Psychology of Family Relationships [1 ed.] 9781614707097, 9781606922682

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Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Psychology of Family Relationships, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Psychology of Family Relationships, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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PSYCHOLOGY OF FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS

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PSYCHOLOGY OF FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS

MARIA RUSSO AND

ANABELLA DE LUCA Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

EDITORS

Nova Science Publishers, Inc. New York

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Copyright © 2009 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher. For permission to use material from this book please contact us: Telephone 631-231-7269; Fax 631-231-8175 Web Site: http://www.novapublishers.com NOTICE TO THE READER The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained in this book. The Publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers’ use of, or reliance upon, this material.

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Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in this book. In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise contained in this publication. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered herein. It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services. If legal or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought. FROM A DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA Psychology of family relationships / editors: Maria Russo and Anabella De Luca. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN H%RRN 1. Family--Psychological aspects. 2. Interpersonal relations. I. Russo, Maria, 1964- II. De Luca, Anabella. HQ734.P957 2009 155.9'24--dc22 2009001313

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.  New York

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CONTENTS Preface

vii

Expert Commentary The Influence of Prenatal Mother-Child Attachment on the Attachment at the Age of 6 Months and Its Objectivation by the Intrauterine Fetal Activity Helmut Niederhofer and Alfons Reiter Chapter 1

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Chapter 2

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

Chapter 7

1

Mother-Infant Interaction in Cultural Context: A Study of Nicaraguan and Italian Families Ughetta Moscardino, Sabrina Bonichini and Cristina Valduga

11

Fussy Mothers and Fuzzy Boundaries –Relationships in Families with Overweight Children Laurel D. Edmunds

33

Maternal Sensitivity and the Characteristics of Child-Directed Speech Leila Paavola, Kaarina Kemppinen and Sari Kunnari

61

Recruitment and Relationships: Research with Stigmatized and Socially Isolated Mothers Nicole L. Letourneau, Linda A. Duffett-Leger and Catherine S. Young

79

Shifting Patterns of Parenting Styles between Dyadic and Family Settings: The Role of Marital Distress Allison F. Lauretti and James P. McHale

99

The Interrelations of Perceptions of Family Adaptability and Cohesion, Self-Esteem and Anxiety/Depression in Late Adolescence Rapson Gomez and Suzanne McLaren Communicative Functions of Emotions in Sibling Relationships Nazan Aksan, H.H. Goldsmith, Marilyn J. Essex and Deborah Lowe Vandell

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115 133

vi Chapter 8

Chapter 9

Chapter 10

Chapter 11

Maria Russo and Anabella De Luca Childhood Sibling Relationship Quality and Achievement Outcomes in University Students: Mediation by Psychological Distress and Personal Mastery Amy Kraft, Charles Stayton, Arthi Satyanarayan and Linda J. Luecken Linking Children’s Personal Characteristics, Externalizing Behavior and Relationships in Family and Social Environments: Some Developmental Cascades I. Roskam, J.C. Meunier, M. Stievenart and G. Van De Moortele Prevention of the Negative Effects of Marital Conflict: A ChildOriented Program Patricia M. Mitchell, Kathleen P. McCoy, E. Mark Cummings, W. Brad Faircloth, and Jennifer S. Cummings Psychological Processes Affecting Post-Divorce Paternal Functioning Nehami Baum

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Index

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159

173

203

219 231

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PREFACE This book investigates the psychology of family relationships, including parent-child relations, sibling relations, maternal-fetal and marital relations. The influence of prenatal mother-child attachment on intrauterine fetal movements is examined, as well as motherinfant interaction, which was studied by looking at Nicaraguan and Italian mothers and how they engage in social play, object play, and what their overall verbal behaviors were towards their infants. In addition, rather than the usual focus on dietary and physical activity aspects of child weight management, certain family relationships are highlighted, which might either enhance or hinder coping with child weight management. Sensitivity is reflected in many different ways in maternal behavior. This book examines maternal sensitivity and its association with child-directed speech (CDS). In addition, the changes in how parents interact with their toddler-aged children are described as they move from dyadic to family contexts. Several models depicting the role of adolescent ratings of self-esteem anxiety and/or depression, particularly in late adolescence, are also examined. This book addresses the relationships among siblings and how individual differences in emotionality at the behavioral level of analysis correlates at the cognitive and physiological levels. In addition, childhood sibling relationship quality is examined in terms of how it is correlated with achievement motivation and college GPA in young adulthood. The association between the child's personal characteristic with their relationships in family and social environments are also described. Furthermore, psychological processes affecting postdivorce paternal functioning are explored. In addition, a psycho-educational program for advancing children's coping skills and helping them to cope with marital conflict is also examined. Expert Commentary - This study investigates the influence of prenatal mother-child attachment on intrauterine fetal movements and postnatal attachment (0;6 years). 2 questionnaires (The Parental-Fetal Attachment Scale (Cranley, 1981) and Axis II (Thero to Three, 1994)), answered by 92 mothers (18-38 years) were used to identify the attachment category. Intrauterine fetal activity (head/arm/leg/fetal heart rate) was observed by ultrasound for 5 minutes. For statistical analyses, regression analysis (SPSS-PC+) was used. The results show, that there might be high stability of secure and insecure-avoidant attachment. Insecure-ambivalent attachment also remains stable until the age of 6. Pre- und perinatal insecure-avoidant attachment seems to reduce the probability of later secure

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Maria Russo and Anabella De Luca

attachment and vice versa. In our sample, there was no significant association between attachment and intrauterine fetal movements. Chapter 1 - Although a common goal for parents is to promote their children’s successful development in a respective society, there is considerable cross-cultural variation in the beliefs parents hold about children, families, and themselves as parents. Previous research suggests that in traditional rural areas across the world, parents highly appreciate interrelatedness in their conceptions of relationships and competence, whereas in urban settings of Western industrialized societies, parents seem to promote independent parent– child relationships from early on. The purpose of this study is to compare conceptions of parenting and mother-infant interactions in two cultural contexts that may be expected to hold different beliefs about parent-child relationships: Nicaraguan farmer families and middleclass Italian families. Fifty-six mothers from central Nicaragua (n = 26) and northern Italy (n = 30) and their infants aged 0-14 months participated in the study. Mothers were interviewed regarding their childrearing beliefs and behaviors, and were videotaped interacting with their infants during a free play session. Maternal responses were qualitatively analyzed using a thematic approach; maternal behaviors were coded into one of the following categories: social play, object play, motor stimulation, verbal stimulation, and face-to-face interaction. Findings indicated that: 1) Nicaraguan mothers emphasized interdependence and connectedness to other people in their socialization goals, whereas Italian mothers placed greater focus on childrearing strategies consistent with a more individualistic orientation; 2) Nicaraguan mothers exhibited a higher overall frequency of behaviors related to motor stimulation and face-to-face interaction, whereas Italian mothers were more likely to engage in social play, object play, and to emit a greater overall number of verbal behaviors towards their infants during the free-play session. Our results suggest that parents’ conceptions of childcare reflect culturally regulated norms and customs that are instantiated in parental behavior and contribute to the structuring of parent-child interactions from the earliest months of life, thus shaping infant and children’s developmental pathways. Implications for theory on the psychology of family relationships as well as for clinical practice are discussed. Chapter 2 - Aim The aim was to highlight some family relationships which enhance or hinder coping with child weight management, rather than the usual focus on the dietary and physical activity aspects of child weight management. Methods Parents with concerns about their children’s weight volunteered to be interviewed. The interviews were semi-structured and covered the life histories of the focal child and any other relatives that interviewees deemed relevant. Standardised body shapes and photographs were used to illustrate descriptions. Analyses were thematic and iterative and used a Grounded Theory approach. Results Parents of 40 overweight children (48 parents in total) from the UK, took part in face-toface interviews, mostly in their own homes. Parents reported their children’s healthy dietary and physical activity behaviours, and their attempts to maintain these into adolescence. (Parents also recalled the social consequences of being in contact with teachers, health care professionals and strangers; Edmunds, 2005; 2008.) Pertinent here were the descriptions mothers gave of behaviours revealing their over-protectiveness in response to their child’s lack of self-confidence, or other morbidity. They also reported the positive and negative

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Preface

ix

influences of fathers and grandmothers. Two case studies are presented that illustrate some of the complexities of family relationships and how these were overcome. Conclusion Many child weight interventionists are concerned with diet and physical activity and may not appreciate how family relationships are affected by the presence of an overweight child. Documenting some of these relationships and their impact, may improve the effectiveness, particularly of treatment or secondary prevention interventions within the family setting. Chapter 3 - This chapter begins with the discussion of the concept of sensitivity – its original definition and subsequent attempts to develop the concept further. It is suggested that one fruitful way to continue study in this field might be to examine maternal sensitivity and the characteristics of child-directed speech (CDS) together. It was hypothesized that sensitivity is reflected in many different ways in maternal behavior; rather than being a parenting dimension that exists apart from other dimensions it might permeate all interactive behavior, including language-facilitating aspects of CDS. Research in CDS concerning its characteristics and its role in child language development is reviewed in the second part of the chapter. Investigations on maternal sensitivity and CDS per se are scarce. Our earlier research indicated that during a child’s prelinguistic developmental stage general activity in communication is characteristic of highly sensitive mothers. In turn, the associations between maternal sensitivity and more specific aspects of CDS were not very clear. In particular, the lack of association between maternal sensitivity and naming was somewhat puzzling, because in the research literature the role of naming is strongly emphasized as a language facilitating element of CDS around the onset of word production. It was concluded that individual differences among children in their early abilities to participate in communicative interaction might have at least partly explained this result. Hence, the interaction sequences that include maternal naming should be examined in more detail. The last part of the chapter before the conclusions reports the results of our recent analyses. The data comprise samples of videotaped free-play sessions of 27 Finnish-speaking mothers and their healthy 10-month-old children. From the samples of 100 first maternal utterances the numbers of naming utterances and also different words introduced in the acts were calculated. In addition, the interaction sequences in which naming occurred were analyzed in terms of a child’s focus of attention; whether maternal utterance that named something followed or redirected the child’s initial focus of attention. Thereafter, the relationship between the results from the naming analyses and the ratings of maternal sensitivity derived from the CARE-Index parent-child assessment method was examined. Sensitivity was associated with maternal skills in following the child’s focus of attention when providing names to objects. Furthermore, in order to fine-tune the complexity of CDS to the developmental level of a prelinguistic child the mothers high on sensitivity tended to use relatively few different words in their naming utterances. Chapter 4 - Research involving stigmatized and socially isolated populations presents a wide variety of challenges. Yet, these populations may benefit most from research. Recruitment challenges are typically exacerbated by intersecting barriers to participation. Lessons learned during the recruitment of two examplar populations (mothers with postpartum depression, and mothers of infants who have experienced intimate partner violence), highlight the importance of attention to relationships at various levels during the recruitment process and the impact these can have on the involvement of potential

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participants in research. Micro, mediator, and macro level barriers and enablers to research participation are explored. Chapter 5 - This paper examines changes in how parents interact with their toddler-aged children as they move from dyadic to family contexts. Levels of parental involvement and quality of parenting behavior in the two different contexts were examined in sixty two-parent families with a 30-month-old son or daughter. An independent evaluation of marital distress was also conducted, and it was hypothesized that parents in distressed marriages would appear less competent when parenting their toddler in the presence of their partner than when parenting the child alone, while parents in less distressed marriages would show greater consistency across contexts. Results were generally in line with this prediction; mothers in distressed marriages indeed showed a steeper decline in sensitivity as they moved from the dyadic to family context than did mothers in less distressed marriages. Fathers in distressed marriages showed a more precipitous decline in their level of involvement with the toddler as they moved from dyadic to family settings than did fathers in less distressed marriages. We argue that the most thorough understanding of the child's early family environment will proceed from future investigations that assess, and compare, both dyadic and family grouplevel in the same study. Chapter 6 - This study examined several models depicting the role of adolescent ratings of their self-esteem on the relationships of their perceptions of linear and curvilinear family cohesion and adaptability with their anxiety/depression. A total of 385 participants, aged from 18 to 20 years, completed the FACES-III, and self-rating questionnaires covering self-esteem and anxiety/depression. Results showed that self-esteem had additive and some mediating effects on the relations between the linear family measures and anxiety/depression. Selfesteem also moderated the relation between linear cohesion and anxiety/depression. The theoretical and treatment implications of these findings are discussed. Chapter 7 - Intrapersonal functions ascribed to emotions are varied. Arguments and evidence abound showing that individual differences in emotionality at the behavioral level of analysis, correlates at the cognitive and physiological levels of analysis not only form defining features of manifest pathology but also constitute risk factors to psychopathology. However, interpersonal functions of emotions remain under-examined, although most emotion theorists would agree that emotions carry signal value and must therefore serve communicative functions during social interactions, and despite the central role emotions play in many theoretical frameworks that seek to understand relationships. The only exception to this trend is research on marital interaction. This body work has relied on sequential analytic methods to examine the communicative functions of emotions and have linked those patters to long-term relationship outcomes such as divorce. In the current study, we applied this methodology to the verbal content and nonverbal affective tone of young children’s interactions with their siblings at home in a free play context. As a first step, we asked if we could identify lawful communication chains using only children’s non-affective verbal behavioral exchanges, amidst apparently random streams of transactions and conversational turns characteristic of young children’s play. We then asked whether young children utilized the information in their siblings’ nonverbal affective tone over and above the information contained in the verbal-behavioral channel to alter their subsequent responses in free-flowing interactions. Our findings supported the hypothesis that young children do utilize the emotional, affective tone of their siblings’ verbal messages and that those emotional expressions play a key role in the regulation of sibling conflict.

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Chapter 8 - Recent research suggests that sibling relationships during childhood affect developmental trajectories well into and past adolescence. The current study hypothesized that childhood sibling relationship quality would be correlated with achievement motivation and college GPA in young adulthood. In addition, mediational models evaluated current distress and personal mastery as mediators of the relation between childhood sibling relationships and achievement-related outcomes. Data was collected through a survey administered to 392 students at a large public university (mean age = 18.9, SD=1.1; 47% female; 74% Caucasian, 8% Hispanic, 6% African American, 6% Asian, 6% other). Participants had at least one sibling and were from continuously married families or families in which the parents divorced at least two years previously. Survey measures assessed sibling relationship quality, current distress (anxiety and depressive symptoms), personal mastery, achievement motivation, and self-reported college GPA. Poor sibling relationships during childhood were significantly associated with lower achievement motivation and lower college GPA, both of which were mediated by current levels of distress. Personal mastery mediated the relation between sibling relationship quality and achievement motivation. A multiple mediator model found both personal mastery and current distress to significantly mediate the relationship between sibling relationships and achievement motivation. This study highlights the considerable influence of sibling relationships on academic outcomes, and provides further insight into possible interventions for individuals experiencing poor academic achievement. Chapter 9 - For several decades, children’s externalizing (EB) has been associated in research with a variety of personal, family, and community factors. More specifically, EB has been identified as being a major risk factor inhibiting the establishment of positive relationships with parents, siblings and peers. Several previous studies conducted with hardto-manage children indeed proposed a dynamic model describing coercive processes in parent-child relationships and concomitant dangers for social exclusion, even victimization in peer groups and between siblings. Evidence was produced demonstrating the role of both personal and environmental influences, suggesting that EB resulted from transactional and progressive networks of influence between the child and her/his social world. Considering this progressive interplay between the child and her/his environment, the concept of developmental cascades (Masten, 2005, 2007) offers an interesting theoretical and methodological framework for the description, the explanation, and the opening to effective interventions, in this important area of science and practice. Allowing for the conceiving of models of bidirectional influences, and progressive effects, from one domain of adaptation to another, developmental cascade modeling should indeed permit a better understanding of associations between predictors and consequences of EB. In such a topic, children of pre-school age are of particular interest since the description of cascades in early development could provide important guidelines for prevention and early intervention programs. Given what we know about the critical importance of early intervention, this augurs for close analysis and detailed appreciation of the factors and processes involved. The present chapter intends to test linkages among the child’s personal characteristics (IQ, executive functioning, personality traits), EB and relationships in family and social environments (parent-child relation, siblings relationships, social competence with peers). The conceptual model postulates strong linkages among the child’s personal characteristics, EB and relationships in family and social environments. It is tested in a sample of 253

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referred and non-referred preschoolers coming from the French-speaking part of Belgium. The conclusion focuses on important issues both for clinical assessment and related intervention strategies, and research about early development of difficult relationships in family and social environments. Chapter 10 - A psycho-educational program for advancing children’s coping skills and reactions to marital conflict was evaluated. Families with a child between the ages of 4 and 8 were randomly assigned to one of three groups: 1) parent program only; 2) parent and child program; or 3) self-study (control group). Parents in the parent-only and parent-child groups received the same psycho-educational program. Only children in the parent-child group received the child program which consisted of four visits in which children learned about marital conflict and family relationships; were taught about emotions and different levels of emotions; and were given tools for coping with conflict that would help them react in optimal ways for their development. Analyses suggested the promise of a child program for older children (ages 6-8) with regard to improved emotional security about marital conflict. However, consistent with other research, simply educating children about coping with marital conflict had minimal effects on outcomes associated with conflict between the parents. Chapter 11 - This chapter will discuss three inter-related psychological processes that affect the paternal functioning of non-custodial divorced fathers and illustrate their operation in three examples: of a disengaged father, a father in perpetual conflict with his ex-wife, and a father who continues to meet his children's needs. The processes are: mourning the many losses of divorce, separating the spousal role and identity from one's paternal role and identity, and seeing one's ex-wife and children as distinct and separate from one another. All of these processes are essential to coping with the "absence-presence" that characterizes the father's post divorce reality: the absence of his spousal role and presence of his paternal role. This chapter will end with practical suggestions for clinicians.

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Expert Commentary

THE INFLUENCE OF PRENATAL MOTHER-CHILD ATTACHMENT ON THE ATTACHMENT AT THE AGE OF 6 MONTHS AND ITS OBJECTIVATION BY THE INTRAUTERINE FETAL ACTIVITY Helmut Niederhofer1,* and Alfons Reiter2 1

Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University of Innsbruck, Austria 2 University of Salzburg, Austria

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ABSTRACT This study investigates the influence of prenatal mother-child attachment on intrauterine fetal movements and postnatal attachment (0;6 years). 2 questionnaires (The Parental-Fetal Attachment Scale (Cranley, 1981) and Axis II (Thero to Three, 1994)), answered by 92 mothers (18-38 years) were used to identify the attachment category. Intrauterine fetal activity (head/arm/leg/fetal heart rate) was observed by ultrasound for 5 minutes. For statistical analyses, regression analysis (SPSS-PC+) was used. The results show, that there might be high stability of secure and insecure-avoidant attachment. Insecure-ambivalent attachment also remains stable until the age of 6. Preund perinatal insecure-avoidant attachment seems to reduce the probability of later secure attachment and vice versa. In our sample, there was no significant association between attachment and intrauterine fetal movements.

Key words: prenatal attachment - perinatal attachment - intrauterine fetal movements

* Corresponding author; Helmut Niederhofer, M.D., Ph.D., Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University of Innsbruck, Anichstrasse 35, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria Psychology of Family Relationships, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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1. INTRODUCTION John Bowlby (1995) developed Attachment Theory as an Explanation for the relationship between mother and child. Although child`s behavior is mainly influenced by endogenous (actual psychological state) and exogenous (environmental) components, time-stable behavior makes its prenatal establishment probably. Attachment is not an individual quality but the result of the communication between the child and its parents. The mother`s behavior also influences the child`s emotional reactions. Grossmann (1993) reports the importance of the stability of parental empathy. So the parent`s attachment also influences the children`s attachment. The child internalizes the parent`s behavior (internal working model) and finally generalizes its early experiences. This development is enabled by early experience of empathic relationships. Parent-child attachment, characterized by avoidance and ambivalence, may influence this development negatively. Psychotherapy may support the development of secure attachment by giving a secure base, which fact enables reorganization of the internal working models. Bowlby`s basic observations were operationalized by M. Ainsworth (1978). She developed an artificial situation, enabling the observation of the children`s reactions after having been separated from their mothers. Ainsworth`s “strange situation” was then replaced by semi-structured interviews. Avoidant or ambivalent attached children had a significant worse communication to their parents then secure attached ones. Even social behavior was observed to be influenced by the attachment: avoidant attached children were more aggressive and had less self-esteem than secure attached ones. Psychotherapeutic Attachment may take significant influence on the client`s future. Nevertheless, its therapeutic aspect is less effective than the preventive one. Attachment is basically determined in the early childhood and even – as our results show – in the prenatal period. The long-term persistance of attachment categories, as reported by Benoit & Parker (1994) and Benoit et al. (1997) suggests the necessity of the implementation of attachment stabilizing programs, which should include psychoanalytic theories (with respect to the determination and persistance of attachment categories, Grossmann, 1993) as well as systemic theories (with respect to the influcence of attachment categories by “here and now”, Schweitzer, 1987). Especially families, who belong to “risk”-groups (e.g. women with slightly pathological pregnancies, families with premature babies, etc.) should be enabled to participate in attachment stabilizing programs as early as possible. The persistance of attachment categories from the early childhood up to 17 years is well documented (Dornes, 1997; Grossmann, 1993). Niederhofer (1994) reports the long-term influence of maternal stress situations during pregnancy on the babies`s early childhood and no significant associations between attachment and intrauterine fetal movements. It is necessary to point out the merits of attachment research, which documents the association between early safety and later self-esteem. Systematic observations of early development (Grossmann, 1993; Dornes, 1997) report the importance of the early determination of topics like self-esteem and love for the development of a stable attachment, but they ignore the prenatal period.

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The Influence of Prenatal Mother-Child Attachment…

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Recent findings of prenatal psychology and medicine (Dornes, 1997; Niederhofer, 1994) refer to include the prenatal period into further attachment research. They report the influence of maternal attitudes towards pregnancy and delivery on the later mother-child attachment. Research by the observation of the parent-child attachment cannot easily be expanded into the prenatal period – a change of paradigms is indicated. Maternal and/or paternal estimations should be accepted as an indicator for attachment, either prenatally or postnatally. This study investigates the association between prenatal and postnatal attachment and its objectivation by the ultrasound observation of intrauterine fetal movements. Benoit & Parker (1994) and Benoit et al. (1997) reported a good persistance of attachment from the prenatal period until the age of 6 months. Therefore, we asked 92 mothers for their prenatal and postnatal attachment by two questionnaires and related it with the intrauterine fetal activity. We hypotized attachment stability, recorded by the mother`s estimations, and the possibility to objectivate it by the ultrasound observation of intrauterine fetal movements, which would primarly enable to implement broadly accepted oeconomical attachment screening programs and secondarly to install early prevention programs.

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2. METHODS We assessed 92 mothers (18-38 years) and their children (APGAR min. 9/9/9). By means of a short interview (15min) we explored the familiy`s sociooeconomical state. All social classes were represented equally in our sample, so that it can be seen representative for Austria. We expected the mother`s estimation of fetal attachment to be highly associated with the mother`s attachment. In the 18th week of pregnancy the prenatal attachment was assessed by means of the Prenatal parent-child Attachment Scale (Cranley, 1981), including 24 items which had to be answered by the mother on a 5step rating scale (very often – never). The highest subscore decided, which category each person was counted to. Varimax-rotated factor analysis was performed to extract three attachment categories (secure – item 7,9,17,20,22,24; insecure-ambivalent – item 1,2,5,6,10,13,14,15,16,18,19,21; insecure-avoidant – item 3,4,8,11,12,23) (Table 1). At the same time, we tried to objectivate the intrauterine fetal activity by ultrasound observation. We counted movements of the head, the arms and the legs separately for 5 minutes (because of the intended practicability as an screening program) (Table 2). Approximately 6 months after birth we assessed the mother`s estimation of the motherchild attachment once again (Axis II (Zero to Three, 1994) by an interview, taking approx. 1 hour. This assessment scale included 29 items, which had to be answered by the mother on a 10step rating scale (very often – never). The highest subscore decided, which category each person was counted to. Varimax-rotated factor analysis was performed to extract three attachment categories (secure – item 1-7; insecure-ambivalent – item 8-16 and 22-29; insecure-avoidant – item 17-21) (Table 3). We compared both questionnaires and the intrauterine activity regression analysis (Schuboe et al., 1991).

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Helmut Niederhofer and Alfons Reiter Table 1. Prenatal Attachment

PRENATAL ATTACHMENT secure ambivalent avoidant

58,7% 11,6% 29,8%

Table 2. Intrauterine fetal activity

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INTRAUTERINE FETAL ACTIVITY head movements 16-20/min 21-25/min 26-30/min 31-35/min 36-39/min

8 5 2 0 0

arm movements 16-20/min 21-25/min 26-30/min 31-35/min 36-39/min

7 5 2 1 0

leg movements 16-20/min 21-25/min 26-30/min 31-35/min 36-39/min

5 7 3 0 0

FETAL HEART FREQUENCY Bpm 120-130 131-140 141-150 151-160 161-180

VPn 3 2 3 5 2

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The Influence of Prenatal Mother-Child Attachment…

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Table 3. Attachment (6 months)

ATTACHMENT (6 months) secure ambivalent avoidant

61,2% 15,7% 23,1%

3. RESULTS The mother`s estimation of the fetal prenatal secure attachment is significantly (52%, p=.06) associated with the stimation of the child`s secure attachment at the age of 6 months. The mother`s estimation of the fetal prenatal avoidance is also significantly associated (47%, p=.06) with her stimation of the child`s avoidant attachment at the age of 6 months, as well as her estimation of the child`s prenatal ambivalence is significantly associated (66%, p=.10) with her stimation of the child`s ambivalent attachment at the age of 6 months (see Figure 1). 1,0

Score 6 months

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,8

,6

,4

,2

Attachment category ambivalent

0,0

secure avoidant

-,2 1,0

1,5

2,0

2,5

3,0

3,5

4,0

4,5

Score prenatal Figure 1. Persistence of Attachment (prenatal - 6 months).

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5,0

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Helmut Niederhofer and Alfons Reiter

The mother`s estimation of fetal prenatal secure attachment is significantly negatively associated (49%, p=.10) with her estimation of the child`s avoidant attachment at the age of 6 months. The mother`s estimation of the fetal prenatal secure attachment (98%, p