided into media-specific subsections, which examine how history for these formats is written and performed in a way that is fundamentally different from normal academic prose. It will discuss the challenges of this translation by providing an example of academic prose linked to an exercise to adapt this to popular media, be it journalistic, televisual or audio. Each of these subsections will draw on various professional experiences to provide examples, including how to write a documentary television proposal and how to translate academic prose to a popular fictional book. This chapter examines the use of history in visual and audio media, looking at the variety of documentary and cinematic presentations. It seeks, through a range of case studies, to highlight the elements required to deliver a successful programme and opens this topic up for reader debate regarding the balance between academically credible approaches versus the alleged ‘Disneyfication’ of history. It explores how this written form is fundamentally different from normal academic prose and discusses the challenges this can create by causing misinterpretation and spreading misinformation. It outlines historical media as a form of historical communication, examining it as part of the historical process and as such role within public history and history itself. Despite popular histories’ wider appeal and perceived public success, this format of communication is not regarded by all positively.1 Popular media history has been accused of dumbing down history, lacking authenticity and truth, and falsifying history,2 and as Downing suggested, media history is ‘certainly not real history’.3 This reflects a more complex philosophical debate about democratic knowledge, society’s balance of power and the potential dangers the misrepresentation of history can cause in sensitive areas such as religion, immigration or recent political conflicts. It also raises a more fundamental question concerning the ability for history ever

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to be the ‘truth’ and to reveal a ‘real’ and ‘authentic’ past, rather than an interpretation drawn from strands of evidence that are far from complete. It is part of a wider debate that has been raging in media history since the 1980s. As such, it is time to move the debate forward to consider the possibilities rather than the issues, discussing how to make it better and considering what is required to transform history into a media format.4 In essence, history is never completely factual; rather, it is similar to television programmes, a hybrid between fact and fiction. It represents a specific viewpoint in time – history translated through the eyes of a modern perspective that is affected by culture, politics and society. Public history in the form of television, radio and popular writing has exponentially grown in the last two decades.5 The mass public production and consumption of this form of historical communication have resulted in its categorization as popular history.6 Communicating history to a wide audience requires the adaption of historical stories, ideas and research. This translation of academic historical rhetoric into an accessible format, such as television, radio, books and magazine articles, facilitates its consumption by a large public audience. The high circulation of popular historical communication in multiple accessible media formats and genres makes it the central means by which the public engages in and with history. The success of the translation of history into popular culture relates to its hybridity and subsequently its ability to communicate the subject within multiple genres such as films, television, radio and books. History is adapted to the mass public market through the telling of exciting and interesting stories in an accessible language. This draws on the discursive skills of the historians and their ability to act as a ‘storyteller of history’ to bring multiple strands of information together.7 Mass media has transformed history into entertainment and a form of social knowledge.8 In order to survive in a consumer-driven cultural market, history has repackaged and rebranded itself to appeal to a broad public audience. The broad impact of this form of public history is directly linked to its high circulation and wide demographic consumption. This has been quantitatively equated to books and magazine sales, television viewing figures, and radio listener numbers. For example, Rome (2005–2007), a television series based on the Roman Empire in the first century BC, was launched in the United States and the UK in 2005. For the show’s pilot, HBO recorded 3.9 million viewers and BBC2 recorded 6.6 million viewers.9 These figures have been used to imply the success of the medium, especially when compared to other forms of consumed public history and historical communication such as museums. Public history has drawn on ideas for communication from the media and looked at how to utilize audio and visual technology to communicate with a broader demographic and encourage a spectrum of learning. Museums, such as the Imperial War Museum, have used video archive footage, oral historical accounts, background sound and lighting to create an impact and emotional response to exhibitions. Public history as media history

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has, over the last decade, been one of the most influential methods for the communication of history to the public. For historians to transform historical accounts into media stories requires a careful balance between professional ideas and public requirements. As such, the boundaries between professional and public become blurred as the creation of media history requires a balance between academic credibility and validity, and providing a popular and understandable narrative. It is this balance that has proven difficult for many historians and media professionals, for example, BBC One’s Bonekickers (2008), a drama based on a team of archaeologists uncovering and interpreting past. Despite professional involvement in the programme’s creation from Professor Mark Horton from the University of Bristol, the show received widespread criticism from television critics and professional archaeologists and historians.10 These criticisms ranged from the poor representation of the profession and professional approaches to investigating the past to the show’s absurd and unbelievable storylines; for example, in the episode ‘The Army of God’, the Knights Templar are discovered and the team go on a dangerous search of the ‘True Cross’.11 Successful stories for popular media require the production of a single narrative reaching a clear and satisfying conclusion. Therefore, the multiple interweaving stories, the complexities of interpretation and the missing evidence of the complex ‘real’ historical narrative are often covered up and hidden beneath a stable and linear text. These issues with representing the complexities of historical interpretation are a reason why this form of popular history is critiqued in the academic community. This is compounded by the lack of what academics refer to as ‘scholarly apparatus’, footnotes, citations and referencing in works of popular history. Populist accounts have thus been linked to the ‘dumbing down’ of history for the purposes of entertainment, leading to misinterpretation and a misinformed public.12 This misrepresentation and Disneyfication of the past in order to create a mass market and sell a product produce ill-conceived, unauthentic and untruthful programmes. Historians and public historians can learn vital skills from media professionals, both in their presentation of history and their ability to communicate and to understand the wider public audience and the public appeal of history. Conversely, media professionals could learn new skills and modes for historical representation and enquiry from historians, including techniques for research, such as the integration of oral history testimonies and the use and analysis of material culture. Popular mediums translate historical ideas and theories into stories. Each strand of media history can add to historian’s ability to communicate the past to a wider demographic. Historians, programme makers, publishers and other media professionals should seek to approach popular history through more collaborative and co-productive methods, seeking a symbiotic relationship rather than a relationship of distrust.

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Popular writing Popular literature has used historical stories since writing began; this ranges from works such as the Icelandic sagas of the eighth- to fifteenth-century novels such as Malory’s romance tale, Le Morte d’Arthur (1485), and the historical novels of the nineteenth century, such as Charles Dickens’s A Tale of Two Cities (1859). This popular literature mixed historical fact with folklore and myths, serving not only to communicate historical events and lives of the noteworthy, such as kings, but also to tell an entertaining story about the past to the public. As such, historical fact was intermixed with fiction even within the primary sources.13 The growth of popular historical ‘factual’ writing in the last century could be traced back to 1936, when Ernest Gombrich published A Little History of the World.14 This book aimed to communicate the major historical developments of mankind to children outside the classroom. As such, it used accessible language and exciting stories of historical people and their actions to portray the past and spark the imagination of children. The book included chapters on the Neanderthals, ‘The Greatest Inventor of All Time’; classical Greece and its ‘Heroes and Their Weapons’ and the First World War ‘Dividing up the World’.15 The introduction of History Today in 1951 by Brendan Bracken, Minister of Education during the Second World War, sought to encourage widespread engagement of the public in historical debates.16 This publication was credited with the creation of popular literary history ‘mixing styles, genres and periods to achieve a fusion of intellectual excitement and readability’.17 The format and writing style of History Today impacted on how historians communicated with the public, encouraging the adoption of popular writing styles, more careful and publicly focused editing of their work and the use of pictures to illustrate points. In the 1980s, the use of historical rhetoric within popular literature grew with book series such as Bernard Cornwell’s Sharp (1981–2007) firmly placing historical fiction in the public ‘entertainment’ domain. Furthermore, these historical films had impacted on historical research; for example, the film The Return of Martin Guerre (1982) influenced the Natalie Zemon Davis (1983) book of the same name. In the 1990s, historical writing attempted once again to balance education and entertainment, which resulted in historically themed children’s books such as the Horrible Histories series (Case study 7). This period also saw an increasing number of books accompanying television series such as Michael Wood’s Conquistadors. These books sought to provide additional popular ‘academic’ information to a wider audience, who watched the television programme. The high viewing figures for historical television programmes and large sales of historical books continued into the present; as a result, in 2000, the

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BBC History Magazine was launched, aiming or perhaps even competing with History Today to provide factual historical information to the public, enabling them to read academic narratives and engage in debate in an accessible format. The success of both these popular historical journals has seen their launch all over the world, most recently in digital format.18 Previously, the dominant medium for conveying stories of the past and culture was written format in books and newspaper articles.19 This medium is decreasingly used by the public to access information about history. Despite this, it is still the most trusted form for information and study.20 Despite the value of such texts, there are issues with the way history is written that thwarts the ability to communicate with the public. White suggests this is because the writing of history is suspended in time, in a formal nineteenth-century style, which is perceived as a dull art form.21 What is required is a style of writing, which uses self-reflection and enables the multiple voices of the past to be communicated. The reader should be encouraged to view the past not as linear and not only through characters but also through the voice of the writer.22 Experiments with historical writing have led to a new narrative style, drawing on the informal discourse of television, as seen, for example, in Simon Schama’s History of Britain (BBC 2000–2002).23 Popular publications include a plethora of written texts, embracing popular history, fictional and factual books, and newspaper articles. These were some of the first media formats by which the public could obtain information about recent historical research and stories relating to and drawing up on historical ideas. They focus on two factual strands: (1) the presentation of historical research and its translation to make it accessible to a wider audience, for example, in newspaper articles; or (2) using historical ideas and periods to create a fictional story such as the Flashman novels by George MacDonald Fraser.

Types of popular publications Newspaper articles Tabloid newspapers commission freelance or academic historians to write regular articles or comments on historical news such as Tristram Hunt for The Guardian and Dominic Sandbrook for the Daily Mail. These journalists make a statement about the breath of history as a discipline and its influence on contemporary politics and economics. Historians are frequently asked to comment on historical press items, often in the form of interviews with journalists. The platform ‘history and policy’ provides a forum to support this, providing journalists with quick access to academic contact details and specialisms.24 Print media uses press releases produced by historians for communication of their research as the background for a piece. Writing is a complex process,

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a means of creating a narrative, which is a skill that requires collaboration with journalists and understanding of the different vantage points of each newspaper, their audiences, and their particular cultural and political stance. Understanding the rhetoric of newspaper articles pertaining to history is a form of historical research. They are sources rather than facts and represent the dominant ideology and current social cultural contexts of the time it is being written.25 During the 1940s and 1950s, A. J. P. Taylor became a prominent historian within journalism, including print and screen media, writing book reviews, articles, and editorials for newspapers, including the Manchester Guardian (1945), Sunday pictorial (1951–2), Sunday Mirror and Daily Herald (1953– 6) and Sunday Express (1957–82).26 Taylor’s success was, in part, due to his highly opinionated ideas, his political stances and his ability to communicate these successfully to a wide audience; he was unafraid of going against established thought. Taylor’s success highlighted a formula for journalistic writing, which differed from academic styles and principally required a strong narrative, providing provocative approach, being opinionated, having short and sharp sentences, and combining it with a degree of humour to create wide readability. This experience meant Taylor would later support the creation of History Today (1951) magazine and be the figurehead of numerous television and radio shows.27 Until the 1990s, historians writing narratives in the form of short pieces for newspapers was a regular occurrence; yet, as Steele comments, historians are often less capable at creating these narratives, often preferring to take the easier option of acting as talking heads on television or through digital media platforms in the form blogs and vlogs.28 For example, blogs, such as Mary Beards, provide the facility to write in informal and self-reflective pose, posting opinion pieces quickly without the editorial process or strict formula of other print media.

Print media Magazines enjoy a large public circulation, in part, as they are available on news stands and in large retail outlets. They aim to appeal to the mass public and to specific interest groups such as hobbyists and amateur historians.29 Magazines provide the public with interesting snippets of information, ground-breaking discoveries and an arena for debate. They can be of general interest such as BBC History or topic specific such as Military History. The editors of these publications work with academics to provide a source of information to the public, producing a mixture of educational and entertainment content. They combine historical analysis with images and adverts to appeal to the wider audience. The publications rely on recurrent interest, encouraged by new ideas and the use of personality writers to write articles, such as Sir Ian Kershaw’s article on The Hitler Myth. These ideas

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link into websites and interactive polls, classrooms and study guides, a meta content which encourages interaction.30

Popular books For most, historians’ books provide a comfortable and familiar platform for communicating history. Yet translating this often weighty academic and technical prose into a popular accessible format requires creative writing skills that draw on self-reflexivity, clarity of expression and employing a personal style to communicate effectively.31 The writing of popular historical books, whether based on fictional and factual narratives or a hybridity of the two, is a mutually beneficial process for both publishers and authors as it provides authority, profile and profit too. Books have a breath of appeal, which relates to the different types of treatment of history, ranging from narratives, political diaries and bibliographies, autobiography and a combination of fiction and fact with popular books based on historical events or periods. Popular books about the past are often not written by historians but rather by those with an historical interest. The authors draw on historical ideas and a degree of historical fact as a basis for their stories. Historical narratives form the framework for character plots, thus blurring the lines between fact and fiction and between genres such as romance, action and history. These include novels such as Philippa Gregory’s The Other Boleyn Girl, which sold over 8,000,000 copies worldwide.32 These popular publications are widely regarded as fictional rather than fact. Yet it is worth noting, as of other popular history authors, Philippa Gregory was an academic historian who moved into popular fiction, and as such, her novels do contain primary and secondary research into the topic. In contrast to these popular historical novels, political diaries and autobiographies provide first-hand accounts of history that give the public intimate access to historical decision-making and political debates.33 These autobiographical books are frequently commissioned to commemorate individuals and brand them through celebrity endorsement, for example, former UK Prime Minister Tony Blair’s memoirs A Journey.34 The success of popular fictional and autobiographical books often relies on their ability to create an emotional connection between the characters and the reader. For example, The Kite Runner (2003) by Khaled Hosseini, which sold over 10 million copies internationally, uses the framework of a friendship between two central characters, Amir ‘a Pashtun’ boy and Hassan a ‘Hazara’ boy, and their families, to illustrate the complexities of the history of Afghanistan.35 Interwoven within the human story are the history of cultural divisions, effects of changing political regimes, influence of Taliban control and results of wars of the people. The blending of historical narratives and emotional stories has proved a successful formula.

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CASE STUDY 7. Horrible Histories

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orrible Histories, a series of popular children books by Terry Deary. They have sold over 25 million copies worldwide, being translated into thirty languages, including Chinese and Russian. They have also been translated into audio and visual media, stage plays, computer games and museum exhibitions.36 As such, this has been regarded by many as successful in combining historical education and entertainment.37 These books are regarded as important tools in making history accessible to children. They include titles such as ‘Smashing Saxons’ and ‘Rotten Romans’, aiming to appeal to children by presenting ‘history with the nasty bits left in’, making it jokey and gory through the use of multimedia. This includes combining illustrations by Martin Brown, who uses comedy drawings of people from the past, as well as maps and letters, and the inclusion of educational activities such as lists and questions. They have worked within UK national curriculum frameworks, providing information to support learning, encouraging parents and teachers to draw on the information within these books to aid children’s historical education. Museums and television programmes have drawn on this technique of art and comedy to communicate history to a wider audience, including the BBC. For example, the Imperial War Museum’s Horrible Histories Spies Exhibition has used Terry Deary’s writing and Martin Brown’s illustrations to help communicate the role of spies in the Second World War II to children.38 Despite widespread public appeal and its use within the wider public history domain, this blending of historical facts with entertaining fictional stories and anecdotes can lead to issues with the public perceptions of the past and criticisms from academic historians. Horrible Histories books can appear to be subversive of received historical wisdom and are not apolitical, as Derry himself has a firm anti-establishment stance within the text, often indicated by criticisms of leaders and royalty.39 As such, these books can suggest stereotypical and often simplistic versions of historical time periods and people. For instance, in the ‘Vicious Vikings’, as suggested in the title, the Vikings are ‘fearsome’ bearded seafarers and raiders. The book goes on to address the Vikings’ role as traders, settlers and raiders, although little is noted of the lives of Viking women.40 Furthermore, the division into cultural groups of people based on time periods such as the ‘Cut Throat Celts’ implies a clear cultural division and even replacement of people between time periods, rather than an intermixing of ideas, migration and assimilation of people and cultures and the impact of trading on history. Despite these criticisms, the impact of these books on children’s

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perceptions, access and consumption to history provides salient lessons to public historians, principally based on what Beck describes as Derry’s formula: ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● ●●

Focus on ordinary people Links to contemporary world Light-hearted and jokey Illustrations Accessible reader-friendly writing Interactive approach with quizzes and things to do

Questions 1 How can elements associated with entertainment help books successfully communicate history to children?

2 Does the success of popular historical literature require a simplification of history, or are there other mechanisms to support this? 3 What benefits do popular publications have for the translation of historical knowledge to the public?

Extended question 1 Looking at one of Derry’s books, critically evaluate the historical authenticity of it. Is this book an accurate and valid historical educational resource?

Reading and resources ●● ●●

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http://horrible-histories.co.uk Deary, T. (2007), The Vicious Vikings: Horrible Histories. Danbury: Scholastic Press. Beck, P. (2012). Presenting History: Past and Present. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 227–247.

Where historians have successfully bridged the gap between popular books and academic studies, their work is often based on television shows. It is books, such as Simon Schama’s A History of Britain, that reach broad markets and have impacts on the wider public perception of history. These books provide a basis to establish relationships between historians and the public and are often commissioned based on high viewing figures of corresponding television show. Therefore, commissioning these books is a lower risk than that of an unknown entity, as a market has already been

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established through the television show. Resultantly, authors can usually demand higher sales percentages than stand-alone publications.

Radio history Radio has been verbally communicating facts and ideas to the public over airwaves since the 1920s. Initially, radio focused on providing factual information and news pieces that the public could listen to from the comfort of their own homes. Audio public broadcasts were the central point of entertainment and information for the public, but they also recorded history as it happened.41 Radio has since been used as a medium to provide information to the wider public and involve them in current debates. During and after the Second World War, historians such as Taylor were occasionally asked to give radio talks and radio wider debates. It was not until the 1950s that radio shows were produced that were not solely news but told stories, often drawing on historical subjects, for example, the BBC broadcast of Taylor’s historical lectures on Ford. Initially programme makers drew on historical information often gained from schools or universities to debate contemporary events. In the 1960s, radio started to record history as it happened and to discuss the influence of history on current political events. During the Cold War, the BBC World Service, funded by the government, recorded history in action in various locations, including Russia.42 These programmes linked historical events and politics to current events and provided different historical perspectives on this. History on radio, like no other medium before, provided unique access and a way to communicate complex and multiple interweaving interpretations and perceptions of one historical event. This provided a framework for television and other public mediums to attempt to convey complex narratives through new technology. Radio enabled easy access, quick recording, flexibility and mobility that enable it to go to multiple locations and record ideas, editing them into a programme. This method for presenting history gave the public the feeling that they had first-hand and unique access to material. Radio producers and companies started asking historians to appear on shows to offer opinions and talk on air about specific topics. In the 1970s and 1980s, local history became popular on regional radio stations with academic historians having weekly shows, such as Mick Aston’s longrunning BBC Radio Oxford show. History provided the stories for the radio and more popular mediums to communicate them; for both it was a beneficial situation. By the 1990s, historians and radio programmers had started to collaborate formally to create shows based on historical events, for example, BBC Radio 4’s In Our Time.43 The twenty-first century has seen the development of radio and history partnerships and the development of digital technology such as podcasts and

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the Internet to support wider access to historical audio material. Collaborative partnerships between historians and public radio professionals have sought to produce projects that understand the complex working of history in the public domain. This has resulted in radio productions such as BBC Radio 4’s History of the World in 100 Objects (Case study 8). The success and impact of historical radio programmes and wider historically related audio media have been supported by digital media. Radio programmes such as History of the World in 100 Objects are provided as podcasts and freely available live or after airing for the listener to access online. History on the radio works in multiple formats and genres; it is either used as drama or news or debated in documentaries. Occasionally, productions, such as afternoon plays or game shows, draw on historical facts. The lack of visual mediums has to some extent enabled history on the radio to be more contained. Traditional formats for radio focus on the anchor (lead) presenter and personality, usually not a historian. This includes Melvyn Bragg, In Our Time (BBC Radio 4). The traditional radio format focused on a presenter based outside the studio undertaking the role of narrator, which included interviewing members of the public and asking them to tell their story of a specific period.44 A variety of radio formats are used to translate history into the public domain, including scripted essays, studio interviews and live panel discussions. The use of pre-scripted essays on radio to communicate history is in keeping with a traditional format. Radio essays usually involve an academic historian undertaking a form of public lecture that is then broadcast to the radio audience. For example, Sam Edwards’s How Should We Remember the War? scripted essay on BBC Radio 4.45 Studio interviews involve specialists discussing specific tales of the past through the use of personal interviews from those who remembered or experienced past events, such as A Human History with David Hendrey (BBC Radio 4). Alternatively, live panel discussions result in debates between various professionals on a specific historical topic, such as Moral Maze (BBC Radio 4). Radio debates help develop traditional debates, through the use of personalities and topical issues, into an entertaining and educational public format.

CASE STUDY 8. BBC Radio 4, History of the World in 100 Objects

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BC Radio 4’s History of the World in 100 Objects series was a collaborative venture between radio producers and the curators of the British Museum, and as such, the final product reflected this collaboration in its hybridity of structure.46 The programme attempted to provide a historical timeline by using some of the most significant

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cultural objects and artefacts displayed in the British Museum. It aimed to highlight some of humankind’s greatest achievement while the specific objects provided a platform for discussion of cultural development and the foundation of society in more depth. For example, The Silk Road and beyond theme consists of five episodes based on five objects. This theme debates the impact of the wide-reaching trade route, established in AD 500–800, on the development of culture. In one episode, Neil MacGregor uses the helmet and South Asian gems, found at the seventhcentury Sutton Hoo burial, to debate the notion of this period being regarded as the ‘Dark Ages’.47 The programme was recorded on location with background noise and individual curators who acted as narrators. The curators provided the research and the script for the programmes, and through detailed discussion of a single object per episode, this provided a detailed descriptive narrative and linked this into their representation of culture and their influence on today’s society. This programme used different curators with a variety of styles and highly descriptive narratives that were linked into web resources to help create a picture of the object and the location of the discussion. This format was not without its challenges as it required extensive time investment, with curators developing scripts prior to recording and issues with consistency and standards of the curators’ radio presentations. This scripted radio documentary involved elements of reality and dialogues outside the studio. This aimed to give the listener a sense that they were being granted intimate and unique access to not only the objects but also the minds of the professionals. Collaborative programmes highlight the potential public impact these radio programmes have when historians and programmers work together.

Questions 1 How do partnerships between historians and radio producers impact on historical radio productions?

2 What aspects and formats make for successful history-related radio productions?

3 Can historians learn anything about public communication from radio formats?

Extended question 1 To what extent has development in digital media technology, such as podcasts and open Internet platforms, influenced audio media, such as radio?

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Reading and resources ●●

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Bragg, M. (2004), ‘The Adventure of Making the Adventure of English’. In D. Cannadine (ed.), History and the Media. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 67–87. http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00sl6dt http://www.bbc.co.uk/ahistoryoftheworld/ Beck, P. (2012). Presenting History: Past and Present. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 43–68.

Producing a documentary and scripted essay radio programme requires the development of a research idea into a narrative, outline and script. Historians work closely with producers to develop and research an idea, a story and a narrative and provide the research for a radio piece. When writing a scripted essay for the radio, there are central considerations:48 ●●

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Create a mental picture. Use a narrator as a device. Create action through dialogue: Provide a descriptive passage. Make the most of sound effects and music: Create emotion and background noise using audio material. Create believable characters: Characters’ sounds enable the audience to feel empathy or emotion towards them. Be precise and clear with your language: Consider your target audience and word appropriately. Draw the listener in: Provide a variety in the pace and length of narration.

Film history Historically based movies first appeared on screen in the early twentieth century with D. W. Griffith’s Birth of a Nation in 1915, a film set during the American Civil War and its immediate aftermath, controversial both at the time and ever since for its crude and racist portrayal of African Americans. Historical movies developed in the 1930s, particularly within the genre of Westerns. These movies, such as The Big Trail (1931) directed by Raoul Walsh, used a historical backdrop of action and adventure to entertain the

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audience, while simultaneously promoting a distinct ideological vision of the American past comprising rugged individualism; masculine courage and honour; female domesticity; and the racial subordination of Native Americans. Westerns continued to be popular genres for the presentation of history until the 1960s, when many began to question the values they epitomized. This period also saw the arrival of historical musicals, for example, South Pacific (1958), and factually inspired historical films, for example, Bridge over the River Kwai (1957) directed by David Lean. These historically fictional musicals were a mixture of romance, comedy and history, similar to Westerns, and they principally aimed to entertain rather than educate or present historical fact, while reinforcing contemporary sociocultural values and hierarchies, particularly pertaining to race and gender. It was during the 1960s that historical films became increasingly factually inspired, seeking to present historical events and periods more accurately and to challenge rather than confirm conventional narratives of the past. Many focused on war, for example, Zulu (1964), directed by Cy Endfield, and Lawrence of Arabia (1962), directed by David Lean. To a degree, these films celebrated traditional masculine heroism and even colonialism, but all had an edgier subtext of exposing war’s brutality and the moral ambiguity of Europe’s global conflicts. In the United States, film-makers, responding to America’s unpopular war in Vietnam, subverted the Western to tell the story of colonization from the Native American perspective in films such as Little Big Man (1970), directed by Arthur Penn. By the mid-1970s and the 1980s, film-makers were drawn to the subject of war, but a new and stark realism was evident in their work. The Vietnam War, for example, was no longer approached through allegory in revisionist Westerns but was addressed explicitly in films such as Apocalypse Now (1979), directed by Francis Ford Coppola; Platoon (1986), directed by Oliver Stone; and Full Metal Jacket (1987), directed by Stanley Kubrick. In the 1990s, there was a return focus on romanticized historical fiction, creating blockbuster films based on heavily mythologized events, which sought to entertain as opposed to be historically accurate; such films included Last of the Mohicans (1992), directed by Michael Mann, and Braveheart (1995), directed by Mel Gibson. Historical adaptions of literature also became popular in the 1990s, for example, the film Emma (1996), directed by Douglas McGrath. In the twenty-first century, large-budget historical films were produced based on historical evidence that drew on academic research and primary sources. These films focused on biographies and nationally important events and people such as Lincoln (2012), directed by Steven Spielberg; The Iron Lady (2011), directed by Phyllida Lloyd; and The Long Walk to Freedom (2012), directed by Justin Chadwick. To understand and embrace the role of films and televisions in communicating history requires a change in mindset. This form of historical discourse often directly conflicts with the empirical learning and understanding of history learnt at school and university, especially if it is not

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focused on primary sources, validity and scientific fact.49 This is the main reason why this medium for the translation, creation and consumption of history is criticized as being false, lacking truth and validity.50 As such, it has been judged as producing mindless consumers of a false past for the sole purpose of entertainment and economic gain.51 The production and consumption of historical television is complex and cannot merely be linked to consumerism. Studies investigating the consumption of history such as the Present the Past Project (the United States) and the Past Project (Australia) suggest that the majority of people access the past through film and television as opposed to books or study.52 For example, 81 per cent of 1,500 people sampled in the Present the Past Project watched a historical film or television show during the preceding year.53 These studies reveal that though these items were popular, they were regarded as less truthful and less persuasive than any other historical media.54 Therefore, contrary to Jarvie’s55 and Ascherton’s56 assertions, films and television programmes are not passively consumed and their representations of the past are not merely accepted by the unquestioning public. An illustration of this is the 1991 JFK, directed by Oliver Stone. This film was criticized by the press and politicians for its representation and misrepresentation of history, which did not correspond with traditional historical evidence. Subsequently, this film sparked a congressional inquiry to reinvestigate the evidence in the assassination of President John F. Kennedy.57 Films can be linked to national identity; they question cultural belief and identity and offer opposing ideologies from those that are dominant.58 This can lead to conflict and public outrage as a result films and television programmes can be deemed as too politically sensitive to be aired – for example, The Battle of Algiers (1966), directed by Gillo Pontecorvo, which chronicled the brutal struggle against imperialism in North Africa, which was banned in France until recently, being regarded as too politically contentious.59 This suggests that films and television should be regarded not only as a means of entertainment or as means of escapism from the present but rather as playing a role in shaping the public’s ideas about history. They can act as a trigger, providing a platform for the wider public to consider and debate history and historical ‘truth’.60 Examining historical films can provide an understanding of the complex external and internal dynamics that influence wider historical thought and understanding. Rosenstone suggests historical films can contribute to historical discourse and that historical films should be analysed as historical sources, setting out criteria for analysis, including the following:61 ●●

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Genre of film: Documentary, drama, romance Topic of film: The historical period or person the film focuses on Authorship: Including the analysis of writer, director and film-maker Context of film and its delivery: Time period it is produced within and the potential social political influences

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Impact on history or historical understanding: How it reflects, comments upon and/or critiques the already existing body of data, arguments and debates about the topic.

Creating a historical story for film requires a system of enquiry, interpretation and the following of industry conventions. This method moves beyond the beginning and end of a story to investigate the middle ground, the humanistic drivers for events and periods.62 In order to create characters, film-makers want to understand the motivation for actions rather than merely depicting the action and its result.63 This results in a deeply complex sociocultural construct of the past, combining social and cultural history with imagination and storytelling. The difference between this and other narrative discourse is the types of evidence used. While empirical historians rely on written primary sources and other verifiable material evidence, filmmakers create a story through a montage of the past. This combines oral history, generational stories, memories and photographs with the empirical historical facts to create a more artistic history. This construct requires imagination, flexibility and understanding the psychology of people. Film medium enables new voices and stories to be heard and represents the history of not only the elite and heroes but also those forgotten and not represented in primary sources, for example, slaves, workers and minority groups. The 2013 film 12 Years a Slave, directed by Steve McQueen, uses film to communicate the autobiographical story of an African American slave in the nineteenth century. This visual medium enables an exploration of the impact of slavery on African Americans and their treatment by their owners. As such, this medium provides a voice for the unheard and unrecorded, changing the historical message.64 Films are visual metaphors for the past representations of an idea. They are highly complex and politically influenced; thus, they are an historical representation that is socially and culturally specific. Sorro’s study of historical representation in Italian films concluded that the content and representation of the past in these films are directly influenced by current sociopolitical movements, and they represent the time they were created rather than the period they try to recreate.65 As such, historical films create history not only of the past but also of the present, a historical construct from a specific moment in time.66

Historical film development The creation of historical films is similar to that of writing a book or an exhibition. It involves a series of processes to reach an end product. This product is not the final film but rather the reception of its story by the public, and this reception is directly affected by each part of the previous process. The development of the story requires creating a new narrative, a strong central linear plot, and a careful and in-depth consideration of the characters,

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specifically the central character of the film.67 It requires a mismatching of realities, combining historical facts and ideas with myths, legends and dominant ideologies.68 These narratives and characters must exist with and seek to represent a genre, style and narrative context.69 Characters act as agents for history, and as such, they rely on individuals, a star, to create a visual image of the past and to construct a ‘window to the past’ from a specific vantage point; they are vital in the construction of historical events and period in the film.70 Historians and film-makers can work together and develop reciprocal relationships.71 For example, the historian Natalie Zemon Davis, who researched and authored the biographical book The Return of Martin Guerre (1983), based on a sixteenth-century French legend of the same name, previously acted as a consultant on the 1982 film production. This reciprocal relationship enabled her to understand the complexities of both interpreting historical sources to the public and the production of historical knowledge, alongside providing the tools to develop her research and access to primary sources.72 Among others, Davis suggests these collaborative relationships require open dialogue to be established between the filmmaker and historian prior to filming, whereby both parties consider the practical implications of a working partnership.73 Yet this open dialogue and sharing of ideas infrequently happen. The most common scenario is that the historian’s first input into the film-making process is through historical ideas taught in school. Historians can be brought into a project that is already underway as an advisor or consultant to advise on the minute details rather than the overall story, usually answering specific questions such as ‘Is this the right type of amour?’74 The central issue with historians and film-makers working together is a misconception of each other and wariness due to professional and personal insecurity. The academic historians’ insecurity perhaps stems from their unique specialism and their lack of knowledge of the film industry.75 The film-maker’s insecurity often results from worries over critiques of their work, alongside time and financial constraints.76 Academics and film-makers are hampered by misunderstanding of each other’s motivations; this results from a failure to engage with each other and to understand how different communication systems work. There are few historians who understand media and the filming process, which includes production, editing and script writing, and few film-makers who understand how history investigates the process that historians use to produce knowledge. This process has been helped by the publication of the Film and History, an interdisciplinary journal of film and television studies. This journal has enabled film-makers and historians to share ideas and experiences, as well methods and practices, including opening up discourse as to the wider benefit of film for history and history for film.77 A common misconception made by historians, when analysing films, is that they are aimed at general audiences. The reality is each film targets

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specific audiences; they are similar to any form of public history, aimed at specific demographics such as age, nationality, or social and ethnic groups. Films are divided into categories, such as romance, science fiction, action and Westerns, and may aim to target a group interested in a specific genre.78 Dominant historical film culture is now forming genres of its own, including the Civil War – for example, Cold Mountain (2003), directed by Anthony Minghella – and the Second World War such as Saving Private Ryan (1998), directed by Steven Spielberg.79 This will be reflected in the detail and ideas conveyed in the film, and therefore not all films are created equal as they target specific interest groups. It is vital to understand these genres before working in collaboration with film-makers and developing or even pitching an idea.

Television history History on television has been linked to the formation of television itself, with heritage professionals working with BBC from its interception in the 1930s to produce and support history on TV.80 During the 1930s, TV shows focused on presenting excavations and finds from historical sites such as Maiden Castle (1936 and 1937 respectively) and museums such as the Museum of London (1937). Heritage specialist hosted the short (often five to fifteen) factual documentary-style shows, for example, Archaeologist Margot Eates at Maidan Castle (14 July 1937) and Curators Martin Homes at the Museum of London (9 June 1937).81 During this period, historians and archaeologists, such as Cyril Fox and Mortimer Wheeler, were working with television producers to write scripts and develop historical television programmes.82 From the late 1950s, the presentation of history on TV, often in the form of historian presenting documentaries, was pioneered by individuals such as A. J. P. Taylor; this provided a model for the modern TV don.83 The 1950s saw an introduction of more popular formats such as game shows, for example, Animal, Mineral, Vegetable (1952–1959). Animal, Mineral and Vegetable brought together historical and archaeological experts, such as Sir Mortimer Wheeler, to identify objects from museums and historical collections.84 In the 1960s, history on television became more widespread, with television companies and professionals working together to develop and deliver more expensive and series-based factual documentary formats, for example, BBC’s Kenneth Clark’s Civilisation (1969). Historical fictional television also developed a new foothold, for example, BBC’s comedy show Dad’s Army (1968–1977), which centred around the lives of the local defence volunteers, ‘the Home Guard’, of a small town in the UK during the Second World War.85 The 1970s saw a growth in television programmes produced to deliberately communicate historical fact to the public. This included historian

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A. J. P. Taylor’s BBC television lectures on topics such as The War Lords, a programme that controversially and critically assessed Churchill’s failings and successes within the public domain.86 During this period, programme makers focused on producing academically credible television, including documentaries of historically important events such as ITV’s World at War (1973–1974). This documentary detailed, in chronological order, the key worldwide events of the Second World War such as the Jungle War in Burma and India and the US entry into the war.87 These historical television programmes used archival footage and interviews with veterans recalling first-hand accounts to aid the public’s historical understanding. The success of historical comedies and documentaries opened up the possibilities for history on television; by the 1980s, a number of historical comedies had appeared within television programming including Blackadder (BBC, 1983–1989) and ’Allo ’Allo! (BBC, 1982–1992). The 1990s saw a shift in focus with an increasing number of programmes, especially in the UK, being commissioned which were based on adaptions of nineteenthcentury novels such as Jane Austin’s Pride and Prejudice (BBC, 1997). By the 2000s television history was a global industry with American and Australian television companies, such as National Geographic, commissioning history programmes aimed at targeting their specific audience demographic. This period saw the widespread occurrence of historical reality television in the form of Time Team and Colonial House, which were increasingly centred on entertainment. The development of reality-style documentary television and the growth in interest in family history during the 2000s can be linked to the development of genealogy-related television programmes such as Who Do You Think You Are (BBC, 2004–present).88 Each episode focuses on a celebrity tracing their family tree, for example, Ruby Wax and Boris Johnson. This UK production has been adapted around the world, including in South Africa, Denmark, America, Australia and Canada. By the twenty-first century, the mixing of genres and the Hollywoodization of historical television had become increasingly prevalent. Television companies attempted to draw in new audiences through producing programmes that combined personal stories, drama, historical accuracy, elements of comedy and reality such as HBO’s Band of Brothers (2001) and Deadwood (2004). The high viewing figures and television companies’ financial support for these programmes indicated that history had now become part of mainstream public entertainment. Digital media and crowdsource funding have impacted on television programmes. The launching of Netflix and Amazon digital channels has influenced how and why history television programmes are commissioned and how they are accessed. For example, their success can be linked to the commissioning of small specialist channels such as historyhit.tv.89 Historyhit. tv developed by Dan Snow through crowdfunding via subscription costs of £5.99 a month – to date almost 144,000 has been raised by 2,500 members – has been described as ‘Netflix for history’.90 Members of historyhit.tv have

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access to specialist history programmes, made for the history super fans and geeks, which include full-length unedited interviews with survivors of historical events such as the Battle of Britain.91 This channel enables producers and viewers the creative freedom and control to enable a more detailed history programme to be produced and aired, which is less entertainment driven. Television, as a medium for communicating history to the wider public, has become prevalent in modern society. As such, there is a plethora of history on television, ranging from the traditional documentary style (Coast, Elegance and Decadence: An Age of Decadency) to more drama-based programmes (Downton Abbey, Foyle’s War, Sharp and Hornblower).92 This mode of historical translation plays a pivotal role in public history today, acting as a historical outreach tool for the masses. Television has become the closest most people will get, or even want to get, to experiencing history. Viewers experience the thrill of discovery from the comfort of their own sofas as ‘historians’ act as historical guides, visiting sites around the world and uncovering the clues of the past lands and peoples. The high viewing figures, especially for historical dramas such as Downton Abbey (approx. 9.2 million) and for historical reality such as Time Team (approx. 2.6 million), suggest that for many members of the public this is an appropriate and culturally relevant means of communicating historical ideas.93 Alternatively, this medium for historical communication has led to history becoming merely entertainment for the public. The variety of genres that historical television draws upon, from documentary, reality, comedy, game show and drama, enables this medium to reach a broad demographic.94 Historical television appears to have impact on the public and a social and knowledge value to the viewers. Resultantly, it could be regarded as a successful medium for the communication of history and its stories.95 Historical television has been successful in bridging some of the boundaries between historians and the wider community and has offered the public an opportunity to experience history.96 Critically, television could be described as creating the illusion of engagement in the subject as the public are excluded from historical research and interpretation, something that remains firmly in the realm of the professional. As such, the public passively consume history, and television history fails to engage people in their past on a physical level or psychological level. This lack of physical or psychological engagement prevents individuals from forming memories and as such ‘factual’ information being retained or learnt.97 Television provides a vicarious experience of the past; resultantly, it could be described as merely ‘voyeuristic entertainment’. A critical consideration for historical television is format, meaning the type and category of programme. Historical television categories include drama, reality and documentary. For a new programme to be commissioned, it must work within pre-existing genres and programming schedules and be regarded, through comparative programmes or market research, as having the potential to be successful. This success requires the programme to have

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a story which has public relevancy. This is attainted through interaction with viewers on a personal and emotional level.98 For historians to create a television programme and to work with television programme makers, they must understand the public. This involves considering the specific demographics they aim to communicate with and being open to new modes of communication and research.99 In the last twenty years, there has been a growth in the analysis of peoples’ public perception of history. Statistical research indicates that past is associated with the physicality of discovery.100 Perceptions are based on stereotypical notions of history drawn from mass media and its ‘Disneyfication’; this fantasy is what gives history its appeal. As such, numerous academics have criticized the popular representation and image of history as creating dangerous stereotypes.101 The lack of formal analysis of the value of television history has led to a professional reluctance to open the process of history up to the public. This could explain why in the United States history television programmes have focused on traditionalstyle documentary, either single expert presenter-led or narrator-led format.

CASE STUDY 9. History Channels, Sex in the Ancient World

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he History Channel’s Sex in the Ancient World programme was first ‘aired’ on screen in 2009. This programme was based on a traditional narrator-presented format, who provides the core narrative script throughout the series. The addition of expert interviews, reconstructions, archival and museum material provides the screen footage for the documentary. The central narrator guides the viewers through the programme and provides the core narrative. Sex in the Ancient World is a historical documentary focuses on sex in different periods of the world, transporting the viewer to various exotic locations around the world. Experts, including Bettany Hughes, discuss directly to camera the historical and archaeological evidence associated with a place as factual information. The information is used to provide a story drawing together facts and local stories; for example, in one episode, the narrator and presenters discuss the sexual representations within Ancient Egypt, including within tombs and papyrus. These expert presenters share ‘unique’ versions and new discoveries of history, which are intersected by photographic and video clips. The result of this is sensationalization; this programme draws on the explicit nature of this historical material and creates a voyeuristic interest in this topic.

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This narrative documentary format aims to appeal to a specific demographic through its traditional narrative, lecture format. Subsequently, historical documentaries are usually watched by those with a previous interest in the past and history.102 In contrast, historical television documentaries such as BBC 4’s Lost Kingdoms of South America and Lost Kingdoms of Africa are presenter-led by young male experts, Dr Jago Cooper and Dr Gus Casely-Hayford, respectively. In these programmes, the presenters explore the continents and their history with the viewer through ethnographic, artistic, historical and archaeological evidence; as such, they aim to appeal to a younger and more diverse audience interested in both the past and travel.

Questions 1 What are the benefits and issues of narrator-driven television programmes? How does this affect the depiction of history on television? 2 Can historical television documentaries ever balance education with entertainment? If so how can they be successful? 3 How can historical documentaries appeal to a wider audience, beyond those already interested in history?

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8AX13TvHt5g De Groot, J. (2009), Consuming History: Historians and Heritage in Contemporary Culture. London: Routledge. Part IV: History on Television. Beck, P. (2012). Presenting History: Past and Present. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 91–121.

Types of television Documentaries Documentaries are the closest historical television programmes come to portraying historical truth. Yet critically they are still creative treatments of the historical facts. Creating a documentary is as much about the narrator, presenter, location, music and visual imagery as it is about the content. It is, as De Groot suggests, a montage of the real and imaginary material carefully selected and edited to communicate a story.103 Documentaries such as Kenneth Clark’s Civilisation (BBC 1969) and Mary Beard’s Caligula (BBC 2013) are led by academic historians and where single figures narrate

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a story about an epic historical period.104 These documentaries are often heavily reliant on archive footage, which could explain the plethora of the Second World War documentaries.105 Resultantly, documentaries, until more recently, overlooked unrecorded histories such as those linked to gender and race.106 Documentaries are reliant on the personalities of the presenters, who are eccentric and charismatic characters such as David Starkey (Music and Monarchy), Simon Schama (History of Britain), Bettany Hughes (The Spartans) and Mary Beard (Caligula). These presenters become the anchors, are able to tell an engaging story and add their personality into this ‘performance’. They become the public’s trusted authority on a topic. The alternative to the academically focused presenter is a celebrity presenter with no particular qualifications as an historian. Comedians are often the primary celebrity choice for these programmes. Non-historians offer a unique perspective on history that balances factual information and entertainment, asking questions to which the public seeks answers, and therefore are able to engage a new and broader audience. For example, Al Murray, although he studied history at college, is better known as a stand-up comedian in the UK and presented the Road to Berlin (2004), a history series for Discovery Channel about the Second World War. Documentaries have benefited historians, enabling the production and collection of new historical research outside the realms of academia, including first-hand accounts. Television has helped develop methods, such as oral history, for researching arenas of history previously under-explored. This has impacted on the mainstream practice of history and public history.107

CASE STUDY 10. ABC, Who’s Been Sleeping in My House?

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BC Australia’s Who’s Been Sleeping in My House? (2010–ongoing) is a historical programme developed with professional historian and archaeologist Adam Ford.108 This programme focused on combining documentary and reality elements to investigate the lives and homes of real people throughout Australia, piecing together the facts and fictions of their houses. This programme was led by presenter Adam Ford and based around a single ‘home’ historical house, uncovering its history through the people who lived there. This worked with current and past house owners to piece together a biography and chronology of the house. The programme aimed to appeal to both regional and national audiences by piecing together the history of Australians that was not recorded in history books; for example, one programme uncovers the alleged secret Nazi radio station hidden in the attic of a family’s

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home in Adelaide.109 The programme seeks to draw new audiences to history through telling unique and personal stories of the past and as such creates emotional connects between the viewer, house owners and former residents. This programme relied heavily on first-hand account of history, intermixed with archival research. As a result, this show was a mix between historical fact and fiction yet was presented as factual evidence.

Questions 1 Why does the presentation of personal histories on television make for good television programmes?

2 What are the issues with personal stories being presented as a valid historical fact?

3 What impact do presenters have on the success of television programmes?

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Downing, T. (2004), ‘Bringing in the Past to the Small Screen’, In D. Cannadine (ed.), History and the Media. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 7–19. http://www.abc.net.au/tv/whosbeensleeping/

Drama Historical television series aim to tell an entertaining story of the past and its people through the use of historical fact and fiction. Historical television dramas during the 1990s and 2000s were adaptations of novels from nineteenth-century writers such as Jane Austin, Thomas Hardy and Charles Dickens. These created nostalgic and sanitized versions of the past, appealing primarily to a middle-class and educated audience. They draw on historical customs, music and buildings to create a degree of accuracy within a story. Historical settings provided a mechanism for the story to be told. These historical dramas were more about human interaction, society and relationships than about history itself, based centrally around characters such as Mr Darcy in Jane Austin’s Pride and Prejudice (BBC One, 1994). These popular dramas’ global success was based on selling an idea of a nostalgic and often romantic past.110 Television companies have recognized the public appeal of history, describing it as the ‘new sex’ and ‘new rock and roll’.111 Historical drama has entered the mass public market with huge budget productions being created and sold to consumers such as HBO’s Deadwood and Steven

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Spielberg’s Band of Brothers. The distinct move away from the sanitized portrayal and glamorous versions of the past during the twenty-first century was supported by previous smaller-scale ‘masculine’ mainstream dramas such as Sharp (ITV 1993–1997) and Hornblower (ITV 1998–2003). These dramas, based on twentieth-century books, sought to show the lives of the ‘common’ everyday man, rather than the ‘glamorous’ elite portrayed in nineteenth-century novels. These versions of the past were dirty, sexy and violent.112 The programmes drew on historical ideas but did not attempt to claim factual authenticity. Rather, they used history as a platform and framework for that narrative. Historical dramas often have similarities with films in their presentation of the human stories behind history. These dramas aim to entertain, and many seek to cater for a global audience not typically interested in history (Case study 11).

CASE STUDY 11. BBC, The Last Kingdom

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he television dramatization The Last Kingdom (BBC One, 2015) of Bernard Cornwall’s fictional novel series The Saxon Stories (2004–) saw the recreation of the Viking invasion of Saxon England in the ninth century. This sought to tell the historical story of the Viking and Saxon relationship, specifically focusing on Wessex’s defence against the Viking invasion.113 This narrative was delivered by a central character, Uhtred, a son of a Saxon noble man captured by the Vikings and reared as a ‘Dane’.114 The first episode portrayed the Viking’s arrival in England and the invasion of Northumbria, a history recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. It presented violent scenes of Vikings raping, killing and pillaging Saxon settlements – actions based on some primary historical documentation, which includes the Vikings’ first noted arrival in Northumbria and the killing and pillaging at places such as Lindisfarne and the settling in winter camps.115 It is worth noting that primary sources from this period are limited to those recorded by Christian monks.116 This historical television production portrays the Vikings’ violent ‘pagan’ aggression against the peaceful ‘Christian’ Anglo-Saxons.117 This imagery draws on the current popular stereotypes of ‘Viking’ invaders, stereotypes that are taught at school and presented in other popular media, including the recent The Vikings (HBO, 2014).118 As such, this narrative represents current sociopolitical trends, enabling the viewer to form connections between past and present events. This includes nationalistic fear of mass immigration of ‘English’ culture, of attempting to understand alternative religious faiths beyond Christianity and of recent threats from the ‘terror’ of foreign groups such as Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). In doing this, The Last Kingdom has

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similarities with crusader films, such as the Kingdom of Heaven (2005), not only in its treatment of the exotic, unknown and different but also in its idealist undertones of acceptance and understanding from the central protagonist ‘Uhtred’ of both the Christian ‘Saxons’ and pagan ‘Vikings’. Principally this programme seeks to utilize historical sources and historical narratives to entertain the viewer and appeal to popular myths and nationalist cultural stereotypes.119 The Last Kingdom utilizes lighting to create darkness around the Vikings, and light and space around the Saxons, suggesting potentially evil foreboding Vikings and culturally developed Saxons.120 Locationally, the sites chosen such as Winchester are historically associated and evidenced Saxon places. Stylistically, the costume design appears moderately factually accurate but has been adapted to fit modern fashions.121 For example, the Saxon broaches worn by the men are historically accurate, yet stylistic trends such as the shields date a couple of centuries later. These stylistic, locational and visual aspects of the source are unlikely to be aspects of historical accuracy – inaccuracy of which the public are aware.122 The popularity, high viewing figures of over 2.5 million and positive broadsheet reviews, such as Runcie’s in the Daily Telegraph, suggest that for the public this historical narrative is authentic and accurate enough.123 Yet within this are vignettes of truth (as conventionally understood): the Vikings did undertake raids, they did have winter camps and there is a use of accurate names based on historical literature.

Questions 1 To what extent does historical television require historical accuracy to be regarded as authentic?

2 What role does the historical record ‘fact’ have in producing historical entertainment?

Extended question 1 Discuss whether it is important to produce historically accurate television programme.

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Beck, P. (2012). Presenting History: Past and Present. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 7–13. Edwards, S. Dolski, M., and Sayer. F. (2018). Histories on Screen: The Past and Present in Anglo-American Cinema and Television. London: Bloomsbury Academic.

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Reality history television Reality history television has bridged the gap between fictional (dramas) and factual (documentaries). Reality programmes, such as The Trench (BBC 2002), often place members of the public into historical situations and film their experiences. This television format focuses on human relationships as opposed to historical fact and has required historians to relinquish control of history to the public. Reality television does not provide authentic or ‘real history’; rather, it provides an entertaining and present-day experience of the past.124 The final product is affected not only by modern social cultural norms, which in turn affect human reactions and interactions, but also by modern-day health and safety controls. For some, reality television has been seen as history dumbed down with history becoming a commodity for television companies.125 Its appeal to television companies relates to its high revenue and viewing figures for relatively low production costs. Reality television requires little pre-production work, small number of crew to film and limited editing time. Furthermore, the ‘cast’, often the public, requires little, if any, payment for their involvement in the production. It is this perceived commodification of history and historians’ lack of control of the genre content that has led to professional unease and professional criticism of this kind of history on television. Despite the issues with reality television, this genre of historical television has enabled television historians and producers to consider the importance of visual media.126 This process has enabled television historians to consider other ways of visually communicating history to the public, including 3D virtual reconstructions to evoke emotions and the ‘spirit of the moment’. This approach has given historical television a mechanism of communicating history to the public that has ‘freed up history TV from the tyranny of archive image’.127 This has supported the development of non-archive-based television programmes such as Sex in the Ancient World (Case study 19). A significant development in history television has been the move away from tried and tested factual- and documentary-style formats to publicly oriented formats, such as drama and reality, which mix fact and fiction. The development of a hybrid of reality and documentary styles, such as You Think You Are (BBC, 2004–present) and Time Team (Channel 4, 1994–2010), has attempted to successfully communicate and engage a wider audience in the past (Case study 12). The BBC television series Restoration (2003–2006) enabled the public to interact with decisions in the restoration of historically significant buildings, such as Victoria Baths, Manchester, through polls, while also providing historical evidence in documentary form through celebrity endorsement of the building. The high viewing figures for these historical television programmes indicate that this hybridity is regarded as successful in engaging and entertaining the public.

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CASE STUDY 12. Channel 4, Time Team

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he introduction of Channel 4’s Time Team in 1994 onto UK terrestrial television channels saw a movement away from the experts and talking heads in history programming in the UK.128 It was not until 2009, with the launch of Time Team USA on Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), that this format appeared on terrestrial channels in the United States. Time Team focused on the reality of the process of historical discovery and had hallmark discussions and arguments about the strategy and interpretation between professionals on archaeological and historical sites around the UK, and in some cases, further afield in Spain, the United States and the Caribbean (Figure 4.1). These ‘real’ elements are fundamental to the live historical process. The main narrative and scripted components of Time Team were delivered by a non-historian, Tony Robinson, a comedy actor more famed for his role in the 1980s comedy Blackadder (BBC). This presenter was a deliberate choice by the creators (including former teacher Tim Taylor and archaeologist Mike Aston) as it was hoped that a household television name would enable the presentation of past in this programme to appeal to a broad audience. As such, the presenter would play a key role in asking the questions to

FIGURE 4.1  Photograph of hallmark discussion on Time Team © Faye Sayer.

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the professional archaeologists that the public wanted answering and, in a way, that the public could understand and engage with. The initial programme aired on Channel 4 from 1994. The large viewing figures, 3.1 million at its peak, resulted in its development for digital and international markets. Although the programme was in 2011 decommissioned, it is still regularly repeated on terrestrial and digital channels, and new Time Team ‘special’ and documentary programmes continue to be commissioned, such as ‘The Lost Submarine of WWI’. The programmes decommissioning can be attributed to falling viewing figures from 2010, in part, due to changing scheduling, less regular slots and changes in cast members, including Mike Aston’s departure and Helen Geake’s and Stuart Ainsworth’s reduction to occasional roles to make way for new younger cast members. Time Team led to a plethora of historical reality programmes including Edwardian House, The Trench and Colonial House, to name but a few. These publicly facing programmes are becoming one of the main types of popular historical television. This popularity, on the part of television and production companies, relates to their low production cost. Potentially, for the public it is because they seem to capture the public’s sense of interaction and real-life emotion. Despite its longevity and high viewing figures, Time Team has received widespread criticism regarding its alleged lack of professionalism and the simplification of historical interpretation presented as fact.129 The programme has been accused of replacing content with characters such as Phil Harding.

Questions 1 How does media hybridity work in practice? What lessons can historical television programmes learn from archaeological television? 2 Why does the historical reality format appeal to the wider public, yet often not to historians? 3 What factors influence the success of historical television programmes?

Extended questions 1 Considering programmes such as Time Team, Who Do You Think You Are and Restoration, how have these programmes made the process of historical research interesting to the viewer? 2 Does historical television have a future in mainstream channels? If so, how can this be maintained and what are the alternatives?

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Reading and resources ●●

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Taylor, T. (2000), Behind the Scenes at Time Team. London: Channel Four Books. Clack, T. and Brittain, T. (2007), ‘Archaeology and the Media: An Introduction’. In T. Clack and T. Brittain (eds), Archaeology and the Media. London: University College London, Institute of Archaeology Publication, Chapter 1. http://www.channel4.com/programmes/time-team http://www.timeteamdigital.com

Extended reading ●●

Beck, P. (2012). Presenting History: Past and Present. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

History has a broader impact on televisual culture and can act as a historical backdrop for a wide breadth of television programmes. The range embraces comedy, children’s programmes and game shows such as Dads Army (BBC 1968–1977), Maid Marion and Her Merry Men (BBC 1989–1994) and University Challenge (BBC 1962–present).130 Principally, these programmes offer entertainment first with education as a secondary concern.

Working with the media Relationships between historians and programme makers have been regarded as a one-way street and are at best mixed.131 Historians are called on to support research and provide their expertise and research material for these programmes.132 This can be a one-way relationship with historians providing knowledge but with little control over its use and presentation. The need to alter this relationship, to remove ‘professional distance’ and create dialogue, is essential in order to develop historical television.133 This change enables historians to collaborate with media companies to produce shows, support research, write scripts, advise on filming and appear on screen or as air experts. It can create a medium for the communication of historian’s research to a wider audience, creating real value and impact for their research, which is critical to future funding of research.134 Developing a relationship between the presenter and the producer is also critical in creating and shaping history; this helps to translate narratives from the academic to the public.135 Historians’ skills and their ability to create stories about

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the past mean they are valuable assets to the media industry, generating income for media companies through their viewing figures and advertising revenue.136 The creation and translation of historical narratives into television, radio, film and popular book format require historians to develop a system of enquiry and interpretation that works within the media industry’s conventions. This requires historians to consider alternative stories to interview multifaced, complex and contradictory narratives into a simplified, uncluttered and linear form, which presents a singular story in a limited time frame. This format of historical presentation requires the construction of a story, investigating humanistic drivers for events or periods, creating characters and understanding their motives, not only their actions and consequences. This often combines oral history, generational stories, memories and photographs; it becomes less empirical and more artistic using imagination, flexibility and empathy. In this sense, media history is rewritten and re-conceptualizes history, which is often imagined and recreated. ●●

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Central plot Humanistic drivers Narrative context: Building relationship and connections between characters and viewers Narrative codes and creative elements: Visual and audio aids (camera, background noise) that seek to convey and impose emotions of viewers, listeners and readers.

No matter what genre of popular writing historians decide to engage with to translate history into a popular narrative, there are vital points when pitching an idea to commercial and academic publishing companies (see Online Material: Key Elements for Television/Radio Proposal). Trade ‘commercial’ publishers, such as Random House, usually publish popular fictional historical novels. Submission of draft manuscripts is usually through a literary agent, a person who has established a professional relationship with the publishers and who is trusted to have made a preliminary assessment of the potential of your work. An author finding a suitable agent is often the first stage in this process of commissioning for popular fictional historical authors. Academic publishers, such as Bloomsbury Academic, focus on factual historical literature and academic textbooks. Often the first step in getting a book commissioned by an academic publisher is direct contact of the author with a commissioning or editorial assistant. Editors can support potential authors to develop book proposals. The editorial team provides advice to the author on writing style, format and ideas the company is looking to develop; they can offer advice on reviewing successful proposals.

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Consideration for commissioning of academic work requires the submission of a detailed book proposal, chapter or book for peer review. Large academic publishers, such as Routledge, Thames and Hudson, Bloomsbury and Tempus, have specific requirements and stages in order to get books commissioned (Figure 4.2). Self-publication offers an alternative route for the publication of historical literature. This approach is entirely controlled by the author, who writes, edits, produces, markets and sells the book. The Internet and availability of web resources to support this process, including editing software and Internet ‘web’ books, have supported the process of self-publishing.

FIGURE 4.2  Flow chart of the process of book commissioning.

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Popular ‘academic’ factual book proposals require an outline, chapter briefings, audience and market, whereas fictional ‘trade’ novels require whole chapters or even drafts of complete books to be submitted to editorial boards (see Online Material: Example of Academic Book Proposal). Popular historical books, especially historically based publications rather than factual books, have huge profit margins but also are a commercial risk. In academic publishing, a first book by an unknown author can expect a low 4–5 per cent commission percentage. Trade publishers often offer higher commission percentages upward of 10 per cent and larger advances and commissions for personalities.

Television proposal Pitching an idea for a television programme requires the ability to construct a story. This narrative must, whether it is a drama, documentary or reality idea, draw people in and evoke powerful emotions through storytelling.137 The idea must work within a genre and fit into the programming of a channel and consider the channel’s future focus. To be commissioned, the programme must first produce a proposal (see Online Material: Requirements for Applying for Job as a Television Presenter).138 Writing scripts and proposals is a craft, like writing for a museum exhibition; it requires a consideration of the audience. It must have something that makes it different to ‘stand out, and draw on ideas from the successes of other programs’.139 Often prior to developing an idea for media, historians will work with a production company to develop an idea; this is often the most successful route as they have experience in pitching, understand television and channels, and have relationships with directors, producers, editors and personalities. It is worth noting that this is not the case if the screen rights to a book have been bought by a production company, as often at this point the agent will act on the author’s behalf and may have little control over the final product. If the proposal is seen as having potential by all parties, this will initially be pitched by the production company to a programming committee and then the commissioning editor. Television programmes are high cost and therefore high risk for television companies; as such, for many television programmes, a pilot will be commissioned first before a series – for example, Sex in the Ancient World (Case study 9) and Time Team (Case study 12).

Working in the media In order to develop relationships between history and the media, the International Association for Media and History (IAMHIST) was formed

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in 1977. This scholarly organization aims to provide knowledge sharing through its journal and conferences. IAMHIST supports the development of media historians through its postgraduate forum and media training courses.140 Agencies specifically aimed at supporting historians’ careers in the media industry have been created, such as Past Preservers.141 These agencies provide historians with advice on getting jobs within the media, including on-screen work, for example, creating a show reel, producing a CV and taking a head shot (see Media History Jobs in Media, Requirements for applying for television presenter). Historians working within public history organizations, such as museums, are increasingly provided with media training; for example, the British Museum currently provides day training courses for all curatorial staff. This training provides individuals with guidance to answering media enquiries, writing press releases, presenting ideas within a media format, fielding questions and body language, voice projection and personal presentation. Media training benefits public history organizations, as involvement of staff in media, especially on screen, can provide free marketing for the organization and lead to wider capital investment for research and visitor facilities. An organization’s presence on the media helps them meet their wider remit of communicating history to diverse demographic and impacting on wider society. The growth of history in the media has increased the job market for historians. The demand for trained media historians had led a number of universities to offer undergraduate and postgraduate courses in media history, including Bournemouth University and its Center for Media History. These courses focus on preparing students with the basic communication, research and technical skills to work in different elements of media industry such as editing, documentary making, journalism and social media marketing. Correspondingly, these courses often have close working relationships with media companies.

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Strong research skills Good literacy skills Excellent communication skills Team working Time management Flexibility Creativity Accuracy

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A DAY IN THE LIFE Adam Ford, Television Personality and Archaeologist I have presented four TV series about history and archaeology. I hosted three series of a programme called Who’s Been Sleeping in My House? for Australia’s national broadcaster, the ABC. My most recent series, Lawless, was produced for the History Channel. Neither of these shows set out to persuade anyone to conserve a particular element of the past but rather to show that the past has value. Some sites, objects and intangible cultural heritage have intrinsic value. They may be rare, beautiful, huge, tiny or already rooted into our consciousness through popular exposure, for instance, the ruins of classical Italy and Greece, the Eiffel Tower, and nation buildings legends such as that of King Arthur. Other elements of the past that don’t look like much or are unknown but nevertheless have value require more work to establish their significance. Value can of course be purely aesthetic or of social or scientific value and could be just at a local level or of national or international importance. Once historical value is established, you need to work out how to tell the story. To understand who are your audience? Who you want to engage with and to what end? Knowing your audience will inform your method of engagement – public talk, site tour, school visit, television documentary or book. If you know your audience, you will also know how much context is required, the level of detail, the tone and formality of the presentation – should it be Horrible Histories or Simon Schama? Both are equally valid and both have an audience. I see myself somewhere between the two. For instance, in my book My Life in Ruins I relished the challenge to translate complex and dauntingly large subjects into concise and entertaining summaries. One slightly difficult example was I had to sum up 300 years of religious wars in the eastern Mediterranean, the Crusades, in 600 words (My Life in Ruins, pages 106–109). Similarly our aim with Who’s Been Sleeping was to tell stories from the past of ordinary Australians in mostly ordinary houses, simply. The stories were chosen to reflect a broad spectrum of historical themes that are part of the Australian historical narrative; for example, pioneer settlement, gold rush, war service and sacrifice, as well as personal tales that the audience could relate to. But it was a half hour show so we had to summarize larger, complex stories and leave others out altogether. Public engagement on television and through books is entertainment and there are always editorial compromises such as brevity and omission that attract criticism. So it is important to balance your role as storyteller

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with your expertise and probity. It’s not always easy but to get hundreds of thousands of people interested in the past is worth the effort and I think it is of benefit to the broader management and conservations of our cultural heritage.

Carly Hilts, Editor, Current Archaeology Magazine One of my favourite aspects of working on Current Archaeology is that no two days are the same, but there is a certain rhythm to putting the magazine together. A normal working day usually begins on the Tube – I have taken to treating it as my mobile office, doing my first hour or so ‘working from train’ so that I can hit the ground running when I arrive. This mostly involves clearing my inbox or reading through a feature that I want to edit that day – I always have two or three draft articles in my backpack at any one time so that I can make the most productive use of any delays. Always be prepared! Once in the office I will chat to our deputy editor and editorial assistant, who are responsible for most of the magazine’s ‘Regulars’ (the News section, Letters page – anything that’s not a feature) to see how these pages are coming along. I might also email our three out-ofoffice colleagues – who produce a monthly column; commission and edit our book reviews; and write a feature, a heritage news round-up, and a profile of a quirky local society respectively – to check how they are getting on. Keeping on top of where everything is, and spotting any potential problems early, is vital. I also spend a little bit of each morning revising plans for the current issue and the following one – it is always good to have features in hand that can be brought forward in case of disaster. This involves liaising with contributors, chasing pictures, and setting up site visits/interviews, as well as a lot of referring to my trusty Future Features spreadsheet and ‘Ed Book’ (the notebook where I sketch out each issue). We always try to make sure we have one prehistoric, one Roman, and one medieval feature, with the other two slots used to balance the mix or respond to breaking news. It’s these features that represent the bulk of my daily work, whether that is editing articles that have been sent in or writing my own (based on research, an interview, a site visit, or synthesizing a new publication). With external submissions, editing means a balance of polishing the piece according to our house style, while also preserving as much of the author’s individual voice as possible. Once these edits have been approved (we always send drafts back for comments and corrections), it’s time to get the piece ready for Design, marking up a separate document with image captions and any credits that need to be printed alongside them.

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This is always a fun process – in choosing the order of the images, you need to think not only about what will help to tell the story, but what will look interesting – not grouping all the black and white images or all the aerial landscape shots in the same section, for example. At the other end of the month, in press week, my typical day looks very different – by then all the pages have (hopefully!) been laid out and PDFs sent back to the contributors, so much of my time is spent making final corrections and working with our subeditor, who proofreads everything. Each ‘subbed’ page is then printed and put in ‘The Book’ – a mock-up of how the magazine will look – so I can do a final readthrough. This is my last chance to spot anything awry in the text; you need focused concentration, a keen eye for detail and – in my case at least – steely nerves for the moment when you drag a layout over to ‘Ready for Design’ and accept that you can’t fiddle with it any longer.

Conclusion The media, including television, radio and popular publications, is increasingly playing a part in historians’ ability to communicate a story and ideas.142 Working with, in or through, media, historians can learn to understand audience demands, values and aspirations and create new historical dialogues. Understanding the different motivations and values and developing trust between diverse groups of people are critical to developing this relationship. It can break down professional and public boundaries that enable historians to become successful ‘public historians’. This collaboration between historians and media professionals enables the successful communication of history and the story of the past to the public. This relationship is mutually beneficial to all parties. For academics, the relationship can impact on the authenticity and validity of history portrayed in the media, enabling dispelling of historical myths and introduction of historical factual evidence. For producers, developing relationships with historians can provide access to new and unique historical stories and details. The growth of history in the media, including through digital media and crowdsourced media enterprises, indicates that there is a market for and value of history to a wider audience and that media history impacts on the profession. Media has wider benefits to history, rescuing historical buildings, highlighting political causes and providing a sense of commonality to which the wider public can see the benefit of the past. The discipline of archaeology can offer lessons for the presentation of history to the public, both within and outside the media’s domain. The public presentation of archaeology has demonstrated the benefits of mechanisms such as the use of hybrid,

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discursive and interactive media formats for successfully presenting the past to the public through visual mediums. The popularity of archaeology television programmes, such as Time Team (Case study 12), demonstrates how the wider engagement of public in the process of uncovering the past can be achieved. This also serves to demonstrate the issues media formats can have for an ‘authentic’, ‘valid’ and ‘professional’ communication of history to the public. Media historians require specific narrative and communication skills, specifically the ability to create a story through a popular narrative framework and to tell that story in a way that is emotional and humanistic. Critically, the role of a historian in the media requires a careful balance between entertainment and maintaining historical accuracy.

5 Digital Media

This chapter investigates the use of various Internet-based digital media platforms in the presentation of the past to the public. It examines how these constantly evolving socially and culturally embedded technologies have been used to create an interactive and immersive approach, one that has altered the practice of public history and impacted on wider historical research and communication. Digital media has impacted on everyone and everyday life with digital and social media becoming a prevalent form of communication and presentation of the past to the public. As such, digital media has in many instances come to represent a form of popular history. This chapter builds on previous discussions relating to the use of digital media in public history sectors including museums, archives and heritage centres, education, community history and political history. Case studies illustrate the potential of digital media to impact upon popular perceptions of history and highlight how digital media can be utilized in the practice of public history. Digital media has been utilized within these sectors to translate, communicate and present history to the wider public, creating digital networks for historical information to be shared beyond traditional audiences.

History of digital media Public history has developed and altered through the use of digital media; this has included the use of digital networks to provide open access to museum collections, ‘cybermuseology’, for the public, developing new mechanisms for communication through social media such as Facebook, Twitter and Instagram and the use of shared web platforms to enable active public participation in the selection, creation and presentation of ‘crowdsourced’ history. These digital ‘social’ mechanisms for the communication and presentation of the past provide arenas to explore critical debates within public history, including ownership, authenticity, entertainment, and consumerism and commercialization of the past.

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The 1990s saw the global emergence of web culture and the growth of the publicly accessible World Wide Web, ‘the Internet’, for the public use. The host servers underpinning this enabled public organizations to store information and relay this to web users around the world. During the 1990s, the emergence of web culture in public history was linked to the growing community of arts and history workshop movement.1 Concurrently, increasing public participation in the process and production of historical dialogues was associated with increasing demand from the public for access to information. During the 1990s, the use of Internet ‘chat rooms’ and the popular adoption of emails enabled users to exchange instant, digital messages. Emails would initiate a change in the nature of communication in professional and public domains, which would impact research and communication techniques used for public history purposes in the twentyfirst century. By the end of the 1990s, the World Wide Web had begun to be used as a communication device within the public history sector, including among museums, archives and universities. The creation of public history–related Internet sites sought to enable online access for the public to historical resources, albeit one limited by Web 1.0–associated technologies. Some of the first examples of these basic ‘static’ Internet sites were launched by the University of California Museum of Paleontology, Berkeley (1997), and the Museum of the History of Science, Oxford (1995).2 These websites provided basic information about the museum to web users, including location and contact details, online exhibitions, education and outreach events, and online access to specific catalogues. These early websites provided basic visitor information and online libraries to support the interest of web users but enabled no mechanisms for public interaction.3 The use of the Internet to communicate and sometimes create data and resources also raised difficulties with the authentication and legitimacy of sources, which were open to falsification. Websites were also limited by host external server data restrictions such as storage and bandwidth, and from the late 1990s onwards, museums such as the Museum of the History of Science began to fund their own expensive in-house servers.4 The twenty-first century saw the rise of social networks such as MySpace and Facebook. This digital technology supported the creation and sharing of personal and biographical histories. Public history institutions, such as the British Museum, began to invest heavily in developing their own Internet sites that aimed to provide web users with remote digital access to their organizational resources. The development of Web 2.0 technology enabled these websites to be more interactive and dynamic, further differentiating digital media from the static page, and to provide increased information to web users, including higher-resolution imagery and social media elements such as shares and comments, and links from public browsing facilities such as Google promoted and prompted visits to affiliated websites. These dynamic web pages aimed to provide access to those both outside and inside

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academia to obtain additional historical knowledge and deliberately sought to encourage physical visitors to the institutions. Public history websites integrated public search engines within their central frameworks. These developed from simple online catalogues or databases such as the University of California Museum of Paleontology online catalogue.5 During the twenty-first century, museums and archives in Europe, North America, Australia and New Zealand initiated digitalization projects such as the National Archive’s Community Archive Access Project (2004). This resulted in the almost complete digitization of material culture and archival written records stored within museums and archives.6 This activity, defined as ‘cybermuseology’, created vast online digital archive projects, which provided open public access to historical material and allowed new digital contact networks to be formed.7 This digital access also supported the development of community history and access to historical material, for example, the LAARC’s (2002) online archive database (Case study 6).8 Digital access history projects resulted in public access to, among other things, census records and birth and death records. This access to demographic and personal information of past peoples enabled individuals to search family histories, which in turn supported the development of genealogical research and the family and amateur history movement. Public interest and access to genealogy and family history resulted in the commercialization and commodification of these personal aspects of the past; online companies such as Ancestry were launched, specifically aimed at supporting individuals looking to create family trees and histories.9 The genealogical industry provided frameworks to support people’s desire to search for ‘their past’ and their historical identity.10 Public access to the past provided a mechanism to support the development of community websites and blogs, creating a public space to debate and communicate multiple viewpoints of the past, for example, ‘A Tale of One City’, Portsmouth’s community history website and online archive.11 Community websites had similarities with community museums in their desire to represent the voice of the local people and to communicate untold and locally important stories from their history to the wider public beyond the professional ‘authoritative’ historical domain. During the early twenty-first century, museums introduced computer stations that were situated within specific galleries such as the Museum of London’s Prehistoric Gallery (2002). These public computer stations sought to provide visitors with additional exhibit and artefact information to support their visits. They also enabled visitors to provide feedback and comments about the displayed collection to the curators. The development of interactive and virtual technologies such as Google Earth enabled people to travel back in time and view changes in landscapes and townscapes over time through the use of historical imagery overlaid on modern-day maps.12 Furthermore, commercial gaming technologies, such as Tomb Raider (1996),

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were integrated into the public history sector via exhibitions involving augmented reality ‘virtual reconstructions’ and interactive games. Public history used digital media to make history entertaining and immersive and to encourage its deliberate consumption by the public, for example, PAS Past Explorers. By 2010, social media, including YouTube (2005), Facebook (2006) and Twitter (2006), had firmly established its place within the wider public domain. This established social networks over the Internet and provided an arena for social narratives to be communicated, transformed and consumed. The development of digital and social media during this period transformed and ‘revolutionized’ the nature of public history and the mechanisms of its communication.13 The practice of public history in museums and community history groups, including amateurs, utilized this social technology to promote and communicate historical knowledge and research with the wider public. Museums, such as the Metropolitan Museum of Fine Arts (the United States), created social media profiles on a variety of platforms to develop online digital relationships with the broader public, specifically younger audiences. The widespread access to mobile technology and proliferation of smartphone usage during the early twenty first-century resulted in technological and software developments, including mobile applications (‘apps’), geolocational software and QR codes (Chapter 3). Public history organizations invested in the development of Apps for participatory and interactive access to history, for example; the Museum of London’s ‘Street Museum’ (Chapter 3). This digital technology also involved the use of smartphones as handheld exhibition guides (Chapter 3). These handheld mobile Internet devices changed public interaction in history, including instant and non-location dependent public access to history and historical commentary through social and digital media apps. The evolution of digital and social media supported the development of public and professional dialogues, changing the production and consumption of history. In 2011, Google Cultural Institute was founded, aiming to partner with cultural organizations around the globe to bring the world’s cultural heritage online.14 By 2016, the institute had over 1000 museum and cultural organizational partners including UNESCO.15 The institute built the free tools and digital technologies such as Art Camera for the cultural sectors to showcase historic items and places and make them accessible to a global audience.16 In 2011, in partnership with Yad Vashem World Holocaust Centre, 140,000 documents, photographs and objects were made available online to the public.17 Digital media provided open access to history, creating consumerism of the past and a global knowledge economy.18 This resulted in public involvement and interaction in the production and sourcing of history through ‘citizen’ and ‘crowd-sourced’ history projects. These projects used developing web and coding technology to encourage the public to actively contribute and conduct historical research. This often

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involved uploading historical data such as photographs, memories and 3D models to open-sourced and open-access websites, for example, the British Museum’s use of SketchFab (Case study 13) and People’s History Museum’s Google Historypin (Case study 14).

CASE STUDY 13. SketchFab and British Museum

I

n 2014, the British Museum collaborated with the University College London to launch the MicroPasts project.19 MicroPasts, a crowdsourced photo-making project, aimed to support volunteers to photograph objects and digitation of databases of British prehistory and British Museum’s collections of metal objects.20 This project used discourse discussion, coding and crowdsourced and crowd-crafting software that was adapted from partnerships between Open Knowledge Foundation and Citizen Cyberscience Center.21 The project has also received support from the AHRC digital transformation funding to aid the evaluation and development of digital platforms. The initial MicroPasts project was part of the impetus for Dan Pett (British Museum Digital Humanities Lead) in setting up a Sketchfab account in order to provide 3D models of British Museum artefacts and provide more digital access to ancient objects such as the Rosetta Stone.22 Sketchfab is a 3D and virtual reality-viewing website in which members of the public and organizations can set up an account to upload images to an open-sourced website, which provides free open access to the public.23 Pett, along with a small group of museum staff, aimed to use this resource to preserve and create access to cultural heritage for people who could not travel to the British Museum.24 This project required taking over 100 photos of each object, such as the Helmet of Pompeii, and using open-sourced 3D-created Blender.25 To date, this provided 3D model of some of the most important artefact, including Jericho Skull, which also included additional informational text, for example, why part of the head is missing, and the ability to rotate the object and the viewer to see minute details, which would not be possible from behind a glass case.26 This digital project enables virtual visitors to have an immersive experience in the past. It also supports the printing of 3D models, supporting classroom learning through historical reconstruction, and supports people with disability.

Questions 1 Does crowdsourcing of public history provide a future funding model for the discipline?

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2 What are the benefits and issues with crowdsourced public history projects?

3 Consider the pros and cons of open-sourced digitized public history. What implications do both negative and positive opensourced digitized public history have for museums and historic sites?

Extended question 1 What are the long-term economic, social, political and knowledge implications for crowdsource funding of public history to the historical discipline?

Reading and resources ●●

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Bond, S. (2017), ‘Five New 3D Models of Ancient Artifacts That Are Changing How We Interact with Museums’. Forbes Magazine, 19 May 2019. Available at: thhp://www.forbes.com/ sites/drsarahbond/2017/05/19/five-new-3d-models-of-ancientartifacts-that-are-changing-how-we-interact-with-museums. Bonacchi, C., Bevan, A., Pett, D., Keinan-Schoonbaert, A., Sparks, R., Wexler. J and Wilkin, N. (2014), ‘Crowd-sourced Archaeological Research: The MicroPasts Project’. Archaeology International, Vol. 17, pp. 61–68. http://www.sketchfab.com http://www.micropasts.org

Extended reading ●●

Rosenzweig, R. (2006), ‘Can History Be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past’. The Journal of American History, Vol. 93 (1), pp. 117–146.

Social media and Internet sites have provided a platform for the creation of digital history and as such enabled the public consumption of history. The narratives and tools used in the teaching and communication of history changed, taking ideas from other types of popular media such as newspapers by adopting the concept of ‘headlines’. Consequently, the widespread public consumption of history became increasingly reliant on visual images to communicate the story. This resulted in public historians moving from a position of safeguarding the ‘authoritative’ and official versions of the past to engagement in the public sourcing of stories and interaction with public production and research. Open-sourced digital technology such as Wikipedia

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with its multiple anonymous authorships and multiple ownerships forced many historians to reassess normative practices of historical research and publication based on history as an individual craft with single authorship, confronting complex issues of historical ownership.27 Changes in the creation, communication and presentation of history were not all positive. The democratization of knowledge and consumerism of the past meant that control over historical content was no longer professionally validated. As such, despite the increasing accessibility of historical information, its sourcing and validity were no longer accountable to the professional; websites and other users failed to source historical data from primary sources, neglecting to provide accountable factual evidence for suppositions or to recognize the copyright of material. As an open-sourced, open-access website seeking to provide publicly sourced and validated information about historical topics, Wikipedia (2001) enabled the public to input content without moderation or validation from professionals.28 This often resulted in poor or inaccurate referencing to original sources of information and issues over content with topics being left out and having a focus on biographical inputs.29 The creation of digital information with no quality control had the potential to mislead and misrepresent history and introduced serious issues regarding the ownership of knowledge and the potential manipulation of the past. Social media platforms have sought to provide mechanisms for professional collaboration as well as public collaboration. This has supported networking and the sharing of ideas and academic papers within a professional web domain; these sites include Academia and Linkedln. These websites allow individuals to create a professional profile, including employment details and research interests, as well as to upload publications. They enable the linking of the self to key words such as public history and community history. They also help users to follow other professionals, to form networks of interested parties, to share research interests and to promote work. In a post-digital culture, it is recognized that all history has the potential to be digitized but not necessarily is. The appropriateness of digitization and a consideration of ethics of access are currently being debated; this includes deconstructing the wider impact digitalization of history has on authenticity and human experience of the past. In recent years, public history has other uses for digital technology beyond presentation and communication of the past; for example, data mining, the collecting of user details and demographic information has been used to see interest trends, visitor demographic gaps. The personal data collected from users and visitors of sites has economic value and is sometimes being sold to external marketing companies or to target potential donors or museum members. In some instances, the ethicalness of using digital technology is contentious; for example, the appropriateness of the British Museum’s open-sourced 3D scan of the human ‘Jericho’ skull poses questions regarding the ethicality of the displaying of human remains (Case study 13).30

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The Internet The introduction of the World Wide Web impacted on the production and consumption of history within the public domain. Digital technology changed the way that the public interacted with history and, conversely, how historians interacted with the public. Museums and archives invested resources in the Internet, aiming to provide remote digital access to history, which included delivering a plethora of online resources (Table 5.1). The creation of websites by public history organizations and projects involves the development of content and the use of a host platform. Websites have developed from the early Internet technology associated with Web 1.0, simple content-providing tools in which the users were passive recipients of information. As such, these sites are more commonly associated with the first-generation organizational websites of the 1990s, as well as community history and amateur history websites such as Stroud Local History Society.31 TABLE 5.1  Online resources provided by museums and archive facilities Type of online resource

Description

Example

Educational resources Material for use in classroom learning and to support public history visits by schools

Chicago History Museum’s Connections and Artifact Collections Project ‘Back to the Future’ (Case study 10)

Tours and trials

Multidimensional maps and geolocational software helped create handheld or printable tours for the public

National Trust’s Tours of the Landscape

Archival resources

The presentation of, and public access to, material in storage and in galleries. This included material culture such as historical artefacts and archival material, and audio, visual and written records

Historypin (Case study 14) and LAARC (Case study 6)

Wider access material

Providing resources for people with disabilities

Museum of London’s sign language You Tube resource and podcasts for the visually impaired

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More complex and public-focused Internet sites utilizing Web 2.0 technology have been commonplace since the early 2000s, for example, as adopted by the Metropolitan Museum of Fine Art (the United States). Web 2.0 is more visually impressive and dynamic, utilizing plugins such as Flash to stream videos and increased bandwidth speed and lowered hosting costs to allow more, higher-quality, rich content. This Internet technology enables users to interact with the website by incorporating elements of social media, blogs and wikis. Although the improved functionality of today’s web pages requires the use of more complex coding, the creation of publicly accessible platforms such as Google and WordPress, which provide easy-to-use frameworks for the public to create websites, has meant that almost anyone can create simple website for zero cost. This has supported the development of public history in the digital domain. Digital media has been used within professional, commercial and ‘organizational’ public history domains, including museums and genealogy services. This often requires professional support and assistance to develop a professional and publicly accessible interface for public history organization. For example, the Digital Panopticon is a digital transformation project that aims to provide public access to around fifty different data sets that trace London convicts in Britain and Australia (1780–1925).32 This project, based in the UK, was funded by the ARHC employees, a team of academic and professional historians to interpret, upload and present archives, making them accessible within the public domain.33 Digital media helps create a public ‘cyber’ relationship with public history organizations that have the potential to be transposed to a physical connection; for example, creating a high-quality website can raise an organization’s profile and draw people into museums.34 The use of websites to provide unique ‘behind the scenes’ and ‘real time’ access to historical projects can draw the public into real exhibitions, for example, the restoration and conservation project carried out by the Metropolitan Museum of Art (the United States) of Charles Le Brun’s portrait of Everhard Jabach and his family.35 It must be noted that providing too much information or the wrong information has the potential to decrease visitor numbers. Creating a successful website requires: ●●

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Providing clear and concise content with context Providing quality imagery including photos and illustrations Providing unique, behind-the-scenes access to historical material Using multimedia and interactive features such as hosting video clips and animations Appealing and accessible styling and layout Integrating browser and search features thereby enabling the user to locate specific information easily Sharing on social media and blog sites such as Facebook and Instagram.

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Online learning Developing digital mediums has also been adopted within educational systems including schools, universities and life-long learning classes. Digital platforms specifically aimed at supporting teaching and learning, such as Moodle and Blackboard, have altered teaching techniques and enabled flexible and remote learning. They have also been used to provide a studentcentred approach to teaching and supporting learning. They provide e-resources such as podcasts of lectures and seminars, access to journal articles and book chapters, online interactive tests, exams and coursework submission, marking and feedback. Moodle and Blackboard are secure and controlled digital and social networks with user access to resources and discussion forums restricted to registered and approved users. For example, the Open University supports fee-paying adult learning, undergraduate and graduate courses remotely around the world, almost entirely through the use of secure digital media. This has enabled history to be taught to students in any locality and context, supported by live tutor, online tutorials and videoconference seminars and lectures. This model for university-level online learning has been adopted by a range of universities in the UK and the United States, including Leicester University and Oxford University Centre for Continuing Education, which offer short accredited courses. These courses aim to support continued professional development, adult learning and amateur interest. The academic taster material for these and other online courses, including videos and podcasts of lectures, has been delivered to the wider public through the use of Internet platforms and apps such as iTunes U, Technology, Entertainment and Design (TED), and Academic Earth. Furthermore, e-books, digitized books available online to be downloaded to portable devices, such as Kindle, iPad and Kobo, have provided instant and remote access to research material for students, academics and the wider public. Digital open-sourced platforms have been developed to support open and free public access to a wide variety of historical educational material, including seminars, lectures and interactive professional discussions and tests. For example, edX, which was set up by Harvard University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology, has been used to support a digital partnership between some of the leading global universities, including Columbia University and Australian National University. EdX provides a platform for public access to historical educational courses, for example, Civil War and Reconstruction (Part 1, 1850–1861). Registered users can gain free and complete access to all course material, tests and online discussion forums.36 This enables the public around the world to access ‘real’ historical classes at their own pace.37 Internet course platforms, such as Cousera, have supported the development, by major universities such as Harvard and Princeton, of massive

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open online courses (MOOCs).38 These freely accessible and non-profit global courses, such as Princeton University’s ‘Global History Lab, Part 1’, aim to provide online education for high numbers of people including those with no previous educational background.39 It is worth noting that despite aims to attract wider audiences into education, over 60 per cent of those enrolling to these courses already have degrees.40 These non-accredited courses are still in their infancy, and as such, the long-term validity and viability of ‘free’ courses has yet to be ascertained. MOOCs are byproducts of normal teaching and are not free to produce; they rely on the material, including lectures and reading lists, produced by paid university teaching staff, for use by fee-paying higher education individuals within the traditional teachertaught university system.41 MOOCs rely on online student participation, including watching videos, reading, engaging in discussion groups, taking marked computer test and exchanging assignments with partners for peer grading based on a set criteria. Consequently, this pedagogical approach supports larger student numbers without the traditional university’s 1:25 staff–student ratio for tutor support. As such, the full potential of MOOCs to support personal learning and the marking standards of accredited courses has yet to be achieved or at this point evaluated. Digital media has been used within professional, commercial and ‘organizational’ public history domains, including museums and genealogy services. This often requires professional support and assistance to develop a professional and publicly accessible interface for public history organization. Digital media helps create a public ‘cyber’ relationship with public history organizations that have the potential to be transposed to a physical connection; for example, creating the right website can raise an organization’s profile and draw people into museums.42 For example, the use of websites to provide unique ‘behind the scenes’ and ‘real time’ access to historical projects can draw the public into real exhibitions, for example, the restoration and conservation project carried out by the Metropolitan Museum of Art of Charles Le Brun’s portrait of Everhard Jabach and his family.43 It must be noted that providing too much information or the wrong information has the potential to decrease visitor numbers.

Cybermuseology and digital networks ‘Museum object networks’ are collections of online digitized written records and photographs of artefacts. This ‘cybermuseology’ provides multi-format resources through the use of the World Wide Web to a global audience, enabling digital access for the public and professionals to the objects and historical items. This transports collections outside of their original, museum context and curatorial interpretations, encouraging them to be reinterpreted, transformed and re-conceptualized through different public lenses. This technique can enable the object to gain personal significance beyond traditional tangible and historical interpretations. Through open and

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remote access, these digital networks remove history from the institutional boundaries and physical barriers of access to create new gateways for information to be shared and history to be created.44 The Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology in Cambridge has used an online research platform built on the ‘implementation agnostic’ content management system, ‘Drupal’, to develop a collaborative digital object network based on its indigenous Australian collections. This project was established through working with Deakin University, Australia, and indigenous Australian groups. By establishing remote links with indigenous groups in Australia over the Internet via online object forums and live Skype broadcasts, this has enabled the exchange of curatorial and public ideas and the reinterpretation of ethnographic collections.45 This project demonstrates the role that digital media and the Internet can play in connecting and collaborating with the public, encouraging a multivocal approach to the interpretation and presentation of history.

Crowdsourced and citizen history Crowdsourcing began as a medium to fund and support films to be made that represented the ‘ordinary’ people.46 The development of home video recorders, mobile technology and i.Docs during the 1990s opened up the potential use of popular media for publicly sourced history, for example, BBC Video Nation (1993).47 The twenty-first century’s widespread use of mobile technology, YouTube and social media further proliferated this trend, and the widespread, publicly funded communication of ‘community’ sourced histories and citizen history. The development of the World Wide Web has enabled the production of interactive documentaries supporting this transition from the official production of history to its public production. Interactive documentaries, ‘i.Docs’, are produced for immediate public consumption online. These documentaries combine multiple historical sources, such as photos, videos, sounds and text, from both primary sources and oral history to encourage public participation and online exploration.48 The production, presentation and consumption of history through this mechanism transform it into a social activity – one in which the public can interact with the process, exploration and modification of history during and after production, providing an organic representation of the past.49 The Quipu Project, undertaken by Chaka Studio, in collaboration with the University of Bristol, provides an interactive documentary on the forced sterilization of 300,000 women in Peru during the 1990s and its effects on the indigenous communities in isolated part of the country.50 This project did not rely on high-end websites to collect, edit and engage in community ‘history’ dialogues; rather, it was based on connecting with the community through appropriate means: women’s networks, radio and free phone lines. This meant that it did not exclude those who were not connected to the Internet. As such, the Internet was used as hub and storage device,

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while phones, including mobile phones, were used to collect data and share material about the project. Despite the aims of these projects, which focus on representing public histories and untold and unheard stories of the past, these personal narratives are moderated, validated and edited by the host organization before wider public consumption, meaning that to some extent the material is scripted by external agencies. This editing alters the public’s historical narrative and places authority for authentication firmly in the realms of the professionals. Digital and social media transferred the creation of history and its narrative format beyond the control of academics and professionals. This created new types of history, which were based on early concepts of ‘history from below’ and grass-roots movements. As such, public historians and historical organizations started to create ‘crowd-sourced’ projects and ‘citizen’ history, recording the unofficial and multivocal past that existed with unofficial and official websites, encouraging the public to comment and add their own stories and memories of historical events. This user-generated content (UGC) resulted from changes between Web 2.0 and 3.0. As such, the World Wide Web altered from being one-way consumption to becoming a two-way editable and collaborative platform. The Internet, blogs, comments and interactive sites enable the public to upload stories, images and audio and video clips of historical events, placing historical research, oral history and social history firmly in the digital age. Although this has enabled immediate and reactive historical research and presentation, it has also created new difficulties around the storage of historical collections; digital media as a form of data storage is still an unstable entity and long-term solutions to massive data storage, and the transient nature of many web pages has yet to be solved.

CASE STUDY 14. September 11 Digital Archive Project

T

he September 11 Digital Archive Project sought to use the Internet to collect, preserve and present publicly ‘crowd’-sourced history as it happened.51 This project was a collaborative research project set up by the Centre of History and New Media, the American Social History Project/Centre for Media and Learning, and the Library of Congress.52 The project also partners with numerous organizations, including the National Museum for American History (the United States) and Red Cross, to name a few. Immediately following the New York Twin Tower bombings of 9/11, historians set up a website to collect data from the public and public domains about the event; this included videos, audio material, photographs

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and written material. The project sought to provide a mechanism to enable public contribution to the historical record and record multiple experiences and memories of the terrorist attack on the Twin Tower. Furthermore, the website aimed to capture digital sources, including newspaper headlines, reports and emails.53 The global nature of the Internet allowed people around the world to contribute, access and use this data.54 This event, and its historical records, were regarded as future history, something illustrated by the creation of the National September 11 Memorial and Museum, New York (the United States), which opened in 2014.55 The cataloguing of significant quantities of information was achieved through this mechanism, including 150,000 digital items, 40,000 emails, 40,000 firsthand stories and 15,000 digital images. This was regarded as essential to future historical study and relevance, and as such, the Library of Congress has acquired this digital collection for its archives.56 This public memory project was facilitated through the Internet and social media mechanisms. The public could upload comments, photographs, mobile video footage and audio footage to the site. This meant that the project could be both self-managed and regulated with little input from researchers during this period of data collection. It is worth noting that the site was moderated for ethically and morally abhorrent content. The massive data collection illustrated the broad demographic of responses and their high number, something that traditional oral history mechanisms would not have been able to archive. Digital media search engines were also able to source and catalogue vast amount of data that were being produced on the web outside of this research, often transient and short term in nature. The September 11 Digital Archive project illustrates the value the Internet can have in collecting history and the potential of crowdsourced history for future historical study. The website collected vast amounts of publicly uploaded data, which had no cohesion as it existed without a thematic framework to support its future use for research and presentation. Consequently, these data sets required huge amounts of work to catalogue, collate and theme, something that has to date not been completed but will undoubtedly fall into the remit of the Library of Congress and will require volunteer support. The volunteer involvement in this archival process produces problems with lack of consistency in approaches due to lack of training or professional grounding.57 Publicly sourced historical archives such as this cannot be quality-controlled or validated by traditional research mechanisms. Subsequently, material produced is often anecdotal and deeply emotional, based on personal memory rather than factual information. Validating the authenticity of all these public stories and memories of people’s experiences of this event is often impossible.

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Questions 1 How has the Internet enabled public history to develop as a subject?

2 In what way does digital media support the collection, preservation and presentation of history?

Extended question 1 Discuss the issues relating to validity and authenticity of crowdsourced ‘Internet’ history.

Reading and resources ●●

●●

●●

Kazin, M. (2013), ‘12/12 and 9/11: Tales of Power and Tales of Experience in Contemporary History’. History News Network, 11 September. http://hnn.us/articles/1675.html. Cohen, D. (2013), ‘The Future of Preserving the Past’. In H. Kean and P. Martin (eds), The Public History Reader. London: Routledge, pp. 214–223. http://911digitalarchive.org/index.php

The development of crowdsourced and citizen history projects have provided a public voice within and for history. The Internet and crowdsourcing have been effective in getting public support and assistance on ‘citizen history projects’. Museums, institutions and individuals have all successfully used this to enabled history to have a public and political voice.58 For example, the 1847 Partition Archive (2017) brings together stories, artefacts and oral histories from around the world to document, preserve and share eyewitness accounts from all ethnic, religious and communities affected by the Partition of British India in 1947.59 This project run by a non-profit non-government organization aims to use collective history to pave the way for a more enlightened future for the world.60 As such, citizens history projects have provided a live platform to create history and to inform political campaigns and politicize history.

Social media Social media has altered the digital communication landscape, enabling individuals and organizations to form networks of open and shared dialogue within a digital environment. Consequently, public history practices and

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modes of communication have changed in response to the growing global impact of social media. This popular digital media, which includes social networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter, Pinterest and Instagram, has enabled public history to create open networks of communication with a global community. Social media platforms are mostly free to join, as either an institution or individual, as the majority receive their revenue from advertising. This social media is accessible through mobile devices using apps, which enable flexible, instant and quick user access. Creating a social media presence, a ‘page’ or ‘profile’, has in the last decade become essential to all public history organizations and projects. This profile is not only a tool for communication with a broad demographic of the public but an essential marketing and public relations tool for public history.

Facebook Facebook is an online social networking service developed in 2004 by Mark Zuckerberg, initially aimed at establishing student networks and sharing social information within Harvard University (the United States).61 This network was expanded in 2005 to other US educational institutions and, in 2006, to the world; currently it is estimated that Facebook has 750 million users worldwide.62 Public history organizations, groups and projects, such as the British Museum and the Bones without Barriers Project (Case study 7), have created public profiles on Facebook. Creating an ‘organizational’ rather than ‘individual’ account enables the profile page to post a wider variety of content to a broader audience (see online material for outline of information needed to set up Facebook page). Facebook supports both passive and active interaction of the public in history. For example, passive interaction can involve a user visiting or following a profile page, while active interaction is commenting on a post or status update, posting photographs and sharing content with other Facebook users. Some of the most successful posts deliberately aim to be interactive, for instance, asking for feedback, interpretations of history or asking for responses to specific questions. These interactive posts enable the user to feel connected to the organization and the process of history, which also enable organizations to understand users’ demands and values. Visual content is critical to successful Facebook pages, which are usually judged by the number of followers, visits and high active interaction. For example, the Metropolitan Museum of Art (the United States) has 1,186,894 likes and 778,695 visits. This includes the regular, daily use of images such as photographs, paintings, videos and interactive tours. The uploading of photographs of ‘mystery objects’ and asking for public interpretations, as per the British Museum’s ‘Mystery of the Week’, also encourage high levels of online interaction – in this case, fifty-seven shares and eighty-one comments for a single object. As such, this can provide a mechanism to break down

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professional and public boundaries and to engage the public in open dialogue that both educates and excites. Other successful mechanisms link Facebook posts to topical debates and public interests such as items associated with the football World Cup, for example, a Ming painting of the guards playing football in the Forbidden City.63 Organizations can raise their public profile through following similar organizations and providing links within their own organizational websites and other social media sites such as Facebook. These posts can also promote and market upcoming exhibitions. Profile pages aim to encourage the promotion and engagement of the public with historical collections. This can be achieved through posts for specific famous artists’ birthdays. For example, the Metropolitan Museum of Art showcased the collections of the artist Gustav Klimt, including the Serena Pulitzer Lederer’s painting, on his birthday; this received 3,945 likes, 1,175 shares and 46 comments.64 Followers can comment on status updates, share posts and add their own photographs to create an interactive social website. Creating an organizational profile on Facebook enables the promotion, ‘boasting’, of pages and status updates to members of the public who are not already following the organization. Boasting enables organizations to choose an age range, audience, gender and country that they would like to reach, potentially targeting those beyond their usual demographics. A boast will involve choosing five key words, which are linked to Google searches, such as ‘history’, ‘museum’ or ‘exhibitions’. Boasting requires payments varying from £3 a day to reach from 1,600 to 4,200 individuals, to £350 per day to reach 100,000. If the lower limit of the figures is not reached, then payments will not be collected, while numbers over payment criteria will not be charged for. This Internet promotion provides relatively cheap advertising for public history organizations. Facebook does not enable the organizations to read the personal information of individual followers, such as status updates; however, it does provide anonymized use of metrics. Weekly statistics indicate demographics of individuals, shown as either viewers, followers, sharers or commenters. This includes their sex, age range (e.g. 35–54) and geographic location. Similar to Google Analytics, this data provides basic statistical analysis as percentages, bar graphs and pie charts, which highlight weekly changes in user data. For example, the Smithsonian’s National Museum of the American Indian (the United States) Facebook page statistics indicate that the majority of people engaging in the site are from Washington, aged 35–54 years. Basic weekly information reveals that 1,800 are talking about this site and there are 85,000 total page likes, which rose by 0.5 per cent from the previous week, and 439 new page likes, falling by 2.2 per cent. It also indicates that there was slightly less active interaction than previously possible.65 Facebook has enabled public history sectors to develop narrative and visual commentary and dialogues with audiences. Consequently, social media can act as a qualitative and quantitative evaluation tool for public history.

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Twitter Twitter is an online social networking and microblogging service created and launched by Jack Dorsey, Evan Williams, Biz Stone and Noah Class in 2006. This worldwide social networking site has at present over 500 million users. Users can ‘tweet’ (share) short 280-character text messages and images with registered users, who can read and respond. Twitter provides a written basic communication tool for organizations and individuals within the public history sector. For example, the National Museum of American History @amhistory tweeted: ‘Depression-era Californian shell money and a fund lemonade stand (secret math) activity for kids’ or ‘The Smithsonian wants to believe! Today in 2008: Museum acquires X-Files collection, including pilot script http://ow.ly/z6eAy’.66 The posting of ‘tweets’ is often linked to photos and other social media sites, such as blogs or Facebook, in order to reach larger audiences. Tweets can be read by anyone, unless the user’s account is set to private. Twitter can be embedded within organizational or project websites to provide newsfeeds, for example, the Bones without Barriers Project website.67 As such, linking to other forms of social media and Internet sites can be critical to creating a successful Twitter profile. Members of the public can tweet directly about your organization through mentions – for example, @amhistory – or about specific subjects using hash tags – for example, #americancivilwar. Active interaction of the public with Twitter and with tweets is less easily achieved as short ‘headlines’ do not seek to encourage public commentary. Conversely, few people usually reply to tweets, as opposed to the high numbers who ‘favorite’ or ‘retweet’ them. For example, the Metropolitan Museum of Art @metmuseum tweet, ‘In the 6th century B.C., Sparta was an artistic center & home to important artists & workshops’, received 98 retweets, 102 favorites and 4 comments. The transient and curt nature of Twitter ‘tweets’ (restricted to 280 characters) and the limit of retweeting only to followers restrict public access to the information. Twitter’s ability to contact a mass public audience through intriguing and succinct messages means it engages and inspires people to follow through other content. As such, Twitter is consumed by more people than an extended gallery and essay on Facebook. Twitter’s brief content and framework do not support detailed user responses (also 280-character ‘tweets’). Subsequently, this medium often fails to initiate conversational dialogues or the sharing of detailed information – something Internet sites, blogs and Facebook more frequently achieve. Twitter provides basic quantitative information, including number of ‘followers’, details of people or organizations you are following and that are following you, number of people who ‘favorite’ your tweet, number of retweets of your tweet and number of tweets you have uploaded. Twitter provides an incredibly detailed engagement and analytic data provided by an in-built analytical system.68

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The use of Twitter by public history organizations has proven problematic as in essence this medium focuses on self-promotion and following individuals, such as celebrities, rather than creating public interaction and commentary. Twitter’s principal public history purpose is to promote specific events or activities through ‘headlines’ and newsfeeds and to guide people to more detailed or interactive digital media sites such as websites and blogs. This medium has acted as a newsfeed for public history organizations and their profiles, communicating exciting activities, ideas and behind-the-scenes news. As such, Twitter can lack the scope and space for public active interaction that Facebook provides as highlighted by the differences in numbers of those both passively and actively interacting between these social media sites. For example, the Metropolitan Museum of Art Facebook and Twitter figures indicate overall the higher sharing (retweet), likes (favorites) and comments (replies) on Facebook posts than tweets. This form of social media for public history is potentially a transient mechanism that, as with Flickr and MySpace, could be replaced by new social media platforms in the future. Twitter usage has recently developed to be used to speak out regarding public history–related activities, acting to mobilize the public to support history or by activist movements against historical injustices. For example, Twitter was used to rally the community activists against Robert E Lee (see Chapter 8). As such, organizations and individuals are using Twitter to launch politically motivated campaigns and bolster wider community support for public history.

Instagram The social networking service Instagram was created in 2010 by Kevin Systrom and Miek Kriger. Instagram provides a platform for the online sharing of mobile phone photos and videos. This site is linked to other social networking sites, including Facebook and Twitter, and enables individuals and organizations to create accounts to upload, edit and share multiple visual images through global social networks. Public history organizations, such as the Metropolitan Museum @metmuseum, Musée du Lourve @museelouvr, Museum of American History @amhistorymuseum and Frida Kahlo Museum @museofridakahlo, have used Instagram to depict and communicate visual history to the public. This includes sharing multiple images of exhibitions or specific objects within their collections and encouraging public commentary relating to this. These Instagrams or images of history can help the public to study and engage with past events via historical photos and pictures such as a painting of Pocahontas or photograph of Alexander Bell using a telephone.69 Instagram has in recent years replaced the use of Flickr with many institutions and projects, demonstrating the sometimes transient nature of social media, which is entirely reliant on public usage and perceived public value. Public historians and public history institutions have used Instagram to evaluate and understand visitor behaviour through visitor comments, ‘tweets’, and ‘geo-tagging’ photos during their visit. This can help museums

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to understand visitor movement in space and specific interests. Critical to the success of Instagram and any photo-sharing social platform, including Pinterest, is the provision of links to and within other social media platforms, such as Twitter and Facebook, which increase the size of social networks and the scope for digital sharing.

Pinterest Pinterest is a social media platform created in 2010 by Paul Sciarra, Evan Sharp and Ben Silbermann. This platform, in a similar way to Instagram, shares photos and visual images but with the specific aim of providing a visual discovery tool by providing a creative and interactive visual resource for the public through sharing collections, ‘boards’ of images. Consequently, in recent years, Pinterest has seen a growth in its use in the public history sector, specifically among museums, such as Chicago History Museum and Diefenbunker Museum.70 This growth is partially based on its ability to create themes and narratives through image boards. For example, Diefenbunker Museum was initially built to protect the Canadian government from nuclear attack and has now become a national historic site and museum. This museum has used Pinterest to create thematic boards of visual imagery such as ‘Education and Programming’, ‘Diefenbunker Construction’, ‘Spy Camp’ and ‘Cold War Facts and Figures’. These boards include archival images, such as posters and photographs, alongside current photos taken by the museum and the public. Pinterest incorporates the standard technological elements of social media sites, including the creation of a main page with basic information and links and the ability of users, ‘followers’, to like, share, comment on and create photos or ‘posts’. The key difference is this site enables ‘followers’ to ‘pin’ meaning, visualize bookmark and collect images on Pinterest pages from other websites and from among personal photos.

Blogs and vlogs Blogs provide mechanisms for individuals and organizations to write online e-journals, diaries and commentary of specific subjects or stories. They provide personal reflections and experiences; as such, these are autobiographical in style with elements that can be anecdotal, personal, succinct, simple, humorous and topical. These personal ideas and debates provide open gateways to historical narratives, interpretations and debates that exist within the public domain. Blogs aim to share information and ideas to a wide audience and provide a mechanism for self-determined learning by the public. For example, the National Museum of American History blog, O Say Can You See, provides the public behind-the-scenes information, curatorial opinions and research about their collections, and

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the ‘Are these John Wilkes Booth’s field glasses’ blogs on ‘absurd advertising for over 100 years’.71 Blogs provide an easy and free way to publish short articles on the web. Blogs are simple websites with content organized by date; typically, the more recent entry is displayed at top of the page. These blogs provide areas for public commentary of subjects, and many blogging platforms, such as WordPress and Tumblr, provide the option for the reader to respond or ask questions at the end of the text. Types of blogs:72 ●●

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Personal research: Individual researchers promote and discus their own research. For example, Tim Hitchcock’s Historyonics.73 Points of view: An individual discusses personal thoughts and interests. For example, Mary Beard’s A Dons Life.74 Organizational blogs: Set up by public history institutions, such as archives and museums, to promote their work. For example, the National Museum of American History’s O Say Can You See.75 Scholarly blog: Created to share opinions on a specific topic or theme, often between academics. For example, the University of Sheffield’s History Matters.76 Event blog: Designed to promote and provide information regarding a specific upcoming and recent event. For example, the Institute of Historical Research’s Utopian Universities Conference.77 Project blog: Designed to promote and discuss a specific project, providing information as it happens and before publication. For example, the Manchester Metropolitan University, University of Central Lancashire and Oxford Archaeology East blog Bones without Barriers.78

Publicly created digital content, such as blogs, Wikipedia and other forms of social and digital media, has issues with credibility of information. The content of these sources is based on the agenda of the writer or ‘blogger’. Consequently, this personal commentary should not be regarded as necessarily factually valid. Rather, it should be seen as an opinion piece by the author. Individual bloggers are in many cases, especially if not affiliated to an organization, free from any ethical and moral responsibilities, such as considering the implications of their historical interpretations on the wider community. Blogs written by employees of organizations are generally responsible for representing the aims, ethos and ethics of that institution and its standards; as such, the content is often carefully managed and approved before being shared publicly. The growth of social media, such as blogs, has resulted in the creation of support networks to encourage, facilitate and advise on mechanisms, techniques and issues with blogging. Blogging for Historians was developed

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specifically to support and advise on academic, archival and library history blogging.79 This blog is based on creating ‘social scholars’, providing online guides to blogging, educational interviews and research on its impacts, along with supporting networking events and seminars, such as ‘Academic Guide to Social Media Blogging’. These online resources and networking events aim to encourage best practice and the wider application of blogs within the history sector.80 Guides to blogging:81 1 Blog platform: Choose an appropriate platform. Basic platforms such as Blogger are free and simple to use. This will be determined by what features you desire.82 2 Type of blog and theme: The motivation and aim of the blog, its opinion, research or promotion. 3 Title: This should be clear and concise and encourage people to read it. 4 Know your audience: Who is going to read this and why? How will this influence language, content and detail? 5 Design: What elements to include, including font, colour, menu, images, headers and backgrounds? 6 Writing the Blog: With clear descriptive title, the content should be concise, easily readable and appropriate to the audience. Content should include images or video clips (such as YouTube). Text should be carefully edited and proofread prior to uploading. Content and titles should include keywords, which will be picked up by search engines. 7 Links to digital and social media: Such as specific websites and Facebook and Twitter. 8 SEO (search engine optimization): This is the process of tailoring your site content and setup to best fit search engine’s specifications for a ‘good site’. This includes the use of keywords, linking content to external sites, having external sites link to your content and making content accessible for the less abled.

CASE STUDY 15. History Matters, University of Sheffield

T

he blog History Matters is an institutional ‘scholarly’ blog, set up by the History Department at the University of Sheffield. This blog aims to communicate current research debates and provide a platform for the public and professionals to exchange ideas. The blog provides

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a forum to link research and ideas into topical debates, aka ‘history behind the headlines’.83 History Matters has various different sub-fields of blogs, from public history to LGBT blogs. The blog contains a variety of pictures, headlines and discussions such as ‘Cultural Authenticity and Consumerism: The End of the Hipster’, ‘How You Should Bury a Nazi?’ and ‘Please Stop Telling Me Margaret Thatcher Is a Style Icon: Gender and Social Media’. ‘The End of the Hipster’ is a blog post created by Sarah Kenny, a PHD student at the University of Sheffield. It is based on an article from the Observer (1 July 2014) and is linked to a modern history debate relating to the development of British youth culture. The post makes personal commentary on the article, describing it as ‘a bit melodramatic’ and ‘I was struck by how familiar this narrative is’, which seeks to provide a more personal connection between the reader, the ‘blogger’ and subsequently the material being discussed. The blog goes on to compare hipsters to the Mod culture of the early 1960s, introducing links between past and present debates and seeking to provide historical context and relevancy to the debate. At the end of the blog, questions are posed to the reader, encouraging debate and seeking commentary.84 Although not the most controversial or personal account of this subject, this blog post aims to provide a balance between valid arguments, backing them up with sources and personal dialogue. This is an example of a comfortable middle ground that allows for historians to be ‘social scholars’. History Matters has enabled academics and academia to have wider impact within the public domain. These blogs are restricted by academic codes of conduct that include the requirement for authentication and validation of ideas. As such, these blogs often fail to reach broader public audiences beyond academia as they lack the anecdotal style and language of personal blogs. Central to their success is finding a balance between academic and popular writing styles, tailoring their content to be more publicly oriented while also maintaining professional integrity. Perhaps Mary Beard’s or Tim Hitchcock’s blog offers some scope to explore this further.

Questions 1 What are the challenges to academics in creating public blogs? 2 What elements do blogs require to make them successful tools for communicating history to the public?

3 Are there mechanisms that can be put in place to protect blog content from being misused? Is this ever possible to achieve?

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Extended question 1 Historical blogs can act as a form of political activism. Find an example of this, and discuss the merits and issues with history being utilized to facilitate wider political agendas?

Reading and resources ●●

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De Groot, J. (2009), Consuming History: Historians and Heritage in Contemporary Culture. London: Routledge, Chapter 6. http://www.historymatters.group.shef.ac.uk http://bloggingforhistorians.wordpress.com http://timesonline.typepad.com

Vlogs, or vlogging, involves creating and uploading video blog entries to open-access websites. This form of web television involves video clips about subjects or places; these are created and presented by individuals and uploaded to host sites such as YouTube. Vlogs provide a space to engage in in public history discourse in an open and free environment, specifically by those under 25 years old. For example, Dr Ellie Machin Robert’s YouTube channel includes weekly vlogs and tours around ancient historical sites, which focus on her historical research relating to Greek religion. She seeks to encourage viewers to engage with history by combining it with lifestyle tips and branding. Personal vlogging sites such as this operate as a business, firstly through partnerships with companies such as Grammarly, paying to advertise on the site, and secondly through intermediaries such as Google, selling available advertising space on a site. The sponsorship of public history vlogs has created advertising revenue for vloggers and made public history a business for individuals, which potentially rises question regarding biases and content control. Blogs and vlogs are easy to use, and many are free to set up, which has led to a plethora of blogging and vlogging sites and bloggers and vloggers. Consequently, blogs and vlogs have a varied quality of content, causing confusion among public and professionals as to which blogs and vlogs should be trusted to provide ‘valid’ and credible historical content, as opposed to opinions and viewpoints. The publication of articles on blogs is not governed by the same rules as academia, requiring neither peer review nor accurate referencing, and often fails to copyright or authenticate data and resources. Although many blogs, such as those produced by public history organizations, universities and scholarly institutions, do follow copyright and referencing procedure (e.g. History Matters), many do not. This can result in the misrepresentation of history to and by the public, with little or no accountability or content control.

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Employment in the sector The constantly changing and emergent digital media sector within public history means that organizations are increasingly employing specialist staff to support the development and maintenance of social and digital networks. This includes social media curators and digital content managers. Public historians are increasingly required to understand, utilize and create digital media content; as such, employment within public history often requires specific digital media skills. Furthermore, the creation and maintenance of these resources mean that public history organizations employ individuals in a specialist capacity to support this, including computer programmers, IT developers and IT teams. Social media as a form of public engagement and communication is increasingly managed by social media managers, who are in charge of updating tweets and status updates, as well as raising the museum’s or public history organization’s profile, to both the public and the press through ‘newsfeeds’ and ‘headlines’. These social media networking services are maintained, updated and checked for content to provide an appropriate public profile for the organization and a marketing and advertising tool.

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Excellent written communication skills Accuracy Clarity and focus Problem-solving Time management Team working Verbal communication skills Creative thinking

Conclusion The development of digital technology since the 1990s, including the Internet and social media, has influenced the practice of public history. It has enabled public history organizations to communicate both passively and actively with broad demographic ranges of people independent of geographical locations. This public domain for history has changed how history is collected, stored and presented, offering new mechanisms to support community history and publicly led history projects. The development of digital media has given the public a voice and forced history to consider its future impact

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within the social public space. Digital media has provided public historians with information about history’s audience and information about visitors and visitor behaviour to public history facilities; this has included the demographic makeup of visitors and users, the online use of collections, and public feedback. This data provides an incredibly useful quantitative and qualitative evaluative tool for public history.85 Consequently, digital media can help public historians develop a relationship with the public, alter content and adapt public history activities to make history more ‘user’friendly. This can help generate interest in the subject and support historical research. The use of this ‘consumer’-driven, transient technology alters with the trends and whims of the public users. This has the potential to overlook traditional audiences and those unable to use digital technology; as such, the use of digital media to collect, research, communicate and present history should not replace more traditional methods of research and communication and involvement of the public in history, such as historic site visits, museum exhibitions and archival facilities. The use of digital media for public history is linked to debates regarding consumerism and commercialization for entertainment rather than educational purposes. Consequently, there are growing fears over this medium’s lack of professional control, questions of providence, authenticity and the validity of evidence being presented, especially on publicly controlled forums and within crowdsourced history networks. As such, concern could be raised over the fictionalization and manipulation of this historical record for personal, political and social means, with blogs and social media often providing an open forum to discuss personal issues and complaints without fear of repercussions; this has wider ethical and moral implications for the subject. Some of this professional unease springs from issues with the management and control of the past and rights of ownership to the past. This is particularly prevalent in digital media projects as questions are beginning to arise over the ownership of material created on public forums and the long-term storage and management of these historical sources. The use of digital media in public history and history as a discipline is still in its infancy, and as such, there is much research still to be undertaken as to its value and impacts to the profession. The use of digital media within public history will continue to develop, yet it is critical to its impact and wider value to the profession that use of these mediums is carefully considered and undertaken within a professional, ethical and moral framework.

6 Community History

This chapter examines how history operates at a ‘community’ grass-roots level. It investigates the historian’s role in community history projects and the production of community history, including the production of a legacy in the form of exhibitions, books and heritage trails. It examines how and why this growing field is so strongly supported by various government and independent organizations. It provides a toolkit of skills needed to support these projects, including facilitating grant applications by providing templates, advice on writing for popular audiences and guidance as to how to manage these projects so that they are grown organically from the ‘bottom up’. This requires specific skills and has a capacity to address sensitive issues such as family connections, and personal and cultural identity. The chapter draws on international case studies to highlight examples of best practice in these complex projects and guidance on methods and principles, including ethical codes of conduct. It highlights the need to balance the different inputs of the community and the historians in these projects, often requiring a shift in authoritative power relationships.

What is community history? Community history can be defined as the engagement of a community, usually geographically determined, with their local history. Community history projects facilitate the community to become involved in the process of historical investigation, interpretation, presentation and protection. They are public history projects that are run by or with a specific community of people. Community history has been used by historians to justify their role and indeed history’s role within society.1 It represents a way of doing history with, for and by the public, rather than merely by and for the professionals. The broad definition of ‘community history’ means that an immense variety of public history projects fall within its classification. The methods involved in

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community history range from traditionally associated historical activities, such as historical archival research and building and landscape surveys, to less traditional historical activities, such as oral history, metal detecting and archaeological excavations. This has resulted in community history engaging in a vast array of mediums to present and communicate history to public, including the creation of books, websites, digital media, community museums, heritage trails, exhibitions excavations and public conferences.2 The word ‘community’ in the context of community history disguises the numerous communities that exist within often arbitrarily, geographically constructed areas.3 It has been used by internal and external political groups to create a framework of unity and identity. In the UK, during the Labour government from 1997 to 2010, politicians, including the former Minister for Culture, Media and Sport David Lammy, extensively used the word ‘community’, often directly associating with history and heritage. Perhaps it is pertinent that this period was one of increased national insecurity, directly resulting from the rise of terrorist threats and actions such as the 7/7 London bombings, UK engagement in Wars in Afghanistan (2001) and Iraq (2003), and global economic crisis of 2008.4 The socially and politically created ‘entity’ of community appears on the surface to be temporally stable and geographically coherent, but the realities of how a community defines itself and how it is defined by outsiders often conflict.5 The phrase ‘community history’ is used to describe the heritage project at Hungate, York, a site that has not had a resident community since the 1930s, but which lies at the heart of a heavily populated city and is therefore indisputably within a busy, peopled landscape that is rich in historical and archaeological heritage. This illustrates how the definition of community is determined by individual, collective, institutional and political agendas, and how as a result it is often contested.

The history of community history The formation of history stems, in part, from formation of ‘community’ and ‘personal’ history. Local history societies provide some of the earliest formal and established examples of community history.6 The majority of these societies were established in the mid- to late nineteenth century and were, in the first instances, formed based on the philanthropic interests of its members, specifically relating to the practice and communication of history. These societies provided a medium for those interested in historical pursuits to share ideas and broaden knowledge. They aimed to support individual historical objectives and encourage group research, often including family history, genealogy and heraldry. Local history societies forged close links to professional ‘academic’ historians, who in some instances were members of the societies (often honorary) and were invited to give monthly lectures on specific topics. It was through these societies

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that links were established between professionals and the ‘community’, albeit only where that ‘community’ consisted of interested ‘amateurs’. These societies supported professional communication and engagement with a community beyond academia. The wider community and public role of local history societies is promoted through the foundation of local history networks such as the American Local History Network and British Association for Local History. These networks and associations of local history groups aimed to encourage and assist the study of local history as an academic discipline and individual and group leisure pursuit.7 The goals of local history are supported through the production of publications, such as the local historian, websites and organization of conferences; these provide a mechanism for training, advice and communication. Prior to the 1970s, professionals regarded ‘community history’ as history carried out by ‘amateurs’ and local societies, rather than with the wider community. History and engagement with the community were at this point between the professionals and amateurs or formally with the schools and educational system. The 1960s saw a rise in community history undertaken by the collective individuals, including, for example, the ‘History from Below’ movement.8 This movement coincided with, and benefited from, the emergence of history workshops, a new practice that provided a platform for ordinary people to investigate, document, present and preserve personal and communal narratives in history.9 The History from Below movement was regarded as a way of expressing and constructing alternative versions of the past through the investigation of tangible and intangible heritage.10 This new empowerment of the people and increasing public ownership of the past were arguably a part of the wider ‘grass roots’ movement, the prevalent broader political paradigm; the idea of public autonomy and democracy was used to support the idea of community-driven research in history. The influence of the grass-roots movement upon history specifically sought to empower the individual and collective groups of individuals to influence historical research and interpretation.11 During the 1960s and 1970s, there was a dramatic change in the nature and extent of community history, with History from Below being championed in a number of earlier academic publications, including Thompson’s book on the history of the working classes (1963), which encouraged Marxist, radical and socialist approaches to historical research.12 These movements and associations were associated with history outside academia. This period saw the beginnings of the public history movement with formal initiatives, such as History Workshops in the UK and the History Workshop Journal (1976), which were formed to encourage ‘community’ history initiatives such as oral history projects.13 The History Workshop Movement was founded in the same era as the trade unions, social history movements and the Workers Educational Association (WEA). This resulted in the formation of organization

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developed, which aimed support and represent the ‘working classes’ and those that were underrepresented. Independent organizations that sprung from this period, such as Ruskin College, Oxford (1966), specifically aimed to provide training for the public in historical research and provide a public voice in historical dialogues.14 This was the foundation of the History Workshop Movement and the early formation of this within the broader idea of public history. This resulted in projects such as QueenSpark, Brighton (1972, now known as QueenSpark Publishers), which developed as a form of community action over development and use and preservation of community buildings and landscapes. This community action project included a community history group to represent, preserve and raise local awareness of the area’s heritage.15 Formal initiatives influenced local history societies, whose role in ‘community history’ became more formalized, as many professionals sought their help to carry out ‘community history projects’. Interest in these societies by the general public increased as personal pasts were promoted through academic research and government-funded projects. For example, the Bradford Heritage Recording Unit (BHRU) was set up in 1983 by Bradford Council and local government and was funded by government-funded Manpower Services Commission, which sought to provide temporary employment for the unemployed. This community history facility and its association aimed to record the stories of the multicultural inhabitants of the city and opportunities for the local community to engage in community history. As a result of these wider political movements, government funding and academic research into community history, and membership of amateur history societies grew. During the 1970s and 1980s, many new local societies had been formed; many of these societies currently make up the 654 local historical societies in the UK. This period also saw an increase in public interest in genealogy and family history, particularly in Australia and America. This family history movement traces personal histories through reflective, backward progression, rather than forward motions; as such, history is understood by starting in the present and working back through time.16 This reflected a search for identity – for individual and collective ancestry, potentially representing overarching feelings, including personal insecurity in the changing and increasingly multicultural world.17 This result, in some contexts, a growth in individualist, self-oriented and self-serving history, acting to affirm and reaffirm one’s own place in society. The growth in family history and genealogy had a direct impact on the inclusion of different stories in history, including intangible heritage. For example, Aboriginal Australian personal histories were traced through this method of inclusion and incorporation of intangible and personal heritage. Consequently, indigenous rights had an impact on the public practice of history.18 During the 1960s and 1970s, there was a Western political focus on social inclusion and education. Subsequently, there was an increase, specifically

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in the UK, in government support for ‘community’ work. These decades saw the first use of the phrase ‘community history’ and concepts relating to communication, and public history began being formally discussed in academic literature.19 At this stage, community history was neither developed nor widespread enough to be recognized as a sub-discipline, but many of its principles were being applied in an ad hoc and localized manner to historical education initiatives, principally led at a local level by individual academics and professional historians. The social and educational values of history were acknowledged, and new educational courses were perceived as moving history away from its upper- and middle-class origins.20 The 1980s saw a global focus on economics, policy and increased local government and state responsibility for budgets. During this decade, increased regulations were attached to heritage, and quasi-autonomous non-government organizations (quangos) and privatized public sector organizations were created.21 In 1983, the Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission for England, supported by the National Heritage Act, established English Heritage; this was established from the pre-existing government national heritage organization, the Ministry of Works.22 It began work in 1984, sponsored, supported and guided by Department of Culture, Media and Sport.23 Quangos such as English Heritage considered the costs and benefits of history and acted as advisors to the government as to its value.24 Community history projects were, in this period, linked to regeneration projects.25 The Liverpool Albert Dock 1984 regeneration project was, in part, instigated due to the recognized historical importance of the site as part of the national shipbuilding history, which included grade 1–listed building statutes.26 This historical site was abandoned in the 1970s, and by the 1980s, it had become derelict.27 In 1984, as part of the city’s wider urban regeneration plan and community pressure to preserve its historical importance, this site was redeveloped.28 This aimed to support the area’s economic growth, employment, alongside promoting and communicating the community’s unique history. These projects indicated a realization, both by the government and historians, that history had values that extended beyond knowledge creation. This was a period of renewed community activism, with members of the community feeling disenfranchised from the ‘government’ and establishment, lobbying for greater control. This to some extent was linked to urban regeneration schemes in which communities and their history came under threat from development. It was during this period that whole areas of cities were demolished with entire communities moved and rehoused, for example, in Birley Fields, Hulme, Manchester.29 The community activist movement empowered groups of people to challenge traditional historical interpretations, particularly those historical representations housed within government-funded museums. The local history and grass-roots movements of the previous decade too had given this community a voice in history, including academic support by many

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professional historians.30 However, during the 1980s, tensions developed between ‘community history’ and ‘academic history’, which manifested as a polarization between the established and anti-establishment views of history. This was particularly prominent in Australia and the United States, as aboriginal and native populations engaged in activism and political campaigning to change established views and empower ‘community’ control over history.31 The community history movement of the 1970s had given these disenfranchised groups a voice that became the platform on which the political activism of the 1980s was based. The 1990s saw political agendas in much of Europe, the United States and Australia alter to focus on social agendas. This included developing shared resources, education and widening participation. The theory of education underpinning social betterment, and creating identity, was highlighted in the UK by the previous university grants systems being abolished in favour of financial ‘support’ through long-term personal loans and subsidies for students from lower socio-economic backgrounds to study at university (though the effectiveness of this is debatable). The focus on equality and education for all came with financial incentives for organizations such a museums. This period saw a change in how professionals viewed history; the word ‘heritage’ became used to describe ‘community history’ and its projects. Increasingly, ‘history’ became an all-encompassing phrase used to refer not only the ‘tangible’ physical evidence of the past but also the ‘intangible’ nonphysical evidence of the past, including people’s memories, beliefs, folklores, stories and feelings. This change was important for ‘community history’ as it enabled the public to have a wider input into what was defined as history and what was of historical value and to justify the purpose and value of ‘community history’ to political, academic and professional audiences.32 Museums reflected this change in professional and public relationships, seeking to involve the public in the process of knowledge creation and presentation, and developed collaborative exhibitions, ‘people’s shows’, to move beyond the assimilation of authoritative narrative to meaning making of history in the present.33 It was during this period that the Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian Museum was created.34 The museum aimed to represent and promote both the tangible past and intangible stories of the Native American people. As such, all elements of this museum, including the internal and external architecture, galleries and displays, were designed and created through a collaborative process between Native Americans, academics and government heritage professional in which the past was renegotiated and retold. During the late 1990s and early twenty-first century, community history thrived by meeting the government’s social and education agendas. Largescale community history projects, such as Shoreditch Park, London, received significant external grants, such as those by the Heritage Lottery Fund (Case study 15). As a result, the number of professional community historians

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increased dramatically with many positions funded either through public grants or direct, in-house organizational funding, for example, roles as museum staff. The early twenty-first century has seen the introduction of technological advances and new initiatives to support the potential consumerism of community history. This has included the use of digital media, such as the Internet, to support historical knowledge and research to be shaped by the community. This has resulted in community blogging and crowdsourcing of history, enabling history to be created directly from and by the public.35 Examples include the crowdsourcing of images and oral history testimonies, for example, the September 11 Digital Archive Project (Case study 14), the Canada Public History Project and the historical image project Historypin (Case study 14). The dividing lines between the producers and consumers of history are becoming increasingly blurred with, in some cases, the community itself driving many community history projects, directly controlling the intellectual ownership of history.36 For much of the last decade, community history initiatives have operated under increasing financial pressure caused by the global ‘credit crunch’, requiring more innovative approaches to compensate for the funding cuts suffered by many large organizations such as English Heritage, Museums Libraries and Archives, and the United States Forest Service. This has led to the closure of many organizationally led and state-funded community history projects such as the Baltimore County Public School Program of Archeology (Case study 9).37 Despite this, grass-roots ‘History from Below’ and volunteer-led projects have continued to thrive, driving community history back to its local roots.

Methods for community history Over the last thirty years, community history has expanded beyond the traditional approaches to public interaction with the past that was more commonly associated with local history societies such as professional lectures. It has sought to support and link together individual research pursuits such as investigation of family trees and genealogies. As the access to history develops, the breath and nature of community history undertaken by individuals, societies and groups are increasingly organized and diverse. Community history’s growth is linked to organizational and governmental support, developing relationships outside the profession and communicating history to new demographics that have enabled community support. There is still demand from local societies and groups for professional lectures on specific topics from history; there is also community demand for support and guidance from professionals in creating more proactive and engaging activities with particular emphasis on facilitation. Therefore, for the professional, community history has become the essence of what public

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history sought to be, providing support to community-driven initiatives and encouraging a wider audience to engage and understand history.

Top-down approach The top-down approach is initiated and led by professional historians who enter into consultation within the communities they intend to work with, typically with predetermined research agendas. The top-down approach could be regarded by professional historians as being ethically and professionally accountable to the public. It should take into consideration the community’s wishes by adopting a reflexive approach to the interpretation and communication of historical findings. Within this approach, the scope of community history is broad and is still managed by professional historians. It is the most normative application of ‘community history’ worldwide and includes projects such as Birley Fields, Manchester (Case study 31). The top-down approach engages the community in the co-production of history by involving them in the process of historical research and its interpretation and presentation. It does not require the community to be involved in the entirety of the historical process, and historians are selective in what the community are ‘able’ to be involved in. The community, to some extent, is still excluded in the setting of the initial research agendas, but ultimately the historian, the outsider, is still in control of the past. As a result, this approach to history could be criticized as being more of a public relations exercise for history that could be defined as ‘community consultation history’.

History from below The bottom-up, grass-roots, ‘community-based history’ approach enables all aspects of a historical project to be controlled, at least in part, by the community. These projects are often initiated by communities and facilitated by professionals. This enables the community to, often with the support of professionals, set research agendas and develop appropriate methodologies. Resultantly, grass-roots public history is more flexible in it methods and aims. Yet although these are publicly led and the aims usually focus on local benefits, they can become private endeavours and serve to meet the internal values of ‘communities’. For example, the local community could want economic benefit from history alongside reinforcing control over their traditions, land and cultural beliefs through history. The bottom-up approach is advocated by many public historians and public history organizations. Archives and museums are supporting these grass-roots initiatives by providing free training and professional advice and facilitating the use of their resources to the wider public.38 In addition, amateur societies can ask for the assistance of public historians to support

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their work and help develop further projects either by developing mutually beneficial research agendas or by offering consultancy fees. Despite the different levels of professional support for community history, the bottom-up approach has had issues with ownership and power relationships, including where projects have become slaves to personal agendas rather than promoting democracy. Resultantly, the community can merely serve a professional’s purpose by conducting their research, or historians can be used for a community’s political and economic purposes. Such examples suggest that even when projects are initiated from within the community, they are instigated and controlled by a minority of interested parties within the community, for example, amateur groups or a locally resident historian, rather than the whole community.

CASE STUDY 16. Muncy Community Heritage Park Project

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uncy Historical Society is a small but active amateur history group consisting of residents of the town of Muncy Pennsylvania (the United States). The society holds regular meetings, which include inviting guest lectures to talk to their members about historical sites or people relating to the geographical area. Muncy Historical Society has been proactive in researching and communicating the local history of the area to the wider community; this has included setting up and running a local ‘community’ museum in the town. This community museum aims to showcase Muncy’s nineteenth-century history, including the stateregistered historic railroad and its role in the industrial heritage of the nation. In 2006, the society and its members developed and launched the Muncy Canal Archaeology Project. This project aimed, through historical and archaeological investigation, to create a heritage park on the site of the 19th canal and watermill. As such, the project involved extensive landscape survey undertaken by its members, which identified historical features in the fields and woodland surrounding Muncy. In 2007–2008, this culminated in the community archaeological excavation of the lock keepers’ cottage.39 The excavation was on privately owned land and was directed by the Chair of Muncy History Society (Bill Poulton) with the support of an independent archaeologist (Robin Van Auken). The society aimed to provide historical evidence to support the site being state registered as a historic site, which would enable the society to apply for state funding for the creation of a heritage park on the site. This society-led ‘bottom up’ project aimed to encourage the local community to engage

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and participate in historical research through activities, such as the excavation and schools’ object handling session, and as such make this historic canal area of Muncy a community heritage asset.40 This project highlighted some of the issues with bottom-up community history projects. It indicated that local involvement is often limited in numbers and diversity. This in part related to the small size of the project and restricted visit times, which resulted from limited financial support and manpower. Projects with limited funding and lack of professional support can result in poor standards of historical and archaeological research. This resulted at Muncy in issues with maintaining professional excavation and recording standards and poor conservation of historical finds. As a result, it could be suggested this project failed to serve the whole community, but rather it supported individual and amateur political goals.

Questions 1 How can community history projects maintain professional standards?

2 Are there issues with organizing community history projects that have wider value? What mechanisms can be implemented in order to prevent these? 3 Which is a more appropriate form of community history: bottom up or top down?

Reading and resources ●● ●●

www.muncyhistoricalsociety.org/dig/index.html Simpson, F. (2009), ‘Community Archaeology under Scrutiny’. Journal of Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites, Vol. 10 (1), 3–16.

Community history projects Community history projects often combine a range of methods and diverse forms of historical enquiry and communication. They vary from smaller projects run by local history societies, including archive research projects, to larger multi-method projects managed by organizations such as museums (Case study 15). These projects can result in the creation of community history exhibitions and self-published history books, which are often supported by local museums or academics and aimed at showcasing and communicating the project to the community.

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Community history projects can seek to be collaborative efforts, reaching a wider number of community members through varied proactive activities with a broader appeal. This can include community excavations and building and landscape surveys. Although often initially smaller in scale and scope, through the support of professionals and the community, these projects can become larger multi-stranded efforts that have longer-term sustainable outcomes, for example, Alexandria Public History Project. These projects can result in sustained future grant or government funding; for example, the Portable Antiquities Scheme, a national ‘community’ historical and archaeological artefact recording scheme in the UK, now receives long-term general government funding and is hosted by the British Museum. Working as an independent public and community historian or with an organization requires the application of key considerations and approaches to developing community history: ●●

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Research: This includes a demographic (i.e. age and sex) and contextual understanding of the history and heritage of an area. Detailed research into population, organizations and pre-existing community groups is required. Public consultation: This includes organizing public and group meetings to discuss the proposed project. Consultation with community members, including teachers, local societies, regeneration teams and individual residents, provides an understanding of how to communicate, collaborate and present history with the local public domain. The setting up of steering groups of interested stakeholders (those with an interest in the project and in those the project will impact upon) can make the project applicable and relevant. Consultation provides the public with input into the project and a sense of ownership. Support: Consultations with stakeholders are vital to gain public support. This will need to be demonstrated for any grant applications, usually through letters of support from community organizations and local residents. Project design: Based on previous activities including consultation and initial research, the stakeholder steering group creates a list of key aims and objectives of the project, including how these aims will be achieved through community involvement. Activities: This includes the selection of activities, the key mechanism and methods required to meet the community history project’s aims and objectives. This can also include a range of publicly engaging activities, which will be determined by the nature of the public and the content of the project. The aims and objects of the project may change over time, which will require an organic and responsive method of working.

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Budget: The private or public source of the project’s funding will shape what the project is able to afford to do. Aims, objectives and activities will be tailored according to this budget. Budget management prior to the project requires a detailed breakdown of expected costs, including people’s time and equipment. Overseeing these budgets requires the adaptability of the project and the historian to work within the financial restraints and potentially recruit volunteers to assist with the project. Timetable: This requires a detailed timetable with key dates, tasks and milestones. This provides a logical and clear outline of the key tasks and individual responsibilities for these task and meeting targets on agreed dates. Tasks and organizational structures: Key tasks and roles are allocated to staff and volunteers. This requires project management, leadership and an inclusive division of tasks so that everyone feels involved and plays a role in the final project. Gantt charts and project manager software are often used to accomplish this. On larger-scale community history projects, especially those that are grant funded, a project manager will be appointed to organize this and the volunteers. Marketing: Community history projects need to reach new demographics; this requires effective marketing and the advertising of activities and dates to encourage the wider community to participate. This can involve social media campaigns that use platforms such as Facebook and Twitter, as well as posters and adverts in the local press, and press coverage on television, radio and newspapers. Outputs and dissemination: Dissemination aims to communicate the project and its findings to the widest possible audience. This can include creating a website, writing a book and publishing popular journal articles. Evaluation: This provides a mechanism for the analysis of what was done, what worked, what didn’t and scope to consider the potential changes required for future projects and best practice. During the project, quantitative and qualitative evaluations will be undertaken, including surveys and visitor numbers and demographics to understand the impacts the project has had on community values.

Oral history projects Oral history is history in action; it provides a narrative of the past as told in the present. This method bridges the gap between formal historical knowledge and social memory through professional and the public collaboration in

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FIGURE 6.1  War veteran recounting experiences of flying naval airplane to children at War Museum Hangar. Photo by Hero Images via Getty Images.

order to understand the cultural landscapes of the past.41 The practice of oral history can be an action to uncover hidden histories, those untold, unwritten or forgotten histories that do not make it to archives and into the formal records but rather lay hidden or dormant inside the historical actors’ minds, for example, the Chinese Gold Miners in Rushworth.42 Oral history projects seek to uncover these histories and tell the human story of the past, usually focusing on a specific place. Oral history is a form of social history, which enables an understanding of the past by unravelling the multiple intersecting and connecting layers of personal and communal experiences and memories.43 This is achieved by the historical actor, a person in the present, personally recounting memories and stories of events, places and people in the present through the act of talking and listening (Figure 6.1). As such, oral history can act as a mechanism to control and define identity, a tool to understand how actions in the past create personal and communal identity in the present.44 The act of creating oral history can enable people to connect or reconnect to a place through the trigging, linking and sharing of memories.

Method The research methods utilized in oral history approaches were first developed in social sciences such as anthropology, sociology and psychology. They

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require the interviewer to understand human interaction and communication and to carefully balance this with discourse analysis. From the initial aims of oral history projects, during interviews and the interpretation stage, consideration of the approach used in relation to ethical considerations must be upheld.45 Oral history project usually focuses on a researching specific moments or periods in history. For example, the Their Past Your Future project was focused on collecting stories from the Second World War veterans in the UK. However, the same approach could be used to study narrower historical moments or areas such as understanding the history of a specific townscape, landscape or even streetscape. The nature of oral history means that it can only be used to chart more recent historical periods and actions, from which there are surviving witnesses to provide first-hand accounts. The necessity for surviving witnesses means that the majority of oral history projects focus on twentieth-century history. In addition, the type of data collected by oral history methodologies means that projects have frequently focused on the changes taking place over a period of history such as the development of communities, influence of immigrant populations or the impact of industry or war. South Africa’s Overcoming Apartheid, Building Democracy Project46 and Penn State University’s Back from Iraq, The Veterans Stories Project47 are both examples of this practice. Oral history projects require background historical research to shape their specific aims and objectives. This provides a focus for the interviews, identifying themes to consider when talking to the participants. It determines the selection criteria for interviewees based on the nature of historical research. Critically, this requires consultation and collaboration with the community, often working with local history societies, community groups and community members to help shape the interview process, locate people to become involved and take part in interviews and to develop community support for the project. In some cases, it is the community which drives the process with the support and facilitation of the oral historian.

Interviews Interviews should be carried out in a setting in which the interviewee and interviewer feel comfortable and safe; this is likely to be a familiar, quiet space such as the interviewee’s own home, place of work or community space. The environment that the interview is carried out in will determine the relationship of the interviewer with the interviewee and affect the openness of answers to questions. The aim is to establish an environment in which the interviewer and interviewee feel comfortable and that it is safe and relaxed. Background noise is another essential consideration, and it is important to engineer a degree of privacy to these interviews with minimal interruption. Personal stories, memories and potentially

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controversial topics are often considered private matters, and although the information is being shared feely and the interviewee is aware these records will become public, they are still unlikely to be comfortable discussing them in a public space. Quiet, private places provide not only a sense of security for the interviewee but also an uninterrupted space for the interview to take place. Although one-to-one conversations are often easier to manage, there are some situations where group interviews may provide the best dynamics for oral history. These can provide a freer flowing space and support network to discuss memories and triggers for memories from others and can then lead to more detailed interviews with individuals. The interviews themselves should be framed around the predetermined project themes. They aim to be conversational and create a dialogue between the interviewee and interviewer, in which talking triggers and encourages memories to be uncovered.48 The interviewer will help the interviewee recount and create their own story of history, rather than leading. This may require guidance by the interviewer, such as providing a trigger such as a photograph and open-ended questions to provide a structure and a starting point for the conversation. These questions should be plain in language and non-suggestive in nature; for example, the nonleading question ‘What do you remember about the living conditions?’ is preferred to ‘Living conditions must have been really bad. Can you tell me about them?’, as the latter is more likely to influence the response. The interview should always start with the name of the interviewer and date of interview, ideally followed by the location of the interview, the name of the interviewee and any other relevant information such as their address or date of birth. It is critical that the researcher follows ethical standards and that these are provided to the participants and they are made fully aware of the nature of the project, the intent, and the planned use and availability of the material after interview. A record of the interviewee’s consent must be collected; typically, a form is signed which provides agreement to the outlined terms and the ongoing use of this material for future work. Specific projects will require, due to personal, political or religious sensitivities, for the participant to remain anonymous. Anonymizing data is part of the ethics code set out by research institutions for all social anthropologists and oral historians.49 This seeks to respect and protect the interviewee from any potential future problems relating to any data supplied for use in study, for instance, transgressors whose data could be used in a future court case against them. The anonymizing of data will be clearly outlined in the initial interview agreement and will stipulate all names will be changed to unidentifiable codes, and access to original material by those outside the research project is prohibited. Names can either be changed to number or letter codes in which only the interviewer and data analyst have access to.

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Recording It is essential that interviews are recorded; this provides archival material that can be used for future research. Recording enables checking and reinterpretation of the original study material at a later date, potentially in light of new evidence or modes of interpretation. There is a range of equipment used to record oral history testimonies, including digital recorders and camcorders to tablet computers. The choice of technology is dependent on the context on the interview and the reliability of the technology, that is, its ability to record for long periods of time, to provide adequate quality of recording for future use, and to transfer files to digital storage. Advice on the appropriate use of technology has been laid out in the ‘guidelines for equipment of oral history in the digital age’.50 The normative approach is digital recorders, in part, due to their ease of use and unobtrusive natures, as well as their ability to capture highquality recording and to store large amount of data. However, advances in digital, handheld videorecorder technology have led to their increased use in recent years. Such devices often work better in group oral history work, enabling the association of people with voices and encouraging analysis of body language and personal interactions. These observations can enable deeper levels of interpretation by adding additional layers of nuance to participants’ responses and can provide a human face to a story, which is valuable if the material is to be used for exhibitions. The use of video camcorders comes with difficulties for oral history projects, specifically undermining of the interviewee’s sense of anonymity, and becomes an intrusive presence, which can, especially in one-to-one interviews, make the interviewee uncomfortable and self-aware. Practical considerations include the need to set up the video and recording area in advance of interviews. This issue has largely been overcome with the development of mobile computing technology that allows for immediate recording and uploads of video data.

Storage and interpretation Oral history interviews collect a vast amount of digital data. This primary data evidence and copies of this data should be made and stored in order to provide a permanent archive of the material for future use and reference. This data should be treated as any primary source material and appropriately labelled, including descriptions of person being interviewed, title, time, date and their relationship to the project. This material should be uploaded and permanently stored into an online database with digital copies provided for archives and the participant. This provides both transparency of research and the chance for the participant to comment. To enable the material to be used within exhibitions, books, television and radio programmes, it will require editing to meet the requirements of such formats.

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The initial stage of these recordings is transcribing the material, the writing out of the conversations in long hand. Material is then analysed through techniques such as critical discourse analysis and coding.51 The text material is evaluated based on themes, which can be either predetermined or unfixed. These themes are colour-coded in the text to link themes to key phrases.52 Material can be used to create historical narratives such as books. For example, Rich in All but Money: Life in Hungate 1900–1938, which develops a story of Hungate through the oral history testimonies of former residents.53 Recently, the use of analytical software such as ATLAS has aided this analysis and mitigated against the need for the lengthy transcription process; this enables data files, audio, video and textual to be uploaded and qualitatively analysed; the programme generates themes and patterns in the oral data sets.

Historical building and architectural surveys Historical buildings surveys are detailed studies of the architecture of a building; this identifies historical stories of a building based on architectural features that relate to specific time periods and stylist traits. These studies identify and record the physical nature of a building, its historical associations and state of preservation, that is, the current condition of a building. They involve an individual or team of individuals engaging in a detailed recording of a building’s features, including taking photographs, writing descriptions and producing architectural surveys and drawings.54 Projects often involve the local community, providing an initial training on historical, architectural identification and recording and then equipping individual members with pro formas that provide a checklist of all the relevant details that will need to be recorded. This enables a large-scale area, such as a village or district, to be investigated and recorded by amateurs, volunteers and local community members, who through their involvement in the survey will gain a new understanding of their surroundings and the layers of history within it. Different elements involved in the process of historical building survey can include:55 ●●

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Drawing a scaled floor plan of building Producing a detailed photographic record Narrative description of current state of building Narrative description of internal and external architectural features Evidence of development of building: alterations and additions Current use of building Use of surrounding space Archival research, census surveys, planning consent and change of use.

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Historical building surveys range from investigating a single building to an entire residential area and can include a diverse variety of structure types, for example, community buildings, churches, residential buildings, shops and even street architecture such as lamp posts. A good example of a varied historical buildings survey with a strong community involvement is the Wakefield Building Survey. This project was initiated by Wakefield County Archaeological Society, supported by local community outreach officers and led by members of the community and amateur historical society, who were responsible for mapping historical buildings and architectural features in the area. This included taking detailed photographs of buildings and creating a map of places of historical interest. The material was collated and added to the existing historic environment record’s online database to provide the public with access to and information about local historic sites. This was then linked to heritage trails of historic buildings for both schools and individuals. These surveys create a typological survey and historical chronology of the architecture of an area, which can provide information to aid conservation work and feed into ‘buildings at risk’ surveys and registers, and listed buildings surveys.56 Public-led surveys have the ability to challenge professional ideas of historical significance and to create a list of buildings in an area that are not only understood by professionals to be historically important but that also incorporate structures that the public regard as important to its local heritage identity. The value of an approach that incorporates the views of the local community is highlighted in the building survey of the chicken shed at Çatalhöyük, Turkey.57 This survey, which followed English Heritage guidelines and standards for data collection and analytical techniques, illustrates the juxtaposition between the community’s perceptions of historical importance based on historical functionality and relevance in the present and professional historical importance based on longevity and historical positioning.58 Building surveys provide understanding of the unique history and development of an area and its buildings, placing it within a wider historical context. For individual buildings, a survey creates a biography, which can be linked into archival records to tell a story of the building and its occupants through changes and additions in architectural features. The Australian ABC TV programme Who’s Been Sleeping in My House? (Case study 20) and the British Broadcasting Corporation’s Restoration Man (2009) illustrate the value of understanding the unique histories of a house through its features, enabling a story to be created about a place and its people. This can, in some cases, lead to the house being granted special protective status. For example, in the UK, this could include graded ‘Listed Building’ status, which gives national protects for the preservation of nationally and regionally important historic buildings, or some are being awarded a ‘Blue Plaque’, which recognizes the historical use of the building, a sign that highlights the historical importance of a building based on its historical inhabitants.

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Recent technology has enabled these surveys to include more diverse public input and interest, for example, the Historypin project (Case study 17). Technology can enable development of more detailed building surveys, and techniques, such as AutoCAD planning and laser scanning, allow a building’s structure to be recorded in three dimensions. This provides data for future reference and interpretation and can aid restoration work. This technique was used by English Heritage’s archaeological team at Whitby Abbey in the scanning of the manor house to aid historical recording of the architectural features and restoration of the building prior to it being made into a visitor centre.59

CASE STUDY 17. Google Historypin

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istorypin was created through a partnership between We Are What We Do and Google. It uses Google technology and mapping software to create a digital photographic and descriptive record of a historical building’s past,60 working with worldwide history organizations, including museums and archives, such as the National Archives and Museum of Science and Industry (MOSI). This project has created a network of publicly accessible and ‘socially relevant’ interactive historical photographs linked to maps.61 Material created can be accessed through the Internet and mobile phone applications. The software enables multiple photographs to be overlaid onto a map position and enables the user to chart changes to the historical landscape. This online, open-access material enables the user to take a virtual historical tour through these images and to access more detailed information. This allows the user to visualize historical changes from their sofa. Furthermore, the software has the capacity to enable the user to post comments on blogs and to add additional material, providing crowdsourced material to create a continuously developing local, national and international historical survey and story of a place. The creation of Historypin was supported by the development of digital media. This supported organizationally led ‘top down’ community history projects. These projects are restricted by individual organizational ‘buy-in’ time, and as such MOSI relies on volunteers’ support to digitize archives and facilitate community engagement. Historypin highlights issues with the ownership of historical resources and their long-term storage. As this technology encourages public involvement but does not encourage public ownership of history, it is firmly maintained and controlled in the professional domain. This raises questions as to the long-term sustainability of crowdsourced history and its ability to develop community-led projects.

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Questions 1 What issues does crowdsourced history have for the authenticity and validity of historical records?

2 How can community history that is managed by organization’s ‘history from above’ support legitimate ‘history from below’ and community ownership of history?

Extended question 1 Has the development and use of digital technology, such as blogs and social media, supported or hindered community history projects?

Reading and resources ●● ●●

http://wearewhatwedo.org/portfolio/historypin/ De Groot, J. (2009), Consuming History: Historians and Heritage in Contemporary Culture. London: Routledge, Chapter 6.

Non-governmental and government agencies, including volunteer action groups and charitable trusts, provide support for community building surveys and preservation and presentation initiatives, for example, nongovernmental organizations such as the World Monuments Fund, the Buildings Trust International,62 Landmark Trust, and governmental groups such as Historic American Buildings (HABS), Australian Heritage, and English Heritage. These organizations support community-driven initiatives to preserve and protect buildings through providing advice to communities in planning protection and conservation.

Community archaeology excavations Archaeology and history are closely aligned in their aims of pursuing the past through the investigation and interpretation of data. The principal difference is that until recently history has focused on investigating the written and, increasingly, the spoken word and the material culture of the past, whereas archaeology focuses on the interpretation of the physical remains of the past that exist both above and below the surface (Figure 6.2). For the public, this means that both the physical remnants of the past, as revealed to them by history and archaeology, and the memories and emotions linked to their experiences of these places and artefacts become part of their heritage.63 As such, the public is less aware of the disciplinary divisions between these

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FIGURE 6.2  Community excavation at Fortress Louisbourg, Canada. Photo by Pete Ryan via Getty Images.

two subjects than the professionals. Perhaps then it is not surprising that community history and archaeology societies often pursue the same interests and engage in similar actions when seeking to investigate the past. As a result, an increasing number of these societies seek to add value to their projects by combining both historical research and archaeological investigations. This has most frequently included combinations of archival research, landscape survey and archaeological excavation.64 For public historians, archaeology can provide a mechanism to engage the public in their past and support the visual communication of history.65 The discipline of history can learn a great deal from how archaeology communicates the past to the public, creating engaging projects that visually excite in order to educate and entertain.66 Public historians have begun to work closely with archaeologists, developing projects with the public that combine the use of historical sources with that of archaeological remains. In Washington, DC, the publicly viewable excavations of the historic building the Hermitage combined historical research with archaeological evidence, uncovering the forgotten and historically unrecorded slave quarters.67 This provided information about the conditions and even the presence of this practice in a former presidential home. The archaeological recovery and interpretation of personal items have resulted in a highly emotive human story that the written records alone could not capture.68 Similar heritage projects focusing on uncovering unwritten histories have

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occurred at sites around the world. Additional examples include the African American Burial Ground in New York and uncovering evidence of hoodoo in Annapolis.69 Projects that combine archaeology and history can be referred to as ‘community heritage projects’. Community heritage projects are designed to combine various forms of tangible evidence of the past, including traditional archival and architectural history alongside non-traditional history such as physical features remaining beneath the ground. These projects combine the officially documented past with the past that is hidden and untold. These projects usually aim to investigate the past of a specific area and/or location, for example, the history of a specific community area in a city. Subsequently, community heritage projects can be initiated by multiple stakeholders, including the local public at a grassroots level, by organizations such as museums, or by independent public historians, seeking to support community agendas and facilitate local involvement. Projects facilitated and initiated by external organizations, such as museums, universities and professional commercial organizations, involve a strategic process of planning. This includes specific project stages such as public consultation, communication and education. These strategic stages are evident in the Birley Fields Community Heritage Project (Case study 31) and Shoreditch Park Community Excavation (Case study 18).70

CASE STUDY 18. Shoreditch Park Community Excavation

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horeditch Park Community Excavation, London, was developed in 2005 by the Museum of London in consultation with various stakeholders, including community residents, council representatives, museums services and community organizations.71 This project was funded through the Big Lottery Fund to directly support to communication of the sixtieth commemoration of the Second World War and aid the education of the wider community about the effects of the war on everyday people. In the case of this site, it aims to communicate and engage current London residents on the impact of the Blitz on inner city London residents. The result of this was six distinct phases, including consultation, historical research, marketing, communication, participation, education and dissemination. This project ran from 2005 to 2006; it combined extensive historical research with large-scale open-area excavation of an urban area (Figure 6.3). This aimed to investigate the features of demolished streetscapes

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FIGURE 6.3  Shoreditch Park community excavation of nineteenth-century housing © Faye Sayer.

and reconstruct the lives of the people who lived there during the Second World War. The work was undertaken by archaeologists from Museum of London who guided and supported local residents, University College London students, and members of London and Middlesex Archaeological Society in the excavation of the site. This ‘proactive history’, uncovered buildings and personal items from the twentieth century, including the Second World War, pin badges and children toys that helped trigger former residents’ memories.72 The recorded testimonies of such residents provided further historical insight.73 Despite the positive elements that archaeological excavation brought to the project, this project had issues with sustainability and long-term public buy after the excavation had finished. As such, there was a little interest to follow up post-excavation recording and find processing work. The central issue was that this project, as with many others, was driven by individuals within the Museum of London; as such, after external funding finished and key staff left the organization, this project ceased to continue. This potentially highlights issues with community buy-in and ownership and longterm sustainability of top-down approaches to community history projects.

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Questions 1 Can top-down projects provide community ‘buy-in’ and ownership? If so, what mechanisms are required for this to successfully be achieved? 2 How can community heritage projects become sustainable? 3 Does including archaeological elements in community history projects support wider public engagement and participation in the projects?

Extended question 1 Discuss the benefits of using multidisciplinary approaches to community heritage projects.

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Simpson, F. (2011), ‘Shoreditch Park Community Archaeology Excavation: A Case Study’. In G. Moshenska and S. Dhanjal (eds), Archaeology in the Community. London: Heritage Publications, 118–122. Kiddey, R and Schofield, J. (2011), ‘Embrace the Margins: Adventures in Archaeology and Homelessness’. Public Archaeology, Vol. 10 (1), 4–22.

Archaeological sites provide a focus for public interest in the past and as such can create ‘theatres’ of memories. These sites enable history to become personally relevant by uncovering and sharing lost historical memories and creating new memories about the past in the present.74 Archaeology does not have to involve large-scale open-area excavation such as at Shoreditch Park (Case study 16). It can use less intrusive and smaller-scale ventures, including test pits in gardens. This technique has been demonstrated in multiple localities around the globe, including Sedgeford, Norfolk,75 Bellarine Bayside, Melbourne (Case study 17),76 Annapolis, Maryland (Case study 32)77 and Shapwick, Somerset.78 These projects often combine techniques to investigate the past, such as field walking, standing building survey, geophysical survey, botanical surveys and test pitting, with traditional historical research techniques.79 This multidimensional approach to historical and archaeological research provides a comprehensive visual map of the history of an area. It can make discovering and creating history a personal collaborative process through the creation of memories and ownership. The success of the multidimensional approach relies on in its ability to bring together community members through

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communication, creating a network of public researchers. This approach enables the public to influence historical research and to develop fluidity in research agendas. Through excavating people’s own backyards, it seeks to encourage a wider demographic of people to become involved in history (Figure 6.4).80

FIGURE 6.4  Test pitting in community member’s back gardens as part of wider community heritage project in Somerset with archaeologists Prof. Mike Aston and Teressa Hall © Faye Sayer.

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CASE STUDY 19. Bellarine Bayside Heritage Project

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ultidimensional approaches to public history projects can be beneficial on projects that work with indigenous populations such as in Bellarine Bayside, Australia. In 2010, local archaeologists developed a heritage project in collaboration with local community members including the Wathaurong, the local aboriginal tribe. This project aimed to investigate and chart the history of a 24 km landscape along the coast.81 Prior to undertaking fieldwork, the heritage professionals engaged in extensive consultation with various stakeholders, developing a collaborative method of investigation that involved the multiple communities and had the ability to analyse a vast landscape.82 This process involved combining test-pit and landscape survey alongside recording intangible histories such as storytelling and spiritual beliefs. The test pitting involved excavating 1 m2 trenches in areas around the village, city or rural landscape (Figure 6.5). This approach combines the benefits of a simple and quick excavation technique that enables completion within a day with maximum spatial coverage and the required understanding of the depth and date of underlying deposits.83 These test pits aimed to uncover the history of an area from fragments of human activity

FIGURE 6.5  Photograph of test pit at Bellarine Bayside © Faye Sayer.

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in the soil, such as potsherds. Test pits are excavated stratigraphically, that is in a sequential series of spits or layers, which are given a unique reference number (context) so that the various finds can be allocated to specific layers. This provides evidence of the extent and date of human occupation.84 In this project, each meter square pit was staffed by a mixed team, consisting of a Wathaurong representative, an archaeologist and a local non-aboriginal resident. Each team was responsible for the excavation of its test pit, as well as the recording of the different archaeological contexts and the physical finds they contained; for example, a number of stone toolkits were discovered during this project. This information was recorded alongside the spiritual interpretations of the landscape and stories of objects of traditional usages and values. These groups worked together to record tangible and intangible evidence of the past and interpret the ‘story’ of the landscape. This aimed to enable two disparate communities to share ideas and provide a voice for each group’s history. This innovative approach to investigating the past recreated the ‘whole’ history of an area and moved the process of investigating history beyond the Western approaches based on linear physical timelines. The project was not without issues; archaeologists often struggled to interpret, communicate and represent intangible ‘pasts’ as ‘evidence’ within official documents, which required physical evidence to mitigate against development. Furthermore, this prehistoric indigenous history despite being open to the local community, the local ‘white population’ often struggled to understand the relevance and validity to ‘them’ and their community’s ‘heritage’.

Questions 1 What mechanisms can be used to enable the successful development of community projects?

2 Can the use of intangible history help develop historical research and community-oriented projects?

3 How can community history projects benefit from adopting elements of indigenous heritage projects?

Reading and resources ●●

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Ford, A. (2009), Bellarine Bayside Foreshore: Redevelopment, Cultural Heritage Management Plan. Geelong: Dig International Pty Ltd. Greer, S., Harrison, R. and McIntyre-Tamwoy, S. (2002), ‘Community Based Archaeology in Australia’. World Archaeology, Vol. 34 (2), Community Archaeology, 265–287.

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Extended reading ●●

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Aston, M., Coston, A., Gerrard, C and Hall, T. (1997), The Shapwick Project, Volumes 1–8 (ed.). Bristol: The University of Bristol Department for Continuing Education. Gerrard, C. and Aston, M. (2007), The Shapwick Project, Somerset. A Rural Landscape Explored. Leeds: Society for Medieval Archaeology.

Local history societies play a key role in this ‘hands-on’ research. For example, Muncy Historical Society instigated their own community-led excavation project of a nineteenth-century watermill and canal site (Case study 12).85 Amateur history societies and community groups frequently seek out the support and advice of professionals in these projects; Muncy Historical Society employed a professional archaeologist to lead the community excavation and provide guidance in creating a ‘heritage park’.86 This public demand for facilitation and support in undertaking community history projects has led to various volunteer, private and government sector organizations providing free advice, training and public forums to enable community-led action. Organizations such as the Council for British Archaeology, the Institute for Archaeologists and the European Archaeology Association now provide public and community forums to encourage professionals to collaborate.87 Similarly, the Heritage Lottery Fund has financed schemes to provide expert-led guidance to local amateur societies; for example, the University of Exeter’s X-Arch project aimed to encourage numerous local communities in Devon to develop their own public heritage projects with the support of professional archaeologists and historians.88 Examples of successful outreach by this project include both Brayford Community Archaeology Group and Bow and District Historical Society.89 The ability of the public to become actively involved in the process of archaeological excavation depends on national codes of conduct, professional standards, national and international legislation and protection, and access to and ownerships of the land. Health and safety laws, governing such things as depth of excavation or necessary personal protection equipment, also influence excavation and survey. Furthermore, the nature and context of a site will influence its appropriateness for community heritage projects. For example, in the UK, the more recent historical sites are those containing nineteenth- and twentieth-century remains as they are not for the most part protected by scheduling and professionally are not felt to be as complex or important as earlier periods. However, nineteenth- and twentieth-century sites are often more visually exciting as remains are more likely to survive intact. Even if a site does not have the ability to enable public involvement

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in excavation, it can still support viewing, tours and other community activities, such as at Hungate in York.90 For many community members, this will fulfil their desire and ability to be involved.

Heritage trails Trails, such as guided or non-guided walks, link historical sites or areas of historical interest together, often in a linear or circular pathway that can be walked or viewed by the public. The creation of trails involves background historical knowledge of a specific area, including architectural or landscape features, which enable developing a list of places of specific historical interest. These places are usually physical features of history in a cityscape or rural landscape and can include important buildings such as churches and monuments. Trails are based on creating a story of a place through a physical journey and the act of searching to discover historical locations. They are regarded as a proactive way to physically discover the past and to take a personal journey into history. The points of interest, such as historical sites, are usually located on a map, each point being given a specific number, corresponding to its place on the route. The trails path will usually form a circle from beginning to end. This pathway into the history of a place not only engages the public, the trail finder, in a history of a place, but also allows them to interact with an environment. Trials can either be given to the visitor in a booklet, a physical map, on the Internet or through software application, or as an image of the trail printed on interpretation panels around the site. Points on the trail are provided with further information to aid the visitor’s interpretation and understanding of the area. Trails that exist either in rural locations often benefit from interpretation panels around the tour route. These rural trails are usually linked to outdoor pursuits such as walks; for example, the National Trust trails combined a variety of different distance walks based on both nature and heritage sites.91 Trails in urban environments are frequently linked to tourist and site-seeing activities such as Alexandria Historical Cycle Tour or Boston’s walking Freedom Trail. These walks are developed to form a route of history buildings and historic sites around the city.92 Technological development has supported historical trails, as mobile technology enables handheld maps or app devices to deliver tours based on touch technology. For example, Coasts Tour of Britain enables the public to choose which aspects of the tour they are interested in and the community to create the routes of interest that are both changeable and responsive.93 History trails can be guided tours, which give the opportunity for community involvement in creating the tours and through acting as tour guides, giving explanations and stories and contextualizing history. A more grass-roots but nonetheless institutionally led example of this is in Bristol, where the University of Bristol has worked with homeless people to develop a

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tour based on perceptions of their city, their memories and important personal places.94 This trail was created by adopting a ‘map regression’ approach, that is, looking at the maps of an area over a period of time and noting the changes on the maps, including the destruction, alteration or creation of significant historical buildings. This spatial data is correlated with historical accounts and other records, including diaries, to produce the final tour.95

Community exhibitions and publications Archival research, excavations, oral history and other materials created during community projects can be used to produce a tangible public exhibitions.96 This gives the community opportunities to create their own narratives to communicate their past to a wider audience, choosing the photographs, texts and cultural materials they perceive as important to tell the historical story of a place. These displays are presented to community spaces, often in community galleries such as the Hulme Exhibition at Zion Centre in Manchester. Innovative community exhibitions enable the public to add to them. This can create a space in which narratives can be discussed to encourage open dialogue and conversation. The following elements should be taken into consideration when writing for popular audiences: ●●

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Demographic considerations, family, children and adults97 Choosing appropriate and relevant information Word limits: less is more Types and complexity of words Themes Stories Editing Accessibly and informative What is your story.

Community archives research Community-established archive projects are developed as a platform for local community members to share memories and histories of the past.98 These often support and enable the formation of group history through sharing personal histories and finding common links and themes within these histories. Community archival projects bring together various individual strands of research, specifically research into family histories, building histories and historical events from a specific place, together into one shared and open arena such as a website, exhibition in regional archival facility or book.

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Community archives established themselves during the 1990s and 2000s with the emergence of computer technology and the web.99 A large proportion of these archives are now Internet-based. They provide a platform for members of a community and former community members to share resources and knowledge through uploading photographs, oral history testimonies and new primary sources to an open and free website for people to share and access. For example, Wickford Community Archives is managed and created through a network of local volunteers; the website provides access to oral history and historical records from the area.100 These archives are community driven, often based on themes and specific period specializations that are of interest to the local area or a specific local person or people within it. Museums and public history organizations support these community enterprises, helping to develop community archive facilities and local history archives by providing skills training, specialist support and web platforms, for example, Google Historypin (Case study 14) and the London Archaeological Archives and Research Centre (Case study 6).

A DAY IN THE LIFE Amy Walling, Freelance Heritage Consultant Heritage consultant means I turn my hand to anything heritage related, including project management, editing academic books, writing tenders, designing research projects, managing volunteers, running training sessions, conducting oral histories, organizing events and exhibitions, designing school resources, undertaking project evaluation and writing project reports. Currently, I work as a project co-ordinator for the Atkinson in Southport on the HLF Maghull and the Great War Remembered: Shell Shock – The Impact and Aftermath on Lives and Minds project. Largely, I work from home and give myself set working hours, usually 9–5. I start the day by reading it over a to-do list and prioritize tasks. Volunteers were asked to complete an application form to take part in the project, so I collate their contact and necessary information, such as any disabilities to be aware of, into a spreadsheet. I am planning four training sessions on oral histories and archival research for volunteers, so I liaise with a local library regarding booking space to host the sessions. I draft a description of the training: the aims of the sessions, how this will aid the project, and the logistics, and create an online booking page for volunteers to book a place on the sessions. I liaise with the project researcher and the oral historian for approval regarding the information provided on the booking pages and then email the volunteers inviting them to book a place on the training sessions.

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I write online evaluation survey questions for the training days, which the volunteers will be asked to complete after they have attended. This will form part of the project evaluation report and will be submitted to the funder (HLF) at the end of the project. The project researcher has sent as task list for the volunteers and myself: ●● ●● ●● ●● ●●

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Event support and promotion Writing blog posts Organizing more volunteer social events Creating a Historypin channel for the project Creating a record for Moss Side Military Hospital on the Second World War Home Front Legacy app/website Researching young people involved with the hospital to be included in schools resources

We are planning an event at the Atkinson on Armistice Day to showcase the project. I email an academic working on the project and the director of the Atkinson for quotes for the press release, which will be sent to local media organizations and uploaded in the organization’s website.

Conclusion Diverse ranges of multisensory activities are currently being used to communicate history and the stories of the past to the public, including music, theatre and art. Performance arts offer imaginative and innovate ways to engage new audiences and give them a voice within the story of the past. Community festivals, such as Manchester History Festival, draw on these multidisciplinary approaches to community engagement and public participation. As such, this event combines exhibitions, history talks, music, food recreation, re-enactors and external activities, such as archaeological excavations and city tours.101 Community history projects often include the tangible physical history and intangible non-physical history. As such, these projects seek to move history away from the traditional Western concepts of history – that which is visual and physical to include historical evidence in the form of memory, traditions and folklore. Therefore, approaches to community history are complex, and they can often, despite consultation and communication, have very different agendas and values for the community and the historians. It has been advocated that the focus of history should be about weaving these together, accepting different viewpoints, values and interpretations, and accepting the community’s right to appropriate the historical findings.102

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Working with the wider community requires historians to consider alternative power relationships.103 Successful community projects are developed from collaboration between all stakeholders, which facilitates communal action and the co-production of historical knowledge. Increasingly, community history projects require leadership or sustainable support by volunteers from the community. The creation of volunteer networks within organizations can help facilitate this work and form new links within the community. This requires leadership, strategic thinking and the ability to provide management strategy for projects. There are ethical and moral considerations for carrying out community history work, which requires self-awareness from community historians as to the dangers and ethical implications of their work and the impact of this on personal, local, regional and national identity and social dynamics within a community. As such, many institutions have ethical codes of conduct for engaging in community work, which often includes extensive consultation and prior professional agreements pertaining to ownership to be put in place. Engaging with and in community history requires an understanding the relinquishing control of history can result in bringing to light the conflicting values of history and enabling its potential misuse for external agendas. Community history is a delicate balance between representing the multiple values of history and heritage, and maintaining professional integrity and historical accuracy.

7 Teaching History

History and historians appear in a variety of educational environments, including schools, universities and extra-curriculum and lifelong learning classes. This chapter investigates the inclusion of history within national, state and local curriculums in both the humanities and social science subjects. This aims to provide a multidisciplinary, and as such, crosscurricular understanding of history’s application in educational practice and the impact of recent changes in approaches to teaching such as practical learning. This chapter analyses the changing role of history and historians within schools and considers how this evolution has shaped both teaching methods and the interactions that academic historians have with schools, providing analysis through case studies of how teachers and historians can productively work together. It assesses the variety of teaching methods, often referred to as ‘pedagogical’ approaches, including participatory and practical methods, such as experimental and cognitive methods, that aim to engage and educate both school pupils and, indeed, the wider public in learning about history. It examines how these teaching methods have altered over the last few decades to be more inclusive of diverse learner needs, adapting to different learning styles and the various contexts in which teaching and learning can occur. New approaches to teaching history have involved the use of more practical and experience-led teaching in the classroom, including the use of artefact handling collections, role-playing exercises, and the introduction of multimedia and sensory equipment. All these approaches aim to make learning and teaching history more user-friendly and public centred, which has included introducing elements of entertainment and participation (Figure 7.1). This chapter investigates the ways in which public historians working in various contexts, such as museums, archives and universities, can support widening participation in educational programmes through historic field trips, historic site visits and online learning packs.

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FIGURE 7.1  Teaching history at the British Museum. Photo by Richard Baker/In Pictures via Getty Images.

The skills historians have as educators and the contribution that historians have to teaching and learning are outlined in this chapter. The chapter provides guidance on the levels and types of postgraduate qualifications required to pursue a career in historical education, either within specifically dedicated learning institutions or teaching positions within other organizations such as museums and as archives’ schools outreach officers. It investigates the key skills required to teach history and the transferable skills that studying history provides for teaching other subjects such as geography, mathematics and English.

A history of history education In many countries in the West, history has become part of the core classroom curriculum in both primary and secondary education. In order for historians to work alongside schools, it is essential for them to understand the nuances of history education that exist in different countries and in some cases within a country’s regions and states. This influences which specific elements of history are taught in the different curriculum stages, which are age specific. This section examines the development of history within the school curriculum and investigates the differences and similarities in curricula and how this influences teaching practices.

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The formal teaching of history, albeit not as a separate subject, can be linked back to the beginnings of university education, believed to have begun at University of Karueein, Fez, Morocco, in the ninth century (859 AD), and in Europe from 1088 at the University of Bologna, Italy.1 By the fifteenth century, universities were established in most major European cities. From its inception, university education taught elements of history, often incorporated in religious studies, through historical scriptures, historical architecture and ‘historical’ classical literature. Private school and tutoring of the late medieval period also included a degree of historical subject matter, often within religious studies. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, history was taught within ‘elite’ private schools as part of the three R’s: reading, writing and arithmetic. Formal education for everyone and resultantly historical teaching did not begin in Europe and America until the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. History as a defined subject, taught as a separate subject within schools, has taken longer to become part of the core Western educational curriculum than ‘scientific’ and ‘factual’ subjects such as mathematics and science.2 For history to be recognized as a separate subject, it had to transcend beyond facts and dates, and its former association with classics, and justify its wider individual role and value to education and society.3 In the United States, during the early twentieth century, historical scholars within the American Historical Association (AHA) fought for the government to introduce history within primary schools.4 History was first introduced as a separate subject taught from primary to secondary school level in the United States in 1909.5 The formal integration of history was gradual process in which historians fought to communicate and prove its benefit to wider personal development. The inclusion of history within national, state and local school curricula linked the subject’s relationship with national agendas and its broader value.6 In some countries, history is taught within overarching subjects; for example, currently in the United States, history is taught as part of the overarching subject of social studies. In others countries, such as the UK, history appears as a distinct and separate entity from other subjects, while in developing countries such as Nigeria, history, with the exception of modern political history, is not taught within the school system at all. The introduction of history as a subject in the UK occurred in piecemeal and ad hoc form, which was due to the divided school system. This school’s system was, and to some extent still is, based on class, including private schools (fee paying), state schools (government funded) and grammar schools (attainment based but existing in both the state-funded and fee-paying sectors). As such, although compulsory education was introduced in 1870, an overarching national curriculum in the UK, including history as a subject, was not introduced until 1988. In the 1980s, Australia and the UK nationalized education and created the ‘national’ curriculum, which set the standard and subject matter for subjects such as history. In Australia, it was through the support of the Australian History External Reference Group that the Australian government started

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the process of nationalizing its history curriculum, which was not successfully launched until 2011. The introduction of history in the school curriculum in the United States, the UK and Australia serves to highlight the critical role of historians in the process of determining and establishing what type of history is taught in schools.7 In the 1970s and 1980s, the pedagogical approaches to teaching diversified as teachers embraced pedagogies beyond the behaviourist approach. This progressed the dominant approach to teaching history from a teacher-centred model in which learners were passive receptors to the incorporation of a more student-focused and active approach. This approach to teaching was based on the concept of learning by doing. It proposed that learning happened through personal experiences, through a system of actions, interactions and reactions.8 Research by psychologists and sociologists into learning through action, such as Vygotsky’s social learning theory9 and Bruner’s discovery learning theory,10 influenced approaches to teaching history. This has encouraged the use of more dynamic teaching methods, enabling flexible learning.11 In the 1990s, the governments of the United States and the UK, and much of Europe, had fairly relativist philosophical agendas, which stressed the importance of technological development and focused on education.12 Policies focused on social betterment of lower social and economic classes, with education playing a key role in supporting the social disadvantaged and balancing the differences between classes. Education was taking centre stage, and public ‘educational’ history flourished in this environment under the democratic banner and subsequent legislation in 2001 of No Child Left Behind and labour banner of ‘education, education, education’.13 This decade saw a plethora public history programmes working directly with schools both at state and country levels, including the growth Baltimore County Public Schools Programme of Archaeology, and at federal level and national levels, the National Forestry service ‘Passport in Time’ programme, as this educational public history gained funding at both a federal and state funding for such ‘education’ and outreach projects.14 As such, the 1990s was a period of increased collaboration between history teachers and historians, often museum and heritage professionals. The late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries have seen an increased collaboration between history teachers and academics, have informed teaching practices and approaches to classroom learning, and have led to new approaches to historical learning.15 In response to academic historians’ growing concerns about the teaching and content of history, formal commissions have been set up to bring together scholars and teachers to assess the quantity and quality of history in classrooms.16 For example, the Bradley Commission, the United States (1988), concluded that history in the United States was under-taught, lacked depth and failed to place history in a world context.17 In response to the concern of the lack of global thematic context with American historical teaching, specifically by

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professional historians such as Thomas Bender, the La Pietra Report (1998) was published by the Organization of American Historians.18 The La Pietra Report outlined the importance of contextualization of history at all levels of education, suggesting history should be taught through themes such as discovery of America and empire in order to place American history in a worldwide context.19 In 2008, to support teachers to teach history within a global context, the Organization of American Historians and AHA published a range of guidelines, which aimed to support US history teachers to incorporate global perspective into their curricula.20 Recent reviews of formal history teacher training qualifications, including their content, in the United States, the UK and Australia, have investigated how these courses equip future history teachers to develop new approaches and teach history as a specific subject.21 They have indicated a weakness and lack of depth in teacher training at college and university levels, especially at primary and formative educational levels, which do not require teachers to undertake specific historical training.22 This lack of historical knowledge means that teachers follow textbooks and as such typically omit conflict and suspense, making history seem boring.23 A solution to this would be to ground teacher training in both pedagogical practices and developing historical awareness.24 This requires a system of discourse to be set up to encourage closer working relationships between history teachers and historical scholars.25 The Historical Association (UK) has supported developing this discourse between teachers and scholars through workshops, conferences and online discussion forums.26 The standardization of history curriculums and their requirements, such as subject matter, themes, temporal spans and essential aspects of national and world history, vary from country to country. National curriculums have prescribed subject requirements and listed subject material, which is linked to specific stages of learning and learning outcomes. Teaching is often determined through textbooks and national guides for the subject.27 The prescribed nature of a history curriculum makes teacher choices and deviation from lesson plans difficult. Yet this curriculum provides a framework for museums to integrate their material within formal education, enabling historians to open up discussion with teachers and devise lesson plans to fit into these curriculum requirements. National governments around the world have made deliberate political choices about what and how historical topics are taught in schools and public education programmes.28 Political involvement in historical education is associated with the belief that history is vital in teaching people to be ‘good citizens’ and in teaching them the national ‘truth’. For example, in the United States, despite the limits of the US Constitution of federal involvement in education, which allows for state control and choice, influence has been acquired through government ‘think tanks’ and the allocation of grant support for educational programmes and outreach.29 National curriculums also reflect public selectivity by favouring periods of

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history in which the public hold a stronger interest and reflect the past they choose to commemorate and remember.30 For example, in the UK, history syllabus, particularly at secondary level (age 11–18), focuses on the Second World War history, while in the United States, this syllabus focuses, through elementary and middle school (ages 6–14), on aspects of constitutional history including the War of Independence and Bill of Rights. A curriculum is not a stable entity; national overarching and defined history curriculums have been subject to change. For example, in 2013, Michael Gove, the UK Education Minister, launched a new history curriculum for 7- to 14-year-olds. This revised history subject curriculum sought to shift the focus of historical teaching from a national and European-centric approach to one that sought to encourage understanding of worldwide history and also focused on chronological teaching. The revised history curriculum was criticized by historians and professional organizations, including the Historical Association (UK).31 Criticisms included pedagogical flaws with teaching chronologically, which could limit the contextualization of history to issues with teachers’ historical knowledge, particularly at primary school level, and as such the ability of teachers to teach complex historical topics such as identity and religion.32 This has led some historians and teachers deeming the new curriculum as unworkable. In part, these challenges to the curriculum have arisen from a lack of widespread consultation with historians and teachers about this change. Alternatively, Finland has sought to phase out subject-specific teaching at secondary school level, favouring topic teaching.33 History in some schools is now taught in cross-subject classes, such as European Union (EU), which aim to provide students with applicable and transferable skills.34 This change in history’s role within the school system and wider national curriculum is determined by a country’s dominant social and political ideologies and national agendas (Case study 7). This change reflects the influence of politicians, and to some lesser degree teachers and historians, in how history is viewed and valued by the wider public alongside developing pedagogical approaches and teaching and learning frameworks. Despite the historically, politically and pedagogically perceived importance of school education in teaching history, recent research indicates that families and the home play a critical role in the formation of a child’s historical knowledge and their connection to history.35 This family history is often perceived by the public as more important than prescribed history; as such, the families’ versions of historical events are frequently more trusted than history teachers’ or public historians’ versions of the past.36 Perhaps this is due because, as Wineberg suggested, history thinking cannot be taught as part of natural process of learning; rather, it is different from ordinary thinking and requires more complex physiological process.37 As such, it could be suggested it is vital for historical education that teachers and curriculums integrate these personal stories into history lessons in order to make history more appropriate and accessible (Figure 7.2).

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FIGURE 7.2  Students undertaking oral history project. Photo by Sarah L. Voisin/ The Washington Post via Getty Images.

CASE STUDY 20. USA History Education

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n the United States, history at secondary, high school level and K-12 is integrated within social studies, which includes within it aspects of civics and economics, language, arts and literature, and fine arts. This reflects the changing politics of the national and dominant views of history. In the 1980s, there was a move away from the traditional, history-centred approach, which led to history being integrated within social studies. This enabled the concept of history to be broader, more interpretive and less scientifically rigid and prescriptive.38 This included the integration of archaeology within historical education and the ability for individual states and teachers to broaden the nature of history and utilize historical sites and museums. The subsequent Bush administration saw a return to a more traditional focus of ‘people, places and events’.39 History focused on traditional stories and on the arrival of the Europeans and the ‘civilization’ settlement of America.40 Within this paradigm, there was little mention of the multiple cultures that made up the American population or the huge time periods involved. This could have been a contributing factor in the modern

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public’s temporal confusion about the past, including their inability, in many cases, to put together accurate timelines of past events and peoples.41 Recently, since the La Pietra Report (OHA) and with increasing pressure from the historians and the AHA, there have been changes to curriculum at state level.42 This has been supported by guidelines to encourage teachers to take a global and contextual perspective in teaching history. This included providing teachers with learning and teaching material which has been produced by historians and strategies to embed global perspective and contextualize their teaching.43 These changes to national curriculum in the United States, since its inclusion with the national curriculum framework, would suggest that it is not only the broader nature of history as a discipline that is affected by government changes and dominant sociopolitical ideologies but also the topics that are taught within schools. Consequently, these changes in the topics and teaching of history within the school system have the potential to influence the wider public’s and future adults’ understanding of the past and its role in the present.

Questions 1 What are the dangers of history being taught through a standardized national curriculum?

2 Is a national curriculum for history needed? If so what elements are important to include?

3 How do teachers integrate personal and family history into classroom learning? What benefits does this have?

Extended question 1 To what extent is national curriculum influenced by political agendas?

Reading and resources ●●

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National Council for the Social Studies. (2010), ‘National Curriculum Standards for Social Studies: A Framework for Teaching, Learning and Assessment’. Yarema, A. (2002), ‘A Decade of Debate: Improving Content and Interest in History Education’. The History Teacher, Vol. 35 (3), pp. 389–398. http://www.k12.wa.us/socialstudies/ealrs-gles.aspx

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Extended reading ●●

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Barreyre, N., Heale, M., Tuck, S. and Vidal. C. (2014), Historians across Boarders: Writing American History in a Global Age. Florida: University of California Press. Bender, T. (2006), A Nation Among Nations: America’s Place in World History. New York: Hill and Wang. Wineberg, S. (2001), Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Actions: Charting the Future of Teaching the Past. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.

Recent changes in how history has been taught have been affected by internal and external politics and changing approaches to teaching and learning. Historical associations play an increasing role in bringing together academics and teachers, such as the Historical Association, the UK, and the AHA, the United States.44 These organizations have sought to improve relationships between historians and teachers, and historians and policymakers, which has enabled new dialogues to exist. These new dialogues have supported the development of curriculum and teaching practices both within and outside of the classroom. Relationships have also been established between academics, professional historians and teachers. This has influenced teaching methods and content development, moving away from a focus on textbooks to the consideration of new pedagogical approaches and the incorporation of new technologies.45

Approaches to teaching Teaching provides a framework to support the development of learning through the application of diverse methodological approaches to educational activities. These approaches are linked to specific learning outcomes, lesson plans and assessments. Teaching history requires an understanding of learning as an active process and recognition that it is a personal experience. Developing historical learning activities for formal education environments, such as schools and universities, and for open learning environments, such as museums and historical buildings, requires the adaption and use of a variety of pedagogical approaches, dependent on the context of learning, for example, the learner’s environmental setting. The teacher should also consider how to account for diverse learning styles, such as accommodating, learning by doing and feeling; assimilating, learning by watching and thinking; converging, learning by doing and thinking; and diverging, learning by feeling and watching.46

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The traditional and often standard Western approach for formal historical education and classroom learning is teacher-led learning, referred to as behaviourism. This approach is designed to condition the learner through ‘stimulus response’ to external stimuli.47 Conditioning of the learner is achieved through the teacher positively and negatively reinforcing learning.48 For example, a positive reinforcement, such as a reward for right answers, could be a gold star or merit and negative reinforcement could be telling-off or demerit. Resultantly, this method influences learner behaviour and encourages learning to occur. Learning through teacher conditioning ‘behaviourism’ seeks to change learner behaviour over time and can be easily assessed through observation.49 This method fails to take into account individual responses to learning, as it considers all individuals as blank slates without free will, who are all influenced equally by their environment. As such, it does not consider individual learner requirements or diverse cognitive structures that influence individual ability to learn. More recently, a consideration that a learner is an active participant in the process of learning has resulted in alternative teaching methods being introduced within and outside the classroom. Cognitive learning introduces the idea that learning is an internal mental activity, rather than an externally controlled action.50 This method considers the learner’s internal cognitive structures, which are influenced by previous knowledge and experiences. Learning is regarded as a developmental process in which the learner makes sense of new information through observation, categorization and forming generalizations.51 This method suggests teaching should be a cumulative process, based around developing structured thinking appropriate to the learner’s needs and stages of development.52 This method also suggests that successful learning has to be personally meaningful and support personal interaction with the material and environment.53 This method is often applied in higher educational environments such as lectures, seminars and tutorials, as it enables increased learner control and ability for the teacher to support different learning requirements and styles. Cognitive learning can be measured through an individual’s progress and ability to recall information. This method is based on logic and the belief that learners choose logical answers, which are influenced by prior internal knowledge and experience and the evaluation of external evidence. Open learning environments, such as historical sites, require pedagogies based on flexible, participatory, responsive and individual learning, such as constructivism and experimentation.54 Constructivism is an approach to teaching in which individuals are encouraged to apply their own structure to learning. This learning theory suggests that individuals construct their own understandings, for instance, of history and the past, based on experiences and reflection upon these experiences. Consequently, learning is associated with individual interactions involving surrounding social environments; therefore, knowledge is constructed based on the context of learning.55 For example, visiting a historic site will have different meanings and produce

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different experiences for each person, often based on previous memories, knowledge and experiences. As such, this learning experience can be supported by public historians through providing the visitor with more diverse historical experiences on site, for instance, light and sound shows, multimedia reconstructions or guided tours. This theory suggests that learning activities developed within different public history organizations should be adapted based on contextual requirements; as such, every site, museum or heritage attraction should be considered as an individual learning experience. The experiential approach is based on the concept of social learning; it requires participation in learning, with learning associated with personal experience, observation and self-reflection.56 As such, this approach is associated with hands-on group activities such as participatory involvement in community archaeological excavations in which people engage in the experience of archaeological excavations, including social interaction with people in which they share experiences and ideas about the past through discovery, which encourages the process of personal interpretations of the past through experience. This approach encourages learning through action, reaction and adaption and is influenced not only by previous personal experiences but also by the external environment. Constructivism and experimental learning approaches are based on social learning. As such, they can be difficult to apply formally and assess using traditional quantitative methods. As a result, there is reluctance among many educational practitioners to apply these methods, especially within the formal educational sector. In part, this is due to the fact these methods require more qualitative methods for assessment, such as conversations and observations of learner behaviour, which are more difficult to implement in a formal educational setting of subject standards and standardization that require measurable marking criteria. Education in public history often blends together a range of ‘pedagogical’ approaches, including experiential, behavioural and cognitive; this is referred to as flexible learning. This approach aims to give participants a choice and flexibility in how they learn and are taught history.57 The application of this approach enables the teacher to consider both the context of the learning environments and diverse learning styles of the learners. Flexible learning approaches offer scope for museums and historical sites to create and deliver educational programmes, which are tailored to the public and relate to the demands of the consumer.58 This requires the provision of non-traditional resources and the development of non-traditional teaching practices such as history trials, reconstruction, experimental history and role play (Figure 7.3). These methods are based on the theory that both learning environments and individual learning styles are critical to knowledge acquisition.59 This contextual approach encourages the public to discover, learn, experience and engage in discussion and critical thought through feeling, watching, doing and thinking.60 The emphasis is on individual

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FIGURE 7.3  History students and teacher at Bolton Castle, UK. Photo by Monty Rakusen via Getty Images.

development, personal choice and adaptation of learning outcomes based on individual needs, known as constructive alignment. Social approaches to learning, such as flexible and experiential learning, have had positive impacts on learning outcomes for people with behavioural and emotional learning difficulties and specific learning difficulties such as dyslexia and autism. In part, these approaches enable multisensory learning, which supports different learning styles, including more practical and visual learning.

Historical textbooks and classroom learning The introduction and rigidity of the national curriculum have, in part, led to an over-reliance by teachers and of teaching history on textbooks.61 Textbooks provide mechanisms for standardization of teaching approaches, structure and resource materials, which aid assessment, quality assurance and benchmarking of the subject. History textbooks aim to provide guidance and support material to aid teachers and students in the subject; this includes subject overviews, ideas for teaching outlines, key illustrative case studies, and question-and-answer sections. Yet history teachers, in part, due to a lack of historical background training and preparation time, have used textbooks as core teaching material, in some cases photocopying and repeating material verbatim to the student. This over-reliance of textbooks

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for teaching history can result in poor teaching standards as teachers have lost the ability to move away from traditional ‘behavioural’ teaching techniques. This lack of inspiring teaching practices can lead to a disinterest in the subject of history and a lack of real-world relevance, which impacts on the wider public values associated with the subject. Textbooks should be used as a teaching aid and a backdrop for learning, rather than the primary source of material and central teaching method. This requires reconsidering and questioning the content of history within the national curriculum framework. Teachers should be empowered to have the flexibility to experiment with material and teaching practices and move away from genericism in historical teaching.62 The pattern of textbook reliance by history teachers is a worldwide issue, resulting from poor communication between education professionals, subject experts and teachers. While teachers have first-hand knowledge of students, contexts and teaching practices, the textbooks are usually written by scholars, who have little understanding of the dynamics between pupils and teachers, and diverse learning needs. Recently, teachers and scholars have worked together to tackle this issue, with academics providing guidance and standards to publishers of textbooks and teachers providing the content, for example, Neil Smith’s History Teacher’s Handbook.63 The use of techniques, such as active participation in discovery, role play and class presentations and discussions, can make history teaching in the classroom more real, vital and meaningful to students. This has required history teachers to draw on situationalist theories, which consider the context of learning and provide the tools to enable learning to be a culturally embedded ‘activity’.64 Central to this is active participation in knowledge creation.65 Adapting these learning methods and theories into historical education has required greater flexibility in the methods and materials used, including interacting with different resources in class such as biographies, historical fiction, novels, short stories and films.66 This encourages students to create history through interviewing relatives and visiting exhibitions and historical places. This method aims to encourage students to challenge history to consider history in relation to current events and provide a temporal reference. This has supported students’ interaction with history through contextualization and personalization of the past.67 The application of this method of social learning requires history teachers to develop learning activities that draw together national, local and family historical narratives to provide an overarching story that represents historical diversity and multiple perspectives and challenges historical stereotypes.68 This can be achieved through encouraging personal research into family history and opening up a discourse between families and schools. Family involvement in teaching history is critical to its impact and long-term value as it supports history’s wider relevance beyond the school environment.69 Breaking down the perceptions of history often formed in

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the home environment requires schools to develop methods to make and explore this family history within the current national context. Public historians within historical institutions, such as museums, have supported teaching history within the classroom. Museums, such as Chicago History Museum (Case study 10), have worked with teachers to embed interactive activities within traditional classroom activities, including recreations and re-enactments of historical periods. In private schools, with high levels of financial support, such as Brighton College, teachers have employed external historical experts to develop and provide additional lectures and produce support material for students.70 At key stage 2, Teaching the Tudors, history teachers have worked with museums and external historians to produce learning resources and classroom packs, which encourage imagination and active engagement with recreating the past through re-enactment that draws on historical sources. This has required the introduction of flexible and experiential learning approaches that enable personal learning. It is worth noting that implementing these methods requires resources, time and funding, something many schools lack. As such, schools increasingly rely on external organizations, including historic buildings and museums, to support historical education. Public history educational departments, such as those found in museums, have sought to further encourage this symbiotic relationship by employing former teachers to develop educational activities that link in with museum displays and material. This has, in part, been enabled by changes in curriculum and teacher flexibility but also by museums broadening their traditional remits of display and presentation. As such, museums found new ways to work with teachers who move away from worksheets to hands-on activities (Case study 19).

CASE STUDY 21. Baltimore County Public Schools Programme

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he collaboration between historical teachers and scholars led to the creation in 1984 of the Baltimore County Public Schools Programme of Archaeology, the United States.71 This programme adopted archaeology as a vehicle for history to reach a broader school audience. It was integrated into the core ‘national’ social studies curriculum in 167 state schools at K-12 level, children in both primary and secondary education (4–19 years old). This aimed to provide students with ‘performance based learning’, learning using real-life, hands-on activities to discover history, and encouraged deeper more personal self-reflective learning.

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Central to this educational programme was providing practical learning activities, including the archaeological excavation of a historical site, which linked into specific learning outcomes such as critical thinking, multicultural equality and interdisciplinary study. This aimed to provide tangible historical evidence to back up textbook and classroom learning.72 The success and proven educational benefits of this programme led to it receiving federal and state-level funding.73 This government funding was subsequently withdrawn in 2007 due to wider economic cutbacks and changes in state government agendas. Consequently, despite educational support, this programme was forced to close in 2007.

Questions 1 What are the challenges of developing historical education in schools?

2 How can historians support historical education within schools? 3 What are the issues with public history programmes being linked into government funding?

Extended question 1 What mechanisms are in place for historians to influence national and state curriculum, and how can these be successfully utilized?

Reading and resources ●●

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Jeppson, P. L. (2008), ‘Doing Our Homework: Rethinking the Goals and Responsibilities of Archaeology Outreach to Schools’. In J. Stottman (ed.), Changing the World with Archaeology: Activist Archaeology. Greenville: University of Florida Press, pp. 1–58. Jeppson, P. L. and G. Brauer, G. (2003), ‘“Hey, Did You Hear about the Teacher Who Took the Class Out to Dig a Site?”: Some Common Misconceptions about Archaeology in Schools’. In L. Derry and M. Malloy (eds), Archaeologists and Local Communities: Partners in Exploring the Past. Washington, DC: Society for American Archaeology Press, pp. 77–96. http://www.p-j.net/pjeppson/or/ Bender, T. (2006), A Nation among Nations: Americas Place in World History. New York: Hill and Wang. Wineberg, S. (2001), Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Actions: Charting the Future of Teaching the Past. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.

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Education in museums, archives and historic sites The educational value of history continues to be the focus of academic research into public history.74 History’s educational value is often linked to its ability to create new knowledge and understanding of the past. Furthermore, historians have claimed that history can improve literacy, numeracy and critical thinking.75 Despite the potential wider educational benefits, the majority of research has, until recently, related to formal learning environments such as schools and universities.76 This relates to the fact that the formal learning environment is a structured and easily accessible research environment, which can be readily quantitatively assessed and evaluated. Informal learning is a more intangible environment to conduct research; it is learning by watching, doing, thinking and feeling; and it is diverse, flexible and as such more difficult to assess.77 Subsequently, research has tended to overlook the educational potential of teaching history within informal learning settings such as museums, historical buildings and the media. Informal learning is unscheduled and impromptu, occurring within leisure time, including the learning obtained from visiting historic sites or watching a historical television programme (Figure 7.4). Informal learning strategies

FIGURE 7.4  Photograph of informal learning taking place during family visits to Eltham Palace, London © Faye Sayer.

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require less formal pedagogical practices that combine entertainment and education, which are seen as fun and relaxed and appeal to a broader audience.78 The success of informal educational activities is highlighted by the popularity of the Council of British Archaeology’s Young Archaeology Club (YAC).79 YAC has recognized the multiple values of historical education, stating one of its learning outcomes to be developing ‘inquisitive and well rounded young people’.80 It indicates that teaching history should not be contained within formal learning situations or strategies. Museums are defined as educational establishments; this is noted by the Museums Associations in Canada, the United States, Australia and the UK. Research indicates that for the majority of the public, visiting a museum is synonymous with learning about the past.81 Subsequently, education is at the core of museums’ remit as they provide an arena for outside classroom learning and permit the public to access knowledge about the past. The large collections of historical material and historical experts all contained in one place mean that museums have potential to provide an ideal setting for teachers and pupils to learn about specific historical events and periods. The central issue is that curators, for the most part, are not trained teachers and often lack the inclination, ability and time to develop educational activities. In response to the growing external demand for educational activities, museums have heavily invested over the past twenty years not only in producing entertaining and educational museum displays but also in developing educational departments, employing historians and educational specialists, including former history teachers, as part of their core staff. The remit of these staff is to develop curriculum activities that are linked to museum displays, exhibitions and collections. In some cases, new exhibitions have been developed and old exhibitions have been redesigned to meet educational demands and provide appropriate learning environments. For example, the Museum of London recently refurbished its Roman London Gallery in order to support current educational practices. This has included the instillation of audio and visual technology, incorporating reconstructed shoemaker and glassmaker’s workshops, and the development of new educational activities. For example, Londinium 2012 uses displays of modern objects, films and poetry to aid learning, encouraging children to learn through forming associations with the past in the present. The focus for many museums has been the provision of formal educational activities linked to primary and secondary education. These activities have been developed to meet specific ‘learning outcomes’. As such, online tools have been developed to support museums and archives to achieve more formally focused and targeted learning activities. This has aimed to encourage and support non-educational specialists to develop activities that are based on learning methods and theories and are therefore more appropriate for curriculum-centred learning. For example, the Museums, Libraries and Archives (now part of the Arts Council) project ‘Inspiring Learning for All’ provides documents that support the development of learning outcomes.82

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Linking activities directly to the learning outcomes within the history curriculum enables historical education to be undertaken with the support of teachers but led by professional historians, giving the pupils a different perspective on history. Educational activities developed by public history organizations are, for the most part, grounded in formal outcomes. Education delivered by museums goes beyond classroom and curriculum-oriented learning. Museums are developing themselves as lifelong educational establishments. Lifelong learning in museums aims to provide access to learning and to history for the whole public, including those beyond school, with museums providing a space and forum to enable this.83 This has involved professional historians, academic historians and educational specialists collaborating to provide access to history education for more diverse audiences, including the following: ●●

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Young learners Young adults Adult learners Older learners Family (intergenerational) learners Intercultural learners Inclusive learners.

The provision of education for adult learners has become increasingly vital in today’s economic climate, as many universities drop their provisions for lifelong learning classes, deeming them as unprofitable.84 The British Museum has developed a programme of lifelong learning activities, which bring in subject experts from both the museum and universities.85 These courses are delivered to the public either over the course of a week or through a serious of evenings and weekend sessions. For example, the ‘Sharing Learning Project’, a partnership project with the University of the Third Age, is an eight-week project that assists older learners (aged 50–88) to research their own chosen historical topic as a future resource.86 This project includes adult-centred classes and courses, which offer specialist training for ‘older learners’, including amateurs, in specific aspects of history. Working with older learners requires flexibility, patience and a suitable comfortable and safe working environment. Museums and archives have sought to use their own in-house expertise, and experience of historical education, to support teachers in developing new methods to teach history (Case study 20). This has involved delivering teacher workshops and training sessions using historical collections stored within museums and archives. The National Museum of Australia offers K-12 (primary to secondary education) history training to teachers and trainee teachers so they can learn and experience history, discuss the curriculum and explore galleries. It provides teachers with educationally

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focused guided tours and previews of new exhibitions to support future use and adoption of material for teaching. The provision of online educational blogs and the hosting of the History Teachers Association of Australia annual conference have further aided the development of an open dialogue and exchange of idea between teachers and professional historians.87 This was, in part, developed in response to the recent introduction of history within the national curriculum. The teacher training programme has supported the development of educational material such as digital overlays for galleries (AURASMA), teacher notes, educational games, and activities for school and home use.88 This continues to be developed using a remote mobile telepresence, which provides digital outreach through the use of laser-guided robots.89 Offering vocational courses for teachers within museums is being adapted by many Western museums, including the National Museum of Denmark in Copenhagen. These courses provide continued professional training and a forum for future collaboration between teachers and museum professionals.90 Museums no longer regard themselves as passive educational facilities but rather as active educational establishment.

CASE STUDY 22. Chicago History Museum, History Connections and Artifact Collections Project

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he History Connections and Artifact Collections Project at Chicago History Museum has involved museum educators working with local teachers to write and develop classroom resources for grades 1–12. These resources include lesson plans, online and downloadable activities, and artefact kits. They are based around key topics, including ‘The Hidden Life of Artifacts’, ‘Early Chicago: The Fur Trade, Industry and Innovation’, ‘Transportation History’, ‘The Great Migration and Growing up in the ’60s, ’70s, ’80s’ and ‘Chicago Architecture’.91 The aim was to provide mechanisms to support students’ active participation in the discovery of history, uncovering the hidden life of artefacts. This aimed to ignite curiosity and critical thinking by supporting the development of classroom artefact kits, interpreting the past in their own cultural and social contexts to develop their own conclusions. For instance, activities linked to the theme ‘Growing Up in the ’60s, ’70s and ’80s’ include ‘Back to the Future’ which is linked to grades 3–5. ‘Back to the Future’ is inspired by the movie of the same name (1985), encouraging students to write a story imaging what it would be like to travel back in time and meet their parents as elementary school students.92

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Teachers collect artefacts, that is, films, toys and entertainment, records, yearbooks, video games and books. Students are asked to look at and choose their favourite objects and complete a worksheet. This material can be downloaded, copied and adapted for use in the classroom. Additional activities include interviewing parents and collecting old photographs from them. It is hoped by investigating history through the development of artefact kits. This will stimulate interest through active participation and personally relevant history. These activities aim to develop historical empathy, to understand the relationship between the past, present and future, to develop writing skills, and to encourage creativity. These historically related educational outreach activities do not require the museums to provide hands-on support for schools’ visits. Rather, their success requires the investment of time by teachers, both within the classroom and also in the preparation of resources for lessons. Students’ ability to complete educational activities also requires family support. Consequently, it could be questioned whether these in-classroom activities have the same benefits to students as that provided by museum visits and related hands-on activities.

Questions 1 How can artefacts within museum’s collections be used to provide a tool for learning?

2 How can museum professionals and historical educators working together aid learning?

3 Do online activities provide a tool for learning that is comparable with visiting a museum?

Extended question 1 What are the drivers for museums engaging and undertaking curriculum-led projects? What are the issues and benefits for museums in doing these teaching-led projects?

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http://www.chicagohistory.org/education/resources/index http://www.chicagohistory.org/education/resources/hands/ growing-up Hooper Greenhill, E. (1992), Museums and Shaping Knowledge. London: Routledge.

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Public-private partnerships have supported the development of virtual educational resources. The development of these resources has often been in response to user evaluations, which have raised issues relating to the nature of historical education within these establishments. In 2004, the National Museums Liverpool developed the Transatlantic Slavery Gallery Virtual Tour. This CD-ROM was a direct response to the teacher feedback relating to the difficulty that some school groups had with using the Transatlantic Slavery Gallery.93 Narrators on the CD-guided student learning through linking the gallery and its objects with eyewitness testimonies.94 Public and private partnerships and funding have enabled museums to produce online educational games for use in the classroom. For example, the Portable Antiquities Scheme, a scheme hosted by the British Museum and supported by the Department of Culture, Media and Sport, has worked with teachers to develop a virtual Anglo-Saxon Village and PAS Explorers.95 This provides a virtual and interactive tour of an Anglo-Saxon recreated village in which children can explore, answer questions and interact with elements of Anglo-Saxon life such as trading, house building and cooking. Furthermore, media companies, such as the BBC, have provided online educational resources for schools, including interactive timelines, questions, games and web chats with historians (Case study 23).

CASE STUDY 23. British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) Lesson Plans

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he British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) recently launched lesson plans that link into the UK national curriculum. ‘History for Kids’ encourages education in the home through games and quizzes with sections including world history, ancient history, British history and hands-on history. ‘Hands-on history’ enables children to actively participate in learning through specially created video clips such as animated cartoons, that is, ‘A Day in the Life of a Ten Year Old in Norman Britain’. Learning activities can be downloaded, such as ‘Create your own castle’, ‘Create your own Bayeux tapestry’ and ‘I Spy Castle Guide’, a guide to identify a Norman castle.96 These activities have been developed in collaboration with teachers and experts. They aim to provide a fun and entertaining educational platform to encourage extra-curricular learning. The nature and content of these activities, including drawing on methods more readily associated with entertainment, such as cartons and comedy, provide a window into the complex debate surrounding the balance between education and entertainment.

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Questions 1 Do online educational experiences reduce the need to visit historical sites?

2 How can educational games balance the need to be entertaining with the expectation of having educational value?

3 Considering the variety of techniques used to encourage learning, what methods are most successful?

Extended question 1 How has mass media influenced historical teaching? What are the benefits of new mechanism of communication to classroom learning?

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www.bbc/historyforkids Samuel, R. (2012), Theatres of Memory: Past and Present in Contemporary Culture. London: Verso, Chapter 8. Beck, P. (2012), Presenting History. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Chapters 1, 3 and 11.

Education occurring on historical sites and places of historical interest requires the application of more diverse and flexible teaching methods. This includes the adoption of practical methods such as experiential and cognitive approaches. These methods support multisensory learning, supporting visitors to learn through touching, seeing, smelling and doing. Historical sites have collaborated with teachers to adapt their archival and historical material to work within preexisting curriculum and classroom lesson frameworks. For example, the Oakington Community Heritage Project recently developed a children’s festival on the AngloSaxon site, which included food historians, re-enactors, experimental history and reconstructions. This was linked with key stages 1, 2 and 3 and specific learning relating to the Anglo-Saxon period. The adaption material from historical site to form part of lesson plans with the normal school curriculum is easier for teachers to implement within a contained and managed learning environment. These collaborative projects aim to initiate a discourse between pupils, teacher and historians relating to history and provide visual aids based on local and contextually relatable historical evidence (Case study 22).

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CASE STUDY 24. Mystic Seaport: The Museum of America and the Sea

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ystic Seaport: Museum of America and the Sea is located in Connecticut. The ‘living’ history public museum is based on the recreation of an eighteenth-century historical seaport and its landscape (Figure 7.5). It contains a museum, reconstructed historical ships and a reconstructed historical shipping village. These physical reconstructions of the past aim to depict and communicate the coastal life in New England in the eighteenth century to the public, including schools and heritage tourist.97 Mystic Seaport’s educational team have recently developed a series of on-site activities, including Ship to Shore and History on the Go. Ship to Shore is an overnight educational visit in which children can spend the night aboard a ship, the Corad. This activity has been developed to adapt its material to specific curriculum requirements such as immigration.98 Mystic’s History on the Go programme brings history collections to schools.99 This has utilized items already within their collections to put together handling collections and learning packs to be used by teachers within the classroom. The collections are linked into educational resources relating to specific key stages and are available for teachers to use in the production of lesson plans.

FIGURE 7.5  Eighteenth-century recreated living museum at Mystic Seaport. Photo by Barry Winiker via Getty Images.

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The on-site educational activities at Mystic rely heavily on the use of replicas, reconstructions and re-enactments of history. These activities aim to encourage a broad audience to engage historical learning and as such increase visitors, including heritage tourism and school visits, to the site. In order to achieve this goal, on-site educational activities incorporate multisensory elements, which are also entertaining. The visual techniques used to support learning, such as reconstructions, require historical assumptions and generalizations in order to provide simpler historical constructs of time periods. The constructed histories are believed to be appropriate to age of children, curriculum requirements and time available for the activity. Resultantly, historical education at Mystic also falls within the category of historical entertainment, and the site treads a delicate balance between being an educational facility, a heritage asset and an entertaining leisure activity.

Questions 1 Are reconstructions and replicas legitimate tools for use in educational programmes valuable to the learning experience?

2 What is the educational value of participatory activities and overnight educational experiences?

3 How can educational programmes balance the requirement to provide visual learning without resulting in the Disneyfication of the past?

Extended question 1 What are the merits and issues with the different pedagogical approaches to historical learning? Which pedagogical approach is most applicable to historical learning?

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http://www.mysticseaport.org/learn/educators Rentzhog, S. (2007), Open Air Museums: The History and Future of a Visionary Ideas, trans. Skan Victoria Airey. Sweden: Carlssons and Jamtili. Bartoy, K. (2012), ‘Teaching through Rather Than About’. In R. Skeates, C. McDavid and J. Carman (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Public Archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 552–565. Bender, T. (2006), A Nation among Nations: America’s Place in World History. New York: Hill and Wang. Wineberg, S. (2001), Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Actions: Charting the Future of Teaching the Past. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.

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Developing education programmes for use on historical sites is complex and can be difficult to organize. Their success requires creativity, imagination and commitment on the part of staff and teachers. For example, evening ‘sleep-overs’ combine learning with a social activity and have been used successfully at various museums and heritage centres around the world, including a Night of the Mummies at the Museum of Vancouver (Canada).100 Yet these creative ideas require not only a balance between entertainment and education but also extensive management and the undertaking of risk assessments. Historic sites can provide unique learning environments for all ages and encourage the use of a variety of teaching methods. These sites support learning outside the classroom and can meet the diverse learning needs of the public. Educational programmes at these sites can be linked into wider educational strategies such as tourism.101 For example, the public history programme at Alexandria, Virginia, has linked its educational activities to both the state school curriculum and to educational tourism. One of these initiatives has been the ‘tour de sites’, a guided and unguided bicycle tour of the historical sites around the city.102 Public history educational initiatives are now standard practice on many historical sites and have enabled historical education to reach and appeal to a broader audience. Historic sites, such as the seventeenth-century colonial settlement of Jamestown, Virginia (the United States), have sought to encourage educational tourism by using re-enactors. This has aimed to provide the visitor with a visualization of the past and resultantly encourage learning through experience, that is, ‘experiential learning’.103 Providing educational activities on historical sites can include the provision of active participation in the learning and discovery of history. Discovering the past on historical sites is frequently led by public historians rather than teachers and requires more face-to-face collaboration between teachers and external educators. The support required for teachers to engage in external learning is complex, requiring pre-trip activities to prepare the class prior to visits to historic sites and assistance in necessary logistics, including the completion of risk assessments, organization of travel and insurance. The payoff for this extra work is that this learning stimulates the senses and makes history enjoyable.104 Educational activities at historical sites focus not only on schools but also on lifelong learning and adult education. Public historians recognize that history has benefits beyond historical education such as improving literacy and numeracy.105 For example, the Jigsaw project run by Oxford Archaeology East is a community heritage project that combines volunteer training on historical sites with professional mentoring.106 This project is supported by the Heritage Lottery Fund and is specifically designed for adults who have not had formal education to provide valuable transferable skills.107 The project aims to encourage engagement in heritage education and aid future employment.

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Historic buildings, such as those properties own by organizations, such as English Heritage, Historic Royal Palaces and United States National Park Service (NPS), can provide backdrops for historical education. They can serve as visual aids to re-enforce historical knowledge gained in the classroom. The use of these historical places as arenas for historical education to take place in requires focused frameworks for the integration of a building’s historical story within specific curriculums. As buildings are static entities, they can fail actively to engage the public, lacking the sense of uncovering and discovering the past which outside arenas, such as archaeological sites, encourage. As such, many historic buildings rely on guided and unguided tours to point out important features and explain the building’s history to the public. Developing education programmes for historical buildings is complex. These properties often existed through multiple periods of history and interwoven stories, which are not only specific to the building and its residents but are linked to the building’s wider historical context. Educational specialists are often employed by the estates, companies and charities which own and maintain these buildings to help develop tools to communicate their unique historical stories within a broader contextual historical framework. Educational communication is achieved using a variety of historical sources and various mediums for communication. The historical education programme at Chatsworth House focuses on providing schools with tours of the building relating to specific time periods.108 These tours are linked to the national curriculum, such as key stages 1 and 2, the Victorians.109 Tours that are conducted by actors playing the role of historical characters guide pupils through the house. Specific rooms are recreated using historical items to provide visual aids to learning, and re-enactors recreate the actions in the past to illustrate the use of the room. For example, in the kitchen, a Victorian cook recreates food from the period, and in the lounge, a maid talks to the children about her life and experience. This approach makes assumptions regarding the function and use of a room from one historical vantage point, one that might be interpreted as static and sterile. Yet this form of storytelling and recreation aims to provide the visitors with a comparison of history with modern lives and enables links between the present and past to be formed. Education in historic buildings seeks to create an arena for living history, often using re-enactors and storytellers. These historical actors aim to create an interactive theatre for the past to support diverse audiences to understand and imagine history. Storytellers engage in detailed research of specific periods and people in history and work with curators and teachers to provide a historical narrative to educate. For example, at the Hermitage, President Jackson’s plantation (the United States), storytellers provide historical and educationally focused tours of building.110 These tours relate directly to the president and his career with stories linked to specific curriculum requirements. This estate has sought to challenge conventional historical accounts through organizing a community excavation of the slave

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quarters of the house. The excavation has provided new historical evidence of the presence of slavery within a presidential home, contradicting previous historical beliefs that President Jackson’s antislavery political stance meant he did not personally support this practice.111 This activity has provided an opportunity for the public to engage in practical education and in the wider ethical and moral debates surrounding slavery, which link directly to the national curriculum within US schools. Larger historical landscapes that contain multiple areas of historical interest or importance, ranging from buildings to archaeological sites, such as those owned by the United States Forest Service (USFS), require more diverse teaching mechanisms to engage the public in the past. For example, the USFS in Minnesota has developed a framework to deliver historical education to the wider public called Passports in Time (PIT). The PIT banner provides a framework in which numerous educational projects can coexist, including internships, volunteer training and schools programmes.112 This programme aims to recognize and support the broad educational value of historical landscapes, supporting educational tourism, recreational and leisure learning, adult learning and school learning. The introduction in the United States of the Americans with Disability Act of 1990 and in the UK of the Disability Discrimination Act in 2005 has affected all public sector organizations such as museums and archives. These acts seek to promote disability equality, including removing barriers which prevent access and providing appropriate, practical and demonstrable ways to facilitate access to material for all users.113 As such, organizations including the National History Museum and National Museum of American History have enabled access to building for wheelchair and disabled users through the use of ramps and lifts. Public historians are now required by law to adapt activities for all user requirements and demonstrate a consideration of different learner needs, irrespective of the nature of the educational activities that are being undertaken.

Learning outcomes and lesson plans Learning outcomes are defined as ‘specific, measurable achievements that that can be assessed. These are what the learners will be able to do at the end of the educational activity’.114 The decision to develop formal learning outcomes and measurable achievements for the user is dependent on the nature of the public history organization and demographics of the visitors, ‘the learners’.115 Public history organizations develop learning outcomes related to specific educational activities. Historical learning outcomes are associated with the context and nature of the historical resources and are adapted to the educational setting, such as inside and outside the classroom. Learning outcomes developed within public history organizations are directly linked to formal education requirements and thus to key stage learning and

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national curriculum benchmarks ‘requirements’ within schools.116 A central consideration for public historians when developing learning outcomes relating to educational activities is flexibility, measurability and sequential structure. Learning outcomes can be intended and modified rather than prescribed, closed and quantitatively measurable. This encourages adaptability for learners, including lifelong learners, and is better suited to informal and open learning environments. For example, learning on historical sites, such as historic battlefields like Gettysburg (the United States), is often personal and less structured and more haphazard in style; subsequently, learning outcomes on these sites are related to social experiences and linked to personal growth.117 Developing learning outcomes with and for adults requires a broader view of learning and a consideration of social and emotional needs such as boosting confidence and self-awareness.118 Developing learning outcomes for both specific learning activities and non-specific, non-planned learning activities is integral to museums and public history organizations. To support public history organizations to incorporate learning outcomes into their activities, a plethora of online resources have been developed.119 For example, the Museums, Libraries and Archives (MLA), a former UK government body, now part of the Arts Council, has sought to support public history work through developing the ‘online inspiring learning framework’.120 This provided online outlines for potential learning outcomes of educational activities. This included generic learning outcomes such as knowledge, skills, attributes and values, engagement, inspiration and creativity and activity, behaviour and progression.121 This research recognized the importance of less formal learning outcomes achieved through these educational activities. As such, through online material, it enabled institutions to set out schemes for understanding, defining and evaluating social learning outcomes. Writing ‘intended’ and planned learning outcomes involves understanding the factors that underpin successful learning; these include prior knowledge and experience, social interaction and the involvement with the physical environment.122 To successfully understand these factors, public history organizations and public history professionals must formally define ‘learning’. For example, the museum sector in the UK suggests: Learning is a process of active engagement with experience. It is what people do when they want to make sense of the world. It may involve an increase in skills, knowledge, understanding, values and the capacity to reflect. Effective learning leads to change, development, and the desire to learn more. It is about personal development, which leads to change. That change can be cognitive, cultural, emotional, social, sensory or physical.123 It is essential to the success of educational activities that learning outcomes are concise and comprehensible and can be achieved, assessed and

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evaluated. These include outcomes that are specifically related and suitable to levels of learning such as age groups and abilities, such as understanding, skills and attributes.124 Museum learning outcomes can include: 1 Increase learning within a subject area 2 Develop knowledge of history 3 Increase self-confidence and self-esteem. Lesson plans and resource packs: Developing lesson plans and resource packs for learning activities is an essential task for public historians’ planning to work with external educational organizations. It enables the communication of ideas in a format that teachers can understand and that can be incorporated freely into their existing educational structures (Case study 7). Key criteria for lesson plans include (see Online Material: Learning Packs and Educational Material and Template for Learning Packs ): ●●

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Defined objectives Specific learning outcomes Outline of lesson procedure and timetable of activities Key tasks Extension activities.

Lesson plans enable the user, for example, the teacher, to understand how the lesson will be run and divided within the timescale. Specific learning activities are linked to steps within the overall lesson and to specific learning outcomes. These student activities can include additional materials such as learner handouts. Options for extension activities can also be included which enable the lesson to be adapted for specific learners. Various public history organizations provide comprehensive online lesson plans for a variety of historical periods, which are linked into their collections, for example, the Smithsonian’s Lincoln resources and the Microsoft Office–sponsored Track the Life of a Legislative Bill. These are linked to specific learning outcomes, stages of activities and additional resource material. This includes visual and audio support material.125

CASE STUDY 25. Oakington Heritage Project

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akington Heritage Project, Cambridge, is a collaborative project, directed by Manchester Metropolitan University (MMU), University of Central Lancashire (UCLAN) and Oxford Archaeology

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East (OAE).126 This project was based on the excavation and exploration of an Anglo-Saxon settlement and cemetery. This project, along with being a university research and training project, also sought to communicate and work with local schools to develop materials for use in and away from the classroom. As the project was based on the Anglo-Saxons, a variety of learning resources for key stages 1, 2 and 3 were produced. These learning resources sought to provide on-site educational activities linked to the UK national curriculum. Furthermore, they also aimed to offer activities that engaged the children in different learning styles, including participatory and active learning. The activities also sought to cross disciplinary boundaries and offer teachers mechanisms for supporting learning beyond merely that of history and learning outcomes that were both keeping in with age groups and developed transferable skills such as confidence and team working. As such, it included site visits, talks, involvement in the excavation and also discussion activities such as debates (see online material for activity information).

Questions 1 What are the motivations for developing learning packs for history education to support outside classroom learning?

2 How would you develop a successful learning activity for a historic site? What elements do you think are important to include? 3 What considerations do public historians working in public sector organizations have to take into account when creating educational activities?

Extended question 1 How has pedagogical training of academic historians influenced university-led historical educational project? To what extent has this benefited teachers and historians?

Reading and resources ●● ●●

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http://www.boneswithoutbarriers.org/ https://www.artscouncil.org.uk/measuring-outcomes/genericlearning-outcomes Jones, A. (1995), ‘Integrating School Visits, Tourists and the Community at the Archaeological Resource Centre, York, UK’. In E. Hopper-Greenhill (ed.), Museum, Media, Message. Leicester: Leicester University Press, pp. 156–164.

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Jones, A. (2004), ‘Using Objects: The York Archaeological Trust Approach’. In D. Henson, P. Stone and M. Corbishley (eds), Education and the Historic Environment. London: Routledge, pp. 173–184. Hooper-Greenhill, E. (1992), Museums and Shaping Knowledge. London: Routledge.

Academic historians and education Academic historians are no longer primarily focused on undertaking groundbreaking and original historical research, leading to the production of articles and books aimed at communicating new information to other historical scholars.127 Rather, in the current Western ‘consumer environment of academia’, in particular in the United States and the UK, the role of the academic within the university system focuses on teaching: providing students with educational guidance and expert-led teaching in specific subject matters.128 In many universities, particularly post-1992 UK universities,129 such as Oxford Brooks and MMU, teaching is not regarded as secondary to research, and undergraduate and graduate students are not treated as passive recipients of knowledge. University teaching has embraced new techniques beyond lectures and group tutorials. Institutions are now regarded as a place to teach future historians and instil a breath of knowledge that will prepare students for the workplace employment. Academic historians are under pressure to make classes have specific learning outcomes, transferable skills and employability agendas to support this student development and postuniversity careers. The pressure to provide ‘better teaching’ and ‘better teachers’ has led to many universities requiring all new teaching staff to undertake teacher training courses. This has included the Post Graduate Certificate of Academic Practice (PGCAP) and the Post Graduate Certificate of Learning and Teaching in Higher Education (Australia). These courses offer formal diplomas and master’s-level qualifications in teaching and learning in higher education. In the UK and Australia, these courses are accredited routes by which members of staff can become fellows of the Higher Education Academy (HEA); this is deemed as vital for maintaining subject standards, including benchmarking and to uphold university teaching standards.130 In the UK and in Australia, many universities, such as MMU and Australian National University, have made membership of the HEA a priority for all staff and supported accreditation. Teaching courses, such as PGCAP, aim to provide teaching staff with a detailed understanding of the diverse pedagogical approaches that can be applied within their teaching and support the development of appropriate

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learning outcomes.131 This has enabled new ideas to be generated and shared among scholar teachers teaching history and encouraged staff to consider the multidisciplinary value of history to other students in different subjects such as art, computer graphics and English. For example, arts students in various universities, including MMU, have collaborated with history staff and students to use historical resources, such as archival objects, to create final project portfolios, which include illustrations, jewellery, ceramics and 3D models. New modes of teaching practice have been adapted within history departments, including in-practice learning through placements and group presentation activities. New mechanisms for teacher training are driven by considerations of the demands and learning needs of students and, in some cases, future employers. This has led to history departments adapting their teaching practices in order to develop more flexible units and courses. This has involved universities providing students with diverse curriculums and situating learning to meet diverse learner needs, resulting in the introduction of flexible and experimental teaching practices and the use of blended learning technique. The blended learning technique includes students, in part, controlling the learning and teaching, both its content and environmental context.132 The result of this has been the creation of units and modules that include elements of placement learning. These have progressed teaching and learning beyond the normative classroom setting into workplace environments, such as museums, archives, heritage centres and media companies. These modules aim to support individual learning styles and develop student skills through action-led learning.133 Workplace learning units, such as offered by MMU ‘History in Practice’ course, have been developed through partnerships with external professional historians within public history organizations, such as the Peoples History Museum, Museum of Science and Industry and Wigan Archives. Professional public historians and scholars have worked together to develop learning outcomes within supervised history placements. This unit seeks to encourage active learning and self-reflection and produce real-life impacts for the organizations, such as increasing visitor numbers and visitor diversity through student-led organization of open days and the development of new exhibitions. Alongside more traditional learning outcomes, such as acquiring new knowledge of history, these placement units aim to teach students transferable skills that prepare them for the world of work, both as public historians or for a diverse range of graduate careers.134 These units have proven beneficial to host organizations, providing them with skilled volunteers to support public history work and develop new initiatives. For example, the Museum of Science and Industry, Manchester, offers student placements to support the volunteer development through institutional archives of Historypin, a community web-based initiative (Case study 12). The success of these singular public history modules and the demand for real-world applicable courses have led to the introduction of undergraduate

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and graduate master’s courses in public history. This has included the University of York and American University, Washington, DC, graduate courses in public history, and Central Connecticut State University and University of Hertfordshire undergraduate courses in public history.135 Collaboration with employers and practising public historians within organizations has enabled these courses to become highly sought-after additions to a graduate’s portfolio. Workplace experience and skills developed during these courses are highly desirable to employers, particularly in the heritage sector. These courses have been developed to prepare graduates in applied practices and approaches to history.136 This vocational training requires a more structured approach with defined learning outcomes and the incorporation of new teaching frameworks.137 Other courses, including museum studies and archival studies MA courses, have been developed which focus more on individual elements of postgraduate training and preparation for work in public history organizations. Graduate qualifications are regarded as essential requirements for graduate employees in public history, particularly museums and archives, and are a prerequisite to becoming a member of the Museum Association. During the early twenty-first century, university staff in the UK, Australia and the United States were increasingly encouraged to diversify student enrolment, encouraging a more diverse range of individuals to attend university. In the UK, this was linked to the Labour government’s initiative to open up higher education to all. This encouraged a range of widening participation programmes, including AIMHigher, which has now been taken over by the HEA.138 AIMHigher worked regionally with local universities to develop with academics a range of educational activities for secondary school pupils to take place within the university environment. Academic staff at the University of Exeter developed an activity that combined history, archaeology, biology and geography. This activity encouraged pupils to use historical, archaeological and geographical evidence to put together a story of the past. A central component of this was a reconstructed burial; pupils were asked to uncover how, why and when this person died. These activities and their development came with financial support and the potential of encouraging future students. Despite the changes and closure of many widening participation programmes, including AIMHigher in 2011, the relationship between schools and academics has continued. For example, at MMU, history staff have worked closely with teachers to develop sessions for secondary school pupil that specifically focus on linking university history with national curriculum history, for instance, using the Simpson’s cartoon to teach elements of American history. Teaching history at an undergraduate, graduate and postgraduate level is the area in which many historians feel comfortable, their natural habitat. The pressure to make history a more vocationally relevant subject and to provide students with skills for future employment has encouraged

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academics to draw on the skills of teachers to influence their pedagogical practices. Professional historians, including museums, archives and media professionals, have also influenced course content and have in some cases been invited to teach specific modules in public history and community history. The role of universities in historical education goes beyond teaching undergraduate and graduate degrees to providing continued adult education. During the 1970s, universities such as the University of Oxford and University of Bristol started providing extramural classes.139 These classes, often held at evenings and weekends, provide a university-accredited education in a non-academic setting such as village halls, community centres and libraries. For example, the University of Oxford’s Department for Continuing Adult Education provides onsite and off-site courses, which are led by qualified practitioners and scholars. These courses are delivered both in person and online, such as ‘Civil War and Revolution: Britain Divided’. Short day or weekend courses and summer schools, such as The Byzantine World, are also a popular method of delivery.140 Although initially popular, the frequency of these courses has declined over the last twenty years as many universities, such as Exeter, have deemed them to be unprofitable, despite their continued popularity among students.141 This decline in, in particular, adult educational courses in the UK related to the withdrawal in 2007 of government subsidies for equivalent lower-level qualifications and universities increasing their adult education fees to full-time fees.142 Recently, there has been a growth in short online university courses, which seek to encourage adult learning and professional development. These short online courses have been supported by Internet sites, such as Future Learn, which provide free online history courses from top universities such as Pompeu Fabra University Barcelona, University of Groningen and UCL.143 These free courses, such as the University of Groningen’s ‘Scientific Revolution’, run for two to six weeks and involve two to five hours of study a week.144 Participants are upon completion offered the opportunity to pay for certificate and encouraged to pay for full-time ‘proper’ courses. Historical scholars have a longstanding commitment to providing historical education to a mainstream, public audience. This has focused on traditional teaching activities, similar to those delivered to university students, but has been delivered in different settings and to diverse audiences, for example, providing lectures to schools and historical societies. Public lectures can be problematic; they require the consideration of a diverse audience with different knowledge bases and expectations on content. In the last decade, there has been a movement into different, more populist educational activities in which history can be seen to have ‘real world’ impact on the public’s historical knowledge – for example, the writing of popular historical books, for instance, David Starkey’s The Monarchy in England: The Beginnings (2004), and presenting television programmes such as Lucy Worsley’s Elegance and Decadence: The Age of Regency (BBC4, 2011).

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These populist formats require historians, as public educators, to write and present history in a more accessible manner, moving away from traditional academic language and delivery.145

Evaluation and adaption Developing educational materials requires the assessment of the educational value of history, both within the formal structure of the national curriculum and the informal settings of public history projects. Prior to undertaking public history educational projects, an evaluation of the potential obstacles to achieving educational ‘learning’ outcomes and values is essential. This evaluation aids the development of the project and helps in making decisions regarding appropriate use of methods and techniques. Educational evaluation requires the application of various assessment methods, including both qualitative and quantitative analysis to assess the values and issues (see Chapter 3 and Online Material: Evaluating Your Project).146 These evaluation techniques can be applied before, during or after educational activities to assess the potential and actual educational outcomes (Table 7.1). The value of studying history at graduate level has been the focus of recent investigation by scholars and educationalists.147 These studies have TABLE 7.1  Evaluation techniques and descriptions Technique

Description

Concept mapping

A form of mind mapping, similar to spider diagrams. A visual tool to understand how participants link things or ideas together. This helps understand how knowledge is created and organized.

Formal and informal interviews

Recorded and transcribed interviews undertaken with users about experiences and values of specific event or learning activity. This can include the use of closed and open question surveys.

Visual imagery

The evaluator provides a statement or word for which participants produce a drawing, painting or picture. This can occur post-activity and serve to represent an experience. This reduces the needs for verbal communication of information and enables openness. This supports the assessment of subconscious values.

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TABLE 7.1  (Continued) Technique

Description

Focus groups and workshops

A group of people brought together within a communal space and open dialog and discussion is encouraged between the group and the facilitator. Usually the facilitator will start discussion using open-ended questions or statements. This encourages a dynamic user survey to help understand why, what and how values are created. This enables participants to engage in critical self-reflection.

User diaries

The participants undertake completing a written, drawn and/or photographic diary of their experiences. This form of evaluation requires a close relationship with the participant. Thematic analysis of the diaries can provide visual and written evidence of educational outcomes.

Critical incident technique

Collecting direct observations of human behaviour over sustained periods of time. This enables the evaluator to understand changes in behaviour and responses over time in response to external conditions. This technique is used to identify individual responses and how these relate to success and failure of tasks.

Vignettes

A method of providing respondents with a hypothetical scenario. Their reaction to this scenario is used to assess individual responses and processes.

focused on graduate employability – on specific skills that history graduates gain during historical education that are of use outside of education. For example, ‘soft’ skills, such as communication, self-awareness and empathy, are learnt alongside skills such as, evaluation, critical thinking, writing, problem-solving and team working.148 Booth and Booth’s research indicates a disparity between what can be achieved and what is reflected in the learning outcomes of historical education.149 It is this disparity that needs to be readdressed by public historians. This requires teachers in higher education establishments to develop a pedagogy, which provides a ‘pedagogic’ learning journey for students. This necessitates more complex teaching and learning, which encourages personal journeys and plays a role in student development.150 Continual improvement in history teaching techniques aims to increase the value of this subject to employers.

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Enthusiasm Creativity Flexibility and ability to adapt to different audiences Excellent verbal and written communication skills Patience Knowledge of a variety of historical periods Understanding teaching theories and methods Evaluative and analytical skills Confidence Ability to plan and organize work

A DAY IN THE LIFE Sara Barker, Lecturer in Early Modern History, University of Leeds The structure of my day depends entirely on whether or not it is term time. During term, my day is built around teaching. I convene two or three modules a semester, which means about 6–12 classroom hours per week. Those hours are the highlight of my week – helping students understand the worldviews of people experiencing the turmoil of religious, social, cultural and technological changes 400 years ago. As Leeds is a big campus, I spend a lot of time running between buildings. It’s not all classroom-based – I work with the library’s Special Collections and local private libraries so that students can work with rare books and manuscripts as part of their studies. I also do guest lectures on other people’s modules. Each hour in a classroom is the product of several hours of preparation. I do as much as I can before teaching starts – designing module websites, finding primary sources for class discussion, putting together reading lists, picking essay topics and so on. But there’s a lot that needs to be done on a daily or weekly basis. I read through the set reading again before each class and go back over my seminar plans to see what I want to update from previous years. Luckily I’m an experienced speed reader! Increasingly, students have specific learning needs – I check that materials are posted online in advance so that all students get adequate time to prepare. All of my lectures are recorded for use by students enrolled on the module, and I edit these to make sure

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that I’m not breaking copyright or that any private conversations have not been picked up by accident. And just as students have lots of essay deadlines, so I have to fit in marking around my other commitments too. I spend at least a third of each day dealing with student queries, either via email or face to face. It’s very-time consuming – and hard on the voice – but I prefer to meet students in person as it gives us the chance to get to know each other. Most academics also have a number of admin roles that they manage alongside their teaching and research – currently, mine relate to student experience and well-being, but that means a lot of meetings, some of which can be emotionally draining. Luckily I’m quite organized and I like meeting people and helping them. I spend part of each day on social media, tweeting about my work. It’s a great way of interacting with other scholars of all ages and backgrounds, and students, and non-academics too. I also go to research seminars with visiting speakers and I run a weekly craft group with a colleague to give people a space to be creative at work. Outside of term time is when I get to ‘do’ history. As I work with early printed books, I’m usually in a library, in silence, reading and hopefully writing. The only time constraints are the reading room opening hours. It’s the exact opposite of term time. And I love them both.

Jonathan Spangler, Senior Lecturer in Early Modern History, Manchester Metropolitan University Having a combined interest in the world of academic research as well as public heritage sometimes leads to conflicts or compromises. Ensuring that complex and nuanced historical ideas are both understandable and engaging to a wider public sometimes means that details are lost; while at the same time, the creation of highly theoretical and often colourless academic publications that preach only to the converted or leave the general reader confused or disinterested should make all academics involved in the arts and humanities question why it is that we do what we do. This dichotomy is something I think about in my typical ‘day in the life’ as a historian. My career has had a dual life for much of its length: for several years I worked as a researcher, writer and producer for museum exhibitions in the United States, then I switched gears and became a full-time academic in the UK. I still apply lessons I learned in my first career to my second: pay attention to the details, always push for excellence, go beyond the basic requirements of the project, and make sure someone else is interested in the things you have to say (and that those things are comprehensible). The skills required to work as a researcher in the world of exhibition design include dogged persistence (if a museum won’t lend you an image you need, ask them again, in a different way) and creative

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quick-thinking (there might be an alternative version of that image in a different collection). Finally, a commitment to perfection and excellence always translates into a great result artistically and intellectually, but, on a more practical level, provides you with the credit needed to obtain the next job and keep your career afloat. As copy editor for various museum projects back in the United States, and as editor of an academic journal today, I never let text leave my desk before it is absolutely perfect, sometimes to the great frustration of the graphic designers staying up all night to meet a deliver deadline. The pay-off is worth it. Today my role is different: I am no longer simply manipulating content for presentation but generating it myself as a professional historian. My work feeds into the redevelopment of heritage in the UK and Continental Europe, notably in how the public understands and appreciates former centres of royal and aristocratic power and culture. At Stirling Castle in Scotland, I was part of a team that helped recreate the palace of King James V in 1540, showcasing in particular the King’s passionate desires and knowledgeable schemes for displaying to the rest of sixteenth-century Europe that his kingdom was not a cultural backwater. In a similar manner, I am currently involved in a project for the redevelopment of the Palace of Lunéville in Lorraine in north-eastern France, which suffered a terrible fire in 2003. As with Stirling, the dukes of Lorraine wanted to project an image to be seen by the other courts of Europe that they were not merely pawns of the kings of France but were important political and cultural leaders in their own right. My job is to try to tell that story in a way that is meaningful and stimulating, as well as academically rigorous, to the people who visit the palace today. Heritage sites like Stirling and Lunéville are the focus of local pride in their distinctive pasts but also serve as a draw for tourists from around the world. In my typical day, I combine my work on projects like these with teaching students and activity on popular and social media to deliver a message that built heritage is both stimulating (intellectually, emotionally) and didactic and thus worth preserving, interpreting and sharing.

Conclusion Teaching the past should be approached with care; education is an important tool for the translation and appropriation of history. Formal education has been accused of teaching a false, simplified and stereotypical view of specific groups of people in the past.151 Historical teachers, as with all historians, have a moral and ethical obligation to be aware that what they teach and

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how they communicate the past to the public, even from an early and formative age, have a direct impact on public viewpoints and perceptions of the past. The diversity in, or lack of, historical teaching can result in public and political tensions and cause distance from the present.152 Teaching history requires communication between historians, scholars and teachers. In recent years, professional communication between these groups has been supported by educational establishments and charities, who have delivered conferences, networking events, workshops and journals, and developed support networks and Internet resources to encourage open dialogues between the sectors. The introduction of diverse and more learner-oriented pedagogical approaches, including experimental and cognitive methods, has sought to engage teachers, students and the public about history and promote its value within modern society. These methods have enabled historical education to be inclusive, adapting not only to different learning styles but also to various teaching contexts. This has included the use of more practical and experience-led teaching within the classroom, including the use of handling collections, role-playing exercises and multimedia and sensory equipment. This has shaped teaching methods and the interactions that historians have with school and teachers. Historical education has, in recent years, sought to support learning through the use of media technology such as the Internet and television. These practices are more commonly associated with entertainment, and as a result, educational practices often tread a fine line between being educational tools and public entertainment. Successful delivery of education programmes involves public historians adapting learning materials to internal and external environmental contexts. The appropriateness and potential learning outcomes of different teaching techniques, such as handson activities and re-enactments, are dependent on context, both historical and present day. It is critical that public historians consider the ethical and learning implications of teaching mechanisms before their application in practice, such as historical reconstructions. This involves a careful consideration of a method’s appropriateness, validity and authenticity. Historical education has a lasting conscious and subconscious impact on the public and their perceptions of the past, which can be both highly emotive and potentially dangerous.

8 Restoration and Preservation

This chapter investigates the role historians have in the restoration and preservation of the past. It examines the changing theories and methods employed by historians working in and on historical landscapes, cityscapes, historical structures and buildings. It seeks to understand how the concept of preserving the past for future generations has impacted on the preservation and restoration of historical resources. It discusses how individuals involved in the management of historical resources require an understanding of current conservation and restoration techniques, which support the interpretation and presentation of history to the public. It investigates restoration and preservation of historical landscapes that can impact on the perceived authenticity of history. Through examples and case studies, this chapter will link the reader back to key debates outlined in the introductory chapter regarding authenticity and politics of the past. These case studies engage the reader in discussions relating to conservation ethics and complexities of managing the past that require balancing visitor requirements and increasing footfall on historic sites with preservation of history for future generations. It engages the reader in ideas pertaining to maintaining cultural and historical integrity, authenticity and accuracy. This chapter includes material on the role of government and charitable organizations such as Historic England, Federal Historians and Landmark Trust in the restoration and preservation of historical assets. It examines, through examples, the variety of skills required to work in restoration and preservation, including conservation, building and landscape surveys, and stakeholder consultation.

History of historic preservation The conservation and preservation of historical sites has a complex sociopolitical history. The practice of historic preservation over the last 400 years has been influenced by the sociopolitical ideologies of both

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the temporal and geographical context. The contextual ideologies have impact on current conservation practices and principles, including current frameworks, charters and constitutions for historic site management. The historiography of historic site management influences the preservation techniques applied, including the maintenance, repair and restoration. As such, the actions of the past have influenced the nature and type of history that is preserved and presented to the public today and directly impacts on the visual and emotional authenticity of the site and its ‘past’. Our current actions, as historians, in preserving historical sites influence the survival, significance, value and impact of history in the future. Historians do not work in isolation; conservation decision and funding for specific preservation practices are influenced by the contextual sociopolitical agendas in historian’s work within. Therefore, it is vital to consider the historiography of the conservation and preservation movement, learning from history, and the case studies, to consider the appropriate steps forward for future sustainable management of historic sites and, as such, understanding the impact preservation actions have on historical significance and authenticity. The restoration and preservation in the seventeenth-century Northern Europe was influenced by the ‘Grand Tour’ in which European upperclass gentlemen undertook foreign travel, usually in Italy, and later during the French Revolution of the eighteenth-century Greece, to be educated in ‘culture’ such as classical architecture and history.1 The results of this travel were reflected in neoclassical architecture, which attempted to reconstruct classical features in newly constructed additions to buildings.2 The renaissance of classical architecture became a prominent feature of seventeenth-, eighteenth- and nineteenth-century landscape garden design and paintings. Landscape gardens of this period incorporated recreations of classical buildings, often reflecting those visited by the landowner or designer during their grand tour. For example, Nicolas Hawkmore (1928) designed a classical mausoleum in Castle Howard3, and William Kent and Gibbs’s Temple of Venus (1731) and Temple of Virtues (1737) in which Greek and Roman statues were inspired by drawings from William Kent’s Italian tour.4 These buildings were not historically authentic; rather, they were seen as representations of a period of history.5 The wider world perspectives attained during travel and through developing educational systems and reforms influenced the Enlightenment period of the eighteenth century. Many European countries were keen to impress each other and the world with their ‘civilisation’ and historical legacy. As such, by the mid- to later eighteenth century, many European countries opened national museums, including the British Museum (1759) and Musée du Louvre (1793).6 The growth of cultural tourism during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries resulted in visitors interacting with an increasing number and type of historical sites and voicing their concern for their poor condition, for example, at the Vatican, Rome.7

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The Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century in Europe influenced the cultural landscape; coal mining and the building of factories changed the rural and urban landscape.8 The resultant social and political changes during this period had lasting effects on the historical landscape of Europe; for example, the French Revolution resulted in middle-class ‘public’ rights and the dissolution of the monarchy; buildings reflected this with a movement away from grand elite structures.9 The French Revolution impacted on the preservation of historical buildings with the public ownership; royal and religious buildings were repurposed; as such, adaptive reuse transformed elite buildings into public buildings, for example, transforming the Louvre Palace into the Musée Central de Arts. There was a new focus on preservation of ‘traditional’ and rural landscapes, and as such, the conservation movement of the nineteenth century was born.10 This period is marked by, some of, the first formal restoration work being undertaken in an attempt to preserve original historical work. The preservation ethic of the eighteenth century focused on the preservation of one historical period; reconstructions recreated a fixed moment in the history of a building, and architectural styles were often linked to a specific period. For example, Goethe’s rebuilding of the Ducal palace, destroyed by fire in 1774, was rebuilt in a neoclassical style.11 By the nineteenth century, historical sites were valued as assets that belonged to the world.12 The preservation movement had begun as had national responsibility for historic conservation; for example, in Germany, Karl Friedrick Schinkel issued Memorandum zur Denkmalpflege (memorandum on the preservation of monuments) in 1815.13 This memorandum outlined frameworks for state monument preservation.14 The Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and subsequent political turmoil had, in part, led to a nostalgia for the past, a romanticism for a bygone era.15 Romanticism led a gothic revival as buildings were erected in the stylistic imitation of medieval buildings such as Barry and Pugin’s 1835 design of the Houses of Parliament.16 In other cases, the removal or addition of parts that were not deemed to be in the vision on the past, for example, proposals, was put forward for completing buildings in the vision of the past, for example, Notre Dame by Viollet-le-Duc.17 Restoration projects, such as the Temple of Athena Nike by Nikolaos Balanos (1844), became common practice, yet these projects were often based on conjecture rather than original ‘authentic’ historical or archaeological evidence.18 The professionalization of historic conservation and preservation of the nineteenth century resulted in a period of debate, discussion and conflict regarding these preservation approaches. Preservation discussions related to the restoration of historic buildings; as such, Royal Institute of British Architects (1865) launched its ‘conservation of ancient monuments and remains’ and the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings (SPAB) (1877) through William Morris’s ‘manifesto’ which became the guiding principles for conservation repair and was often linked to concepts of

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authenticity.19 Morris’s manifesto stated ‘to treat our ancient buildings as moments of a bygone art, created by bygone manners, that modern art cannot meddle without destroying’.20 Morris suggested that we were responsible for respecting and maintaining the infrastructure and authenticity of these buildings for future generations. Morris’s and Ruskin’s works directly influenced nineteenth- and twentieth-century European approaches to historic protection, including France’s implementation in law of the Protection of Historic Buildings (1887), the UK’s SPAB’s ‘Repair of Ancient buildings’ (1899), and the formation of the National Trust (NT) (1895).21 These initial doctrines for the protection of historic buildings continued to influence modern-day charters and conventions across European and much of the Western world, including historic site management which is undertaken by national heritage agencies such as English Heritage in the UK and Heritage Agency of Denmark.22 France Anatole highlighted that historic buildings were not from a singular moment in history but should be conceptualized similarly to books, each period adding to the historical story. It was asserted, by Gurot (1930), that disciplines such as art, architecture and history should be combined to understand and preserve authentic historical sites and provide a ‘chain’ of historical documentation. Authenticity became a key concept of the nineteenth century; Ruskin fought against ‘stylistic restoration’ of historic buildings and suggested restoration that sought to revive earlier stages resulted in the loss of value and authenticity of the historical work.23 Ruskin suggested minimum intervention and resolvability, concluding that it was better to let go of the past rather than copy, and accept that one cannot get back what is gone as the authentic beauty would be lost.24 Towards the end of the nineteenth century, critiques of historic building restoration based on valuing the ‘authentic past’ became commonplace within historical preservation discussions.25 For example, Morris protested against the restoration of historical buildings and sites based on the importance of preserving historical authenticity. As such, the restoration of San Marco in Venice and Viollet-le-Duc work on Notre Dame came under heavy criticism for rebuilding the past based on a modern guesswork.26 The early twentieth century reflected many of Morris and Ruskin’s key principles, ones that were situated in anti-restoration. As such, restoration became synonymous with rebuilding and making the past up to suit modern perceptions of history, for example, the critique of the ‘replication’ of eighteenth-century Colonial Williamsburg in 1925.27 Historical preservation and conservation practices became an arena of conflict, particularly in regard to restoration or rehabilitation with Sambon and Toudouze fighting against the ‘pretext’ of restoration, which they believed was often based on limited original evidence and was illinformed.28 Conflicts in preservation and conservation approaches were highlighted during the reconstruction of the Parthenon, Athens, in late 1895–1933.29 After the earthquake damage, Nikolaos Balanos, as chief

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conservator, was charged with reconstructing of the site, including the Erechtheum, the temple on the north side of the Acropolis.30 His approach of using original elements but changing their positions was equated, by Sambon and Toudouze, as replacing and distorting the past with little or no evidence to back up architectural changes, and as such, unfavourably replicating a bygone genius.31 In the twentieth century, national and international legislation relating to the conservation and preservation of historic sites increased, often in the form of charters and constitutions (see Table 8.3). The continued public interest, touristic appeal of historic sites and growth in professionalization relating to historic site management resulted in the implementation of management systems and frameworks for historic sites. This included the NT’s model, which later was formalized under the National Trust Act (1937), enabling historic houses and sites to be gifted, tax free, to the charity.32 This model would be followed in countries around the world, including France, Italy and the United States. Historic site management plans were adapted on a global scale yet often based on European and American models relating to the preservation of ‘tangible’ heritage. The key principles of legislation, management and frameworks pertaining to the conservation and preservation of historic sites were based on earlier nineteenth-century views and values. These views were often anti-restoration or at least demonstrate reluctance towards restoration; rather, they were in favour of consolidation and respect for the original fabric.33 This was reflected in 1931 by Gustavo Gionvannoni; his publication in 1932 of the Italian Charter for Restoration demonstrated reluctance towards restoration.34 The Italian Charter for Restoration supported the maintenance, respect and preservation in situ of historical sites.35 The 1931 Athens Charter on the restoration of historic building, developed during the first International Congress of Architecture and Technicians of Historic Monuments, suggested the following:36 ●●

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●●

●●

●●

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International organizations for restoration on operational and advisory levels are to be established. Proposed restoration projects are to be subjected to knowledgeable criticisms to prevent mistakes, which will cause loss of character and historical values to the structures. Problems of preservation of historical sites are to be solved by legislation at national levels for all countries. Excavated sites, which are not subject to immediate restoration, should be reburied for protection. Modern techniques and materials may be used in restoration work. Historical sites are to be given strict custodial protection. Attention should be given to the protection of areas surrounding historic sites.

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The Athens Charter, published in 1933, was the foundational framework for many of the national preservation laws around the world, including National Historic Preservation of 1966 (the United States).37 The massive destruction of many historic buildings and sites within Europe during military action, including bombing campaigns of the Second World War, impacted on preservation principles and practices, and restoration was regarded as a viable and ethically justifiable option. For example, the almost complete destruction of Cologne Cathedral (Germany) in the Second World War II by allied forces bombing resulted in the decision to restore and rebuild many of the historical sites, including churches and cathedrals, such as large sections of Cologne Cathedral (Figure 8.1).38 In 1938, the Italian Central Institute of Restoration in Rome was formed and directed by Brandi, which was to be the foundations for the International

FIGURE 8.1  Cologne Cathedral, Germany, 1946. Photo by Hulton Archive/Getty Images.

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Centre of the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM).39 Brandi redefined meaning and methodology within restoration, linking it to preservation and associating restoration of building with creating history unity.40 In 1969, post–Second World War, ICCROM was established and restoration work was given new footings and scope.41 Preservation for future generations was promoted: ‘restoration is a method for transmitting works of art for the future’.42 Many of the key concepts relating to historic preservation during the mid-twentieth century reflected eighteenth- and nineteenth-century ideas. Historic rehabilitation and restoration was re-examined in light of the destructive impact of the Second World War, and multidisciplinary endeavours were undertaken in which history was no longer seen in isolation (Case study 26).43 In 1963, Europa Nostra was founded as the voice to cultural heritage of Europe with the aim of advocating and saving heritage in Europe, supporting the voice of its citizens.44 In 1964, Venice Charter (adapted by ICOMOS 1965) reflected the political and public support for the preservation and the restoration of historic sites in Europe.45 It highlighted the need for conservation practices to consider the social values of historical sites: ‘The conservation of monuments is always facilitated by making use of them for some socially useful purpose. Such use is therefore desirable but it must not change the layout or decoration of the building. It is within these limits only that modifications demanded by a change of function should be envisaged and may be permitted.’46 The formation of the International Council on Monuments and Sites (in 1965) recognized the wider value of conserving and restoring historic sites.47 In this period, historic sites were once again regarded as important assets that could be used to help build or rebuild a nation and to consolidate identity.48 From the mid- to late twentieth century, public interest and involvement in historic preservation flourish with societies and charitable organizations such as World Monuments Fund (WMF), founded by James Gray in 1965, and Landmark Trust (1965), a British building conservation charity, founded by Sir John and Lady Smith.49 By 1972, UNESCO Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage had been ratified, and global heritage protection was an international endeavour. This convention, signed by member states, aimed to protect cultural and socially internationally important sites and identify sites at risk. It sought through frameworks, guidance, international advisory panels to offer guidance on the protection and preservation of history at an international level.50 In 1987, ICOMOS Charter for the Conservation of Historical Towns and Urban Areas influenced global approaches to historic ‘cityscapes’, supporting concepts of originality, current and present functionality, and the modern requirements for adaption.51 The UN Brundtland Commission 1987 concluded the need for sustainable development of historic sites in order to meet not only present-day needs but also future needs.52 ICOMOS Charter and Brundtland Commission influenced the preservation ethics

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FIGURE 8.2  Street front of historic building in Annapolis. Photo by Glowimages via Getty Images.

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of the 1980s, developing ideas of renovation of historical sites and whole historical cityscapes. Urban planning introduced the concept of historical zones, which sought to represent cultural and historical diversity.53 These city plans created historic districts and historical domains, for example, the United States; within historical districts, owners were encouraged to renovate and maintain historical properties preserving them against disrepair (Figure 8.2).54 This holistic approach to historic preservation considered historic landscapes and cityscapes together as an interlinked and symbiotic historical environment, rather than individual sites.55 This approach sought to preserve an ‘authentic’ experience of the past to balance current and future preservation needs with that of modern political, economic and social needs and provide sustainable historic preservation.56 During the 1990s, historic sites were used as tools to build capacity, to support social diversity, to encourage tourism and as educational tools. As such, there was a plethora of public reconstructions of historic sites, for example, Jorvik Viking Centre and Mystic Seaport (Case study 24).57 The growing number of educationally justified reconstructions reflected a growth of public interest in history and increase in heritage tourism. The reconstruction, recreation and replication of historical sites within historical preservation provided the wider public engagement and access to the past.58 By the late twentieth century, wider value and significance of historical sites was on the agenda for conservation and preservation, as evidenced by Merriman’s study of values and Lowenthal’s discussion of ‘heritage values’.59 Ideas of conflicting values in regard to heritage and history were beginning to be addressed, for example, the 1979 Burra Charter and 1990 NAGPRA.60 These charters sought to address the issues with the preservation, conservation and management of indigenous remains, including intangible history and historic sites. Concepts of significance, cultural value and ethics influenced conservation and preservation practices on historic sites. As such, the definition of historic sites altered to consider notions of heritage beyond Western perceptions of tangible linear history (Table 8.1).61 Towards the end of the twentieth century, heritage management of historic sites involved a more all-encompassing and less-defined notion of heritage.62 Heritage management of historic sites included understanding ‘stakeholder’ interests; not only the physical remains of historic sites required preservation but also the sites of wider cultural significance; and concepts of intangible remains, folklores, traditions, dreamscapes, memories influenced preservation practices.63 New developments in the scientific techniques used in conservation practice enabled preservation in situ, the use of non-invasive research techniques and reversible conservation, and the use of traditional practices was common theme with the practice of restoring and preserving historic buildings and sites.

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In 2003, the UNESCO Convention for Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage highlighted the central role of community in setting historic preservation agendas in the early twenty-first century. These preservation agendas were based on cultural value and significance. The concept of Authoritative Heritage Discourse questioned the validity and the right of the people setting the agendas for historic site preservation, ‘the authority’, and specifically those with political power.64 As such, it was highlighted that this power-based preservation practice led to conflict with the multiple ‘other’ stakeholders, who placed alterative values and significances on historic sites; these stakeholders included indigenous populations and minority groups.65 This conflict in site management can result in loss and destruction of certain types of history. For example, in Kruger National Park (South Africa), Iron Age historic sites, and local culturally significant places, have been destroyed or overlooked due to the area’s tourists’ potential of visiting the big game on safari.66 Managing historic sites on a global scale raises ethical and culturally sensitive issues, including the representation of colonization and slavery. Balancing the roles of indigenous populations, external managers and heritage advisers has seen traditional preservation practice models deconstructed, as it is realized value and use are often contradictory; for example, Angkor Wat Heritage management framework accesses the impact of touristic use and value on the spiral heritage (Figure 8.3). It set out a strategy to prevent visitors having negative impacts on its intangible value.

FIGURE 8.3  Photograph of Angkor Wat, Cambodia. Photo by Boy_Anupong via Getty Images.

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This strategy moves away from restoration and creative reuse and is based on concepts of modern use and wider value. The management framework supports and encourages the maintenance and rebuilding of traditional values and uses.67 In the twenty-first century, restoration, reconstruction and preservation of the past have taken a public dimension with public television programmes encouraging the public to engage in the restoration choices and preservation of the past ‘public voice’. Television programmes, including Restoration (BBC One, 2003–2009), supported popular interest in heritage restoration and preservation. Restoration (BBC One) provided the public with a choice of which listed buildings in the UK should receive £3 million Heritage Lottery Funding for remedial work. In 2003, the winning building was Victoria Baths, Manchester; with money used to restore a section of the baths, to open it up to visitors and to support its transformation into a public swimming pool.68 Grand Designs (Channel 4, 1999–), Grand Designs Australia (2010), Restoration Home (BBC Two, 2011) Restoration Man (Channel 4, 2010) and The Landmark Trust (Channel 4, 2016–) all presented the restoration of historic buildings into modern homes by owners. The focus of these programmes was on the architectural history of a building, its repair and restoration, its historical story and modern purpose and value. In a change of format from documentary ‘reality’ style to game show, the Great Interior Design Challenge (BBC One, 2014–) focused on the interior of houses with contestants judged by design and architectural experts on their ability to uncover and encapsulate the internal design features of a period within a modern and functional context and to the owner’s specifications, for example, the restoring and redesigning of the internal space of a row of seventeenth-century workers’ cottages in Bibury on part of a NT site.69 Global and local historic preservation practices of the twenty-first century reflect a ‘community’ and ‘public’ focus, based on shared value. This was highlighted by the Faro Convention (2005), which emphasized that it was not the physical remains ‘objects’ and ‘places’ in themselves that were important but rather the meanings and uses people attach to them and the value they represent.70 Heritage preservation sought to reflect ‘citizen’ voices and values, and this was reflected in Europa Nostra’s 7 Most Endangered programme, launched in 2013, with partners including European Investment Bank, Council of European Development Bank and supported by EU as part of Sharing Heritage – Sharing Values project (2017–2020).71 The programme with a multidisciplinary team of heritage and financial experts aims to rescue historic sites, including Grimsby Ice Factory and the Historic Centre of Vienna, providing sites with sustainable long-term management agenda.72 The worldwide introduction of historic conservation management plans (CMPs) in the twenty-first century has guided preservation practices, based on context, significance (see Online Material: Significance and Levels), community value, impact of intervention and sustainable maintenance.73 The

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current approach to conservation highlights issues of balancing maintaining historical significance, tourism, and access requirements; supporting modern development; encouraging present functionality; preservation for future generations; and cost-effectiveness.

Types of historical sites Historical sites often fall into multiple and frequently overlapping categories. These include landscapes, cityscapes, monuments, memoryscapes, deathscapes, seascapes and archaeological sites. (Table 8.1). These sites can be transformative; for example, although often delimited into one category, they can transform into another with distinct overlap between the sites. For example, the Stonehenge is a landscape, monument, archaeological site and deathscape that has been transformed through time and use into a memoryscape, with traditions, stories, folklores and values attached to the place beyond the physically visible remains (Case study 1).74 TABLE 8.1  Types of historic sites Type of Site

Description

Example

Historic landscapes

A cluster of historical buildings or landscape features

Stonehenge (UK), Battle of Hastings (UK), Killing Fields (Burma), Flag Fen (UK), New York african Burial Ground (USA)

Historic cityscapes

The urban and industrial landscape of a city, containing historical buildings and spaces, such as personal, business, religious, government and recreational clustered together

Annapolis (USA), Taipei (Taiwan), Cologne (Germany) Anuradhapura (Sri Lanka)

Historic buildings

Buildings of architectural or historical significance such as country houses, churches, mills and palaces

Clandon House (UK) St catherdral (UK), Methwold (UK), White House (USA), Clifford’s Tower (UK), Jamestown Prison (Ghana)

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TABLE 8.1  (Continued) Type of Site

Description

Example

Historic monuments A structure, such as statue, building or monument, built to commemorate historic event, person or people

Trafalgar Square (UK), Vietnam War Memorial (Washington, DC, USA), Anzac Day Memorial (Australia)

Memoryscapes

A place of tradition, where experiences of the place help to form part of personal and community identity. Often linked to intangible, oral and ritual sites (including dreamscapes)

Ayes Rock (Australia), Kakadu National Park (Australia), Kruger National Park (South Africa)

Deathscapes

Landscapes of death, where cultural practices around death are practised

West Kennet Long Barrow (UK), Sutton Hoo (UK), African Burial Ground (USA)

Seascapes

Marine historical, heritage and archaeological under the water

Mary Rose (UK), Great Barrier Reef (Australia), Duart Bay (Mull, Scotland)

Archaeological

Underground remains of the human past

Rose Theatre (UK), Spitalfields (UK), Michelle Pre-historic Indian Village (USA), Flag Fen (UK), Jeiling (Denmark)

Historic sites can include tangible remains such as single buildings, multiple buildings and landscape features, and intangible history in the form of memories and traditions relating to the past. These historical sites performed or perform a range of functions, which are often transient and fluid; they can be sites of habitation, commercial enterprise, industrial activity or religious practice (Table 8.1). For example, historic buildings including stately homes can be transformed through conservation and preservation

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actions from residential sites to public and commercial spaces, used as arenas for historical education, tourism and entertainment (Case study 27). Preservation and conservation management activities impact on a historical site’s current and potential future historical significance and value, including its social, economic, political and knowledge value. Resultantly, the type of physical remains, the functionality of the site, the current historic value and significance of the site influence the decisions regarding management practices, for example, a site’s restoration (see Online Material: Key Elements of a Conservation and Heritage Management Report).

Methods of historic site management The management of historical sites requires the conservation, preservation, restoration and reconstruction of historical aesthetics, including architectural and landscape features. The techniques used are influenced by a historic site’s context, for example, its historical significance, value to the community and nation, and current condition; and the wider political, economic and social situational climates of the historic site. The preservation and restoration ethos and methods have altered considerably in the last few centuries, in part, due to changing political climates, recognition of social and cultural values, economic constraints, improved conservation techniques, and the implementation of frameworks for site management and conservation in the form of charters and constitutions (Case study 26).

CASE STUDY 26. Coventry Cathedral

T

he destruction of a large part of Coventry Cathedral in 1940 by the Second World War bombings forced professionals, such as SPAB, to reconsider the dominating conservation principles at the time.75 Catastrophic damage to historical buildings had not previously been tackled; the only SPAB clause relevant to this was ‘if it had become inconvenient for its present day use, to raise another building rather than alter or enlarge the old one’.76 This approach was controversial; as such, in 1924, a rider was added that with good reason, additions could be made, providing they did not reproduce or were obviously new and were needed for the building’s future; this was though later removed.77 During the 1940s, restoration and reconstruction was frequently opposed; for example, Liverpool Church was left as a monument to its historic events. In 1951, the architect Basil Spence won the competition to redesign the building; his plan was to use the ruins and to build a connected

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cathedral at right angles to the ruins. His plans linked the ancient and modern, seeking to create one cathedral with one spire and one purpose.78 This plan sought to resurrect and not reconstruct the injured cathedral, preserving as much of the original cathedral as possible in order to tell its historical story. As such, he argued against the destruction and rebuilding of the cathedral.79 This redesign of Coventry Cathedral in the post-war period, seeking to preserve its historical authenticity but making it relevant and functional in the present, was to be one of the examples that would change preservation practices worldwide, including influencing the approach to places such as Clandon House (Case study 27).

Questions 1 How has Basil Spence’s approach redefined conservation practices for historical buildings?

2 Is there a value to leaving the ruins of historical sites? If so, what are the values?

Extended questions 1 What impact did Morris’s manifesto have of the preservation and conservation of historic buildings?

2 What was the significance of rebuilding and resurrecting Coventry Cathedral to the wider practice of historic preservation?

Reading ●●

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Goodall, M. and Slocombe, M. (2017), ‘Out of the Ashes: Coventry Cathedral’. Society of Ancient Buildings Magazine (Spring), pp. 82–84. Hunt. R. and Boyd. I. (2017), New Design for Old Buildings. London: RIBA Publishing. Morris, W. (1987), ‘Manifesto’ of the S.P.A.B.

Extended reading ●●

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Jokilehto. J. (2002), History of Architectural Conservation. London: Routledge Ashurst, J. (2006), Conservation of Ruins. London: Routledge. Lowenthal, D. (1992), ‘Authenticity? The Dogma of Self-delusion’. In M. Jones (ed.), Why Fakes Matter. Essays on Problems of Authenticity. London: British Museum Press, pp. 184–192.

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Preservation is the implementation of conservation techniques that aim to prevent historical sites from being destroyed, either through the deliberate destruction, for example, from development or by accidental oversight or inaction. Preservation management of historic sites involves that maintenance and repair of existing historical materials.80 Preservation aims to provide historical integrity and to consider how historical sites evolved over time, and how this evolution can be represented in the present. Preservation involves minimal changes to original historical fabric and/or features, aiming to preserve the historical authenticity of the site by keeping as much of the original historical material and form as possible.81 This method promotes the use of traditional evidence-based methods and materials, aiming to change as little of the current form as possible.82 Its central ethos is to ‘preserve’ historic sites for future generations, rather than focusing current potential use and altering its value. Conservation of historic sites aims to keep and preserve the maximum amount of original material, fabric or landscape. As such, no material should be removed or altered; rather repairs should be reversible at a later date.83 Preservation and conservation techniques often work together in the maintenance and stabilization of historical sites. Preventative conservation seeks to ensure minimal intervention; this can involve visitor management and maintenance, for example, the decision to undertake at Auschwitz concentration camp. This management decision was based, in part, on the cultural and ethical sensitivity of the site, seeking to preserve the memories and authenticity of the site and the horrific actions that occurred there. Stabilization projects, such as SPABs 2017 live conservation project in Lumsdale Valley in Derbyshire, involved the removal by professionals and volunteers of plant material around the eighteenth-century mill.84 Yet reverse conservation encourages no intervention, leaving a historical site as it is to preserve the authenticity and significance of place.85 Restoration enables aesthetic changes to buildings or places in order to take it back to a specific period in time.86 Decisions as to what elements to restore are based on what is regarded by the owners, stakeholders or site mangers as the most historically significant period of the site. As such, restoration of historic sites can result in the removal of evidence from other historical periods and as such conflicts between stakeholders.87 Restoration aims to ‘bring the historic site back to its former condition’ without ‘falsification’.88 The focus of restoration is on historical appearance; changes are guided by current function and public perceptions of historical periods, and associated architectural and aesthetic features. This method of renovation requires additions to the building to be obvious or in keeping, aiming to transmit and preserve history into the future,89 for example, SPAB and Landmark Trust’s restoration of fifteenth- to sixteenth-century Methwold Vicarage, a grade I–listed building (Figure 8.4).90 Monica Dance,

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who later left the building to SPAB and asked the Landmark Trust to help maintain it, started restoration work at Methwold in the 1970s. Dance’s work uncovered, preserved and repaired many original features, including sixteenth-century wall paintings and windows, and transforming it back to

FIGURE 8.4  Methwold Vicarage © Faye Sayer.

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a functional home.91 The Dances repaired the timber frames and internal fittings and recorded insertions such as large window on ground floor and identified structural changes through paint colours.92 Renovation focuses on the historical aesthetics, aiming to make the historical site look like new or as it would have done when it was first created. This method of preservation places less restrictions on historical authenticity; rather it seeks to make historical sites relevant and functional in the present.93 Renovation aims to aesthetically place a site within a historical time frame, often recreating or recapturing its history. This mechanism for historical site management is linked to rehabilitation, which seeks to retain the property’s historical character, while still enabling, through internal and external architectural changes, functional present-day use.94 Renovation is practised widely in domestic and residential homes; for example, the renovation of historic homes and commercial premises in Annapolis is widespread in the historic district and supported by city government.95 This has included the renovation of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century buildings into inns such as Governor Calvert House, the Maryland Inn and Robert Johnson House.96 Reconstruction aims to ‘rethink’ a place to an earlier known state, using evidence to reproduce the historic fabric.97 This method uses archaeological and historic sources to aid reconstruction, producing a best guess as to what history looked like and seeking to retain the significance of a place (Case study 27). This method is distinguished from restoration by the introduction of new material into the fabric.98 Reconstruction can serve to create visual interpretation of history, seeking to be ‘authentic’ in the present, rather than historically accurate.99 As such, some reconstructions, especially those undertaken in the nineteenth century and early twentieth century, relied on little physical evidence to ‘recreate’ vanished or non-surviving parts, in some cases, recreating complete buildings and landscapes from specific historical periods, for example, Colonial Williamsburg.100 Issues with reconstruction have led ICOMOS (1990) to provide guides to aid decisions as to whether reconstruction is appropriate,101 for example, the reconstruction of the ruined Darul Aman Palace, Kabul, which was built in 1920 by King Amanullah and destroyed by fire in 1969.102 In 2013, a government campaign was launched with the Afghanistan government funding $16.5—20 million project to rebuild this historic site as part of a national heritage rebuilding scheme after the widespread destruction of heritage sites by the Taliban, including the Buddhas of Bamiyan. This nationally funded reconstruction project aimed to rebuild a nation through using the past to unite a country and provide a historical foundation for the future (Table 8.2).103 The preservation, conservation, restoration and reconstruction of historical sites all have value in preserving history, and any intervention

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TABLE 8.2  For and against reconstruction104 Justification for Reconstruction

Justification against Reconstruction

Site has national symbolic value

Evocative value of ruined building

Continuity of function and reuse

Difficulty achieving authenticity

Touristic value

Ethical issues conveying information

Site preservation

No original evidence Destruction of landscape values Destruction of site interpretation Cost

CASE STUDY 27. Clandon House

C

landon House, in Surrey, an NT property was burnt down on 9 April 2015, leaving only the shell of the eighteenth-century building. This building is situated within an eighteenth-century landscape garden created by Capability Brown (Figure 8.5).105 The site and building exist on top of seventeenth-century Jacobean foundations.106 The eighteenthcentury building is a unique example from this historical period, including

FIGURE 8.5  Clandon House. Photo by Peter Macdiarmid/Getty Images.

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FIGURE 8.6  Photograph of wedding in the marble hall at Clandon House © Faye Sayer.

Leoni’s ornate marble hall (Figure 8.6). As such, it is a grade I–listed building and a tourist attraction, wedding venue and local landmark, which provided a revenue stream for the NT, including through the shop and cafe to support its maintenance. The destruction of the internal spaces of the building through the fire has led to the NT proposal for ‘rebuilding’ or perhaps more appropriately ‘reconstruction’ of this country’s ‘stately’ home; this has been controversial. The ancestral owners, the Onslows, have expressed anger against rebuilding, seeing recreation of Clandon as a ‘wasteful pastiche’ of the original.107 Heritage professionals have suggested that the new design could enable creative reuse of the building, supporting it as a functional space for a museum, interpretation centre and community space, thus creating a new legacy for the future.108 Others argue for a ‘full bodied re-creation’ as is seemed at NT Uppark (1989). SPAB has suggested the Clandon recreation could provide an arena to learn and provide skills training and apprenticeships in traditional methods of masonry and timberwork, encouraging and engaging people heritage.109 Currently, the NT has opened up areas of the fired damaged building to enable public tours. Six architect-led teams were shortlisted for an international design competition to provide design solutions for this complex restoration,

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reimaging and rebuilding project. Short clips of this have been put online and displayed in 3D models of site for two months, seeking to engage the public in the conservation process and preservation choices. Architectures such as AL_A and Giles Quareme and Associates choose to preserve the ruin under glass, restoring only certain rooms and creating new modern spaces in upper floors; many also seek to adapt the gardens to encourage creative reuse as an entertainment space.110 The architectural proposals sought to not only restore elements but reinvent the space and make it relevant in present, often revealing multiple histories that were previously hidden. Many architects shortlisted noted the need to balance new life for the building alongside respecting its history. The fire, by some, is regarded as creating an opportunity to reinvent a domestic space into a public space. This has led to conservation debate as to the most appropriate preservation methods of balancing modern and appropriate techniques to present to preserve the past in a public domain and retain historical authenticity and has included choices such as whether to restore the marble hall or leave it in ruins or whether to keep the brickwork exposed. Funding for this work will come from the Clandon park appeal, and the NT donations and funding.111

Questions 1 What considerations should be taken when deciding to rebuild or reconstruct a destroyed historic site?

2 Should reconstruction encourage redesign? What would be the justification for this?

3 What is the significance of this building to different stakeholders? 4 Should the marble hall be left as ruin or restored? What are arguments for and against?

Extended questions 1 Is the cost of reconstruction justifiable and if so how? Is it value for money? Cost benefit analysis?

2 Can old and new stories be told together through preservation? Can historic elements be respected and balanced with new needs? Without losing authenticity?

Reading ●●

Jokilehto, J. (1985), ‘Authenticity in Restoration Principles and Practice’, Bulletin of the Association for Preservation Technology 17, p. 5.

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http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/03/09/dont-waste-30mpastiche-says-ancestral-owner-gutted-palladian/ https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/clandon-park/lists/meet-thedesign-teams-at-clandon-park

Extended reading ●●

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Orbasli, A. (2007), Architectural Conservation. London: Blackwell Publishing. Slocombe, M. (2017), ‘Directors Notes’, The Society for the Protection of Ancient Building Magazine (Spring), p. 4. Fielder, K. (2016) ‘X Marks the Spot: Narratives of a Lost Country House’. In J. Stobart and A. Hann (eds), The Country House Material Culture and Consumption. Swindon: Historic England Publishing, pp. 196–206.

or even non-intervention will have an impact on the current and future significance of the site and critically the ‘visitor experience’. The techniques chosen will depend on the overall aims, historical significance, historical background, stakeholder interests, its current condition and critically also the local, national and international politics that govern it. As such, restrictions will often be placed on methods used, the types of alterations and any addition to the historical site. There is a plethora of other considerations in the conservation of historic sites, including access requirements and health and safety policies. For example, the Americans with Disability Act: Preservation Challenges could require ramps or lifts to enable access.112 Limits to funding and architectural restrictions, such as planning consent or access to material, also place constraints on the approaches used. It is also important to note that choices made by professional historic site managers and owners may not always be widely acceptable and may cause conflict, for example, English Heritage’s proposal for a new visitor centre and renovation of the interior at Clifford’s Tower, York. The proposed plans for the management of this thirteenth-century castle included creating covered spiral walkway and interpretation centre in the mound with the aim of increasing visitor numbers and raising awareness of an important historical site, including the site of the Jewish Massacre in 1190.113 This resulted in a crowdfunding legal challenge led by independent city councillor Johnny Hayes, based on the claim that this proposed conversation work would ruin this site’s authentic ‘charm’; this claim was later rejected.114

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International charters and international conventions International charters and conventions and national policies directly influence the restoration and preservation of historical sites; these are to be discussed in more detail in the political chapter (Chapter 9). These documents influence the ethos and ethics of preservation and conservation practice and play a role in current and future historical significance, for example, UNESCO International Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and Sites.115 Most countries have national laws which aim to protect and preserve historical sites; for example, Danish law around monuments stipulates a 2 m protection zone against cultivation and metal detection and a 100 m perimeter prohibiting visual alteration zone around the site or monument, such as at the Viking site of Jeiling.116 Behind many of these conventions, charters and laws are key principles that govern management choices regarding historical sites, including cultural significance, environmental sustainability, sustainable development and ethos for preservation for future generations. Yet these documents are often based on European concepts of value and significance, frequently overlooking intangible values and traditions. There are numerous international and national charters and conventions for protecting and managing, including preserving and restoring historic assets (Table 8.3). A convention is an internationally legally binding treaty, signed by multiple countries, to provide a framework for activities pertaining to the management of historic places, spaces and building, for example, the European Convention on the Protection of the Archaeological Heritage.117 This convention, also known as the Valletta Convention, previously the Malta Treaty (1992), set out framework for the management of historical resources in Europe stating, as a source of European collective memory and as an instrument for historical and scientific study. All remains and objects and any other traces of humankind from past times are considered to be elements of the archaeological heritage. The archaeological heritage includes structures, constructions, groups of buildings, developed sites, moveable objects, monuments of other kinds as well as their context, whether situated on land or under water. 118 A charter is a legal document, developed by an organization or government agency, setting out formal principles, procedures and rights for historical sites. For example, the Australian ICOMOS Charter for the Conservation of Places of Cultural Significance, the Burra Charter, set out principles that created a national standard of heritage conservation practice in Australia (Table 8.3).119

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TABLE 8.3  International charters and conventions impacting on the management of historic sites Date

Title

Organization

1931/Published 1933

Athens Charter for the Restoration of Historic Monuments120

CIAM/ ICOMOS

1954

Hague Convention: Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict121

UNESCO

1956

New Delhi Resolutions122

UNESCO/ ICCROM

1964

The Venice Charter: International Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and Sites123

ICOMOS

1972

Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage124

UNESCO

1979 (Revised 1999; adapted 2013)

Burra Charter: Charter for the Conservation of Places of Cultural Significance125

ICOMOS

1985

Granada Convention: European Convention on the Protection of Architectural Heritage126

Council of Europe

1987

Charter for the Conservation of Historic Towns and Urban Areas127

ICOMOS

1989

Charter for the Protection and Management of the Archaeological Heritage128

ICOMOS

1990

NAGPRA: Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act129

USA

1992

Malta Treaty/Valletta Convention: European Convention on the Protection of the Archaeological Heritage130

Council of Europe

1993

New Zealand Charter for the Conservation of Places of Cultural Heritage Value131

ICOMOS

1996

Declaration of San Antonio on Authenticity132

ICOMOS

1999

International Cultural Tourism Charter133

ICOMOS

2000

Florence Convention: European Landscape Convention134

Council of Tourism

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TABLE 8.3  (Continued) Date

Title

Organization

2001

Cultural Heritage and Development. A Framework for Action in the Middle East and North Africa135

World Bank

2003

Convention for Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage

UNESCO

2004

Charter for the Conservation of Indian National Unprotected Architectural Heritage and Trust for Sites in India136 Arts and Cultural Heritage

2005

Faro Convention: Convention on the Value of Cultural Heritage for Society137

Council of Europe

2015

Sustainable Development Policy138

UNESCO

CASE STUDY 28. Taiwan: Council for Cultural Affairs

I

n the 1960s and 1970s, rapid urbanization in Taiwan destroyed many historical buildings, a problem mirrored in many Asian cities, including Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.139 The Lin-An-Tai house in Taipei City became a pivotal case for the preservation movement in Taiwan. Lin-An-Tai was one of the few surviving examples of an early Qing dynasty house, yet in 1978, the government demolished the house to make way for a road extension.140 It was this destruction that highlighted to heritage professionals the public issues of balancing of development and preservation of cultural heritage and history. Taiwan’s Council for Cultural Affairs implemented Cultural Preservation Act of 1982 (amended in 2015), which is currently the responsibility of the Bureau of Cultural Heritage.141 The cultural preservation act and the creation of the bureau of cultural heritage sought to protect and preserve historic sites and conserve cultural legacies. This has included the preservation of Tianhou Gong, Penghu, dating to 1592, consisting of approximately 1000 temples dedicated to Goddess of Sea Mazu.142 In the last decade, the Taiwanese government, through the Bureau of Cultural Heritage, has supported a scheme to encourage owners to restore and preserve historical buildings.143 Taiwan has adopted a US-based idea of developer-funded heritage projects;

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as such, if developer wants to construct a building, even if this was in another part of town to a heritage asset, they would have to pay the owner of a cultural heritage site the equivalent of what the owners would earn if allowed to knock the site down.144 This scheme aimed to encourage homeowners to keep ancestral homes and to preserve historic buildings in the city. For example, the scheme has been credited with saving Taipei’s Dihua Street, which received government and private money to support its long-term preservation and conservation.145 The Taiwanese government has also paid owners to restore properties; the cultural heritage administration to date has paid £6.3–9.4 million a year to do this.146 This has in part spurred a preservationist movement based on owner stewardship, into which the owners of historical buildings are now personally financing. This scheme aims not only to preserve cultural heritage but also to present it to the public, creating tourist attractions based on historical legacy. Manila and Philippines have recently attempted a similar approach to preserve and present vanishing history from development.

Questions 1 Can government intervention in city development encourage historic preservation? What schemes could be highlighted as having benefit to historical preservation? 2 How can the need for urban development be balanced with the preservation and conservation of historical sites? 3 Are there specific considerations when choosing what historical sites and buildings to preserve?

Extended question 1 Considering the approaches to historic preservation of cityscapes around the world, what lessons could be learnt from different approaches? From this, develop a framework (bullet points) for the preservation of cityscapes.

Reading ●●

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Sui, C. (2012), ‘Taiwan to Restore Architectural Treasures. BBC News’ (6 January 2012). Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/ news/world-asia-15403598 Chien-Chung, C. and Chao-Ching. F. (2015) ‘Globalization and Localization of Heritage Preservation in Taiwan— An Analysis Perspective under the Cultural Heritage Preservation Act’. The

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International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, Volume XL-5/W7, Taipei, Taiwan http://en.boch.gov.tw

Extended reading ●●

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Tyler, N. et al. Historic Preservation: An Introduction to Its History, Principles and Practices. London: Norton and Company. http://www.international.icomos.org/e_towns.htm Hayden, D. (1995), The Power of Place: Urban Landscapes as Public History. Cambridge: The MIT Press.

Charities and non-profit organizations During the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, numerous philanthropic organizations were established to raise awareness and funding for the protection and preservation of historic buildings and monuments, for example: NT, SPAB, the Landmark Trust (LT) and the WMF. These organizations support public history through fund-raising activities, including public talks by leading scholars and prominent personalities, such as Time Team presenter Tony Robinson, WMF lecturer, public open days and charity campaigns encouraging individuals and private organizations to donate money for specific projects. National Trust: It is a UK-based charity for preserving, conserving and maintaining historic houses and countryside, for example, Alfriston Clergy House, Sussex, Sutton Hoo, Suffolk, and surrounding landscape of Stonehenge (Case study 1). The NT was set up by Octavia Hill, Sir Robert Hunter and Hardwicke Rawnsley in 1985 and has, through donations, public support, and gift, acquired properties and historic areas.147 It aims to encourage public access to historic sites with visitor ticket sales and membership supporting their protection and care. World Monument Fund: WMF is an international charity, which supports, through donations achieved by fund-raising and activism, the preservation and conservation of historically significant buildings, for example, funding conservation and research of the historic site and temples at Angkor Wat in Cambodia.148 Its central remit is to encourage sustainable futures for these historical buildings through promoting and

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supporting schemes for visitor access and public involvement. At St Paul’s Cathedral in London, the WMF provided expert advice and financial support, which enabled the building’s renovation scheme and aimed encouraged proactive involvement of the public in the project and the building’s future.149 The Landmark Trust: It is a UK- and European-based charity that rescues historic buildings at risk around the world. This is, in part, archived by renovating and transforming the buildings into holiday homes, which provide a sustainable future and economic income to maintain these often grade II– and I–listed buildings and enables them to be presented and used by the paying public.150 It is worth noting that the expensive rental costs of hiring these buildings for holidays are prohibitive to large proportions of the public gaining access to these properties, except during limited open days. The work this charity undertakes and a network of local volunteers support the maintenance of these building. Principally, this charity enables historical buildings to become usable places in the present. For example, the trust in 2013 restored the medieval Astley Castle in Nuneaton. The award of the 2013 RIBA Stirling Prize for architecture recognized the sensitivity displayed to the history of this structure throughout its restoration and the balance of this with the creation of a usable living space for holiday renters.151 Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings: The SPAB is a UKbased charity providing expert advice to save old historical buildings from decay, demolition and damage.152 This organization campaigns to save ancient buildings through government pressure; as such, it acts as a statuary local government advisor in applications that involve the demolition or alteration of listed historical properties. The society aims to provide wider public education as to the value of historical buildings. Short courses for homeowners provide practical guidance for the conservation and maintenance of residential historical buildings.153

Assessment of historical sites The restoration and preservation of historical sites requires understanding and documenting why a historical site is valued. Understanding the current and potential value of a site to the stakeholders before any intervention is critical to developing a methodology for maintenance, repair, preservation and restoration. Often in order to do this, conservation statements and CMPs are undertaken. Conservation statements and management plans seek to assess the holistic value of a historic site, both tangible and intangible, and understand potential inputs and outputs of any form of human intervention of historic assets. Key to these reports is that they are revised at regular intervals, reappraised and reassessed.

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Conservation statements A conservation statement is an investigative documentation that seeks to explore the options and implications relating to the future of a historical site. It aims to provide an understanding of the historic asset before ideas regarding interventions are considered. The conservation statement informs the CMP (see Online Material: Key Elements of a Conservation and Heritage Management Report).

Conservation/heritage management plans A CMP or heritage management plan (HMP) builds on conservation statements.154 A CMP or HMP provides a ‘vision for the future’ of the heritage by developing a strategy for the long-term and sustainable management of the historical site.155 HMPs are designed to give technical guidance for managers of historic buildings, landscapes and estates. A key aspect of HMPs is to balance conservation, public access, need for living and working in the landscape in the present and contribution to local, national or international heritage and to the regional and national economy.156 HMPs are often linked into wider regional and national strategies such as tourist strategies and environmental strategies.157 Undertaking HMPs is often a requirement for international and national government-managed sites, including World Heritage Sites and sites owned by English Heritage, NT, Natural England and USFS.158 Each individual agency has specific formats and guidelines for the completion of HMPs.159 HMPs aim to: ●●

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understand all aspects of the development of the site: its landscape, its buildings and its surrounding features, assess the historical and cultural significance of the site, identify the issues and ways in which these significances may be vulnerable to reduction or loss, define conservation policies which will inform the future development of the site and which will seek to retain and enhance its significance.

HMPs provide a stakeholder-agreed understanding of a place’s historical and public significance, outlining collaborative approaches to conservation, protection and presentation. They aim to clearly outline different stakeholder remits and responsibilities and clarify agreed costing and financial input. These plans are essential for the sustainable and future management of heritage sites. In the UK, the completion of an HMP enables tax exemption for a property. This relates to the Inheritance Tax Act 1984, which states that owners of historic sites and buildings are required to provide agreed, detailed steps with

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Her Majesty’s Revenue and Customs (HMRC) to maintain, preserve and repair the property.160 These management plans have benefits to the public history of a place, including improving visitor access, balancing the needs of the visitor with the need for site conservation, improved interpretation and appreciation and including the local community in the management and maintained of the site (see Online Material: Key Elements of a Conservation and Heritage Management Report and Capacity for Change).161

Techniques of conservation practice The key processes for the conservation of historical sites are maintenance, repair and restoration.162 These processes aim to preserve the significance and value of the historical resource with minimum intervention, sustainable conservation and cost-efficiency.163

Maintenance This aims to conserve historic sites through regular inspections in order to keep the fabric of the historical sites in good order and remedy any problems or potential issues.164 This approach is preferred for the majority of historic sites as it is cost-effective and community inclusive in the form of community stewardship. Maintenance requires regular surveys and minor repairs, enabling historic sites to be compliant to health and safety and open to visitor use. Maintenance is usually undertaken as part of CMP; it includes providing protection against future issues and detecting issues and threats before large-scale repair is required. It includes assessing the interior and exterior, undertaking risk assessments, electric and gas testing, removing debris such as plant material from around sites, clearing gutters, undertaking safety checks and checking roofs.

Repair This aims to remedy damage or decay to a historical site; it is minor adaption, aiming to support sustainable maintenance, and will not make any alternations or restoration.165 This conservation approach develops a repair strategy and, through the use of appropriate techniques and materials, makes reversible and recorded changes to the building that enable it to sustain significance and improve life expectancy. This approach does not involve any unnecessary replacement of historical features.166

Restoration This aims to bring a historic site back to a known earlier state on the basis of compelling evidence and without conjecture.167 Restoration considers of the

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effect that any changes made to the site will have on its values. This approach is undertaken only if the site as it currently exists is not a result of a historical significant event as it aims to respect previous forms. Restoration is only undertaken if there is a long-term sustainable maintenance implication and conservation plan, as this is the costliest of the conservation approaches, and as such, it must provide longer-term value for money. Subsequently, it has the potential to have the most negative or positive impact on the significance of a historic site.168

Working in restoration and preservation A DAY IN THE LIFE Dr Emma Nock, Research Curator, National Trust My current role within the National Trust is unusual. I came to the trust a few years ago in a more conventional role: as a curator within the south-west region. Then, I had curatorial responsibility for a portfolio of historic properties spread across Wiltshire, Dorset and Devon and spent my time working with colleagues at properties and in the trust’s specialist consultancy on anything from the more traditional curatorial work of producing an exhibition of an artist’s work to the more unexpected business of advising on the design and siting of new biomass boilers to serve some of our mansions or perhaps a new visitor car park at one of our pay-for-entry properties. I was on a twelve-month fixedterm contract, providing cover for a colleague on secondment at the end of which I moved into my current role, which is very different, more specialized and less peripatetic. My studies and experience are in historic buildings. I worked parttime at a local museum and for my father (a building surveyor) and then enrolled on a postgraduate course in heritage management. This broad grounding led me to my specialism and another postgraduate course in architectural history. After this, I was a freelance researcher and heritage consultant. I am on a fixed term contract (in fact I am now on my third extension in less than two years) but this is anything but unusual in heritage today. Job security often has to be sacrificed in the search for interesting work. I am now in a project role as a research specialist curator and have just spent twelve months carrying out research into one house (Kingston Lacy in Dorset) and getting to grips with a potentially overwhelming quantity of archival documents, NT records for the last thirty five years,

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published material, etc. It has been quite a change from my original role here with working habits much more akin to my freelance days. When I am not working in the archives or meeting colleagues on site, I am often able to work from home. This gives me a satisfying freedom and autonomy in arranging my own diary and workload, finding and following leads and then using all of this work to produce reports and resources that will improve our knowledge and future decision-making at this highly significant property. While the primary aim is to support our long-term care and understanding of the house and its collections, I have tried to ensure that my work is relevant and useful. Most recently, I have had the chance to work with our external creative partners on an exhibition at Kingston Lacy, helping them to get to grips with the complex life history of one of the most important characters in the history of the house and fact-checking the final text. My curatorial remit has undoubtedly narrowed considerably over the last year, but the work is fascinating and suits my skill set. I am now moving on to another phase of work: to begin to write up the history and development of the house, its interiors and collections as the first stage in producing a Conservation Management Plan. My time with the NT has shown me, above all, that a career in heritage is likely to lead in unanticipated directions. There are some wonderful (and rather niche) roles out there in additional to those one might expect, but it undoubtedly takes hard work, persistence and patience to find them.

Rowena Willard-Wright, Senior Curator, English Heritage South East My site visit today is to Battle Abbey, location of the battle of Hastings and of the Benedictine Abbey built by the conqueror to honour the war dead. This year English Heritage is interpreting the history of the Abbey inside the fourteenth-century interiors of abbatial gatehouse, architecturally one of the finest in England. Included in the display is the exchequer room where once local landowners, whose estates belonged to the abbey, met with the abbot to enact business. Placed over the main entrance to the gatehouse, this room represented the temporal power of the abbey. Today my first job is to supervise the installation of a single section of a wall hanging. This is a replica of one shown behind the Virgin Mary in Jacopo di Cione’s Florentine by painting of ‘The Coronation of the Virgin’ (1371). The stunning dark blue ground and gold brocade decoration help to bring back the warmth and sheer opulence to what is otherwise a cold stone room.

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After lunch I drove deep into the Sussex countryside to the forge of a local blacksmith, who has been helping me recreate a fourteenth-century floor-standing candelabra for the Battle exchequer. Three months ago, we both searched out and assessed surviving examples. This process is much quicker now as major museums have online catalogues and I can curate images using social media apps like Pinterest. After this research, I then drew up my own version for the blacksmith to work from. Curating requires an ‘eye’ which is best developed by close observation, in particular through drawing objects. It also pays to have this skill when you work alongside craftsmen, including conservators, as it gives you a shared language. Likewise you can better assess the practicality and final look of an exhibition from the plans of the designers. I learnt this skill as an assistant curator at Osborne House, working alongside two Museum technicians who were an ex-cabinet maker and an ex-racing-yacht builder. The blacksmith was using mild steel rather than wrought iron to keep the costs down, but as it could be worked in a similar way this was a compromise I was happy to make. In the forge we looked at the elements he had already produced and went on to discuss options for the fixings, in particular how the knuckles around joints would first be heated then cooled so that they gripped the central column, as this was what he concluded had been the process in the fourteenth century. Over the years in doing the job you learn that you can understand objects in many ways: archaeologically, statistically, through original documents and historic images, by scientific analysis and evidence gained through the process of making. Getting an MA is just the start. We are the curators who listen, record and understand, but all of this is irrelevant if we can’t also communicate, and the best way to do so is visually. This is where we should be the experts.

Key skills for working in restoration and preservation169 ●●

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Knowledge of historic architecture, building methods and techniques Knowledge of legislation relating to building and conservation Communication skills Confidence working with measurement and budget calculations Excellent written and oral communication skills Ability to sketch designs and plans, understanding technical drawings

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Organizational skills Negotiation skills Project management skills Report writing Team working IT skills

Conclusion In much of the Western world, patterns have emerged in heritage ‘historic’ site management techniques, from reconstruction in the eighteenth century, preservation of the nineteenth century, restoration in the mid-twentieth century and recently to preventative conservation and maintenance. CMPs for historic sites assess the significance, condition of the site and functionality of the site before a specific preservation method is decided. The implementation of historic site management and preservation approaches can be costly and can impact the site’s value. Resultantly, historic conservation and restoration projects are often linked to an ethos of sustainability and preservation for future generations which require careful management by historic site managers and organizations such as English Heritage.170 The key principles of historic preservation in the twenty-first century relate to maintenance, access, significance and impact. These principles are based on preventative conservation techniques, including minimal intervention, non-intrusive site management, community stewardship, creative rethinking, and reuse and reimagining of historic sites. The nonintrusive conservation approach has been supported by the non-invasive digital technology, for example, through geophysical surveys, 3D scanning and lidar, which provided records, knowledge and mechanisms to engage visitors with historic sites either on-site or remotely.171 The core principle for historic preservation in the twenty-first century is to support historic sites to be relevant, functional and sustainable in the future.172

9 Policy, Politics and History

History and historians play a pivotal role within global, transnational, regional and local government and political arenas. Historians are directly involved in the development and creation of policy, influencing specific policy frameworks designed to manage, preserve and present history within the public domain. The role of politics to the practice and presentation of history, and as such on public history, should not be underestimated. Politics impacts on the interaction, translation, survival and destruction of history, including the historical events that are commemorated and memorialized, the historical buildings that are preserved and how the past is presented to the public within mass media. This chapter demonstrates the importance of history to the various government agencies involved in developing mitigation and preservation advice. It examines the role of historians and history in providing advice relating to the wider impact of history in non-heritage-specific branches of government such as the Environment Agency (UK) and the Department of Defense (the United States). This chapter provides international examples of best practice in government legislation, guidance and advice, and future mechanisms for public history within policy and politics, for example, as enacted in the protection of historical sites and in educating the military to incorporate cultural sensitivities when operating in foreign environments. Historians’ involvement in history policy and historically informed policy can help shape history for the future, both for the good of the profession and for the service of the public.

The impact of policy on public history International and national policies influence historical practice and historical preservation, including the public access to and participation in the past ‘public history’. European countries, for example, Germany (1815) and France (1887), were some of the first countries to introduce policy relating

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to historic site preservation in the nineteenth century.1 These historic site protection laws provided the framework for future historical preservation and presentation within the public domain. The events of the Second World War impacted political agendas relating to management, preservation and presentation of history within Europe. This is highlighted by the ratification of new conventions and charters during this period, including the Venice Charter (1964) and Hague Convention (1954).2 During this period, history was regarded, by some, as an important tool for rebuilding national identity, identifying creation, and unifying and rebuilding European relationships.3 The interpretation of history, the historical stories and legacies that are presented to the public are linked to wider national and international political agendas. Historical monuments, such as the Australian War Memorial (Australia), and national commemorations, such as Anzac Day (Australia), commemorate the first military actions fought by the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps during the Second World War and demonstrate public history’s link to politics and specifically to building national unity and identity.4 Monuments are physical representations, ‘symbols’, commemorating historic events and individual’s actions in history. During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, monuments often depicted ancient warriors and war heroes, for example, the Boadicea Statue, London (1902), and Nelson’s Column, London (1843).5 These monuments served to unify the public of a nation through the victorious acts of ‘their’ ancestors.6 Post First World War and during the Second World War, the role of monuments changed to depict the sacrifice without the distinction of class or rank, for example, Manchester Cenotaph ‘empty tomb’ (1924), the First World War military monument.7 This monument provided space for later commemorative additions, for example, the Second World War and Gulf War. This change in public memorialization reflected the immense loss of life, volunteer contribution to war effort and conscription from 1916, alongside new political democratic agendas, where individual rights and the voice of the people were represented.8 Recently, monuments highlight the role of the minority of history, for example, the Monument to Women of World War II in London (2005) and Vietnam Women’s Memorial in Washington, DC (2008). Monuments serve to represent dominant political ideologies and narratives, including ideas of nationalism and identity.9 The process of ‘doing’ history, particularly the undertaking of historical research, is regarded by some as exclusive in nature because of the marginalization of the public, the majority, by the minority, the academics.10 This exclusion, which occurred in part due to the professionalization of history in the late nineteenth century, has counter-intuitively led to a plethora of new guidelines, policies and bureaucracy, all advocating for an increased inclusion of the public in the past. This has directly impacted upon the practice of history and the development of organized public history. The practice of public history can be associated with politics and linked to ethical and moral obligations to provide public rights to increased

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access to historical production. It is these moral and ethical principles that have guided the instigation and methodology behind many public history projects. These methods and motivations have been discussed extensively in literature relating to the practice of public history, particularly in nonWestern contexts such as South Africa.11 The principles behind public history are directly linked to broader political movements, including the 1960s and 1970s grass-roots movement and the late 1980s and 1990s indigenous rights movement. The effects of the indigenous rights movement dominated academic research and heritage management during the early 1990s. It was during this period that public history began to appear extensively in the academic literature in both Australia and America.12 Publications focused on the rights of the indigenous and/or native ‘communities’ to be involved in decisions relating to the treatment of ‘heritage’ on ‘their’ land.13 Despite the UK and European countries being less affected by indigenous rights issues, this political movement was based on understanding and communicating alternative ‘public’ histories and resultantly influenced the practice of history and professional conduct in relation to the public. In the UK and Europe, the development of postmodern and humanistic approaches to the practice of history included supporting the development of black, labour and women history. Public history sought to provide the various ethnic, social and political groups, ‘the public’ with a voice in history, transforming power relationships between historians and the public. It is essential to understand the relationship politics has with history and to comprehend how politics has shaped the development and practice of public history. Writing over thirty years ago, McGimsey touched on the subject of federal and state influence on heritage, going someway to deconstructing the effect in the United States of federal and state finances and policies on the practice of heritage.14 This demonstrated how the political history of federal acts affected the practice of history and public history. Neumann’s recent survey of how federal and state laws in the United States was passed, including the Historic Environment Act of 1966, offers some further insight as to the complexity of political influence on historical practice.15 This research deconstructed Democratic and Republican senators’ representations in the passing of the bill and indicated a Democratic majority in support of the bill, against what appears to be a Republican opposition.16 These ideas were consolidated by Jeppson’s work on education and public heritage, discussing the effect on the heritage sector of the changes in US government representation in the last decade.17 The development of public history in Australia and North America was, in part, a response to the growing legislative guidelines that surrounded the practice of public and historical research; these guidelines are often interpreted as a by-product of ‘post-colonial guilt’.18 Post-colonial guilt resulted from colonial descent guilt regarding the treatment of indigenous populations during ‘white’ settlement, including land acquisition, forced indigenous

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child adaption and indigenous killing. These guidelines, which include the ICOMOS Burra Charter (1999), the Australian Heritage Commission ‘Ask First’ document (2002) and the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (1990) among others, were related to the ethics of doing historical work and the importance of historians communicating their work and engaging with indigenous ‘communities’ prior to, during and after the completion of their research.19 This postmodern and humanistic approach had theoretical impact on the practice of history within the public domain in Europe and impacted on the wider development of public history. For example, the Faro Convention (2005) and the Council of European Union, council conclusions of participatory governance of cultural heritage (2014/c 463/01), advocate for consultation with and active participation of communities in ‘their’ cultural heritage.20 Contrary to the above, it could be suggested that this postmodern approach allowed history to become easier to politically manipulate, as the controls over history and the use of factual historical research declined, often replaced in favour of intangible heritage research. The result of this was that few decisions could be made about what was important in heritage and history, as everyone had equally valuable views and interpretations of the past. During this period, the erosion of a belief in absolute values and truth within the heritage sector resulted in a lack of professional conviction; this caused both the public and the historians to become confused as to the definition of history, their roles in its creation and interpretation, and its relevance in modern society. In the modern post-post-structuralist framework of global ‘public’ history, history is regarded as political action, a performance of interconnected encounters.21 In this framework, ethically and politically sensitive histories such as colonialism and slavery can be discussed and explored; guilt can be examined and apologies offered.22 As such, public history, including history presented in museum exhibitions, no longer serves to censor and authorize history but provide a space to explore disparate and contested histories.23 For example, the Museum of New Zealand, Te Papa Treaty of Waitangi: Signs of a Nation exhibition, explores how the 1840 political treaty between the British and Maori has shaped the relationship between the poles of this nation (Figure 9.1).24 As such, it is in these arenas in which history acts as a mobilizing force for politics, and public history is seen as a performance.25 In a time and place where international, national and regional laws often overlap, where conflicts between physical and tangible and levels of value and significance exist, it is vital the historical understand the different laws that influence the practice of history in the public.26 Public history, such as memorials, on-screen media, museum exhibitions, and educational resources, can serve as political tools. Public history can help create national and transnational identity ‘unity’ and support diplomatic agendas. For example, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Japan, through Japanese Funds-in-trust for the Preservation of World Cultural Heritage

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FIGURE 9.1  Te Papa (National Museum), Maori Exhibit. Photo by Wolfgang Kaehler/LightRocket via Getty Images.

Projects, has invested over $68.64 million in preserving and restoring sites of historic value, including Bamiyan (Afghanistan) and Angkor Wat (Cambodia).27 Yet public history can also be politically divisive, for example, the controversy over the planned Enola Gay Exhibition at the Smithsonian Institution (1994–1995), in which historians and Japanese and American war veterans were pitted against each other in the portrayal of the atomic bombings at Hiroshima.28

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Salient to the role of public history to political agendas are the recent demonstrations over monuments of historical figures associated with supporting racist movements, for example, Robert E Lee’s statue in Charlottesville (the United States).29 Public history can act as a political symbol, and as such understanding politics’ role in history and historian’s role in politics is critical for developing and working within the fields of public history.

International policy and guidelines The introduction of international guidelines has impacted on the practice of public history; if signed up (ratified) to by a country, they can encourage a radical re-think of respective national heritage policy and practice. Although international guidelines are worded carefully to appear to advocate for inclusively, in reality, they often seek to keep control and power in the hands of the ‘professional’ historian. The Valletta Convention (1992), formally seen as the convention for the protection of archaeological heritage, has impacted on the participation of the public in wider history. This convention aims to promote a more balanced relationship between historians and the public and increase inclusivity: ‘to promote public access to important elements of its archaeological heritage’.30 However, earlier in Article 3, it states these projects should be ‘carried out only by qualified, specially authorized people’, advocating that only professionally trained people are capable of researching their past. Despite promoting greater public access to history, the Valletta Convention fails to promote active engagement in the past by non-professionals.31 The ratification of conventions by member countries is a political act and often does not happen till a later date, in part, as this impacts on the wider political agendas of a country and often has policy and economic implications. For example, the 2017 ratification of the 1953 UNESCO Hague Convention by the UK could be seen as a political action against terrorism and part of the ‘War against Terrorism’ by UK.32 The ratification of the Hague Convention demonstrates the UK’s pledge to stop the continued widespread destruction of historical and archaeological sites in Iraq and Syria by ISIS, such as Palmyra, and supports a wider political goal of preventing continued use of historical monuments for ISIS propaganda (Figures 9.2 and 9.3). Despite previous professional and public calls to ratify the Hague Convention earlier, it could be suggested that the recent impact that this cultural destruction has had on the UK military campaign against ISIS and the continued threat this terrorist group poses against UK citizens has spurred on this action. The destruction of and actions involving historical sites, such as Palmyra by ISIS in Iraq and Syria, have resulted in an international military ‘monuments men style’ task force being formed to protect and preserve

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FIGURE 9.2  Before and after Palmyra. Photo by JOSEPH EID/AFP/Getty Images.

FIGURE 9.3  Destruction of Palmyra Museum 2016. Photo by JOSEPH EID/AFP/ Getty Images.

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historic sites.33 The political role of heritage during this conflict has resulted in not only international responses but also more national responses. For example, the UK government funded Iraq Emergency Heritage Management Training Programme (2015), which aimed to train Iraqis to rescue sites damaged by ISIS, including Nineveh, Nimrud and Hatra.34 UNESCO: The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) was founded in 1945 to promote peace and security through education, science and culture. Its convention states that it has three main functions:35 ●●

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To advance the mutual knowledge and understanding of peoples, To give fresh impulse to education and to the spread of culture, and To help to maintain, increase and disseminate knowledge.

This international organization plays a pivotal role in promoting and protecting internationally significant and culturally important sites, including historical sites or landscapes such as Stonehenge and the Great Wall of China. UNESCO is financially supported by individual country contributions. This compulsory support requires all member countries to financially contribute to UNESCO’s activities. It receives additional private and voluntary funding from some member countries and individuals to support internationally important activities, such as the World Heritage Fund (WHF) and its Rapid Response Team, which provide aid and support to cultural heritage at risk.36 UNESCO provides international financial support to the state to carry out emergency work to protect important historic sites. UNESCO employs permanent and temporary staff in various locations around the world to support the continued international protection of heritage and historical sites and places of cultural importance. It collaborates with international experts to provide specialist advice and guidance on specific issues and topics such as conservation and WHS listings.37 For example, archaeologists, architects and structural engineers provided advice on the conservation and stabilization of the Leaning Tower of Pisa.38 The organization plays a pivotal role in advising governments and preventing the destruction of culturally significant sites. For example, in 1960, they played a critical role in the strategy to protect Abu Simbel from the construction of the Aswan Dam, which would have led to this important New Kingdom temple site being submerged by Lake Nasr.39 In 1972, UNESCO launched World Heritage Convention, a document drawn up to be supported by national governments with the specific aim to protect and preserve the world’s cultural and natural heritage, specifically the historic environment.40 WHS provided a framework for the protection of cultural heritage, best practice and a fund to support the protection of history. Their work placed history, including historic landscapes, cityscapes and buildings, firmly in the international political domain and sought to develop international government relationships to support historic sites and

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represent the public’s interests. In 2011, UNESCO recognized the importance of a holistic approach to historic urban landscapes, advocating for the use of the SWOT analysis: strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats.41 Each of the four SWOT categories recognizes elements of community influence on heritage and heritage influence on community – for example, a strength of the community towards heritage ‘intimate knowledge’, a weakness ‘lack of communication’, a treat ‘illegal looting’ and an opportunity ‘educational training’. The SWOT analysis serves to illustrate the importance of the participation of communities in the protection and conservation of these historic landscapes and the incorporation of their traditional practices in management plans. UNESCO World Heritage Sites are historical sites or locations, which are deemed to be of international importance. Applying for WHS status and listing provides funding and tourism opportunities, and management support and guidance in visitor strategies, conservation and protection (see Online Material: Key Elements of a Conservation and Heritage Management Report). It is this strategy and definitions of WHS that have defined the presentation of culture and history to the local, national and international public, through defining what, as an organization, they regard as important to preserve and present. Until the 1990s, the significance of a site focused on the importance of the physical remains; yet this has since changed to take into account the intangible heritage of a place and its value to the wider community.42 ICOMOS: The International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) is a non-governmental organization (NGO) dedicated to the conservation of the world’s monuments and sites.43 It was set up in 1965 to oversee the principles outlined in the Venice Charter (1964), the international charter on the conservation and restoration of monuments and sites.44 ICOMOS aims to support the development and application of theories, methods and scientific techniques that preserve and protect heritage.45 This NGO’s aims are linked into UNESCO’s wider cultural heritage mission. This international organization has created interdisciplinary national committees and international scientific committees, establishing a network of experts including historians, to set standards and oversee best practice in relation to the protection and conservation of buildings, historic cities, cultural landscapes and archaeological sites. ICOMOS has supported the exchange of ideas and new heritage initiatives around the world; for example, the Heritage@Risk journal seeks to provide a means of academic and professional communication on heritage debates. Burra Charter: The Burra charter was established by ICOMOS in 1979 and revised in 1999.46 The charter provides guidelines for the conservation and management of places of cultural significance in Australia, based on the country’s unique cultural experiences and perspectives.47 This includes the diverse and intangible heritage, including places of value to Aboriginal groups and their descendants. The charter seeks, through an ethnically driven

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management structure and sequence of investigation, decisions and actions to preserve the value and cultural significance of historic and heritage places for future generations.48

International and national charities International and national charities often work alongside international and national government cultural and heritage organizations such as Society of Ancient Buildings, World Monuments Funds, The Wolfson Foundation, RESCUE and Welcome Trust. National charities are often established to support government policies and agendas relating to history and public heritage. For example, in the UK, the Heritage Lottery Fund (HLF) was set up in 1994 by parliament.49 Officially the HLF was seen as a non-departmental public body, to which the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport issued policy directives.50 Therefore, the work of this organization and its key objectives are influenced by government heritage policy. This organization uses money raised from the public sales of National Lottery tickets to provide grants to wide range of community heritage projects through the UK. These projects include historic building restoration and conservation projects such as Valentines Park, Redbridge; museums and archives projects such as the building of Creswell Crags Museum and Archaeology Park; oral history projects such as Jacksdale and Westwood 1914–2014; and community archaeology projects such as Shoreditch Park (Case study 18). Research by Theos, a public theology think tank, indicated that low-income individuals spend a disproportionately high amount of money on lottery ticket sales, including scratch cards and Lotto (draw-based games) in relation to the HLF money received by these economically ‘deprived communities’.51 These charities provide grants to support public history projects and initiatives. These grants require organizations and community groups to collaborate to write funding applications to gain access to financial support for specific heritage projects, which often aim to support diverse public access to heritage. There are specific skills required to write funding applications for these external bids, and some heritage organizations employ specialist grant teams to write these applications.

Writing funding applications A funding application should include the following features (see Online Material: HLF Grant Key Themes and AHRC Grant Key Themes): ●●

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Outline of project: Summary of main tasks and aim of project, and this will be achieved. Project plan: What the project will do, why it is needed and what issues or specific challenges it will address.

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Evidence of consultation: Preparation for project and evidence of public consultation and evaluation. Community outcomes: An outline of the key potential values of the project for the local community. This includes the social, economic and knowledge benefit to the community. Stakeholder benefits: Who will benefit from the project (professionals, public, third sector, public sector)? Demographic range: Understanding of audience and potential benefit to a wide and diverse demographic. Project management: ●●

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How will it be managed, meeting the project aims? Who will do this? Outside support and help, including public and third sector.

Timescales Sustainability: Long-term future of project; how will work be continued after the project funding ends? Activities: Including activities to support public access, educational and training activities. Costings: This usually requires the host organization to match a percentage of the overall funding. For HLF, this is a minimum of 10– 15 per cent dependent of the amount of funding applied for. Match funding should also be demonstrated through in-kind support such as use of facilities, staff and volunteer time.

National and federal policies and guidelines The majority countries have a national government organization responsible for overseeing the protection and preservation of that country’s heritage such as the Australian Heritage Commission, Danish Heritage Commission, Taiwan’s Bureau of Cultural Heritage, Nigeria’s National Commission for Museums and Monuments, and English Heritage (Case studies 29 and 28). These organizations are financially supported by central government and typically overseen by an overarching government department for culture or environment. These organizations and their funding reflect changing national economic pressures and changes in government agendas and governments and as such can serve to represent dominant political ideologies. The levels of responsibility entrusted to government heritage organizations vary between different countries but usually include overseeing the protection of nationally significant buildings, subsidizing national museums, and providing regulations for the protection of heritage and cultural assets such

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CASE STUDY 29. English Heritage

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nglish Heritage (EH) was until 2015 the UK government’s statutory advisor on the historic environment, providing government and public advice on the protection, promotion and preservation of heritage. In 2014, EH received two-thirds of its funding from the government through Grant in Aid, and the reminder of its funding is self-generated by membership, property revenue and fundraising. In 2015, English Heritage was divided into two agencies: Historic England and English Heritage. English Heritage aimed to act as independent and eventually self-sustaining charitable organization, responsible for overseeing the protection and preservation of 440 of the UK’s historic sites, including Stonehenge and Whitby Abbey. Historic England would provide planning advice and advise government on future policy documentation and to translate this advice to private organizations around the UK. As a government and publicly funded organization, Historic England aims to support the public understanding and appreciation of history by creating public literature, public heritage advice and improving public accessibility to heritage assets. Previously, under the title English Heritage, this brand of the organization was involved in research relating to understanding the public’s value of, and relationship with, heritage and has produced guidelines and literature to support its findings such as ‘Heritage Counts’ and ‘Power of Place’.52 Historic England took over responsibility from the previous English Heritage for compiling and maintaining the UK’s Listed Buildings Register.53 All buildings built before 1700 are listed as well as most before 1840 that maintain their original features. Listed buildings grades:54 ●●

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Grade I: Buildings of exceptional interest and international importance. These include buildings such as Buckingham Palace (London) and York Minster (York). Grade II*: Nationally important building of more than special interest. These include buildings such as Manchester Town Hall (Manchester) and Battersea Power Station (London). Grade II: Nationally important buildings and of special interest. This is often the grade of listing for inhabited houses. These include buildings such as the BT Tower (London) and Manchester Victoria Station (Manchester).

This list provides a comprehensive list of noteworthy historical buildings in the UK, including the Palace of Westminster (London), which

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influences their protection and preservation. Listing informs planning consent at local government levels and aims to preserve the authenticity of historical buildings and affects their ability to be developed and conserved. As such, the listing of a building will directly affect the public’s ability as house owners used to change and alter a building’s architecture and aesthetics.

Questions 1 How has the introduction of listing in relation to historic buildings supported the preservation and conservation of the UK’s heritage? 2 Does the policy relating listing of historic building impact on the public’s perception of history? 3 What impacts do national policies have on the presentation of history at local levels?

Extended question 1 What impact does listing of historic sites have on the preservation and presentation of the past to the public? Are the current criteria for listing buildings appropriate in today’s diverse historical arena?

Reading and resources ●●

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Thurley, S. (2013), Men from the Ministry: How Britain Saved Its Heritage. Connecticut: Yale University Press. English Heritage. (2000), ‘Power of Place: The Future of the Historic Environment’. London: English Heritage for the Historic Environment Steering Group; English Heritage. (2006), Heritage Counts: The State of England’s Historic Environment 2006. London: English Heritage. http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/caring/listing/listed-buildings

Extended reading ●●

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Hayden, D. (1995), The Power of Place: Urban Landscapes as Public History. Cambridge: The MIT Press. Tyler, N., Ligibel, T. and Tyler, I. (2009), Historic Preservation: An Introduction to Its History, Principles and Practices. London: Norton and Company.

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as historical buildings or sites of national historical interest (Case study 29). These government organizations maintain heritage, historical sites and buildings registers, which are often accessible online. Along with instigating national guidelines and legislation, national organizations are responsible for the implementation of international and national charters such as UNESCO and ICOMOS. In some circumstances, they will fund both domestic and overseas research, for example, the German Commission for Ancient History and Epigraphy funds research in Burma and Sri Lanka. These organizations act not only as representatives and protectors of national heritage and historical assets but also as government advisors. In the United States, the Department for Agriculture, United States Forest Service and National Parks Service are responsible for a large proportion of federally owned land, which is governed by federal heritage laws such as the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) (1966).55 The US National Parks Service is responsible for more than 400 national parks, including Wounded Knee Battlefield and Mount Rushmore in South Dakota.56 Their staff range from park rangers to educational specialists, who are responsible for developing public history programmes that cover a range of historical periods and assets, from presidents’ houses to American Indian landscapes. Employees manage online and on-site historical educational programmes that provide accessible and relevant historical information for both formal and informal learning about the past to national and international visitors.57 Park and forest rangers are employed to provide on-site support and tours and to balance this with the need for conservation and the prevention of environmental damage to sites from visitors (Case study 30). Historians working in this national heritage require a broad knowledge of a country’s history and the national and international government legislations governing heritage assets such as national planning policies affecting historical preservation and investigation. This requires employees to have the ability to communicate with all sectors of the community from the public to politicians. This includes solving public enquires and providing public advice and support, such as how to preserve a historical building or how to renovate scheduled buildings within international and national guidelines. Government historians provide heritage advice to other government agencies, political parties and individual government officials. This advice promotes history’s importance to a country and its citizens and helps to justify the funding historical activities receive. Government historians promote the wider use of government records, historic resources and open access to this material, often through the use of digital technology. For example, Heritage Gateway in the UK, which links Historic Environment Records from different counties, allows the public to access the government’s historical records, including desk-based assessments (DBA), reports from recent archaeological investigations, small finds reports from the Portable Antiquities Scheme (PAS), sites of historic interest, scheduled ancient monuments and listed buildings; this data is linked to area maps and GPS coordinates.62

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CASE STUDY 30. United States Forest Service

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he United States Forest Service (USFS) has in the region of 193 million acres 155 national forests.58 The organization has a commitment to ‘caring for the land’, which includes preserving and presenting the nation’s history and the heritage that is contained within its landscape. This national organization is funded primarily centrally through the US government. The USFS supports managed public access and public involvement in the management and maintenance of heritage sites within its landscapes such as Gold Mountain Mine, South Dakota.59 The management of USFS land involves balancing the financial need to supply commodities, such as timber, supporting recreational usage and providing ecological management. This management can include restricting public access to certain areas and from undertaking certain activities such as agriculture. As such, landscape management and ‘ownership’ can create conflicts with those who believe and perhaps do have tribal land claims to areas. In 2000, USFS launched the ‘Passport in Time Program’ (PIT). This federally supported public history programme has since been rolled out in 117 forests in 36 states.60 This programme provides a platform for volunteers to work with historical practitioners and academics and provides hands-on educational training in historic investigation, interpretation and future management. Volunteers work with professionals to gain the skills needed to investigate, conserve, present and restore historical sites. PIT works in which each time a volunteer attends, they receive a stamp, indicating their time by the project leader. These stamps can be collected on projects run by the USFS around the country. This aims to encourage continued involvement and provide experience that is officially recognized in the heritage community. This programme is an example of education in action and has provided lifelong learning opportunities for members of the public and future practitioners around the United States.61

Questions 1 How do national heritage organizations balance the protection and preservation of history with enabling public access?

2 Do national organizations encourage wider public interest in the past or merely cater for those who already have a pre-existing interest? 3 How can heritage organizations successfully link multiple historical sites together to provide the public with a holistic story of the past?

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Extended questions 1 Can national heritage organizations present history beyond authoritative history? If so, what strategies are used to present alternative and diverse histories? 2 What mechanisms are in place to support national heritage organizations and regional heritage organizations to work together to present and preserve history?

Reading and resources ●●

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Jameson, J. (2004), ‘Public Archaeology in the United States’. In N. Merriman (ed.), Public Archaeology. London: Routledge, pp. 21–58. http://www.fs.fed.us http://www.passportintime.com

Extended reading ●●

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Melosi, M. and Scarpino, P. (2004), Public History and the Environment. Florida: Krieger Publishing Company. Knauer, L. and Walkowitz, D. (2009), Contested Histories in Public Space. Durham: Duke University Press.

The global recent economic downturn, in North America and Europe, has resulted in growing financial pressure within publically funded heritage organizations. Government-funded heritage organizations have come under increasing pressure to justify their public spending. The delivery of value for money to the taxpayer has become increasingly prominent, especially in a time when public spending and funding for culture are decreasing in order to reduce national deficits. In the UK, the impact of reduced government funding for cultural activities has seen government agencies such as English Heritage having their budget cut by one-third (Case study 29), Heritage Lottery funding decreasing by 30 per cent and MLA funding reduced by 25 per cent.63

Local, regional and state government organizations Public history at a community level is affected by regional and local policy that aims to protect and preserve history and to present and enable community involvement. At local ‘state’ level, public historians, particularly

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in Australia and North America, enforce national and regional guidelines, frameworks and legislation regarding historic preservation. In 1966, US federal government created State Historic Preservation Office under Section 101 of NHPA. This law aimed to control federal government impact on history and developed state control cultural research management strategies; resultantly, local State Historic Preservation Officers (SHPO) were given more power over regional historical preservation.64 This pattern of local management of the historic environment is mirrored elsewhere, including in Australia, where preservation of historic assets is overseen by State Historic Environment Officers, and in UK by Historic Environment Officer and Local Government Archaeological Officers. Each state has different local guidelines and legislations; some states are more progressive in their approaches to including and consulting with the public and indigenous communities within, particularly the Melbourne SHPOs, and the New South Wales State Historic Preservation (Case study 34). Working with heritage specific government agencies requires overseeing of national and local heritage and historic assets and actively participating in new policy writing to support the long-term maintenance and presentation of the past.

Planning policies The development and planning process within many Western countries includes policies relating to mitigation, protection and recording of historical resources. This includes pre-development ‘pre-building’ work such as environmental impact assessments (EIA), DBA, landscape surveys, and historical and archaeological investigation and excavation. These modes of historical assessment seek to highlight areas of historical interest and understand the impact of building development on the landscape of the tangible historical assets, such as historical buildings, cityscapes and landscapes, and intangible historical assets, such as tradition and folklore. Historic Preservation Officers (Europe, the United States and Australia) and County Archaeologists (UK) oversee these planning policies at regional or state levels. A DBA includes: ●●

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An overview of the historical site A comprehensive historical overview of the area and surrounding landscape. This will require map regression, the use of primary sources and extensive archival research, both at local and national levels. A list of the physical remains of a site and area: buildings, architecture, landscape features. Any previous research on the area: Essentially a review of any secondary sources.

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Legislation that may affect any development. Suggestions for the future preservation and presentation of the historical remains.

The principles and nature of these actions are dependent on the specific country; for example, in the United States, if building development is on public ‘government owned’ land and will impact on history either above or below ground, then a historical and archaeology survey will be carried out. In the UK, the completion of any such survey is linked into the granting of planning consent to any new buildings work on either private or public land. United Kingdom: The introduction of Planning Policy Guidance 16 (PPG16) in 1990 altered the practice of the protection of the past in the UK almost beyond recognition. It changed heritage and in turn the practice of history by the public from being locally controlled and local governmentfunded to becoming a commercial enterprise with more centrally determined budgets. Perhaps by no means, coincidentally, there seemed to be decreasing opportunities for the public to get directly involved or even access knowledge about their local history. With PPG16 came the mounting bureaucracy of quangos, which potentially can be linked to the increasing exclusion of the public from the practice of history and archaeology.65 The launch of Public Policy Statement 5 (PPS5) in March 2010 replaced PPG15 and 16.66 PPS5 and its replacement, the National Planning Policy Framework, officially recognized the immense public interest in heritage and its multiple values, its ability to provide a sense of place, social cohesion and identity. Emphasis was on the provision of greater public benefit from heritage through consultation and collaboration within commercial contexts as a desirable outcome, for example, ‘where the evidence suggests that the asset may have a historic, archaeological, architectural or artistic significance to the local community that may not be fully understood from records or statutory consultees alone’.67 These new guidelines recommend public consultation and recognition of the value and benefit of heritage.68 These national guidelines have influenced the approaches of public historians to the management and presentation of history on commercial sector and on development sites (Case study 31).

CASE STUDY 31. Greater Manchester Archeological Service

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reater Manchester Archaeological Advisory Service (Historic Environment Records) have sought to be proactively responsive to these planning legislations and the public’s desire for increased involvement in the process of uncovering history. They have aimed

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to make these national guidelines for the involvement of the public in development work on historic and archaeological sites around Manchester a necessary part of planning consent. This has seen development projects such as Manchester Metropolitan University’s building of a new campus in Birley Fields, a brownfield site in central Manchester which involved the wider local community in the archaeological excavation of a former nineteenth-century housing site.69 This included distinct elements of public participation within the archaeological mitigation process such as community involvement in the excavation, regular on-site tours, schoolbased on-site educational programmes, public history exhibitions, public open days, and oral history sessions.70 Public history projects that locally integrated national guidelines require support from local government heritage professionals. This support is often dependent on individual buy-in and time of professional government historians and local government financial support. As such, these public history projects are subject to the financial constraints and reductions in government funding. As these projects are linked to building development, they have issues with providing sustainable community involvement in history, as they are based on limited time frames prior to development; for example, Birley fields was limited to a three-week period prior to building work commencing. The integration of community history into planning consent, which is subsequently funded as part of the construction project, is now a regular occurrence within country heritage services. This wider local government commitment to community engagement in heritage has led them to launch Dig Greater Manchester, a programme designed to proactively engage members of the public from all areas of Manchester in their heritage through archaeology and historical research, in which each district provides heritage training for community members to becoming engaged in their past.71

Questions 1 How can national development policies and guidelines such as the National Planning Policy Framework successfully support public engagement in history? 2 Consider the mechanisms that can be in place at local and state levels to integrate elements of public history into the management of historic assets. 3 How do national heritage guidelines influence public historians’ approaches to management and the presentation of the past?

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Extended question 1 How can historians better integrate policy within public history project design?

Reading and resources ●●

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Simpson, F. (2013), ‘Birley Fields: Exploring Victorian Streetscapes in Manchester’. Current Archaeology (282). 28–33 www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_ data/file/6077/2116950.pdf.

Extended reading ●●

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Hayden, D. (1995), The Power of Place: Urban Landscapes as Public History. Cambridge: The MIT Press; Glaser, L. (2013) ‘Public History and Sustainability: An Overview and Invitation.History@Work’. Available at: http://ncph.org/ history-at-work/public-history-and-sustainability-intro/ [Accessed 15 September 2017].

United States: In the United States, the protection of historical sites and buildings during landscape and building development is referred to cultural resource management (CRM). CRM developed in the 1960s and took off in the 1970s, yet the laws that protected heritage and history during development only pertained to sites that were under federal control or ownership.72 This strategy is maintained by State Historic Environment offices; the reactions to development and changes to the historic landscape are determined by the historic professionals working in specific cities or landscapes. This encompasses a broad range of historic preservation programmes within the United States.73 It developed out of the historical and archaeological management and recording work of the early 1930s salvage and rescue programmes, which led to growing public, professional and federal realization that legislation was required in order to preserve archaeological and historical resources from destruction during construction and land development.74 These acts, including the NHPA (1966), National Environment Policy Act (1969), Protection of Cultural Environment (1971), and the Archaeological and Historic Preservation Act (1974), have been credited with changing the character of historical research and preservation on federal land and federally controlled projects, indicating the growing level of importance ascribed to preserving heritage for the public.75 Political support for public historians occurred at local levels with the cities of Alexandria in 1976 and Annapolis in 1981 (Case

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FIGURE 9.4  Annapolis, view of state capitol building and historic street. Photo by John Greim/LightRocket via Getty Images.

study 32), funding full-time historians and archaeologists to initiate and develop public history programmes.76

Policies on the movement of objects Public history has been defined as the actions of the public in history77; this includes individuals collecting and discovering historical objects such as metal detectorists and private collectors. National and international

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CASE STUDY 32. Annapolis, Maryland

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he City of Annapolis, Maryland (the United States), has numerous laws protecting its historic heritage. The historic preservation zoning for the Annapolis historic district is established in the city’s code, Title 21 (Planning and Zoning), Chapter 56 (Historic District).78 This protects the archaeological remains, historic buildings and integrity of the city from being destroyed by development. There are other laws that apply to the specific aesthetic integrity of this historic city; for instance, there is a ruling on signs that was implemented to limit the use of neon within the historic district. Maritime zoning is used to accomplish historic preservation in the Eastport neighbourhood, albeit under a different set of legislation. This preserves the city aesthetically as a historic city, something which is regarded vital to its tourist economy yet often fails to represent the current population and their future requirements for services such as transport (Figure 9.4). Many of this city’s regulations are enabled by state-level legislation; for example, there is legislation enabling the designation of municipal historic districts.79 There is also an act of the Maryland State Legislature that created underground utilities districting; specifically for Annapolis this has required the large-scale mitigation and archaeological investigation of the city. The tourist industry of Annapolis consists of numerous guided tours, walking through the historic streets, buildings and the museums. Many of these buildings are recreated or reconstructed rather than being original. The longevity and economic benefit to businesses within the city centre of these public schemes and partnerships, including the Archaeology of Annapolis and the Historic Annapolis Foundation, have led to the creation of a preservation ethic in the city centre. For example, the owner of Governor Calvert House, listed under Historic Inns of Annapolis, created a glass-floored coffee room over the 1720s hypocaust system.80 The Annapolis public history project, which is supported by the local government and the University of Maryland, has to a large extent focused on developing a tourist industry and encouraging national visitors. As such, this project has created a sterilized and historically stable version of the past, which to a large extent focuses on the white wealthy inhabitants and their buildings within the town centre, alongside communicating the city’s role in trading and military history. The majority of the public history occurring has overlooked the diverse demographics of the past and current local residents within the city’s entirety, including a large African American population who played a vital role in the city’s development and trading history, including its slave trade. Despite these public history project’s numerous benefits to the economy, local politics and education,

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the project has struggled to forge links with more disparate communities, leading to activities and public history that potentially misrepresents and distances the public from the city’s ‘officially’ created and consumed history.

Questions 1 How can local government public history initiatives influence modern cityscapes and landscapes?

2 What are the benefits and issues with city-funded public history projects to local residents?

Extended questions 1 What are the issues with balancing the presentation of ‘official’ history with the ‘unofficially’ history of local residents?

2 Would this approach to town planning work on a global level to balance the needs of continued urban development with preservation of historic integrity? What other solutions are there?

Reading and resources ●●

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Potter, P. B. (1994), Public Archaeology in Annapolis: A Critical Approach to Maryland’s Ancient City. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute Press. www.marlandhistorictrust.net/aboutmht.html http://www.historicinnsofannapolis.com/governor-calvert-house. aspx

Extended reading ●●

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Tyler, N., Ligibel, T. and Tyler, I. (2009) Historic Preservation: An Introduction to Its History, Principles and Practices. London: Norton and Company. Hayden, D. (1995), The Power of Place: Urban Landscapes as Public History. Cambridge: The MIT Press. http://www.historicinnsofannapolis.com/hotel-history.aspx [Accessed 10 September 2017].

governments have sought to protect history found by the public in their personal pursuit of the past. The political want and perhaps need to control historical objects were first highlighted in the seventh century in Sweden, when King Gustaf Adolf II passed the first law of its kind, stipulating that

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all antiquities were to be property of the Crown.81 This law would be later served to guide the treasure trove laws in the UK and in Europe. In the UK, national legislation, such as The Treasure Act, governs the selling and acquisition of historical and archaeological items found by the public.82 The Treasure Act requires the public to report items defined as treasure, which includes items containing over 10 per cent precious metal (gold or silver), two or more coin hoards, and two or more prehistoric metal items found together. These are regarded as items owned by the Crown. Once reported, such objects will be assessed and valued by the treasure committee, based at the British Museum.83 Items can then be purchased by the museum with the full market value given to the finder and the landowner as a reward. This process is overseen by the Department of Culture, Media and Sport.84 The UK government has supported, through the Museums, Libraries and Archives council (MLA), now incorporated into the National Arts Council, various public initiatives to educate and work with the public to record individual objects found on public and private land. This includes funding the PAS, which employs finds liaison officers in England and Wales, often based in regional museums.85 Historical items within the collections of museums and archives often pertain to objects acquired during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, before legislation governed the movement of objects between countries and required authenticated providence and legal acquisition of objects from source country, site and peoples.86 Museums and archives display and store items which are contested or questionable in their legal acquisition. This includes potentially looted and/or questionably attained items from source countries such as the Elgin Marbles at the British Museum controversially acquired by Lord Elgin from Athens during the nineteenth century.87 Issues regarding the illegal movement of historic objects and their provenance within large public history organizations have led to the introduction of charters to protect the movement of objects, including national acts, for example, the US Antiquities Act of 1906, and international treaties, such as the Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing Illicit Import, Export and the Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property (1970, UNESCO) and the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in Event of Armed Conflict (1958, UNESCO).88 Museum collections are currently governed by strong codes of ethics in relation to object acquisition and authentication.89 Earlier museum collection policies resulted in numerous national and regional museums, including the Smithsonian Institution, coming into conflict with indigenous groups, artefacts from whom form collections within these institutions. New land rights and claims questioning the legality of maintaining possession of indigenous associated items is a particularly charged issue where it relates to collections including items that are deemed to be of religious or spiritual significance or to contain ancestral remains.

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In countries such as Australia, New Zealand, Canada and America, and increasingly in Africa and Central and South America, legislation has been enacted to govern and protect the future collection of these remains and in some cases to repatriate objects and human remains to tribal communities.90 This has resulted in many museum and archive collections being reevaluated and deaccessioned; in cases where they been linked to descendant indigenous communities and objects it can be proven returned. For example, the National History Museum returned the remains of eighteen Aboriginal people in 2006.91

Indigenous and native remains The indigenous rights movement and legislation on international, national and state levels, for example, the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) and First Peoples and First Nations, have affected the actions of historians around the world. The First Peoples and First Nations cultural heritage and state acts have aimed to protect indigenous land, cultures and traditions, and have included the introduction of notions of intangible heritage.92 This has led public historians working with tribal communities to create exhibitions and specialist museums. For example, the founding of the institution National Museum of the American Indian in Washington, DC (Case study 33, Figure 9.3).93 These museums and exhibitions aim to present the untold and often misunderstood indigenous histories of an area or country, providing a historical voice for the native populations. Legislation at both national and state level has required historical on ancestral landscapes to be granted permission from ancestral community elders and co-corporations. This often requires the presence of a tribal representative on historical projects and the negotiation of methods used to investigate the past and can include, for example, preventing access to sacred areas or restricting access to tribal information. Collaborative working relationships that develop trust can provide new historical information, and despite this, these historical viewpoints have yet to be effectively quantified or factually validated. As such, public historians can be easily manipulated to serve ‘indigenous’ tribal agendas with historians working for indigenous populations to legitimize land claims. Crosby’s work in Fiji provides evidence of heritage professional manipulation by indigenous communities for political and economic purposes.94 Heritage professionals were commissioned and, in a sense, controlled by the indigenous population to undertake archaeological and historical research on tribal land. This research aimed to reinforce control over indigenous traditions, land and cultural beliefs and as a result provide economic benefits in the form of grants, land claims, and tourism revenue for this community.95 Tensions arose in this project between indigenous community and the professions due to the reinterpretation and manipulation of historical and archaeological data by the community to serve indigenous political agendas.96

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FIGURE 9.5  Smithsonian, National Museum of the American Indian. Photo by Mark Wilson/Getty Images.

Working on indigenous projects needs to balance respect for indigenous rights and viewpoints with providing an objective view of history that combines tangible and intangible ideas (Case study 33).

CASE STUDY 33. Smithsonian Institution American History Museum and Natural History Museum

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uring the George Bush (Senior) administration (1989–1993), the government attempted to make multiple voices of the past into one national voice through federal acts, including NAGPRA.97 It subsequently saw, through an act of congress in 1989, the establishment of the National Museums of the American Indian under the ‘federally’ controlled Smithsonian Institution. This museum, which opened in 2004 in Washington, DC, after almost a decade of dialogues and consultations, has been described as an ambitious attempt to educate the public and make Native American Indians part of Americans’ ‘national’ heritage.98 This museum was carefully designed in collaboration with Native communities both internally and externally to represent the landscape and as such the voice of the Native communities.

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The result of this collaboration has been an architecturally unique building, based on the organic and flowing landscape of the American Indians, with constantly changing exhibitions both within and outside (Figure 9.5). Unlike other Smithsonian Institution and national museums within Washington, DC, with the exception of the recent the Smithsonian National Museum of American History and Culture (2016), this building is not classical and postmodern in style; rather it contrasts in colour, being yellow rather than grey and fluid in design. Internally there is an open central space, in which on each floor exhibition spaces can be accessed. In the balcony area, there are touchscreen technology and interactive displays; displays are not traditionally temporally specific; rather, they are arranged in themes such as animals. This museum attempted to balance out the white American history portrayed in the Smithsonian Institution American History Museum and Natural History Museum and provide a voice for a disenfranchised group, yet at no point have these histories been brought together. Recently, perhaps in response to this museum, the federally financed building and creation is underway for a Museum of African American History. This will be positioned within the same geographical locality, along the mall in Washington as the other museums.

Questions 1 Is it right to have separate museums for different elements and perspectives of history or should ideas be integrated?

2 How do museums communicate previously untold stories that challenge ideas and historical perceptions?

3 Should the creation of museums be driven by political ideologies?

Extended questions 1 Examine the role of museums in providing an arena for political debate. Can exhibitions successfully offer a space for debating contested stories of history? 2 Should politicians have the ability through law to create museums? What potential pitfall is there for the public perception of history in the future?

Reading and resources ●●

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http://www.nmai.si.edu/subpage.cfm?subpage=about http://nmai.si.edu/visit/washington/architecture-landscape/

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Extended reading ●●

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Knauer, L. and Walkowitz, D. (2009), Contested Histories in Public Space. Durham: Duke University Press. King, T. (2008), Cultural Resource Management Laws and Practice. Lanham: AltaMira Press.

United States: The NAGPRA is part of public law in the United States.99 This act directly pertains to the sites and remains that relate to Native American lineal descendants, Indian tribes and Native Hawaiian organizations.100 This act is two-fold. Firstly, it requires federal agencies and federally funded museums to provide inventories of items such as human remains or funerary objects and reach agreements regarding repatriation or disposition. This may be in the form of reburial or long-term curation, according to wishes of proven lineal decedents.101 Secondly, it protects Native American burial sites, artefacts found on sites, including human remains, funerary objects, and sacred objects. This requires consultation with tribes whenever historical or archaeological items are encountered or expected to be encountered.102 This resulted in items being left in situ in the ground where found or sites only being investigated or excavated under the supervision of specific tribal representatives. Australia: National and state laws protect the history and heritage of indigenous peoples in Australia and New Zealand. The National Aboriginal and Torres Straits Islander Heritage Protection Act (1984) aims to protect and preserve areas of historic and heritage interest to indigenous communities and to intervene in the return of indigenous remains and objects, many of which are stored in museums and within other government organizations, both within Australia and internationally. The Australian government’s ‘return of indigenous property program’ was established to repatriate Aboriginal material within government-funded museums, including from the national museum of Australia, which have since returned over 1000 individual and 360 sacred objects.103 At state level, many states have adopted legislation to protect, promote, present and preserve Aboriginal heritage; this includes sites which may be developed, for example, the New South Wales and Queensland Aboriginal Cultural Heritage Acts (2003), the Victoria Aboriginal Heritage Act (2006), and the Torres Strait Islander Cultural Heritage Act (2003). The Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland Acts include the need for consultation and collaboration from Aboriginal communities and recognition of various tribal groups (Case study 25).

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CASE STUDY 34. The Victoria Aboriginal Act

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n 2006, the Victoria State government ratified legislation to protect Aboriginal heritage, known as the Aboriginal Heritage Act (2006). This act, overseen by the Office for Aboriginal Affairs Victorian (OAAV), aims to protect and preserve the Aboriginal heritage within the State of Victoria, including the city of Melbourne on both private and public lands.104 It is one of the few state heritage acts that legalize the need for not just consultation but also collaboration with Aboriginal communities when undertaking development work on both former and current indigenous landscapes that may impact on Aboriginal culture. The state provides financial and legal assistance to support Aboriginal tribal representative bodies, also known as traditional owners, to play an active role in the historical investigation of claimed landscapes. This has directly affected planning and development ‘mitigation’ control with sites and landscapes being commercially developed and altered in the future through build work, such as Bellarine Bayside, Melbourne, requiring as part of planning consent to undertake pre-consultation with Wathaurong tribal representatives, the recognized original indigenous population.105 In pre-development, for example, during onsite archaeological or historical investigations, and during development, tribal representatives supervise the actions of both heritage professionals, such as archaeologists, and building contractors to prevent damage and to record indigenous heritage. These individuals provide methodological support and interpretative guidance to contract heritage teams and state historic preservation. As such, final planning consents require heritage reports to go through collaborative approval, involving the archaeologists, SHPOs and Aboriginal communities. These individuals are paid for by the developer and supported by the state government as part of the state’s obligations to cultural heritage management (Aboriginal Heritage Act 2006). Recently, the OAAV has, in partnership with the University of La Trobe, provided heritage-training programmes for registered Aboriginal parties.106 These accredited courses, such as ‘Certificate VI in Aboriginal Cultural Heritage Management’, provide heritage training in areas such as archaeological techniques, historical archiving, heritage legislation and strategies for community engagement.107

Questions 1 What are the issues with balancing the need for factual history and indigenous rights and concepts of intangible heritage?

2 How can historians work with indigenous communities to develop effective working relationships?

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3 In what ways can indigenous history affect the practice of history in the public domain?

Extended questions 1 What are the impacts of legislation, including national and international policies, on the representation of indigenous histories? 2 Are there models and examples of best practice for developing public history projects with indigenous communities?

Reading and resources ●●

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Ford (2009), available at: http://diginternational.com.au/page3. htm http://www.dpc.vic.gov.au/index.php/aboriginal-affairs/ aboriginal-cultural-heritage/review-of-the-aboriginal-heritageact-2006

Extended reading ●●

Knauer, L. and Walkowitz, D. (2009), Contested Histories in Public Space. Durham: Duke University Press.

History’s impact on policy This chapter has discussed the effect of policy on history in the public domain; this section investigates history’s potential to influence wider public policy. It examines the critical role that appropriately communicating and applying history in a real-world context ‘applied history’ has in shaping the views of politicians and external organizations’ wider public policies, including those relating to climate change and public well-being. Historians’ influence on public policy can be linked to their involvement in curriculum reform, which started in the twentieth century in the United States, and historians’ involvement as military advisors during the Second World War.108 Historians around the world have sought to influence politicians and perceptions as to the wider value of history, including education reform and planning policy and mental health policy (see Chapter 7, Teaching History). Historians and their work, especially in the public sphere, are not only affected by government policy, but they also work with and within government organizations and agencies to change policy and influence politics and history’s representation in the public domain. The work of historians

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within these organizations can positively influence the presentation and preservation of history within the public arena. Government employees are at the forefront of public history’s future, involved in developing innovative methods for best practice, strategies for sustainable and publically funded and supported public history. Political and private organizations, such as local and national government agencies and NGOs, employ historians as permanent members of staff or consultants to advise on specific issues and projects, such as during development work.109 Despite the potential to influence policy and decision-making that could impact on history, historians working for these organizations face difficult moral and ethical decisions as they are paid to represent the agendas and objectives of their employers. Government agencies employ historians to provide advice to inform government officials, to advise on history and heritage policy, and to help develop legislation and guidelines for the protection, promotion and preservation of the historic environment and national and regional heritage agendas. There are two types of historical associated agencies, including the Department for Culture Media and Sport and Arts Council (UK), United States Forest Service (the United States), and smaller heritage-specific agencies, such as English Heritage (UK), and the State Historic Preservation Office (the United States). Historians are frequently asked to assist in nonhistorically associated government agencies, such as Department of Defense to provide non-specific historical advice (Case study 28).

CASE STUDY 35. Department of Defense (US) and Department of Defence (UK), Military Training Program

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n 2007, the US Department of Defense (DoD) received international criticism for the destruction of historically important sites. This followed specific incidences of military behaviour during the war in Iraq, such as constructing a military base on the ancient Mesopotamian city of Babylon and their non-intervention during the looting of the National Museum in Baghdad.110 To mitigate against the future destruction of cultural heritage, the DoD sought advice from historians and archaeologists to develop strategies for educating their military personnel. This included developing military heritage training programmes by providing briefings, posters and playing cards.111 These training programmes were limited to permanent staff and were time-dependent; they were not delivered to temporary staff such as the Territorial Army, many of whom served in Iraq.

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Playing cards were developed with the DoD and Legacy Resource Management program (Figure 9.6). Each playing card showed a specific artefact or site and gave advice on the card as to how to avoid causing future damage to cultural heritage.112 In collaboration with ICOMOS, the DoD developed a red list brochure of Iraqi antiques to prevent museums and collectors from buying looted items.113 The playing cards concept was later adapted by the UK Ministry of Defence who worked with historians and archaeologists, including those employed in-house to develop a range of cards to educate troops about Kenyan heritage. These were distributed prior to deployment. This education and preventative public history saw the Ministry of Defence in the UK develop both a replica of Afghani village in Norfolk and a replica of burial site to teach soldiers about cultural sensitivities.114 These examples of military cultural heritage protection strategies sought to encourage defence organizations to use history as a tool to develop relationships and change approaches in combat zones, consequently, aiming to use the past to help understand the present. This has involved working closely with local and specialist historians, local advisors and international and national government organizations.

FIGURE 9.6  Photograph of military playing cards. Photo by Education Images/UIG via Getty Images.

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Questions 1 Have these strategies of military heritage training reduced the destruction of cultural heritage in War Zones?

2 Which strategy for education of military forces has the potential to be most successful in changing the mindsets of individuals in the armed forces in relation to history? 3 What additional values does heritage training beyond the history sector have?

Extended questions 1 Should the military intervene to protect cultural heritage? What are the ethical considerations to these actions?

2 What were the motivations and the value of the UK ratifying the Hague Convention?

Reading and resources ●●

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Brown, M. (2010), ‘Good Training and Good Practice: Protection of Cultural Heritage on the UK Defense Training Estate’. In L. Rush (ed.), Archaeology, Cultural Property, and the Military, Boydell Press: Woodbridge. pp. 60–72 Siebrandt, D. (2010) ‘US Military Support of Cultural Heritage Awareness and Preservation in Post-Conflict Iraq’. In L. Rush (ed.), Archaeology, Cultural Property, and the Military. Boydell Press: Woodbridge. pp. 73–85. Zeidler, J and Rush, L. (2010), ‘In-Theatre Training Through Cultural Heritage Playing Cards: A Use Department of Defense Example’. In L. Rush (ed.), Archaeology, Cultural Property, and the Military. Boydell Press: Woodbridge. pp. 73–85.

Further reading ●●

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Philipson, A. (2015), ‘UN to deploy world heritage site peacekeepers’ “like The Monuments Men”’. The Telegraph, 18 October 2015. Available at: http://telegraph.co.uk/news/ worldnews/europe/italy/11939481/UN-to-deploy-world-heritagesite-peacekeppers-like-The-Monuments-Men.html [Accessed 04 January 2018]. Hague Convention http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ ID=13637&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html

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Recently, history has been used to help understand modern policy issues, including social, economic and educational problem.115 Using past perspectives, the research skills of historians can provide a deeper understanding to complex social problems; historical perspectives can provide comparative examples and demonstrate possible, future options.116 Historians have begun to work closely with government and political organizations and politicians to support historians’ wider political role in government agendas. In the UK, in 2002, the History and Policy group was launched with an accompanying website.117 This aimed to tackle the issue with the lack of historical perspective and historical misuse in politics and in policy.118 This was an opportune time, as a year later, in 2003, this lack of both historical perspective and perceived value of history to politics was highlighted by the then UK prime minster in a speech to US Congress: ‘There has never been a time. When except in the most general sense, a study of history provides so little instruction for our present day.’119 The History and Policy website aimed to tackle issues with histories, the lack of perceived wider relevance. The website has provided a forum for historians to develop research that is related to politics and tackle political issues – to connect this research with the policymakers and a forum to communicate relevant research. An important element of this is supporting a forum for research, encouraging relevant research and providing a framework to enable historical research to be accessible to government officials beyond the normative journal domain. This has involved creating a structure, notes and sections deliberately developed to appear similar to policy documents.120 This aims to support history’s role in the process in policymaking. This research and its application are limited as the implementation of this research requires wider political support, without which the findings will go unheard. The History and Policy organization highlights the potential broad application of history to policy from public health to the ‘War on Terror’.121 The range of papers highlight the need of policymakers to look backwards to draw on history to look forward. Rogers’s research on the Australian economic crisis of 1840 highlighted the parallels with the current economic crisis, illustrating how the past repeats itself.122 It considered the Australian bank failure and the previous steps to rebuild and return to economic growth. This research provides lessons from the past as exemplars for future action and potential policy decisions.123 It remains a frequently cited example of critically informed historical perspective among policymakers and taxpayers.124 This demonstrates how history can provide value beyond normative historical knowledge to wider society. Recent government agendas relating to ‘Gross National Happiness’ have encouraged historians to consider whether their work has the potential to influence people’s sense of well-being and mental health.125 Recently, public history projects, such as the Human Henge project and UCLs hospital patient survey, have reflected on global political trend in improving well-being and

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as such influenced policy and practice relating to mental health and wellbeing.126 For example, the Human Henge project utilizes the historical landscapes at Stonehenge as a backdrop to support mental health (www. humanhenge.org). The Human Henge project is funded by HLF, Aylesbury Area Board and English Heritage and is a partnership project between public health and heritage organizations, including the Restoration Trust, Richmond Fellowship, English Heritage and Bournemouth University. Researchers at University College London (UCL) investigated the well-being impact on hospital patients of handling historical objects.127 These projects seek to demonstrate that public participation in history can improve wellbeing, helping to tackle mental health issues. Furthermore, these public history projects seek to demonstrate that the discipline and its methods should influence public health practices and mental health policies at national and global levels.128

Working in political organizations and government agencies NGOs and international organizations, such as UNESCO and ICOMOS, and national organizations, such as English Heritage and USFS, require preventative action and responsive reaction to sensitive situations such as war or national disasters. Jobs within international organizations often require additional language skills, specifically French (UNESCO’s headquarters is in Paris), and often a third language. These organizations offer internships and provide training schemes for graduates nationally and around the world. Employees of national and international heritage organizations work to encourage the application of international and national guidelines and policies and to provide critical training in the protection and preservation of history.

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Breath of historical understanding at an international, national and regional level Cultural and political sensitivity Ability to upholding ethical codes of conduct, conventions and charters Ability to work with multiple different disciplines to engender the best solution Willingness to undertake often extensive travel

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A DAY IN THE LIFE Andrew Hann, Properties Historian at English Heritage Every day is different, working as head of the Properties Historians team at English Heritage. We are a small team of eight historians with different period specialisms, responsible for researching and writing about the 420 sites in our care. At any one time, members of the team are likely to be working on one or two major projects, or two or three smaller ones, often at opposite ends of the country, so the job can involve a lot of travelling. My specialism is country houses and historic landscapes, and currently my focus is on a major re-presentation project at Belsay Hall, Castle and Gardens in Northumberland, for which we are putting together a bid to the Heritage Lottery Fund. Belsay is an outstanding picturesque landscape comprising an austere mansion in classical Greek style, and the remains of a medieval tower house, linked by a magnificent steep-sided quarry garden, which has a micro-climate all of its own. We are hoping to bring the site to life with a woodland play area, a new cafe and family-centred interpretation at the castle end of the property, coupled with outreach and education programmes, and a large team of volunteers. As with all our projects I’m working alongside colleagues from many other teams – collections, conservation, interpretation, education, gardens and landscapes, marketing and visitor operations – so I’m exposed to lots of different perspectives and ideas on a daily basis. I’m also involved in several other projects including the ongoing twentyyear programme of garden restoration at Wrest Park in Bedfordshire, where we are currently working with a consultant on rejuvenation of the formal woodland garden, which has lost much of its design intent and floral variety over the past century due to neglect. Another project I’m working on commemorates the presence of the Polish section of the Special Operations Executive at Audley End in Essex during the Second World War. Currently we are pulling together an exhibition proposal for this and liaising with possible stakeholders. Surprisingly, for a historian I get relatively little time for historical research in the traditional sense; in fact, quite a lot of the research is commissioned out to external specialists or carried out by the research teams from our sister body, Historic England. Much more of my time is spent on writing or commenting on content for exhibition panels, multimedia guides, guidebooks, education packs or web resources, sourcing pictures, briefing reconstruction artists or model makers or dealing with enquiries from members of the public. Increasingly we do media interviews and blog posts and providing content for social media as English Heritage, now a charity, we strive to reach out to new audiences. On top of this there are the inevitable meetings

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and administrative duties. Currently I am co-chair of the research committee, which gives me the opportunity to help shape our future research endeavour. We are working on a research strategy and looking to strengthen links with academia and the wider heritage sector. Indeed fostering greater collaboration with HEIs is one of my passions, driven by a desire to enhance our capacity for research and develop the skills and expertise of our in-house research teams. To that end, we are now hosting a number of collaborative doctoral students; we encourage our staff to publish and apply for research funding and are about to set up a paid internship programme. We were recently awarded Independent Research Organisation status, and this offers us a great opportunity to take the lead in developing new research initiatives and establishing best practice for the sector. It’s an exciting time to be part of English Heritage, and I look forward to being part of a dynamic organization embracing change within in a rapidly changing heritage landscape.

Anna Moosbauer, Project Leader in Commercial Archaeology I was initially hired by Cotswold Archaeology (CA) as a trainee archaeologist. After six months of learning the basics of day-to-day commercial fieldwork – excavating and recording a variety of features, GPS survey, and the differences between evaluations, excavations and other project types – I was promoted to archaeologist and encouraged to apply for an internal training scheme, the Supervisor Designate programme. The programme consists of structured training and guidance with the aim of enabling archaeologist grade staff to transition from being members of the digging team to becoming successful project leaders. As an archaeologist working on any commercial site, my day revolved very much around the feature I was digging. Slots needed digging accurately, quickly and tidily, and then photographed, drawn and records, such as context sheets, filled in. At the end, the slot was labelled so the feature could be mapped by GPS. I am now supervisor designate. When I go onto site now, I think of the archaeology in terms of the number of slots needed and person days required to dig them, and walk around joining up ditch lines and trying to identify patterns across the site as a whole. At the same time, I need to ensure that I assign features to my team members that are appropriate to their skill level and experience and continuously check on everybody’s progress. I have to liaise with clients, consultants and county archaeologists to update them on progress and findings; with managers and admin staff back at our office for equipment, vehicles and staff; and with plant and welfare hire companies to sort logistical details.

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Ultimately, I am responsible and at least partially liable for everything and anything that happens on a site I am running. I have been a supervisor designate for almost a year and aim to be promoted to supervisor. The step from archaeologist to supervisor is large, yet the extra responsibilities and opportunities add variety, and it is rewarding to know that I play an active role in the success of a project or a member of my team.

Conclusion History and the practice of public history are affected by, and affect, policy at national, international and local levels. The role that heritage organizations play is integral to the practice of public history. Historians who work in the public domain perform a vital role in producing, establishing and changing policy, both of which can directly relate to the historic environment and its protection and presentation to the public. Historians can affect policy, which directly impacts upon public history and the public practice of history. The collaborative role of historians in the production of policy, both in an advisory level and in its construction and consultation, should not be overlooked. History and the knowledge and research skills that historians possess have the potential to change the present and the future of the subject and beyond. This change occurs through providing long-term strategies and agendas in which historians work within government organizations to directly influence government legislation through evidence and knowledge. The implementation of new guidelines and policies at international, national, regional, state and local levels that affect and influence historical action requires public support. The role of the public historian is to gain public support, which is critical to communicating new ideas, forming public partnerships and gaining support for publically relevant changes to policy that influence the practice of history. Public history and the practice of communicating, consulting and cooperating with the wider public are playing an increasing role in the production of heritage acts and guidelines globally. The recognition that the public has ownership to, and a voice in, history and in historical presentation and protection is now impacting on the work that public historians within government organizations undertake and the nature of the public outreach they engage in.

10 Beyond History

This chapter draws together the overarching themes of the book and provides a coherent synopsis of the practical application of history beyond university. This chapter considers the core subject-specific and generic skills that studying history provides students with, looking at learning outcomes and activities students have acquired during study and subsequently applying these to other career options. Understanding these skills is crucial to developing students’ potential future careers in public history and those careers beyond the subject. As such, subheadings for each transferable skill present a synopsis of its role and application in practice: illustrated by case studies of careers chosen by former history students. It provides a comprehensive analysis of history graduate employment opportunities, looking at the opportunities that history and the skills provide for employers and employees in industries such as the civil service, law, journalism, marketing, business and research. It will discuss roles of historians in other fields, including business archives, heritage advertising and product design. This will discuss the role of heritage in tourism and the economics of heritage (GNP). This chapter examines the role history degrees have outside their more normative applications by those described in previous chapters. There are specific challenges that must be faced by history graduates when working in public history, history and other sectors. Through case studies, this book has sought to offer advice to mitigate and adapt to the professional demands, including moral, ethical and financial, placed on this diverse and growing career path. This chapter provides a synopsis of potential post-university careers, illustrated in a map of career pathways for history graduates. This career overview provides directional support in applying for jobs and advice in future career choices, as well as practicaland experience-led support for applications into future employment, including key phrases needed to illustrate competencies for job applications and personal statements.

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The economics of history This book has discussed how education, the media, including digital media, community history, museums, archives, heritage centres, restoration, preservation and conservation businesses, political and government organizations and politics have enabled history to be communicated to and with the public. Public history sectors and their associated activities and forms of communication and public participation have affected the public’s perception of history and have also been influenced by the public demands, understanding and interests. Critical to public history in all arenas is the ability to enable a two-way dialogue between the professionals and the public. This dialogue enables changing power relationships, based more on democracy and consultation as the overarching principle of public history. The changing relationships between historians and the public, enabled by the practice of public history, have created history with real-world impact. The social, economic, political and educational value and impact of history have been widely theorized by both professional and academic historians.1 This ‘value’ directly relates to history’s relevancy within the public domain and its wider public impact, which includes the impact history has on people’s everyday lives, on the communities they live in, and on their personal and communal identity. These impacts range from tourism, political and education policies to reducing crime rates and creating friends. Creating, maintaining and supporting these multiple values associated with history are the principal aims and responsibilities of public historians today. These aims are achieved through the use of a variety of methods and historical activities aimed to encourage participation, communication and the presentation of relevant and sustainable history.2 These public history mechanisms, such as exhibitions, community excavations, oral history and digital media, are applied at both top-down and bottom-up levels. The diverse public history activities highlight how the active mechanisms of personal and communal communication are critical to history’s value and relevancy. The historic environment and the historical assets of a location have a direct impact on the economics of an area. The presence of cultural resources in a place, such as built heritage and cultural heritage, is the driver for ‘cultural tourism’.3 Cultural tourism is the ‘deliberate move of people away from their home or work to visit cultural destinations or assets; this can include historical buildings, museums, archaeological sites’.4 For example, the Pyramids of Giza, the Museum of Egyptian Antiquities and the Sphinx are often key drivers for tourists to Cairo, Egypt.5 If cultural heritage is internationally marketed and supported by infrastructure, such as transport, hotels and visitor facilities, it can positively impact on a locality’s and country’s economy. The economic impact of cultural tourism is direct and indirect; for example, direct spend includes visitor ticket sales

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and numbers and purchases on the site (such as in the cafe or shop), while indirect spend includes visitors staying in hotels, using local transport, eating and shopping in local establishments and job creation.6 Direct spend in the UK accounts for £136 million of the GNP (2011), while indirect spend, for example, employing approximately 3 million people in the sector, accounts for up to 3 per cent of the GNP.7 As such, organizations such as the National Trust (NT) (UK), who are responsible for historic sites such as Sutton Hoo in Suffolk and the Anglo Saxon Burial Site, have invested in marketing campaigns and visitor facilities to increase visitor figures and visitor spend. The NT has sought to utilize cultural tourism and to generate income from heritage sites; it has carefully branded, marketed its unique selling points, and facilitated income-generating activities such as renting farmland, providing holiday homes, and launching working holidays and vocational training programmes. The NT has worked with Ipswich county council tourism board on a regional tourism plan, which aims through historic site at networking and joint advertising and branding to support £23.9 million direct and indirect impact on the economy.8 Historical sites form part of the wider heritage industry; as such, they are a business asset for an area and for a country.9 For example, the successful granting of WHS by UNESCO of sites such as Asmara, Eritrea (2017) and City of Yazd, Iran (2017), raises the international profile of historic assets and provides international marketing for a site.10 WHS enables access to funding, such as the UNESCO preservation fund, which supports conservation and preservation work and enables public access to historic sites aiming to increase cultural tourism.11 For example, the Buddhas carved into the mountains in the Bamiyan valley, Afghanistan, destroyed by the Taliban in 2001, have received $4 million from UNESCO to help rebuild the damaged Buddhas and help develop cultural tourism.12 WHS can provide economic benefit to country, positively influencing tourism. As such, cultural tourism has a significant and direct impact on the Gross National Product (GNP) of a nation. For example, it is estimated that tourism and travel generate 9.8 per cent global GNP; even in periods of economic downtown, cultural tourism still thrives.13 The economics of heritage critical to developing sustainable economic futures, for example organizations such as the World Bank, have supported projects aimed at increasing tourism in order to provide an economic sustainability; for example, Lahore was provided with 27 million fund to support cultural tourism and economic development. As such, marketing, supporting visitors and providing visitor facilities are important to the economics of not only a single locality but a country. In addition, history and heritage in habitation areas have been proven to increase house prices and improve well-being, both of which are common indicators of economic growth. History has become a business; for example, ‘antiques’ and ‘vintage’ items are sold on the basis of their ability to create historical nostalgia and belief in historical authenticity. Travel companies, such as Andante Travel

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and Peter Sommer Travels, have been set up specifically to market and sell ‘cultural’ holidays, aiming to provide historical experiences by employing historians as travel agents and tour guides within their company.14 History as a subject has value to business and employers beyond the sector. Large companies use history and culture to market their brand and to promote their charitable and community work, often piggybacking on the positive public perception of museums, for example, BP-sponsoring exhibitions at the British Museum such as the recent exhibition, the Scythians: warriors of ancient Siberia (September 2017–January 2018). Resultantly, there is an array of jobs that require the skills acquired through studying history and historical knowledge. Employment in businesses such as tourism, marketing and military services requires the application of historical concepts and skills such as critical thinking within the workplace. As such, marketing, branding, communication, product design, advertising, public relations, tourism management and corporate services often involve elements of public history and ‘applied history’.

Careers Since 1989, there has been a rise in history graduates; there has also been a decrease in those graduates who go on to do traditional historical jobs such as curatorial roles within museums and archives. Perhaps this is because graduates now often require postgraduate qualification in these subjects. Furthermore, high levels of history graduates go on to do vocational training such as accountancy, journalism, librarianship, teaching and IT. Over 29.5 per cent of graduates went on to do future study in 2002. Research suggests there is a disparity in the skills students actually gain from university versus the skills employers require to employ graduates.15 Specifically, it is personal attributes, such as self-awareness, empathy, independent thinking and the ‘softer’ skills, that are priorities by employers (45 per cent) but not by universities, which prioritize critical thinking, writing skills and communication skills (42 per cent). This section seeks to address this disparity by providing a guide to transferable and generic skills and to highlight the value history graduates have beyond history.16 As such, it seeks to provide guidance for job applications and provide tools to support history graduates’ future employment and highlights the value of history as a subject beyond the discipline. Working as a historian within public history requires specific skills and training, which have been outlined within the relevant chapters. Each domain of public history, including museums, archives, heritage, education, media, digital media, community, political, and government history, has unique career pathways that can be followed by history students seeking to gain employment within these sectors (Figure 10.1). Yet studying history has value beyond gaining specialist subject knowledge. The study of history

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FIGURE 10.1  Overview of history career pathways.

at undergraduate and graduate level provides the apparatus for individuals to gain skills beyond those required for the more normative applications, such as becoming professional and academic historians, that is, those skills required to be a public historian and for careers beyond history. The study of history engages students in classroom and non-classroom activities that provide individuals with transferable, generic, ‘employability’ skills. Beck indicates ‘history degrees are not job specific, but are work related in the sense of providing a useful and cost effective education fostering transferable skills, including elements of flexibility valued by Employees’.17 Nicholls suggested that the range of jobs ‘beyond history’ that history graduates go on to do highlight the breath and wider world application of the subject, including senior roles in journalism, politics, civil service, law and commercial-sector organizations.18 In this study, Nicholls identified a range of generic ‘transferable’ skills that history graduates have which included:19 ●●

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Self-discipline Self-direction Independence of mind Initiative Ability to work with others

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Ability to assemble, manage and use evidence and interpret it Analytical and problem-solving Good oral and written skills Intellectual integrity and maturity Empathy and imaginative insight.

Team working Team working involves the ability to work with a range of people, either as part of everyday job activities or in order to deliver a specific project. Team working requires individuals collaborate with a diverse range of colleagues and stakeholders. This can be challenging and often requires compromise, diplomacy and the ability to view things from different perspectives and respect alterative ideas. Team working requires empathy and an understanding that different colleagues and partners will have different expectations, values and views about a project. It is this ability to teamwork that is vital in the production of museum exhibitions and community projects. For example, designing a museum exhibition will require multiple internal and external contractors to work together, from many different backgrounds and often with different agendas, including designers, curators, marketing, cooperate sponsors, educational specialists, finance, guides and visitors. Team working can be difficult, personalities can clash, and working practices can differ. It is important to understand that not everyone gets on all time but everyone is working in an organization with a common goal and wants it to be successful and to look successful themselves. In order to support team building organizations often host staff-away days, sometimes employing specialist firms to run team building exercises to help people discover commonalities, to understand each other’s differences as valuable within the team and to encourage people to work together successfully. Sometimes teams do not work, usually because of individual clashes in personality and working styles, poor management, a lack of defined roles and job responsibilities for individuals, and for these reasons, there are many publications on working with difficult people and processes for dealing with them. Universities use group projects in seminars and assessments to support students to develop the skills to successful work as part of a team. These activities are designed to help students understand the benefits and pitfall of team working. For example, the Manchester Metropolitan University History in Practice unit places students on placement projects in teams of three to four people; this group must work as a team. They are assessed on their ability to divide tasks, support each other, communicate effectively with each other and the host organization, and deliver a public history project within a specific time frame and to a high standard that meets the project’s objectives and the organization’s aims. This ability to work as an

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effective team can include learning to overcome personal issues with each another and personality clashes in order to successfully deliver a project; to understand, you do not need to be friends to work together but you do need to respect each other, listen to other perspectives and be willing and flexible to accept other approaches. Another important lesson is having to be proactive; you cannot as part of a team be a passive bystander.

Leadership skills and project management Leadership requires the ability to guide a team of people to work together and often to complete projects. Leadership and project management involve communicating with different people and understanding team dynamics and utilize individuals and their unique skills. Leadership requires different management approaches and techniques for different people: ●●

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Classical: Management requires autocratic leadership style. It involves planning, organizing and controlling employees working within a hierarchical organizational structure. Behavioural: Management requires modifying, guiding and motivating individuals to change their actions and interactions in order to be personally fulfilling, productive members of a team and to act in a socially acceptable manner. Contingency: Management requires adapting to changing circumstances. It understands effective management is dependent on interplay between application of management behaviours and specific situations.

Effective leadership and business management require the ability to provide constructive criticism and to praise staff for good work, providing the support to enable individuals to perform to the best of their abilities. Good management requires effective communication with a team of people about the objectives, aims and agendas of a company and project. Leadership is not about controlling all the small details; it’s about the bigger picture – the final delivery of a product and project. As such, it is about delegation, respect, understanding and supporting individuals working with you. Historians have, through examining successful historical figures and events, the historical knowledge of what good leadership requires; historians learn about people, how they interact, their motives, emotions, and how these things can tear people into rival factions or help them work together for a common cause.20 This knowledge provides historians with an understanding of psychology that can enable them to be good leaders. Historians, through learning about countries’ history, their conflicts and alliances, help them understand how the art of negotiation and how historical and personal relationships can influence current alliances.21 Management requires the

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undertaking of personal reviews and yearly appraisals of staff, seeking to help staff understand themselves and to help managers devise appropriate training and support for staff’s professional development. Leadership and management require political knowledge, excellent oral communication, networking abilities and organizational skills. It has been suggested that a high level of history graduates have a personality type known as ‘divergers’ that naturally suits senior management and leadership roles.22 Divergers have wide-ranging approach to problems and novel solutions to solving them; as such, history graduates often go on to become leading figures in clerical management, political figures, senior civil servants and company executives.23 Leaders in public history range from heads of academic department and directors of museums to community historians, people who guide the success of an organization or a project and its vision and final output.

Oral and written communication skills Excellent communication skills are needed for all jobs and critical to getting employed; the personal statement, covering letter, CV/resume and the personal interview all require the ability to communicate effectively and concisely with your audience. Historians are taught the art of prose, the ability to tell a story and to quickly, concisely and understandably communicate a proposal, idea and agenda to a range of people. They are also equipped with the ability to transpose ideas from multiple sources into a meaningful summary document. Historians are taught to understand their audience, to adapt their work and to assess the appropriateness of different forms of communication dependent on context. Studying history requires the undertaking of a wide range of reading, including historical texts, archival material, photographs, films, oral history, speeches and political documents. The wide variety of material studied during historical study provides historians with a unique insight as to how to successfully communicate with an audience and how to present in a manner that makes sense and is meaningful to others. For example, which speeches were the most inspiring and which books engaged the reader in debate. As such, historians are taught the skills to be successful communicators, to debate, discuss and listen to ideas, and to be unbiased to understanding how to communicate, and how to successfully communicate an idea is critical to jobs within history, such as museum curators and history teachers and in external sectors. Historians’ ability to verbally communicate an idea often makes them go on to work in journalism or mass ‘popular’ media, and they sometimes become popular fictional writers, such as Philippa Gregory and Hilary Mantel.24 The ability to write concisely means that some historians go on to work in policy, writing political briefings, and work as civil servants.

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Critical analysis Critical analysis is the ability to source, compile, assess and find overarching themes in a range of materials. It is the ability to assess the validity, integrity, truth and authenticity of material culture, of written and oral communication. Critical analysis is about seeing patterns and themes that emerge within data. This involves fact-checking and validation but also understanding the motivations, drivers and biases of date in order to form your own opinion, which can be sustained and is based on critical assessment. The ability to be critically aware and analyse a range of materials is essential for most jobs. Critical analysis is the foundation of historical research; history undergraduates undertake this at all stages on their degree. Critical analytical skills are acquired during the research and writing of dissertations and essays and also as part of group seminars. Students are expected to source and investigate a wide range of historical documents; to assess historical conjecture and options from documents, books and articles; and to develop, through fact-checking and evidence-based research, an opinion on a specific topic. Historians are expected to have a factually based opinion in which they can debate and justify. A high level of critical analysis is required for jobs in academia, law, accountancy, civil service and business management.

Organizational skills: Self-direction and self-disciplines Organizational skills require the ability to time and task-manage work. They require the organization of workloads and projects to prioritize activities and manage time efficiently in order to produce work within a time frame and to a high level. This requires self-discipline, self-motivation and selfdirection. Organizational skills involve the ability to delegate tasks to others and to oversee a team of people to complete tasks on time. Organizational skills are supported through computer software, for example, Gantt charts and appropriate online or paper filing systems. History undergraduate courses help develop organizational skills through encouraging the completion of work to deadlines and requiring students to meet a range of deadlines that are sometimes close and overlapping. They encourage students to develop the skills and confidence to work independently to produce essays and dissertations: dissertations support the development of self-direction by encouraging students to choose their own topics and to work independently to complete research. Weekly seminars, topics and essential reading encourage students to be self-disciplined. Universities teach independence in learning, which requires organizational skills and planning. All employers need a person who can be organized and self-directed, someone to start the ground running and whom they can trust

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to produce work to deadlines, turn up on time and organize their work in a manner others can utilize. Organizational skills are critical to all jobs; for example, the job of an archivist requires the ability to organize large amounts TABLE 10.1  Table of competencies required by employers Competency

Requirement

Demonstration

Communication

The ability to communicate with a diverse range of people with clarity, conviction and enthusiasm

Adaption of communication techniques for diverse audiences Creation of new platforms for communication

Creation of new partnerships Partnerships and The ability to develop and relationships collaboration professional relationships Involvement in with a wide range of multidisciplinary and multipeople both within and stakeholder projects outside the sector Demonstrating the capability Experience in team working projects to overcome challenges in these collaborative partnerships and foster future relationships Capability building

The ability to develop one’s self and others through training or mentoring

Achieving outcomes

The ability to affect a longExperience in work that has term future that has value time-specific deadlines, and sustainability specific outcomes (values) and that has been evaluated. Consideration of wider values

Decisionmaking

The ability to be objective and use sound judgement and to provide accurate and professional advice To set priorities and justify decisions. Developing creative strategies to minimize risk and create value and impact

Undertaking professional development courses, gaining educational experience, developing future plans for personal career development Mentoring and supporting other people in their careers

Experience of project management and problemsolving. Showing evidence of example of how decisions were made and what impact this had

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TABLE 10.1  (Continued) Competency

Requirement

Demonstration

Professionalism

Supporting and improving an organization and its objectives

Evidence of how the people’s experience fits into the organization’s objectives and strategies. How they could support these objectives through their skills and experience

Time management

Demonstrating the ability to work within specific, often tight deadlines

Evidence of working to deadlines to achieve specific outcomes and managing tasks in a time-pressured environment

Computer skills

Demonstrating knowledge and application of relevant computer software

Evidence of using specific computer programmes, for example, those associated with data analysis and collection

Independent research

Ability to work independently and to undertake primary and secondary research with minimal supervision

Evidence of self-management, completing independent projects and working alone

of data and documents in order to be stored, systematically organized and filed, and to be made accessible to an audience. Understanding and demonstrating the essential, required competencies and competency frameworks that exist for specific jobs are essential to completing successful job applications. Through incorporating these competencies within personal statements, resumes and curricula vitae, the individual demonstrates their ability to do a job and that they meet the skills required (Table 10.1). Many large employers, including universities, museums, corporate businesses and government agencies, apply competency frameworks to recruitment and promotion. The frameworks directly relate to the organization’s strategic plan for the future and their core values. For example, the framework for civil servants includes ‘delivering results’, ‘engaging with the public’ and ‘setting direction’.25 As such, engaging with the public may require the candidate to provide evidence that they can communicate effectively with a diverse range of people and develop collaborative partnerships with internal departments and people and with external organizations and individuals. Despite the diverse skills developed during undergraduate studies, history students often struggle to gain graduate-level employment.26 This

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frequently relates to lack of communication between universities and graduate employers. These issues with communication have resulted in some employers being unsatisfied with the attributes taught to students at university, specifically generic skills such as communication, problem-solving and team working.27 Booth and Booth’s research illustrates the disparity between students and leavers (future employees) in relation to the skills gained at university versus the skills they require to gain employment.28 Specifically, ‘softer’ personal attributes, such as self-awareness, empathy and self-thinking, are prioritized by employers but not by universities, who seemingly place greater value on the development of evaluation, critical thinking and writing skills.29 To address this disparity, the wider history curriculum is beginning to provide for life after university, not just providing for life within academia; for example, higher education establishments are developing pedagogical approaches, which provide a ‘skills journey’ for students, linked directly to employability.30 This approach requires complex teaching and learning methods, which encourage personal journeys and play a role in student development of both history-based skills and transferable and flexible skills.31 These new approaches aim to engender greater value beyond the classroom for the practice of history and for history graduates.32 Research indicates that undertaking placement courses with specific learning outcomes can maximize potential for future employment, as it provides organized skills training tailored to graduate employers’ agendas.33 Undergraduate and master’s courses, such as public history, that offer student placements provide the greatest scope for individuals to develop these skills.34 It is critical for public history organizations that history students (their future employees) leave university with ‘real world’ experience of the uses and applications of history beyond the classroom, ensuring that they have practical and first-hand experience of putting into practice the historical knowledge and skills attained during their studies. Studying history at degree level provides the framework for those interested in working in the expanding public history sector, alongside providing the skills to gain employment beyond university and traditionally associated historical activities. Experience gained from volunteering or on placement in public history organizations is critical to gaining future employment in public and private institutions. The precise nature of the experiences gained from placement or volunteering work will vary from institution to institution and from project to project. In some cases experiences will involve institutionally led conventional activities such as designing exhibitions; in other cases, it could involve being led and guided by the community (community history) to create community heritage trails or support oral history projects; all these projects work towards a final product and output, which may be organic and changeable or fixed.

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The benefits of employing history graduates ●●

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Enterprising: Collaborative partnership projects based on multidisciplinary approaches New thinking: New ideas and approaches to projects Knowledge transfer: Developing and increasing communication technologies and approaches

This book has highlighted how historical techniques, knowledge and insights are and might be applied in various contexts. It has introduced the key issues in the conceptualization and practice of public history and prepared the reader to debate distinct methodologies and criteria that may be deployed in public history. History has potential beyond academia, which is enabled by increasing partnerships with public and private external organizations. Crucial to the practice of public history and postgraduate employment in the history industry is the ability to reflect on previous work and critically evaluate the skills gained from each experience. This enables the evaluation of both the successes and failures of public history projects, including understanding the inputs and outcomes. This self-reflection is a form of qualitative evaluation and aims to provide the personal space both to critically consider the nature of public history and to understand its impact.35 Critical review enables public historians to learn from experience and is vital to facilitate a sustainable and meaningful future for public history. The ability to self-reflect is key to successful job applications, understanding the achievement and skills gained from previous experience.

Getting a job Personal statements and covering letters The majority of job applications require written personal statements; these are descriptive passages that detail how the candidate meets the job requirements. This showcases a candidate’s skills and experience linked to competencies, indicating what makes them ideal for the job (Table 10.1). Writing personal statements requires the ability to link experiences and personal achievements with the key essential competencies listed in the job description. Employers will score the statement based on meeting the essential job description; candidates who meet the highest number of competencies will be asked to interview. Presentation of personal statements involves choosing a style layout: 1 Sections: Division of text based on job description categories. This statement will read as a continuous prose.

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2 Bullet points: Each bullet point will be numbered according to specific and different competencies and skills listed in the job specification and will provide a sentence outlining experience that demonstrates this skill.

Curriculum vitae and resumes Curricula vitae (CVs) and resumes provide employers with a visual overview of an individual’s key achievements and a summary of their education and work to date. It is critical this showcases the applicant’s key skills and stands out to future employers. The layout and format of CVs is essential in order to make it clear and concise; as such, CVs should not be more than two sides of A4, except in the case of academic CVs, which are longer (see Online Material: Academic and General CV Template, for examples). Key components of CVs and resumes are: ●●

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Bio overview: Name, address and contact details Education: Schools and universities attended and associated qualifications and grades attained Work experience: List of all past and present jobs. Provide a brief summary of key roles undertaken and their responsibilities Further experience and interests: For example, conference papers presented and society memberships References: This requires two professional references, consisting of either an academic or a former and/or current employer. These references should be chosen based on people who the applicant has good relationships with and are supportive of future careers. It is important to contact references prior to application and send details of what is being applied to in order for them to tailor the reference appropriately.

Interviews Once applications have been submitted and reviewed by the selection panel or committee, usually involving human resources and senior organizational employees, candidates who best meet the requirements will be asked to interview. The type of interview will depend on the job but within many sectors, including museums, education and government; interviewees will often be asked to complete an activity during the interview such as public presentation, historical object identification or a database input activity. This will be accompanied by a formal interview in which candidates are questioned by a panel of institutional employees, including line managers and senior staff.

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Typically, this interview will focus on questions aimed to test how well a candidate meets the criteria for the job. This provides an opportunity for the employers to know the applicant and to judge whether or not they will fit in with the organization and whether they have any additional skills that may be of value to the job. Interviews are an opportunity to examine how a candidate thinks and acts under stress, as well as providing a test of their communication skills. Key things to remember for interviews: ●●

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Preparation: Before an interview, research the organization online and read any material they have sent you, including job description and candidate criteria. If they have mentioned who is interviewing you, research them and their specialisms; remember to utilize this in the interview. Make sure you know the time, place and anything you have to bring with you, for example, proof of identity, permit to work and qualification certificates. Practice: Think of some questions that relate to the job specification. Prepare answers for them; you may want a friend or family member to role-play the interview with you. Consider your future in the job, what you would do if you go to the position and what your goals would be. Timekeeping: Do not be late. Make sure you contact the interviewers immediately should you encounter any issues, such as transport. Appearance: Smart and clean clothes, and shoes. Dress for the job you want in the future, not for the job you have at the moment. Introduction: Introduce yourself, shake hands with interview panel and wait to be invited to sit down. Eye contact: Look the interviewer/interviewers in eye when talking to them and sit upright. Smile and show personality. Do not giggle or nervously fiddle. Clear concise answers: Take a breath if you have not understood what they have asked you and then ask them to repeat the question. Remember, stick to the point and illustrate your answer with examples. Prepared questions: Think of some questions you want to ask the interview panel; remember, you are deciding if you want to work in this organization as well.

11 The Future of Public History

This book has highlighted the effects of changes in disciplinary methodological and theoretical frameworks on the practice of public history. These have been influenced not only by internal disciplinary developments in pedagogical practices but also by external forces beyond the historical sector, including politics, policies and economies. This serves to demonstrate how alterations in dominant social and political ideologies have influenced the practice of history and public history. Public history’s key achievements, which include communicating and sharing ownership of the past with the public, relate to its ability to draw on multidisciplinary concepts and methods. Its freedom from academic conceptualization and recognition has given public historians the opportunity to explore new relations that history has to the wider world and to embrace its broader public influence. This has enabled the discipline’s practice to be influenced by the community. As a result, history has benefited economically, politically and professionally from the relationship public history has developed with the wider community. The challenge for the future is to find mechanisms by which public history can influence politics and practice, rather than merely being influenced by them. This requires developing new mediums for communication and opportunities for interdisciplinary collaboration. Public historians and organizations must continue to form multidisciplinary partnerships, which integrate the practice of public history within a wider disciplinary palimpsest, providing history with public relevancy. The aim of public history programmes and organizations is to support the development of symbiotic relationships between professions, policymakers and the public. Public history is integral to the practice of history by incorporating history and heritage and embracing intangible pasts; it supports historical research and its wider communication. The practice of public history has enabled history to become contextually meaningful and relevant to the public in the present. The effects of public history, ‘history in, with and for the public’, are far-reaching, effecting wider historical discourse and narratives, changing

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historical content, altering history’s values and impacting directly on public lives through policy’s implementation and education. Public history should not be regarded as a separate sub-discipline but rather an essential component of the practice of history, an overarching moral and ethical framework that encompasses elements of the entire discipline. Understanding this will enable history to move beyond its traditional boundaries, something that is essential to its long-term public support and survival. It is essential that public historians understand the innate need to broaden history’s scope, and museums, archives and heritage professionals must seek to collaborate with an increasingly varied number of stakeholders and partners to adapt and communicate a relevant past. Understanding the external influences and factors that affect the practice of history both within and beyond academia is an essential element of being a public historian, as is understanding the ‘public’, their values and the potential impacts of any public project upon them. This is a challenge as the varied and complex social units that make up the public often seem rather confusing to many historians. This challenge can be met through communication, partnerships and collaboration, requiring public historians to be more organic and flexible in their approaches to collecting, interpreting and presenting the past. Public history projects are thwarted with complexities and dangers that are not faced in the classroom; it requires representing different interpretations and values in a way that requires listening, decision-making and balancing conflicting demands to produce a final story or stories of the past. It also requires and demands both an overarching and specialist knowledge of history, which is essential in order to provide an authentic, valid and publically acceptable interpretation of the past and to prevent manipulation, stereotyping and dangerous abuses of history that can lead to conflict and social alienation. Public historians and historians have a moral and ethical obligation to provide a balanced portrayal of the multiple voices of the past. This portrayal requires that they combine traditional primary ‘tangible’ source of evidence with intangible stories of unrecorded pasts. Through maintaining professional standards and integrity of research and analysis, historians can construct complex and multidimensional versions of past that are both professionally and publically acceptable. Providing a ‘balanced’ portrayal of the past requires collaboration with the public and consideration and critical analysis of new sources of historical research, knowledge and presentation.

Conclusion Public history has developed based on an ethos of public communication, cooperation and collaboration. Despite methodological developments, advancements in digital technology, and the incorporation of interdisciplinary

THE FUTURE OF PUBLIC HISTORY

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techniques of evaluation and pedagogical practices, the premise and key aims of public history have remained static. Since public history’s inception as a formally recognized sub-discipline of history in the 1970s and 1980s, its principles and practices have metamorphosed, moving from theory to actions and formal acceptance as performing a vital role in the practice of the subject.1 The practice of public history has guided modern historical communication methods and influenced research practices of history. Historians are now actively seeking to incorporate public history within their formal organizational research agendas and teaching practices. ‘Historians’ are no longer regarded as those solely working in academic institutions but are now seen as professionals, civil servants, government officials and public practitioners. As such, history is not a career limited to academia and education; rather a ‘historian’ can work in many guises, contexts and environments, ranging from government archives to community settings. Public history has led history as a discipline to diversify its methods and theories, and it is playing a critical role in shaping history’s futures and altering its practice. For example, community history is no longer overlooked as historical work undertaken by amateurs and non-academics; rather it plays an active role in shaping historical knowledge and research agendas and has become a key component of public history. Similarly, media history is no longer shunned as unauthentic and unprofessional but has been embraced by some historians for its ability to inform and enable public communication. Since the nineteenth century and the beginning of professional history movements around the world, historians have fought to be heard in the sociopolitical arena. They have developed a political voice and resultantly begun to be accepted as having public value. Public history has provided the platform to enable this acceptance and to formally prove its validity, giving history the diversity in practice to make it relevant to the public. The community and the public are increasingly playing a role in shaping the practice of history and the production of historical knowledge. Public history as a discipline has helped shape the production and consumption of history. It has highlighted the complex nature of the relationships between academics, heritage professionals and the public and the multiple voices these disparate ‘communities’ have and has considered how academics and professionals can work with communities to provide new knowledge through a range of techniques. This has enabled public history projects to have value to communities, value that goes beyond simply the acquisition of knowledge. This book has highlighted how public history projects in a range of settings are undertaken. The ten chapters provide an oversight of public history in practice and seek not only what is required to work in different public history sectors but to highlight overarching themes in methods and patterns in practice. This has illustrated how the practice of public history

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is not limited to ‘official’ public history institutions, such as museums, but rather practised in a multitude of community and official contexts. This is particularly illustrated in the community history and political chapters. These projects are delivered through various mechanisms, all of which indicate that it is critical that public history projects are developed to incorporate aspects of not only the visual and ‘tangible’ past but also the intangible past, that is, that ‘lacking physical form and proof’. It is this that requires heritage professionals, including historians, to tread the delicate minefield between various historical ‘truths’ and often to challenge preconceived notions of ‘fact’ and ‘fiction.’ This book has sought to provide the reader with an insight as to the multiple concepts of best practice in public history. It has illustrated that best practice within the practice of public history is not a consensus, but rather it is contextually specific and linked to wider professional debates pertaining to ownership, authenticity, validity, professional standards, co-production of knowledge, consumption, and ethics and morals. The complex range of what is regarded as ‘best practice’ is illustrated in the broad range of case studies presented, from community-led history, such as Bellarine Bayside Project (Case study 19), to larger, institutionally established public history projects, such as the United States Forest Service Passport in Time (Case study 30).2 This book has illustrated the diverse skill sets public historians require, which are adapted and developed based on contextual requirements and working environments. It has highlighted the diversity in the mediums of communication used by public historians in the field. This book has sought to demonstrate the diverse set of skills that studying history provides individuals with and how these skills, such as critical thinking and project management, can be applied to a range of jobs beyond the field of history. The future of public history requires current and future professionals to continue to evaluate, reassess and critically review these methods and approaches, adapting both personal skills and overarching techniques to meet the public’s, politicians’ and professionals’ changing demands. Providing a sustainable future for public history requires individuals working in the sector of history to continue to strive for wider relevancy while maintaining and advocating for professional standards and integrity.

GLOSSARY

Authentic (Authenticity):  Perceived as real and genuine, regarded as historical truth. Behaviourism:  Teaching-centred approach based on cause and effect. The teacher conditioned the learner often through repetition, for example, Pavlov’s Dog. Blended learning:  Combines various pedagogical approaches to provide learning and teaching appropriate to diverse individuals. Bottom-up approach:  See ‘Grassroots’. Cognitive learning:  A learning theory based on the idea that learning is an internal mental activity, influenced by previous knowledge and experience. Learning is developmental and changes internal cognitive structures. Community history:  Public history projects, usually occurring in a specific geographical location, which are guided by the community. Conservation:  Processes which seek to preserve the significance and value of a historical resource through maintenance, repair and restoration. Constructivism:  Learner-centred approach. Learning is influenced by experiences and personal interactions. This active approach is based on doing and reflection such as ‘real-world problem-solving’. Consumerism:  The promotion and production of history for the

acquisition and use by ‘consumers’, the public. Crowdsourcing:  The securing of public funding, public support or public sourcing of information through the use of the Internet. Cybermuseology:  The creation of museum frameworks and external networks of interaction through the Internet. Desk-based Assessment:  The production of written document ‘report’ that compiles historical ‘archival’ records and archaeological evidence relating to a specific geographical locality/site to provide a comprehensive overview of the history of the site. Digital media:  A technology that uses computers and related software to create, communicate and store data. This includes the use of the Internet and creation of webpages, websites (see ‘Social media’) and databases. Disneyfication:  The transformation of history for entertainment purposes. The sterilization, falsification and simplification of history for wider public consumption. Experimental learning:  Learnercentred approach. This form of social learning is based on learning through experience, practical and hands-on learning such as ‘placement learning’. Flexible:  This teaching and learning approach provides teaching based

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on learner needs and usually is external to the classroom. Genre:  A classification system for a specific type of medium and/or product, which can be used for the translation and communication of history. Globalization:  A process by which different parts of the world come together; this can include economically, culturally and ideologically. Grass-roots:  Public history projects developed and managed by the public for the public (see ‘Community history’). Heritage Management Plan:  A plan that outlines future strategic management, guidelines and policies for a historic site. This includes stakeholder values, financial investment and project management strategy. Historiography:  The writing of history and understanding of its underlying links to broader theories and different approaches. Listed buildings:  Historical buildings that due to their historical importance and architectural significance are protected by the government (UK). Material culture:  Physical evidence of the past, for example, artefacts. Narrative:  A written or verbal account of an event, a story of history based on a specific perspective of the past. Pedagogy:  Approaches and theories relating to teaching and learning. Post-modern:  A historical approach and theory that dispels ideas of ‘truth’ and ‘fact’ but rather believes all historical interpretation is fluid – belief that intangible pasts as having equal value to the discipline and story of history as tangible pasts. Preservation:  The implementation of conservation techniques that aim to

prevent historical sites from being destroyed. Primary school:  Teaching children aged 5–11 (referred to elementary school in North America). Private institution:  Non-governmentfunded organization. Private school:  Fee-paying schools that work independently from many government regulations and conditions and have more choice over curriculum and subjects (also known as Independent). Preparatory schools (Prep) educate younger children. Public history:  The process of communicating history within the public domain mechanisms that facilitate open access to and engagement of the public with history. Public institution:  Governmentfunded organization. Public school:  Two divisions: Outside the UK, these are governmentfunded schools (state schools). Within the UK, public schools are established, expensive and exclusive schools, including boarding schools. Qualitative:  Evaluation that involves the use of anthropological and psychological techniques of observation and conservation to provide ‘value’ and impact evidence. Quantitative:  Evaluation that involves the use of numerical and statistical surveys to provide demographic and statistical user evidence. Qunago:  Quasi-autonomous nongovernmental organization. This refers to government-funded bodies which work semi-independently from government. Reconstructions:  Recreated historical buildings and physical objects from the past. This often uses a mixture of historical and archaeological

GLOSSARY

knowledge and creative interpretation. Re-enactment:  Modern-day people recreate ideas and theories of past historical events and actions in the present. Replicas:  Modern copies of original historical artefacts. Restoration:  Is a process or series of processes, by which a historical resource is aesthetically changed in order to take it back to a specific period in time. Secondary school:  Teaching children aged 11–16 (referred to as high school in Australia and North America). Self-reflection:  The action of personal evaluation, understanding what happened, why it happened, and what worked and didn’t. A mechanism for understanding personal actions and reaction. Social media:  The use of digital media and networks to support social interaction in the virtual world. This enables the public to share and exchange ideas, and create and

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communicate information to a broad audience. Social networks:  Connections formed between different and diverse groups of people. State school:  Government-funded and -controlled ‘free’ schools, working directly within government guidelines to deliver national curriculum. Third-sector funding:  Nongovernment, not-for-profit and charitable funding. Funding can be obtained through both public (civic) and private (social) for social benefit. Top down:  Public history projects developed and managed by professionals for the public and include institutional and research projects. Validity:  Credible and historically proven truth. World Heritage Site:  A historical, archaeological, geographical or ecological place that has internationally cultural and physical significance.

NOTES

Chapter 1   1 Davison, G. (1998), ‘Public History’. In G. Davison, J. Hirst and S. Macintyre (eds), The Oxford Companion to Australian History. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, pp. 532–533; Liddington, J. (2002), ‘What Is Public History? Publics and Their Pasts, Meanings and Practices’. Oral History, Vol. 3, pp. 83–93; Wilmer, E. (2000), What Is Public History. Available at: http://www. publichistory.org/ what_is/definition.html [Accessed 10 December 2013].   2 Jordanova, L. (2010), History in Practice. London: Bloomsbury Academic; Ashton, P. and Kean, H. (2009), People and Their Pasts: Public History Today. London: Palgrave Macmillan.   3 Grele, R. (1989), ‘Whose Public? Whose History? What Is the Goal of a Public Historian’. The Public Historian, Vol. 3 (1), pp. 40–48; Samuel, R. (2012), Theatres of Memory: Past and Present in Contemporary Culture. London: Verso.   4 Kean, H. and Ashton, P. (2009), ‘Introduction: People and Their Pasts and Public History Today’. In H. Kean and P. Ashton (eds), People and Their Pasts: Public History Today. London: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 1–20.   5 Kean and Ashton, ‘Introduction’, p. 1.   6 Hartley, L. P. (2004), The Go-Between. London: Penguin Modern Classics; Lowenthal, D. (1990), The Past Is a Foreign Country. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.   7 Jensen, B. (2009), ‘Usable Pasts: Comparing Approaches to Popular and Public History’. In H. Kean and P. Ashton (eds), People and Their Pasts: Public History Today. London: Palgrave Macmillan, p. 43.   8 Franco, B. (1997), ‘Public History and Memory: A Museum Perspective’. The Public Historian, Vol. 19 (2), p. 65.   9 Claus, P. and Marriot, J. (2012), History: An Introduction to Theory, Method and Practice. London: Pearson, p. 215. 10 Jensen, ‘Usable Pasts’, p. 42. 11 Fredericksen, C. (2002), ‘Caring for History: Tiwi and Archaeological Narratives of Fort Dundas/Punata, Melville Island, Australia’. World Archaeology, Vol. 34 (2), Community Archaeology, p. 299. 12 Holtorf, C. (2005), From Stonehenge to Las Vegas: Archaeology as Popular Culture. Oxford: Altamira Press. 13 Potter, P. B. (1994), Public Archaeology in Annapolis: A Critical Approach to Maryland’s Ancient City. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute Press. 14 Anderson, B. (1983), Imagined Communities: Reflection on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism. London: Verso.

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15 Suny, R. G. (1999), ‘Provisional Stabilities: The Politics of Identities in PostSoviet Eurasia’. International Security, Vol. 24 (3), pp. 139–179. 16 Suny, ‘Provisional Stabilities’, p. 148. 17 Suny, ‘Provisional Stabilities’, p. 147. 18 Merriman, N. (1991), Beyond the Glass Case: The Past, the Heritage and the Public in Britain. Leicester: Leicester University Press. 19 Merriman, Beyond the Glass Case. 20 Bates, J. (2012), ‘Introduction’. In J. Bates (ed.), The Public Value of the Humanities. London: Bloomsbury Academic, p. 2. 21 Bates, ‘Introduction’, p. 6; Claus and Marriott, History. 22 Wilmer, E. (2000), What Is Public History. Available at: http://www. publichistory.org/what_is/definition.html [Accessed 08 October 2013]. 23 Franco, ‘Public History and Memory’, p. 66. 24 Cauvin, T. (2015), Public History: A Textbook of Practice. London: Routledge, p. 2. 25 Cauvin, Public History, p. 3. 26 Wiener, J. (2004), Historians in Trouble: Plagiarism, Fraud, and Politics in the Ivory Tower. New York: New Press; Suny, R. (2012), What Ivory Tower? Eisenberg Institute for Historical Studies, News and Events. Available at: www.lsa.umich.edu/UMICH/ eihs/Home/News/Newsletter/W12_newsletter. pdf [Accessed 04 January 2018]. 27 Townsend, R. (2013), History’s Babel: Scholarship, Professionalization, and the Historical Enterprise in the United States, 1880–1940. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 28 Townsend, History’s Babel. Cauvin, Public History, p. 4. 29 Hilliard, C. (2001), ‘A Prehistory of Public History: Monuments, Explanations and Promotions, 1900–1970’. In B. Dalley and J. Phillips (eds), Going Public: The Changing Face of New Zealand History. Auckland: Auckland University Press, pp. 30–52; Suny, What Ivory Tower? 30 Townsend, History’s Babel, p. 47. 31 Tyrrell, I. (2005), Historians in Public: The Practice of American History, 1890–1979. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 32 Cauvin, Public History, p. 5; Conard, R. (2002), Benjamin Shambaugh and the Intellectual Foundations of Public History. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, p. 33. 33 Cauvin, Public History, p. 6. 34 Kelley, R. (1978), ‘Public History: Its Origins, Nature, and Prospects’. The Public Historian, Vol. 1, p. 16. 35 Cauvin, Public History, p. 7; Townsend, History’s Babel ; Hilliard, ‘A Prehistory of Public History’; Kywig, D. and Marty, M. (2010), Nearby History: Exploring the Past around You. Lanham: AltaMira Press. 36 Cauvin, Public History, p. 7. 37 Smith, G. (2008), The Making of Oral History: Sections 1–2. Available at: http://www.history.ac.uk/makinghistory/resources/articles/oral_history.html [Accessed 10 November 2017]. 38 Cauvin, Public History, p. 90; Smith, The Making of Oral History. 39 Smith, The Making of Oral History; Evans, G. (1975), Ask the Fellows Who Cut the Hay. London: Faber and Faber.

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40 Green, J. (2000), Taking History to Heart: The Power of the Past in Building Social Movements. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press. 41 Jordanova, History in Practice. 42 Claus and Marriott, History, p. 217. 43 Green, Taking History to Heart, p. 2. 44 Twells, A. (2008), ‘Community History’. Institute of Historical Research. Available at: http://www.history.ac.uk/makinghistory/resources/articles/ community_history.html [Accessed 05 July 2013]. 45 http://www.historyworkshop.org.uk/about-us/; http://www.wea.org.uk/ 46 Scardaville, M. (1987), ‘Looking Backward toward the Future: An Assessment of the Public History Movement’. The Public Historian, Vol. 9 (4), pp. 35–43. 47 Claus and Marriott, History, p. 219. 48 Jordanova, History in Practice; Ashton, P. and Kean, H. (2009), ‘Introduction: People and Their Pasts and Public History’. In P. Ashton and H. Kean (eds), People and Their Pasts: Public History Today. Basingstoke: Palgrave, pp. 1–20. 49 Jordanova, History in Practice; Twells, ‘Community History’. 50 Howe, B. (1989), ‘Reflections on an Idea: NCPH’s First Decade’. The Public Historian, Vol. 1 (3), pp. 69–85; Twells, ‘Community History’; Davison, ‘Public History’. 51 Kean and Ashton, ‘Introduction’. 52 Howe, ‘Reflections on an Idea’. 53 Davison, ‘Public History’. 54 Liddle, P. (1989), ‘Community Archaeology in Leicestershire Museums’. In E. Southworth (ed.), Public Service or Private Indulgence? The Museum Archaeologist 13. Liverpool: Society of Museum Archaeologists, pp. 44–46. 55 Bates, ‘Introduction’. 56 Bates, ‘Introduction’. 57 Bates, ‘Introduction’, p. 5. 58 DCMS (2010), ‘Public Spending Review’. Available at: http://www.officialdocuments.gov.uk [Accessed 10 December 2010]. 59 Ashton and Kean (2012). 60 Kean and Ashton, ‘Introduction’. 61 Claus and Marriot, History, p. 219. 62 Jordanova, History in Practice, p. 92. 63 Jordanova, History in Practice, p. 93. 64 Classen, C. and Kansteiner, W. (2009), ‘Truth and Authenticity in Contemporary Historical Culture: An Introduction to Historical Representation and Historical Truth’. History and Theory, Vol. 47 (2), p. 4. 65 Classen and Kansteiner, ‘Truth and Authenticity in Contemporary Historical Culture’, p. 4. 66 Classen and Kansteiner, ‘Truth and Authenticity in Contemporary Historical Culture’, p. 3. 67 McKercher, B. and Du Cross, H. (2002), Cultural Tourism: The Partnership between Tourism and Cultural Management. New York: Haworth Hospitality Press. 68 Chhabra, D. (2007), ‘Positioning Museums on an Authenticity Continuum’. Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 35 (2), pp. 427–433. 69 Morris, W. (1988), ‘At Henry Parks Motel’. Cultural Studies, Vol. 2, p. 11. 70 http://www.wwiilha.com [Accessed 12 July 2014].

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71 www.tia.org [Accessed June 2013]; Rosenzweig. R. and Thelen, D. (2000), The Presence of the Past. New York: Columbia University Press. 72 Slick, K. (2002), ‘Archaeology and the Tourist Train’. In B. J. Little (ed.), Public Benefits of Archaeology. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, pp. 219–227. 73 Holtorf, C. (2006), Archaeology Is a Brand! The Meaning of Archaeology in Contemporary Popular Culture. Oxford: Archaeopress, p. 5; Popcorn, F. (1992), The Popcorn Report. Revolutionary Trend for Marketing in the 1990s. London: Arrow. 74 Simpson, F. (2009), ‘Community Archaeology under Scrutiny’. Journal of Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites, Vol. 10 (1), pp. 3–16. 75 Ascherson, N. (1987), ‘“Why” “Heritage” Is Right-Wing’. Observer, Vol. 8 November; Ashby, J. (2009), ‘Beyond Teaching: Out of Hours at the Grant Museum’. University Museums and Collections Journal, Vol. 2, pp. 43–46. 76 Smith, M. and Richards, G. (2012), The Routledge Handbook of Cultural Tourism. London: Routledge. 77 http://www.tourismalliance.com/downloads/TA_327_353.pdf; Visit England 2011 [Accessed March 2014]. 78 Smith, L. J. (2004), Archaeological Theory and the Politics of Cultural Heritage. Oxfordshire: Routledge. 79 Smith, Archaeological Theory and the Politics of Cultural Heritage. 80 Carman, J. (2012), ‘Towards an International Comparative History of Archaeological Heritage Management’. In R. Skeates, C. McDavid, and J. Carman (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Public Archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 13–35. 81 Twells, ‘Community History’.

Chapter 2   1 Jenkinson, H. (1937), Manual of Archive Administration. London: Percy Lund, Humphries and Co.   2 Bennett, T. (1995), The Birth of the Museum: History, Theory, Politics. London: Routledge.   3 Franco, ‘Public History and Memory’, p. 66.   4 Samuel, Theatres of Memory.   5 Bennett, The Birth of the Museum.   6 Samuel, Theatres of Memory, p. 214; ICOM. (2007), Available at: http://icom. museum/the-vision/museum-definition/ [Accessed 21 August 2013].   7 Claus and Marriot, History.   8 Wilton, J. (2006), ‘Museums and Memories: Remembering the Past in Local Community Museums’. Public History Review, Vol. 12, p. 58; Pearce, S. (1994), Interpreting Objects and Collection. New York: Routledge.   9 Samuel, Theatres of Memory. 10 Kavanagh, G. (1996), Making Histories in Museums. Leicester: Leicester University Press. 11 Kavanagh, Making Histories in Museums, p. 1; Gardner, J. (2010), ‘Trust, Risk and Public History: A View from the United States’. Public History Review, Vol. 17, p. 53.

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12 Wilton, ‘Museums and Memories’; Lewis, G. (2004), ‘The Role of Museums and Professional Code of Ethics’. In P. Boylan (ed.), Running a Museum: A Practical Handbook. Paris: International Council of Museums, pp. 1–16. 13 Lewis, ‘The Role of Museums and Professional Code of Ethics’. 14 Swain, H. (2007), An Introduction to Museum Archaeology. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press; Lewis, ‘The Role of Museums and Professional Code of Ethics’. 15 Pickstone, J. (2000), Ways of Knowing: A History of Science, Technology and Medicine. Manchester: Manchester University Press. 16 Bennett, The Birth of the Museum, p. 526; Pearce, Interpreting Objects and Collection. 17 Bennett, The Birth of the Museum, p. 527. 18 Latour, B. (1999), Pandora’s Hope: Essays on the Reality of Science Studies. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 19 Bennett, The Birth of the Museum, p. 526; Latour (1999). 20 Lewis, ‘The Role of Museums and Professional Code of Ethics’. 21 Bennett, The Birth of the Museum, p. 521. 22 Glassberg, D. (1986), ‘Review: Loving in the Past’. American Quarterly, Vol. 38 (2), p. 305. 23 Rentzhog, S. (2007), Open Air Museums: The History and Future of a Visionary Ideas. Trans. Skan Victoria Airey. Sweden: Carlssons and Jamtili, p. 19. 24 Rentzhog, Open Air Museums; Anderson, J. (1982), ‘Simulating Life in Living Museums’. American Quarterly, Vol. 34 (3), p. 291. 25 Rentzhog, Open Air Museums, p. 238. 26 http://icom.museum/the-organisation/history/ [Accessed 10 August 2013]; http://www.ica.org/1832/about-ica/a-timeline-of-the-international-council-onarchives.html [Accessed 10 August 2013]. 27 Merriman, N. and Poovaya-Smith, N. (1996), ‘Making Culturally Diverse Histories’. In G. Kavanagh (ed.), Making Histories in Museums. London: Leicester University Press; Claus and Marriot, History. 28 Bennett, The Birth of the Museum; Samuel, Theatres of Memory. 29 Jordanova, History in Practice. 30 http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/corporate/about-us/history-museum/ [Accessed 02 August 2013]. 31 Merriman and Poovaya-Smith, ‘Making Culturally Diverse Histories’; Sorensen, C. (2007), ‘Theme Parks and Time Machines’. In P. Vergo (ed.), The New Museology. London: Reaktion Books. 32 Hooper-Greenhill, E. (1992), Museums and Shaping Knowledge. London: Routledge; Robertshaw, A. (2006), ‘Live Interpretation’. In A. Hems and M. Blockley (eds), Heritage Interpretation. London: Routledge. 33 Lewis, ‘The Role of Museums and Professional Code of Ethics’. 34 Merriman, Beyond the Glass Case. 35 Merriman, Beyond the Glass Case. 36 Bennett, The Birth of the Museum. 37 Bennett, The Birth of the Museum, p. 521. 38 Macdonald, S. (2009), A Companion to Museum Studies. London: Blackwell Publishing; Griffin, D and Paroissien, L. (2011), Understanding Museums: Australian Museums and Museology. Sydney: National Museum Australia.

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39 Bolton, L. (2003), ‘The Object in View: Aborigines, Melansians and Museums’. In L. Peers and A. K. Brown (eds), Museums and Source Communities. London: Routledge. 40 Lewis, ‘The Role of Museums and Professional Code of Ethics’. 41 Lewis, ‘The Role of Museums and Professional Code of Ethics’. 42 Lewis, ‘The Role of Museums and Professional Code of Ethics’; Swain, An Introduction to Museum Archaeology. 43 Swain, An Introduction to Museum Archaeology. 44 Lewis, ‘The Role of Museums and Professional Code of Ethics’. 45 Lewis, ‘The Role of Museums and Professional Code of Ethics’, p. 4; Bulter, T., (2009), ‘“Meomoryscape”: Intergrating Oral History, Memory and Landscape on the River Thames’. In P. Ashton and H. Kean (eds), People and Their Pasts: Public History Today. London: Palgrave Macmillan, p. 223. 46 Lewis, ‘The Role of Museums and Professional Code of Ethics’; Bennett, The Birth of the Museum. 47 Bulter, ‘Meomoryscape’. 48 Museum of the City of New York (2012), Bicentennial Report: Museum of City of New York 2011–2012. Available at: http://www.mcny.org/sites/default/ files/Biennial%20Report%202011-12.pdf pp. 1–2. 49 Chatterjee, H. (2010), ‘Object-based Learning in Higher Education: The Pedagogical Power of Museums’. University Museums and Collections Journal, Vol. 3, p. 180. 50 Chatterjee, ‘Object-based Learning in Higher Education’; MacDonald, A Companion to Museum Studies. 51 MacDonald, A Companion to Museum Studies, p. 8. 52 Jones, A. (2009), ‘University Museums and Outreach: The Newcastle upon Tyne Case Study’. University Museums and Collections Journal, Vol. 2, pp. 27–32. 53 Chatterjee, ‘Object-based Learning in Higher Education’, p. 179. 54 Chatterjee, ‘Object-based Learning in Higher Education’, p. 179. 55 Rentzhog, Open Air Museums. 56 Merriman and Poovaya Smith, ‘Making Culturally Diverse Histories’. 57 Wilton, ‘Museums and Memories’. 58 http://www.elizabethgaskellhouse.co.uk/the-house/ [Accessed 10 September 2013]. 59 http://www.westchestergov.com/history/wash.htm [Accessed 10 September 2013]. 60 Merriman and Poovay-Smith, ‘Making Culturally Diverse Histories’. 61 Wilton, ‘Museums and Memories’, p. 68. 62 Webber, K. Gillroy, L., Hyland, J., James, A., Miles, L., Tranter, D. and Walsh, K. (2011). ‘Drawing People Together: The Local and Regional Museum Movement in Australia. In D. Griffin and L. Paroissien (eds), Australian Museums and Museology. National Museums of Australia. Available at: http:// nma.gov.au/research/understanding-museums/index.html. [Accessed 05 August 2013]. 63 Webber et al., ‘Drawing People Together’. 64 Jenkinson, Manual of Archive Administration. 65 www.hha.co.uk [Accessed 02 June 2013]. 66 Samuel, Theatres of Memory; Pearce, Interpreting Objects and Collection. 67 Lewis, ‘The Role of Museums and Professional Code of Ethics’.

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  68 www.icom.org [Accessed 10 December 2013].   69 www.museumassociation.org.uk [Accessed 10 November 2013].   70 Jenkinson, Manual of Archive Administration.   71 Claus and Marriot, History.   72 Miller, L. (2010), Archives: Principles and Practices. London: Facet Publishing.   73 Jenkinson, Manual of Archive Administration.   74 Miller, Archives.   75 Claus and Marriot, History.   76 Claus and Marriot, History.   77 www.ica.org [Accessed 10 June 2013].   78 http://www2.archivists.org/about/introduction-to-saa [Accessed 12 December 2013].   79 Miller, Archives.   80 ICOM Code of Professional Ethics (1990), p. 31; CIDO Fact Sheet No. 2   81 Jenkinson, Manual of Archive Administration.   82 Jenkinson, Manual of Archive Administration; Claus and Marriot, History.   83 Jenkinson, Manual of Archive Administration.   84 http://www.ica.org/124/our-aims/mission-aim-and-objectives.html [Accessed 10 December 2013].   85 http://www.ica.org/125/about-records-archives-and-the-profession/discoverarchives-and-our-profession.html [Accessed 10 December 2013].   86 Claus and Marriot, History.   87 Jenkinson, Manual of Archive Administration.   88 Jenkinson, Manual of Archive Administration.   89 www.nationalarchvies.org.uk [Accessed 10 December 2013].   90 www.ica.org [Accessed 10 December 2012].   91 http://www.archives.org.uk/about/about.html [Accessed 10 December 2012].   92 http://www.archivists.org.au/page/Learning_and_Publications/ASA_Learning/ [Accessed 10 December 2013].   93 Robertshaw, ‘Live Interpretation’.   94 Beech. Museums, Visitors and Heritage Centers. https://www.waterways. org.uk/pdf/restoration/museum__visitor_and_heritage_centres [Accessed 05 October 2013].   95 http://www.navy.gov.au/history/museums/ran-heritage-centre#desk [Accessed 05 October 2013].   96 Sorensen, C. (2007), ‘Theme Parks and Time Machines’. In P. Vergo (ed.), The New Museology. London: Reaktion Books, pp. 60–73.   97 Jorvik Viking Center managed and owned by York Archaeological Trust http://jorvik-viking-centre.co.uk/about-jorvik/; http://www.history.org/ Foundation/cwhistory.cfm [Accessed 12 December 2013].   98 http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/support-us/members/magazine/oct-2013/ new-beginnings-stonehenge/ [Accessed 16 December 2013].   99 http://www.nps.gov/vafo/historyculture/welcome-center.htm [Accessed 16 December 2013]. 100 http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/support-us/members/magazine/oct-2013/ new-beginnings-stonehenge/ [Accessed 16 December 2013]. 101 https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/news/Stonehenge-visitors-attack-chaos-atnew-27m-centre/ [Accessed 14 January 2014].

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102 Sorensen (2006); Parker Pearson, M. (2001), ‘Visitors Welcome’. In J. Hunter and I. Ralston (eds), Archaeological Resource Management in the UK: An Introduction. Stroud: Sutton Publishing. 103 Glassberg, ‘Review’; Robertshaw, ‘Live Interpretation’.

Chapter 3   1 Vygotsky, L. (1962), Thought and Language. Cambridge: The MIT Press.   2 Wallace, J. (2004), Digging the Dirt: The Archaeological Imagination. London: Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd, p. 15; Vygotsky, Thought and Language.   3 Samuel, Theatres of Memory.   4 Gardner, ‘Trust, Risk and Public History’, pp. 52–61.   5 Gardner, ‘Trust, Risk and Public History’, p. 53; Wilton, ‘Museums and Memories’, p. 224.   6 MacDonald, A Companion to Museum Studies; Samuel, Theatres of Memory.   7 Belcher, M. (1991), Exhibitions in Museums. Leicester: Leicester University Press.   8 Herreman, Y. (2004), ‘Display, Exhibits and Exhibitions’. In P. Boylan (ed.), Running a Museum: A Practical Handbook. Paris: International Council of Museums; Belcher, Exhibitions in Museums.   9 Belcher, Exhibitions in Museums.   10 Bennett, The Birth of the Museum.   11 Kargar, M.-R. (2005), ‘Foreword’. In J. Curtis and N. Tallis (eds), Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia. Berkley: University of California Press, pp. 7–8.   12 Bradburne, J. (2001), ‘A New Strategic Approach to the Museum and Its Relationship to Society’. Journal of Museum Management and Curatorship, Vol. 19, pp. 75–85.   13 Herreman, ‘Display, Exhibits and Exhibitions’.   14 Bradburne, ‘A New Strategic Approach to the Museum and Its Relationship to Society’, pp. 75–85.   15 http://www.fraserrandall.co.uk/projects/touring/iwm_their_past. html [Accessed 10 August 2013].   16 Bradburne, ‘A New Strategic Approach to the Museum and Its Relationship to Society’, pp. 75–85.   17 British Museum. (2013), Life and Death in Pompeii. British Museum Magazine.   18 Bradburne, ‘A New Strategic Approach to the Museum and Its Relationship to Society’, p. 77.   19 British Museum, Life and Death in Pompeii.   20 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-23050586 [Accessed 05 July 2014].   21 Parker Pearson, ‘Visitors Welcome’, pp. 225–231.   22 Bennett, The Birth of the Museum, p. 529.   23 Bolton, ‘The Object in View’, pp. 42–54.

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24 Bennett, The Birth of the Museum, p. 536. 25 Bolton, ‘The Object in View’, pp. 42–54. 26 Herreman, ‘Display, Exhibits and Exhibitions’, p. 94. 27 Bennet, The Birth of the Museum, p. 526. 28 Bradburne, ‘A New Strategic Approach to the Museum and Its Relationship to Society’, pp. 75–85. 29 Jones, A. (1995), ‘Integrating School Visits, Tourists and the Community at the Archaeological Resource Centre, York, UK’. In E. Hopper-Greenhill (ed.), Museum, Media, Message. Leicester: Leicester University Press. 30 Ascherson, ‘Why’ “Heritage” Is Right-Wing’, pp. 43–46. 31 Robertshaw, ‘Live Interpretation’. 32 Sorensen, ‘Theme Parks and Time Machines’. 33 Robertshaw, ‘Live Interpretation’. 34 http://www.history.org/Almanack/places/index.cfm [Accessed 10 December 2013]. 35 www.history.org/history.index [Accessed 10 December 2013]. 36 http://research.history.org/Archaeological_Research.cfm [Accessed 04 April 2014]. 37 Jameson, J. (2004), ‘Public Archaeology in the United States’. In N. Merriman (ed.), Public Archaeology. London: Routledge, pp. 21–58. 38 Hooper-Greenhill, Museums and Shaping Knowledge; Hooper Greenhill, E. (2004), Inspiration, Identity, Learning: The Value of Museum: The Evaluation of the Impact of DCMS/DfES Strategic Commissioning 2003–2004: National/ Regional Museums Education Partnerships. Available at: http://www2.le.ac. uk/departments/museumstudies/rcmg/projects/inspiration-identity-learning-1/ DCMS%20Final%20Report%20Part%201.pdf [Accessed 05 November 2013]. 39 Stone, P. (2004), ‘Introduction: Education and the Historic Environment into the Twenty First Century’. In D. Henson, P. Stone and M. Corbishley (eds), Education and the Historic Environment. London: Routledge, pp. 1–12; Hooper Greenhill, ‘Inspiration, Identity, Learning’. 40 Samuel, Theatres of Memory; Sorensen, Theme Parks and Time Machines. 41 Ascherson, ‘Why’ “Heritage” Is Right-Wing’, pp. 43–46; Samuel, Theatres of Memory. 42 Ascherson, ‘Why’ “Heritage” Is Right-Wing’, pp. 43–46. 43 Ascherson, ‘Why’ “Heritage” Is Right-Wing’, pp. 43–46. 44 Kavanagh, Making Histories in Museums; Samuel, Theatres of Memory. 45 Ashby, ‘Beyond Teaching’, pp. 43–46. 46 http://www.nhm.ac.uk/visit-us/galleries/green-zone/treasures/index.html [Accessed 10 December 2013]. 47 Cohen, D. (2013), ‘The Future of Preserving the Past’. In H. Kean and P. Martin (eds) The Public History Reader. London: Routledge, p. 218; Hogsden, C. and Poulter, E. (2012), ‘The Other Real? Museum Objects in Digital Contact Networks’. Journal of Material Culture, Vol. 17, pp. 265–286. 48 http://www.jerseywartunnels.com/visit/ [Accessed 02 December 2013]. 49 http://www.jerseywartunnels.com [Accessed 10 August 2013]. 50 Cohen, ‘The Future of Preserving the Past’, p. 218; Hogsden and Poulter, The Other Real? Museum Objects in Digital Contact Networks, pp. 265–286. 51 Masse, A. and Masse, W. (2010), ‘Online Collaboration and Knowledge Dissemination for University Collections’. University Museums and Collections Journal, Vol. 3, pp. 91–96.

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52 Masse and Masse, ‘Online Collaboration and Knowledge Dissemination for University Collections’, pp. 91–96. 53 http://naturalhistory.si.edu/panoramas/ [Accessed 04 May 2014]. 54 Cohen, ‘The Future of Preserving the Past’, p. 218. 55 Cohen, ‘The Future of Preserving the Past’, p. 216. 56 Cohen, ‘The Future of Preserving the Past’, p. 217; Kazin, M. (2013), ‘12/12 and 9/11: Tales of Power and Tales of Experience in Contemporary History’. History News Network, 11 September. Available at: http://hnn.us/ articles/1675.html [Accessed 10 December 2013]. 57 Swain, An Introduction to Museum Archaeology. 58 www.museumoflondon.org.uk/collections-research/laarc/ [Accessed 10 December 2013]. 59 Jones, A. (2004), ‘Using Objects: The York Archaeological Trust Approach’. In D. Henson, P. Stone and M. Corbishley (eds), Education and the Historic Environment. London: Routledge, pp. 173–184. 60 Laurence, R. (2012), Roman Archaeology for Historians. London: Routledge, p. 141. 61 Simpson, F. and Williams, H. (2008), ‘Evaluating Community Archaeology in the UK’. Public Archaeology, Vol. 7 (2), pp. 69–90. 62 Merriman, Beyond the Glass Case; Belcher, Exhibitions in Museums. 63 Woollard, V. (2004), ‘Caring for the Visitor’. In P. Boylan (ed.), Running a Museum: A Practical Handbook. Paris: International Council of Museums. 64 Reeve, J. and Woollard, V. (2007), The Responsive Museum: Working with Audiences in the 21st Century. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Limited. 65 Merriman, Beyond the Glass Case. 66 Newman, W. L. (1995), Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approach. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, p. 321. 67 Hooper Greenhill, ‘Inspiration, Identity, Learning’. 68 McClanahon, A. (2006), ‘Histories, Identity, and Ownership: An Ethnographic Case Study in Archaeological Heritage Management in the Orkney Islands’. In M. Edgeworth (ed.), Ethnographies of Archaeological Practice: Cultural Encounters, Material Transformations. Lanham: Altamira press, p. 127. 69 Emerson, R., Fretzm R. and Shaw, L. (1995), Writing Ethnographic Fieldnotes. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, p. 143; Bryon, A. (2010), Social Research Methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 70 Bryon, Social Research Methods. 71 Falk, J. and Dierking, L. (1992), Museums Experience Revisited. Florida: Left Coast Press. 72 Falk and Dierking, Museums Experience Revisited; https://www.artscouncil. org.uk/measuring-outcomes/generic-learning-outcomes. 73 Thomson, L., Ander, E., Menon, U., Lanceley, A., and Chatterjee, H. (2011), ‘Evaluating the Therapeutic Effects of Museum Objects with Hospital Patients: A Review and Initial Trial of Wellbeing Measures’. Journal of Applied Arts and Health, Vol. 2 (1), pp. 37–56. 74 Thompson, S., Aked, A., McKenzie, B., Wood. C., Davies, M., and Butler, T. (2011), The Happy Museum: A Tale of How It Could Turn Out all Right. Available at: http://www.happymuseumproject.org/wp-content/ uploads/2011/03/The_Happy_Museum_report_web.pdf [Accessed 02 October 2013].

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Chapter 4   1 Hunt, T. (2004), ‘How Does Television Enhance History?’ In D. Cannadine (ed.), History and the Media. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 88–102.   2 Hunt, ‘How Does Television Enhance History?’, p. 88.   3 Downing, T. (2004), ‘Bringing in the Past to the Small Screen’. In D. Cannadine (ed.), History and the Media. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, p. 12.   4 Hunt, ‘How Does Television Enhance History?’, p. 89.   5 De Groot, J. (2009), Consuming History: Historians and Heritage in Contemporary Culture. London: Routledge.   6 Jordanova, History in Practice; De Groot, Consuming History; Rosenstone, R. (1995), Visions of the Past: The Challenge of Film to Our Idea of History. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.   7 De Groot, Consuming History, p. 2.   8 De Groot, Consuming History, p. 2.   9 http://www.theguardian.com/media/2005/sep/14/broadcasting.bbc [Accessed 12 June 2014]; http://www.theguardian.com/media/2005/nov/03/overnights [Accessed 12 June 2014]. 10 http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/artblog/2008/jul/11/ bonekickersishilariousyoud [Accessed 22 July 2014]. 11 http://www.bbc.co.uk/bonekickers/clipit_ep1.shtml [Accessed 22 July 2014]. 12 Ascherson, ‘Why’ “Heritage” Is Right-Wing’. 13 Jordanova, History in Practice. 14 Gombrich, E. (1936), A Little History of the World. Connecticut: Yale University Press. 15 Gombrich, A Little History of the World. 16 www.historytoday.com [Accessed 06 April 2014]. 17 www.historytoday.com [Accessed 06 April 2014]. 18 http://www.pressgazette.co.uk/node/47723 [Accessed 10 August 2013]. 19 Rosenstone, R. (2012), History on Film, Film on History. Harlow: Pearson, p. 3. 20 Hughes-Warrington, M. (2006), History Goes to the Movies: Studying History on Film. London: Routledge. 21 White, H. (1978), Tropics of Discourse: Essays in Cultural Criticism. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University, p.43. 22 Rosenstone, R. (2001), ‘Introduction to Experiments in Narrative’. Rethinking History: The Journal of Theory and Practice, Vol. 5, pp. 411–416. 23 Schama, S. (2007), A History of Britain. London: Bodley Head. 24 http://www.historyandpolicy.org/ [Accessed 12 April 2014]. 25 Steele, J. (1991), ‘Doing Media History Research’. Film and History: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Film and Television Studies, Vol. 21 (2/3), pp. 83–87. 26 Beck, (2012), pp. 55. 27 Beck, pp. 53. 28 Steele, ‘Doing Media History Research’, pp. 83–87. 29 De Groot, Consuming History, p. 44. 30 De Groot, Consuming History, p. 45; Kershaw, I. (2014), ‘The Hitler Myth’. BBC History Magazine (April 2014). 31 De Groot, Consuming History, p. 33. 32 Gregory, P. (2007), The Other Boleyn Girl. London: Harper Collins Publishers.

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33 De Groot, Consuming History, p. 33. 34 Blair, T. (2011), A Journey. London: Arrow. 35 Hosseini, K. (2003), The Kite Runner. New York: Riverhead Books, www. publishersweekly.com [Accessed 06 June 2014]; www.publishersweekly.com [Accessed 06 June 2014]. 36 Beck, P. (2012), Presenting History: Past and Present. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, p. 227. 37 Beck, Presenting History: Past and Present, p. 243. 38 http://www.iwm.org.uk/exhibitions/iwm-london/horrible-histories-spies 39 Beck, Presenting History: Past and Present, pp. 231–232, 237. 40 Deary, T. (2007), The Vicious Vikings: Horrible Histories. Danbury: Scholastic Press. 41 Tusa, J. (2004), ‘A Deep and Continuing Use of History’. In D. Cannadine (ed.), History and the Media. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 123–140. 42 Tusa, ‘A Deep and Continuing Use of History’, p. 134. 43 Bragg, M. (2004), ‘The Adventure of Making the Adventure of English’. In D. Cannadine (ed.), History and the Media. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 67–87. 44 Bragg, ‘The Adventure of Making the Adventure of English’, pp. 67–87. 45 http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b03gg7nk [Accessed 06 June 2014]. 46 http://www.bbc.co.uk/ahistoryoftheworld/ [Accessed 12 October 2013]. 47 http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00sl6dt [Accessed 12 October 2013]. 48 http://www.wikihow.com/Write-a-Radio-Play [Accessed 08 August 2013]; http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/arts/features/howtowrite/radio.shtml [Accessed 10 October 2013]. 49 Rosenstone, History on Film, Film on History, p. 2. 50 Windschuttle, K. (1996), The Killing of History: How a Discipline Is Being Murdered by Literary Critics and Social Theorists. Paddington: Macleay Press; Sayer, F. (2018), ‘The Moving Image as a Secondary Source: Truth, Authenticity and Narrative’. In S. Edwards, M. Dolski and F. Sayer (eds), Histories on Screen: The Past and Present in Anglo-American Cinema and Television. London: Bloomsbury Academic. 51 Hughes-Warrington, History Goes to the Movies. 52 Warren–Findley, J. (2004), ‘History in New Worlds: Surveys and Results in the United States and Australia’. American Studies International, Vol. XLII (2 and 3). 53 Warren-Findley, ‘History in New Worlds’. 54 Hughes-Warrington, History Goes to the Movies; Sayer, ‘The Moving Image as a Secondary Source’. 55 Jarvie, I. (1987), Philosophy of the Film: Epistemology, Ontology, Aesthetics. London: Routledge. 56 Ascherson, ‘Why “Heritage” Is Right-Wing’. 57 Rosenstone, History on Film, Film on History. 58 Barrett J. (2009), Shooting the Civil War: Cinema, History and American National Identity National Television and Civil War. New York: I.B. Tauris. 59 Rosenstone, History on Film, Film on History, p. 4. 60 Ferro, M. (1987), ‘Does a Filmic Writing of History Exist?’ Film and History: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Film and Television, Vol. 17 (4), pp. 81–89; Sorlin, P. (1995), ‘The Night of the Shooting Stars: Fascism, Resistance and the Liberation of Italy’. In R. Rosenstone (ed.), Revisioning History: Film and the Construction of a New Past. Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 77–87.

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61 Rosenstone, History on Film, Film on History. 62 Crofts, S. (1987), ‘Not a Window on the Past: How Films and Television Construct History’. Film and History: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Film and Television, Vol. 17 (4), pp. 90–95. 63 Crofts, ‘Not a Window on the Past’, pp. 90–95. 64 Rosenstone, History on Film, Film on History, p. 6. 65 Sorro, P. (1988), ‘Historical Films as Tools for Historians’. History and Film: An International Journal of Film and Media Studies, Vol. 18 (1), pp. 2–15. 66 Rosenstone, History on Film, Film on History, p. 149. 67 Crofts, ‘Not a Window on the Past’, pp. 90–95. 68 Barrett, Shooting the Civil War, p. 5; Crofts, ‘Not a Window on the Past’, p. 93. 69 Barrett, Shooting the Civil War, p. 5; Crofts, ‘Not a Window on the Past’, p. 93. 70 Crofts, ‘Not a Window on the Past’, p. 93. 71 Sorlin, ‘The Night of the Shooting Stars’, p. 12. 72 Davis, N. Z. (2000), Slaves on Screen: Film and Historical Vision. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 73 Sternberg, R. J. (1997), ‘Concept of Intelligence and Its Role in Lifelong Learning and Success’. American Psychologist, Vol. 52 (10), pp. 1030–1037; Hughes-Warrington, History Goes to the Movies; Rosenstone, History on Film, Film on History; Davis, Slaves on Screen. 74 Hughes-Warrington, History Goes to the Movies. 75 Sorro, ‘Historical Films as Tools for Historians’, p. 15. 76 Rosenstone, History on Film, Film on History; Sternberg (1983). 77 O’Connor, J. (1986), ‘Special Report. The Moving-Image Media in the History Classroom’. Film and History: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Film and Television, Vol. 16 (3), pp. 49–54. 78 Barrett, Shooting the Civil War, p. 5. 79 Barrett, Shooting the Civil War, p. 5. 80 Perry, S. (2017), ‘Archaeology on Television, 1937’. Journal of Public Archaeology, Vol. 8 (2–3), pp. 1–16. 81 Perry, ‘Archaeology on Television, 1937’, p. 2 82 Perry, ‘Archaeology on Television, 1937’, p. 2. 83 Beck, Presenting History: Past and Present, p. 57. 84 Clack, T. and Brittain, T. (2007), Archaeology and the Media. London: University College London, Institute of Archaeology Publication. 85 http://www.dadsarmy.co.uk/whatisdad’sarmy.html [Accessed 10 September 2013]. 86 http://www.bbc.co.uk/archive/churchill/11001.shtml [Accessed 06 June 2014]. 87 http://www.theguardian.com/culture/2013/oct/28/how-we-made-world-at-war [Accessed 10 September 2013]. 88 Beck, Presenting History: Past and Present, p. 8. 89 Moore, M. (2017), ‘Nothing Good on TV? Watch This Space’. The Times, Saturday, 19 August. 90 Moore, ‘Nothing Good on TV? Watch This Space’. 91 Moore, ‘Nothing Good on TV? Watch This Space’. 92 Piccini, A. and, Henson, D. (2006), Survey of Heritage Television Viewing 2005–2006. London: English Heritage; De Groot, Consuming History. 93 Piccini and Henson, Survey of Heritage Television Viewing 2005–2006; De Groot, Consuming History.

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  94 De Groot, Consuming History.   95 Simpson, ‘Community Archaeology under Scrutiny’, pp. 3–16.   96 Jordon, P. (1984), ‘Archaeology and Television’. In H. Cleere (ed.), Approaches to Archaeological Heritage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 207–214; Silberman, N. A. (1999), ‘Is Archaeology Ready for Prime Time? Archaeology Magazine’ (May/June 1999), pp. 79–82; Clack and Brittain, Archaeology and the Media.   97 Samuel, Theatres of Memory: Past and Present in Contemporary Culture.   98 De Groot, Consuming History.   99 Clark and Britain, Archaeology and the Media; Gathercole, P., Stanely, J. and Thomas, N. (2002), ‘Archaeology and the Media: Cornwall Archaeology Society – Devon Archaeological Society Joint Symposium’. Cornish Archaeology (41–42), pp. 149–160. 100 Lucas, G. (2004), ‘Modern Disturbances: On the Ambiguities of Archaeology’. Modernism/ Modernity, Vol. 11, pp. 109–120. See http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/modernity/v001/11.lucas.pda [Accessed 05 June 2013]; Merriman, Beyond the Glass Case: The Past, the Heritage and the Public in Britain. 101 Clack and Britain, Archaeology and the Media. 102 Piccini and Henson, Survey of Heritage Television Viewing 2005–2006. 103 De Groot, Consuming History, p. 147. 104 De Groot, Consuming History, p. 147; Beck, Presenting History: Past and Present, pp. 93 and 101. 105 Downing, ‘Bringing in the Past to the Small Screen’, p. 10. 106 Downing, ‘Bringing in the Past to the Small Screen’, p. 10. 107 Downing, ‘Bringing in the Past to the Small Screen’. 108 http://www.abc.net.au/tv/whosbeensleeping/ 109 http://www.abc.net.au/tv/whosbeensleeping/ 110 De Groot, Consuming History, p. 184. 111 Downing, ‘Bringing in the Past to the Small Screen’, p. 7. 112 De Groot, Consuming History, p. 199. 113 Sayer, ‘The Moving Images as a Secondary Source’. 114 Sayer, ‘The Moving Images as a Secondary Source’. 115 Anglo Saxon Chronicle: Peterborough Manuscript, AD 793; Anglo Saxon Chronicle: Peterborough Manuscript, AD 872. 116 Sayer, ‘The Moving Image as a Secondary Source’. 117 Sayer, ‘The Moving Image as a Secondary Source’. 118 Sayer, ‘The Moving Image as a Secondary Source’. 119 Smith, P. (1976), ‘Introduction’. In P. Smith (ed.), The Historian and Film. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 120 Sayer, ‘The Moving Image as a Secondary Source’. 121 Hughes, W. (1976), ‘The Evaluation of Film as Evidence’. In P. Smith (ed.), The Historian and Film. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 49. 122 Sayer, ‘The Moving Image as a Secondary Source’. 123 Runcie, C. (2015), ‘The Last Kingdom, BBC Two, Review: “The Thinking Person’s Game of Thrones”’, The Daily Telegraph, 23 October 2015. Available at: http://www.barb.co.uk/whats-new/weekly-top-30? [Accessed 15 February 2016]. 124 Downing, ‘Bringing in the Past to the Small Screen’, p. 12.

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125 Hunt, ‘How Does Television Enhance History?’, p. 88. 126 Hunt, ‘How Does Television Enhance History?’; De Groot, Consuming History. 127 Downing, ‘Bringing in the Past to the Small Screen’, p. 13. 128 Taylor, T. (2000), Behind the Scenes at Time Team. London: Channel Four Books. 129 Clack and Brittain, Archaeology and the Media; Gathercole, Stanely, and Thomas, ‘Archaeology and the Media: Cornwall Archaeology Society – Devon Archaeological Society Joint Symposium’, pp. 149–160. 130 De Groot, Consuming History, p. 201. 131 Downing, ‘Bringing in the Past to the Small Screen’. 132 Downing, ‘Bringing in the Past to the Small Screen’, p. 180. 133 De Groot, Consuming History, Downing, ‘Bringing in the Past to the Small Screen’, p. 18. 134 Bates, ‘Introduction’, p. 2. 135 Downing, ‘Bringing in the Past to the Small Screen’. 136 Bates, ‘Introduction’, p. 2; Parker Pearson, ‘Visitors Welcome’. 137 Smethhurst, W. (2009), How to Write for Television. Oxford: How to Books. 138 Lees, N. (2010), Developing Factual TV Ideas from Concept to Pitch: The Professional Guide to Pitching Factual Shows. London: Methuen Drama, p. 36. 139 Lees, Developing Factual TV Ideas from Concept to Pitch, p. 36. 140 http://iamhist.org [Accessed 12 January 2014] 141 www. pastpreservers. com [ Accessed 12 January 2014]. 142 Samuel, Theatres of Memory: Past and Present in Contemporary Culture.

Chapter 5   1 Favero, P. (2013), ‘Getting Our Hands Dirty (Again): Interactive Documentaries and the Meaning of Images in the Digital Age’. Journal of Material Culture, Vol. 18, pp. 259–277.   2 Web.archive.org/web/1997060610526/www.ucmp.berkeley.edu_ [Accessed 09 April 2014].   3 Bowen, J. (1994), A Brief History of Early Museums Online. http://www. rutherfordjournal.org/article030103.html [Accessed 12 June2014]; Bowen, J. P. (1997), ‘The World Wide Web and the Virtual Library Museums Pages’. Interdisciplinary Journal of the Academia Europaea, Vol. 5 (1), pp. 89–104.   4 Bowen, A Brief History of Early Museums Online.   5 Web.archive.org/web/1997060610526/www.ucmp.berkeley.edu_ [Accessed 09 April 2014].   6 De Groot, Consuming History.   7 Hogsden and Poulter, ‘The Real Other?’, pp. 265–286.   8 De Groot, Consuming History, p. 189; Jordanova, History in Practice.   9 http://www.ancestry.com [Accessed 12 March 2014].   10 Jordanova, History in Practice.   11 http://www.ataleofonecity.portsmouth.gov.uk [Accessed 05 June 2014].   12 http://www.google.co.uk/earth/explore/showcase/historical.html [Accessed 22 July 2014].

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13 Jordanova, History in Practice, p. 20. 14 http://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/about/partners/ [Accessed 11 October 2017]. 15 http://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/about/partners/ [Accessed 11 October 2017]. 16 http://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/about/partners/ [Accessed 11 October 2017]. 17 http://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/about/partners/ [Accessed 11 October 2017]. 18 De Groot, Consuming History, p. 90. 19 http://www.micropasts.org [Accessed 10 October 2017]; Bonacchi, C., Bevan, A., Pett, D., Keinan-Schoonbaert, A., Sparks, R., Wexler. J and Wilkin., N. (2014), ‘Crowd-sourced Archaeological Research: The MicroPasts Project’. Archaeology International, Vol. 17, pp. 61–68. 20 Bonacchi et al., ‘Crowd-sourced Archaeological Research’, p. 63. 21 Bonacchi et al., ‘Crowd-sourced Archaeological Research’, p. 63. 22 Bond, S. (2017), ‘Five New 3D Models of Ancient Artifacts That Are Changing How We Interact with Museums’. Forbes Magazine, 19 May 2019. Available at: http://www.forbes.com/sites/drsarahbond/2017/05/19/five-new-3dmodels-of-ancient-artifacts-that-are-changing-how-we-interact-with-museums [Accessed 11 October 2017]. 23 http://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/about/partners/ [Accessed 11 October 2017]. 24 Bond, ‘Five New 3D Models of Ancient Artifacts That Are Changing How We Interact with Museums’. 25 Bond, ‘Five New 3D Models of Ancient Artifacts That Are Changing How We Interact with Museums’. 26 http://www.sketchfab.com [Accessed 11 October 2017]. 27 Rosenzweig, R. (2006), ‘Can History Be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past’. The Journal of American History, Vol. 93 (1), pp. 117–146. 28 Rosenzweig, ‘Can History Be Open Source?’ 29 De Groot, Consuming History, p. 92. 30 Bond, ‘Five New 3D Models of Ancient Artifacts That Are Changing How We Interact with Museums’. 31 http://www.stroudlocalhistorysociety.org.uk [Accessed 14 June 2014]. 32 http://www.digitalpanoption.org [Accessed 12 August 2017]. 33 http://www.digitalpanopation.org/About_The_Project [Accessed 12 August 2017]. 34 Muller, K. (2002), ‘Museums and Virtuality’. Curator, Vol. 45 (1), pp. 21–33; Cameron, F. (2003), ‘Digital Futures I: Museum Collections, Digital Technologies, and the Cultural Construction of Knowledge’. Curator, Vol. 46, pp. 325–340; Lynch, C. (2002), ‘Digital Collections, Digital Libraries, and the Digitization of Cultural Heritage Information’. First Monday, Vol. 7 (5). 35 Sayre, S. (2000), ‘Sharing the Experience: The Building of a Successful Online/ On-site Exhibition’. In D. Bearnman and J. Trant (eds), Museums and the Web 2000. Pittsburg, PA: Archives and Museum Informatics, pp. 13–20; http:// www.metmuseum.org/about-the-museum/now-at-the-met/2014/making-ascene-in-paris?utm_source=Facebook&utm_medium=statusupdate&utm_ content=&utm_campaign=nowatthemet [Accessed 15 July 2014].

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36 https://www.edx.org/course/columbiax/columbiax-hist1-1x-civil-war-2241#. U8vIo1a3cdt [Accessed 20 July 2014]. 37 https://www.edx.org [Accessed 20 July 2014]. 38 http://www.theguardian.com/higher-education-network/blog/2012/aug/08/ mooc-coursera-higher-education-investment [Accessed 27 July 2014]. 39 https://novoed.com/Global-History-Lab [Accessed 27 July 2014]; http://www. mooc-list.com/course/global-history-lab-part-1-novoed [Accessed 27 July 2014]. 40 http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/comment/opinion/five-myths-aboutmoocs/2010480.article [Accessed 27 July 2014]. 41 http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/comment/opinion/five-myths-aboutmoocs/2010480.article [Accessed 28 July 2014]. 42 Muller, ‘Museums and Virtuality’, pp. 21–33; Cameron, ‘Digital Futures I’, pp. 325–340; Lynch, ‘Digital Collections, Digital Libraries, and the Digitization of Cultural Heritage Information’. 43 Sayre, ‘Sharing the Experience’, pp. 13–20; http://www.metmuseum.org/ about-the-museum/now-at-the-met/2014/making-a-scene-in-paris?utm_ source=Facebook&utm_medium=statusupdate&utm_content=&utm_ campaign=nowatthemet [Accessed 15 July 2014]. 44 Hogsden and Poulter, ‘The Real Other? Museum Objects in Digital Contact Networks’, pp. 265–286. 45 Hogsden and Poulter, ‘The Real Other? Museum Objects in Digital Contact Networks’, pp. 265–286. 46 De Groot, Consuming History. 47 http://www.bbc.co.uk/videonation/ [Accessed 2 July 2014]; http://i-docs.org/ [Accessed 02 January 2018]. 48 Favero, ‘Getting Our Hands Dirty (Again)’, pp. 259–277. 49 Favero, ‘Getting Our Hands Dirty (Again)’, pp. 259–277. 50 http://i-docs.org/2014/06/10/the-quipu-project-a-framework-for-participatoryinteractive-documentary/ [Accessed 12 June 2014]. 51 http://911digitalarchive.org/index.php [Accessed 02 June 2014]. 52 http://911digitalarchive.org/about/partners.php [Accessed 02 June 2014]. 53 Cohen, ‘The Future of Preserving the Past’, p. 216. 54 Cohen, ‘The Future of Preserving the Past’, p. 216. 55 http://www.911memorial.org [Accessed 02 June 2014]. 56 http://911digitalarchive.org/index.php [Accessed 02 June 2014]. 57 Cohen, ‘The Future of Preserving the Past’, p. 216. 58 http://blogs.aaslh.org/5-citizen-history-projects-you-should-know-aboutpart-1/ [Accessed 10 October 2017]; http://www.1947partitionarchive.org [Accessed 10 October 2017]; http://www.1947partitionarchive.org/mission [Accessed 10 October 2017]. 59 http://blogs.aaslh.org/5-citizen-history-projects-you-should-know-aboutpart-1/ [Accessed 10 October 2017]. 60 http://www.1947partitionarchive.org/mission [Accessed 10 October 2017]. 61 https://www.facebook.com/FacebookUK/info [Accessed 06 July 2014]. 62 http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2007/jul/25/media.newmedia [Accessed 06 July 2014]. 63 https://www.facebook.com/britishmuseum [Accessed 20 July 2014]. 64 https:// www. facebook. com/ metmuseum [ Accessed 18 July 2014].

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65 https://www.facebook.com/NationalMuseumoftheAmericanIndianinDC?sk= likes [Accessed 20 July 2014]. 66 https://twitter.com/amhistorymuseum/with_replies [Accessed 20 July 2014]. 67 http://www.boneswithoutbarriers.org [Accessed 21 July 2014]. 68 https://analytics.twitter.com/ [Accessed 02 January 2018]. 69 http://histagrams.com [Accessed 20 July 2014]. 70 http://pinterest.com/diefenbunker/ http://pinterest.com/chicagomuseum/ [Accessed 20 July 2014]. 71 http://blog.americanhistory.si.edu/ [Accessed 20 July 2014]. 72 http://bloggingforhistorians.wordpress.com/guide-to-blogging-main-index/ uses-of-blogs-for-historians/ [Accessed 22 July 2014]. 73 http://historyonics.blogspot.co.uk [Accessed 22 July 2014]. 74 http://timesonline.typepad.com [Accessed 22 July 2014]. 75 http://blog.americanhistory.si.edu/ [Accessed 22 July 2014]. 76 http://www.historymatters.group.shef.ac.uk [Accessed 22 July 2014]. 77 http://winterconference.history.ac.uk/blog/ [Accessed 23 July 2014]. 78 http://www.boneswithoutbarriers.org/blog [Accessed 23 July 2014]. 79 http://bloggingforhistorians.wordpress.com [Accessed 23 July 2014]. 80 http://bloggingforhistorians.wordpress.com/2014/04/03/social-scholar-seminaracademic-guide-to-social-media-and-blogging/ [Accessed 23 July 2014]. 81 http://www.blogger.com [Accessed 2 January 2018]. 82 http://bloggingforhistorians.wordpress.com/guide-to-blogging-main-index/ setting-up-a-blog/ [Accessed 22 July 2014]. 83 http://www.historymatters.group.shef.ac.uk [Accessed 22 July 2014]. 84 http://www.historymatters.group.shef.ac.uk/cultural-authenticityconsumerism-hipster/ [Accessed 22 July 2014]. 85 Booth, A. (2010), ‘Developing History Students’ Skills in the Transition to University’. Teaching Higher Education, Vol. 6 (4), pp. 487–503; Falk and Dierking, Museums Experience Revisited.

Chapter 6   1 Bates, ‘Introduction’.   2 De Groot, Consuming History.   3 Cohen, A. (1985), The Symbolic Construction of Community. London: Routledge; Hoggett, P. (1979), Contested Communities: Experiences, Struggles, Policies. Bristol: Policy Press.   4 Cohen, The Symbolic Construction of Community, p. 5.   5 Hoggett, Contested Communities, p. 13.   6 Carman, ‘Towards an International Comparative History of Archaeological Heritage Management’.   7 http://www.balh.co.uk/index.html [Accessed 02 December 2013].   8 Robertson, I. (2013), ‘Heritage from Below: Class, Social Protest and Resistance’. In H. Kean and P. Martin (eds), The Public History Reader. London: Routledge, pp. 56–67; Sharpe, J. (2001), ‘History from Below’. In P. Burke (ed.), New Perspectives on Historical Writing. London: Polity Press.

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  9 Robertson, ‘Heritage from Below’; Martin, P. (2013), ‘Introduction: The Past in the Present: Who Is Making History’. In H. Kean and P. Martin (eds), The Public History Reader. London: Routledge, p. 2. 10 Robertson, ‘Heritage from Below’. 11 Merriman and Poovay-Smith, ‘Making Culturally Diverse Histories’, pp. 176–187. 12 Thompson, E. P. (1963), Making of the English Working Class: Peoples’ History and Socialist Theory. London: Harmondsworth. 13 Eley, G. (2003), ‘Marxist Historiography’. In S. Berger, H. Feldner, and K. Passmore (eds), Writing History: Theory and Practice. London: Hodder. 14 Eley, ‘Marxist Historiography’, p. 63. 15 Sitzia, L. (2010), ‘Telling People’s Histories: An Exploration of Community History Making from 1970–2000’. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Sussex. Available at: http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/2488/1/Sitzia%2C_Lorraine.pdf [Accessed 12 June2014]. 16 Davison, G. (2013), ‘Use and Abuse of Australian History’. In H. Kean and P. Martin (eds), The Public History Reader. London: Routledge, pp. 68–82; Martin, ‘Introduction’, p. 3. 17 Davison, ‘Use and Abuse of Australian History’, p. 68. 18 Davison, ‘Use and Abuse of Australian History’, p. 69. 19 Twells, ‘Community History’; Thompson, Making of the English Working Class. 20 Start, D. (1999), ‘Community Archaeology: Bringing It Back to Local Communities’. In G. Chitty and D. Baker (eds), Managing Historic Sites and Buildings: Reconciling Presentation and Preservation. London: Routledge, pp. 49–59. 21 Parker Pearson, ‘Visitors Welcome’. 22 Thurley, S. (2013), Mean from the Ministry: How Britain Saved Its Heritage. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 23 Thurley, Mean from the Ministry; Lock, G. (2004), ‘Rolling Back the Years: Lifelong Learning and Archaeology in the United Kingdom’. In M. Corbishley, D. Henson, and P. Stone (eds), Education and the Historic Environment. London: Routledge, p. 56. 24 Bates, ‘Introduction’. 25 Twells, ‘Community History’. 26 http://www.albertdock.com/history/regenerating-albert-dock/ [Accessed 01 February 2014]. 27 http://www.albertdock.com/history/regenerating-albert-dock/ [Accessed 01 February 2014]. 28 http://www.albertdock.com/history/regenerating-albert-dock/. 29 Simpson, F. (2013), ‘Birley Fields: Exploring Victorian Streetscapes in Manchester’. Current Archaeology, Vol. 282, pp. 28–33. 30 Watson, S. (2007), Museums and Their Communities, New York: Routledge. 31 Jeppson, P. L. and Brauer, G. (2003), ‘“Hey, Did You Hear about the Teacher Who Took the Class Out to Dig a Site?”: Some Common Misconceptions about Archaeology in Schools’. In L. Derry and M. Malloy (eds), Archaeologists and Local Communities: Partners in Exploring the Past. Washington, DC: Society for American Archaeology Press, pp. 77–96.

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32 Taksa, L. (2003), ‘Hauling an Infinite Freight of Mental Imagery: Finding Labour’s Heritage at the Swindon Railway Workshops “STEAM Museum”’. Labour History Review, Vol. 68 (404), p. 394. 33 Martin, ‘Introduction’, p. 3. 34 Volkert, J., Martin, L. R., and Pickworth, A. (2004), National Museum of the American Indian: Smithsonian Institution. Washington, DC: Map and Guide. Washington, DC: Scala Publishers. 35 Martin, ‘Introduction’, p. 6. 36 Martin, ‘Introduction’, pp. 7–8. 37 Jeppson, P. L. (2008), ‘Doing Our Homework: Rethinking the Goals and Responsibilities of Archaeology Outreach to Schools’. In J. Stottman (ed.), Changing the World with Archaeology: Activist Archaeology. Greenville: University of Florida Press, pp. 1–58. 38 Jordanova, History in Practice; Twells, ‘Community History’. 39 www.muncyhistoricalsociety.org/dig/index.html. 40 www.muncyhistoricalsociety.org/dig/index.html. 41 Butler, T. (2009), ‘“Memoryscape”: Integrating Oral History, Memory and Landscape on the River Thames’. In P. Ashton and H. Kean (eds), People and Their Pasts: Public History Today. London: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 223–239; Ritchie, D. (2003), Doing Oral History: A Practical Guide. New York: Oxford University Press. 42 Kier Reeves, E., Sanders, R., and Chisholm, G. (2010), ‘Oral Histories of a Layered Landscape: Rushworth Oral History’. Public History Review, Vol. 14, p. 116. 43 Reeve and Wollard, The Responsive Museum; Richie (2003). 44 Reeve and Wollard, The Responsive Museum. 45 Liddington, J. and Smith, G. (2005), ‘Crossing Cultures: Oral History and Public History’. Oral History, Vol. 33 (1), pp. 28–31. 46 http://overcomingapartheid.msu.edu/index.php [Accessed 05 September 2013]. 47 http://wpsu.org/backfromiraq/ [Accessed 05 September 2013]. 48 Reeve and Wollard, The Responsive Museum, p. 120. 49 http://www.ohs.org.uk/ethics/ [Accessed 09 October 2013]. 50 http://ohda.matrix.msu.edu [Accessed 12 January 2014]. 51 Bryon, Social Research Methods. 52 http://www.ohs.org.uk/advice/index.php [Accessed 12 October 2013]. 53 Wilson, V. (2007), Rich in All but Money: Life in Hungate 1900–1938. York: York Archaeological Trust, Oral History Series 1. 54 English Heritage (2006), Heritage Counts: The State of England’s Historic Environment. London: English Heritage. 55 English Heritage, Heritage Counts. 56 http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/caring/heritage-at-risk/ [Accessed 10 December 2013]. 57 Eddisford, D. and Morgan, C. (2011), ‘An Archaeology of the Contemporary: A Standing Buildings Survey of “The Chicken Shed” at Çatalhöyük’. In S. Farid (ed.), Catalhoyuk 2011 Archive Report, Çatalhöyük Research Project, pp. 137–149. Available at http://www.catalhoyuk.com/sites/default/files/media/ pdf/Archive_Report_2011.pdf [Accessed 11 July 2014]. 58 Eddisford and Morgan, ‘An Archaeology of the Contemporary’, p. 136. 59 English Heritage, Heritage Counts. 60 http://wearewhatwedo.org/portfolio/historypin/ [Accessed 10 October 2013].

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61 http://wearewhatwedo.org/portfolio/historypin/ [Accessed 10 October 2013]. 62 http://www.buildingtrustinternational.org/ [Accessed 03 November 2013]. 63 Lowenthal, D. (1989), The Heritage Crusade and the Spoils of History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 64 Parker Pearson, ‘The Value of Archaeological Research’. 65 Bates, ‘Introduction’. 66 Holtorf, From Stonehenge to Las Vegas; Samuel, Theatres of Memory. 67 Bartoy, K. (2012), ‘Teaching through Rather Than About’. In R. Skeates, C. McDavid, and J. Carman (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Public Archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 559. 68 Samuel, Theatres of Memory. 69 Potter, Public Archaeology in Annapolis; Blakey, M. (1997), ‘Commentary: Past Is Present: Comments on “In the Realm of Politics: Prospects for Participation in African-American and Plantation Archaeology”’. In C. McDavid and D. Babson (eds), The Realm of Politics: Prospects for Public Participation in African-American Archaeology. California: The Society for Historical Archaeology, pp. 140–145. 70 Moser, S., Glazier, D., Philips, J., El Nemer, L., Mousa, M., Richardson, S., Conner, A. and Seymour, M. (2002), ‘Transforming Archaeology through Practice: Strategies for Collaborative Archaeology and the Community Archaeology Project at Qusier, Egypt’. World Archaeology, Vol. 34 (2) Community Archaeology, pp. 265–287. 71 Simpson, F. (2011), ‘Shoreditch Park Community Archaeology Excavation: A Case Study’. In G. Moshenska and S. Dhanjal (eds), Archaeology in the Community. London: Heritage Publications, pp. 118–122. 72 Simpson, F. and Keily, J. (2005), ‘Today’s Rubbish, Tomorrow’s Archaeology: Using Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Finds’. The Archaeologist (58), 26–27. 73 Simpson, ‘Shoreditch Park Community Archaeology Excavation’, p. 121. 74 Holtorf, C. and Williams, H. (2006), ‘Landscapes and Memories’. In D. Hicks and M. C. Beaudry (eds), The Cambridge Companion to Historical Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 235–254. 75 Moshenska, G. (2007), ‘Oral History in Historical Archaeology: Excavating Sites of Memory’. Oral History, Vol. 35 (1), pp. 91–97. 76 Ford, A. (2009), Bellarine Bayside Foreshore: Redevelopment, Cultural Heritage Management Plan. Geelong: Dig International Pty Ltd. 77 Potter, Public Archaeology in Annapolis. 78 Gerrard, C. and Aston, M. (2007), The Shapwick Project, Somerset. A Rural Landscape Explored. Leeds: Society for Medieval Archaeology. 79 Aston, M., Coston, A., Gerrard, C., and Hall, T. (1997), The Shapwick Project, Vol. 1–8 (ed.). Bristol: The University of Bristol Department for Continuing Education. 80 Moshenska, ‘Oral History in Historical Archaeology’. 81 Ford, Bellarine Bayside Foreshore, p. 4. 82 Ford, Bellarine Bayside Foreshore, p. 4. 83 Aston et al., The Shapwick Project. 84 Aston et al., The Shapwick Project. 85 http://muncyhistoricalsociety.org/archaeology-at-muncy [Accessed 10 January 2013].

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  86 http://muncyhistoricalsociety.org/archaeology-at-muncy [Accessed 10 January 2013].   87 http://www.archaeologyuk.org/community/ [Accessed 03 October 2015].   88 Simpson, F. 2009. ‘Evaluating the Value of Community Archaeology: The Project’. Treball d’Arqueologia, Vol. 15, pp. 51–62.   89 Simpson, F. (2010), ‘The Values of Community Archaeology: A Comparative Assessment between the UK and USA’. In British Archaeological Reports. Oxford: Oxbow.   90 Simpson, ‘The Values of Community Archaeology’.   91 http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/visit/activities/walking/ [Accessed 10 September 2013].   92 Cressey, P. J., Reeder, R., and Bryson, J. (2003), ‘Held in Trust: Community Archaeology in Alexandria, Virginia’. In L. Derry and M. Malloy (eds), Archaeologist and Local Communities: Partners in Exploring the Past. Washington, DC: Society for American Archaeology, pp. 1–18.   93 http://www.bbc.co.uk/coast/audio-walks/ [Accessed 12 December 2013].   94 Kiddey, R. and Schofield, J. (2011), ‘Embrace the Margins: Adventures in Archaeology and Homelessness’. Public Archaeology, Vol. 10 (1), pp. 4–22.   95 Kiddey and Schofield, ‘Embrace the Margins’.   96 Butler, ‘“Memoryscape”’.   97 http://www.familylearningforum.org/engaging-text/writing-for-families/ writing-for-families.htm [Accessed 12 October 2013].   98 De Groot, Consuming History.   99 De Groot, Consuming History. 100 http://www.wickfordhistory.org.uk [Accessed 02 October 2013]. 101 http://www.manchesterhistoriesfestival.org.uk [Accessed 12 December 2013]. 102 Creesey et al., ‘Held in Trust: Community Archaeology in Alexandria, Virginia’; Frisch, M. (1990), A Shared Authority: Essays on the Craft and Meaning of Oral and Public History. Albany: University of New York Press. 103 Jordanova, History in Practice.

Chapter 7   1 http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/oldest-university [Accessed 11 December 2017].   2 Orrill, R. and Shapiro, L. (2005), ‘From Bold Beginnings to an Uncertain Future: The Discipline of History and History Education’. The American History Review, Vol. 110 (3), p. 728.   3 Orrill and Shapiro, ‘From Bold Beginnings to an Uncertain Future’.   4 Orrill and Shapiro, ‘From Bold Beginnings to an Uncertain Future’, p. 731; Wallace, M. (2000), ‘Integrating United States and World History in the High School Curriculum: The Trials and Tribulations of a Good Idea’. The History Teacher, Vol. 33 (4).   5 Orrill and Shapiro, ‘From Bold Beginnings to an Uncertain Future’, p. 731.   6 Yarema, A. (2002), ‘A Decade of Debate: Improving Content and Interest in History Education’. The History Teacher, Vol. 35 (3), pp. 389–398.   7 Orrill and Shapiro, ‘From Bold Beginnings to an Uncertain Future’.

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  8 Dewey, J. (1997), Experience and Education. New York: Simon and Schuster Touchstone; Piaget, P. H. (1975), Museums in Australia: Report of the Committee of Inquiry on Museums and National Collections. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service; Lewin, K. (1948), Resolving Social Conflicts; Selected Papers on Group Dynamics. New York: Harper & Row; Kohl, H. (1989), Growing Minds: On Becoming a History Teacher. New York: Harper and Row.   9 Vygotsky, L. (1978), Mind and Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 10 Bruner, J. (1966), The Culture of Education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 11 Kohl, Growing Minds; Honey, P. and Mumford, A. (2006), The Learning Styles Questionnaire, 80-item version. Maidenhead: Peter Honey Publications. 12 Jeppson, ‘Doing Our Homework’, p. 18; Simpson, ‘Community Archaeology under Scrutiny’. 13 http://www.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/esea02/107-110.pdf [Accessed 20 November 2017]. 14 Jameson, ‘Public Archaeology in the United States’; Merriman, Beyond the Glass Case; Jeppson, P. L. and Brauer, G., ‘“Hey, Did You Hear about the Teacher Who Took the Class Out to Dig a Site?”’, p. 79. 15 Yarema, ‘A Decade of Debate’; Seixas, P. (2010), ‘Beyond “Content” and “Pedagogy”: In Search of a Way to Talk about History Education’. Journal of Curriculum Studies, Vol. 31 (3), pp. 317–337. 16 Yarema, ‘A Decade of Debate’, p. 299. 17 The Bradley Commission in Schools (1988), Building a History Curriculum: Guidelines for Teaching History in Schools. Washington, DC: Educational Excellence Network; Swansinger, J. (2009), ‘Preparing Student Teachers for a World History Curriculum in New York’. The History Teacher, Vol. 43 (1), p. 90. 18 http://www.oah.org/about/reports/reports-statements/the-lapietra-report-areport-to-the-profession/ [Accessed 20 November 2017]. 19 http://www.oah.org/about/reports/reports-statements/the-lapietra-report-areport-to-the-profession/ [Accessed 20 November 2017]; http://teachinghistory. org/history-content/ask-a-historian/21576 [Accessed 20 November 2017]. 20 http://teachinghistory.org/history-content/ask-a-historian/21576 [Accessed 20 November 2017]. 21 Counsell, C. (2011), ‘Disciplinary Knowledge for All: The Secondary History Curriculum and History Teachers’ Achievement’. The Curriculum Journal, Vol. 22 (2), pp. 201–225; Wallace, ‘Integrating United States and World History in the High School Curriculum’. 22 Swansinger, ‘Preparing Student Teachers for a World History Curriculum in New York’; Loewenberg Ball, D. and McDiarmid, G. (1989), The Subject Matter Preparation of Teachers. Michigan: National Centre for Research on Teacher Education, p. 5. 23 Loewenberg Ball and McDiarmid, The Subject Matter Preparation of Teachers. 24 Counsell, ‘Disciplinary Knowledge for All: The Secondary History Curriculum and History Teachers’ Achievement’. 25 Yarema, ‘A Decade of Debate’. 26 Counsell, ‘Disciplinary Knowledge for All: The Secondary History Curriculum and History Teachers’ Achievement’.

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27 Skolnik, M. L. (1986), ‘Diversity in Higher Education: A Canadian Case’. Higher Education in Europe, Vol. 11, pp. 19–32. 28 Moe, J. M. (2002), ‘Project Archaeology: Putting the Intrigue of the Past in Public Education’. In B. J. Little (ed.), Public Benefits of Archaeology. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, pp. 176–186; Little, B. L. (2002), ‘Archaeology as a Shared Vision’. In B. J. Little (ed.), Public Benefits of Archaeology. Florida: University Press of Florida, pp. 3–19; Metcalf, F. (2002), ‘Myths, Lies, and Videotapes: Information as Antidote to Social Studies Classrooms and Pop Culture’. In B. J. Little (ed.), Public Benefits of Archaeology. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, p. 170; Barreyre, N., Heale, M., Tuck, S. and Vidal, C. (2014), Historians across Boarders: Writing American History in a Global Age. Florida: University of California Press; Bender, T. (2006), A Nation among Nations: Americas Place in World History. New York: Hill and Wang. 29 Jeppson, ‘Doing Our Homework’, p. 21; Bender, A Nation among Nations; Barreyre, Heale, Tuck and Vidal, Historians across Borders. 30 Shackel, P. A. (2007), ‘Public Memory and the Search for Power in American Historical Archaeology’. In L. J. Smith (ed.), Cultural Heritage (Vol. II). London: Routledge, p. 307. 31 www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-21600298 [Accessed 20 November 2017]. 32 www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-21600298 [Accessed 20 November 2017]. 33 Garner, R. (2015), ‘Finland Schools: Subjects Scraped and Replaced with ‘Topics’ as Country Reforms Its Education System’. Independent, 20 March 2015. Available at: http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/finlandschools-subjects-are-out-and-topics-are-in-as-country-reforms-its-educationsystem-10123911.html [Accessed 20 November 2017]. 34 Garner, ‘Finland Schools’. 35 Hawkey, K. and Prior, J. (2010), ‘History, Memory Cultures and Meaning in the Classroom’. Journal of Curriculum Studies, Vol. 43 (2), pp. 231–247. 36 Hawkey and Prior, ‘History, Memory Cultures and Meaning in the Classroom’, p. 231. 37 Wineberg, S. (2001), Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Actions: Charting the Future of Teaching the Past. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press. 38 Swansinger, ‘Preparing Student Teachers for a World History Curriculum in New York’, pp. 95–96. 39 Jeppson, ‘Doing Our Homework’. 40 Metcalf, ‘Myths, Lies, and Videotapes’, p. 170. 41 Simpson, The Values of Community Archaeology. 42 http://www.oah.org/about/reports/reports-statements/the-lapietra-report-areport-to-the-profession/ [Accessed 20 November 2017]; http://teachinghistory. org/history-content/ask-a-historian/21576 [Accessed 20 November 2017]. 43 http://www.oah.org/about/reports/reports-statements/the-lapietra-report-areport-to-the-profession/ [Accessed 20 November 2017]; http://teachinghistory. org/history-content/ask-a-historian/21576 [Accessed 20 November 2017]. 44 Loewenberg Ball and McDiarmid, The Subject Matter Preparation of Teachers. 45 Swansinger, ‘Preparing Student Teachers for a World History Curriculum in New York’, p. 94. 46 Moussouri, T. (2002), ‘A Context for the Development of Learning Outcomes in Museums’, Libraries and Archives, p. 4. Available at: http://www2.le.ac.

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106 http://oaeast.thehumanjourney.net/outreach/jigsaw. 107 http://oaeast.thehumanjourney.net/outreach/jigsaw. 108 http://www.chatsworth.org/schools/activities/house-activities [Accessed 07 June 2014]. 109 http://www.chatsworth.org/schools/activities/house-activities. 110 Bartoy, ‘Teaching through Rather Than About’, p. 559. 111 Bartoy, ‘Teaching through Rather Than About’, p. 560. 112 Jameson, J. (2003), ‘Purveyors of the Past: Education and Outreach as Ethical Imperatives in Archaeology’. In L. J. Zimemerman, K. D. Viteli and J. Hollowell-Zimmer (eds), Ethical Issues in Archaeology. Oxford: Altamira Press, p. 156. 113 Americans with Disabilities Act (1990), http://www.ada.gov/pubs/ adastatute08.htm [Accessed 12 December 2013]; Disability Discrimination Act (2005), http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2005/13/pdfs/ ukpga_20050013_en.pdf [Accessed 12 December 2013]. 114 Hooper-Greenhill, Museums and Education. 115 Sternberg, ‘Concept of Intelligence and Its Role in Lifelong Learning and Success’. 116 Moussouri, ‘A Context for the Development of Learning Outcomes in Museums’, p. 6. 117 Moussouri, ‘A Context for the Development of Learning Outcomes in Museums’, p. 7. 118 Gibbs, Sani, and Thompson, ‘Lifelong Learning in Museums’, p. 14. 119 Moussouri, ‘A Context for the Development of Learning Outcomes in Museums’; Hooper-Greenhill, Inspiration, Identity, Learning. 120 https://www.artscouncil.org.uk/measuring-outcomes/generic-learning-outcomes. 121 Hooper-Greenhill, Inspiration, Identity, Learning. 122 James, A. and Boyd, N. (2007), Fact Sheet. Understanding Audiences: Skills Development and Mentoring Programme for Museums. London: Museum of London. 123 www.inspiringlearing.gov.uk [Accessed 10 December 2013]. 124 Hooper-Greenhill, Inspiration, Identity, Learning; Bloom, Taxonomy of Educational Objects: The Classification of Educational Goals. 125 http://www.smithsonianeducation.org/educators/lesson_plans/lincoln/ smithsonian_siyc_spring09.pdf; http://www.microsoft.com/education/en-us/ teachers/plans/Pages/legislative_bill.aspx [Accessed 10 November 2017]. 126 http://www.boneswithoutbarriers.org. 127 Bates, The Public Value of the Humanities. 128 Bates, The Public Value of the Humanities. 129 Post-1992 universities in the UK were polytechnics or higher educational colleges that were through the 1992 Further and Higher Education Act given university status. Prior to this, these organizations focused on training students through skill-based learning for future employment. 130 Booth, ‘Developing History Students’ Skills in the Transition to University’, pp. 487–503. 131 Booth, ‘Developing History Students’ Skills in the Transition to University’, p. 490. 132 Stowe, N. (2006), ‘Public History Curriculum. Illustrating Reflective Practice’. The Public Historian, Vol. 28 (1), p. 65.

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133 Lewin, Resolving Social Conflicts. 134 Smallbone, T. and Witney, D. (2011) ‘Wiki Work: Can Using Wikis Enhance Student Collaboration for Group Assignment Tasks?’ Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 48 (1), p. 111; Booth, ‘Developing History Students’ Skills in the Transition to University’. 135 http://ncph.org/cms/education/graduate-and-undergraduate/guide-to-publichistory-programs/ [Accessed 12 January 2014]. 136 Stowe, ‘Public History Curriculum’. 137 Stowe, ‘Public History Curriculum’, p. 39. 138 http://www.heacademy.ac.uk/aimhigher [Accessed 10 December 2013]. 139 Aston, ‘Publicizing Archaeology in Britain in the Late Twentieth Century’, p. 445. 140 http://www.conted.ox.ac.uk/courses/index.php. 141 http://www.conted.ox.ac.uk/courses/index.php. 142 http://www.archaeologyuk.org/education/ehe. 143 https://www.futurelearn.com/courses?utf8=✓&filter_category=historycourses&filter_availability=started [Accessed 20 November 2017]. 144 https://www.futurelearn.com/courses?utf8=✓&filter_category=historycourses&filter_availability=started [Accessed 20 November 2017]. 145 Samuel, Theatres of Memory. 146 Moussouri, ‘A Context for the Development of Learning Outcomes in Museums’, p. 42. 147 Jordanova, History in Practice; De Groot, Consuming History. 148 Nicholls, ‘The Employment of History Graduates’; Archer, W. and Davison, J. (2010), Graduate Employability: What Do Employers Think and Want. London: The Council for Industry and Higher Education; Booth and Booth, ‘Passion, Purpose and Value’. 149 Booth and Booth, ‘Passion, Purpose and Value’. 150 Archer and Davison, Graduate Employability; Booth and Booth, ‘Passion, Purpose and Value’. 151 Gorman, J. (2004), ‘Historians and Their Duties’. History and Theory, Vol. 43 (4), Theme Issue 43. Historians and Ethics, pp. 103–117. 152 Gorman, ‘Historians and Their Duties’, p. 732.

Chapter 8   1 Wilton, A. and Bignamin, I. (1996), Grand Tour: The Lure of Italy in the Eighteenth Century. London: Tate Gallery Publishing; Carman, J. and Sorenson, M. L. (2009), ‘Heritage Studies: An Outline’. In M. L. Stig Sorensen and J. Carman (eds), Heritage Studies: Methods and Approaches. Abingdon: Routledge, p. 14.   2 Carman and Sorenson, ‘Heritage Studies’.   3 http://www.mmtrust.org.uk/mausolea/view/199/Howard_Mausoleum_ North_Yorkshire [Accessed 11 September 2017].   4 Sicca, C. M. (2013), In Pursuit of Fame: William Kent in Italy (1709–1719). Pisa: Universita Pisa. http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/stowe/features/historyof-history [Accessed 08 August 2017].

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  5 Cleere, H. (ed.) (1981), Archaeological Heritage Management in the Modern World. London: Unwin Hyman, p. 10.   6 Bennett, The Birth of the Museum.   7 Jokilehto, J. (1985), ‘Authenticity in Restoration Principles and Practice’. Bulletin of the Association for Preservation Technology, Vol. 17, p. 5.   8 Carman and Sorenson, ‘Heritage Studies’, p. 16.   9 Carman and Sorensen, ‘Heritage Studies’, pp. 15–16; Cauvin, Public History, p. 15. 10 Carman and Sorenson, ‘Heritage Studies’, p. 16. 11 https://www.britannica.com/biography/Johann-Wolfgang-von-Goethe [Accessed 17 September 2017]. 12 Jokilehto, ‘Authenticity in Restoration Principles and Practice’, p. 6; Jokilehto, J. (2002), History of Architectural Conservation. London: Routledge, p. 112. 13 https://www.goethe.de/ins/ts/en/kul/mag/20867359.html [Accessed 17 September 2017]. 14 https://www.goethe.de/ins/ts/en/kul/mag/20867359.html [Accessed 17 September 2017]. 15 Jokilehto, ‘Authenticity in Restoration Principles and Practice’, p. 6. 16 http://www.nationalturst.org.uk/features/what-does-gothic-revival-mean; Jokilehto, ‘Authenticity in Restoration Principles and Practice’. 17 Jokilehto, ‘Authenticity in Restoration Principles and Practice’, p. 6. 18 Jokilehto, History of Architectural Conservation, p. 189. 19 Morris, W. (1987), ‘Manifesto’ of the S.P.A.B. London: Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings; Jokilehto, History of Architectural Conservation, pp. 182, 184. 20 Morris, ‘Manifesto’ of the S.P.A.B.; Rushkin, J. (1925), The Seven Lamps of Architecture. London: Smith, Elder and Co. Jokilehto, History of Architectural Conservation, pp. 185–186. 21 Jokilehto, ‘Authenticity in Restoration Principles and Practice’; Jokilehto, History of Architectural Conservation, p. 187. 22 Stanley Price, N. (2009), ‘The Reconstruction of Ruins. Principles and Practice’. In A. Richmond and A. Bracker (eds), Conservation: Principles, Dilemmas and Uncomfortable Truths. Amsterdam: Elsevier, p. 33. 23 Stanley Price, ‘The Reconstruction of Ruins’, p. 6. 24 Stanley Price, ‘The Reconstruction of Ruins’; Jokilehto, History of Architectural Conservation, p. 7. 25 Jokilehto, History of Architectural Conservation, p. 187. 26 Ashurst, J. (2006), Conservation of Ruins. London: Routledge. 27 Jokilehto, History of Architectural Conservation, p. 188. 28 Jokilehto, History of Architectural Conservation, p. 188. 29 Ashurst, Conservation of Ruins. 30 Jokilehto, History of Architectural Conservation, p. 188. 31 Jokilehto, History of Architectural Conservation, p. 188. 32 https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/lists/our-history-1884-1945 [Accessed 11 January 2017]. 33 Ashurst, Conservation of Ruins, p. 5. 34 Ashurst, Conservation of Ruins, p. 5. 35 Ashurst, Conservation of Ruins, p. 5.

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36 ICOMOS (1933), ‘Athens Charter for the Restoration of Historic Monuments’. Athens: Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historic Monuments. Available at: http://www.icomos.org/en/charters-and-texts/179articles-en-francais/ressources/charters-and-standards/167-the-athens-charterfor-the-restoration-of-historic-monuments [Accessed 17 September 2017]. 37 National Historic Preservation Act (1966), National Historic Preservation Act, Public Law 89–665; 54 U.S.C. 3001010 et seq. (amended 2016). Available at: http://xoxyohh9fh753j91bj7hl15l.wpengine.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/ uploads/2017/02/nhpaTitle54Dec2016.pdf [Accessed 15 August 2017]. 38 Diefendorf, J. (1993), In the Wake of the War: The Reconstruction of German Cities after World War II. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 39 Brandi, C. (2005), Theory of Restoration (original title Teoria del restauro, 1663). Rome: Istituto centrle per il restauro. 40 Ashurst, Conservation of Ruins, p. 6. 41 Ashurst, Conservation of Ruins, p. 5. 42 Ashurst, Conservation of Ruins, p. 6. 43 ICOMOS, ‘Athens Charter for the Restoration of Historic Monuments’; Ashurst, Conservation of Ruins. 44 http://europanostra.org/organisation [Accessed 19 January 2018]. 45 ICOMOS (1964), ‘Venice Charter: International Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and Site’. Venice: ICOMOS. Available at: https://www.icomos.org/charters/venice_e.pdf [Accessed 17 August 2017]. 46 ICOMOS, ‘Athens Charter for the Restoration of Historic Monuments’, Article 5. 47 http://www.icomos.org/en/about-icomos/mission-and-vision/ history?showall=&start=1 [Accessed 15 September 2017]. 48 UNESCO (1972), Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. Paris: UNESCO. Available at: http://whc.unesco.org/ archive/convention-en.pdf [Accessed 15 August 2017]. 49 https://www.wmf.org/who-we-are [Accessed 15 August 2017]; https://www. landmarktrust.org.uk/about-us/about-us/history/ [Accessed 15 August 2017]. 50 UNESCO (2005), Basic Texts of the 1972 World Heritage Convention. Available at: http://whc.unesco.org/uploads/activities/documents/ activity-562-4.pdf [Accessed 05 November 2017]; Rodwall (2012), p. 64. 51 ICOMOS (1987), Charter for the Conservation of Historic Towns and Urban Areas. Washington: ICOMOS. Available at: https://www.icomos.org/charters/ towns_e.pdf [Accessed 08 September 2017]. 52 United Nations (1987), Brundland Commission. Available at: http://www. exteriores.gob.es/Portal/es/PoliticaExteriorCooperacion/Desarrollosostenible/ Documents/Informe%20Brundtland%20(En%20inglés).pdf [Accessed 05 September 2017]; Glaser, L. (2013), Public History and Sustainability: An Overview and Invitation. History@Work. Available at: http://ncph.org/historyat-work/public-history-and-sustainability-intro/ [Accessed 15 September 2017]. 53 Hayden, D. (1995), The Power of Place: Urban Landscapes as Public History. Cambridge: The MIT Press; Cauvin, Public History, p. 77. 54 Tyler, N., Ligibel, T. and Tyler, I. (2009), Historic Preservation: An Introduction to Its History, Principles and Practices. London: Norton and Company; Hayden, The Power of Place; Cauvin, Public History, p. 77.

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55 Melosi, M. and Scarpino, P. (2004), Public History and the Environment. Florida: Krieger Publishing Company. 56 Melosi and Scarpino, Public History and the Environment; Hayden, The Power of Place. 57 Addyman, P. V. (1990), ‘Reconstruction as Interpretation: The Example of the Jorvik Viking Centre, York’. In P. Gathercole and D. Lowenthal (eds), The Politics of the Past. One World Archaeology. London: Unwin Hyman, pp. 257–264. 58 Schmidt, H. (1997), ‘Reconstruction of Ancient Buildings’. In M. De La Torre (ed.), The conservation of archaeological sites in the Mediterranean region. An international conference organized by the Getty Conservation Institute and the J. Paul Getty Museum, 6–12 May 1995, Los Angeles, CA: Getty Conservation Institute, pp. 41–50; Piccini, A. (1999), ‘Wargames and Wendy Houses: Openair Reconstructions of Prehistoric Life’. In N. Merriman (ed.), Making Early Histories in Museums. London: Leicester University Press. 59 Merriman, N. (1991), Beyond the Glass Case: The Past, the Heritage and the Public in Britain. Leicester: Leicester University Press; Lowenthal, D. (1996), The Heritage Crusade and the Spoils of History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 60 ICOMOS (1979), Burra Charter: Charter for the Conservation of Places of Cultural Significance. Australia: ICOMOS. Available at: http://australia. icomos.org/publications/charters/ [Accessed 08 September 2017]; The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (1990). Pub. L. 101–601, 25 U.S.C. 3001 et seq. Available at: https://www.nps.gov/history/local-law/ FHPL_NAGPRA.pdf [Accessed 10 November 2013]. 61 King, T. (2008), Cultural Resource Management Laws and Practice. Lanham: AltaMira Press; Hall, C. M. and McArthur, S. (1996), ‘The Human Dimension of Heritage Management: Different Values, Different Interests, Different Issues’. In C. M. Hall and S. McArthur (eds), Heritage Management in Australia and New Zealand, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 2–21. 62 Carman and Sorenson, ‘Heritage Studies’. 63 Carman and Sorenson, ‘Heritage Studies’, p. 6; Demas, M. (2002), ‘Planning for Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites: A Values-based Approach’. In J. M. Teutonico and G. Palumbo (eds), Management Planning for Archaeological Sites: An International Workshop Organized by the Getty Conservation, Los Angeles, CA: Getty Conservation Institute, pp. 27–56. Pearson, M. and Sullivan, S. (2002), ‘Assessing the Value of Heritage Places’. In M. Pearson and S. Sullivan (eds), Looking after Heritage Places. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, pp. 126–186. 64 Smith, L. (2006), Uses of Heritage. London: Routledge, p. 3. 65 Smith, Uses of Heritage, p. 3. 66 Meskell, L. (2011), The Nature of Heritage: The New South Africa. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell; Smith, L. J. and Waterton, E. (2009), Heritage, Communities and Archaeology. London: Duckworth. 67 King, Cultural Resource Management Laws and Practice. 68 http://www.victoriabaths.org.uk/restoration/ [Accessed 17 September 2017]. 69 https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/bibury [Accessed 12 November 2017]; http:// www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b04n9gw1 (aired 27 November 2014, BBC Two) [Accessed 10 August 2017].

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70 https://www.coe.int/en/web/culture-and-heritage/faro-convention [Accessed 01 February 2018]. 71 http://europnostra.org/our-work/campaigns/7-most-endangered/ [Accessed 19 January 2018]. 72 http://7mostendangered.eu/2018-shortlist/ [Accessed 19 January 2018]. 73 King, Cultural Resource Management Laws and Practice; Melosi and Scarpino, Public History and the Environment. 74 Macdonald, S. (2013), Memorylands. London: Routledge. 75 Goodall, M. and Slocombe, M. (2017), ‘Out of the Ashes: Coventry Cathedral’. Society of Ancient Buildings Magazine (Spring), p. 82. 76 Goodall and Slocombe, ‘Out of the Ashes’. 77 Goodall and Slocombe, ‘Out of the Ashes’. 78 Goodall and Slocombe, ‘Out of the Ashes’, p. 84. 79 Hunt, R. and Boyd, I. (2017), New Design for Old Buildings. London: RIBA Publishing. 80 https://www.nps.gov/tps/standards/four-treatments.htm [Accessed 10 September 2017]. 81 Bjorneberg, B. (2017), ‘Renovation, Restoration, Preservation, Conservation’, Conservation and Design International. Available at: http://www.conservatoindesign.com/newsletter/-BA.html [Accessed 18 August 2017]. 82 https://www.nps.gov/tps/standards/four-treatments.htm [Accessed 10 September 2017]. 83 Bjorneberg, ‘Renovation, Restoration, Preservation, Conservation’. 84 Slocombe, M. (2017), ‘Directors Notes’. The Society for the Protection of Ancient Building Magazine (Spring), p. 4. 85 http://www.auschwitz.org [Accessed 10 September 2017]. 86 https://www.nps.gov/tps/standards/four-treatments.htm [Accessed 10 September 2017]. 87 https://www.nps.gov/tps/standards/four-treatments.htm [Accessed 10 September 2017]. 88 Bjorneberg, ‘Renovation, Restoration, Preservation, Conservation’. 89 Jokilehto, ‘Authenticity in Restoration Principles and Practice’, p. 7. 90 https://www.landmarktrust.org.uk/search-and-book/properties/methwold-oldvicarage-9355 [Accessed 08 August 2017]. 91 https://www.landmarktrust.org.uk/search-and-book/properties/methwold-oldvicarage-9355. 92 https://www.landmarktrust.org.uk/search-and-book/properties/methwold-oldvicarage-9355. 93 Bjorneberg, ‘Renovation, Restoration, Preservation, Conservation’. 94 https://www.nps.gov/tps/standards/four-treatments.htm [Accessed 10 September 2017]. 95 Tyler et al., Historic Preservation; Hayden, The Power of Place; Cauvin, Public History, p. 77. 96 http://www.historicinnsofannapolis.com/hotel-history.aspx [Accessed 10 September 2017]. 97 Stanley Price, ‘The Reconstruction of Ruins’, p. 34; Burra Charter, 20.1. 98 Stanley Price, ‘The Reconstruction of Ruins’, p. 34; Burra Charter, 1.8. 99 https://www.nps.gov/tps/standards/four-treatments.htm [Accessed 10 September 2017].

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100 Stanley Price, ‘The Reconstruction of Ruins’, p. 35. 101 Stanley Price, ‘The Reconstruction of Ruins’, p. 35. 102 Reconstruction of Ruined Darul Aman Palace Beings in Kabul. BBC News, 30 May 2016. Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-36411910 [Accessed 17 September 2017]. 103 Reconstruction of Ruined Darul Aman Palace Beings in Kabul. BBC News, 30 May 2016. Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldasia-36411910; Macpherson, I. and Nault, D. M. (2010), ‘Forward’. Asia Journal of Global Studies, Vol. 3 (1–2), pp. 2–3. 104 Stanley Price, ‘The Reconstruction of Ruins’, p. 35. 105 https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/clandon-park/history [Accessed 12 September 2017]. 106 https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/clandon-park/features/how-the-onslowfamily-came-to-clandon-park [Accessed 12 September 2017]. 107 http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/03/09/dont-waste-30m-pastiche-saysancestral-owner-gutted-palladian/ [Accessed 12 September 2017]. 108 www.nationaltrust.org.uk/clandon-park [Accessed 12 September 2017]. 109 Slocombe, ‘Directors Notes’. 110 https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/clandon-park/lists/meet-the-design-teams-atclandon-park [Accessed 12 November 2017]. 111 http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/03/09/dont-waste-30m-pastiche-saysancestral-owner-gutted-palladian/ [Accessed 12 September 2017]. 112 Cauvin, Public History, p. 76. 113 http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/cliffords-tower-york/historyand-stories/jewish-massacre/ [Accessed 17 September 2017]. 114 Rushby, K. (2017), English Heritage in the Docks over Plans for Clifford’s Tower in York. The Guardian, 27 January 2017. Available at: https://www. theguardian.com/travel/2017/jan/27/english-heritage-in-the-dock-over-plansfor-cliffords-tower-in-york [Accessed 17 August 2017]. 115 ICOMOS, ‘Venice Charter’. 116 Hoffman, B. (2009), Arts and Cultural Heritage: Law, Policy and Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 117 https://rm.coe.int/168007bd25. 118 Article 1, http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/cultureheritage/heritage/archeologie/ valletta_pres_EN.asp [Accessed 15 September 2017]. 119 ICOMOS (1999), International Cultural Tourism Charter. Available at: http://www.icomos.org/tourism/charter.htmlMAS/Cultural tourism/ICOMOS/ tourism_charter.pdf [Accessed 09 September 2017]. 120 ICOMOS, ‘Athens Charter for the Restoration of Historic Monuments’. 121 http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=13637&URL_DO=DO_ TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html. 122 ICCROMS/UNESCO (1956) New Delhi Resolutions. Available at: http:// unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0011/001145/114585e.pdf [Accessed 15 September 2017]. 123 ICOMOS, ‘Venice Charter’. 124 UNESCO, Convention concerning the Protection. 125 ICOMOS, International Cultural Tourism Charter. 126 Council of Europe (1985), Convention for the Protection of the Architectural Heritage of Europe. Granada: Council of Europe. Available at: https://rm.coe. int/168007a087 [Accessed 17 September 2017].

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127 ICOMOS, Charter for the Conservation of Historic Towns and Urban Areas. 128 ICOMOS (1989), Charter for the Protection and Management of the Archaeological Heritage. ICOMOS. Available at: http://www.international. icomos.org/e_archae.htm [Accessed 08 August 2017]. 129 The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act, Pub. L. 101–601, 25 U.S.C. 3001 et seq. 130 Council of Europe (1992), Valletta Convention: European Convention on the Protection of the Archaeological Heritage (revised) Valletta, 16.I.1992, Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Available at: http://www.coe.int/en/web/ conventions/full-list/-/conventions/treaty/143 [Accessed 08 August 2017]. 131 ICOMOS (1993), New Zealand Charter for the Conservation of Places of Cultural Heritage. Available at: https://www.icomos.org/images/ DOCUMENTS/Charters/ICOMOS_NZ_Charter_2010_FINAL_11_ Oct_2010.pdf [Accessed 17 September 2017]. 132 ICOMOS (1996), Declaration of San Antonio on Authenticity. San Antonio: ICOMOS. Available at: http://www.icomos.org/docs/san_antonio.html [Accessed 08 August 2017]. 133 ICOMOS, International Cultural Tourism Charter. 134 Council of Europe (2000), European Landscape Convention. Florence: Council of Europe. Available at: https://rm.coe.int/16802f1409 [Accessed 07 September 2017]. 135 Cernea, M. (2001), Cultural Heritage and Development: A Framework for Action in the Middle East and North Africa. Orientations in Development Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. Available at: http://documents. worldbank.org/curated/en/406981468278943948/Cultural-heritage-anddevelopment-a-framework-for-action-in-the-Middle-East-and-North-Africa [Accessed 14 August 2017]. 136 Indian National Trust for Arts and Cultural Heritage (2004), Charter for the Conservation of Unprotected Architectural Heritage and Sites in India. Available at: http://www.intach.org/about-charter.php [Accessed 17 August 2017]. 137 https://www.coe.int/en/web/culture-and-heritage/ofaro-convention. 138 UNESCO (2015), Sustainable Development Policy. Available at: http://whc. unesco.org/archive/2016/whc16-40com-5C-en.pdf [Accessed 14 August 2017]. 139 Chien-Chung, C. and Chao-Ching. F. (2015), ‘Globalization and Localization of Heritage Preservation in Taiwan—An Analysis Perspective under the Cultural Heritage Preservation Act’. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, Vol. XL-5/W7. 140 Chien-Chung and Chao-Ching, ‘Globalization and Localization of Heritage Preservation in Taiwan’. 141 Chien-Chung and Chao-Ching, ‘Globalization and Localization of Heritage Preservation in Taiwan’. 142 http://en.boch.gov.tw [Accessed 18 September 2017]. 143 Sui, C. (2012), Taiwan to Restore Architectural Treasures. BBC News, 6 January 2012. Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-15403598 [Accessed 17 September 2017]. 144 Sui, Taiwan to Restore Architectural Treasures.

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145 Sui, Taiwan to Restore Architectural Treasures. 146 Sui, Taiwan to Restore Architectural Treasures. 147 https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/lists/our-history-1884-1945 [Accessed 11 January 2017]. 148 http://www.wmf.org.uk/projects/ [Accessed 03 April 2014]. 149 http://www.wmf.org.uk/projects/. 150 http://www.landmarktrust.org.uk/ [Accessed 03 April 2014]. 151 http://www.landmarktrust.org.uk/search-and-book/properties/astleycastle-4806 [Accessed 04 January 2014]. 152 http://www.spab.org.uk/what-is-spab/ [Accessed 04 January 2014]. 153 http://www.spab.org.uk/what-is-spab/. 154 https://www.hlf.org.uk/parks-people-conservation-plan-guidance [Accessed 08 August 2017]; https://www.princes-regeneration.org/sites/default/files/ files/publication/How%20to%20Write%20Conservation%20Reports.pdf [Accessed 8 August 2017]. 155 English Heritage (2006), Understanding Historic Buildings – A Guide to Good Recording Practice. London: English Heritage. 156 Boniface, P. (1995), Managing Quality Tourism. London: Routledge. 157 Boniface, P. and Fowler, P. (1993), Heritage and Tourism in ‘The Global Village’. London: Routledge. 158 UNESCO (2004), Linking Universal and Local Values: Managing a Sustainable Future for World Heritage. World Heritage Series 13. UNESCO: World Heritage Centers. 159 Heritage Lottery Fund (2012), Conservation Plan Guidance. http://www.hlf. org.uk/HowToApply/goodpractice/Documents/Conservation_plan_guidance. pdf [Accessed 10 October 2013]. 160 Natural England (2008), Preparing a Heritage Management Plan. Natural England, p. 63. 161 Boniface, Managing Quality Tourism, p. 108. 162 https://historicengland.org.uk/advice/technical-advice/parks-gardens-andlandscapes/maintenance-repair-and-conservation-management-plans-forhistoric-parks-and-gardens/ [Accessed 08 August 2017]. 163 Rodwell, D. (2012), ‘The UNESCO World Heritage Convention, 1972–2012: Reflections and Directions’, The Historic Environment, Vol. 3 (1), pp. 64–85. 164 https://historicengland.org.uk/advice/technical-advice/buildings/maintenanceand-repair-of-older-buildings/ [Accessed 08 August 2017]; English Heritage (2008), Conservation Principles, Policies and Guidance for the Sustainable Management of the Historic Environment. London: English Heritage. 165 https://historicengland.org.uk/advice/technical-advice/buildings/maintenanceand-repair-of-older-buildings/ [Accessed 08 August 2017]; English Heritage, Conservation Principles, Policies and Guidance for the Sustainable Management of the Historic Environment. 166 https://historicengland.org.uk/advice/technical-advice/buildings/maintenanceand-repair-of-older-buildings/ [Accessed 08 August 2017]; English Heritage, Conservation Principles, Policies and Guidance for the Sustainable Management of the Historic Environment. 167 https://historicengland.org.uk/advice/technical-advice/buildings/maintenanceand-repair-of-older-buildings/ [Accessed 08 August 2017].

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168 English Heritage (2013), Practical Building Conservation: Conservation Basics. London: Routledge. 169 https://www.prospects.ac.uk/job-profiles/historic-buildings-inspectorconservation-officer [Accessed 07 September 2017]. 170 English Heritage, Conservation Principles, Policies and Guidance for the Sustainable Management of the Historic Environment. 171 King, Cultural Resource Management Laws and Practice. 172 Melosi and Scarpino, Public History and the Environment.

Chapter 9   1 Jokilehto, History of Architectural Conservation, p. 187.   2 ICOMOS, ‘Venice Charter’.   3 Knauer, L. and Walkowitz, D. (2009), Contested Histories in Public Space. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, p. 2.   4 https://www.awm.gov.au/commemoration/anzac-day/traditions [Accessed 05 October 2017].   5 Edwards, S. (2015), Allies in Memory: World War II and the Politics of Transatlantic Commemoration: c. 1941–2001. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.   6 Edwards, Allies in Memory.   7 Edwards, Allies in Memory; Gregory, A. (1994), The Silence of Memory: Armistice Day, 1919–1946. London: Bloomsbury Academic.   8 Edwards, Allies in Memory; Gregory, The Silence of Memory.   9 Knauer and Walkowitz, Contested Histories in Public Space, p. 2.   10 Samuel, Theatres of Memory; Bates, ‘Introduction’.   11 Fredericksen, ‘Caring for History’; Greer, S., Harrison, R., and McIntyreTamwoy, S. (2002), ‘Community Based Archaeology in Australia’. World Archaeology, Vol. 34 (2), pp. 265–287; Meskell, L. (2012), The Nature of Heritage: The New South Africa. Maldon: Wiley-Blackwell.   12 Greer et al., ‘Community Based Archaeology in Australia’.   13 Layton, R. (1989), Who Needs the Past? Indigenous Values and Archaeology. London: Unwin Hyman.   14 McGimsey, C. (1972), Public Archaeology. New York: McGraw Hill.   15 www.nps.gov/history/sec/protecting/html/201-neumann.htm [Accessed 05 July 2013].   16 www.nps.gov/history/sec/protecting/html/201-neumann.htm.   17 Jeppson, ‘Doing Our Homework’; Jeppson and Brauer (2007), pp. 231–232.   18 Copper, D. (2006), ‘Truthfulness and “Inclusion” in Archaeology’. In C. Scarre and G. Scarre (eds), The Ethics of Archaeology: Philosophical Perspectives on Archaeological Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 131–147.   19 The Burra Charter (1999), The Australian ICOMOS Charter for Places of Cultural Significance; Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (25 U.S. Code 3001 et seq.), statute text. See http://www.cr.nps.gov/locallaw/FHPL_NAGPRA.pdf [Accessed 10 November 2013]; Australian Heritage Commission (2002), Ask First: A Guide to Respecting Heritage Places and Values.

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20 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52014 XG1223%2801%29 [Accessed 01 February 2017]; https://www.coe.int/en/ web/culture-and-heritage/faro-convention [Accessed 01 February 2018]. 21 Waterton, E. and Watson, S. (2015), ‘The Ontological Politics of Heritage; or How Research Can Spoil a Good Story’. In E. Waterton and S. Watson (eds), The Palgrave Handbook of Contemporary Heritage Research. London: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 22–36. 22 Horton, L. (2009), Slavery and Public History: The Tough Stuff of American Memory. Carolina: University of Carolina Press. 23 Knauer and Walkowitz, Contested Histories in Public Space. 24 Knauer and Walkowitz, Contested Histories in Public Space, p. 7; https:// www.tepapa.govt.nz/visit/whats-on/exhibitions/treaty-waitangi-signs-nation [Accessed 10 October 2017]. 25 Waterton and Watson, The Palgrave Handbook of Contemporary Heritage Research. 26 King, Cultural Resource Management Laws and Practice, p. 5. 27 http://www.mofa.go.jp [Accessed 10 September 2017]. 28 Knauer and Walkowitz, Contested Histories in Public Space, p. 5. 29 http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/0/robert-e-lee-confederate-hero-heartcharlottesville-unrest-statues/ (Accessed 17 August 2017). 30 1992: 9, ii. 31 Council of Europe, ‘Valletta Convention’. 32 http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=13637&URL_DO=DO_ TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html [Accessed 04 October 2017]. 33 http://unesco.org/new/en/media-services/single-view/news/italy_ creates.a.unesco_emergency_task_force_for_culture/ [Accessed 04 January 2018]; Philipson, A. (2015), ‘UN to deploy world heritage site peacekeepers “like The Monuments Men”’. The Telegraph, 18 October 2015, Available at: http://telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/italy/11939481/UN-to-deployworld-heritage-site-peacekeppers-like-The-Monuments-Men.html [Accessed 04 January 2018]. 34 Malvern, J. (2017), ‘Lost City of Alexander the Great’. The Times, 25 August 2017. 35 http://www.unesco.org/webworld/ taskforce21/documents/holmstrom_en.htm [Accessed 10 October 2017]. 36 http://whc.unesco.org/en/funding/ [Accessed 05 December 2013]. 37 UNSECO (1995), World Commission on Culture and Development, Our Creative Diversity. Paris: UNESCO. 38 Cleere, H. (1989), Archaeological Heritage Management in the Modern World. London: Unwin Hyman. 39 Rodwell, ‘The UNESCO World Heritage Convention, 1972–2012’. 40 Rodwell, ‘The UNESCO World Heritage Convention, 1972–2012’; UNESCO, Linking Universal and Local Values. 41 Rodwell, ‘The UNESCO World Heritage Convention, 1972–2012’. 42 http://whc.unesco.org/en/criteria/ [Accessed 10 December 2013]. 43 ICOMOS (1990), Charter for the Protection and Management of the Archaeological Heritage. Paris, France: International Council on Monuments and Sites. Available at: https://www.icomos.org/en/practical-information/179articles-en-francais/ressources/charters-and-standards/160-charter-for-the-

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protection-and-management-of-the-archaeological-heritage [Accessed 08 September 2017]. 44 http://www.icomos.org/en/about-icomos/mission-and-vision/mission-andvision. 45 Skeates, R. (2000), Debating the Archaeological Heritage. London: Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd, p. 63. 46 The Burra Charter, The Australian ICOMOS Charter for Places of Cultural Significance, p. 1. 47 The Burra Charter, The Australian ICOMOS Charter for Places of Cultural Significance, p. 1. 48 The Burra Charter, The Australian ICOMOS Charter for Places of Cultural Significance, p. 10. 49 www.hlf.org.uk/English/AboutUs [Accessed 04 January 2014]. 50 www.hlf.org.uk/English/AboutUs [Accessed 04 January 2014]. 51 Bickley, P. (2009), The National Lottery: Is It Progressive. Theos: London. Available at: http://www.theosthinktank.co.uk/files/files/Reports/ NationalLotteryreport.pdf [Accessed 07 July 2014]. 52 English Heritage (2000), Power of Place: The Future of the Historic Environment. London: English Heritage for the Historic Environment Steering Group; English Heritage, Heritage Counts. 53 http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/caring/listing/listed-buildings [Accessed 10 November 2013]. 54 http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/caring/listing/listed-buildings. 55 Jameson, ‘Public Archaeology in the United States’; Advisory Council on Historic Preservation. National Historic Preservation Act of 1966. As Amended through 2000, 26 April 2002. See www2.cr.nps.gov/laws/ NHPA1966.htm [Accessed 10 November 2013]. 56 http://www.nps.gov/moru/index.htm [Accessed 10 November 2017]. 57 http://www.cr.nps.gov. 58 http://www.fs.fed.us. 59 http://www.passportintime.com. 60 www.passportintime.com, USDA-USFS (1995), Passport in Time Accomplishments, Region 6. United States Department of Agriculture. Tuscon: United States Forest Service. 61 www.passportintime.com. 62 http://www.heritagegateway.org.uk/Gateway/CHR [Accessed 09 October 2013]. 63 English Heritage, Understanding Historic Buildings; Faulkner, N. (2008), ‘Flagship National Archaeology Scheme Faces Crippling Cuts’. Current Archaeology, Vol. 215, p. 49. 64 King, Cultural Resource Management Laws and Practice, p. 2. 65 Parker Pearson, ‘Visitors Welcome’. 66 Department for Culture Media and Sport (2010), Planning Policy Statement 5. Planning for the Historic Environment (PPS5). London: Department of Culture and Local Government, English Heritage and DCMS; Department for Communities and Local Government (2012), National Planning Framework. London: Department for Communities and Local Government. 67 Planning Policy Statement 5, Section HE9.3.

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68 Planning Policy Statement 5, Section HE 7.3; National Planning Framework, Section 12, p. 126. 69 Simpson, ‘Birley Fields’. 70 Simpson, ‘Birley Fields’. 71 http://www.salford.ac.uk/cst/research/applied-archaeology/communityengagement/dig-greater-manchester [Accessed 09 December 2013]. 72 Jameson, ‘Public Archaeology in the United States’, p. 29. 73 Jameson, ‘Public Archaeology in the United States’, p. 29; Snead, J. (1999), ‘Science, Commerce and Control: Patronage and the Development of Anthropological Archaeology in the Americans’. American Anthropology, Vol. 101 (2), pp. 256–271. 74 Jameson, ‘Public Archaeology in the United States’, p. 30. 75 Jameson, ‘Public Archaeology in the United States’, p. 30. 76 Cressey et al., ‘Held in Trust, p. 2. 77 http://bpc.iserver.net/codes/annapolis/ [Accessed 02 August 2013]. 78 www.marlandhistorictrust.net/aboutmht.html [Accessed 02 August 2013]. 79 http://www.historicinnsofannapolis.com/governor-calvert-house.aspx [Accessed 10 December 2013]. 80 Scardaville, Looking Backward toward the Future’. 81 Carman and Sorenson, ‘Heritage Studies’, pp. 13–14; Cleere, Archaeological Heritage Management in the Modern World, p. 10. 82 Bland, R. (1996), ‘Treasure Trove and the Case for Reform’. Art, Antiquities and Law, Vol. 11, pp. 11–12. 83 Bland, ‘Treasure Trove and the Case for Reform’. 84 Skeates, Debating the Archaeological Heritage, p. 43. 85 http://finds.org.uk. 86 Bennett, The Birth of the Museum. 87 Proff. L. and O’Keefe, P. (1989), Law and Cultural Heritage, Vol. 3. Movement. London: Butterworth. 88 Proff and O’Keefe, Law and Cultural Heritage. 89 ICOM Code of Professional Ethics (1990). 90 Renfrew, C. (2000), Loot, Legitimacy and Ownership. London: Duckworth. 91 http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/6157572.stm [Accessed 12 April 2014]. 92 Kier, B. and Bell, C. (2004), Canadian Legislation Relating to First Nation Cultural Heritage. Available at: http://www.law.ualberta.ca/research/ aboriginalculturalheritage/ canadianlegislation.pdf [Accessed 10 November 2013]. 93 Volkert et al., National Museum of the American Indian, p. 2. 94 Crosby, A. (2002), ‘Archaeology and Vanua Development in Fiji’. World Archaeology, Vol. 34 (2), pp. 363–378. 95 Crosby, ‘Archaeology and Vanua Development in Fiji’, p. 375. 96 Crosby, ‘Archaeology and Vanua Development in Fiji’, p. 376. 97 https://www.nps.gov/archeology/tools/laws/nagpra.htm [Accessed 05 October 2017]. 98 Volkert et al., National Museum of the American Indian, p. 2. 99 Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (25 U.S. Code 3001 et seq.), statute text. See http://www.cr.nps.gov/local-law/FHPL_NAGPRA.pdf [Accessed 10 November 2013].

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100 McManamon, P. F. (2002), ‘Heritage, History and Archaeological Educators’. In B. J. Little (ed.), Public Benefits of Archaeology. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, pp. 31–45. 101 McManamon, ‘Heritage, History and Archaeological Educators’. 102 NAGPRA. 103 http://www.nma.gov.au/collections/repatriation [Accessed 06 June 2014]. 104 http://www.dpc.vic.gov.au/index.php/aboriginal-affairs/aboriginal-culturalheritage/review-of-the-aboriginal-heritage-act-2006. 105 Ford, Bellarine Bayside Foreshore, http://diginternational.com.au/page3.htm. 106 http://www.latrobe.edu.au/humanities/study/pathways/certificate-iv-inaboriginal-cultural-heritage-management. 107 http://www.latrobe.edu.au/humanities/study/pathways/certificate-iv-inaboriginal-cultural-heritage-management. 108 Tyrrell, I. (2005), Historians in the Public: The Practice of American History 1890–1970. Chicago: Chicago University Press. 109 Jordanova (2010). 110 Bogdanos, M. (2005), Thieves of Baghdad. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing. 111 Zeidler, J. and Rush, L. (2010), ‘In-Theatre Training through Cultural Heritage Playing Cards: A Use Department of Defense Example’. In L. Rush (ed.), Archaeology, Cultural Property, and the Military. Woodbridge: Boydell Press, pp. 73–85. 112 Zeidler and Rush, ‘In-theatre Training through Cultural Heritage Playing Cards’; Siebrandt, D. (2010), ‘US Military Support of Cultural Heritage Awareness and Preservation in Post-conflict Iraq’. In L. Rush (ed.), Archaeology, Cultural Property, and the Military. Woodbridge: Boydell Press, pp. 126–137; Schlesinger, V. (2007). Desert Solitaire, Archaeology 60 (4) July/ August. Available at: http://www.archaeology.org/0707/trenches/solitaire.html [Accessed 10 November 2013]. 113 Siebrandt, ‘US Military Support of Cultural Heritage Awareness and Preservation in Post-Conflict Iraq’, p. 127. 114 Brown, M. (2010), ‘Good Training and Good Practice: Protection of Cultural Heritage on the UK Defense Training Estate’. In L. Rush (ed.), Archaeology, Cultural Property, and the Military. Woodbridge: Boydell Press, pp. 60–72. 115 Porter, M. and Reid, A. (2010), Today’s toughest policy problems: How history can help. Available at: http://www.historyandpolicy.org/papers/policypaper-100.html) [Accessed 05 November 2013]. 116 www.historyandpolicy.org. 117 Szreter, S. (2012), ‘History and Public Policy’. In J. Bates (ed.), The Public Value of the Humanities. London: Bloomsbury Academic, pp. 219–231. 118 Porter and Reid, Today’s toughest policy problems. 119 Blair, T. (2003), Prime Minister’s Speech to the United States Congress. Available at: http://numbe10.gov.uk/Page4220 [Accessed 05 October 2013]. 120 Tosh, J. (2008), Why History Matters. London: Palgrave Macmillan. 121 Berridge, V. (2006), Smoking and the sea change in public health, 1945–2007. Available at: http://www.historyandpolicy.org/papers/policy-paper-59. html [Accessed 05 October 2013]; Andrew, C. (2004), Intelligence analysis needs to look backwards before looking forwards. Available at: http://www. historyandpolicy.org/papers/policy-paper-23.html [Accessed 05 October 2013].

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122 Rogers, E. (2007), Hitting Northern Rock bottom: lessons from nineteenthcentury British Banking. Available at: http://www.historyandpolicy.org/ papers/policy-paper-64.html [Accessed 05 October 2013] 123 Rogers, Hitting Northern Rock bottom. 124 Szreter, ‘History and Public Policy’, p. 219. 125 Sayer, F. (2015), ‘Can Digging Make You Happy? Archaeological Excavations’, Happiness and Heritage, Arts and Health, Vol. 7 (3), p. 247. 126 Thomson, L., Ander, E., Menon, U., Lanceley, A., and Chatterjee, H. (2012), ‘Quantitative Evidence for Welling Benefits from a Heritage-in-heath Intervention with Hospital Patients’, International Journal of Art Therapy, Vol. 17 (2), pp. 63–79; Thomson, L. and Chatterjee, H. (2013), UCL Museums Wellbeing Measures Toolkit. Available from http://www.ucl.ac.uk/ museums/research/touch/museumwellbeingmeasures/wellbeing-measures/ UCL_Museum_Wellbeing_Measures_Toolkit_Sept2013.pdf; Thomson, L. and Chatterjee, H. (2014), ‘Assessing Wellbeing Outcomes for Arts and Heritage Activities: Development of a Museum Wellbeing Measures Toolkit’. Journal of Applied Arts & Health, Vol. 5 (1), pp. 29–50. Thomson, L., Ander, E., Menon, U., Lanceley, A., and Chatterjee, H. (2011), ‘Evaluating the Therapeutic Effects of Museum Objects with Hospital Patients: A Review and Initial Trial of Wellbeing Measures’. Journal of Applied Arts and Health, Vol. 2 (1), 37–56; Chatterjee, H. and Camic, P. (2015), ‘The Health and Wellbeing Potential of Museums and Art Galleries’. Arts and Health, Vol. 7 (3), pp. 183–186; Thompson, S., Aked, A., McKenzie, B., Wood, C., Davies, M., and Butler, T. (2011) The Happy Museum: A tale of how it could turn out all right. See http://www.happymuseumproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/ The_Happy_Museum_report_web.pdf [Accessed 02 October 2013]. 127 Thomson et al., ‘Quantitative Evidence for Welling Benefits from a Heritagein-heath Intervention with Hospital Patients’; Thomson and Chatterjee, ‘Assessing Wellbeing Outcomes for Arts and Heritage Activities’. 128 Sayer, ‘Can Digging Make You Happy?’

Chapter 10   1 Jordanova, History in Practice; De Groot, Consuming History.   2 Beatty, B. (2017), An American Association for State and Local History Guide to Making Public History. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.   3 McKercher and Du Cros, Cultural Tourism; Smith and Richards, The Routledge Handbook of Cultural Tourism.   4 Tribe, J. (2004), The Economics of Recreations, Leisure and Tourism. Amsterdam: Elsevier.   5 Ivanovic, M. (2008), Cultural Tourism, Cape Town: Juta Academic.   6 http://www.tourismalliance.com/downloads/TA-327.353.pdf [Accessed 06 December 2017].   7 http://www.tourismalliance.com/downloads/TA_327_353.pdf [Accessed 06 December 2017].   8 https://www.ipswich.gov.uk/sites/www.ipswich.gov.uk/files/ TourismStrategyfinal.pdf [Accessed 06 December 2017].   9 McKercher and Du Cros, Cultural Tourism; Smith and Richards, The Routledge Handbook of Cultural Tourism.

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10 http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1550 [Accessed 06 December 2017]; http://whc. unesco.org/en/list/1544 [Accessed 06 December 2017]. 11 http://whc.unesco.org/en/funding/ [Accessed 06 December 2017]. 12 http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/politics/the-big-question-what-is-aworld-heritage-site-and-does-the-accolade-make-a-difference-997955.html. 13 https://www.wttc.org/-/media/files/reports/economic%20impact%20research/ countries%202016/egypt2016.pdf [Accessed 06 December 2017]. 14 https://www.petersommer.com [Accessed 06 December 2017]; https://www. andantetravels.co.uk [Accessed 06 December 2017]. 15 Booth and Booth’s, ‘Passion, Purpose and Value’. 16 Jordanova, History in Practice. 17 Beck, P. (1996), ‘History, the Curriculum and Graduate Employment’. In A. Booth and P. Hyland (eds), History in Higher Education: New Directions in Teaching and Learning. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 242–257. 18 Nicholls, D. (2005), The Employment of History Graduates: A Report to the Higher Education Academy Subject Centre for History, Classics and Archaeology. York: Higher Education Academy. 19 Nicholls, The Employment of History Graduates. 20 http://www.historialasssocation/student/resource/2914/careers [Accessed 04 January 2017]. 21 http://www.historialasssocation/student/resource/2914/careers [Accessed 04 January 2017]. 22 Nicholls, The Employment of History Graduates. 23 Nicholls, The Employment of History Graduates. 24 Beck, Presenting History. 25 http://www.civilservice.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/Civil-ServiceCompetency-Framework-Jan2013.pdf [Accessed 17 January 2018]. 26 Nicholls, ‘The Employment of History Graduates’. 27 Archer and Davison, Graduate Employability. 28 Booth and Booth, ‘Passion, Purpose and Value’. 29 Booth and Booth, ‘Passion, Purpose and Value’. 30 Booth and Booth, ‘Passion, Purpose and Value’. 31 Archer and Davison, Graduate Employability; Booth and Booth, ‘Passion, Purpose and Value’. 32 Jordanova, History in Practice. 33 Hawkins, R. and Woolf, H. (2011), ‘The Assessment of Work Place Learning in the UK Undergraduate History Programmes’. In L. Lavender (ed.), History Graduates with Impact. Higher Education Academy, pp. 37–42. 34 Hawkins and Woolf, ‘The Assessment of Work Place Learning in the UK Undergraduate History Programmes’. 35 Brookfield, S. (1995), Becoming a Critically Reflective Teacher. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Chapter 11   1 Scardaville, Looking Backward toward the Future, p. 35.   2 http://www.passportintime.com [Accessed 05 September 2013].

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INDEX

academia 95, 125, 129, 145–6, 151, 201–5, 301, 303, 306 accessibility 9, 13, 56, 129, 256–7 Addyman, P. V. 219 African Burial Ground, USA 158, 223 AIMHigher 203 Albert Dock 66, 70, 141 Alexandria Public History Project 147, 165, 195, 264 Alfriston Clergy House, UK 237 amateur history 2–6, 8, 13, 25, 78, 113, 114, 118, 120, 139–40, 144–6, 153, 154, 164, 188, 301 American History Review 9 American Local History Network 139 Americans with Disabilities Act 197 Anderson, B. 6 Anderson, J. 22 Andrew, C. 278 Angkor Wat, Cambodia 220, 237, 249 Anglo-Saxon Chronical 97 Animal, Mineral and Vegetable 90 Annapolis 6, 11, 158, 160, 218–19, 222, 228, 264–7 anti-elite 11, 213 anti-establishment 3, 27, 40, 80, 142 Anzac Day 233, 246 Apocalypse Now 86 applied history 9, 274, 286 archaeological sites 39, 41–2, 49–50, 62, 90, 100–2, 138, 145–6, 158–60, 185, 196–7, 223, 250–2, 262–4, 268, 272, 284 Archer, W. and Davison, J. 205, 206, 294 Archives and Records Association (ARA) 35 Arts and Humanities Council (ARHC) 115, 254

Ascherson, N. 15, 58, 62, 75, 87 Ashby, J. 15, 62 Ashton, P. and Kean, H. 3, 11, 13 Ashurst, J. 214, 215, 217, 225 Ask First 248 Asmara, Eritrea 285 Association of Canadian Archivists 37 Astley Castle, UK 238 Aston, M. 82, 100–1, 161, 188, 203 Aston, M., Coston, A., Gerrard, C. and Hall, T. 160, 162, 164 Athens Charter 215–16, 234 Auschwitz, Poland 226 Australian Heritage Commission 248, 255 Australian History External Reference Group 173 Australian War Memorial, Australia 246 authenticity 13–17, 27, 33, 35, 43, 59, 61–2, 73, 81, 97, 109, 112, 117, 124, 133, 136, 156, 210–14, 224–6, 228, 229, 231, 234, 257, 285, 291, 302, 303 Authoritative Heritage Discourse 17, 27 authority 11, 16, 79, 95, 123, 220 autonomy 17, 139, 242 Back from Iraq 150 Balanos, N. 213, 214 Baltimore Country Public Schools Program 143, 174, 184–5 Bamiyan Valley, Afghanistan 285 Band of Brothers 91, 97 Barrett. J. 87, 90 Barreyre, N. Heale, M., Tuck, S. and Vidal. C. 175, 179 Barry 213

372

INDEX

Bartoy, K. 157, 194, 196, 197 Bates, J. 8, 12, 102, 103, 137, 141, 186, 201 BBC 74, 75, 80, 82, 90–1, 94, 96–100, 102, 191–2, 204, 221 BBC History Magazine 77, 78 BBC Radio 4 83–5 BBC Video Nation 122 Beard, M. 78, 94, 95, 131, 133 Beatty, B. 284 Beck, P. 80, 81, 85, 90, 91, 98, 102, 192, 287, 290 Bede 8 Beech, M. 39 Belcher, M. 46, 51 Bellarine Bayside, Australia 160, 162–4, 273, 302 Bender, T. 175 Bennett, T. 20–3, 46, 51, 57, 212, 268 Berridge, V. 278 Besterman, T. 43, 349 Bibury, UK 221 Bickley, P. 254 The Big Trail 85 Birley Fields, UK 141, 144, 158, 262–4 Birth of a Nation 85 Bjorneberg, B. 226, 228 black history 10, 247 Blackadder 91 Blair, T. 79, 119, 278 Blakey, M. 158 Bland, R. 268 Blog 2, 63, 78, 113, 119, 123, 129, 130–4, 136, 140, 143, 155–6, 189 Bloom, B. 180 Boadicea Statue, UK 246 Bogdanos, M. 275 Bolton, L. 23, 53 Bonacchi, C., Bevan, A., Pett, D., Keinan-Schoonbaert, A., Sparks, R., Wexler. J. and Wilkin., N. 115, 116 Bond, S. 115, 117 Bones without Barriers 126, 128, 131, 199–200, 323 Boniface, P. 239, 240 Boniface, P. and Fowler, P. 239 Booth, A. 136, 202

Booth, A. and Booth, J. 186, 206, 286, 294 Boston Freedom Trail, USA 165 bottom-up approach 5, 10, 117, 144–6, 284, 303 Bow Historical Society 164 Bowen, J. 112 Bradburne, J. 47–9, 58 Bradford Heritage Recording Unit 140 Bradley Commission 174 Bragg, M. 82, 83, 85 Brandi, C. 217 Braveheart 86 Brayford Historical and Archaeology Society 164 Bridge over the River Kwai 86 British Association for Local History 139 British Library, UK 66 British Museum, UK 49–51, 62, 66, 83–5, 115–17, 126, 147, 212, 268, 286 Brookfield, S. 295, 347, 350 Brown, M. 80, 267, 276 Brundltland Commission 217 Bruner, J. 174, 180 Bryon, A. 70, 153 Budapest Museum 21 Buddha’s of Bamiyan, Afghanistan 228, 285 Bureau of Cultural Heritage, Taiwan 255 BURRA Charter 219, 233, 234, 248, 253 Butler, T. 24, 25, 149, 166 Butzer Ancient Farm, UK 26 Cameron, F. 119 Canada Public History Project 143 Canterbury Archaeological Trust 68 Carman, J. 17, 138 Carman, J., and Sorenson, M. L. 212, 213, 219, 268 Castle Howard, UK 212 Catalhoyuk, Turkey 154 Cauvin, T. 9, 10, 219, 232 Cernea, M. 235 Charter for the Conservation of Historic Towns and Urban Areas 234

INDEX

Charter for the Conservation of Places of Cultural Significance 233, 234 Charter for the Conservation of Unprotected Architectural Heritage and Sites in India 234 Charter for the Protection and Management of the Archaeological Heritage 233, 234 charters 233–5 Chatsworth House, UK 196 Chatterjee, H. 25, 26 Chatterjee, H. and Camic, P. 279 Chhabra, D. 14 Chicago History Museum, USA 118, 130, 184, 189–90 Chien-Chung, C, and Chao-Ching, F. 235, 236 Citizen Cyberscience Centre 115 citizen history 114, 122–5 City of Yazd, Iran 285 cityscape 165, 211, 217, 219, 222, 226, 252, 261, 267 Civil Rights Movement 10 Civilisation 94 Clack, T. and Brittain, T. 90, 92, 93, 101, 102 Clandon House, UK 222, 225, 229–32 Classen, C. and Kansteiner, W. 14 Claus, P. and Marriot. J. 4, 10, 11, 13, 20, 32–4, 37 Cleere, H. 213, 252, 268 Clifford’s Tower, York 232 Coca-Cola 9, 30 Cohen, A. 138 Cohen, D. 63, 65, 66, 124, 125 Cologne Cathedral 216, 222 Colonial Williamsburg 9, 59–61, 214, 228 Community Archaeology Excavations 156–65 Community Archive Access Project 113 Community Archives Research 166–7 community exhibitions 166 community history 137–44 community museums 26–7 Conard, R. 9 conservation 240–1 conservation management plans 221, 224, 239

373

conservation statements 239 consumerism 15, 16, 22, 87, 111, 114, 117, 136, 143, 303 Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage 217, 234 Convention for Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage 235 conventions 233–5 Copper, D. 247 Council for British Archaeology 187 Council for Cultural Affairs, Taiwan 235–7 Council of Europe 234 Council of European Union 248 Counsell, C. 175, 183 Coventry Cathedral, UK 224–5 Cressey, P., Reeder, R., and Bryson, J. 165, 168, 195, 265 Creswell Crags Museum and Archaeology Park, UK 254 Crofts, S. 88, 89 Crosby, A. 269 crowd-sourced history 66–7, 91, 109, 111, 114, 115–16, 122–6 cultural diversity 26 Cultural Preservation Act, Taiwan 235–7 cultural resource management 264 cultural tourism 14 curators 56 cybermuseology 5, 111, 113, 115, 303 Dance, M. 227, 228 Danish Heritage Commission 255 Darul Aman Palace, Kabul 228 Davis, N. Z. 89 Davison, G. 3, 12, 140 De Groot, J. 74, 78, 79, 92–4, 96, 97, 102, 113, 114, 117, 122, 138, 166, 167 Deakin University 122 Deary, T. 80, 81 deathscape 222, 223 Declaration of San Antonio 234 Demas, M. 219 Department of Culture Media and Sport 141, 191, 254, 268, 275

374

INDEX

Department of Defense 275–7 Desk Based Assessment 258, 261–2, 303 Dewey, J. 174 Diefenbunker Museum 130 Diefendorf, J. 216 digital media 111–35 Digital Panopticon 199 digital technology 66, 71, 82, 114–22, 155, 244, 258, 301 Disability Discrimination Act 197 Discovery Channel 95 Disneyfication 62 73, 75, 93, 303 Downing, T. 73, 95, 96, 99, 102 Downton Abbey 92 Drupal 122 Ducal Palace 213 Eddisford, D. and Morgan, C. 154 education 171–209 Edwards, S. 246 Edwards, S. Dolski, M., and Sayer. F. 98 edX 120 Eley, G. 139, 140 Elgin Marbles 268 Elgin, Thomas 8 Eltham Palace 55 Emerson, R., Fretzm, R. and Shaw, L. 70 encyclopaedic museums 24 English Heritage 12, 40, 41–3, 59, 141, 143, 155, 196, 214, 232, 244, 255, 256–7, 275, 279, 280 enlightenment period 21, 212 Enola Gay 249 entertainment 15–16 Environment Agency 245 environmental impact assessment 261 ethics 29, 117, 151, 173, 211, 217, 219, 233, 248, 268, 302 Europa Nostra 217 European Archaeology Association 164 European Landscape Convention 234 evaluation 69–70 Evans, G. 10 exhibitions 46–56 experimental learning 171, 181, 210, 303

Facebook 63, 111, 112, 114, 126–7, 129, 130, 132, 148 Falk, J. and Dierking, L. 71, 187 Faulkner, N. 260 Favero, P. 112, 122 feminist history 10 Ferro, M. 87 Film and History 89 First Peoples and First Nations 269 First World War 246 Flinders Petrie Museum, UK 8, 25 Florence Convention 234 Ford, A. 160, 162, 273, 274 Franco, B. 3, 8, 20 Fredericksen, C. 4, 247 Frida Kahlo Museum, Mexico 129 Frisch, M. 168 Full Metal Jacket 86 Gardner, J. 20, 46 Garner. R. 176 Gaskell House Museum, UK 26–7 Gathercole, P., Stanely, J. and Thomas, N. 93, 101 genealogy 2, 4, 5, 27, 113, 119, 121, 138, 140, 145 Geoffrey Museum, UK 24 German Commission for Ancient History 258 Gerrard, C. and Aston, M. 160 Gettysburg 198 Gibbs, K., Sani, M. and Thompson, J. 188, 198 Gionvannoni, G. 215 Glaser, L. 264 Glassberg, D. 21, 44 Goethe 213 Gombrich, E. 76 Goodall, M. and Slocombe, M. 224, 225 Google 5, 112, 113, 115, 119, 127, 134, 155–6, 167 Google Cultural Institute 114 Google Historypin 155–6, 167 Gorman, J. 210 Governor Calvert House 228, 266 Grand Designs 221 Grand Tour 212 Grant Museum of Zoology, London 62, 63

INDEX

grass roots 4, 5, 17, 27, 123, 137, 139, 141, 143, 144–6, 247, 304 activists 10 Great Interior Design Challenge 221 Greater Manchester Archaeological Advisory Service 262–4 Green, J. 10, 11 Greer, S., Harrision, R., McIntyreTamwoy, S. 247 Gregory, A. 246 Gregory, P. 79 Grele, R. 3 Griffin, D. and Paroisien, L. 34 Grimsby Ice Factory, UK 221 Gross National Happiness 278 gross national product 16, 285 Gurot 214 Hague Convention 234, 246, 250, 268, 277 Hall, C. M. and McArther, S. 219 Happier Museums Project 71 Hartley L. P. 3 Hawkey, K and Prior, J. 176, 183 Hawkins, R. and Woolf, H. 294 Hawkmore, N. 212 Hayden, D. 219 Heal, S. 65 Henry, P. 187 Hensley, J. 195 heritage agencies 214 heritage centre 39–44 Heritage Gateway 258 Heritage Lottery Fund 254, 255, 279 Heritage Management Plan 239–40 heritage trails 165–6 Hermitage, USA 157, 196 Herreman, Y. 46, 47, 54, 56 Hillard, C. 9 Historic England 211, 256–7 Historic Environment Act 247 Historic Environment Offices 186 Historic Environment Record 258 Historic Houses Association 28 Historic Preservation Act 261 Historic Royal Palaces 196 Historical Building Survey 147, 153–5 History and Policy 278

375

History Connections and Artifact Collections Project 118, 198–0 history from below. See grass roots History Matters 132–4 History of the World in 100 Objects 83–5 History Today 77, 78 History Workshop Movement 11, 112, 139, 140 Hoffman, B. 232 Hoggett, P. 138 Hogsden, C. and Poulter, E. 63, 65, 113, 122 Holtorf, C. 4, 15, 157, 187 Holtorf, C. and Williams, H. 160 Honey, P. and Mumford, A. 174 Hooper-Grennhill, E. 22, 62, 70, 186, 190, 191, 197–9 Horrible Histories 80–1 Horton, L. 248 Hosseini, K. 79 Howe, B. 11, 12 Hughes 98 Hughes-Warrington, M. 77, 87, 89 The Human Henge Project 279 humanistic 12, 88, 103, 247, 248 Hungate, UK 138, 153 Hunt. R. and Boyd, I. 225 Hunt, T. 73, 74, 99 i.Docs 122 Imperial War Museum, UK 47–8, 74, 80 In Our Time 82, 83 indigenous rights 11, 12, 17, 140, 162–3, 219, 220, 247–8, 261, 268–74 Industrial Revolution 213 Inspiring Learning for All 187, 198 Instagram 63, 111, 129–30 Institute for Archaeologists 164 International Association for Media and History 105, 176 International Centre of the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property 216–17 International Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and Sites 233, 234

376

INDEX

International Council for Archives 22, 35, 36 International Council of Museums 22 International Council on Monuments and Sites 217, 253 International Cultural Tourism Charter 234 International Spy Museum, USA 15–16 Iraq Emergency Heritage Management Programme 253 Italian Central Institute for Restoration 215 Italian Charter for Restoration 215 Ivanonic, M. 284 James, A. and Boyd, N. 198 Jameson, J. 61, 174, 197, 258, 264 Jamestown, USA 44, 60, 195, 222 Japanese Funds-in-trust for the Preservation of World Cultural Heritage Projects’ 248–9 Jarvie, I. 87 Jeiling, Denmark 223, 233 Jenkinson, H. 19, 28, 33, 35–7 Jensen B. 3, 4 Jeppson, P. 143, 174–6, 184, 185, 247 Jeppson, P. and Brauer, G. 142, 174, 184, 185, 247 Jericho Skull 115–16, 177 Jersey War Tunnels Museum, UK 63–5 Jewish History Archive 34 Jigsaw project 195 John Soane Museum, UK 28 Jokilehto. J. 212–14, 225, 226, 231, 246 Jones, A. 26, 58, 67, 200, 201 Jordanova L. 3, 10, 11, 13, 22, 74, 76, 113, 114, 144, 169, 205, 275, 284, 286, 294 Jordon, P. 92 Jorvik Viking Centre, UK 15, 40, 58, 219 Kargar, M. R. 46 Kavanagh, G. 20, 62 Kazin, M. 66, 125 Kean, H., and Ashton, P. 3, 11, 13 Kelley, R. 9 Kenshaw, I. 79

Kent, W. 212 Kiddey, R. and Schofield, J. 160, 166 Kier, B. and Bell, C. 269 Kier Reeves, E., Sanders, R., and Chisholm, G. 149 King, T. 219–21, 244, 248, 261 The Kite Runner 79 Knauer, L. and Walkowitz, D. 246, 248 Kohl, H. 174, 181 Kolb, D. A. 179 Kruger National Park, Australia 220 Kywig, D. and Marty, M. 9 Landmark Trust 156, 211, 217. 221. 226–7, 237, 238 landscape gardens 212 The Last Kingdom 97–8 Last of the Mohicans 86 Latour, B. 21 Laurence, R. 69 Lave, J. and Wenger, E. 183 Lawrence of Arabia 86 Layton, R. 247 Lees, N. 105 Lesson Plans 175, 179, 191–2, 197–201 Lewin, K. 174, 202 Lewis, G. 21, 23, 24, 28 Lewis, P. 51, 358 The Library of Congress 123–4 Liddington, J. 3 Liddington, J. and Smith, G. 150 Liddle, P. 12 Lin-An-Tai House, Taiwan 235 Little, B. L. 175 Living History 13, 14, 22, 193, 196 Lock, G. 141, 179 Loewenberg, D. and McDiarmid, G. 175 London Archaeological Archives and Research Centre, UK 66–7 Lowenthal, D. 3, 156, 219 Lucas, G. 93 Lumsdale Valley, UK 226 Lynch, C. 119, 121 Macdonald, S. 23, 25, 43, 46, 187, 222 Macpherson, I. and Nault, D. M. 228

INDEX

maintenance 240 Malvern, J. 252 Manchester Cenotaph, UK 246 Manchester History Festival 168 Manchester Metropolitan University 131, 199, 208, 263, 288 Martin, P. 139, 142, 143 Maryland Inn, USA 228 Masse, A. and Masse, W. 65 Massive Open Online Courses 120 McClanahon, A. 70 McGimsey, C. 247 McKercher, B. and Du-Cross, H. 14, 284, 285 McManamon, P. F. 272 Melosi, M. and Scarpino, P. 219, 221, 244 Memoryscape 222, 223 Merriman, N. 7, 23, 69, 70, 219 Merriman, N. and Poovay-Smith, N. 22, 26, 27, 139 Meskell, L. 220, 247 Metcalf, F. 175, 176 Methwold 222, 226–7 Metropolitan Museum of Art 21, 24, 51, 114, 119, 121, 126–9 MicroPasts 115–16 Miller, L. 33, 35 Ministry of Defence 276 Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Japan 248 Moe, J. M. 175 monuments 222, 246 Moore, M. 91, 92 Morris, W. 14, 213, 214 Moser, S., Glazier, D., Phillips, J., El Nemer, L., Mousea, M., Richardson, S., Conner, A., and Seymour, M. 158 Moshenska, G. 160, 161 Moussouri, T. 179, 186, 198, 205 Muller, K. 119, 121 Muncy Historical Society 145–6 Munich Museum of Archaeology, Germany 53 Musée Central de Arts 213 Musée du Lourve 129, 212 The Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, UK 122

377

Museum of Dockland’s 25 Museum of Egyptian Antiquities 284 Museum of London, UK 22, 65, 66–7, 69, 90, 113, 114, 118, 158–60, 187 Museum of Science and Industry, UK 155 Museum of the City of New York, USA 25 Museum of Vancouver, Canada 55, 195 Museums Association 21, 29, 187 Museums, Libraries and Archives 198, 260, 268 Mystic Seaport, USA 193–4 National Aboriginal and Torres Straits Islander Heritage Protection Act 272 National Archives, London 33, 37 National Archives Museums, Washington 33 National Commission for Museums and Monuments, Nigeria 173, 255 National Council of Public History 11 National Historic Preservation Act 196, 258, 261, 264 National Museum of American History 67 National Museum of Australia 188 National Museum of Denmark 53, 58, 189 National Museum of Scotland 53 National Museums Liverpool 191 National Parks Service, USA 9, 40, 196, 258 National Trust 9, 118, 156, 165, 214, 215, 237, 241 National Trust Act 215 nationalism 17, 246 Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act 219, 234, 269, 270, 272 Natural England 206 Natural History Museum, UK 65 Nelson’s Column, UK 246 neoclassical 20, 212, 213 Nevins, A. 10

378

New Delhi Resolutions 234 New Zealand Charter for the Conservation of Places of Cultural Heritage Value 234 Newman, W. L. 70 Nicholls, D. 186, 205, 287, 288, 290, 293 Notre Dame, France 213 Oakington Heritage Project 192, 199–201 O’Connor, J. 89 Old Sturbridge Village, USA 22 online learning 120–2 open-air museums 26 Open Knowledge Foundation 115 open source 115, 120 Open University 120 oral history 5, 9, 11, 13, 17, 122–3, 125, 148–53 Orbasli, A. 232 Orrill, R. and Shapiro, L. 173, 174, 195 The Other Boleyn Girl 79 Overcoming Apartheid Project 128 ownership 17 Palmyra, Syria 250 Parker Pearson, M. 44, 51, 77, 103, 141, 157, 262 Parthenon, Greece 214 participatory 15, 23, 171, 180, 181 Passport in Time 174, 197, 259–60, 305 Past Preservers 106 Pavlov, I. P. 180 Pearce, S. 20 Pearson, M., and Sullivan, S. 219 Peoples History Museum, UK 202 Perry, S. 90 Philipson, A. 252 Piaget, J. 174, 180 Piccini, A. 219 Piccini, A. and Henson, D. 92, 94 Pickstone, J. 21 Pinterest 130 planning policies 261–2 Planning Policy Guidance 15 and 16 262

INDEX

Planning Policy Statement 5 262 Platoon 86 Popcorn, F. 15 Portable Antiquities Scheme 147, 191, 258 Porter, M. and Reid, A. 278 Post Graduate Certificate in Academic Practice 201 Post Graduate Certificate in Education 207 Potter, P. B. 158, 160, 195 preventative conservation 226, 244 private archives 34 private museums 28 professionalization 9, 213, 215, 246 Proff, L. and O’Keefe, P. 268 Public Historian 11 Pugin 213 Pyramids of Giza, Egypt 284 Quipu Project 122–3 Race, P. 181 racial divides 10 racial history 10, 11 17, 86 reconstruction 58, 194, 214, 228, 229–32, 305 recreation 13, 59–61 re-enactment 13, 14, 26, 44, 58, 59–61, 194, 210, 305 Reeve J. and Wollard. V. 70, 149, 151 Renfrew, C. 269 renovation 228 Rentzhog, S. 22, 26 repair 240 replicas 305 replication 214, 219 RESCUE 254 resource packs 184, 199–201 restoration 173, 226, 240, 305 The Return of Martin Guerre 89 Revenu Historic 9 risk assessments 54, 195, 240 Ritchie, D. 149 Robert E Lee Statue 129, 250 Robert Johnson House USA 228 Robertshaw, A. 22, 39, 44, 58, 59 Robertson, I. 139

INDEX

Rockefeller 9 Rodwell, D. 240, 252, 253 Rogers, C. R. 181, 183 Rogers, E. 278 Rosenstone, R. 74, 77, 87–9 Rosenzweig, R. 116, 117 Rosenzweig, R. and Thelen, D. 15, 183 Rosetta Stone 115 Royal Institute of British Architects 213 Royal Naval Heritage Center, Australia 40 Runcie, C. 98 Rushby, K. 232 Rushworth, USA 149 Ruskin 214 Russia-Ukraine conflict 7 Russio-Geogrina War 7 Sambon 214 Samuel, R. 3, 20, 28, 45, 62, 92, 109, 157, 205, 246 San Marco 214 Saving Private Ryan 90 Sayer, F. 87, 97, 98, 278, 279 Sayre, S. 119, 122 Scardaville, M. 11, 265, 301 Schama, S. 77 Schambaugh 9 Schinkel, K. F. 213 Schlesinger, V. 276 Schmidt, H. 219 seascape 222, 223 Second World War 2, 9, 14, 22, 47–8, 63–4, 76, 80, 82, 95, 150, 158–9, 179, 216–17, 224–5, 246, 274 Sedgeford, UK 160 Seixas, P. 174 self-reflection 2 September 11 Digital Archive Project 5, 66, 123–5, 143 Serb-Albania conflict 7 Sex in the Ancient World 93–4 Shackel, P. A. 176, 195 Shapwick, UK 160 Sharp 92, 97 Sharpe, J. 139, 173 Shoreditch Park, UK 69, 142, 158–60, 254

379

Sicca, C. 212 Siebrandt, D. 276 Silberman, N. 92 Simpson, F. 15, 92, 141, 158, 159, 164, 165, 174, 178, 263, 264 Simpson, F. and Kelly, J. 159 Simpson, F. and Williams, H. 69 Simpson, R. 65 Sitzia, L. 140 Skansen, Sweden 22 Skeates, R. 253, 268 SketchFab 115–16 Skinner, B. F. 180 Skolnik, M. 175, 182 slavery 88, 191, 197, 220, 248 Slick, K. 15 Slocombe, M. 226, 230 Smallbone, T. and Witney, D. 202 Smethhurst, W. 105 Smith, G. 10 Smith, L. J. 17, 220 Smith, L. J. and Waterton, E. 220 Smith, M. and Richards, G. 16, 284 Smith, N. 183 Smith, P. 98 Smithsonian Institution 24, 199, 249, 268 Smithsonian National Museum of American History 67, 128 Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History 65 Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian 17, 127, 142, 270–2 Snead, J. 264 social history 10, 22, 32, 58, 88 Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings 213, 214, 224–6, 230, 237, 238 Society of American Archivists 21, 37 Society of Archives (UK) 21, 37 Society of Australian Archivists 37 The Society of Australian Archivists 37 Sorensen, C. 40, 44, 59 Sorlin, P. 87, 89 Sorro, P. 88, 89 South Pacific 86 Soviet Union 7 Spence, B. 224, 225

380

INDEX

Spielberg, S. 86, 90 Spy Museum, USA 15–16 St. Paul’s Cathedral, UK 222 stablization 226 Staffordshire Hoard 61 Stanley Price, N. 214, 228 Starkey, D. 98, 204 Start, D. 141 State Historic Preservation Office 261, 264 stately homes 28, 223, 230 Steele, J. 78 Stephens, S. 43 Sternberg, R. J. 89, 197 Stone, P. 62, 187 Stonehenge, UK 40, 41–3, 222, 237, 256, 279 Stowe, N. 202 Street Museum 65 Stroud Local History Society, UK 118 Sui, C. 235, 236 Suny, R. G. 7, 9 sustainable development 36, 212, 217, 219, 221, 233, 235, 237–40, 244.285 Sutton Hoo, UK 62, 84, 223, 237, 285 Swain, H. 21, 24, 66 Swansinger, J. 174, 175, 177, 179 SWOT analysis 253 Szreter, S. 278 Taksa, L. 142 A Tale of Two Cities 76 Tatton Park, UK 28 Taylor, T. 100, 173, 175, 292 Their Past Your Future 49–50 Thompson, E. P. 139, 141 Thompson, S. Aked, A., McKenzie, B., Wood, C., Davies, M. and Butler, T. 71, 279 Thomson, L. and Chatterjee, H. 279 Thomson, L., Ander, E., Menon, U., Lanceley, A. and Chatterjee, H. 71, 279 Thucydides 10 Thurley, S. 141 Tianhou Gong, Taiwan 235 Time Team 92, 100–2 top-down approach 5, 114

Tosh, J. 278 Toudouze 214 Townsend, R. 9 Tribe, J. 284 Tumblr 131 Tusa, J. 82 Twells, A. 11, 17, 141, 144 Twitter 128–9 Tyler, N., Ligibel., T. and Tyler. 219, 228 Tyrrell, I. 274 UNESCO 22, 114, 252–4, 285 United States Forest Service 11, 197, 239, 259–60, 279 United States Navy 9 University of Bristol 75, 122, 166, 204 University of California Museum of Paleontology 112, 113 University of Columbia 20 University of Exeter 164 University of Maryland 11, 266 University of Oxford 120 user-generated content 123 Valletta Convention 233, 234, 250 Valley Forge Visitor Centre, USA 40 Venice Charter 217, 234, 246, 253 Vienna 221 Vietnam War Memorial, USA 223 Vietnam Women’s Memorial, USA 246 Viollet-le-Duc 213, 226 visitor survey 23, 54, 69–71, 148 visual aid 47, 57–68, 192, 196 vlog 78, 130–4 Volkert, J., Martin, L.R., and Pickworth, A. 142, 269, 270 volunteers 25, 27, 57, 66, 67–8, 115, 124, 143, 145–6, 153, 155, 156, 164, 167, 195, 197, 202, 226, 238, 259 Vygotsky, L. 45, 174 Wakefield Country Archaeology Society 154 Wallace, J. 45 Wallace, M. 173, 175, 183 Warren-Findley, J. 87

INDEX

Washington Head Quarters Museum, White Plains 27 Waterton., E. and Watson, S. 248 Watson, J.B. 180 Watson, S. 142 Webber, K., Gillroy, L., Hyland, J., James, A., Mile, L., Tranter. D. and Walsh, K. 27 Welcome Trust 254 well-being 278 Wenger, E. 330 West Stow, UK 26 Whitaker, P. 186 Whitby Abbey, UK 155 White, H. 77 Who Do You Think You Are? 91 Who’s Been Sleeping in My House? 95–6, 107, 154 Wickford Community Archives 167 Wiener, J. 9 Wigan Archives 202 Wikipedia 117, 131 Wilmer, E. 3, 8 Wilson, V. 153

381

Wilton, A. and Bignamin, I. 212 Wilton, J. 20, 21, 26, 27, 46 Windschuttle, K. 87 Wineberg, S. 176 Wing Hing Long Store Museum, USA 27 Wolfson Foundation 254 Women of World War II, UK 246 Woodward 10 Woollard, V. 70 Wordpress 131 Workers Educational Association 11 working class history 11, 12 World Bank 285 World Heritage Sites 16, 252–3, 285 World Monuments Fund 156, 217, 237, 254 World Wide Web 112, 118, 121–3 Worsley, L. 204 Worthington, C. 48, 366 Yarema, A. 173–5, 183 Zeidler, J., and Rush, L. 275, 276 Zulu 87