Prophetic Polyphony: Allusion Criticism of ISA 41,8-16.17-20; 43,1-7; 44,1-5 in a Dialogical Approach (Forschungen Zum Alten Testament, 2. Reihe) 9783161592423, 9783161592430, 3161592425

Citation preview

Forschungen zum Alten Testament 2. Reihe Edited by Konrad Schmid (Zürich) ∙ Mark S. Smith (Princeton) Hermann Spieckermann (Göttingen) ∙ Andrew Teeter (Harvard)

113

Peter A. Heasley

Prophetic Polyphony Allusion Criticism of Isa 41,8 – 16.17 – 20; 43,1 – 7; 44,1 – 5 in a Dialogical Approach

Mohr Siebeck

Peter A. Heasley, born 1979; 2002 B.Arch; 2019 S.T.D.; currently Administrator of Saint Michael the Archangel Church in Bronx, New York and Adjunct Professor of Scripture at Saint Joseph’s Seminary in Yonkers, New York. orcid.org/0000-0003-4697-599X

ISBN 978-3-16-159242-3 / eISBN 978-3-16-159243-0 DOI 10.1628 / 978-3-16-159243-0 ISSN 1611-4914 / eISSN 2568-8367 (Forschungen zum Alten Testament, 2. Reihe) The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliographie; detailed bibliographic data are available at http://dnb.dnb.de. © 2020  Mohr Siebeck Tübingen, Germany. www.mohrsiebeck.com This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, in any form (beyond that permitted by copyright law) without the publisher’s written permission. This applies particularly to reproductions, translations and storage and processing in electronic systems. The book was printed on non-aging paper by Laupp & Göbel in Gomaringen and bound by Buchbinderei Nädele in Nehren. Printed in Germany.

To my parents, Tom and Jan, for mixing up the puzzles.

Preface This work is the slightly revised version of my doctoral thesis, Prophetic Polyphony. Allusion Criticism of Is 41,1–16.17–20; 43,1–7; 44,1–5 in a Dialogical Approach, defended at the Pontifical Gregorian University on May 14, 2019. The thesis director was Prof. Elżbieta M. Obara, SSD, to whom I owe a debt of gratitude for adopting this thesis already in progress, and for being a most astute and sympathetic reader. The censor was Prof. Nuria Calduch-Benages, SSD, for whose instructive and enthusiastic comments I am grateful. The preside of the defense was Rev. Scott Brodeur, SJ, whose clarity in instruction and leadership at the Department of Biblical Theology at the Gregorian University have been priceless. I would also like to thank the director of my license thesis, Prof. Bruna Costacurta, SSD, for first nurturing my love for the ‘anawîm and for teaching me to find what I was not looking for. I would like to thank several others specifically for their contribution to the success of the thesis and this published version. Firstly, to His Eminence, Timothy Cardinal Dolan, for the trust he has placed in me to pursue doctoral studies. The fraternity and example of Msgr. Fernando Berardi and the priests of the Casa Santa Maria in Rome have been an inspiration in the midst of focused effort. Among these, Rev. Trevor Tibbertsma, SSL, and Rev. Paul Bechter, SSL, read large parts of this thesis, and Rev. Charles Samson, SSL, provided a continual sounding board and dialogue partner. None of this would have been possible without the many women religious who serve in Rome and whom it has been a privilege to serve, especially the Sister Servants of Mary Immaculate, the Dominican Sisters of Mary, Mother of the Eucharist, the Religious Sisters of Mercy, the Franciscan Sisters of the Eucharist, and the Missionaries of Charity at Casilina. Thomas and Sheffie Vaniotis provided crucial research assistance for me back in the United States. I would like to thank Prof. Konrad Schmid and the editors of Forschungen zum Alten Testament. 2 Reihe for accepting this thesis for publication and for their helpful and focused comments. With thanks to God, on the memorial of Saint Jerome, September 30, 2019. Rev. Peter A. Heasley, S.Th.D. New York City

Table of Contents Preface ........................................................................................................VII Abbreviations............................................................................................ XIX Tables ....................................................................................................... XXI

Introduction................................................................................................ 1 1. Authorial Intention of the Salvation Oracles and the Formation of the Reader ............................................................................................ 1 2. The Status Quaestionis of Form Criticism and Allusion Studies of the Salvation Oracles ........................................................................... 2 3. Method and Approach to the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44 ................... 4 4. The Contributions of This Study to Biblical Theology and Its Outline ....... 5 5. The Delimitation of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44 ............................ 7

Part I: Elusive Form and Allusive Form Chapter I: A Dialogical Approach to Form ..................................... 13 1. A Survey of Form Criticism of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44 ......... 13 1.1

Prophecy as Response to the Psalms of Lament .............................. 14 1.1.1 Literary Imitations of a Cultic Form in Begrich .................... 15 1.1.2 Orality and Fixity of Form in Von Waldow .......................... 16 1.1.3 Literary Originality in Muilenburg ....................................... 17 1.1.4 Literary Schematization in Westermann ............................... 18

X

Table of Contents

1.2

1.3

1.4

Prophecy as Personal Response to Exile ......................................... 21 1.2.1 Verbal Aspect Reflecting Divine Operation in Stuhlmueller 21 1.2.2 Literary Reflection in Schoors, Melugin, and Schüpphaus ... 21 1.2.3 Forms of Prophetic Speech in Dion, Graf Reventlow, and Raitt ............................................................................... 22 Prophecy as Tradition in the War Oracle ......................................... 23 1.3.1 Traditions of War Oracles in Merendino and Conrad ........... 23 1.3.2 Prophetic Schools in Preuß, Schmitt, and Vincent ................ 25 1.3.3 Formulas in Near Eastern Traditions in Harner, Dijkstra, Weippert, and Nissinen ........................................................ 26 Conclusions .................................................................................... 28

2. An Introduction to Bakhtinian Dialogism ............................................... 29 3. A Dialogism for Allusion Criticism of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44 ............................................................................................ 34 3.1 3.2

3.3 3.4

The Written Word as a Speech Act ................................................. 34 3.1.1 The Biblical Passage as an Utterance ................................... 34 3.1.2 The Salvation Oracles as Voices within the Book ................ 35 The Author as Prophetic Event........................................................ 35 3.2.1 The Prophet as Bearer of God’s Word .................................. 36 3.2.2 Historical Situations and “great time” .................................. 37 3.2.3 Redactional Unity within the Author-Event .......................... 38 Compositional Form as Ordered to Architectonic Form .................. 39 3.3.1 Literary Criteria for Determining Compositional Form ........ 39 3.3.2 Form-Critical Designations for Architectonic Elements ....... 41 Genre as Providing Architectonic Value to the Composition ........... 42 3.4.1 Chronotope as Constitutive of Genre .................................... 42 3.4.2 Persons as Elements of Genre............................................... 43

4. Conclusions ............................................................................................ 44

Chapter II: A Method for Allusion Criticism .................................. 45 1. Principles of Allusion Criticism .............................................................. 45 1.1

1.2

Relating Author and Reader in Allusion Criticism .......................... 46 1.1.1 Allusion Criticism and Intertextuality .................................. 47 1.1.2 Authorial Intention in Allusion ............................................. 49 1.1.3 Readerly Procedure in Allusion ............................................ 51 Considering Genre in Allusion Criticism ........................................ 52

Table of Contents

1.3

XI

1.2.1 Genre in Second Isaiah Allusion Studies .............................. 53 1.2.2 Genre and Authorial Intention .............................................. 54 1.2.3 Transformation of Genre for the Reader ............................... 55 Evaluating Evidence for Allusions .................................................. 56 1.3.1 Inductive Reasoning through “Cumulative” Evidence .......... 56 1.3.2 Contexts for Evidence of Allusion ........................................ 58 1.3.3 Literary and Grammatical Markers of Allusion .................... 59

2. Patterns of Literary Allusion .................................................................. 60 2.1

2.2

2.3

Eliminating Functional Definitions of Allusion ............................... 60 2.1.1 Authorial Reinterpretation .................................................... 61 2.1.2 Readerly Echoes ................................................................... 62 2.1.3 Conclusions .......................................................................... 63 Categorizing Compositional Patterns of Allusion ............................ 63 2.2.1 Group 1: Quotation .............................................................. 64 2.2.2 Group 2: Allusion ................................................................. 66 2.2.3 Group 3: Theme and Typology ............................................. 70 2.2.4 Group 4: Heteroglossia ......................................................... 72 Establishing Typographical Conventions for Allusion Criticism ..... 72

3. Procedures for Exegesis and Interpretation ............................................ 73 4. Conclusions ............................................................................................ 74

Part II: Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form Chapter III: Isa 41,8–16.17–20. The Chosen and Lamentable Servant ................................................ 77 1. Delimiting, Stabilizing the Text, and Translating the Utterance.............. 77 1.1 1.2 1.3

Delimitation .................................................................................... 77 Text-Critical Problems .................................................................... 78 Translation ...................................................................................... 79

2. Identifying Allusions in Their Compositional Form.................................. 80 2.1

Possible Allusions, Their Form, and Their Dating ........................... 81 2.1.1 Group 1: Quotation .............................................................. 81

XII

2.2

2.3

Table of Contents

2.1.2 Group 2: Allusion ................................................................. 82 2.1.3 Group 3: Theme and Typology ............................................. 83 2.1.4 Group 4: Heteroglossia ......................................................... 85 Allusions in Composition ................................................................ 86 2.2.1 Isa 41,8.9b//Deuteronomistic Election .................................. 87 2.2.2 Isa 41,9–10//Josh 1,9 ............................................................ 89 2.2.3 Isa 41,8–10 as an Allusive Unit ............................................ 94 2.2.4 Isa 41,11–12//Ps 35,1.4–6 .................................................... 95 2.2.5 Isa 41,13//Ps 35,2 ................................................................. 99 2.2.6 Isa 41,14–16//Ps 22,4–9 and Ps 35,5.9 ............................... 100 2.2.7 Isa 41,17–20//Ps 22,2–3.32 and Pentateuchal-Historical Themes ................................... 104 Allusive units of Isa 41,8–16.17–20 in composition ...................... 112 2.3.1 Formal Composition through Allusion ............................... 112 2.3.2 Verbal Form in the Composition of Isa 41,8–16.17–20 ...... 113 2.3.3 Heteroglossia. The Language of the Priestly Prophets ........ 115

3. Approaching Architectonic Form and Interpretation ............................ 118 3.1 3.2

3.3 3.4

Genres of the Alluded Utterances .................................................. 118 3.1.1 Patriarchal, Legislative, and Historical Narratives .............. 119 3.1.2 The Psalms of Lament ........................................................ 120 Transformation of Genre ............................................................... 123 3.2.1 The Voices of God, Moses, Joshua, and Israel in Isa 41,8–10 ..................................................................... 123 3.2.2 The Voices of God, Lamenter, and Enemy from Ps 35 in Isa 41,11–12.13 .............................................................. 126 3.2.3 The Voices of God, Lamenter, and Enemy from Ps 22 in Isa 41,14–16 ................................................................... 129 3.2.4 The Voices of God and Friend from Ps 22 in Isa 41,17–20 ................................................................... 132 Compositional Form of the Utterance with Architectonic Elements ......................................................... 134 Chronotope ................................................................................... 136

4. Contextualizing Isa 41,8–16.17–20 within Isa 41,1–29 ......................... 137 4.1 4.2 4.3

A Salvation Oracle between Two Trial Speeches .......................... 138 Identifying the Voices within from Without .................................. 140 Conclusions for Interpretation ....................................................... 141

5. Conclusions .......................................................................................... 142

Table of Contents

XIII

Chapter IV: Isa 43,1–7. The Forgiven and Precious Servant of God, the King................. 145 1. Delimiting, Stabilizing the Text, and Translating the Utterance............ 145 1.1 1.2 1.3

Delimitation of the Utterance ........................................................ 145 Text-Critical Problems .................................................................. 146 Translation .................................................................................... 148

2. Identifying Allusions in their Compositional Form ............................... 149 2.1

2.2

2.3

Possible Allusions, Their Form, and Their Dating ......................... 149 2.1.1 Group 1: Quotation ............................................................ 149 2.1.2 Group 2: Allusion ............................................................... 150 2.1.3 Group 3: Theme and Typology ........................................... 152 2.1.4 Group 4: Heteroglossia ....................................................... 153 2.1.5 Conclusions ........................................................................ 154 Allusions in Composition .............................................................. 154 2.2.1 Isa 43,1.7//Amos 4,12–13 ................................................... 155 2.2.2 Isa 43,2//Ps 66,6.12 and Num 31,23 ................................... 157 2.2.3 Isa 43,3b–4b//Ps 47,4–5 and Exod 21,23b–25; Lev 24,18.20 .................................... 161 2.2.4 Isa 43,5b–6b//Ps 103,12–13 and Deut 3,27; 28,49 .............. 165 Allusive Units of Isa 43,1–7 in composition.................................. 168 2.3.1 Formulas as Compositional Devices ................................... 168 2.3.2 Overall Composition of Isa 43,1–7 ..................................... 170

3. Approaching Architectonic Form and Interpretation ............................ 172 3.1

3.2

3.3

Genre-Typical Vocabulary and Royal Heteroglossia ..................... 172 3.1.1 The Vocabulary of the Psalms of Praise ............................. 172 3.1.2 Other Royal Words in Isa 43,1–7: ‫גאל‬, ‫מושׁ יע‬, ‫ יקר בעין‬......... 174 3.1.3 Conclusions ........................................................................ 176 Transformation of Genre ............................................................... 176 3.2.1 The Voice of God the Unique Creator in Isa 43,1.7//Amos 4,12–13 ................................................... 176 3.2.2 The Voice of God, the Warrior King in Isa 43,2// Ps 66,6.12 and Num 31,23 .................................................. 178 3.2.3 The Voice of God as Loving King in Isa 43,3b–4b// Ps 47,4–5 and Exod 21,22–25; Lev 24,17–22 ..................... 183 3.2.4 The Voice of God as Forgiving King, and of Moses, in Isa 43,5b–6b// Ps 103,12–13 and Deut 3,27 .................... 187 Compositional Form of the Utterance with Architectonic Elements ................................................................. 190

XIV 3.4

Table of Contents

Chronotope ................................................................................... 193

4. Contextualizing Isa 43,1–7 within Isa 42,18–43,13 ............................. 194 4.1

4.2

The Servant and His Sin in Isa 42,18–25 and 43,8–13................... 195 4.1.1 The Servant-Messenger and His Sin in Isa 42,18–25 .......... 195 4.1.2 The Servant-Witness and the Idolatrous Nations in Isa 43,8–13 ..................................................................... 197 The Voice of the Creator-Savior Transforming the Servant........... 198

5. Conclusions .......................................................................................... 198

Chapter V: Isa 44,1–5. The Restored Servant and His Friends ............................................ 201 1. Delimiting, Stabilizing the Text, and Translating the Utterance............ 201 1.1 1.2 1.3

Delimitation .................................................................................. 201 Text-Critical Problems .................................................................. 202 Translation .................................................................................... 203

2. Identifying Allusions in Their Compositional Form .............................. 204 2.1

2.2

2.3

Possible Allusions, Their Form, and Their Dating ......................... 204 2.1.1 Group 1: Quotation ............................................................ 204 2.1.2 Group 2: Allusion ............................................................... 204 2.1.3 Group 3: Theme and Typology ........................................... 206 2.1.4 Group 4: Heteroglossia ....................................................... 206 Allusions in Composition .............................................................. 207 2.2.1 Isa 44,1–2//Ps 78,68–70 ..................................................... 207 2.2.2 Isa 44,2a//Ps 22,10–12 and Jer 1,5...................................... 208 2.2.3 Isa 44,2b.8b//Deut 32,15 .................................................... 210 2.2.4 Isa 44,3//Exod 15,8.19b ...................................................... 212 2.2.5 Isa 44,4//Ps 104,14 ............................................................. 215 2.2.6 Isa 44,5//Ps 104,25–26 ....................................................... 216 Allusive Units of Isa 44,1–5 in Composition ................................. 218 2.3.1 Allusion in an Anaphoric/Epiphoric Structure .................... 218 2.3.2 Verbal Composition ........................................................... 219

3. Approaching Architectonic Form and Interpretation ............................ 220 3.1

Genres of the Alluded Utterances .................................................. 220 3.1.1 Dialogue between the Historical Hymns ............................. 221

Table of Contents

3.2

3.3 3.4

XV

3.1.2 Double-Valued Words Providing Architectonic Form ........ 224 3.1.3 Double-Valued Words for God, Man, and Their Relationship ....................................................... 226 3.1.4 Summary ............................................................................ 230 Transformation of Genre ............................................................... 230 3.2.1 Isa 44,1–2//Ps 78,68–72 and Ps 22,10–12 as an Address of Assurance .................................................... 231 3.2.2 Isa 44,3–4//Exod 15,8.19b and 104,14a as a Consequence . 234 3.2.3 Isa 44,5//Ps 104,25–26 as a Purpose ................................... 236 Compositional Form of the Utterance with Architectonic Elements ................................................................. 240 Chronotope ................................................................................... 242

4. Isa 44,1–5 in Its Literary Context ......................................................... 242 4.1 4.2

Isa 43,22–28 and the Service of the Servant .................................. 242 Isa 44,6–8 and the Witness of Jacob-Israel to the Uniqueness of God .............................................................. 243

5. Conclusions .......................................................................................... 244

Part III: Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 in Isa 1–66 and Beyond. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form Chapter VI: The Voice of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–66 .............................................................................................. 249 1. Progression of Form in the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 .................. 250 1.1 1.2 1.3

The Form of Allusive-Architectonic Units .................................... 250 1.1.1 Stylistic Patterns of Allusion .............................................. 250 1.1.2 Patterns of Architectonic Elements ..................................... 251 Patterns of Genre in the Salvation Oracles and Isa 1–66 ............... 253 1.2.1 Generic Elements from the Alluded Utterances .................. 253 1.2.2 Generic Elements from the Salvation Oracles..................... 254 Architectonic Form and Aesthetic Seeing ..................................... 255

2. Readers of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 34,1–63,6 ................................ 256 2.1

God Reads the Servant into Existence in Isa 41,1–44,23 ............... 256 2.1.1 An Unnamed Servant in Isa 42,1–9 .................................... 257

XVI

2.2

2.3

2.4

Table of Contents

2.1.2 A New Imperative for the Servant in Isa 44,21–23 ............. 260 2.1.3 An Idealized Situation in Isa 41,1–44,23 ............................ 261 God Reads Jacob-Israel into Service in Isa 44,24–48,22 ............... 262 2.2.1 The Servant before the Nations in Isa 44,24–45,25 ............ 262 2.2.2 Jacob-Israel before Babylon in Isa 46,1–48,22 ................... 266 2.2.3 The Servant before the Ideal and the Actual ....................... 269 Servant and Friend Read in Isa 49,1–54,17 ................................... 270 2.3.1 The Voice of the Servant Emerges in Isa 49,1–6 ................ 271 2.3.2 The Voice of the Lamenter Emerges in Isa 49,7–50,3 ........ 274 2.3.3 The Voice of the Servant Reemerges in Isa 50,4–11 ........... 279 2.3.4 The Reader Emerges into Authorship in Isa 49,1–50,11 ..... 281 2.3.5 God Reads the Friend into Service in Isa 51,1–54,17 ......... 283 2.3.6 Zion-Jerusalem as “Value-Context” in Isa 49,1–54,17 ....... 288 A Prophet Reads amidst Edom-Bozrah in Isa 34,1–63,6 ............... 290 2.4.1 Literary Unity in Isa 34,1–35,10 and 63,1–6 ...................... 290 2.4.2 Prophetic Unity of Servant and Friend in Isa 61,1–9 .......... 292 2.4.3 Generic unity through the Psalms of Lament ...................... 293

3. Conclusions in the Chronotope of Isa 1–66 .......................................... 294 3.1 3.2

3.3

The Servant as the Event of Salvation ........................................... 295 Readers of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–33; 63–66 ..................... 296 3.2.1 Value Contexts through Thematic Allusion ........................ 296 3.2.2 Anticipations of Salvation in Isa 1,1–33,24 ........................ 297 3.2.3 Renewed Calls for Salvation in Isa 63,7–66,24 .................. 299 The Consummation of the Hero .................................................... 300

Chapter VII: A Theology of Prophetic Dialogism ....................... 303 1. Characteristics of Genre in the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44............ 304 1.1

1.2

1.3 1.4

Time of Salvation.......................................................................... 305 1.1.1 The Address of Assurance and Immediate Salvation .......... 305 1.1.2 The Consequence and Ongoing Salvation........................... 306 1.1.3 Conclusions ........................................................................ 306 Space of Salvation ........................................................................ 307 1.2.1 The Reason and Gathering around the Divine King ............ 307 1.2.2 Agents of Salvation in a Landscape of Metaphors .............. 308 1.2.3 Conclusions ........................................................................ 312 Knowledge of Salvation in the Purpose ......................................... 313 Conclusions .................................................................................. 313

Table of Contents

XVII

2. Reading the Salvation Oracles into New Situations .............................. 313 2.1

2.2 2.3

2.4

Reading Salvation Back into the Psalter ........................................ 314 2.1.1 Servants of the Eternal Covenant in Ps 105 ........................ 314 2.1.2 Consequences for the Wise in Ps 107 ................................. 314 2.1.3 An Eschatological Moment in Ps 149 ................................. 315 2.1.4 Conclusions ........................................................................ 315 Reading the Psalms into the War Oracle of 2 Chr 20,1–30 ............ 315 Reading the Prophetic Assembly into the Gospel: Lucan Canticles as a Consummation of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44 ............................................ 317 2.3.1 Lucan Canticles as Allusive Compositions ......................... 317 2.3.2 The Compositional Form of the Lucan Canticles All Together ....................................................................... 323 2.3.3 The Lucan Canticles as Prophetic Preparation for Jesus’ Self-Manifestation in Luke 1,5–4,15 and Luke 4,16–30//Isa 61,1–2 ............................................ 325 Conclusions .................................................................................. 327

3. Theological Dialogism: Fulfilling Prophecy through Reading.............. 328 3.1 3.2 3.3

From Reading Salvation from Without to Reading it Within ......... 328 From a Word to the Assembly to a Word from the Assembly ....... 329 From Prophecy to Fulfillment in the Assembly ............................. 329

Conclusion ............................................................................................. 331

Bibliography .............................................................................................. 335 Index of Biblical References ...................................................................... 349 Author Index .............................................................................................. 361 Subject Index.............................................................................................. 365

Abbreviations Abbreviations can be found in the SBL Handbook of Style, 2nd Edition, except as follows: ANETS BBC BST BVSGW.PH Comp CThM DNL.T EBC EHS.T EpC FThL Jian Dao DS JPSTC JSem Lippincott MAT NVBTA OTWSA Paragraph PTL RWTS SBTS ScrBib SGKA SRSLCH Ter TH.Lit UTP.SS WeBC

Ancient Near Eastern Texts and Studies Broadman Bible Commentary Basel Studies of Theology Berichte über die Verhandlungen der Sächsischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, Philologisch-Historische Klasse Comprender la Palabra Calwer theologische Monographien Dissertationes Neerlandicae – Series theologica Expositor’s Bible Commentary Europäische Hochschulschriften – Reihe 23, Theologie Epworth Commentaries Forum theologicae linguisticae Jian Dao Dissertation Series The JPS Torah Commentary Journal for Semitics Lippincott's Magazine, A Popular Journal of General Literature El mensaje del Antiguo Testamento Nuova versione della Bibbia dai testi antichi Ou Testamentiese Werkgemeenskap in Suid-Afrika. Meeting Paragraph. A Journal of Modern Critical Theory PTL. A Journal for Descriptive Poetics and Theory of Literature Religionswissenschaftliche Texte und Studien Sources for Biblical and Theological Study Scripta biblica Studien zur Geschichte und Kultur des Altertums. Paderborn Studies in Russian and Slavic literatures, Cultures and History Teresianum Theory and History of Literature University of Texas Press. Slavic Series Westminster Bible Companion

Tables Table 1: Literary Context of the Salvation Oracles (Isa 40,1–45,7).......................................8 Table 2: Westermann’s Schematization of the Salvation Oracle .........................................20 Table 3: Formulas in the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 .....................................................29 Table 4: Instances of ‫ ח זק וא מץ‬in Deut–Josh ..........................................................................90 Table 5: Split-pair and Alliterative Structure of Isa 41,9–10 ...............................................91 Table 6: Allusive structure of Isa 41,8–10 ............................................................................94 Table 7: Isa 41,11–12//Ps 35,1.4–6 .......................................................................................96 Table 8: Isa 41,14–16//Ps 22,4–9 and Ps 35,5a.9a ..............................................................101 Table 9: Verbal Forms in Isa 41,14–16//Ps 22,4–9.............................................................103 Table 10: Allusive-Formal Composition of Isa 41,8–16.17–20 .........................................113 Table 11: Verbal Composition of Isa 41,8–16.17–20 .........................................................114 Table 12: Overall Composition of Isa 41,8–16.17–20 ........................................................114 Table 13: “Be Strong and Steadfast” in Its Utterances .......................................................126 Table 14: Ps 35 in Architectonic Composition ...................................................................127 Table 15: Ps 22 in Architectonic Composition ...................................................................130 Table 16: Compositional Form of Isa 41,8–16.17–20 as Salvation Oracle ........................134 Table 17: Overall Structure of Isa 41,1–29 in Genre ..........................................................138 Table 18: Structure of Ps 66,6.12 ........................................................................................159 Table 19: Isa 43,2//Ps 66,6b.12b .........................................................................................159 Table 20: Structure of Isa 43,2 ............................................................................................160 Table 21: Isa 43,2 and Ps 66,12b//Num 31,23 ....................................................................160 Table 22: Isa 43,4b//Ps 47,4 ................................................................................................162 Table 23: Ps 47,4a//Ps 18,48b .............................................................................................162 Table 24: Allusive-Formal Composition of Isa 43,1–7 ......................................................170 Table 25: Overall Composition of Isa 43,1–7 .....................................................................171 Table 26: Genre-typical Words in the Hymns of Praise .....................................................173 Table 27: Ps 66 in Composition ..........................................................................................180 Table 28: Ps 47 in Composition ..........................................................................................183 Table 29: Isa 43,3b.4a//Exod 21,30; Ps 49,8–9 ..................................................................186 Table 30: Ps 103 in Composition ........................................................................................188 Table 31: Compositional Form of Isa 43,1–7 as Salvation Oracle .....................................190 Table 32: Allusions to Deut 32,1–43 in Isa 41,1–44,23 .....................................................211 Table 33: Allusions to Exod 15,1b–19 in Isa 41,1–44,23 ...................................................214 Table 34: Allusive-Formal Composition of Isa 44,1–5 ......................................................219 Table 35: Overall Composition of Isa 44,1–5 .....................................................................220 Table 36: Divine Names and Epithets in the Historical Hymns and Isa 41,1–44,23 .........226 Table 37: Compositional Form of Isa 44,1–5 as Salvation Oracle .....................................241 Table 38: Compositional Form of the Salvation Oracles in Parallel ..................................252 Table 39: Structure of Isa 46,1–48,16 .................................................................................266

XXII

Tables

Table 40: Structure of Isa 49,1–50,11 .................................................................................271 Table 41: Elements of Isa 41,15a//49,2a//49,2b..................................................................272 Table 42: Echoes of Isa 40–48 in Isa 49,8–12 ....................................................................277 Table 43: Elements of the Mock Laments in Isa 40,27; 49,14 ...........................................278 Table 44: Inclusio of Literary-allusive Elements in Isa 51,1–54,17 ..................................284 Table 45: Object of Discourse in the Value-Context of Zion-Jerusalem in Isa 49,1–54,17 ..................................................................290 Table 46: Literary-Allusive Elements Uniting Isa 34,1–35,10; 63,1–6 and the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 ..............................................................291 Table 47: Luke 1,46b–47//Ps 35,9 (Ps 34,9 LXX) and Hab 3,18 .......................................318 Table 48: Luke 1,54–55//Isa 41,8–9; 2 Sam 18,22,51b; 98,3a ...........................................320

Introduction The child receives all initial determinations of himself and of his body from his mother’s lips and from the lips of those who are close to him. It is from their lips, in the emotionalvolitional tones of their love, that the child hears and begins to acknowledge his own proper name and the names of all the features pertaining to his body and to his inner states and experiences. The words of a loving human being are the first and the most authoritative words about him; they are the words that for the first time determine his personality from outside, the words that come to meet his indistinct inner sensation of himself, giving it a form and a name in which, for the first time, he finds himself and becomes aware of himself as a something. 1

Just as a child learns who he is from the mouth of his mother, who mimicks his babbles and cooing while adding her own well-formed words, so Israel, in the Salvation Oracles of Second Isaiah, learns who he is from the mouth of God, who speaks Israel’s own words of lament and praise back to him in the new form of literary allusion. By the time of the Babylonian Exile, the kingdoms of Israel and Judah have amassed a certain amount of religious literature, literature recounting their formation, identity, and relationship to God in history and in prayer. In exile, stripped of land and king, God speaks to his people of new salvation in allusion to that literature. He gives new form to those who are to occupy a place and a time no longer their own in worldly terms. In this thesis, we study inner-biblical allusion as giving form to the literary composition of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44 (specifically, Isa 41,8–16.17–20; 43,1–7; 44,1–5), to the reader’s contemplation of them, and to the form of relationship between their author and their reader.

1. Authorial Intention of the Salvation Oracles and the Formation of the Reader We situate this study at an important moment in the history of biblical research, in which the presuppositions, prerogatives, and purposes of form criticism have begun to shift away from the search for the oral and literary origins of the written biblical utterances handed on to us, and toward a description of the ends, or teleological shape of those utterances within the biblical tradition. In so 1

M.M. BAKHTIN, “Author and Hero,” 49–50.

2

Introduction

doing, form-critical biblical scholarship has begun to draw upon the work of contemporary literary theorists and philosophers, such as Mikhail Bakhtin, and to apply their approaches to biblical interpretation. We hope to advance the teleological shift in biblical exegesis and interpretation precisely through the work of Bakhtin, such that the scholarly contemplation of these 2500-year-old Salvation Oracles contribute to an understanding not just of their historicallysituated time and place, but indeed of our own reading of them. It is in the work of Bakhtin that new approaches to form-critical analysis meet new methods for the study of inner-biblical allusion. The study of allusion can function within a form-critical approach that is dialogical, considering the relationship of author to reader. Literary allusion assumes a reader familiar with a body of literature, makes the reader more familiar with that literature, and, while conforming the reader to the mind (or intention) of the alluding author, it brings the reader into the act or event of authorship. The well-formed reader, then, completes or fulfills the author’s utterance. It is precisely here, in the co-ordering of allusion and literary form, that this thesis seeks to build upon form-critical and allusion-critical studies, indeed to advance their respective interests and contributions into an exegetical and interpretative whole.

2. The Status Quaestionis of Form Criticism and Allusion Studies of the Salvation Oracles The form-critical study of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44 as such begins with a proposal of their oral Sitz im Leben in the shift in tone of the Psalms of Lament and reaches a stable literary schematization in the consideration of their Sitz in der Literatur of Isa 40–55. Begrich, first in his collaboration with Gunkel on their study of the psalms, and more definitively in his own work, proposes the Salvation Oracles of Isa 40–55 (some 24 total) as imitations of the priestly Oracle of Salvation (Heilsorakel) given in the context of the cultic utterance of the Psalms of Lament.2 After several decades of scholarly debate, Westermann provides what becomes the near universally-received literary schematization of the Salvation Oracles, in so doing reducing their number to the three that we have singled out for investigation – Isa 41,8–16.17–20; 43,1– 7; 44,1–5 (though Isa 54,4–10 is sometimes included in his and others’ lists). 3 Scholars employ and reshape this literary schematization in order to propose various literary functions of the Salvation Oracles, such as in Conrad’s studies on the “democratization” of the royal prerogatives of Judean and Israelitic See H. GUNKEL/J. BEGRICH, Einleitung in die Psalmen, 243–247; J. BEGRICH, “Das priesterliche Heilsorakel,” 81–92; Studien zu Deuterojesaja. 3 See C. WESTERMANN, “Das Heilswort bei Deuterojesaja,” 355–373; cf. Sprache und Struktur der Prophetie Deuterojesajas, 81–87; Prophetische Heilsworte, 19–31. 2

Introduction

3

kings. 4 On this line, scholars of Ancient Near Eastern literature, like Weippert, find in the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 evidence of direct contact with the cultic oracles of the Neo-Assyrian empire. 5 Despite the many attempts to compare the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44 to other utterances of their perceived kind, no one has, until this study, proposed a direct literary dependence, by way of allusion, to those comparable utterances. This is despite the many direct references to the Psalms of Lament that Begrich makes in his work, references that suggest not simply a formal connection, but a literary one. This literary connection remains so far unperceived because of the lack of a method of studying allusion that is rigorous enough to deal with the question of form. That said, if advances in form criticism over the past century have followed or occurred precisely through the comparative study of Second Isaiah and the psalms, then so have advances in the study of allusion. Three major works, two of which appearing independently and at the same time, have greatly contributed to our understanding of allusion in Second Isaiah. Tull Willey, in Remember the Former Things (1997) brings Bakhtin’s insights to bear upon her rhetorical-critical study of allusion in Isa 49–55. Simultaneously, Sommer, in A Prophet Reads Scripture (1998) demonstrates some of the formal-compositional devices through which we can detect allusion in Isa 34–35; 40–66. Soon after, Nurmela, in The Mouth of the Lord Has Spoken (2006) compiles a more thorough list of allusions that he discerns in Isa 40–66. Along with influential works on allusion in other biblical books (especially Zechariah, Job, and the Pauline corpus, upon which we shall depend in some part), these three works have greatly contributed to our understanding of inner-biblical allusion in general and the methodologies required for detecting it and discerning its purpose. That said, these scholars, who most often focus their work on the rhetorical purpose of literary allusion, have left open for us a thorough investigation into the relationship of allusion to form. To this end, we shall apply in these pages a more developed allusion criticism, one directly concerned with compositional form and the form of the relationship between author and reader.

See E. CONRAD , “Priestly Oracle of Salvation,” 234–246; “‘Fear Not’ Oracles,” 129– 152; Fear Not Warrior; “The Community as King,” 99–111. 5 See M. WEIPPERT, “Assyrische Prophetien,” 71–115; “Die Herkunft des Heilsorakels,” 48–59; “Ich bin,” 31–59. 4

4

Introduction

3. Method and Approach to the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44 In this study of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44, we develop what we shall call ‘allusion criticism’6 as an exegetical method and Bakhtinian dialogism as an interpretative approach.7 In themselves, they are independent of each other, having each a different scope and procedure, yet we find them mutually enriching. Specifically, the dialogistic approach provides an overall structure to our treatment of the texts, especially in Bakhtin’s distinction between compositional form and architectonic form (discussed in detail in ch. II, §2). Bakhtin’s specific insights into the author-reader relationship then guide our interpretation of the Salvation Oracles within the greater literary context of Isa 1– 66, in Chapter VI. Allusion criticism fits specifically within the analysis of compositional form in chs. III–V and its results provide the material for our dialogistic interpretation in those chapters and in chs. VI–VII. That said, we find that allusion criticism can provide a basis for different kinds of interpretative approaches. We hope to advance the ability of allusion criticism to detect literary allusions through specific formal techniques and to understand their contribution to the overall compositional form of each Salvation Oracle. As an exegetical method, this means deepening our understanding of authorial intention as requiring the reader’s engagement with other texts and providing the signals or markers for this engagement. This allusion criticism will show that there exist specific formal patterns in the use of an inner-biblical allusion in the composition of a Salvation Oracle, formal patterns in some ways already shown by Sommer, in some ways recognizable from studies in the composition of Hebrew poetry in general, and in some ways totally new to this study. The accumulated evidence of these formal patterns will advance, at least for Second Isaiah studies, methodologies for arguing for allusions, and indeed may help their detection in other biblical books. Allusion criticism will bear upon the received results of form criticism to help us discern the compositional form of each Salvation Oracle Dialogism will help us to interpret the initial results of allusion criticism, namely compositional form, for an understanding what Bakhtin calls the architectonic form of the utterance, the actual relationship of author to reader and

6 To our knowledge, the term ‘allusion criticism’ appears only in two distinct scholarly texts (one in literary studies and one in biblical studies) and, in these, only in a passing manner and not formally defined: E. CLARKE , Yeats and Stevens, 13; G.B. LESTER, Daniel Evokes Isaiah, 9 n. 27. 7 We take our distinction between ‘method’ and ‘approach’ from the 1994 document of the Pontifical Biblical Commission, The Interpretation of the Bible in the Church, esp. “Part I: Methods and Approaches for Interpretation,” 35–75.

Introduction

5

reader to author. 8 This begins with a look at the genre of the alluded utterances to hear the voice of the person speaking through them into the Salvation Oracle. From this look into genre, we shall come better to hear the dialogue between author and reader occurring within each Salvation Oracle, and between the three Salvation Oracles in question and the utterances within their immediate and remote literary contexts. This will mean eventually situating Isa 41,8– 16.17–20; 43,1–7; 44,1–5 within the various parts of Isa 1–66, the Old Testament, and the New Testament as voices speaking on their own and together in broader literary situations.

4. The Contributions of This Study to Biblical Theology and Its Outline Our principal contribution is to bring together into dialogue the tools of form criticism and of identifying inner-biblical allusion. We define allusion criticism, at least for Second Isaiah studies, as the demonstration of specific and repeated formal patterns in the composition of allusive texts. The effectiveness of this demonstration, we hope, should lead scholars to employ it in the study of other biblical books. We shall demonstrate the effectiveness of allusion criticism through the identification of a number of allusions hitherto unnoticed. Allusion criticism, as an exegetical method, can provide the beginnings of biblical interpretation, but as we shall also demonstrate, another contribution of this thesis, corollary to the definition of allusion criticism, is the separation of identifying allusion from interpreting its purpose. This leads us to the second major contribution of this thesis, the development of a Bakhtinian dialogism adequate to the concern for compositional form inherent in allusion criticism. 9 It is from a treatment of compositional form that we can engage the action of the reader upon the utterance and the architectonic form of author and reader. It is from this approach that we interpret authorial intention as bringing a multiplicity of voices, a polyphony, to bear upon the utterance as read. Seen in this way, the interpretative concern is not with any particular theme or ideology, but with the formation of the literary ‘hero’ addressed in the utterance and of the reader contemplating the utterance. As we hope to demonstrate, the author reveals already within Isa 40–55 the formation of this hero, ‘Jacob-Israel.’

See ch. I, §2. For reasons that we shall further illustrate in ch. II, §1.1, we refrain from speaking here of ‘intertextuality.’ For now, we should note that with the term ‘intertextuality’ scholars have confused authorial intention (admitted it exists at all) with the reader’s action upon a text. 8 9

6

Introduction

To this end, we have organized the seven chapters of this study into three parts: In the First Part, “Elusive Form and Allusive Form,” comprising chapters I– II, we lay out our dialogical approach and our method of allusion criticism. In Chapter I, we lay out our dialogical approach to form. First, we present the status quaestionis regarding the form-critical identification of Isa 41,8–16.17– 20; 43,1–7; 44,1–5 as Salvation Oracles, which identification has become, with little exception or variation, the status quo even among scholarship of vastly different approaches. After a brief summary of Bakhtinian dialogism, we then adapt that dialogism into an approach to form that can accommodate the results of allusion criticism. In Chapter II, we lay out our allusion-critical method, with its theoretical principles, its categories of formal and stylistic gesture, and its order of operation. In the Second Part, “Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form,” we undertake allusion-critical exegesis of Isa 41,8– 16.17–20; 43,1–7; 44,1–5 and begin our dialogical approach to each. Chapters III–V each concern one of these passages. First, we delineate the passage as an utterance according to speaker/addressee/object of discourse and according to literary markers of its boundaries, treat its text-critical problems, and translate it. We then identify and categorize the possible allusions made within the oracle; while scholars have tentatively identified a few of these allusions already, many or most identifications are original to this study. As part of the process of identifying allusions, we consider the compositional form of the alluded and alluding utterances. This new look at compositional form, as built around what we call “allusive units,” will then inform a new understanding of the generic elements of the Salvation Oracles. Aiding this process is our dialogical approach to the allusions, in which we use the genre of the alluded utterances to identify the voices speaking through them into the new oracle. Since allusion requires the reader’s completion of the utterance, identifying such voices leads us to a preliminary identification of the reader and his formation by the author. Having understood the compositional form of these oracles through allusion criticism and consideration of genre, we shall then move toward a fuller understanding of the architectonic form of the oracles and their relationship to their greater literary context in the Third Part, “Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 in Isa 1–66 and Beyond. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form.” In Chapter VI, we listen for the voice of these oracles in the book of Isaiah, chapters 1–66 and subdivisions thereof, in order further to discern the shape of the relationship between the author and reader, and in particular, the ways in which the author already reveals the reader to himself in the “hero” Jacob-Israel. In Chapter VII, we hear the voice of the reader of the three Salvation Oracles in question outside of the book of Isaiah, in both Old and New Testaments, in order further to support our reading of the Salvation Oracles through the witness of

Introduction

7

other readers, as well as to situate their message of salvation in broader theological terms.

5. The Delimitation of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44 We can identify the Salvation Oracles in literary terms as Isa 41,8–16; 43,1–7; 44,1–5 with little difficulty. The only problem concerns the so-called Announcement of Salvation in Isa 41,17–20 (we shall treat this problem in greater detail in Chapter III). As scholars have long noticed, each of the Salvation Oracles begins with one of the homophonic expressions “But you” (‫)ואתה‬ (Isa 41,8; see Isa 41,16) or “But now” (‫( )ועתה‬Isa 43,1; 44,1). Each of these expressions is joined to a clear address to “Jacob-Israel,” both names indicated in parallel. Furthermore, this address is directed toward the imperative “Fear not” (‫ )אל־תירא‬in each oracle (Isa 41,10.14; 43,1.5; 44,2). In literary terms, these are the three main characteristics distinguishing these oracles from neighboring utterances, such that they are sometimes called “Fear-Not Oracles.” There are other formulas and characteristics that they share, and some of these elements are shared with other passages within Isa 40–55; we shall further discuss these sharings as part of the form-critical questions in Chapter I and in our exegesis in Chapters III–V. We should also provide here a basic orientation to the Salvation Oracles within their immediate literary context of Isa 41,1–44,23. Given Bakhtin’s definition of the utterance as bounded by the speech subject10, we shall break down the context of the Salvation Oracles, and their delimitation, according to Speaker, Addressee, and Object of Discourse, along with relevant literary markers. We attach to the verse numbers the form-critical labels usually attached to these sections, since the form-critical designations already speak to this relationship between voices, whether in Trial Speeches, Disputations, or Salvation Oracles. It will be our concern to hear how these utterances speak to and with each other within Isa 41,1–44,23, and eventually Isa 1–66, as a literary context. Parentheses indicate that the name of the Speaker, Addressee, or Object of Discourse is not explicit in the text though their identification is more certain; in some cases, it is uncertain. While we cannot make here an argument for this 10 Emerson defines the utterance especially according to Bakhtin’s distinction between the utterance and the ‘sentence’: “A sentence is a unit of language, while an utterance is a unit of communication. Sentences are relatively complete thoughts existing within a single speaker’s speech, and the pauses between them are ‘grammatical,’ matters of punctuation. Utterances, on the other hand, are impulses, and cannot be so normatively transcribed; their boundaries are marked only by a change of speech subject” (in M.M. BAKHTIN, Problems of Dostoevksy’s Poetics, xxxiv).

8

Introduction

partial overall structure, we can note that it follows, more or less, scholarly research; it is not a new proposal, only a new way of approaching what is generally accepted. A dashed box indicates what we, for now, see as the more immediate literary context of the Salvation Oracles, a longer utterance by God to alternately, Jacob-Israel and the nations, with two hymnic interjections by the anonymous prophet (the first one, according to scholars, bifurcating the larger unit, and so marked here with a dashed line). Outside of the dashed box are two sections demarcated in themselves by very different combinations of speaker, addressee, and object of discourse. Table 1: Literary Context of the Salvation Oracles (Isa 40,1–45,7) Genre Prologue Isa 40,1–11

Speaker God/(Prophet) as “voice”

Addressee (Prophet)

Object of Discourse Jerusalem-Zion

Disputation 40,12–31

God

Jacob-Israel

God

Trial Speech 41,1–7

Nations

Cyrus/Idolators

Salvation Oracle 41,8–16

Jacob-Israel

Jacob-Israel

Announcement of Salvation 41,17–20

Jacob-Israel

Friend “afflicted-needy”

Trial Speech 41,21–29

Nations

Cyrus/Idolators

Servant Song 42,1–9

(Jacob-Israel)

Servant

Hymn 42,10–13

Prophet

Nations

God

Announcement of Salvation 42,14–17

God

(Jacob-Israel)

(Jacob-Israel) as “blind”

Disputation 42,18–25

(Jacob-Israel) as “deaf-blind”

(Jacob-Israel)

Salvation Oracle 43,1–7

Jacob-Israel

Jacob-Israel

Trial Speech 43,8–13

Nations/ (Jacob-Israel)

God

9

Introduction Announcement of Salvation 43,14–21

(Jacob-Israel)

Enemy as “BabylonChaldeans”; (Jacob-Israel) as “chosen people”

Disputation 43,22–28

Jacob-Israel

Jacob-Israel

Salvation Oracle 44,1–5

Jacob-Israel

Jacob-Israel

Trial Speech 44,6–22

Jacob-Israel

Idolators

Hymn 44,23

Prophet

Nations

God

Cyrus Oracle I 44,24–28

God

Jacob-Israel

Cyrus

Cyrus

Cyrus

Cyrus Oracle II 45,1–7

Generally speaking, the Object of Discourse helps us identify Isa 41,1–44,23 as the literary context of the Salvation Oracles, since this whole section concerns the relationship of God to Jacob-Israel among the nations. Isa 40,1–11 are concerned with the relationship of the anonymous prophet to Zion-Jerusalem. Isa 40,12–31, while eventually addressed to Jacob-Israel explicitly, seems to introduce Isa 40,12–48,22 as an utterance in a way that strongly parallels Isa 49,1–13 for introducing Isa 49–55. Within Isa 40,12–48,22, Isa 44,24– 45,25 speaks of Cyrus; after this the discourse turns around Babylon. This is not to suggest that Isa 41,1–44,23 are neatly enclosed literarily; Isa 40–54 (or –55), like Isa 1–66 as a whole, seem to defy discrete delimitation. This difficulty of scholars in laying out and agreeing upon clearly-delimited units may represent the compositional intention of the author, such that the each oracle speaks within the whole not as parts but as shifting centers of discourse. Such a compositional form would, indeed, be very dialogical and fit for a dialogical approach. Isa 41,1–44,23, however unenclosed this is as an utterance, certainly contains the Salvation Oracles and their most immediate literary contexts, which, despite the lack of clear boundaries in the overall compositional form, seem to have clear limits for themselves.

Part I

Elusive Form and Allusive Form

Chapter I

A Dialogical Approach to Form In this part, “Elusive Form and Allusive Form,” we lay out the method of allusion criticism as it pertains to the question of form. The study of inner-biblical allusion in Second Isaiah has had, so far, little dialogue with the generations of form criticism that precede it. We should take some care, then, in laying out the problem of form, especially as it pertains to the literary composition of the Salvation Oracles, if we hope to make allusion criticism an important contribution to our understanding of the composition of biblical texts. To this end, we devote two chapters to the relationship of allusion to form, namely, the present chapter, on developing an approach to the problematics of form in the Salvation Oracles upon which we can build, in Chapter II, a methodology specific to the identification of inner-biblical allusion as a compositional device. In the present chapter, we want to expose the status quaestionis in some detail, as well as Bakhtinian dialogism in summary, for several reasons. First, if we want allusion criticism to help us analyze the composition of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44, we need first to understand the problematics of literary composition that have emerged from more purely form-critical analysis of these texts. We shall lay out the results of this research in §1. Second, in order to understand allusion criticism as a reader-oriented method, we must make a shift in our understanding of form, namely from reflecting oral origins to indicating a precise purpose or teleology for the reader or hearer of a text. To this end, we summarize the problematics of form in Bakhtinian dialogism in §2. This approach should not negate or deny value to the results of a century of form-critical research on the Salvation Oracles, but on the contrary, should recover and reorient them toward the ongoing scholarship on these texts, which we do in §3. Indeed, we will eventually demonstrate that this reorientation is at the very heart of these texts’ message of salvation.

1. A Survey of Form Criticism of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44 We should introduce the status quaestionis of the contribution of form criticism on the Salvation Oracles with a vignette of the debate between the two earliest practitioners of form criticism on Second Isaiah, Hugo Greßmann and Ludwig

14

Part I. Elusive Form and Allusive Form

Köhler. 1 This debate, which will extend through form-critical work on the Salvation Oracles to date, centers around the characteristics of a text that one identifies as typical of passages of its kind and as specific to a particular passage. Greßmann delineates 49 independent units in Isa 40–55 based on formulas, namely the Fear-Not Formula and the “divine Introduction and Closing Formulas” (göttliche Einleitungs- und Schlußformeln) in a style of Divine SelfRevelation or Self-Predication more typical of Babylonian (= Neo-Assyrian) forms than those of ancient Israel’s literature, reflecting more directly the author’s experience in Babylon. 2 Köhler, on the other hand, sees the Fear-Not Formula as typical of theophanies in inner-biblical literature,3 and so he sets the other stylistic formulas that Greßmann has listed in relation to what is more typical of the Fear-Not Oracles, their overall form as Messenger Speech. 4 We see already, at the beginning of form-critical study on the Salvation or FearNot Oracles in Second Isaiah, the relationship of formulas to overall composition that will run as a filo conduttore through the enduring century of this scholarship, indeed into our own attempt in the exegetical chapters (chs. III-V) to establish the compositional form of these oracles. 1.1 Prophecy as Response to the Psalms of Lament The identification of the Salvation Oracles as such emerges from the problem of their relationship to the Psalms of Lament in terms of language and composition. Scholars like Begrich, von Waldow, and Westermann seek to identify an oral-cultic origin to these oracles, and in so doing, devise various literary schemes for their composition. In retracing their work, we shall better comprehend the problems of the relationship of the Salvation Oracles to the psalms 1 Melugin (“Form Criticism, Rhetorical Criticism,” 264) credits Greßmann with initiating form criticism of Second Isaiah. Greßmann himself (“Die literarische Analyse Deuterojesajas,” 255) follows Gunkel in performing a literary analysis of what is, in Isa 40–55, a “journal” (Tagebuch) of the prophet’s daily utterances. 2 See H. G REßMANN, “Die literarische Analyse Deuterojesajas,” 254–297. Greßmann adopts the evaluation of Norden (Agnostos Theos, 215–216), who finds in the oracles of Second Isaiah an elaboration of the Self-Predication of God, especially in the combination of first-person with relative and participial clauses, paralleled only in the literature of the wider Ancient Near East. 3 See L. K ÖHLER, “Fürchte dich nicht,” 33–39. Regarding the Salvation Oracles that we shall treat, Köhler concludes that Isa 44,2 represents the simplest and oldest form of a FearNot Oracle, comprising a simple Address (“my servant”) and Fear-Not Formula. Isa 41,13.14 represent a more developed form, joined to an expression of grounds for fearlessness. Isa 41,10; 43,1.5 represent the most developed form, whose grounds are elaborated with one or more ‫ כי‬clauses. 4 See L. K ÖHLER, Deuterojesaja, 102–111.122–128. Here, Isa 41,8–10.11–13.14–16; 43,1–7; 44,1–5 represent Messenger Speeches in which one or more of the elements Köhler has identified are missing.

Chapter I. A Dialogical Approach to Form

15

and how this relationship affects compositional form, before we ourselves attempt to establish direct literary dependence through allusion criticism. 5 1.1.1 Literary Imitations of a Cultic Form in Begrich Begrich turns the question of the Fear-Not Oracles in Second Isaiah from particular formulas to the language of the Psalms of Lament contained in them, and so redefines these passages as Salvation Oracles. His work on the Salvation Oracles emerges from his collaboration with Hermann Gunkel on the psalms, and specifically regarding the “change in mood” (Umschwung der Stimmung) of the Psalms of Lament, a question that Friedrich Küchler first raises. 6 Gunkel and Begrich, finding no evidence of such an oracle recorded in the psalms themselves, look to Second Isaiah for their preservation. 7 It is precisely the wording of the Psalms of Lament found in Second Isaiah that leads Gunkel and Begrich to posit certain passages as Salvation Oracles. In his independent work directly on Second Isaiah, Begrich identifies several basic characteristics of the genre of Salvation Oracle, and accordingly, groups of texts that feature these characteristics. The number of passages changes according to the criteria that Begrich uses for identifying them. First, Begrich identifies ten passages in Isa 40–55 as a “priestly Oracle of Salvation or of Answering” (priesterliche Heils- oder Erhörungsorakel). 8 These passages each manifest several basic characteristics, which though adapted by Second Isaiah, pertain to an oral-cultic form: the Fear-Not Formula, naming the Addressee, nominal statements of God’s closeness, perfect-tense affirmations of hearing, and future-imperfect Assurances of Salvation. After this, Begrich redefines his criteria and thus greatly expands his list of Salvation Oracles to 24.9 Begrich here formulates a literary pattern for the Salvation Oracle,

5 In order to guide the reader, we shall include the dates of these scholars’ contributions in the footnotes. 6 See H. G UNKEL/J. BEGRICH, Einleitung in die Psalmen, 243–247 (1933). Küchler (“Das priesterliche Orakel,” 285–301) sees the role of the priest ( ‫ )כהן‬as interpreter of oracles during the temple sacrifice, which would occur at moment marked precisely in the psalms. While Gunkel/Begrich would agree with his conclusion that the prophets take over this priestly practice, they find many fewer instances than Küchler of this “change in mood” in the psalms. 7 Gunkel/Begrich (Einleitung in die Psalmen, 246 n. 6) note, in particular, Isa 41,8– 13.14–16; 43,1–2.5a; 49,15; 51,7; 54,4. 8 In his 1934 article, “Das priesterliche Heilsorakel,” 81–92, Begrich identifies Isa 41,8– 13.14–16; 43,1–3a.5; 44,2–5 (in parentheses, so perhaps doubtful); 48,17–19; 49,7.14–15; 51,7–8; 54,4–8. He also shows Jer 30,10/46,27; 30,11/46,28; Ps 35,3; Lam 3,57 as related to this genre. 9 In his 1938 monograph, Studien zu Deuterojesaja, 13–67, Begrich lists Isa 41,8–13.14– 16.17–20; 42,14–17; 43,1–7.16–21; 44,1–5; 45,1–7.14–17; 46,3–4.12–13; 48,17–19;

16

Part I. Elusive Form and Allusive Form

in three parts: Part A, statements by God concerning his intervention, in the perfect tense; Part B, phrases that speak of the consequences of this intervention, in the imperfect; Part C, expressions specifying the purpose of God’s hearing. Most passages contain only two of these parts. Importantly, Begrich separates the Introduction from these three parts so that he can, like Köhler, steer discussion about these oracles, and the psalms to which they relate, away from possible influence of Akkadian-language texts and toward inner-biblical ones. 10 This also allows Begrich to define as typical or generic the verbal shape of the Salvation Oracles, part of what we shall later call their ‘chronotope.’11 In summary, Begrich makes several observations that remain indispensable for later form-critical scholars and our own allusion criticism of the Salvation Oracles in our dialogical approach. First, his careful noting of the sharing of vocabulary and expressions between the Psalms of Lament and Second Isaiah leads, in part, to our own study of this sharing as literary allusion. 12 Second, he describes the shape of time in the Salvation Oracles, the interpretation of which other scholars (and we) will continue to develop. Third, even in his neglect of the formulas, he makes us see that their presence has a great deal to do with the form of the Salvation Oracles. 1.1.2 Orality and Fixity of Form in Von Waldow Von Waldow argues for the Salvation Oracles not as any kind of literary or written imitation of oral forms, but as the record of oral pronouncements. 13 Correspondingly, there can be no flexibility in their form, and so while von Waldow more rigorously systematizes the structure that Begrich provides, he

49,7.8–12(13).14–21.22–23.24–26; 51,6–8.12–16; 54,4–6.7–10.11–12.13b.14a.13a–17; 55,8–13 as Salvation Oracles. 10 This approach may also come from Gunkel/Begrich’s cautionary note (Einleitung in die Psalmen, 19–20) regarding Stummer’s identification of numerous parallels between Ancient Near Eastern texts and the psalms (Sumerisch-akkadische Parallelen) and Second Isaiah (“Einige keilschriftliche Parallelen,” 171–189). 11 See §3.4, below. 12 Begrich himself (“Das priesterliche Heilsorakel,” 86 n. 2) begins to consider this sharing as deliberate transformations. 13 See his 1953 dissertation, Anlass und Hintergrund. Von Waldow (“The Message of Deutero-Isaiah,” 259–287) later continues to reject contemporary trends that treat Second Isaiah as a writing prophet and his book as a literary unity. In no small way is von Waldow’s insistence on preserved oral forms due to the influence on form criticism of von Rad and Mowinckel, but Mowinckel himself (The Psalms in Israel’s Worship, II, 53–73, esp. 58–59) will see the Salvation Oracles in Second Isaiah as prophetic imitations.

Chapter I. A Dialogical Approach to Form

17

also narrows the list of Salvation Oracles to 22.14 As oral pronouncements, they belong not to the priest but to the cult prophet (‫)נביא‬, in the specific context of the Public Lament in Time of Special Emergency (öffentliche Volksklage anläßlich eines besonderen völkischen Notstandes), held in exile.15 As an example of this, von Waldow refers to 2 Chr 20,5–19, a passage the we, ourselves, shall briefly examine in relation to the Salvation Oracles.16 In rejecting any kind of written origin for the Salvation Oracles in Second Isaiah, von Waldow rejects any kind of flexibility of form. This premise has had its own critics, and we ourselves shall test the ability of the Salvation Oracles to develop or progress in form across their instances in Isa 41–44. 17 This problem does lead Westermann further to refine the literary characteristics of the Salvation Oracles across Isa 40–55, as we shall see in §1.1.3, below. 1.1.3 Literary Originality in Muilenburg In stark contrast to von Waldow, Muilenburg insists on the possibility of literary imitation in the prophets, which he finds especially in the Salvation Oracles of Second Isaiah. 18 Employing his “rhetorical-critical” method, he redefines what Begrich once identifies as separate literary units as a series of strophes of two to three verses that comprise the poems of the three parts of Isa 40–66.19 Correspondingly, the Fear-Not Formula and the various other formulas of theophany are now “stylistic features.” The Salvation Oracles no longer adhere to

Isa 41,8–13.14–16.17–20; 42,14–17; 43,1–3a.5a.3b–7.16–21; 44,1–5; 46,3–4.12–13; 49,8–10.11–13.14–21.22–23.24–26; 51,7–8.12–15.17–23; 54,4–6.7–10.11–17; 55,3b–5, as per H.-E. VON WALDOW, Anlass und Hintergrund, 27–28. 15 Fohrer (“Remarks,” 312), criticizing von Waldow in particular, calls the view that forms of speech are still anchored in such an established institution, “uncritical romanticism.” 16 As 2 Chr 20,1–30 in ch. VII, §2.2. Apart from the more evident problem of von Waldow’s identifying Jehaziel as a cult prophet and not as a Levite, as clearly stated (2 Chr 20,14), and apart from the problem of the dating of this text relative to Isa 41–44 (see ch. III, §2.1), the language is sometimes so close to that of Isa 41,8–16 especially that we must investigate not just the formal but the literary dependency of one of these texts upon the other. 17 See ch. VI, §1. 18 In his highly influential essay, Muilenburg (“Form Criticism and Beyond,” 7) argues that literary imitation in the prophets leads to artistic originality. Regarding Second Isaiah in particular, he insists on their originality in written form: “The poems of Second Isaiah exhibit numerous signs of literary craftsmanship; they are so elaborate in their composition and in the detail of technical devices that they must have been written rather than spoken” (“Isaiah 40–66,” 386). 19 See J. MUILENBURG, “Isaiah 40–66,” 415–418 (1956). 14

18

Part I. Elusive Form and Allusive Form

a “stereotyped form,” and he compiles a list that differs from previous scholars. 20 Muilenburg opens for us the possibility that the Salvation Oracles are composed not of formal elements, but according to their literary-stylistic characteristics. 21 His insistence on dividing the oracles of Second Isaiah into specific units of length does lead Muilenburg to the same kind of rigidness of form of which one criticizes von Waldow, and he does, to a certain degree, trivialize the author’s use of the formulas. 22 Nevertheless, Muilenburg does give us reason to regard the composition of the Salvation Oracles distinctly from the appearance of formulaic elements within them, which distinction will permit us to reconsider their compositional form according to both stylistic and formulaic elements. 1.1.4 Literary Schematization in Westermann Westermann, influenced by Muilenburg and presuming that a difference in literary form indicates a difference in oral origin, sets up a literary analysis of the Salvation Oracles in Second Isaiah as a way to distinguish between those of a priestly-cultic source and those of a prophetic-cultic source.23 Among the 24 Salvation Oracles that Begrich identifies (see §1.1.1, above), Westermann distinguishes the Assurance or Promise of Salvation (Heilszusage), given by a priest, and the Announcement or Proclamation of Salvation (Heilsankündigung), given by a prophet. 24 The passages that Westermann considers belonging to the Assurance of Salvation are those that exhibit a regular, five-part structure: Isa 41,8–13.14–16; 43,1–7; 44,1–5, and these he ultimately calls Salvation Oracles proper. The first part of this structure is the Address (Anrede), with expansions (Erweiterungen). Following this is the Assurance of Salvation (Heilszuspruch), marked solely by the Fear-Not Formula. Then comes the Reason (Begründung), which 20 Muilenburg (“Isaiah 40–66,” 501) says this more precisely in regard to Isa 44,1–5. The Salvation Oracles are: Isa 41,8–10.11–13.14–16; 42,14–17; 43,1–7.18–19; 44,3–4; 49,8–26. Ibid., 458.467.495.565. 21 Gitay (Prophecy and Persuasion, 5–33.98–120.135–176) influenced by Muilenburg and setting aside form-critical categories, analyzes what we call the Salvation Oracles as parts of longer units (Isa 41,1–29; 42,14–43,13; 43,14–44,23) comparable to what we consider their literary context (see §4 of chs. III–V). 22 Clifford (Fair Spoken and Persuading, 34–37), himself influenced by Muilenburg, retains form-critical categories and criticizes Muilenburg for leaving “the poet’s vision unconnected to a concrete proposal.” 23 This analysis proceeds principally from Westermann’s 1964 article, “Das Heilswort bei Deuterojesaja,” 355–373. 24 These terms are translated differently in the English-language editions of Westermann’s commentary (Isaiah 40–66, 8–21) and later monograph (Prophetic Oracles of Salvation, 42–43).

Chapter I. A Dialogical Approach to Form

19

consists of nominal and verbal forms in the perfect. After this is the Consequence (Folge), which is given in the imperfect tense, showing the future state of the supplicants (Felehenden) and their enemies (Feinde). Finally, the oracle may be closed with the Purpose (Ziel). The Announcement of Salvation is much looser in form, consisting mostly of future-oriented expressions in the imperfect. With the Salvation Oracles confined to Isa 41–44, and the looser Announcement of Salvation found independently only there, Westermann begins to conclude that Isa 40–55 is not a loose collection of oracles, but has its own literary composition as a whole. Indeed, Westermann later makes the case for an overall compositional structure to Isa 40–55. 25 The Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 are theologically central to this overall structure, a Salvation Oracle in toto, as the whole of the prophet’s message is founded upon God’s forgiveness.26 Westermann’s contribution to the form-critical analysis of the Salvation Oracles is not so much his identification of two distinct oral situations determining them, as these remain unprovable, but the careful literary schematization that he provides. Most commentators adopt and adapt Westermann’s literary schematization. 27 Indeed, his identification of five passages according to their

25

In his 1981 monograph, Sprache und Struktur der Prophetie Deuterojesajas, esp. 116–

122. 26 C. WESTERMANN, Sprache und Struktur, 81–87. In fact, Westermann will later claim that the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 provide the model for all unconditional words of salvation in the prophets and the New Testament (Prophetische Heilsworte, 208–212). 27 The following commentaries give Westermann’s schematization or some adaptation thereof, including Isa 54,4–6: L. ALONSO S CHÖKEL/al., Isaías, 200.209.215.255; U. BERGES, Jesaja 40–48, 47–50. Cf. 187.269.316; Jesaja 49–54, 135.299; W.A.M. BEUKEN, Jesaja, IIA, 68–70; P.-É. BONNARD, Le second Isaïe, 28–29; W. BRUEGGEMANN, Isaiah 40–66, 29.52.64.152; B. CHILDS, Isaiah, 318–319.334.341.428–429; K. ELLIGER, Deuterojesaja 40,1–45,7, 132–137. Cf. 147–149.292–305.387–395; P. HÖFFKEN, Jesaja 40–66, 54– 57.71–73.80–83.173–174; P. KELLEY, “Isaiah,” 303 Cf. 309.313.346; S. LEE, Creation and Redemption, 95–127; J. S CULLION, Isaiah 40–66, 18. Cf. 35.48.58; G. SMITH , Isaiah 40–66, 49–50. Cf. 131–138.190–197.218–225.475–492; M. THOMPSON, Isaiah 40–66, xxvi; R.N. WHYBRAY , Isaiah 40–66, 25–29. Cf. 62–66.81–84.94–95.185; B. ZAPFF, Jesaja 40–55, 241–244.257–259.265–267.332. Others accept Westermann’s delimitation and structure while rejecting or ignoring form-critical categories or at least the identification of a cultic Sitz im Leben: J. BLENKINSOPP, Isaiah 40–55, 65–66. Cf. 198–201.219–222.228–234.357– 366; G. GROGAN, “Isaiah,” 250–251.260.264.309; P. HANSON, Isaiah 40–66, 11–12. Cf. 33–40.59–66.80–86; J.L. KOOLE , Isaiah 40–48, I, 149–173.281–299.354–366; J. MCKENZIE, Second Isaiah, xxxvi. Cf. 29–32.62–65.137–140; A. MELLO, Isaia, 282– 284.299–300.308–309.370; J.A. MOTYER, The Prophecy of Isaiah, 311–314.330–333.340– 343.444–452; C. NORTH, The Second Isaiah, 4–12. Cf. 96–100.119–121.131–135.246–250; J. OSWALT, Book of Isaiah, 89. Cf. 136–137.164; F. RAMIS DARDER, Isaías 40–66, 26– 28.53.71.218–219; H. SIMIAN-YOFRE , Isaías, 197–198.208–210.215–216.254–256; J. STEINMANN, Le livre de la consolation, 102–104.120.125–126.178–179; E. YOUNG , Isaiah,

20

Part I. Elusive Form and Allusive Form

common literary characteristics corresponds to those three passages that we ourselves have identified for comparative study in allusion criticism according to our own literary criteria in the Introduction: Isa 41,8–16.17–20; 43,1–7; 44,1–5. We should find it useful, then, to provide a reconstruction of his outline of the Salvation Oracles based on his various articles, monographs, and commentaries, as following: Table 2: Westermann’s Schematization of the Salvation Oracle28 Isa 41,8–13: vv. 8–9: v. 10a: v. 10a: vv. 11–12: v. 13:

. . . ‫ י עק ב‬. . . ‫ו א ת ה י שׂ ר אל‬ ‫אל־ת ירא‬ . ..‫כי ע מך ־אנ י‬ .. .‫הן יב שׁו ו יכלמו‬ . ..‫כי א ני יהו ה אלהיך‬

Address Assurance of Salvation Reason in the perfect + nom. Consequences in the imperfect Repetition of the Assurance

Isa 41,14–16: v. 14a: . ..‫ אל־ת ירא י תו לע ת יעק ב‬Assurance + Address v. 14b: ... ‫ אנ י ע זרת יך‬Reason in the perfect + nom. vv. 15–16a: . ..‫ הנ ה שׂמת יך‬Consequences in the perfect* v. 16b: ...‫ ואת ה ת ג יל ב יהו ה‬Purpose *Understood by Westermann as building upon the imperfect in v. 11 Isa 43,1–7: v. 1a: v. 1b: v. 2: vv. 3–4: v. 5a: vv. 5b–6: v. 7:

...‫ ישׂרא ל‬... ‫ועת ה יעקב‬ ‫אל־ת ירא‬ . ..‫כי ג אלת יך‬ . . . ‫כ י ת ע ב ר במ י ם‬ . ..‫כי א ני יהו ה אלהיך‬ ‫אל־ת ירא כי את ך ־אנ י‬ ...‫ממזרח אביא‬ .. .‫כל הנק רא ב שׁמי‬

Address Assurance Reason Consequences in the imperfect Reason in the perfect + nom. Assurance + Reason Consequences in the imperfect Purpose

Isa 44,1–5: vv. 1–2: vv. 3–4: v. 5:

.. .‫ א ל־ת ירא‬... ‫ועת ה שׁמע‬ . ..‫כי א צק רוח י‬ .. .‫ זה יכתב‬. ..‫זה יא מר‬

Address + Assurance Consequences in the imperfect Purpose

This literary schematization emerges, eventually, from Begrich’s analysis of the Salvation Oracle as a response to the Psalms of Lament, which proposal we III, 80–90.138–146.165–169.360–365. Wiéner opts for an expanded list akin to that of Begrich and von Waldow in Le deuxième Isaïe, 23.49–52. 28 Merrill (“Literary Character, Part 2,” 144–156, esp. 153–156; “Literary Character, Part 1,” 24–43) in addition to providing an excellent survey of form-critical scholarship on Isa 40–55, gives a more general schematic outline of the proposals by Westermann and Melugin.

Chapter I. A Dialogical Approach to Form

21

shall test in our allusion criticism, in conjunction with the use of this schematization in our dialogical approach. Other proposals regarding the Salvation Oracles also contribute to our analysis, and we present them here following. 1.2 Prophecy as Personal Response to Exile We have seen how form-critical inquiry into (indeed, identifying) the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44 has led to a fruitful understanding of their literary composition. In response to Westermann’s literary schematization, form-critical scholars continue to refine our understanding of the composition of the Salvation Oracles, especially as it bears on our interpretation of their theology. 1.2.1 Verbal Aspect Reflecting Divine Operation in Stuhlmueller Stuhlmueller, focusing on the theme of creation in Second Isaiah, opens the question for us on the relationship of verbal form in the Salvation Oracles to the theological value of time.29 In the studies that precede his, scholars analyze verbal form in relation to the historical situation of the prophet’s message, and thus the Reason and Consequence reflect actual moments in the past, present, and future. Stuhlmueller, on the other hand, sees verbal form as reflecting different aspects of God’s action: sustaining action (creation, election) in the qatal form, change (redemption, fulfillment) in the yiqtol form, and immediate presence in the participial forms. These aspects are all present in the one event of imminent salvation. Stuhlmueller’s conclusions, accurate or not, lead us to consider the form of verbs in the Salvation Oracles not strictly as a matter of past, present, and future in a sequence of events, but as determinative of the aspect of salvific action, the quality of this action as achieved or ongoing. We shall provide a brief systematization of our approach to verbal aspect in §3.4.1, below, as it shall bear heavily upon our interpretation of the Salvation Oracles. 1.2.2 Literary Reflection in Schoors, Melugin, and Schüpphaus Three scholars, reacting to Westermann’s schematization of the Salvation Oracles, propose these passages as the anonymous prophet’s own original reflection on the exilic situation. Schoors sees in the address to the individual “JacobIsrael” a “literary fiction” for the community in exile, and so the Salvation Oracle is no longer bound to the cultic setting (the specificity of which Schoors sees as very difficult to determine). 30 Melugin, similarly, calls the Salvation

In Stuhlmueller’s Creative Redemption (1970), see pp. 19–28 on the form of the Salvation Oracle, pp. 41–56 on verbal aspect, and pp. 99–131 for the interpretation of the word ‫ גאל‬in Isa 43,1–7; 44,1–5. 30 See A. SCHOORS , I am God Your Saviour, 170–175 (1973). 29

22

Part I. Elusive Form and Allusive Form

Oracle a “stereotyped genre” with respect to its original form within the context of Isa 40–55 and its relationship to other genres. 31 Though he maintains its rootedness in cultic practice, it is a literary original – even if still given with the Messenger Formula. 32 Schüpphaus likewise sees the Salvation Oracle as dependent on its literary context, the whole of the prophet’s message of salvation not the reiterated word of God but the prophet’s own expression of faith as a struggle against the fear and doubt of Israel in exile. 33 Important for us in these three studies is the notion of prophecy and its forms as personal, that is, not a word detached from the prophet’s own experience but emerging precisely through it. This idea is provocative in a study of allusion, in which the word of God reveals itself as a highly literate reflection on Israel’s salvation, indeed demanding a high degree of literacy of the reader/listener. Even if one maintains the prophetic experience of a word received ecstatically or directly, as it were, it takes form through the prophet’s own imagination, knowledge, and experience. Indeed, this idea is provocative in a prophetic book in which, arguably, the prophet himself both speaks and is presented as suffering for that speech. 1.2.3 Forms of Prophetic Speech in Dion, Graf Reventlow, and Raitt This idea of prophetic originality in the Salvation Oracles grows so strong that some scholars, in fact, see their influence as bearing upon other books of the Bible. Dion identifies passages in Genesis that he sees as dependent upon the Salvation Oracles. 34 Graf Reventlow sees the influence of the Salvation Oracles as cultic forms in the Call Narrative of Jeremiah.35 Raitt, on the other hand, calls into question Begrich’s theory of a cultic origin to the Salvation Oracles, positing instead that the passages that Begrich has identified really correspond to what Raitt calls the Oracle of Deliverance in the books of Jeremiah and Ezekiel. 36 Raitt presents logical and theological

31 See R. MELUGIN, The Formation of Isaiah 40–55, 16–22 (1976). Melugin (“Form Criticism, Rhetorical Criticism,” 269.273) calls himself, along with Westermann, an “heir” to Muilenburg. 32 Nielsen (“Deuterojesaja,” 190–205) similarly sees the genres in Second Isaiah as oriented toward original preaching and in the form of the Messenger Speech. 33 See J. S CHÜPPHAUS, “Stellung und Funktion,” 161–181 (1971). 34 In 1967, Dion (“Patriarchal Traditions,” 198–206) first proposes that the Fear Not Oracles of the book of Genesis imitate the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44, which themselves correspond to neo-Assyrian forms, and have been superimposed by later Deuteronomistic redactors. Then in a 1970 article, Dion (“The ‘Fear Not’ Formula,” 565–570) proposes that the Fear-Not Oracle is not specific to the Holy War tradition, and that in the book of Genesis they represent a kind of “democratization” of the oracle form. 35 See H. G RAF REVENTLOW, Liturgie und prophetisches Ich, 24–76 (1963). 36 See T. RAITT, Theology of Exile, 128–173 (1977).

Chapter I. A Dialogical Approach to Form

23

reasons for dismissing claims of cultic origin. 37 Accordingly, he presents a form for the Oracle of Deliverance that is less literary and more theological, namely a combination of the three elements of the Promise of Deliverance, Transformation of the People, and new Relationship with God, Second Isaiah adding the Fear-Not Formula and Formula of Divine Self-Predication. Raitt’s schematization of the Oracle of Deliverance according to theological concepts is not terribly distant from earlier form critics’ schematizations according to relational ideas, like Assurance, Reason, and Consequence. It does reveal the importance of carefully distinguishing between literary composition and architectonic form, or the form of the relationship of reader to author, audience to prophet, such as we find in Bakhtin (§2 and §3.3, below). 1.3 Prophecy as Tradition in the War Oracle With renewed interest in the results of archaeological work in the Ancient Near East, along with continued criticism of Begrich’s presuppositions and methods, scholars propose the Salvation Oracle as a War Oracle in comparison both to inner-biblical and extra-biblical texts. With this proposition come various proposals about the ability of a genre to take various forms of composition within both the book of Isaiah and the larger literary corpus of the Ancient Near East. 1.3.1 Traditions of War Oracles in Merendino and Conrad Merendino, while reiterating Westermann’s schematization of the Salvation Oracles, concludes that they emerge not from the imitation of a cultic priestly oracle, but from the War Oracle in biblical traditions. 38 His analysis proceeds from his own criticism of Begrich, especially in that there are no other examples of the cultic Salvation Oracle given elsewhere in biblical literature, and indeed the psalms themselves leave little or no trace of it. 39 Instead, Merendino, 37 Raitt (Theology of Exile, 151–158) accuses Begrich of circular reasoning in seeking to explain the shift in mood of the psalms with the Salvation Oracle in Second Isaiah and vice versa – an accusation that McConville (“Statement of Assurance in Psalms of Lament,” 64– 75) echoes (he claims that the shift in mood in a psalm is meant to evoke, not express, such a change of mood in its reader) – but this is really the process of inductive reasoning (which we explain in ch. II, §1.2.1). Theologically, Raitt (Theology of Exile, 161) presumes that the cult has been suspended in exile as part and parcel of divine judgment, and so the Oracle of Deliverance cannot be a response to a Psalm of Lament. On this point, though, Raitt forgets that Begrich sees the Salvation Oracles as imitations of cultic oracles. 38 Merendino presents this argument in a 1972 article, “Jes 41,” 1–42, which then forms part of his 1981 monograph, Der Erste und der Letzte, 135–178. 39 Merendino (Der Erste und der Letzte, 151 n. 93) also raises the problem of the relative dating of the psalms to which Begrich makes reference, claiming that most of them belong to the exilic or post-exilic period. We shall examine the problem of dating in general in ch. II, §1.2.5, and specifically for each alluded text in §2 of chs. III–V.

24

Part I. Elusive Form and Allusive Form

looking back to Greßmann’s early analysis, looks to several neo-Assyrian oracles for examples of what he calls the “salvation oracle in the pattern of the divine assurance in the context of the holy war tradition (ein Heilsorakel nach dem Muster des göttlichen Zuspruchs im Rahmen der Jahwekriege-Tradition). Perhaps his most important conclusion, at least for our purposes, is in his interpretation of this new form-critical comparison, namely that Second Isaiah uses the Holy War Oracle to express that God himself is waging war directly on Babylon. This point (which Conrad will also raise) we shall be able to test, in part, in our analysis of Isa 41,11–12. 40 Conrad, like Merendino, adapts Westermann’s schematization and argues for the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44, which he calls “Fear Not” Oracles, as representing two genres, the War Oracle and the Patriarchal Oracle.41 In criticism of Westermann, he argues that the Reason is defective in Isa 43,5–7 and missing in Isa 44,1–5 and that the imperfect is used to describe Israel’s action in Isa 41,8–13.14–16 but God’s action in Isa 43,5–7; 44,1–5. Thus, Isa 41,8– 13.14–16 are two War Oracles whose purpose is to prepare servant Israel to be the messenger of God’s salvation, comprising four elements: Address (Isa 41,8–9.14a), Assurance (Fear Not Formula), Basis of Assurance (Isa 41,10.13.14b–15a), and Result (Isa 41,11–12.15b–16). Isa 43,1–4.5–7; 44,1–5 are Patriarchal Oracles whose purpose is to prepare servant Israel to be a witness to the new things God is doing, and whose form is looser, comprising an Assurance (Fear Not Formula), Basis of Assurance (Isa 43,1b.5), Self-Identification of the Deity (Isa 43,3a; 44,2a), and Promise (Isa 43,3b–4.5b–7; 44,3– 5). Later, Conrad, comparing these passages both to biblical and extra-biblical texts, will label all of them War Oracles, which serve to prepare a royal people precisely not to fight (similar to Merendino’s conclusion, above). 42 Importantly for our study, Conrad demonstrates that the Salvation Oracles occupy, more than a particular Sitz im Leben, a Sitz im Text or literary situation in which their shape progresses so as to move forward the message they contain.43 Indeed, Conrad eventually concludes that these passages as War Oracles 40 See ch. III, §2.4 and §3.2.2. Specifically here we shall find an allusion to Ps 35,1.4–6, which seems to exclude some of the verses (Ps 35,1–3) that Kilian (“Ps 22,” 172–185) indicates as not containing the oracle speech of God to the psalmist. Merendino relies on Kilian for his analysis of the shift in verbal aspect in the psalms (Kilian speaking of a “prophetic perfect” in Ps 3,8; 22,22). 41 See E. CONRAD, “Priestly Oracle of Salvation,” 234–246 (1981); “‘Fear Not’ Oracles,” 129–152 (1984). 42 In Fear Not Warrior (1985), Conrad draws in comparisons to ANE texts. The idea of a theological passivism emerges precisely from comparison to neo-Assyrian oracles in particular, as we shall see in §1.3.3, below. 43 Conrad borrows the expression Sitz im Text from Heßler (“Die Struktur der Bilder,” 349–369), who coins this term regarding the situation of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 40–55. Merendino, in his literary-critical analysis, cannot account for such a modification of form

Chapter I. A Dialogical Approach to Form

25

become the key to understanding the whole of Isa 1–66 as the “democratization” of Israel’s kingship after the failures of the monarchy. 44 1.3.2 Prophetic Schools in Preuß, Schmitt, and Vincent Preuß, in a brief study of Isa 43,1–7, considers the possibilty that Second Isaiah has combined the traditions of the priestly Salvation Oracle and the Holy War Oracle.45 Many of the elements are the same, and in each case, the Hebrew perfect tense gives a present or future meaning. Since the Sitz im Leben in such a combination would no longer be accessible, he turns to the message found in the Salvation Oracle in Second Isaiah, namely God alone saves his people. Schmitt, in response to Preuß, concludes that this generalized message of salvation comes out of the broad post-exilic needs of Israel in diaspora.46 He reviews the results of Conrad and Merendino, and finds in both biblical and extra-biblical texts the same generalized pattern of Salvation Oracle. He then brings in his own theory of a “school theology” (Schultheologie), that is, a postexilic reflection on Israel’s history and institutions, to which this oracle makes reference. In light of the preceding Trial Speech of Isa 42,18–25, to which 43,1–7 is joined through “But now,” the message of the Salvation Oracle is that of God’s unconditional love despite sin. Vincent finds that the Salvation Oracles in Second Isaiah are part of a series of “open texts” (Offene Texte) handed down through cult-prophetic circles in Jerusalem and have their origin in the pre-exilic king’s own rituals. 47 They are not exilic imitations of Israelitic or Babylonian oracles, but are independent examples of the Assurance of Election and Victory for the king (Erwählungsund Siegeszusage). Investigating some 25 “fear not” oracles within ANE literature, Vincent proposes, instead of a specific compositional form, a series of elements that are common to them and no Sitz im Leben from which they and at one point (Der Erste und der Letzte, 361–372) excises parts of Isa 44,1–5, calling it an Announcement of Salvation. 44 See E. CONRAD, Reading Isaiah, 143–152 (1991) and his preparatory articles for that book, “The Community as King,” 99–11 (1985); “Royal Narratives,” 67–81 (1988). Merendino’s and Conrad’s analysis will prove influential as seen in K. BALTZER, Deutero-Jesaja, 135–148.207–214.242–247; J. GOLDINGAY, Isaiah, 10.12; J.D.W. WATTS, Isaiah 34–66, 635–636.670.686.797. Grimm (Fürchte dich nicht, 225–230) applies Conrad’s distinction between the War Oracle and the Patriarchal Oracle toward finding an overall structure to the Salvation Oracles, including Isa 54,4–6 (see ch. VI, §2.3.5 for our situating Isa 54,1–17 in relation to the Salvation Oracles). 45 See H.D. PREUß, Deuterojesaja, 70–75 (1976). 46 See H.-C. S CHMITT , “Erlösung und Gericht,” 120–131 (1992). 47 J.M. VINCENT , Studien, 124–196 (1977). This furthers his argument, made across the book, that much of the text of Second Isaiah has been inserted after the exile from “open texts” in possession of the cult-prophetic circles in Jerusalem, to which the historical Isaiah belongs (and whose own oracles are considered “closed texts”).

26

Part I. Elusive Form and Allusive Form

emerge. This loosely-defined structure allows him to propose that these oracles share in a common usage with the inner-biblical and extra-biblical examples. Through the work of Preuß, Schmitt, and Vincent, we begin to approach the form of the Salvation Oracles as a loose assemblage of elements from various sources, held together through time by continued usage and reusage in a prophetic or cultic school. This loosening of form-critical schematizations seems to have its origin in comparative analysis of neo-Assyrian oracles, which continues in the work of those scholars to whom we now turn. 1.3.3 Formulas in Near Eastern Traditions in Harner, Dijkstra, Weippert, and Nissinen Four scholars make sustained comparisons between the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44 and oracles of the Ancient Near East, especially neo-Assyrian oracles. Their studies tend to emphasize the function of particular formulas as structuring elements. The work of Harner, Dijkstra, Weippert, and Nissinen also bring our critical survey of work on the Salvation Oracles to the present day. Harner claims that the Salvation Oracles come out of a broader ANE tradition in which the Jerusalem cult takes part and are most comparable to the neoAssyrian oracles in Arbela to Esarhaddon. 48 He finds in these oracles, especially, the verbal-temporal shift from present to future that yields a “unitary pattern of speech.” Harner identifies four elements by which he compares the Salvation Oracles to their ANE counterparts: a Reassurance with nominal and past tense assertions, an Address in the second-person singular, a future-oriented Message stated in general terms, and the Self-Predication of God. While Isa 41,8–13 is the clearest example of this pattern, Harner discerns an “ascending parallelism” among the oracles, in that each subsequent oracle extends the thought of the previous one. 49 Harner later makes another important observation, that nowhere in the Salvation Oracles does God make any particular request or impose any obligation. 50 In the end, he concludes that there is no direct literary dependency of the Salvation Oracles upon any one text, only a “general oracular pattern” that Second Isaiah and his audience know. Dijkstra, further developing the comparison of the Salvation Oracles with ANE counterparts, minimizes the importance of the shift between verbal perfect and imperfect (the boundary between which he claims is fluid), focusing instead on a list of elements common to this genre. 51 Among the ten elements that Dijkstra finds, he lists firsts the Claim (aanspraak, what we might See P. HARNER, “Salvation Oracle,” 418–434 (1969). We shall develop this particularly fruitful insight in ch. VI, §1. 50 Particularly in comparison to Egyptian oracles, as in P. HARNER, Grace and Law, 3– 10.74–77.122–123.145–47 (1988). 51 See M. DIJKSTRA, Gods Voorstelling, esp. 314–376 (1980). 48 49

Chapter I. A Dialogical Approach to Form

27

otherwise call the Address), as determining the character of the oracle as individual or collective. Further characterizing the oracle as personal or impersonal in nature is the Divine Self-Presentation, in four types. The Fear Not Formula is typical, but not constitutive. By focusing on a list of elements, most of which are formulas of one kind or another, Dijkstra generates a much longer list of Salvation Oracles in Second Isaiah, among which Isa 41,8–13.14–16; 43,1– 4.5–7; 44,1–5 are in the “personally formulated predicative style.” 52 Weippert retains Westermann’s distinction between statements in the verbal perfect and imperfect, but in comparing the Salvation Oracles with inner-biblical and ANE texts, concludes that they are instances of the Royal Oracle (Königsorakel). 53 These oracles are addressed to a king or queeen regarding the protection of the king and the survival of his dynasty, and are of a “spontaneous” character in being given in a dream or prophetic utterance, not the cult.54 Second Isaiah does not depend upon these other oracles directly, but produces his own original oracles in order to shift the imagery of the king from the Davidic dynasty to the people. Weippert eventually focuses, like Dijkstra, on a list of formulas as giving structure to the Royal Oracle.55 The Fear-Not Formula, especially, serves such a structuring role, as do the Self-Presentation of the Deity and the Divine SelfPredication. Weippert also lists several literary motifs common to the Royal Oracles and their ANE counterparts, like that of passing through water (see Isa 43,2) and the deity’s expression of love (see Isa 43,4), in some cases transforming these motifs, in that where the ANE deity speaks as a father or mother, the God of Israel speaks as creator. This, again, does not suggest direct literary dependence, but shared traditions. Nissinen builds upon the work of Dijkstra and Weippert, finding, contrary to Begrich, that the Fear-Not Formula occurs especially in the prophetic utterance of the War Oracle.56 Its structural function makes it a “signifier of prophecy,” especially as joined to the Divine Self-Identification, which encapsulates the whole of the oracle. Nissinen echoes Conrad’s claims that, in the tradition of the neo-Assyrian War Oracle, there is a theological “quietism,” in which the 52 Dijkstra (Gods Voorstelling, 373–374) groups 31 oracles into four categories according to personal or impersonal predicative style. 53 In several articles: M. WEIPPERT, “Assyrische Prophetien,” 9–47 (1981); “Die Herkunft des Heilsorakels,” 48–59 (1982). 54 However, Weippert (“Aspekte israelitischer Prophetie,” 87–103), in comparing the Royal Oracle with oracles in Jeremiah, and determining that the Fear-Not Formula is “facultative” and not constituent, later seems to favor the cultic origin of the Royal Oracle as of the same genre as the Salvation Oracle. 55 See M. WEIPPERT, “Ich bin,” 132–158 (2001). Weippert also lists here the Encouragement Formula, which we shall examine in its literary originality in Isa 41,9–10 in ch. III, §2.2.2. 56 See M. NISSINEN, “Fear Not,” 122–161 (2003).

28

Part I. Elusive Form and Allusive Form

deity promises to do the fighting for the king. Like Conrad and Dijkstra, Nissinen sees royal ideology transferred in the Royal Oracles to the people. 1.4 Conclusions In this brief survey of form criticism on the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44, we have tried to draw out the problematics of determining form in comparative analysis. Begrich attempts to delineate the compositional form of the Salvation Oracles in relation to the composition of the Psalms of Lament, and Westermann eventually provides what becomes a standard schematization of this form (§1.1, above). Scholars continue to refine this model, especially in view of Second Isaiah’s literary originality and personal engagement with the message (§1.2). Others, in comparing the Salvation Oracles with Royal Oracles of the OT and ANE, settle upon a list of formulaic elements as constitutive of, and sometimes structuring, these oracles (§1.3). It would seem that the texts with which one compares the Salvation Oracles determines those elements seen as typical and form-giving. These problematics begin in the debate between Greßmann and Köhler, eventuating in two major points of view: that the form of the Salvation Oracles is like that of the Messenger Speech, shaped by a shift in verbal form (Köhler, Begrich, Westermann) or it is like Akkadian-language oracles, a bundle of formulas with no particular compositional shape (Greßmann, Dijktstra), or some combination thereof (Harner, Weippert). In our allusion-critical analysis, we shall have to bear in mind several characteristics of the Salvation Oracles as we attempt to make a determination about the compositional form of the Salvation Oracles. These include verbal aspect, the use of formulas, and unique literary markers. Indeed, we shall have to reorient our conception of form, from a comparative analysis of sources available to the author, such has been achieved in a century of form criticism on the Salvation Oracles, toward an understanding of the purpose of form for the reader. The Salvation Oracles have stood at the center of the form-critical debate for a century, engaging its best minds. We hope, by engaging Bakhtinian dialogism as our approach to form, to continue this debate as we identify the author’s use of literary allusion to compose the Salvation Oracles. To this end, we shall in §2 provide a brief summary of Bakhtin’s thought, before laying out a systematization of dialogism adequate to our purposes in allusion criticism in §3. Before proceeding, we shall here, in Table 3, provide a list of formulas contained in the Salvation Oracles, based on our reading of those scholars summarized above, so as to provide a common lexical ground going forward:

Chapter I. A Dialogical Approach to Form

29

Table 3: Formulas in the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 Formula Messenger Formula Oracular Formula Fear-Not Formula Formula of Divine Presentation, of Presence Formula of Divine Presence, of Title

Example ‫כ ה אמ ר י ה ו ה‬ ‫נ אם י ה ו ה‬ (‫אל־ת ירא) י‬ ‫עמך ־אנ י‬ ‫את ך ־ אנ י‬

Location Isa 43,1a; 44,2a Isa 41,14b Isa 41,10a.13b.14a; 43,1b.5a; 44,2b Isa 41,10a Isa 43,2a.5a

‫אנ י א להיך‬ ‫אנ י יהו ה א להיך‬

Isa 41,10a Isa 41,13a; 43,3a

Other typical elements, like the title “the Holy One of Israel” (‫)קדושׁ ישׂראל‬, the name pair Jacob-Israel, the introductory markers “But you” (‫ )ואתה‬and “But now” (‫)ועתה‬, and participles predicated of God (e.g., ‫גאל‬, ‫ )מו שׁיע‬we shall treat in literary and theological terms as more uniquely formulated in the Salvation Oracles. We shall be attentive to the ways in which the author does or does not use the common formulas to compose the Salvation Oracles.

2. An Introduction to Bakhtinian Dialogism Our interest in dialogism is in understanding the formal relationship between author and reader sought through literary allusion and its compositional form. That is, we seek to deepen our understanding of literary allusion, beyond its rhetorical effects upon the reader, the image the reader has of the author, and even the ideas that the allusions bring to the text, toward the event of reading such allusive utterances as determinative of the real relationship between God and “Israel.” Mikhail Bakhtin (1895–1975), however unsystematic his work may be in itself, gives great insight into such reading as an aesthetic event. We shall provide here a brief introduction to his thought, and §3 we shall attempt to systematize his insight for our approach to the Salvation Oracles. Bakhtin’s well-known ideas of dialogism, heteroglossia, and chronotope are the literary components of his more general aesthetic philosophy. His aesthetics are a direct rebuke to Russian Formalism, with its disregard for the relationship between author and reader and corresponding disregard for the relationship between form and content. Bakhtin develops an aesthetics from his training in neo-Kantian philosophy, and in his earliest works we can see his philosophical anthropology take shape.57

57 See M.M. BAKHTIN, Toward a Philosophy of the Act (written ca. 1919–1921); “Author and Hero” ca. 1920–1923; “Content, Material, and Form” (1924).

30

Part I. Elusive Form and Allusive Form

Bakhtin achieves an inversion of Kantian epistemology, moving from the unique and the concrete to the ideological. 58 For Bakhtin, if one begins in theory and conceives of the individual object from within theoretical definitions of being and form, one can never arrive at the actual.59 Rather, truth is found in the “unique,” or the “once-occurring.” 60 This is not a “subjective” truth; there is an objective reality that one can know – or better, be part of – from his aesthetic contemplation of the unique. This is because being is an “event” whose act is not complete within itself, but contains rather what he calls its “answerability,” its completion or “consummation” by the other. 61 In this Bakhtin employs the “I-Thou” language for which Martin Buber is well known, and in many ways his work fits in with the philosophical and theological personalism in which Buber, Emmanuel Mounier and Gabriel Marcel (among many others) – themselves wrestling with the Kantian ethical imperative – propose that the recognition of being is already a moral act. 62 This moral or 58 In his foreword, eminent Bakhtin scholar Holquist (Toward a Philosophy of the Act, ix) calls Bakhtin’s Toward a Philosophy of the Act “an attempt to detranscendentalize Kant and more particularly to think beyond Kant’s formulation of the ethical imperative.” 59 “The theoretical world is obtained through an essential and fundamental abstraction from the fact of my unique being and from the moral sense of that fact – “as if I did not exist.” And this concept of Being is indifferent to the central fact – central for me – of my unique and actual communion with Being (I, too, exist), and it cannot in principle add anything to it or subtract anything from it, for it remains equal to itself and identical in its sense and significance, regardless of whether I exist or not; it cannot determine my life as an answerable performing of deeds, it cannot provide any criteria for the life of practice, the life of the deed, for it is not the Being in which I live, and if it were the only Being, I would not exist,” M.M. BAKHTIN, Toward a Philosophy of the Act, 9 (all italics in quotations of Bakhtin here and following are original). 60 “It is only from within the actually performed act, which is once-occurrent, integral, and unitary in its answerability, that we can find an approach to unitary and once-occurrent Being in its concrete actuality. A first philosophy can orient itself only with respect to that actually performed act,” M.M. BAKHTIN, Toward a Philosophy of the Act, 28. 61 “In its answerability, the act sets before itself its own truth as something-to-beachieved – a truth that unites both the subjective and the psychological moments, just as it unites the moment of what is universal (universally valid) and the moment of what is individual (actual). This unitary and unique truth of the answerably performed act is posited as something-to-be-attained qua synthetical truth,” M.M. BAKHTIN, Toward a Philosophy of the Act, 29. 62 Hence, Bakhtin (Toward a Philosophy of the Act, 56–57) writes, “Life can be consciously comprehended only in concrete answerability. A philosophy of life can be only a moral philosophy. Life can be consciously comprehended only as an ongoing event, and not as Being qua a given. A life that has fallen away from answerability cannot have a philosophy: it is, in its very principle, fortuitous and incapable of being rooted” and, “The world in which an act or deed actually proceeds, in which it is actually accomplished, is a unitary and unique world that is experienced concretely… This acknowledged participation of mine produces a concrete ought – the ought to realize the whole uniqueness, as the utterly

Chapter I. A Dialogical Approach to Form

31

emotional-volitional dimension does not disappear in the aesthetic object, but rather comes to the fore in the fact that the reader is perceiving an other in the aesthetic object.63 Bakhtin builds an aesthetics upon his understanding of the answerability of the act. The aesthetic object is the contemplation directed toward a material work and this aesthetic object has a form that is not identical with its compositional form. 64 He calls this form “architectonic form.” This architectonic form is distinct from but related to the compositional form of the literary (or artistic) object in its material disposition.65 Architectonic form is the form of the value – ideological and emotional-volitional value – achieved in the distinction between author and reader.66 It is in architectonic form that the relationship between author and reader is made; or as Bakhtin says, the reader himself “consummates” architectonic form in his engagement with the artistic object, with compositional form. What’s more, it is architectonic form that determines for the author his compositional choices. 67 Compositional form is thus a irreplaceable uniqueness of being, in relation to every constituent moment of this being; and that means that my participation transforms every manifestation of myself (feeling, desire, mood, thought) into my own actively answerable deed.” 63 “The subiectum’s outside-situatedness (spatial, temporal, and valuative) – the fact that the object of empathizing and seeing is not I myself – makes possible for the first time the aesthetic activity of forming,” M.M. BAKHTIN, Toward a Philosophy of the Act, 67. Here, the “subiectum” is the subject of aesthetic contemplation (e.g., the reader). 64 “What fails to be understood is the emotional-volitional tension of form – the fact that it has the character of expressing some axiological relationship of the author and the contemplator to something apart from the material,” M.M. BAKHTIN , “Content, Material, and Form,” 264. 65 “Thus, form is the expression of the active, axiological relationship of the author-creator and of the recipient (who co-creates the form) to content; all the movements of the work in which we can feel ourselves, our own activity in its axiological relation to content, and which are overcome in their materiality, must be assigned to form,” M.M. BAKHTIN, “Content, Material, and Form,” 306. 66 “It is only on the boundaries of two consciousnesses, on the boundaries of the body, that an encounter is actually realized and the artistic gift of form is bestowed. Without this essentially necessary reference to the other, i.e., as a gift to the other that justifies and consummates him (through an immanent-aesthetic justification), form fails to find any inner foundation and validation from within the author/contemplator’s self-activity and inevitably degenerates into something ‘pretty’…” M.M. BAKHTIN, “Author and Hero,” 96–97. We can see here the beginnings of dialogism in literature. 67 “One could say that the forms of an artistic vision and consummation of the world determine the external literary devices, and not vice versa; that the architectonic of the artistic world determines the composition of a work (the order, the disposition, the concatenation, and the consummation of verbal masses), and not vice versa. The author is compelled to contend with old or with more recent literary forms, compelled to overcome their resistance or to find support in them, yet what underlies this movement is the most essential, the determining, the primary artistic contention – the contention with the cognitive-ethical

32

Part I. Elusive Form and Allusive Form

“teleological whole.” 68 This occurs in the author’s shaping of his “hero” (roughly but not exactly corresponding to the protagonist). 69 Bakhtin gives some examples of this distinction between architectonic form and compositional form: for instance, the novel (Bakhtin’s preferred form of literature) is a compositional form, while its possible architectonic form is the “artistic consummation of a historical or social event.”70 We can see already the application of such a distinction to the Salvation Oracles in Second Isaiah – whose compositional form, long noted, helps the author achieve the architectonic form, however vaguely and uncritically we dare define it now – of the event of return from exile. Architectonic form is not simply the message, but the reader’s artistic consummation of this event. Dialogism, heteroglossia, and chronotope – among other ideas – are Bakhtin’s way of studying the way that authors have achieved the giving of value to their literary “hero” and, thus, the way that readers can assume that value and consummate architectonic form. Bakhtin develops these ideas in later works. 71 Having seen Bakhtin’s aesthetics, we can understand dialogism, very roughly, as the meeting of author and reader in the hero. Bakhtin writes extensively on those authors, most especially Dostoevsky, who construct their novels not with the identification of an idea with a singular consciousness – the traditional hero of epic poetry and what he would call “monological” literature – but as the interaction of two or more “unfinalized consciousnesses” (in aesthetic terms, answerable beings), in the “sphere of ideas.” 72 Heteroglossia is the specific technique of introducing language from different spheres of life into a hero’s speech in a concealed way, so as further to give dialogical form to authorial directedness of a life and its valid persistence as a distinct life,” M.M. BAKHTIN, “Author and Hero,” 197. 68 “The compositional forms, organizing the material, have a teleologial, implemental character, a ‘restless’ character, as it were, and they are subject to a purely technical evaluation: to what extent have they adequately fulfilled their architectonic task? The architectonic form determines the choice of the compositional form… It does not follow from this, of course, that architectonic form exists somewhere in a finished state and can be realized apart from compositional form,” M.M. BAKHTIN, “Content, Material, and Form,” 270. 69 “Form expresses the author’s self-activity in relation to a hero – in relation to another human being. In this sense, we could say that form is the result of the interaction between hero and author. The hero, however, is passive in this interaction: he is not someone who expresses, but someone who is expressed. Yet even as such, he still has a determining effect on the form, inasmuch as the form must answer to him specifically, must consummate from outside his own inner object-directedness in his lived life, and in this respect, therefore, the form must be adequate to him, although not in the least as his possible self-expression,” M.M. BAKHTIN, “Author and Hero,” 84. 70 M.M. BAKHTIN, “Content, Material, and Form,” 269. 71 Notably, Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics (1929.1963), “Discourse in the Novel” (1934–1935), and “Forms of Time and of the Chronotope in the Novel” (1937–1938) 72 M.M. BAKHTIN, Problems of Dostoevksy’s Poetics, 32.

Chapter I. A Dialogical Approach to Form

33

intention. 73 Chronotope is the temporal-spatial setting demanded by the interaction of “internally unfinalized consciousnesses” and the study of this interaction’s artistic conception.74 Dialogism as an approach is very adequate to drawing meaning from the author’s use of literary allusion in compositional form, for in allusion the reader must, in a sense, “consummate” not just the architectonic form, but must complete the compositional as well. If allusion criticism reveals a compositional form in which the author’s idea – in the case of a prophetic oracle, the voice of God himself – is “refracted” through allusion to the hero’s – JacobIsrael’s – own body of literature, we can already see, in principle, that the Salvation Oracles are dialogistic. Allusion draws out for the author the answerability of the alluded texts, and for the reader, his own answerability in identifying them and completing, through them, the composition of the very passage he is reading. This dialogical composition, if we can show it, then invites us into an interpretation of the texts as dialogistic on the level of architectonic form. Genre becomes the place of overlap in our study between compositional form and architectonic form, for it is in genre that the reader is situated. Seen in this way, the reader himself is a voice speaking within the oracle. This is in addition to, or in synthesis of, the many voices speaking through the literary allusions in the oracles; our study of genre becomes the study of voices speaking in time and space. It is here that we can test the results and the methods of classical form criticism, for form criticism has given us various interpretations of the compositional form and content of the Salvation Oracles in their generic context, either oral Sitze im Leben or the Sitz in der Literatur of the prophetic book. There may remain genuinely fruitful insights from form-critical research that pertains even to a dialogical approach and to allusion criticism. Most especially, we shall want to investigate how compositional form serves the architectonic or aesthetic purposes of the author, and the historical insights gained from form criticism – historical situation ever pertinent to Bakhtin’s dialogism – deepen our understanding of the actual relationship of author and reader.

73 “Heteroglossia, once incorporated into the novel (whatever the forms for its incorporation), is another’s speech in another’s language, serving to express authorial intentions but in a refracted way. Such speech constitutes a special type of double-voiced discourse,” M.M. BAKHTIN, “Discourse in the Novel,” 324. 74 M.M. BAKHTIN, Problems of Dostoevksy’s Poetics, 176.

34

Part I. Elusive Form and Allusive Form

3. A Dialogism for Allusion Criticism of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44 We find Bakhtin’s philosophical insights into literature in many large essays and small books written and rewritten over the course of decades, and within those works, his thought tends toward the iterative, as he circles around ideas repeatedly, and so we limit our systematization of his thought to an approach to literary form that can and does utilize allusion to shape the author-reader relationship. 75 We hope to demonstrate the applicability of Bakhtin’s thought to the tightly crafted poems that are the Salvation Oracles, as well as in our examination of their relationship to each other, to their broader literary contexts in Isa 1–66, and to other biblical utterances as a place of the mutual contemplation of God and man. We need, therefore, to lay out the terminology and the distinctions that Bakhtin develops and how these correspond to the perhaps more established terms of biblical scholarship. 3.1 The Written Word as a Speech Act 3.1.1 The Biblical Passage as an Utterance Those terms by which scholars tend to speak of portions of a biblical text, like “passage,” “unit of text,” and “pericope” we shall call, with Bakhtin, the “utterance.” This is because the written word remains a speech act. This does not mean that the prophetic utterance is just the written record of a prophet’s spoken word, for as we have seen in §1.2 above, the possibility remains very strong that Second Isaiah is a writing prophet. 76 What this does mean is that the Salvation Oracles, and those utterances to which they allude, bear the author’s voice, that they speak to the reader, with whom they form a dialogue. As a speech act, we define the individual utterance according to speech subject (the Speaker), the one with whom the utterance speaks (the Addressee), and what they are speaking about (the Object of Discourse). A change in Speaker (not always easy to determine in Isa 34–35; 40–66, as we shall see in Chapter VI) is our first delimiter of an utterance. Where the Speaker continues with a change in Addressee, this will further delimit and utterance. Where Speaker and Addressee continue with a change in Object of Discourse, this will even further delimit the utterance. This holds for the Salvation Oracles, as we have already defined them (Introduction, §4), for their broader literary contexts Holquist (“Discourse in the Novel,” xviii) calls Bakhtin a “baggy monster,” ascribing Bakhtin’s preference for the novelistic genre (over and against poetry) to his preference for loose, unsystematic thought. 76 Indeed, Ben Zvi (“The Prophetic Book,” 276–297) will reverse the perceived order of influence of the spoken word on the written word, claiming that the prophetic book shapes and defines the social group involved in its production and study through time. 75

Chapter I. A Dialogical Approach to Form

35

as utterances, and for the utterances alluded to within them. There are, most often, literary elements that mark these changes in Speaker, Addressee, or Object of Discourse (“But you, Israel” in Isa 41,8 being a strong example). 3.1.2 The Salvation Oracles as Voices within the Book Bakhtin treats the utterance as a whole as having a voice among other utterances within a book, and we shall each the Salvation Oracles, and eventually the Salvation Oracles all together, as a speaking voice within its literary context. We shall be listening not so much for the repetition of themes and ideas from the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–66, but rather specific words and expressions, however transformed, that continue to refer us to the Salvation Oracles as speech acts, as whole utterances. Utterances themselves are in dialogue, and the oft-repeated words and expressions of Isa 34–35; 40–66 especially seem oriented to drawing the reader into this dialogue. 77 We treat this dialogue on two levels, that of the immediate literary context of the Salvation Oracles and that of the broadening of that context to include, eventually, the whole of Isa 1–66. Regarding the immediate literary context, we consider the ways in which the Salvation Oracles, as such, speak with the Trial Speeches and Disputations that surround them, in §4 of Chapters III–V. 78 We shall be particularly attentive to the ways in which the voice of the Salvation Oracles, and their alluded utterances, take shape in the presence of these other genres, akin to the way Bakhtin describes the voice of characters shaping their discourse through the “sideways glance” they give to other characters – that is, the way the prophetic message takes shape in the dialogue of these utterances. 79 These considerations practically comprise a consideration of Isa 41–44 as a whole, which we shall complete in Chapter VI, §2.1, and in the remainder of that chapter we broaden our view, in successive moments, to the whole of Isa 1–66. 3.2 The Author as Prophetic Event In seeking to ascertain authorial intention in forms of prophetic speech, we must define what we mean by a prophetic “author.” This includes some brief 77 These Stichwörte lead Mowinckel already in the 1930s (“Komposition,” 87–112.242– 260) and Morgenstern in the 1950s (“Sequential Unfolding, I,” 1–67; “Sequential Unfolding, II,” 1–102), a time when Isa 1–66 is still considered a collection of oral speeches, to contemplate the literary unity of these utterances. 78 See the Introduction, §4, above for the delimitation of these utterances of other prophetic genres. 79 Bakhtin (Problems of Dostoevksy’s Poetics, 32) writes of this “sideways glance”: “Thus Dostoevsky portrayed not the life of an idea in an isolated consciousness, and not the interrelationship of ideas, but the interaction of consciousnesses in the sphere of ideas (but not of ideas only).”

36

Part I. Elusive Form and Allusive Form

considerations of divine agency, the prophet’s historical situation, and the redactional unity of the prophetic book, relative to our purposes here. 3.2.1 The Prophet as Bearer of God’s Word Important for our study is understanding who the human author is with respect to prophetic oracles that contain literary allusion. The Salvation Oracles, like many or most prophetic utterances, bear the claim of divine agency within their delimitation, through the Messenger Formula and the non-fictitious representation of God’s word in the first-person singular, often through the Formula of Divine Presentation. 80 We do not intend here to develop a treatise on the cooperation of human and divine agency, as one can find this elsewhere. 81 In mentioning divine inspiration, we intend only to infuse our definition of authorship as “event” with an important perspective on God’s use of the human author’s experience, something that scholars have already discerned in the Salvation Oracles themselves (see §1.2, above). In defining prophetic authorship as an event, we do not simply mean that it is an act circumscribed within the life of the historical, human author and thus able to be interpreted solely from his historical circumstances, but that, especially in the case of allusion, it emerges from the person of the prophet as a whole. 82 Again, this does not mean that we need to understand the human author’s biography to understand any single word of his, but rather that the personal whole occurs as an event within the aesthetic object, the contemplation of the work itself. Authorship is within the utterance. 83 If we succeed in demonstrating literary allusion within the utterance, and if we can methodologically demonstrate knowledge of the alluded texts as possible for the author (at least in terms of relative dating, in §2.1 of Chapters III–V), then the act of divine See §1.4, above. Beyond the magisterial statements in DV 11–13 and their more recent development in Inspiration and Truth, see a number of essays on biblical inspiration in P. DUBOVSKÝ/J.-P. SONNET, ed., Ogni Scrittura è ispirata. Among these essays, Ravasi (“Teologia biblica dell’ispirazione,” 271–282) briefly lays out a dialogical model of inspiration that, rather than being the application of a new term to old ideas, demonstrates that Bakhtin’s ideas of authorship are compatible with established teachings on inspiration. 82 Bakhtin writes, “The author, as a constitutive moment of form, is the organized activity, issuing from within, of the integral whole human being, who realizes his task completely, without presupposing anything external to himself for the consummation. It is an activity of the entire human being, from head to foot” (“Content, Material, and Form,” 316). 83 As Bakhtin puts it succinctly, “The aesthetic object is a creation that includes its creator within itself” (“Content, Material, and Form,” 316), and again, “The author must be understood first of all from the event of a work as a participant in that event and as an authoritative guide for the reader in that event” (“Author and Hero,” 207). In the inspired word, this means that the divine creator, as well as the human, remains within the contemplation of the utterance. 80 81

Chapter I. A Dialogical Approach to Form

37

authorship within the event of prophecy becomes the contemplation by God of the prophet’s personal knowledge before the reader. In this way, we can see that authorship is an event, one that exposes the human author in the written word as an event in which the reader participates. In the chapters that follow, then, when we speak of the “author,” we mean the coordinated activity of human and divine agents in the utterance. Where we use the words “God” or “prophet,” it is as Speaker, Addressee, or Object of Discourse. 3.2.2 Historical Situations and “great time” Prophetic authorship transcends the spatial-temporal coordinates of a human author, entering into the aesthetic object, and therefore we cannot interpret authorial intention through purely historical-critical considerations. Trying to identify Second Isaiah, the servant, or his “original” audience according to historical coordinates, while necessary, is not sufficient for our understanding the utterance and takes us outside of it. 84 This is not to devalue the great advances in historical-critical scholarship, but it is to note that identifying the circumstances of prophetic utterances does not comprehensively explain them. Historical situations are the necessary condition out of which the prophetic utterance arises, but they are not their sufficient condition, which is, again, the aesthetic object, in which the form of the utterance is consummated. The broader literary situation of the Salvation Oracles, and Isa 34–35; 40– 66 in particular, presents even at first glance a series of spatial-temporal coordinates for reading them: Babylonian exile in Isa 40–54, oppression by Edom in Isa 34,1–63,6, and, arguably, broader or ongoing situations for a particular community in Isa 55–62; 63,7–66,24. We intend in no way to enter into the debates over the historical situations in which the Salvation Oracles are composed or read, but rather to take these historical situations as the author presents them within the book, and only in as much as we hear the Salvation Oracles speaking as utterances within them. This we shall do in Chapters III–VI. A way of demonstrating that historical-critical considerations do not exhaust the significance of a work is the fact of its ongoing reading in what Bakhtin calls “great time.”85 We shall try to detect the entrance of the Salvation Oracles 84 Bakhtin writes, “The individuation of the author as a human being is no longer a primary but a secondary creative act performed by the reader, the critic, the historian, independently of the author as an active principle of seeing – an act in which the author himself is rendered passive” (“Author and Hero,” 208). 85 Bakhtin (“Response,” 4) writes, “Enclosure within the epoch also makes it impossible to understand the work’s future life in subsequent centuries; this life appears as a kind of paradox. Works break through the boundaries of their own time, they live in centuries, that is, in great time and frequently (with great works, always) their lives are more intense and fuller than are their lives within their own time” (italics original).

38

Part I. Elusive Form and Allusive Form

into “great time” through their subsequent reading within other books of the Bible. This reading through “great time” leads us to some theological conclusions regarding the fulfillment of the Salvation Oracles as prophecy, in particular through Bakhtin’s idea of consummation in the aesthetic object, in Chapter VII. 3.2.3 Redactional Unity within the Author-Event Redaction and literary criticism make formidible claims upon the diachronic composition of Second Isaiah and of the Salvation Oracles in particular, and our approach considers the synchronic or “final” form of the utterance.86 Our approach runs somewhat parallel to the various kinds of redaction criticism applied to the utterances we treat, facing a quite different question, and so any successful demonstration on our part of their compositional unity is not a direct confrontation with those other claims. Indeed, we gain some insight into the final form of Isa 41,1–44,23 as the immediate context of the Salvation Oracles, especially in the repeated pattern of juxtaposed genres seen at a glance above (Introduction, §5) and as treated in more detail in §4 of Chapters III–V. 87 We do not attempt any interpretation, however, for diachronic interests. Our synchronic reading comes not from the position that one human person authors the whole all at once, but from the position that various human persons enter into the event of authorship of the book through time and space, their readings of existing utterances becoming authorial in their own additions, the whole utterance held together in the agency of divine authorship and ongoing human readership (identifiable, at the very least, from the canonical form of the book). If other utterances make reference to the Salvation Oracles, or if, indeed as we shall test in Chapter VI, reading the Salvation Oracles somehow gives form to other utterances, it does not, in this sense, matter what number of human authors are involved and when. Their readings become authorial. Thus, when we examine the Salvation Oracles in their broader literary situation, we continue to refer to one “author.”

86 Most recently, see the work of Weidner (Das Ende Deuterojesajas, 70–73), who sees the Grundbestand of the Salvation Oracles as Isa 41,1–4.8a.9a.10.11–20; 43,1–4; 44,1–4. 87 Kratz (Kyros in Deuterojesaja-Buch, 150), for instance, sees the Trial Speeches in Isa 40–48 as “joint pieces” (Gelenkstücke) tying together prophecies and their confirmation/fulfillment, such that the whole appears literarily and thematically planned and coherent. This occurs after the events surrounding Cyrus, in a time of continuing uncertainty, in which the words originally uttered are given by their tradents new clarity and a fixing of its meaning (Ibid., 169).

Chapter I. A Dialogical Approach to Form

39

3.3 Compositional Form as Ordered to Architectonic Form Perhaps the most important contribution of Bakhtin’s thought to our approach to form comes in his distinction between compositional form and architectonic form. This distinction allows us to examine the shaping and reshaping within and across the Salvation Oracles of the relationship between author and reader, their architectonic form, through the shaping and reshaping of their compositional form. Earlier form-critical studies do not adequately distinguish the two kinds of form, and scholars conjure up architectonic elements (Consequence, Reason, et al.) as precedent to their composition in any given oracle. This order of identification becomes subjective to the form critic, leading to the very different kinds of definitions of what we continue to call the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 based on comparisons to different kinds of inner-biblical and extrabiblical literature, as seen in §1.1–§1.3, above. This happens because, in doing comparative studies, their analysis of compositional form proceeds, to a certain degree, from their own aesthetic object, basically reversing (but not totally, and therefore not without merit), the necessary order of exegetical operation. 88 By beginning, instead, with compositional form, we can more properly understand the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 in themselves and as a group first within their literary context, as well as the role of literary allusion in giving shape to their compositional form. Indeed, in the comparisons that we ourselves must make to proposed alluded utterances, we minimize the risk of proceeding from our own aesthetic object precisely by looking first to the ways in which literary allusion determines or is determined by compositional form. Then, only from such a proper registration of compositional form can we assign architectonic values to the compositional parts of the Salvation Oracles, as properly-identified allusions take on a voice within them. 3.3.1 Literary Criteria for Determining Compositional Form The kinds of compositional analysis that seem by now somewhat second nature in biblical studies, those based on identifiable patterns of Hebrew-language (or more broadly Semitic) rhetoric, emerge from scholarship on the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44 and approaches to form akin to dialogism, and so it is appropriate to mention these as we lay out some basic criteria for the analysis of compositional form. Thus Muilenburg, in preparation for his commentary on Isaiah mentioned above (§1.1.3), sees the repetition of words as a structuring

For Bakhtin, the architectonic form determines compositional form for the author (see n. 65, above) and so scholarly understanding of authorial intention must proceed in reverse, from compositional form to architectonic form, not, as earlier form criticism would have it, from proposed historical, architectonic situations to poetic composition. 88

40

Part I. Elusive Form and Allusive Form

element in Second Isaiah. 89 In response to Muilenburg’s later magisterial address in which he calls for a proper account of the poetic structure of a text, 90 Knierim provides a list of elements as constitutive of compositional patterns, including acrostic poem, parallelismus membrorum, word association, inversion, meter, and chiasm. 91 Analyzing the structure of a passage based on such stylistic features unlocks levels of meaning not contained in individual words and sentences themselves92 – and certainly not in architectonic patterns imposed on the text by partial association, as we have discussed in §3.3, above. To Knierim’s list of structuring elements, we would add alliteration, anaphora/epiphora, word play, sound play, the splitting-up of alluded phrases, and, as per comparison with Neo-Assyrian oracles (§1.3.3, above), the formulas we have listed in Table 3, above. We shall not consider meter, a topic fraught with disagreement and having little or no relevance to this study. We shall lay out some these elements more systematically regarding their role in allusive composition in Chapter II, §2.2.2. There is a close, but non-essential, relationship between the structure of the utterance conceived according to compositional patterns and the way the utterance is represented on the printed page. It is helpful to see the Hebrew text typeset according to perceived parallelistic patterns, as the BHS3 does. It is also not strictly necessary, for those same patterns could be shown, albeit with more difficulty, in paragraph form or as a single, continuous line. Rather, what is important is that our visual representations show and help us argue for the

J. MUILENBURG, “Repetition and Style,” 97–111, esp. 109–111. He demonstrates this in Isa 41,1–20 and vv. 8–10 in particular. 90 See J. MUILENBURG, “Form Criticism and Beyond,” 1–18. 91 R. KNIERIM, “Form Criticism Reconsidered,” 435–468. He writes specifically, “The structure governing a text-entity can be discovered only on the basis of close textual analysis which demonstrates the inherent framework from evidence in the text itself.” More recently, Melugin (“Reader Response,” 51), underscoring via summary the importance of Knierim’s article, affirms our dialogistic approach first to composition: “Structural analysis of the particular form of individual texts must precede investigation of how those texts are governed by typicalities.” 92 Here, Knierim (“Criticism of Literary Features,” 137), influenced by the Structuralist movement, begins to sound like Bakhtin: “With some variations, a text is understood as an organic linguistic entity, as the elementary and self-contained unit of linguistic (oral or written) expression in a communication event. In principle, it supersedes the entities of the word and sentence levels. It is a “macrosyntactical unit”… The structure in which this phenomenon exists becomes the focus of analysis.” Fokkelman applies Knierim’s approach to Second Isaiah studies in particular in two essays – one on Isa 40,1–11 (“Stylistic Analysis of Isaiah 40,” 68–90) and one on Isa 44,24–45,7 (“The Cyrus Oracle,” 303–323) that, while not directly relevant to this study of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44, have aided us in understanding compositional form in Second Isaiah. 89

Chapter I. A Dialogical Approach to Form

41

compositional form, the course of ideas organized according to patterns of words. 93 We make no claim thereby to some original layout as necessary for communicating authorial intention. 3.3.2 Form-Critical Designations for Architectonic Elements Once we have ascertained the compositional form of each Salvation Oracle can we proceed to understand the way in which the parts of those compositions are typical for the Salvation Oracle as a local genre and the way in which those parts determine architectonic form. In fact, it will seem most likely that, apart from the formulas, the compositional parts become typical for the Salvation Oracles only as designated architectonic elements. If, then, we allow ourselves to see even the formulas as compositional elements, and not strictly or primarily as typical and/or architectonic, then what remains is to assign architectonic value precisely to the compositional parts of the Salvation Oracles. Each compositional part takes on architectonic value in the way that it determines the relationship between author and reader in the dialogues established therein between allusions and between allusion and original content, and those dialogues set in a particular temporal aspect. In this regard, we can continue to use the established nomenclature, like Address, Consequence, Reason, and Purpose, for each of the compositional parts. This use of form-critical terms will demonstrate, as well, both the enduring value of form-critical scholarship on the Salvation Oracles to date and the place of allusion criticism and dialogism within ongoing form criticism. Assigning architectonic value to compositional parts also allows us to demonstrate the reshaping of that value across the Salvation Oracles and within the broader literary context at least of Isa 34–35; 40–66. That is, in as much as these become typical for the Salvation Oracle as a genre within the book of Isaiah, we can begin to hear how the author reconfigures those typicalities with the unfolding “drama” of these chapters, all proceeding first from compositional form. The reshaping of architectonic typicalities might provide a fruitful examination of the shaping of Jacob-Israel as (or as not) the servant as the scroll unrolls.94 93 For an excellent survey of the issues regarding the visual representation of Hebrew parallelism and poetry, see P. TULL, “What’s New in Lowth?,” 183–217. 94 Emerson (“The Early Philosophical Essays,” 51) distinguishes between the “dialogic self” of Bakhtin’s middle works and the “architectonic self” of his earliest and latest works, suggesting that each becomes, in a certain way, a model for behavior in particular societies. This insight may be applicable our analysis in ch. VI of the shaping of Jacob-Israel and the servant across Isa 34–35; 40–66 and its various historical and literary situations as an “architectonic self,” what Emerson describes as “complexly responsible, ego-oriented” and “most concerned about individuation and answering for itself among others” toward (or not) a “dialogic self” that is “benign, generous, permeable, reversible.” That is, what we describe

42

Part I. Elusive Form and Allusive Form

3.4 Genre as Providing Architectonic Value to the Composition Properly to assign value to the compositional parts of the Salvation Oracles as architectonic elements means first understanding what in them is constitutive of genre, i.e., the typical, namely verbal aspect and, as is pertinent to this particular study of allusion, generic descriptions of actors or persons in the alluded and alluding utterances. These two dimensions of architectonic analysis provide the strongest links to existing form-criticism of the Salvation Oracles and advance it. 3.4.1 Chronotope as Constitutive of Genre Our survey of form-critical studies on the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44 has revealed the importance of the shape of time in these utterances, so much so that shifts in verbal form seem to characterize the Salvation Oracle as a genre, at least locally in Isa 34–35; 40–66 (e.g., for Westermann, the lack of verbal perfect in Isa 41,17–20 is what makes it an Announcement of Salvation and not a Salvation Oracle; see §1.1.4, above). Bakhtin sees chronotope, or the temporal-spatial dimensions of an utterance, as determinative of its genre (see §2, above). We shall, then, continue to pay close attention to the shape of time and space in the Salvation Oracles. Regarding time, we shall concern ourselves with verbal form not simply as indicating tenses, fixed notions of time, but as per certain grammars, with verbal aspect, mood, and modality, which describe the quality of action in time.95 This seems especially pertinent in prophetic utterances that have entered “great time,” whose reader situates himself relative to the utterance. In considering verbal aspect, we can understand composition according to verbal form (qatal, yiqtol, and their inverted counterparts) as determining architectonic form in the relativistic terms dear to Bakhtin, that is, the way these verbal compositions situate us as readers within the aesthetic object in relation to the author as an ongoing prophetic event. Such an analysis of the composition of verbal forms frees us from purely historical-critical interpretations of the Salvation Oracles while not distancing us from their historical situation (see §3.2.2, above). These considerations regarding time translate into regard for the spatial dimensions of the Salvation Oracles in perhaps simpler terms. This means, above all, an examination of the use of geographical words – so prominent in Isa 34– 35; 40–66 – not simply to identify fixed locations masked by metaphor, but to understand the way geographical words, metaphorical or not, correspond to the

as architectonic elements in chs. III–V may change or even disappear for Jacob-Israel as literary hero or transfer to Zion-Jerusalem or the broader group of “servants.” 95 See P. JOÜON–T. M URAOKA, A Grammar of Biblical Hebrew, §111c-g, and A. GIANTO, “Mood and Modality in Classical Hebrew,” 183–198.

Chapter I. A Dialogical Approach to Form

43

temporal aspect of the parts of the Salvation Oracles and thus, become determinative of the relationship between author and reader. What role, if any, literary allusion plays in the chronotope of the Salvation Oracles remains to be seen through the analysis of each specific utterance (Chapters III–V) and their ensemble as a genre (Chapters VI–VII). 3.4.2 Persons as Elements of Genre If, as we intend to show, the Salvation Oracles make allusion to other biblical utterances, we should seek to understand the ways in which the genre of the alluded utterances determines or shapes the genre of the Salvation Oracle. As early as Chapter III, we will have demonstrated literary allusion to some Psalms of Lament, and despite allusions to utterances of other genres, we will adopt Westermann’s rather personalistic analysis of the genre of the Psalms of Lament according to their three subjects of God, Lamenter, and Enemy, an a structure of relationship he sees also in the Salvation Oracles of Second Isaiah. 96 We shall add, according to our own reading of the Psalms of Lament, the Friend (distinct from the Friend of Westermann’s analysis of the book of Job, corresponding here to the third party whose fate so often seems bound to that of the Lamenter).97 We find this fitting for several reasons. First, since Gunkel and Begrich, scholars have noted the close relationship of the Salvation Oracles to the Psalms of Lament, an association that continues into current scholarship, so such an approach would not conflict, in essence, with that of the scholars whose work we have summarized in §1, above, and would seem to advance it.98 Second, analyzing genre according to personal relations corresponds to Bakhtin’s dialogism, in that the idea is not embodied in any one character, but in the dialogue between them. Third, identifying these personal elements of genre in the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 may identify the elements that situate these Salvation Oracles within Isa 1–66, or at least Isa 34–35; 40–66, as a whole, given the frequent use the prophet makes of the psalms, and therefore 96 See C. W ESTERMANN , Praise and Lament, 165–213; on the Salvation Oracles in particular, see Ibid., 175–176. 97 See C. WESTERMANN, The Structure of the Book of Job, esp. 1–17, in which the Friends serve to give form to the book of Job as a dramatization of the Lament form, especially as non-consoling partners in disputation. In the Psalms of Lament, we identify the Friend as, typically, the plural instances of words used in the singular for the Lamenter (e.g., plural ‫ ענ ו ים‬to the singular ‫)ענ י‬, or on their own, as in “who fear the Lord” (‫ )ירא י יהו ה‬for instance in Ps 22,24. 98 See, for instance, the work of Blenkinsopp, The Beauty of Holiness, who demonstrates the influence of psalms across Isa 1–66. Berges (Jesaja 40–48, 38–43) identifies the author(s) of Isa 40–54 as the Temple Singers of the psalms, a theory that Blenkinsopp (The Beauty of Holiness, 65–67) endorses with qualification.

44

Part I. Elusive Form and Allusive Form

contribute to the understanding of Second Isaiah, at least, as a “dramatization” of the Lament form akin to what Westermann identifies in Job (we shall examine this, in particular, in Chapter VI). 99

4. Conclusions In this chapter, we have sought to develop an approach to literary form in the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 that can account for the presence and purpose of literary allusion. This has meant engaging a philosophy, in Bakhtin’s dialogism, that deals properly with the teleological orientation of form to the reader, the one for whom allusion serves to bring completion (or “consummation”) to the utterance. The problematics addressed in dialogism – the utterance as a speech act, the author as event, the distinction between compositional form and architectonic form, and the shape of space and (especially) of time in the utterance, summarized in §2 – emerge already across the many decades of formcritical research focused on the Salvation Oracles, summarized in §1. We have in §3, in light of the inherent problematics and in anticipation of fitting those issues to the new issue of literary allusion, adapted Bakhtin’s dialogism, especially in its concern for form, into an approach we feel can adequately integrate allusion into prophetic reading. We propose to develop a method of allusion criticism oriented to compositional form, which we shall do now in Chapter II. As we move forward into Chapter II, we should remain attentive to the specific form-critical problems that we hope the identification of literary allusion can solve. If the Salvation Oracles are related to forms coming from institutions like the cult and the monarchy, then they may also be alluding directly to specific utterances coming from those institutions, like the Psalms of Lament. Following upon this, if we can identify such allusions or similar, we can become much more precise in identifying the Addressee (Jacob-Israel), historically and in great time, through the genre of those allusions. Finally, we can examine what role the specific allusions play in giving shape to the space and time (chronotope) of the Addressee, the Speaker, and their Object of Discourse, for readers of the Babylonian exile, those of Edom’s oppression, and those, like us, in great time.

99 In fact, Westermann (The Structure of the Book of Job, 12–13) claims that identifying the three subjects of Lament provides him with an approach to explaining the relationship of the parts of Job to the book as a whole, each sentence in a “twofold context,” the individual speech and the depicted event of the whole book.

Chapter II

A Method for Allusion Criticism We have formulated a dialogical approach in Chapter I that orients the question of literary form to the purpose of form, with the corresponding distinction between compositional form and architectonic form, such that we might, in this chapter, develop a method for demonstrating the role of allusion in compositional form, and in later chapters, interpret the architectonic value of allusion in composition. This method builds upon the pioneering work of Sommer, his detection of stylistic patterns of allusion in Isa 34–35; 40–66 serving as a bridge to the question of compositional form. While we have fit our dialogical approach to such a method, the method of allusion criticism should remain independent of dialogism. Dialogism, in itself, is not concerned with allusion, even if in our systematization we have opened a way for a consideration of allusion. Allusion, in itself, one can interpret according to the lights of various approaches, and indeed most approaches, including Sommer’s, focus on the rhetorical purposes of allusion. In this chapter, we shall first discuss some of the theoretical aspects of allusion criticism, which will put us in contact with many of the most important works on literary allusion in general and biblical allusion in particular, even outside Second Isaiah studies (§1). After this, we shall discuss the stylistic patterns by which Second Isaiah, at least, composes allusive utterances (§2). Finally, we shall outline the methodological procedure with which we shall operate on the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 in Chapters III–V and these in their broader literary context in Chapters VI–VII (§3).

1. Principles of Allusion Criticism Some of the methodological insufficiencies that remain in studies of biblical allusion reflect the lack of a proper name for what these studies involve, and so for this study and for the prospect of this study’s guiding future work in biblical allusion, we call our method “allusion criticism.”1 Methodological precision involves more than nomenclature, however. Our choice of terminology reflects two orders of methodological distinction: on the order of isolating 1 Answering Miller’s call for a different name for the diachronic, author-centered approach to textual comparison in “Intertextuality in Old Testament Research,” 305.

46

Part I. Elusive Form and Allusive form

allusion criticism as a methodology from the bundle of approaches called “intertextuality” and “intertextual studies” and on the order of isolating allusion as a form of authorial composition from the forms of quotation, echo, and general influence. In calling this method “allusion criticism,” we do not claim a brand-new method built from sctratch, but the development and cohesion of various methods of identifying allusion called by various names, and one that might fit with different kinds of interpretative approaches that sometimes become confused with the process of identifying allusions themselves. Even without the dialogical approach that we have developed, allusion criticism involves understanding the relationship between author and reader. Such concerns have always been at the heart of allusion studies, most often reflected in the identification of rhetorical categories or strategies. 2 We do not wish to invalidate such approaches; indeed, since, as we have seen, form has a teleological character, we hope to demonstrate through allusion criticism the rhetorical function, perhaps more broadly understood, that is embedded or embodied in the compositional form of allusive utterances. The stylistic patterns we shall discuss, in fact, are part and parcel of the forms of biblical, or more broadly Semitic, rhetoric. Our dialogical interpretation, though, will remain in the categories of architectonic form that form criticism already provides, so that what we discover through this method may transfer to the interpretation of the Salvation Oracles within the overall form of Isa 1–66 and the Bible as a whole. Following, then, are some considerations on the theory of allusion, first on the author-reader relationship (§1.1), on form and genre in allusion (§1.2), and on evaluating evidence for allusion (§1.3). 1.1 Relating Author and Reader in Allusion Criticism Allusion criticism seeks the biblical author’s conscious and intentional use of existing literary material in the composition of a new utterance. This concern for authorial intention and the method of discerning it distinguishes allusion criticism from intertextuality, at least in its original, strict focus on the reader. Allusion criticism is concerned with the reader, but not in isolation from the author. To shape allusion criticism as a method of biblical exegesis, we shall now distinguish it from intertextual studies (§1.1.1) and investigate authorial intention in making allusions (§1.1.2) and readerly procedure in identifying them (§1.1.3).

2 Such as those discussed by Sommer (A Prophet Reads Scripture, 18–20) and Tull Willey (Remember the Former Things, 57–76).

Chapter II. A Method for Allusion Criticism

47

1.1.1 Allusion Criticism and Intertextuality Allusion demands a strong reader, one capable of drawing together two or more texts, and for this reason the study of allusion has often occurred through intertextual approaches. The use of the term “intertextuality” has led to some confusion in biblical studies and debate over the appropriateness of the term in allusion studies in particular. 3 If only on the level of morphology, “allusion” more adequately describes the active, dynamic interplay between author and reader, and “criticism” the active role of the scholar than does “intertextuality,” which more accurately describes a static property and a basic attitude toward reading. 4 This attitude is usually one of confrontation with the authoritative value of alluded utterances, an attitude that may not always, if often at all, be that of biblical writers toward the traditions upon which they draw. 5 Intertextuality has its origins in the French Post-Structuralism of the 1960s and reads a text independently of its author and authorial intention. For this reason, if the semioticians who practice “intertextuality” speak at all of the one who produces a text, they identify him not as an “author” but, at most, as “writer” or “scriptor.” 6 The reader assumes authority over the text and its readings. Kristeva coins the term “intertextuality” in what many now consider a myopic reading of Bakhtin’s work, and so for this reason also, in a study that engages heavily with Bakhtinian dialogism, we shall avoid confusing her reading of Bakhtin with ours. 7 Far from Bakhtin’s understanding of the utterance as a speech act, and thus text as a word, she replaces his idea of intersubjectivity

For two contrasting surveys in the terminological and methodological confusion surrounding “intertextuality,” see P. TULL , “Intertextuality and the Hebrew Scriptures,” 59–90; G. MILLER, “Intertextuality in Old Testament Research,” 283–309. 4 Tull Willey (Remember the Former Things, 76) calls intertextuality a property of “texts… [and] of the people who read those texts” with respect to the authoritative weight of older texts. 5 For instance in Isaiah studies, Miscall (“Isaiah,” 44), writes: “Writers who use the term and concept of intertextuality generally imply trouble and disturbance in textual relations. Relations between texts are never paradisiacal; texts can only exist in a fallen world.” On Isa 44,1–4, which we study here, Miscall (Ibid., 55) writes: “Isaiah’s allusive, transumptive style sets in motion a series reaching back in ANE myths, Genesis and Exodus – a series that Isaiah seeks to close by precluding further figuration.” 6 In his glossary for the English-language translation of Kristeva’s essays, Roudiez (“Introduction,” 13) is very careful to distinguish Kristeva’s use of the term auteur as an “author” possessed of conscious authority over the composition and meaning of the text and the neutral expression “writer.” 7 See J. K RISTEVA, “Word, Dialogue, and Novel,” 64–91. She writes, “Any text is constructed as a mosaic of quotations; any text is the absorption and transformation of another. The notion of intertextuality replaces that of intersubjectivity, and poetic language is read as at least double” (Ibid., 66) (italics original). 3

48

Part I. Elusive Form and Allusive form

gained from his study of heteroglossia and other means of refracting authorial intention with the idea of intertextuality. 8 Biblical scholars have not always drawn a neat distinction between intertextual approaches and methods of allusion criticism. This is certainly the case in Second Isaiah studies. For instance: Miscall defines intertextuality as a “covering term” for all relations between texts, including quotation, allusion, and influence. 9 Tull Willey, having noted the varied appropriation of the term “intertextuality” even among early semioticians (Kristeva, Jenny, Roudiez), and having concluded that, among themselves, none “can manage to maintain control of the meaning of the word “intertextuality”“ retains it nevertheless as a blanket term for her own study on the influence of specific texts in Isa 49–55.10 This is perhaps due to her seeing quotation, allusion, and echo as on a formal continuum leading into the “untraceable codes” of anonymous references. 11 Schultz employs the term “intertextuality” for his studies in literary dependence, seeing it as the “now-favored term” for “all possible relationships existing between texts.”12 In fact, Schultz draws up a helpful list of three uses of the term “intertextuality,” which we will qualify: the definition by Miscall, “all the possible relations between texts” including allusion (what we will call the “broad use”); the “trendy label” applied to the “traditional” study identifying inner-biblical allusion itself, as identified by van Wolde (the “misuse”); 13 and the synchronic,

8 Tull (“Intertextuality and the Hebrew Scriptures,” 70–73) sees Kristeva’s subsitution of “text” for “word” as the exact place where Kristeva transforms Bakhtin’s ideas. It is precisely this substitution that Lesic-Thomas sees as “rendering [Bakhtin’s] notion of the human subject, agency and intentionality largely irrelevant” (“Behind Bakhtin,” 6). Indeed, Lesic-Thomas calls Kristeva’s work a “highly original intellectual collage” (Ibid., 3) closer in theory to Russian Formalism (against which, as we have seen, Bakhtin reacts strongly; see §2 of ch. I), and that dialogism and intertextuality “belong to different conceptual worlds” (Ibid., 4). 9 P. MISCALL , “Isaiah,” 44. 10 P. TULL WILLEY, Remember the Former Things, 60 n. 5. In a later article, Tull (“Intertextuality and the Hebrew Scriptures,” 59–90) invites scholars “to celebrate” what we would consider terminological and methodological confusion. 11 P. TULL W ILLEY, Remember the Former Things, 61. 12 R. S CHULTZ , “Isaianic Intertextuality and Intratextuality,” 33. 13 Van Wolde, (“Trendy Intertextuality,” 45), lamenting the misuse of the term “intertextuality” for allusion studies, writes, “Intertextual studies concentrate on general modes of thinking and codes of reasoning and not on one-to-one relationships” between texts. See also W.S. GREEN, “Doing the Text’s Work,” 58–63 against Hays’ use of “intertextuality” in his highly influential studies on allusion in the Pauline corpus (Echoes of Scripture, 14–15; “Response,” 163–189). Van Wolde’s call seems to have gone elsewhere unheeded in biblical studies, leading Meek (“Ethics,” 280–291) to reiterate the former’s insistence that the term

Chapter II. A Method for Allusion Criticism

49

reader-oriented method developed by Kristeva and the semiotic school (the “strict use”).14 Some of the strongest calls for terminological clarity tend to come from those who practice the strict-use, semiotic approach, and not without a certain amount of denigration of the practice of identifying particular allusions. 15 That said, Sommer clearly separates the investigation of allusion from intertextuality. 16 He does this by reiterating the “diachronic/synchronic” distinction to each of these respective fields of research. Allusion, which is accompanied by the broader category of “influence,” is a diachronic approach concerned with authorial intent and composition. This is a diachronic approach because it distinguishes two or more texts directionally, in terms of alluded text/influence and alluding text/influenced. Because of our interest in authorial intention gained through a dialogical approach, and for methodological clarity in general, we shall not use the term “intertextuality” for our approach or our method of allusion criticism. 1.1.2 Authorial Intention in Allusion Among the objections to practicing allusion criticism on biblical literature, and for preferring, instead, a reader-focused approach like intertextuality, are the inability to identify a single, alluding author whose historical situation is known in relation to his alluded texts and the inability for readers, so far, to have identified allusions as authorial gestures. 17 The first objection concerns issues like the relative dating of texts and multiple layers of redaction within them. The second objection measures authorial intention by readerly or critical skill. With our method of allusion criticism, focused on the formal properties of allusion, we hope to reveal evidence for allusions as through authorial stylistic gestures that do not require indubious knowledge of historical situations and that, indeed, correspond to what we do know about the composition of biblical literature. “intertextuality” be reserved for synchronic approaches that very deliberately ignore authorial intention. 14 R. S CHULTZ, “Intertextuality, Canon, and ‘Undecidability’,” 19–38. Cf. H. PLETT, “Intertextualities,” 3–29, esp. 3–5. 15 Tull (“Intertextuality and the Hebrew Scriptures,” 74) gives an example of such derogatory language. Kristeva herself (“Breaching the Thetic,” 59–60), in her own frustration over the misapplication of the term “intertextuality,” and to contrast it with what she calls the “banal sense of the “study of sources”,” is herself willing to abandon it for the term “transposition.” 16 B. SOMMER, A Prophet Reads Scripture, 6–10. 17 In response to many such objections, in the New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics, Miner et al. (“Allusion,” 39) describe authorial intention in allusion in somewhat frustrated terms: “A[llusion] presumes, then, either intentionality or whatever name a voluntary, deliberate effort goes under.”

50

Part I. Elusive Form and Allusive form

In the field of Second Isaiah studies on allusion, we find the first objection in Kwon’s dismissal of influence studies in his comparative study of Job and Second Isaiah and answered already by Sweeney and Williamson. Kwon thinks that the authorial intent necessary for determining influence requires identifying individual or attributable authorship, something that the books of Isaiah and Job (which he is comparing) do not provide, not least because of their complex redactional history. 18 Redactional layers within a book do not mean that whole sections of it – like Isa 41–44 – are not composed at once, and so Kwon’s conclusion, that allusion is not possible where redaction has occurred or where multiple authors or anonymous authors are present, does not hold. On the contrary, scholars like Sweeney and Williamson have shown that allusion, as intra-biblical allusion, comprises various, deliberate, discernible authorial gestures meant to bring unity to Isa 1–66.19 Indeed, so convincing have been their arguments that it would seem that the anonymous, so-called “Second Isaiah” is the one to bring authorial unity to the canonical form of the book of Isaiah precisely through his allusiveness. With respect to the second objection, allusion, while demanding a strong reader, is first an exercise by the author himself. This is especially true if the allusions are not immediately accessible to the reader. Fishbane draws us into the mind of the alluding biblical author: Enough evidence has been assembled to indicate that a learned preoccupation with older prophetic language is characteristic of late biblical prophecy, which saw itself in the shadow of the great exilic prophets, especially Isaiah. At the same time, one cannot presume that these epigonic allusions, or their full impact, were directly meaningful to the post-exilic Judaean community without supplementary clarification… What can be safely presumed, however, is the meaningfulness of these old allusions to the latter-day prophetic formulators themselves. It was they who studied the old oracular words – perhaps especially in times of apparent divine silence – and sought thereby to find their place in the ancient divine scheme of things, as revealed in the pre-exilic period when, so it seemed, Yhwh spoke “ceaselessly” to his people Israel. 20

Even if, after 2500 years, we have not yet successfully identified all of the literary allusions in Second Isaiah, this does not mean that the author does not 18 For Kwon, (Scribal Culture and Intertextuality, 25), there is no such thing as an identifiable author (or a book, for that matter) until the Hellenistic period, and so he writes: “If the scholarly consensus is right that the book of Job has been developed in multiple compositional stages over two or three centuries, we may not talk about the literary quotation/allusion by an author living in a particular time and location, but it would probably be more appropriate to suppose that there were various voices in a group of authors through successive generations.” 19 See M. S WEENEY, Isaiah 1–4, “Isaiah 60–62”; H.G.M. WILLIAMSON, The Book Called Isaiah. 20 M. FISHBANE, Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel, 498–499.

Chapter II. A Method for Allusion Criticism

51

intend them. Indeed, it is perhaps the enduring value of his (or their) poetry that after all this time, there are deeper and deeper veins from which to mine the richness of his prophetic message. 1.1.3 Readerly Procedure in Allusion Literary allusion dwells in a dynamic state within the reader’s knowledge. Readerly detection of allusion requires some knowledge of alluded texts and increases knowledge of them as it generates a search for more allusions. The reader proceeds from authorial techniques and strategies for marking allusion, of which, again, the reader has some knowledge and generates greater knowledge. Readerly procedure is dynamic in learning how to find alluded texts and in the act of synchronic, simultaneous reading two or more texts. Scholars have constructed various models of how this dynamic process of detecting allusion occurs for the reader. Within the Tel Aviv school of poetics, Ben-Porat adapts Structuralist paradigms to provide a relatively common-sense approach to the reader’s role in allusion. 21 Simply put, the reader recognizes a marker (“an element or pattern belonging to another independent text”), identifies the evoked text, and modifies his initial local interpretation. Perri, adapting Searle’s Pragmatic approach, expands Ben-Porat’s model into ten “conventions” for the author-reader relationship (illocutionary rules) and five perlocutionary effects on the reader (who first “comprehends” the alluding text in its own world”). 22 In a way parallel to heteroglossia in Bakhtinian dialogism, literary allusion makes its own active reader, one which is, nevertheless for Perri, a “recondite literary technique” that calls for an educated reader. The active reader must be able to read, in a sense, two texts simultaneously, achieving what Bakhtin and we would call a “polyphony.” This means that a single word or group of words functions to give meaning both to the alluding utterance and the alluded utterance.23 It is this simultaneous reading of two or more texts in allusion that has led some to apply the term “intertextuality” to such a readerly approach, even if it depends upon authorial gesture, and from that school of thought we can gain a sense of what is happening in the mind of the reader: Le propre de l’intertextualité est d’introduire à un nouveau mode de lecture qui fait éclater la linéarité du texte. Chaque référence intertextuelle est le lieu d’une alternative : ou bien poursuivre la lecture en ne voyant là qu’un fragment comme un autre, qui fait partie See Z. BEN-PORAT, “The Poetics of Literary Allusion,” 105–128. See C. PERRI, “On Alluding,” 289–307. 23 In addition to the pragmatic conventions that Perri devises, she describes the double reference that allusion achieves: “An allusion refers at least doubly: the sign of the allusionmarker refers within its text’s world as well as allusively, to some referent outside this text (or, in the case of self-echo, to an allusive referent within the alluding text” (“On Alluding,” 295). 21 22

52

Part I. Elusive Form and Allusive form

intégrante de la syntagmatique du texte – ou bien retourner vers le texte-origine en opérant une sorte d’anamnèse intellectuelle où la référence intertextuelle apparaît comme un élément paradigmatique “ déplacé ” et issu d’une syntagmique oubliée. En fait l’alternative ne se présente qu’aux yeux de l’analyste. C’est simultanément qu’un opèrent ces deux processus dans la lecture – et dans la parole – intertextuelle, étoilant le texte de bifurcations qui en ouvrent peu à peu l’espace sémantique. 24

The educated, active reader of alluding utterances takes on a kind of authorial position with respect to the utterance, just as the reader does in the kinds of dialogical forms of utterance that Bakhtin describes. In this light, Pucci demonstrates that allusion demands what he calls the “Full-Knowing Reader.”25 This is not, despite appearances, a reader who shares fully in the author’s knowledge. On the contrary, this is a reader who retains full control over the interpretation of the allusion precisely because of the “dissonance” that the allusion creates, which the reader must resolve in the “allusive space” that exists apart from the referential and significative controls in the two texts. In this space, which is in the mind of the reader, a mental, interpretative dialogue ensues, which “ensures that the reader assumes complete interpretative power over the allusive moment – and at the expense of the author, whose power evanesces.” 26 However, Pucci maintains that this is not a “free-floating mass of literary potential” but is circumscribed by the literary author: At the same time, since the reader of the allusion is not the author of the larger text in which the allusion exists, to which it must be returned in order to harbor interpretative value, the voice of the allusion’s reader disappears when the allusion is placed in the text in which it arises, where it becomes the voice of the author. 27

That is, the non-allusive part of the text, in which an author normally maintains interpretative control, limits the interpretative field of the allusion. We might add that, in the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44, which we will show to be highly allusive to the psalms, it is their prophetic form that governs their interpretation, and which may, indeed, be generating the reading of the psalms on their own as prophetic utterances. 28 1.2 Considering Genre in Allusion Criticism Literary genre will serve to bridge our method of allusion criticism with our dialogical approach to form and theological interpretation, and so just as we have discussed some important qualities of genre from the dialogical point of

L. JENNY, “Stratégie de la forme,” 266. See J. PUCCI, The Full-Knowing Reader, 27–48. 26 J. PUCCI , The Full-Knowing Reader, 43. 27 J. PUCCI , The Full-Knowing Reader, 45. 28 On the use of allusion in Second Isaiah to turn the psalms into prophetic utterances for subsequent readers, see D. WILLGREN, “Antwort Gottes,” 96-115. 24 25

Chapter II. A Method for Allusion Criticism

53

view, especially chronotope and persons as elements of genre (§3.4 of Chapter I), so we shall do so now from the point of view of our allusion-critical method. This means, firstly, a brief overview of the problem of genre in allusion studies of Second Isaiah (§1.2.1), followed by considerations of the author’s use of genre (§1.2.2) and the importance of genre for the reader of allusive utterances (§1.2.3). 1.2.1 Genre in Second Isaiah Allusion Studies In general, the identification of inner-biblical allusion has served to advance the interpretation of Second Isaiah’s rhetorical and redactional purposes, without due regard for form or genre, with some exceptions. Sommer organizes his exposition of each source of Second Isaiah’s allusions according to rhetorical purposes, like reversal, reprediction, fulfillment of earlier prophecies, typological linkages, and repetition of a promise.29 We have seen that Sweeney and Williamson have used allusion for redaction-critical purposes. 30 On the other hand, Berges, in his commentaries on Isa 40–48 and 49–54, very explicitly brings established form-critical designations of genre into the margins of the page, while in the body of the commentary he examines possible inner-biblical allusions in Second Isaiah’s message. 31 This summary affirms Schultz’s statement, that “the influence of Gunkel’s form-critical approach on the study of prophetic quotation has been minimal.”32 Since then, however, Clements has built upon the work of Sommer in identifying allusions to some of the Royal Psalms (Pss 2; 72; 89) to begin an investigation into the repurposing of such a genre in Second Isaiah.33 The theological feat that the allusion to Ps 72 in particular achieves, maintaining the promises to the Davidic dynasty when that dynasty has been eradicated, can only be accomplished in transferring the form of the Royal Psalm to the Cyrus Oracle. In fact, just as we mentioned with respect to the reader’s control over allusions (§1.1.3, above), Second Isaiah must treat the psalm as prophecy. For Clements, only form can bear the burden of a transfer of content and the reidentification of theological origin (psalm to prophecy).

See, for instance, Sommer’s chapter on allusion to the book of Jeremiah in A Prophet Reads Scripture, 32–72. 30 See §1.1.2, above. On the other hand, Sommer (“Allusions and Illusions,” 156–186), alluding to Williamson’s work, uses the identification of inner-biblical allusion precisely to demonstrate the redactional disunity of Isa 1–66. 31 See especially Berges’ introductory notes on the “Temple Singer Hypothesis” in Jesaja 40–48, 38–43; cf. Jesaja 49–54, passim. 32 R. S CHULTZ , Search for Quotation, 50 n. 85. 33 R. CLEMENTS , “Psalm 72 and Isaiah 40–66,” 333–341. 29

54

Part I. Elusive Form and Allusive form

1.2.2 Genre and Authorial Intention In our systematization of a dialogical approach to form, we have set aside some ideas central to Bakhtin’s thought, especially heteroglossia, and we present it and others here, instead, as a way of understanding how an author engages speech or utterances of different genres in making literary allusion. 34 As a way of describing the refraction of authorial intention, heteroglossia can help us understand the transposition or transformation of genre in alluded utterances. 35 Bakhtin, of course, is not referring here to the use of texts exterior to a certain real author’s text, as we would in allusion criticism. For the author of a prophetic book to engage different genres, like the psalms and narrative books of the Bible, is not only to position the author as the kind of “biased third party” that Bakhtin makes the heteroglot author out to be, but as such a third party, a mediator between God and man. 36 In other words, what the novelistic author makes out of himself in his imaginary world, the alluding prophet-author realizes in the real world of Israel’s history. The only difference is that the multiple languages that the author carries within himself are, in the case of the prophet, traceable to specific utterances. The prophet himself is the space in which divine dialogue with his people is happening, and so the authorial intention of his book is refracted through the prism of his own experience, past and present, as a representative of his people and their literature. What is a single and unique authoritative word of God can be seen, through the prismatic heteroglossia of literary allusion, as an array of experiences, the written record of Israel’s history. Allusion to different genres would seem to serve more than the purposes of prophetic rhetoric that Sommer lists, and indeed makes something new out of the prophet himself and his prophecy. 34 The definition of heteroglossia that Holquist (“Glossary,” 428) provides (“The base condition governing the operation of meaning in any utterance… All utterances are heteroglot in that they are functions of a matrix of forces practically impossible to recoup, and therefore impossible to resolve”) seems to be filtered through the work of Kristeva, Barthes, and the other early semioticians, with their express prescinding from authorial intention and from the discernibility of specific literary dependence. Thus defined, Holquist in many places sees heteroglossia as coterminous with dialogism. We see heteroglossia, rather, as one key element, among several, of Bakhtin’s thought. 35 Adding to our citation of Bakhtin on this point in ch. I, n. 72, we note that for Bakhtin, as a kind of “double-voiced discourse,” heteroglossia “It serves two speakers at the same time and expresses simultaneously two different intentions: the direct intention of the character who is speaking, and the refracted intention of the author” (“Discourse in the Novel,” 324). 36 Bakhtin (“Discourse in the Novel,” 314) writes, “The author utilizes now one language, now another, in order to avoid giving himself up wholly to either of them; he makes use of this verbal give-and-take, this dialogue of languages at every point in his work, in order that he might remain as it were neutral with regard to language, a third party in a quarrel between two people (although he might be a biased third party).”

Chapter II. A Method for Allusion Criticism

55

Bakhtin provides another set of terms, closely related to heteroglossia, by which we can understand the prophet’s use of others’ words. Bakhtin distinguishes “authoritative discourse” from “internally persuasive discourse,” seeing the second as uniquely apt to heteroglossia. Whereas the first is not assimilable, but as religious or scientific dogmatic discourse, must be specially demarcated within a text (as in quotation), the second is “tightly interwoven with “one’s own word”“ (such as is possible in the forms of allusion). Internally persuasive discourse is a way of making another’s words one’s own, such that their source become indistinguishable from their pronunciation, so much so that the alluded words generate a new kind of genre in their new literary context.37 This, indeed, may clarify why scholars have not found the Salvation Oracle elsewhere in biblical literature – it is a new genre built around words that become prophetically persuasive precisely in their being wrested from their original context. What this means, theologically-speaking, is that God, in his new authoritative word and participating in the author event, shows himself to be moved by the prayers that his people have offered, such that their words become indistinguishable from his own word. 1.2.3 Transformation of Genre for the Reader Having faced the possibility that alluding to different genres in prophetic utterances can generate new prophetic genres, and that these genres can refract authoritative discourse through internally persuasive words, we should consider how this positions the reader with respect to the genres of alluding and of alluded utterances. Jenny investigates the form-critical implications of literary allusion (in his intertextual approach) on the relationship of allusion to genre.38 An allusion to a specific text creates a relationship not just between the alluding and the alluded text, but also between the alluding text and others of its kind that allude.39 Indeed, allusion can keep certain forms alive, as it were. Not only can allusion prevent the meaning of words and expressions from becoming cliché over time, but it also serves to maintain the truth expressed in certain forms. 40 37 Bakhtin (“Discourse in the Novel,” 345) writes, “Its creativity and productiveness consist precisely in the fact that such a word awakens new and independent words, that it organizes masses of our words from within, and does not remain in an isolated and static condition.” 38 See L. JENNY , “Stratégie de la forme,” 257–281. 39 Jenny (“Stratégie de la forme,” 258) writes, “Ainsi, une parodie entre à la fois en rapport avec l’oeuvre qu’elle caricature et avec toutes les oeuvres parodiques constitutives de son propre genre.” 40 Jenny writes, “La vérité littéraire comme la vérité historique ne peuvent se constituer que dans la multiplicité des textes et des écritures” (“Stratégie de la forme,” 280) and,

56

Part I. Elusive Form and Allusive form

This should lead us to investigate the form-critical implications of translating the Sitz im Leben of the alluded psalms in their new literary context of the Salvation Oracles. Firstly, given the exilic loss of the original context of the temple recitation of the psalms, and whatever oracle may (or may not) have been supplied in their recitation, allusion to them in the context of new oracles might keep alive the truth they contain, if not indeed providing for their portability in their new literary and historical context. Secondly, this transfer or translation of genre breaches into theological interpretation, in that if the psalms and other genres become part of prophetic discourse, the reader, in his simultaneous reading, might begin to regard those psalms as prophetic in themselves – a point that we have already begun to make and that continues to emerge in allusion studies in Second Isaiah.41 We shall treat the issue of genre in the Salvation Oracles for the author in §3 of the exegetical chapters (chs. III–V) of Part II and for the reader across the theological chapters (chs. VI–VII) of Part III. 1.3 Evaluating Evidence for Allusions Scripture study is not a hard science with repeatable results, and so it requires a mode of reasoning conducive to dealing with possibilities and probabilities rather than exactitudes. Whether one is faced with quantifying vocabulary, dating texts relative to each other, or investigating the context of supposed allusions, the desire for unimpeachable evidence will always be frustrated by the freedom of individual authors acting within the mists of history. Instead, we follow Sommer in treating allusion criticism as an “art” and not a “science.”42 In fact, tracing the contours of the prophet’s art will give us a surer knowledge of his intentions. To this point, we here discuss how we reason through evidence (§1.3.1), categorize that evidence (§1.3.2), and contextualize that evidence (1.3.3). 1.3.1 Inductive Reasoning through “Cumulative” Evidence Many scholars of inner-biblical allusion, exegesis, and redaction criticism rightly rely on what they call “cumulative” evidence for identifying allusions; in other words, the greater the field of evidence, the more likely that any single piece of textual evidence belongs to a specific allusion. This is, properly speaking, inductive reasoning, and is valid in many sciences, especially those dealing “Constituer l’événement, c’est juxtaposer toutes les formes possibles, s’exaspérer jusqu’au catalogue. Dès lors qu’est perdu le secret de l’adéquation entre un sujet et son langage, seule l’intertextualité permettra de retrouver une vérité composite” (Ibid. 281). 41 See §1.1.3, n. 28, above, and our summary on Clements’ work in §1.2.1. 42 B. S OMMER, “Exegesis, Allusion and Intertextuality,” 485; A Prophet Reads Scripture, 35.

Chapter II. A Method for Allusion Criticism

57

with the unique events of history. 43 Ackroyd, in his work on the exegetical reuse of whole passages of biblical material, explicitly employs this kind of reasoning, as does Williamson in his redaction-critical study of Isa 1–55. 44 Sommer, upon whose method we build our own, makes inductive reasoning through cumulative evidence the core of his method, though he incorrectly calls it a “hypothetico-deductive method.” 45 This method is not “deductive,” despite the word, because it does not really pertain to logical validity, but rather possibility and strength of argument, which is the domain of inductive reasoning. The kind of inductive reasoning that a reader of allusive literature must employ rests within a reading community, understood diachronically and synchronically. In diachronic terms, a reader perceives allusions only to literature that is available to him, that has been passed down through traditions of reading in established canons. While these authoritative voices of the past limit our reading, we should not presume either that there do not exist in an utterance more allusions to works that are no longer available to us or, in corollary manner, that one of these extinct utterances better explains an allusion for which we might otherwise reasonably argue with the evidence that has been handed down. In synchronic terms, our reading and criticism of allusion is shaped by the principles, interests, and methods of the scholarly and non-professional communities with whom we read the Bible, and we, in response propose or reshape those principles, interests, and methods. 46 Allusion criticism is an inter-personal, co-responsible encounter. 43 For instance, inductive reasoning in geology and paleontology draws together the evidence of an asteroid strike and of a simultaneous massive die-off of most dinosaur species 65 million years ago, suggesting that the first caused the second. 44 Ackroyd (“Vitality,” 7) calls the evidence “a picture, and does not therefore at every point depend upon full and reasoned arguments” (italics original). Williamson (The Book Called Isaiah, 55) shows that what he calls the “cumulative effect” of references to specific passages across Isa 1–55 argues for Second Isaiah’s deliberate allusion to any single one of them. 45 Sommer writes, “Assertions that allusions occur in certain passages become stronger as patterns emerge from those allusions” (A Prophet Reads Scripture, 35) and, “An examination of several passages yields information on the areas where use of earlier material may be expected; the result becomes hypothesis, which is validated by the degree to which they generate other examples” (Ibid., 72). Sommer borrows this term from Fishbane (Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel, 17), who in turn borrows it from Wolfson (Cresca’s Critique of Aristotle, 24–31). This is, however, Wolfson’s description of Cresca’s own Talmudic method in reading translations of Aristotle, the record of which method is then found in “abbreviated” and fragmented textual form in Cresca. One must distinguish the methodology employed by the literary author from the methodology employed by the critical reader. 46 Hays (“Paul’s Reading of Isaiah,” 30) writes, “The identification of allusions, rather, is an art practiced by skilled interpreters within a reading community that has agreed on the value of situating individual texts within a historical and literary continuum of other texts (i.e., a canon). The “yes” or “no” judgment about any particular alleged allusion is primarily

58

Part I. Elusive Form and Allusive form

Measuring possibilities and probabilities is not a weakness in dealing with an art like literature, because the object under examination is not a repeatable scientific experiment, but rather the unique artifact of an individual author acting freely. In other words, just as our relationships with other humans and with God offer a few surprises within otherwise predictable patterns, so the predictable patterns of allusion can withstand the surprises that individual examples sometimes offer. The role of the exegete in studying biblical literature is not to generate scientific certainty – these efforts have failed in successive waves of criticism because of the surprises, contradictions, or exceptions that the texts themselves have produced. We have seen this firsthand in the efforts of formcritical scholars to deduce individual examples from hypothetical patterns and settings. Rather, the role of the exegete is to draw the uninitiated reader into a relationship with the human and divine author, a relationship in which inductive possibilities mean both predictable patterns and occasional surprises. This combination of pattern and exception befits any other art form, be it music, painting, sculpture, or architecture, and indeed it is precisely the combination of expectation and surprise that allows certain pieces to generate not simply appreciation for the work of art, but a relationship with the realities that lie behind it. We see that there is an architectonic form to allusion criticism itself in the aesthetic contemplation of the biblical utterance. 1.3.2 Contexts for Evidence of Allusion Alluding utterances and alluded utterances share words, and the reader’s ability to discern that this sharing is deliberate and directional and not simply from the stuff of language turns on contextualizing those words. There are three dimensions to the contextualization of shared vocabulary: the relative uniqueness of the words, their relative literary contexts, and the relative dating of the texts in which those utterances are found. Shared vocabulary must, to a certain degree, be unique to the two utterances in question. A single word may mark allusion, if that word is unique enough. 47 The more words that are shared, the more these words should be uniquely shared. We should not, however, extend this principle to the level of what Sommer calls the “stock vocabulary” of a given genre, since that “stock vocabulary” comes from a number of examples limited by the diachronic reading community, each of which can thus be tested using the stylistic patterns that we discuss in §2.2, below. Identifying uniquely shared vocabulary is, for the reader, a starting point that should admit a large number of possible sources, each of an aesthetic judgment pronounced upon the fittingness of a proposed reading… The ability to recognize – or to exclude – possible allusions is a skill, a reader competence, inculcated by reading communities.” 47 Pucci (The Full-Knowing Reader, 32) notes that there is no minimum number of words so long as the allusion is “specific and verifiable.”

Chapter II. A Method for Allusion Criticism

59

which we must evaluate using formal-stylistic criteria. This first step of contextualizing evidence makes the reader familiar with a large number of works and thus draws him deeper into reading community; it is no wasted effort and, indeed, may form part of an allusive author’s intention. The consideration of relative literary contexts for shared words, while promising, can yield contradictory principles. Nurmela argues that where vocabulary is better suited to its context, this is the source text. 48 Kynes counters that this is subjective, as biblical authors are able to adapt allusions to their new context.49 We have already observed the possibility and power of alluding to utterances of different genres (§1.2, above), and so this should not be a limiting factor. In general, we side with Nurmela in the sense that we would expect the alluded utterances to have more of the same kinds of words and expressions of the shared words, no matter how well integrated those shared words are in their new context in grammatical and semantic terms. The relative dating of biblical texts is perhaps the most controversial factor in weighing evidence for allusion. In fact, it has led some to abandon the allusion-critical project altogether. 50 Historical-critical scholars have proposed a wide range of dates of composition and redaction for most biblical books. We find, following Cassuto, that it is this lack of decisive argumentation, instead, that opens up for us a wider range of possibilities for allusion.51 In fact, testing allusion against the widest possible range of utterances that relative dating allows, including those most obviously later than the proposed alluding utterance, puts our formal-stylistic criteria to the test and can serve as a foil to it. 1.3.3 Literary and Grammatical Markers of Allusion Allusive markers, as described in §1.1.3 above, must serve a double function for the reader, contributing to the sense of the alluding utterance while generating the simultaneous reading of the alluded utterance, and so there remains a See R. NURMELA, The Mouth of the Lord, viii. See W. KYNES, “Job and Isaiah 40–55,” 97. 50 For example, Schultz (“Intertextuality, Canon, and ‘Undecidability’,” 19–38), because of the methodological difficulties regarding dating, adopts instead Riffaterre’s semiotic model in his study of Isa 65,17–25. Eslinger, critical especially of Fishbane, declares, “Such an approach to i.b.a. [inner-biblical allusion] can only be as good, as reliable, and as useful as the literary history on which it is based. If the model of the Bible’s literary history is wrong, the analyses of inner-biblical exegeses can only compound the fallacy” (“The Question of Category,” 52). He adopts, instead, an intertextual approach that takes for granted the Bible’s literary chronology, an approach that is valid in itself but that we find all the more interesting precisely because of the possibility of the canonizing reading community’s ability to insert allusions to generate such a literary chronology, akin to what Williamson argues for regarding Isa 1–55. 51 See U. CASSUTO, “Formal and Stylistic Relationship,” 149–152, especially regarding the relative dating of Jer 30–31 to Isa 40–55. 48 49

60

Part I. Elusive Form and Allusive form

dynamic tension in each shared word. The stylistic patterns we shall discuss in §2.2, below, help the reader corollate markers in the alluding utterance that otherwise seem to fit seamlessly within it. There are other ways, however, of marking allusion that rely on awkwardness of phrasing, bending or breaking the rules of grammar and syntax, and odd word choice. Allusion criticism, in this regard, will contribute to literary criticism, since many of these local oddities scholars have emended or otherwise explained. 52 Since these ways are specific to their immediate literary context, they will not adhere to the general patterns we describe. Instead, we will have to treat these peculiar markers as they come, in §2 of the exegetical chapters (chs. III–V).

2. Patterns of Literary Allusion Allusion criticism seeks the specific formal properties of literary allusion, and so, having just discussed the theoretical principles of allusion criticism, we now turn to the practical aspects of allusion criticism, namely the stylistic patterns of allusion for compositional form. There are two main aspects we must consider regarding these stylistic patterns: the proportion of shared words to their respective literary contexts, which significantly determines the kind of sharing the reader faces, and the stylistic patterns themselves. We treat each of these two aspects in §2.2. Before that, we must exclude from the formal definition of allusion some definitions of allusion that proceed from functional definitions of allusion, such as we do in §2.1. In §2.3, we shall briefly lay out some considerations for the graphical representation of the stylistic patterns of allusion in our argumentation. 2.1 Eliminating Functional Definitions of Allusion Form and function are, for the most part, intrinsically related, and so we must be careful to distinguish the direction of their relationship for the author and for the reader. The one who claims that “form ever follows function” is an author, who shapes his work according to what he wants it to do.53 This is, after all, the teleological purpose of form that we have tried to elucidate in Chapter I. It does not follow, however, that one can discern the form of a specific work from its function; one could, in this way, only arrive at the generalities of earlier form-criticism or at confusing different forms according to a shared For a brief summary on this point regarding Second Isaiah, see P. TULL WILLEY, Remember the Former Things, 25–26. 53 This expression originates with the claim of the architect Louis Sullivan (“The Tall Office Building,” 403–409, esp. 408) that the new form of the skyscraper must not derive from models whose function is simply different, like the column, organic life, or mystical and mythological symbolism. 52

Chapter II. A Method for Allusion Criticism

61

function. Form is the apparent aspect of a work, from which the critic, following authorial gesture, comes to interpret its less apparent purpose. In allusion criticism, we must eliminate two problematic, functional definitions of allusion: “reinterpretation” and “echo,” since they confuse different forms and they confuse the role of the author and the reader in allusion. 2.1.1 Authorial Reinterpretation Some scholars have sought to identify inner-biblical allusion only where there is some evidence of authorial reinterpretation of the alluded utterances, as if this were the only function of allusion. This is an example of begging the question that excludes other purposes for allusion and formal-compositional methods for identifying it. Reinterpretation is or can indeed be one purpose among many and, thus, should be identifiable in the interpretative moment for the reader after the exegetical moment. The focus on reinterpretation has led to the confusion of different forms of allusion and the role of the author with that of the reader. Ackroyd, subsuming all varieties of reference under the term “quotation,” defines quotation as evident reinterpretation. 54 Schultz, while borrowing this de-finition of quotation from Ackroyd, acknowledges Ackroyd’s definition of reinterpretation as ambiguous. 55 Despite seeing inner-biblical exegesis as “too narrow” an understanding of reinterpretation, Schultz turns to Fishbane for some formal criteria to identify reinterpretation, who states that there is an inverse proportion of explicit markers, like introductory formulae, to “multiple and sustained lexical linkages” between two texts. 56 In other words, the less formal the citation, the more that shared vocabulary calls attention to the reference.57 Here, he cannot distinguish between the kinds of reinterpretation that quotation and inner-biblical exegesis require and the kinds of reinterpretation that allusion permits.58

54 Ackroyd (“Criteria,” 118) writes, “Quotation may indeed only be claimed with certainty where re-interpretation is evident. Such re-interpretation indicates dependence upon an earlier form of the same material, and its re-handling with a distinctively new point in mind.” 55 See R. SCHULTZ, Search for Quotation, 226. 56 See R. S CHULTZ , Search for Quotation, 226–227 and M. FISHBANE , Biblical Interpretation, 285. 57 In applying Fishbane’s formal criteria of identifying inner-biblical exegesis to quotation, Schultz contradicts what we dare call a “common sense” definition of quotation, one that involves, most often, a sustained and orderly sharing of words and the use of explicit markers. We shall define quotation in formal terms in §2.3.1, below. 58 In fact, at certain points Schultz does not even follow his functional definition of quotation. For instance, in summarizing his work on the parallels between Isa 11,6–9 and Isa 65,25, he writes, “The quotation is not made for the purpose of reinterpretation” (Search for Quotation, 255), and “Neither text makes a clear reference to the other, nor does a

62

Part I. Elusive Form and Allusive form

Sommer, instead, estab-lishing formal distinctions between quotation and allusion, shows that most examples of supposed inner-biblical exegesis are really allusions. 59 Reinterpretation is one function of quotation and allusion among many. Quotation is a form of sharing words whose differing functions, reinterpretation included, depends on the context in which the author sets those words. We shall further define quotation in formal terms in §2.3.1, below, leaving the interpretation of its function to interpretative approaches. 2.1.2 Readerly Echoes Another problem we face in allusion studies is the term “echo.” It seems to be a function of readerly ability more than authorial gesture, which seems to lack a formal definition even where one is given to quotation and allusion. 60 Hays’ definition is based on the reader’s ability to discern differences between these three kinds of reference. 61 He finds this definition in his reading of Hollander’s The Figure of Echo, in which the latter – despite laying out very clear formal and schematic characteristics of literary echo – defines echo according to the reader’s access to alluded material.62 Sommer’s definition of echo, as well, corresponds to the reader’s functional ability regarding the alluded material: echo does not require Ben-Porat’s third and fourth steps, namely a reinterpretation of the alluding text.63 Sommer himself admits that the distinction between allusion and echo is subjective, and that what is echo for one person is allusion for another.

knowledge of one appear essential for understanding the other, though such knowledge helps to clarify some of the differences between them” (Ibid., 244). 59 See B. SOMMER, A Prophet Reads Scripture, 23. 60 Hays, (Echoes of Scripture, 23), writes, “Quotation, allusion, and echo may be seen as points along a spectrum of intertextual reference, moving from the explicit to the subliminal. As we move farther away from overt citation, the source recedes into the discursive distance, the intertextual relations become less determinate, and the demand placed on the reader’s listening powers grows greater.” 61 Thus, Hays (Echoes of Scripture, 29) declares, “Allusion is used of obvious inter-textual references, echo of subtler ones” (italics original). What is obvious and what is subtle would depend on the reader’s knowledge. 62 Hollander (The Figure of Echo, 65–66), writes, “The reader of texts, in order to overhear echoes, must have some kind of access to an earlier voice, and to its cave of resonant signification, analogous to that of the author of the later text. When such access is lost in a community of reading, what may have been an allusion may fade in prominence; and yet a scholarly recovery of the context would restore the allusion, by revealing an intent as well as by showing means. In the case of some allusions… the loss of textual background seems more to result in something like echo.” 63 See B. SOMMER, A Prophet Reads Scripture, 15–17.

Chapter II. A Method for Allusion Criticism

63

The problem in the distinction between allusion and echo is that echo does not belong to a critical methodology, but rather to readerly ability. Tull Willey draws out this important point.64 The reader’s subjective ability in discernment is different from the author’s formal treatment as actually registered in the text. If it is our purpose here to show allusions, to regain what may have been lost in a diachronic “community of reading,” then these echoes can be located, and thus defined, as allusion. Echo has no formal properties; if it did, they could be discerned, and echo reclassified as allusion. Echo, then, coming as it does out of an understanding of readerly function, is not considered here. 2.1.3 Conclusions Without formal criteria, we are left with a procedure of analysis that places types of verbal parallel within categories of literary dependence only after analyzing their degree of interpretative function. This means that the classification of what we might call quotation, allusion, and echo come after the fact, and are derivative of the critic’s ability to discern meaning in them. Rather than defining categories according to authorial intention, it really defines them by the exegetical ability, which is subjective. Formal categories more soundly base exegetical interpretation on authorial gesture, for authors – biblical authors and secular authors – reveal their intentions through the specific forms of their expression. 2.2 Categorizing Compositional Patterns of Allusion In our method of allusion criticism, we find two main aspects determining the compositional patterns of allusion: formal proportion and stylistic patterns. Formal proportion is the ratio of shared words to the length of their respective literary contexts. Stylistic patterns are those with which biblical authors compose their utterances in general, such as we have listed in Chapter I, §3.3.1, and which Second Isaiah, at least, applies to allusion in specific ways, some of which Sommer has already considered, like split-up patterns, word play, and sound play. 65 We find four major groups of formal proportion, to each of which we assign a broad function (again, the identification of function comes after a discernment of form):

64 “These are helpful theoretical distinctions, but in practice they describe the recognition of readers more than the plans of authors. Yet as [Hollander] showed, what may begin as an echo in a reader’s ear may be explored until a case can be made for a direct allusion” (P. TULL WILLEY, Remember the Former Things, 78 n. 33). 65 See B. SOMMER, A Prophet Reads Scripture, 67–72.

64

Part I. Elusive Form and Allusive form

Group 1 is quotation, which in terms of proportion is 1:1 or nearly so, the shared words occupying the same amount of space in both the alluding and alluded utterances, and most often, but not always, in the same order. With Group 2 begins allusion proper, in which a certain number of shared words (with no minimum or maximum) occupy utterances of somewhat similar length and definition; for example, a prophetic oracle of 12–15 lines may allude to a whole psalm (even if double or triple that length) but not the whole of a narrative book like Exodus, which has many utterances of different kinds within it. Furthermore, the allusions of Group 2 tend to exercize a formative influence upon the composition of the alluding utterance. Group 3 are typological-thematic allusions, in which a single word or two, like a proper noun (e.g., Abraham, Eden), concept (Torah), or event (parting of the Red Sea), can evoke a series of utterances, even across biblical books, pertaining to the persons, concepts, or events described. The proportion of alluded material to alluding material would be much higher than in allusion proper. Correspondingly, there is no allusion to a specific utterance, and therefore the allusion does not determine the composition of the alluding utterance. In Group 4, we gather different kinds of language that is non-allusive yet somehow influential for the author, to which we apply the term heteroglossia. This includes language typical of a genre different from the alluding one (e.g., cliché, fixed word pairs and “stock vocabulary”), as well as language specific to other authors and sources (e.g., Ezekiel, the Priestly document). In terms of formal proportion, this is like Group 3, but evoking authors and sources more than literary events. We shall now describe the formal devices and stylistic patterns specific to each group of formal proportion. 2.2.1 Group 1: Quotation Like all literary phenomena, quotation is a speech act that is registered in an utterance through different kinds of formal markers. After the proportionality of its words, the formal markers also render it distinct and traceable. In bringing together the work of various scholars, we find four stylistic patterns of quotation: an explicit verb of speaking or thinking, virtual marking, exegetical quotation, and inverted quotation. The first two stylistic patterns of quotation are from the work of Fox, from whose definition of quotation we must separate allusion. 66 He shows two ways to mark quotation: 66 Fox (“Identification of Quotations,” 417) defines quotation as “words that either (1) are taken from another source but used as the speaker’s words or (2) are meant to be understood as belonging to a person other than the primary speaker, regardless of their actual source, and only repeated by him.” He calls the first type “proverbial coinage” or “literary borrowing,” and since it lacks formal characteristics, the author/speaker agrees with the idea

Chapter II. A Method for Allusion Criticism

65

a) An Explicit Verb of Speaking or Thinking In Second Isaiah, verbs like ‫אמר‬, ‫קרא‬, and ‫דבר‬, serve to mark both divine speech and prophetic speech and often include mention of the Speaker by name or pronoun. In fact, Second Isaiah uses direct discourse marked by explicit verbs of speaking to mark significant sections of Isa 40–55. Isa 40,1–11 features a dialogue between God (and, perhaps, his “heavenly council”) and the anonymous prophet that provides in nuce the structure of Isa 40–54. The two major subsections of these chapters, Isa 40–48 and Isa 49–54, each begin with a quotation by God of a lament by, respectively, “Jacob/Israel” (Isa 40,27) and “Zion/Jerusalem” (Isa 49,14); these quotations, not insignificantly, may also contain literary allusions. 67 Within the Salvation Oracles, the verb ‫ אמר‬serves to introduce divine speech with the Messenger Formula or to summarize/reassume what God has already said within the oracle (i.e., God quoting himself), combined with various kinds of inverted quotation (outlined below). b) Virtual Marking This typically includes a second subject in the vicinity of the quotation, a virtual verbum dicendi, and a switch in grammatical number and person. In Second Isaiah, an example of this occurs in Isa 40,6b–8, where it is unclear who is speaking and the extent of the quotation (v. 6b, or vv. 6b–8b). In the Salvation Oracles, which feature God as the unique speaker, this form of quotation is less relevant. These two forms of quotation concern the interior world of the text, that is, relationships between characters. In addition to these two formal markers Fox has identified, there are at least two more that pertain to the exegetical treatment of outside material: exegetical quotation and the inverted quotation. c) Exegetical Quotation Exegtical quotation is applicable to those forms of explicit citation that are generally treated as cases of inner-biblical exegesis. Fishbane notes several explicit forms of exegetical quotation (‫ כן‬...‫ ;לאמר‬...‫ ה‬...‫ ו‬...‫)הן‬, each of which still depend on the verb ‫ אמר‬for the introduction of existing material.68 expressed and the identification of its source is not essential to its understanding. This is part of what we call allusion, except that we would eliminate the functional definition and add distinct formal characteristics. Fox calls the second type of quotation “attributed quotation,” and in this case, its identification is essential for proper interpretation. 67 See ch. VI, §2.3.3. 68 See M. FISHBANE, Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel, 296–300.307–314. His examples of deictic markers for indicating scribal comments would seem to pertain to redaction criticism, especially as part of the so-called traditum. See ibid., 44–55.

66

Part I. Elusive Form and Allusive form

d) Inverted Quotation Beentjes describes what he calls “inverted quotation” as a stylistic technique of quoting authoritative texts. 69 This technique is present not only in the OT, but also in texts from Qumran, the NT, ancient Egyptian and Greek literature, and the Church Fathers. He discerns five types, four of which utilize the basic structure of parallelismus membrorum: exact reflection of the earlier passage; exact reflection with a shift from negative to positive content; word exchange between the inverted sentences; selective inverted quotation (wherein a few select words appear in a different sequence); and the small changes in sequence of a few words without the use of parallelism. Levinson has shown one of the functions of inverted quotation as “repetitive resumption” for inserting authoritative material into texts (in the case of Deuteronomy, for legal revisionist purposes). 70 These and other techniques like the ones Fishbane discusses come out of the “cuneiform patrimony” of Israelite scribes. While inverted quotation is more formally pertinent to exegetical purposes, we may also find the inversion of elements as a formal marker of allusion, especially where, as in the case of all but the first of the types that Beentjes lists, there is a high degree of manipulation of the original material. 2.2.2 Group 2: Allusion Allusion operates through formal gestures different from those of quotation and more pertinent to the compositional form of an utterance. The stylistic patterns of compositional form often involve some kind of play on sounds and meanings. Just as in speech, for instance, an allusive word may be accompanied by playful gestures like vocal intonation, a wink, a nod, a giggle, or a cough, so in biblical literature allusion is communicated by stylistic gestures that themselves are founded on play. 71 The following outline of stylistic forms in allusion is based on Sommer’s presentation, to which we add some detail. 72

69 See P. BEENTJES, Jesus Sirach en Tenach; “Inverted Quotations in the Bible,” 506– 523; “New Path of Intertextuality,” 31–50. In his thesis, Beentjes (Jesus Sirach en Tenach, 62–71) clearly distinguishes this phenomenon from chiasmus in his critique of Seidel’s use of the latter term. See M. SEIDEL , “Parallels between Isaiah and Psalms,” 149–172.229– 242.272–280.333–355. 70 See B. LEVINSON , Deuteronomy and the Hermeneutics of Legal Innovation, 13–20. 71 Sommer (A Prophet Reads Scripture, 19) discusses the dimension of play: “The element of play helps explain why allusion usually is covert: it is more challenging, and more fun, for the reader to have to produce the identification.” 72 See n. 65, above.

Chapter II. A Method for Allusion Criticism

67

a) Inversion of Elements Here, we refer back to inverted quotation (§2.2.1d, above), but in the looser forms that Beentjes lists for the purpose of allusion. b) Splitting and Interweaving The split-up pattern is the division of a phrase in the alluded text into two parts, separated by several words or verses. This, Sommer notes, may have induced a sense of anticipation in the reader or listener, in addition to a kind of theological function. 73 Splitting contributes to the kind of simultaneous reading that Jenny describes. It is a source of literary tension, that while eventually resolved, invites an immediate comparison of the alluded material with the new material. This is precisely the kind of dramatic tension that leads the listener into the author’s world. 74 For Lyons, inversion and splitting presume the reader’s knowledge of the source text and, as “deviations from the known pattern,” make the allusion more prominent. 75 However, he goes on to state that while inversion does not allow us to establish the priority of one text over another, “splitting and redistribution” can be used to identify the alluding text. We may find that two split-up allusions may be woven together, generating a dialogue not only between voices of the alluding and alluded utterances, but also between the alluding utterances within the alluding utterance. c) Word Play In word play, a word borrowed from a specific source gains a different meaning in the alluding utterance. Most significant here is the poetic device of antanaclasis, the repeating of a single word or phrase but with a distinct meaning each time. 76 Many of the examples of word play that Paul treats (specifically as 73 “The technique serves as a fine metaphor for Deutero-Isaiah’s use of earlier material generally: by splitting open an older phrase, Deutero-Isaiah creates a space into which he inserts his own words, adding something new to the tradition he passes on” (B. S OMMER, A Prophet Reads Scripture, 159). 74 Exegetes have not always appreciated this tension. Melamed (“Break-up of Stereotype Phrases,” 115–153), for instance, seeing that ‫ להב ה‬is always accompanied by ‫א שׁ‬, would render Isa 43,2 as “When you pass through the rivers the water will not overwhelm you, and when you walk through flaming fire you shall not be burned, for it shall not consume you.” Not only is this most un-poetic, it obliterates the structure by which the split-up pattern holds the potential allusion to Ps 66,12 (see ch. IV, §2.3). 75 See M. LYONS , “Marking Innerbiblical Allusion,” 245–250. 76 Torrey (The Second Isaiah, 199–203) finds 28 examples of antanaclasis in Isa 34–35; 40–66. Payne (“Word-Play,” 207–209) dismisses most of Torrey’s examples, but Ceresko (“The Function of Antanaclasis”) finds that Payne himself has overstated his case.

68

Part I. Elusive Form and Allusive form

“Janus parallelism”) come from Second Isaiah.77 Interesting to note is its abundance in the book of Job, stylistically very similar to Second Isaiah.78 Each of these authors note the prevalence of this poetic device throughout Semitic languages, ancient and modern. Our interest in word play is twofold: on the semantic level, identifying repeating words in specific allusions brings the original meaning to bear on the new; on the structural level, we can examine how Second Isaiah is using parallelism to anchor these double meanings into the new utterance. d) Sound Play Sound play marks allusion through the use of similar-sounding words; this is reinforced through grammatical constructions common to both utterances. Kline has made sound play the basis of his research into allusion in biblical literature.79 There are different kinds of sound play, namely alliteration, assonance, rhyme, and the juxtaposition of words with roots of the same letters. Alonso Schökel shows that Hebrew-language poetry plays more with alliteration (consonantal sounds) than other types. 80 Accoording to Casanowicz, Second Isaiah is among the most alliterative of the prophets, certainly more than his great influence Jeremiah and his contemporary Ezekiel. 81 Our concern is with alliteration across words as a device for structuring the poetic line, which Boadt defines as paronomasia. 82

77 See S. PAUL, “Polysensuous Polyvalency,” 457–476; “Polysemous Pivotal Punctuation,” 477–483. 78 See S. NOEGEL, “Janus Parallelism in Job,” 313–320. 79 See J. K LINE , Allusive Soundplay, 6–40 for principles and method and pp. 106–110 for allusion to Gen 7,11 and Ps 74,15 in Isa 41,18 (which we treat in ch. III, §2.7). See also the work of Schorch (“Between Science and Magic,” 205–222) who, in addition to “exegetic” function of sound play (which serves to draw attention to external contexts, like authoritative or canonical texts), finds the “emphatic,” in which the pun reinforces the main message, and the “symbolic,” which is derived from magical practices but distinct from them, and which tends to present moral choices. 80 See L. A LONSO SCHÖKEL , Manual de Poética Hebrea, 38. 81 According to Casanowicz’s list of puns per page in Paronomasia in the Old Testament, 93–94. 82 See L. BOADT, “Intentional Alliteration,” 353–363. Boadt, building upon the work of Casanowicz and Margalit in particular, gives several examples of the way in which Second Isaiah uses alliteration to build the poetic line. Due to the widespread and contradictory application of the word (See V. KABERGS/H. AUSLOOS, “Paronomasia or Wordplay?,” 1–20), we will otherwise avoid the term “paronomasia.”

69

Chapter II. A Method for Allusion Criticism

Margalit assigns an essential role to alliteration in Ugaritic poetry, one that we think transfers to our study of the allusion in Hebrew poetry. 83 According to Margalit, alliteration is second only to “structural dynamic” (meter, verseunit, verse, and strophe) in giving order to Ugaritic poetry (and all Northwest Semitic poetry in general, including Biblical Hebrew). That is, unlike in early English or Old Norse poetry, wherein alliteration is the primary structural element, alliteration serves to bring secondary cohesion to the individual verse (as monostich, distich, tristich, etc.). A particular verse will be colored by one particular alliterative pattern. So important is this pattern that it governs the poet’s use of certain hapax legomena and rare grammatical forms. In addition to alliteration in general, Margalit defines several more specific phenomena that will help guide our study of alliteration in allusion: “partial alliteration” (“the repetition of phonetically close but distinct consonants”); “alliterative sequence” (“the repetition of two or more consonants in identical or inverted order, either wihin the individual word boundaries or transcending them”); “linkage” (“the phenomenon whereby verse lines [stichoi] of distinct verses [bicola, tricola etc.] are linked together by participating in a common alliterative pattern”). We ought also to consider assonance and rhyme, even if to a lesser degree. Segert demonstrates that, especially in late Biblical Hebrew, there is an inverse proportion of end-cola assonance and rhyme (or what he calls “homoeoteleuton”) and parallelismus membrorum, suggesting that these stylistic features can and do serve a structuring function. 84 e) Line Copying We have discovered a stylistic pattern of allusion that seems to have gone undetected in other studies, the copying of a line of poetry from the alluded utterance and the replacement of certain words in it, such as would render it allusion and not quotation. We find an example of this in Isa 40,6b//Ps 103,15: 85 Isa 40,6b Ps 103,15

‫כן יציצ‬

‫השׂד ה‬ ‫השׂד ה‬

‫כציצ‬ ‫כציצ‬

‫וכל־חס דו‬ ‫ימיו‬

‫חצ י ר‬ ‫כח ציר‬

‫כל־הב שׂר‬ ‫אנ ו שׁ‬

The compositional parallels are rather clear, leaving us only to note the replacement of certain words. Poetic ‫“( אנושׁ‬mankind”) becomes Second Isaiah’s

83 See B. MARGALIT, “Introduction to Ugaritic Prosody,” 289–313; “Alliteration in Ugaritic Poetry, I,” 537–557; “Alliteration in Ugaritic Poetry, II,” 57–80. 84 See S. SEGERT, “Assonance and Rhyme,” 171–179. 85 Sommer (A Prophet Reads Scripture, 218 n. 5) sees this only as the common use of stock language, but Nurmela (Mouth of the Lord, 5–6) argues for the direction of allusion from psalm to prophet.

70

Part I. Elusive Form and Allusive form

preferred (and gender-neutral) term for humanity, ‫“( כל־הבשׂר‬all flesh”). 86 The expression of time in the psalm, ‫“( ימיו‬his days”) becomes an expression of quality, ‫“( וכל־חסדו‬his mercy”), a word that, featuring four times the psalm, becomes one of its principles themes. 87 Second Isaiah uses line copying to draw in the psalm’s contrast of the qualities of humans and of God. 2.2.3 Group 3: Theme and Typology The author’s references to certain themes and types occur in one kind of stylistic pattern, the use of a single word or pair of words to evoke whole traditions. Indeed, such is the breadth of these traditions that it remains unclear whether the author refers to a body of specific texts or to oral traditions. The distinction between theme and typology comes down to their function for the author and is thus discerned in the criticial act of interpretation. We list here some discoveries of traditions, themes, and typologies in Second Isaiah according to their classification by scholars. The words theme and typology refer, as we shall see, to persons, concepts, and events. a) Theme Second Isaiah treats a number of important themes, like creation, idolatry, and redemption, as scholars have long noted. Weinfeld very famously suggests that Second Isaiah corrects the anthropomorphic account of creation in Gen 1–2. 88 Van der Merwe provides a long list of supposed themes from Hosea taken in by Second Isaiah, often based on no more than a word or two.89 Terrien demonstrates Second Isaiah’s dependence on the book of Job by tracing a number of themes that, appearing solitary and undeveloped in Job, become developed across the whole of Second Isaiah’s discourse, but often involving not more than a word or two from Job in new contexts. 90 Lipton shows, through shared vocabulary in a number of specific texts, Second Isaiah’s polemic against the Priestly Tabernacle narrative (Exod 25–31; 35–40). 91 In each of these cases, the theme, whether referring to specific sets of passages or to oral traditions, is inscribed into the prophetic utterance with only a word or two.

86 See Isa 40,5.6; 49,26; 66,16.23.24. In its literary context, this word also plays on the author’s word for “messenger,” ‫מב שׂרת‬, in Isa 40,9 (2x); cf. Isa 41,27; 52,7 for the masculine form. 87 See Ps 103,4.8.11.17. 88 See M. WEINFELD, “Genesis 1 and Deutero-Isaiah,” 105–132. 89 See B.J. VAN DER MERWE, “Echoes from Teaching of Hosea in Isaiah 40–55,” 90–99 90 See S. TERRIEN , “Quelques remarques,” 295–310 91 See D. LIPTON , “Bezalel in Babylon?,” 63–84.

Chapter II. A Method for Allusion Criticism

71

b) Typology Typology does not require a formal correspondence between specific texts, or between texts of comparable length. There must be however, as Fishbane says, “analogical relationships of structural similitude and of proportion,” like in Second Isaiah, the exodus from Egypt and the return from exile.92 Fishbane gives examples of the specific form this can take, especially in the comparative terms ‫ כי‬and ‫כאשׁר‬. Anderson, who defines typology as a theological understanding of history through the pattern of specific events, shows the implicit form that typology can take in Second Isaiah.93 Regarding the Exodus tradition in particular, he lists ten passages in Isa 40–55 of 2–5 verses each that correspond to the entire Exodus tradition. 94 He then goes on to list a number of other short passages and verses that refer to other large sections of Israel’s sacred history. In these passages, one sees either simply the mention of a name, like Abraham, or a motif like the pillar of cloud and fire, that while indicated in specific passages, cannot be ascribed to any single one of them. 95 Polliack presents Jacob typology within Fishbane’s categories of “inner-biblical typology,” specifically “biographical typology.”96 She finds a concentration of allusions to Jacob in six passages (Isa 40,27–31; 41,8–13; 43,1–7; 43,22–44,4; 44,21–24; 48,1–20), out of which Second Isaiah builds a typological portrayal of the exiles according to four main rhetorical themes (“the journey,” “the exhortation “fear not for I am with you,” “the calling by name,” and “the creation from the womb”). The categories of theme and typology structure a series of insights that will benefit our work, as they deal directly with the Salvation Oracles. Indeed, we may find that the author brings the forms of allusion and of theme-typology together in ways that give particular structure to the utterance.

See M. F ISHBANE, Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel, 362. See B. ANDERSON, “Exodus Typology,” 177–195. 94 These are Isa 40,3–5; 41,17–20; 42,14–16; 43,1–3.14–21; 48,20–21; 49,8–12; 51,9–10; 52,11–12; 55,12–13, as per B. ANDERSON, “Exodus Typology,” 181–182. Anderson notes that the “allusion” in Isa 43,1–3 is less direct than the others, and points us instead to Ps 66,12 (Ibid., 181 n. 10). 95 See also Gunn’s work (“Deutero-Isaiah and the Flood,” 493–508) in identifying references to the Noahic flood as “allusions” (fitting our category of theme/typology here) in Isa 44,27; 50,2; 51,10; 54,9–10. 96 See M. POLLIACK , “Typological Use of Jacob,” 72–110. 92 93

72

Part I. Elusive Form and Allusive form

2.2.4 Group 4: Heteroglossia a) Genre-Typical Cliché, Fixed Word-Pairs, and “Stock Vocabulary” Cliché, fixed word-pairs, and stock vocabulary are often easily dismissed in investigations of allusion, but just as every prophet and poet chooses his words carefully, so we must investigate their usage, especially when they come from non-prophetic literary genres. These are, formally speaking, short expressions of two to five words (or so) that do not represent a quotation of or allusion to any one particular source. Even if they do have one identifiable origin, their use has become so broad that no specific reference is intended by them. Rather, they carry the semantic weight of all of their uses. Proportionally, this means that these short expressions refer to a broad set of circumstances for comparison to the present circumstance. In biblical terms, this has form-critical implications, as certain kinds of expressions are used more frequently or exclusively within certain genres (e.g. “stock lament vocabulary”). In place of casting aside from study the use of cliché expressions, we might seek to identify the role that such devices might play and Second Isaiah’s manipulation of them. Gevirtz, drawing upon Ugaritic studies, shows that such fixed expressions can be a “most able vehicle for intense emotional expression.” 97 For our purposes we should not discount them, for Second Isaiah may be setting aspects of genre against specific allusions and in new patterns to advance the message of salvation.98 b) Specific Authors and Sources In many cases, words and expressions in Isa 34–35; 40–66 come from identifiable authors and sources, but without indicating allusion to any particular passage. The influence of the prophet Jeremiah and of Deuteronomistic literature are notable, among other authors and sources. 99 We shall list these instances of heteroglossia in the Salvation Oracles inasmuch as we recognize them (§2.1.4 of chs. III–V), but otherwise treat them only as they bear upon our interpretation of the allusions. 2.3 Establishing Typographical Conventions for Allusion Criticism A large part of arguing for the presence of allusions is in the graphical representation of the argument. To this end, we shall adhere to two practices in our See S. GEVIRTZ, Patterns in Early Poetry, 7–12. Here, 9. For example, perhaps there remains a real risk that such fixed expressions become a kind of “thought-terminating cliché” in theology and prayer, one that the prophet seeks to overcome. On this point, see R.J. LIFTON, Thought Reform, 429–430. 99 Paul (Isaiah 40–66, 47–57.59–63) provides a list of such influences in vocabulary, including extra-biblical (ANE) sources. 97 98

Chapter II. A Method for Allusion Criticism

73

representation of literary allusion in the Salvation Oracles, the order of their layout and the font style for shared words. Regarding the order of layout, the alluding utterance will come first, followed by the alluded utterance. For example, where we would show allusion to Ps 78,20a in Isa 48,21b, we might list it as Isa 48,21b//Ps 78,20a and lay it out as follows (depending on need, we may or may not provide a translation): Isa 48,21b

‫מים מצו ר הזיל למו‬ ‫ויבקע ־צו ר ו יזבו מים‬ Water from the rock he made stream for them; he split rock and waters flowed

‫ הן הכה־צו ר ו יזובו מים‬Ps 78,20a ‫ונחלים ישׁט פו‬ Behold he struck rock and waters flowed; the wadis washed away

In the example above, we see different font styles that require some explanation. The combination of bold and underline in a gray box indicate shared words that have undergone little or no transformation in the alluding utterance. Bold on its own in a gray box indicates a word that has undergone more serious grammatical transformation, like from noun to verb. The use of underline on its own, without a gray box, indicates synonyms (like in the above, “He split” [‫ ]ויבקע‬and “He struck” [‫)]הכה‬, antonyms, or some other kind of change in the specific words, all within a certain semantic range.

3. Procedures for Exegesis and Interpretation We shall proceed in a particular methodological order in each of the expositional chapters, while in the interpretative-theological chapters, we shall proceed according to expanding definitions of the literary context of the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44. In chs. III–V, in which we perform allusion criticism on Isa 41,8–16.17–20; 43,1–7; 44,1–5 distinctly, we shall proceed as follows: First, we trace the delimitation of the utterance, discuss text-critical issues, and provide a working translation (§1 of each expositional chapter); Second, we categorize all the possible allusions that we have found according to the four groups listed in §2.2, above, and for each possible allusion we discuss the issues of dating (§2.1); Third, we apply compositional-stylistic considerations, as laid in §2.2.1– §2.2.4, above, to allusions we find most probable (§2.2); Fourth, we lay out the compositional form of each Salvation Oracle according to the parts of the utterance governed by a particular allusion or dialogue of allusions, what we call the allusive unit (§2.3);

74

Part I. Elusive Form and Allusive form

Fifth, and bridging between the moments of allusion criticism and dialogical approach, we discuss the literary genre(s) of the alluded utterances (§3.1 of each expositional chapter); Sixth, we apply these considerations of genre to the allusive units (§3.2); Seventh, we lay out the overall architectonic form of the Salvation Oracle (§3.3); Eighth, we identify the chronotope of the particular Salvation Oracle (§3.4); Ninth, we intepret the Salvation Oracle within its immediate literary context (§4); Finally, we draw conclusions based on the results of these steps (§5). In chs. VI–VII, in which we intepret the Salvation Oracles in their literary contexts, the structure of each chapter accords with our definition of those expanding contexts.

4. Conclusions In this chapter, we have sought to lay out a method for allusion criticism, one distinct from but related to the dialogical approach we have laid out in Chapter I. First, we presented some of the principles by which we have developed this method (§1), particularly how author and reader relate (§1.1), how genre can function in allusion (§1.2), and how we evaluate evidence for allusion (§1.3). Then, having eliminated functional definitions of allusion like reinterpretation and echo as leaving no discernible formal patterns (§2.1), we categorized the formal patterns of allusion according to the proportion of shared words between alluding and alluded utterances (§2.2), listing within each group the kinds of stylistic devices we expect to find associated with these levels of formal proportion. Finally, after laying some typographical conventions for allusion criticism (§2.3), we outlined the procedure we shall follow in each chapter (§3). Given that the stylistic patterns of allusion that we, building upon the work of many others, have identified belong, for the most part, to authorial gestures of play, we expect that, from time to time, the biblical author will defy the expectations we have laid out here. This will, all the more, draw us as readers into a closer relationship with Second Isaiah and, with him in the author event, the playfulness of God’s word itself.

Part II

Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

Chapter III

Isa 41,8–16.17–20. The Chosen and Lamentable Servant In this chapter, we apply our allusion-critical method and dialogical approach to the Salvation Oracle in Isa 41,8–16.17–20. This occurs in four moments. First, we ascertain the text of the utterance itself (§1), in its delimitation (§1.1), text-critical issues (§1.2), and a working translation (§1.3); as seen in the separation of vv. 8–16 from vv. 17–20, the delimitation of the utterance remains a question, one that we hope allusion criticism can help us answer. Second (§2), we begin allusion criticism, in which we arrive at the compositional form of the oracle, its internal structure according to allusive units. Third (§3), we bring a dialogical interpretation to bear upon the results of allusion criticism, arriving at a first sense of the architectonic form of the Salvation Oracle in its specific composition. We hope, finally (§4) to sharpen this sense of the architectonic form through a reading of Isa 41,8–16.17–20 in its immediate literary context.

1. Delimiting, Stabilizing the Text, and Translating the Utterance 1.1 Delimitation We shall consider the delimitation of Isa 41,8–16.17–20 first in literary terms before returning, briefly, to some of the form-critical issues that affect its delimitation as an utterance. In literary terms, the expression ‫“( ו אתה‬But you”) in Isa 41,8a marks a change in the Object of Discourse, if not also the Addressee, from the preceding utterance Isa 41,1–7 (or Isa 41,1–5.6–7) and forms the first element of an inclusio with the repetition of this expression in v. 16b. While God remains the Speaker, Jacob-Israel (in v. 8a, first “Israel” then “Jacob”) becomes through the expression “But you” both the explicit Addressee and Object of Discourse, the Object of Discourse in Isa 41,1–5 marked explicitly as “isles and peoples” (‫איים ולאמים‬, v. 1a; ‫קצות הארץ‬-‫איים‬, v. 5b) and in vv. 6–7 as “one-his neighbor” (‫אישׁ את־ר עהו‬, v. 6a). In Isa 41,21–28, the Object of Discourse returns to idolators, with allusive mention of Cyrus. 1

1

See §4.1 for further discussion on the Object of Discourse in Isa 41,6–7.21–28.

78

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

Regarding Isa 41,8–16 as one utterance, some scholars have seen two distinct oracles based on the recurrence both of the Address to Jacob-Israel and the Fear-Not Formula in v. 14a, hence vv. 8–13.14–16 as two utterances. 2 We find the inclusio of ‫ ו אתה‬strong enough to suggest literary unity, however, and our analysis of compositional form through allusion should reinforce this sense of unity. Regarding Isa 41,17–20, the Object of Discourse changes from vv. 8–16, while the Speaker and Addressee remain the same. God now speaks of the “afflicted and needy” (‫העניים והאביו נים‬, v. 17a) and the third-person masculine plural continues as Object of Discourse through the verbal forms of v. 20a. Isa 41,17–20 would seem to constitute a distinct utterance, but allusions join these verses at least to vv. 14–16 (as we shall see in §2.2.6 and §2.2.7, below). 1.2 Text-Critical Problems The text-critical problems in Isa 41,8–16 tend to result from problems in interpretation. We shall try to focus on the important variants among the witnesses and the most discussed proposals for emendation: V. 8: ‫א ֲֹהִבי‬. BHS proposes ‫ ֲאֻהִבי‬per LXX and Symmachus (ὅν ἠγαπησα); the Vulgate has amici mei. Goshen-Gottstein concludes that the shift to the passive via the LXX reflects a difference in theological outlook, not a text-critical problem, and that one cannot translate the MT as “whom I love.”3 This would correspond to the other instances of the Qal active participle of ‫אהב‬, in which the pronoun suffix always seems to indicate a direct object. 4 Whether we should consider it in apposition to Abraham or to Jacob-Israel is a matter of interpretation, and the ambiguity may be poetically deliberate. V. 11a: ‫ַהנֱֶּחִרים‬. BHS proposes the Qal participle from the root ‫נחר‬, “to snort.” While the Niphal participle of ‫חרה‬, “to be angry,” in the MT is attested elsewhere only in Isa 45,24 (in which this whole expression is repeated), it makes sense in this context and should stand. V. 11b: ‫יִהיוּ ְכאַיִן ְוי ֹאְבדוּ‬. 1QIsa is missing “they will be as nothing,” while 1QIsb has ‫ו יבשו‬. The LXX preserves the MT reading, which should stand. V. 14a: ‫ְמֵתי‬. Syriac has (w)mnjnh. 1QIsa has ‫מיתי‬, “dead,” which is translated thus in Theodotion and the Vulgate. BHS proposes ‫מ ֹת‬, “louse,” equivalent to Akkadian mutu per Driver’s work on this text, but Goldingay – Payne and Berges adequately demonstrate the fittingness of the MT’s vocalization as

See ch. I, §1.1.4, Table 2. See M. GOSHEN-GOTTSTEIN , “Lover or Beloved,” 101–104. 4 See our discussion in §3.2.1, below. 2 3

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

79

pertaining to the people of Israel. 5 The LXX loosely translates the MT along the same lines, as “few” (ὀλιγοστός), in reference to a remnant, or as Goldingay–Payne have it, “relics.” We shall demonstrate the fittingness of this interpretation as “remnant” in §2.2.6, below. V. 17a: ‫ְוָהֶאְביוֹנִים‬. The Ethiopian and Arabic omit this, but LXX has it. V. 18b: ‫ַלֲאַגם־ַמיִם‬. The LXX has εἰς ἕλη, “marsh”; correspondingly, the BHS has ‫אגמים‬. The unique composition here, corresponding to ‫ ְלמוָֹצֵאי ַמיִם‬in the same verse, is perfectly comprehensible as it stands in the MT. 1.3 Translation Isa 41,8–16.17–20 v. 8

v. 9a

v. 9b

v. 10a

v. 10b

v. 11a

v. 11b v. 12a

v. 12b

v. 13a v. 13b

But you, Israel my servant, Jacob, whom I have chosen, seed of Abraham, who loves me, Whom I have wrested from the ends of the earth and called from its corners, And said to you, “My servant are you, I have chosen you and have not rejected you”: Fear not, for I am with you, do not look about, for I am your God; I have made you firm, yes, I have helped you, yes, I have grasped you with the right hand of my justice. Behold they shall be ashamed and humiliated, those incensed against you; They shall be as nothing and perish, those who contest you. You will seek them but not find them, those who quarrel with you; They shall be as nothing and as nought, those who battle for you. For I am the Lord your God, who strengthens your right hand, who says to you “Fear not, I have helped you.”

‫ואת ה ישׂראל ע בד י יעקב א שׁר בח רת יך‬ :‫זרע אב רהם א הבי‬ ‫אשׁר הח זקת יך מק צו ת הא רץ ו מא ציליה ק ראת יך‬

:‫ואמר לך עבד י־את ה ב ח רת יך ולא מאסת יך‬

‫אל־ת ירא כי ע מך ־אנ י א ל־ת שׁת ע כי־אנ י אלהיך‬

:‫אמצת יך אף ־עזרתיך א ף ־תמכת יך בימין צדק י‬

‫הן יב שׁו ו יכלמו כל הנח רים ב ך‬

:‫יהיו כאין ו יא בד ו אנ שׁי ריביך‬ ‫תבק שׁם ו לא ת מצא ם אנ שׁי מצתך‬

:‫יהיו כאין ו כא פס אנ שׁי מלחמתך‬

‫כי א ני יהו ה אלהך מחזיק ימינ ך‬ :‫האמר לך א ל־ת ירא אנ י עזרת יך‬

5 See G.R. D RIVER, “Linguistic and Textual Problems,” 399; J. G OLDINGAY/D. PAYNE, Isaiah 40–55, I, 171; U. BERGES, Jesaja 40–48, 176.

80 v. 14a v. 14b

v. 15a

v. 15b

v. 16a

v. 16b

v. 17a

v. 17b

v. 18a

v. 18b

v. 19a

v. 19b

v. 20a

v. 20b

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form Fear not, O worm Jacob, O men of Israel! I have helped you – oracle of the Lord – and your redeemer is the Holy One of Israel. Behold I have made you a threshing sledge, sharp, new, double-edged. You shall thresh mountains and crush them, and the hills like chaff you shall set. You shall winnow them and the wind will lift them, and the tempest will scatter them. But you shall rejoice in the Lord, in the Holy One of Israel you shall exult. The afflicted and needy seek water but there is none; their tongue is parched with thirst. I, the Lord, shall answer them, the God of Israel will not abandon them. I shall open rivers on the bare heights, and springs in the midst of the valleys. I shall make the desert a watery marsh, and the dry land an issue of water. I will place in the desert the cedar, the acacia, the myrtle, and the pine. I will set in the wilderness the juniper, the maple, and the cypress together, So that they might see, and know, and fix upon, and ponder all together, That the hand of the Lord has done this, the Holy One of Israel has created it.

‫אל־ת ירא י תו לע ת יעק ב מת י ישׂרא ל‬ :‫אנ י ע זרת יך נא ם ־יהו ה וג א לך ק דו שׁ ישׂראל‬

‫הנ ה שׂמת יך למו רג ח רוץ ח ד שׁ ב ע ל פיפיות‬

:‫תדו שׁ הרים ותדק וגב עות כמץ ת שׂים‬

‫תזרם ו רוח ת שׂאם וסע רה ת פיץ אות ם‬

:‫ואת ה ת ג יל ב יהו ה בקדו שׁ ישׂרא ל תת הלל‬

‫הענ יים ו הא ביונ ים מבק שׁים מים וא ין‬ :‫לשׁונ ם ב צמא נ שׁת ה‬ : ‫אנ י יהו ה אע נם א להי ישׂראל לא א עזבם‬

‫אפתח על־שׁפיים נ הרו ת ובת וך בקע ות מע ינ ות‬

: ‫אשׂים מדב ר לאג ם ־מים ו א רץ ציה למו צא י מים‬

‫אתן במד ב ר א רז שׁט ה ו הד ס ו עץ שׁמן‬

:‫אשׂים בע רב ה ב רו שׁ תד הר ותא שׁו ר יחד ו‬

‫למען יראו ו ידעו ו ישׂימו וישׂכילו יח דו‬

:‫כי יד ־יהו ה ע שׂת ה זאת וקד ו שׁ ישׂרא ל ב רא ה‬

2. Identifying Allusions in Their Compositional Form Having established the outer limits of Isa 41,8–16.17–20 as an utterance, treated its text-critical issues, and provided a working translation, we now turn to the identification of allusions within it and the role of these allusions in the

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

81

internal, compositional form of the utterance. This occurs in three steps. First (§2.1), we list all the possible allusions and references to other inner-biblical utterances, according to the four groups of formal proportion we describe in Chapter II, §2.2. In this step, we bring forward scholarly discussions on the dating of these texts. Second (§2.2), we analyze the most probable allusions in order of their appearance in Isa 41,8–16.17–20 and according to stylistic patterns of their appearance. This will yield the compositional form of each resulting allusive unit, which we shall consider all together, as a compositional whole, in §2.3. 2.1 Possible Allusions, Their Form, and Their Dating Before proceeding to analyze those allusions we have identified as present and active in Isa 41,8–16.17–20, we first here list the possible allusions that we have identified and discuss their dating, as a way of orientating the analysis that follows in §2.2. 2.1.1 Group 1: Quotation The kinds of word sharing in this group are those that exhibit a one-to-one correspondence in length between alluded and alluding utterances, the same words typically appearing in the same order. These we define formally as quotation, and their function in their specific context requires interpretation. Isa 41,8b//2 Chr 20,7 Isa 41,8b

‫זרע אב רהם א הבי‬

‫לזרע א ב רהם א הבך‬

2 Chr 20,7

Klein gives a summary of scholarship on the dating of 1–2 Chronicles.6 While scholars posit dates of composition between the late 6th century to the 2nd century, most favor a 4th-century date, lending the greatest probability that the Chronicler is quoting Isa 41,8b here. Isa 41,18b//Ps 107,35 Isa 41,18b

‫אשׂים מדב ר לאג ם ־מים‬ ‫וא רץ ציה למו צא י מים‬

‫ישׂם מד ב ר לא גם ־מים‬ ‫וא רץ ציה למצא י מים‬

Ps 107,35

Ps 107, or v. 35 thereof, is almost certainly post-exilic. 7 The fact that Isa 41,18b is the only instance in Isa 41,8–16.17–20 in which we find an entire

See R. Klein, 1 Chronicles, 14. Allen (Psalms 101–150, 62–63) summarizes Beyerlin’s monograph (Werden und Wesen) on the post-exilic provenance of this psalm, agreeing that Ps 107,2–3.33–43 are a 6 7

82

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

bicolon shared word-for-word with another context suggests that the borrowing is from there to the psalm. While it remains possible that 2 Chr 20,7 and Ps 107,35 predate Isa 41,8– 16.17–20, it is not probable. We shall find, through the cumulative evidence of allusions in the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 (and beyond), that Second Isaiah rarely, if ever, quotes in such a form as we see here. Rather, we shall examine these two quotations in Chapter VII, §2.1 as readings of the Salvation Oracles into new literary-historical contexts. 2.1.2 Group 2: Allusion The kinds of word sharing in this group, allusion, are from those utterances of a comparable length to Isa 41,8–16.17–20 and whose shared words, which do not make up the majority of those compared utterances (like in quotation), give compositional form through stylistic patterns to the part of alluded utterance in which they stand. Isa 41,9–10//Josh 1,9 Isa 41,9a Isa 41,9b Isa 41,10a Isa 41,10b

‫אשׁר הח זקת יך מק צו ת הא רץ‬ ‫ומא ציליה ק ראת יך‬ ‫ו א מ ר ל ך ע בד י ־ א ת ה‬ ‫בח רת יך ו לא מא סת יך‬ ‫אל־ת ירא כי ע מך ־אנ י‬ ‫אל־ת שׁת ע כי־א ני א להיך‬ ‫אמצת יך אף ־עזרתיך‬ ‫אף ־ת מכתיך ב ימין צד קי‬

‫הלו א צו ית יך חזק וא מץ‬

Josh 1,9a

‫אל־ת ע רץ וא ל־תח ת‬ ‫כי ע מך יהו ה אלהיך‬

Josh 1,9b

‫בכל א שׁר ת לך‬

The dating of the book of Joshua is rather complicated, but strong literary evidence permits its composition before the Babylonian exile.8

post-exilic addition, which read Isa 34–66 most closely. On the other hand, Paul (Isaiah 40– 66, 56.173) claims, though without explanation, that Ps 107 influences this verse. 8 Summarizing the research on Joshua to date, Dozeman (Joshua 1–12, 31), while preferring a late, post-exilic date for its composition according to its dependence on the Pentateuch and focus on Samaritan themes, nevertheless states that arguments for its composition in the late monarchical period are also strong (Ibid., 27–28). Furthermore, Butler (Joshua 1– 12, 221–222) ties the expressions in Josh 1,9 to their instances in Deuteronomy (noted above and in §2.2.1, below) and not to a later redaction.

83

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

Isa 41,11–12.13.15–16//Ps 35,1–2.4.5–6.99 Isa 41,11a Isa 41,11b Isa 41,12a Isa 41,12b

‫הן יב שׁו ו יכלמו כל הנ ח רים בך‬ ‫יהיו כאין ו יא בד ו אנ שׁי ריב יך‬ ‫תבק שׁם ו לא ת מצא ם אנ שׁי מצתך‬ ‫יהיו כאין ו כא פס א נ שׁי מלח מתך‬

‫יב שׁו ו יכלמו מבק שׁי נ פשׁי‬ ‫ריב ה יהו ה את ־יריבי‬

Ps 35,4a Ps 35,1a

‫לחם את ־לח מי‬

Ps 35,1b

Isa 41,11b Isa 41,12b

. ..‫ אנ שׁי‬.. .‫יהיו כ‬ . ..‫ אנ שׁי‬.. .‫יהיו כ‬

‫ ו מלא ך יהו ה‬.. .‫יהיו כ‬ ‫ ו מלאך יהו ה‬. ..‫יהי‬

Ps 35,5a Ps 35,6a

Isa 41,13a Isa 41,13b

‫כי א ני יהו ה אלהך מח זיק ימינך‬ ‫האמר לך א ל־ת ירא אנ י ע זרת יך‬

‫הח זק מגן ו צנ ה‬ ‫וקומה ב עזרת י‬

Ps 35,2a Ps 35,2b

Isa 41,15b

‫תדו שׁ הרים ותדק‬ ‫וגב עות כמץ ת שׂים‬ ‫תזרם ו רוח ת שׂאם‬ ‫וסע רה ת פיץ אותם‬ ‫ואת ה ת ג יל ב יהו ה‬

‫יהיו כמץ לפנ י־רוח‬

Ps 35,5a

‫ונ פשׁי תג יל ביהו ה‬

Ps 35,9a

Isa 41,16a Isa 41,16b

Isa 41,14.16.17.20//Ps 22,2–3.4.7.32 Isa 41,14a

‫אל־ת ירא תו לעת יעק ב‬ ‫מת י ישׂרא ל‬

‫ואנ כי תו לע ת ו לא ־א ישׁ‬

Ps 22,7a

Isa 41,16b

‫ואת ה ת ג יל ב יהו ה‬ ‫בק ד ו שׁ י שׂ ר א ל ת ת ה ל ל‬

‫ו את ה ק ד ו שׁ‬ ‫יו שׁב ת הלות ישׂרא ל‬

Ps 22,4a Ps 22,4b

Isa 41,17b

‫אנ י יהו ה אע נם‬ ‫אלהי ישׂראל לא אע זב ם‬

‫א ל י א ל י ל מ ה ע ז בת נ י‬ ‫אלהי אק רא יו מם ו לא ת ענ ה‬

Ps 22,2a Ps 22,3a

Isa 41,20a

‫כי יד ־יהו ה ע שׂת ה זאת‬

‫לע ם נו לד כי ע שׂה‬

Ps 22,32b

Dating of the psalms is notoriously difficult, and so where nothing in a particular psalm precludes its composition before the exile, we should allow for the possibility. 2.1.3 Group 3: Theme and Typology The form of word sharing in this group is of one or a few words that suggest a group of utterances or an entire theme, and that cannot be isolated as allusion to one particular utterance. As we shall see, in compositional terms the author

9 Because so much of this concerns stereotypical language, Sommer (A Prophet Reads Scripture, 266 n. 31) dismisses this as an allusion. Nurmela (Mouth of the Lord, 10), however, is more certain of an allusion here. Regarding dating, Craigie (Psalms 1–50, 285–286) shows Ps 35 as a Royal Psalm uttered in the context of international treaties with Israel’s monarchy, suggesting a pre-exilic date.

84

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

tends to set these words in relation to other words using the forms of semantic parallelism. Isa 41,8//Deuteronomistic Election (e.g., Deut 4,37; 7,7–9; 10,15)10 Isa 41,8

‫כי א הב את ־א בת יך‬ ‫ויבח ר בזרעו אח ריו‬

‫ו א ת ה י שׂ ר א ל ע בד י‬ ‫יע קב א שׁר בח רת יך‬ ‫זרע אב רהם א הב י‬

Deut 4,37

Isa 41,9b//Deuteronomistic Election (e.g., 2 Kgs 23,27; cf. Jer 33,24) Isa 41,9b

‫בח רת יך ו לא מא סת יך‬

‫ ומא סת י את ־הע יר הזאת‬2 Kgs 23,27 ...‫אשׁר־בח רת י‬

We group these two sets of thematic allusions under “Deuteronomistic Election,” each treating different aspects of it (in terms of time and space). Isa 41,17a//Watery Renewal (Num 20,5b) Isa 41,17a

‫מבק שׁים מים ו א ין‬

‫ומים א ין לשׁתות‬

Num 20,5b

Isa 41,18a//Watery Renewal (e.g., Gen 7,11; Ps 74,15)11 Isa 41,18a

‫אפתח על־שׁפיים נ הרו ת‬ ‫ובתו ך ב קעו ת מע ינות‬

‫ביום הזה נבק עו כל־מע ינות ת הו ם‬ ‫רב ה ו א רבת השׁמים נ פתח ו‬

Gen 7,11b

‫את ה ב קעת מע ין ונ חל‬ ‫הו ב שׁת נ הרות א יתן‬

Ps 74,15

‫על־מימי מצרים על־נ הרתם‬ ‫על־יא ריהם וע ל־א גמיהם‬ ‫ועל־מק ו ה מימיהם‬ ‫על־הנ הרת על־היא רים‬ ‫ועל־האג מים‬

Exod 7,19

Isa 41,18b//Watery Renewal (e.g., Exod 7,19; 8,1) Isa 41,18b

‫אשׂים מדב ר לאג ם ־מים‬ ‫וא רץ ציה למו צא י מים‬

Exod 8,1

Like for Election, these sets of passages recount different events – the provision of water in the desert (Num 20,5b), the Noachic Flood (Gen 7,11b), Chaoskampf (Ps 74,15), and miracles in Egypt (Exod 7,19; 8,1) – but all refer to God’s power of renewal exhibited through water. Sommer (A Prophet Reads Scripture, 34) finds the source of this language in Akkadian royal texts, bypassing the possibility of the author’s reading them in Deuteronomy. 11 Kline (Allusive Soundplay, 108–111) discusses this allusion at length, and also suggests an allusion here to the episode of Moses’ splitting the rock in Num 20,1–13. No language from that narrative is shared here except the rhyme at the end of the people’s lament, “and there is no water” ( ‫)ומים א ין‬, which we note regarding Isa 41,17a. 10

85

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

Isa 41,19//Temple (e.g., Exod 25–27; 30; 35–37; 1 Kgs 5–6) Isa 41,19a

‫אתן במד ב ר א רז‬ ‫שׁט ה ו הד ס ו עץ שׁמן‬ ‫א שׂ י ם בע ר ב ה ב ר ו שׁ‬ ‫תדהר ות א שׁו ר יח דו‬

‫ שׁט ה‬Exod 25–27; 30; 35–37 (26x) ‫ארז‬, ‫ב רו שׁ‬ 1 Kgs 5–6 (11x, 4x) ‫ עץ שׁמן‬1 Kgs 6 (4x)

Even if the Pentateuch and Historical Books are not in their final form as received today, these texts and their traditions show some kind of influence in Isa 41–44 and beyond. 2.1.4 Group 4: Heteroglossia The author uses the language of these and similar passages from specific contexts and authors neither in forming specific parts of Isa 41,8–16.17–20 nor in being formed by poetic patterns there, but in or gaining authority from or being under the influence of these contexts and authors: Isa 41,8.9b–10a//Gen 26,24 Isa 41,8

Isa 41,9b Isa 41,10a

‫יע קב א שׁר בח רת יך ואת ה ישׂראל ע בד י‬ ‫זרע אב רהם א הב י‬

‫אנכי א להי א ברהם א ביך‬ ‫אל־ת ירא כי־את ך אנ כי‬ ‫וב רכת יך ו הרב ית י את ־זרעך‬ ‫בע בו ר א ב ר ה ם ע בד י‬

Gen 26,24a Gen 26,24b

‫ו א מ ר ל ך ע בד י ־ א ת ה‬ ‫בח רת יך ו לא מא סת יך‬ ‫אל־ת ירא כי ע מך ־אנ י‬ ‫אל־ת שׁת ע כי־א ני א להיך‬

Isa 41,8a.10a//Jer 30,10–11; 46,27–28 Isa 41,8a Isa 41,10a

‫יע קב ואת ה ישׂראל ע בד י‬ ‫אל־ת ירא כי ע מך ־אנ י אל־ת שׁתע‬ ‫כי־אנ י א להיך‬

‫ו א ת ה א ל ־ ת י ר א ע בד י י ע ק ב‬ ‫נאם ־יהו ה וא ל־ת חת ישׂרא ל‬ ‫כי־את ך א ני נא ם ־יהו ה להו שׁיעך‬

Jer 30,10a Jer 30,11a

As much as Isa 41,8–10 might seem to allude to Jer 30,10–11, there seem to be no discernible formal patterns to it, and seen in light of Gen 26,24, the nightly visit of God to Isaac, the shared words seem to emerge from patriarchal

86

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

heteroglossia. 12 Additionally, based on scholarly debate, it seems at least as likely that the author of Jer 30,10–11 is influence by Isa 41,8–10 in this regard. 13 Isa 41,9a//Exod 25–28; 36; 39; 1 Kgs 6 Isa 41,9a

‫מקצות הא רץ‬

‫ קצות‬Exod 25–28; 36; 39; 1 Kgs 6 (21x total)

The plural form of ‫“( קצה‬end”) is found typically in describing liturgical implements, as discussed in §2.3.3, below. Isa 41,12b//Ezek 27,10.27 Isa 41,12b

‫אנ שׁי מלח מת ך‬

‫ אנ שׁי מלח מת ך‬Ezek 27,10 .27

Isa 41,13a//Lev 17–26; Ezek 20; Hos 12,9; 13,4 Isa 41,13a

‫כי א ני יהו ה אלהך‬

‫אנ י יהו ה א להיך‬

Lev 17–26 (23x)

‫תזרם ו רוח ת שׂאם‬ ‫וסע רה ת פיץ אותם‬

‫ פיץ‬/‫זרה‬ ‫ס ע רה‬/‫רו ח‬

Ezek (7x) Ezek (3x)

Isa 41,16a//Ezek passim Isa 41,16a

We shall discuss the influence of Priestly source and Ezekiel’s expressions in §2.3.3, below. 2.2 Allusions in Composition Having listed what we consider many possible allusions within Isa 41,8– 16.17–20, and having discerned, to some degree, their probability especially as 12 Sommer (A Prophet Reads Scripture, 34) sees the source for this shared language in ANE royal traditions. 13 See the survey of this question in J. LUNDBOM, Jeremiah 21–26, 371–375. Tull Willey (Remember the Former Things, 273–279) devotes an appendix to her work on allusion in Isa 49–54 on demonstrating exilic dating of Jer 30–31. Sweeney (“Jeremiah 30–31,” 109– 122) would show dating earlier in Jeremiah’s career. Demonstrating the dependence of Jer 30,10–11 on not just Isa 41,8–10, but the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44 altogether, seems more plausible to us, but requires our having investigated first the compositional patterns by which Second Isaiah makes his allusions.

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

87

regards dating, we now examine the most probable allusions and thematic allusions in their compositional-stylistic form. We shall proceed in compositional order through the Salvation Oracle, showing along the way how the author weaves together allusions and themes. 2.2.1 Isa 41,8.9b//Deuteronomistic Election Isa 41,8

Isa 41,9b

‫ו א ת ה י שׂ ר א ל ע בד י‬ ‫יע קב א שׁר בח רת יך‬ ‫זרע אב רהם א הב י‬ ‫בח רת יך ו לא מא סת יך‬

‫כי א הב את ־א בת יך‬ ‫ויבח ר בזרעו אח ריו‬

Deut 4,37

‫ ומא סת י את ־הע יר הזאת‬2 Kgs 23,27 ‫אשׁר־בח רת י‬

The Salvation Oracle opens in v. 8 with an Address to Jacob-Israel in which the author orients our hearing the rest of the passage through four thematic markers: “my servant” ( ‫)עבדי‬, “whom I have chosen” (‫)אשׁר בחרתיך‬, “offspring of Abraham” (‫)זרע אברהם‬, and “who loves me” (‫)אהבי‬. This is followed in Isa 41,9b with a reiteration of some of these markers and the addition of “I have not rejected you” (‫)ו לא מאסתיך‬, further inscribing the Deuteronomistic theme of election. These thematic markers are meant to bring to mind the whole tradition of their usage, especially where they are found together in specific passages. This bringing-to-mind then helps the oracle’s hearer and reader to locate the much more specific allusions that give structure to the utterance as it continues. We shall consider here those words that, found together, allude to the theme of election by descendency from the patriarchs. The expression “my servant,” not always found with the words of election, of love, and of the patriarchs, is an architectonic word applicable in various genres, and so we shall consider it on the generic level in §3, below. a) Identifying the Allusions The idea of being chosen, as applied to Israel, to Jerusalem, and to those already called “servant,” comes from Deuteronomistic theology, and from a group of utterances in which this election is grounded in God’s love for Israel’s patriarchs, albeit with a subtle transformation. In Deut 4,37, a verse that shares much language with Isa 41,8, God, because “he has loved your fathers” ( ‫כי אהב‬ ‫)את־אבתיך‬, has “chosen (their) offspring after them” (‫)ויבחר בזרעו אחר יו‬. Again in Deut 7,7–9; 10,15, this choosing is due to God’s love for Israel’s ancestors, whom he has brought out of Egypt.14 This language is resumed after Solomon’s idolatry, when God retains a remnant in Judah for the sake of his “chosen” 14 This sort of narratio is then turned into a paraenetic moral appeal to “choose life” (‫ )ובח רת ב חיים‬by “loving the Lord” (‫ )לא הב ה את ־יהו ה‬in Deut 30,19–20.

88

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

Jerusalem and his “servant” David; 15 he finally rejects his “chosen” Jerusalem because of Manasseh’s sin. 16 This combination of terms appears only in Deuteronomistic passages regarding God’s choosing Israel because of the patriarchs, and since these terms appear together in several such passages, we take their use here as alluding to this theme in general in order to apply it to JacobIsrael in exile. In Isa 41,9a, we find two of the principle terms there brought forward, unchanged in form and joined or paired to other words: “My servant are you” (‫ )עבדי־אתה‬and “I have chosen you” (‫)בחרתיך‬. To the latter is paired the phrase “I have not rejected you” (‫)לא מאסתיך‬, a phrase that accompanies “to choose” in some of the important examples we have discussed above; specifically, it would seem to reverse the condemnation of Jerusalem in 2 Kgs 23,27 and answer the charge of God’s abandonment in Jer 33,24. 17 b) Allusive Composition of Isa 41,8.9b The key thematic words of Deut 4,37 et al. do not give form to Isa 41,8.9a, but rather the rigorous structure of these verses sets them in new relationship to each other. In Isa 41,8, this structure is the triple occurrence of patriarchal names, Israel – Jacob – seed of Abraham, each with a description of some kind: “my servant,” “whom I have chosen,” “who loves me.” In Isa 41,9b, after summarizing these words, the word pair “whom I have chosen and not rejected” is situated to form an end-line rhyme scheme with Isa 41,9a.10ab, as we shall further discuss, below. We must note here one curiosity regarding this poetic order. Isa 41,8 alludes to the theme of election based on the patriarchs, and yet while Abraham is mentioned by name, Jacob – one of the patriarchs – is here addressed. This would seem to transfer the idea of Israel’s election back to Abraham.18 The 15 See 1 Kgs 11,13.32.34.36. See Ps 78,67–68; Ps 89,4 for God’s “servant” David as “chosen,” treated in ch. V, §2.2.1 and §3.2.1. 16 2 Kgs 23,27. But see Jer 33,19–26 for this language set in terms of an unbreakable covenant. 17 Ps 78,67–71 employ the negation of this word pair (“rejected Joseph/chose not Ephraim”) in favor of “Judah” and “David” as “chosen servant” to rule “Jacob-Israel” in a way that goes beyond the claims of this verse, which simply affirms the restoration of “Jacob-Israel.” In Isa 7,15–16 these words are paired in the sense of moral choosing/rejecting. 18 Boadt (“Isaiah 41,8–13,” 27–28) claims that the reversal of the common word pair “Jacob-Israel” into “Israel-Jacob” gives emphasis to the third element in this series, the name of Abraham. More recently, Williamson (“Abraham in Exile,” 76) writes, “Given the striking appearance of Abraham last in the list, it is tempting to suppose that it is the reference to him, in fact, to which our attention is being particularly drawn.” Williamson then rightly shows that the author does not speak of Abraham himself, but the “seed of Abraham,” the readers being addressed as Jacob-Israel. We should note here the change in outlook from God’s words to Isaac in Gen 26,24: ‫אנ כי א להי אב רהם אב יך א ל־ת ירא כי־את ך א נכי וברכת יך ו הרב ית י‬

89

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

final word in Isa 41,8, “who loves me,” may be ambiguously apposite to Abraham and Jacob-Israel, but the nature of that love is rather clear in Deuteronomistic theology: it is in keeping the commandments, something that God exhorts Joshua to do as he takes charge of the Israelites, as we shall soon see in §2.2.2. c) Summary We have discerned an allusion to the theme of election in Isa 41,8.9a, an allusion not to one specific text but to a series of texts, and one inscribed by way of the rigorous structure of the alluding verses. The author narrows this theme of election from the patriarchs in general to Abraham specifically, as God addresses Jacob-Israel. This allusive theme does not rest on its own within Isa 41,8–16.17–20, and as we shall now see, depends on the formative character of the allusion in Isa 41,9a.10ab to Josh 1,9 and its related texts. 2.2.2 Isa 41,9–10//Josh 1,9 Isa 41,9a Isa 41,9b Isa 41,10a Isa 41,10b

‫אשׁר הח זקת יך מק צו ת הא רץ‬ ‫ומא ציליה ק ראת יך‬ ‫ו א מ ר ל ך ע בד י ־ א ת ה‬ ‫בח רת יך ו לא מא סת יך‬ ‫אל־ת ירא כי ע מך ־אנ י‬ ‫אל־ת שׁת ע כי־א ני א להיך‬ ‫אמצת יך אף ־עזרתיך‬ ‫אף ־ת מכתיך ב ימין צד קי‬

‫הלו א צו ית יך חזק וא מץ‬

Josh 1,9a

‫אל־ת ע רץ וא ל־תח ת‬ ‫כי ע מך יהו ה אלהיך‬

Josh 1,9b

‫בכל א שׁר ת לך‬

The author expands the Address in Isa 41,8 with an unspecific summary of God’s saving activity in vv. 9–10, these verses governed by an allusion to passages concerning the transfer of power from Moses to Joshua, of which we take Josh 1,9 as the summation or chief representative. Three elements mark the allusion: the Encouragement Formula ‫“( חזק ו אמץ‬Be strong and steadfast”), the two Fear-Not Formulas ‫אל־תערץ ו אל־תחת‬, and the Formula of Divine Presence ‫כי עמך יהוה אלהיך‬, split and interwoven. 19 The fact that these three formulas come together only in these two contexts suggests that we should move beyond a form-critical comparison to an allusion-critical study. In so doing, we find that the voice of Moses, introduced first in Isa 41,8, continues speaking here.

‫את ־זרעך ב עב ו ר אב רהם עב די‬. Here, Isaac is “blessed” and his offspring “made great,” again because of Abraham “my servant.” If this passage, also featuring a Fear-Not Formula and Formula of Divine Presentation, influences Second Isaiah, we see a transfer of the Abrahamdependent promise one generation down, from Isaac to Jacob. 19 See J. S CHREINER, “ ‫א מץ‬,” 325–326, for a discussion of the Encouragement Formula. Regarding the Fear-Not Formula and Formula of Divine Presence, see ch. I, §1, esp. our summary on the formulas in the Salvation Oracles there in §1.4.

90

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

a) Identifying the allusions A glance at the nine instances of Encouragement Formula in Deut–Josh should help our analysis of Isa 41,9–10, as this formula seems to be the primary formative element in its new context and the formula holding together the ongoing dialogue between God, Moses, and Joshua: Table 4: Instances of ‫ חזק ואמץ‬in Deut–Josh Deut 3,28: God to Moses

“And command Joshua and strengthen him and make him steadfast, for he will cross before this people and he will make them inherit the land that you will see.” Deut 31,6: Moses to “Be strong and steadfast, fear not Israel nor tremble before them, for the Lord your God goes with you; he will not fail you or abandon you.” Deut 31,7: “Be strong and steadfast, for you Moses to Joshua will bring this people into the land that the Lord has promised to give to your fathers, and you will make them inherit it.” Deut 31,23: “Be strong and steadfast, for you God to Joshua will bring the children of Israel into the land that I have sworn to them, and I will be with you.” Josh 1,6: “Be strong and steadfast, for you God to Joshua will make this people inherit the land that I have sworn to their fathers to give to them.” Josh 1,7: “Only be strong and steadfast, obGod to Joshua serving to do all the teaching with which Moses my servant charged you; do not turn from it right or left, so that you may prosper everywhere you go.” Josh 1,9: “Have I not charged you, ‘Be strong God to Joshua and steadfast, do not tremble nor be dismayed, for the Lord your God is with you everywhere you go’?” Josh 1,18: “Only be strong and steadfast.” Israel to Joshua Josh 10,25: “Fear not nor be dismayed, be Joshua to Israel strong and steadfast, for thus will the Lord do to all your enemies with whom you do battle.”

‫וצו את ־יהו שׂע וחזק הו ו א מצהו כי־הוא‬ ‫יע ב ר לפנ י העם הזה ו הו א ינח יל אותם‬ :‫את ־הא רץ א שׂר ת רא ה‬

‫חזקו וא מצו אל־תיראו וא ל־ת ע רצו‬ ‫מפנ יהם כי יהו ה א להיך הו א ההלך ע מך‬ :‫לא ירפך ו לא יע זב ך‬ ‫חזק וא מץ כי את ה ת בו א א ת ־הע ם הזה‬ ‫אל־הא רץ א שׂר נ שׂב ע יהו ה לאבת ם‬ :‫לתת להם וא ת ה תנ חילנ ה או תם‬

‫חזק וא מץ כי את ה ת ב יא את ־בנ י‬ ‫ישׂרא ל א ל־הא רץ א שׁר־נ שׁב עת י להם‬ : ‫ו א נ כ י א ה י ה ע מך‬ ‫חזק וא מץ כי את ה ת נח יל את ־העם הזה‬ ‫את ־הא רץ א שׁר־נ שׁב עת י לא בות ם לתת‬ :‫להם‬ ‫רק חזק ו אמץ מאד לשׁמר לע שׂות ככל־‬ ‫הת רה א שׁר צו ך משׁה עבד י א ל־תסו ר‬ ‫ממנ ו ימין ו שׂמאו ל למען ת שׂכיל ב כל‬ :‫אשׁר ת לך‬

‫הלו א צו ית יך חזק וא מץ א ל־ת ע רץ‬ ‫ואל־תחת כי עמך יהו ה א להיך ב כל‬ :‫אשׁר ת לך‬ ‫רק חזק ו אמץ‬ ‫אל־ת יראו וא ל־תחת ו ח זקו וא מצו כי‬ ‫ככה יע שׂה יהו ה לכל־א יב יכם א שׁר‬ :‫אתם נ לח מים אות ם‬

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

91

We will treat Josh 1,9 as the summation of this series not just for its closeness to Isa 41,9–10 relative to the other instances, but also because in its own form as God’s self-quotation, it serves as a recapitulation of the series. b) Allusive Composition of Isa 41,9–10 The Encouragement Formula, the word pair ‫חזק ואמץ‬, is split up to form an inclusio for Isa 41,9–10. 20 This word pair is altered to fit the new context, from the imperative second-person masculine singular to the qatal first-person singular. Alliteration on the ‫א‬, ‫מ‬, and ‫ צ‬sounds in the second word of the pair, ‫אמץ‬, bridges the distance of the 22 words that the author inserts between the pair in vv. 9a–10b. The importance and frequency of this word pair as a formula allows the author to satisfy only at the end of these verses the expectation of the second word. This alliteration occurs within the lines, especially the first (v. 9a) and as end-line rhymes building upon the parallelistic structure of each line. We can measure the structuring role of the alliteration by the frequency of the alliterative consonants, in the ratio 8:26 in the first line after ‫≈( חזק‬1:3, more than twice the minimum 1:8 frequency that Margalit defines) and 16:142 across the four lines (≈1:9, just below 1:8). 21 The alliterative consonants and the first word of the pair, ‫חזק‬, are underlined below. Table 5: Split-pair and Alliterative Structure of Isa 41,9–10 Isa 41,9a Isa 41,9b Isa 41,10a Isa 41,10b

‫אשׁר הח זקת יך מקצו ת הארץ ו מא ציליה ק ראת יך‬ ‫ואמר לך עבד י־את ה ב ח רת יך ולא מאסת יך‬ ‫אל־ת ירא כי ע מך ־אנ י א ל־ת שׁת ע כי־אנ י אלהיך‬ ‫אמצת יך אף ־עזרתיך א ף ־תמכת יך בימין צדק י‬

In terms of alliterationis causa, the alliteration also governs the choice of rare words and expressions. The consonantal sounds of ‫ אמץ‬are found in the expression that immediately follows the word containing the root ‫חזק‬, ‫מקצות הארץ‬, “from the ends of the earth.” 22 Then, we find the author employing a hapax legomena in order to extend the alliteration of the ‫צ‬-‫מ‬-‫ א‬sounds. This occurs in the word ‫מאציליה‬, possibly meaning “from its corners” if referring to the “ends of the earth.” 23 By adding the preposition ‫( מן‬here, ‫ )מ‬to this hapax usage, the author reinforces the ‫צ‬-‫מ‬-‫ א‬alliteration, and in a different consonantal order that will correspond to the end-line rhyme of v. 9b, in which we find the partial Boadt (“Isaiah 41,8–13,” 29) is first to see this word pair as a structuring element in Isa 41,9–10 and calls it a “loose inclusion.” 21 See B. M ARGALIT, “Alliteration in Ugaritic Poetry, I,” 537–557. We have included the sometimes unsounded and/or matris lectionis consonants ‫א‬, ‫ו‬, and ‫י‬. 22 This expression is rare; its usual formulation is in the singular form of the segholate ‫( ָקֶצה‬four times in Isa 40–55). See §2.3.3, below for this as liturgical heteroglossia. 23 See §2.4, below. 20

92

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

alliteration of ‫צ‬-‫מ‬-‫ א‬of the word ‫מאסתיך‬. With its alliterative consonants and prepositional suffix, it forms an end-line rhyme scheme with ‫ מאציליה קראתיך‬in v. 9a. This end-rhyme scheme will continue in v. 10a and v. 10b. Only after all of these verbal acrobatics – alliteration and split-up patterns – frustrating the expected word pair ‫חזק ואמץ‬, do we finally come to the expected second word in Isa 41,10b. It is, like ‫ החזקתיך‬in v. 9a, recast into the qatal singular, ‫אמצתיך‬, now in the first-person. It is as if, for two poetic lines, the mouth of Moses himself has again been stuttering to repeat God’s original encouragment to Joshua. Where the alliterative pattern is absent, two different kinds of material appear: a development in v. 9a of the theme of Election alluded to in v. 8, as discussed in §2.2.1 above, and in v. 10a the two other formulas found in the allusion to Josh 1,9. In Isa 41,10a we find one expression alluding directly to Josh 1,9 and its related passages as the splitting and interweaving of two formulas found in the alluded text. We find: Josh 1,9

Do not tremble and do not be dismayed, for with you is the Lord your God everywhere you go

Isa 41,10a

Fear not, for I am with you; Do not look about, for I am your God

‫אל־ת ע רץ וא ל־תח ת‬ ‫כי ע מך יהו ה אלהיך‬ ‫בכל א שׁר ת לך‬ ‫אל־ת ירא כי ע מך ־אנ י‬ ‫אל־ת שׁת ע כי־א ני א להך‬

While this allusion is most directly to Josh 1,9, this alluded verse itself is the summation of the nine instances of ‫ חזק ואמץ‬in Deut–Josh (see Table 4, above), and so the author enriches the allusion from these other utterances as well. In the other instances we find synonyms of ‫ אל־תער ץ ו אל־תחת‬in the Fear-Not Formula. In Deut 31,6, the expression ‫ אל־תער צו‬is paired with ‫אל־תיר או‬. In Josh 10,25, we find ‫ אל־תיראו‬with ‫ו אל־תחתו‬. Outside of these passages, these three terms expressing fear are often found paired. 24 The replacement of ‫אל־‬ ‫ תערץ‬or ‫ אל־תחת‬in Josh 1,9 with ‫ אל־תירא‬fits perfectly well in both contexts; we need only examine briefly the use of ‫ אל־תשׁתע‬in our investigation of this expression’s reformulation. Only the verb ‫ שׁתע‬in v. 10a does not come out of the formula as used in Deut–Josh. Second Isaiah’s use of ‫ אל־תשׁתע‬in the context of fear is a hapax usage, repeated only in Isa 41,23. 25 It may be an oblique allusion to God’s imperative to Joshua in Josh 1,7 not to turn from his commandments right or

‫חתת‬-‫ירא‬: Deut 1,21; 31,8; 1 Sam 17,11; Isa 51,7; Jer 23,4; 30,10; 46,27; Ezek 2,6; 3,9; Mal 2,5; 1 Chr 22,13; 28,20; 2 Chr 20,15.17; 32,7. ‫ע רץ‬- ‫ירא‬: Deut 1,29; 20,3; Isa 8,12.13; Ps 89,7. ‫ ע רץ‬-‫חתת‬: Job 31,34. 25 See §4.1, below. 24

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

93

left.26 If so, we see a theological transformation of the imperative not to fear: Second Isaiah takes what in Josh 1,5–9 are two distinct conditions for earthly success – keeping the commandments and God’s presence – and draws them into one imperative for fearlessness. The two Formulas of Divine Presentation in Isa 41,10a, “For I am with you” (‫ )כי עמך־אני‬and “For I am your God” (‫ )כי־אני אלהך‬come out of the single statement of divine presence in Josh 1,9, “For the Lord your God is with you” ( ‫כי‬ ‫)עמך יהוה אלהך‬. We should note that this is the only instance in Isa 40–55 of the preposition ‫עם‬, adding to the evidence so far accumulated for the direct allusion here to Josh 1,9. 27 Second Isaiah recasts this formula into the first-person singular and splits it up, weaving it together with the split-up double Fear-Not Formula. c) Summary The author marks the allusion in Isa 41,9–10 to Josh 1,9 with three formulas brought together uniquely in these two contexts. The Encouragement Formula “be strong and steadfast” is split and made into the inclusio of this part of the utterance, alliteration to the second member of this word pair giving cohesion to this part. The Fear-Not Formula draws upon the variety of its vocabulary in Deut–Josh, showing this to be an allusion to a set of passages within a given context. The Formula of Divine Presentation serves as the justification for courage and fearlessness in both contexts. The author uses generic formulae to make a specific allusion, and so a brief note on the original literary quality of the alluded texts should help us move beyond a form-critical comparison. That the proposed allusion consists in expressions that resolve into formulae naturally leads us to consider the possibility that Isa 41,9–10 contains no allusion to Deut–Josh at all, but comprise simply another instance of a genre, which scholars have variously attempted to identify.28 Our earlier look at all the instances in which the Encouragment Formula appears reveals that it joins the Formula of Divine Presentation and the Fear-Not Formula only in Deut–Josh, and so we must conclude that the utterance we are treating as the source of the 26 In Isa 41,23, the verb ‫ שׁת ע‬retains its literal visual meaning, being paired, at least according to the Qere, with ‫רא ה‬. 27 In contrast to 13 instances of the preposition ‫ את‬in Isa 40–55, including Isa 43,2b.5a. 28 Lohfink (“Deuteronomistische Darstellung,” 32–44) defines this genre in Deut 31,7–8 and Josh 1,6.9b as “installation in the office of land distributor,” Graf Reventlow (Liturgie und prophetisches Ich, 24–77) as one combining the prophetic call and the oracle of salvation, and Weinfeld (Deuteronomy, 45–51), rejecting these two theories, as a Miltary Oration, a ceremony of appointment to a difficult task. Weinfeld, we should note, does consider the orations the “product of speculative thought,” literary compositions deriving not from “cultic reality” (Ibid., 51–53) but, in close parallel to Assyrian terminology and practice, reflecting the military reality of the 8th -7th centuries BC projected back into the conquest.

94

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

allusion to Josh 1,9 does not reflect an oral form at all but an original piece of Deuteronomistic literature. 29 The formal elements in Deut–Josh are already taken from oral Sitze im Leben and placed in a new Sitz in der Literatur. The allusion in Isa 41,9a.10ab, then, brings with it the literary qualities of the Deuteronomistic literature, especially the voicing of its expressions by God, Moses, and Joshua. 2.2.3 Isa 41,8–10 as an Allusive Unit We have just considered the ways in which the allusions we have discussed give form to Isa 41,9a.10ab or are informed by the parallelistic structure of Isa 41,8, and now we shall consider three ways in which the author weaves together the two allusions we have just examined to form a single allusive unit in Isa 41,8–10. The first way is in physically weaving together the two allusions to form a single part. The second way is to reorder the various verbal forms of the original utterances into one verbal pattern consistent across this part and with Isa 41,8–16 as a whole. The third way is to reconfigure the formulas into those of a kind consistent with Isa 41,1–44,23 as a whole. First, the thematic allusion to the Deuteronomistic tradition of election in Isa 41,8.9b is split and interwoven with the text-specific allusion to Joshua’s encouragement in Isa 41,9a.10ab. We can visualize the result as follows: Table 6: Allusive structure of Isa 41,8–10 Isa 41,8 Isa 41,9a Isa 41,9b Isa 41,10a Isa 41,10b

‫ו א ת ה י שׂ ר א ל ע ב ד י י ע ק ב א שׁ ר בח ר ת י ך ז ר ע א ב ר ה ם א ה ב י‬ ‫אשׁר הח זקת יך מק צו ת הא רץ ו מא ציליה ק ראת יך‬ ‫ואמר לך עבד י־את ה ב ח רת יך ולא מאסת יך‬ ‫אל־ת ירא כי ע מך ־אנ י א ל־ת שׁת ע כי־אנ י אלהיך‬ ‫אמצת יך אף ־עזרתיך א ף ־תמכת יך בימין צדק י‬

Deut 4,37 Josh 1,9 Deut 4,37 Josh 1,9 Josh 1,9

Isa 41,8–10 is held together structurally; the author also forges these verses into a single grammatical sentence. After the vocative opening to the sentence (v. 8), qualified with two relative clauses (vv.9ab), the main clause consists of two imperatives (v. 10a), upon which follows another relative clause or one at least best represented in translation with a semicolon (v. 10b). This structural and grammatical unity is also consistent with the unity of the voice speaking through each of these allusions, that of Moses. 30 From the original utterances, only the double Fear-Not Formula and the Formula of Divine Presentation retain their primacy within the main clause of the sentence, while everything else is made relative to it verbally and syntactically. The wayyiqtol form of the verb ‫ בחר‬in Deut 4,37 is in v. 8a made into its 29 30

This is the conclusion of Butler in Joshua, 5–6. See §3.2.1, below.

95

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

equivalent qatal and joined to the participial form of ‫אהב‬, which in Deut 4,37 is in the qatal form, providing the anchor for that sequence of verbs. Thus, it seems that what Moses once speaks of as a perfective, completed past event (“God loved your fathers and chose his seed after them”) God now speaks as a present reality addressed to one of those ancestors, Jacob-Israel. Likewise, the imperative to Joshua to “be strong and steadfast” is recast, again in relative clauses, in the qatal, as if this action is a present fact.31 To these in v. 10b are added two new words, “I have helped you” (‫ )אף־עזרתיך‬and “I have grasped you” (‫)אף־תמכתיך‬, each introduced with the emphatic particle ‫ אף‬stylistically typical for Second Isaiah. 32 The Fear-Not Formula and Formula of Divine Presentation may be syntactically and verbally primary, but they are spoken only within a context that assures and gives reasons for the command. 2.2.4 Isa 41,11–12//Ps 35,1.4–6 Isa 41,11a Isa 41,11b Isa 41,12a Isa 41,12b

‫הן יב שׁו ו יכלמו כל הנ ח רים בך‬ ‫יהיו כאין ו יא בד ו אנ שׁי ריב יך‬ ‫תבק שׁם ו לא ת מצא ם אנ שׁי מצתך‬ ‫יהיו כאין ו כא פס א נ שׁי מלח מתך‬

‫יב שׁו ו יכלמו מבק שׁי נ פשׁי‬ ‫ריב ה יהו ה את ־יריבי‬

Ps 35,4a Ps 35,1a

‫לחם את ־לח מי‬

Ps 35,1b

Isa 41,11b Isa 41,12b

. ..‫ אנ שׁי‬.. .‫יהיו כ‬ . ..‫ אנ שׁי‬.. .‫יהיו כ‬

‫ ו מלא ך יהו ה‬.. .‫יהיו כ‬ ‫ ו מלאך יהו ה‬. ..‫יהי‬

Ps 35,5a Ps 35,6a

The next part of the Salvation Oracle, vv. 11–12, contains and is shaped by an allusion to Ps 35,1.4–6. The author marks this allusion through specific vocabulary and the very compositional features of the alluded text. Our ability to recognize the somewhat morphed vocabulary is helped by the author’s rigorous translation of the compositional form of the alluded verses into their new context. a) Identifying the Allusions Second Isaiah constructs Isa 41,11–12 around the split and alternating allusion to Ps 35,1.4–6. The first expression comes from Ps 35,4a, ‫יבשׁו ויכלמו מבקשׁי נפשׁ י‬ (“Let them be ashamed and disgraced, those who seek my life”), and is split between Isa 41,11a.12a, the beginnings of subsequent poetic lines. The first part of the expression is unchanged, while the second, ‫מבקשׁי נפשׁי‬, is altered to ‫תבקשׁם ו לא תמצאם‬: “You will seek them but not find them.” God is answering the psalm through grammatical reversal. Table 7, here following, shows Isa 41,11–12 and Ps 35,1.4–6 each in compositional order, with common elements variously highlighted:

31 32

See §3.4, below. See Isa 43,7b; 46,11b.

96

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

Table 7: Isa 41,11–12//Ps 35,1.4–6 Isa 41,11a Isa 41,11b Isa 41,12a Isa 41,12b Ps 35,1ab Ps 35,4a Ps 35,4b Ps 35,5ab Ps 35,6ab

‫הן יב שׁו ו יכלמו כל הנח רים ב ך‬ ‫יהיו כאין ו יא בד ו אנ שׁי ריביך‬ ‫תבק שׁם ו לא ת מצא ם אנ שׁי מצתך‬ ‫יהיו כאין ו כא פס אנ שׁי מלחמתך‬ ‫לח ם את ־לחמי ריב ה יהו ה את ־יריבי‬ ‫יב שׁו ו יכלמו מב ק שׁי נ פשׁי‬ ‫יסג ו א חו ר ויח פרו ח שׁב י רעת י‬ ‫יהיו כמץ לפנ י־רוח ו מלאך יהו ה ד וח ה‬ ‫יהי־ד רכם ח שׁך וח לק לקות ו מלא ך יהו ה רד פם‬

The two terms of aggression with which the author opens Ps 35, ‫ ריב‬and ‫לחם‬, are split to alternate with the previously-mentioned split expression, at the end of subsequent poetic lines Isa 41,11b.12b. In the psalm, these appear each first in an imperative addressed to God (‫ריבה‬, ‫ )לחם‬and then in plural substantive forms describing the psalmist’s enemies, with the first-person singular possessive suffix (‫יריבי‬, ‫)לחמי‬. 33 Second Isaiah transforms them into much more common grammatical forms, abstract nouns, and adds the construct plural noun of agency ‫ אנשׁי‬before each. Thus, “Those who contest me” (Ps 35,1a) become (literalistically) “The men of your contest” (‫אנשׁי ריביך‬, Isa 41,11b) and “Those who battle me” (Ps 35,1b) become “The men of your battle” (‫אנשׁי מלחמתך‬, Isa 41,12b). “) Elsewhere in the OT, this latter expression always means “warrior.” 34 These terms are now set in parallel to two other terms, ‫“( כל הנחר ים בך‬all incensed against you,” Isa 41,11a) and ‫“( אנשׁי מצתך‬men of your quarrel,” Isa 41,12a). The roots of these participles are common in the OT, but their forms here are unique. 35 This hapax form of ‫מצתך‬, found in Isa 41,12a near ‫תמצאם‬, may serve to re-echo the ‫צ‬-‫מ‬-‫ א‬alliteration of Isa 41,9–10. The allusion passes over the militaristic language of Ps 35,1–6 by not including vv. 2–3 and by being selective about vv. 5–6. We find no allusion to the psalmist’s call for God to take up buckler ( ‫)מגן‬, shield (‫)צנה‬, or sword (‫)חנית‬ (Ps 35,2–3). We do find other words from these verses in the Salvation Oracles, especially “help” (‫עזר‬, Ps 35,2//Isa 41,10.13.14) and “salvation” (‫ישׁע‬, Ps 35,3//Isa 43,3). The violent imprecations in Ps 35,5–6 for “thrusting” (‫)דחה‬, “chasing” (‫)רד ף‬, and a “dark and slippery path” ( ‫ )יהי־דרכם חשׁך וחלקלקות‬are 33 These forms are exceedingly rare: the noun ‫ יריב‬occurs only in Isa 49,27; Jer 18,19; Ps 35,1; the Qal participle ‫ לחם‬only in Ps 35,1; 56,1.2. The Qal imperative form of ‫ לחם‬occurs only in Ps 35,1; the imperative of the verb ‫ ריב‬only in Ps 35,1; 74,22; 119,154. 34 Formulated as ‫אנ שׁי המ לח מ ה‬/‫א ישׁ‬: Num 31,28; 31,49; Deut 2,14; Josh 5,6; 6,3; 1 Kgs 9,22; 2 Kgs 25,4; Jer 38,4; 41,16; 49,26; 50,30; 52,7; 1 Chr 12,39. In Ezek 27,10.27 we find ‫אנ שׁי מלחמת ך‬, where it refers to Tyre’s warriors. See Isa 42,13, where the author describes God “like a warrior” in the plural formulation of “battles” (‫)כא ישׁ מלח מות‬. 35 The expression ‫ כ ל הנח רים בו‬is found later in Isa 45,24.

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

97

replaced in Isa 41,11–12 with a simple negation: the Enemy will be no more. Some of the less militaristic vocabulary does come over into to the Salvation Oracle in a subsequent part: we hear the expression “like chaff before the wind” (‫ )כמץ לפני־רוח‬of Ps 35,5a split between Isa 41,15b.16a. 36 In the selection of vocabulary from Ps 35,1.4–6 in Isa 41,11–12, the author brings forward the mention of the psalmist’s enemy while denying Jacob-Israel a military-style victory or one won by cursing. Instead, God speaks of simple annhilation, negation of presence. The denial of military victory to Jacob-Israel is reinforced through the compositional form that this allusion makes in Isa 41,11–12, as we shall now see. b) Allusive Composition of Isa 41,11–12 The allusion to Ps 35,1.4–6 in Isa 41,11–12 is an allusion to specific parts of that psalm, whose compositional form we shall now consider in relation to the alluding verses. The anaphoric/epiphoric form of these verses in the psalm, along with word-pair expansion, are carried over into their new context in Isa 41,11–12. Second Isaiah uses two terms to allude to the anaphoric/epiphoric structure of Ps 35,5–6 in Isa 41,11–12. The term ‫ אנשׁי‬makes up an epiphora for the last three lines of this section in the same relative location that the term ‫מלאך יהו ה‬ takes in Ps 35,5ab. He reinforces this allusive anaphora through the use of the term ‫ יהיו‬in Isa 41,11b.12b, corresponding to Ps 35,5ab. Second Isaiah joins to this the term ‫כאין‬, which in Isa 40–55 often serves to express God’s uniqueness (as does ‫)אפס‬. 37 This compositional pattern reorients Jacob-Israel’s expectations for the role he himself plays in his own salvation. First, the twofold anaphora of the psalm ( ‫ )יהיו‬is maintained to express the enemies’ annihilation, but the twofold structure of the epiphora, “the angel of the Lord” (‫ )מלאך יהוה‬is expanded to three repetitions and its content altered to “men of” (‫)אנשׁי‬. This serves to deny JacobIsrael a military victory. 38 That is, just as those who are incensed with ( ‫כל‬ ‫)הנחרים בך‬, contest (‫)אנשׁי ריביך‬, and quarrel (‫ )אנשׁ י מצתך‬against Jacob-Israel are negated, so too are Jacob-Israel’s “warriors” (‫)אנשׁ י מלחמתך‬. As seen above, there is no reason to understand this expression only as “those who battle you,”

See §2.2.6, below. See Isa 45,5.6.14.18.21.22; 46,9 for ‫“( א נ י יהו ה וא ין ע וד‬I am the Lord and there is no other”) and Isa 47,8.10 for ‫“( אנ י ו א פס י עוד‬I and no other”). 38 The omission of the reference to angels may correspond to Second Isaiah’s engagement with Deuteronomistic language and theology in general. On this point, see S. PAUL, Isaiah 40–66, 48. 36 37

98

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

even if the context suggests it.39 Rather than homogenizing this expression with the three that precede it, we can see that it is ambiguous. While the double repetition of the epiphora heightens the listener’s sense of expectation, its third iteration alters that expectation. There is no other than God to do the fighting. The reason for the negation of Jacob-Israel’s own warriors along with his enemies is given immediately in Isa 41,13. 40 The second way in which Isa 41,11–12 alludes to the composition form of Ps 35,1.4–6 concerns the expansion of word pair expressions with a middle term. We have in mind the expressions in Ps 35,4a, “Let them be ashamed and disgraced” ( ‫ )יבשׁו ויכלמו‬and Ps 35,4b, “Let them be turned back and confused” (‫)יסגו אחור ויחפרו‬. The latter word pair, in parallel to the former, is expanded with the middle term “back” (‫)אחור‬.41 In Isa 41,11a.12a, the first expression is carried over as it stands in the psalm, and the second, parallel expression is formed by turning the participle of Ps 35,4a “those who seek” (‫ )מבקשׁי‬into a cliché expression and expanding it with a middle term, “not” (‫)לא‬, hence: “You will seek them, but not find them” (‫)תבקשׁם ו לא תמצאם‬. 42 Between the anaphoric/epiphoric structure of Ps 35,5–6 and the verbal word pair expansion pattern of Ps 35,4, we see that it is not simply the vocabulary, but also the formal properties of the psalm that both ground the allusion in Isa 41,11–12 and give these new verses their structure. In regard to verbal form and aspect, this entire part is set in the yiqtol and with a seemingly future aspect, a transformation from the imperative and jussive forms in the psalm. This is important for three reasons. First, it is as if God is answering the psalmist, bringing, as form-critical scholars have long noted, the Salvation Oracle into relationship to the Lament Psalm. Second, God answers the psalmist not with a qatal statement of completed or perfect-aspect events, but with a yiqtol that suggest an immediate or ongoing future activity. Thirdly, God speaks to Jacob-Israel’s future as if to the psalmist’s present situaton. We shall investigate the importance of these reasons once we can see the oracle as a whole.

39 For “those who battle you” and equivalent, see K. BALTZER, Deutero-Jesaja, 135; J. BLENKINSOPP, Isaiah 40–55, 198; S. PAUL, Isaiah 40–66, 269. Berges (Jesaja 40–48, 174) retains the ambiguity with “die Männer deines Kampfes.” 40 See §2.2.5, below. 41 This occurs again in Ps 35,26 with nearly the same expressions, wherein “Let them be ashamed and confused” (‫ )יב שׁו ו יח פרו‬is in parallel to “Let them be clothed with shame and disgrace” (‫)ילב שׁו ־ב שׁת ו כלמה‬. Here, however, the middle term and the expected second verb come from the verbal pair in v. 4a, and in noun form. 42 These words form a common or cliché pair in Deut 4,29; 1 Sam 10,21; 2 Sam 17,20; 1 Kgs 1,3; 18,10; 2 Kgs 2,17; Isa 41,17; Jer 2,24; 5,1; 29,13; 50,20; Ezek 22,30; 26,21; Hos 2,9; 5,9; Amos 8,12; Prov 2,4.5; Song 3,1.2; 5,6; Qoh 7,24.25; 8,17; 12,10; Esth 5,8; 6,2; Dan 1,20; Ezra 2,62; Neh 7,64; 2 Chr 15,4.15; 2 Chr 22,8.9.

99

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

c) Summary The allusion in Isa 41,11–12 to Ps 35,1.4–6 is marked through specific and selective vocabulary and compositional form. The author draws out from the psalm the language describing the enemy but not the militaristic language that the psalmist assigns to God or the deprecations he assigns to the enemy. Instead, In Isa 41,11–12, while God does render the enemy nul, he also denies JacobIsrael a military role. The allusion and the new message that the author is shaping through it is reinforced in his bringing over and weaving together the compositional forms of the alluded verses, namely anaphora/epiphora and wordpair expansion. 2.2.5 Isa 41,13//Ps 35,2 Isa 41,13a Isa 41,13b

‫כי א ני יהו ה אלהך מח זיק ימינך‬ ‫האמר לך א ל־ת ירא אנ י ע זרת יך‬

‫הח זק מגן ו צנ ה‬ ‫וקומה ב עזרת י‬

Ps 35,2a Ps 35,2b

Isa 41,13 comprises a Summary Restatement of Isa 41,9–10 and serves to provide the reasoning for the statements made in vv. 11–12. This condensed rendering of the earlier Address allows the author to place in parallel here the terms beginning and ending Ps 35,2, “Grasp” (‫ )החזק‬and “to my help” (‫)בעזרתי‬. Beginning with an explicatory ‫כי‬, we find, for the first time in v. 13a the full Formula of Divine Presentation (‫)אני יהוה אלהך‬, which we expect in vv. 9–10 from the allusion to Josh 1,9 but find there in a split-up pattern. Then, in v. 13a, the two words that open and close vv. 9–10, ‫ חזק‬and ‫ימין‬, are now together in a unique expression, “who strengthens your right hand” (‫ )מחזיק ימינך‬similar in the OT only to the expression God speaks to Cyrus in Isa 45,1, “whose right hand I have grasped” (‫)אשׁר־החזקתי בימינו‬. 43 This replaces the psalmist’s appeal to God in Ps 35,2a to “Grasp buckler and shield” (‫)החזק מגן וצנה‬. In Isa 41,13b, we find brought together the two expressions that open the subsequent halflines in vv. 9b.10a, “saying to you” (‫ )האמר לך‬and “fear not” (‫)אל־תירא‬. Finally, in v. 13b, we find what we have considered a new term in v. 10b, “I have helped you” (‫)עזרתיך‬, which, in fact, closes Ps 35,2b. Isa 41,13 serves to summarize vv. 9–10 as the grounds for what is said in vv. 11–12, to conclude this larger subsection of the oracle, and to prepare for the next part of the oracle, vv. 14– 16. As a Summary Restatement of Isa 41,9–10 and as a continuing allusion to Ps 35, we can consider Isa 41,13 as the concluding verse of the main part of the oracle, Isa 41,8–13. Nevertheless, continued allusion to Ps 35 in

Elsewhere, this expression occurs with the more general term for hand, ‫יד‬: “to grasp by the hand” (‫ )ב יד‬in Gen 19,16; 21,18; Exod 4,4; Judg 16,26; Isa 42,6; 51,18; Jer 31,32; Zech 14,13 (without ‫ ;)ב‬Job 8,20. “To strengthen the hand of” occurs in Ezek 16,49. 43

100

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

Isa 41,15a.16b, as well as the literary inclusio of ‫ ואתה‬in Isa 41,16, suggest that the next section remains part of the same utterance. 2.2.6 Isa 41,14–16//Ps 22,4–9 and Ps 35,5.9 Isa 41,14a Isa 41,16b

Isa 41,15b Isa 41,16a Isa 41,16b

‫אל־ת ירא תו לעת יעק ב‬ ‫מת י ישׂרא ל‬ ‫ואת ה ת ג יל ב יהו ה‬ ‫בק ד ו שׁ י שׂ ר א ל ת ת ה ל ל‬

‫ואנ כי תו לע ת ו לא ־א ישׁ‬

Ps 22,7a

‫ו את ה ק ד ו שׁ‬ ‫יו שׁב ת הלות ישׂרא ל‬

Ps 22,4a Ps 22,4b

‫תדו שׁ הרים ותדק‬ ‫וגב עות כמץ ת שׂים‬ ‫תזרם ו רוח ת שׂאם‬ ‫וסע רה ת פיץ אותם‬ ‫ואת ה ת ג יל ב יהו ה‬

‫יהיו כמץ לפנ י־רוח‬

Ps 35,5a

‫ונ פשׁי תג יל ביהו ה‬

Ps 35,9a

Isa 41,8–16.17–20 share many words and expressions with Ps 22, but only in Isa 41,14–16 does this allusion begin to take a specific structure. The allusive markers refer to Ps 22,4.7, but we shall find it fruitful to consider Ps 22,4–9 all together, as a part of the psalm, in its own composition with respect the composition of Isa 41,14–16; just like Ps 35,5–6 provide a model for the compositional form of Isa 41,11–12, so Ps 22,4–9 does for Isa 41,14–16. Woven into these verses in Isaiah are some elements of the allusion to Ps 35 not yet made in Isa 41,11–12. These two psalms are very similar in form and content, and so we shall see how they speak together in Isa 41,8–16. a) Identifying the Allusions The main formal-stylistic gesture that Second Isaiah makes in alluding to Ps 22,4–9 is to compose an inversion of elements, the loose kind of inverted quotation appropriate for allusion, which we have seen in Chapter II, §2.2.2a. Reinforcing this compositional inversion of elements is an inversion in grammatical gender. Table 8, here following, helps show how the allusion to Ps 22,4.7 gives compositional form to Isa 41,14–16. The author uses Ps 35,5a.9a to fill out some of its content and help complete this compositional form. With Ps 22,4–9 taken as a compositional unit (which we shall further investigate below), we see that the words that organize it also open and close Isa 41,14–16, and in reverse order. Ps 22,4 begins with “But you” (‫ )ו אתה‬and Ps 22,7 with “But I” (‫)ואנכי‬, where “you” here refers to God and “I” to the psalmist. These waw-adversative pronouns mark two parts of a single unit, Ps 22,4–9. In Isa 41,14a.16b, God takes up these same words in address to Jacob-Israel, reversing both their order and their application (“you” as Israel and “I” [‫ ]אני‬as God). God is responding to this Psalm of Lament, and as we shall

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

101

see, applying its strong imagery to the new role that Jacob-Israel is to play in its own salvation. Table 8: Isa 41,14–16//Ps 22,4–9 and Ps 35,5a.9a Isa 41,14a Isa 41,14b Isa 41,15a Isa 41,15b Isa 41,16a Isa 41,16b

‫אל־ת ירא י תו לע ת יעק ב מת י ישׂרא ל‬ ‫אנ י ע זרת יך נא ם ־יהו ה וג א לך ק דו שׁ ישׂראל‬ ‫הנ ה שׂמת יך למו רג ח רוץ ח ד שׁ ב ע ל פיפיות‬ ‫תדו שׁ הרים ותדק וגב עות כמץ ת שׂים‬ ‫תזרם ו רוח ת שׂאם וסע רה ת פיץ אות ם‬ ‫ואת ה ת ג יל ב יהו ה בקדו שׁ ישׂרא ל תת הלל‬

Ps 22,4ab Ps 22,5ab Ps 22,6ab Ps 22,7ab Ps 22,8ab Ps 22,9ab

‫ואת ה ק דו שׁ יו שׁב ת הלות ישׂראל‬ ‫בך בט לו אבת ינ ו בט חו ו ת פלטמו‬ ‫אליך זעקו ונ מלטו ב ך בטחו ו לא ־בו שׁו‬ ‫ואנ כי תו לע ת ו לא ־א ישׁ ח רפת אדם וב זו י עם‬ ‫כל־רא י ילעג ו לי יפט ירו ב שׂפה ינ יע ו רא שׂ‬ ‫גל אל־יהו ה יפלט הו יצילהו כי ח פץ ב ו‬

Ps 35,5ab Ps 35,9ab

:‫יהיו כמץ לפנ י־רוח ו מלאך יהו ה ד וח ה‬ :‫ונ פשׁי תג יל ביהו ה ת שׂישׂ ב ישׁועת ו‬

Also reversed in compositional order are the words found in these respective verses, concerning the praise of God and the humility of Israel. The terms regarding God’s praise in Ps 22,4, namely “Holy One” (‫)קדו שׁ‬, “praises/praise songs of Israel” (‫)תהלות ישׂראל‬, taking up most of the poetic line in Ps 22,4 (“But you, Holy One, dwell in the praises of Israel”), are reordered into the half-line of Isa 41,16d, “in the Holy One of Israel you shall boast” (‫)בקדושׁ ישׂראל תתהלל‬. Just as this whole line in the psalm occupies a closing half-line in Second Isaiah, so the half-line of Ps 22,7a, instead, is expanded to fill the whole opening line of Isa 41,14ab. There, the words “worm” (‫ )תולעת‬and “not-man” (‫ )לא־אישׁ‬feature as “worm” (‫ )תולעת‬and “few” (‫)מתי‬, joined in apposition to Jacob and Israel, respectively. We should now discuss this first apposition further, as it brings about in Isa 41,14–15a a switch in grammatical gender. The word ‫ תולעת‬is feminine, and while this necessitates corresponding grammatical forms, these forms also reinforce the humiliation of Jacob-Israel. The psalmist in Ps 22,7a describes himself as “not-man,” and so God, in taking up this verse in Isa 41,14a, speaks to Jacob-Israel using the feminine form of the verb “fear not” (‫)אל־תיראי‬, the pronomial direct object suffixes in “I have helped you” (‫)עזר תיך‬, “I have set you” (‫)שׂמתיך‬, and “who redeemes you” (‫)גאלך‬. In Isa 41,14b, in place of the term ‫ לא־אישׁ‬from the psalm, Second Isaiah uses the term ‫מת‬, a rare word for “man” that almost always means “few” or has some

102

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

other derogatory connotation, especially as a remnant. 44 We should not take the feminine identification of Jacob-Israel as derogatory in itself, since awaiting the reader in v. 20 is God’s own self-identification using the feminine “hand” (‫)יד‬. Rather, God accepts the psalmist’s self-deprecation as coming from Jacob-Israel, and, as we shall see, God turns this humiliation toward Israel’s advantage. Some elements from Ps 35 return to fill out Isa 41,14–16. Within the frame that the author makes through allusion to Ps 22,4–9, the imprecation from Ps 35,5a, “May they be as chaff before the wind” (‫ – )יהיו כמץ לפני־רוח‬omitted in Second Isaiah’s allusion to the anaphoric structure of Ps 35,5–6 – is split between Isa 41,15b and v. 16a. The expression “In the Lord shall you boast” (‫ )תגיל ביהוה‬from Ps 35,9a provides the first half of Isa 41,16b, paired to the allusion to Ps 22,4 in the second half of the same line. The author has placed the two allusions that, so far, have formed two distinct sections of the utterance, Isa 41,11–13 and vv. 14–16, into dialogue. b) Allusive Composition of Isa 41,14–16 The allusion to Ps 22,4–9 (helped by Ps 35,5a.9a) provides not simply a compositional frame for Isa 41,14–16, but also brings with it an important shift in verbal form that reconfigures Jacob-Israel’s relationship to his enemies. We have already begun to see how the author transforms the verbs from the allusions in Isa 41,8–10.11–12.13 in order to reorient those allusions to the present situation. In these cases, whole allusions have been transformed. With Ps 22,4– 9, however, there is no transformation of verbal form, but rather the importation into Isa 41,14–16 of the shift in verbal form already found in this part of the psalm. This same pattern of verbal form, though, set next to the transformations in earlier parts of the Salvation Oracle, gives new modality to those verbal forms, as we shall also see. As shown earlier, the nominative phrases in Ps 22,4.7 are woven into the verbal phrases Isa 41,14a.16b. What remains is a striking correlation between the location of verbal forms in these two passages (even if Isa 41,14–16 does not imitate the number of verbs in Ps 22,4–9). A side-by-side comparison of the verbal forms in Isa 41,14–16 and Ps 22,4– 9 reveals their similarity, as shown in Table 9: 44 “Men of number (i.e., ‘few’)” ( ‫)מת י מס פר‬: Gen 34,30; Deut 4,27; Deut 33,6; Jer 44,28; Ps 105,12//1 Chr 16,19. “Men of fewness” ( ‫)במתי מע ט‬: Deut 26,5; 28,62. Destroyed residents of Sihon: Deut 2,34; 3,6. Who fall by the sword: Isa 3,25. Who are famished: Isa 5,13. Worldly men: Ps 17,14 (2x). “Vain men” ( ‫)מת י שׁו א‬: Ps 26,4; Job 11,11. “Wicked men” ( ‫מת י‬ ‫)און‬: Job 22,15. Men who groan: Job 24,12. “Men of my counsel” (‫)מת י סוד י‬: Job 19,19. “Men of my tent” (‫)מת י א הלי‬: Job 31,31. In parallel to ‫א ישׁ‬: Job 11,3. In fact, the LXX translates this term in Isa 41,14b as ὀλιγοστος (“few”) while omitting ‫ ;תו לע ת‬Paul (Isaiah 40–66, 67) interprets this omission as an effort “not to deride Israel.”

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

103

Table 9: Verbal Forms in Isa 41,14–16//Ps 22,4–9 v. 14a v. 14b v. 15a

Isa 41,14–16 Neg. jussive – (apposition) qatal – qotel nominative qatal

v. 15b v. 16a v. 16b

yiqtol-weyiqtol – yiqtol yiqtol-yiqtol – yiqtol yiqtol – yiqtol

v. 4ab v. 5ab v. 6ab v. 7ab v. 8ab v. 9ab

Ps 22,4–9 Nominative – qotel qatal – qatal-wayyiqtol qatal-weqatal – qat.-qat(disj.) Nominative – qatul yiqtol – yiqtol-yiqtol uqtol-yiqtol – yiqtol-qatel

Having shown verbal form as a compositional device, we can now look into the function of these forms on verbal aspect in Isa 41,14–16. The use of the qatal should be more clearly identifiable. In Ps 22,5–6, the qatal form gives past tense action. The narrative sequence with wayyiqtol in Ps 22,5b and the disjunctive sequence in v. 6b indicate this, as well as the mention of “our fathers” ( ‫)אבתינו‬, which in this collective manner means “ancestors.” In terms of aspect, it is perfective, a completed past action. 45 In Isa 41,14b.15a, the qatal is nuanced with a perfect (not perfective) aspect: God has made Jacob-Israel into what he is now. The allusion brings not just vocabulary for describing Jacob-Israel in older words, but also verbal forms “updated” in aspect: the salvation that God once works for the psalmist’s ancestors belongs to Jacob-Israel today. As identifying modality is often a case of interpretation, we shall reserve this for §3.4, below. In Ps 22,4–9 and Isa 41,14–16 the use of the yiqtol, building upon the shift in qatal from perfective to perfect aspect, turns its action from the present to the imminent future. In Ps 22,8, the three yiqtol verbs express present tense action, the enemies’ mocking, unrestraining their mouths, and shaking their heads. These express imperfective aspect: the psalmist can see his enemies acting thus. In Ps 22,9, we find a great deal of ambiguity, not just in terms of mood and modality, but in terms of who is speaking and about whom. It is most likely that the whole verse is set in the “open” mouth of the enemies as a satire upon the psalmist. The opening imperative (‫ )גל‬is followed, then, either by jussives in the obligative mode (“Let him deliver him, let him rescue him”) or yiqtol in the future tense, declarative mode (“He will deliver him…”) or deontic obligative (“He ought to deliver him…”). This ambiguity is further increased by the uncertain identification of who delights in whom in v. 9b. Isa 41,15b–16, in response, is unambivalent, as now God is clearly speaking. The author further marks this shift from ambiguity to unambiguity as the soft alliterative ‫ ה‬and ‫י‬ (itself alternately consonant and vowel) of Ps 22,8–9 give way in Isa 41,15b– There may be a hint of durative aspect in Ps 22,5a.6a, in the sense of “our fathers (continually) trusted” and “(whenever) they called out they were rescued,” but the yiqtol normally expresses this aspect. 45

104

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

16 to the hard alliterative ‫( ת‬possibly referring back to ‫ תו לעת‬and ‫ )מת‬and ‫שׁ‬. The yiqtol here remains imperfective; the action goes on uncompleted. However, it describes not what is presently happening to the psalmist, but what is about to happen for Jacob-Israel. Corresponding to this sense of incompletion is, then, not a future tense describing a particular event, but a new state of being, an ongoing event about to begin or that ought now begin as a consequence of what is stated in the qatal. c) Summary We have seen that in the allusion in Isa 41,14–16 to Ps 22,4–9, the author applies the psalmist’s self-deprecating language and shift in verbal form to JacobIsrael. The language of lament and praise builds a compositional frame for the new, alluding context, using a loose kind of inverted quotation. The shift in verbal form from qatal to yiqtol gives further form to the alluding context, and allows the author to reinterpret the psalmist’s situation in light of God’s new words to Jacob-Israel. There remains for us to consider the highly metaphorical language of Isa 41,14–16, which we shall do in §3.2.3, below. 2.2.7 Isa 41,17–20//Ps 22,2–3.32 and Pentateuchal-Historical Themes Isa 41,17b

‫אנ י יהו ה אע נם‬ ‫אלהי ישׂראל לא אע זב ם‬

‫א ל י א ל י ל מ ה ע ז בת נ י‬ ‫אלהי אק רא יו מם ו לא ת ענ ה‬

Ps 22,2a Ps 22,3a

Isa 41,20a

‫כי יד ־יהו ה ע שׂת ה זאת‬

‫לע ם נו לד כי ע שׂה‬

Ps 22,32b

Isa 41,17a

‫מבק שׁים מים ו א ין‬

‫ומים א ין לשׁתות‬

Num 20,5b

As we have stated in the Delimitation of the passage currently in question (§1.1), Isa 41,17–20, while not strictly part of the Salvation Oracle Isa 41,8– 16, are closely related to it in form and content and, as we shall now see, allusion. If not for the compositional frame that Ps 22 provides for this passage, in continuation of Isa 41,14–16, we might not otherwise have considered it here. Indeed, the allusion has led to our investigation of this passage and the discovery that we need to understand the stylistic patterns of allusion within this Announcement of Salvation so as to see more clearly into Isa 43,1–7; 44,1–5 in later chapters. Despite the clearly-discernable allusion, however, the content of this passage, much like of Isa 41,14–16, is a much freer orchestration of themes, whose representative passages we list in §2.2.7b. a) Identifying the allusions The author delimits Isa 41,17–20 with the words that also circumscribe Ps 22, but in a less strictly-formal way than Isa 41,14–16. Some of the vocabulary is

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

105

taken from throughout the psalm, but we can detect enough of a formal gesture to recognize the source of this allusion. Indeed, while we see continuity of the author’s use of vocabulary and form, we also sense a development of allusive style. In Isa 41,17, two words, “answer” (‫ )ענה‬and “abandon” (‫ )עזב‬mark the allusion to Ps 22,2–3 and two words from within the psalm, “the afflicted” (‫עניים‬/‫ )ענוים‬and “tongue” (‫)לשׁון‬, sit in parallel to them. The psalm opens with a pair of parallel phrases: “My God, my God, why have you abandoned me” (‫אלי אלי למה עזבתני‬, Ps 22,2a) and “My God, I call by day and you do not answer” (‫אלהי אזרא יו מם ולא תענה‬, Ps 22,3a). 46 The last word of the first half of each verse, hence in parallel to each other, are found in Isa 41,17b, in reverse order, negated, applied to a distinct third party, and joined in typical Second-Isaiah fashion to divine epithets. The result is “I the Lord shall answer them, the God of Israel will not abandon them” (‫)אני יהוה אענם אלהי ישׂראל לא אעזנם‬. In the complementary parallel position of subject in Isa 41,17a to the verbal markers “answer” and “abandon” in Isa 41,17b are the words “afflicted” (Ps 22,27a) and “tongue” (Ps 22,16a). The “afflicted” (‫ )העניים‬are joined in a cliché word pair to “the needy” (‫)האביונים‬, and the vocabulary in Ps 22,16 surrounding the psalmist’s tongue, graphically describing the dryness of his mouth, is replaced with more general vocabulary, especially in the words “seeking water” (‫ )מבקשׁ ים מים‬and “thirst” (‫)צמא‬. 47 Already we see God responding to the needs of the individual psalmist with a statement about the “afflicted and needy” in the broader spatial terms characteristic of Isa 41,17–20. The author concludes this section in Isa 41,20b with the same words that conclude the psalm. In Ps 22,32, this is “For he has acted” (‫)כי עשׂה‬, while in Isa 41,20, it becomes “For the hand of the Lord has done this” ( ‫כי יד־יהוה עשׂ תה‬ ‫)זאת‬. Once again, the author expands the original expression with a divine epithet and pairs it to a parallel expression, “and the Holy One of Israel has created it” (‫)וקדושׁ ישׂראל בראה‬. 48 This final half-verse, indeed, does more than conclude this section, it orients our hearing of the voices speaking within this section, the voices of several traditions.

46 The psalmist inscribes the parallel structure of these two verses with the opening vocative to God (‫א לי‬, ‫ )אלהי‬followed by another aleph-initial word (‫א לי‬, ‫ )אק רא‬in the first half, and in the second half alliteration of, respectively, ‫שׁ‬-‫ ת‬and ‫ל‬-‫י‬. 47 With the inclusion of ‫ מ ים וא ין‬as a possible use of the people’s lament to Moses in Num 20,5, the author may be further recategorizing the psalmist’s lament as that of the people, the “afflicted and needy.” 48 It is possible that, by surrounding the verb ‫ ע שׂה‬with a feminine subject ( ‫ )יד‬and object ( ‫זאת‬, leading to the feminine object suffix ‫ ה‬- on ‫)ב רא‬, the author assigns to God a “feminine” identity responding to the feminine identity and action of Jacob-Israel in Isa 41,14.

106

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

b) Allusive Composition of Isa 41,17–20 In a reverse of what we have so far seen, it is not the compositional form of the allusion that determines the shape of the alluding passage here, but rather the rigorous parallelistic structure of these verses that help us locate the thematic allusions they contain. This is because we are dealing not with allusion to a specific utterance, but to a series of utterances that resonate certain themes or traditions. Within the frame of Isa 41,17.20 composed with Ps 22,2–3.32, there are two sections, Isa 41,18.19, each replete with particular imagery and governing allusions to particular themes. Isa 41,18 is full of imagery of the rewatering of the desert, using the language of the Noah and Exodus traditions. The imagery in Isa 41,19 is of replanting the desert, using the language of the Temple tradition. The formal characteristic of the language of these traditions is that these passages allude not to one specific text, but to a set or block of texts from the Pentateuch and Historical Books. The author gives Isa 41,18 a rigorous parallelistic structure that allows his hearer to pair its terms and match these to known traditions: Isa 41,18a Isa 41,18b

‫מע ינו ת‬ ‫למוצא י מים‬

‫בק ע ו ת‬ ‫צ יה‬

‫ו בת ו ך‬ ‫וא רץ‬

‫נ ה ר ות‬ ‫לאג ם ־מים‬

‫על־שׁפיים‬ ‫מד ב ר‬

‫אפ ת ח‬ ‫אשׂ י ם‬

The parallelistic structure reaches both horizontally and vertically, such that, for instance, “rivers” (‫ )נהרות‬in v. 18a is related both to “springs” (‫ )מעינות‬in v. 18a and “marsh” (‫ )אגם־מים‬in v. 18b. As is typical of Isa 40–55, the more general phrase “to turn into” (‫ )שׂים ל‬is set in parallel to the more specific term, here “to open” (‫)פתח‬. Isa 41,18a

‫אפתח על־שׁפיים נ הרו ת‬ ‫ובתו ך ב קעו ת מע ינות‬

‫ ביום הזה נבק עו כל־מע ינות ת הו ם‬Gen 7,11b ‫רב ה ו א רבת השׁמים נ פתח ו‬ ‫את ה ב קעת מע ין ונ חל‬ ‫הו ב שׁת נ הרות א יתן‬

Ps 74,15

The illogical association in v. 18a of water sources and their geographical location is our first indication that we should look elsewhere for the source of this language. Rivers naturally occur not on “bare heights” (‫ )שׁפיים‬but in “valleys” or “plains” (‫)בקעו ת‬. Springs naturally occur not in “plains” but on hills. We find, then, an association of the root “to cleave” (‫ )בקע‬with “springs” (‫)מעינות‬, an association found in only two places, both describing God’s creation and re-creation through water. In Gen 7,11 are “cloven the springs of the deep” (‫ )נבקעו כל־מעינות תהום רבה‬and the “windows of heaven are opened” (‫ )וארבת השׁ מים נפתחו‬to feed the Great Flood that purges the earth of sinful humanity. In Ps 74,15, after defeating Leviathan, God “cleaves the spring and the

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

107

river” (‫ )בקעת מעין ונחל‬and “dries the ever-flowing rivers” (‫)הובשׁת נהרות איתן‬, referring presumably to the appearance of land. Both texts refer to the primordial tradition of God’s power over water in creating and recreating the earth, especially in response to those forces – sin and sea monsters – set against him. Isa 41,18b

‫אשׂים מדב ר לאג ם ־מים‬ ‫וא רץ ציה למו צא י מים‬

‫ על־מימי מצרים על־נ הרתם‬Exod 7,19 ‫על־יא ריהם ו ע ל־אג מיהם‬ ‫ועל־מק ו ה מימיהם‬ ‫ על־הנ הרת על־היא רים‬Exod 8,1 ‫ועל־האג מים‬

The expression “marsh of water” (‫ )אגם־מים‬in v. 18b reveals another tradition of God’s power over the water in the first two plagues in Egypt (Exod 7,14– 8,11) and invites a glance into the few uses of this rare formulation. The expression “marsh of water” occurs elsewhere only in passages composed by Second Isaiah (Isa 35,7; 42,15) or under his influence.49 Apart from these passages, this term appears – as “marsh” (‫ )אגם‬or “marshes” (‫ – )אגמים‬in only two verses, each nearly identical in formulation: Exod 7,19; 8,1. In these verses, the “marshes” of Egypt are listed with its “rivers” and “the Nile” (or canals thereof) (‫ ;)יארם‬Exod 7,19 adds “pools” (‫)מקוה‬. The author eliminates from this list the geographically-specific term “the Nile” and replaces the polysemic ‫מקו ה‬ with the polysemic ‫מו צא‬. 50 We are left, then, with a clear reference to two passages in which God, again, exercises his power over water in order to condemn wickedness and save his “afflicted.” In Exod 7,19, God tells Moses to command Aaron to raise his hand over the waters that they might become blood. In Exod 8,1, the same formula is used to express the raising of frogs from the waters. In Isa 41,18, God is working a new watery miracle upon the desert landscape for his people. Isa 41,18 draws in the voices of two traditions concerning God’s power over the landscape as exercised through water, that of the primordial flood and that of the plagues in Egypt. Formally, these references are not what we consider 49 In addition to Jer 51,32; Ps 107,35; 114,8, it appears in Isa 14,23, concluding an oracle against Babylon (Isa 13,1–22; 14,3–23). Even if Isa 14,4b–21 are older, the compositional frame of Isa 14,3a.22–23 redirects this oracle against Babylon, a threat against Israel only in the 6 th-century BC. Indeed, see there the programmatic language of Second Isaiah (-‫יעק ב‬ ‫ישׂרא ל‬, ‫רח ם‬, ‫ )בח ר‬in Isa 14,1–2. On these last two points, see J. BLENKINSOPP, Isaiah 1–39, 281–288. 50 ‫ מקו ה‬refers to “pool” only in Gen 1,10; Lev 11,36; elsewhere, it refers to “hope” (Jer 14,8; 17,13; 50,7; Ezra 10,2; 1 Chr 29,15) and the region of Cilicia (1 Kgs 10,28 [2x]/2 Chr 1,16 [2x]). ‫ מו צא‬refers to “spring” only in 2 Kgs 2,21/2 Chr 32,30; Isa 58,11; Ps 107,33.35; elsewhere, it refers to various kinds of physical “exit” or “issue” (Num 33,2 [2x]; 2 Sam 3,25; 1 Kgs 10,28/2 Chr 1,16; Ezek 12,4; 42,11; 43,11; 44,5; Hos 6,3; Ps 19,6; 65,8; 75,6; Job 28,1; 38,27), including that of words from mouths (Num 30,12; Deut 8,3; 23,23; Jer 17,16; Ps 89,34; Dan 9,25).

108

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

allusions, since they do not give structure to the alluding verse. Rather, the reverse is evident, that the rigorous parallelistic structure of Isa 41,18 serves to bring together a few pairs of words that, in themselves, point to broader passages and the traditions they contain. We shall now examine Isa 41,19 to see if the same formal gesture obtains there. We find in Isa 41,19 another strict parallelistic structure, one that coordinates a list of seven trees: Isa 41,19a Isa 41,19b

‫ועץ שׁמן‬ ‫יחד ו‬

‫וה ד ס‬ ‫תא שׁו ר‬

‫שׁט ה‬ ‫ת דה ר‬

‫אר ז‬ ‫ב רו שׁ‬

‫ב מד ב ר‬ ‫בע ר ב ה‬

‫את ן‬ ‫אשׂ י ם‬

We should note, first of all, that while in v. 18 the verb ‫ שׂים‬serves as a synthetic parallel to the verb ‫פתח‬, the parallel in v. 19 between ‫ שׂים‬and ‫ נתן‬is synonymous, as these two terms are often treated as synonyms. 51 Likewise, ‫ מדבר‬and ‫ער בה‬ are often in synonymous parallelism.52 This more “restive” parallelism is better suited for the list it presents than the synthetic and antithetical parallelisms in v. 18, which makes reference to two dynamic and subsequent manifestations of God’s power over nature. This structure leaves us simply with the task of identifying these seven trees and the tradition behind them. Isa 41,19a

‫אתן במד ב ר א רז‬ ‫שׁט ה ו הד ס ו עץ שׁמן‬ ‫א שׂ י ם בע ר ב ה ב ר ו שׁ‬ ‫תדהר ות א שׁו ר יח דו‬

‫ שׁט ה‬Exod 25–27; 30; 35–37 (26x) ‫ב רו שׁ‬, ‫ארז‬ 1 Kgs 5–6 (11x, 4x) ‫ עץ שׁמן‬1 Kgs 6 (4x)

Four trees are found throughout the biblical literature with which Second Isaiah is likely to have been familiar, while three trees are attested either in relatively contemporary literature, in situations of text-critical uncertainty, or not at all. The four previously-attested trees are associated together with the temple in Jerusalem. The “cedar” (‫ )ארז‬serves for the interior panelling of the walls and the beams of the inner court.53 The “fir” or “cypress” ( ‫ )ברושׁ‬serves for floor

51 See H.-J. F ABRY/E. LIPIŃSKI , “ ‫נתן‬,” 93; G. VANONI, “ ‫שׂי ם‬,” 97 for many such synonymous expressions. 52 Deut 1,1; 2,8; Josh 12,8; Jer 17,6; 50,12; 51,43. 53 As mentioned in the preparations for the first temple in 1 Kgs 5,20/2 Chr 2,7; 1 Kgs 22.24; 9,11; 1 Chr 22,4, its construction in 1 Kgs 6,9.10.15.16 (2x).18.20.36, and the reconstruction of the temple in Ezra 3,7

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

109

boards and doors. 54 Both come from Lebanon.55 The “shittah” or “Egyptian acacia” (‫ )שׁטה‬is associated exclusively with the Ark of the Covenant, its poles, its table, the tabernacle, the two altars and their poles.56 This wood comes from the Upper Nile. Whatever the scientific classification of ‫“( עץ שׁמן‬wild olive,” “pine”), its only association (before its use for booths in Neh 8,15) is also of the temple, for the cherubim and the door posts and lintels of the inner sanctuary and nave.57 Before we attempt any interpretation of the reference to the temple woods in this passage, we should simply note that the mention of these four trees together brings forward the important Temple tradition, one for which the exiles would keenly thirst. The remaining three trees in this list are not attested in texts that significantly predate Isa 40–55 and are, hence, not part of any known tradition or theme. Two of the trees find mention only in relatively contemporary or later texts: the “myrtle” (‫ )הדס‬in Zech 1,8.10.11; Isa 55,13; Neh 8,15 and the “juniper” (‫ )תאשׁור‬in a dubious text-critical reading of Ezek 27,6. The “maple” (‫)תדהר‬ is an OT hapax legomenon. 58 With these three trees hitherto unknown in Israel’s literary tradition (at least as it has come down to us), the author may be showing that an additional “tripartite” reality is to be added to the tradition of the Temple as it is now brought forward after exile, in what seems, so far, to be a universalist perspective determined only by vague words for the Friend (‫אביונים‬-‫)עניים‬.59 What is more certain is that the author associates the groups of four that we have so far seen with four steps of understanding in Isa 41,20a. The four water sources in Isa 41,18 and the four known trees of Isa 41,19 somehow correspond 1 Kgs 5,22.24/2 Chr 2,7; 1 Kgs 6,15/2 Chr 3,5; 1 Kgs 6.34; 9,11. Paired with the cedar or on its own, it also refers to wealth or strength, as in 2 Kgs 19,23; Isa 14,8; 37,24; 55,13; Ezek 27,5; 31,8; Hos 14,9; Zech 11,2; Ps 104,17; Cant 1,17. It refers to instruments made of its wood in 2 Sam 6,5. 55 Where the cedar is mentioned without reference to the temple or the palace (1 Sam 5,11/1 Chr 14,1; 7,2.7/1 Chr 17,1.6; 1 Kgs 7,2.3.7.11.12; Jer 22,7.14.15.23; 2 Chr 2,2), it usually indicates wealth or strength in connection with its provenance, as in Num 24,6; Judg 9,15; 1 Kgs 10,27/2 Chr 1,15 and 9,27; Isa 9,9; 14,8; 37,24; Ezek 17,3.22.23; 27,5; 31,3.8; Amos 2,9; Zech 11,1.2; Ps 29,5; 80,11; 92,13; 104,16; 148,9; Job 40,17; Cant 1,17; 5,15; 8,9; 2 Chr 25,18. Elsewhere, it is used in purification rites, as in Lev 14,4.6.49.51.52; Num 19,6. 56 Exod 25,5.10.13.23.28; 26,15.26.32.37; 27,1.6; 30,1.5; 35,7.24; 36,20.31.36; 37,1.3.10.15.25.28; 38,1.6; Deut 10,3. 57 1 Kgs 6,23.31.32.33. On the question of its identification, see E. HIRSCH/I. BENZINGER, “Olive.” Goldingay/Payne (Isaiah 40–55, I, 184) make a convincing case for its identification as “pine.” 58 Again, see Goldingay/Payne (Isaiah 40–55, I, 184–185) for the scientific identification of these trees. 59 The association of the last three trees with Lebanon in Isa 60,13 need not justify such a reading in Isa 41,19. 54

110

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

to the four steps of practical understanding – “seeing” (‫)יר או‬, “knowing” ( ‫)וידעו‬, “fixing (in one’s heart/mind)” (‫)ו ישׂימו‬, and “pondering” ( ‫ – )וישׂ כילו‬that the author explains form the purpose (‫ )למען‬of God’s activity in this metaphorical geological transformation. 60 That these three groups – water elements, trees, and steps of knowledge – go together the author reinforces by forming an epiphora with the word “together” ( ‫)יחדו‬, at least in vv. 19b.20a. The ultimate purpose of the foregoing is not just the material care of the afflicted and needy, but that in answering them in this way, by restoring the traditions for which they thirst, they might know that it is God who is acting, even as another, possibly threefold, tradition is given to them. We have shown that Isa 41,20b is partially shaped in its allusion to Ps 22,32b, the expression “For he has acted” closing both the psalm and this section of Second Isaiah’s oracle, and yet the author uses this same expression in a kind of allusive word play to bring this entire passage within the context of the theme of creation. The verb ‫ עשׂה‬serves a dual purpose here in a kind of allusion-formal Janus parallelism: while the meaning of the verb does not change based on what proceeds and follows it (as would occur in a true Janus parallelism), the allusion it is crafting does change. That is, it serves the allusion to Ps 22,2–3.32 in Isa 41,17.20 and the theme of creation in Isa 41,20b. With the verb “to do/make” (‫ )עשׂה‬set in parallel with the verb “to create” (‫)ברא‬, the theme of God’s creation of the world now resonates. When these two verbs appear together, it is always in reference to the creation of the world. 61 60 “Seeing” ( ‫ )רא ה‬and “knowing” ( ‫ )יד ע‬are commonly paired as complementary steps in understanding, as in Exod 2,25; 3,7; 33,12.13; Lev 5,1; Deut 4,35; 11,2; 29,3; 33,9; Josh 8,14; Judg 13,21; 1 Sam 12,17; 14,17; 18,28; 23,22; 23,23; 2 Sam 18,29; 24,13; 1 Kgs 20,13.22; 2 Kgs 5,7; Isa 5,19; 6,9; 29,15; Jer 2,19.23; 11,18; 12,3; Ezek 14,23; Ps 31,8; 138,6; Qoh 6,5; 8,16; Neh 4,5; 1 Chr 29,17. “Pondering” (‫ שׂכר‬Hi.) is paired with “seeing” in some wisdom psalms (Ps 14,2/53,3) and later texts (Dan 1,4.17; 9,25), but also Gen 3,6. The use of “placing” ( ‫ )שׂים‬in this context is relatively unique, and is likely ellipticallyphrased (“place in one’s heart”) so as to coordinate God’s two-fold action in vv. 18.19 with the action of the “afflicted and needy” in v. 20. 61 More specifically, while the verb ‫ ע שׂה‬features both in the Priestly creation narrative in Gen 1,1–2,3 and in the Yahwist narrative of mankind’s “formation” (‫ )יצר‬in Gen 2,4–3,24, the verb ‫ ב רא‬typically occurs only in summaries of God’s creative action in the Priestly creation narrative and in later summaries using a Priestly formula. The verb ‫ ע שׂה‬typically describes the making of specific aspects of creation: the “firmament” ( ‫רק יע‬, Gen 1,7), the “fruit tree yielding fruit” (‫עץ פרי ע שׂה פרי‬, Gen 1,12), the sun and moon (Gen 1,16), terrestrial animals (Gen 1,25). The verb ‫ ב רא‬describes the creation of specific things only in Gen 1,21 (birds and sea creatures). Mankind is a special case, which is described both with ‫ע שׂה‬ (Gen 1,26) and ‫( ב רא‬Gen 1,27 [3x]). The verb ‫ב רא‬, otherwise, typically summarizes creation activity, as in Gen 1,1, and as most often paired with ‫ ע שׂה‬in these summaries, as in Gen 2,3.4; 5,1; 6,7. Elsewhere in the Pentateuch, ‫ ב רא‬refers to the creation of the world so as to draw attention to some new wonder, as in Exod 34,10; Deut 4,32. In its use among the prophets it typically refers to the world’s creation as an act of God’s goodness in

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

111

Therefore, in concluding the passage Isa 41,17–20, it sets the traditions contained therein – dominating the primordial sea and Egypt’s waters (Isa 41,18) and establishing the temple (Isa 41,19) – within the context of a new creation and new establishments. The appearance of ‫ עשׂה‬and ‫ ברא‬anticipates their appearance in the next Salvation Oracle, Isa 43,1–7, and justifies our reading Isa 41,17–20 in connection with Isa 41,8–16. Finally, the less allusion-formal method of composing Isa 41,17–20 is found also in the use of qatal and yiqtol verb forms. The qatal frames this part in v. 17a.20b, but derives from the allusion only in Ps 22,32//Isa 41,20b. Otherwise, both in Isa 41,17a.20b, the qatal has, like we have seen so far, a perfective aspect. In v. 17a, the use of the participle, ‫מבקשׁים‬, helps to bring the qatal ‫נשׁתה‬ into the present-day situation. In v. 20b, the two qatal verbs describe God’s action as completed but perduring into the events described with the yiqtol verbs in vv. 18–19. In the case of these two verses, only the verb ‫ אפתה‬derives from the allusive tradition. This pattern of qatal-yiqtol-qatal pertains not to allusive form but to the overall compositional form of Isa 41,8–16.17–20 and its generic form, as we shall see in greater scope, below. c) Summary While in literary and form-critical terms we still do not consider Isa 41,17–20 part of the Salvation Oracle addressed to Jacob-Israel in Isa 41,8–16, the analysis of its form and content serves our understanding of the movement of the Salvation Oracle, especially in its shift toward metaphorical, present-future imagery in vv. 14–16. The continuation of the allusion to Ps 22 from Isa 41,14– 16 to Isa 41,17–20 has indicated that we should continue our investigation there. Within Isa 41,17–20 we have found that the rigorous parallelistic structure of its verses has paired together words that resound with Israel’s traditions, especially God’s victory over the primordial sea and Egypt’s waters and the establishment of the temple, set within the framework of God’s creation of the world. These major themes, each marked only by a word or two, are organized in a series of yiqtol verbs in which God is renewing these ancient actions for the purpose of a renewed knowledge of him. Having understood the form that these allusions have taken, and the way that this form shapes our understanding of these themes and traditions, we can move forward more confidently in our analysis of the Salvation Oracle in Isa 43,1–7; 44,1–5, each of which continues

contradistinction to man’s wickedness, as in Isa 4,5; Jer 31,22; Ezek 28,13.15; Amos 4,13; Mal 2,10. This gives us something of a context in which to understand the frequent use of this term in very different parts of Second Isaiah, as in Isa 40,26.28; 41,20; 42,5; 43,1.7.15; 45,7.8.12.18; 48,7; 54,16; 57,19; 65,17.18. Given the allusion to Amos 4,12–13 in Isa 43,1.7 (see ch. IV, §2.2.1 and §3.2.1), we see Isa 41,20b as an anticipation of the next Salvation Oracle in sequence, Isa 43,1–7.

112

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

to resound with the language of Israel’s traditions in the metaphor of geological transformation. 2.3 Allusive units of Isa 41,8–16.17–20 in composition We have first identified possible allusions in Isa 41,8–16.17–20 using shared words, and then demonstrated the presence of some of those allusions by examining their determination of the compositional form of the various parts of these two passages. Even though we can distinguish vv. 8–16 from vv. 17–20 in literary terms by the ‫ ואתה‬inclusio, and the shift in object of discourse from Jacob-Israel to the “afflicted and needy,” these two passages are linked by their common allusion to Ps 22 and so we have included vv. 17–20 in our treatment here, and shall continue doing so. We should now summarize our findings and illustrate the formal and verbal relationships between the parts of Isa 41,8– 16.17–20, so as to move forward into an investigation of the architectonic form of this utterance as a whole. After this, and to bridge this discussion to that of architectonic form, we shall complete our look into the words of the Salvation Oracle through heteroglossia. 2.3.1 Formal Composition through Allusion Table 10 gives a list of the location of allusions according to verse and the compositional form bringing those verses into parts. We have seen these various compositional forms in §2.2.1–§2.2.7 in greater detail and summarize them. Each of the compositional forms gives a certain amount of meaning to the content of these parts. In vv. 8–10, the general theme of Election and the specific encouragement to Joshua are woven together, such that the assurances assigned to both are to be considered now as one. This assurance is further focused on the person of God by the splitting and interweaving of Fear-Not Formulas with Formulas of Divine Presence. Alliteration serves to unite the split-up Encouragement Formula and echo, as it were, the stuttering voice of Moses. In vv. 11–12, the repetitive anaphoric/epiphoric pattern, carried over from the psalm, speaks to an ongoing but eventually total annihilation of the Enemy in all his forms. In v. 13, this assurance brings together the two parts born out of rather disparate sources, vv. 8–10 and vv. 11–12, and focuses once again the assurance on God’s person. In vv. 14–16, the inversion of elements provides for the filling in of a new word, one which is, nevertheless sustained by the pattern of verbal form carried over from the psalm, suggesting that the psalmist’s past/present dichotomy is now a present/future unity. In vv. 17–20, the compositional frame brought over from the Lament Psalm helps reidentify the lament of the psalmist as the lament of an as-yet unidentifiable “afflicted and needy,” whose coming fate reiterates the miracles of Israel’s past.

113

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

Table 10: Allusive-Formal Composition of Isa 41,8–16.17–20 v. 8 v. 9a v. 9b v. 10a v. 10b

Allusion Dtr Election Josh 1,9 Isa 41,8; Dtr Election Josh 1,9 Josh 1,9

v. 11a v. 11b v. 12a v. 12b

Ps 35,4 Ps 35,1.5–6 Ps 35,4 Ps 35,1.5–6

Anaphora/epiphora from Ps 35,5–6 with terms from Ps 35,1; word-pair expansion from Ps 35,4; weaving of both techniques

v. 13a v. 13b

Ps 35,2; Isa 41,10 Ps 35,2; Isa 41,10

First/last words of Ps 35,2 placed in parallel; formulas from Isa 41,10 “unsplit”

v. 14a v. 14b v. 15a v. 15b v. 16a v. 16b

Ps 22,7 Ps 22,4

v. 17a v. 17b v. 18a v. 18b v. 19a v. 19b v. 20a v. 20b

Ps 35,5

Stylistic Pattern Split Pattern + Alliteration for Josh 1,9; Splitting/interweaving of Josh 1,9/Dtr Election

Inverse quotation of Ps 22,4.7 joined by Ps 35,9; verbal shift from the psalm; content from Ps 35,5

Ps 22,4; Ps 35,9 Ps 22,16.27; Num 20,5 Ps 22,2.3 Water: Gen 7,11; Ps 74,15 Water: Exod 7,19 ;8,1 Temple: Exod 25–27; 30; 35–37; 1 Kgs 5–6

Compositional frame formed from first/last and interior words of Ps 22; themes from Gen–Exod; 1 Kgs 5–6 set in parallelistic structure

Ps 22,32; Creation

2.3.2 Verbal Form in the Composition of Isa 41,8–16.17–20 Having reviewed how the author uses the compositional form of the allusion to give form to the parts of Isa 41,8–16.17–20, we can now review the verbal form governing each of those parts, first in detail in Table 11, then in summary in Table 12. We can discern here already something of a pattern in the verbal forms of these Salvation Oracles, and the following table should make this clearer. We add to this table the Object of Discourse, so as to bridge our findings here with our discussion of architectonic form here to follow.

114

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

Table 11: Verbal Composition of Isa 41,8–16.17–20 v. 8 v. 9a v. 9b v. 10a v. 10b

Allusion Dtr Election Josh 1,9 Isa 41,8; Dtr Election Josh 1,9 Josh 1,9

Verbal Form Nominal, qatal, nom. Qatal Qatal Imperative, nominal Qatal

v. 11a v. 11b v. 12a v. 12b

Ps 35,4 Ps 35,1.5 Ps 35,4 Ps 35,1.5

Yiqtol Yiqtol Yiqtol Yiqtol

v. 13a v. 13b

Ps 35,2; Isa 41,10 Ps 35,2; Isa 41,10

Nominal, participle Nominal, qatal

v. 14a v. 14b v. 15a v. 15b v. 16a v. 16b

Ps 22,7 Ps 22,4

Imperative Qatal, participle Qatal Yiqtol Yiqtol Yiqtol

v. 17a v. 17b v. 18a v. 18b v. 19a v. 19b v. 20a v. 20b

Ps 35,5; Ps 22,4; Ps 35,9 Ps 22,16.27; Num 20,5 Ps 22,2.3 Water: Gen 7; Ps 74 Water: Exod 7,19 ;8,1 Temple: Exod 25–27; 30; 35–37; 1 Kgs 5–6 Ps 22,32; Creation

Participle, qatal Yiqtol Yiqtol Yiqtol Yiqtol Yiqtol Yiqtol Qatal

Table 12: Overall Composition of Isa 41,8–16.17–20 Object of Discourse Jacob-Israel Enemy God

Allusion

Verbal Form

vv. 8–10 vv. 11–12 v. 13

Josh 1,9; Dtr Election Ps 35,1.4–6 Ps 35,2; Isa 41,10

Imperative/qatal Yiqtol Nominative/qatal

vv. 14–16

Ps 22,4–9

Imperative/qatal/yiqtol

Jacob-Israel, God, Enemy

vv. 17–20

Ps 22,2–3.32; Themes

Qatal/yiqtol/qatal

Friend

Table 12 reveals more clearly that the shift in verbal form spread over three sets of allusions in Isa 41,8–13 the author accomplishes with one allusion in Isa 41,14–16. This pattern of imperative/qatal/yiqtol is inverted in Isa 41,17– 20. The difference in compositional density through allusion has much to do with the object of discourse in the various parts of the oracle. In Isa 41,8–13,

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

115

the author uses two different allusions to speak of three different persons: Deut–Josh to speak of Jacob-Israel as offpsring of Abraham now leading God’s people back into the Promised Land, Ps 35,1.4–6 to speak of Jacob-Israel’s enemies as annihilated, and Ps 35,2 to speak of God as helper. In each case, the author must manipulate the verbal form of his allusions to form a new pattern in the alluding context. In Isa 41,14–16, the author takes the verbal pattern from Ps 22,4–9 along with its vocabulary to speak in very swift terms of JacobIsrael and God, with a few indirect words about the Enemy mixed with metaphorical language coming, as we shall see, from Ezekiel. In Isa 41,17–20, the author speaks of the “afflicted and needy” as a kind of Friend who will know God through his action toward them, action described in language coming out of Israel’s sacred history. Understanding the progressive consolidation of compositional patterns through allusion will help us to understand the compositional form of Isa 43,1–7; 44,1–5 and the gradual condensation of the Salvation Oracle across its three instances in Isa 41,1–44,23. 2.3.3 Heteroglossia. The Language of the Priestly Prophets There are several moments in which, in addition to identifiable allusions and themes, the author uses language specific to the cult and to certain prophets, especially Ezekiel. We should focus here only on the most readily-identifiable vocabulary and expressions, avoiding any kind of exhaustive statistical analysis. The first expression that stands out is in Isa 41,9a, “from the ends of the earth” (‫)מקצו ת הארץ‬. Apart from instances in Isa 40,28; 41,5, its is a hapax formulation.62 As we have seen in our discussion of the alliterative properties of vv. 9–10, the plural form is not necessary to carry the alliteration. Where Moses, the prophets (including both First and Second Isaiah), and psalmists wish to speak of earth’s boundaries, they do so in the singular, the “end of the earth” (‫)קצה האר ץ‬. 63 In fact, where the noun ‫ קצה‬is used in the plural form ‫קצות‬, it is almost always in a cultic context, referring either to the fabrication of the ends/edges of liturgical implements or to the selection of non-Levitical priests

62 Stassen (“Die eindes van die aarde,” 191–202) discerns three distinct meanings for this expression in these three contexts: a cosmic entity in Isa 40,28, a socio-political entity in Isa 41,5, and a geographical entity in Isa 41,9. If this is correct, then, there would seem to be no motive to its usage that we could discern outside of a comparison of the longer utterances in which this form and the singular form ‫ ק צה הא רץ‬appear. 63 Deut 13,8; 28,49.64; Isa 5,26; 42,10; 43,6; 48,20; 49,6; 62,11; Jer 10,13; 12,12; 25,31.33; 51,16; Ps 19,5 (with ‫ ;)תב ל‬46,10; 61,3; 135,7; Prov 17,24. In the plural, we find ‫ קצות הא רץ‬in Isa 40,28; 41,5.9; Job 26,14; 28,24 and variations in Ps 48,11; 65,6; Jer 26,15. Only in Job 28,24 do we find the complete expression ‫מק צות הא רץ‬, to which it is joined with a verb of seeing.

116

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

for pagan worship.64 As we find the singular form preferred in Isa 40–55, including the Salvation Oracle in Isa 43,6, we may venture that the appearance of the cultic plural here corresponds to the cultic language surrounding this oracle, that of the temple in Isa 41,19 and of idol-making in Isa 41,6–7. The word ‫ אציל‬in Isa 41,9a ( ‫ )מאציליה‬is not common in the OT and yet has a variety of meanings discerned in various contexts, more than one of which may be intended here. There are five verbal uses meaning “to hold back/be reduced.”65 Twice does it refer to the joints of a hand (Jer 38,12; Ezek 13,18) and once to the “nobles” of Israel (Exod 24,11). The only instance in which this word could mean the ends or corners of a thing or place is in Ezek 41,8, where it refers to the breadth or corners of the terrace of the temple of Ezekiel’s vision. This may be relevant, as while the root ‫ אצל‬is a common preposition meaning “next to/near,” a full 14 of its 67 instances appear in the book of Ezekiel, and ten of those in describing his celestial visions.66 This word, chosen alliterationis causa, with its polysemy, may serve to draw out the hidden reference in its parallelistic pair, ‫ ;קצות הארץ‬that is, given the cultic language later in Isa 41,19, this language may be a glance, however furtive, of a new cultic situation.67 In Isa 41,13, as the author summarizes the assurances of Isa 41,9–10, he expands the Formula of Divine Presentation of Title into the fomula “I am the Lord your God ( ‫)אני יהוה אלהיך‬, a formula found almost exclusively in the literary context of the exodus, and more specifically, in mentions of God’s act of deliverance and in the institution of the commandments. Of the 48 instances of this formula that we have found, 23 of them are found in the Holiness Code of Lev 17–26. 68 Among the prophets, Ezekiel employs this formula four times and for the same two reasons; Hosea does so twice. 69 We might note in advance that this formula appears in Isa 43,3 in the context of Israel’s ransom of the

64 Regarding liturgical implements, of the ‫“( כ פרת‬mercy seat,” Exod 25,18.19 [2x]; 36,8 [3x, twice in the singular and once in the plural); the ‫“( יריע ה‬curtain,” Exod 26,4; 36,11 [sing.]), ‫“( מזב ח‬altar,” Exod 27,4), ‫“( א פד‬ephod,” Exod 28,7; 39,4), and ‫“( ח שׁן‬breastplate,” Exod 28,23.24.25.26; 39,16.17.18.19), and ‫“( כרב ים‬cherubim,” 1 Kgs 6,24); regarding the non-Levitical priesthood, 1 Kgs 12,31.33; 2 Kgs 17,32. The only non-liturgical uses in the plural form ‫ ק צות‬are in Judg 18,2, Jer 49,36, Ezek 15,4, Ps 19,7 and Job 26,14. 65 These verbal forms are in Gen 27,36; Num 11,17.25; Qoh 2,10 (Qal); and Ezek 42,6 (Niphal). 66 Ezekiel’s vision of of the four living creatures (Ezek 1,15.19); his vision of the wheeled cherubim (Ezek 9,2; 10,6; 10,9 [3x]; 10,16 [2x]; his vision of the new temple (43,6.8); in various other contexts (Ezek 33,30; 39,15; 40,7). 67 For further treatment on this word, see J.L. KOOLE, Isaiah 40–48, I, 155–156. 68 Lev 18,2.4.30; 19,2.3.4.10.12.25.31.32.34.36; 20,7.24; 23,22.43; 24,22; 25,17.38.55; 26,1.13. Cf. Exod 6,7; 16,12; 20,2.5; Lev 11,44.45; Num 10,10; 15,41; Deut 5,6.9; 11,2; 29,6; Judg 6,10; Isa 43,3; 48,17; 51,15; Ps 81,10. 69 Ezek 20,5.7.19.20; Hos 12,9; 13,4. Cf. Joel 2,27; 3,17.

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

117

nations. This language serves to distinguish Israel from the other nations by act of God’s power and by observance of the commandments, especially those against idolatry. Once again, the author draws out this distinction especially in the context of cultic language of Isa 41,6–7.17–20. Some of the word pairs and cliché expressions in Isa 41,8–16.17–20 also come from more specific prophetic contexts or language worlds. The word pair “shame/humiliation” in Isa 41,11, which we noted comes from the specific allusion to Ps 35,4, is found in a few other psalms but also in Jeremiah and Ezekiel, perhaps themselves borrowing from the psalms. 70 The only other instances of the term “warriors” with a possessive suffix (‫)אנשׁי מלחמתך‬, as in Isa 41,12b, are found in Ezek 27,10.27. Also specific to Ezekiel are the word pairs “winnow/scatter” (‫פיץ‬/‫ )זרה‬71 and “wind/tempest” (‫ סערה‬/‫ )רוח‬72 found in Isa 41,16a. The set of verbs in Isa 41,15b–16a describing the processing of the fruits of cultivation are found all together in Isa 28,23–28 and “threshing/crushing” as a pair is unique to Mi 4,13. The word pair “mountains/hills” is almost exclusively prophetic. 73 Some of the language expressing the dryness of the desert also comes from prophetic contexts close to Second Isaiah. This is true of especially “bare height” (‫)שׁ פי‬74 and “dry land” (‫)אר ץ ציה‬. 75 So far, it seems that for the past-perfect oriented address in Isa 41,8–10, the author looks to the Pentateuchal texts, for the future-oriented language of Isa 41,14–16, the author looks to the prophets (see also the use of the prophetic Oracular Formula ‫ נאם־יהוה‬in Isa 41,14b). This brief survey of the heteroglossia of Isa 41,8–16.17–20 frustrates Westermann’s neat distinction between priestly and prophetic authorship of the Salvation Oracle and Announcement of Salvation. 76 The language of the Salvation Oracle echoes both priestly and prophetic voices. Given that the general consensus identifies both Jeremiah and Ezekiel as priests, we should not be

70 Jer 6,15; 8,12; 12,13; 14,3; 20,11; 22,22; 31,19; 51,51; Ezek 16,52.63; 32,30; 36,32;Ps 35,4.26; 40,15; 69,7; 70,3; 71,13; Job 19,3; Ezra 9,6. Cf. Isa 45,16.24; 50,7; 54,4; 65,1. 71 Ezek 12,15; 20,23; 22,15; 29,12; 30,23.26; 36,29. Cf. Jer 13,24; 18,17. 72 Ezek 1,4; 13,11.13. Cf. Jonah 1,4; Ps 55,9; 148,8. 73 This cliché word pair takes on various meanings, both positive and negative: Deut 33,15; Isa 2,2.14; 10,32; 30,17.25; 31,4; 40,4.12; 42,15; 54,10; 55,12; 57,7; 65,7; Jer 3,23; 4,24; 16,16; 17,2.3; 50,6; Ezek 6,3.13; 34,6; 35,8; 36,4.6; Hos 2,13; 10,8; Joel 4,18; Amos 9,13; Mic 4,1; 6,1; Nah 1,5; Hab 3,6; Ps 72,3; 114,4.6; 148,8.9; Prov 8,25; Song 2,8; 4,6. We shall have the opportunity to test the theory of Hamlin (“Mountains and Hills,” 185– 190), that the “mountains/hills” represent the ziggurats of Babylonian religion, once the broader context of this passage comes into view. 74 See Num 23,3; Isa 49,9; Jer 3,2.21; 4,11; 7,29; 12,12; 14,6; Job 33,21. 75 See Isa 53,2; Jer 2,6; 51,43; Ezek 19,13; Hos 2,5; Joel 2,20; Ps 63,2; 107,35. 76 See ch. I, §1.1.4.

118

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

surprised that there is no such neat distinction in Isa 41,8–16, drawing so heavily upon their language and that of the cult. The author here perhaps draws not just upon the message that such language conveys but also upon the priestly-prophetic identity such language admits. Just as we have been able to understand the identity of Jacob-Israel through specific allusions, so we can understand the identity of the human prophet through the language he uses to fill out God’s message through him. Finally, some of this language, especially the cultic language, speaks to the greater literary context of Isa 41,1–29, which we shall consider in §4. Now that we have established the allusions and the resulting compositional form of the whole of Isa 41,8–16.17–20, we can investigate the architectonic form of the oracles. This dialogical approach to form will mean that we draw out from the allusions here embedded the voices speaking through them, voices that we have, so far, only been able briefly to identify. Furthermore, having looked at the verbal forms composing these oracles, we shall now be able better to understand the spatio-temporal situation of this utterance as an instance of the genre of Salvation Oracle.

3. Approaching Architectonic Form and Interpretation We have seen how the author of Isa 41,8–16.17–20 has used specific literary and thematic allusions to passages in the Pentateuch, Historical Books, and Psalter to compose a new message for one whom God is addressing as JacobIsrael, and now we should look through those specific allusions into the alluded utterances themselves to see how the author gives form to Isa 41,8–16.17–20 as a Salvation Oracle. We shall do this first with a look at the genres of the alluded utterances (§3.1), the transformation of the elements of those genres in the allusive units (§3.2), and the resulting architectonic form of Isa 41,8– 16.17–20 in composition (§3.3) and in chronotope (§3.4). 3.1 Genres of the Alluded Utterances An author alludes not for the sake of language itself, but for giving meaning to the utterance in which the allusion is made. The alluded utterance gives meaning to the alluding utterance not through the specific words brought out from it, but through the translation of their form from source to destination. It is this translation, of which genre is the interpreter, that generates the relationship established between the author and reader, what Bakhtin calls the architectonic form of the aesthetic event of reading, in an alluding utterance. Since literary allusions build a relationship between author and reader, we should look for the persons or, as we call them, the voices in the alluded utterances as giving architectonic form to the alluding utterance. We might find that

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

119

the voices in dialogue in the Pentateuch, Historical Books, and Psalms are the same voices speaking in the Salvation Oracle, in a new dialogue, a new form. We shall do this by listening to the voices speaking through the allusions in the parts of Isa 41,8–16.17–20, parts that we have defined through allusive-compositional form, vv. 8–10.11–12.13.14–16.17–20. 3.1.1 Patriarchal, Legislative, and Historical Narratives In the allusion in Isa 41,8–10 to the Deuteronomistic theme of Election and the calling of Joshua, and in the allusions to the themes of Watery Renewal and Temple in Isa 41,18–19, we confront the use of narrative, broadly considered, and its translation into poetry. This has yielded results for compositional form different from those of allusion to the poetry of the psalms, for where the author has not been able to transfer something of the poetic line from alluded utterance into the Salvation Oracle, he has used oft-repeated words and formulas to mark his allusions. Those words and formulas, as we have seen, do not belong to narrative in general, or to any of these three kinds of narrative (patriarchal, legislative, or historical), but to specific sets of passages within those sets of narrative. 77 There are, however, words that do seem to pertain to patriarchal, legislative, and historical narratives, especially in the identification of their hero as “servant.” We shall look at this word in particular with respect to its use in Isa 41,8– 10 (§3.2.1, below) as an architectonic word, a word that sets the Addressee (and by extension, the reader) into a particular relationship with the Speaker (God). The word “servant” ( ‫ )עבד‬occurs regularly in the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44. 78 It also appears in the Psalms of Lament, including Ps 22 and 35, alluded to in Isa 41,11–20. We shall consider its use in each of the alluded units of those verses in §3.2.2–§3.2.4, below. In narrative utterances, the word “servant,” when set in apposition to a proper name (as it is in Isa 41,8a), designates the very specific service of that person in relationship to God, as if it were a title. This is especially so where, on God’s lips, it is formed with the first-person possessive suffix, as in “my servant” (‫)עבד י‬. We find this title most frequently applied by God to Abraham,79

77 Recall, for instance, that the Encouragement Formula, Fear-Not Formula, and Formula of Divine Presence in Josh 1,9 do not represent elements of genre, but in their combination, a literary original (§2.2.2, n. 29, above). 78 Isa 41,8a.9b; 44,1a.2b; for Isa 43,1–7, see in its immediate literary context Isa 42,19ab; 43,10a (discussed in ch. IV, §4). 79 Gen 26,24; Num 12,8.

120

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

Moses, 80 and David, 81 and only occasionally to others. 82 It is never said to Jacob in the patriarchal narratives, and to Jacob understood as the nation of Israel only in Second Isaiah, Ezekiel and in chapters of Jeremiah of uncertain provenance.83 God applies this epithet “Israel” directly only in Isa 41,8; 44,21; 49,3. As spoken to God in the form “your servant” (‫)עבדך‬, we find it spoken by or in reference to Moses, 84 David, 85 the psalmist, 86 and others. 87 It is spoken only once by the historical Jacob.88 Narrators and other third parties apply this title to Moses, 89 Joshua,90 and David.91 We shall consider, in due course, the application of this title to Jacob-Israel throughout Second Isaiah, as this is the first instance of the term “servant” in Isa 40–66, a term that, in its singular form seems programmatic for Isa 40–55 and in the plural for Isa 56–66. Our first concern, however, is what the use of the term “servant,” and especially “my servant,” is here meant to elicit, especially in proximity to allusion to the Psalms of Lament, which also feature this word. 3.1.2 The Psalms of Lament As we have said in Chapter I, §3.4.2, we shall treat genre in the Psalms of Lament according to a dialogical model of the relationship between God, the Lamenter, the Enemy, and the Friend. The psalmist uses a variety of words to describe each of these four, but several emerge as typical.

Num 12,7; Josh 1,2.7; 2 Kgs 21,8; Mal 4,4. 1 Sam 22,8 (of Saul); 2 Sam 3,18; 7,5.8; 1 Kgs 11,13.32.34 (also chosen).36.38; 14,8; 2 Kgs 19,34; 20,6; Isa 37,35; Jer 33,21.22.26; Ezek 34,23.24; 37,24.25; Ps 89,3.20; 1 Chr 17,4.7. Inheritors of David’s throne: Hag 2,23 (Zerubbabel-chosen); Zech 3,8 (the “Branch”). 82 Isaiah: Isa 20,3. Eliakim: Isa 22,20. Nebuchadnezzar: Jer 25,9; 27,6; Jer 43,10. Job: Job 1,8; 2;3; 42,7.8 (3x). Caleb: Num 14,24. 83 Isa 41,8.9; 44,1.2.21 (with “Israel”); 45,4; Jer 30,10; 46,27; Ezek 28,25; 37,25. 84 Exod 4,10; Num 11,11; Deut 3,24; 1 Kgs 8,53 (by Solomon); Neh 1,7.8 (by Nehemiah); Neh 9,14 (Levitical song) 85 1 Sam 23,10.11; 2 Sam 7,19.20.21.26.27.28.29(2x); 24,10; 1 Kgs 3,6; 8,24.25.26 (by Solomon); Ps 89,40 (by the psalmist); 132,10 (by the psalmist); 1 Chr 17,17.18 (2x).19.23.24.25.26.27; 21,8; 2 Chr 6,15.16.17.42 (by Solomon). 86 Ps 19,12.14; 27,9; 31,17; 69,18; 86,2.4.16; 109,28; 116,16(2x); 119,17.23.38.49.65. 76.84.122.124.125.135.140.176; 143,2.12. 87 Samson: Judg 15,18. Samuel: 1 Sam 3,9.10. Solomon: 1 Kgs 3,7.8.9; 8,28.29.30.52; 2 Chr 6,19(2x).20.21. Elijah: 1 Kgs 18,36. Nehemiah: Neh 1,6.11 (2x). Daniel: Dan 9,17. 88 Gen 32,11, in a prayer for protection against Esau. 89 Deut 34,5; Josh 1,1.13.15; 8,31.33; 11,12; 12,6(2x); 13,8; 14,7; 18,7; 22,2.4; 2 Kgs 8,12; 1 Chr 6,49; 2 Chr 1,3; 24,6.9; Dan 9,11. 90 Josh 24,29; Judg 2,8 91 Ps 18,1; 36,1. 80 81

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

121

a) God The words for God in Isa 41,8–16.17–20, “God” (‫ )אלהים‬and “Lord” (‫ )יהוה‬are in fact typical for nearly all discourse in biblical literature, including the Psalms of Lament. We shall consider other, more particular words for God (“Rock,” “El,” “Eloah,” et al.) in our consideration of allusion to the Historical Hymns in Isa 44,1–5. 92 b) Lamenter There are two major words with which the Lamenter identifies himself, “servant” (‫ )עבד‬and “afflicted” (‫( )עני‬often in the stereotyped pair ‫אביון‬-‫)עני‬, as well as a variety of other terms that occur less frequently. “Servant” (‫ )עבד‬is a term commonly applied to the psalmist, and in various ways that we should distinguish. The psalmist is called “servant” anonymously. 93 The psalmist-servant is sometimes identified as David,94 sometimes as another. 95 The word “servant” is an architectonic word in the psalms, one that describes the self-identification of the Lamenter before God. As such, we should continue to see it as an architectonic word in the Salvation Oracles, which we have begun to do with respect to the narratives alluded to in Isa 41,8– 10. With this word the author brings together the quite distinct identification of Jacob-Israel as the victorious Joshua and the suffering psalmist. The psalmist, the subjective “I” of the psalms, often identifies himself as the singular ‫“( עני‬afflicted one”). In some psalms, the psalmist’s self-identification is direct, usually playing on the homophonic pair ‫“( אני עני‬I am afflicted”). 96 The identification of the psalmist as “afflicted” comes through expressions like “my affliction” (‫ )עניי‬as well.97 The psalmist’s identification as “afflicted one” comes through verbal forms as well, often expressing his relationship to others through himself, like his fasting for others in Ps 35,13. 98

See ch. V, §3.1. Ps 19,12.14; 27,9; 31,17; 34,23; 35,27; 86,2.4.16; 89,40; 109,28; 116,16 (2x); 119,17.23.38.49.65.76.84.122.124.135.140.176; 143,2.12 94 In the title: Ps 18,1. In the body of the psalm: Ps 36,1; 78,70; 89,4.21; 132,10; 144,10. 95 Ps 105,6.42 (Abraham); 105,17 (Joseph); 105,26 (Moses); 135,9 (of Pharaoh); 136,22 (Israel) 96 These two words appearing in either order: Ps 25,16; 40,18; 69,30; 70,6; 86,1; 88,16. In Ps 109,22, ‫ אנ כי‬appears instead of ‫אנ י‬. In Ps 34,7, we have ‫זה ענ י‬. 97 Ps 9,14; 25,18; 31,8; 119,50.92.153; see Ps 22,25 for ‫ע נות ע נ י‬, “affliction of an afflicted one.” 98 Ps 35,13; 88,8; 90,15; 94,5; 102,24; 116,10; 119,67.71.75.107. 92 93

122

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

c) Friend Our identification of the Friend in the Psalms of Lament is based on the recognition of a relationship of the singular words for the Lamenter to their plural forms, which the psalmist expresses in a variety of particular ways. The psalmist refers often to “servants” (‫ )עבדים‬in the plural. 99 This is also true for the “afflicted ones” (spelled ‫ ענוים‬or ‫)עניים‬. 100 In some cases, singular ‫ עני‬represents this third-party. 101 The psalmist helps us understand the relationship of this plural Friend to the singular Lamenter through a certain type of cliché expression, in which some verb of sensory perception (seeing, hearing) on the part of the Friend regarding the fate the Lamenter yields for the Friend a state of rejoicing. In the following list, we see this kind of expression used for the various words for the Friend: Ps 22,27a Ps 34,3b Ps 40,4b Ps 52,8 Ps 69,33 Ps 97,8a Ps 107,42a Ps 119,74a

The afflicted will eat and be satisfied The afflicted will hear and be glad Many will see and fear The righteous will see and fear The afflicted will see and be glad Zion will hear and be glad The upright will see and be glad Those who fear you will see me and be glad

‫יא כלו ענו ים ו ישׂבעו‬ ‫ישׁמעו ענ וים ו ישׂמחו‬ ‫ירא ו רבים ו יירא ו‬ ‫ויראו צד יק ים ו ייראו‬ ‫רא ו ענו ים ישׂמח ו‬ ‫שׁמע ה ות שׂמח ציון‬ ‫ירא ו ישׁרים וישׂמח ו‬ ‫ירא יך ירא ונ י ו ישׂמחו‬

This is a brief exposition of the relationship of the plural forms of “servant” and “afflicted” to the singular, a relationship that carries so strongly in the Psalter and in Second Isaiah so as to suggest some kind of common authorship or readership to both books. 102 d) Enemy In the psalmist’s descriptions of the Enemy, we find very common terms, like “enemy” (‫איב‬, 74x in the psalms), “those who hate” (‫שׂנא‬, 23x in the psalms), and the “wicked one” (‫רשׁע‬, 82x in the psalms). We also find in the Psalter some of the most colorful descriptions of human behavior in the Bible, which, apart from more common metaphors like “lion” (‫אר יה‬, Ps 7,3; 10,9; 17,12; 22,14.22), 99 Ps 69,18.37; 79,2.10; 89,51; 90,13.16; 102,15.29; 105,25; 113,1; 119,91; 123,2; 134,1; 135,1.14. 100 Both plural spellings considered equivalent in meaning: Ps 9,19; 10,12.17; 12,6; 22,27; 25,9 (2x); 34,3; 37,11; 69,33; 72,2.2; 74,19; 76,10; 147,6; 149,4. 101 With maqqep-combinations or word pairs: Ps 18,28 ( ‫ ;)עם ־ענ י‬Ps 14,6 (‫( )עצ ת ־ענ י‬acc.); 35,10 (‫ )ו ענ י וא ביון‬37,14 (‫ ;)ענ י ו אביו ן‬74,21 (‫ ;)ענ י ו אביו ן‬82,3 (‫ ;)ענ י ו רשׁ‬Ps 109,16 ( ‫א ישׁ־ענ י וא ב יון‬ ‫)ונכא ה לב ב‬. In parallel terms: Ps 10,9 (‫ ענ י‬/‫ ;)ענ י‬68,11 ( ‫ע נ י א להים‬/‫ ;)ח ית ך‬72,12 ( ‫א ביון‬/‫ ;)ענ י‬140,13 ( ‫א בינ ים‬/‫)ענ י‬. On its own: Ps 10,2. 102 For more detailed investigations, see J. BLENKINSOPP, “‘Servants of the Lord’,” 392– 412; U. BERGES, “Die Armen im Buch Jesaja,” 153–177; “Who Were the Servants?,” 1–18.

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

123

contribute to each psalm’s originality. 103 The allusion to Ps 35,1.4–6 in Isa 41,11–12 draws in some of this imagery of the Enemy. 3.2 Transformation of Genre Having briefly laid out the elements of genre in the alluded narratives and psalms dialogically, that is, as persons or characters whose identification occurs in relation to others, we can now hear the voices of those persons speaking in the allusive units of Isa 41,8–16.17–20, which, again, we shall treat as vv. 8– 10.11–12.13.14–16.17–20. 3.2.1 The Voices of God, Moses, Joshua, and Israel in Isa 41,8–10 This part of the Salvation Oracle is comprised of two allusions, one more specific than the other: Josh 1,9 (and related passages) and the Deuteronomistic theme of Election, exemplified in Deut 4,37. Uniting these two allusions are the voices of God and of Moses. More unique to each are the voices of Joshua and Israel, each addressed by Moses. In Isa 41,8–10, these last two voices are equated, as if Jacob-Israel were assuming Joshua’s specific prerogatives. We have seen some aspect of that equation through the use of the word “servant” in §3.1.1, above, and now we can apply that understanding to its associations in Isa 41,8–10. First, we should note the particular association of words in their order in Isa 41,8 and how this verse orients our reading of the rest of Isa 41,8–16.17– 20. The initial “But you” (‫ )ואתה‬turns the hearer’s attention to being addressed first as “Israel,” then as “Jacob.” The word pair, in this reversed order and with its appositions, reverses the common expectation of this word pair and the fate associated with each name. In both narrative and poetry, where the name “Jacob” and the epithet “Israel” are brought together even loosely, some 87 times (in the MT and LXX), the nickname “Israel” appears in first position in only fourteen instances. 104 Among these instances is the only occasion of this order in Isa 34–35; 40–66, here in Isa 41,8. With only thirteen other examples (some of which are in texts

103 Such specificity also rendering, for the New Testament writers, the psalms as prophecy, such as Ps 22,19 (“They parted my garments among them, and for my clothing they cast lots”) quoted in John 19,24 (and alluded to in Luke 23,34) and Ps 69,22b (“In my thirst they gave me vinegar to drink”) alluded to in Matt 27,48; Mark 15,36; Luke 23,36; John 19,28– 30. 104 Gen 46,2; Exod 1,1; Num 24,19; Deut 33,28; Isa 10,20–21; 41,8; Jer 31.10–11; Ezek 20,5; 28,25; Ps 81,5; 105,23; 114,1; Lam 2,3; 1 Chr 16,13. Our count for this word pair is higher than that of Gevirtz (Patterns in Early Poetry, 53) perhaps because we have increased the length of the passages in which we see such pairs. Nevertheless, the impact of our findings is the same.

124

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

almost certainly influenced by Second Isaiah), this word order raises the hearer’s attention to what the author now achieves with this rare configuration. There are three immediate effects of this word pair reversal, which result in the identification of the name and the epithet. The first noteworthy effect is that God explicitly calls Israel “my servant” for the first time. Only in Isa 44,21; 49,3 is this repeated. There are instances in which Jacob is “my servant,” especially in Isa 40–55 (as seen above). Since “servant” itself is a title or epithet, we hear two titles now brought together, and concomitantly, “Israel” used as a proper name. The second effect of this word order builds upon the first, and that is to ascribe to “Jacob” the language of being “chosen” and “loved,” which occurs only where Moses otherwise addresses the nation as “Israel.” The result of these two effects is that both the name “Jacob” and the nickname “Israel” are epithets for the entire nation, bearing with them all the language here associated with them, especially being “chosen” and being “servant.” The third effect of this reversal is, as we have seen in §2.2.1b, to give emphasis to the name “Abraham” in this series. It is from this emphasis on Abraham that Jacob-Israel receives his identity. This “switched” identification of Israel as servant and Jacob as chosen, called the “seed of Abraham,” helps us to identify who this Jacob-Israel is in Isa 41,8–16.17–20. As seen in our discussion of the allusion to the Deuteronomistic theme of election, the author limits the reason for election solely to Abraham. This means that the Jacob-Israel before us, the one God is addressing in this utterance, is the same Jacob-Israel born of Abraham through Isaac. That is, it is not an epithet referring to a people descended from Jacob and currently returning from exile, but to Jacob himself, a man migrating to and from Mesopotamia and Egypt. This is like a typological use of the Jacob tradition, but conceived more dynamically than typology often is. 105 In dialogistic terms, God speaks not about a monolithic Jacob, but to the living Jacob as his servant. 105 Polliack (“Typological Use of Jacob,” 72–110) provides an excellent study of the typological use of the Jacob tradition in Isa 40–55, tracing its nuances from the broader OT context into Second Isaiah. She describes the dynamism in this typological use: “More than that of Abraham, Jacob’s narrative cycle in Genesis is structured by the symbols of struggle and transformation; his overcoming of failure and fear through trust in God is presented as a gradual process, fraught with difficulty and incomplete. In this respect, Jacob’s story is more relevant to the experiences of an exilic audience than any other biographical typology” (Ibid., 79). This typology serves as a “model of identification” for the exilic hearer. In fact, Polliack (Ibid., 80 n. 19) goes on to show how the final redactions of Genesis further highlight the connections between Jacob and exilic Israel. Given the validity of such a typological reading, we would go further and emphasize the living or present characterization of Jacob in the exilic (and later) audience, considering especially the other kinds of allusions present in Isa 40–55 and the passages under consideration, whose language Polliack often compares only to the Jacob narratives (seeing, for instance, the words of contention and struggle in Isa 41,11–12 in light of Jacob’s pursuit by Laban in Ibid., 86.

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

125

This dynamic in the relationship between God and Jacob is further expressed in the word “who loves me” (‫)אהבי‬. We should note that expressions of God’s love for a human person are rare in the OT and all use conjugated verbs. 106 The Qal active participle denotes either a man’s love for God or friendship among humans. 107 On the face of things, we should understand this word to express Abraham’s and/or Israel’s love for God, as in the context of the Deuteronomistic theme of election, Israel expresses his love for God in keeping the commandments (Deut 5,10 [cf. Exod 20,6]; 7,9; 11,1) and care for the stranger (Deut 10,19). Considering that the participle never expresses God’s love for man, that we maintain the dynamism of this word and understand it as “who loves me,” anticipating God’s reciprocal and “conjugated” expression of love for Israel in Isa 43,4. The openness of this word corresponds then to the ongoing and progressive characterization of Jacob-Israel which is becoming, already in this first verse of the Salvation Oracles, their very message. The allusion in Isa 41,9–10 is, as we have shown, to a single series of utterances spanning the books of Deuteronomy and Joshua, a series in which the command to “be strong and steadfast” is uttered by various voices but, always in regard to a single object of discourse, Joshua or, with two exceptions, Israel. We can group the nine instances of the Encouragement Formula into several utterances, and we shall see that Josh 1,1–9 serves as a summation of this series of utterances. Table 13, below, helps illustrate this. In Josh 1,1–9, we find a summary of the content of the previous utterances mentioned here, both on the part of the narrator (Josh 1,1) and of God (Josh 1,2–9). The narrator’s voice enters only briefly so as to introduce the situation (Moses’ death), the speaker, and the addressee. God himself then reutters in summary form some of the content of these previous utterances: the death of Moses (Josh 1,2a/Deut 31,14), crossing the Jordan (Josh 1,2b/ Deut 3,27b; 31,2–3), the cardinal points of the earth (Josh 1,4/Deut 3,27a), and even the expression “to present oneself” (‫יצב‬, Hit.) (Deut 31,14 [2x]). If Josh 1,9 as a sentence is the summation of the previous utterances in terms of the three formulas it employs, then this particular utterance, Josh 1,1–9, is a summation of the total content of the previous utterances containing the

106 Deut 4,37; 7,13; 10,18; 23,6; 2 Sam 12,14; Isa 43,4; 48,14; Jer 31,3; Hos 11,1; Mal 1,2 (3x); 2,11. 107 Exod 20,6 (“Having mercy to the thousandth [generation] for those who love me [‫ ]לא הב י‬and keep my commandments”); Deut 5,10; 7,9; 2 Sam 19,7; Isa 41,8; 66,10; Ps 97,10; 119,132.165; 122,6; 145,20; Prov 8,17.21; 18,21; Dan 9,4; Neh 1,5; 2 Chr 20,7. In two cases, at least one of which seems to be influenced by this oracle, there is some room for interpretation because of the words in parallel: in Judg 5,31, ‫ א הביו‬is in parallel to ‫כל־‬ ‫ ;איביך‬in Ps 145,20, ‫ את ־כל־א הביו‬is in parallel to ‫וא ת כל־הרשׁע ים‬. In both cases, considering the parallels, the direction of love is from man to God. 2 Chr 20,7, as discussed in §2.1.1, above (and ch. VII, §2.2), would seem to quote Isa 41,8 here.

126

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

expression “Be strong and steadfast.” Here, everything that God denies Moses he gives to Joshua and he transfers Moses’ authority to him. In the context of Isa 41,8–16, however, Joshua’s burden is shared between God and Israel. The imperative ‫ חזק ואמץ‬is now an indicative. God has strengthened and made steadfast Jacob-Israel. The Fear-Not Formula remains, though, and the Formulas of Divine Presentation continue to support that imperative. Joshua’s mission to bring Israel into the Promised Land transforms into God’s task to bring the remnant of Israel back from exile. God assumes Joshua’s leadership role directly, taking upon himself the task of strengthening Israel. Israel’s task is not to fear. What is monological for Joshua, singularly authoritative, becomes an ongoing dialogue between God and Jacob-Israel. We hear then, the voice of God speaking to Moses and Joshua, of Moses speaking to Joshua, and also of Joshua speaking to Israel. It would seem that just as in Josh 1,1–9 God gives to Joshua what he has denied to Moses, in Isa 41,8–10, God gives to Jacob-Israel to complete what Joshua has started. The major difference is that God himself has taken upon himself Joshua’s militaristic task of being “strong and steadfast.” God now does the fighting, a point he makes much clearer through the next allusion to Ps 35. Table 13: “Be Strong and Steadfast” in Its Utterances Utterance (Encouragement Formula) Deut 3,26–28 (Deut 3,28) Deut 31,1–6 (Deut 31,6) Deut 31,7–8 (Deut 31,7) Deut 31,14–23 (Deut 31,23) Josh 1,1–9 (Josh 1,6.7.9) Josh 1,16–18 (Josh 1,18) Josh 10,20–25 (Josh 10,25)

Speaker

Addressee

Object of Discourse

God (in direct quotation)

Moses

Joshua

Moses

Israel

Israel

Moses

Joshua

Joshua

God

Moses/Joshua

Joshua

God

Joshua

Joshua

Israel

Joshua

Joshua

Joshua

Israel

Israel

3.2.2 The Voices of God, Lamenter, and Enemy from Ps 35 in Isa 41,11–12.13 In the narratives concerning him, Joshua is strong and victorious in all that he does, and so it should strike us that the next voice that God utters as if spoken by Jacob-Israel should be that of the Lamenter of the psalms. We have seen precisely this in our analysis of the compositional form of Isa 41,11–12, though,

127

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

and so it remains for us to discover in Ps 35 as a whole utterance who this Lamenter is before God and how he might relate to Joshua. In order to understand the form of Ps 35, as a dialogue between and about four subjects, we should outline this form in its specific literary composition: Table 14: Ps 35 in Architectonic Composition Content Petition vv. 1–6 Lament v. 7 Petition v. 8

Speaker Lamenter

Addressee God

Object of Discourse Enemy

Vow of Praise

v. 9 v. 10a v. 10b

Lamenter

Hearer Hearer/God God

God

vv. 11–12 vv. 13–14 vv. 15–16 v. 17

Lamenter

God

Enemy Lamenter Enemy Lamenter

Vow of Praise

v. 18

Lamenter

God

Friend

Petition Lament Petition Petition

v. 19 vv. 20–21 vv. 22–24 vv. 25–26

Lamenter

God

Enemy Enemy God/Justice Enemy

Vow of Praise

vv. 27 v. 28

Lamenter

Hearer God

Friend Lamenter

Lament

Petition

Friend

We can immediately perceive some of the difficulties in laying out the foursubject generic form of the Lament Psalm in composition. In some cases, a common Object of Discourse unites two different kinds of content, Petition and Lament; this is true of the Enemy in Ps 35,1–8.19–26 (vv. 22–24 being the noteworthy exception here). In others, the single kind of content, the Vow of Praise (Ps 35,9–10.18.27–28), unites two objects of discourse, God/Friend and Friend/Lamenter. In one section, Ps 35,11–17, the psalmist speaks in both Lament and Petition about the Enemy and himself in such swift alternation that we see here the very close relationship between the two, a relationship we shall highlight below. While the identification of the Lamenter as “servant” holds for Ps 35, Isa 41,11–12 focus on introducing the Enemy into the Salvation Oracle. In fact, the identification of the “servant” comes indirectly, through the Friend: “May they always say, “Exalted be the Lord, who delights in the peace of his servant”“ (‫ויאמרו תמיד יגדל יהוה החפץ שׁלם עבדו‬, Ps 35,27).

128

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

God speaks to Jacob-Israel about an Enemy using the identification of this Enemy found in the Petition of Ps 35,1–6. The psalmist goes on to describe the Enemy’s action in further detail throughout the Petitions and Laments, but these need not concern us here in our identification of him, most especially since the Enemy is described here only with psalm-specific terminology, not the generic words listed above in §3.1.2d In fact, the only psalm-typical word identifying the Enemy brought out in this allusion, “who seek my life” ( ‫מבקשׁי‬ ‫נפשׁי‬, Ps 35,4), is itself an ambivalent term in the psalms, ‫ בקשׁ‬applied as often to the action of the Enemy (10x) as to those who seek God or some good of his (12x). Taking advantage of this ambivalence, the author transforms this into an action of Jacob-Israel, “You will seek them, but not find them” (Isa 41,12a). Otherwise, God identifies the Enemy using allusion-specific language and negates the Enemy using the same allusion-specific language. What’s more, the Enemy features as an Object of Discourse in Isa 41,11–12 only through his status before Jacob-Israel, the immediate Object of Discourse. After this, God refers to the Enemy only metaphorically in Isa 41,15 and not at all in Isa 43,1– 7; 44,1–5. God uses Ps 35 as well to speak to Jacob-Israel about Jacob-Israel. This occurs in two consecutive moments, Isa 41,12b.13. In Isa 41,12b, God transforms the psalm-specific language of the Enemy as “those who fight me” (Ps 35,1) into language about Jacob-Israel, “your warriors.” These warriors of Israel are denied.108 The reason for this God then expresses in positive terms in Isa 41,13. Here, as explained above, the Summary Restatement of Isa 41,9–10 is joined to the language of the Petition in Ps 35,2: God does not grasp a shield for battle, but he grasps Jacob-Israel and helps him. In this turn from the Enemy back to Jacob-Israel, the author concludes the first part of the Salvation Oracle, Isa 41,8–13. With the Summary Restatement in Isa 41,13, Joshua’s voice is joined to the voice of the psalmist, the author effectively uniting these two parts from two different genres into the genre of the Salvation Oracle. In between, the voice not common to both genres, the Enemy, is eliminated. This new genre is beginning to have a verbal shape of its own, at least in Isa 41,8–13 as a major part of the Salvation Oracle. The imperatives of the Joshua allusion in vv. 9–10 are now qatal verbs with perfect aspect: God’s action in strengthening Jacob-Israel perdures through the present, and this perfect aspect is reinforced by the nominal Formulas of Divine Presentation. In v. 11, marked by the particle ‫הן‬, we hear a shift into yiqtol forms with an immediate and yet ongoing future modality; this future annhilation of the Enemy is not circumscribed as a singular event, an observation that we should keep in mind as it relates to the modality of the yiqtol in vv. 15b–16a. We might call it a 108 Compare these results of allusion criticism with the “theological quietism” discerned through form-critical comparisons to neo-Assyrian oracles in ch. I, §1.3.3.

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

129

yiqtol with “eventual” force. The return to nominative and qatal forms in v. 13 serves as a kind of verbal inclusio drawing vv. 8–13 to a close. In this closing we are able to hear the first basic message of the Salvation Oracle: Jacob-Israel, so far suffering like the psalmist, will know the victory once given to Joshua. The only weapon mentioned, though, is God’s presence; everything else is denied. The return from exile, and every victory after, is not to be a military victory, but a victory of a different kind, which we can begin to understand in the next part of the oracle, Isa 41,14–16. 3.2.3 The Voices of God, Lamenter, and Enemy from Ps 22 in Isa 41,14–16 Through the allusion to Ps 22, God speaks to the identity of Jacob-Israel and his activity in the landscape. While the language of the first part of the oracle, vv. 8–13, has been rather direct and concrete, the language of vv. 14–16, including the words referring to God, Jacob-Israel, and the Enemy, becomes metaphorical. This may well reflect the imagery of Ps 22, which uses a great deal of simile and metaphor. A brief look at the composition of Ps 22, given in Table 15 below, will help orient our survey some of its imagery.109 In the Lament Psalm, generic words for the Lamenter, the Enemy, and the Friend – that is, words that are “stereotypical” for the genre – are usually paired with psalm-specific words that, with more immediacy and depth, express the identity and characterization of these subjects. The author of Ps 22 excels in using metaphor to do just this, especially for the Lamenter and the Enemy. For example, the Lamenter, in addition to describing himself as a “worm” (‫)תולעת‬, often speaks through the parts of his body: “Like water I am poured out and my bones are separated/My heart is like wax, melted amidst my bowels” (Ps 22,15). He describes the Enemy through animal forms: “Great bulls have surrounded me/The bulls of Bashan have beset me” (Ps 22,13). The psalmist describes the Friend with more typical language: “my brothers/an assembly” (‫קהל‬/‫אחי‬, v. 23), “afflicted/those who seek him” (‫דרשׁ יו‬/‫ענוים‬, v. 27a). The author of Isa 41,14–16, in alluding to Ps 22, also brings over this use of metaphorical imagery to describe the Jacob-Israel and the Enemy, and in Isa 41,17– 20 employs more typical imagery for the Friend. Just as with the allusion to Ps 35 in Isa 41,11–12.13, the principal parts or speakers of the genre of the Lament Psalm in Ps 22 carry over into Isa 41,14– 16: God (now the speaker), Lamenter (Jacob-Israel), Enemy (“mountainshills”). The Friend eventually carries over into Isa 41,17–20 in the cliché expression “afflicted and needy.” It is important to identify the Enemy through the allusion to Ps 35, and so the author brings over that psalm-specific language.

Here we present the whole psalm. While not ignoring the vast scholarship on its redactional history, we follow Craigie (Psalms 1–50, 197) and others in seeing the compositional unity of its final form. 109

130

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

Through the allusion to Ps 22, the author identifies the Lamenter, and so, again, he brings over that psalm-specific language, “worm/not-man.” This is a metaphor in a psalm full of metaphors and similes. Correspondingly, the author fills Isa 41,14–16 with identifying metaphors for God and the Enemy as well. Table 15: Ps 22 in Architectonic Composition Section Address/Lament

vv. 2–3

Speaker Lamenter

Addressee God

Object of Discourse God

Confession of Trust Lament

vv. 4–6

Lamenter

God

God

Confession of Trust

vv. 10–11

Petition Lament

v. 12 vv. 13–19

Petition

vv. 20–22

Vow of Praise

vv. 23–24

Assurance of Being Heard

v. 25

Hearer

Vow of Praise

vv. 26–28

God

Confession of Trust

vv. 29–30

God/Enemy

Vow of Praise

vv. 31–32

God/Friend

vv. 7–9

Lamenter/ Enemy God Lamenter

God

God Enemy/ Lamenter God/ Enemy

Lamenter

God

Lamenter/ Friend God/Friend (Lamenter?) God/Friend

We should complete our survey of the metaphors applied to Jacob-Israel in Isa 41,14–16. In v. 14a, after being called “worm,” he is called “men of Israel” (‫)מתי ישׂראך‬, a term that, as we have seen (§2.2.6), denotes fewness, and so this word here may well signify “remnant.” In v. 15a, the metaphor changes, and Jacob-Israel is now a “threshing sledge, sharp, new, and two-edged” ( ‫למור ג‬ ‫)חרוץ חדשׁ פיפיות‬. 110 This succession of nouns and adjectives is unusual, ending 110 Goldingay/Payne (Isaiah 40–55, I, 173) see ‫ ח רוץ‬as a more common variant on ‫מ ו רג‬, the latter as a tool to break up the soil and the former for threshing the harvested grain. This definition of ‫ ח רוץ‬is derived from other passages (Isa 28,27; Amos 1,3; Job 41,22) which themselves, however, amidst other metaphors, seem to use it in extension of its basic meaning, “sharp.” Seeing that the author repeats the preposition ‫ ל‬for new objects of the verb ‫שׂים‬ (cf. Isa 41,18b; 42,16b), we retain the basic meaning of ‫ ח רוץ‬as “sharp.”

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

131

in a rare reduplicated form of the word “edge” (‫ פה‬or ‫)פיה‬. 111 As grammatically unnecessary (see Judg 3,16 for another way of saying “two-edged,” ‫)שׁני פיות‬, this reduplication may serve to emphasize the durative or repetitive force of this metaphor – especially as such is the action of a threshing sledge – or it may serve as a diminutive, emphasizing God’s tenderness toward a humiliated Jacob-Israel. 112 In any case, the agricultural metaphor fits well with both the earth-bound “worm” and the “mountains/hills” that are the Enemy in v. 15b– 16a. These metaphors stress Israel’s diminutive identity before others, but one marked by repetitive action against his enemies. God continues to speak about Israel’s action against his enemies using the language of cultivation. In v. 15b–16a, Jacob-Israel is to “thresh” ( ‫)תדושׁ‬, “crush” (‫)תדק‬, and “set like chaff” (‫)כמץ תשׂ ים‬. Joining Israel in this action is another metaphorically-identified voice, that of the “wind/tempest,” who “lifts” (‫ )תשׂאם‬and “scatters” (‫ )תפיץ‬the Enemy. It is not yet clear if we should identify this “wind/tempest” as the Friend or, in fact, the action of God himself. In any case, these verbs themselves continue to reinforce the diminutive character of Jacob-Israel. The six verbs employed to describe the process by which “thresher” and “wind” work together are each of them not “strong” verbs, but “weak” verbs whose consonants or vowels disappear one way or another in conjugation: ‫דושׁ‬-‫תדושׁ‬, ‫דקק‬-‫תדק‬, ‫שׂ ים‬-‫תשׂים‬, ‫זרה‬-‫תזר ם‬, ‫נשׂא‬-‫תשׂאם‬, ‫פוץ‬-‫תפיץ‬. Humility and patience is how the mountains and hills of Israel’s – or perhaps better now God’s – enemies are eventually razed. God identifies the Enemy here simply as “mountains/hills.” This word pair does not always have negative connotation, but within the language of destruction that we have seen, we should take it so here. The annihilation of the Enemy, begun in vv. 11–12, is now complete, as they are scattered to the winds. Whether we identify the “wind/tempest” as God’s action or that of a Friend, it is not for Jacob-Israel, whose warriors are denied, to finish the job against his Enemy. His work, from his diminutive position, is subtle, repetitive, and hidden, like a servant. God even identifies himself using metaphorical language. In v. 14b, we hear, “Your redeemer is the Holy One of Israel.” Outside of Isa 40–66, God is called “redeemer” or is the subject of this action mostly in the psalms, with occasional use of this word in the prophets or wisdom literature. 113 Of the 22 instances of this term in Isa 40–66, this is the first. The word ‫ גאל‬applies literally to one

111 Elsewhere, only Ps 149,7 has this form, referring to a sword. This psalm, however, may well be influenced by this form in Second Isaiah, as we discuss in ch. VII, §2.1.3. 112 On the purposes of reduplication, see O. BAT -EL, “Reduplication,” §2. 113 Jer 31,11; 50,34; Hos 13,14; Mic 4,10; Job 19,25; Prov 23,11; Lam 3,58. Compare to Ps 19,15; 69,19; 74,2; 77,16; 78,35; 103,4. 106,10; 107,2 (2x); 119,154. The only exceptions are Exod 6,6; 15,13 (poetry). The verb ‫ פד ה‬is much more commonly applied to God throughout the OT.

132

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

doing justice for the needy or the dead by exacting vengeance, buying his land, or marrying his widow. It applies metaphorically to God’s action in salvation, since Jacob-Israel is not literally dead (though this suggests a polysemic reading of ‫ מת‬in the parallel line above, Isa 14a). In order once again to emphasize the reduced status of Jacob-Israel, God calls himself “redeemer.” Like Isa 41,8–13, vv. 14–16 see a shift in verbal form and aspect/modality, but not in the same concentric pattern of qatal-yiqtol-qatal. In v. 14a, God begins his Address of Assurance with the imperative Fear-Not Formula and bases this imperative on a qatal+participle in perfect aspect. This qatal perfect continues in v. 15a, where the change in the object of discourse from God and Jacob-Israel to Jacob-Israel and his Enemy is marked with ‫הנה‬, much like in v. 11a. The yiqtol in future modality does not begin until v. 15b, after God finishes stating Jacob-Israel’s new identity. Once again, the future-oriented action is directed against the Enemy. We might suggest, though, that given the series of verbs in order of a process (the cultivating process), and the role of the “wind/tempest,” that the yiqtol in Isa 41,15b–16a expresses not a declarative modality (“You will crush the mountains…”), but an obligative modality (“You shall crush the mountains…”). Jacob-Israel ought to do his part, so that the “wind/tempest” can do its part. The content of the verbs themselves also suggest an iterative quality to this future action. The event does not take place all at once, but gradually. The yiqtol forms continue into v. 16b, where the Vow of Praise from the psalms becomes what is also, most likely, an obligative expression: because of all this, Jacob-Israel shall rejoice and boast in the Lord. The qatal does not return here, and we find it again only in Isa 41,20b, suggesting that just as the allusion to Ps 22 continues there, so does the verbal pattern we have so far seen. In fact, it is also in Isa 41,17–20 where we hear of the fate of the Friend, an essential member of the Lament Psalm. 3.2.4 The Voices of God and Friend from Ps 22 in is 41,17–20 God speaks of the Friend in Isa 41,17–20 using both the generic or stereotypical langage of the Lament Psalm and the psalm-specific language of Ps 22. God refers to the Friend as “the afflicted and needy” (‫)העניים והאביונים‬, a very common expression even outside the Lament Psalm; “afflicted” is found in Ps 22,27. 114 God then applies an image specific to the Lamenter to further identify the Friend’s affliction: “their tongue is parched with thirst” ( ‫לשׁונם בצמא‬ 114 We should note that the identification of the Lamenter himself as “afflicted” in Ps 22,25 is ambiguous; here, in the Assurance of Being Heard, the Lamenter speaks of the “affliction of the afflicted” ( ‫)ענות ענ י‬. in the MT, the words that follow, “But has not hidden his face from him” ( ‫)ו לא ־הסת יר פנ יו ממנו‬, leave this identification ambivalent, while the LXX (Ps 21,25) identifies this afflicted one as the psalmist, “Nor has he hidden his face from me” (οὐδε ἀπεστρεπσεν το προσωπον αὐτου ἀπ’ἐµου). Nevertheless, like with Ps 35, this identification of Jacob-Israel as “afflicted” does not carry over.

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

133

‫)נשׁתה‬. In the next line, God gives his response to the Lamenter’s Lament (Ps 22,2–3) to the Friend, that he will “answer them” and “not abandon them.” The affliction characteristic of the Lamenter is now transferred to the Friend. We should understand this utterance still as spoken by God to Jacob-Israel, but now the object of this discourse is the Friend. While in the psalm the Friend is identified as the assembly of those who fear God and seek him, in Isa 41,17– 20, the Friend’s identity is harder to define. If Jacob-Israel is the remnant in exile, then perhaps the Friend are the peoples who thirst for God. If the servant Jacob-Israel is an individual at the head of corporate Israel, then the Friend could include these others or simply the exiles thirsting for acts of God’s power and temple worship. 115 As with the case of “who loves me” in Isa 41,8, we cannot resolve the identity of the Friend in this utterance on its own. We can state with more confidence, however, that Isa 41,17–20, while not speaking about Jacob-Israel, are addressed to him, and that both their allusion, their content, and their verbal form would seem to suggest that they are inseparable from Isa 41,8–16 as one utterance. In speaking of the Friend, they complete the transfer of the form of the Lament Psalm into the Salvation Oracle. We shall see if this transfer continues in Isa 43,1–7; 44,1–5 and in what way. In the brief allusion to the thirst of the afflicted as that of the Israelites in exodus (Isa 41,17a//Num 20,5), in the thematic allusion to the plagues of the rivers of Egypt, and in the thematic allusion to the Temple tradition, the voice of Moses once again carries over, further uniting Isa 41,8–16.17–20 as one utterance. Furthermore, if we allow the identification of the Lamenter as David, who himself takes part in the Temple tradition, then the unity of Isa 41,8– 16.17–20 is even more certain, its architectonic form uniting what in compositional terms are more disparate. Isa 41,17–20 also verbally bring a conclusion to Isa 41,8–16. These verses are enclosed in qatal forms in perfect aspect (vv. 17a.20b), with yiqtol forms in the future durative aspect, just as in the Consequence of Isa 41,11–12.15b– 16, although here this durative seems less iterative, less in speaking about a repeated action, than about an ongoing reality established once and for all. Indeed, as reflecting God’s activity, the modality would be declarative (vv. 17b– 19b), with a final modality in v. 20a reserved for the action of the Friend in knowing. In its verbal structure, this part would seem to be complete in itself and to close the oracle as a whole, and in its allusive structure to complete the part in vv. 14–16. We may further test the unity of the utterance in relation to its neighboring passages. 115 Because the relationship of the singular ‫ ע ני‬of the Lamenter to the plural ‫ ענ יים‬of the Friend in the psalms seems to carry over, we cannot, with Berges (Jesaja 40–48, 171), simply identify the “afflicted and needy” as the exiles without further qualification or Isa 41,17–20 as an “updating” (Aktualisierung) of the Salvation Oracle regarding Jacob-Israel in Isa 41,8– 16 (Ibid., 201).

134

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

3.3 Compositional Form of the Utterance with Architectonic Elements We have seen that the successive allusions within Isa 41,8–16.17–20 bring with them the voices speaking in the alluded texts, and now we will see what form those voices all together give to this Salvation Oracle. A glance at the whole should orient our discussion. Table 16: Compositional Form of Isa 41,8–16.17–20 as Salvation Oracle Allusive Unit

Speaker

Addressee

Address of Assurance vv. 8–10

God

Jacob-Israel

Consequence vv. 11–12

Object

Verbal Aspect (Modality) Jacob-Israel/God Perfect + Impv.Nom. (Declarative) Enemy

Summary Readdress v. 13

Future durative (Declarative)

Jacob-Israel/God Perfect + Nominal (Declarative)

Address of Assurance vv. 14–15a

Jacob-Israel/God

Imperative + Perfect (Declarative)

Consequence v. 15b–16a

Enemy

Future durative-iterative (Obligative)

Purpose v. 16b

Jacob-Israel/God

Future durative (Obligative)

Friend

Present Perfect (Declarative)

Lament v. 17a

God

Jacob-Israel

Assurance vv. 17b–19 Purpose v. 20

Future durative (Declarative) Friend/God

Jussive + Perfect (Final)

As we can see, while we have retained the nomenclature of the parts of the Salvation Oracle from Westermann, 116 our study of allusion and genre qualifies his formulation. First, the Address of Assurance of vv. 8–10 takes in two allusions, both to Deuteronomistic sources, and so, in a sense, God is assuming the voice of Moses. We cannot separate this part into vv. 8–9.10a.10ab as Westermann does, either grammatically (as one sentence), allusion-critically (the 116

See ch. I, §1.1.4, Table 2.

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

135

allusions marked in vv. 8.9–10), or dialogically (the voice of Moses dominating the whole). Here, Address and Assurance are inseparable; the description of Jacob-Israel as a new Joshua is based on God’s action toward him. The command not to fear is rooted in Jacob-Israel’s identity before God, which is why he is not to “look about” for another. The Address of Assurance of vv. 8–10 serves as a kind of thesis statement: the message is of identity, Israel’s identity before God. The Consequence of this new identity bears heavily upon the Enemy, about whom God speaks as if he were the Enemy of the psalmist. Since the Consequence, vv. 11–12, also involves the negation of Israel’s warriors, the Summary Readdress in v. 13 serves to explain both this Consequence and the Assurance of vv. 8–10. In Consequence and Summary Readdress, God speaks through one allusion, to Ps 35, though with the language of the Assurance in vv. 8–10. While formally the Enemy’s identity is negated as quickly as Israel’s is affirmed, temporally it appears as a process, a near-future event that unfolds gradually in contrast to the confirmation of Israel’s immediate and perennial identity. In the next Address of Assurance in vv. 14–15a, God now speaks as if to the psalmist in order further to qualify Israel’s identity before God. The same words of assurance pertain here as if to Joshua, but with no precise definition. Lest Jacob-Israel confuse himself with a new military Joshua, God affirms the lowliness of this new Israel. The role of Jacob-Israel is to serve as God’s counterpart or partner-on-the-ground. The Consequence of this new partnership in vv. 15b–16a concerns the gradual erosion of Israel’s enemies, but with a new focus on Israel’s role in it. A worm serves to erode the soil and a threshing sledge serves to separate wheat from chaff, but only the wind can finish the job. Conversely, while the wind on its own can erode mountains and hills, the work of the worm speeds up this process. The eventual and ongoing Purpose (v. 16b) belongs to Israel, who as witness to this ongoing process of annihilation, rejoices in the Lord. The parts of Isa 41,17–20 take a different form than those of the Salvation Oracle preceding it, and serve to provide extend the message of salvation to another, a Friend to Jacob-Israel. Through the mock Lament (v. 17a), God identifies the Object of Discourse with the Friend of the Psalms of Lament. The Friend also seems to inherit Israel’s history in new acts of God’s power over creation and the temple, along with an unknown new reality (the three unattested trees), in the Assurance (vv. 17b–19). The Purpose (v. 20) is the joining of this Friend, “together” perhaps with Israel, in the knowledge of God. In summary, the results of early fom-critical studies stand up but with great qualification. Understanding the architectonic elements of the Salvation Oracle of Isa 41,8–16.17–20 in terms of allusion and voice means that we must rethink its disposition of elements, the content and nomenclature of those elements, and the overall message of this oracle.

136

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

The form of this Salvation Oracle and its associated Announcement of Salvation is based very heavily on the form of the psalms and narratives to which it alludes. In a word, this new form answers the psalms and their specific requests. It re-identifies the individual psalmist with Jacob-Israel, not as the static epithet of a people, but as the living voice of the patriarch on the move. In this way, this new form generates within itself the conditions for another answer, a response from Jacob-Israel, one which begins in Isa 49,1–6. 117 This “answerability,” to use Bakhtin’s term, is found in the form of the oracle itself and in this form as an utterance in relationship to its neighboring utterances. Before we can speak of these neighboring utterances, we should first summarize our findings on the spatio-temporal situation of this utterance. Isa 41,8–16.17–20 does not seem to be a simple Fear-Not Oracle for a fixed moment of time, a singular event, nor a Royal Oracle for an individual monarch in time of war, but an utterance that gives renewed identity to corporate Israel for the part it plays in its own redemption and the salvation of the world.118 3.4 Chronotope We could not deny, based on several centuries of historical-critical scholarship and the proper names found in the text itself, that the situation of the prophet’s original utterance is the end of the Babylonian Exile, but the abstractness of the spatial and temporal imagery in this oracle and, ultimately, of Isa 40–66, suggest a certain transportability of the utterance and its message of Israel’s identity into what Bakhtin calls “great time.” Scholars certainly disagree as to whether these oracles are pronounced from Babylon, Palestine, or even Egypt, but such is not our interest here.119 Rather, it seems that the very elusiveness of spatio-temporal form, the highly metaphorical description of the environment, and the position of this oracle within a prophetic book makes us re-examine the Salvation Oracle’s Sitz im Leben and its generic chronotope, if such a category indeed can pertain to the single utterance. Firstly, the temporal formulation of the oracle is more relative to the reader/listener than to an historical stratum. The perfect aspect of the Assurances suggests that God’s help to Israel pertains to the latter’s present identity. Unlike the specific connection of the qatal to the action of the psalmist’s ancestors in Ps 22, here the qatal of the Assurance, aided by participial forms, speaks to the present identification of Jacob-Israel as the beneficiary of God’s action. 120 The yiqtol forms, bereft of any limitation on the location or even See ch. VI, §2.3.1. Cf. the scholarly results laid out in ch. I, §1.1 for the Fear-Not Oracle and §1.3 for the monarchical War Oracle. 119 See the summary of this question in L.-S. TIEMEYER, For the Comfort of Zion, 3–6. 120 Goldingay/Payne (Isaiah 40–55, I, 164) suggest an “instantaneous perfect,” “which speaks of an event as actual because the speaker is committed to effecting it, and is indeed 117 118

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

137

duration of the events they describe, yet to our eyes cast in at least the nearfuture, and in some cases assigned to verbs whose semantic content suggests repeated action, are more durative-iterative than oriented to a single event. It is as if no matter the reader and his historical situation, the shift from the perfect to the iterative is, as it were, portable or universally applicable; that is, these words continue in their initial force even in subsequent readings at least in Israel’s history. This universal applicability pertains as well to the spatial coordinates in which the oracle is set. The Assurances in the perfect make no reference to any determinate spatial situation. In the Consequences, the mentions of “mountains/hills” and desert lands are obscure, which obscurity is enhanced by their formation in the plural. This is to say nothing of the Consequence in Isa 41,11– 12, containing no spatial words whatsoever. Spatially as well this oracle is portable, historically valid to those living in Babylon as in Palestine as in Egypt as in modern-day Rome. The spatio-temporal coordinates of Isa 41,8–16.17–20 seem to extend the participation of the reader outside exilic Babylon. We would not deny the importance of the exilic reader’s participation in this utterance and the origination of this oracle there. It would seem, though, that the author does not intend the oracle to remain enclosed in exile. This oracle is shaped in a relative frame of reference by perfect and durative aspect and vague geographical indicators. This suggests to us an overall itinerant quality to its chronotopic form, a portable genre of constant validity and perpetual consummation.

4. Contextualizing Isa 41,8–16.17–20 within Isa 41,1–29 We have so far tried to understand the words and the language of Isa 41,8– 16.17–20 in their formal organization within the utterance, and now we should begin to investigate the role and the shape of this utterance within the greater context of the prophetic book, beginning with its immediate literary context. Some of the language that fills Isa 41,8–16.17–20 is already employed in the utterances that lead up to it, in Isa 40,1–41,7, and yet we have so far made it our concern to understand the language of the oracle as within this singular utterance. As in our studies of Isa 43,1–7; 44,1–5, we will restrict our “sideways glance” to the immediate context of these oracles, and in later chapters investigate these Salvation Oracle within expanding literary contexts. 121 We doing so at the very moment of utterance, even if temporally the event is not necessarily even imminent.” 121 Within Isa 1–66 in ch. VI and the Bible as a whole in ch. VII. The “sideways glance” is Bakhtin’s expression for the formal device he finds especially in Dostoevsky’s novels , in which a character continually reshapes his speech by anticipating the reaction of his

138

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

shall proceed this way for two reasons: first, the reader or listener can understand the play on allusion- and oracle-specific words between utterances that are not too far distant from each other; second, it should best inform our understanding of the identity of Jacob-Israel as expressed in this oracle first within the context of other Addressees and Objects of Discourse. As we proceed into broader spheres of literary context, the relationship between utterances must become less specific and more generic. 4.1 A Salvation Oracle between Two Trial Speeches Isa 41,1–29 seem to comprise the immediate literary context for vv. 8–16.17– 20. Scholars tend to agree on this, no matter what overall compositional form they understand this section to possess. 122 Even in literary-compositional studies, the form-critical identification of Isa 41,1–7.21–29 as Trial Speeches seems to hold. Our immediate concern is in identifying the speaker, addressee, and object of discourse, and from there, how the content of such a discursive form influences our hearing the Salvation Oracle. We should chart out these relationships to orient our investigation: Table 17: Overall Structure of Isa 41,1–29 in Genre Genre Trial Speech 123 vv. 1–5.6–7

Speaker God

Addressee Nations

Object Cyrus/ Idolators

Temporal Aspect Impv./Durative

Salvation Oracle(s) v. 8–16.17–20

Jacob-Israel

Jacob-Israel/ Friend

Perfect-Impv./ Durative

Trial Speech vv. 21–24.25–29

Nations

Cyrus/ Idolators

Perf./Durative

Imperative

interlocutor. We might apply this expression here to our understanding of the utterance in question in relationship to what God has already said and will say in the surrounding utterances. See M.M. BAKHTIN, Problems of Dostoevksy’s Poetics, 32. 122 Goldingay (“Arrangement,” 289–294), for instance, orders the originally oral units in Isa 41,1–42,17 into two sequences, Isa 41,1–20//41,21–42,17, whose units are parallel to each other: Isa 41,1–7//41,21–29; 41,8–16//42,1–9 (10–13); 41,17–20//42,14–17 (Berges [Jesaja 40–48, 170] modifies this only slightly). Laato (“The composition of Isaiah 40–55,” 212) considers Isa 41,8–20 the compositional center of a series of concentric passages spanning Isa 40,3–42,17, in which Isa 41,1–7.21–29 correspond as e-e′. On the other hand, Walsh (“Summons to Judgement,” 351–371) sees Isa 41,1–20 as a concentrically-patterned and self-contained unit. 123 On Isa 41,1–5.6–7.21–24.25–29 as Trial Speeches, see J. BLENKINSOPP, Isaiah 40– 55, 195–198.203–207 (“Mock Trial Speech”); J. GOLDINGAY/D. PAYNE, Isaiah 40–55, I, 135–140 (“Court Scene”); U. BERGES, Jesaja 40–48, 170.

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

139

Several things stand out immediately in our abstraction. First, there is a concentric pattern to the identity of the Addressee, Object, and Aspect. 124 Second, despite this clear concentric pattern, there does seem to be a development from vv. 1–7 to vv. 21–29, in that while we cannot so neatly divide vv. 21–29 according to Object, we can more neatly divide this section into vv. 21–24.25– 29 according to Aspect. Something in the Salvation Oracle, perhaps, has reshaped the message of vv. 1–7 in vv. 21–29. We should first go into a bit more detail on the Objects of these discourses and their verbal aspect. The first Trial Speech, vv. 1–7, is addressed to the foreign nations, in two parts, vv. 1–5.6–7. Terms expressing the nations form an inclusio to the first part in v. 1a, “isles/peoples” (‫לאמים‬/‫ )איים‬and v. 5, “isles/ends of the earth” (‫ קצות האר ץ‬/‫)איים‬. In between, God speaks about his singular prerogative in summoning his “righteous one from the east” (‫)ממזרח צדק‬, later named Cyrus. In v. 1, God addresses the nations directly, while in v. 5, he speaks of them in the third-person, presumably within earshot of Jacob-Israel. This shift to the thirdperson allows God now to speak in general terms (‫אחיו‬/‫רעהו‬/‫ )אישׁ‬about the work of idolators, as if to equate them with the nations. Each section draws together, in inverse fashion, imperatives and yiqtol duratives. In vv. 1–5, imperatives/jussives to the nations form an inclusio with the description of God’s continuing action in the center. In vv. 6–7, the description of the idolators’ repeated action houses an imperative (‫ )חזק‬and an exclamation (‫)טוב הוא‬. In this first Trial Speech, we hear the identity of the nations equated in some way with idolators, and we hear of another party, one from the east who achieves God’s will. The second Trial Speech, composed of vv. 21–24.25–29, begins with an imperative more proper to form and concludes with a judgment upon the nations. In v. 21, we hear “Present your case” (‫)קרבו ריבכם‬, opening up a rather onesided trial. God pronounces judgment twice: first, in v. 24, “Behold, you are nothing, and your works from nought,” after a series of imperatives to the nations that imply the impossibility of their fulfillment; second, in v. 29, “Behold, they are all nothing, nought their deeds, wind and emptiness their idols,” after God declares both the action they have not achieved and his own ongoing search for an equal. The whole of this part is a shift from imperative to perfect/durative mood and aspect. It is as if the first Trial Speech presents evidence of the contrasting action of God and idolators, while the second Trial Speech is the juridical deliberation itself. The oracles in vv. 8–16.17–20 could serve as further evidence in the trial of God’s unilateral action, but they are not addressed to the nations. The expression “But you” (‫ )ו אתה‬and the naming of Jacob-Israel prohibit such a reading. It is more likely that in this shift of address from the nations to Israel back to the nations, God is ensuring that Jacob-Israel understand his own identity not 124

This conforms to Laato’s findings in “Composition,” 210–211.

140

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

only with respect to his divine action for Israel, but also with respect to his action before the nations. It is, as it were, a “sideways glance” that informs the response that Jacob-Israel must ultimately make. The transformation of the words shared between the Trial Speeches and the Salvation Oracle should help us understand this further. 4.2 Identifying the Voices within from Without We can identify both the Enemy and the Friend of the Salvation Oracle by their voices in the Trial Speeches, and we find there another voice, one whom God has called from the east. In vv. 41,8–16, God pays particular attention to JacobIsrael’s relationship to his Enemy using particular language. In vv. 6–7, we hear the word “strengthen” (‫ )חזק‬three times, all in reference to crafting idols, and once in parallel to “help” (‫)עזר‬. These two terms describe God’s action toward Jacob-Israel in the next verses, vv. 9–10.13. It is as if, in reverse of the idolators’ actions, God is fashioning Jacob-Israel in “wresting” and “helping” him. Later on, in the second Trial Speech, God calls the idolators “nothing” and “nought” (vv. 24.29), just as in vv. 11b.12b (perhaps the refrain-like form of vv. 24.29 corresponds to the anaphoric form of vv. 11–12). In the second Trial Speech, God identifies the nations by their “contention” (‫ )ריבכם‬in v. 21, after having told Jacob-Israel that such contenders would be negated in v. 11. God also contrasts the election of Jacob-Israel in v. 8 with the non-election of the idolatrous nations in v. 24. It would seem that the Enemy of the Salvation Oracle are the idolatrous nations of the Trial Speeches. Some of this language is ambiguous, though, leading us to wonder whether the Friend is also, in some way, among the nations. First, in v. 5, the nations are called “isles/ends of the earth.” The author uses the expression “ends of the earth” in this unique formulation to express God’s action in returning JacobIsrael from exile, but this does not define the “ends of the earth” as the Enemy. On the contrary, these nations “will see… and fear… and tremble,” actions not dissimilar to the Friend’s sequence of knowledge in v. 20a. The verbs of this sequence are, indeed, found again in the second Trial Speech, where God calls upon the nations to predict the future, so that “we may fix in our heart, and know” (‫( )ו משׂימה לבנו ונדעה‬v. 22b) and that “we may look about and see all together” (‫( )ונשׁתעה ונרא יחדו‬v. 23b). These words are found in the Assurance for the Friend and for Jacob-Israel himself, each pair in reverse order. The nations would seem to be the Enemy in their idolatry, but also capable of being the Friend in knowledge of God. In fact, God may be inviting the nations to become Jacob-Israel’s friend by reintroducing himself as the “king of Jacob” (‫ )מלך יעקב‬in v. 21b. The Trial Speeches are not a simple condemnation, but a summons to abandon idolatry, an abandonment aided by Jacob-Israel, who remains the only real addressee.

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

141

Finally, there is mention of one called and yet unnamed in Isa 41,2–3.25, to whom God may be referring in Isa 41,10b. There, God states that he has held Jacob-Israel with “the right hand of my justice” (‫)בימין צדקי‬. In the first Trial Speech, in v. 2a, the one God has called “from the east” (‫ )ממזרח‬is a “just one” (‫)צדק‬, often translated in context as “champion” or “victorious one” (whose hand he will later grasp in Isa 45,1). 125 If so, this shows a kind of word play in Isa 41,10b, where ‫ צדקי‬could mean both “my righteousness” or “my champion” depending on the context in which we read it. 126 In the second Trial Speech, God speaks of one from the “north” (‫ )מצפון‬and the “rising of the sun” (‫ממזרח־‬ ‫)שׁמשׁ‬, who shall call upon God’s name (‫)יקרא בשׁ מי‬. We should resist, for the moment, an immediate identification of this voice as Cyrus, for two reasons: first, however we understand the dramatic unfolding of Isa 40–55, Cyrus is not yet mentioned by name (nor is Babylon, for that matter); second, just as in the utterances to come some of the prerogatives assigned to Jacob-Israel are assigned also to Cyrus, so here the ambiguity of this voice’s identification allows us to understand who this person is from within the immediate context. Given this permission, and the mention of the names of Abraham, we could, at least temporarily, identify this “just one” as Abraham himself. Given the Targumic interpretation and the attempts by some scholars to do so, this is a reasonable position and one that allows us to hear multiple voices in God’s mention of an individual. 127 4.3 Conclusions for Interpretation Seeing the Salvation Oracle within its literary context, Jacob-Israel comes more fully to understand his identity with a glance at the nations’ trial before God, and the nations their identity with help from Jacob-Israel. An analysis of literary form reveals the unity of Isa 41,1–29 in a concentric pattern. The use of shared vocabulary reveals the author’s provoking mutual glances between Jacob-Israel and the nations. What’s more, in the glance of the would-be Friend Goldingay (“Abraham in Isaiah 41,” 29–54) sees a fascinating parallel of Cyrus with Abraham throughout Isa 41,1–29, which is helpful in identifying Cyrus before God, but less so regarding the identity of Jacob-Israel. 126 Walsh (“Summons to Judgement,” 356–357) rejects such word play and insists that Isa 41,10b be understood only in light of v. 2a. 127 Torrey (“Isaiah 41,” 121–136) famously argues for the Abrahamic identification of the one called from the east not only in Isa 41,1–3.25 but in Isa 44,28; 45,1 as well, based on textual emendations to the latter, the lack of Cyrus’ name in Isa 46,11; 48,14, and the Targumic interpretation of Isa 41,2 (see below). We need not follow his argumentation to its conclusion to accept, momentarily, this identification of the voice called in Isa 41,2.25. In Tg. Ps.-J on Isa 41,2 (ed. C.H.W. PAULI, 137), we read, “Who openly brought Abraham from the east? He brought the chosen of the righteous in truth to his place. He delivered up nations before him, and broke in pieces mighty kings, he cast the slain down like the dust before his sword, and he pursued them like stubble before his bow.” 125

142

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

toward Jacob-Israel he hears more than what is spoken on the surface. God’s utterance to him is more monological satire and mockery, a one-sided trial, but not completely, as its language is echoed in the dialogical Salvation Oracle. In the Salvation Oracle, the Friend hears the voices of Moses and psalmist to Joshua and to God and is thus invited as well into a study of these voices’ originating texts. What God achieves for Israel and whoever would become his Friend he denies the nations to accomplish through their idolatry. The Friend hears the specific ways in which God accomplishes this, by allusion to God’s own word to Israel and Israel’s to God.

5. Conclusions In this rather lengthy chapter, we have engaged in an allusion-critical study of Isa 41,8–16.17–20 framed within a dialogical approach to the formal characteristics of allusion. We have come to understand allusion as more than a collection of shared vocabulary, as rather an authorial gesture that informs, that gives compositional form to the alluding passage in its architectonic elements. Indeed, allusion does more than give compositional form to the alluding utterance, it creates a new genre as an answer to the originating, answerable forms in which the voices of God, the psalmist, Moses, Joshua, and the patriarchs speak. These voices continue to speak, albeit within the singular oracle of God. In the allusion-critical moment, §2, we have traced the vocabulary that this passage shares with other biblical passages into distinct compositional parts. We have seen how the author uses the compositional form of the alluded texts to give compositional form to the new utterance, both in its parts and as a whole. The old compositional forms have included fixed word pairs and formulas, anaphora/epiphora, word pair expansion, and shifts in verbal form. The author brings them into their new context by way of split-up patterns sustained by alliteration and interweaving, by reformulation, and by compositional frames and Summary Restatements. These authorial gestures allow the reader to trace the allusions as parts of the utterance and as giving overall compositional form to the utterance. Having established allusive-compositional form, we have then proceeded to begin to lay out the architectonic form of the utterance as a specific dialogue of voices in §3. This dimension of form serves as an answer or extension to the originating forms of the allusions, as the same voices speak in a new spatiotemporal situation. We have heard the voices speaking in each part of the oracle and then with each other in the oracle as a whole. We have seen that, overall, the Salvation Oracle does answer the Lament Psalm, but not to its specific and immediate needs, and not with a specific and immediate answer. Rather, the spatio-temporal form of this Salvation Oracle suggests an ongoing and itinerant

Chapter III. Isa 41,8–16.17–20

143

situation. It is a message not fulfilled in its first hearing, nor consummated by a specific historical reader. The overall message of this Salvation Oracle, given all these considerations, seems to be one of participation by Jacob-Israel in salvation, through its selfconscious identity before God, Friend, and Enemy. Though this identity be forged through reiteration of Israel’s history and the prayer of the psalms, the act flowing from this identity is not fulfilled in a specific new moment of history, nor is this identity meant for Israel itself in time and space. Indeed, just as the prerogatives of Joshua and the psalmist are applied to Jacob-Israel, so the promises and miracles of Israel’s past are transplanted into a new landscape where the thirst of the psalmist is quenched as that of another people. On the generic level, and indeed on the compositional level, our results here can only be tentative, until we succeed in comparing this Salvation Oracle with those of Isa 43,1–7; 44,1–5. In the proceeding chapters, one dedicated to each oracle, we shall see if and how the author makes literary allusion, how those allusions give or are given form in their new context, and how the voices of those allusions reemerge to shape the new form. In letting these oracles then speak to each other within their literary context, we can then see what the overall form of this utterance means for the individual oracles and the voice of Jacob-Israel and the voice of God speaking to him.

Chapter IV

Isa 43,1–7. The Forgiven and Precious Servant of God, the King In this chapter, we shall proceed just as we have in Chapter III. First, in §1, we determine the limits of the utterance, investigate its text-critical issues, and provide a working translation. In §2, we identify and categorize the words that Isa 43,1–7 shares with other biblical utterances, then engage in allusion criticism to break down this Salvation Oracle into allusive units. This leads us toward a first understanding of its compositional form, which we deepen in §3 with a look at the genre of the alluded utterances and through genre, a designation of the allusive units of Isa 43,1–7 as architectonic elements. This includes an introductory study of its chronotope, or its spatial-temporal situation. Finally, in §4, we examine the ways in which the surrounding utterances, Isa 42,18–25 and 43,8–13, give further shape to the voices speaking within Isa 43,1–7 and, ultimately, to the relationship of Jacob-Israel to God.

1. Delimiting, Stabilizing the Text, and Translating the Utterance 1.1 Delimitation of the Utterance The author sets apart Isa 43,1–7 from its neighboring utterances in two ways: through an inclusio marking the beginning and end of the utterance in itself and with a marked difference in the words with which God addresses JacobIsrael in the two neighboring passages, Isa 42,18–25; 43,8–13. The author defines the limits of this utterance with a strong inclusio in Isa 43,1.7. 1 First, like in Isa 41,8.16, the Salvation Oracle is introduced with a waw-adversative, but this time joined not to the second-person singular pronoun ‫אתה‬, but to its homophone, ‫עתה‬, forming “But now.” While the expression 1 Almost all scholars define this utterance as Isa 43,1–7 with the sole exceptions, to our knowledge, of Paul (Isaiah 40–66, 204–210) and Sweeney (Isaiah 40–66, 93–94.101–103), who include v. 8. For Sweeney, Isa 43,1–8 is then tightly bound to Isa 42,14–25, the whole an “Announcement.” The grouping of Isa 43,1–7/8 with what precedes it follows upon a mostly German-language tradition of defining Isa 42,18–43,7 as a single, unbroken utterance (see K. MARTI, Das Buch Jesaja, 291–295; K. ELLIGER, Deuterojesaja 40,1–45,7, 269–305; J. S CULLION, Isaiah 40–66, 46–50). The inclusion of v. 8 with Isa 43,1–7 affects one’s understanding of whom God is addressing in v. 8, as seen in §4.1.2, below.

146

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

‫ ואתה‬forms an inclusio in Isa 41,8.16, ‫ ועתה‬does not do so here. Rather, the author forms the inclusio from the content of the oracle itself. After the expression “But now” in Isa 43,1 comes the Messenger Formula, “Thus says the Lord” (‫)כה־אמר יהוה‬, and following this comes an Address of Assurance to Jacob-Israel structured, just like Isa 41,8, with a set of parallel expressions. Preceding “Jacob” is the participle “Who created you” (‫ )בראך‬and preceding “Israel” is the participle “and who formed you” (‫)ויצרך‬. These words repeat in Isa 43,7 with the same two terms, “create” and “form,” joined to the synonym “make” (‫)אף־עשׂיתיו‬. Filling in the closing line, in v. 7a, is a kind of Summary Restatement, like we have seen in Isa 41,13. Here, the expression “All those called by my name” (‫ )כל הנקר א בשׁמי‬echoes Isa 43,1b and the expression “and for my glory” (‫ )ולכבודי‬echoes Isa 43,4a. Thus, the inclusio in Isa 43,1.7 is formed by repeating the two initial terms ‫ ברא‬and ‫ יצר‬and by summarizing the internal content in the terms ‫ קרא בשׁם‬and ‫כבוד‬. The inclusio suggests that we should not subdivide Isa 43,1–7 into two distinct oracles. Some form-critical scholars, seeing the repetition of the Fear-Not Formula in Isa 43,1b.5a, see a double oracle here.2 However, as we shall see below (§2.3.2), the author uses such established oral formulas to distinguish allusive units. The author furthers defines Isa 43,1–7 in its immediate context by the difference in the words by which God addresses Jacob-Israel. It is in Isa 42,18– 25 and 43,8–13 that God addresses Jacob-Israel as “servant” ( ‫)עבד‬ (Isa 42,19a.19b; 43,10); this word does not appear in Isa 43,1–7. Furthermore, each utterance opens by addressing “the blind” (‫ )העורים‬and “the deaf” (‫)החרשׁים‬ (Isa 42,18–19; 43,8). Who precisely is “blind” and “deaf” we shall examine in §4. God does not address Jacob-Israel as “blind” or “deaf” in Isa 43,1–7. 1.2 Text-Critical Problems Once again, the text-critical problems are few and the emendations proposed by others typically arise out of a desire to “harmonize” the text. V. 1b: at ‫שׁ ְמָך‬ ִ ‫ָקָראִתי ְב‬, the Versions have the equivalent of ‫( ְקר אתיָך‬e.g., LXX reads ἐκάλεσά σε τὸ ὄνοµά σου; Vulgate vocavi te nomine tuo). These translations attempt to produce a more harmonious reading of the text than what the MT immediately gives us, as in, “I have called you by your name,” rather than

2 See H.-E. VON WALDOW, Anlass und Hintergrund, 27–28; A. S CHOORS, I am God Your Saviour, 68; R.P. MERENDINO, Der Erste und der Letzte, 164–165; P. HARNER, “Salvation Oracle in Second Isaiah,” 418–434; M. DIJKSTRA , Gods Voorstelling, 373–374. Both Westermann and Conrad go from seeing two oracles in Isa 43,1–4.5–7 (C. WESTERMANN , “Das Heilswort bei Deuterojesaja,” 355–373; E. CONRAD, “‘Fear Not’ Oracles,” 129–152) to a single oracle in Isa 43,1–7 (C. WESTERMANN, Das Buch Jesaja, 94–98; E. CONRAD, Fear Not Warrior, 79–107).

Chapter IV. Isa 43,1–7

147

“I have called upon/invoked your name,” which would not seem fitting to describe God’s action toward humans. The BHS proposes to harmonize the text differently, by emending ‫שׁ ְמָך‬ ִ ‫ ְב‬to ‫שִׁמי‬ ְ ‫ ִב‬based on v. 7; hence, “I have called you by my name.” Blenkinsopp, himself explaining the different meanings of this expression, shows this emendation unnecessary. 3 We shall retain the reading of the MT. V. 4ab: Blenkinsopp and Berges dismiss Maalstad’s attempt to render ‫שׁ ר‬ ֶ ‫ֵמֲא‬ as ‫שּׁר‬ ֻ ‫ֵמַא‬, “more than Assyria” and ‫ אָָד ם‬as ‫ֱאד ֹם‬, “Edom,” translating ‫ מאשׁר‬as “for” (Weil).4 A translation of this term as a subordinating conjunction is possible elsewhere only in Num 6,11. Goshen-Gottstein notes that such a translation of ‫ מאשׁר‬dates only from the Middle Ages and that the LXX and Vulgate translate it literally (ἀφ`οὗ, ex quo); he goes on to paraphrase this as “Than whom thou art dearer in my eyes.” 5 Based on comparison with the 14 other instances of ‫מאשׁר‬, 13 of which use it as a relative pronoun, we shall translate it as “among whom.” In certain instances, this term has an indeterminate, distributive sense: (“wherever/whoever”: Exod 5,11; Lev 14,30; Esth 4,11; “from among which/whom”: Exod 29,27; Isa 47,13; Ruth 2,9; 1 Chr 17,13). In those instances in which it serves for comparison (more… than), ‫ מאשׁר‬does not stand alone (with ‫ אשׁר‬and adjective ‫רבים‬: Josh 10,11; Judg 16,30; 2 Kgs 6,16; after verb ‫רבה‬: 2 Sam 18,8; after ‫אין תוב‬: Qoh 3,22), suggesting that the formulation of ‫ מאשׁר‬in the comparative functions again within the distributive sense (literally, “great… among”). This translation as “among whom” concords with the LXX and Vulgate and with the theological nuance that Second Isaiah gives to Jacob-Israel’s relationship before God and the nations. V. 7: BHS notes that other Masoretic manuscripts, the Syro-Hexapla and the Vulgate, omit conjunctive ‫ ְו‬before ‫ִלְכבוִֹדי‬. Blenkinsopp thus omits it, rendering the three verbs in v. 7b a relative clause describing “all called by my name.” 6 LXX renders it as γὰρ, “for,” thus joining “all called by my name” in apposition to “my sons/my daughters” (τοὺς υἱούς µου/τὰς θυγατέρας µου) in v. 6b and beginning a new sentence with “For my glory….” Berges translates it as “truly”

See J. BLENKINSOPP, Isaiah 40–55, 220. There are 28 other instances of ‫ קרא ב שׁם‬in the MT with different nuances, and leaving in place the lectio difficilior may lead us to one of them. 4 See J. BLENKINSOPP, Isaiah 40–55, 220; U. BERGES, Jesaja 40–48, 251. Cf. K. MAALSTAD, “Einige Erwägungen zu Jes 43,” 512–514. While we follow the MT’s vocalization, we should be remain open to the possibility that the original audience for this oracle may have heard a subtle reference to Israel’s northern and southern enemies. 5 See M. G OSHEN-GOTTSTEIN , “Syntax of Relative Clauses,” 46–47. 6 See J. BLENKINSOPP, Isaiah 40–55, 220. 3

148

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

(fürwahr). 7 We can follow Blenkinsopp’s line of thought while retaining the conjunction, hence: “Each8 called by my name, and (whom) for my glory I have created, I have formed, yes, I have made.”9 1.3 Translation Isa 43,1–7 v. 1a

v. 1b

v. 2a

v. 2b

v. 3a v. 3b v. 4a

v. 4b v. 5a v. 5b

v. 6a

But now thus says the Lord, who creates you, Jacob, and who forms you, Israel: Fear not, for I have redeemed you; I have called you by your name, you are mine. When you cross the water, I am with you; in the rivers they will not wash you away. When you walk amidst fire you will not be scorched; the flame will not burn you. Yes, I am the Lord your God; the Holy One of Israel is your Savior. I have given Egypt as your ransom, Kush and Seba in place of you, Among whom you are precious in my eyes, made glorious, and I love you. I have given man in place of you, and peoples in place of your life. Fear not, for I am with you. From the east I will bring your offspring, and from the west I will gather you, Saying to the north, “Give,” and to the south, “Do not hold back.”

‫ועת ה כה־אמר יהו ה ב ראך יעקב ו יצרך ישׂראל‬

:‫אל־ת ירא כי ג אלת יך ק ראת י ב שׁמך לי־את ה‬

‫כי־תע ב ר במים את ך ־אנ י ו בנ הרות לא ישׁט פוך‬

: ‫כי־תלך במו ־א שׁ לא ת כו ה ו להב ה לא ת בע ר־בך‬

‫כי א ני יהו ה אלהיך קדו שׁ ישׂרא ל מו שׁיע ך‬ : ‫נתתי כפרך מצרים כו שׁ וס בא תחת יך‬ ‫מא שׁר יק רת ב ע ינ י נ כבדת וא נ י א הבת יך‬

: ‫ואתן אדם תחת יך ולאמים תחת נ פשׁך‬ ‫אל־ת ירא כי את ך ־אנ י‬ : ‫ממזרח אביא זרעך וממע רב אקב צך‬

‫אמר לצפון תנ י ולתימן א ל־תכלא י‬

See U. BERGES, Jesaja 40–48, 251. Merendino (Der Erste und der Letzte, 298) states that, from its context, we cannot understand ‫כל‬, even with the singular participle ‫הנק רא‬, as “each,” but given the masculine singular pronomial suffixes on the three verbs that follow, the preceding individuation into “sons-daughters” in v. 6b, and the further individuation with the determinative ‫ זה‬of those named by God in Isa 44,5, understanding such individuation makes sense in Isa 43,7. Cf. U. BERGES, Jesaja 40–48, 277, who for similar reasons, translates ‫ כל‬as “each” (jeder), in contrast to S. PAUL , Isaiah 40–66, 209 (“all”). 9 In the English language, just like in the Hebrew, the relative pronoun “whom” is unnecessary, and is understood from context. 7 8

149

Chapter IV. Isa 43,1–7 v. 6b

“Bring my sons from afar, and my daughters from the end of the earth. Each called by my name, and whom for my glory I have created, I have formed, yes, I have made.”

v. 7

:‫הביא י בנ י מרחוק ו בנו תי מקצה הא רץ‬

‫כל הנק רא ב שׁמי‬ :‫ולכב וד י ב ראת יו יצרת יו א ף ־ע שׂית יו‬

2. Identifying Allusions in their Compositional Form We shall here identify the literary allusions present in Isa 43,1–7 and how those allusions give internal structure to the Salvation Oracle. First, in §2.1, we categorize the allusions according to the level of shared vocabulary and the formative influence of the alluded text on the alluding text. Then, in §2.2, we analyze each allusive unit, in which allusions from the different groups of §2.1 may appear. Finally, in §2.3, we examine the overall composition of Isa 43,1– 7 based on the identification of allusive units in §2.2. 2.1 Possible Allusions, Their Form, and Their Dating While we here retain the same four categories of allusion as in Chapter III, §2.1, we should be attentive as to whether each of the four categories remains as relevant to Isa 43,1–7 as to Isa 41,8–16.17–20, or if there is a development in the kinds of formal proportion that the author employs. 2.1.1 Group 1: Quotation Passages in this group are those that share a one-to-one correspondence in terms of length and shared vocabulary. They are quotations: Isa 43,2a//Ct 8,7a Isa 43,2a Ct 8,7a

And in the rivers they will not sweep you away And the rivers will not sweep it away

‫ובנ הרו ת לא ישׁט פוך‬ ‫ונ הרות לא ישׁט פו ה‬

Some see an allusion here on the part of Isa 43,2a. 10 Dating the Song of Songs is fraught with difficulty and disagreement. 11 While we must admit the 10 Nurmela (Mouth of the Lord, 26–27), calls this an allusion to Cant 8,6–7, along with Cant 2,16; 6,3. This overly stretches the context of the supposed alluded text. Nurmela admits that some of the vocabulary he has identified (especially ‫ שׁלהבת יה‬for ‫ )להב ה‬is seen by others as markedly late. 11 For instance, Fox (Song of Songs, 186–191) argues for a late dating based on linguistic criteria, while Garrett (Song of Songs, 16–22) holds to the Solomonic dating of the Song of Songs.

150

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

possibility that Isa 43,2a is quoting Ct 8,7a, it will not seem how such a reference informs our reading of Isa 43,1–7, especially compared with the other allusions we have found. 2.1.2 Group 2: Allusion Passages in this group are those biblical sources which leave a formal imprint on parts of Isa 43,1–7 and whose relative dating and similar context leaves open the possibility of the author’s knowing and alluded to them. In terms of formal proportion, the passages are of similar length, but do not share a oneto-one correspondence of shared vocabulary as in quotation. With this category begins allusion proper: Isa 43,1.7//Amos 4,12–1312 Isa 43,1a Isa 43,1b

Isa 43,7a Isa 43,7b

‫ו עת ה כ ה ־ א מ ר י ה ו ה‬ ‫ב ראך יעק ב ו יצרך ישׂרא ל‬ ‫אל־ת ירא כי ג אלת יך‬ ‫ק ר את י ב שׁ מ ך ל י ־ את ה‬ ‫כל הנק רא ב שׁמי‬ ‫ולכב וד י ב ראת יו יצרת יו‬ ‫אף ־ע שׂית יו‬

‫לכן כה א ע שׂה־לך ישׂרא ל‬ ‫ע ק ב כ י ־ זא ת א ע שׂ ה ־ ל ך‬ ‫הכון לק ראת ־אלהיך ישׂרא ל‬ ‫כי הנ ה יוצר הרים וב רא רוח‬ ‫ומג יד לאדם מה־שׂחו‬ ‫ע שׂה שׁח ר ע יפה‬ ‫וד רך על־ב מת י א רץ‬ ‫יהו ה א להי־צבא ות שׁמו‬

Amos 4,12a Amos 4,12b Amos 4,12c Amos 4,13a Amos 4,13b Amos 4,13c Amos 4,13d Amos 4,13e

Within the scholarly debate regarding the dating of the hymns in Amos (Amos 4,13; 5,8–9; 9,5–6) we see the strong possibility that they are early, if not from Amos himself. 13

12 Nurmela (Mouth of the Lord, 28–29), though listing Amos 4,13, concludes that Isa 43,7 constitutes an allusion to Gen 1,1; 2,7.18 (i.e., to the two creation narratives in Gen 1,1– 2,25). This is based on the appearance of the creation triad ( ‫ב רא‬, ‫יצר‬, ‫ )ע שׂה‬in proximity to mention of “sons” and “daughters” in Isa 43,6b, which would refer to the creation of male and female in Gen 2,18. 13 Foresti (“Brani participiali di Amos,” 169–184) noting that the combination of the participial forms of these roots describing God as creator appear only in Amos 4,13 and throughout Isa 40–55, concludes that Second Isaiah, along with Job and Ps 104, is the source of these hymns for the book of Amos, borrowed according to “anthological” criteria. On the other hand, Mays (Amos, 83–84), Anderson/Freedman (Amos, 453–457), and Paul (Amos, 152–153), summarizing arguments for the dating of these hymns, conclude or at least allow for their very early dating (especially in their affinity with Exod 15,3; Ps 68,4; Deut 6,4; and Hos 12,6), if not composed by the prophet Amos himself. Watts (“An Old Hymn,” 23) claims that these hymns reveal a “fully formed doctrine” of God as creator of the cosmos already in the 8 th century BC, which he goes on to say is not contained in the Yahwistic account of creation in Gen 2,4–3,16.

151

Chapter IV. Isa 43,1–7

Isa 43,2//Ps 66,6.12 Isa 43,2a Isa 43,2b

‫כי־תע ב ר במים את ך ־אנ י‬ ‫ובנ הרו ת לא ישׁט פוך‬ ‫כי־תלך במו ־א שׁ לא ת כו ה‬ ‫ולהב ה לא תב ע ר־ב ך‬

‫הפך ים ליב שׁה‬ ‫בנ הר יע ב רו ב רג ל‬ ‫שׁם נ שׂמח ה־בו‬ ‫הרכב ת אנ ו שׁ לרא שׁנ ו‬ ‫באנו ־ב א שׁ ו במים‬ ‫ו ת ו צ י אנ ו ל ר ו י ה‬

Ps 66,6a Ps 66,6b Ps 66,6c Ps 66,12a Ps 66,12b Ps 66,12c

Per the commentators’ summaries, there seems to be no way positively to date this psalm, leaving open the strong possibility of its cultic use before the exile as a reflection upon or celebration of the exodus. 14 Isa 43,4//Ps 47,4.5b Isa 43,4a Isa 43,4b Isa 43,4b

‫ו אנ י א הבת יך‬... ‫ואתן אדם תחת יך‬ ‫ולא מים תחת נ פשׁך‬

‫יד ב ר ע מים תחת ינו‬ ‫ולא מים תחת רגלינ ו‬ ‫את ג און יעקב א שׁר־א הב‬

Ps 47,4a Ps 47,4b Ps 47,5b

Scholars are divided as to whether Ps 47 represents pre-exilic cultic practice or represents a post-exilic, “eschatological” vision in imitation of such cultic practice. 15 Despite the uncertainty in dating, the formal operation by which Isa 43,4 alludes to Ps 47,4 (see §2.2.3) and the transformation of its message within their respective contexts (see §3.3.3) makes the direction of borrowing more certain. Isa 43,5b.6b//Ps 103,12a.13a Isa 43,5b Isa 43,6b

‫ממזרח אב יא זרעך‬ ‫וממע רב אק ב צך‬ ‫הביא י בנ י מרחוק‬ ‫ובנות י מק צה הא רץ‬

‫כרחק מזרח ממע רב‬ ‫כרחם א ב ע ל־בנ ים‬

Ps 103,12a Ps 103,13a

Our interest here is in the use of the word pair “from the east-from the west” (‫ממזרח‬- ‫ )ממערב‬in proximate mention of God’s fatherhood. We shall consider this word pair in dialogue with the allusion to Deut 3,27. See M. TATE , Psalms 51–100, 148. This debate goes back to the earliest form-critical studies. The theories summarized already in 1944 (J. MUILENBURG, “Psalm 47,” 235–243) and 1974 (L. PERDUE , “Psalm 47,” 85–90) continue to be debated to the present (post-exilic eschatological vision: J. S CHAPER, “Psalm 47,” 262–275; pre-exilic affirmation of Elohistic supremacy: J. HAUSMANN, “‘Gott ist König über die Völker’,” 91–102). On the other hand, Steiner (“‘Gott stieg hinauf...’,” 161–178) charts a middle course, showing Ps 47 to represent the exilic hope for God’s return to Zion. This is the earliest period that Zenger (“Der Gott Abrahams,” 426–427) allows for its composition, while Craigie (Psalms 1–50, 348) places it early in the monarchical period. 14 15

152

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

Bolstering the possibility of an allusion here is the more obvious allusion to Ps 103,15–17 in Isa 40,6b–8. 16 2.1.3 Group 3: Theme and Typology These passage share significant or unique vocabulary with parts of Isa 43,1–7, but rather than giving form to the alluding verses, the rigorous poetic structure of the alluding verses brings these words into strict relationship with each other and with Second Isaiah’s own words. This group represents allusions to to broader biblical themes and traditions: Isa 43,2//Ritual Purification (e.g., Num 31,23) Isa 43,2a Isa 43,2b

... ‫ כל־דב ר א שׁר יבא בא שׁ תע ב ירו בא שׁ כי־תע ב ר במים‬Num 31,23a ‫וט הר א ך במי נד ה יתח טא‬ .. .‫ וכל א שׁר לא ־יב א בא שׁ תע בירו במים כי־תלך במו ־א שׁ‬Num 31,23b

Scholars tend to give a late date for Num 31,23 – or more specifically, the interpolation of an intervention by Eleazar in Num 31,21–24, but even within this conversation there remains the possibility for its predating Isa 43,2. 17 The “post-war” context fits the alluding passage, leaving for us only the further evidence of the formal operation up for discussion (as in §2.2.3, below). Isa 43,3.4b//Law of Talion (e.g., Exod 21,22–25; Lev 24,17–22) Isa 43,3a

‫כי א ני יהו ה אלהיך‬

‫כי א ני יהו ה אלהיכם‬

Lev 24,22b

Isa 43,3b

‫נתתי כפרך מצרים‬ ‫כו שׁ וסב א ת חת יך‬

Exod 21,23 Exod 21,24

Isa 43,4b

‫ואתן אדם תחת יך‬ ‫ולא מים תחת נ פשׁך‬

‫ונ ת ת ה נ פ שׁ ת ח ת נ פ שׁ‬ ‫עין תחת ע ין שׁן תחת שׁן‬ :‫יד תחת יד רג ל תחת רג ל‬ ‫כו יה ת חת כו יה פצע תחת פצע‬ : ‫ח בו ר ה ת ח ת ח בו ר ה‬ ‫וא ישׁ כי יכה כי־נ פשׁ א דם מות ימות‬ ‫נ פ שׁ ת ח ת נ פ שׁ‬... ‫שׁב ר תחת שׁב ר ע ין ת חת עין שׁן ת חת‬ ‫ באד ם‬.. .‫שׁן‬

Lev 24,17 Lev 24,18 Lev 24,19

Exod 21,25

See ch. II, §2.2.2e. Many consider Num 31,1–54 a late, Priestly text that retrospectively inserts a Midianite war into the overall exodus narrative in order to speak of Persian-era issues; see P. BUDD, Numbers, 327–330; B. LEVINE , Numbers 21–36, 445. On the other hand, since Milgrom (Numbers, 260–263.490–492) sees Num 31,1–54 as an ancient account, his view that Num 31,13–24 are a later interpolation into that account allows the possibility that Num 31,23 predates Isa 43,2. 16 17

153

Chapter IV. Isa 43,1–7

In Isa 43,3.4b, we find what seems to be an allusion to the theme of the Law of Talion through a conflation of two of its three instances (Deut 19,21 featuring rather different vocabulary). Isa 43,5b–6a//Cardinal Points (Occupation of the Land) (e.g. Deut 3,27) Isa 43,5b Isa 43,6a

‫ממזרח אב יא זרעך‬ ‫וממע רב אק ב צך‬ ‫אמר לצפון תנ י‬ ‫ולת ימן א ל־ת כלא י‬

‫עלה רא שׁ הפסג ה ו שׂא ע ינ יך‬ ‫ימה ו צפנ ה ות ימנ ה ו מזרח ה‬ ‫ורא ה בע ינ יך כי־לא תע ב ר‬ ‫את ־הירדן הזה‬

Deut 3,27

There are relatively few OT passages that feature all four cardinal points, and those that do use different terms for them.18 Deut 3,27 features three of the four terms employed in Isa 43,5b–6a; we shall show that Second Isaiah brings Ps 103,12 and Deut 3,27 into dialogue there. 2.1.4 Group 4: Heteroglossia The author uses the language of these and similar passages from specific contexts and authors neither in forming specific parts of Isa 43,1–7 nor in being formed by poetic patterns there, but in or gaining authority from or being under the influence of these contexts and authors. This does not constitute allusion: Isa 43,6b//Deut 28,49a; Isa 5,2619 Isa 43,6b

‫הביא י בנ י מרחוק‬ ‫ובנות י מק צה הא רץ‬

‫ ישׂא יהו ה עליך ג וי מרחוק‬Deut 28,49a ‫מקצה הא רץ כא שׁר ידא ה הנ שׁר‬ ‫ונ שׂא ־נס לגו ים מרח וק‬ ‫ושׁרק לו מק צה הא רץ‬ ‫ו ה נ ה מ ה ר ה ק ל י בו א‬

Isa 5,26

18 Passages with all four cardinal points, as ‫ ים‬-‫ קד ים‬/‫ קדם‬-‫נ גב‬-‫צ פון‬: Gen 13,14; 28,14; Num 35,5; Ezek 47,13–23; 48,10.16.17.30–35; replacing ‫ק דים‬/‫ קד ם‬with ‫מזרח‬: Josh 13,1–15,12; 17,10; 18,1–19,51; 1 Kgs 7,25; Zech 14,4; Dan 11,40–45; 1 Chr 9,24; 2 Chr 4,4; replacing ‫ נגב‬with ‫ד רו ם‬: Ezek 41,12–14; 42,16–19; replacing both ‫ק ד ים‬/‫ ק דם‬with ‫ מזרח‬and ‫ נג ב‬with ‫ת ימן‬: Deut 3,27. The use of ‫ מע רב‬for “west” appears only in Isa 43,5b; Ps 75,7; 103,12; 107,3; 1 Chr 26,12–19; the latter two of these are likely composed after Isa 43,5b–6a. 19 Nurmela (Mouth of the Lord, 27–28) treats this allusion as first to Isa 5,26, which he claims is earlier than Deut 28,49. Even if Deut 28,49 is later, we must treat Isa 5,26 differently than we do Deut 28,49, since we maintain that the author’s use of intra-Isaianic language is for redactional-authorial cohesion and not literary allusion. Nevertheless, the effect is similar, which as Nurmela states, is a reversal of the Oracle of Judgment in Isa 5,26 and the curse in Deut 28,49.

154

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

Isa 43,3b.4a//Exod 21,30; Ps 49,8–9 Isa 43,3b

‫אמ־כפר יו שׁת ע ליו ונתן פדיון נ פשׁו נתתי כפרך‬

Exod 21,30 Ps 49,8

Isa 43,4a

‫אח לא ־פד ה א ישׁ לא ־יתן‬ ‫לא להים כפרו‬ ‫ויק ר פד יון נ פשׁם וחד ל לע ולם‬

‫יק רת בע יני‬

Ps 49,9

Isa 43,4a//1 Sam 16,21; 2 Kgs 1,13–14; Ps 72,14; 116,16 Isa 43,4a

‫יק רת בע יני‬

‫ יק רה נ פשׁי ב ע ינ יך‬1 Sam 16,21 ‫ בע ינ יך‬...‫ תיק ר־נ א נ פשׁי‬2 Kgs 1,13b ‫ ועת ה ת יק ר נ פשׁי בע ינ יך‬2 Kgs 1,14b ‫וייק ר דמם בע ינ יו‬

Ps 72,14a

‫יק ר בע ינ י יהו ה‬ ‫המות ה לח ס יד יו‬

Ps 116,15

We shall discuss the expressions “give ransom” (‫ )נתן כפר‬and “precious in my eyes” (‫ )יקר בעיני‬in §3.1.2 and §3.2.3, below. 2.1.5 Conclusions Having categorized the quotations, allusions, themes, and heteroglossia we find present in Isa 43,1–7, we can already see a certain pattern emerging. There being no significant quotations, parts of four psalms/hymns – Amos 4,13 and Pss 47, 66, and 103 – give form to the parts of Isa 43,1–7, while thematic passages from narratives – Exod 21,22–25/Lev 24,17–22; Num 31,23; Deut 3,27 – find their allusion in the final compositional form of each part. We shall now investigate the specific ways in the author uses the psalms/hymns to give form to the parts of the Salvation Oracle and the ways in which the final form of the alluding text brings these hymnic allusions into dialogue with the Pentateuchal passages. 2.2 Allusions in Composition Having listed what we consider many possible allusions within Isa 43,1–7, and having discerned, to some degree, their probability especially as regards dating, we now examine the most probable allusions and thematic allusions in their compositional-stylistic form. We shall proceed in compositional order through the Salvation Oracle, showing along the way how the author weaves together allusions and themes.

Chapter IV. Isa 43,1–7

155

2.2.1 Isa 43,1.7//Amos 4,12–13 In Isa 43,1, the author alludes to the Doxology in Amos 4,13, in the context of its immediately preceding v. 12.20 This allusion is to a passage that itself forms part of a series of utterances in the book of Amos (along with Amos 5,8–9; 9,5–6), and so it brings Isa 43,1 into direct comparison with the Address of Assurance in Isa 41,8–10, in which the allusion there to Josh 1,9 forms the summation of a longer series of similar utterances. Isa 43,1a Isa 43,1b

Isa 43,7a Isa 43,7b

‫ו עת ה כ ה ־ א מ ר י ה ו ה‬ ‫ב ראך יעק ב ו יצרך ישׂרא ל‬ ‫אל־ת ירא כי ג אלת יך‬ ‫ק ר את י ב שׁ מ ך ל י ־ את ה‬ ‫כל הנק רא ב שׁמי‬ ‫ולכב וד י ב ראת יו יצרת יו‬ ‫אף ־ע שׂית יו‬

‫לכן כה א ע שׂה־לך ישׂרא ל‬ ‫ע ק ב כ י ־ זא ת א ע שׂ ה ־ ל ך‬ ‫הכון לק ראת ־אלהיך ישׂרא ל‬ ‫כי הנ ה יוצר הרים וב רא רוח‬ ‫ומג יד לאדם מה־שׂחו‬ ‫ע שׂה שׁח ר ע יפה‬ ‫וד רך על־ב מת י א רץ‬ ‫יהו ה א להי־צבא ות שׁמו‬

Amos 4,12a Amos 4,12b Amos 4,12c Amos 4,13a Amos 4,13b Amos 4,13c Amos 4,13d Amos 4,13e

a) Identifying the Allusion The allusion to the words of the early prophet of Israel serves to frame the new Salvation Oracle in its inclusio in three ways: in the triad of creation words “to create” (‫)ברא‬, “to form” (‫)יצר‬, and “to make” (‫( )עשׂה‬especially in the participial form of at least the first two), in the address to “Jacob-Israel,” and in the importance of God’s “name” (‫)שׁם‬. One could claim that the creation triad refers directly to the narratives of creation in Gen 1,1–2,25, but their form and content suggest a direct comparison with participial Hymn in Amos 4,13. 21 While there seems to be an overall pattern to the use of the terms of the creation triad in the Priestly and Yahwist creation accounts, these words never appear in parallel there. On the other hand, the rather tight parallelistic pattern in which Second Isaiah inscribes this triad, its participial form, and its accompanying vocabulary, suggests the direct influence of the doxological Hymns of Amos throughout Isa 40–55. As a kind of

Watts (“An Old Hymn,” 10) also joins Amos 4,12c to v. 13, but his argument for the composite nature of vv. 12a.12b is not convincing, especially as ‫ע קב‬, in parallel to ‫ישׂרא ל‬, seems to be a play on the name of Jacob ( ‫)יעקב‬. In any case, Watts’ view only reaffirms our inclusion of v. 12 in the allusion in Isa 43,1.7 as an alluded context very similar to the alluding context, as we shall see in §3.2.1, below. 21 For instance, in Isa 45,18–19, where the triad ‫ב רא‬, ‫יצ ר‬, and ‫ ע שׂה‬appears with “void” (‫)תהו‬, just as in Gen 1,2. Weinfeld (“Genesis 1 and Deutero-Isaiah,” 105–132) argues that this represents Second Isaiah’s polemic against the Priestly creation narrative, but Isa 45,18– 19, if not alluding directly to Amos 4,13, rather underscores the Genesis narrative, in that God has brought creation from ‫ ת הו‬to order, shown in Isa 45,19b as “justice” ( ‫ )צדק‬and “what is upright” (‫)מע שׁרים‬. 20

156

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

cumulative argument, we can show this through a comparison of the other two uses of the creation triad, Isa 45,6b–7.18, with Amos 4,13: Isa 45,6b Isa 45,7a Isa 45,7b Isa 45,7c

I am the Lord and there is no other forming light and creating darkness making peace and creating evil I, the Lord, make all these

‫אנ י יהו ה וא ין עוד‬ ‫יו צר או ר ו בו רא ח שׁך‬ ‫ע שׂה שׁלום וב ו רא רע‬ ‫אנ י יהו ה ע שׂה כל־א לה‬

Isa 45,18a Isa 45,18b Isa 45,18c

For thus says the Lord who creates the heavens, he is God who forms the earth and makes it, he establishes it not a void does he create it, to be inhabited he forms it I am the Lord and there is no other

‫כי כה א מר־יהו ה‬ ‫בו רא ב שׁמים הוא א להים‬ ‫יצר הא רץ ו ע שׂה הוא כוננ ה‬

Isa 45,18d Isa 45,18e

‫לא ־ת הו ב רא ה לשׁבא יצרה‬ ‫אנ י יהו ה וא ין עוד‬

The utterances in Isa 45,6b–7.18 suggest a more direct thematic link with Amos 4,13, the uniqueness of God as creator as grounds for the prophetic message surrounding it. For Isa 43,1–7, the allusion to Amos 4,12.13 serves to introduce this same unique creator directly to Jacob-Israel as in Isa 43,1a//Amos 4,12, and more precisely, to bring forward the uniqueness of God’s “name” (‫שׁם‬, Isa 43,1b.7a//Amos 4,13e). b) Allusive Composition of Isa 43,1.7 The participial form of the creation triad, in which the third word, “to make” (‫)עשׂה‬, is somewhat separated from the first two, gives form to the allusion in Isa 43,1.7. In Amos 4,13a, the participles “who forms” ( ‫ )יוצר‬and “who creates” (‫ )ברא‬are in close parallel, each given a direct object representative of creation: “mountains” (‫)הרים‬, in creation’s stability, and “wind” (‫)רוח‬, in its movability. 22 The participle “who makes” (‫ )עשׂה‬appears separately in the next line, Amos 4,13c, with “dawn” (‫ )שׁ חר‬and “darkness” (‫ )עיפה‬its double accusative object. The word ‫ עשׂה‬appears twice as a yiqtol verb in Amos 4,12 as the emphatic conclusion to the preceding Oracle of Judgment; in each instance addressed directly to “Israel” and to a play on the name of Jacob, “consequently” (‫)עקב‬. This verse, which is not part of the hymn itself, nevertheless serves as its introduction, especially with the phrase in v. 12c, “Prepare to meet your God, Israel” (‫)הכון לקר את־אלהיך ישׂר אל‬. In the inclusio of Isa 43,1.7, we also see the word ‫ עשׂה‬as separate. In Isa 43,7b, where, despite the fact that all three verbs of the triad are formally identical, ‫ עשׂה‬is separated from the others with the emphatic particle ‫אף‬. Just On this insight into this pairing of opposites to represent totality, and for the corresponding need not to emend the text to render ‫ הרים‬as ‫“( הרעם‬thunder”), see S. PAUL, Amos, 154. 22

Chapter IV. Isa 43,1–7

157

as the God who forms mountains, creates wind, and makes the darkness into dawn threatens Israel in Amos 4,12, (“Thus shall I do to you, Israel” [ ‫כה אעשׂה־‬ ‫ ]לך‬and “For this shall I do to you” [‫]כי־זאת אעשׂה־לך‬, so in Isa 43,1.7, the God who creates Jacob and forms Israel saves those whom he has created, whom he has formed, whom he has made. c) Summary The theme of God’s creation appears throughout Second Isaiah, and while one can see perhaps a dialogue with the creation narratives in Genesis, the use of the creation triad ‫ברא‬- ‫יצר‬-‫ עשׂה‬in Isa 43,1.7 alludes to the identification of God as unique creator in the participial Hymns of Amos, an identification reinforced by reference to God’s name. The formal and thematic parallels to Amos 4,13 in Isa 45,6b–7.18 reinforce the identification of the allusion in Isa 43,1.7. The author brings some of the formal characteristics of the allusion into Isa 43,1.7, especially in the separation out of the triad of creation vocabulary the word “to make” from “to create” and “to form,” and the participial form of the latter two words. The final word of the doxology in Amos, “his name,” fills out the inclusio in Isa 43,1.7 as “your name” (‫ )בשׁמך‬and “my name” ( ‫)בשׁמי‬. We shall see the importance of the allusion to Amos 4,12–13 in Isa 43,1.7 especially as it frames allusions to the psalms and other texts that testify to the uniqueness of God’s name in salvation. 2.2.2 Isa 43,2//Ps 66,6.12 and Num 31,23 Isa 43,2a Isa 43,2b

Isa 43,2a Isa 43,2b

‫כי־תע ב ר במים את ך ־אנ י‬ ‫ובנ הרו ת לא ישׁט פוך‬ ‫כי־תלך במו ־א שׁ לא ת כו ה‬ ‫ולהב ה לא תב ע ר־ב ך‬

‫הפך ים ליב שׁה‬ Ps 66,6a ‫בנ הר יע ב רו ב רג ל‬ Ps 66,6b ‫שׁם נ שׂמח ה־בו‬ Ps 66,6c ‫הרכב ת אנ ו שׁ לרא שׁנ ו‬ Ps 66,12a ‫באנו ־ב א שׁ ו במים‬ Ps 66,12b ‫ כל־דב ר א שׁר יבא בא שׁ תע ב ירו בא שׁ כי־תע ב ר במים‬Num 31,23a ‫וט הר א ך במי נד ה יתח טא‬ ‫ וכל א שׁר לא ־יב א בא שׁ תע בירו במים כי־תלך במו ־א שׁ‬Num 31,23b

There is hardly a commentary on Isa 43,2 or Ps 66,6.12 that does not in some way mention the other text, so long and so frequently have scholars compared the imagery in these two verses. 23 Commentators on Ps 66 also take into consideration Num 31,23 as an example of the trial by fire and water that is typical of ANE culture. 24 Second Isaiah alludes to both utterances – Ps 66,6.12 through a split-interwoven pattern, and Num 31,23 in the final compositional 23 See, for instance, J. MUILENBURG, “Isaiah,” 481–482; J. VAN OORSCHOT, Von Babel zum Zion, 61; S. PAUL, Isaiah 40–66, 206; and our note on Anderson’s work on typology in ch. II, §2.2.3b, n. 94. 24 See M. TATE , Psalms 51–100, 150.

158

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

form of the passage. To what specific tradition – ordeal, Chaoskampf, or purification ritual – these passages refer, we shall examine in §3.2, below. a) Identifying the Allusions While the mention of “fire” and “water” in the context of earthly trials (broadly considered) brings Isa 43,2 and Ps 66,6.12 together for consideration, it is the peculiar use of the preposition ‫ ב‬throughout Isa 43,2 that suggests specific allusions. “Fire” ( ‫ )אשׁ‬and “water” (‫ )מים‬form a somewhat common and diverselyused word pair in the OT.25 Their being joined to some form of the preposition ‫ ב‬in this verse leads to our identifying specific allusions to Ps 66,6.12 and eventually to Num 31,23. The preposition ‫ ב‬occurs four times in four different configurations in Isa 43,2, and in ways that sometimes defy its normal usage with the verbs that it specifies. Starting with “When you cross through the water” (‫)כי־תעבר במים‬, we find that the prepositional phrase “through the water” (‫ )במים‬specifies the verb ‫ עבר‬either in the context of the purification by water and fire (Num 31,23), or in Ezekiel’s being made to wade in the stream flowing from the temple (Ezek 47,3–4), and in these, only in the Hiphil. 26 Second, the verb “to wash away” (‫ )שׁטף‬takes the preposition ‫ ב‬only in reference to rinsing objects for ritual purity. 27 It is not clear what the subject of this verb is, since the word before it, “rivers,” has taken the preposition in question (‫)בנהרות‬.28 Third, the author employs the rare “poetic” form of the preposition, ‫במו‬, before “fire.”29 While

25 In the prescription for cooking the Passover lamb (Exod 12,9); as a way of completely destroying the golden calf (Exod 32,20); as fire consuming water in Elijah’s contest with the prophets of Baal (1 Kgs 18,38) and as a metaphor for God’s wrath (Isa 64,1); and in merisms of destruction (Isa 30,14; Joel 1,20; Mic 1,4) and of creation (Ps 104,3.4; Prov 30,16). 26 In fact, the preposition ‫ ב‬specifies the verb ‫ ע ב ר‬in the Qal only when joined to a word denoting land, a land-based feature, or “by foot” (‫)ב רגל‬, some 63x in the OT. Among these instances are those that mention crossing a water feature only when it is, in fact, dry (the Jordan, specifically, in Josh 3,11.17; 4,7; 2 Kgs 2,8). The only seeming exceptions to this would be in 2 Sam 15,23 (the Kidron) and 2 Sam 19,19 (the Jordan). Otherwise, to describe crossing through a body of water, BH prefers the particle ‫א ת‬, some 41x. In the Hiphil, the verb ‫ עב ר‬with the preposition ‫ ב‬takes on a variety of meanings apart from its singular reference to purification by water in Num 31,23. In Deut 2,30; Ezek 14,15, we find references to passing through land; in 2 Sam 12,31, working in the brick kilns, and in Ezra 1,1; 10,7; 2 Chr 36,22, reference to a voice passing through the land. Seven other instances refer to the practice of immolating children in fire. 27 Lev 6,21; 15,11.12. 28 In fact, in its 30 instances, the verb ‫ שׁטף‬takes “river” ( ‫ )נ הר‬as its subject only once, in Cant 8,7a (a passage we have claimed possibily alludes to Isa 43,2 in §2,1.1, above). In Isa 43,2, the expression literally reads, “and in/with the rivers they will not sweep you away.” 29 Like many of Second Isaiah’s rare poetic forms, found elsewhere only in the psalms and Job: Isa 25,10 (Qere); 43,2; 44,16.19; Ps 11,2; Job 16,4.5; 19,16; 37,8.

159

Chapter IV. Isa 43,1–7

this does serve as a “ballast variant,” 30 its ‫מ‬-‫ ב‬pattern also matching ‫ במו־אשׁ‬to ‫ במים‬above, its rarity continues to draw attention to the unusual syntax of the poetic line. Fourth, the use of the preposition ‫ ב‬with the verb “to burn” ( ‫לא‬ ‫ )תבער־בך‬occurs elsewhere only in the context of the “fire of God’s anger” (most recently in Isa 42,25), which does not fit the context here.31 The four uses of the preposition ‫ ב‬in Isa 43,2 are each unusual in themselves and in their configuration together, suggesting, more than poetic balance, that this little consonant is a “house” for literary allusions. We can now see how the preposition ‫ ב‬leads us to the specific allusions to Ps 66,6.12. The allusion to Ps 66,6.12 is formed through a split-up and interwoven pattern, of which we have so far seen several instances.32 The following tables reveal this pattern: Table 18: Structure of Ps 66,6.12 v. 6abc v. 12abc

‫שׁם נ שׂמח ה־ב ו‬ ‫ו ת ו צ י אנ ו ל ר ו י ה‬

‫בנ הר יע ב רו ב רג ל‬ ‫באנו ־ב א שׁ ו במים‬

‫הפך ים ליב שׁה‬ ‫הרכב ת אנ ו שׁ לרא שׁנ ו‬

We see here firstly that the material in question from the psalm comes from the middle hemistych of each psalm verse, these two verses each composed of three verbal hemistychs. Next, we can lay the location of the material from these middle hemistychs above the poetic line in Isa 43,2: Table 19: Isa 43,2//Ps 66,6b.12b Ps 66,12b Isa 43,2ab

‫בא שׁ‬ . ..‫במו ־א שׁ‬

Ps 66,6b ‫בנ ה ר‬ ...‫ובנ הרו ת‬

Ps 66,12b ‫ו במ י ם‬ ... ‫במים‬

Ps 66,6b ‫יע ב רו‬ ‫כי־תע ב ר‬

We have abstracted the verse from Second Isaiah so as more clearly to reveal the allusive markers in their split and interwoven pattern. We notice that two elements from the middle hemistychs from the psalm verses are not carried over, “by foot” (‫ )בר גל‬and “we came” (‫)באנו‬, which are the two middle elements of these hemistychs if stitched together on their own. 33 The remaining four elements, split and interwoven, are also in reverse order. What the author does

See J. GOLDINGAY/D. PAYNE , Isaiah 40–55, I, 274. In the sense of “burning among,” as in Num 11,1.3 (‫ ;)א שׁ יהו ה‬Isa 30,33 (‫;)נ שׁמת יהו ה‬ Jer 44,6 (‫ ;)א פי‬Job 1,16 (‫ ;)א שׁ א להים‬and “burning within” as in Esth 1,12 (‫)ח מתו‬. 32 Isa 41,10a//Josh 1,9 (ch. III, §2.2.2); Isa 41,11–12//Ps 35,1.4–6 (ch. III, §2.2.4). 33 The use of ‫ עב ר‬with ‫ ב‬in Ps 66,6 fits the biblical usage we see in the note above, in that the “river” here, referring to the Red Sea, is dry, and in that with “foot” the preposition gives us a kind of dative of means (as in Num 20,19; Deut 2,28). On the “river” as referring to the sea, and not the Jordan, see M. TATE, Psalms 51–100, 149. 30 31

160

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

carry over are the ‫ב‬-prepositions from each of the words to which they are attached in the psalm. 34 Having seen Isa 43,2 in the abstract, now seeing its structure in full should reveal the ways in which the author is also alluding to Num 31,23, and indeed, making the psalm and the law speak with each other in the Salvation Oracle. b) Allusive Composition of Isa 43,2 In its split and interwoven pattern, the author uses Ps 66,6.12 to gives form to Isa 43,2, but he gives further rigor to the structure of this verse through a rigorous synonymous parallelism: Table 20: Structure of Isa 43,2 Isa 43,2a Isa 43,2b

‫לא ישׁט פוך‬ ‫לא תב ע ר־ב ך‬

‫ובנ הרו ת‬ ‫ול ה ב ה‬

‫את ך ־ אנ י‬ ‫תכו ה‬

‫במים‬ ‫ב מו ־ א שׁ‬

‫כי־תע ב ר‬ ‫כי־תלך‬

The author composes this verse as a self-contained poetic line in the repetition and parallelism of elements from one half of the line to the other, and in its overall inclusio. In terms of repetition, each line begins with a relative clause beginning with ‫ כי‬and a verb in the yiqtol, these followed by a prepositional phrase in ‫ב‬. Each line ends with a yiqtol verb negated with ‫לא‬. In terms of parallelism, the verb ‫ הלך‬is a less specific synonym for ‫ ;עבר‬the natural elements move from the general to the specific (water to river, fire to flame) and their actions from the least to the most destructive (scorch to burn, God’s presence to being swept away). In terms of inclusio, the poetic line opens and closes on a sound play, the verbs “to cross” and “to burn” containing the same consonants in different order ( ‫בער‬-‫)עבר‬, each followed by the preposition ‫ב‬. It is in this rigorous structure that we find another allusion, this one to Num 31,23. A look at the parallels between Isa 43,2 and Num 31,23 reveals their similarities, but also the points of contact between Ps 66,12b and Num 31,23: Table 21: Isa 43,2 and Ps 66,12b//Num 31,23 Num 31,23

‫כל דב ר א שׁר יבא ב א שׁ‬ ‫תעב ירו ב א שׁ‬ ‫כל א שׁר לא ־יב א ב א שׁ‬ ‫תעב ירו ב מים‬

‫באנו ־ב א שׁ ו במים‬

Ps 66,12b

‫כי־תע ב ר במים‬ ‫כי־תלך במו ־א שׁ‬

Isa 43,2a Isa 43,2b

Here we can already see the dialogue that the author is hosting in Isa 43,2 between Ps 66,12 and Num 31,23. It is as if Ps 66,12b itself is already alluding At seven consonants per sixty total (less than 1:8), there are not enough ‫ ב‬sounds in Isa 43,2 to claim alliteration; the same is true for Ps 66,6.12 together (9:70). However, there is a striking density of ‫ ב‬sounds in Ps 66,6b.12b, at 6:25, or ≈1:4. 34

161

Chapter IV. Isa 43,1–7

to Num 31,23, that the experience of war (Ps 66,12a) is the trial of purification in Num 31,23. Isa 43,2 brings the allusion of Ps 66,12 further through the allusion to Num 31,23, that the possibility of “coming” (‫ )בא‬through water and fire is made real in the “passing” ( ‫ )עבר‬through these elements. c) Summary Isa 43,2 contains a double allusion, one to Ps 66,6b.12b and another to Num 31,23. The author marks the allusion not only with the more common vocabulary of “water-fire” and “cross-river,” but specifically with the uncommon use of the preposition ‫ב‬. The allusion to Ps 66,6b.12b is in split-up and interwoven pattern, and once identified, reveals the reasons for the unusual use of the preposition ‫ב‬. The allusion to Num 31,23 results from the rigorous parallelistic structure of Isa 43,2 and the combination of words it gives. These two alluded passages, Ps 66,12b and Num 31,23, are themselves related as expressions of purification by trial. Second Isaiah would have us read each allusion in light of the other, and eventually these allusions in light of the whole of the oracle, to whose other parts we now pass. 2.2.3 Isa 43,3b–4b//Ps 47,4–5 and Exod 21,23b–25; Lev 24,18.20 The part of the Salvation Oracle in Isa 43,3b–4b is built upon a line-copying allusion to Ps 47,4 that, through the technique of word play, brings this psalm into dialogue with the Pentateuchal theme of the Law of Talion in Exod 21,22– 25; Lev 24,17–22. Isa 43,4a Isa 43,4b Isa 43,4b

‫ואנ י א הבת יך‬ ‫ואתן אדם תחת יך‬ ‫ולא מים תחת נ פשׁך‬

Isa 43,3b

‫נתתי כפרך מצרים‬ ‫כו שׁ וסב א ת חת יך‬

Isa 43,4b

‫ואתן אדם תחת יך‬ ‫ולא מים תחת נ פשׁך‬

Isa 43,3a

‫כי א ני יהו ה אלהיך‬

‫יד ב ר ע מים תחת ינו‬ ‫ולא מים תחת רגלינ ו‬ ‫את ג און יעקב א שׁר־א הב‬

Ps 47,4a Ps 47,4b Ps 47,5b

‫ ונתת ה נ פשׁ תחת נ פשׁ‬Exod 21,23b ‫ עין תחת ע ין שׁן תחת שׁן‬Exod 21,24 ‫יד תחת יד רג ל תחת רג ל‬ ‫ כו יה ת חת כו יה פצע תחת פצע‬Exod 21,25 ‫ח בו ר ה ת ח ת ח בו ר ה‬ ‫וא ישׁ כי יכה כי־נ פשׁ א דם מות ימות‬ ‫נ פ שׁ ת ח ת נ פ שׁ‬... ‫שׁב ר תחת שׁב ר ע ין ת חת עין שׁן ת חת‬ ‫ באד ם‬.. .‫שׁן‬

Lev 24,17 Lev 24,18 Lev 24,19

‫כי א ני יהו ה אלהיכם‬

Lev 24,22b

162

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

a) Identifying the Allusions The allusion to Ps 47,4 gives form to this part of the utterance, Isa 43,3b–4b, working backward from Isa 43,4b, the moment of the allusion proper. In this half-verse, the author transfers a significant amount of vocabulary in its form in the psalm, with three changes in vocabulary that alter the meaning of the unchanged words. First, we should see both verses in parallel: Table 22: Isa 43,4b//Ps 47,4 Isa 43,4b Ps 47,4

‫נפ שׁ ך‬ ‫רג לינו‬

‫ת חת‬ ‫ת חת‬

‫ולא מים‬ ‫ולא מים‬

‫ת חת י ך‬ ‫ת חת י נו‬

‫אד ם‬ ‫עמים‬

‫ו את ן‬ ‫יד ב ר‬

The structural parallel is clear enough, and yet one could argue that the psalmist borrows from Second Isaiah here. This would be an instance of line copying.35 On the other hand, a comparison of Ps 47,4a with Ps 18,48b should reveal the latter to be the more direct source for the Ps 47,4a:36 Table 23: Ps 47,4a//Ps 18,48b Ps 47,4a Ps 18,48b

He will place peoples beneath us He has placed peoples beneath me

‫ת חת י נו‬ ‫ת חת י‬

‫עמים‬ ‫עמים‬

‫יד ב ר‬ ‫ויד ב ר‬

It seems more probable that the author of Ps 47,4 builds directly upon Ps 18,48b. This would involve transferring the prerogatives of the individual king there to the people in Ps 47,4 through a simple change of prepositional suffix, rather than reversing the message of Isa 43,4b by restoring the vocabulary of Ps 18,48b – especially the hapax use of the Hiphil of the verb ‫ד בר‬ (which 2 Sam 22,48 renders as with the more common Hiphil participle of ‫ירד‬, ‫“[ מריד‬bringing down”]). 37 The shift from the wayyiqtol to the yiqtol also suggests that Ps 47,4 is still looking forward to this event, whereas in Isa 43,4b, the we+yiqtol form (in parallel to the qatal in Isa 43,3b) suggests that the desired event is now reaching its achievement. With Ps 47,4 expanding upon the expression from Ps 18,48b, Isa 43,4b sees the replacement of some words from Ps 47,4. In place of “He subdues” ( ‫)ידבר‬ we find “And I will give” (‫)ואתן‬, in place of “peoples” (‫)עמים‬, we find “man” (‫)אדם‬, and in place of “our feet” (‫)רגלינו‬, we find “your life” (‫)נפשׁיך‬. This change in vocabulary, coming from a thematic allusion to Exod 21,22–25; See ch. II, §2.2.2e. Zenger (“Der Gott Abrahams,” 426 n. 52) sees Ps 8,7b (“He has set all things under his feet” [‫ )]כל שׁת ה תחת ־רג ליו‬as the source for the language that follows in Ps 47,4b, and while this is very possible, it is less obvious than the use of Ps 18,48b in Ps 47,4a. Nevertheless, it suggests that Ps 47,4 alludes to other psalms, and not to Isa 43,4b. 37 Dahood (Psalms, I, 118) suggests that this use of ‫ דב ר‬is archaic. 35 36

Chapter IV. Isa 43,1–7

163

Lev 24,17–22, alters the meaning of ‫ תחת‬from “beneath” to “in place of,” a word play we can only fully understand once we examine Isa 43,3b–4b in its allusive composition. First, we shall examine the vocabulary from the thematic allusion to Exod 21,22–25; Lev 24,17–22. The triple repetition of the preposition “in place of” (‫ )תחת‬in Isa 43,3b.4b, along with the verb “to give” and the specific vocabulary of “man” (‫ )אד ם‬and “life” (‫)נפשׁ‬, suggests a thematic allusion to the Law of Talion in Exod 21,22– 25; Lev 24,17–22. The literary allusion to Ps 47,4 provides us with two instances of ‫תחת‬, and by adding a third, Second Isaiah alludes to the repetitive form of these two instances of the Law of Talion in the OT.38 In Exod 21,22– 25, this preposition occurs seven times, and in Lev 24,17–22, four times, each marking an equal exchange of damages. In fact, among the seven exchanges made in Exod 21,22–25 is the hapax term “burn/branding” (‫כויה‬, Exod 21,25), from the same root as the nearly hapax expression “you will not be burned” (‫ )תכוה‬found in Isa 43,2b, suggesting that the author is alerting us to the allusion through this legal heteroglossia (as he does with the term ‫כפר‬, as seen in §3.2.3). 39 The vocabulary found in Isa 43,3b.4b of “to give,” “man,” and “life” comes from this secondary thematic allusion, in a way that we shall see most clearly only when considering the formal composition of Isa 43,3b–4b as a unit.. b) Allusive Composition of Isa 43,3b–4b The author marks Isa 43,3b–4b as an allusive unit by the repetition of beginning- and end-line words, an anaphoric/epiphoric structure of alternating lines like that of Isa 41,11–12. 40 Isa 43,3b.4b each begin with the verb “to give” (‫)נתן‬ and end with an inflected or combined form of the preposition ‫תחת‬. The middle half-line, Isa 43,4a, is independent of this anaphora. The result is an a-b-a’ structure of vv. 3b.4a.4b, with the author forming the a-a’ half-lines from the allusion. The content of Isa 43,3b.4b also sets these lines in parallel, and it is in this parallel that the word play on the allusion takes shape. Both half-lines speak of foreign nations: in Isa 43,3b, “Egypt” ( ‫)מצר ים‬, “Kush” (‫)כושׁ‬, and “Seba” (‫;)סבא‬ in Isa 43,4b, “man” (‫ )אדם‬and “peoples” (‫)לאמים‬. In Isa 43,3b, God declares, “I have given as your ransom (‫ )כפרך‬Egypt.” This single word, “ransom/payment” ( ‫ )כפר‬determines that ‫תחתיך‬, in parallel in the same half-line, means “in place of you” and not “beneath you.”41 This expression, “to give ransom” (‫)נתן כפר‬, 38 In Deut 19,21, the author uses the preposition ‫ ב‬to mean “in place of.” In not alluding to that instance, perhaps Second Isaiah does not want to detract from the attention that he gives to this preposition in Isa 43,2. 39 The verb ‫ כ ו ה‬appears elsewhere only in Prov 6,28, also in the Niphal. 40 See ch. III, §2.2.4. 41 The words ‫ כ פר‬and ‫ תחת‬are in parallel also in Prov 21,18.

164

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

though limited in appearance, does not suggest an allusion to either of its two instances (Exod 21,30; Ps 49,8), but is an instance of legal heteroglossia 42 that determines the rest of what we hear, especially as the verb ‫ נתתי‬also takes ‫תחתיך‬ as its indirect object. 43 The nations, rather than being placed “beneath” JacobIsrael, are given “in place of” him. By the time we reach Isa 43,4b, we expect ‫ נתן‬with ‫ תחת‬to mean “to give in place of,” and this is further reinforced by the change in vocabulary we have already seen, a change in vocabulary suggestive of an allusion to the legal theme of the Law of Talion in Exod 21,22–25; Lev 24,17–22. These two instances of the Law of Talion either begin or end with the verb “to give” (‫)נתן‬, as in Exod 21,23b, “You shall give life in place of life” (‫)ו נתתה נפשׁ תחת נפשׁ‬, and Lev 17,20b, “Just as you place a mark upon a human so shall it be placed upon you” (‫)כאשׁר יתן מו ם באדם כן ינתן בו‬. Each of these phrases also provides us with the vocabulary with which Second Isaiah alters the allusion to Ps 47,4 in Isa 43,4b; “your life” (‫)נפשׁך‬, replacing “our feet” (‫)ר גלינו‬, begins each list of exchanges (Exod 21,23b; Lev 24,18b; Deut 19,21), while “man/human” (‫)אדם‬, replacing “peoples” (‫)עמים‬, specifies total equality of the exchange in Lev 24,17–22 among humans, in contradistinction to the exchange necessary for damage to an “animal” (‫)בהמה‬. In the two lists of exchanges, Exod 21,22– 25; Lev 24,17–22, the preposition ‫ תחת‬marks the equality of exchange. The shift in vocabulary from the allusion to Ps 47,4 in Isa 43,4b comes from Second Isaiah’s desire to have this allusion speak to another allusion, this one to the theme of the Law of Talion in Exod 21,22–25; Lev 24,17–22. c) Summary Just as in Isa 43,2, in Isa 43,3b–4b the author makes an allusion to a psalm speak with a Pentateuchal passage. Isa 43,4b is an allusion to Ps 47,4, and this allusion provides the formal foundation upon which the author can alter the vocabulary of the psalm through dialogue with the thematic allusion to the Law of Talion in Exod 21,22–25; Lev 24,17–22. The result is word play on the preposition ‫תחת‬, which while unchanged in form from the psalm to the Salvation Oracle, changes in meaning, from “beneath” to “in place of,” a word play. Just as Ps 47,4 builds upon the earlier Ps 18,48b, so Isa 43,3b–4b expands upon Ps 47,4. Just as Ps 47 reassigns God’s salvation from the individual king in Ps 18,48b to the people, so Isa 43,3b–4b, transforms the meaning of this popular salvation. See D. VIEWEGER/A. BÖCKLER, “Lösegeld,” 594–607 for a survey of the rabbinical tradition connecting Isa 43,3b.4b with Exod 21,30 and Ps 49,8. 43 The verb ‫ נתן‬with ‫ ת חת‬elsewhere can mean either to “set underneath” (Exod 26,33; 27,5; 1 Kgs 5,17; Ezek 32,27; 1 Chr 29,24 [in a figurative sense]) or to “give/set in place of” (Exod 21,23; Lev 24,20; 2 Sam 19,1; 1 Kgs 2,35; 5,19; 21,2.6; Isa 43,3.4; 61,3; Jer 29,26; Ezek 4,15; Job 28,15). 42

165

Chapter IV. Isa 43,1–7

We can provide here only a preliminary understanding of the meaning of this allusion, its transformation, and its dialogue with the thematic allusion to the Law of Talion. In §3.2.3 we shall be able to understand this allusion in light of the whole. 2.2.4 Isa 43,5b–6b//Ps 103,12–13 and Deut 3,27; 28,49 We have seen a pattern emerge in the allusions the author makes in Isa 43,1– 7, that of a psalm in dialogue with a Pentateuchal passage, a pattern that continues in Isa 43,5b–6b. Here, Ps 103,12a.13a speak with Deut 3,29; 28,49a to establish the geographical extension of God’s salvation. Isa 43,5b Isa 43,6b

‫ממזרח אב יא זרעך‬ ‫וממע רב אק ב צך‬ ‫הביא י בנ י מרחוק‬ ‫ובנות י מק צה הא רץ‬

‫כרחק מזרח ממע רב‬ ‫כרחם א ב ע ל־בנ ים‬

Ps 103,12a Ps 103,13a

‫ממזרח אב יא זרעך‬ ‫וממע רב אק ב צך‬ ‫אמר לצפון תנ י‬ ‫ולת ימן א ל־ת כלא י‬

‫עלה רא שׁ הפסג ה ו שׂא ע ינ יך‬ ‫ימה ו צפנ ה ות ימנ ה ו מזרח ה‬ ‫ורא ה בע ינ יך כי־לא תע ב ר‬ ‫את ־הירדן הזה‬

Deut 3,27

Isa 43,5b Isa 43,6a

Isa 43,6b

‫הביא י בנ י מרחוק‬ ‫ובנות י מק צה הא רץ‬

‫ ישׂא יהו ה עליך ג וי מרחוק‬Deut 28,49a ‫מקצה הא רץ כא שׁר ידא ה הנ שׁר‬ ‫ונ שׂא ־נס לגו ים מרח וק‬ Isa 5,26 ‫ושׁרק לו מק צה הא רץ‬ ‫ו ה נ ה מ ה ר ה ק ל י בו א‬

a) Identifying the Allusion Just as in Isa 43,2 and Isa 43,3b–4b, the prominence of particular prepositions proposes to us an allusion in Isa 43,5b–6b. If the allusion to Ps 66,6.12 and Num 31,23 in Isa 43,2 is marked by the use of the preposition ‫ ב‬and the allusion to Ps 47,4 and the Law of Talion in Isa 43,3b–4b by the preposition ‫תחת‬, in Isa 43,5b–6b the allusion to Ps 103,12–13 and Deut 3,27; 28,49 is marked by the alternation of the prepositions ‫ מן‬and ‫ל‬. The author first marks the allusion to Ps 103,12a in Isa 43,5b with the word pair “from the east-from the west” (‫ממער ב‬-‫)ממזרח‬. Ps 103,12a is the only passage in which this word pair appears that likely predates Isa 43,5b; 44 in fact, in other early texts, only in Ps 75,7 do we find the word ‫מערב‬, here meaning “west.” 45 In these other early texts, as in the other two instances of the word Cf. Isa 45,6; 59,19; Ps 107,3 (likely quoting Isa 43,5b, just as Ps 107,35 quotes Isa 41,18b); 1 Chr 7,28; 12,16; 26,16–18. 45 Where it is paired with ‫ממ וצ א‬, “from the rising.” As a fixed expression for “west,” see the later Dan 8,5; 2 Chr 32,30; 33,14 in addition to those passages mentioned above. 44

166

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

pair in Isa 40–66, its reference is always to the action of the sun; only in Ps 103,12a and Isa 43,5a does a the term ‫ מערב‬take on the geographically-fixed expression for “west.” The root of this term is the same as for ‫ערב‬, “evening,” though ‫ מזרח‬is already a fixed term for “east” by this time.46 In Ps 103,12a, though, while the geographical sense is there, the temporal sense remains; this is not the case in Isa 43,5b, where the actions of physical gathering, “I will bring” (‫ )אביא‬and “I will gather” (‫ )אקבציך‬restrict its meaning to the spatial sense. 47 This restriction from its polysemic meaning in Ps 103,12a to its limited meaning in Isa 43,5b suggests the direction of borrowing from psalm to prophet, especially in light of the author’s awareness of its polyvalence in Isa 45,6; 59,19. Further evidence for the allusion comes in Isa 43,6b, which brings out more content from Ps 103,13. Indeed, the notion of God’s fatherhood, not commonly expressed in the OT, is found in both neighboring verses. 48 Ps 103,12.13 are structurally identical, and so the message of God’s merciful fatherhood is built upon notions of the geographic reach of his power, just as in Isa 43,5b.6b. Here we see the psalm verses together: Ps 103,12 Ps 103,13

‫את ־פשׁע ינ ו‬ ‫על ־ י ר א י ו‬

‫ממנ ו‬ ‫יהו ה‬

‫הרח יק‬ ‫רח ם‬

‫ממע רב‬ ‫על־בנ ים‬

‫מזרח‬ ‫אב‬

‫כרחק‬ ‫כרחם‬

In the psalm, God’s “love” (‫ )רחם‬consists in “distancing” (‫“ )רחק‬sin” ( ‫)פשׁע‬ from his “children” (‫)בנים‬, and in Isa 43,5b.6b, his “love” (‫אהב‬, Isa 43,4a) consists in gathering his “sons… and daughters” (‫ ובנותי‬...‫“ )בני‬from afar” (‫)מר חוק‬. What’s more, the verbs “I will bring” (‫ )אביא‬in Isa 43,5b and “Bring” (‫)הביאי‬ are likely a sound play on “father” (‫ )אב‬in Ps 103,13. What remains is to see how this allusion gives compositional form to this part of the Salvation Oracle and how this form brings other biblical passages into dialogue. b) Allusive Composition of Isa 43,5b–6b The author again employs an interlaced pattern in the composition of Isa 43,5b–6b. While in Isa 43,5b–6b we do see the repetition of the verb “to bring” (‫)הביא‬, as well as an alliterative end-line rhyme scheme with ‫צ‬-‫ק‬-‫א‬, it is Contrast the expression in Ps 75,7 and 103,12 with ‫ ממזרח שׁמשׁ עד ־מב ואו‬in Ps 50,1; 113,3; Mal 1,11, and “the sun knows its setting” ( ‫ )שׁמשׁ ידע מבוא ו‬in Ps 104,19. 46 Appearing some 73x in the MT. 47 Unless, of course, we read this passage “eschatologically.” 48 Humans as “children” of God: Exod 4,22.23 (Israel, firstborn); Deut 14,1; 32,5.19.20; 2 Sam 7,14; Isa 1,2.4; 30,1.9; 43,6; 45,11; 63,8; Jer 3,14.22; 4,22; 31,9; Ezek 16,21; 21,15 (textually dubious); Hos 2,1; 11,1; 13,13; Ps 2,7; 73,15; 82,6. God as Israel’s “father”: Deut 32,6.18; Jer 3,4; Ps 89,27. In reference to angels: Gen 6,2.4; Ps 82,1; 89,6.8; Job 1,6; 2,1; 38,7; Dan 3,25. For more on this word, see H. HAAG, “ ‫בן‬,” 155–159.

Chapter IV. Isa 43,1–7

167

really the repeated use of word pairs beginning with ‫ מן‬that gives rigorous structure to this part of the oracle. We have seen that the word pair “from the east-from the west” comes from Ps 103,12a, and the author sets in parallel to this another unique pair of expressions, “from afar-from the end of the earth” (‫מקצה הארץ‬-‫)מרחוק‬. Each of these expressions on their own are common enough, but are found together only in Deut 28,49a and Isa 5,26. Nothing else in these two passages suggests an allusion to them in Isa 43,1–7 except their overall message, this oracle being perhaps a reversal of the threat of invading nations raised up against Israel in both. This word pair seem more likely, then, to be a case of prophetic heteroglossia, situating the Salvation Oracle as a response to the older Oracles of Judgment. Indeed, another prophetic word pair, “I shall bring-I shall gather” (‫אקבציך‬-‫)אביא‬, which further inscribes the rigorous structure of Isa 43,5b.6b, comes almost exclusively from Oracles of Salvation in the exilic prophets, describing the return from exile in particular. 49 It is into the rigorous structure of Isa 43,5b.6b that the author inserts Isa 43,6a, which gives us the other two cardinal points, such that between Isa 43,5b–6a we have a complete geographical merism. With the appearance of “to the north” (‫ )לצפון‬and “to the south” ( ‫)לתימן‬, we have what seems to be an allusion to Deut 3,27, the only place in which three of these terms (with ‫מזר ח‬ for “east”) appear together, and in a passage that has already featured in the allusion in Isa 41,9–10 (the Encouragement Formula to Joshua in Deut 3,28).50 The term for “west” in Deut 3,27, ‫ים‬, is replaced with ‫ מערב‬in Isa 43,5b, as discussed above. Indeed, the allusion to Ps 103,12a may also give the author the opportunity to have Jacob-Israel look beyond the “sea” (‫ )ים‬toward western lands to which he has been scattered. Reinforcing this allusion is the mutual context of “crossing” (‫ )עבר‬the water (Isa 43,2a; for Moses, the Jordan in Deut 3,27b). As an allusion to Deut 3,27, the compositional form of Isa 43,5b–6a gives us a kind of inversion of elements, such that the outside terms in Deut 3,27a, those for “west” and “east,” are inverted and placed together in Isa 43,5b, while the middle terms, those for “north” and “south,” remain together in Isa 43,6a. In this new composition, the author continues play off prepositions. Here, the preposition ‫ ל‬in Isa 43,6a replaces directive ‫ ־ה‬in Deut 3,27, just as the verb of speaking ‫ אמר‬in Isa 43,6a replaces those of seeing in Deut 3,27a, “lift your eyes” (‫ )שׂא עיניך‬and “see with your eyes” (‫)ראה בעיניך‬. The preposition ‫ ל‬is “sandwiched,” as it were, between the four-fold instance of the preposition ‫מן‬ 49 Jer 31,8; 49,15; Ezek 36,24; 37,21; 38,8; Joel 4,11; Zeph 3,20; Zech 10,10. Cf. 1 Sam 28,4; Jer 49,5; 2 Chr 23,2. 50 These words for “north-south” ( ‫ת ימן‬-‫ )צ פון‬appear together in Exod 26,35; Zech 6,6; Ps 107,3 (in a dubious textual reading); Cant 4,16, but never elsewhere as a pair with ‫מזרח‬ or ‫מע רב‬.

168

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

in Isa 43,5b.6b. This alters the impact of these cardinal points without removing us from the context of Deut 3,27. It seems that, just as in Isa 41,8–10, the very thing denied to Moses in his panoramic of the land is restored to JacobIsrael, and in ways that we shall see in greater detail in §3.2.4, below. c) Summary For the third time in Isa 43,1–7, the author uses an allusion to a psalm to build a compositional structure, a compositional structure in which the psalm is set in dialogue with a Pentateuchal passage. Ps 103,12–13 gives form to Isa 43,5b– 6b, a form in which the psalm speaks with Deut 3,27. Just as on the other two occasions, the particular use of prepositions, as joined to specific vocabulary, marks the psalmic allusion; here, it is the repetitive use of the preposition ‫מן‬, especially as found joined to the unique word ‫מערב‬. We shall speak about the meaning of this dialogue in §3.2.4 below. 2.3 Allusive Units of Isa 43,1–7 in composition Our identification of literary allusion in the various verses of Isa 43,1–7 has begun to reveal already its overall compositional form. We have seen how each allusion has shaped the composition of discrete parts or units of the Salvation Oracle, and now we shall see how these compositional units and their allusions come together to form a whole utterance in three parts inside an inclusio.51 Before that, we must must examine the words and expressions that have not so far pertained to our identification of literary allusion. 2.3.1 Formulas as Compositional Devices Before we can gain a sense of the compositional whole of Isa 43,1–7, we must discuss the material that we have not identified as pertaining directly to a literary allusion or the composition of allusive units. This material seems to come rather specifically from Second Isaiah’s original message and resolves into his preferred formulas. In three places, Isa 43,1b.3a.5a, the Fear-Not Formula and/or Formula of Divine Presentation divide the allusive units from each other. Twice do we hear the Fear-Not Formula joined directly to explicative ‫כי‬, in Isa 43,1b.5a. Each instance requires some explanation: In Isa 43,1b, we hear, “Fear not, for I have redeemed you” (‫)אל־תיר א כי גאלתיך‬. The author gives as the reason for the Fear-Not Formula here a word that is thematic across Isa 40–55, that of God as “redeemer.” In Isa 43,1b, this is formulated as “for I have redeemed you” (‫)כי גאלתיך‬. The author expands this

Melugin (The Formation of Isaiah 40–55, 104–106) is perhaps first to see the tripartite structure of Isa 43,1–7 as vv. 1–3a.3b–4b.5a–7, based on perceived differences in imagery in each part. We, of course, have shown that imagery to result directly from literary allusion. 51

Chapter IV. Isa 43,1–7

169

reasoning with the expression, “I have called you by your name, mine are you” (‫)קראתי בשׁמך לי־אתה‬, an expression whose content, especially the theme of a “name,” comes out of the genres of the alluded psalms in Isa 43,1–7 (as we shall see in §3.1.1, below). This half-line, Isa 43,1b, completes the allusive unit of Isa 43,1//Amos 4,12–13 and sets it apart from Isa 43,2//Ps 66,6.12. The Formula of Divine Presentation in Isa 43,3a separates the allusive units Isa 43,2//Ps 66,6.12 from Isa 43,3b–4b//Ps 47,4–5. Here, the expression “For I am the Lord your God” (‫)כי אני יהוה אלהיך‬, is familiar to us from its appearance in Isa 41,13a (appearing again in Isa 48,17; 51,15). To this Formula of Divine Presentation the author joins another familiar expression, the title of God as the “Holy One of Israel” (‫)קדושׁ ישׂראל‬, which we have seen in Isa 41,14b (and will see again in Isa 43,14; 47,4; 48,17; 49,7; 54,5). The author appends to this title the notion of God as “your savior” (‫ )מושׁ יעיך‬which, in this form and context, has Jer 30,10 as a possible source, and in a way that suggests more royal heteroglossia coming out of the psalms, as we shall see in §3.1.2, below. In fact, the next formulaic expression, in Isa 43,5a, seems also to come directly from Jer 30,10–11. In Isa 43,5a, we hear, “Fear not, for I am with you” (‫)אל־תיר א כי אתך־אני‬. This latter expression repeates almost verbatim from Isa 41,10a; 52 in this exact form, it comes from Jer 30,11.53 In its simplicity, it neatly separates the allusive units Isa 43,3b–4b//Ps 47,4–5 from Isa 43,5b– 6b//Ps 103,12–13. Each of these Fear-Not Formulas and/or Formulas of Divine Presentation separates one allusive unit from another. The Fear-Not Formula in Isa 43,1b distinguishes the allusive unit Isa 43,1//Amos 4,12–13 from Isa 43,2// Ps 66,6.12. The Formula of Divine Presentation with Title in Isa 43,3a separates Isa 43,2//Ps 66,6.12 from Isa 43,3b–4b//Ps 47,4. The Fear-Not Formula in Isa 43,5a sets apart the allusive unit Isa 43,3b–4b//Ps 47,4–5 from Isa 43,5b–6b//Ps 103,12–13. Each of these Fear-Not Formulas is joined to a Formula of Divine Presentation that begins with ‫( כי‬Isa 43,1b.5a) or the Formula of Divine Presentation appears on its own (Isa 43,3a). This would seem to support the argument for the influence of Neo-Assyrian oracles on the Salvation Oracles, which we do not study here.54 The only exception to allusive units being clearly separated by formulas occurs in Isa 43,7a. Here, the allusive units Isa 43,5b–6b//Ps 103,12–13 and Isa 43,7b//Amos 4,12–13 are separated by content repeated from within the Salvation Oracle, a Summary Restatement. The expression in Isa 43,7b, “Each called by my name and for my glory” (‫ )כל־הנקר א בשׁמי ולכבודי‬is a Summary 52 With the exception of the use of ‫ ע ם‬for “with” in Isa 41,10a, a usage we have shown to derive from the allusion to Josh 1,9 in §2.3.1 of ch. III. 53 Which, like for Isa 41,8–10, does not suggest, pace Paul (“Echoes of Jeremiah,” 406) a direct literary allusion, but rather the use of Jer 30,10–11 as prophetic heteroglossia. 54 See especially our summary of Dijkstra’s work in ch. I, §1.3.3.

170

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

Restatement of earlier material: “calling by name” from Isa 43,1b and “glory” from Isa 43,4a. The expression in Isa 43,7a specifies those being called from the four corners of the earth in Isa 43,5b–6b by linking vocabulary from earlier parts of the oracle. Having identified fixed formulas and their composition into formulaic expressions, and the ways in which they separate one allusive unit from another, we can now provide an overall picture of the composition form of Isa 43,1–7. Aiding us in this will be an examination of verbal form. 2.3.2 Overall Composition of Isa 43,1–7 We have seen in §2.2 above how each allusive unit is cohesive in itself, its compositional form rigorously shaped by the repetiton of vocabulary and prepositions. We have just seen, in §2.3.1, how formulaic expressions further separate one allusive unit from another. Further distinguishing these allusive units is the verbal form governing each of them. Altogether, there emerges an overall shape or pattern to the composition of Isa 43,1–7 as a Salvation Oracle. First, we should graphically summarize our findings on the allusive units and their formal composition, as follows: Table 24: Allusive-Formal Composition of Isa 43,1–7 v. 1a

v. 1b v. 2

v. 3a vv. 3b–4b

v. 5a

Allusion or Formulaic Expression Amos 4,12–13;

Stylistic Pattern Split and interweaving of “Jacob-Israel” with participles “create-form” Fear-Not Formula with Reasoning

Ps 66,6.12 and Num 31,23

Split and interweaving; play on preposition ‫ב‬

Formula of Divine Presentation + Title Ps 47,4 and Law of Talion

Structure of alluded verse built into interlaced anaphoric construction of preposition ‫ת חת‬

Fear-Not Formula + Formula of Divine Presentation

vv. 5b–6b

Ps 103,12–13 and Deut 3,27

Inverted quotation of word pair; play on prepositions ‫ מן‬and ‫ל‬.

v. 7

Summary Restatement and Inclusio; Amos 4,12–13

Separation of verb ‫ ע שׂה‬from ‫ב רא‬ and ‫ יצר‬maintained

171

Chapter IV. Isa 43,1–7

The overall pattern becomes clear: allusive units take compositional form from the psalm, but which when transformed, place those psalms in dialogue with a Pentateuchal text; these allusive units are separated one from another by formulaic expressions. The whole is bracketed in an allusion to Amos 4,12–13, itself combined with a formula (Isa 43,1b) and a Summary Restatement (Isa 43,7a). We should now examine the overall verbal pattern of the compositional whole: Table 25: Overall Composition of Isa 43,1–7 v. 1a v. 1b

Allusion or Formulaic Expression Amos 4,12–13 Fear-Not Formula + Reason

Verbal Form Qatal, participle Imperative, qatal

v. 2ab

Ps 66,6.12 and Num 31,23

Yiqtol

v. 3a

Formula of Divine Presentation + Title

Nominal, participle

vv. 3b–4b

Ps 47,4 and Law of Talion

Qatal, weqataltí

v. 5a

Fear-Not Formula + Formula of Divine Presentation

Imperative, nominal

vv. 5b–6b

Ps 103,12–13 and Deut 3,27

Yiqtol, participle, imperative (in indirect discourse)

v. 7a v. 7b

Summary Restatement as inclusio Amos 4,12–13

Nominal Qatal

We find an overall pattern in the alternation of qatal-yiqtol forms, just as in Isa 41,8–16.17–20. 55 The qatal forms occupy the ends (Isa 43,1a.7b) and center (Isa 43,3b–4b), while the yiqtol forms occupy the first and third psalmic allusions (Isa 43,2.5b–6b). Between the alternating qatal-yiqtol forms are nominal (Isa 43,3a.5a.7a) and imperative (Isa 43,1b.5a) forms. We shall investigate the value of these verbal forms for the genre of the Salvation Oracle in §3.4, below. Isa 43,1–7 as a Salvation Oracle has already revealed itself simpler in compositional form than Isa 41,8–16.17–20. When we consider allusive units, with their own compositional and verbal forms, we find in Isa 43,1–7 three units, each bookended with formulaic expressions, the whole held together in the

55

See ch. III, §2.3.2.

172

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

inclusio of vv. 1.7. 56 We shall now turn to the allusions themselves, how they speak with each other within the individual allusive unit, among themselves in the compositional whole if Isa 43,1–7, and the meaning that such dialogue brings to the genre of the Salvation Oracle.

3. Approaching Architectonic Form and Interpretation Now that we have identified the allusions the author makes in Isa 43,1–7 and the compositional form that those allusions give to each part of the utterance and to the whole, we can listen more closely for the voices speaking through those allusions. This means understanding way in which genre shapes those voices in their original utterances and in the new, alluding context, toward an appreciation for the form of the genre of the Salvation Oracle in Isa 43,1–7. To this end, we need first to understand the allusions in their own genre and compositional form, which we shall do by first comparing the identified allusions in §3.1, then by hearing each allusion on its own in §3.2. This leads finally to a view of the overall form of Isa 43,1–7 with the architectonic elements of a Salvation Oracle in §3.3 and its chronotope in §3.4. 3.1 Genre-Typical Vocabulary and Royal Heteroglossia In as much as the alluded utterances in Isa 43,1–7 each bring their own specific voices to the dialogue in the Salvation Oracle, these texts – especially the three alluded psalms – share a great deal of generic or typical vocabulary with each other and with Isa 43,1–7. A brief examination of these words should orient us in our examination of the allusive units in their generic setting and in the structure of their utterance. First, we shall compare the vocabulary of Amos 4,13 and Psalms 47, 66, and 103. Then, we shall try to understand some of the other words in Isa 43,1–7 that have not yet had to do with the identification of specific allusions. 3.1.1 The Vocabulary of the Psalms of Praise Psalms 47, 66, and 103 are broadly categorized as Psalms or Hymns of Praise, especially in their use of participles to describe God; 57 this same use of The typographical representation of the BHS comes very close to showing this. Scholars point to participial constructions in these psalms as characteristic of the Hymn. Thus, Ps 47 is a Hymn and an Enthronment Psalm (P. CRAIGIE, Psalms 1–50, 347, noting the difficulties of determining what an “Enthronment Psalm” is); Ps 66 is a “mixture of hymnic [vv. 7.9] and thanksgiving elements” (M. TATE , Psalms 51–100, 147); Ps 103 is an “individual thanksgiving with hymnic elements” (L. ALLEN, Psalms 101–150, 19–21), whose “hymnic participles” in vv. 1–5 Hossfeld (Psalms 3, 31) sees as evidence of a Hymn. 56 57

173

Chapter IV. Isa 43,1–7

participles leads scholars to call Amos 4,13 a Hymn, a Doxology, or both. 58 The following table shows the common vocabulary of these Hymns: Table 26: Genre-typical Words in the Hymns of Praise Amos 4,13 Words Pertaining to God: ‫אל ה י ם‬

v. 13e

‫יהו ה‬

v. 13e

Ps 47

Ps 66

v. 2b.6a.8a 9a.9b.10b 10c v. 3a.6b

v. 1b.3a.5a 8a.10a.19a 20a

‫גב ר‬ ‫חסד‬

v. 7a v. 20b

‫כבוד‬ ‫כסא‬ ‫מל ך‬ ‫משׁל‬ ‫נו רא‬ ‫על י ל ה‬ ‫ע שׂה‬ ‫צב א‬ ‫קדשׁ‬ ‫שׁם‬

Ps 103

v. 3a

v. 1a.2a.6a 8a.19a.20a 21a.22a.22c v. 11b.20b v. 4b.8b.11b 17a

v. 2a.2b v. 9b v. 3b.7b.8a 9a v. 3a v. 13c

v. 1a.3a

Cf. v. 4a.7a v. 19a v. 19b

v. 7a v. 3a.5a v. 5b v. 3a.16c

v. 13e v. 9b v. 13e

Isa 43,1–7

v. 2a.4a

v. 19b.22b v. 7a v. 6a.10a.18b 20b.21b.22a v. 21a v. 1b v. 1b

v. 7b

v. 3a v. 1b.7a

Words Pertaining to Man: ‫) בן ( א ד ם‬ ‫אנ ו שׁ‬ ‫)כל( הא רץ‬ ‫ב רך‬ ‫גוי ם‬ ‫זמר‬ (‫ירא י )ײַ‬ ‫עמים‬/ ‫עם‬

v. 13b v. 13d

v. 3b.8a.10c

v. 9a v. 7a (2x). 7b (2x).8a v. 2a.4a.10a 10b

v. 5b v. 12a v. 1b.4a v. 8a.20a

v. 4b v. 15a v. 11a v. 1a.2a.20a 21a.22a.22c

v. 6b

v. 7b v. 2a.4a.4b v. 16a v. 8a

v. 11b.13b.17b

Among others labeling it a Hymn: J.D.W. WATTS, “An Old Hymn,” 33–39; J.L. MAYS, Amos, 83–84; F. ANDERSON/D.N. F REEDMAN, Amos, 45–457. Paul (Amos, 152–153), on the other hand, follows Horst (“Die Doxologien im Amosbuch,” 155–166) and Guthe (“Der Prophet Amos,” 30–47) in calling it a Doxology. Jeremias (Amos, 76–79) brings both terms together, from which we surmise that he means that its form is a Hymn and its function a Doxology underscoring judgment, as explained in §3.2.1, below. 58

174

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

We can see that there is very little of this generic vocabulary, words that speak of the general themes of the Psalms of Praise – especially God’s kingship – that appears in Isa 43,1–7. The exceptions to this are the words that Second Isaiah very deliberately marks as thematic to Isa 43,1–7 as a whole: the “name” (‫שׁם‬, Isa 43,1b.7a [and the specific mention of God’s name in Isa 43,1a.3a]), “glory” (‫כבד‬, Isa 43,4a.7a), each word appearing twice and forming part of the concluding Summary Restatement in Isa 43,7. The mention of God’s holiness (‫ )קדשׁ‬and the verb “to do” (‫ )עשׂה‬are frequent both to these specific psalms and Isa 40–55. Otherwise, the vocabulary that these psalms do share among themselves, and which do not feature in Isa 43,1–7, focus on the genre-typical themes of praise (like ‫ברך‬, ‫זמר‬, ‫)רוע‬, God’s power (‫גבר‬, ‫חסד‬, ‫נורא‬, ‫עלילה‬, ‫)צבא‬, and more particularly to these psalms, his kingship over the earth (‫כל הארץ‬, ‫גו ים‬, ‫כסא‬, ‫מלך‬, ‫משׁל‬, ‫עם‬, ‫)רגל‬. Words in themselves do not have meaning outside of their utterance, and so we shall explore these shared words as the psalmist uses them to shape voice of God as king, and what his kingship then means for these psalms as alluded texts in Isa 43,1–7. 3.1.2 Other Royal Words in Isa 43,1–7: ‫גאל‬, ‫מושׁיע‬, ‫יקר בעין‬ We find three words that, on their own, have varied meaning throughout the OT, but when brought together in Isa 43,1–7 speak directly about God as king: “I have redeemed you” (‫)גאלתיך‬, “Your savior” (‫)מושׁיעך‬, and “You are precious in my eyes” (‫)יקר ת בעיני‬. One could bring a dictionary-style understanding of these words to bear on our understanding of this utterance, as heteroglossia or otherwise, but only the utterance as a whole, and the emerging presentation of a divine king, helps us best to understand their use together. In Isa 43,3a, we hear for the first time in Isa 40–66 the description of God as “your savior” (‫)מושׁ יעך‬, in apposition or predicated upon the divine epithet of God as the “Holy One of Israel.” This word is applied to various kinds of persons in the OT,59 but in Isa 34–35; 40–66 and the psalms, it refers almost exclusively to God.60 In Isa 43,3a, it is in loose parallel to the word that Second Isaiah has already established for God, “your redeemer” (‫גאלך‬, Isa 41,14b), now found in verbal form in Isa 43,1b. 61 Indeed, in these three instances, the participial forms are connected with a Formula of Divine Presentation 59 As descriptive of man in general, always negated: Deut 22,27; 28,29.31; Judg 12,3. As a judge of Israel, always in the positive: Judg 3,9.15; Obad 21; Neh 9,27. 60 In fact, God is identified as “savior” only in the prophets and psalms: Isa 19,20; 43,3; 45,15; 49,26; 60,16; 63,8; Jer 14,8; Ps 7,11; 17,7; 106,21. On their being “none/no other”: Isa 43,11; 45,21; 47,5; Hos 13,4; Ps 18,42//2 Sam 22,42. We discuss the one exception to this, 2 Sam 22,3, immediately below. 61 The author brings together these two terms in Isa 49,26; 60,16, ‫מו שׁיע ך וגא לך‬, as a “compound expression” (S. PAUL, Isaiah 40–66, 206–207).

175

Chapter IV. Isa 43,1–7

(Isa 41,14b; 43,3a), the verbal form to the Fear-Not Formula (Isa 43,1b). The author is developing the words he uses to identify God; even the supposed “legal” heteroglossia he is uttering (‫ )גאל‬is now transferred to the voice of God in a broader context, one we shall now see is of God as king. 62 We see this process of the royal identification of God more clearly when we hear from the voice of the earthly king himself speaking about God. In 2 Sam 22,3 we find one of the minor differences between 2 Sam 22,2–31 and Ps 18. By comparison, we can see the addition: 2 Sam 22,2–4a//Ps 18,3–4a 2 Sam 22,2b 2 Sam 22,3a 2 Sam 22,3b 2 Sam 22,3c 2 Sam 22,4a

‫יהו ה ס לע י ו מצדת י ומפלט י־לי‬ ‫אלהי צו רי אח ס ה־בו‬ ‫מגנ י וק רן ישׁעי משׂגבי‬ ‫ו מנ ו ס י מ שׁ ע י מח מס ת שׁ ע נ י‬ .. .‫מהלל אק רא יהו ה‬

‫יהו ה ס לע י ו מצודת י ומפלט י‬ ‫אלי צו רי אחס ה־בו‬ ‫מגנ י וק רן ־ישׁע י משׂג ב י‬

Ps 18,3a Ps 18,3b Ps 18,3c

.. .‫מהלל אק רא יהו ה‬

Ps 18,4a

Both utterances are voiced explicitly by David (see 2 Sam 22,1a; Ps 18,1a), but the author of 2 Sam 22,3c seems to add to the king’s opening description of God, “And my refuge, my savior, from violence you save me” ( ‫ומנוסי משׁ עי‬ ‫)מחמס תשׁעני‬.63 This understanding of being saved from violence comes perhaps from the description of the ideal king in Ps 72,14a, wherein we find in the place of ‫ מושׁיע‬the very same word, ‫גאל‬, that Isa 43,1b places in parallel to Isa 43,3a to describe God: Ps 72,14a Ps 72,14b

From oppression and violence he redeems their soul And precious is their blood in his eyes

‫מתוך ו מח מס יג אל נ פשׁם‬ ‫וייק ר דמם בע ינ יו‬

There is an interchange between ‫ גאל‬and ‫ מושׁ יע‬that represents, more than legal synonymy, the synonymous descriptions of an ideal king as voiced by a king. Further establishing in Isa 43,1–7 the voice of God as king is the expression in v. 4a, “you are precious in my eyes” ( ‫)יקרת בעיני‬. As seen just above, this expression occurs in the description of the ideal king in Ps 72,14b, describing his concern for the “afflicted and needy” ( ‫אביון‬, vv. 12–14), the very ones to Pace Sawyer in “What was a mošiaʻ,” 475–486, where he gives it strictly “forensic” value even in Isa 40–66, and the same in “ ‫ישׁע‬,” 457, where he seems to see ‫ מו שׁיע‬as an extension of the legal term ‫ג אל‬. Indeed, in the OT instances cited above, and in contrast to “redeemer” ( ‫)גא ל‬, the term “savior” (‫ )מישׁיע‬never seems to indicate per se a juridical category. What’s more, we shall see that the author brings the terms “redeemer” ( ‫ )גא ל‬and “king” (‫ )מלך‬together in a parallelistic description of God in Isa 44,6. 63 However uncertain is the relative dating of these two texts (cf. P. CRAIGIE , Psalms 1– 50, 171–172), there does seem to be some kind of influence from Ps 72,14a upon 2 Sam 22,3c. 62

176

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

whom God begins to extend his salvation in Isa 41,17–20.64 The expression “precious in one’s eyes” is only spoken by or to a king, or by or about God: 1 Sam 26,21 (Saul to David); 2 Kgs 1,13.14 (the messengers of Ahaziah to Elijah); Ps 116,16 (psalmist about God). With the expression “You are precious in my eyes,” seen especially in contrast to the nations mentioned in Isa 43,3b, we hear God speaking more and more as a king. 3.1.3 Conclusions In our brief glance at the language shared by the prophetic and psalmic Hymns of Praise to God (Amos 4,13; Pss 47, 66, 103), we see emerging several ideas important for the identity of the divine voice speaking in Isa 43,1–7. Most explicit is the idea of his “name” (‫שׁם‬, Amos 4,13e; Ps 66,2a.4a; 103,1b) and his “glory” ( ‫כבוד‬, Ps 66,2ab), each term appearing once in the body Isa 43,1–7 (vv. 1b.4a) and again in the Summary Restatement in Isa 43,7a of the entire oracle. Shared in an implicit way among the allusions in Isa 43,1–7 is the understanding of God as king (‫מלך‬, Ps 47,3b.7b.8a.9a; 103,19b), or who reigns (‫משׁל‬, Ps 66,7a; 103,19b.22b). Further establishing the divine voice as a royal voice are the non-allusive, heteroglossial words in Isa 43,1–7 that describe God’s attitude toward JacobIsrael, as “redeemer” (Isa 43,1b), “savior” (Isa 43,3a), for whom Jacob-Israel is “precious in [his] eyes” (Isa 43,4a). Now that we have established, on genrecritical terms, the voice of God as king, we shall now be able to understand the nuance that each specific allusion gives to the voice of the divine king in the Salvation Oracle of Isa 43,1–7. 3.2 Transformation of Genre Having briefly laid out the elements of genre in the alluded Hymns of Praise, we can now hear the voices as elements of this genre speaking in the allusive units of Isa 43,1–7, namely vv. 1.7 as its compositional frame and vv. 2.3b– 4b.5b–6b as its allusive units separated by the formulaic sections vv. 3a.5a. 3.2.1 The Voice of God the Unique Creator in Isa 43,1.7//Amos 4,12–13 In our identification of the allusion to Amos 4,12.13 in Isa 43,1.7, we have already begun to discuss what this allusion might serve, to bring forward the voice of God as the unique creator of the world, known by “name” to Jacob-

64 In fact, the rare mention of “Seba” (‫ )ס בא‬in Ps 72,10b might point the borrowing of this expression in Isa 43,4a specifically from there, but there are no formal markers showing us this. Cf. instances in Gen 10,7; 1 Chr 1,9. In Isaiah, we hear of Seba elsewhere in Isa 45,14, again together with Egypt and Kush, suggesting a reading of Isa 43,1–7 there (see ch. VI, §2.2.1).

Chapter IV. Isa 43,1–7

177

Israel. 65 In Isa 43,1.7, the author reassigns God’s act of creation from “mountains,” “wind,” and “dawn-darkness” (Amos 4,13a.c) to Jacob-Israel himself. Likewise, God’s name as creator, the revelation of which is the climax of each Hymn in the book of Amos (4,13; 5,8–9; 9,5–6), is now shared with JacobIsrael. A brief look at the three doxologies in the book of Amos should help us better understand the theme of God’s “name” and its connection with his unique role as creator. a) The Hymns in the Book of Amos There are three utterances in the book of Amos, traditionally labeled Hymn or Doxology, whose purpose seems to be to provide the grounds for prophetic judgments that they accompany. In their respective literary contexts, Amos 4,13; 5,8–9; and 9,5–6 punctuate punitive messages, an Oracle of Judgment (Amos 4,4–13), a Funerary Dirge (5,1–17), and a Vision Report (9,1–6)66 using the theophanic imagery of the earliest hymns that express God’s power over creation (e.g., Exod 15,1b–21; Ps 68). 67 The prophet Amos reappropriates established forms to drive home the message of doom. 68 Amos 4,13 follows directly upon the identification of Jacob-Israel in that Oracle of Judgment, and Second Isaiah, in alluding to it, likewise turns its message around, back to salvation. b) The Voice of the Creator God in Isa 43,1.7 Hearing the allusion to Amos 4,13 in Isa 43,1 would seem, at first, to extend the Disputation of Isa 42,18–25, until, of course, we hear the Fear-Not Formula in Isa 43,1b. We find in Isa 43,1a a participial Hymn coming directly from the prophet Amos, but whereas the participles in Amos 4,13 describe God’s creation of the earth and its elements, they now focus specifically on the creation of Israel. Second Isaiah, in Isa 45,7.18, will return to these participial Hymns their appropriate cosmogonic imagery, but for now the focus is on Jacob-Israel, here not to be punished, and indeed to share the name of the terrible Creator. The theme of God’s “name” (‫)שׁם‬, occupying the beginning and end of the Salvation Oracle (Isa 43,1b.7a), becomes its central theme, especially as this theme pertains specifically to Amos 4,13 (as well as Amos 5,8; 9,6) and at least See §2.2.1, above. As per S. PAUL , Amos, 137–156.157–181.273–281. 67 See J.L. MAYS , Amos, 83–84. 68 Jeremias, not persuaded that these doxologies simply close collections of oracles (cf. H. GUTHE, “Der Prophet Amos,” 30–47; K. KOCH, “Hymnischen Abschnitte,” 504–537) writes about the use of the doxological-hymnic form in an Oracle of Judgment: “Thus must these hymnic statements be cautiously understood on two levels, that is, their original statements within the tradition must be distinguished from their new understanding in the doxology of judgment within the book of Amos itself” (Amos, 77). 65 66

178

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

generically to the Psalms of Praise to which the author alludes within the oracle (see Ps 66,2.4; 103,1). First, in Isa 43,1b, God speaks of the name of JacobIsrael (‫)בשׁ מך‬, which name is, nevertheless, then bound directly to God’s possession, “Mine are you” ( ‫)לי־אתה‬. Then, in Isa 43,7a, God speaks of “each called by my name” (‫)כל הנקרא בשׁמי‬. The name of God, ‫יהו ה‬, itself appears in Isa 43,1a.3a. Just as God assigns his own creative activity now specifically to Jacob-Israel, so too does he share with him his name. Just as the Fear-Not Formula in Isa 43,1b changes our expectations for the oracle to come, from Disputation to Salvation, so too does the change in verbal form of the creation triad in Isa 43,7b reserve judgment for idolators. The participial form of the creation triad in Amos 4,13 brings the power of creation to bear on the present, as if the same terrible power with which God makes “mountains,” “wind,” “darkness,” and “dawn” God will now inflict on JacobIsrael (Amos 4,12) in punishment. In Isa 43,7b, the author uses these verbs in the qatal, suggesting that the salvation described in the interim verses Isa 43,2– 6 is itself an act of creation, now completed – punctuated especially by the final word in the series, “yes, I have done it” (‫)אף־עשׂיתיו‬. 69 c) Summary The God whose name is associated with terrible acts of creation in the participial Hymn of Amos 4,13, a Hymn completing an Oracle of Judgment against Israel in Amos 4,4–13, is the same God who in Isa 43,1.7 creates, shapes, and makes Jacob-Israel through the act of salvation to be described in Isa 43,2–6. In this act of creative salvation, God now shares his name with Jacob-Israel, a name that God uses to mark all those whom he has redeemed (Isa 43,1b) for his glory (Isa 43,7a). We shall now turn to the allusive units within Isa 43,2–6 to understand the nature of this redemption and this glory. 3.2.2 The Voice of God, the Warrior King in Isa 43,2//Ps 66,6.12 and Num 31,23 In §2.2.2 above, we have shown Isa 43,2 to be an allusive unit, a compositional unity in which the author makes two allusions, to Ps 66,6.12 and Num 31,23. We shall now look more deeply into each of these alluded texts, in their compositional form, genre, and possible historical setting, to understand their place

Reisel (“Creative Function,” 65–79) shows that the three words for creation in Isa 43,7; 45,7 signify an order to God’s action, whereby ‫ ב רא‬marks an “epoch-making issue,” ‫ יצר‬a “continuing creative achievement,” and ‫ ע שׂה‬the “resulting character.” We could understand this as an act of separation from, formation into, and completion as. Ramis Darder (“Perdó i reconciliació,” 145–173) likewise sees ‫ ב רא‬as portraying Israel as a “new creation,” the other two terms as signifying ongoing liberation from idolatry. 69

Chapter IV. Isa 43,1–7

179

in the Salvation Oracle and to hear more clearly the voice speaking through them. a) Passing through Water and Fire Scholars tend to speak of three possible meanings for the language of passing through water and fire in Isa 43,2; Ps 66,6.12 and Num 31,23. These verses can represent the primordial Chaoskampf, a river ordeal, or a ritual purification. Given the linguistic and formal parallels between Isa 41,18 and 43,2, one could be tempted to read in the latter the same thematic allusions to watery Chaoskampf that we ourselves have found in the former, but Isa 43,2 speaks of human movement, not divine creativity.70 Johnston has disproven the notion that the river ordeal, common in ANE literature, is represented in the psalms, including Ps 66. 71 This leaves the notion of purification by the elements of water and fire, which we shall now show through the specific literary allusion to Ps 66,6.12 and Num 31,23 composing Isa 43,2. The author of Isa 43,2 speaks of ritual purification by water and fire. Both of the alluded texts speak of this process, as scholars have shown, quite literally in Num 31,23 and figuratively in Ps 66,12. 72 We shall begin with an analysis of Ps 66, as this seems to be the utterance standing between Isa 43,2 and Num 31,23, or mediating the dialogue, as it were. b) The Voice of God the Warrior-Savior in Ps 66 Ps 66 is a hymnic Psalm of Praise, making use of much of the language typical of this genre, as seen in §3.1.1 above, and like in other praise psalms, the 70 This temptation comes through the reading of “rivers” ( ‫ )נח רות‬as “of course” referring to “chaotic primeval forces in cultic poetry” (as in T. LUDWIG, “Establishing the Earth,” 348), without due regard for the actors in the utterance in which this word is found. Similarly, Hardmeier (“Jes 42,14–44,23,” 173) claims, without explanation, that Isa 43,2 speaks of protection from the “waters of chaos” (Chaoswassern), in relation to Isa 42,15; 43,16. Furthermore, Brandscheidt (“Die Frohbotschaft von Gott,” 142) claims that the particular use of the article in ‫ ב מים‬after ‫ כי־ת עב ר‬indicates the Chaoskampfvorstellung, but again without explanation. He does connect the mention of “going through fire” in Isa 43,2b with what he calls the Kriegsbrand in Isa 42,25, but suggests that the terms in each passage have a different orientation (Ibid., 132 n. 4). 71 See P. J OHNSTON , “Ordeals in the Psalms?,” 271–281. Here he takes particular aim at the rather forced interpretation by McCarter (“River Ordeal,” 403–412). 72 Levine (Numbers 21–36, 458) connects the imagery of Ps 66,10–12 with Num 31,23 as that of ritual purification by water and fire. Budd (Numbers, 331) cites Snaith (Leviticus and Numbers, 327) in not finding another ritual for purification by fire in the Israelite tradition. Wright (“Purification in Numbers 31,” 222 n. 24) shows other mentions of ritual purification by fire (Isa 6,6–7; 43,2; Jer 6,29; Ezek 22,20–21; 24,11–12; Mal 3,2.19; Ps 66,12.16) to be only “literary figures”; this further suggests a close relationship of Ps 66,6.12 to Num 31,23.

180

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

psalmist recalls, however obliquely, acts of God’s power over creation and history. The two moments in Ps 66 that recall these acts of divine intervention are precisely those alluded to in Isa 43,2: Ps 66,6.12. Here, we shall see these verses within the overall structure of the psalm. There is little agreement on the overall structure of this psalm, though we shall find that by focusing on the Object of Discourse, we come close to the structure proposed by Hossfeld: 73 Table 27: Ps 66 in Composition Content Summons vv. 1b–4 to Praise

Speaker Psalmist

Reason for Praise

vv. 5–7

Reason for Praise

vv. 8–12

Psalmist in “We-group”

Vow of Praise

vv. 13–15

Psalmist alone

Account of vv. 16–20 Being Heard

Addressee Friend (“Earth/Nations”)

Object of Discourse God, in his “glorious name” God, acting in history “our God,” choosing Israel

(God)

Psalmist, his sacrifice

Friend (“those who fear God”)

God and Psalmist, their relationship

In this rather cursory look at the structure, we see already a distinction in the Speaker and the Object of Discourse between the individual and communal identity before God, especially marked in vv. 8–12. Here, the psalmist speaks of “our God” (‫אלהינו‬, v. 8a), whereas in the other four parts of the psalm, the psalmist speaks only of God (‫אלהים‬, vv. 1b.3a.5a.16a.19a.20a) or “Lord/my Lord” (‫אדני‬, v. 18b). The psalmist hints at this moment of communal identity before God already in v. 6: “There let us rejoice in him” ( ‫)שׁם נשׂמחה־בו‬.74 Thus, both v. 6 and v. 12 speak uniquely to a “we-group.” We mention this because only in vv. 6c.12b does the first-person plural, the “we-group,” become the subject of a phrase, and in both cases, in a tricolon in which the first-person plural seems out of place, set in parallel in each case to 73 Hossfeld (Psalms 2, 144) brings the Selah into consideration with form- and contentcritical indications, to arrive at the following: Ps 66,1b–4.5–7.8–12.13–15.16–20. On the other hand, Auffret (“Voyez les œuvres de Dieu,” 431–444) divides the psalm into three sections: Ps 66,1–6.7–12.13–20. Tate (Psalms 51–100, 144–153) divides into two sections: Ps 66,1–12.13–20. 74 Hossfeld (Psalms 2, 145) sees this movement toward the first-person plural in v. 6 as a “liturgical remembering” that brings continuity through time and space.

Chapter IV. Isa 43,1–7

181

a pair of verbs in the third person (v. 6ab) or second person (v. 12ac). Each of these moments of communal identity marks precisely the mention of God’s power over creation and history, the very moments alluded to in Isa 43,2, where God seems to be addressing a whole nation as a single man, “Jacob-Israel,” the very shift to the singular that the psalmist makes in Ps 66,13–15.16–20. In Ps 66,6.12, the psalmist calls for the praise of God in response both to the miracle at the Red Sea and in relief after war. In Ps 66,6, we hear: Ps 66,6a Ps 66,6b Ps 66,6c

He turned the sea into dry land They crossed through the river by foot There let us rejoice in him

‫הפך ים ליב שׁה‬ ‫בנ הר יע ב רו ב רג ל‬ ‫שׁם נ שׂמחו ־בו‬

On the face of things, this is a reference to the parting of the Red Sea (Exod 14,10–31), though some see a reference in v. 6a to the divine Chaoskampf. 75 Since the allusion is to v. 6b, this reading does not apply, and indeed in interweaving the allusion to this verse with v. 12b, where military language dominates, the author of Isa 43,2 eliminates the Chaoskampf interpretation. The mention of fire and water recalls elements that are prominent at the miracle at the Red Sea, but in Ps 66,10–12, the military language, however much it could refer to the chariots of pharaoh, seems to admit of a military defeat whose effects God reverses: Ps 66,10a Ps 66,10b Ps 66,11a Ps 66,11b Ps 66,12a Ps 66,12b Ps 66,12c

For you have tried us, O God you have refined us as silver is refined You have brought us into the net you have set a burden upon our loins You have made man ride over our heads We came through fire and through water But you have brought us out into plenty

‫כי־בח נתנו א להים‬ ‫צרפתנו כצרף ־כסף‬ ‫הבאתנ ו במצוד ה‬ ‫שׂ מת מו ע ק ה ב מת נ י נ ו‬ ‫הרכב ת אנ ו שׁ לרא שׁנ ו‬ ‫באנו ־ב א שׁ ו במים‬ ‫ו ת ו צ י אנ ו ל ר ו י ה‬

Indeed, the psalmist expresses the experience of military defeat in Ps 66,11– 12a with the image of the purification of silver in v. 10. This fusion of war and the purification of metal is found elsewhere in Num 31,23, and so the psalmist here invites a glance at that passage. c) Num 31,23 in Context Num 31,23 is part of an intervention (Num 31,21–24) by the priest Eleazar as an expansion upon the law in Num 19,1–22 regarding ritual purification after war:

75

ing.

Hossfeld (Psalms 2, 145) summarizes these arguments and settles on a polyvalent read-

182 Num 31,21

Num 31,22 Num 31,23

Num 31,24

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form The priest Eleazar spoke to the men of the ‫ויאמר א לע זר הכהן א ל־אנ שׁי הצבא‬ army coming to the battle: “This is the norm ‫הבא ים למלח מה זאת חקת הת ו רה‬ of the law that the Lord has commanded Mo:‫אשׁר־צו ה יהו ה את ־משׁה‬ ses: Only the gold, the silver, the bronze, the ‫אך את ־הזהב ואת ־הכס ף את ־הנח שׁת‬ iron, the tin, and the lead, :‫את ־הב רזל את ־הבד יל ו את ־הע פרת‬ everything that can come through the fire ‫כל־דב ר א שׁר יבא בא שׁ תע ב ירו בא שׁ‬ you shall pass through the fire and it will be ‫וט הר א ך במי נד ה יתח טא וכל א שׁר‬ cleansed, provided that with the waters of :‫לא ־יבא בא שׁ תע ב ירו במים‬ purification it be purified; all that cannot come through the fire you shall pass through the water. You shall wash your clothes on the seventh ‫וכבסתם בג ד יכם ב יום השׁב יע י‬ day and you will be cleansed; then you shall :‫וט הרתם ואח ר תב או א ל־המחנ ה‬ come to the camp.”

This intervention is a literary invention to treat items not covered in Num 19,1– 22, particularly metals in contact with a corpse.76 It is precisely the image of the people as precious metals, established through allusion to Ps 66,12, that draws the connection here. d) Israel as the Purified Spoils of War It seems fitting that Second Isaiah, in pronouncing God’s salvation from exile, would allude to a psalm that itself refers to the exodus from Egypt. The reference to God’s activity in the exodus becomes more explicit in the near literary context of Isa 43,1–7, especially in Isa 42,10–17 and 43,14–21. 77 Psalmic references to the exodus abound, but Ps 66,5–7.8–12, in two distinct moments, itself inteprets the exodus experience, and perhaps later military defeats as well, as one of ritual purification. By recasting this allusion to speak with Num 31,21–24, the author of Isa 43,2 can identify Jacob-Israel, “tried like silver” (Ps 66,10) as the very spoils of war. As in Isa 41,11–12, the author frames his literary allusions so as to make clear that Jacob-Israel can claim no military victory for himself; the victory is God’s. This is already stated plainly in Ps 66,8–12, and by alluding further to Num 31,21–24, Second Isaiah can identify Jacob-Israel as the spoils of war redeemed by God (Isa 43,1b), whose experience in exile has been for his purification. In the complete message, God offers more than ritual purification. Whatever pain such ritual purification causes can no longer hurt Jacob-Israel: “In the rivers they will not sweep you away” (‫ונהרות לא ישׁטפוך‬, Isa 43,2a) and “The flame will not burn among you” (‫ולהבה לא תבער־בך‬, Isa 43,2b). Jacob-Israel has See D. WRIGHT , “Purification in Numbers 31,” 213–223. Each of which make explicit allusion to the Song of the Sea (Exod 15), as we shall see in ch. V, §2.2.4. 76 77

183

Chapter IV. Isa 43,1–7

entered into a more definitive moment, a “But now” (‫ועתה‬, Isa 43,1a) of God’s immediate and continual presence marked twice by “Whenever” (‫ )כי‬with yiqtol verbs. The author uses the specific historical moment of the exodus and of ritual purification of the spoils of war to show Jacob-Israel as those very spoils, now, in God’s presence, unable to be ruined. While there is little language in Ps 66 describing God as king (except for “who reigns” [‫ ]משׁל‬in v. 7a), it is a king of claims and divides the spoils of war. In the allusive units that follow (Isa 43,3b–4b//Ps 47,4 and Isa 43,5b– 6b//Ps 103,12–13), we shall see more explicitly the description of God’s salvific activity as one of a divine king. 3.2.3 The Voice of God as Loving King in Isa 43,3b–4b//Ps 47,4–5 and Exod 21,22–25; Lev 24,17–22 We have just seen that, through the allusions to Ps 66,6.12 and Num 31,23, God is speaking to Jacob-Israel as the purified spoils of war and now we shall see, through allusion to Ps 47,4 and the tradition of the Law of Talion, how it is that God acquires such spoils of war. We shall first examine Ps 47 in its genre, form, and structure, to see how its message as a whole is brought into Isa 43,3b–4b. Then, we shall see how Second Isaiah has this message speak with Exod 21,22–25; Lev 24,17–22 to make precise the new message of salvation. a) The Enthronment of God as King in Ps 47 What Ps 47 exhibits in brevity it makes up for in length of scholarly treatment, especially on the theme of God’s universal kingship. We shall show how the psalmic vision of God’s kingship bears upon Isa 43,3b–4b and the Salvation Oracle as a whole. We should first analyze the structure of the psalm: 78 Table 28: Ps 47 in Composition Content Summons to v. 2 Praise

Speaker Psalmist

Addressee Friend (“all peoples”)

Object of Discourse God

Reason for Praise

vv. 3–6

God as king over all the earth, in relation to Jacob

Summons to Praise

v. 7

God “our king”

Reason for Praise

vv. 8–10

God as king of all the earth, in relation to Abraham

78

Modified from Craigie (Psalms 1–50, 347).

184

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

We notice, in the rigorous bipartite structure of the psalm (Summons + Reason), a movement toward the universal reign of God as king. Considering each subpart in parallel, in the first Summons to Praise (v. 2), the psalmist speaks of God in general (‫)הר יעו לאלהים‬, and in the second (v. 7), as “God… our king” (‫ מלכנו‬...‫)אלהים‬. In the first Reason (vv. 3–6), the psalmist speaks of God as “great king over all the earth” (‫מלך גדול על־כל־הארץ‬, v. 3b), who subdues peoples under “us,” the “pride of Jacob” (‫גאון יעקב‬, v. 5b) in particular, while in the second Reason (vv. 8–10) the psalmist speaks of God as “king of all the earth” (‫מלך כל־הארץ‬, v. 8a), around whom the “princes of the peoples gather, the people of the God of Abraham” (‫נדיבי עמים נאספו עם אלהי אברהם‬, v. 10) – who, nevertheless, “reigns over the pagans” (‫ על־גוים‬...‫מלך‬, v. 9a). The univeral reign of God in Ps 47 remains ordered toward those who know him. This movement toward the universal recognition of God’s kingship is marked with the shift from mention of Jacob to that of Abraham, 79 and the limitation of the preposition ‫ על‬from specifying the whole earth to only those who do not recognize God as their king, while those who do recognize him gather around him. Second Isaiah alludes to a verse from the first part of this psalm, in which we see that the eventual recognition of God as king of the earth comes first through evidence of his kingship of Israel. The imagery of God’s placing peoples under Israel’s feet in Ps 47,4 comes out of ANE imagery of the victor placing his foot on the neck of the conquered (an image perhaps further alluded to in the replacement of “our feet” [‫ ]רגלינו‬with “your life-your throat” [‫]נפשׁ ך‬ in Isa 43,4b). 80 The psalmist further emphasizes this point in Ps 47,5, in which he speaks of the “election” of the tribes (‫ )בחר‬and God’s “love” (‫ )אהב‬for Jacob, terms that Second Isaiah integrates with mention of Abraham in Isa 41,8. Just as the election of Jacob comes through Abraham’s love for God in Isa 41,8, so in Isa 43,3b–4b we find that God’s love for Jacob in both Ps 47,5 and Isa 43,4a comes in anticipation of and for the purpose of the recognition by all peoples of God as king. To this end, God must first subjugate the nations. In Isa 43,3b–4b, the nations – specifically Egypt, Kush, and Seba – are given as “ransom” (‫ )כפר‬for Jacob-Israel, and so we find ourselves in the same moment as in the psalm. God must first act upon the nations in restoring JacobIsrael before he can gather his children (Isa 43,5b–6b) from among these same nations. We have no mention yet of Cyrus or Persia and that empire’s

79 Gosse (“Abraham à l’époque postexilique,” 163–186; “Abraham dans les Ps 105 et 47,” 83–91) shows the connection between the mention of Abraham in Ps 47,10 and the patriarch’s status among kings in Gen 14,18–20 (the blessing by Melchizedech), in the context of Abraham’s wars against those kings in Gen 14,1–17 and the judgment upon other nations in Gen 19. Beuken (“Psalm 47,” 49) writes, “Jacob comes forth where the antagonism between Israel and the nations is at play, Abraham where the nations gather as the people of God.” 80 See L. PERDUE, “Psalm 47,” 94.

Chapter IV. Isa 43,1–7

185

conquering of northeast Africa, 81 and so, at least for the time being, we must recognize the role that the Nile nations play in Isa 43,3b, in highlighting the the value of Jacob-Israel (“Among whom you are precious in my eyes” [ ‫מאשׁר‬ ‫יקרת בעינע‬, v. 4a]), especially in turning those same nations toward God. 82 b) The Law of Talion in Exod 21,22–25 and Lev 24,17–22 Just like the allusion to Num 31,23 in Isa 43,2, the allusion to Exod 21,22–25 and Lev 24,17–22 in Isa 43,3b–4b serves as a dialogue partner with Ps 47 that continues to refract God’s authorial intention through utterances that further illuminate his message. The plain sense of the Law of Talion in both texts, as well as in Deut 19,21, is clear, even if, in practice, such retribution never takes place in a literal exchange. In fact, some argue that such a literal exchange could be executed only by the god and his representative, the king.83 Scholars speculate about whether the talionic exchange is to be taken literally or metaphorically, 84 and yet Isa 43,3b–4b begins with a word that denotes monetary compensation, ‫כ ֶֹפר‬. This term, coming out of civil law (in contrast to the use of ‫ ִכֶּפּר‬in the cultic setting), denotes the price paid in exchange for a lost human life. 85 Indeed, soon after the instance of the Law of Talion in Exod 21,22–25, we find in Exod 21,30 the possibility of monetary compensation for such damages. In Isa 43,3b, ‫ כפר‬is set in parallel to ‫תחתיך‬, and as such it makes the expression “I give as your ransom” (‫נתתי כפרך‬, v. 3b) synonymous with “I have redeemed you” (‫גאלתיך‬, v. 1b) as well as “your savior” (‫מושׁ יעך‬, v. 3a). It is unclear in Isa 43,3b to whom God would pay such a debt, to justice in general or to Israel in particular as both the injured party and owner. 86 Second Isaiah here could be engaging in the same kind of figurative use of this term as the psalmist in Ps 49,8–9. As illustrated in Table 29, below, we see a kind of dialogue, likely not directly allusive, between Exod 21,30 and Ps 49,8–9 in Isa 43,3b–4a. That is, the prophet reads the legal heteroglossia in Exod 21,30 through the figurative, wisdom-style language of Ps 49,8–9. Hearing this language in figurative terms As will come in Isa 45,14. Brandscheidt (“Die Frohbotschaft von Gott,” 143) summarizes this campaign briefly. 82 This insight comes from S.L. S TASSEN, “Jesaja 43,3 en 45,14,” 160–180. 83 See J. MILGROM, Leviticus 23–27, III, 2124. 84 See W.H.C. PROPP, Exodus 19–40, 228–230. 85 See B. JANOWSKI , Sühne als Heilsgeschehen, 153–174. More archaic English offers a single word, “wergild,” to encapsulate this idea. 86 Janowski’s claim (Sühne als Heilsgeschehen, 170), that in Isa 43,3b it is not the one who causes damage who pays the blood money, but that rather God as the injured party pays it on behalf of the guilty, Israel, does not answer this question, nor does he explain why God is the injured party and of what Israel is guilty. 81

186

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

helps us to understand that God is not concerned with an even exchange between himself and Israel, but in a rather uneven exchange: as “king” (Ps 47,3b.7b.8a.9a), he is in the sole position of ransoming a man’s life (Exod 21,30), this man being Jacob-Israel captive among the nations (Isa 43,3b–4b). That these nations are themselves portrayed as “man” (‫אדם‬, Isa 43,4b) shows a certain equality between Israel and the nations, as the exchange in the Law of Talion requires. Israel is “precious in [God’s] eyes among (‫( ”)מאשׁר‬Isa 43,4a) the nations, and God’s saving ransom of Jacob-Israel from its captivity will eventually serve as witness to God’s universal kingship, as we shall see in the literary context of this Salvation Oracle, Isa 42,18–25; 43,8– 13. Table 29: Isa 43,3b.4a//Exod 21,30; Ps 49,8–9 Isa 43,3b

Isa 43,4a

‫נת ת י כ פ ר ך‬

‫יק רת בע יני‬

‫אמ־כפר יו שׁת ע ליו ונתן‬ ‫פד יו ן נ פשׁו‬

Exod 21,30

‫אח לא ־פד ה א ישׁ לא ־יתן לא להים‬ ‫כפרו‬ ‫ויק ר פד יון נ פשׁם וחד ל לע ולם‬

Ps 49,8 Ps 49,9

Indeed, this inequality between God and Jacob-Israel in paying out the ransom serves to identify not only Jacob-Israel, but also all those who would witness this act of salvation, as kinds of “second-class citizens” within the world. We see this in the class of person about whom both the Law of Talion and of “ransom” speak. In its context (Exod 21,28–32), the law of “ransom” (‫ )כפר‬covers men and women (v. 28), children (v. 31), and slaves (v. 32). In its literary proximity and in the treatment of second-class citizens, we see the word ‫ כפר‬as part of the same legal stratum dictating the Law of Talion. The Law of Talion in Exod 21,22–25 and Lev 24,17–22 occurs in cases that govern the rights of second-class citizens. In Exod 21,22–25, the case is of a pregnant woman’s loss of child in a fight between two men. In Lev 24,17–22, the general norm points toward equal treatment of the foreigner. 87 The exchange, be it “life for life” or of “blood money,” is made not between higher and lower classes, but among “second-class citizens.” Israel looks to God to provide the exchange it cannot afford (Ps 49,8–9), and in so doing, extends God’s kingdom to all the earth (Ps 47,8). 87 Milgrom (Leviticus 23–27, III, 2121.2127) shows that the case of Lev 24,17–22 involves foreigners in the use of ‫ א דם‬for “man” and in the plural form of the second-person possessive suffix in the Divine Self-Presentation of v. 22, “I am your God” ( ‫)אנ י יהו ה א להיכם‬, as opposed to “thy God” ( ‫)א להיך‬, as appears in Isa 43,3a. The idea of this law protecting second-class citizens extends to within Israel itself. Trevaskis (“Leviticus 24,” 295–312) argues that the inclusion of Lev 24,10–23 within Lev 23–25 is precisely to extend the law to those living outside the circuit of the sanctuary as “sojourners” (‫)ג ר‬.

Chapter IV. Isa 43,1–7

187

c) The Loving King of All the Earth The allusion to Ps 47,4 in Isa 43,3b–4b asserts God’s kingship over all lands, including those foreign lands in which Jacob-Israel finds himself. The exchange alluded to in the Law of Talion (Exod 21,22–25; Lev 24,-17–22) is among “second-class citizens,” and so while Jacob-Israel cannot afford its own “ransom” (Ps 49,8–9), God the king, in his “love” (Isa 43,4a//Ps 47,5b) for him provides it. In so doing, God makes equals of Israel with the nations and extends his royal dominion over them. What shall become of those nations under God’s rule we shall only be able to see in the broader literary context of Isa 43,1–7. 3.2.4 The Voice of God as Forgiving King, and of Moses, in Isa 43,5b–6b// Ps 103,12–13 and Deut 3,27 In the allusive unit Isa 43,5b–6b//Ps 103,12–13; Deut 3,27, we shall now listen for the voices speaking from the alluded texts into the Salvation Oracle. First, we shall seek to understand Ps 103 in its genre, structure, and message, then the ways in which the voices of Deut 3,27 speak with those of the psalm. This brings us near the conclusion of Isa 43,1–7, and so we shall also see how this part of the oracle builds upon the previous two parts, Isa 43,2.3b–4b. a) The Voice of the Forgiving King in Ps 103 There is, of course, much debate as to the overall strophic structure of Ps 103, and we shall slightly emend one of the more successful proposals if only to further one of its more important claims about this psalm, namely the movement from the singular “I” of the psalmist to the corporate “we.”88 (The ovreall structure follows in Table 30, using verse numbers from the BHS.) In the physical center of the psalm (vv. 11–14 of 22), if not indeed the structural center,89 do we find the verses to which Isa 43,5b–6b alludes, Ps 103,12– 13. This section speaks both of the nature of God’s forgiveness and the identity of the corporate “we”:

88 See J. FOKKELMAN, “Psalm 103,” 109–118. He bases his division of the psalm into eight strophes based on the inclusio and anaphoric characteristics of the lines. We join v. 14 to vv. 11–13, which forms an inclusio on the particle ‫ כי‬in vv. 11a.14a; the resulting strophe speaks about God’s forgiveness in terms of the divine nature. We then join vv. 15–16 to vv. 17–19, which forms an inclusio on the words “man” (‫ )אנ ו שׁ‬and “Lord” (‫ )יהו ה‬in vv. 15a.19b; this strophe highlights the differences between God and man. 89 As it would be in Willis’ (“Psalm 103,” 525–537) five-part structure, which differs from ours only in joining vv. 1–2 to vv. 3–5 and vv. 6–8 to vv. 9–10 in terms of syntax and content.

188 Ps 103,11a Ps 103,11b Ps 103,12a Ps 103,12b Ps 103,13a Ps 103,13b Ps 103,14a Ps 103,14b

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form For as high are the heavens above the earth so great his mercy upon those who fear him As for as the east is from the west so he distances from us our transgressions As tender is a father toward his children so tender is the Lord toward those who fear him For he knows our form he remembers that dust are we

‫כי כגב ה שׁמים ע ל־הא רץ‬ ‫גב ר ח סדו ע ל־ירא יו‬ ‫כרחק מזרח ממע רב‬ ‫הרח יק ממנו את ־פשׁע ינו‬ ‫כרחם א ב ע ל־בנ ים‬ ‫רח ם יהו ה ע ל־ירא יו‬ ‫כי־הוא ידע יצרנ ו‬ ‫זכו ר כי־ע פר אנחנ ו‬

Table 30: Ps 103 in Composition Content Summons to vv. 1–2 Praise

Speaker Psalmist

Addressee Psalmist (“my soul”)

Object of Discourse God (“Lord”)

Reason for Praise

vv. 3–5

God, his goodness for “me”

Reason for Praise

vv. 6–8

God, his goodness for Moses/Israel

Reason for Praise

vv. 9–10

God, forgiving “us”

Reason for Praise

vv. 11–14

God, the quality of his forgiveness for “us”/”those who fear him”

Reason for Praise

vv. 15–19

Man in his weakness, God in his strength

Summons to Praise

vv. 20–22

Friend (“angels,” “armies,” “servants,” “works”)

The psalmist uses analogy to describe God’s forgiveness of sins, arriving finally at a positive statement of God’s nature. First, he uses three similes: in v. 11a, the height of the sky (the vertical dimension); in v. 12a, the breadth of the land/length of the day (the horizontal dimension); in v. 13a, the depth of human love (in combining “father” [‫ ]אב‬with “womb” [‫]רחם‬, integrating the male-female components) (the emotional-volitive dimension). Then, in v. 14a, the psalmist speaks positively about God’s omniscience (the spiritual dimension). Using three similes and one positive statement, the psalmist speaks about God’s own nature.

Chapter IV. Isa 43,1–7

189

The psalmist here also identifies the “we” of the psalm as God-fearing. In vv. 11b.13b, the psalmist speaks of God’s forgiveness of “those who fear him” (‫)יראיו‬, a typical psalmic word for the Friend. 90 In vv. 12b.14b, the psalmist speaks of “our transgression” ( ‫ )פשׁינו‬and “we” (‫)אנחנו‬. This interwoven pattern effectively identifies the “we” of the psalms as God-fearers, and in the connection between strophes made in v. 10, as “Israel” (v. 7b) and “all the oppressed” (‫כל־עשׁוקים‬, v. 6b). Psalm 103 speaks in the main about God’s mercy in terms of forgiveness of sins, and it does so by emphasizing the loving condescension of God. The psalmist further emphasizes this condescension by speaking in v. 19 of God’s universal and heavenly kingship: “The Lord has established his throne in the heavens, and his dominion rules over all” (‫)יהוה בשׁ מים הכין כסאו ומלכותו בכל משׁלה‬. The motif of God as king fits well in the pattern of psalmic allusion that we have seen, as seen in §3.2.2–§3.2.3 above, and establishes for us the notion that God’s action in Isa 43,1–7 are those of a king. This king claims the spoils of war in Isa 43,2 and pays on behalf of his transgressor in Isa 43,3b–4b, which action the allusion to Ps 103,12–13 in Isa 43,5b–6b is further specified as the forgiveness of sins. Also new to the message in Isa 43,5b–6b is that this king is a father to his people, as seen in Isa 43,6b//Ps 103,13, and that this people is none other than Israel in exodus, led by Moses, as in Ps 103,6b–7b. What we lack in Isa 43,5b–6b, and in Isa 43,1–7 as a whole, is a definition of the sin of Jacob-Israel that God is forgiving. We hear in neighboring utterances, especially in Isa 42,18–25, that Israel has sinned (see §4, below), but it shall require seeing Isa 43,1–7 within at least Isa 41,1–44,23 to understand more fully the nature of Israel’s sin of idolatry. 91 b) The Voice of Moses in Deut 3,27 It is precisely the forgiveness of Israel’s sins that allows Jacob-Israel to hear God calling his people from the very same cardinal points – “east” (‫)מזרח‬, “west” (‫מערב‬-‫)ים‬, “north” ( ‫)צפון‬, south (‫( )תעמן‬Isa 43,5b–6b//Deut 3,27) – that describe the land that Moses is not allowed to enter because of his sin. We have already discussed the relevance of Deut 3,26–28 for the encouragement to Joshua in Isa 41,8–10. 92 This allusion fits with that to Ps 103 in another way, as in v. 7a of the psalm, we hear that the promises to Moses extend to the “children of Israel.” 93 In this second allusion to Deut 3,26–28 among the Salvation Oracles 90 In the psalms alone: Ps 15,4; 22,24.26; 25,12.14; 31,20; 33,18; 34,8.10; 60,6; 61,6; 66,16; 85,10; 103,11.13.17; 111,5; 115,11.13; 118,4; 119,74.79; 128,1.4; 135,20; 145,19; 147,11. 91 See ch. VI, §2.1. 92 See ch. III, §2.2.2 and §3.2.1. 93 “Who makes known his ways to Moses, to the children of Israel his deeds” ( ‫יוד יע ד רכ יו‬ ‫)למשׁה לבנ י ישׂראל ע לילות יו‬.

190

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

we hear once again that Jacob-Israel will return to the land that Moses once spied from afar. c) Summary With the allusion to Ps 103,12–13, we see that God’s call to the four corners of the earth in Isa 43,5b–6b is that of a forgiving father, a father who is king of all the earth. This notion of the forgiveness of Israel’s sins further specifies the use of civil-law language in Isa 43,3b–4b to describe the redemption of Israel. This forgiveness of Israel’s sin overcomes the barrier that God once sets against Moses, such that the land that he cannot enter is the place to which God is calling his redeemed children. 3.3 Compositional Form of the Utterance with Architectonic Elements The delimitation of allusive units in Isa 43,1–7 and their distinction from the formulaic phrases that separate them should provide us with a clearer image of the form of this Salvation Oracle in composition. We shall see how the traditionally-labelled architectonic elements of the genre – Assurance, Consequence, Reason, and Purpose – are given compositional form and how the that form shapes the overall message of Isa 43,1–7. First, we shall give the overall form, and then explain it (since the Speaker is always God and the Addressee always Jacob-Israel, we omit here those columns): Table 31: Compositional Form of Isa 43,1–7 as Salvation Oracle Part Address of Assurance v. 1

Object Jacob-Israel/God

Aspect (Modality) Perfect + Impv.-Nom. (Declarative)

Consequence v. 2

Jacob-Israel

Future durative (Declarative)

Summary Address v. 3a

God

Nominal (Declarative)

Reason vv. 3b–4b

Enemy (“Man-Peoples”)

Perfect (Declarative)

Address of Assurance v. 5a

Jacob-Israel/God

Imperative + Nominal

Consequence vv. 5b–6b

Friend (“Your seed-my children”)

Future durative (Declarative)

Purpose v. 7

Friend/God (“Each called by my name-for my glory”)

Perfect (Declarative)

Chapter IV. Isa 43,1–7

191

Once again, in labelling the parts of the overall form according to the allusive units that we have identified, we avoid drawing form-critical boundaries through syntactical units. This does mean that we combine some aspects of those form-critical units, such as Address with Assurance. 94 The Address of Assurance in Isa 43,1 continues to address the audience through the word pair Jacob-Israel, now thematically oriented toward God’s act of creation. Having established the “you” of Jacob-Israel in Isa 41,8 with the theme of election, God turns toward the “now” of his salvation as an act of creation. This theme of creation, founded in v. 1b upon the allusion to the creator God in Amos 4,13, is set in the nominal in introducing God through the same participial forms as in the allusion, an introduction set in apposition to the Messenger Formula “Thus says the Lord” (‫ )כה אמר יהוה‬in v. 1a. The essential element of the Assurance, the Fear-Not Formula, then appears in v. 1b, along with further elaboration on the one addressing Jacob-Israel set in the perfect: one who has redeemed and called Jacob-Israel by name. Address and Assurance are coextensive, the identification of Israel as God’s creation already providing a “reason” for the Assurance to “Fear not.” The next allusive unit, Isa 43,2//Ps 66,6.12, becomes a Consequence. 95 The anaphoric ‫“( כי‬when”/”whenever”) of Isa 43,2a.2b and the four-fold yiqtol describe a non-specific and ongoing future reality dependent on God’s immediate presence, “I am with you” (‫)אתך־אני‬. Here we see a reassignment of the Consequence from the Enemy (Isa 41,11–12.15b–16a) to Jacob-Israel himself, as God continues to speak to the “now” of Jacob-Israel’s salvation. What we call the Summary Readdress in Isa 43,3a is an independent statement that looks both to the Address of Assurance in v. 1 and to the Reason in vv. 3b–4b. The ‫ כי‬beginning this phrase, extending the anaphora of vv. 2a.2b, is polyvalent: in reference to v. 1a, it provides the Reason (“Fear not… for I am the Lord your God”); in reference to vv. 3b–4b, it explains God’s action in the Reason there (“Because I am the Lord your God… I have given…”). On its own, it is emphatic (“Yes, I am the Lord your God; the Holy One of Israel is your savior”). 96 We should not restrict our interpretation to any one meaning, but we do propose the independence of Isa 43,3a, precisely in its Janus-like polyvalency and its non-participation in the allusive units that precede (Isa 43,2//Ps 66,6.12) or follow (Isa 43,3b–4b//Ps 47,4).

94 Both Address and Assurance, once again, being grammatically related as vocative and imperative. 95 Our designation here corresponds to Westermann’s (see ch. I, Table 2, above). Willmes (“Gott erlöst sein Volk,” 66) sees in vv. 2–3a a triple Reason, the first two instances of ‫ כי‬as conditionals. 96 Willmes (“Gott erlöst sein Volk,” 67.82) suggests such a polyvancy in Isa 43,3ab as both a nominal and predicate sentence. Brandscheidt (“Die Frohbotschaft von Gott,” 435) translates the ‫ כי‬in Isa 43,3a as “Yes” (ja), but joins the hemistych to vv. 3b–4.

192

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

The Reason follows in Isa 43,3b–4b//Ps 47,4–5. Following form-critical designations, the Reason is set in the perfect-declarative, God displaying the reasons for his summons not to fear and for the future he is revealing. In this case, it is his treatment of the nations, identified in inclusio as Egypt, Kush, and Seba in vv. 3b and more generally as “man-peoples” in vv. 4b. At the center of this, indeed at the center of the composition in v. 4ab, the Reason switches back to Jacob-Israel to whom God says, “Because you are precious in my eyes, made glorious, and I love you,” each verb set in the qatal. Since we have already shown in §3.2.3 above a kind of equality of the nations with Jacob-Israel, and as we shall see in §4.1.2 below, a certain role of Jacob-Israel as “witness” before the nations, we should not see the nations, in this case, as the Enemy. God utters another Address of Assurance in Isa 43,5a without introducing the vocative pair Jacob-Israel, though this Address does continue to announce God’s presence. It is another summons not to fear upon which follows the Consequence in vv. 5b–6d. Like the Summary Readdress in Isa 41,13, this short phrase brings together two formulas, the Fear-Not Formula of Isa 43,1b and the Formula of Divine Presentation in Isa 43,2a (“For I am with you” [‫כי אתך־‬ ‫)]אני‬. Another Consequence follows in Isa 43,5b–6b//Ps 103,12–13. Like Isa 43,2, it is set in the yiqtol with future aspect and speaks about Jacob-Israel. Whereas Jacob-Israel and his potential dangers are the subject of the verbs in Isa 43,2, now it is God himself, who in v. 5bc will “bring” (‫ )אביא‬and “gather” ( ‫)אקבצך‬ the descendents of Jacob-Israel (‫)זר עך‬, whom he identifies in v. 6b as his own “sons-daughters” (‫בני‬-‫)בנותי‬, uttering imperatives (‫תני‬-‫ )אל־תכלאי‬in v. 6a to the personified north and south. This Consequence extends the reach of the Salvation Oracle to the whole world, drawing “from the end of the earth” (‫מקצה האר ץ‬, v. 6b), though, as we shall see in §3.4 below, the voice of God seems to be coming from Jerusalem. Finally, in Isa 43,7, the author formulates a summary of the preceding into a Purpose, that this act of God’s creative salvation is for his “glory.” The identification in v. 7a of “each called by my name and for my glory” ( ‫כל הנקרא בשׁ מי‬ ‫ )ולקבודי‬joins two key terms from the beginning (“by your name” [‫]בשׁמך‬, v. 1d) and center (“you are made glorious” [‫]נכבדת‬, v. 4b) of the oracle, bonding the privileges of Jacob-Israel to the prerogatives of God. 97 The evidence of God’s salvation of Jacob-Israel, a glorious name, is now redirected toward the ultimate purpose of that salvation, the glorification of God’s name. To show that this completes the idea of creative salvation, God now utters the whole creation triad, not with participials indicating ongoing salvation, but qatal perfects in

97 Berges (Jesaja 40–48, 277) sees in the singular “each” ( ‫ )כ ל‬here an anticipation of the transition from the singular “servant” of Isa 40–54 to the plural “servants” of Isa 54,17–66.

Chapter IV. Isa 43,1–7

193

v. 7b (‫ )בראתיו יצרתיו אף־עשׂיתיו‬marking its effected status and bringing the oracle in Isa 43,1–7 to closure through inclusio. 3.4 Chronotope The spatio-temporal situation in Isa 43,1–7 is much like that in Isa 41,8–16.17– 20 – rather non-specific and suggestive of duration and iteration – though with two major differences. First, the assignment of verbal forms to Jacob-Israel and to the Enemy in Isa 41,8–16.17–20 are here reversed. Second, we can detect the spatial location of this utterance as spoken from within Zion itself. The verbal forms in Isa 43,1–7 are the inverse of those in Isa 41,8–16.17– 20 because the overall scope of the Salvation Oracle has shifted from the past relationship of Jacob-Israel to his Enemy to his ongoing relationship with God as king. We see this in the respective Addresses of Assurance, in the shift from “But you”‚ (‫ואתה‬, Isa 41,8a) to “But now” (‫ועתה‬, Isa 43,1a). The Address of Assurance in Isa 43,1, like Isa 41,8–10, remains in the perfect-imperative. The Consequence, with its future-durative yiqtol forms, is reassigned from the Enemy (Isa 41,11–12.15b–16a) to Jacob-Israel himself in Isa 43,2. Because the author in Isa 43,1–7 wishes to speak about the “now” of Jacob-Israel’s relationship to God, the Consequences are for Jacob-Israel, built upon God’s action toward him. Consistent with this exchange of temporal forms and values is the assignment of a Reason to the Jacob-Israel’s self-consciousness among the nations in Isa 43,3b–4b. Whereas we do not find in Isa 41,8–16.17–20 a discernible Reason, in Isa 41,3b–4b we find a distinct Reason set in the perfect-declarative, an allusive unit describing God’s action upon the nations given in exchange for Jacob-Israel. The Enemy having been annihilated in Isa 41,11–12, the relationship of the nations to Jacob-Israel in this Reason is ambiguous in value, and as we shall see throughout Chapter VI, this ambiguity perdures throughout at least Isa 34–35; 40–66. The spatial setting of Isa 43,1–7 becomes clear toward the end of the oracle, in Isa 43,5b–6b, where it appears that God is speaking from Zion. The mention of “in the waters” (‫)במים‬, “in the rivers” (‫)בנהרו ת‬, “in fire” ( ‫)במו־אשׁ‬, and “flame” (‫ )להבה‬in Isa 43,2 is non-specific; as we have seen, it is the language of trials and purification, no longer of a specific crossing of the Jordan or the Red Sea. The mention of Egypt, Kush, and Seba in Isa 43,3b–4b does no more to specify the location of God’s voice, as one can refer to these nations from anywhere. Rather, it is only in Isa 43,5b–6b that we begin to sense God’s voice speaking from Zion as the center of the four cardinal points. Through the allusion to Deut 3,27, where these cardinal points refer to the extent of Israel’s territory, and to Ps 103,12–13, which speaks of forgiveness of the sin that prevents Moses from entering this land, we can determine with some confidence that “from the east-from the west” (‫ממזר ח‬-‫ )ממער ב‬and “to the north-to the south” ( ‫לצפון‬-

194

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

‫ )לתימן‬are relative to Zion, to whom God will speak directly at least in Isa 49,14–54,17.98 Whether or not the prophetic message is first given in Babylon in its historical situation, the divine voice speaks from Jerusalem in the literary situation of Isa 43,1–7. These two unique characteristics of the chronotope or temporal-spatial situation in Isa 43,1–7, its iterative verbal form and its utterance from Jerusalem, need not suggest that this Salvation Oracle emerges only in the situation of exile or in the post-exilic situation of Israel, but rather, like many Salvation Oracles among the prophets, the historical situation becomes the occasion to speak of a broader, more enduring situation of salvation than the immediate threat.99 The future-durative temporal situation of Jacob-Israel in the Consequence suggests that God’s act of salvation – an act of creation, as specified in the Address of Assurance and the Purpose – is ongoing, if not permanent. Indeed, the Purpose itself points to a moment beyond one specific historical act, to God’s “glory” (‫לכבודי‬, Isa 43,7a). 100 The location of God’s voice in ZionJerusalem, however allusively determined, reaches beyond the borders of Israel to all four corners of the earth, including but not limited to Babylon.

4. Contextualizing Isa 43,1–7 within Isa 42,18–43,13 Isa 43,1–7 stands at the center of a series of utterances that prepare for and respond to its message of salvation. In fact, it is only after the salvific re-creation of Jacob-Israel in Isa 43,1–7 that we first hear explicitly of Babylon and of the imagery of a new exodus in Isa 43,14–21. It is in the utterances surrounding Isa 43,1–7, namely Isa 42,18–25 and 43,8–13, in which God refers to Jacob-Israel as his “servant,” a word missing from Isa 43,1–7. In the following, we shall look for the ways in which Second Isaiah refracts the meaning of Jacob-Israel’s salvation through the Disputation and Trial Speech that surround Isa 43,1–7, specifically through how the allusions in Isa 43,1–7 illuminate the vocabulary that these different utterances share. 101 See ch. VI, §2.3, and in particular the evaluation of Zion-Jerusalem not in geographical terms, but as a “value-context” for the prophetic message in §2.3.6 there. 99 Schmitt (“Erlösung und Gericht,” 130) excludes the Babylonian exile as part of the situation of this oracle, but Willmes (“Gott erlöst sein Volk,” 89) recognizes the purpose of the message as both beginning from and continuing beyond Babylonian exile. We would, though, caution against labelling this utterance, as he does, “eschatological.” 100 Helewa (“Per la mia gloria,” 435–478) suggests, in fact, that God’s acts of salvation in history transcend that same history and point to perennial truths about God: “L’asserzione è di quelle che dimostrano quanto fosse illuminato nella religione biblica l’impegno di comprendere la verità della storia nella verità di Dio” (Ibid., 469). 101 This will be in contrast to Melugin (The Formation of Isaiah 40–55, 106–109), who sees the juxtaposition of these three utterances as the work of a collector, not of an original 98

Chapter IV. Isa 43,1–7

195

4.1 The Servant and His Sin in Isa 42,18–25 and 43,8–13 Important for Isa 43,1–7 as a Salvation Oracle is the identification of JacobIsrael as “servant” in the two utterances that surround it, Isa 42,18–25 and 43,8–13. We have first seen God identify Jacob-Israel as “my servant” (‫)עבדי‬ in Isa 41,8a.9b, and will again in Isa 44,2b, so it should surprise us that this epithet is missing from Isa 43,1–7. The author has purposefully displaced this identification from the Salvation Oracle to the surrounding Disputation (Isa 42,18–25) and Trial Speech (Isa 43,8–13) in order to show that the servant’s role as “messenger” (‫מלאך‬, Isa 42,19a) and “witnesses” (‫עדי‬, Isa 43,10a) is to show to the nations God’s forgiveness of sins, the theme with which the allusion to Ps 103,12–13 in Isa 43,5b–6b God concludes the Salvation Oracle. That both neighboring utterances begin with a call to God’s “blind” (‫ )עור‬and “deaf” (‫ )חרשׁ‬in Isa 42,18–19; 43,8 shows their unity. 4.1.1 The Servant-Messenger and His Sin in Isa 42,18–25 In the Disputation in Isa 42,18–25, God identifies his servant as his messenger, specifically as one blind and deaf. In Isa 42,18–20, we see a rather dramatic build-up to the identification of the blind and deaf as the servant. The two imperatives in Isa 42,18, to “listen” ( ‫ )שׁמעו‬and “look” (‫)הביטו‬, are in the plural, addressed to the “deaf” (‫ )החרשׁים‬and “blind” (‫)העור ים‬. The author then uses a two rhetorical questions in v. 19a.19b, “Who is blind…?” (‫)מי עור‬, to reframe this plural identification in the singular. This is first “my servant” (‫)עבד י‬/”my messenger whom I send” ( ‫)כמלאכי אשׁלח‬, then “one restored” (‫)משׁלם‬/”the servant of the Lord” (‫)עבד יהוה‬. 102 This servant, however much God is about to contend with him/them, has a mission to be achieved through his very restoration.

author, because of the differences in the way that their common words are used. That is, the collector gives new meaning to these utterances in their juxtaposition. On the other hand, Gitay (Prophecy and Persuasion, 135–151) sees Isa 42,14–43,13 as a rhetorical unit that provides more concrete evidence for the abstract discussion in Isa 42,1–13. Berges (Jesaja 40–48, 247–288) has this unit as Isa 42,13–43,13; Goldingay/Payne (Isaiah 40–55, I, 253– 302) have Isa 42,18–43,21. The differences seem to come from the inclusion or not of the Salvation Speeches in Isa 42,13–17 and 43,14–21 with the utterances that come between them. We shall treat these two Salvation Speeches when we consider Isa 41,1–44,23 as a whole in ch. VI, §2.1. 102 Unimportant to our brief glance at this passage is the identification of ‫ מ שׁל ם‬as an epithet for Jacob-Israel (or as the proper name of Second Isaiah, for that matter). Cf. U. BERGES, Jesaja 40–48, 260. However, we should note, as Berges (Ibid., 260) does, that the epithet “servant of the Lord” (‫ )ע בד יהו ה‬is reserved for Moses (Deut 34,5; Josh 1,1.13.15; 8,31.33; 11,12; 2 Kgs 18,12; 2 Chr 1,3; 24,6), Joshua (Josh 24,29; Judg 2,8), and David (in “late” psalm titles: Ps 18,1; 36,1) – the very voices speaking through the allusions in the Salvation Oracle that first identifies Jacob-Israel as “servant,” Isa 41,8–16.17–20.

196

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

The nature of this restoration is a response to Israel’s sin, seen in the rest of the Disputation. The prophet himself takes up the content of the Disputation in Isa 42,21–25, speaking of God in the third person (“the Lord wills” [ ‫]יהוה חפץ‬, v. 21; “Was it not the Lord?” [‫]הלוא יהוה‬, v. 24; “He poured out” [‫]וישׁפך‬, v. 25), and of Israel in both the third-person plural (“This is a plundered people” [ ‫והוא‬ ‫]עם־בזוז‬, v. 22a; “They are as plunder” [‫]היו לבז‬, v. 22b; and the pronomial suffixes in v. 25) and in the first-person plural (“against whom we have sinned” [ ‫]זו חטאנו לו‬, v. 24b). In these verses, the prophet brings together the sin and its punishment, a punishment to which the people do not respond. It is in the non-response of the “plundered people” – identified explicitly in Isa 42,24a as Jacob-Israel – to punishment that this Disputation yields its tightest connections to Isa 43,1–7. Specifically, in Isa 42,25, the author compares God’s anger to the fire of battle: Isa 42,25a Isa 42,25b

He poured upon them the heat of his anger and the might of battle It blazed all around and he did not know It burned among him and he did not take it to heart

‫וישׁפך ע ליו חמה א פו ו עזו ז מלחמה‬ ‫ותלהט הו מס ביב ו לא יד ע‬ ‫ותבע ר־בו ו לא ־ישׂים ע ל־לב‬

Here we see a return to the singular identification of the people, especially this language is addressed to Jacob-Israel in the second-person singular in Isa 43,2. Filling out the words of Isa 43,2 not occupied by the allusion to Ps 66,6.12 and Num 31,23 are the words set in parallel at the end of each poetic line, which come from the first words of each line in Isa 42,25. 103 “He poured out” (‫)וישׁ פך‬ in Isa 43,25a becomes, through sound play, “It will not sweep you away” ( ‫לא‬ ‫ )ישׁטפו ך‬in Isa 43,2a. “It blazed among him” (‫ )ותלהטהו‬in Isa 42,25b becomes, again through sound play, “and the flame” (‫ )ולהבה‬in Isa 43,2b. “It burned among him” (‫ )ותבער ־בו‬in Isa 42,25c becomes, almost identically, “it will not burn among you” (‫ )לא תבער־בך‬in Isa 43,2b. We can further understand the allusion to purification by water and fire in Isa 43,2 as the experience of exile.104 What Jacob-Israel will not learn through punish-ment, he ought to learn through salvation. In the Disputation of Isa 42,18–25, we see the identity of Jacob-Israel as “servant” in negative and positive terms, as “blind,” “deaf,” and sinful, yet also 103 In addition to the relationship between Isa 42,25 and 43,2, we may also see a less obvious play on Isa 42,22b in 43,6, where “in the prison houses they are hid” ( ‫בבת י כלא ים‬ ‫ )הח בא ו‬becomes “Do not hold back; bring my sons…” (‫)א ל־ת כלא י הב יא י בנ י‬. 104 Brandscheidt (“Die Frohbotschaft von Gott,” 132), examining the Stichwortverbindung between Isa 42,18–25 and 43,1–7, shows in particular the correspondence between Isa 42,25 and 43,2, but notes that the vocabulary in each has a different orientation. We would suggest that what is shown literally in Isa 42,25 is then expressed metaphorically in Isa 43,2 with the help of the allusions there.

Chapter IV. Isa 43,1–7

197

“sent” on some as-yet undefined mission. After the Salvation Oracle in Isa 43,1–7, in the Trial Speech of Isa 43,8–13, does God begin to explain this mission. 4.1.2 The Servant-Witness and the Idolatrous Nations in Isa 43,8–13 The Trial Speech in Isa 43,8–13 begins with the same negative words as Isa 42,18–25, “blind” and “deaf,” but these words apply now to the nations, while the “servant” is to act as “witness” to God’s power. Isa 43,8–9 are the Summons to Trial, but now the “blind people” (‫ )עם־עור‬and the “deaf” (‫)חרשׁים‬ seem no longer to refer to Jacob-Israel, but to “all the nations” (‫ – )כל־הגוים‬seen in contrast to “all called by my name” (‫ )כל הנקרא בשׁמי‬in Isa 43,7a – and the “peoples” (‫ – )לאמים‬the very ones given in exchange for Jacob-Israel in Isa 43,4b. 105 These are summoned in v. 9b to “produce their witnesses” ( ‫יתנו‬ ‫ )עדיהם‬and “speak truth” (‫)ויאמרו אמת‬, something they cannot do, for two reasons: this oracle is addressed to Jacob-Israel, and Jacob-Israel, the servant, are themselves to bear witness. In Isa 43,10–13, the servant is to bear witness to the facts that God himself lays out. The author lays out the relationship between the servant’s witness and God’s own testimony in two nearly identical expressions: in v. 10a, we hear, “You are my witnesses, oracle of the Lord, and my servant whom I have chosen” (‫)אתם עדי נאם־יהוה ועבדי אשׁר בחרתי‬, language that resounds Isa 41,8, but with “you” now set in the plural; likewise in v. 12b, we hear, “And you are my witnesses, oracle of the Lord, and I am God” (‫)ואתם עד י נאם־יהוה ו אני־אל‬. In between these two statements, in vv. 10b–12b, God speaks about his uniqueness, using language with which we can now contrast idols to God’s own creation: in v. 10b, we hear, “Before me no god is formed” (‫)לפני לא־נו צר אל‬, the verb ‫יצר‬ here both both God’s work as creator of the earth (Isa 45,7.9.18 [2x]) and of Jacob-Israel (Isa 43,1a.7b; later in Isa 43,21; 44,2.21.24; 45,11.18; 49,5); later, this term is used in his polemic against those who “form” idols (Isa 44,9.10.12). Now that Jacob-Israel understands his being created, formed, and made by God, and the nature of that creative salvation in Isa 43,1–7 as the forgiveness of his sins, he-they can now bear witness to God’s uniqueness as God. 106 105 Pace Westermann (Das Buch Jesaja, 99), Paul (Isaiah 40–66, 209–210), and Sweeney (Isaiah 40–66, 94), who see a continued reference to Jacob-Israel here. Goldingay/Payne (Isaiah 40–55, I, 282–283) are less certain. On the other hans, Blenkinsopp (Isaiah 40–55, 223–225) sees this as a trial before the nations on God’s uniqueness akin to that of Elijah and the prophets of Baal (1 Kgs 18,17–40). Berges (Jesaja 40–48, 280–281) has a similar perspective on the function of Jacob-Israel as “witness” to God before the nations, yet still “blind” and “deaf” here. 106 Berges (Jesaja 40–48, 245) insists on precisely this point: “Nur wenn und insofern der Knecht Jakob/Israel seine Blindheit ablegt, seine Schuld sowie die gerechte Geschichtlenkung JHWHs anerkennt, kann er für diesen vor den Völkern Zeugnis ablegen.”

198

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

4.2 The Voice of the Creator-Savior Transforming the Servant The voice of God as creator and savior of Jacob-Israel in Isa 43,1–7 transforms Jacob-Israel as servant from one facing condemnation from his sin in Isa 42,18–25 to one called forth as witness before the nations to God’s uniqueness in Isa 43,8–13. Jacob-Israel, the blind and deaf servant of Isa 42,18–20, has his current predicament described as punishment for his sins in Isa 42,21– 25. The author brings the Disputation to a climax in Isa 42,25, with words that describe the heat of battle as the fire of God’s anger. It is this very imagery that the author reshapes as it fills out the allusions in Isa 43,1–7. In Isa 43,1a, God has just presented himself as the terrible creatorGod of Amos’ hymns (Amos 4,13). We would expect the Disputation to continue, but with the Fear-Not Formula of Isa 43,1b, God turns his discourse from one of punishment to one of redemption. The imagery from Ps 66,6.12 of purification by water and fire, now explains Israel’s exile in direct response to the language of Isa 42,25. In Isa 43,5b–6b, we come to understand through the allusion to Ps 103,12–13 that this salvation is a forgiveness of the sins mentioned in Isa 42,24. In the Salvation Oracle of Isa 43,1–7, God would have Jacob-Israel understand this transformation from punishment to salvation through his own ancient hymns of praise and doxology. Having been saved, Jacob-Israel is now to stand as witness before the nations, testifying to the uniqueness of God. Here, we understand the relationship of Isa 43,8–13 to the allusive unit Isa 43,3b–4b//Ps 47,4. Now it is the nations and peoples who are blind and deaf, the very ones whom God has given in exchange for Jacob-Israel’s life (Isa 43,4b). With these two utterances in dialogue, we understand what this exchange means: it is not a simple reversal of fortune, with the peoples placed under Israel’s feet (as in Ps 47,4), but rather that Jacob-Israel’s role as servant is now to bear witness to those same nations to the saving power of the only God, taking them from the idols formed by their hands. The allusions to Jacob-Israel’s own psalms, Pentatuech, and prophets in Isa 43,1–7 has transformed the meaning of salvation from reversal of fortune to bearing witness to God’s uniqueness. God has transformed his servant into a witness to the nations, whose relationship to which we shall further understand in the remaining Salvation Oracle in Isa 44,1–5, in Chapter V.

5. Conclusions The author has achieved through density of literary allusion in Isa 43,1–7 what he accomplishes through discursive length in Isa 41,8–16.17–20: an understanding of God’s salvation and the identification of Jacob-Israel. In Isa 41,8– 16,17–20, we confront voices speaking from within the Psalms of Lament, and

Chapter IV. Isa 43,1–7

199

of the Pentateuchal passages identifying Moses and Jacob as leaders of Israel. In Isa 43,1–7, we hear a dialogue of legalistic Pentateuchal passages with Psalms of Praise that attest to God as creator (Amos 4,13) and king (Ps 47, 66, 103). If we come to understand Jacob-Israel himself, and his relationship with his Enemy and Friend, in Isa 41,8–16.17–20, in Isa 43,1–7 we come to appreciate who God himself is as “redeemer” (Isa 43,1b) and “savior” (Isa 43,3a). In this density of allusion, the voice of God nevertheless progressively defines who he is through the images set forth by the psalmist. In Isa 43,1.7//Amos 4,12.13, we hear from a terrifying creator-God in position of judgment, who turns the expected summons to judgment into a call not to fear. Indeed, Jacob-Israel, as his new creation, is to share his “name.” In Isa 43,2//Ps 66,6.12; Num 31,23, we hear God presenting himself as a warrior-king taking Jacob-Israel as the purified spoils of war. The experience of exile as punishment for sin (Isa 42,25) is recast as a purification from that sin, one that can no longer affect Jacob-Israel. In Isa 43,3b–4b//Ps 47,4; Exod 21,22–25/Lev 24,17–22, we hear God presenting himself as a savior-king, who reacquires for himself a people from among the nations. This is through legal exchange, which makes equals not of Israel with God (who remains king), but of the nations with Israel, precisely because of Israel’s very singular value before God. In this way, the exchange brings about the description in Ps 47 of God as king of all the earth. In Isa 43,5b–6b//Ps 103,12–13; Deut 3,27, we hear God as king and father describing the return of Jacob-Israel from among the nations as an act of forgiveness of sin. The voice of Moses returns, the one whom God has forbidden, because of his sin, from entering the land defined by the four cardinal points (Deut 3,27). The call of God’s voice, now resonating from the center of that land in Jerusalem, is effectively the pronouncement of forgiveness. In Isa 43,7, that call extends to “each called by my name,” which on the face of things, would mean all Israelites in ongoing exile and diaspora, but the following utterance in Isa 43,8–13 suggests that such a call might extend to those among the nations who hear Israel’s bearing witness to God’s forgiveness. Thus, this would seem to broaden the identification of God’s “sons and daughters” (Isa 43,6b) to those not yet called by the “name of Jacob” (Isa 44,5) – an identification we shall be able to understand better as we investigate the next Salvation Oracle in Isa 41,1–44,23: Isa 44,1–5.

Chapter V

Isa 44,1–5. The Restored Servant and His Friends Our investigation of Isa 44,1–5 as a Salvation Oracle proceeds in much the same way as that of Isa 41,8–16.17–20 and 43,1–7, with differences that pertain to the way Isa 44,1–5 seems to be relating to its literary context. First, the stylistic forms of literary allusion, continuing to evolve as they do from Isa 41,8–16.17–20 to Isa 43,1–7, require the identification of the utterances alluded to in Isa 44,1–5 within Isa 41,1–44,23 as well; we shall bring this extended identification into our discussion of the allusive units in §2.2. This also necessitates, in §3.1, to a more extensive discussion of the relationship of the alluded utterances among themselves outside of their appearance in Isa 44,1– 5. These two properties of allusion in Isa 44,1–5, the stylistic and the genretypical, would seem to serve the characteristic of Isa 44,1–5 as a “summation” of the three Salvation Oracles of Isa 41,1–44,23 within that specific literary context, as we shall discuss in the interpretation of the allusive units in §3.2. Finally, in §4, we examine the ways in which the surrounding utterances, Isa 43,22–28 and 44,6–8, give further shape to the voices speaking within Isa 43,1–7 and, ultimately, to the relationship of Jacob-Israel to God.

1. Delimiting, Stabilizing the Text, and Translating the Utterance 1.1 Delimitation The same kinds of literary features that distinguish Isa 41,8–16.17–20 and 43,1–7 from their immediate literary context also delineate Isa 44,1–5. The now typical disjunctive exclamation “But now” (‫ )ועתה‬in Isa 44,1a signals the beginning of the Salvation Oracle, upon which follows the typical address to Jacob-Israel. The previous utterance in Isa 43,22–28 is also addressed to Jacob-Israel (v. 22.28b), and so we must look to a change in the Object of Discourse to distinguish Isa 44,1–5. 1 In Isa 43,22–28, God speaks to JacobJust as with the relationship of Isa 42,18–25 to 43,1–7, scholars have taken the “But now” to indicate the conjunction of Isa 43,22–28 to Isa 44,1–5 as a single utterance (see J. BLENKINSOPP, Isaiah 40–55, 228–234; K. ELLIGER, Deuterojesaja 40,1–45,7, 360–395). Melugin (The Formation of Isaiah 40–55, 115–118) treats Isa 43,22–28 together with Isa 44,1–5 but understands their juxtaposition as the work of a redactor. Scullion (Isaiah 40– 66, 58) groups Isa 44,1–5 with vv. 6–8.21–23. 1

202

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

Israel about sin and forgiveness with cultic imagery, e.g., “the fat of your offerings” (‫חלב זבחיך‬, v. 24a). In Isa 44,1–5, God speaks to Jacob-Israel, with imagery of watering the desert, of “spirit” (‫ )רו חי‬and “blessings” (‫( )ברכתי‬v. 3b). The Object of Discourse seems to change after the disjunctive exclamation “But now.” We can determine the end of the utterance by another change in the Object of Discourse as well as with some literary patterns. We find in Isa 44,5 another instance of the word pair Jacob-Israel, coordinated with a double instance of the word “name” (‫ )שׁם‬and a triplet of the demonstrative pronoun “this one” (‫)זה‬. In Isa 44,6, we hear another instance of the Messenger Formula, and the Object of Discourse changes from blessings upon the descendents of JacobIsrael to the unique status of God, e.g., “Besides me there is no god” ( ‫ומבלעד י‬ ‫אין אלהים‬, v. 6b). Isa 44,6–8 conclude with some elements that seem to form a kind of inclusion with Isa 44,1–2, but given the sharp change in the Object of Discourse from Jacob-Israel to God himself, we shall treat Isa 44,6–8 as a distinct but related utterance. 2 1.2 Text-Critical Problems V. 2a: At ָ‫יְַעזְֶרךּ‬, 1QIsa has the participial form in ‫ועוזרך‬, comparable to the Vulgate’s auxiliator tuus, Syriac w’drk and Symmachus βοηθῶν σοί. The LXX has ἔτι βοηθηθήσῃ, “Yet will you be helped.” These versions show the difficulty of the syntax here, especially as one would expect a third participle after ‫שָׂך‬ ֶ ֹ ‫ ע‬and ‫ְוי ֶֹצְרָך‬. Goldingay/Payne suggest that the reading in the MT draws attention to the future focus of Isa 44,1–5. 3 As this is a matter of interpretation, we shall consider this in §3.2.1, below. V. 2b: At ‫שׁרוּן‬ ֻ ‫ִוי‬, the LXX has ὁ ἠγαπηµένος Ισραηλ, which Goldingay – Payne suggest is a conflation of the MT with Syriac and Targumic “Israel,” 4 but the LXX reading seems rather to try to interpret this rare epithet by drawing out the meaning in its only other instances, Deut 32,15; 33,5.26. As it stands on its own, it invites a glance at Deut 32–33 for possible literary allusions. V. 3a: at ‫ָצֵמא‬, since we lack a masculine subject, BHS proposes ‫ָצָמא‬, “thirst,” which we see in Isa 41,17, but the preposition ‫ על‬does not allow the usage of the abstract noun here. 5 The LXX translates Isa 44,3a in this way, as ἐν δίψει, but as Goldingay/Payne have noted, this disrupts the masculine-feminine 2 Just as Isa 41,17–20 seem connected to Isa 41,8–16 by literary features and by allusion, so Isa 44,6–8 seem connected to Isa 44,1–5, but less intimately so. We shall show Isa 44,1– 5 as a distinct utterance, and treat more extensively of its literary-allusive connections to Isa 44,6–8 in §4. 3 See J. GOLDINGAY/D. PAYNE , Isaiah 40–55, I, 321 4 See J. GOLDINGAY/D. PAYNE , Isaiah 40–55, I, 323 5 In Isa 41,17, we find ‫מא‬ ָ ‫ַבּ ָצ‬, which fits the context (“their tongue is parched with thirst”).

Chapter V. Isa 44,1–5

203

balance that the imagery strikes with ‫יבשׁה‬, “dry ground.” We shall retain the more difficult reading, as it stands in the MT. V. 4a: at ‫ְבֵּבין‬, 1QIsa has ‫ ;כבין‬LXX again translates through explanation, ὡσεὶ χόρτος ἀνὰ µέσον ὕδατος, “as though an enclosed field6 between waters,” while a number of studies seek to emend this hapax double preposition. 7 Familiar as we are now with Second Isaiah’s particular use of prepositions to lead the reader to allusions (see Chapter IV on the prepositions ‫ב‬, ‫תחת‬, and ‫מן‬-‫ ל‬in Isa 43,1–7), we should see to what pastures the lectio difficilior might lead us. V. 5a: at ‫יְִקָרא‬, Symmachus translates as a Niphal, but internal evidence from the varied usage of the expression ‫ קר א בשׁ ם‬in Isa 43,1b.7a gives us room for different interpretations here. V. 5b: at ‫יָדוֹ‬, BHS proposes, based on several witnesses, to read ‫ְבּיָדוֹ‬, as the Vulgate understands it (scribet manu sua). Others note, however, the practice of branding in ANE culture, 8 hence “his hand” as the indirect object, so we shall need to explore this further. V. 5b: at ‫יְַכנֵּה‬, some witnesses have a passive, like the Vulgate, which renders this as adsimilabitur (“he will be made like”). The active meaning of the Piel makes sense if we intepret the subject of the verbs in v. 5b as those inscribing or enlisting those who come forward in v. 5a, but we can only conclude with such an interpretation after exegesis. 1.3 Translation Isa 44,1–5 v. 1a v. 1b v. 2a v. 2b v. 3a v. 3b v. 4a v. 4b v. 5a

But now, hear O Jacob my servant and Israel, whom I have chosen: Thus says the Lord, who makes you and who forms you from the womb will help you. Fear not, my servant Jacob and Yeshurun, whom I have chosen. For I shall pour water upon the thirsty and streams upon the dry ground; I shall pour my spirit upon your seed and my blessing upon your issue. And they will sprout among the grass like willows upon the conduits of water. This one will say “the Lord’s am I” and that one will call upon the name of Jacob;

‫ועת ה שׁמע יעק ב עבד י‬ : ‫ו י שׂ ר א ל בח ר ת י ב ו‬ ‫כה־א מר יהו ה ע שׂך‬ ‫ויצרך מבטן יעזרך‬ ‫אל־ת ירא ע בד י יעקב‬ :‫וישׁרו ן ב ח רת י בו‬ ‫כי א צק ־מים ע ל־צמא‬ ‫ונזלים על־יב שׁה‬ ‫אצק רוח י ע ל־זרעך‬ : ‫וב רכת י ע ל־צא צא עך‬ ‫וצמחו ב בין ח ציר‬ : ‫כע רב ים על־יב לי־מים‬ ‫זה יא מר ליהו ה אנ י‬ ‫וזה יק רא ב שׁם ־יע קב‬

Which we understand as the less poetic “feedlot.” Allegro (“byn in Isaiah 44,” 154–156) sees ‫ ב ין‬as a tamarisk, in comparison with Gen 49,22. Guillaume (“Note on the Meaning of byn,” 109–111) sees this term as indicating a “field,” which corresponds to the LXX. 8 See A. G UILLAUME, “Isa 44,5,” 377–379. 6 7

204 v. 5b

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form And this one will write on his hand “the Lord’s” and by the name of Israel will he title him

‫וזה יכתב ידו ליהו ה‬ :‫וב שׁם ישׂרא ל יכנ ה‬

2. Identifying Allusions in Their Compositional Form The stylistic patterns of allusion evident in Isa 44,1–5 seem to mark allusions less locally to the parts of the Salvation Oracle and more broadly, within the patterns of allusion to those same utterances across Isa 41,1–44,23. We shall categorize the possible allusions within the four groups that have so far been helpful in our methodology (quotation, allusion, theme/typology, and heteroglossia), recognizing that, as one’s reading of Isa 41–44 continues linearly, so the author’s specific gestures may evolve to shape the message. 2.1 Possible Allusions, Their Form, and Their Dating 2.1.1 Group 1: Quotation There are no instances of the verbatim or nearly verbatim quotation of expressions and phrases in Isa 44,1–5 or originating from this utterance. 2.1.2 Group 2: Allusion The formal imprint of these passages on parts of Isa 44,1–5 seems to provide more of an overall structure to the Salvation Oracle than the kinds of precise meaning we have found coming from allusion in previous chapters: Isa 44,1–2//Ps 78,68–70 Isa 44,1a Isa 44,1b Isa 44,2a Isa 44,2b

‫ו ע ת ה שׁ מע ע ב ד י‬ ‫ו י שׂ ר א ל בח ר ת י ב ו‬ ‫כי־שמר יהו ה ע שׂך‬ ‫ויצרך מבטן יעזרך‬ ‫אל־ת ירא ע בד י יעקב‬ ‫וישׁרו ן ב ח רת י בו‬

‫ויבח ר את ־שׁבט יהוד ה‬ ‫את ־הר ציון א שׁר א הב‬ ‫ויבן כמו ־רמים מקד שׁו‬ ‫כא רץ יסד ה לעו לם‬ ‫ו י בח ר ב ד ו ד ע בד ו‬ ‫ויק ח הו ממכלא ת צאן‬

Ps 78,68a Ps 78,68b Ps 78,69a Ps 78,69b Ps 78,70a Ps 78,70b

As with many or most psalms, scholarly estimates on the dating of Ps 78 vary widely. 9

9 Tammuz (“Psalm 78,” 205–221) provides a summary of this debate, in which scholars propose dating as early as the 10th century BC and as late as the Maccabean period. Tammuz concludes that, even after heavy redaction – including vv. 67–71 – Psalm 78 in its current form dates no later than 597–587 BC.

205

Chapter V. Isa 44,1–5

Isa 44,2b.8b//Deut 32,15 Isa 44,2b Isa 44,8b

‫אל־ת ירא ע בד י יעקב‬ ‫וישׁרו ן ב ח רת י בו‬ ‫ו את ם עד י‬ ‫הישׁ אלו ה מב לע ד י‬ ‫וא ין צו ר ב ל־ידעת י‬

‫ וישׁמן ישׁרו ן ו יב עט‬Deut 32,15a ‫שׁמנת עב ית כשׂית‬ ‫ ויט שׁ א לו ה ע שׂהו‬Deut 32,15b ‫וינ ב ל צו ר ישׁעתו‬

This allusion would take us beyond the delimitation of Isa 44,1–5, into the adjacent Trial Speech in Isa 44,6–8, a stylistic strategy similar to that achieved with allusion to Ps 22 in Isa 41,14–16.17–20. The dating of Deut 32 varies greatly, but the scholarship tends to support a monarchical, if not pre-monarchical, dating.10 This trend toward earlier dating occurs also in scholarship on Exod 15, possibly alluded to it Isa 44,3: 11 Isa 44,3//Exod 15,8.19b Isa 44,3a Isa 44,3b

‫כי א צק ־מים ע ל־צמא‬ ‫ונזלים על־יב שׁה‬ ‫אצק רוח י ע ל־זרעך‬ ‫וברכת י ע ל־צא צא יך‬

‫ וב רוח א פיך נע רמו מים‬Exod 15,8a ‫ נצב ו כמו ־נד נזלים‬Exod 15,8b ‫ ובנ י ישׂראל הלכו‬Exod 15,19b ‫ביב שׁה בתו ך הים‬

Isa 44,4//Ps 104,1412 Isa 44,4a Isa 44,4b

‫וצמחו ב בין ח ציר‬ ‫כע רב ים על־יב לי־מים‬

‫מצמיח חציר לב המה‬ ‫וע שׂב לעב דת האדם‬

Ps 104,14a Ps 104,14b

Ps 104, like many psalms, is datable to both pre-exilic and post-exilic periods. 13 Like with Ps 78,68–70, our interest is in the way Second Isaiah alludes to

Kim, who makes particular note of the allusion here via the name “Yeshurun” (“The Song of Moses in Isaiah 40–55,” 161–162), summarizes the arguments regarding possible early and late dating for Deut 32 (Ibid., 168–170). Bergey (“The Song of Moses,” 33–54), finding clear “intertextual” links between Deut 32,1–43 and the oracles of Isaiah ben Amoṣ (esp. Isa 1, 5, 28, and 30), is more certain of the earlier dating of the Song of Moses. Nigosian (“Linguistic Patterns,” 206–224), performing a linguistic analysis, dates Deut 32,1–43 to between the 10 th-8 th centuries BC with some certainty. 11 See J. DURHAM , Exodus, 203. 12 We could also point to Ps 147,8b–9b, but these verses seem rather to read Isa 44,4 and Ps 104,14a simultaneously, yielding a conflated form of line copying: Isa 44,4ab ‫על־יבלי־מים‬ ‫כע רב ים‬ ‫חצ י ר‬ ‫בב ין‬ ‫וצמחו‬ Ps 104,14a ‫לב המה‬ ‫חצ י ר‬ ‫מצמיח‬ Ps 147,8b–9a ‫לב המה לח מה‬ ‫נות ן‬ ‫חצ י ר‬ ‫הרים‬ ‫המצמיח‬ Ps 147,9b ‫אשׁר יק רא ו‬ ‫לבנ י ע רב‬ 13 For summaries on dating, see L. 2, Psalms 101–150, 28–32. 10

206

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

specific literary structures in the psalm. This possibly, but with less evidence, seems to occur in Isa 44,5: Isa 44,5//Ps 104,25–26 Isa 44,5a

‫זה יא מר ליהו ה אנ י‬ ‫וזה יק רא ב שׁם ־יע קב‬

Isa 44,5b

‫וזה יכתב ידו ליהו ה‬ ‫וב שׁם ישׂרא ל יכנ ה‬

‫זה הים גדו ל ו רחב יד ים‬ ‫שׁם ־רמשׂ וא ין מס פר‬ ‫חיו ת קטנ ות עם ־ג דלות‬ ‫שׁם אנ יות יהלכון‬ ‫לו יתן זה־יצרת לשׂחק ־בו‬

Ps 104,25a Ps 104,25b Ps 104,25c Ps 104,26a Ps 104,26b

The allusions to Ps 104 are less probable, but worth some consideration. 14 2.1.3 Group 3: Theme and Typology There emerges at least one thematic kind of allusion in Isa 44,1–5, whose expression admits of two possible and not necessarily exclusive sources: Isa 44,2a//Ps 22,10–12; Jer 1,5 Isa 44,2a

‫כה־א מר יהו ה ע שׂך‬ ‫ויצרך מבטן יעזרך‬

‫כי־את ה גח י מב טן‬ ‫מבט יחי ע ל־שׁד י אמי‬ ‫עליך השׁלכת י מרח ם‬ ‫מב ט ן א מ י א ל י א ת ה‬ ‫אל־ת רחק ממנ י‬ ‫כי־צרה ק רו ב ה‬ ‫כי־א ין עו זר‬

Ps 22,10a Ps 22,10b Ps 22,11a Ps 22,11b Ps 22,12a Ps 22,12b

Isa 44,2a

‫כה־א מר יהו ה ע שׂך‬ ‫ויצרך מבטן יעזרך‬

‫בט רם א צו רך ב בטן יד עת יך‬ ‫ובט רם ת צא מרח ם הקד שׁתיך‬ ‫נביא לג וים נת תיך‬

Jer 1,5a Jer 1,5b

We have already heard and analyzed allusions to Ps 22,4–9 in Isa 41,14–16 and Ps 22,2–3.32 in Isa 41,17.20, 15 lending support to this more doubtful allusion to that Psalm of Lament here. New to this analysis would be its pairing with an allusion to the Call of Jeremiah in Jer 1,5. These two, together, would allude to the theme of prophetic calling before birth. 2.1.4 Group 4: Heteroglossia We find two expressions that seem to weave Isa 44,1–5 into the overall composition of Isa 1–66:

We also find an alternation of ‫ זה‬and ‫ שׁם‬in the thematically similar but likely later Ps 87,4–6 (see §3.2.3c, below). 15 See ch. III, §2.2.6–§2.2.7. 14

207

Chapter V. Isa 44,1–5

Isa 44,4b//Isa 30,25a Isa 44,4b

‫כע רב ים על־יב לי־מים‬

‫והיה ע ל־כל־הר ג ב ה‬ ‫ו על כ ל ־ ג ב ע ה נ שׂ א ה‬ ‫פלג ים יב לי־מים‬

Isa 30,25a

Nothing else in the context of this expression would render it allusive to the oracle of First Isaiah, and as an instance of prophetic heteroglossia, may serve to unite Second Isaiah’s words with those of his predecessor. On the other hand, the word “issue” (‫ )צאצאים‬in Isa 44,3b is unique to Second Isaiah and Job,16 and may serve as a kind of Stichwort for Isa 34–35; 40– 66, especially if multiple authors are involved in the composition of these chapters. 2.2 Allusions in Composition As we examine the possible allusions in Isa 44,1–5 that we have just listed, we do so with reference to the appearance of allusions to some of these utterances in other parts of Isa 41,1–44,23. In many or most cases, scholars will already have identified those allusions, lending support to those allusions in Isa 44,1– 5 that seem less probable or doubtful. 2.2.1 Isa 44,1–2//Ps 78,68–70 Isa 44,1a Isa 44,1b Isa 44,2a Isa 44,2b

‫ו ע ת ה שׁ מע ע ב ד י‬ ‫ו י שׂ ר א ל בח ר ת י ב ו‬ ‫כי־שמר יהו ה ע שׂך‬ ‫ויצרך מבטן יעזרך‬ ‫אל־ת ירא ע בד י יעקב‬ ‫וישׁרו ן ב ח רת י בו‬

‫ויבח ר את ־שׁבט יהוד ה‬ ‫את ־הר ציון א שׁר א הב‬ ‫ויבן כמו ־רמים מקד שׁו‬ ‫כא רץ יסד ה לעו לם‬ ‫ו י בח ר ב ד ו ד ע בד ו‬ ‫ויק ח הו ממכלא ת צאן‬

Ps 78,68a Ps 78,68b Ps 78,69a Ps 78,69b Ps 78,70a Ps 78,70b

The identification of an allusion to Ps 78,68–70 comes through the epiphoric repetition in Isa 44,1–2 of the anaphoric expression in Ps 78,68–72 “to choose” (‫)בחרתי בו‬. In regard to Ps 78,1–72, we do not find in Isa 41,1–44,23, outside the Salvation Oracles, allusions even as fragmented and scattered as those we shall find to Exod 15,1b–19 and Deut 32,1–43, but we do find in Ps 78 a great deal of shared vocabulary with Isa 41,1–44,23. These shared words tend to have a double meaning (word play) or value in both Isa 41–44 and Ps 78, as we shall discuss in §3.1, below.

16

Isa 22,24; 34,1; 42,5; 44,3; 48,19; 61,9; 65,23; Job 5,25; 21,8; 27,14; 31,8.

208

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

a) Identifying the Allusion The language of election and of the “servant” in Isa 44,1–2 resonates the Address of Assurance in Isa 41,8–10, and yet we can identify on the formal level perhaps a more immediate allusion to Ps 78,68–70. The language of election and of the “servant” is found widely in Deuteronomistic literature, and yet, just as we have found that there is, on the level of form and vocabulary, a more immediate allusion to Deut 4,37 in Isa 41,8 and to Josh 1,9 in Isa 41,9–10, 17 so we can determine, with albeit less confidence, an allusion to Ps 78,68–70 here, especially in formal terms. Those formal terms are the repetition of the expression “to choose” (‫)בחר ב‬. This expression forms an epiphora in alternating lines, Isa 41,1b.2b, and an anaphora in alternating lines in Ps 78,68a.70a. In both Isa 41,1b.2b, the prepostion ‫ ב‬modifies the verb, whereas in Ps 78,68a.70a, the verb ‫ בחר‬takes both the particle ‫ את‬and the preposition ‫ב‬. b) Allusive Composition Despite the difference in particle/preposition, we find that the verb “to choose” (‫ )בחר‬comprises the structuring element in both utterances. In Ps 78,68–72, the verb ‫ בחר‬opens a section on the election of Judah (vv. 68–69), then a section on the election of David (vv. 70–72). In Isa 44,1–2, it opens (v. 1b) and closes (v. 2b) the Address of Assurance. Regarding the exact repetition of the form ‫ בחרתי בו‬in Isa 41,1b.2b, we have now seen several examples of Second Isaiah’s marking allusions and making uniform his message with the alluded utterance through prepositions. 18 Thus, that Isa 44,1b.2b repeats the preposition ‫ ב‬where Ps 78,68a.70a alternates with ‫ את‬and ‫ ב‬shows conformity with the prophet’s allusive style. c) Summary While our identification of the allusion to Ps 78,68–70 in Isa 44,1–2 is tentative as it stands on its own, we shall see in our study of the place of Isa 44,1–5 in Isa 41,1–44,23 that Ps 78 speaks in significant, but subtle, ways in the broader literary context. 2.2.2 Isa 44,2a//Ps 22,10–12 and Jer 1,5 Two pairs of words, each forming an expression, and each making use of the word “from the womb” in a Janus-like reading, mark possible allusions in Isa 44,2a to Ps 22,10–12 and Jer 1,5. We have seen allusions to parts of Ps 22 in Isa 41,14–16.17–20, especially in identifying Jacob-Israel and the Friend as 17 18

See ch. III, §2.2.1–§2.2.3. See ch. IV, §2.2.2–§2.2.4.

209

Chapter V. Isa 44,1–5

Lamenter. This lends weight to these words as continuing that allusion, especially in the Address to Jacob-Israel in Isa 44,1–2. Isa 44,2a

‫כה־א מר יהו ה ע שׂך‬ ‫ויצרך מבטן יעזרך‬

‫כי־את ה גח י מב טן‬ ‫מבט יחי ע ל־שׁד י אמי‬ ‫עליך השׁלכת י מרח ם‬ ‫מב ט ן א מ י א ל י א ת ה‬ ‫אל־ת רחק ממנ י‬ ‫כי־צרה ק רו ב ה‬ ‫כי־א ין עו זר‬

Ps 22,10a Ps 22,10b Ps 22,11a Ps 22,11b Ps 22,12a Ps 22,12b

Isa 44,2a

‫כה־א מר יהו ה ע שׂך‬ ‫ויצרך מבטן יעזרך‬

‫בט רם א צו רך ב בטן יד עת יך‬ ‫ובט רם ת צא מרח ם הקד שׁתיך‬ ‫נביא לג וים נת תיך‬

Jer 1,5a Jer 1,5b

a) Identifying the Allusion Scholars often compare the language in Isa 44,2a of Jacob-Israel’s being “formed from the womb” to similar expressions in Ps 22,10; 71,6; 139,13 as well as to the call of Jeremiah in Jer 1,5,19 and we see here a more explicit allusion to Ps 22,10–12 and perhaps also to Jer 1,5 based precisely on the Janus-like reading of “from the womb” with both “and whom I form” (‫ )ויצרך‬and “he will help you” (‫)יעזר ך‬. That said, the two words comprising the allusion do mark the beginning (Ps 22,10a) and end (Ps 22,12b) of a section of Ps 22, a section also demarcated with the anaphorous use of ‫ כי‬and, as we have already seen, a change in the Object of Discourse. 20 b) Allusive Composition This allusion is, like the allusions we are studying in this chapter, a thematic fragment. That is, it does not give form to the alluding utterance, nor does the structure of the alluding verse place words from the alluded text in any particular relation to its context. Thus, our confidence in the words “from the womb he will help you” (‫ )מבטן יעזרך‬as an allusion to Ps 22,10–12 is based on the much more formally rigorous allusions to Ps 22 in Isa 41,14–16.17–20. Regarding a possible allusion to Jer 1,5a in the expression “Who forms you from the womb,” while the Janus-like position of the word “from the womb” makes such an allusion possible, we should note that the word “who forms you” (‫ )ויצר ך‬is conjoined with “who makes you” (‫)עשׂך‬, and that these two words as participles come from the creation triad given through allusion to Amos 4,12– 19 See J. GOLDINGAY/D. PAYNE, Isaiah 40–55, I, 321–322; U. BERGES, Jesaja 40–48, 319; S. PAUL, Isaiah 40–66, 225–226. 20 See ch. III, §3.2.3 for the structure of Ps 22.

210

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

13 in Isa 43,1a.7b. 21 It seems more likely that Isa 44,2a is a kind Summary Restatement of words from the two earlier Salvation Oracles, Isa 41,8–16.17–20 and 43,1–7. c) Summary Isa 44,2a//Ps 22,10–12; Jer 1,5 is a fragmentary allusion whose identification is made possible by the formally rigorous allusions in Isa 41,14–16//Ps 22,4–9 and Isa 41,17.20//Ps 22,2–3.32. 2.2.3 Isa 44,2b.8b//Deut 32,15 Isa 44,2b Isa 44,8b

‫אל־ת ירא ע בד י יעקב‬ ‫וישׁרו ן ב ח רת י בו‬ ‫ו את ם עד י‬ ‫הישׁ אלו ה מב לע ד י‬ ‫וא ין צו ר ב ל־ידעת י‬

‫ וישׁמן ישׁרו ן ו יב עט‬Deut 32,15a ‫שׁמנת עב ית כשׂית‬ ‫ ויט שׁ א לו ה ע שׂהו‬Deut 32,15b ‫וינ ב ל צו ר ישׁעתו‬

Our identification of and discussion of this allusion begins here in the analysis of Isa 44,1–5, but comes to completion only in our discussion of Isa 44,6–8 in §4. a) Identifying the Allusion The rarity of the sobriquet “Yeshurun” (‫ )ישׁרון‬for Israel suggests some kind of connection to Deut 32,15 (as well as Deut 33,5.26), the only other instances of this epithet. Among those connections within the broader literary context is one we show here, the repetition of the word pair of divine names in Isa 44,8b//Deut 32,15b, “Eloah-Rock” (‫אלוה‬- ‫)צור‬. Aiding our identification of this allusion, based on three names for God, are other identifiable allusions to Deut 32,1–43 in Isa 41–44, many of them already noted by scholars and seen in Table 32, below. 22

See ch. IV, §2.2.1. For studies on the connections between Isa 40–55 and Deut 32,1–43, see B. GOSSE, “Deutéronome 32,1–43,” 114–116; H.C.P. KIM, “The Song of Moses,” 147–171; T. KEISER, “The Song of Moses,” 486–500. 21 22

211

Chapter V. Isa 44,1–5

Table 32: Allusions to Deut 32,1–43 in Isa 41,1–44,23 Isa 42,16a Isa 42,16b Isa 42,16c

‫והולכת י עו רים בד רך לא ידע ו‬ ‫בנת יב ות לא ־יד עו אד ריכם‬ ‫אשׂים מח שׁך לפניהם לא ו ר‬ ‫ומע ק שׁים למישׁו ר‬ ‫אלה הדב רים‬ ‫ישׂיתם ו לא עזבת ים‬

Isa 43,13a 23

‫גם ־מיו ם אנ י הו א‬ ‫וא ין מיד י מציל‬

Isa 43,18a 24 Isa 43,18b

‫אל־ת זכרו רא שׁנות‬ ‫וקדמניות אל־ת תבננ ו‬

Isa 43,24a 25

‫לא ־ק נית לי ב כס ף קנ ה‬ ‫וחלב זבח יך לא הרו יתנ י‬

Isa 44,18a Isa 44,18b Isa 44,19a

Isa 44,23a 26

‫לא ידעו ו לא יב ינו‬ ‫כי טח מראות ע ינ יהם‬ ‫מהשׂכיל לבתם‬ ‫ולא ־ישׁיב א ל־לב ו‬ ‫ולא דע ת ו לא ־ת בונ ה לא מר‬ ‫רנ ו שׁמים כי־ע שׂה יהו ה‬ ‫הריע ו תח תיות א רץ‬

‫הצו ר תמים פע לו‬ ‫כי כל־ד רכיו משׁפט‬ ‫אל א מונ ה וא ין עו ל‬ ‫צד יק וישׁר הו א‬ ‫שׁחת לו לא בנ יו מו מם‬ ‫דו ר ע ק שׁ ו פת לת ל‬

Deut 32,4a Deut 32,4b Deut 32,5a Deut 32,5b

‫ רא ו עת ה כי א ני אנ י הוא‬Deut 32,39a ‫וא ין א להים ע מד י‬ ‫ אנ י א מית ו אח יה‬Deut 32,39b ‫מח צת י ו אנ י א רפא‬ ‫וא ין מיד י מציל‬ ‫זכר ימות ע ולם‬ ‫בינו שׁנ ות ד ו ר־ודו ר‬

Deut 32,7a

‫ אשׁר ח לב זבח ימו יא כלו‬Deut 32,38a ‫ישׁתו יין נס יכם‬ ‫כי־גו י אב ד ע צות המה‬ ‫וא ין ב הם ת בונ ה‬ ‫לו חכמו ישׂכילו זאת‬ ‫יב ינ ו לאח רית ם‬

Deut 32,28a Deut 32,28b Deut 32,29a Deut 32,29b

‫ האזינו השׁמים ו אד ב רה‬Deut 32,1a ‫ ותשׁמע הא רץ אמרי־פי‬Deut 32,1b ‫ כי־א שׁ קדח ה בא פי‬Deut 32,22a ‫ותיק ד ע ד ־שׁא ול תחת ית‬

23 As noted in S. PAUL , Isaiah 40–66, 47. In the same place, Paul shows that part of this expression, “I am He” (‫ )א ני הו א‬appears also in Isa 41,4; 43,10; 46,4; 48,12; 52,6. In Kim’s earlier study (“The Song of Moses in Isaiah 40–55,” 154–155), he rightly lists those passages in which each expression from this allusion appears separately in Isa 40–55: Isa 41,4.28 and 48,12//Deut 32,39a; Isa 44,6 and 45,21//Deut 32,39b. 24 Kim identifies this allusion in “The Song of Moses in Isaiah 40–55,” 152. 25 This expression appears elsewhere only in Lev 4,26, and more obliquely in Lev 9,20. 26 Not uncommon are both the word pair “heavens-earth” (according to Bartelmus [“ ‫שׁמים‬,” 210] there are between 34 and 180 instances of this word pair) and the expression “depths of the earth” (Ezek 26,20; 31,14.16.18; 32,18.24; Ps 63,10; 139,15), but here, in considering the uniqueness of the “depths of the earth” being called to cry out, we note that the word pair “heavens-earth” occupies the opening line of Deut 32, and the expression “Sheol of the depths” (cf. Ps 86,13) the very center of Deut 32.

212

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

b) Allusive Composition The appearance of the these three names near the beginning of the Salvation Oracle (Isa 44,2b) and at the end of the Trial Speech (Isa 44,8b) suggests that we treat the two passages as somehow conjoined through this allusion. However, the case for the relative independence of Isa 44,6–8 comes through the allusion in Isa 44,8b to Ps 18,32. 27 Despite the more immediate allusion to Ps 18,32 in Isa 44,8b, it seems likely that Second Isaiah is using the repetition of the divine epithets “Eloah-Rock” to make a double, Janus-like allusion. On its own, Isa 44,8b closely resembles Ps 18,32, but together with mention of “Yeshurun” in Isa 44,2b, the whole more closely resembles Deut 32,15. This results in an ambivalent unity of Isa 44,1–5 and 44,6–8, one we shall study more closely in §4. c) Summary A single word is often enough to mark an allusion, especially when that word is a unique sobriquet like ‫ישׁרון‬. That this name marks Deut 32,15 in particular is clear from the completion of the allusion to Deut 32,15 in Isa 44,8b, in which we hear the divine names “Eloah” (‫ )אלוה‬and “Rock” ( ‫)צור‬. Isa 44,8b is, in itself, an allusion to Ps 18,32, but as we shall discuss in §3.2.1 below, it is also, like Isa 44,1–2, in which we find the name “Yeshurun,” a kind of Summary Restatement of earlier utterances. 2.2.4 Isa 44,3//Exod 15,8.19b Isa 44,3a Isa 44,3b

‫כי א צק ־מים ע ל־צמא‬ ‫ונזלים על־יב שׁה‬ ‫אצק רוח י ע ל־זרעך‬ ‫וברכת י ע ל־צא צא יך‬

‫ וב רוח א פיך נע רמו מים‬Exod 15,8a ‫ נצב ו כמו ־נד נזלים‬Exod 15,8b ‫ ובנ י ישׂראל הלכו‬Exod 15,19b ‫ביב שׁה בתו ך הים‬

The allusion to Exod 15,8.19b in Isa 44,3 is marked with the unique combination of four vocabulary markers, three of which are found in the same relation to each other in both the alluded and alluding texts.

27 Isa 44,8b may be a conflation of Ps 18,32 and 2 Sam 22,32, as the repetition of “besides” (‫ )מבלעד י‬in the second half of 2 Sam 22,32 becomes, through word play, “I do not know” ( ‫“( )ב ל־ידעת י‬knowledge” a prevalent theme in Isa 41–44) in the corresponding half of Isa 44,8b. Isa 44,8b ‫בל־יד עת י‬ ‫צו ר‬ ‫וא ין‬ ‫מב לע די‬ ‫אלו ה‬ ‫הי שׁ‬ Ps 18,32 ‫זו לת י א להינו‬ ‫צו ר‬ ‫ומ י‬ ‫מב לע די יהו ה‬ ‫אלו ה‬ ‫כי מי‬ 2 Sam 22,32 ‫מב לע די א להינו‬ ‫צו ר‬ ‫ומ י‬ ‫מב לע די יהו ה‬ ‫מי־א ל‬ ‫כי‬ This allusion is another instance of line copying (see ch. II, §2.2.2e).

Chapter V. Isa 44,1–5

213

a) Identifying the Allusion The word “dry land” (‫ )יבשׁה‬always refers to an act of creation or of salvation.28 In close connection with the words “spirit” (‫)רוח‬, “water” (‫)מים‬, and “streams” (‫)נזלים‬, we find an allusion here to the parting of the Red Sea. In Isa 44,3a.3b and Exod 15,8a, the word “water” is paired both to “spirit” and to “streams.” It is the word “streams,” in fact, that sets this allusion apart from the other many instances of the word pair “water-spirit,” 29 and it also positions this particular allusion within the dialogue occuring among the Historical Hymns across Isa 41,1–44,23. We shall discuss this further in §3.1.3, below. Along with the word “dry land,” we are confident of an allusion to Exod 15,8.19b here. There are several allusions to Exod 15,1b–19 elsewhere in Isa 41,1–44,23, as scholars have recognized, as seen in Table 33, below. b) Allusive Composition The allusion to Exod 15,8.19b in Isa 44,3 occurs within the rigorous parallelistic structure of the prophetic verse. Every word finds a parallel in the adjoining half-line, each half-line repeating both the introductory verb, “I shall pour” (‫ )אצק‬and the preposition “on” (‫ )על‬before each indirect object. This structure allows the author to translate the pairing of the word “water” to both “spirit” and “streams” from Exod 15,8, albeit with a new meaning that we shall discuss in §3.2.3, below. As is typical of Second Isaiah’s allusive style, a preposition, ‫על‬, brings cohesion to the alluding verse. This preposition also draws our attention the use of the word ‫“( יבשׁה‬dry land”), for in descriptions of the crossing of the Red Sea, this word takes the preposition ‫( ב‬Exod 14,16.22.29; 15,19).30 This particular pairing of the preposition ‫ על‬with ‫ יבשׁה‬yields new meaning for the alluded words, as we shall see in §3.2.2, below. 28 Out of the 14 instances of the word “dry land” ( ‫ )יב שׁה‬in the OT, seven of them refer directly to the crossing of the Red Sea (Exod 4,9; 14,16.22.29; 15,19; Ps 66,6; Neh 9,11), and one more (Josh 4,22) in imitation of the event. Three more (Gen 1,9.10; Jonah 1,9) refer to the act of creation, and the remaining three (Isa 44,3; Jonah 1,13; 2,11) to some act of salvation. 29 In the act of creation: Gen 1,2; 8,1; Ps 147,18; in an act of salvation: Exod 14,21; 15,8.10; Isa 32,2; 44,3; Ps 18,16; 33,6; in an Oracle of Judgment: Ezek 27,26; regarding God’s incomparability: Isa 40,12–13; Ps 104,3–4; Job 28,25. Berges sees this word, even apart from explicit allusion, as bringing together ideas of creation and salvation: “Es ist jetzt JHWH, der Schöpfer aller Wirklichkeit und Erretter seines Volkes, der jetzt erneut erschaffend und errettend handelt” (Jesaja 40–48, 321). 30 The pairing in Isa 44,4 of the preposition ‫ על‬with the the text-critically difficult ‫ ב‬may reveal the author’s intention in drawing our attention to the replacement of ‫ ב‬with ‫ על‬in the allusion to Exod 15,19 in Isa 44,3.

214

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

Table 33: Allusions to Exod 15,1b–19 in Isa 41,1–44,23 Isa 41,14b Isa 43,14a 31

‫וגא לך קדו שׁ ישׂרא ל‬ ‫גאלכם קד ו שׁ ישׂרא ל‬

Isa 42,10a 32

‫שׁירו ליהו ה שׁיר ח ד שׁ‬ ‫תהלתו מק צה הא רץ‬ ‫יו רד י הים ו מלא ו‬ ‫א י י ם ו י שׁ בי ה ם‬

Isa 42,10b

‫ נחית ב חסדך ע ם ־זו ג אלת‬Exod 15,13a ‫ נהלת בע זך א ל־נו ה קד שׁך‬Exod 15,13b ‫אשׁ י ר ה ל י ה ו ה‬

Exod 15,1b

‫ ירדו ב מצו לת כמו ־א בן‬Exod 15,5b ‫ ישׁב י פלשׁת‬Exod 15,14b ‫ ישׁב י כנ ען‬Exod 15,15b

Isa 42,13a 33

‫יהו ה כגבו ר יצא‬ ‫כא ישׁ מלח מה יע יר קנא ה‬

‫יהו ה א ישׁ מלחמה‬ ‫יהו ה שׁמו‬

Exod 15,3a Exod 15,3b

Isa 43,17a 34

‫המו ציא רכב ־וסו ס‬ ‫ח י ל ו עז ו ז י ח ד ו‬

‫ סוס ו רכבו רמה ב ים‬Exod 15,1b ‫ מרכבת פרע ה ו ח ילו ירם בים‬Exod 15,4a ‫ כי ב א ס וס פרע ה ב רכבו‬Exod 15,19a

Isa 43,21a 35 Isa 43,21b

‫עם ־זו יצרת לי‬ ‫תהלת י יס פר‬

‫ נחית ב חסדך ע ם ־זו ג אלת‬Exod 15,13a ‫ עד ־יע ב ר ע ם ־זו קנ ית‬Exod 15,16b

Isa 44,7a 36

‫ומי־כמו ני יק רא‬

‫ מי־כמכה ב א לים יהו ה‬Exod 15,11a ‫מי ־ כ מ כ ה נ א ד ר ב ק ד שׁ‬

c) Summary Isa 44,3 alludes to the parting and crossing of the Red Sea in Exod 15,8.19b through four vocabulary markers, three of which - “water” (‫)מים‬, “spirit” (‫)רוח‬, 31 See Isa 48,17; 54,5 as well for the expression “Your redeemer is the Holy One of Israel,” which seems, in light of the allusion to Exod 15,13a.16b in Isa 43,21 (listed above), to derive from the play on the end-line words of Exod 15,13. 32 This is to set aside, for a moment, the important question of the possible influence of Ps 96,1a and 98,1a, “Sing to the Lord a new song” ( ‫ )שׁירו ליהו ה שׁיר חד שׁ‬on the expression in Isa 42,10a – or indeed vice-versa. The vocabulary of these psalms does not feature in Isa 44,1–5, the passage that remains the focus of our study. On the relationship of Isa 42,10a to Ps 96,1a; 98,1a, see S. PAUL , Isaiah 40–66, 192; H. LEENE, “History and Eschatology in Deutero-Isaiah,” 238–249, both of whom see these two psalms as earlier. The word pair in the formulation of the expression in Exod 15,1b.2a, “I shall sing to the Lord-My strength and my song is Yah” (‫א שׁירה ליהו ה‬-‫ )ע זי וזמרת יה‬is found, among other places, in the early Song of Deborah, Judg 5,3b: “I, to the Lord, I shall sing; I shall sing praise to the Lord, the God of Israel” (‫)א נכי ליהו ה אנ כי א שׁירה א זמר ליהו ה אלהי ישׂרא ל‬. 33 Paul (Isaiah 40–66, 46) notes that these are the only two instances in which God is called “warrior” (‫)א ישׁ מלח מה‬. 34 Paul (Isaiah 40–66, 45) briefly notes this allusion. 35 These are the only three instances of the expression “this people” (‫)עם ־זו‬. 36 See also Jer 49,19/50,44; Neh 6,11 (each arguably later than Isa 44,7a) for the expression “Who is like me?” (‫ ;)מי כמונ י‬the expression “Who is like you” (‫ )מי כמכה‬in Exod 15,11a is unique.

215

Chapter V. Isa 44,1–5

and “streams” (‫ – )נזלים‬are paired in the same way in both texts, and one of which - “dry land” (‫ – )יבשׁה‬is found in the narrative description of the event (Exod 14,16.22.29) repeated in Exod 15,19b. The author uses the preposition ‫ על‬to give structure to the parallel lines, vv. 3a.3b, as well as the potential for new meaning to the words they qualify. 2.2.5 Isa 44,4//Ps 104,14 Isa 44,4a Isa 44,4b

‫וצמח ו ב בין ח צי ר‬ ‫כע רב ים על־יב לי־מים‬

‫מצמ יח ח ציר לב המה‬ ‫וע שׂב לעב דת האדם‬

Ps 104,14a Ps 104,14b

That these two words represent an allusion is based on the uniqueness of this word pair, their position in their respective texts, and the resulting ambivalence they achieve. a) Identifying the Allusion Two external factors render more plausible that these two words, “to sprout” (‫ )וצמחו‬and “grass” (‫ )חציר‬represent an allusion. First, Isa 44,4a breaks the repetitive structure of Isa 44,3a–4b, especially in the regularity of the preposition ‫על‬, but also in that this moment represents a shift in verbs from the first-person singular to the third-person plural, just as at the corresponding moment in Ps 104,14a, we hear a shift from the third-person singular (v. 13b) to the participial form (the alternation of participle for God’s action and finite verb for the creature is characteristic of Ps 104,10–14). Second, as we see, Second Isaiah makes allusion to Ps 104,2–6 in Isa 42,5: 37 Isa 42,5a

Isa 42,5b

‫כה־א מר האל יהו ה‬ ‫בו רא השׁמים ונ וט יהם‬ ‫רק ע הא רץ וצאצא יה‬ ‫נתן נ שׁמה לע ם ע ליה‬ ‫ורוח להלכים ב ה‬

‫עט ה־א ו ר כשׂלמה‬ ‫נוט ה שׁמים כיריע ה‬ ‫המק רה במים ע ליות יו‬ ‫השׂם ־ע בים רכו בו‬ ‫המהלך על־כנ פי־רוח‬ ‫ע שׂה מלאכיו רוח ות‬ ‫משׁרת יו א שׁ להט‬ ‫יסד ־א רץ ע ל־מכו נ יה‬

Ps 104,2a Ps 104,2b Ps 104,3a Ps 104,3b Ps 104,3c Ps 104,4a Ps 104,4b Ps 104,5a

37 This allusion seems to take part in a much longer arc of allusions to Ps 104 in Isa 40– 54, particulary through the pairing of two independent cosmogonic expressions: “Who stretches out the heavens” (‫)נוט ה שׁמים‬, found in Isa 40,22; 42,5; 44,24; 45,12; 51,13.16 (cf. Zech 12,1; Ps 18,10; 104,2b; Job 9,8) and “He has founded the earth” ( ‫)יסד ־א רץ‬, found in Isa 48,13; 51,13 (cf. Zech 12,1; Ps 24,2; 78,69; 89,12; 102,26; 104,5; Job 38,4; Prov 3,19). The only utterances in which these two expressions occur together are Isa 51,13; Zech 12,1; Ps 104,2b.5a. That these two expressions come together in Isa 51,13 suggests that the theophanic utterances we have seen elsewhere (see ch. IV, §2.2.2 and §3.2.1) culminate, in a certain way, in Isa 51,12–16. For detailed analysis of these expressions, see N. HABEL, “Who Stretches out the Heavens,” 417–430; T. LUDWIG , “Establishing the Earth,” 345–357.

216

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form ‫בל־ת מו ט ע ולם ו עד‬ ‫תהום כלבו שׁ כס יתו‬ ‫על־הרים יע מדו ־מים‬

Ps 104,5b Ps 104,6a Ps 104,6b

b) Allusive Composition The expression in Ps 104,14, “Who makes grass sprout” ( ‫ )מצמיח חציר‬is split, and inserted between these two words is a word found repeatedly in the literary context of Ps 104,10–14, “between” (‫בין‬, v. 10b; ‫מבין‬, v. 12b). In Isa 44,4a, the word ‫ בין‬may or may not have a different meaning, as noted in §1.2, above. The hapax doubling of the preposition to ‫ בבין‬may, indeed, signal that we should read this word ambivalently, as a preposition and as a species of flora in parallel to another polysemous word, ‫ערב‬, in Isa 44,4b. c) Conclusions We have seen elsewhere that Second Isaiah uses prepositions to mark where we wants us to look for an allusion (e.g., ‫ ב‬in Isa 43,2//Ps 66,6.12, Chapter IV, §2.2.2), and while this allusion on its own is somewhat doubtful, its presence with the allusive unit Isa 42,5//Ps 104,2–6 should make us consider the origin of the expression “They will sprout amidst the grass” (‫ )ו צמחו בבין חציר‬in Isa 44,4a. 2.2.6 Isa 44,5//Ps 104,25–26 The following could be a case of an allusion not to the words of the alluded text, but to the way that those words build the structure of their respective utterances. Isa 44,5a

‫זה יא מר ליהו ה אנ י‬ ‫וזה יק רא ב שׁם ־יע קב‬

Isa 44,5b

‫וזה יכתב ידו ליהו ה‬ ‫וב שׁם ישׂרא ל יכנ ה‬

‫זה הים גדו ל ו רחב יד ים‬ ‫שׁם ־רמשׂ וא ין מס פר‬ ‫חיו ת קטנ ות עם ־ג דלות‬ ‫שׁם אנ יות יהלכון‬ ‫לו יתן זה־יצרת לשׂחק ־בו‬

Ps 104,25a Ps 104,25b Ps 104,25c Ps 104,26a Ps 104,26b

a) Identifying the Allusion There are other inner-biblical passages that feature a progressive use of the word “this” (‫)זה‬, such as Ps 24,6–10, but it is the particular alternation of ‫זה‬ with ‫ שׁם‬here, albeit in widely different contexts, that suggests something of an allusion. 38 The allusion would not be to the words per se, as ‫ שׁם‬is a homonym, in each utterance meaning different things (“name” and “there”). However, both passages feature the word “hand” (‫ )יד‬in a way that is difficult to understand. In Ps 104,25a, it describes, perhaps, the width of the sea. In Isa 44,5a, it 38

We shall discuss the repeated pairing of ‫ זה‬with ‫ שׁם‬in Ps 87,4.6 in §3.2.3, below.

Chapter V. Isa 44,1–5

217

describes either the indirect object of the verb “he will write” (‫ )יכתב‬or the means by which such writing occurs. b) Allusive Composition It would seem that the only purpose of alluding to Ps 104,25–26 in Isa 44,5 would be for the structure that it provides. We see a very similar kind of allusion in the near literary context, in Isa 44,9–11//Ps 104,24–27: Isa 44,9a Isa 44,9b Isa 44,10a Isa 44,10b Isa 44,11a Isa 44,11b

‫יצרי־פסל כלם ת הו‬ ‫וחמו ד יהם ב ל־יוע ילו‬ ‫ועד יהם המה ב ל־ירא ו‬ ‫וב ל־ידעו למען יב שׁו‬ ‫מי־יצר אל ו פס ל נ סך‬ ‫לב לת י הוע יל‬ ‫הן כל־ח ב ריו יב שׁו‬ ‫וח רשׁים המה מא דם‬ ‫יתק בצו כלם יע מד ו‬ ‫יפחד ו יב שׁו יחד‬

‫מה־רב ו מע שׂיך יהו ה‬ ‫כלם בח כמה ע שׂית‬ ‫מלא ה הא רץ קנ ינך‬ ‫זה הים גדו ל ו רחב יד ים‬ ‫שׁם ־רמשׁ וא ין מס פר‬ ‫חיו ת ק ט נ ו ת עם ־ג דלות‬ ‫שׁם אנ יות יהלכון‬ ‫לו יתן זה־יצרת לשׂחק ־בו‬ ‫כלם אליך ישׂב רון‬ ‫לתת אכלם ב עתו‬

Ps 104,24a Ps 104,24b Ps 104,24c Ps 104,25a Ps 104,25b Ps 104,25c Ps 104,26a Ps 104,26b Ps 104,27a Ps 104,27b

Here, we see the structural parallels more clearly. Each section opens and closes with “all of them” (‫)כלם‬. Moving concentrically inward, we find first a demonstrative pronoun, “these” (‫ )המה‬or “this” (‫)זה‬, then two pairs of words that are in no way related, “they shall be ashamed” ( ‫ )יבשׁו‬and “there” (‫)שׁם‬. 39 Indeed, both Isa 44,9–20 and Ps 104 as a whole are built on a precise concentric patterns. 40 39 We disagree with Hossfeld (Psalms 3, 46) that, because ‫ ז ה‬is “syntactically subordinated” we cannot speak of a concentric structure here. 40 Goldingay/Payne (Isaiah 40–55, I, 328–336), discussing at length the “didactic” tone and poetic structure of Isa 44,9–20, show its overall concentric pattern, in which vv. 9–11 correspond to vv. 18–20 as a judgments upon the idol makers. Allen (Psalms 101–150, 32) shows that the overall concentric structure of Ps 104 is built upon the repetition of specific words, especially “to do/make” (‫)ע שׂה‬. As a result, vv. 24–30 form one of the central strophes, divisible into two units, vv. 24–26.27–30. In our view, the repetition of ‫ כלם‬in v. 27a would halt such a neat division, as it seems the successive patterns in Ps 104,24–30 overlap on this half-line. In vv. 27–30, the word “they look to you” ( ‫ישׂב רון‬, v. 27a) forms a soundplay pattern with “they are satisfied” ( ‫ישׂבעון‬, v. 28b) and “they return” ( ‫ישׂו בון‬, v. 29c), these verbs closing every third hemistych. Around this last verb we find another concentric pattern built on “spirit” ( ‫ )רוח‬in vv. 29b.30a and “face” (‫ )פנ ה‬in vv. 29a.30b. In Isa 44,12–13, we see a similar break and overlap in pattern, where the words “to engrave” (‫ )ח רשׁ‬in vv. 11a.12a.13a and “to do” ( ‫ )פע ל‬in vv. 12a.12b form small concentric patterns around, respectively, “they will be ashamed” ( ‫ )יב שׁו‬in v. 11b and “he forms it” ( ‫ )יצרהו‬in v. 12b, words already bound by the other concentric pattern in vv. 9a–11b. All this is to say that the both the didactic tone and unique pattern of Isa 44,9–20 possibly stems from structural allusion to Ps 104,24–30, and suggests that the Polemic against idol makers in Isa 44,9–20 plays upon the description of God as creator in Ps 104,24–30.

218

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

In terms of content, we do see an appropriateness to such an allusion. In Ps 104,24–27, the psalmist speaks of God’s goodness toward creation, and in Isa 44,9–11 God speaks of the evils of idolatry. This then helps us to understand the allusion to the interior part of this concentric structure in Isa 44,5//Ps 104,25–26: Jacob-Israel participates in God’s act of creation by inscribing those who would call “to the Lord” (‫)ליהוה‬. c) Conclusions The allusion to Ps 104,25–26 in Isa 44,5 would be unlike any we have seen so far, in that its purpose is to extract a literary structure from the alluded text and not the meaning of the words building that structure. In this way, it represents another degree of abstraction from a similar, structural allusion in Isa 44,1a– 2b//Ps 78,68a–70b. That said, the structural allusion does open a dialogue between these two utterances, as they are related in describing the work of one’s hand: God’s (Ps 104,25a) and man’s (Isa 44,5b; cf. 44,9–11). All of this having been said, the allusions to Ps 104 in Isa 44,1–5 remain the most doubtful and seem to require, for their argumentation, a much broader scope of research into allusion than we have here, encompassing at least Isa 40–54, if not more broadly. 2.3 Allusive Units of Isa 44,1–5 in Composition In contrast to Isa 41,8–16.17–20 and 43,1–7, we do not find that allusion in Isa 44,1–5 generates clearly defined allusive units, apart from Isa 44,1– 2//Ps 78,68–70. While we could interpret this to suggest that Isa 44,1–5 is of a different compositional type than the other two Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44, we might also suggest that we have already begun to see a certain development of compositional form from Isa 41,8–16.17–20, through Isa 43,1–7, to Isa 44,1–5. Indeed, when we consider the allusive units of Isa 44,1–5 as architectonic elements in §3, below, we shall find that Isa 44,1–5 represents a kind of summation of compositional form and architectonic form of the Salvation Oracles. Here, then, we draw some conclusions about the overall compositional form of Isa 44,1–5, first in terms of allusive form (§2.3.1) and then in terms of verbal form (§2.3.2). 2.3.1 Allusion in an Anaphoric/Epiphoric Structure As brought out in our identification of the allusions in Isa 44,1–5 and their composition, Second Isaiah builds this Salvation Oracle with units structured with anaphora and epiphora. First, in Isa 44,1–2, we find carried over from Ps 78,68–70 the epiphora of the expression “Whom I have chosen” (‫)בחר תי בו‬, specifying first “Israel” (v. 1b) and then “Yeshurun” (v. 2b). These expressions are paired to “Jacob my

Chapter V. Isa 44,1–5

219

servant” (v. 1a) and “My servant Jacob” (v. 2b), and each of these lines, v. 1a.2b, begin with an imperative in the second-person masculine singular, “Listen” (‫שׁמע‬, v. 1a) and “Fear not” (‫אל־תיר א‬, v. 2b). These two lines, in their parallel structure, form the outer limits of a concentric pattern, the center of which, v. 2a, features the Messenger Formula, two elements of the creation triad (‫)עשׂך ויצר ך‬, and a fragmentary allusion to Ps 22,10–12 (‫)מבטן יעזרך‬. We have seen the author use epiphora to construct Isa 41,11–12. as well.41 Then, in Isa 44,3–4, the author uses anaphora and prepositions to build another unit. The two halves of v. 3 each begin with the verb “I shall pour” (‫)אצק‬, followed by direct objects that complement each other in parallel (‫רוחי‬/‫)מים‬. The indirect objects of these verbs each take the preposition ‫על‬, uniting the two members of each half line and the two half-lines into a whole bicolon. The repetition of ‫ על‬continues in the second half of v. 4, where it is paired to the preposition ‫ב‬. In the case of Isa 44,3–4, the strong use of prepositions heavily transforms the words from the allusions to Exod 15,8.19b and Ps 104,14. We have seen Second Isaiah use prepositions to structure the parts of the Salvation Oracle in Isa 43,2.3b–4b.5b–6b. 42 Finally, in Isa 44,5, the author uses the repetition of the word ‫“( זה‬this one”) and its alternation with the word ‫“( שׁם‬name”), possibly borrowed from allusion to Ps 104,25–26, to build this verse as a distinct unit. All together, we find the following compositional form: Table 34: Allusive-Formal Composition of Isa 44,1–5 vv. 1–2

Allusion or Formulaic Expression Ps 78,68–70; Ps 22,10–12; creation triad; Fear-Not Formula

Stylistic Pattern Epiphora in a concentric pattern

vv. 3–4

Exod 15,8.19b; Ps 104,14a

Anaphora and repeated prepositions ( ‫)ע ל‬

v. 5

Ps 104,25–26

Repetition and alternation of ‫זה‬/ ‫שׁם‬

2.3.2 Verbal Composition Each of the allusive units of Isa 44,1–5 takes on a distinct verbal shape, like the other Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44. In Isa 44,1–2, we find imperatives (‫שׁמע‬, ‫ )אל־תירא‬joined to participles (‫עשׂך‬, ‫ )ויצרך‬and qatal verbs (‫יעזרך‬, ‫ )בחר תי בו‬describing God in himself and his action toward Jacob-Israel. This, as we shall further discuss in §3.2.1 below, renders it an Address of Assurance like Isa 41,8–10; 43,1. 41 42

See ch. III, §2.2.4. See ch. IV, §2.2.2–§2.2.4.

220

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

In Isa 44,3–4, we find verbs in the yiqtol ( ‫ )אצק‬and weqatal (‫ )ו צמחו‬describing an indeterminate future action, rendering this a Consequence (see §3.2.2, below). In Isa 44,5, we find more verbs in the yiqtol ( ‫יאמר‬, ‫יקר א‬, ‫יכתב‬, ‫ )יכנה‬that we shall intepret as comprising the Purpose (§3.2.3, below). All together, we see the verbal shape of a Salvation Oracle come through: Table 35: Overall Composition of Isa 44,1–5 vv. 1–2

Allusion or Formulaic Expression Ps 78,68–70; Ps 22,10–12; creation triad; Fear-Not Formula

Verbal Form Imperative, qatal, participle

vv. 3–4

Exod 15,8.19b; Ps 104,14a

Future durative yiqtol and weqatal

v. 5

Ps 104,25–26

Future durative yiqtol

3. Approaching Architectonic Form and Interpretation Our interpretation of the allusions to the Song of the Sea (Exod 15,1b–19), the Song of Moses (Deut 32,1–43), Ps 78, and Ps 104 in Isa 44,1–5 proceeds, like it has in previous chapters, from an understanding of the genres of these utterances and the voices that emerge from those genres in the particular composition of the alluded utterances. After discussing the genre of the alluded songs and psalms (§3.1), we shall interpret their role in the alusive units of Isa 44,1– 5 as architectonic elements of a Salvation Oracle (§3.2), before turning to its overall form (§3.3) and chronotope (§3.4). 3.1 Genres of the Alluded Utterances Regarding the genre of Exod 15,1b–19; Deut 32,1–43; Ps 78; 104, they all share in elements of praise and of didacticism. Deut 32 and Ps 78 are broadly considered Historical Hymns because of the way they treat Israel’s sacred history with a didactic purpose. 43 Exod 15 is included with these two in both

43 Nigosian (“The Song of Moses,” 8) claims that the Song of Moses is completely original in genre, “a “covenant lawsuit” inverted to forge a salvation oracle and the whole presented in the didactic mode. It is a Mischgedicht.” Similarly, Thiessen (“The Song of Moses,” 421) argues that the Song of Moses is a “covenant rîb embedded in a hymn,” a Hymn “crafted” for the purpose of liturgy. Like Deut 32, Ps 78 seems to present history toward a didactic purpose, as per A. CAMPBELL, “Psalm 78,” 51–79; R.W.P. HAYS, “Trauma, Remembrance, and Healing,” 183–204.

221

Chapter V. Isa 44,1–5

scholarly and sacred tradition. 44 Ps 104 would be generically distinct from these three, and yet it is possible that the psalmist deliberately translates some of the vocabulary from these Historical Hymns into his Psalm of Praise. For the purposes of simplicity, we shall refer to all four utterances – Exod 15,1b– 19; Deut 32,1–32; Ps 78,1–72; Ps 104,1–35 – as Historical Hymns. Apart from Ps 104, there seems to be a relationship among these utterances not only in terms of genre and typical elements, but some kind of direct, literary dependence among them. First, we shall briefly treat scholarly accounts of this literary dependence as evidence of some kind of dialogue that their authors have crafted between them (§3.1.1). Then, we shall draw out some of the literary characteristics typical of these Historical Hymns and how they seem to transfer into Isa 41–44 (§3.1.2), since, as we have shown above, allusions to these Historical Hymns are found in fragmentary fashion across these chapters of Second Isaiah. 3.1.1 Dialogue between the Historical Hymns The clearest case of literary dependency among these Historical Hymns occurs between Deut 32 and Ps 78, and we shall treat this first. It does not seem to come across in Isa 41–44 that Second Isaiah intends for us to perceive a certain direction of literary dependence between these two hymns, and so we shall treat their appearance together as a kind of “dialogue.” We shall see some participation of Exod 15 in this dialogue as well. First, we should compare the two Hymns most similar to each other in structure, length, and content, Deut 32,1–43 and Ps 78,1–72. 45 The opening lines of Deut 32 and Ps 78 reveal already some kind of intentional reference, one way or the other: Deut 32,1a Deut 32,1b

‫האזינו השׁמים ו אד ב רה‬ ‫ותשׁמע הא רץ אמרי־פי‬

‫האזינ ה ע מי תו רת י‬ ‫הט ו א זנ כם לאמרי־פי‬

Ps 78,1a Ps 78,1b

We see that the introduction to each Hymn (Deut 32,1//Ps 78,1), while addressed to a different audience (“heavens-earth”/”my people”), is framed in

44 Hossfeld (Psalms 2, 286) groups Judg 5, Ps 105, 106, and 136, with Exod 15, Deut 32, and Ps 78, while Christensen (Deuteronomy 21,10–34,12, 785) notes the distinctive orthography that the Talmud requires only for Exod 15 and Deut 32. 45 Scholars have long noted the similarities between these two hymns; see O. EISSFELDT , Das Lied Moses, esp. 5–7. Leonard (“Inner-Biblical Allusions,” 248 n. 22) mentions the Song of the Sea (Exod 15) and the Song of Moses (Deut 32) specifically as texts upon which Ps 78 depends. On the other hand, Campbell (“Psalm 78,” 51–79) denies any allusion in Ps 78 to any Deuteronomistic texts so as to date it to the 10th century, which could suggest dependence of Deut 32 on Ps 78, but Leonard’s analysis makes the dependence of Deut 32 on Ps 78 less likely.

222

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

nearly identical expressions: “give ear ( ‫ …)האזינו‬to the utterance of my mouth (‫)אמר י־פי‬.” This may be an instance of line copying. We find other stylistic forms of allusion elsewhere in the hymns, but not in such a particular or prominent place within each hymn as a whole: Deut 32,16a Deut 32,16b

‫יקנ א הו בזרים‬ ‫בתוע בת יכע יס הו‬

‫ויכע יס ו הו בב מו תם‬ ‫וב פס יליהם וקנ יא ו הו‬

Ps 78,58a Ps 78,58b

Here, we see an inversion of the opening and closing elements of these verses, in the verbs “to vex” (‫ )הכעיס‬and “to make jealous” (‫)הקניא‬.” Synonyms comprise the middle part of each (“with foreign things-with idols” [‫בזרים‬-‫]בתועת‬, Deut 32,16/”with high places-with idols” [‫בבמו ת‬-‫]בפסילים‬, Ps 78,58). We also find an example of sound play: Deut 32,18a Deut 32,18b

‫צו ר ילד ך ת שׁי‬ ‫ותשׁכח א ל מח ללך‬

‫וישׂימו בא להים כס לם‬ ‫ולא ישׁכחו מע ללי־א ל‬

Ps 78,7a Ps 78,7b

In this third example, we hear sound play as the description of Israel’s past infidelity in Deut 32,18b, “You forgot El who bore you” (‫ )ו תשׁכח אל מחללך‬becomes in Ps 78,7b (or vice versa) a prescription for future fidelity, “Lest they forget the deeds of El” (‫)ולא ישׁכחו מעללי־אל‬. 46 We have shown three examples of some kind of literary dependency between Deut 32 and Ps 78 (the clearest that we can find), each of which feature a different stylistic form of allusion – line copying, inversion of elements, and sound play – that we have identified in allusion in the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44. We make no claim here about the direction of borrowing among these two Historical Hymns, but we do suggest that Second Isaiah may be revealing, in his allusions to Deut 32 and Ps 78 in Isa 44,1–5, the source of the stylistic forms he employs to make those allusions. Revealing his allusive hand in Isa 44,1–5, we find in these three examples a likely source for the language that Second Isaiah uses to speak of idolatry in Isa 41–44. Important to note here is that it is only the synonyms, and not the shared expressions, that we find in in Isa 41,1–44,23. These words are “listen” (‫( )ותשׁמע‬Deut 32,1b; 41,26; 42,18.20.23.24; 43,9; 44,1)//“extend (your ear)” (‫( )הטה‬Ps 78,1b; Isa 44,20a); “abominations” (‫( )תועבת‬Deut 32,16b; Isa 41,24; 44,19)//“idols” ( ‫( )פסילים‬Ps 78,58b; Isa 42,8). However, while we find “foreign things” (‫( )זר ים‬Deut 32,16a; Isa 43,12), we do not find its counterpart, “high places” (‫( )במות‬Ps 78,58a; but see Isa 58,14a); the same holds for “to bear” (‫)חלל‬ (Deut 32,18b; see Isa 45,10; 51,2; 54,1; 66,7.8 [bis]) and “deeds” ( ‫)מעלל‬

There is perhaps also a word play between Deut 32,18a, “The Rock who bore you” (‫ )צו ר ילד ך‬and Ps 78,7a, “in God their confidence” (‫)ב אלהים כס לם‬, as ‫ כס ל‬can also mean “loins” (as in Lev 3,4.10.15; 4,9; 7,4; Ps 38,8; Job 15,27). 46

223

Chapter V. Isa 44,1–5

(Ps 78,7b; in the book of Isaiah, only Isa 1,16; 3,8.10). It seems, so far, that Second Isaiah is listening to the dialogue between these hymns, and discerning, in the nearly identical structures made through shared expressions, their differences. Second Isaiah finds his words for the ongoing polemic against idolatry in Isa 41–44 in the genre of the Historical Hymns, and in specific moments of contact between them. In an allusion to Exod 15,8 in Ps 78,13 (or vice versa, but less likely so), we find another example of how dialogue between the Historical Hymns informs the language of Isa 41–44, this time in Isa 44,3: 47 Exod 15,8a Exod 15,8b Exod 15,8c

‫וברוח א פיך נע רמו מים‬ ‫נצב ו כמו ־נד נזלים‬ ‫קפאו ת המת ב לב ־ים‬

‫בקע ים ו יעב ירם‬ ‫ויצב־מים כמו ־נ ד‬

Ps 78,13a Ps 78,13b

This example represents the split-up pattern, in which the expression from Exod 15,8b, “Streams gathered like a pile” (‫ )נצבו כמו־נד נזלים‬becomes “He gathered waters like a pile” ( ‫)ויצב־מים כמו ־נד‬. Like in the examples of dialogue between Deut 32 and Ps 78 above, Second Isaiah finds his words in the difference between Exod 15,8 and Ps 78,13, not alluding to the expression “like a pile” but to the word “streams” (‫ )נזלים‬and “water” (‫)מים‬, which appear, along with other words from Exod 15,8 (‫)רו ח‬, in Isa 44,3. We note these examples of “dialogue” between the Historical Hymns, and the specific stylistic gestures of allusion by which their authors make this dialogue, for two reasons. First, the dialogue among the Historical Hymns Exod 15, Deut 32, and Ps 78 seems to be a kind of school for allusion-making. Second Isaiah boasts of his education in this school by alluding to these three hymns specifically in Isa 44,1–5. Second, Second Isaiah seems to take much of his vocabulary from these specific moments of contact between the Historical Hymns (and others, we may suppose) for his prophetic word in Isa 41–44. This first glance at the broader context of Isa 44,1–5 – and the other two Salvation Oracles that we have studied – is provoked by the allusions, as seen in our identification of allusions in §2.2, above. It is at this moment, having studied Isa 41,8–16.17–20 and 43,1–7 on their own terms, that Second Isaiah would have us see allusion in terms of broader feature of biblical literature. 47 Leonard (“Inner-Biblical Allusions,” 251–252) identifies this as an allusion, based especially on the infrequency of the word ‫נד‬. Clifford discusses in some detail another instance of “dialogue,” between Exod 15,13–18 and Ps 78,52–55 (“An Interpretation of Psalm 78,” 133–135; see “Cosmogonic Language,” 4). Both passages speak of God’s “guiding” (‫נ חם‬, Exod 15,13a; Ps 78,53a) his “people” ( ‫עם‬, Exod 15,13a; Ps 78,52a) past their enemies through the “sea” ( ‫ים‬, Ps 78,53b, a summary of the Red Sea event and of Exod 15,14–16) to a “holy pasture” (‫נו ה קד שׁך‬, Exod 15,13b), a “holy precinct” ( ‫גב ול קד שׁו‬, Ps 78,54a), and a “mountain of inheritance” ( ‫הר נ חלת ך‬, Exod 15,17a) that in Ps 78 becomes “this mountain” (‫הר־זה‬, Ps 78,54a), inscribed by a “cord of inheritance” (‫חב ל נח לה‬, Ps 78,55a).

224

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

3.1.2 Double-Valued Words Providing Architectonic Form In addition to specific stylistic forms of allusion and vocabulary from specific moments of contact discerned in the dialogue among the three Historical Hymns alluded to in Isa 44,1–5, there is another important characteristic of the Historical Hymns that Second Isaiah seems to carry over into Isa 41–44, the double-valued word. It is characteristic of Hebrew-language poetry in general (if not all poetry) to play upon the different meanings and values inherent in any given word, and to give structure to a poem, song, or hymn through the repetition of polysemic words. We are not concerned, however, with word play strictly speaking, as a play on the meaning of words, but in a dialogical way, with the emotionalvolitional tones of those words. Very often, the author gives the same word different values within a single utterance, and it is this particular characteristic of the Historical Hymns and Isa 41,1–44,23 that we shall explore before proceeding to an examination of its importance for Isa 44,1–5 and the Salvation Oracles all together.48 The most prominent example of a double-valued word in the Historical Hymns is ‫“( אכל‬eat,” “consume”). With the word ‫אכל‬, the authors of Deut 32 and Ps 78 give a kind of compositional form to these hymns through the repetition of a single word, outside the bounds of stylistic units, such as we have been considering. This insight should help us understand the repetitive use of vocabulary in Isa 41–44 (and beyond) as giving an overall form to these chapters. This word ‫ אכל‬appears five times in Deut 32 and seven times in Ps 78, with different values. First, let us consider its use in Deut 32: Deut 32,13a

He made him ride on the heights of earth And he [man] ate the produce of the fields

‫ירכב הו ע ל־במו תי א רץ‬ ‫ויאכל ת נוב ת שׂד י‬

Deut 32,22a Deut 32,22b

For a fire is kindled in my anger And it shall burn to the lowest hell And it shall consume earth and produce

‫כי־א שׁ קדח ה בא פי‬ ‫ותיק ד ע ד ־שׁא ול תחת ית‬ ‫ותא כל א רץ ו יבלה‬

Deut 32,23a Deut 32,23b

I will gather upon them evils My arrows I will spend against them

‫א ס פ ה ע ל י מו ר ע ו ת‬ ‫ח צ י א כ ל ה ־ בם‬

Scholars have long studied the presence of linking words in Isa 40–55 and in other biblical books, beginning perhaps most notably with Mowinckel’s idea of the Stichwort (see his “Komposition des deuterojesajanischen Buches,” 87–112.242–260). Kim (“The SpiderPoet,” 159–180), summarizing some recent work on this subject, studies what he calls “signposts” connecting Isa 41 to various parts of Isa 1–66 – including the connection that we also have drawn between Isa 41,6–7.8–16 in the word ‫( ח זק‬Ibid., 166–167; see our ch. III, §4). 48

Chapter V. Isa 44,1–5 Deut 32,38a

Who the fat of their sacrifices they did eat Drank the wine of their offerings?

Deut 32,42b

I will make my arrows drunk with blood And my sword shall eat flesh

225 ‫אשׁר ח לב זבח מו יא כלו‬ ‫ישׁתו יין נס יבם‬ ‫א שׁ כ י ר ח צ י מד ם‬ ‫וח רב י ת א כל ב שׂר‬

The word ‫אכל‬, having in these instances nearly the same meaning of “to consume,” nevertheless takes on different values. We see positive values in man’s eating plenty (Deut 32,13a), mixed values in man’s eating the sacrifice to idols (Deut 32,38a), and negative values in God’s destructive wrath (Deut 32,22b.23b.42b). We find this word expressing different values also in Ps 78: Ps 78,18a Ps 78,18b

They tested El in their heart In asking food for their throat

Ps 78,24a Ps 78,24b Ps 78,25a Ps 78,25b

It rained upon them manna to eat And grain of skies he gave to them Bread of mighty ones man ate Food he sent to them in abundance

Ps 78,29a Ps 78,29b Ps 78,30a Ps 78,30b Ps 78,31a Ps 78,31b

They ate and were very satisfied He brought their desire to them They were no stranger to their desire Still they ate with their mouth And the anger of God rose against them He killed [them] in their fatness

Ps 78,45a Ps 78,45b

He sent among them a fly and it ate them And a frog and it destroyed them

Ps 78,63a Ps 78,63b

Fire consumed his chosen ones And his maidens did not marry

‫וינ סו ־א ל ב לב בם‬ ‫לשׁא ל־א כל לנ פשׁם‬ ‫וימט ר עליהם מן לא כל‬ ‫ודגן ־שׁמים נת ן למו‬ ‫לחם א ב ירים א כל א ישׁ‬ ‫ציד ה שׁלח להם לשׂב ע‬ ‫ויאכלו ו ישׂב עו מא ד‬ ‫ותאות ם יב א להם‬ ‫לא ־זרו מת אותם‬ ‫עוד א כלם ב פיהם‬ ‫ואף א להים ע לה ב הם‬ ‫ויהרג ב משׁמנ יהם‬ ‫ישׁלח ב הם ע רב ו יא כלם‬ ‫וצפרד ע ות שׁח יתם‬ ‫בחו ריו א כלה־א שׁ‬ ‫ובתו לת יו לא הו ללו‬

Similarly, the word ‫ אכל‬in Ps 78 takes on a variety of values by which the author seems to bind together his retelling of the moments of Israel’s sacred history: positive values in the miracle of manna (Ps 78,24a.25a); mixed values in movement from satisfaction to insatiable desire (Ps 78,29a.30b); negative values in man’s testing God (Ps 78,18b) and in God’s destruction (Ps 78,45a.63a). The word ‫אכל‬, in its repetition, unifies Deut 32 and Ps 78 each on its own compositionally, and in its double value determines the architectonic form of the relationship of faith between God and Israel as presumed author and reader in multifarious situations. A prime example of double-valued words within the

226

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

Historical Hymns, we shall now look to double-valued words that transfer to Second Isaiah, specifically words describing God and man. 49 3.1.3 Double-Valued Words for God, Man, and Their Relationship Second Isaiah employs specific double-valued words from the Historical Hymns (all four considered together) to Isa 41,1–44,23 and Isa 44,1–5 within this context, especially those expressing divinity, humanity, and some dimension of the relationship between the divine and the human. a) Words Expressing Divinity The hymnists play upon the value of the names, titles, and sobriquets for God. We provide here first a list of those words to show that Isa 41,1–44,23 share with the Historical Hymns a rather high percentage of some of the more rare or ancient names for God. As a benchmark, the instances of the common names for God, ‫ יהוה‬and ‫אלהים‬, at %0.8-%0.9, correspond nearly exactly to the share of these passages within the BHS (at 17/1574 pages, %1.1 of the Hebrew OT). Table 36: Divine Names and Epithets in the Historical Hymns and Isa 41,1–44,23 Word Isa 41,1–44,23 ‫יהו ה‬ 35x 58/6218 0.9% ‫ליהו ה‬ 7/539 1.3%

Isa 42,10a 42,12a 44,5a 44,5c

‫יה‬ 2/46 4.3% ‫אלו ה‬ 3/60 5%

Exod 15 10x

Deut 32 8x

Exod 15,1b

Deut 32,6a

Exod 15,2a 50

Isa 44,8b

Ps 78 2x

Ps 104 8x

Ps 104,33a

Ps 104,35

Deut 32,15b 32,17a*

49 In Isa 41,1–44,23, the only two instances of the word ‫( א כל‬Isa 44,16.19) both appear in expressions of idolators’ eating the meat of their sacrifices. 50 Out of 46 occurences, only 18 are not in the expression “Praise Yah” ( ‫)הלל ו ־יה‬: Exod 15,2; 17,16; Isa 12,2; 38,11 (bis); Ps 68,18; 77,11; 89,8; 94,7; 102,18; Ps 115,18; 118,5.14.17.18; 122,4; 130,3; 135,4.

227

Chapter V. Isa 44,1–5 ‫אל ה י ם‬ 22/2598 0.8%

41,10a 41,13a 41,17b 41,23a* 42,17b* 43,3a 44,6b*

Exod 15,2b

Deut 32,3b 32,17b* 32,37a* 32,39a*

Ps 78,7a 78,10a 78,19a 78,22a 78,31a 78,35a 78,56a 78,59a

Ps 104,1a 104,33b

‫אל‬ 21/235 8.9%

Isa 42,5a 43,10c* 43,12b 44,10a* 44,15b* 44,17a* 44,17b*

Exod 15,2b 15,11a*

Deut 32,4b 32,12b* 32,18b 32,21a*

Ps 78,7a 78,8b 78,18a 78,19b 78,34b 78,35b 78,41a

Ps 104,21b

‫צו ר‬ 12/72 16.7%

Isa 44,8b*

Deut 32,4a 32,13b** 32,15b 32,18a 32,30b 32,31a* 32,31a 32,37b*

Ps 78,15a** 78,20a** 78,35a

Deut 32,8a

Ps 78,17b 78,35b 78,56a

‫עליון‬ 4/31 12.9% ‫קדו שׁ ישׂרא ל‬ 6/31 19.4%

Isa 41,14b 41,16b 41,20b 43,3a 43,14a

Ps 78,41b

* = a reference to a foreign god/non-god/idol ** = a reference to the word ‫ צו ר‬as a natural geological formation

We can see in the list those instances in which the authors play upon the more general terms for “god,” ‫ אלהים‬and ‫אל‬, and so we should focus more upon the more unique words for the God of Israel, “Eloah” (‫ )אלוה‬and “Rock” (‫)צור‬. The double value of the divine epithets “Eloah” (‫ )אלוה‬and “Rock” ( ‫ )צור‬plays a special role in forming the allusion to Deut 32,15 in Isa 44,8b. These two words in Isa 44,8b each contain in their single instance a double value, reference both to the God of Israel and to idols: Isa 44,8b

And you are my witness, is there any Eloah besides me? And there is no Rock that I know of.

‫ואתם עד י הישׁ א לו ה מבלעד י‬ ‫וא ין צו ר ב ל־ידעת י‬

228

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

With each word God affirms himself as “Eloah” and “Rock” while denying the existence of any other. This double value is present especially in Deut 32,1– 43, where once “Eloah” refers to the God of Israel (Deut 32,15b) and once to foreign gods (Deut 32,17a), and “Rock” refers to the God of Israel (Deut 32,4a.15b.18a.30b) and to the geological formation (Deut 32,13b). This double value occurs also in Ps 78,1–72, where it refers once to God (Ps 78,35a) and twice to the natural formation (Ps 78,15a.20a). This is to say nothing of the twofold interpretation of the metaphor of God as “Rock.”51 b) Words Expressing Humanity There are several words in the Historical Hymns that express humanity in a double-valued way. Perhaps most generally do we hear the word ‫ עם‬for “people” in different tones. In Deut 32,1–43, this word takes on both positive values: “He erected boundaries of peoples” (‫יצב גבלת עמים‬, v. 8b); “For the portion of the Lord is his people” (‫כי חלק יהוה עמו‬, v. 9a); “For the Lord will judge his people” ( ‫כי־יד ין‬ ‫יהוה עמו‬, v. 36a); “Rejoice, O nations, his people” (‫הרנינו גוים עמו‬, v. 43a); and negative values: “A people foolish and without wisdom” (‫עם נבל ולא חכם‬, v. 6b); “I made them jealous with a non-people” (‫ו אני אקניאם בלא־עם‬, v. 21b). 52 In Ps 78, this word takes on almost exclusively positive tones identifying Israel (vv. 1a.52a.71a) with some use in negative connotation (vv. 20b.62a). In fact, the word ‫ עם‬features in Isa 41–44 only in association with ‫בחיר‬, as in Isa 43,20b (“My people, my chosen”), followed immediately in Isa 43,21a with the allusion to Exod 15,13a.16b (“This people”), or in the difficult case of ‫ עם־עו לם‬in Isa 44,7a. 53 It is worth noting, then, the use of ‫ בחר‬as a double-valued word in Ps 78, especially as this word comes out through in the allusion in Isa 44,1–2. In verbal form, this expresses election of Judah (Ps 78,68a) and David (v. 70a) simultaneously with the non-election of Ephraim (v. 67b). In noun form ‫בחור‬, it expresses God’s destruction of the “young man” (vv. 31b.63a), the positive expression for youth contradicted by God’s power. This word takes on a

51 Kim (“The Song of Moses,” 159–161) points out that the image of God as “Rock” indicates both strength and moral perfection, especially in contrast to the “fickleness of the people.” 52 In a play on the expression in Deut 32,21a, “They made me jealous with a non-god” ( ‫)הם קנ אונ י בלא ־אל‬. 53 See J. BLENKINSOPP, Isaiah 40–55, 235, for a concise cummary of this textual problem.

Chapter V. Isa 44,1–5

229

positive tone, as we have seen, in Isa 41,8a.9b 54 and as we shall see in Isa 44,1a.2b. 55 Characteristic of the ancient hymns in question is ambivalence about Israel’s patrimony, especially through the word “father” (‫)אב‬. While this word appears in Exod 15,2b in terms of praise, there is a particular double value in Ps 78. There, Israel’s “fathers” are responsible both for handing on the tradition of recounting God’s deeds (Ps 78,3b.5b.12a) and for “sinning” (‫ )חטא‬against God (Ps 78,8a.57a). In Isa 41–44, we find this word on in the negative connation of sin: “Your first father has sinned” (‫אביך בר אשׁון חטא‬, Isa 43,27a). On the other hand, positive notions of paternity are ascribed to God, and only indirectly, as in Isa 43,5b–6b, in which God speaks of “my sons-my daughters” (‫בני‬-‫)בנותי‬. c) Words Expressing the Relationship of the Divine to the Human Second Isaiah tends to fill the Consequence of the Salvation Oracles with metaphorical imagery of two types: that of watering the desert and that of the action of the “wind” or “spirit.” The words that the author uses to build this imagery, especially “water” (‫ )מים‬and “spirit” (‫ )רוח‬he by no means confines to the Salvation Oracles, and so before we can interpret their use in Isa 44,3 (where they are set in parallel) – and eventually in Isa 41–44 – we should understand the possible double value that they have in the Historical Hymns and Ps 104. The word ‫ מים‬in the Historical Hymns, especially as an element of salvation, often has both positive and negative values. Thus, in the Song of the Sea, the piling up of the waters is for the salvation of the Israelites (Exod 15,8a) and for the death of the Egyptians (Exod 15,10b). Ps 78,13b alludes to Exod 15,8a in this positive value given to the waters of the sea (see §2.1.1, above), but in subsequent instances, water as an element of salvation becomes simultaneously the occasion for Israel’s sinning against or testing God, in two accounts of providing water from rock (Ps 78,16b.20a). We have, so far in the Salvation Oracles, heard of water as replenishing the desert (Isa 41,17.18) and as a body to be traversed (Isa 43,2), and in Isa 44,3 we hear of water as, again, something poured upon dry ground, but now defined in parallel to “spirit” (‫)רוח‬, leading us to ponder the value of this word, as well, across Isa 41–44. In Ps 78,8b.39a, ‫ רוח‬refers to humanity’s weakness, but in four instances of this word in Ps 104 we hear the kind of double value that seems to permeate Isa 41–44 (if not the whole of Isa 1–66).56 In Ps 104,3b.4a, ‫ רוח‬refers to the See ch. III, §3.2.1. See §3.2.1, below. The value of ‫ ב ח ר‬in other forms in Isa 41–44 we may need to investigate: ‫ בח ר‬in Isa 41,24; 43,10 (see also Isa 49,7; 56,4; 58,5.6; 65,12; 66,3.4 [2x]); ‫ בחו ר‬in Isa 42,22; ‫ בח יר‬in Isa 42,1; 43,20 (see also 45,4; 65,9.15.22). 56 Kim (“The Spider-Poet,” 164–165) notes the double value of the word “spirit/breath” (‫ )רוח‬in Second Isaiah, that where with ‫ ת הו‬in Isa 41,29 it refers to “emptiness,” in Isa 42,1, 54 55

230

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

primordial elements measurable to God’s power: “Who walks on the wings of the wind” (‫( )המהלך על־כנפי־רוח‬v. 3b), followed immediately by “Who makes the winds his messengers” (‫( )עשׂה מלאכיו רוחות‬v. 4a).57 Then, in Ps 104,29b. 30a, ‫ רוח‬refers to the life breath of creatures, denoting, like in Ps 78, their fragility and dependency upon God. In Isa 41–44, we have seen ‫ רוח‬as the “wind” that blows away chaff (Isa 41,16a), and in the context of that Salvation Oracle, man as “wind and void” (‫רוח ותהו‬, Isa 41,29b). 58 3.1.4 Summary We have spent some more time in §3.1 of this chapter developing a sense for what is important for the genre of the Historical Hymns in interpreting their allusion in Isa 44,1–5, and this has been for several reasons. First, Isa 44,1–5 has shown itself in terms of allusion to be more fully integrated into Isa 41,1– 44,23, and so our look at the genre of its alluded utterances has led to an examination of the voice of these allusions, especially in their double-valued words, in the whole of Isa 41,1–44,23. Second, having situated this transformation of genre within Isa 41,1–44,23, we can better understand Isa 44,1–5 as a summation of the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 within that specific context. Third, we shall be able to carry forward this understanding of double-valued words in the Historical Hymns into our look at the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41– 44 within the greater literary contexts of Isa 1–66. 3.2 Transformation of Genre Our allusion criticism of Isa 44,1–5 in §2 and our look into double-valued words as a characteristic of the Historical Hymns alluded to within have begun to show this Salvation Oracle as more answerable to the literary context of Isa 41–44. In the interpretation of the allusive units of Isa 44,1–2.3–4.5, we

as the “spirit” of God and in 42,3 as the “spirit” of justice, it takes on a positive sense. He concludes that this pairing of the negative and positive sense establish a “bold contrast” between idols and servant. This leads directly into a consideration of the deliberate ambivalence regarding the servant between Isa 41,8–16 and 42,1–4 placed between mention of Hezekiah in Isa 36–39 and Cyrus in Isa 44–45. 57 These participial expressions form part of the allusion to Ps 104,2–6 in Isa 42,5 (see §2.2.5, above). 58 We should also note that the allusion to Ps 103,15 in Isa 40,6b (see ch. II, §2.2.2e) sets up a description of man’s fragility before God’s ‫רוח‬. Additionally, as per the allusion to Ps 104,2–6 in Isa 42,5 identified in §2.2.5a, above, we hear the promise of the gift of God’s “spirit” to his “servant” in Isa 42,1b, near a description of God’s giving “breath-spirit” (‫נ שׁמה‬‫ )רו ח‬to people in v. 5b. There is here a reversal of value from psalm to prophet, as while God continues to be the one who “stretches out the heavens” (Isa 42,5a//Ps 104,2b) and who “founds the earth” (Isa 42,5b//Ps 104,5a), God no longer “walks on the wings of the wind” (Ps 104,3c), but is he who gives “spirit those those walking” on the earth (Isa 42,5b).

Chapter V. Isa 44,1–5

231

shall continue to demonstrate these parts of the whole as architectonic elements of a Salvation Oracle in itself (as we have done for the allusive units of Isa 41,8–16.17–20; 43,1–7 in §3.2 of those chapters) as well as a kind of summation of each architectonic element in its development across Isa 41–44. In each of the sections that follow, we shall look for the common elements of the architectonic unit (a), the specific literary features that bind the Salvation Oracles together in each unit through the form of “answerability” (b), and an overall view of each unit as a summation of its kind as an architectonic element (c). 3.2.1 Isa 44,1–2//Ps 78,68–72 and Ps 22,10–12 as an Address of Assurance The two literary allusions in Isa 44,1–2 serve to make this Address of Assurance a summation of the Addresses of Assurance present in the earlier Salvation Oracles. First, we present what is common in form-critical terms to the three Salvation Oracles, then the literary elements synthesized from earlier oracles, and finally the way these elements make Isa 44,1–2 into a kind of summation of the Address of Assurance. The literary allusions we have identified play a certain role in each of these three aspects of the Address of Assurance. a) Elements in Isa 44,1–2 as Common to the Address of Assurance We find in this Address of Assurance the elements common to the other Addresses of Assurance. This includes the Address to “Jacob-Israel” in vv. 1a.2b and the Fear-Not Formula ( ‫ )אל־תירא‬in v. 2b. These two elements are common to the Addresses of Assurance in Isa 41,8–10.14–15a; 43,1.5a. By this point, we have seen that the Fear-Not Formula, while a genre-typical element, is never literarily independent. That is, we can no longer conclude that the typical element of a Salvation Oracle is a Fear-Not Formula with a ‫כי‬-phrase in the nominal or perfect, but simply the Fear-Not Formula. 59 It occurs either in allusive units as an Address of Assurance (Isa 41,8–10//Deut 4,37 and Josh 1,9; Isa 41,14–15a//Ps 22,4–9; Isa 43,1//Amos 4,12–13; Isa 44,1–2//Ps 78,68–72) or, once, independent of the Address (Isa 43,5a, introducing the sole Reason among the Salvation Oracles). Therefore, the conclusion of some that Isa 44,1– 5 betrays the form of the Salvation Oracle by the absence of a ‫כי‬-clause after the Fear-Not Formula is no longer tenable. 60 Second Isaiah gives architectonic

Cf. Westermann’s results in ch. I, §1.1.4, above. Cf. R.P. MERENDINO, Der Erste und der Letzte, 369, who regards Isa 44,1–5 on these grounds as a Promise of Salvation more akin to Isa 41,17–20; 42,14–16; 51,21–23. Westermann, on the other hand, continuing to regard this as a Salvation Oracle, looks to the promise of forgiveness in Isa 43,25 as the form-critically desired substantion (even if this does not satisfy the requirement for a ‫כי‬-clause in the nominal or perfect). From this he concludes that vv. 3–5 speak not of the event of return from exile, but the extension of the promise of forgiveness to the next generation (Das Buch Jesaja, 109–110). 59 60

232

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

form to these Salvation Oracles through allusive units, not independent formulas. As an Address of Assurance that opens the oracle, we also find a disjunctive exclamation, “But now” (‫ )ועתה‬in v. 1a, just as in Isa 41,8a (homophonic “But now” [‫ )]ו אתה‬and 43,1a. This is a literary element, but one that commonly marks each passage as a Salvation Oracle. Two other elements appear also in the other Addresses of Assurance but not consistently so. The first is the Address to Jacob-Israel as “my servant” (‫)עבד י‬. This appears in Isa 41,8a.9b and here in Isa 44,2b. Regarding Isa 43,1–7, God addresses Jacob-Israel in this way not in the Salvation Oracle proper but in its immediate literary context: as one “blind and deaf” in Isa 42,19 and as “witnesses” in Isa 43,10a. The second inconsistent element is the expression of Jacob-Israel’s “election” (‫)בחר‬. This occurs in Isa 41,8a.9b and here in Isa 44,2b. That it appears along with “servant” in Isa 43,10a shows that Jacob-Israel’s election is bound to his identification as “servant.” It is the allusion to Ps 78,68–70 that gives structure and particular meaning to this Address of Assurance. Just as the psalmist repeats the verb of election (‫)בחר‬, assigning it to Judah (v. 68a) and to David (v. 70a), so the prophet assigns election here to Jacob-Israel twice, but in slightly different ways. The most dramatic change from the psalm occurs in that the one “chosen” is no longer Judah-David, but Israel-Yeshurun representing the twelve tribes. That God is speaking to Israel as a whole, and not the northern kingdom, is evidenced in the replacement of “Israel” in v. 2b with “Yeshurun” (‫)ישׁרון‬. This alludes to Deut 32,1–43, Moses’ address to the twelve tribes – indeed, the other instance of this name appears in Moses’ blessing of each of the twelve tribes in Deut 33. It is here that God makes clear that Jacob-Israel is one people, be they in exile or returned from exile. b) Literary Elements Answerable to Earlier Oracles Three unique, non-generic literary elements in this Address of Assurance serve to make Isa 44,1–2 respond to expressions elsewhere in Isa 41–44 and recapitulate them. The first is the imperative “hear” (‫ )שׁמע‬in Isa 44,1a. This verb appears some 10 times in Isa 41,1–43,28, in forms other than the imperative, 61 but after this instance, along with its repetition in Isa 44,8a, its 24 further instances in Isa 44,9–54,17 are mostly in the imperative. 62 Isa 44,1a marks a turning point from the description of Israel’s non-hearing to a prescriptive summons to hear. This word has not appeared in any other Salvation Oracle, and

61 Indicative, participle, or infinitive: Isa 41,26; 42,2.9.18.20.23.24; 43,9 (bis).12; imperative: Isa 42,18. See also Isa 40,21.22.26.28. 62 Indicative, participle, or infinitive: Isa 44,8; 45,21; 48,3.5.6 (bis).7.8.14; 50,4.10; 52,7 (bis).15; imperative: Isa 44,1; 46,3.12; 47,8; 48,1.12.16.20; 49,1; 51,1.7.21.

Chapter V. Isa 44,1–5

233

so the fact that this new imperative is set precisely in parallel to the Fear-Not Formula in Isa 44,2b, shows us that the ability to hear comes with the message found in this Salvation Oracle. The second unique literary element does come from the Salvation Oracles, the description of God as “your maker” (‫ )עשׂך‬and “your shaper” (‫)ויצר ך‬. In this participial form, it is a summary reference to the Address of Assurance in Isa 43,1a, and as a pair from the creation triad, also to the concluding Purpose in Isa 41,20b and 43,7b. We should not take this description as proper to the genre of Salvation Oracle, since as we have seen, these words come via allusion to Amos 4,12–13 in Isa 43,1.7.63 The third literary element also comes via allusion in an earlier Salvation Oracle. This time, it is a new allusion to an already alluded utterance, Ps 22,10– 12 in Isa 44,2b, as seen in §2.2.2, above. The words “from the womb he helps you” (‫ )מבטן יעזרך‬bring forward elements of the Address of Assurance in Isa 41,14–15a//Ps 22,4–9, in which God addresses Jacob-Israel as a “worm” (‫ )תלעת‬and a “remnant” (‫)מתי‬, just as the psalmist speaks of himself. In Isa 44,2b, God speaks of his care of Jacob-Israel “from the womb,” just as the psalmist speaks of God as caring for him “from the womb” in Ps 22,10–12, the section of the psalm subsequent to the one alluded to in Isa 41,14–15a. Alluding to this part of Ps 22 places the psalm in dialogue with the Historical Hymns, for it builds upon the section in which the psalmist speaks of the trust of “our fathers” in God (Ps 22,4–9, esp. vv. 5–6) and now personalizes it, just as the promise of salvation becomes personalized in Isa 44,5. 64 In addition, this allusion within an address to Jacob-Israel as “servant” heightens the relationship of the “servant” to God as “king,” which we have seen in nuce in Isa 43,1–7 and explicitly in Isa 41,21; 44,6. 65 Again, as an allusion, such an element is not typical of the genre of the Salvation Oracle but it does feature in the same kind of architectonic unit, the Address of Assurance. c) Isa 44,1–2 as a Summation of the Address of Assurance It has been characteristic of the author to form the Address of Assurance with allusions to utterances that themselves seem to represent a kind of summation or summary of their own literary context. Within Isa 41,8–10, the allusion to Josh 1,9 in Isa 41,9–10 is an allusion to an expression that represents the culmination of instances of the Encouragement Formula (‫ )חזק ו אצץ‬in combination with the Fear-Not Formula in Deut–Josh, in dialogue with the Deuteronomistic 63 See ch. IV, §2.2.1 and §3.2.1. These participles later resound in the description of God as creator in the Cyrus Oracle in Isa 45,6b–7.18. 64 Schoors (I am God Your Saviour, 78) calls the expression “from the womb” ( ‫ )מ בטן‬here a “metonymy for the beginnings of Israel’s history.” 65 Baltzer (Deutero-Jesaja, 243) makes this point especially in connection with the mention of “from the womb” as an ANE royal trope.

234

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

theme of Election.66 In Isa 43,1, the allusion to Amos 4,12–13 is to one of a series of participial Hymns found in that prophetic book (with Amos 5,8; 9,5– 6).67 In Isa 44,1–2, Second Isaiah makes this Address of Assurance the summation of all that he inscribes in the earlier Addresses of Assurance. He accomplishes this in two ways: first, by repeating the genre-typical elements, the Address to Jacob-Israel and Fear-Not Formula, as well as elements common to the Addresses of Assurance, such as the address to “my servant” as one “chosen”; second, by summarizing literary-specific elements, like the call to “hear,” the description of God as “maker” and “shaper” of Jacob-Israel, and the allusion to his care for the psalmist “from the womb.” This examination of the Address of Assurance has made us look not just to the earlier Salvation Oracles (Isa 41,8–16.17–20; 43,1–7), but also to Isa 41,1– 44,23 as a whole. As we go forward into a discussion of the Consequence in Isa 44,3–4, we shall see other ways in which Isa 44,1–5 recapitulates the Salvation Oracles within their broader literary context. 3.2.2 Isa 44,3–4//Exod 15,8.19b and 104,14a as a Consequence As a Consequence, Isa 44,3–4 is like the other Consequences of the Salvation Oracles in verbal form, but in terms of imagery, allusion, and Object of Discourse, it is most like the Consequence of Isa 41,17b–19. First, we shall see what is common to the Consequence as an architectonic element of the Salvation Oracle, then we shall attend to the specific differences that make Isa 44,3– 4 a kind of summation or recapitulation of the Consequence answerable to its specific instances. a) Elements in Isa 44,3–4 as Common to the Consequence As we have seen so far, the Consequence, set in the yiqtol with a future-durative aspect and modality, speaks of God’s ongoing care of the Addressee, either Jacob-Israel or the “afflicted and needy” (Isa 41,17b–19). In its temporal-spatial coordinates, the Consequence is vague and seems to refer both to the return from exile and the time that follows. Only in Isa 43,5b–6b do we begin to sense that God is speaking from Jerusalem about a return to there. In these ways, the verbal durative and the geographical indeterminate, along with the use of “water” and “spirit” metaphorically, Isa 44,3–4 as a Consequence is like the other instances of the Consequence in the Salvation Oracles.

66 67

See ch. III, §3.2.1. See ch. IV, §3.2.1.

Chapter V. Isa 44,1–5

235

b) Literary Elements Answerable of Earlier Oracles There are two major differences that set Isa 44,3–4 apart from the Consequences in Isa 41,11–12.15b–16a and 43,2.5b–6b and that render it more like the Consequence in Isa 41,17b–19. The first is the impersonal or indirect Address. In Isa 44,3–4, even after having addressed Jacob-Israel in Isa 44,1–2, God speaks of a third party represented first metaphorically in v. 3a as the “thirsty” (‫ )צמא‬and the “dry ground” (‫)יבשׁה‬, then more literally in v. 3b as “your seed” (‫ )זרעך‬and “your issue” (‫)צאצאיך‬. This third party becomes the subject of the weqatal verb in v. 4, “they will sprout” (‫)וצמחו‬. This is similar to the Consequence in Isa 41,17b–19, in which God, while continuing to speak to JacobIsrael, speaks about a third party, the “afflicted and needy” (‫)העניים והאביונים‬. We identify this third party as the Friend, via the allusion to Ps 22,2–3.32 that gives form to Isa 41,17–20 (in fact, God speaks of the “thirst” [‫ ]צמא‬of the “afflicted and needy” in Isa 41,17a, like in Isa 44,3a). In Isa 44,3–4, this Friend is more clearly the “descendents” of Jacob-Israel, but it is not clear, in the context of highly metaphorical language, whether these are physical descendents, those not in exile, or proselytes. The immediate literary context may help us determine that. The indirect or impersonal nature of this Consequence contrasts with those in Isa 41,11–12.15a–16a; 43,2.5b–6b, which have the future of Jacob-Israel himself as the Object of Discourse. The second major difference in Isa 44,3–4 as a Consequence is the nature of the imagery and thus the kinds of allusions made there. The allusion in Isa 44,3 to Exod 15,8.19b is to a Pentateuchal utterance and yields imagery of water upon the barren landscape. This is similar to Isa 41,18, with its allusions to the Noachic flood in Gen 7,11; Ps 74,15 and the watery plagues in Exod 7,19; 8,1. The allusion to Ps 104,14 yields imagery of flora upon that watered landscape. This is similar to Isa 41,19, with its allusion to the wood of the temple. In contrast, the allusions in the other Consequences are to the psalms (Isa 41,11– 12//Ps 35; Isa 41,14–16//Ps 22; Isa 43,2.//Ps 66; Isa 43,5b–6b//Ps 103) which, even in dialogue with allusions to utterances from the Pentateuch, yield very personal imagery regarding the presence of God and Jacob-Israel’s well-being. c) Isa 44,3–4 as a Summation of the Consequence Isa 44,3–4 becomes a summation of the series of Consequences in the Salvation Oracles both in what it shares with them as architectonic elements and in the specific literary differences between them. In terms of chronotope, every Consequence is set in the future-durative and is spatially indeterminate. In terms of imagery, Isa 44,3–4 brings together two aspects of the earlier Consequences, in that the imagery of flora in the watered desert, although still applied to a distinct third party, sees that third party identified more closely with JacobIsrael, as his “descendents” of one kind or another.

236

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

Within this imagery, we hear a double-valued reference to “water” and “spirit.” As markers to the allusion in v. 3 to Exod 15,8, ‫ מים‬and ‫ רוח‬refer to elements of God’s at-once salvific and destructive wrath. What’s more, Second Isaiah has established the word pair “water” and “spirit” to speak of the immeasurability of God’s creative and salvific action in Isa 40,12–14, outside the more immediate literary context of Isa 41–44 but worth a brief glance. In Isa 40,12, we hear, “Who has measured waters in his hand” (‫)מי־מדד בשׁעלו מים‬, beginning a series referring to the “heavens” (‫)שׁמים‬, “dust of the earth” ( ‫עפר‬ ‫)הארץ‬, “mountains” (‫)הרים‬, and “hills” (‫)גבעות‬, all elements of natural creation measurable only by God. The prophet pairs this image of the immeasurability of creation to God’s knowledge in v. 13, beginning with the word “spirit”: “Who has weighed the spirit of the Lord, and who has made known his counsel?” (‫)מי־תכן את־רוח יהוה ואישׁ עצתו יוד יענו‬, continuing in v. 14 with the words “to discern” ( ‫)בין‬, “justice” (‫)משׁפט‬, “knowledge” (‫)דעת‬, and “understanding” (‫)תבונה‬, words that the prophet repeats throughout Isa 41,1–44,23. As instances of a word pair that refers back to Isa 40,12–14 – and indeed, with its words common to Isa 42,1–9, referring also back to that passage’s allusion to Ps 104,2–6 – we understand “water” and “spirit” to refer, ultimately, to God’s immeasurable action, to something only he can accomplish. We can no longer understand the value of “spirit” here simply as the ens comune of living creatures and hence this Consequence as promising material prosperity, as scholars have done. 68 In Isa 40,12–14; 41,1–44,23, “water” and “spirit” serve to contrast human weakness with divine strength. In this Consequence, God promises to Jacob-Israel what humanity cannot provide for itself because of its immeasurable nature. We shall see in our discussion of the immediate literary context of Isa 44,1–5 what this means for the identification of the Friend and Jacob-Israel’s relationship to them. 3.2.3 Isa 44,5//Ps 104,25–26 as a Purpose The Purpose in the Salvation Oracles has been harder to characterize, as both verbal form and content tend have been different in the closing lines of each oracle. We shall review what has been common to each Purpose statement, what has been particular, and the ways in which Isa 44,5 serves as a summation of the Purpose by summarizing both those commonalities and differences.

68 Seeing the word “spirit” in parallel to “blessings” (‫)ב רכת י‬, Westermann claims that it can only mean “the divine power which creates life in man and nature” (die Gotteskraft, die das physische Leben schafft), and so the thirst and dry are Israel in its present conditions (Das Buch Jesaja, 111). Schoors calls it God’s “vital breath” (I am God Your Saviour, 79).

Chapter V. Isa 44,1–5

237

a) Elements in Isa 44,5 as Common to the Purpose Each of the Purpose statements in the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 determines some aspect of the relationship of Jacob-Israel and/or the Friend to God, usually in terms of praise of, knowledge of, or belonging to. In Isa 41,16b, God speaks to Jacob-Israel about rejoicing and praise, using allusions to the Vow of Praise section of each of the two Lament Psalms alluded to in the body of the oracle. In Isa 41,20, God speaks of the Friend gaining knowledge of God through his acts of creative salvation. In Isa 43,7, God speaks of his “glory” as the purpose of the content of that oracle. In Isa 44,5, we hear God speak about possession, the Friend belonging both to Jacob-Israel and to God. We shall be able to speak more explicitly about Isa 44,5 in discerning where it brings together the differences among the previous Purpose statements. b) Literary Elements Answerable to Earlier Oracles The possible allusion to Ps 104,25–26 in Isa 44,5 may provide, as we have stated above in §2.2.6, a literary structure for we shall now see is a synthesis of previous Purpose statements, especially through three elements. First, the adverb “there” (‫ )שׁם‬in Ps 104 becomes the word “name” (‫ )שׁם‬in Isa 44,5, a word we find in the Purpose of Isa 43,7. In Isa 43,7, this is God’s “name,” but Isa 43,7 is already a Summary Restatement of the foregoing utterance, which begins in Isa 43,1b with God’s calling Jacob-Israel “by your name” (‫)בשׁמך‬. The double value of the “name” in Isa 43,1–7 (belonging to God and to JacobIsrael) becomes singular in Isa 44,5, as the “name” belongs to Jacob (v. 5a) and to Israel (v. 5b). However, the author draws the value of that name as designating one possessed by God – heard in Isa 43,1b as “Mine-are-you” (‫)לי־אתה‬ – into Isa 44,5 through its parallelistic structure, twice pairing ‫ בשׁם‬to a new expression of possession, “the Lord’s” (‫)ליהוה‬. 69 The same double value of the “name” present in the Purpose in Isa 43,7 we hear again in Isa 44,5. Second, the mention of a “hand” brings another double value into the Purpose. The Purpose in Isa 41,20 summarizes its oracle with the expression, “For the hand of the Lord has done this” (‫)כי יד־יהוה עשׂתה זאת‬. This expression in itself brings together two earlier statements about the hands of God and JacobIsrael: Isa 41,10, wherein God’s “right hand of justice” (‫ )בימין צדקי‬secures Jacob-Israel, and Isa 41,13, wherein God strengthens Jacob-Israel’s right hand (‫)מחזיק ימיניך‬. In Isa 44,5b, then, the mention of “his hand” (‫ – )ידו‬referring either to that of the one writing (‫ )וזה יכתב‬or to the surface on which he is writing – brings forward that double-valued expression, and gives it a new ambivalence with regard to whose hand this word refers.

69 The expression “the Lord’s” ( ‫ )ל יהו ה‬in Isa 44,5a.5b is itself a play on this expression as the direction of praise in the Historical Hymns, as seen in Table 36, above.

238

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

Third, the use of demonstrative ‫ זה‬serves to carry forward the ambivalence regarding the identity of the Friend in the earlier Salvation Oracles. Again, this comes via the structural allusion to Ps 104,25–26, in which this word has an ambivalent function, both as a demonstrative, as in “This is the sea” (‫זה הים‬, v. 25a) and as a relative pronoun: “Leviathan, whom you formed” (‫לויתן זה־יצר ת‬, v. 26b). As we have discussed, it is not very clear to whom God refers as “afflicted and needy” in Isa 41,17, or the extent of “each called by my name” in Isa 43,7, or, indeed, who “this” (‫ )זה‬is in Isa 44,5. The abstraction of this word helps make Isa 44,5 the very height, the summation, of ambivalent statements regarding the identity of the Friend in the Purpose of the Salvation Oracles. c) Isa 44,5 as Summation of the Purpose Isa 44,5 recapitulates the Purpose of the Salvation Oracles within their literary context of Isa 41–44. This happens in the ways common to the Purpose, some kind of word determining the relationship of Jacob-Israel and/or Friend to God, and in the ways more specific to each oracle, the double-valued words, like “name” and “hand,” speaking to this relationship. The ambiguity regarding the identity of the Friend continues, if indeed Second Isaiah does not heighten that ambiguity here. Instead of revealing who the Friend is, the author cradles the reader’s interpretation forward into the broader reading of Isa 1–66 in the hands of God and Jacob-Israel. d) Allusion, Summation, and the Historical Identity of the Friend in Isa 44,5 Having demonstrated across nearly three chapters that so much of Second Isaiah’s stylistic gestures in the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 pertain to his inscribing inner-biblical allusions within them and giving them, through those allusions, compositional and architectonic form, and having seen the way that the author transforms the elements of the genres of the alluded utterances, we are in a position to evaluate some of the scholarly claims regarding the identity of the ones spoken of in Isa 44,5. It has not been our purpose to make historicalcritical claims regarding the Salvation Oracles, but many of the historical-critical claims of other scholars rest upon the evaluation of Isa 44,5 in its immediate literary context and in dialogue with other utterances. Summarizing some of these scholarly arguments can provide a way to test our allusion-critical findings and to draw out what is, perhaps, the most controversial question in the interpretation of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44. First, there are scholars who would read Isa 44,5 in isolation from its literary context and from possible allusions. Van Winkle, summarizing earlier arguments, cautions against conclusions on the basis of reading Isa 44,1–5 on its

Chapter V. Isa 44,1–5

239

own. 70 However, he also finds fault with reading Isa 44,1–5 in light of innerIsaianic passages, rejecting claims about inner-biblical exegesis of Gen 1–2 and Gen 12,3 in these verses. 71 Finally, he arrives at a negative conclusion, that since Isa 44,5 does not speak about erasing ethnic distinctions, proselytism per se, or circumcision, it cannot speak of anything but Israelites.72 On these lines, Paul confines his reading to what the words of Isa 44,5 suggest, that this represents not the conversion of the nations en masse, but of a select few, as shown in the word ‫ זה‬in its triple repetition. 73 Second, there are scholars who would read Isa 44,5 in continuity with the other Salvation Oracles, especially Isa 43,1–7. Melugin suggests that in the progression of ideas from Isa 43,1–7, the relatively unimportant motif of “your seed” in Isa 43,5b becomes the central theme of Isa 44,1–5, and that this suggests that Isa 44,5 speaks not of proselytes but of the growth of the remnant made small by exile.74 This would concord with God’s address to Jacob-Israel as “few” (‫ )מתי‬in Isa 41,14b. Similarly, Berges notes that the collective identity of Jacob-Israel in Isa 43,1b, “Mine are you” (‫ )לי־אתה‬is applied to individuals in Isa 44,5, “I am the Lord’s” (‫)ליהוה אני‬, but this does not represent singular cases. 75 He concludes that this represents the gradual conversion of the descendents of the exile and diaspora to the faith of their fathers, a conclusion not inconsistent with the allusions to the Historical Hymns in Isa 44,1–5 and the gradual imagery of the common effort by Jacob-Israel and spirit to break down the mountains and hills in Isa 41,15b–16a.76 Third, we find scholars who interpret Isa 44,5 in light of other biblical utterances. Koole, who sees ‫ זה‬as proselytes, points our attention to Ps 87,4.77 This psalm, as a whole, seems to be filled with the language of Second Isaiah, and Ps 87,4–6 in particular seems to resonate with Isa 44,5: 78 Ps 87,4a

I shall remember Rahab and Babylon to those who know me

‫אזכיר רהב ו בב ל לידע י‬

“It seems hazardous to base a major theological development on the basis of an ambiguous text” (D.W. VAN WINKLE , “Proselytes in Isaiah XL-LV?,” 349). 71 See D.W. van Winkle, “Proselytes in Isaiah XL-LV?,” 349–355. 72 The notion that to speak of proselytes necessitates words about circumcision seems to hail back to Duhm, as Westermann points out in Das Buch Jesaja, 112. 73 See S. PAUL, Isaiah 40–66, 228. 74 See R.F. MELUGIN, The Formation of Isaiah 40–55, 118. 75 See U. BERGES, Jesaja 40–48, 317.323. 76 See ch. III, §3.2.3. 77 See J. K OOLE , Isaiah III, I, 366. See, however, F.L. H OSSFELD/E. ZENGER, Psalms 2, 379–381 for a summary on the debate regarding the interpretation of Ps 87 on this point. 78 Other words reminiscent of Isa 40–54 are: “Rahab” ( ‫( )רהב‬Isa 51,9), “Babylon” ( ‫)בב ל‬ (Isa 43,14; 47,1; 48,14.20), “Kush” (‫( )כו שׁ‬Isa 43,3; 45,14), “to remember” ( ‫)אזכיר‬ (Isa 43,18.25.26; 44,21; 46,8.9; 47,7; 48,1; 49,1; 54,4), “to know” ( ‫( )לידע י‬39x). 70

240 Ps 87,4b Ps 87,5a

Ps 87,6a Ps 87,6b

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form Indeed, Philistia and Tyre with Kush This one is born there And to Zion it will be said, This one and that one is born in her And He, the Most High, will establish her The Lord will count in a register of peoples This one is born there

‫הנ ה פלשׁת ו צו ר עם ־כו שׁ‬ ‫זה ילד ־שׁם‬ ‫ולציון יאמר‬ ‫אישׁ וא ישׁ ילד ־ב ה‬ ‫והוא יכו ננ ה עליו ן‬ ‫יהו ה יס פר בכת וב ע מים‬ ‫זה ילד ־שׁם‬

In addition to the epiphoric combination of ‫שׁם‬...‫זה‬, we find the mention of a “register” ( ‫)כתוב‬, similar to the “writing” (‫ )יכתב‬of Isa 44,5b. In this summary, we notice a difference in interpretation of Isa 44,5 depending on the breadth of the literary context in which one does the interpretation. Those who read Isa 44,5 in isolation identify ‫ זה‬as the physical descendents of Jacob-Israel, something evident in the plain sense of metaphors of vv. 3–4. Those who read Isa 44,5 in light of the other Salvation Oracles arrive at a similar conclusion, nuanced by the growth over time of this group through gradual conversion to monotheistic Judaism of ethnic Jews. However, given the closeness in form and metaphor of Isa 44,3–4 to the Consequence for the Friend in Isa 41,17–20, we should not too hastily identify these only as physical descendents. Those who read Isa 44,5 in light of other biblical utterances identify here converts from among the nations. We suggest that ‫ זה‬speaks to identifying the special relationship of JacobIsrael to the Lord. Whoever the Friend is, they exist in the mutual possession of Jacob-Israel and God. That is, the Salvation Oracle speaks not about the Friend in themselves, but about who Jacob-Israel is to be, with respect to the Friend, before the Lord. 79 This gets to the teleological purpose of the form of the Salvation Oracle: not that the reader identify the historical situation of the utterance, but himself as bringing the utterance to fulfillment. 3.3 Compositional Form of the Utterance with Architectonic Elements Having just discussed the generic qualities of the parts of Isa 44,1–5, we need not describe their characteristics again, but we should note that this Salvation Oracle lacks a Reason in the perfect. We would suggest that, just as the Salvation Oracles have become shorter (9+4 verses in Isa 41,8–16.17–20, 7 verses in Isa 43,1–7, 5 verses in Isa 44,1–5), and just as they have become more synthetic or dense in allusion, so have they been sharpening our focus on the specific role of Jacob-Israel as “servant.” This means fewer expressions of God’s past-perfect action and more of Jacob-Israel’s participation in God’s futuredurative action. In fact, only Isa 43,3b–4b has represented a truly independent

Just as Ps 87, according to Tate (Psalms 51–100, 392), is about God’s intention for Zion before the world; cf. F.-L. HOSSFELD/E. ZENGER, Psalms 2, 382, on Ps 87 as about God’s “special love for Zion.” 79

241

Chapter V. Isa 44,1–5

Reason. All other expressions of God’s action in the verbal perfect have come bound within the Address of Assurance (or a Summary Restatement thereof, as in Isa 41,13; 43,5a) or in the Purpose of Isa 41,20. Such is the case in Isa 44,1–5, where the only expression of God’s action in the verbal perfect comes in the Address of Assurance, Isa 44,1–2 (“whom I have chosen,” vv. 1b.2b). On the whole, then, rather than seeing the Reason as a distinct formal element in the Salvation Oracle, we should take its presence in Isa 43,3b– 4b as exceptional. One more absence draws our attention, and that is of formulas so far seen as typical of the Salvation Oracle. In Isa 44,2b, we do hear the typical Fear-Not Formula. However, we hear no Formula of Divine Presentation, as in Isa 41,10a.13; 43,3a.5a. The only other formula present is the Messenger Formula in Isa 44,2a, which does not belong to any particular prophetic genre (and which appears elsewhere only in Isa 43,1a; Isa 41,14b features the Oracular Formula). In its compositional form, it represents the most synthetic Salvation Oracle, and a summation of the three we have studied. The following table reveals this: Table 37: Compositional Form of Isa 44,1–5 as Salvation Oracle Part Address of Assurance vv. 1–2

Speaker God

Addressee Jacob-Israel

Object Aspect (Modality) Jacob-Israel/God Perfect + Impv.-Nom. (Declarative)

Consequence vv. 3–4

Friend (“offspring”)

Future durative (Declarative)

Purpose v. 5

Friend (“this one”)

Future durative (Declarative)

The only remaining comment we have would be to suggest that the progressive recapitulation of the Salvation Oracle across Isa 41,1–44,23 is made in order to set it in some kind of relation to other types of utterances, especially those that specify the relationship of the “servant” to the Friend. In particular, the absence of a Reason and verbal perfects indicating personal salvation in Isa 44,1–5 suggest that the Salvation Oracle has, in its gradual synthesis, shifting from Jacob-Israel’s salvation to that of those to whom God sets him in relation, the Friend. 80

80 Berges (Jesaja 40–48, 316–317) notes this distinct shift, especially as regards Isa 43,1– 7 and 44,1–5. Goldingay/Payne (Isaiah 40–55, I, 320) note a “perceptible movement” across the three Salvation Oracles, noting that by Isa 44,1–5, we arrive at a sense of “what Israel is to be saved for, not what it is to be saved from” (emphasis added).

242

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

3.4 Chronotope Having touched upon the spatial-temporal situation of Isa 44,1–5 in §3.2, above, we move toward a new appreciation here of the chronotope of the Salvation Oracle, especially in its particular spatial setting. In summary of its temporal qualities, this Salvation Oracle is oriented almost entirely to the future-durative. The only instances of the verbal perfect come in the identification of Jacob-Israel as a “chosen servant”; we hear no more of his past-perfect action. In the rest, we hear the future-durative, describing God’s action upon the metaphorical desert landscape (vv. 3–4) and the reaction of the Friend in joining up with Jacob-Israel (v. 5). There is no spatial determination of this activity, and yet the frequency of desert imagery leads us to speculate as to its value. That is, the images of desert transformation through water and flora come through allusion to God’s exodus miracles in the desert. The durative aspect of the verbal forms describing this transformation do not suggest a moment of completion; rather, even if the prophetic message originates in a call to return from exile, it does end there. We sense that the transformation of the desert is not to make ultimate and permanent changes to the life situation of Jacob-Israel and his Friend, but rather that the desert, metaphorically taken, is the preferred location of God’s saving activity, and the kind of “spiritual” or “religious” location he desires to continue his work of creative salvation. We see this most clearly in the relationship of metaphor to literal word. The “thirsty” in v. 3a are the “seed” of v. 3b, and the “dry ground” of v. 3a are the “issue” of v. 3b. The desert is not the present condition of Jacob-Israel, but of his future and the future of his Friend. Put simply, Jacob-Israel should remain a desert, so that God might work his miracles there.

4. Isa 44,1–5 in Its Literary Context Like Isa 43,1–7, Isa 44,1–5 is preceded by a Disputation (Isa 43,22–25) and followed by a Trial Speech (Isa 44,6–8). We shall look to each for the dialogue that the author creates between them and the Salvation Oracle, through the repetition of specific words. 4.1 Isa 43,22–28 and the Service of the Servant On its own, Isa 43,22–28 exhibits a rather elegant parallel structure, in which some of the verbs with which God describes Jacob-Israel’s “not-doing” he repeats with a different value in the same utterance. Important for Isa 44,1–5, in which God twice addresses Jacob as “servant” (vv. 1a.2b) is the verb “to cause to serve” ( ‫ )העביד‬in Isa 43,23b.24a. First, God claims, “I have not caused you

Chapter V. Isa 44,1–5

243

to serve with an offering” (‫( )לא יעבדתיך במנחה‬v. 23b), then he adds, “Indeed, you have caused me to serve with your sins” (‫( )אך יעבדתני בחטאותיך‬v. 24b). It is possible that the first statement refers to the non-requirement to perform sacrifice in the temple due to its destruction and the exile. 81 More certain is that God’s “service” in the second expression refers to the forgiveness of sins, for in v. 25, God states, “I, I am he who wipes out your transgressions for my sake, and your sins I shall not remember” ( ‫אנכי אנכי הו א מחה פשׁעיך למעני וחטאתיך לא‬ ‫)אזכר‬. In a sense, then, both Jacob-Israel and God take turns as “servant” – Israel in sinning, and God in forgiving those sins. If God addresses Jacob as “servant,” then, it is with a sideways glance to the ways mentioned in this Disputation in which Israel has “not” served God in a positive sense. With this Disputation, we can begin to understand the use of the allusion to Ps 103,12–13 in Isa 43,5b–6b, made in the immediate context of mention – by the prophet himself – of Israel’s sin in Isa 42,24b. Ps 103, as we have seen in Chapter IV, §3.2.4, portrays God as a forgiving father, and indeed the author in Isa 43,5b–6b places this allusion in dialogue with that of Moses’ gaze at the four corners of the earth in retrospect of his own sin. In Isa 43,27, we hear, “your first father has sinned” ( ‫)אביך הראשׁון חטא‬, suggesting that the sin in question is not simply Israel’s behavior in exile, nor in the years leading up to it. In fact, this whole utterance, Isa 43,22–28, resounds with many of the words of Deut 32 and Ps 78, Historical Hymns whose didactic purpose is to recount Israel’s long history of sin.82 Even with a furtive glance at the dialogue between Deut 32 and Ps 78 we can begin to see that the situation of the Disputation, and the Salvation Oracle that follows it, not only extends beyond the return from exile (as has been evident in our look at the chronotope of each Salvation Oracle), but indeed the situation precedes the exile to Israel’s long history of sin. 4.2 Isa 44,6–8 and the Witness of Jacob-Israel to the Uniqueness of God If scholars’ joining of Isa 43,22–28 to Isa 44,1–5 as a single utterance, however much it might betray the characteristics of each section, makes sense in light of the connections we have just seen, we should see Isa 44,1–5 and 44,6–8 as even more tightly bound. Indeed, Isa 44,8 is a kind of inclusio to Isa 44,1–8 as a whole, and for two reasons. First, in literary terms, the “But you” (‫ )ו אתם‬of v. 8b echoes the “But now” (‫ )ועתה‬of v. 1a. The double imperative “Do not dread and do not be afraid” (‫ )אל־תפחדו ו אל־תר חו‬in v. 8a echoes the Fear-Not Formula in v. 2b. The verb “I have made you hear” (‫ )השׁמעתיך‬in v. 8b echoes “Hear” (‫ )שׁ מע‬in v. 1a. Second, in terms of allusion, the mention of the divine Goldingay/Payne (Isaiah 40–55, I, 310) arrive at this conclusion. For instance, we hear of “remembering” (‫ )זכר‬in the context of sin: Isa 43,25b.26a// Deut 32,7a.26b; Ps 78,35a.39a.42a, as well as the particular expression “fat of sacrifice” (‫ )חלב זבח‬in Isa 43,24a//Deut 38a, and “recounting… for the sake of” (‫ )ס פר למע ן‬in Isa 43,26b//Ps 78,6. 81 82

244

Part II. Allusion, Genre, and Compositional Form

names “Eloah” (‫ )אלוה‬and “Rock” ( ‫ )צור‬in Isa 44,8b complete the allusion to Deut 32,15 begun with the mention of “Yeshurun” ( ‫ )ישׁרון‬in Isa 44,2b. 83 This close literary and allusive connection between the two utterances should help us understand better the identity of Jacob-Israel as “servant” and of the Friend. The rest of Isa 44,6–8 as a Trial Speech speaks of the uniqueness of God, in expressions that recapitulate previous utterances. The expression “I am first and I am last” (‫ )אני ראשׁון‬in v. 6b echoes most immediately the expression in Isa 41,4b, “I, the Lord, am first and with the last things I am he” (‫)אני יהוה ר אשׁון‬, but also in a double-valued way, it also focuses the discussion of the “first things” in Isa 41,22.27; 42,9; 43,9.18.27 toward the person of God. We also hear an expression coming from Exod 15,11, “Who is like you?” (‫)מי־כמכה‬, here in v. 7a as “Who is like me?” ( ‫)מי־כמוני‬. With the allusions to Exod 15,11 and Deut 32,15 in this short utterance, we take another furtive glance at their dialogue. The allusion to Deut 32,15 and Ps 18,32 in Isa 44,8b is joined to a statement in v. 8a outlining another Purpose. The plural “But you” in v. 8a comes by reason of the next word, “witnesses” (‫)עד י‬, which in turn comes from the Trial Speech in Isa 43,8–13, specifically v. 10a, where it follows “you” (‫ )אתם‬without the disjunctive-waw. In the rest of Isa 43,10a, we hear, “and my servant whom I have chosen” (‫)ועבדי אשׁר בחרתי‬. This, in turn, echoes Isa 41,8a and recasts the identify of the individual servant in the plural. Once again, the nature of Jacob-Israel’s service is to bear witness to the uniqueness of God, especially now that that same God has forgiven his sins (Isa 43,22–28).

5. Conclusions Isa 44,1–5 serves as the summation of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41,1–44,23 and for their integration into the same literary context conceived as one broader utterance. The rhetorical questions with which the author introduces this part of Isa 40–54 in Isa 40,12–14 find the beginnings of an answer in Isa 44,3: no one can measure God’s action, so he must give his saving gifts. This applies to the “descendents” of Jacob-Israel who, in light of the ambivalance of words throughout this part of Second Isaiah and the Historical Hymns to which the author constantly alludes, are likely both physical descendents and proselytes. In Isa 41,8–16.17–20, we hear through allusion to the Joshua passages and the Psalms of Lament of Jacob-Israel’s new identity as one saved from death and brought into the Promised Land. God is extending to an unspecific Friend this same salvation, by repeating for him the exodus miracles and the gift of the temple.

83

Even if, on its own, Isa 44,8b is an allusion to Ps 18,32, as seen in §2.2.3, above.

Chapter V. Isa 44,1–5

245

In Isa 43,1–7, we hear that this saving action refers specifically to God’s forgiveness of Jacob-Israel’s sins as his fatherly king. In particular, this comes through the exchange of the nations for Jacob-Israel’s life. God extends the promise to Jacob-Israel’s descendents as his own children. In Isa 44,1–5, we hear that this saving action is incommensurable, unachievable by humankind. The gifts of “water” and “spirit” are “blessings” that man, in his weakness, cannot obtain for himself or for his children, powers beyond his measure. These offspring of Jacob-Israel, now seen in light of the Friend of Isa 41,17–20, are likely both the descendents of Jacob-Israel as the future of the Jewish people and those who come to believe in God because of his salvation of Israel, the nations of Isa 43,1–7 “among whom” Israel is “precious” (vv. 4b–5b). The author sets this continuing discourse within the greater context of Isa 41,1–44,23, itself a series, in the form of Disputation and Trial Speech, of contrasts between God’s power and the nothingness of idols. God has “formed” Jacob-Israel to be his “servant,” who to this point has only served God with his sins, “shaping” idols for himself. In Part III, we shall listen for how the Salvation Oracles speak from within Isa 41,1–44,23 toward the rest of the book of Isaiah (Chapter VI) and the Bible as a whole (Chapter VII), so as better to understand the message of salvation and of Jacob-Israel’s – and the reader’s – architectonic self-understanding before God and the world.

Part III

Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 in Isa 1–66 and Beyond. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

Chapter VI

The Voice of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–66 In Part II of this study, we have examined each of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44 on its own for inner-biblical allusion and for the ways that specific allusions have informed the architectonic reading of each oracle in its parts through the transformation of alluded and alluding genre. Now, in Part III, we shall develop a theology of the Salvation Oracles dialogistically, that is, in hearing the Salvation Oracles – Isa 41,14–16.17–20; 43,1–7; 44,1–5 – speak with each other as utterances and together as a whole within their greater literary situation. We define their literary situation as a critical reader according to the ways in which the diachronic reading community1 has transmitted these oracles, in two main canonical boundaries: the book of Isaiah, chapters 1–66, and the Bible as a whole, Old and New Testaments. Studying the Salvation Oracles within Isa 1–66, which we shall do in this chapter, should reveal a theology of that prophetic book, or at least a particular dimension of it. Studying the Salvation Oracles within the canonical Bible, which we shall do in Chapter VII, should reveal a theology of salvation as developed by other readers of these prophetic utterances in their particular historical situation as transmitted through literary form. Literary form can and does bear theological insight, and so our investigation into the place of the Salvation Oracles within Isa 1–66 will proceed according to the results of our look into the allusive form of these utterances from Part II. The scroll of Isaiah may have a long and complex authorial and redactional history, but in our teleological approach to form we treat this history as oriented toward the unity of the book. This means that the Salvation Oracles play no negligible part, and indeed, have an inherent answerability, a way of informing and being informed by the rest of the book, an answerability acted upon by however many human authors are involved in the utterances that surround these oracles. This look into the literary context of the book cannot be exhaustive, and so we shall lay out some criteria by which we limit the scope of and lay out this chapter. First, in §1, we draw together the results of allusion criticism on each of the Salvation Oracles into an understanding of the overall literary form of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44 as a genre and into a methodology for studying them in Isa 1–66. 1

See ch. II, §1.3.1.

250

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

Second, in §2, we listen for the three Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 speaking together, polyphonically, within ever-expanding literary contexts through to Isa 34,1–63,6, the delimitation of which we explain there. There, we draw theological conclusions from hearing the voice of the Salvation Oracles in those situations, with the help of some insights from Bakhtin. Third, in §3, we draw some overall theological conclusions through reading the Salvation Oracles in the light of the rest of Isa 1–66.

1. Progression of Form in the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 In Chapters III–V, we have begun to understand the architectonic form of the Salvation Oracles through the author’s use of literary allusion to make compositional form, and now we shall be able to see the movement or progression of this architectonic form across the three Salvation Oracles we have studied. We shall first see this progression through the development of the allusive units in their stylistic forms of allusion and their designation as architectonic elements (§1.1). We then draw out again the characteristics of the genres of the allusions in the Salvation Oracles and of the prophetic oracles themselves, so as to draw them into our criteria for studying the oracles in Isa 1–66 (§1.2). Finally, some insight from Bakhtin into the meaning of this progression of form shall help us list the criteria by which we choose and delineate utterances for study in Isa 1– 66 (§1.3). 1.1 The Form of Allusive-Architectonic Units 1.1.1 Stylistic Patterns of Allusion In Chapter II, §2.2, we laid out the stylistic patterns of allusion that we expected to find in the Salvation Oracles, each considered within groups of what we have called “formal proportion” (the ratio of alluded words to the relative length of the alluded and alluding utterances), and here we shall see if there is a change or progression in those patterns across the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44 and what importance that movement may have for shaping the voice of the Salvation Oracles. In Isa 41,8–16.17–20, we see a gradual movement in formal proportion, from specific allusions to themes. In Isa 41,8–16, we find allusions made through split and interwoven patterns enriched through alliteration (Isa 41,8– 10//Josh 1,9 and Dtr Election), anaphora/epiphora (Isa 41,11–12//Ps 35,1.4–6), and parallelism (Isa 41,13//Ps 35,2), as well as inversion of elements (Isa 41,14–16//Ps 22,4–9). The Fear-Not Formula and Formula of Divine Presentation take part in the split-up patterns. In Isa 41,17–20, these specific patterns of allusion give way to the inscribing of the themes of Watery Creation

Chapter VI. The Voice of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–66

251

and Re-creation (Isa 41,18) and of the Temple (Isa 41,19) in the parallelistic structure of the utterance, all set within a loose allusive frame (Isa 41,17– 20//Ps 22,2–3.32). In Isa 43,1–7, allusion and theme speak together within each allusive unit. Split and interwoven patterns, enriched through sound play and play on the preposition ‫ב‬, bring together in Isa 43,2 allusions to Ps 66,6.12 and the theme of Ritual Purification in Num 31,23. Line copying and play on the preposition ‫ תחת‬bring together in Isa 43,3b–4b allusion to Ps 47,4–5 and the theme of the Law of Talion. Split-up word pairs govern the dialogue between Ps 103,12–13 and Deut 3,27 in Isa 43,5b–6b, enriched through play on the prepositions ‫מן‬ and ‫ל‬. While the formulas distinguish these allusive units from each other in Isa 43,3a.5a, the whole is contained through allusion to Amos 4,12–13 in Isa 43,1.7. In Isa 44,1–5, stylistic patterns of allusion give way to non-allusive compositional forms. In Isa 44,1–2, epiphora governs the allusion to Ps 78,68–70, and this in dialogue with the thematic allusions to Prophetic Election (Ps 22,10–12 and perhaps Jer 1,5) and the affective relationship between God and JacobIsrael through nicknames (Deut 32,15). There is in Isa 44,3//Exod 15,8.19b a loose kind of split and interwoven pattern, but one that does not define the allusive unit Isa 44,3–4, which the author composes rather with parallelistic verbal patterns and the preposition ‫על‬, to include a possible allusion to Ps 104,14. There may also be an allusion to Ps 104,25–26 in Isa 44,5, one that provides a stylistic pattern of composition. The allusions in Isa 44,1–5 require, instead, the identification of other allusions to the same alluded utterances throughout Isa 41–44, suggesting that this last Salvation Oracle depends more directly upon its literary context for understanding. We see, then, an overall movement in the stylistic patterns of allusion, in their formal proportion, from Salvation Oracles composed almost entirely with literary allusions (Isa 41,8–16.17–20; 43,1–7) to one built out of its literary situation (Isa 44,1–5). This may correspond to the shift in focus from JacobIsrael in himself (“But you,” Isa 41,8–16), through his relationship to God (“But now,” Isa 43,1–7), toward his relationship to the Friend (“But now, listen,” Isa 44,1–5). 1.1.2 Patterns of Architectonic Elements Whereas form-critical scholars have sought to harmonize these three oracles in their form, indeed identifying five oracles to do so and sometimes rearranging their parts, we can now evince a teleology of the form of these three oracles as a whole with Isa 41,1–44,23 considered as a single utterance. In modifying the architectonic labels for the compositional parts of the oracles so as better to suit their relational determination, we can see a gradual synthesis of

252

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

architectonic elements that draws ever tighter the relationship between God, Jacob-Israel, and the Friend. Table 38: Compositional Form of the Salvation Oracles in Parallel Isa 41,8–16.17–20 vv. 8–10 Address of Jacob-Israel Assurance Josh 1,9; Dtr Election

v. 1 JacobIsrael

Isa 43,1–7 Address of Assurance Amos 4,12–13

vv. 1–2 JacobIsrael

Isa 44,1–5 Address of Assurance Deut 32,15 (Ps 22,10–12; 78,68–70)

vv. 11–12 Enemy

Consequence Ps 35,1.4–6

v. 2 JacobIsrael

Consequence Ps 66,6.12; Num 31,23

vv. 3–4 Friend

Consequence Exod 15,8.19b; Ps 104,14

v. 13 Jacob-Israel

Summary Readdress Ps 35,2

v. 3a

Summary Readdress Jacob-Israel

v. 5 Friend

Purpose

vv. 14–15a Jacob-Israel

Address of Assurance Ps 22,4.7

vv. 3b–4b JacobIsrael

Reason Ps 47; Law of Talion

vv. 15b–16a Enemy

Consequence Ps 35,5

v. 5a JacobIsrael

Address of Assurance

v. 16b Jacob-Israel

Purpose Ps 22,4; 35,9

vv. 5b–6b Friend

Consequence Ps 103,12–13; Deut 3,27

v. 17a Friend

Mock Lament Ps 22,16.27; Num 20,5

v. 7 Friend

Purpose Amos 4,12–13

vv. 17b–19 Friend

Consequence Ps 22,2.3; Gen 7,11; Exod 7,19; 8,1; Temple Mat’l

v. 20 Friend

Purpose Ps 22,32; (Amos 4,12–13)

Chapter VI. The Voice of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–66

253

This table reveals that the compositional form of the Salvation Oracle in its architectonic elements reaches its summation in Isa 44,1–5.2 This is perhaps most striking in the choice of elements that remain, an Address of Assurance, Consequence, and Purpose, which suggest an overall teleology to the Salvation Oracles: God has saved Jacob-Israel for a purpose, one involving the Friend. In the rest of Isa 1–66, we shall be able better to define this Friend. We show the three Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 in composition, with the architectonic labels for the allusive units (in bold), the allusions made there, and the Object of Discourse (in italics). In this schematization of ours, we see only one instance of the Reason, in Isa 43,3b–4b, as a compositional unit set in the perfect and governed by one set of allusions. This is the one place in the Salvation Oracles that mentions any other nation by name and that renders ambiguous the relationship between Jacob-Israel and this Other. Whether the nations are Friend or Enemy is not yet clear, and we shall have occasion to discern more closely this relationship as we listen for the voice of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–66. 1.2 Patterns of Genre in the Salvation Oracles and Isa 1–66 1.2.1 Generic Elements from the Alluded Utterances We have seen how the author, through both the stylistic patterns of allusion and the compositional form of the Salvation Oracles in their architectonic elements, gives an overall dynamic shape to these utterances as a series, and now we shall see how the elements of genre operate within that dynamism. We have identified some important elements of the genre of the alluded utterances in §3.1 of each exegetical chapter, and in summarizing them again here, we hope to demonstrate their function as criteria for studying the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–66. First, allusions to the Psalms of Lament (Ps 22, 35) govern Isa 41,8–16.17– 20 so as to transform Jacob-Israel of the prophetic oracle into the Lamenter of these psalms. This occurs especially in Isa 41,14–16, and corresponds inseparably to the prophetic message regarding the Enemy in Isa 41,11–12, also strictly dependent on allusion to the Psalms of Lament. After speaking of the annihilation of this Enemy and the Consequence for the Lamenter Jacob-Israel in those verses, the prophetic message turns toward the promises to the Friend

2 We should recall that Harner (“Salvation Oracle,” 433) sees in the five oracles of Westermann’s schematization an “ascending parallelism” in which each succeeding oracle “extends the thought of the preceding one.” He then speculates that these oracles, being in the earlier chapters of Second Isaiah, become the “foundation” upon which the author can develop other topics, like Cyrus, Babylon, and other nations. This is very similar to the speculation of this chapter in our study, though we approach Isa 1–66, or at least Isa 34–35; 40– 66, as a deliberate, authorial whole, and not merely an assembly of oral forms.

254

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

of the Psalms of Lament, the plural ‫ענוים‬, in Isa 41,17–20. In so doing, the prophetic author translates the Lamenter-Friend relationship from the Psalms of Lament, ‫ענו ים‬-‫עני‬, into the book of Isaiah. In our look into the rest of Isa 1–66, we shall be particularly attentive to this generic element. Second, allusions to the Psalms of Praise (Ps 47, 66, 103) govern Isa 43,1– 7, so as to transform the God of the prophetic oracle into the fatherly king of these psalms. The Psalms of Praise provide no typical pattern for identifying the psalmist, other than, perhaps, the “assembly” broadly considered, and so the ‫ענו ים‬-‫ עני‬relationship of the Lament Psalms dovetails with the monarchical identity of God in the Praise Psalms now in the prophetic utterance. We shall, then, be attentive to the identification of God as king in Isa 1–66. Third, allusions to the Historical Hymns (Exod 15, Deut 32, Ps 78, 104) govern Isa 44,1–5, and rather than serving to identify God, Jacob-Israel, Friend, or Enemy, they help the prophetic author speak with double-valued words about the relationship between these agents. Conscious that double-valued words, or linking words in general, govern much of the literary form of Isa 1– 66, we shall limit our look into them to how they inform the relationship especially between God and Jacob-Israel. 1.2.2 Generic Elements from the Salvation Oracles There are several words, expressions, and formulas typical of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44 for which we should listen in Isa 1–66. First and foremost is the word “servant” (‫עבד‬, Isa 41,8a.9b; 44,1a.2b; see Isa 42,19a.19b; 43,10a). This word, in the singular and plural form, features prominently in Isa 1–66, especially chs. 40–66, as the Addressee (in Isa 41,1–44,23; 49,7–12), as the Speaker (Isa 49,1–6; 50,4–11; 63,7–64,11), and as the Object of Discourse (Isa 42,1–9; 44,24–45,7; 48,17–20; 52,13–53,12; 54,17; 56,6; 65,8–25; 66,12– 16). Seen in these three literary categories, we already understand, at least to a minimal degree, the role of the “servant” as the author’s literary “hero,” one through whom the author and reader come together for mutual understanding. That mutual understanding begins, in the Salvation Oracles, through the Fear-Not Formula, and so as we trace the contours of the “servant-hero” (hereafter, Servant) in Isa 1–66, we shall be particularly attentive to the ways in which the Servant assumes and transmits the prophetic message surrounding the Fear-Not Formula. This may or may not include instances of the Formula of Divine Presentation, which seems, in our estimation, subordinate to the Fear-Not Formula as part of its reasoning (especially in its attachment to ‫כי‬ clauses in Isa 41,10a.13a; 43,1b.3a.5a). There are other expressions whose importance in the Salvation Oracles we can test through their appearance elsewhere in Isa 1–66. These include the name pair Jacob-Israel, which is not always associated with the Servant elsewhere in the book; indeed, we might find some dimensions of the literary hero

Chapter VI. The Voice of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–66

255

assigned to Jacob-Israel also given to Zion-Jerusalem, especially in Isa 49–54. In addition, the notion of election expressed through the verb ‫( בחר‬and whatever related noun forms we may encounter; see Isa 41,8a.9b; 43,10a; 44,1b.2b) may or may not be associated with the name Jacob-Israel and the Servant. Finally, we shall refrain from locating allusions to the Salvation Oracles’ alluded utterances elsewhere in Isa 1–66, as this would require the same kind of exposition we have provided in chs. III–V. However, other allusions, especially of the thematic kind and other more obvious ones, may help us to orient our understanding of the voice of the Salvation Oracles in literary contexts outside of Isa 41–44, if not, indeed, to define those contexts. 1.3 Architectonic Form and Aesthetic Seeing The progression of form in the series of the three Salvation Oracles in Isa 41– 44, as a way of the author’s situating them into their literary context, has led to our drawing out from the Salvation Oracles the elements of genre by which we might study the place of Isa 41,8–16.17–20; 43,1–7; 44,1–5 within Isa 1–66. This is important because those elements of genre, whether transformed from the Psalms of Lament, Psalms of Praise, and Historical Hymns, or typical of the Salvation Oracles in themselves, are determinative of the author’s giving form to the relationship between God and the reader through the literary hero, the Servant. This relationship, conceived in the aesthetic event of reading the prophetic book, takes its architectonic form from allusion and from these generic elements. In terms of methodological procedure, this means coordinating the ‫ענוי ם‬-‫עני‬ relationship, the identification of God as king, and double-valued words regarding God and man to utterances regarding the Servant and the Fear-Not message of the Salvation Oracles. It does not mean identifying every echo of expressions from the Salvation Oracles, which would too quickly inflate the scope of this chapter. Rather, this procedure shall put into relief elsewhere what the author establishes in the Salvation Oracles, namely the self-consciousness of the reader through Jacob-Israel as lamentable Servant. This is the basic architectonic form of the Salvation Oracles in their composition through the elements of Address of Assurance, Consequence, Reason, and Purpose, a form we hope to elucidate in the other compositional forms of Isa 1–66. Theologically, an insight from Bakhtin should orient our search for architectonic form: The subiectum’s outside-situatedness (spatial, temporal, and valuative) – the fact that the object of empathizing and seeing is not I myself – makes possible for the first time the aesthetic activity of forming. 3

3

M.M. BAKHTIN, Toward a Philosophy of the Act, 67. The subiectum is the reader.

256

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

In other words, God and man contemplate each other in the prophetic oracle, and in an allusive oracle, God as author gradually “reads” Jacob-Israel into existence as his Servant, reshaping the latter’s self-understanding through the literary forms through which he has been praying. This explains, then, the unique Reason among the three Salvation Oracles, in Isa 43,3b–4b, in which God says, in non-allusive fashion, “I love you” (Isa 43,4a). As Bakhtin says, “In aesthetic seeing you love a human being not because he is good, but, rather, a human being is good because you love him.”4 In other words, God loves Jacob-Israel into existence as his Servant and gives him form by contemplating his literature. Through literary allusion, we see that God is a reader of Israel’s own literature. In so doing, God gives the name Jacob-Israel and the title Servant to his hero. Jacob-Israel is, at least in the the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41– 44, God’s own contemplation of his people’s words. As the reader, we shall now try to trace the shape of this Servant in the various literary situations of Isa 1–66.

2. Readers of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 34,1–63,6 In the theological exposition that follows, we shall define the literary situations according to the formal criteria and principle dialogical concern laid out in §1.3, above, namely the architectonic forming of the relationship between God and man through the literary hero, the Servant. If our definitions of literary situations correspond, in some cases, only loosely to those already carefully described by other scholars, it is because, again, we define those contexts according to their answerability to the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 as ongoing and shifting centers of discourse. Thus, in §2.1 we treat Isa 41,1–44,23; in §2.2, Isa 44,24–48,22; in §2.3, Isa 49,1–54,17; in §2.4, Isa 34,1–63,6. In each case, we first give our reasons for delineating the literary context as such, then after treating the aspects within those contexts that respond to the Salvation Oracles, summarize the literary context as a theological situation. 2.1 God Reads the Servant into Existence in Isa 41,1–44,23 In our exegesis of the Salvation Oracles in their immediate literary context, we have come to understand to some degree the larger literary situation we have defined as Isa 41,1–44,23. Thus, with Isa 41,8–16.17–20 we have discussed M.M. BAKHTIN, Toward a Philosophy of the Act, 62. According to Liapunov (Ibid., 98 n. 151), Bakhtin here paraphrases a Russian proverb, “He is dear to me [I love him] not because he is good, but he is good because he is dear to me” (Neh pó khoroshu mil, a pó milu khorush). This corroborates our conclusions regarding Isa 43,1–7 that the forgiveness of sins is not the result of but the reason for the message of the Salvation Oracle, already done by God. 4

Chapter VI. The Voice of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–66

257

Isa 41,1–7.21–29; with Isa 43,1–7: 42,18–25; 43,8–13; with Isa 44,1–5: 43,22–28; 44,6–8. In our identification of the allusions in Isa 44,1–5, we also touched upon the Hymn in Isa 42,10–13, Announcements of Salvation in Isa 42,14–17 and 43,14–21, and a Polemic against idols in Isa 44,9–20. This leaves two particularly important utterances for us to consider, the Servant Song of Isa 42,1–9 and the Announcement of Salvation with Hymn in Isa 44,21–23, which, following upon our identification of architectonic elements within the Salvation Oracles, we shall call a Summary Readdress (like Isa 41,13; 43,3a). 2.1.1 An Unnamed Servant in Isa 42,1–9 Set within the series of oracles we have been studying – Isa 41,8–16; 43,1–7; 44,1–5 – in which God, as Speaker, addresses Jacob-Israel as servant, there occurs another oracle in which God speaks not to but of a nameless servant (Isa 42,1–4) conjoined, as it would seem, to an oracle (Isa 42,5–9) in which God addresses a nameless “you” in the singular (vv. 5–8) and plural (v. 9). We shall listen for the ways in which these two parts of the first Servant Song respond to and anticipate the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44. a) Speaking of the Servant in Isa 42,1–4 In the third-person section of Isa 42,1–4, we hear much that is already familiar to the Salvation Oracles and much that will resonate only in later utterances of Isa 40–66. Thus, in Isa 42,1a, God speaks of “my servant” (‫)עבדי‬, whom “I grasp” ( ‫)אתמך־בו‬, words that resonate the Address of Assurance of Isa 41,8–10 – in fact, words with which the author opens and closes that Address (vv. 8a.10b). Additionally, God speaks of this “servant” as “my chosen” (‫)בחירי‬, which combination of words we have already heard spoken to Jacob-Israel in Isa 41,8a.9b and will again in Isa 44,1b.2b (and in the immediate context of Isa 43,1–7 in 43,10). 5 So far, it would seem that God is speaking of the very same Servant whom he addresses directly in Isa 41,8–16; 43,1–7; 44,1–5. There are many new words regarding this servant, especially those that idealize the servant, that is, that make him the carrier of God’s ideals and ideal in his characterization. 6 Those ideals are specifically “right judgment” (‫משׁפט‬, vv. 1b.3b.4a), “truth” (‫אמת‬, v. 3b), and “teaching” (‫תורה‬, v. 4b). God speaks of the personal qualities of the Servant in bearing these ideals: “my spirit upon him” (‫“ ;)רוחי עליו‬he does not cry out” (‫)לא יצעק‬, an expression that would seem to contradict the voice of the Lamenter from Ps 22 heard in Isa 41,14–16.17–

This specific form of the word we find assigned to Israel in Isa 43,20; 45,4; 65,9.15.22. Blenkinsopp (Isaiah 40–55, 211) offers the possibility of Isa 42,1–9 as the projection of an “ideal Israel.” 5 6

258

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

20;7 and the “teaching” of which God speaks belonging to the servant, as in “the isles wait for his teaching” (‫)ולתור תו איים ייחילו‬. The Fear-Not Formula heard in the Salvation Oracles, along with the forgiveness of the servant’s sins as understood in their allusions and context, would not seem germane to this description of an ideal servant and thus do not appear. b) Speaking to the Servant in Isa 42,5–8 Nevertheless, in Isa 42,5–8, in which God speaks to the second-person masculine singular, we continue to hear words spoken to Jacob-Israel as Servant in the Salvation Oracles. God introduces himself as “creator” (participial ‫ )ברא‬in v. 5b, and in this Divine Self-Presentation we hear the word “its issue” (‫)צאצאיה‬ applied to creation, just as in Isa 44,3b God applies it to the descendants of Jacob-Israel. 8 In v. 6a, God says, “I have called you in righteousness” ( ‫קראתיך‬ ‫)בצדק‬, combining the two words that end the lines Isa 41,9a.10b, and “I have strengthened your hand” (‫)ואחזק בידך‬, very similar in formulation to Isa 41,13a (‫)מחזיק ימינך‬. In v. 6b, God joins these familiar words to a new idea: “I have preserved you and made you as covenant of a people, a light of nations” ( ‫ו אצרך‬ ‫)ואתנך לברית עם לאור גו ים‬. 9 We have heard in the Salvation Oracles about the servant’s role before others, the Friend, specified only as those who would seem to be physical descendants (Isa 43,5b–6b; 44,3–4), but also in ambiguous ways as those who call upon the name of God and Jacob-Israel (Isa 41,17–20; 43,7; 44,5). Even where other nations are mentioned specifically, Jacob-Israel’s prestige does not seem to displace them outright (Isa 43,3b–4b), and as we have discussed, the visibility of Jacob-Israel’s salvation before the “blind and deaf” nations is central to his role as servant (Isa 43,8–13). Indeed, in Isa 42,7a, God defines this mission as “to open the eyes of the blind” (‫)לפקח עינים עורות‬. We may find here in Isa 42,5– 8 the same ambivalence about the identity of the Servant’s descendants, as including the nations from which Jacob-Israel is being saved. In Isa 42,8, God introduces himself again, this time by “name” ( ‫אני יהוה הוא‬ ‫)שׁמי‬, and speaks more words to this unnamed servant that otherwise apply to

Ps 22,2b–3a: “Far from my salvation are the words of my roar; My God, I call out by day” ( ‫ א להי אק רא יומם‬:‫)רח וק מישׁועת י דברי שׁאגת י‬. 8 We note in §2.4.1, below, that the word ‫ צא צא ה‬similarly refers to the created order in Isa 34,1b. The word ‫ צא צא ים‬appears as well in Isa 22,24; 34,1; 42,5; 44,3; 48,19; 61,9; 65,23, and here it seems to play more directly off the author’s use of the verb ‫יצא‬, occurring in Isa 42,1b.3b in reference to “right judgment” (‫)משׁפט‬. Outside of Isa 1–66, this word occurs only in Job 5,25; 21,8; 27,14; 31,8. 9 Paul (Isaiah 40–66, 189) considers ‫ ב רית ע ם‬a “reverse construct” to be read as ‫ע ם ב רית‬, “a people of the covenant.” Thus, God describes two tasks for the servant here, one national and one universal (“a light of nations”). To arrive at this conclusion, he must ignore the preposition ‫ל‬, which sets these two expressions in apposition. 7

Chapter VI. The Voice of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–66

259

Jacob-Israel. This includes first a phrase about “glory”: “And my glory I do not give to another” (‫)ו כבוד י לאחר לא־אתן‬. This has a double value in the context of Isa 41,1–44,23. First, this means “to idols,” as in the words that immediately follow: “and my praises to idols” (‫)ו תהלתי לפסילים‬. God does, however, glorify his servant Jacob-Israel in Isa 43,4a, and as we shall see in §2.3.1 below, the servant of Isa 49,5b. c) Speaking to Multiple Times and Persons in Isa 42,9 In Isa 42,9, we may finally come to the heart of the double value regarding the identity of the Servant spoken of and addressed in Isa 42,1–4.5–8, as the address turns to the second-person masculine plural and God speaks of two distinct time periods. At the very end of this verse, we hear “I tell you” ( ‫אשׁ מיע‬ ‫)אתכם‬, representing a shift from the singular to the plural address of the secondperson. We hear also a shift in time periods that God is describing, from “first things” (‫ )הראשׁנו ת‬to “new things” (‫)חדשׁות‬, and this newly-addressed plurality situated in between them: “before they sprout I tell you” ( ‫נטרם תצמחנה אשׁ מיע‬ ‫)אתכם‬. This word, ‫צמח‬, of course resonates the author’s description of the Consequence in Isa 44,3–4 (v. 4a, in particular), wherein this word describes the growth of Jacob-Israel’s descendants, or the Friend. Isa 42,9 also gives us a shift from the Qal perfect ( ‫ )הנה־באו‬to the Participial and Yiqtol future (‫;אני מגיד‬ ‫)תצמחנה‬, a shift that is so essential to the Salvation Oracles that in its chronotope it helps defines the genre. Just as in the Salvation Oracles addressed to Jacob-Israel, this unnamed Servant in Isa 42,1–9 sits between two time periods, the past-perfect and future-durative, and between a collective “you” otherwise spoken of and to in the singular. In speaking of the Servant as a third-party, and in then speaking to a masculine-singular addressee using the same words by which he speaks to JacobIsrael, it seems that the author is making the reader turn a “sideways glance” in his dialogue with the utterance of Isa 41,1–44,23. That is, God gives form to Jacob-Israel as Servant by making him turn his gaze to ideals not yet realized.10 If the Salvation Oracles describe the transformation of the servant’s past and present into his future, the Servant Song in Isa 42,1–9 prescribes the person that the Servant is or ought to become, one whose “ought” soon builds up into the imperative, “Return to me” (Isa 44,22b).

10 The suggestion by Goldingay/Payne (Isaiah 40–55, I, 209) that the setting for Isa 42,1– 9 is the “heavenly court” is provocative as an “idealized” situation, given Seitz’ similar proposal for the setting of Isa 40,1–11 (“The Divine Council,” 229–247), but it would be outside our scope to develop this further.

260

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

2.1.2 A New Imperative for the Servant in Isa 44,21–23 The only command given to Jacob-Israel in the Salvation Oracles, apart from the imperative “Listen” (‫ )שׁמע‬in Isa 44,1a, is to “Fear not,” and in Isa 44,21– 23 we hear two more imperatives: “Remember these things” (‫ )זכר ־אלה‬in Isa 44,21a and “Return to me” (‫ )שׁובה‬in Isa 44,22b. The imperative to “remember” is meant to make the Servant, still named here Jacob-Israel, bring forward the message of the larger theological situation of sin and salvation in Isa 41,1–44,20 (that Isa 44,21–23 summarizes)11 into the succeeding literary situation. In Isa 44,21, God addresses Jacob-Israel based solely on the words he has spoken in the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41,8– 16; 43,1–7; 44,1–5, and in particular, those regarding the forgiveness of sins. 12 In the Address of Isa 44,21, we hear “my servant are you” (‫עבדי־אתה‬ = Isa 41,9b), “I have formed you” (‫ = יצרתיך‬Isa 43,1a.7b; 44,2a),13 and “a servant to me are you” (‫עבד־לי אתה‬, resonating the Address of Assurance in Isa 43,1b, “mine are you” [‫)]לי־אתה‬. God addresses Jacob-Israel in this Summary Readdress just as in the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44. In Isa 41,22, having readdressed Jacob-Israel as his Servant, God speaks of forgiveness of sins as a Reason for a new imperative to “return.” In Isa 41,22a, we hear similes from nature, as in much of Isa 41–44: “I have blotted out like a storm cloud your transgressions and like a cloud your sins” ( ‫מחיתי כעב פשׁעיך‬ ‫)וכענן חטאותיך‬. 14 We have already understood that the salvation that God achieves for Jacob-Israel involves the forgiveness of sins, in hearing the voice of psalmist of Ps 103,12–13 and of the sinful Moses of Deut 3,27 in Isa 43,5b– 6b, and this in the context of the prophet’s acknowledgement of Jacob-Israel’s

11 Baltzer (Deutero-Jesaja, 268–272) treats Isa 44,21–23 as summarizing three utterances: Isa 44,6–8.9–20; 42,14–44,20. That the words following the imperative “Remember these things” (‫ )זכר־אלה‬summarize those that precede it in Isa 41–44 renders somewhat irrelevant the debate over whether “these things” refers to what precedes Isa 44,21a or what follows in the rest of this brief utterance as a Summary Readdress. Cf. K. BALTZER, DeuteroJesaja, 268–269; U. BERGES, Jesaja 40–48, 356; J. GOLDINGAY/D. PAYNE, Isaiah 40–55, I, 363 12 Blenkinsopp (Isaiah 40–55, 237) notes this, further connecting these words with certain Psalms of Trust. 13 We should also note the double value that the author now gives to the word ‫ יצ ר‬in Isa 44,9–10.21, especially as it renders contrast between God’s action upon Jacob-Israel and that of idolators, a contrast that Berges (Jesaja 40–48, 355) depicts as one of endurance and transience. 14 The only instances of the verb ‫ מח ה‬used in reference to sin are in Isa 43,25; Jer 18,23; Ps 51,3.11. Berges (Jesaja 40–48, 357) notes a connection here to Ps 51,9–12 especially with the remission of sin as a new creation. Even with the use of “return” ( ‫ )שׁו ב‬in both Isa 44,22b; Ps 51,15b in the sense of “conversion from sin,” we cannot see here a direct literary allusion to the psalm.

Chapter VI. The Voice of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–66

261

sins in Isa 42,24. 15 We have heard this specific expression in preparation for the Salvation Oracle of Isa 44,1–5, in Isa 43,25a: “I, it is I who blot out your transgressions for my sake” (‫)אנכי אנכי הוא מחה פשׁעיך למעני‬. 16 The author employs this imagery in order to bring forward in Isa 44,22b an another imperative: “Return to me, for I have redeemed you” ( ‫שׁובה אלי כי‬ ‫)גאלתיך‬. The redemption of which God speaks to Jacob-Israel in Isa 41,14; 43,1 as the reason to “fear not” in those same verses becomes the grounds for the new imperative to return. What Jacob-Israel is not to fear becomes, in this new voicing, the abandonment of idols and a relationship with God. So far, Jacob-Israel’s “return” seems to be moral and not merely geographical.17 The author makes his reader understand this in the words he echoes in v. 23 from the immediately preceding Polemic against Idols in Isa 44,9–20, especially vv. 13–14: 18 in Isa 44,23a, we hear a Summons to Praise first to “mountains” (see Isa 41,15b), then to a “forest and every tree in it” ( ‫יער וכל־עץ‬ ‫בו‬, see Isa 44,13a); in Isa 44,23b, to the well-established image of “redemption” (Isa 41,14b; 43,1b; 44,6a) the author adds that the Lord “will adorn himself in Israel” (‫ ;ו בישׂר אל יתפאר‬see ”adornment” [‫ ]תפארת‬in Isa 44,13b). Jacob-Israel’s command to return is one coordinated to the reversal of words used for idolatry. 2.1.3 An Idealized Situation in Isa 41,1–44,23 There is very little in Isa 41,1–44,23 that speaks of the historical situation of these chapters as a literary unit and much that speaks of the immediate, personal relationship between God and the Servant. 19 Indeed, through the many allusions to the Historical Hymns in these chapters, we see that the author describes the present relationship as if part of Israel’s sacred history. 20 Those Historical Hymns are built on double-valued words, and we see the word “servant” given here such a double value: as one “chosen” for salvation in Isa 41,8–16; 44,1–5, a salvation that renders the “blind and deaf” Servant a “witness” and “messenger” before the nations in Isa 42,18–43,13, and yet whose idealized personal qualities make him/them a “light of nations” in Isa 42,1–9. In Isa 41,1–44,23, we hear of the Servant as an idolatrous sinner, whom God is making into an agent of salvation through his self-conscious recognition as one saved. In light of the “sideways glance” to the idealized Servant by which God See ch. IV, §4. See ch. V, §4. 17 As with Berges (Jesaja 40–48, 357). 18 We could agree with Goldingay/Payne (Isaiah 40–55, I, 366) that this imagery is a personification of the elements of nature, but seemingly more important is that the action of God for Jacob-Israel has now reversed the value of some of these images from earlier utterances, especially the “mountains” set for gradual destruction in Isa 41,15a–16a. 19 See the only mention of “to Babylon” (‫ )ב ב ל ה‬and “Chaldeans” ( ‫ )כ שׂד ים‬in Isa 43,14b. 20 See ch. V, §2. 15 16

262

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

speaks in the Salvation Oracles, we can understand the one instance of the FearNot Formula as a doublet, in Isa 41,10a, where in addition to ‫אל־תיר א‬, we hear, ‫אל־תשׁתע‬, “Do not look about.” There is no identity for the Servant and no message for the reader to be found elsewhere than his standing before God. In complementary fashion, God defines the Servant’s self-consciousness through literary allusion to the psalms and narratives that record and reflect who the Servant has always been before God. This idealized theological situation having been established, the author can bring the moral message forward, “remembering these things” in the geographical return from exile described in Isa 44,24–48,22. 2.2 God Reads Jacob-Israel into Service in Isa 44,24–48,22 In Isa 44,24–48,22, we hear explicitly of the particular historical situation of the Babylonian exile and Persian rule, heard only furtively in Isa 41,1–44,23. We shall try to understand what speaking of the Servant in this concrete situation means for his self-consciousness, in three literary moments: his role visà-vis Cyrus in Isa 44,24–45,25, his relationship to Babylon in Isa 46,1–48,16, and his place before God in Isa 48,17–22. Each of these literary situations we shall define as we proceed. 2.2.1 The Servant before the Nations in Isa 44,24–45,25 Though Isa 44,24–45,25 are often treated as a unit, there is little agreement among scholars as to its internal divisions. 21 Our concern remains the answerability of this literary situation to the Salvation Oracles, and so we focus on four particular moments: Isa 44,24–28, situating the Cyrus Oracle in terms of Jacob-Israel’s salvation; Isa 45,1–7, identifying Cyrus’ purpose with that of the Friend; Isa 45,8, equating the naturalistic imagery of the Salvation Oracles with theological ideas; Isa 45,9–25, situating the Consequence with respect to foreign nations. Other verses of this unit may resonate with expressions from the Salvation Oracles, but seem not to concern the literary hero, the Servant, directly. a) The Servant as Messenger in Isa 44,24–28 In Isa 44,24–28, we begin to hear of the outward turn of the Servant as messenger in the same words spoken to Jacob-Israel in the Salvation Oracles. This happens first with participles expressing God’s creative and salvific action: in

Thus, Baltzer (Deutero-Jesaja, 273–325): Isa 44,24–28; 45,1–8.9–13.14–17.18–19; 20–24.25); Goldingay/Payne (Isaiah 40–55, II, 3–64): Isa 44,24–28; 45,1–8.9–13.14– 17.18–25); Berges (Jesaja 40–48, 363–441): Isa 44,24–28; 45,1–8.9–13.14–17.18–21.22– 25). 21

Chapter VI. The Voice of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–66

263

v. 24a, God addresses Jacob-Israel (presumably, with no marked change in addressee from Isa 44,21–23) with the paired expressions “your redeemer” (‫;גאלך‬ = Isa 41,14b; 43,1b; 44,6a) and “who forms you from the womb” (‫= ויצרך מבטן‬ Isa 44,2a). To this the author adds in v. 24b: “Who stretches out the heavens alone, who beats out the earth by myself” 22 (‫)נטה שׁמים לבד י רקע האר ץ מי אתי‬, words spoken to the idealized servant of Isa 42,5b. 23 This initiates a series of lines, vv. 25a–28b, that each begin with a participle.24 Following a brief Polemic against idolators in v. 25, God speaks in vv. 26a– 28b about Jacob-Israel as a “servant-messenger,” echoing his words regarding the Servant in Isa 41,1–44,23. In Isa 44,26a we hear, “who raises the word of his servant, and the counsel of his messengers he fulfills” ( ‫מקים דבר עבדו ועצת‬ ‫ ;)מלאכיו ישׁלים‬in 42,19, God calls his servant (‫ )עבדי‬his messenger (‫)מלאכי‬. The Servant, as messenger, proceeds from God’s creative power. This procession continues into the participles that follow in Isa 44,26b–28b, which seem to describe both God and the Servant. God’s word becomes that of his messenger-Servant. This word is about the rebuilding of Jerusalem as in vv. 26b–27.28b (alluded to in Isa 41,19)25 as well as about Cyrus’ role in fulfilling God’s plan: just as God “fulfills (‫ )ישׁלים‬the counsel of his messengers” (v. 26a) so Cyrus “fulfills all of my good will” (‫וכל־חפצי ישׁ לם‬, v. 28b). 26 Here the role of the Servant (still Jacob-Israel) as messenger to Jerusalem becomes explicit. Indeed, the form of this utterance as a participial hymn may provide the literary situation, however provisional, for Jacob-Israel’s acceptance of his definition as Servant.27 b) The Message of Cyrus’ Victory in Isa 45,1–7 The author further explicates the content of the Servant’s message as regards the means of Jerusalem’s salvation (Isa 45,1–3) and its purpose (vv. 4–7). This 22 The textual variants, the Qere ( ‫)מאת י‬, scholarly emendation, and the parallel to ‫ לבד י‬all suggest the same basic sense of the text-critical crux, ‫מי א תי‬, as “by myself.” See J. GOLDINGAY/D. PAYNE, Isaiah 40–55, II, 9–10. 23 Compare Isa 42,5b: “Who creates the heavens and stretches them out, who beats out the earth and its issue” ( ‫)בו רא השׁמים ונ וט יהם רקע הא רץ ו צא צא יה‬. 24 These participles are in a particular stylistic order: three in -‫מ‬, three in -‫ה‬, and ‫לא מ ר‬. 25 Paul (Isaiah 40–66, 247) shows the similarity of expression regarding the rebuilding of “the cities of Judah” ( ‫ )ע רי יהוד ה‬in Isa 44,26b and Ps 69,36a, which may be anticipating the clearer allusion in Isa 49,8//Ps 69,14 (see §2.3.2, below). 26 In fact, we can discern another connection in Isa 44,24–28 to Isa 40,9–11, where in v. 11 God speaks of “shepherding” (‫ )רע ה‬his people, calling Cyrus in Isa 44,28a “my shepherd” (‫)רע י‬. If ‫ האמר‬also describes the Servant, than Jacob-Israel is also calling Cyrus “my shepherd” (cf. Ps 23,1b). 27 Per Baltzer (Deutero-Jesaja, 279), who claims that the form-critical designation of Isa 44,24–28 as a hymnic throne scene presents the reader here with the “choosing of the proper counselors” of the ruler.

264

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

section is built on double-valued words and expressions that serve to identify Cyrus as the instrumental cause of salvation. This occurs first in Isa 45,1a, in which the remote Addressee, “to Cyrus his anointed” ( ‫ )למשׁ יחו לכורשׁ‬is a sound play on ‫ מושׁ יע‬of Isa 43,3a; the expression ‫ אשׁר־החזקתי בימינו‬is a conflation of “I have grasped you by the hand” ( ‫אף־תמכתיך בימין‬, Isa 41,10b) and “Who strengthens your hand” (‫מחזיק ימינך‬, Isa 41,13a). 28 In Isa 45,3b, we hear “Who calls you by your name” (‫)הקור א בשׁמך‬, echoing Isa 43,1b (see also Isa 45,4b). Jacob-Israel remains Servant, however, as expressed in Isa 45,4a: “my servant Jacob and Israel my chosen” (‫)עבדי יעקב וישׂראל בחיר י‬, echoing Isa 41,8–10; 44,1–2 (in fact, with the form of the noun ‫בחירי‬, we see here an explicit identification of Jacob-Israel as the unnamed “chosen” servant of Isa 42,1a). Cyrus’ military victory functions to make Jacob-Israel into a Servant of knowing God’s creative power. Twice in Isa 45,3b–7 we hear the word ‫ למען‬as a conjunction forming a purpose clause with the verb ‫ידע‬, for Cyrus’ knowledge of God (v. 3b) and universal knowledge of God (v. 6b). This echoes directly the Purpose of Isa 41,20. 29 This section concludes with the creation triad from Amos 4,13, which itself formed the purpose of knowledge in Isa 43,7: 30 Isa 45,6b Isa 45,7a Isa 45,7b Isa 45,7c

I am the Lord and there is no other forming light and creating darkness making peace and creating evil I, the Lord, make all these

‫אנ י יהו ה וא ין עוד‬ ‫יו צר או ר ו בו רא ח שׁך‬ ‫ע שׂה שׁלום וב ו רא רע‬ ‫אנ י יהו ה ע שׂה כל־א לה‬

c) The Victory of Righteousness in Isa 45,8 In Isa 45,8, a brief hymnic interlude, some of the naturalistic imagery from Isa 44,1–5 is associated now with the theological words “righteousness” and “salvation.” In a sound play, the waters “poured out” ( ‫ )אצק‬as “streams” (‫)נזלים‬ in Isa 44,3a are in Isa 45,8a skies that “stream righteousness” (‫)יזלו־צדק‬. After being set in parallel to “salvation” (‫ )ישׁע‬in Isa 45,8b, this “righeousness sprouts forth” (‫ )ו צדקה תצמיח‬in Isa 45,8b like the “blessings” of Isa 44,3b–4a. The author reinforces this theological redefinition through a split-up and interwoven allusion to two of the utterances alluded to originally in Isa 44,1–5, namely Deut 32 and Ps 78: 31 Compare also ‫ ואח זק ב ידך‬in Isa 42,6a. See ch. III, §3.2.4. 30 If we accept, as per Goldingay/Payne (Isaiah 40–55, II, 6–8), that the author in-tends this hymnic triad as a confrontation with the claims of Babylonian kings, we should insist that he does so not using Babylonian language or that of more ancient hymns, but that of Jacob-Israel’s own prophet. 31 According to Sommer (A Prophet Reads Scripture, 115–117), Isa 45,8 takes part in an allusion to Ps 2 in Isa 44,24–45,8, which we cannot rule out here, given the possibility that “clouds” ( ‫ )שׁחק ים‬serves a double purpose both in the allusion to Deut 32,2a; Ps 78,23a and as sound play upon “he laughs” ( ‫ )ישׂחק‬in Ps 2,4a. 28 29

Chapter VI. The Voice of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–66 Isa 45,8a Ps 78,23a

265

‫הרעיפו שׁמים ממע ל ו שׁח ק ים יזלו ־צדק ת פת ח ־א רץ ו יפרו ־ישׁע‬ ‫ויצו שׁחק ים ממע ל‬ ‫ודלת י שׁמים פתח‬

‫יע רף כמט ר לקח י‬ ‫תזל כטל א מרת י‬

Deut 32,2a

With the word “righteousness” especially, we come to understand the place of the idealized image of the Servant in Isa 42,1–9 in the concrete historical situation of Isa 44,24–45,25. d) Righteousness and the Nations in Isa 45,9–25 In Isa 44,24–45,8, the Servant’s salvation through Cyrus becomes the means by which the world knows God as its creator. The Servant takes part in this salvation by announcing it (Isa 44,24–28). This salvation is now defined as “righteousness” (Isa 45,8), a word introduced, it seems, to describe God’s action on behalf of the Servant before the world. In Isa 45,9–25, we hear of the response by the nations to this word, some expressions of which echo the Salvation Oracles directly. In Isa 45,14a, the author presents again the nations of Egypt, Kush, and Seba as in Isa 43,3b–4b, who now “cross over to” (‫ )יעברו‬and “follow after” ( ‫ )ילכו‬Jerusalem, actions describing Jacob-Israel in Isa 43,2. 32 These make a confession of faith in Isa 45,14b–15, 33 whereas in v. 16a, idolators endure the fate of the Enemy in Isa 41,11–12, “shamed and disgraced” (‫)בשׁו וגם־נכלמו‬. In Isa 45,24b, we hear “to him will come and be shamed, all incensed against him” ( ‫עדיו יבאו ויבשׁו כל‬ ‫)הנחרים בו‬, echoing almost word-for-word Isa 41,11a ( ‫הן יבשׁו ויכלמו כל ינחרים‬ ‫)בך‬. This revoicing of the Consequence of Isa 41,11–12 in reference to God becomes occasion for a revoicing of the Purpose of that same Salvation Oracle in Isa 41,16b in reference to God’s “righteousness.” Where in Isa 41,16b we hear, “But you shall rejoice in the Lord, in the Holy One of Israel you shall exult” (‫)ואתה תגיל ביהוה בקדושׁ ישׂראל תתהלל‬, we hear now in Isa 45,25, “In the Lord they shall be made righteous and exult, all the seed of Israel” ( ‫ביהוה יצדקו‬ ‫)ויתהללו כל־זרע ישׂראל‬. In Isa 44,24–45,25, the author has defined God’s act of salvation for the Servant through Cyrus as an act of righteousness, a righteousness that is part of the Servant’s original, idealized calling (Isa 42,6a) and which, through the

32 Goldingay/Payne (Isaiah 40–55, II, 43–44) note well that the feminine singular pronomial suffix used in Isa 45,14 can apply to Jerusalem mentioned in Isa 44,26b.28b as the exilic community ( ‫ )גלות‬mentioned in Isa 45,13b, since in exile is the Jerusalem community, “the city of people.” 33 “Indeed in you is El and there is no other, no God; Truly you are El hidden, the God of Israel, savior” (‫ א כן את ה א ל מסתת ר אלהי ישׂרא ל מו שׁיע‬: ‫)א ך ב ך א ל ו א ין ע וד א פס א להים‬. Paul (Isaiah 40–66, 266) claims these two lines as the nations’ confession.

266

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

Servant’s announcement as messenger, becomes the inheritance of the “seed of Israel” (Isa 45,25). 2.2.2 Jacob-Israel before Babylon in Isa 46,1–48,22 a) The Double-Valued Address of Isa 46,1–48,16 Most scholars treat Isa 46,1–13; 47,1–15; 48,1–22 as units, even if they take part, together, in some kind of longer dramatic episode,34 but we shall treat Isa 46,1–48,16 as a unit based on the structure of God’s address to Jacob-Israel. This shall reveal a “refraction” of the Servant’s identity through the prism of the downfall of Babylon in some way dramatized in these chapters. The structural cohesion of this unit, based on the form of Address, is rather strong: Table 39: Structure of Isa 46,1–48,16 Isa 46,3a Isa 46,12a Isa 47,8a Isa 48,1a Isa 48,12a Isa 48,16a

‫בית יעק ב ו כל־שׁא רית ב ית ישׂראל‬ ‫אב ירי לב הרחוק ים מצד ק ה‬ ‫עד ינ ה הישׁבת לבטח‬ ‫בית ־יעק ב הנק רא ים ב שׁם ישׂרא ל‬ ‫יע קב וישׂרא ל מק רא י‬

‫שׁ מע ו א ל י‬ ‫שׁ מע ו א ל י‬ ‫שׁמעו ־זא ת‬ ‫שׁמעו ־זא ת‬ ‫שׁמע א לי‬ ‫שׁמעו ־זא ת‬

‫ו עת ה‬

‫ק ר בו א ל י‬

However much the content of Isa 46–47 concerns Babylon, the Address is to Jacob-Israel, in two imperative forms, “Listen to me” (‫ )שׁמעו אלי‬and “Listen to this” (‫)שׁמעו־זאת‬, in an a-a-b-b-a-b form. The names used in the Address vary and develop, from rather positive “House of Jacob and all the remnant of the house of Israel” (Isa 46,3a), 35 to the satirical “Mighty of heart, far from righteousness” (Isa 46,12a), to the address to Babylon herself (Isa 47,8a), back to addressing the “House of Jacob” (Isa 48,1a) in a satirical way,36 arriving finally closer to the address to which the reader has grown accustomed, simply “Jacob and Israel” (Isa 48,12a). Baltzer (Deutero-Jesaja, 327–402) treats Isa 46,1–49,13 as an “act,” divided into Isa 46,1–4.5–8.9–13; 47,1–7.8–15; 48,1–11.12–15.16.17–19.20–22; 49,1–6.7–12.13. Watts (Isaiah 34–66, 708–726) treats Isa 46, 47, 48 as units within the longer acts of Isa 34,1– 61,11. Berges (Jesaja 40–48, 442–552) also treats each chapter distinctly, within Isa 46–48 as an act. Closer to our analysis, Laato (“Composition,” 212) considers Isa 46,2–48,21 a “cycle.” This is closer to the divisions of the BHS, which through petucha makes Isa 45,18– 48,16 one unit. 35 The word “remnant” ( ‫ )שׁא רית‬is already ambivalent according to Baltzer (DeuteroJesaja, 332), gaining positive connotation only after the exile. 36 God addresses Jacob-Israel as one who “swears by the name of the Lord and invokes the God of Israel” ( ‫)הנ שׁבע ים ב שׁם יהו ה ו בא להי ישׂרא ל יזכירו‬, but, in direct contrast to the idealized servant of Isa 42,1–9, “not in truth and not in righteousness” (‫)לא בא מת ולא בצד ק ה‬. 34

Chapter VI. The Voice of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–66

267

The movement through these five imperative addresses has been through a variety of forms and values, until Isa 48,16a, where there is no name given. Instead, the Servant speaks for himself in the second half of this verse: Isa 48,16b

‫שׁלחנ י ו רוח ו‬

‫אדנ י יהו ה‬

‫ו עת ה‬

Jacob-Israel, seeing himself in contradistinction to fallen Babylon, now attaches himself to God as a prophet, as “sent” (‫)שׁלחני‬, in the “spirit” (‫)ורוחו‬. The expression “the Lord God” (‫ )אדני יהוה‬also identifies the Speaker as a prophet, as it is very common among the prophets in the OT.37 Importantly, these words, which do appear in the Prologue (Isa 40,10a), do not appear again until Isa 48,16b, after which we hear the expression in Isa 49,22; 50,4.5.9; 51,22; 52,4; 56,8; 61,1.11; 65,13.15, in which the Servant speaks or is spoken of in relation to another, Zion-Jerusalem. The author inscribes this contradistinction by making the values which are positive for Jacob-Israel in the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 into negative ones for Babylon: in Isa 46,7b, the idols “do not answer” (‫ולא יענה‬, cf. Isa 41,17b) and “do not save” (‫לא יושׁיענו‬, cf. Isa 43,3a); in Isa 47,2b, disrobed Babylon must “cross rivers” (‫עברי נהרות‬, cf. Isa 43,2a); in Isa 47,11, Babylon does “not know” (‫[ לא תדעי‬2x], cf. Isa 41,20a) its imminent destruction; in Isa 47,14a, Babylon’s astrologers do not survive the “fire-flame” (‫להבה‬-‫אשׁ‬, cf. Isa 43,2b). God also repeats some words from the Salvation Oracles in the light of the specific historical situation of Babylon’s downfall. In Isa 48,10, God explains Jacob-Israel’s experience as being “purified but not like silver, chosen in the furnace of affliction” (‫)צר פתיך ולא כסף בחרתיך בכור עני‬, as per the allusions to Ps 66,6.12 and Num 31,23 in Isa 43,2. So as to recall the idealized situation of Jacob-Israel’s identification as servant in Isa 41,1–44,23, God repeats, wordfor-word, in Isa 48,11b what he says to the idealized servant in Isa 42,8b: “And my glory I do not give to another” (‫)וכבודי לאחר לא־אתן‬. What’s more, in Isa 48,12a God calls Jacob-Israel “whom I have called” (‫ ;מקראי‬see Isa 41,9a; 43,1b). In v. 14b, we hear again reference to one whom “the Lord loves” ( ‫יהוה‬ ‫)אהבו‬, ambiguous as Abraham in Isa 41,8, explicit in Isa 43,4a as Jacob-Israel, and ambiguous again here. 38

37 Especially among the prophets, appearing in the books of Amos (21x), Isa 1–39 (12x), and Jeremiah (11x), but especially frequently in Ezekiel (218x), so much so that it may represent a case of prophetic heteroglossia akin those from Ezekiel listed in ch. III, §2.1.4. 38 Goldingay/Payne (Isaiah 40–55, II, 139–141) list six points of ambiguity in this halfverse.

268

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

b) The Value of Cyrus and the Idealized Servant in Isa 48,17–19 The acceptance of a prophetic mission in Isa 48,16b becomes the occasion in Isa 48,17–19 for God’s assignment to the hero Jacob-Israel of words originally spoken to the idealized servant in Isa 42,1–9. In Isa 48,17, God as Speaker introduces himself with the same kind of Divine Self-Presentation as in the Salvation Oracles, along with new words of forward movement. Thus, we hear of God as “your redeemer” (see Isa 41,14b; 43,1b; 44,6a), “the Holy One of Israel” (see Isa 41,14b; 43,3a), and “I am the Lord your God” (see Isa 41,13a; 43,3a). To these familiar formulas the author adds, in participial form, “who teaches you to profit” (‫ )מלמד ך להועיל‬and “who leads you on the way you should go” (‫)מדריכך בדרך תלך‬. These words of movement anticipate the imperative “go forth” in v. 20a. In Isa 48,18–19, the author reframes the promises of the Consequence of Isa 44,3–4 regarding Jacob-Israel’s “seed” with the words regarding both Cyrus and the Servant of Isa 42,1–9. In a contrary-to-fact conditional introduced by ‫לוא‬, we hear that the value assigned anonymously to Cyrus in Isa 41,1–5 (‫צדק‬, Isa 41,2a; ‫שׁלו ם‬, Isa 41,3a) and to the unnamed servant in Isa 42,1–9 (‫קראתיך בצדק‬, Isa 42,6a), that is, to be an agent of “peace” and “righteousness,” could have belonged to Jacob-Israel, “had you heeded my commandments” (‫לוא הקשׁבת למצותי‬, v. 18a). 39 These prerogatives are in Isa 48,19a set in parallel to “your seed” (‫ )זרעך‬and “the issue of your body” (‫)צאצאי מעיך‬, words for the Friend in Isa 44,3b. That God gives the fulfillment of the conditional promises of v. 18 to Cyrus does not mean that Jacob-Israel cannot take on the qualities of the idealized Servant as hero of his own salvation, for in vv. 20–22 we shall hear the imperative to “go forth” set in the context of the exodus. c) The Value of Salvation in Isa 48,20–22 In Isa 48,20–22, we hear Isa 46,1–48,22, as a whole, as an invitation to turn God’s act of salvation, fleeing Babylon, into an occasion of becoming the very agent of good news, announcing this salvation “to the end of the earth.” This invitation is, in Isa 48,20a, a double imperative in the words “go forth” ( ‫)צאו‬ and “flee” (‫)ברחו‬, from the explicitly-named “from Babylon” (‫ )מבבל‬and “from the Chaldeans” (‫)מכשׂדים‬. Like in Isa 44,23, the author concludes this literary situation with a hymnic imperative: “Show with a voice of proclamation, make this known” (‫ ;)בקול רנה הגידו השׁמיעו זאת‬in some way, the servant’s message is

39 Since Westermann (Das Buch Jesaja, 165), scholars have debated that there is here some kind of allusion or other reference to Ps 81. Goldingay/Payne (Isaiah 40–55, II, 145) note a difference between the two passages, in that in Ps 81,14, ‫ לו‬with the participial ‫שׁמע‬ describes a situation able to become real. Sommer (A Prophet Reads Scripture, 125–126) sees in Isa 48,12–21 an “echo” of Ps 81,6–17.

Chapter VI. The Voice of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–66

269

to be a psalm. 40 This new hymn is also prophetic, in the transformation of God’s command to Jacob-Israel throughout Isa 46,1–48,16, ‫שׁמעו ־זאת‬, into ‫השׁמיעו זאת‬, “Make this known.” In Isa 48,20b, the content of “this” refers to the salvation of the Servant described in the Salvation Oracles: “the Lord has redeemed his servant Jacob” (‫)גאל יהוה עבדו יעקב‬. To punctuate this final word to the Servant, Jacob-Israel, the author alludes to Ps 78,20 in Isa 48,21: Isa 48,21b

‫מים מצו ר הזיל למו‬ ‫ויבקע ־צו ר ו יזבו מים‬

‫הן הכה־צו ר ו יזוב ו מים‬ ‫ונחלים ישׁט פו‬

Water from the rock he made stream for them; he split rock and waters flowed

Behold he struck rock and waters flowed; the wadis washed away

Ps 78,20a

Allusion to a psalm that so thoroughly recounts Israel’s history of faithlessness, redemption, and conversion adequately summarizes the redemption and salvation of Jacob-Israel in Isa 41,1–48,22, as this salvation is not the end, the purpose of this utterance, but rather the occasion for the Servant to become the messenger of that salvation. 2.2.3 The Servant before the Ideal and the Actual In Isa 41,1–48,22, the reader faces two kinds of literary situation. First, in Isa 41,1–44,23, the chronotope of the idealized literary situation is creation in the abstract, from “the heavens and the depths of the earth” (Isa 44,23a). Allusions to the Psalms of Lament, Psalms of Praise, and Historical Hymns for Jacob-Israel further idealize this literary situation, in as much as those psalms and hymns idealize once-actual historical situations. In the imperative to “Return to me” in Isa 44,22b, this movement from actual to idealized returns the discourse to actualized conversion from idolatry. Second, in Isa 44,24–48,22, the literary context represents the historical situation of Babylonian exile and the emergence of Cyrus of Persia, at the end of which the Servant of Isa 41–44 becomes a prophet, whose first word is the imperative, “Go forth,” an imperative he utters to others as it is directed to him. Jacob-Israel as Servant first fulfills the moral command to “fear not” within himself and to “return” to God, and as the literary situation broadens, as Jacob40 The word ‫ רנן‬appears some 52x in verbal form, 24x of which in the psalms and 14x of which in Isa 1–66; out of 38 instances in noun form ( ‫רן‬, ‫רנ ה‬, ‫)רננ ה‬, 18 appear in the psalms and 9 in Isa 1–66. We shall begin to see in §2.3 how at least Isa 40–66 take up the form of a psalm.

270

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

Israel is “read into” actual service in the historical literary situation of Isa 44,24–48,22. An insight from Bakhtin can help us understand the moral obligation that proceeds from the event of being: The world in which an act or deed actually proceeds, in which it is actually accomplished, is a unitary and unique world that is experienced concretely… This acknowledged participation of mine produces a concrete ought – the ought to realize the whole uniqueness, as the utterly irreplaceable uniqueness of being, in relation to every constituent moment of this being; and that means that my participation transforms every manifestation of myself (feeling, desire, mood, thought) into my own actively answerable deed. 41

The allusive situation of the Salvation Oracles produces an “ought” for JacobIsrael to fear not and defines the event of Jacob-Israel’s being as a Servant. The idolatrous situation of Isa 41,1–44,23 produces an “ought” for Jacob-Israel to return, to convert as that Servant. The historical situation of Babylonian exile produces an “ought” that Jacob-Israel as Servant shares as redeemed with others, to go forth as a prophet. God having read Jacob-Israel into existence, first through allusion to Israel’s past, and second through the present situation, we shall now listen for the Servant reading himself into service before the Other of Zion-Jerusalem. 2.3 Servant and Friend Read in Isa 49,1–54,17 Having considered the self-consciousness of the Servant as Jacob-Israel to God through his past and present situation in Isa 41–48, we shall now consider the literary form of the relationship of the Servant to God through the Friend. This we shall do in two major literary contexts: Isa 49,1–50,11 (§2.3.1–§2.3.4) and Isa 51,1–54,17 (§2.3.5–§2.3.6), each defined according to the literary-allusive criteria we have established in §1.3, above, oriented toward an understanding of the Salvation Oracles. In Isa 49,1–50,11, God and the Servant frequently take turns as Speaker, and this (for us), is the main determinant for treating these two chapters as a literary unit.42 We find, then, a concentric structure according to the Speaker, as seen in Table 40, below. We have also noted those utterances that begin with the prophetic expression ‫( אדני יהוה‬see §2.2.2a, above), as it seems to mark the inclusion of the Servant’s voice. We shall study these utterances in light of the Salvation Oracles in three main units: Isa 49,1–6 (§2.3.1), in which the Servant recapitulates the words about himself in Isa 41,1–44,23; Isa 49,7–50,3 (§2.3.2), and more particularly, the expressions therein bring the form of the Psalms of M.M. BAKHTIN, Toward a Philosophy of the Act, 56–57. There seems to be little agreement on how to delimit the units here following. Laato (“Composition,” 213) has Isa 48,20–52,12 as one cycle; Watts (Isaiah 34–66, 730–807) has Isa 49,4–54,17b as one act; Goldingay/Payne (Isaiah 40–55, II, 152–153) have Isa 49,1– 52,12; Berges (Jesaja 49–55, 28–29), has Isa 49,1–26; 50,1–51,8 in two acts. 41 42

271

Chapter VI. The Voice of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–66

Lament to bear upon the relationship of the Servant to Zion-Jerusalem as -‫עני‬ ‫ ;ענוים‬Isa 50,4–11 (§2.3.3), in which the Servant speaks about himself before God. Table 40: Structure of Isa 49,1–50,11 Section Isa 49,1–6

Speaker Servant

Addressee Nations ‫לא מים‬-‫איים‬

Object of Discourse Servant

Isa 49,7–12

God

Servant ‫לע בד משׁלים‬

Servant

Isa 49,13

God-Servant

Nations ‫ א רץ‬-‫שׁמים‬

God-Israel

Isa 49,14–21

God

Zion-Jerusalem

Zion-Jerusalem

Isa 49,22–26

God-Servant

Nations ‫ עמים‬-‫גוים‬

God

Isa 50,1–3

God

Zion-Jerusalem

Zion-Jerusalem

Isa 50,4–11

Servant

Idolators

Servant

2.3.1 The Voice of the Servant Emerges in Isa 49,1–6 We shall treat Isa 49,1–6 in two moments, one in which the Servant reads the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 in Isa 49,1–4, and one in which he reads the Servant Song of Isa 42,1–9 in Isa 49,5–6. a) The Servant Identifies Himself in Isa 49,1–4 In Isa 49,1b we now hear transferred to the first-person singular some words once spoken to Jacob-Israel in the Salvation Oracles. The one speaking (so far unidentified) says, “The Lord has called me from the womb” (‫)יהוה מבטן קראני‬, as if a conflation of the Address of Isa 41,8–10 (‫קר אתיך‬, v. 9a), 43,1 ( ‫קראתי‬ ‫בשׁמך‬, v. 1b), and 44,1–2 (‫ויצרך מבטן יעזרך‬, v. 2a). 43 It seems that the one addressed in Isa 41,1–48,22 as Jacob-Israel is now speaking. Furthermore, in Isa 49,2, we hear:

Sommer (A Prophet Reads Scripture, 322) lists only a doubtful allusion in Isa 49,1// Jer 1,5. The parallel expression in Isa 49,1b, “from my mother’s belly” (‫)ממע י א מי‬, could be echoing Isa 48,19a ( ‫)צא צא י מע יך‬. Nurmela (Mouth of the Lord, 52) claims that this represents an allusion to Ps 71,6 in Isa 49,1. 43

272 Isa 49,2a Isa 49,2b

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form He has set my mouth like a sharp sword In the shadow of his hand 44 he has concealed me He has made me a polished arrow In his quiver he has hidden me

‫וישׂם פי כח רב חד ה‬ ‫בצל יד ו הח ב יאנ י‬ ‫וישׂימנ י לחץ ב רו ר‬ ‫בא שׁפתו הסת ירנ י‬

This verse is a doubled paraphrase of the Address of Assurance spoken in Isa 41,15a, as we can see when seeing these verses together: Table 41: Elements of Isa 41,15a//49,2a//49,2b Further qualification ‫פיפיות‬ ‫הח ב יאנ י‬ ‫הסת ירני‬

Location Adjective Metal in ‫ב‬ Instrument ‫בע ל‬ ‫חר שׁ‬ ‫למו רג ח רוץ‬ ‫בצל יד ו‬ ‫חד ה‬ ‫כח רב‬ ‫בא שׁפתו‬ ‫ב רו ר‬ ‫לחץ‬

‫שׂים‬ + Object ‫שׂמת יך‬ ‫וי שׂ ם פ י‬ ‫ו י שׂ י מנ י‬

‫הנ ה‬

41,15a 49,2a 49,2b

Finally, to make explicit that the one speaking in Isa 49,1–6 is the one addressed in the Salvation Oracles, we hear in v. 3, “And who says to me, “My servant are you, Israel in whom I am glorified” ( ‫ו יאמר לי עבדי־אתה ישׂראל אשׁר־‬ ‫)בך אתפאר‬. This is the combination of the indirect quotation of Isa 41,9b, “Who say to you “my servant are you”“ (‫)ואמר לך עבדי־אתה‬, with Isa 44,23b, “And in Israel he is glorified” (‫)ובישׂראל יתפאר‬, the closing words of the Summary Readdress of Isa 44,21–23. 45 In Isa 49,4, we hear the servant respond not to the Salvation Oracles, but to the Disputation addressed to Jacob-Israel in Isa 40,12–31, and in particular, the Lament that God places upon Jacob-Israel’s lips in Isa 40,27–31. Isa 49,4a Isa 49,4b

And I said, “Idly have I grown tired For emptiness and vanity consumed my strength” Indeed, my judgment is with the Lord And my doings with my God

‫ואנ י אמרת י לריק יגעת י‬ ‫לת הו ו הב ל כח י כלית י‬ ‫אכן משׁפטי את ־יהו ה‬ ‫ופע לתי את ־א להי‬

Just as with the mock Lament that God seems to quote in Isa 40,27, nowhere do we hear the servant saying what he claims to say in Isa 49,4a, but rather, it 44 The expression ‫ ב צ ל ידו‬is hapax, repeated only in Isa 51,6. The usual expression is “in the shadow of your wings” ( ‫)ב צל כנ פיך‬, as in Ps 17,8; 36,8; 57,2; 63,8. The replacement of “wings” with “hand” may be more evidence of Second Isaiah’s deliberate omission of angelic imagery (see ch. III, §2.2.4b, n. 38) or it may constitute the prophet’s intention to translate the imagery of God’s action in the exodus tradition and the psalms into the realm of human affairs. 45 The claim of Goldingay/Payne (Isaiah 40–55, II, 159–160) that the lack of pairing of “Israel” with “Jacob” here means that “Jacob cannot function as Israel” as per Isa 48 is contradicted by seeing this verse as a conflation of these two earlier utterances and by the pairing of Jacob-Israel again in Isa 49,6.

Chapter VI. The Voice of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–66

273

is his assumption of God’s words against him in the surrounding Disputation. It is God who “does not grow tired” (‫לא ייגע‬, Isa 40,28a) and who gives “strength” (‫ )כח‬to the faint (Isa 40,29a), strength renewed in the Lord (Isa 40,31a). If there is any previous admission by anyone as to the vanity of his work, it is by the author, who speaks of the emptiness ( ‫ )תהו‬of the nations and their works as idolators (Isa 40,17b.23b.29b; 44,9a). We have not yet looked at Isa 40,12–31, but drawing some connections here should benefit our understanding of Isa 49,14 in §2.3.2, below. b) The Servant Identifies His Mission in Isa 49,5–6 In Isa 49,5, a contradiction seems to emerge, that the Servant is to gather JacobIsrael. In the first line of Isa 49,5a, we hear the servant repeat God’s words to him as if from a Salvation Oracle: “But now, says the Lord, who forms me from the womb to be a servant to him” (‫)ועתה אמר יהוה יצרי מבטן לעבד לו‬. With the expression “But now” (see Isa 43,1a.4a), the partial Messenger Formula (see Isa 43,1a; 44,2a), the mention of “being formed from the womb” (see Isa 44,2a and Isa 43,1a.7b), and the title of Servant (see Isa 41,8a.9b; 44,1a and Isa 42,19; 43,10), it is as if another Salvation Oracle to Jacob-Israel is beginning. 46 The Purpose of such an oracle, as expressed, is to “to make Jacob return to him and Israel for him shall be gathered” (‫)לשׁו בב יעקב אליו וישׂראל לו יאסף‬. 47 We have already heard, though, of the Servant’s mission to gather peoples, in the immediate context of Isa 43,1–7. In the Disputation of Isa 42,18–25 and the Trial Speech of Isa 43,8–13, we hear of “my servant” and “the servant of the Lord” who in Isa 43,8–9 is to gather all the “blind and deaf” nations, before whom now “they” are to serve as witnesses to God’s uniqueness (Isa 43,10). 48 The servant of Isa 49,1–6 confirms that he is assuming the words of Isa 42,18– 43,13 by making an inversion of elements from the very heart of that Salvation Oracle, “in my eyes you are glorified” (‫יקרת בעיני נכבדת‬, Isa 43,4a), in Isa 49,5b: “I am glorified in the eyes of the Lord” (‫)ואכבד בעיני יהוה‬. Servant Jacob-Israel of Isa 42,18–43,13 is the same as in Isa 49,1–6. Two ambivalent expressions in Isa 49,6a seem to ease the contradiction. First, as in Isa 46,1–48,16, the address to Jacob-Israel is extended, to “the tribes of Jacob and those preserved49 of Israel” (‫)את־שׁ בטי יעקב ונצור י ישׂראל‬. Second, the triple use of the preposition ‫ ל‬suggests that what it specifies are in apposition, such that “your being for me a servant” (‫ )מהיותך לי עבד‬is the same as “to 46 Tull Willey demonstrates fragments of expressions shared also with the book of Jeremiah: Isa 49,5–6//Jer 1,5 (Remember the Former Things, 193–195) and Isa 49,1// Jer 31,10 (Ibid., 205), each of which echo more directly Isa 41–44, as seen above. 47 Reading ‫ לו‬for ‫לא‬, as per the Qere, though Baltzer (Deutero-Jesaja, 391) notes a deliberate ambiguity in the word ‫יאס ף‬, “to gather,” as if also “to the dead.” 48 See ch. IV, §4. 49 Reading ‫ נצ ו רי‬for ‫נ צירי‬, as per the Qere.

274

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

raise up (‫ )לבקים‬the tribes of Jacob” and “to make return (‫ )לבשׁ יב‬those preserved of Israel,” all three prepositional phrases describing the same action of God, for whom this is “too little” (‫)נקל‬.50 The grammar, in its ambiguity, allows the contradiction to stand. The contradiction may, in fact, rest on the distinction between the idealized and the historical situations of Isa 41,1–48,22. In Isa 49,6, after saying “It is too little” for the servant-hero regarding the geo-political restoration of the Israelites, the author returns to words regarding the idealized servant of Isa 42,6b: “I make you into a light of nations, to be my salvation unto the ends of the earth” (‫)ונתתיך לאור גו ים להיו ת ישׁועתי עד ־קצה הארץ‬.51 The voice of the Servant, so far, declares God’s will for those to whom he speaks, and not what has actually taken place in history. Indeed, God now specifies this role as spokesman in Isa 49,7–50,3, wherein he assigns the form of the Psalms of Lament to the relationship between the Servant and the saved. 2.3.2 The Voice of the Lamenter Emerges in Isa 49,7–50,3 In our listening for echoes of the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 outside of that literary context, we have heard several instances in which one of the major formal-compositional elements of the Historical Hymns, the double-valued word, has given form to the relationship between God and the Servant, e.g., in the words of salvation applied to Cyrus (§2.2.1b, above), the series of positive and negative addresses to Jacob-Israel in Isa 46,1–48,22 (§2.2.2a), and in the Servant’s reading for himself the description of both Jacob-Israel and the unnamed servant of Isa 42,1–9, in Isa 49,1–6 (§2.3.1, above). Now that the Servant has accepted his place before God and in space-time, the author can establish the relationship of the Servant, himself saved, to the Friend to be saved. The author accomplishes this, as we shall now see, through reintroducing the form of the Psalms of Lament. This occurs principally in God’s response to the second Servant Song (Isa 49,1–6) in Isa 49,7–13 (here considered in three moments, vv. 7.8–12.13) and in the mock Lament of Zion-Jerusalem in Isa 49,14 as paired with that of Jacob-Israel from Isa 40,27.

50 Goldingay/Payne (Isaiah 40–55, II, 161–163) provide an excellent summary of how scholars have interpreted the grammatical difficulties in these verses through various historical situations. Our hope is that a dialogical approach can explain this utterance in its literary situation. 51 Berges (Jesaja 49–54, 54) sees an intentional parallel structure between Isa 42,1– 4.5.6–9.10–12 and Isa 49,1–6.7.8–12.13, suggesting an idealization of the servant again in Isa 49,1–13.

Chapter VI. The Voice of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–66

275

a) God Identifies a Lamentable People in Isa 49,7 God, identifying himself in Isa 49,7a as in the Salvation Oracles, “the Redeemer of Israel, his holy one” (‫)גאל ישׂר אל קדושׁו‬,52 addresses the Servant as an afflicted people through a possible allusion to Ps 22,28–29, just like in Isa 41,14//Ps 22,4–9.53 This occurs in a split and interwoven pattern: Isa 49,7a

‫לב זה־נ פשׁ למתע ב ג ו י‬ ‫לע בד משׁלים‬ ‫מלכים יראו וק מו‬ ‫שׂרים ו ישׁתחו ו‬

‫וישׁת חוו לפנ יך‬ ‫כל־משׁפח ות ג ו ים‬ ‫כי ליהו ה המלו כה‬ ‫ומשׁל ב גו ים‬

Ps 22,28b Ps 22,29a Ps 22,29b

This allusion would represent an inversion of the values assigned to these words, given in the Vow of Praise (vv. 26–28) and a Confession of Trust (vv. 29–30) parts of Ps 22, wherein these words speak of God’s universal reign (Ps 22,28–29). If the direction of allusion runs opposite – that is, if Ps 22 is, in fact, added to in light of Isa 49,7a, it is because of the word “despised” (‫ )בזה‬in Isa 49,7a//Ps 22,7b.25a. This word is double-valued within the psalm: in Ps 22,7b, the Lamenter describes himself as “a reproach of a man, despised of a people” (‫ )חרפת אדם ו בזי עם‬and in v. 25a, the psalmist declares, “For he does not despise or detest affliction of an afflicted one” (‫)כי לא־בזה ולא שׁקץ ענות עני‬. In both Ps 22,7b and Isa 49,7a, the word ‫ בזה‬and its counterpart are joined to word pairs for man and people (‫עם‬-‫ אדם‬in Ps 22,7b; ‫גוי‬-‫ נפשׁ‬in Isa 49,7a). In Ps 22,25a, the one “despised” is called ‫עני‬, “afflicted.” That God is speaking here as if to the Jacob-Israel of the Salvation Oracles the author confirms in the closing line of Isa 49,7b, a Purpose ( ‫ )למען‬stating that this is to fulfill God’s “fidelity” (‫ )נאמן‬to the one he has “chosen” (‫)ו יבחר תך‬, a word describing the Servant in Isa 41,8a.9b; 42,1a; 43,10a; 44,1a.2b. b) God Repeats his Promises to the Friend in Isa 49,8–12 In Isa 49,8a, we have a clear allusion to Ps 69,14, 54 another Psalm of Lament on the ‫ענו ים‬-‫ עני‬model of Ps 22: 55 Isa 49,8a

‫בעת רצו ן ע ניתיך‬ ‫וב יום ישׁוע ה ע זרת יך‬

‫ואנ י ת פלת י־לך יהו ה ע ת רצון‬ ‫אלהים ב רב ־חס דך עננ י‬ ‫בא מת ישׁע ך‬

Ps 69,14a Ps 69,14b

52 See Isa 41,14b; 43,14a; 44,24a; 47,4a; 48,17a. The word “holy one” need not refer exclusively to Israel or to God, but may become here a double-valued word, especially as Jacob-Israel is now, as per Isa 49,6b, “a light of nations”/“my salvation.” 53 See ch. III, §2.2.6 and §3.2.3. 54 Scholars have often noted at least the similarity of language: see J. BLENKINSOPP, Isaiah 40–55, 305; R. NURMELA, Mouth of the Lord, 53; S. PAUL, Isaiah 40–66, 328. 55 See ch. III, §3.1.

276

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

Following this in Isa 49,8b, we hear a quotation of Isa 42,6b, minus the words “a light of nations” already used in Isa 49,6b: “I have kept you and made you a covenant of people” (‫)ואצרך ו אתנך לבר ית עם‬. To this the author adds a paraphrase of Isa 49,6a, such that “to raise the tribes of Jacob” (‫)להקים את־שׁבטי־יעקב‬ becomes “to raise the earth” (‫)להקים ארץ‬, corresponding to the increased scope of the Servant’s mission in Isa 49,6. God identifies the Servant of Isa 49,1–6 as the Lamenter Jacob-Israel, the Servant of Isa 41–44. In the rest of Isa 49,8b and through v. 12, the author weaves together echoes of expressions regarding the Friend in Isa 41–48, including those regarding the prophet’s mission in the Prologue of Isa 40,1–11. We can see this clearly in graphic form, as shown in Table 42, below. We display this weave of expressions regarding the Friend because, in Isa 49,13, the Speaker – possibly identified as both God and Servant – expressly identifies the people as the plural ‫ענוים‬, the Friend of the Psalms of Lament. c) God Identifies an Afflicted People in Isa 49,13 In Isa 49,13, we hear a Summons to Praise just as in Isa 42,10–13 and 44,21– 23, and just as in the latter, it includes an important identification of the Addressee. In a strict parallelism, the author identifies “his people” (‫ )עמו‬as “his afflicted” (‫)עניו‬. This echoes the opening Address in Isa 40,1, that imperative to “comfort, comfort my people” (‫ )נחמו נחמו עמי‬now set in the indicative. That the author identifies the people as “afflicted” in the plural echoes the Lament of Isa 41,17a, already answered through the allusion in Isa 41,17b to Ps 22.56 Indeed, as we hear the voice of Zion-Jerusalem enter through her Lament of Isa 49,14, we shall begin to see that the author has built the relationship of the Servant, Jacob-Israel, to Zion-Jerusalem in the form of a Psalm of Lament, and of a particular kind formed around the relationship of the Lamenter to the Friend as the individual “afflicted” (‫ )עני‬to the plural “afflicted” (‫)ענוים‬. d) God Reformulates His People’s Lament in Isa 40,27; 49,14 In Isa 40,27 and 49,14, God quotes laments from Jacob-Israel and Zion-Jerusalem, laments that we do not hear as such elsewhere in the Bible. In bringing these two Laments together, we can, though, hear what seems like an allusion to Ps 9–10, albeit in a form that we have not yet encountered in our study of the Salvation Oracles. Nevertheless, the form or the pattern of this allusion builds upon the recognition of double-valued words that we have already made.

56 Goldingay/Payne (Isaiah 40–55, II, 178) summarize scholars’ attempts at inter-preting the pairing “his people” with “his afflicted” through various kinds of emendation or explanation, which changes to the text we hope to avoid by reading this passage in dialogue with the Psalms of Lament.

Chapter VI. The Voice of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–66

277

Table 42: Echoes of Isa 40–48 in Isa 49,8–12 Isa 49,8b

‫עלו ת ינ הל‬ ‫להנח יל נ חלות שׁממות‬ to make inherit the deso- he leads the sucklings late inheritances

Isa 49,9a

‫ לא שׁר בח שׁך‬-‫לאס ו רים‬ prisoners-those in darkness

Isa 49,9b

‫ובכל־שׁפיים מרע יתם‬

Isa 40,11a Isa 41,18a

‫לא ירעב ו ו לא יצמא ו‬

‫ח שׁך‬-‫אס יר‬ prisoner-darkness

‫כריה ע ד רו ירע ה‬ ‫אפתח על־שׁפיים נ הרו ת‬ on every bare height he Like a shepherd shepshepherds them herds his flock; I will open rivers upon the bare heights

Isa 40,11b Sound play (see Isa 49,10b) Isa 42,7b

Isa 49,10a

‫לשׁונ ם ב צמא נ שׁת ה‬ ‫אצק ־מים ע ל־צמא‬ They will not hunger or Their tongue is parched thirst with thirst; I will pour water upon the thirsty

Isa 41,17a Isa 44,3a

Isa 49,10b

‫ועל־מבוע י־מים ינ חלם‬ ‫מוצא י מים‬-‫מע ינו ת‬ upon springs of water he springs-issues of water leads them

Isa 41,18 Sound play with Isa 49,8b//40,11b

Isa 49,11a

‫ושׂמת י כל־הרי לד רך‬

‫במד ב ר פנ ו ד רך יהו ה‬ ‫וכל־הר ו גב ע ה ישׁפלו‬ I will make every moun- In the desert prepare the tain a road way of the Lord; every mountain and hill will be felled

Isa 49,11b

‫ומס לת י ירמון‬ My highways will be raised

‫ישׁרו בע רב ה מס לה‬ Level in the wilderness a highway

Isa 49,12

‫הנ ה א לה מרחו ק יב או ו הנ ה־‬ ‫אלה מצפון ומים ו אלה מא רץ‬ ‫סינ ים‬ Behold these will come from afar, these from the north and west, and these from the land of the Sin

‫ מ ר ח ו ק‬. . . ‫מצ פ ו ן‬ ‫ הב יא‬...‫אבא י‬ . ..‫ ו זה‬...‫ ו זה‬...‫זה‬ (See translations in chs. IV and V, §1.3)

Isa 40,3a Isa 40,4a

Isa 40,3b

Isa 43,5b–6b Isa 44,5

The two Laments are each set in a rather rigid parallelism, one that permits hearing certain words in them ring out: Isa 40,27a

Why do you say, Jacob and utter, Israel,

‫למה תא מר יעקב‬ ‫ות ד ב ר י שׂ ר א ל‬

278

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

Isa 40,27b Isa 40,27c

“Hidden is my path from the Lord and by my God my justice is passed over”?

Isa 49,14a Isa 49,14b

And Zion says, “The Lord has abandoned me and my Lord has forgotten me.”

‫נסת רה ד רכי מיהו ה‬ ‫ומא להי משׁפט י יעב ו ר‬ ‫ותאמר ציון עזבנ י יהו ה‬ ‫ואדנ י שׁכח ני‬

In stacking these lines, we can begin to see how the words of these faux laments relate to each other as coming from Ps 9–10: Table 43: Elements of the Mock Laments in Isa 40,27; 49,14 Name of God

‫מיהו ה‬ ‫יהו ה‬

Other Word

Double- Word for Lamen- Word of ExclamaValued God ter Speaking tion Word ‫יע קב‬ ‫ת אמ ר‬ ‫למה‬ ‫דר כ י‬ ‫נסת ר ה‬ ‫ישׂרא ל‬ ‫ות ד ב ר‬ ‫יע בו ר‬ ‫משׁפט י‬ ‫ו מא ל ה י‬ ‫ע ז בנ י‬ ‫ציון‬ ‫ו ת אמ ר‬ ‫שׁכחנ י‬ ‫ו אד נ י‬

Isa 40,27a Isa 40,27b Isa 40,27c Isa 49,14a Isa 49,14b

In the column named “Double-Valued Word,” we find four words that, in Ps 9– 10, each repeat several times and with different values, as if those words were binding together the two psalms. 57 The words in the “Other Word” column are found once in the psalm (‫דרך‬, Ps 10,5) or not at all.58 In Ps 9–10, the word “to hide” (‫ )סתר‬appears three times, as a “hiding place” for the wicked man ( ‫מסתר‬, Ps 10,8.9) and as God’s action, hiding his face (‫הסתיר פניו‬, Ps 10,11). The word “to judge” appears eight times, as God’s action (Ps 9,5 [2x].8.9.17.20; 10,18) and as God’s “judgment” far from the wicked man (Ps 10,5). The word “to abandon” ( ‫ )עזב‬appears twice, as something God does not do to “those who seek him” (‫לא־עזבת דרשׁיך‬, Ps 9,11) and something the “innocent” do upon God (in a positive sense, Ps 10,14). The word “to forget” appears five times, as something that God does not do (Ps 9,13.19) or that the Lamenter asks him not to do (Ps 10,12), as something the wicked man does to God (Ps 9,18) or assumes that God does (Ps 10,11). 59 Each of these words has a double-value that, The LXX treats these as one psalm. Eshel/Strugnell (“Alphabetical Acrostics,” 453– 458) demonstrate their unity as an acrostic psalm (and an ancient one). 58 These two words, however, combine frequently in the OT: Exod 3,18; 5,3; Num 20,17; 21,22; 22,26; 33,8; Deut 2,8 (2x).27; 11,30; Josh 3,4; 24,17; 2 Sam 15,23; 18,23; 1 Kgs 13,25; Isa 8,23; 35,8; 40,27; 51,10; 62,10; Ezek 16,25; 22,31; Ps 80,13; 89,42; 119,37; Job 21,29; Prov 9,15; Lam 1,12; 2,15. 59 It is nowhere near our purpose to engage in numerology, but perhaps to add strength to our argument for the author’s seeing these four words as binding together Ps 9–10, we note that, in Isa 1–66, the words “to hide” and “to abandon” each appear 22x, the number of the alphabet, and “to judge” and “to forget” appear in total 70x, the years of the exile according to Jer 25,11, that is, the years of “service to the nations, the king of Babylon.” 57

Chapter VI. The Voice of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–66

279

with the rather dramatic “Why?” (‫ )למה‬of Isa 40,27a//Ps 10,1a, all together serve to unite a psalm of dubious acrostic cohesion. From Isa 49,1–14, we hear God giving form to the relationship of the Servant to the people according to the ‫ענוים‬-‫ עני‬form of the Psalms of Lament. This does not solve issues of singular and plural identification in Second Isaiah, but it does suggest, at least, that the kind of mutual answerability inherent in the psalmic form transfer to the prophetic utterance. Whereas in Isa 41–48, the Servant gains self-conscious identity as such before God, the Servant gains identity among and before a people, the Friend, beginning in Isa 49. We shall see how this multi-dimensional self-consciousness affects the Servant’s selfunderstanding in Isa 50,4–11. 2.3.3 The Voice of the Servant Reemerges in Isa 50,4–11 a) The Situation of Zion-Jerusalem in Isa 49,14–50,3 In Isa 49,14–50,3, we hear in some detail about the lament of Zion-Jerusalem in such a way as to prepare for the self-presentation of the Servant in Isa 50,4– 11. God coordinates the promise to Zion-Jerusalem of restoration from the nations with his word to Jacob-Israel in the Salvation Oracles. In v. 25b, God repeats to Zion-Jerusalem the Consequence of Isa 41,11–12, “And those who contend with you I will contend” (‫)ו את־יריבך אנכי אריב‬, reintroducing himself in v. 26b with a Formula of Divine Presentation, “And all flesh shall know that I am the Lord your savior, and your redeemer is the Mighty One of Jacob” ( ‫וידעו‬ ‫)כל־בשׂר כי אני יהוה מושׁ יעך ו גאלך אביר יעקב‬. 60 In Isa 50,1–3, we hear words that echo the Salvation Oracles, but seemingly addressed to Zion-Jerusalem. After words regarding a “bill of divorce” (‫ )ספר כריתות‬in v. 1a, suggesting that the Speaker continues to address Zion-Jerusalem, we hear in v. 2b a reversal of God’s promises regarding the Friend in Isa 41,17–20. In particular, these are “I make rivers a desert” ( ‫אשׂים נהרות מד בר‬, cf. the first halves of Isa 41,18a.18b) and the pairing “from lack of water” (‫“ – )מאין מים‬in thirst” (‫)בצמא‬ (cf. Isa 41,17a). In a certain sense, the address here to Zion-Jerusalem sets the stage for what is really a word regarding a decision for or against the Servant in Isa 50,4–11, especially given the possibility that the Servant is already speaking in Isa 50,2.61

60 Baltzer (Deutero-Jesaja, 420) notes the sound play here, as “I will contest” ( ‫ )א ריב‬becomes “the Mighty One” (‫)אב יר‬, suggesting that “by fighting the case, by saving, [the Lord] is now “the strong one”“. 61 Baltzer (Deutero-Jesaja, 424) suggests that the servant is already speaking in Isa 50,2 just like in Isa 48,16, in a voice indistinguishable from that of God.

280

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

b) The Situation of the Servant in Isa 50,4–11 We hear Isa 50,4–11 in two parts, Isa 50,4–7.8–11, each bound by anaphoric words. 62 The first part introduces the Speaker in relationship to God, and the second speaks of the relationship of others to the Servant, who becomes a point of division between the would-be Friend and the Enemy. The Speaker of Isa 50,4–7 does not introduce himself by name, but by the way he speaks of God as “the Lord God” (‫)אדני יהוה‬, we understand him to be the one who has accepted his prophetic mission in Isa 48,16b, seemingly Jacob-Israel. 63 This is the anaphoric word that binds this part of the utterance, echoing in vv. 4a.5a.7a. The formation of this prophet is not a once-and-for-all decisive call, for he describes himself in relation to God as like “disciples” or “learned ones” (‫למודים‬, vv. 4a.4b), whose action is, like in the chronotope of the Consequence of the Salvation Oracles, durative and ongoing, “morning after morning” (‫בבקר בבקר‬, v. 4b). In Isa 50,5–6, we hear of the Speaker’s discipleship in relation to God and the Enemy in terms of violent suffering. Where God “gives” (‫ )נתן‬the Speaker in v. 4a a “tongue of learned ones” (‫)לשׁון למוד ים‬, so in v. 6a, this disciple says “I have given my back to those who strike me and my cheeks to those who pluck” (‫)גו י נתתי למכים ולחיי למרטים‬. 64 We hear emerging the kind of violent words with which the Lamenter will often speak of his relationship to God before his Enemy, a violence suffered. 65 Like in the Psalms of Lament, the so-far anonymous prophetic Speaker then utters a Confession of Trust in v. 7, one that responds directly to the Address of Assurance and Consequence of Isa 41,8–16. In Isa 50,7a, we hear, “But the Lord God helps me (or: “is a helper to me”)” (‫)ואדני יהוה יעזר־לי‬, assuming God’s words of Isa 41,10b.13b. These are the verses that frame in Isa 41,11– 12 what the author then echoes in Isa 50,7a.7b, the end-line pair “I am not disgraced-I am not shamed” (‫לא אבושׁ‬-‫לא נכלמתי‬, vv. 7ab). In Isa 50,8–11, this anonymous suffering Servant calls to trial those who would contest his identity as servant of the Lord. These verses are bound by 62 Berges (Jesaja 49–54, 86) treats Isa 50,1–11 as one unit, but in four strophes (vv. 1– 3.4–6.7–9.10–11). 63 See §2.2.2, above. 64 Tull Willey (Remember the Former Things, 214–219) shows here an allusion to Lam 3,30 as one instance of many allusions to the violent book of Lamentations in Isa 49– 54. Though Lam 3,1–66 seems composed overall as a Psalm of Lament, in various expressions such as “I am a man who has seen affliction” (‫אנ י הג בר רא ה ענ י‬, v.1a) and, “Remember my affliction” (‫זכר־ע ניי‬, v. 19a), Obara (Lamentazioni, 29.86.104) notes that the genre shifts according to purpose of each of this poem’s four sections (vv. 1–17.18–24.25–39.40–66) such that Lam 3,30, in a “wisdom” section, describes the suffering one receives justly from God through human hands. We can see already the violence described in Isa 50,4–7 as pertaining to the divine “righteousness” thus obtained for the Friend in Isa 52,13–53,12. 65 See ch. III, §3.1.

Chapter VI. The Voice of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–66

281

alternating ‫מי‬, “Who,” in vv. 8b.10a.11b (‫מידי‬, “From my hand”) and ‫הן‬, “Behold,” in vv. 9a.9b.11a. 66 The servant himself becomes the point of decision for this group, the Friend, in v. 10a, one who “fears the Lord, heeding the voice of his servant” ( ‫)ירא יהוה שׁמע בקו ל עבדו‬. 67 This identification comes directly from the psalms. 68 Another group suffers in v. 11b what the servant Jacob-Israel will not in Isa 43,2. Framing Isa 50,11b are the same words framing Isa 43,2b, “to go” (‫ )הלך‬and “to burn” ( ‫)בער‬, filled in with a similar pair, “firesparks” (‫זיקות‬- ‫אשׁ‬, see “fire-flame” of Isa 43,2b). Whereas in the Salvation Oracle these are dangers through which Jacob-Israel passes safely, in Isa 50,11b, these elements or practices become the reason for the severe judgment that the servant hands down, “in grief you shall lie down” (‫)למעצבה תשׁכבון‬. c) Conclusions In the Psalms of Lament, the individual afflicted one, ‫עני‬, serves as a kind of dividing line between the Friend and the Enemy; his response before God to the experience of violent suffering becomes the occasion for decision and responsibility on the part of a plurality of afflicted ones, the ‫ענוים‬. We see this form of relationship carry over into the Servant’s self-presentation in Isa 50,4– 11, in which his response to violent suffering becomes the cutting edge between Friend and Enemy. This builds upon God’s description of the Servant and Friend as ‫ענו ים‬-‫ עני‬in Isa 49,7–50,3. What this means for the architectonic form of reading these chapters of the book of Isaiah we shall now try to understand with some help from Bakhtin. 2.3.4 The Reader Emerges into Authorship in Isa 49,1–50,11 The emergence of the Servant as Speaker creates some problematics for the relationship of reader to the author. Many have looked to the historical situation 66 Blenkinsopp (Isaiah 40–55, 321) notes that, regarding comparison to the Psalms of Lament, there is no “plea for vindication” here, but does suggest that the “assurance of vindication” in vv. 8–11 does match the Psalms of Lament. We would suggest that the “plea for vindication” becomes unnecessary, as the Servant himself is bringing his Enemy to trial in vv. 8–11 and himself becomes the point of contention. 67 Goldingay/Payne (Isaiah 40–55, II, 215–216) dismiss the suggestion that in Isa 50,10a, it is the Lord who “heeds” the voice of his servant, but in comparison with Isa 43,1b, which one can render, “I have called upon your name” (‫)ק ראתי ב שׁמך‬, we should allow for ambivalence here. Goldingay/Payne (Ibid., 216) also try to eliminate the ambiguity regarding the identity of the Speaker in vv. 10–11 (the servant, God, editors), but if Isa 50,8–11 relate in some way to Isa 50,1–3, then the ambivalence would seem intentional. 68 Pace Berges (Jesaja 49–54, 110) who sees this expression coming from prophetic utterances. See “who fear/s the Lord” (‫ )ירא י יהו ה‬in Ps 15,4; 22,24.26; 25,12.14; 31,20; 33,18; 34,8.10; 60,6; 61,6; 66,16; 85,10; 103,11.13.17; 111,5; 115,11.13; 118,4; 119,74,79; 128,1.4; 135,20; 145,19; 147,11.

282

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

of Second Isaiah to identify the Servant and the Friend (and, eventually in Isa 55–66, plural “servants”). 69 Despite the fruitfulness of such a search, it seems more important – or simply more pertinent to our dialogistic approach – to understand what the emergence of the Servant as Speaker, indeed reader of the Salvation Oracles means for our reading this prophetic book. In the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41,1–44,23, we have heard the author craft a literary hero, the Servant, in God’s address to the Servant as Jacob-Israel. In Isa 49,1–6, we have heard that same Servant speak about himself with the very same words with which God addresses him in the Salvation Oracles. Each Speaker in some way takes up the refracted intention of the author, the prophetic event of these chapters in the book of Isaiah. This is not a dialogue simply in the way of taking turns speaking, but a dialogistic utterance in which the hero takes self-conscious form by the way in which the author speaks about him.70 Bakhtin writes: The hero’s consciousness, his feeling, and his desire of the world (his object-directed emotional and volitional attitude or posture) are enclosed on all sides, as if within a band, by the author’s consummating consciousness of the hero and his world; the hero’s self-utterances are encompassed and permeated by the utterances of the author about the hero. The hero’s vital (cognitive-ethical) interestedness in the event of his own life is encompassed by the author’s artistic interestedness in the hero and his life. 71

As the acceptance of a prophetic calling (anticipated as such in Isa 48,16b), Isa 49,1–6 is not a record of the event, as in Exod 3,1–4,17 or Jer 1,4–19. This utterance is the event, and an authorial one. The author is participating in the work, and not from a distance; rather, it is as if the compositional form of Isa 49,1–6, built as echoes of the Salvation Oracles, reveals already the architectonic form of the prophetic book, the moral union of author and reader. In Isa 49,7–13, in presenting the Servant (the literary hero) no longer by the name Jacob-Israel (as in Isa 40–48) but as the “afflicted one” of the Psalms of Lament, the author turns the prophetic utterance into an opportunity for the reader’s self-conscious identification before God. The Psalms of Lament are built upon what Bakhtin calls “confessional self-accounting”:

69 For instance, Berges (“The Literary Construction,” 28–38; Jesaja 40–48, 38–43) seeks to identify in the servant/servants of Second Isaiah a group of “temple singers.” 70 Along these lines, Baltzer (Deutero-Isaiah, 306) calls Isa 49,1–6 a “sham dialogue” and an “ideal biography” in which the servant is identifiable as Moses. He then identifies the servant as Nehemiah as per Isa 49,7–12. Our point here, which we shall continue to develop, is that specific historical situations provide the occasion, the necessary condition, for the formation of a servant, but not its idealization, its sufficient condition. As we continue to see the literary idealization of the servant, the authorial intention will seem to go beyond a single historical situation. 71 M.M. BAKHTIN, “Author and Hero,” 13 (italics original).

Chapter VI. The Voice of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–66

283

In confessional self-accounting, there is no hero and there is no author, for there is no position for actualizing their interrelationship, no position of being axiologically situated outside it. Author and hero are fused into one: it is the spirit prevailing over the soul in process of its own becoming, and finding itself unable to achieve its own completion or consummation, except for a certain degree of consolidation that it gains, through anticipation, in God (the spirit that has become naïve). 72

This fusion takes place in a moment, Isa 49,1–50,11, in which the literary hero, the Servant, becomes the reader of the author’s own words to him in Isa 41– 48, and so, in this fusion, the Servant as reader becomes Servant as author. 73 This is more than the identification of an historical group of authors and readers with the literary hero of a prophetic book, 74 it is an invitation to the actual reader to take part in, to consummate, to fulfill the prophetic utterance. This understanding, of the emergence of the reader into the authorship of the prophetic book through the Servant, invites a look into whether or not this also happens for the Friend. We shall now test this in the literary situations of Isa 51,1–54,17. 2.3.5 God Reads the Friend into Service in Isa 51,1–54,17 The author provides several literary and allusion-critical reasons for considering Isa 51,1–54,17 as a larger utterance or literary situation. These we can demonstrate graphically in Table 44. The location of these literary-allusive devices also suggests a tripartite structure to Isa 51,1–54,17, in Isa 51,1–52,12; 52,13–53,12; 54,1–17, which we shall follow now in our exposition.

72 M.M. BAKHTIN, “Author and Hero,” 147. Tull (“Bakhtin’s Confessional Self-Accounting,” 41–55) provides an invaluable translation of Bakhtin’s exercise in this matter from the Penitential Psalms to the Psalms of Lament. 73 Tull demonstrates how in the redactional and liturgical readings of the Psalms of Lament the reader becomes continually fused into authorship: “Therefore it is a reader who actually becomes author of the work’s aesthetic aspects, and who may even in some way make the confession available to other readers” (“Bakhtin’s Confessional Self-Accounting,” 54). In other words, just as the reader of Isa 49,1–6 must appear in 49,7–12, so now the reader of Isa 50,1–11 must appear in Isa 52,13–53,12. 74 Berges (“Die Armen im Buch Jesaja,” 153–177) has the author transferring the “afflicted and needy” of the Psalms of Lament into the historical situation of return and restoration. Berges (“Die Knechte im Psalter,” 153–178) then builds upon this to suggest, more in accord with our thesis, that the post-exilic authors have arranged the psalter so as to identify themselves as the “servants” of the psalms. These are two different arguments, that a plural author personifies themselves in their own text according to characters in another, and that a group recognizes itself in already authored texts and anthologizes them accordingly. The latter does not necessarily follow from the former.

284

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

Table 44: Inclusio of Literary-allusive Elements in Isa 51,1–54,17 Thematic Allusion Isa 51,1–3

Abraham-Sarah (v. 2); Eden-”garden of the Lord” (‫ג ן ־יהו ה‬, v. 3)

Noachic Flood (v. 9a)

Isa 51,9–11

Rahab-Dragon (v. 9b); Literary expression: Yam-”waters of the great ‫( כימי קדם‬Isa 51,9b) deep” (‫מי ת הו ם רב ה‬, ‫( כי־מי נח‬Isa 54,9a) v. 10a)

Isa 54,9–10

Fear-Not Formula Isa 51,7b

‫אל־ת יראו ח רפת א נו שׁ‬ ‫ו מג ד פ ת ם א ל ־ ת ח ת ו‬ Fear not the reproach of man and by their insults be not dismayed

Isa 51,12b

‫מי־את ות ירא י מאנ ו שׁ ימות‬ Who are you that you should fear man, who dies?

‫אל־ת ירא י כי־לא תבו שׁי‬ ‫ואל־תכלמי כי לא תח פירי‬

Isa 54,4a

Fear not for you will not be ashamed and be not disgraced for you will be reproached ‫רחק י מע שׁק כי־לא ת ירא י‬

Isa 54,14b

You will be far from oppression, yes, you shall not fear.

Elements of Genre Isa 51,21a

‫ענ י ה‬

‫ענ י ה‬

Isa 54,11a

‫הביטו אל־צו ר‬ ‫ה בי ט ו א ל ־ א ב ר ה ם‬

‫יצד יק צד יק‬

Isa 53,11b

‫כ י נח ם … נח ם‬

‫ רנ ה‬.. .‫רנ י‬

Isa 54,1a

‫עו ר י ע ו ר י‬

‫בנ י שׁו ממה מבנ י בע ולה‬

Isa 54,1b

‫הלו א את ־היא‬ ‫הלו א את ־היא‬

‫הרח יב י מקום א הליך‬ ‫הא ריכי מית ריך‬

Isa 54,2

(“afflicted one,” i.e., Zion-Jerusalem) Stylistic Doublings 75 Isa 51,1b.2a Isa 51,3a Isa 51,9a Isa 51,9b.10a

75 In Isa 51,1–52,12, these tend to be simple repetitions, while in Isa 54,1–17, these doublings are based on sound play. The doublings in the left-hand column do not correspond specifically to those on the right. There are stylistic doublings in Isa 55,1–13, but these tend to be more developed, suggesting a different literary situation there; ‫ שׁב רו ו א כלו ו לכו שׁב רו‬in v. 1b is a chiasmic sound play; in v. 5a,‫ ;גו י לא ־ת דע וג ו י לא ־ידעו ך‬in v. 8a, ‫;מח שׁבות י מח שׁבות יכם‬ in vv. 8a.9b, ‫ד רכי מד רכיכם‬-‫ד רכיכם ד רכי‬. In v. 2b, ‫ שׁמע ו שׁמו ע‬is a standard intransitive infinitive absolute. See §2.3.5c, n. 87, for the inclusion of Isa 54,17b with what immediately precedes.

285

Chapter VI. The Voice of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–66 Isa 51,12a

‫אנכי אנ כי הו א‬

‫כי ב שׁת ע לו מיך‬

Isa 51,17a

‫הת עו ררי הת עו ררי‬

‫כי ב ע ליך ע שׂיך‬

‫עו ר י ע ו ר י‬

‫ב שׁצף ק צף‬

Isa 54,8a

‫כי־כה א מר יהו ה‬

‫ ו כל־בנ יך‬. ..‫וכל־ג בו ליך‬

Isa 54,12b.13a

‫כ י כ ה א מ ר אד נ י י ה ו ה‬

‫הן גו ר יגו ר‬

Isa 54,15a

Isa 52,1a Isa 52,3a.4a Isa 52,11

Isa 54,4b.5a

‫ צאו‬...‫סו רו ס ו רו צא ו‬

a) God Speaks to the Lamentable Friend in Isa 51,1–52,12; 54,1–17 In addition to the feminine singular ‫ עניה‬of Isa 51,21a; 54,11a (seen in Table 43, above), the author identifies the Addressee in the masculine plural with many of the words identifying the Friend of the Psalms of Lament. First, in Isa 51,1a, the Speaker directs the imperative (“Listen to me”) to “those who seek righteousness” (‫ )רדפי צדק‬and “those who seek the Lord” (‫)מבקשׁי יהוה‬, both words appearing in the Psalms of Lament as double-valued words assigned to the Friend and the Enemy. 76 These the Speaker then identifies as “my people” in v. 4a, defined ambivalently as ‫ עמי‬and ‫ולאו מי‬, by way of a parallel imperative, “Draw near to me” (‫)הקשׁיבו‬. The Speaker combines these two Addressees in the second imperative to “Listen to me” in v. 7a, as “those who know righteousness” (‫ )יד עי צדק‬and “a people (with) my teaching in their heart” ( ‫עם תורתי‬ ‫)בלבם‬. It seems that the Addressee is to think of themselves as the Friend of the Psalms of Lament in their idealized description. Second, we hear another address to a masculine plural in Isa 54,17b, in which they are identified, like the Friend in certain Psalms of Lament, as “the servants of the Lord” (‫)עבדי יהוה‬. 77 for whom “their righteousness is from with me” (‫ )וצדקתם מאתי‬like in Isa 51,7a. While many of the imperatives in Isa 51,1– 54,17 are directed to feminine singular Zion-Jerusalem (as seen in the stylistic doublets listed above), herself “afflicted,” several imperatives are directed to a lamentable masculine plural, suggesting some kind of mutual identification. 78 76 The verb ‫ רדף‬applied to the Enemy: Ps 7,2.6; 31,6; 69,27; 109,16; 119,84.86.150. 157.161; 142,7; 143,3. To the Friend, psalmist, or God: Ps 18,38; 23,6. Verb ‫ בק שׁ‬applied to the Enemy: Ps 4,3; 54,5; 63,10; 86,14. To the Friend, psalmist, or God: Ps 24,6; 27,4.8 (2x); 69,7; 104,21; 105,3.4; 119,176; 122,9. As double-valued: Ps 37,25 (Friend).32 (Enemy).36 (psalmist for Enemy); 38,13 (Enemy).21 (Friend); 40,15 (Enemy).17 (Friend); 70,3 (Enemy).5 (Friend). Paired: Ps 34,15 (Friend); 71,11.13.24 (Enemy); 83,16.17 (Friend). Ps 35, alluded to in Isa 41,11–12.14–16, features the word ‫ רד ף‬in double value in v. 3 (Enemy).6 (Friend) and ‫ בק שׁ‬in v. 4 (Enemy). 77 See ch. III, §3.1.2c. 78 Berges (Jesaja 49–54, 159–160) identifies the masculine plural as those who have followed the servant but remain uncertain. The word “who comforts you” ( ‫)מנח מכם‬, hapax here in participial form, would seem to correspond to the participial “who loves you” ( ‫)מרחמך‬ addressed to the feminine singular in Isa 54,10b, casting further doubt on the identification of this group as simply a part of Zion’s population.

286

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

b) The Friend Reads the Servant as Lamenter in Isa 52,13–53,12 This masculine plural may, then, become the first-person plural speaking in Isa 53,1–10, and speaking about one whom God introduces in Isa 52,13–15 and 53,11–12 as “my servant” (‫עבד י‬, Isa 52,13a; 53,11a). This word would seem to speak back to Jacob-Israel as Servant of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44, and the Servant speaking in Isa 49,1–50,11. 79 We shall listen, then, for the specific words and forms that echo the Salvation Oracles of the Servant JacobIsrael. Important for understanding the Servant in Isa 52,13–53,12 are four doublevalued words describing his suffering in Isa 53,3–4, words coming directly from three of the Psalms of Lament already alluded to regarding Jacob-Israel. Each of these words appears twice in these two verses, and three of the four appear twice in their respective psalms. First, “he is despised” (‫ )נבזה‬appears in Isa 53,3a.3b, first “by men” (‫)אישׁים‬ and then by the plural speaker; this word appears in Ps 22,7b.25a as first pertaining to the singular speaker, “despised of a people” (‫ )ובזוי עם‬and then as negated to God, “He does not despise or detest the affliction of the afflicted one” (‫)לא בזה ולא שׁקץ ענו ת עני‬.80 Second, “sorrows” ( ‫ )מכאבות‬appears in Isa 53,3a.4a, first as belonging to the suffering servant (‫ )אישׁ מכאבות‬and then to the plural speaker ( ‫ ;)ו מכאבינו‬this word appears in Ps 69,27b.30a, first as pertaining to a plural “those you have wounded” (‫ )ואל־מכאב חלליך‬and then to the singular “afflicted” speaker ( ‫ואני עני‬ ‫)וכואב‬.81 Third, “infirmity” (‫ )חלי‬appears in Isa 53,3a.4a, first regarding the singular servant, “he knows infirmity” (‫ )וידוע חלי‬and then regarding the plural speaker, “our infirmities” ( ‫( )חלינו‬and again regarding the servant in the summary of v. 10a); in Ps 35,13a, this word in its verbal form describes the infirmity of the plural Enemy, for whom the singular psalmist “afflicts” himself, “But I for their infirmities put on sackcloth; I afflicted with fasting my soul” ( ‫ו אני בחלותם‬ ‫)לבושׁי שׂק עניתי בצו ם נפשׁי‬. 82 Fourth, “to reckon/esteem” (‫ )חשׁב‬appears in Isa 53,3b.4b pertaining to the action of the plural speaker toward the servant, “We did not esteem him” ( ‫ולא‬ ‫“ ;)חשׁבנהו‬And we esteemed him stricken” (‫ ;)ואנחנו חשׁבנוהו נגוע‬in Ps 35,4b.20b, this word regards those who “plot” against the Lamenter, “those who plot my evil” (‫ )חשׁבי רעתי‬and “They plot deceitful things” (‫)ד ברי מרמו ת יחשׁבון‬. Each of these words certainly appear in many other places in the OT, but only in Isa 53,3–4 and Ps 22, 35, and 69 do they take on such an double-valued See §2.3, above. See allusion to Ps 22,7b.25a to identify the Servant as Lamenter in Isa 49,7a in §2.3.2a, above. 81 See allusion to Ps 69,14 in Isa 49,8 in §2.3.2b, above. 82 See allusions to Ps 35 in Isa 41,11–12.13.14–16 in ch. III, §2.2.4–§2.2.6. 79 80

Chapter VI. The Voice of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–66

287

function, establishing the relationship between the ‫ עני‬and ‫ענוים‬, the one and the many.83 That the author has already alluded to these psalms explicitly with respect to the Servant, whether Jacob-Israel (Isa 41,11–12//Ps 35,1.4–6; Isa 41,14–16//Ps 22,4–9), Servant-people (Isa 49,7a//Ps 22,7b.25a and Isa 49,8//Ps 69,14) suggests that we understand Isa 53,3–4 in light of the formation of Jacob-Israel as Servant. The plural voice continues to describe this relationship as one of suffering at the hand of God in vv. 5–9, and in v. 11 we hear an Umschwung der Stimmung just as in at least two of these ‫ענוים‬-‫ עני‬Psalms of Lament. In Isa 53,11, we suddenly hear, “His soul will see seed, he will lengthen days, and with the pleasure of the Lord in his hand he will prosper” ( ‫נפשׁו יר אה זרע יאריך ימים ו חפץ‬ ‫)יהוה בידו יצלח‬. This shift conforms to the chronotope of Ps 22 and 69, in which we suddenly hear of the rejoicing of the ‫ענוים‬: “The afflicted will eat and be satisfied” ( ‫יאכלו ענוים ו ישׂבעו‬, Ps 22,27a) and “The afflicted will see and rejoice” (‫ראו ענוים ישׂמחו‬, Ps 69,33a). 84 Following this are Vows of Praise and Confessions of Trust with mention of “seed” (‫זר ע‬, Ps 22,31a; 69,37a), in each case immediately identified as plural “servants” (Ps 22,31a; 69,37a). The identification of the Friend as “servants” in the Psalms of Lament of the ‫ ענוים‬would then explain very well their identification as such in Isa 54,17b, as the suffering Servant becomes the individual ‫ עני‬of these psalms, now not speaking but, in a formal reverse of the Psalms of Lament, being spoken of by the Friend. 85 It is as if the Friend understands his prophetic vision of the Servant through the form of the Psalms of Lament, such that the Friend can, as ‫ענוים‬, participate in that event. c) The Friend Becomes the “Servants of the Lord” We have seen that the Fear-Not Formula frames the Friend’s literary situation in Isa 51,1–54,17 (Table 43, above). Right before the last summons not to fear, in Isa 54,14b, we hear that the children of Zion-Jerusalem are “disciples of the Lord” (‫למוד י יהוה‬, Isa 54,13a). This puts the Friend in relation to the Servant of Isa 50,4, who has a “tongue of disciples.” 86 These disciples are, in Isa 54,14a, “established in righteousness” (‫)בצדקה תכונני‬, like the Servant of Isa 50,8a. The 83 Baltzer (Deutero-Jesaja, 513–521) sees these words as echoes of a much larger set of utterances, Exod 3; Num 10–12, in which they do not serve the compositional function they do in the Psalms of Lament. 84 See ch. III, §3.1.2c for more expressions of this kind in the Psalms of Lament. 85 Berges (Jesaja 49–54, 230) proposes that Isa 52,13–53,13 is the “condensation of an event” (die Verdichtung eines Geschehens) in which Jacob-Israel becomes witness and messenger. 86 See §2.3.3, above. Goldingay/Payne (Isaiah 40–55, II, 356) suggest that the transfer of the word “disciples” to Zion-Jerusalem means that the prophet’s role as servant is only temporary.

288

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

creation triad in Isa 54,16–17a serves to inform the feminine singular of her protection, a protection then immediately identified as the “this” (‫ )זאת‬that the “servants of the Lord” enjoy as their “inheritance” (‫ )נחלת‬in Isa 54,17b. 87 First addressed as the Friend of the psalms (Isa 51,1–52,12), after having read the event of the Servant’s sufferings as the the psalms’ Lamenter (Isa 52,13–53,12), the Friend can now understand themselves as “servants of the Lord” in relation to the one Servant. This explains what in Isa 54,4–6 has looked to form-critical scholars like a Salvation Oracle: 88 the Friend receives now the same mission in the context of Zion-Jerusalem as Jacob-Israel in the context of Babylon. 2.3.6 Zion-Jerusalem as “Value-Context” in Isa 49,1–54,17 We have noted in Table 43, above, a change in the characteristics at least of the stylistic doublings from Isa 51,1–52,12 to Isa 54,1–17, and yet there is an even more obvious and important literary development between the first and third parts of Isa 51–54: the name “Zion-Jerusalem” disappears. The Speaker continues to address a feminine singular, as seen in the Fear-Not Formula and many other words, but the author replaces the literary device Zion-Jerusalem with a generic element, “servants of the Lord” (‫ )עבד י יהוה‬in the masculine plural. These Servants are, in some way, the offspring of Zion-Jerusalem (see n. 87, above), and so we shall try to understand who or what Zion-Jerusalem is for Servant, Servants, and Friend. 89 First, to understand what Zion-Jerusalem means for the relationship between Servant and Friend, we should raise the issue of grammatical gender. There are a number of moments in Isa 51,1–54,17 in which the grammatical gender and number of the Addressee oscillate with great frequency, 90 and prominent among these is the introduction, in Isa 52,7–10, of the masculine “messenger”

87 Goldingay/Payne (Isaiah 40–55, II, 363) and 1QIs a attach Isa 54,17b to Isa 55,1a, but “Alas” (‫ )הו י‬and the turn to the masculine plural in Isa 55,1a begin a new Address. Berges (Jesaja 49–54, 330), equating ‫ זאת‬with the words of the preceding utterance, identifies the plural “servants” here as the promised offspring of the suffering Servant. We might hear this as an echo of the promise in Isa 54,3b, “your seed will inherit nations” ( ‫זרע ך גו ים‬ ‫)יירשׁ‬, suggesting that the Friend as “servants” belongs both to God and Jerusalem as “espoused” (v. 5a). 88 See especially the early studies in ch. I, §1.1. 89 Baltzer, suggests that the omission of the name Zion-Jerusalem in Isa 54,1–17 provides for greater “abstraction” and more “general applicability” (Deutero-Jesaja, 543), corresponding to a process of “individualization and democratization” of Israel’s national institutions (Ibid., 585). 90 For instance, Goldingay/Payne (Isaiah 40–55, II, 240–242) summarize the interpretative troubles that the rapid shift in Addressee in Isa 51,1–52,12 has caused the early textual witnesses.

Chapter VI. The Voice of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–66

289

figure ( ‫ )מבשׂר‬once assigned to Zion-Jerusalem in Isa 40,9 (‫)מבשׂרת‬. 91 This masculine singular corresponds to a promise given in the immediate context of the Salvation Oracle Isa 41,8–1.17–20, in the Trial Speech of Isa 41,21–28: Isa 41,26b

Isa 41,27a

Indeed, there is none who shows, indeed, none who makes hear indeed, none who hears your speech: New things for Zion, behold here they are and in Jerusalem I will place a messenger

‫אף א ין ־מגיד‬ ‫אף א ין משׁמיע‬ ‫אף א ין שׁמע אמריכם‬ ‫רא שׁון לציון הנ ה הנ ם‬ ‫ולירו שׁלים מב שׂר את ן‬

This is one of the few instances within Isa 40–48 in which we hear the moniker Zion-Jerusalem (see Isa 40,9; 46,13). We have identified as Addressee of Isa 41,21–28 the Nations, but with Jacob-Israel as the real audience, and as Object of Discourse the incapability of idolators to make known any kind of salvation. 92 This gender shift of the word “messenger” suggests that Zion-Jerusalem is herself not the ultimate carrier of the message of “peace,” but one through whose salvation, the “nothings of earth” (‫)כל־אפסי־ארץ‬, the Friend, come to “see… the salvation of our God” (‫ את ישׁועת אלהינו‬...‫ )ור או‬as in in Isa 52,10b. The messenger and the message is the Servant, as the Friend themselves recognize in Isa 52,13–53,12. Zion-Jerusalem’s role is as the place of this message, and as such is called “messenger” in Isa 40,9a. The Servant, having recognized himself as idolator and having taken up his prophetic task in Isa 41–48, makes Zion-Jerusalem into the “herald” of his prophetic message in Isa 49–54. JacobIsrael gives value to the Servant in the identity of a people, and Zion-Jerusalem gives value to the Friend as those who hear and carry forward the Servant’s message. These problematics of gender serve a literary purpose, as Zion-Jerusalem becomes the “value-context” for the prophetic event. Bakhtin explains: Thus, in the world of forms alone, form has no validity or force. The value-context in which a work of literature is actualized and in which it is rendered meaningful is not just a literary context. A work of art must feel its way toward and find an axiological reality, the reality of the hero as event. 93

Jacob-Israel becomes self-conscious as Servant within a particular value-context, that of the end of exile (Isa 44,24–48,22), and more forcefully, with respect to Zion-Jerusalem in Isa 49,1–50,11. Zion-Jerusalem becomes, in 91 A shift in gender not adequately explained by the clear allusion to Nah 2,1 in Isa 52,7; see S. PAUL (Isaiah 40–66, 382). On the other hand, Berges (Jesaja 49–54, 195) suggests that, by attraction to “Assyria” (‫ )א שׁו ר‬in Isa 52,4b, the redactors of the book of Nahum borrowed the line from Isa 52,7. 92 See ch. III, §4. 93 M.M. BAKHTIN, “Author and Hero,” 201.

290

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

Isa 51,1–54,17, the value-context in which the Friend understands the value of the Servant and their relationship to her. Isa 49,1–54,17 all together would seem to encapsulate this context, according to Object of Discourse: 94 Table 45: Object of Discourse in the Value-Context of Zion-Jerusalem in Isa 49,1–54,17 Servant (Isa 49,1–6) Friend (Isa 51,1–52,12)

Friend (Isa 49,7–50,3) Servant (Isa 52,13–53,12)

Servant (Isa 50,4–11) Friend (Isa 54,1–17)

These two concentric patterns, each governed on their own terms within their literary situation (Speaker in Isa 49,1–50,11 as per §2.3, above and literaryallusive elements in Isa 51,1–54,17 as per §2.3.5, above), conspire to form a whole according to Object of Discourse, with the form of the relationship between Servant and Friend given value in the context of Zion-Jerusalem, the Addressee. 2.4 A Prophet Reads amidst Edom-Bozrah in Isa 34,1–63,6 Just as Isa 51,1–54,17 form a single, idealized literary situation or value-context for the form of the Servant and the Friend, so it seems that Isa 34,1–63,6 form a greater, historical literary situation for the Friend with respect to the Salvation Oracles. Our defining Isa 34,1–63,6 as some kind of literary whole shall correspond to understanding Isa 61,1–9 as situating the Salvation Oracles within this broad literary context. 95 2.4.1 Literary Unity in Isa 34,1–35,10 and 63,1–6 Several words and expressions occur in both Isa 34,1–35,10 and 63,1–6, suggesting a degree of literary unity. This may be an inclusio for Isa 34,1–63,6 as a whole, or a device meant to weave Isa 1–33 together with Isa 55–66, like two poles across which the author stretches a bridge from Isa 1 to 66. We cannot examine this in detail, except for the ways in which this concerns the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44. We can see, in graphical form, a literary construction similar to that of Isa 51,1–54,17:

94 Sweeney (Isaiah 40–66, 20) has Isa 49,1–54,17 as a unit with a focus on Zion-Jerusalem as bride of YHWH. This metaphor, we would say, gives value to the real focus, the Servant-Friend relationship. 95 Sommer (A Prophet Reads Scripture, 187–195) argues convincingly for the unity of Isa 34–35 with 40–66 on the grounds of poetic and allusive style. Indeed, the authorial disunity of Isa 34–35; 40–66 seems due not to the internal content of these chapters but the inclusion of the historical narrative in Isa 36–39//2 Kgs 18,13–20,19.

291

Chapter VI. The Voice of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–66

Table 46: Literary-Allusive Elements Uniting Isa 34,1–35,10; 63,1–6 and the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 Isa 34,5b Isa 34,6b

Isa 34,8a

Value Context of Edom-Bozrah Edom, “the people of my ban” (‫)ע ם ח רמי‬ ‫כי זבח ליהו ה ב ב צרה‬ ‫מי־זה בא מאדו ם‬ ‫ו ט בח ג ד ו ל ב א ר ץ א ד ו ם‬ ‫חמו ץ ב גד ים מבצרה‬ For it is a sacrifice to the Who is this who comes from Lord in Bozrah Edom, and a great slaughter in the (in) red garments from Bozrah? 96 land of Edom ‫כי יום נקם ליהו ה‬ ‫כי יום נקם ב לב י‬ ‫שׁנת שׁלומים לריב ציון‬ ‫ו שׁ נ ת ג או ל י ב א ה‬ For it is a day of vengeance For it is a day of vengeance in for the Lord, a year of re- my heart, quital, for the contention of and a year of my redeemed has Zion come

Isa 63,1

Isa 63,4a

Echoes of the Salvation Oracles: Fear-Not Formula with Formula of Divine Presentation Isa 35,3a ‫חזקו יד ים רפות‬ ‫אשׁר הח זקת יך‬ Isa 41,9a Isa 35,3b ‫וברכים כשׁלות אמצו‬ ‫אמצת יך‬ Isa 41,10b Isa 35,4a ‫חזקו א ל־ת ירא ו‬ ‫ כי אנ י א להיך‬...‫ אל־ת ירא‬Isa 41,10a 97 Isa 35,4b ‫הנ ה א להיכם‬ ‫כי א ני יהו ה אלהיך מח זק ימימיך‬ Isa 41,13a ‫האמר לך א ל־ת ירא‬ Isa 41,13b

Isa 34,1b Isa 35,5

Echoes of the Salvation Oracles: Identity of the Addressee ‫תבל ו כל־צאצא יה‬ ‫וב רכת י ע ל־צא צא יך‬ Isa 44,3b ‫עיני עו רים ו אזני ח רשׁים‬ ‫ הח רשׁים שׁמעו‬Isa 42,18a 98 ‫והעו רים הב יט ו‬ ‫עם ־ע ו ר ו ע ינ יהם ישׁ‬ Isa 43,8 ‫וח רשׁים ו אזנ ים למו‬

96 We might suppose that the red of the garments in Isa 63,1–3 is due to the blood spilled in Isa 34,5–6. We see a possible allusion to Deut 32,14 in Isa 34,6, in which the promises to Jacob-Israel in Deut 32 become judgment upon the nations in Isa 34: Isa 34,6a ‫חרב ליהו ה מלא ה דם‬ ‫ חמאת בק ר וח לב צאן‬Deut 32,14a ‫הד שׁנ ה מח לב‬ ‫עם ־ח לב כרים‬ ‫מדם כרים ו עתוד ים‬ ‫וא ילים ב ני־ב שׁן ועת וד ים‬ ‫מח לב כליות א ילים‬ ‫עם ־ח לב כליות חט ה‬ ‫ ודם ־ע נב ת שׁת ה־ח מר‬Deut 32,14b 97 See also Isa 41,14a; 43,1b.5a; 44,2b. 98 See ch. IV, §4 for the application of the words “blind” (‫ )ע ו ר‬and “deaf” ( ‫ )ח רשׁ‬to the Servant of Isa 43,1–7.

292 Isa 35,9b 99

Isa 63,4b

Isa 63,5a 100 Isa 63,5b Isa 63,6a Isa 63,6b 101

Isa 35,6b 102 Isa 35,7a

Isa 35,7b

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form ‫שׁם הלכו ג או לים‬ ‫ופדו יי יהו ה ישׁבון‬

‫וגא לך קדו שׁ ישׂרא ל‬ ‫כי ג אלת יך‬ ‫וגא לו יהו ה צב אות‬

Isa 41,14b Isa 43,1b Isa 44,6a

Echoes of the Salvation Oracles: Identity of God ‫אב יט וא ין עזר‬ ... ‫אף ־ע זרת יך‬ ‫וא שׁתו מם וא ין סו מך‬ .. .‫אל־ת שׁת ע‬ ‫ותו שׁע לי זרע י‬ ‫קדו שׁ ישׂרא ל מו שׁיעך‬ ‫וחמת י היא ס מכתנ י‬ ‫אף ־ת מכתיך ב ימין צד קי‬

Isa 41,10b Isa 41,10a Isa 43,3a Isa 41,10b

‫ו שׁ נ ת ג או ל י ב א ה‬

Echoes of the Salvation Oracles: Transformation of Landscape ‫כי־נב קעו ב מד ב ר מים‬ ‫אפתח על־שׁפיים נ הרו ת‬ ‫ו נ ח ל י ם בע ר ב ה‬ ‫ובתו ך ב קעו ת מע ינות‬ ‫והיה השׁרב לאגם‬ ‫אשׂים מדב ר לאג ם ־מים‬ ‫וצמאון למבוע י מים‬ ‫וא רץ ציה למו צא י מים‬ ‫ב צ מא‬ ‫ע ל ־ צ מא‬ ‫חצ י ר‬ ‫חצ י ר‬

Isa 41,18a Isa 41,18b Isa 41,17b Isa 44,3a Isa 44,4a

We see, in this table, literary unity between Isa 34,1–35,10 and 63,1–6 and between these utterances and the the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44, suggesting that Edom’s occupation of the Negev becomes a historical situation or value context for the work of the Servant and the Friend. 103 2.4.2 Prophetic Unity of Servant and Friend in Isa 61,1–9 The utterance in Isa 61,1–9, seems to unite the work of the Servant in the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 with the situation of Edom-Bozrah as laid out especially in Isa 34–35. The role of Speaker in Isa 61,1–9 is shared with the prophet and God, the latter emerging clearly in Isa 61,8, and the former never

For the word pair ‫ פדו יי יהו ה‬- ‫ גא ולים‬see Isa 51,10b–11a. Isa 63,5–6 are a near-direct copy of Isa 59,16, replacing ‫ א ביט‬for ‫ו ראו‬, ‫ עזר‬for ‫א ישׁ‬, ‫סו מך‬ for ‫מפג יע‬, and ‫ וח מת י‬for ‫צדקת ו‬, in many ways aligning Isa 63,5–6 more with the Salvation Oracles. 101 The words ‫ תמ ך‬and ‫ ס מך‬are near homophonic synonyms. 102 See the words ‫מד ב ר‬, ‫צ יה‬, and ‫ ע רב ה‬marked as the Object of Discourse in Isa 35,1. 103 Blenkinsopp (Isaiah 1–39, 450–454) provides a concise summary of the historical situation of the Edomite occupation of the desert Negev under Babylonian rule and discusses the similarities between Isa 34,1–4//63,1–6, and concludes that, for the author, Edom replaces Babylon as the personification of evil. On the other hand, it is possible that JacobIsrael, Zion-Jerusalem, and Edom-Bozrah represent three concurrent value contexts describing different dimensions to the relationship of Servant to God and to Friend, but such a proposal requires lengthier argumentation than we can sustain here. 99

100

Chapter VI. The Voice of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–66

293

explicitly named.104 However, some words identify the Speaker as the Servant. First, the Speaker refers to God as “the Lord God” (‫ )אדני יהוה‬in Isa 61,1a, first heard in the voice of the anonymous prophet to Zion-Jerusalem in Isa 40,10a and then in the voice of Jacob-Israel in Isa 48,16b. 105 The Servant does not utter this title for God where he is referred to as sinful and saved Jacob-Israel; he uses it as a prophet, even in his confessional self-accounting (Isa 48,16; 50,4.5.7.9; 61,1), and only in relation to Zion-Jerusalem. It is the Servant’s point of self-reference as prophet. Furthering the prophetic self-identity of the Speaker is the connection of the expression “the Lord God” to God’s “spirit”: Isa 48,16b Isa 61,1a

But now the Lord God has sent me, and his spirit The spirit of the Lord God is upon me

‫ועת ה אדנ י יהו ה שׁלחנ י ו רוחו‬ ‫רו ח א דנ י יהו ה ע לי‬

After the introduction of the “servants of the Lord” (‫ )עבדי יהוה‬in Isa 54,17b, however, we hear of the placing of the spirit upon the people, in Isa 59,21a: “And I, this is my covenant with them, says the Lord, my spirit which is upon them and my words which I have placed in your mouth” ( ‫ואני זאת בר יתי אותם‬ ‫)אמר יהוה רוחי אשׁר עליך ודברי אשׁר־שׂמתי בפיך‬. There is indication that the Friend shares, in some way, in the prophetic gift of the spirit. 2.4.3 Generic unity through the Psalms of Lament The author sets whoever is speaking in Isa 61,1–9 in relation to those identified as elements of the Psalms of Lament. This occurs primarily through typical words and expressions, especially in vv. 1–3. In Isa 61,1b, “afflicted” (‫)ענוים‬ are paired to the “brokenhearted” (‫ ;)נשׁבר י־לב‬these two words are often found together describing the Friend in the psalms, 106 and ‫ נשׁברי־לב‬seems also to be a sound play on “hurried of heart” (‫ )נמהרי־לב‬of Isa 35,4. It is to the “hurried of heart” to whom the Speaker in Isa 35,4 utters the Fear-Not Formula and the Encouragement Formula (See Table 45, above). Also in Isa 61,1b, we hear “to Attempts to identify the Speaker in Isa 60–62 are numerous. As examples of those scholars who do not see the same Speaker here as in Isa 40–54/55, Beuken (“Servant and Herald,” 410–442) provides a very detailed presentation of where the words and expression of Isa 61 appear in Isa 40–55, arguing that a later prophet, “Third Isaiah,” sees himself in line with the servant of Second Isaiah, and Sweeney (“Isaiah 60–62,” 130–142) looks outside of Isa 1–66, comparing Isa 60–62 with prophetic and legal texts, to show that the Speaker in Isa 61,1–7 is the high priest Joshua ben Jehozadak. 105 See §2.2.2, above, for ‫ אדנ י יהו ה‬as a case of prophetic heteroglossia. 106 As in Ps 34,7.19; 69,20.30.33; 147,3.6. Nurmela (112–113) sees here a direct allusion to Ps 34,19. One could also see an allusion to Ps 147,3, given the word “he binds” (‫)ומחב שׁ‬ there, but Ps 147,3 would seem rather to explicate the rather strange imagery of “binding the brokenhearted” of Isa 61,1. 104

294

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

captives” (‫ )לשׁבו ים‬and “to prisoners” (‫)ולאסורים‬, often the Friend of the Psalms of Lament.107 In Isa 61,2b.3a, we hear of “mourners” (‫אבילי ציון‬/‫)אבילים‬, just as in Ps 35,14. Secondarily, we hear reference to a specific allusion to one of the Psalms of Lament. In Isa 61,2a the author includes one of the expressions that form the inclusio of this larger utterance, “a year of favor for the Lord, a day of vengeance for our God” (‫שׁנת־ר צון ליהוה יו ם נקם לאלהינו‬, Isa 34,8a [“for the Lord”]; 63,4a [“in his heart”]) (See Table 45, above). This is possibly conflated with Isa 49,8a, “in a time of favor I have answered you and on a day of salvation I have helped you,” this coming, of course, from allusion to Ps 69,14 (see §2.3.2b, above), a Psalm of Lament. Finally, we hear in Isa 61,9a another word that seems to bind together the Salvation Oracles with Isa 34,1–35,10; 63,1–6, “its issue” (‫)ו צאצאיה‬. Set in parallel to “your seed” (‫ )זרעם‬and “to bless” (‫)בר ך‬, we hear a clear echo of Isa 44,3. The prophetic voice of Isa 61,1–9 is echoing the promises of the Salvation Oracles in the broader situation of oppression by Edom-Bozrah. In Isa 61,1–9, we do not hear explicitly of the Servant, though the form of his utterances is there in the words of the Psalms of Lament, as are expressions related to him in the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44. After the reading by the Friend in Isa 52,13–53,12 of the Servant back into the psalms, and the assignment by God to the Friend of the title Servants of the Lord (Isa 54,17), it seems that the Speaker of Isa 61,1–9 is the Friend, the “redeemed of the Lord,” taking responsibility for their salvation and its proclamation.

3. Conclusions in the Chronotope of Isa 1–66 Through the literary-allusive criteria we have established in §1.3, above, we have been able to study the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 in several clearlydefined and ever-broader literary situations or value contexts for the Servant: the call to moral return in Isa 41,1–44,23 (§2.1); the call to prophetic task in Isa 44,24–48,22 (§2.2); the announcement of a prophetic calling before the Friend in Isa 49,1–50,11 (§2.3.1–§2.3.4); the idealization of suffering by the Friend and their call as Servants in Isa 51,1–54,17 (§2.3.5–§2.3.6), the announcement of the Friend’s prophetic calling in Isa 34,1–63,6 (§2.3.7). Outside of these well-defined literary situations, it becomes much more difficult to ascertain the delimitation of literary contexts, and indeed, the rest of Isa 1–66 may be intentionally more spatially and temporally open-ended, an ongoing

107 As in Ps 146,7. As ‫ אס יר‬in Ps 68,7; 69,34; 79,11; 102,21; 107,10. We hear about ZionJerusalem as “captive” (‫ )שׁב י‬in Isa 49,24.25; 52,2.

Chapter VI. The Voice of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–66

295

and universalized chronotope (what some might call “eschatological”) 108 in which the reader can interpret the events of Isa 34,1–63,6. Listening for the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 in Isa 1,1–33,24; 63,7–66,24 should, then, provide a bridge to their interpretation outside of the book of Isaiah, as we shall do in Chapter VII. After summarizing in §3.1 our findings of §2, we shall interpret, the echoes of the Salvation Oracles we hear in these two major parts of Isaiah according to the ongoing situation of the reader of this prophetic book in “great time” (§3.2), after which we make some overall conclusions (§3.3). 3.1 The Servant as the Event of Salvation In §2, we have applied the gains of allusion criticism of the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 (chs. III-V) to a dialogical approach to their interpretation within certain literary situations in Isa 34,1–63,6. This has meant defining those situations for the one saved as value contexts for giving form to his relationship to God as savior and to the Friend. In summary: In Isa 41,1–44,23 (§2.1), God situates sinful Servant Jacob-Israel within the context of two ideals: 1) the history of Israel’s salvation as given through the Historical Hymns, allusion to which fills up much of this literary situation and which inscribes the Salvation Oracles, through Isa 44,1–5, within this context; 2) an unnamed servant who bears ideals qualities (Isa 42,1–9). This concludes with a summons to moral return (Isa 44,21–23). In Isa 44,24–48,22 (§2.2), God situates the sinfulness of Servant Jacob-Israel within the context of Babylon’s downfall under Cyrus, instrumental cause of salvation. Babylon’s downfall suggests to the Servant not only the abandonment of idolatry but also his own self-consciousness as a prophet calling others to flee Babylon and return to the God of Israel. In Isa 49,1–50,11 (§2.3.1), the Servant portrays himself as redeemed JacobIsrael and aligned with the values of the idealized Servant of Isa 42,1–9. In the context of lamenting Zion-Jerusalem, this becomes the occasion for the Servant to assume the form of the violently opposed Lamenter of the psalms, with whom God has already identified Jacob-Israel in Isa 41,8–16. In Isa 51,1–54,17, Zion-Jerusalem remains the context for the emergence of the Friend of the Psalms of Lament. They read the sufferings of the Servant according to the form of the Psalms of Lament and form their self-consciousness accordingly as Servants, children of Zion-Jerusalem and disciples of the Studies on eschatology in Second Isaiah abound (see Leene’s survey in “History and Eschatology,” 223–238), while those on Isa 1–66 seem to focus on eschatological interpretations in the LXX (see H.G.M. WILLIAMSON , “Eschatology and Messianism,” 118–119). An exception to this is Sweeney (“Eschatology in the Book of Isaiah,” 179–195), who argues that the whole of Isa 1–66 projects upon Isaiah ben Amoz an eschatological vision of ZionJerusalem as symbol of God’s universal reign. 108

296

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

Servant. This becomes the occasion for them not to fear, saved as they are like Abraham-Sarah and Noah. In Isa 34,1–63,6, in the context of oppression by Edom-Bozrah, the Servants assume their prophetic voice before the afflicted, especially in Isa 61,1–9. In all this, we can see that while salvation may be an act of God, it makes those whom he has saved into agents of salvation, their being itself as the event of God’s creating and saving presence in the world. We shall now test this interpretetation through listening for the voice of the Salvation Oracles in the rest of Isa 1–66. There, we will also discover the form of God as universal king as per the Psalms of Praise alluded to in Isa 43,1–7. 3.2 Readers of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–33; 63–66 The growing consensus that Isa 1–66 form some kind of compositional whole through repeated literary motifs and rereadings has not diminished the view of its authorial and redactional complexity. 109 On the contrary, since some now see Second Isaiah’s authorial hand at work within the whole, 110 we have greater confidence in a dialogical approach that sees the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41– 44 as responding to or anticipating their forms and expressions elsewhere. This brief survey shall proceed according to an understanding of the chronotope of the book as a whole in synchronic, canonical form. 3.2.1 Value Contexts through Thematic Allusion We have seen various literary situations in Isa 34,1–63,6 defined through thematic allusions, giving a primary definition to the situations as value contexts (see the summary, in §3, above), and this continues, in some way, in the two remaining major sections of Isa 1,1–33,24 and 63,7–66,24. The book of Isaiah opens in Isa 1,1 with historical, spatio-temporal markers, which the author quickly values according to moral comparison. The prophecy, assigned to Isaiah ben Amoṣ, is located in the time of Judah’s kings. However, the prophet soon compares his Addressee in Isa 1,9–10 as the “rulers of Sodom” (‫ )קצעני סדם‬and “people of Gomorrah” (‫)עם עמרה‬, a thematic allusion that, even if Gen 18,16–19,29 do not yet exist as a text, never yields a positive connotation. 111 After the vintage of Edom in Isa 63,1–6, the prophet declares that the time of those for whom he speaks is in direct relation to God, negating some typological allusions so far made. The prophet, presumably now the Friend as the 109 Sweeney (Isaiah 40–66, 379–384) neatly summarizes the thematic and verbal links that Isa 65–66 make with Isa 1, but also other utterances in between. 110 At least in Isa 1–55, as per Williamson’s magisterial work, The Book Called Isaiah. 111 Especially as a prophetic trope in condemnation: Deut 29,22; 32,32; Isa 3,9; 13,19; Jer 23,14; 49,18; 50,40; Ezek 16,44–58; Amos 4,11; Zeph 2,9; Lam 4,6.

Chapter VI. The Voice of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–66

297

Servants of Isa 34,1–63,6, says in Isa 63,16a, “Abraham does not know us and Israel does not acknowledge us” (‫)אברהם לא ידענו ו ישׂראל לא יכירנו‬. This comes soon after the Speaker’s recounting of God’s action through Moses in the exodus (Isa 63,11–12). The author alludes typologically so as to distance the situation of his readers from that of the patriarchs. Both Isa 1,1–33,24 and Isa 63,7–66,24 seem, so far, located in situations of moral despondency. 3.2.2 Anticipations of Salvation in Isa 1,1–33,24 We shall examine here those utterances that, in some combination, address Jacob-Israel, include a Fear-Not Formula, or make allusion to biblical passages alluded to in the Salvation Oracles. 112 Comprising utterances most likely from First Isaiah, our brief glance here is for the ways in which Second Isaiah may be trying to demonstrate literary and prophetic unity with them in the Salvation Oracles. a) A Prophet and His Disciples in Isa 8,1–22 If we consider Isa 8,1–22 as one utterance that begins with the Isaiah’s symbolic act of begetting children (vv. 1–4) and ends with the binding up of the prophet’s testimony by his disciples (vv. 16–18), we hear some words that resonate with the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 rather indirectly. The author introduces an indirect command not to fear in the jussive negative ( ‫לא־תיר או ולא‬ ‫ )תעיצו‬in v. 12b on the grounds in v. 11a that God speaks “in the strength of his hand” (‫ )כחזקת היד‬and redirecting that fear back to God in v. 13; while both expressions resonate later in Isa 41,8–10, redirection of fear to God resounds more clearly in Isa 57,11. 113 In Isa 8,16–18, we hear the names of Jacob, Israel, and Zion, and the call to “bind up the testimony” (‫)צור תעודה‬, described in parallel as “seal the teaching in my disciples” (‫)חתו ם תורה בלמדי‬. This points us to the description of the “teaching” of the ideal servant in Isa 42,1–9. b) Word Play in Assyria in Isa 10,20–34 More directly foreshadowing Isa 41,8–16 is the summons to Jacob-Israel not to fear in Isa 10,20–34. The author twice addresses Jacob-Israel, first as a “remnant of Israel” (‫ )שׁאר ישׂראל‬and “the escape of the house of Jacob” ( ‫ופליטת בית־‬ ‫ )יעקב‬in v. 20a who depend on “the Holy One of Israel” (‫)קדושׁ ישׂראל‬, as well 112 For instance, we shall not consider the Fear-Not Formula addressed to Ahaz in Isa 7,4, as little else in its surrounding utterance seems to resonate with the Salvation Oracles, or the Oracle of Judgment addressed to Jacob-Israel in Isa 9,7–11, or the quotation of Exod 15,2a in Isa 12,1–6. 113 “Whom have you dreaded and feared… It is not I whom you have feared” ( ‫ו את ־מ י‬ ‫ ו אות י לא ת ירא י‬. ..‫)דאגת ות ירא י‬. The expression also speaks to Isa 51,12b, “Who are you that you should fear man, who dies?” (see §2.3.5, above).

298

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

as “the remnant of Jacob” as part of “my people Israel” in vv. 21–22. The author’s use of the abstract noun “escape” to describe Jacob-Israel, even if in this context it refers to escape from Assyria (v. 24a), informs our understanding of Jacob-Israel in Isa 41–44 as the event of return from exile. Whether or not the author of Isa 41,8–16 also authors this oracle, play on the word ‫ חרוץ‬as “decreed” in Isa 10,22b and as “sharpened” in Isa 41,15a, along with the Fear-Not Formula addressed to “my people dwelling in Zion” ( ‫ )עמי ישׁ ב ציון‬suggests that we hear Isa 41,8–16 as rereading of Isa 10,20–34. c) Double-Valued Words in Isa 13,1–14,23 The Oracle against Babylon in Isa 13,1–14,23, especially in 14,1–23, sounds much like a literary anticipation of Isa 40–66, especially in the double value of certain words. Even as addressed to Babylon, the author here identifies JacobIsrael as “chosen” ( ‫בחר‬, Isa 14,1a; cf. Isa 41,8–10; 44,1–2). Jacob-Israel’s restoration is “for the servants” (‫לעבדים‬, v. 2b), called “from the hard service that was served in you” (‫ומן־העבדה הקשׁה עבד־בך‬, v. 3b). With this expression we can understand God’s address to the Servant of Isa 49,1–6 in 49,7 as “to a servant of rulers” (‫)לעבד משׁ לים‬, and through these two passages, that the title Servant in Isa 41–44 is itself a word of salvation, in that it transfers ownership, as it were, from Babylon to the Holy One of Israel. After reference to the “junipers” (‫ )ברושׁים‬and “cedars of Lebanon” (‫ )ארזי לבנון‬in Isa 14,8a as the Friend who rejoices in Jacob-Israel’s salvation from Babylon (as in Isa 41,19), the author establishes a value for other words that will be reversed in Isa 41,8–16.17–20: the punishment of Babylon under the “worm” (‫תולעה‬, v. 11b; cf. Isa 41,14b) and the transformation of Babylon into “marshes of water” (‫ואגמי־מים‬, v. 23a; cf. Isa 41,18b) – these words falling amidst two instances of the expression “But you” (‫ואתה‬, vv. 13a.19a) directed against Babylon (as in Isa 41,8a.16b). d) The Friend of the Psalms of Lament in Isa 29,17–24 After the Woe upon “Ariel” in Isa 29,1–16, a word of salvation emerges in Isa 29,17–24 that anticipates, again, much of what we hear in Isa 40–66, and particular to the Salvation Oracles are words that seem to come from the Psalms of Lament. Before God introduces himself to Jacob-Israel in Isa 29,22 as “who redeemed Abraham” (‫ ;פדה את־אברהם‬see Isa 41,8b), the author speaks of the rejoicing of the “afflicted” (‫ )ענו ים‬and “needy” (‫ )אביונים‬in Isa 29,19 as in parallel to the “deaf” (‫ )החרשׁים‬and “blind” (‫ )עור ים‬who hear and see in v. 18. We have heard the Friend identified as “afflicted and needy” in Isa 41,17, and as “deaf and blind” both Jacob-Israel himself (Isa 42,18–25) and the nations to whom God sends him (Isa 43,8–13). The Enemy who “lays snares at the gate” (‫בשׁער יקשׁון‬, v. 21a; see Ps 69,13a 114) will be annihilated (‫כי־אפס‬, v. 20a) as in 114

Ps 69,13a: “They speak against me who dwell at the gate” (‫)ישׂיחו ב י ישׁבי שׁע ר‬.

Chapter VI. The Voice of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–66

299

Isa 41,11–12, and in v. 22b Jacob-Israel, in a double “now,” “will not be ashamed” (‫ )לא־עתה יבושׁ‬and “his face will not now grow pale” ( ‫ולא עתה פניו‬ ‫)יחורו‬. 3.2.3 Renewed Calls for Salvation in Isa 63,7–66,24 If certain oracles anticipate the formation of the Servant through his salvation in Isa 1,1–33,24, then in Isa 63,7–66,24, the Servants make new appeal to God for a moment of salvation, a moment that God promises in separating his Servants from those who are not. a) Appeal to God as Father In the same literary moment in which the author detaches his readers from the idealized situation of the patriarchs (see §3.1.1, above), he explicitly attaches them directly to God as Father. Isa 63,16a begins with “For you are our Father” ( ‫)כי־אתה אבינו‬, and after repeating in v. 16b “You are the Lord, our Father” ( ‫אתה‬ ‫)יהוה אבינו‬, he echoes God’s words in the Salvation Oracles, “Our redeemer from eternity is your name” (‫ ;גאלנו מעו לם שׁמך‬see esp. Isa 43,1b). The author then reads the Salvation Oracles again in Isa 64,7a to declare, “But now, Lord, you are our Father” (‫)ועתה יהוה אבינו אתה‬. The situation that the author presents his readers, again the “we” for whom he speaks, is a “now” before the present “you” of God. That this “now-you” pair emerges from reading the Salvation Oracles we hear in echoes from them in the surrounding words. In Isa 64,7b, the author again identifies God as Father, especially as alluded to in Isa 43,5b– 6b//Ps 103,12–13. The author returns to that Salvation Oracle to identify God as “But you who forms us” (‫)ואתה יצרנו‬. In Isa 63,17, the author makes his own true lament, a “Why” (‫למה‬, see Isa 40,27) that concludes by combining the imperative that God first gives the Servant Jacob-Israel in Isa 44,22b (‫ )שׁובה‬with the identification of the Servant’s charge in Isa 49,6a (‫ )שׁבטי יעקב‬and the prerogative of the Servants in Isa 54,17b (‫)נחלת עבדי יהוה‬: “Return for the sake of your servants, the tribes of your inheritance” (‫)שׁוב למען עבד יו שׁבטי נחלתך‬. The author rereads his Salvation Oracles in the non-idealized, ongoing situation in which the Servants find themselves. b) Appeal from God to the Servants God, in response to the Lament of Isa 63,7–64,11, affirms the non-idealized time of the prophetic author and his readers and then draws them into an unfinalized definition as moral beings. In Isa 65,7, God speaks of repaying “your sins and the sins of your fathers together” (‫)עונתיכם ועונת אבו תיכם יחדו‬, locating them in the non-idealized present as an extension of the past, but soon in Isa 65,9, he identifies a certain number of servants not marked for destruction,

300

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

“seed from Jacob” (‫מיעקב זרע‬, see Isa 44,3–4), “my chosen ones and my servants” (‫)בחירי ועבד י‬. So far, it is Jacob-Israel called “my servant” whom God “has chosen” (Isa 41,8–10; 44,1–2) and the unnamed Servant or Israel as “my chosen one” (‫בחירי‬, Isa 42,1a; 43,20b; 45,4a). These words seem to apply to those whom, like Jacob-Israel, God is calling to turn from idolatry. God makes this clear in Isa 65,11–16, where he distinguishes the fate of an indeterminate “But you” (‫ )ואתם‬from “my servants” by combining, in v. 13–14, words from the alluded Psalms of Lament with words from the Salvation Oracles and Servant Songs (among others): “they will eat” (‫יאכלו‬, Ps 22,27)/”you will go hungry” (‫תרעבו‬, Isa 49,10); “they will drink but you will thirst” (‫ישׁתו ואתם תצמאו‬, cf. Isa 41,17; 44,3a); “they will rejoice” (‫ישׂ מחו‬, Ps 35,15.19.24.27; 69,33)/”you will be ashamed” (‫תבשׁו‬, Ps 22,4; 35,7; 69,4; Isa 41,11); “they will cry out” ( ‫ירנו‬, Deut 32,43; Ps 35,27)/”you will cry out” (‫תצעקו‬, Isa 42,2) “from pain” ( ‫מכאב‬, Isa 53,3.4; Ps 69,27.30). The prophet closes out the book of Isaiah, in fact, with a reversal of Isa 41,14b//Ps 22,7a, in which the epithet that God once takes up lovingly for Jacob-Israel becomes, for those who do not do as Jacob-Israel does in recognizing their salvation, a word of damnation: Isa 66,24b

‫כי תו לע תם לא תמות‬ For their worm will not die

‫ אל־ת ירא תו לעת‬Isa 41,14b ‫יע קב מת י ישׂראל‬ Fear not, worm Jacob, few/dead of Israel

The author concludes the book with an idealization of the present and future based on the promises to Jacob-Israel in the Salvation Oracles, which now belong to their reader and the reader of the “great time” of the book of Isaiah. The definition of the Servants would seem unfinalized, requiring the decision of the reader to act “as in the days of old” (‫כימי קד ם‬, Isa 51,9b), not as “in the days of” ( ‫ )בימי‬the kings (Isa 1,1), so that their time be “like the days of the tree” (‫כימי העץ‬, Isa 65,22b). 3.3 The Consummation of the Hero A particular architectonic form determines the reading of Isa 1–66, especially in Isa 34,1–63,6, in which the Addressee, the presumed (or model) reader, enters into authorship by reading what has been spoken to him. God himself begins this process as reader, reading allusions to the psalms and legal narratives into the Salvation Oracles he is pronouncing to his Servant, Jacob-Israel. In this way, God gives form to the Servant as Lamenter of the psalms, to himself as king of the Psalms of Praise, and to the situation of return from exile as an event of salvation like in the Historical Hymns. God consummates or fulfills his reading of these utterances, creating an Other in Jacob-Israel.

Chapter VI. The Voice of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 1–66

301

Jacob-Israel, in turn, fulfills or consummates the Salvation Oracles by reading them in their context to the Friend. By addressing Zion-Jerusalem as a lamenting people, the Servant imports the form of the Psalms of Lament, -‫עני‬ ‫ענוים‬, into his relationship with this Other. The Friend, in turn, interprets the sufferings of the Servant by reading them as if he were Lamenter of the psalms, and this gives them fearless self-conscious understanding themselves as Servants of the Lord, an identity that they assume in the situation of Edom-Bozrah. In each moment, real situations and real persons become a word, a literary event that can be read by others. The literary hero, the Servant, is not closed in on himself but is unfinalized, a word in dialogue with the reader. This dialogue becomes, already within the book of Isaiah, the aesthetic object, in which Servants contemplate the Servant. Bakhtin explains the value of this: There is a fundamental and essential difference in value between the I and the other, a difference that has the character of an event: outside the bounds of this difference, no axiologically ponderable act is possible. 115

If the book of Isaiah is a prophetic event, it is so in the form of the Psalms of Lament, a literary genre whose form serves the precise purpose of maintaining the I-Thou distinction that generates moral value for the reader. Indeed, God renews this prescription for reading near the close of the book of Isaiah: “Upon this one I look, upon the afflicted (‫ )עני‬and stricken of spirit and who trembles at my word” (Isa 66,2b). 116 This prophetic book is one that makes prophets of its readers. We have seen the progressive consummation of the hero within the book of Isaiah, and there remains for us to see how readers of the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 within the Old and New Testaments further bring this literary hero, the Servant Jacob-Israel, to prophetic fulfillment in their readerly contemplation of their own situations. This will mean, firstly, an interpretation of the Salvation Oracles in themselves, based on our findings in this chapter’s approach to dialogical form.

115 116

M.M. BAKHTIN, “Author and Hero,” 187. Isa 66,2b: ‫וא ל־זה א ב יט אל־ענ י ו נכה־רוח וח רד ע ל־ד ב רי‬.

Chapter VII

A Theology of Prophetic Dialogism Our study of inner-biblical allusion in the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 has led to a deeper understanding of the compositional and architectonic form of these prophetic utterances, as well as to an understanding of their situation within the book of Isaiah as a whole. The psalms to which the author alludes in Isa 41,8–16.17–20; 43,1–7; 44,1–5 provide, in their genre, a sort of architectonic form at least to Isa 40–54, if not 34–35; 40–66. In this case, a singular Servant, Jacob-Israel, the author’s literary hero, takes on the same relationship as the Lamenter, the singular ‫עני‬, to Zion-Jerusalem, the plural ‫ענוים‬, the Friend of the Psalms of Lament. The Servant, at least in the Salvation Oracles, but as well, it seems, throughout Isa 40–54 – or in as much as we can have studied these chapters here – does not serve to identify a particular individual in time and space, but is rather God’s word to Israel about Israel. In this final chapter of our study, we should not, then, seek only to identify the ways in which other utterances and their authors speak of a servant and servants. Already in Ps 105, a psalm that has much in common lexically and thematically with Isa 34–35; 40–66, we hear of Abraham and Moses identified as “servant” (Ps 105,6.26), and Aaron as “chosen” (‫בחר ־בו‬, v. 26b; see Isa 44,1b//Ps 78,70a). In the New Testament, Paul identifies himself and Barnabas as the servant of Isa 49,6 in Acts 13,47. Indeed, the psalmist himself would turn us away from seeking one individual or unique definition of the servant when he says, “all things are your servants” ( ‫כי הכל‬ ‫עבדיך‬, Ps 119,91). Be it Paul, David, Moses, or Abraham, the Servant is one who bears God’s word about and to his people, and indeed is God’s word in the event of their being. The Servant is no simple messenger, but one who bears the word within himself, one who, in a sense, makes the word incarnate. If there is one essential characteristic to the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44, this is it: Jacob-Israel, in becoming a reader of Israel’s literature as alluded to within the message of salvation, consummates (in Bakhtin’s words) or fulfills (in theological words) the prophetic oracle. He becomes, as Servant, the embodiment of salvation, formed in the very warp and woof of Israel’s literature. If a particular person then, identified as “servant,” suffers in the ways elsewhere described for the Servant in Isa 40–54, it is because He himself has already made incarnate Israel’s word of salvation in Isa 41–44.

304

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

In this chapter, we shall test these conclusions that we have made through allusion criticism and a dialogical approach in two ways. First, in §1, we shall test our conclusions against the Salvation Oracles as a literary whole. This means examining the architectonic elements of these oracles – Address of Assurance, Consequence, Reason, and Purpose – through the characteristics of the Salvation Oracle as a genre, namely its chronotope and use of metaphor. We have only achieved an initial look at these characteristics of each Salvation Oracle in Chapters III–V; since they pertain to genre, we can properly look at them here, the three Salvation Oracles together as the formal unity that we have demonstrated in Chapter VI, §1. This test shall lead to some overall theological conclusions regarding the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44. Second, in §2, we shall test our theological conclusions in dialogue with other readers of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44, namely the psalmist, the Chronicler, and Luke. We shall treat there only those utterances that allude to or quote from the three Salvation Oracles we have been studying, and only in an introductory fashion.1 This dialogical test shall help us to refine our theological conclusions regarding the Salvation Oracles, as well as to introduce some conclusions regarding the fulfillment of prophecy itself. Finally, in §3, we shall test, very briefly, these overall conclusions against the results of earlier form-critical scholarship on the Salvation Oracles and the needs of theological studies in general. In particular, this means reorienting form-critical studies from origins to purpose, such that the role of the reader emerge more powerfully within prophecy.

1. Characteristics of Genre in the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 The Salvation Oracles derive their name, apart from their overall message, from the Speaker’s Formula of Divine Presentation as “savior” and “redeemer,” in verbal and participial form. The response for which this Divine Self-Presentation calls is an inner posture of belief in this word through the Fear-Not Formula. Between these two sets of formulas lay numerous literary allusions set within a specific literary chronotope. These literary characteristics give compositional form to the Salvation Oracles. The reader of these oracles in their compositional form consummates their architectonic form; the reader fulfills the prophecy through an attitude of non-fear. We shall test here our earlier Grimm (Die Verkündigung Jesu und Deuterojesaia, 231–277) sees a dependence in Mark 10,45 upon Isa 43,3–4 in the use of the words about “serving” (διακονία) and “ransom” (λύτρον), which Jacobson, in his review (“Die Verkündigung Jesu und Deuterojesaia,” 644), sees as tenuous. Without confronting Grimm’s claims in detail, we can show, at least, (as we shall see in §2.3, below), that where Luke alludes to the Salvation Oracles directly, he translates ‫ עב ד‬as παιδός. 1

Chapter VII. A Theological Dialogism

305

findings regarding the chronotope of the Salvation Oracles and their use of metaphor, and how allusion and the chronotope impart knowledge and consummate salvation in the reader. The dimensions of space and time are interwoven in the Salvation Oracles, and this chronotope with the use of metaphor. We shall treat them here separately for the purposes of clarity. 1.1 Time of Salvation We shall first consider the “when” of the Salvation Oracles, or more specifically, the relationship of the event of salvation as already achieved to the event of salvation as ongoing. 1.1.1 The Address of Assurance and Immediate Salvation Allusion criticism has led us to see the composition of the Salvation Oracles such that the architectonic elements of Address and Assurance of Salvation, with or without the Fear-Not Formula and Formula of Divine Presentation, come together in allusive units governed by the verbal perfect.2 God speaks to servant Jacob-Israel about God’s completed action upon him. This means expressions of help (‫עזר‬, Isa 41,10b.13b.14b; 44,2a), of redemption (‫גאל‬, Isa 41,14b; 43,1b.5a), and of salvation (‫ישׁ ע‬, Isa 43,3a), often set in parallel or in apposition to each other, such that these verbs and participles refer to the same event, which at least in Isa 41,8–10.13 God specifies as the physical relocation of his people from “the ends of the earth” (‫מקצות הארץ‬, Isa 41,9a). These expressions of salvation come united in the Address of Assurance to expressions of the relationship between God and his servant Jacob-Israel. These are expressions of election (‫בחר‬, Isa 41,8a.9b; 44,1b.2b), of creation (‫עשׂה‬- ‫יצר‬-‫ברא‬, Isa 43,1a; 44,2a), of pronouncing names (‫קר א בשׁם‬, Isa 43,1b), of immediate presence (‫עמך־אני‬, Isa 41,10a; ‫אתך־אני‬, 43,5a), and of mutual possession in “my servant” (‫עבדי‬, Isa 41,8a.9b; 44,1a.2b), “you are mine” (‫לי־אתה‬, Isa 43,1b), “I am (the Lord) your God” (‫אני־אלהיך‬, Isa 41,10a; ‫אני יהו ה אלהיך‬, Isa 41,13a; 43,3a) and in the possessive suffixes on the words expressing salvation just listed. In one instance, God also speaks of instrumentalization in the perfect, “I have made you a threshing sledge” (‫הנה שׂמתיך למור ג חרוץ‬, Isa 41,15a). Address and Assurance are one and the same architectonic element, as God speaks of salvation only as he speaks of his relationship with servant JacobIsrael. The imperative to “fear not” ([‫אל־תירא]י‬, Isa 41,10a.13b.14a; 43,1b.5a; 44,2b) comes squarely within these expressions of mutual possession and 2 Isa 41,8–10.13.14–15a; 43,1.3a.5a; 44,1–2. For detail into these as compositional units, see ch. III, §3.2.1 (Isa 41,8–10), §3.2.2 (Isa 41,13), §3.3 (compositional whole); ch. IV, §3.2.1 (Isa 43,1), §3.3 (Isa 43,3a.5a and the compositional whole); ch. V, §3.2.1 (Isa 44,1– 2), §3.3 (compositional whole); ch. VI, §1 (compositional whole).

306

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

presence in the verbal perfect, and so this attitude pertains to the present, not to the future, based on what God has already done and who he and his Servant are to each other. In the Salvation Oracles, salvation is mutual possession and is the pre-condition for what God then promises in the Consequence. 1.1.2 The Consequence and Ongoing Salvation We have come to see through the identification of allusive units that the Consequence is always set in the verbal durative, expressing action or events that take place over an unspecified amount of time in a non-specific future. These events or activities sometimes concern: servant Jacob-Israel himself, as in Isa 43,2 (“when[ever] you pass” [‫ ;)]כי־תעבר‬the Enemy, as in Isa 41,11–12 (“Thus, they shall be shamed and disgraced” [ ‫)]הן יבשׁו ויכלמו‬, and 41,15b–16a (“You shall thresh mountains” [‫ ;)]תדושׁ הרים‬and the Friend, as in Isa 41,17b– 19 (“I will answer them” [‫)]אענם‬, 43,5b–6b (“I will bring your seed” [ ‫אביא‬ ‫)]זרעך‬, and 44,3–4 (“I will pour” ‫)אצק‬. We do not hear any specific word for a unit of time, and even where the Servant later speaks of a “morning,” it is to represent durative time, “morning after morning” ( ‫בקר בבקר‬, Isa 50,4b). 3 The expressions of ongoing activity in the Consequence concern the relationship that servant Jacob-Israel shares with God toward the Enemy and the Friend. Allusion criticism has given us to identify Jacob-Israel as the Lamenter of the Psalms of Lament in relation to the Enemy and Friend of these psalms. These expressions of identification carry forward throughout Isa 34–35; 40– 66, and in the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 in particular, this identity means participation by servant Jacob-Israel in the destruction of the Enemy and the salvation of the Friend. In terms of destruction of the Enemy, servant JacobIsrael lacks military prowess (“They shall be as nothing and naught, your soldiers” [‫יהיו כאין וכאפס אמשׁי מלחמתך‬, Isa 41,12b),4 this being given over to Cyrus, 5 and Jacob-Israel’s participation in the gradual destruc-tion of the “mountains and hills” in Isa 41,15b–16a is as an instrument, a “threshing sledge” (Isa 41,15a). In terms of salvation for the Friend, this means God’s extending to them the promises to Jacob-Israel of a temple (Isa 41,17b–19), of gathering (Isa 43,5b–6b), and of blessings (Isa 44,3–4). 1.1.3 Conclusions The event itself of salvation remains ambiguously stated, understood from the Salvation Oracles and their literary context as return from exile in Babylon. See ch. VI, §2.3.3. See ch. III, §2.2.4 for this interpretation. 5 Isa 45,1–7; see ch. VI, §2.2.1. But see already “the hand of my champion/ righteousness” ( ‫ )ב ימין צדק י‬in Isa 41,10b and “from the east a champion/righteousness” (‫ )ממזרח צדק‬in Isa 41,2a. 3 4

Chapter VII. A Theological Dialogism

307

God speaks of it in the verbal perfect aspect, as something that has occurred. Jacob-Israel’s ongoing participation in the Consequence for the Enemy and Friend builds upon this established reality of salvation. The imperatives that come later, to “Return” (‫שׁובה‬, Isa 44,22b) and to “Issue forth” (‫צאו‬, Isa 48,20a), imperatives that speak of moral and physical return, 6 build upon this indicative mood of the Salvation Oracles, and suggest that Jacob-Israel’s salvation requires simply that he recognize it. 1.2 Space of Salvation After considering the “when” of salvation in Isa 41,8–16.17–20; 43,1–7; 44,1– 5, we now consider the “where” of salvation in these Salvation Oracles. The author gives two main kinds spatial indicators: somewhat vague expressions of movement and gathering from and metaphorical expressions of the landscape in which the event of salvation takes place. 1.2.1 The Reason and Gathering around the Divine King In the Address of Assurance and in the Consequence, there are only very general indicators of where, whither, or whence the act of salvation takes place, while in the one Reason of the Salvation Oracles, Isa 43,3b–4b, we hear mention of specific nations. In other parts of Second Isaiah, we hear explicitly of Babylon7 but the space of salvation is less specific in the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44. Thus, while we hear in them of the “end(s) of the earth” ( ‫קצת‬/‫קצה‬ ‫הארץ‬, Isa 41,9a; 43,6b), the cardinal points (Isa 43,5b–6a), and “from afar” (‫מרחק‬, Isa 43,6b), only in the Reason we hear of “Egypt, Kush, and Seba” (‫מצרים כושׁ וסבא‬, Isa 43,3b). We should not take these nations as specifying what the Speaker means by the “ends of the earth,” because these are given “in exchange” (‫כפר‬, ‫ )תחת‬for servant Jacob-Israel. In this Reason, the author alludes to Ps 47, in which God – like in the other psalms (Ps 66, 103) alluded to in Isa 43,1–7 – is king of the entire earth.8 This corresponds to the explicit mention of God as Jacob-Israel’s king in Isa 41,21; 43,15; 44,6a. The expression in the Reason, “You are precious in my eyes” (‫יקרת בעיני‬, Isa 43,4a), is royal heteroglossia, the language of a king.9 The expression “I love you” (‫ )אהבתיך‬in that same verse might also pertain to royal relations, considered at least in comparison to Ps 47,5b, in which God “loves” (‫ )אהב‬Jacob, and to Isa 41,8b, in which God describes Jacob as “seed of Abraham, who loves me” (‫)זרע אברהם אהבי‬, the same Abraham mentioned in Ps 47,10. The setting for God’s love is his universal reign, suggesting that, like See ch. VI, §2.1.2 and §2.2.2. Isa 43,14; 47,1; 48,14.20. 8 See ch. IV, §3.1.1. 9 See ch. IV, §2.1.4. 6 7

308

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

for his calling of Abraham in Gen 12,1–3, it demonstrates his partiality for the one among the many. Understood in this way, and given the lack (so far) of specificity regarding return to Jerusalem, we should understand the place of salvation as a particular moral value in God’s royal presence. In other words, just as Jacob-Israel’s salvation is in intimate, mutual possession of God, and just as the Friend’s eventual salvation is in God’s gathering them, we should understand the spatial dimension of salvation not in geographical, but theological terms: salvation is to be where God the king is, to be the assembly of his beloved. This may well be in Jerusalem, of whose restoration God and prophet speak in Isa 34–35; 40– 66.10 The nations – again as “Egypt, Kush, and Seba” – do come to serve Jerusalem. 11 On the other hand, his presence cannot be limited to there, as per Isa 66,1: “The heavens are my throne and the earth my footstool” ( ‫השׁ מים כסאי‬ ‫)והארץ הדם רגלי‬. Indeed, it is this last reference that helps us to understand the place of salvation as God’s assembly, in Jerusalem or elsewhere. In Isa 66,2b, God expresses his preference for the “afflicted one” (‫)עני‬, not in opposition to the temple but in relation to it (much like Jacob-Israel is valuable “from among” [‫ ]מאשׁר‬the nations in Isa 43,4a). It is this “afflicted” who is identified as God’s people (Isa 49,13b) and who is both Lamenter of the Psalms of Lament.12 The place of salvation is the assembly around the king, the beloved “afflicted” around God in prayer. 1.2.2 Agents of Salvation in a Landscape of Metaphors The author speaks of the “where” and the “who” of salvation, its agents, in highly metaphorical ways, and this corresponds to, and in some cases overlaps, with a metaphorical description of salvation itself. Our concern is not to identify, historical-critically, the reality to which these metaphors might be referring, but rather, building upon our understanding of time in the Salvation Oracles, the dimensions of the relationship between the servant and God, Enemy and Friend that these metaphors might be describing. a) Metaphorical Landscapes The images of “water” and “fire” in Isa 43,2 seem immediately to correspond to the trials that God imposes upon servant Jacob-Israel as purification of sin, as we have seen in our reading of the allusions there to Ps 66,6.12 and 10 Isa 35,10; 40,2; 44,26–28; 49,19–23; 51,11; 54,2.11–12; 58,12; 60,10–18; 61,4; 62,6– 12. Each of these descriptions of physical reconstruction come to a climax in descriptions of personal relations (again, in metaphorical terms) of Jerusalem to the world. 11 See Isa 45,14–17. 12 See ch. III, §3.1.

Chapter VII. A Theological Dialogism

309

Num 31,23 in the immediate context of Isa 42,25. 13 We shall focus, then, on the image of water upon dry landscapes in Isa 41,18–19 and 44,3–4. The metaphor of water upon dry landscapes so permeates the utterances of Second Isaiah that we should consider it not simply a part of the stylistic character of this prophet’s speech, 14 but indeed central to his prophetic word. In Isa 41,18–19, watercourses upon a dry landscape serve to nourish the trees of the temple spoken of there. In Isa 60,13, those trees, specifically the “juniper, maple, and cypress” ( ‫ ;ברושׁ תדהר ותאשׁור‬see Isa 41,19b) refer more explicitly to the temple as “the place I make holy and the place I glorify with my feet” ( ‫מקו ם‬ ‫)מקדשׁי ומקו ם רגלי אכבד‬. However, in Isa 44,3–4, water and land refer to persons, as we see in §1.2.2c, below, corresponding to the use of water and trees as metaphors in Isa 55,1–13, in which images for water, “rain and snow” ( ‫הגשׁ ם‬ ‫והשׁלג‬, Isa 55,10a) refer to God’s “word” (‫ד ברי‬, v. 11a) for those who are “thirsty” (‫כל־צמא‬, v. 1a; see Isa 41,17a; 44,3a). In fact, the trees mentioned in Isa 55,13a, “juniper” (‫ )ברושׁ‬and “myrtle” (‫ ;הדס‬see Isa 44,19a) as benefitting from this watercourse of words would seem further to suggest the personal, and not architectural, nature of the reality to which these metaphors speak. 15 This use of the metaphors of water upon dry ground, while referring to the temple in Jerusalem, is not exhausted by the physical description of the temple, but seems rather fulfilled in the presence of people, an assembly, in that space. It is as if the assembly gives value to the space, and not the other way around. 16 This is the assembly gathered around God as king, as seen in §1.2.1, above. b) Metaphors for Actors In describing active and passive agents in the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44, Second Isaiah uses some rather common metaphors and some that he uniquely formulates. In relation to the Enemy, God speaks several sharp metaphors describing servant Jacob-Israel. Emerging from the allusion to Ps 22,7a, Jacob-Israel is a “worm” (‫)תולעת‬, a diminutive that corresponds in Isa 41,14a to the less metaphorical description of a “few” or “remnant” (‫)מתי‬. Almost immediately after, however, this negative value becomes another ground-borne but positive See ch. IV, §3.2.2 and §4.1.1. Spencer (“Isaiah 41,17–20,” 583–597) calls this the “reversal motif,” which bears several kinds of imagery: “travel imagery” (Isa 35,1–10; 42,16; 43,16–21; 49,8–12) serving the “new Exodus” texts and “fertility motif” (Isa 41,17–20; 49,19–21; 51,1–3; 54,11–13; 55,12– 13) describing Judah. For an in-depth study into this imagery, see W.H.C. PROPP, Water in the Wilderness. 15 See also the metaphor for the eunuch as a “dry tree” (‫ )ע ץ יב שׁ‬in Isa 56,3b in his benefitting from an “eternal name” ( ‫ )שׁם עו לם‬in Isa 56,4–5. 16 See Matt 23,16–22, in which Jesus assigns the value of the temple and its physical attributes in relation to the presence of God there. 13 14

310

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

metaphor, a “threshing sledge” ( ‫)מורג חרוץ‬. The author immediately qualifies this destructive instrument in non-violent terms as ‫בעל פיפיו ת‬, literalistically “master/owner of mouths,” taken often to mean “double-edged” or “having many teeth.”17 Given the parallels of Isa 41,15a to Isa 49,2, the author would have us understand this destructive element as a vocal instrument, a mouth.18 Here, the image of a vocal “threshing sledge,” a device used frequently and rhythmically, contributes to our understanding of the durative aspect of the Consequence in Isa 41,15b–16a. In relation to the Friend, we hear of descendants commonly as “seed” (‫זרע‬, Isa 41,8b; 43,5a; 44,3b) and more uniquely as “issue” (‫צאצאים‬, Isa 44,3b). This unique word situates the Salvation Oracles both in its literary context – the word appearing six times in Isa 34–35; 40–6619 – and in its historical context as a derivative of the root ‫יצא‬, “to go forth,” which, again, appears as the command to servant Jacob-Israel in Isa 48,20a (right after the word pair ‫זרעך וצאצאי‬ ‫ מעיך‬in Isa 48,19a). Servant Jacob-Israel’s descendants are those who physically move across the landscape, just like Abraham, whose “seed” Jacob-Israel himself is. In Isa 44,3–4, the author uses landscape metaphors to describe the Friend. In Isa 44,3a, God speaks of pouring water “upon the thirsty” (‫)על־צמא‬, which is set in parallel to “upon your seed” ( ‫ )על־זרעך‬in v. 3b. He reiterates this equation in the second half of these versets: what in v. 3a is “upon dry ground” ( ‫על־‬ ‫יבשׁה‬, through allusion to Exod 15,19b) becomes in v. 3b “upon your issue” ( ‫על־‬ ‫)צאצאיך‬. Furthermore, where in Isa 41,18 the trees seem to speak to the temple, in Isa 44,4 the Friend grows “among the grass like willows” (‫)בבין חציר כערבים‬. The word “grass” here might still have negative connotations, given the identification (even if as a gloss) of “the people” (‫ )העם‬as withering grass in Isa 40,6b–8 through allusion to Ps 103,15. 20 In relation to God, this metaphorical description of the Friend through landscape imagery brings forward the important description of God’s activity through his “breath” or “spirit.”21 In Isa 44,3–4, “my spirit” (‫ )רוחי‬has positive 17 See the summary on this point in J. G OLDINGAY /D. PAYNE, Isaiah 40–55, I, 173–174, or as “spikes” as in S. PAUL, Isaiah 40–66, 171. 18 See the parallels between Isa 41,15a//49,2a.2b in ch. VI, §2.3.1 and the Servant’s speaking of “tongue,” “ear,” and “word” in Isa 50,4 in ch. VI, §2.3.3. 19 Isa 34,1; 42,5; 44,3; 48,19; 61,9; 65,23. Cf. Isa 22,24; Job 5,25; 21,8; 27,14; 31,8. 20 Goldingay/Payne (Isaiah 40–55, I, 84) and Sweeney (Isaiah 40–66, 46) argue for the originality of Isa 40,7b, against the somewhat prevailing view of it as a later gloss. Thus, the author himself, in providing the interpretative key, more importantly establishes “grass” as a value against which he contrasts the Friend in Isa 44,4 as “willows.” 21 See the “reversal motif” in Isa 32,2.15, parts of a longer utterance (Isa 32,15–20 or 32,1–20) that some (M. S WEENEY, Isaiah 1–39, 415–420; J. BLENKINSOPP, Isaiah 1–39, 433–435; B. CHILDS, Isaiah, 236–239) see as representing Second Isaiah’s attempt to bridge the words of Isaiah ben Amoz to his own. In each of these verses, the word ‫ רוח‬plays an

Chapter VII. A Theological Dialogism

311

connotation as “my blessings” (‫)בר כתי‬, and seems to contribute to the generation of life and growth for the Friend. This is in marked contrast to the use of these metaphors in Isa 40,6b–8, in which the “wind” (‫ )רוח‬is too powerful for man’s transient nature, and indeed to the use of “wind” in Isa 41,15b–16a, a force that disperses the “winnowed” Enemy. Given that the use of “hand” ( ‫ימין‬, Isa 41,10b; ‫יד‬, Isa 41,20b) is a rather common way to describe God’s activity in salvation in biblical literature, 22 we should focus now on Second Isaiah’s use of “spirit,” as this will carry us forward into New Testament literature. c) The Active “Spirit” in Salvation In two instances, the Consequence comes mediated through what the Speaker calls “wind” or “spirit” (‫)רוח‬. In Isa 41,15b–16a, the “wind” completes the act of destruction begun through servant Jacob-Israel’s words: “You shall winnow them and the wind will lift them” (‫תזרם ורוח תשׂאם‬, v. 16a). In Isa 44,3–4, God says, “I will pour out my spirit upon your seed” (‫אצק רוחי על־זרעך‬, v. 3b). This double-valued, coordinated action of the “spirit” conforms to the use of this word in Isa 34–35; 40–66 in general and 2 Chr 20,1–30; Luke 1–4. 23 The word ‫ רוח‬appears some fifty times in Isa 1–66, a rate comparable to that in the book of Ezekiel (51x) and similar to that of the Psalter (39x) and the book of Job (31x), and in the book of Isaiah it carries different meanings and values. In the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44, we have encountered two such meanings and values: as a “wind” that carries off the chaff of the hills and mountains in Isa 41,15b–16a and as God’s blessings that he pours upon the “seed” of Jacob-Israel in Isa 44,3b. These two instances well represent the overall usage of the word ‫ רוח‬in the book of Isaiah, in which “wind/spirit” refers to: a power emanating from God, for the benefit of the Friend in the destruction of the Enemy (Isa 4,4 [2x]; 11,4.15; 27,8; 30,28; 32,15; 37,7; 40,7; 41,16; 57,13; 59,19; a power emanating from God for creative, prophetic, or other positive purposes (Isa 11,2 [4x]; 34,16; 40,13; 42,1; 44,3; 48,16; 59,21; 61,1; 63,10.11.14); a power of man describing wickedness and impermanence (Isa 7,2; 17,13; 19,3.14; 25,4; 26,18; 29,10.24; 31,3; 32,2; 33,11; 41,29; 54,6; 64,5; 65,14)

active role in this imagery, first as a the “wind” from which the one transforming the landscape serves as protection (Isa 32,2), then as the “spirit” that God “lays bare [i.e., “pours”] upon us” (‫)ע לינו יע רה‬, described as the transformation of the landscape (Isa 32,15). This corresponds to the appearances of ‫ רוח‬in the Salvation Oracles as described in §1.2.2c, below, perhaps confirming these other scholars’ redaction-critical conclusions. 22 See P. ACKROYD, “ ‫יד‬,” 396–418; H.-J. F ABRY/J.A. S OGGIN , “ ‫ימין‬,” 103–104. 23 See §2.2 and §2.3, below.

312

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

a power of man describing an attitude of weakness before God and/or of being sustained directly by God (Isa 26,9; 28,6; 38,16; 42,5; 57,15 [2x].16; 61,3; 66,2). As we can see, ‫ רוח‬is a double-valued word in Isa 41–44 and Isa 1–66 whose different activities seem to correspond to the person upon which the “spirit” is acting, a “blessing” poured out 24 upon the Friend (Isa 44,3–4) and destruc-tion upon the Enemy (Isa 41,15a–16b). In other utterances within Isa 34–35; 40–66, the “spirit,” like in other biblical utterances, acts as a seal “upon” the person in prophetic activity. 25 Ultimately, we hear of a kind of personalization of the “spirit,” at least in terms of the “spirit” as related to God’s holiness, thus “the spirit of his holiness” or “his holy spirit” (‫רוח קדשׁו‬, Isa 63,10a.11b). 26 Even, or perhaps especially, where this word describes God in himself do we hear of it being given to man. The spirit seems to be an active agent in imparting something of God to man, blessings (Isa 44,3) that turn into prophetic activity (Isa 48,16b; 61,1a). 1.2.3 Conclusions With the Reason of Isa 43,3b–4b, we understand the space of salvation as God’s universal kingdom, and Jacob-Israel’s place as a moral place, a particular valuation among those in world as precious and beloved. Metaphors describing the landscape in which this form of salvation occurs then serve to describe Jerusalem not as valuable in itself, but in relation to the presence of God’s assembly there as the beloved “afflicted.” Just as the ongoing time of salvation is set in relation to the fixed event of God’s action as savior, so the universal space of salvation is set in relation to God’s presence as king. 24 For the spirit elsewhere as “poured out,” see Joel 2,28.29 and Zech 12,10 ( ‫;)שׁפך‬ Acts 2,17.33; 10,45; Tit 3,5–6 (ἐκχεῖν). 25 As “my spirit” ( ‫( )רוח י‬i.e., of the Lord) placed upon someone: Isa 42,1 (servant); 44,3 (your seed); 59,21 (Friend); 61,1 (Servants or Friend). For this expression elsewhere, see Judg 3,10 (Caleb); 11,29 (Japhteh); 14,6.19 (both Samson); 15,14 (Samson); 1 Sam 10,6.10 (both Saul); Isa 11,2 (the Shoot); Ezek 11,5 (Ezekiel); 20,14 (Jehaziel). Compare to “the spirit of God upon him” ( ‫)רוח א להים ע ליו‬: Num 24,2 (Balaam); 1 Sam 11,6 (Saul); 16,16.23 (Saul); 19,20 (messengers of Saul).23 (Saul); 2 Chr 15,1 (Azariah). We should not conclude, pace Petersen (Late Israelite Prophecy, 73), that this expression only indicates a prophet, as the activity in which Samson engages after the descent of the “spirit of the Lord” is slaughter (Judg 14,6.19; 15,14). 26 Ma (Until the Spirit Comes) claims to demonstrate a gradual “democratization” of the “spirit” in his study of the instances of ‫ רוח‬in Isa 1–66, first diachronically in what he considers pre-exilic, exilic, post-exilic passages, then synchronically in the canonical form of the book. Ma, however, methodologically excludes instances of ‫ רו ח‬pertaining to humans, animals, or natural phenomena (Ibid, 19), through which it seems to us, however cursorily we can make the case here, that this word is among the double-valued words composing Isa 1–66.

Chapter VII. A Theological Dialogism

313

1.3 Knowledge of Salvation in the Purpose It is in the assembly that the salvation of servant Jacob-Israel, already accomplished, and the Consequence for the Enemy and the Friend, ongoing, find their ultimate Purpose, knowledge of God and of salvation in him. In the Purpose of Isa 41,16b, servant Jacob-Israel is to “rejoice” (‫ )תגיל ביהוה‬and “praise” (‫)תתהלל‬ him. The setting is liturgical. In the Purpose of Isa 41,20, the promises extended to the Friend in Isa 41,17b–19 – identified as the “afflicted” (‫ )עניים‬in the mock Lament of Isa 41,17a – find their fulfillment in knowledge of God as accomplishing salvation (“the hand of the Lord has done this” [ ‫יד ־יהוה עשׂתה‬ ‫ )]זאת‬and as “creating” (‫)בר אה‬: “That they might see and know” (‫)למען יראו ו ידעו‬. In the Purpose of Isa 43,7, the promises to the Friend of Isa 43,5b–6b are given to those whom God has called and created “for my glory” (‫)לכבוד י‬, i.e., the manifestation of his presence. In the Purpose of Isa 44,5, this knowledge of God as savior and creator made manifest in the Friend results in their belonging to him through servant Jacob-Israel, through the sharing of a name. If servant Jacob-Israel is the Lamenter of the psalms, or in the case of the allusions to the Psalms of Praise in Isa 43,1–7 and the Historical Hymns in Isa 44,1–5, simply the psalmist, he is the one who makes his salvation known in the assembly as the cause of knowledge for the assembly to believe in their salvation. 1.4 Conclusions We have examine the chronotope of the Salvation Oracles and their use of metaphor all together as coordinated to the architectonic elements of these oracles, the Address of Assurance/Summary Readdress, Consequence, Reason, and Purpose. This has helped us understand these elements as constitutive of the genre of the Salvation Oracle as found in Isa 41–44 and as contributing to their overall theological message in context. Briefly stated, salvation is to become aware of the event of salvation, to make that awareness constitutive of one’s own identity, and to make that salvation known in an assembly of those whom God as king has redeemed. We shall now test this conclusion in dialogue with other readers of the Salvation Oracles in the Bible.

2. Reading the Salvation Oracles into New Situations We can test our conclusions regarding the theology of the Salvation Oracles with a series of brief analyses of other utterances in the Bible that seem to allude to or quote from the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44. These will come from the psalter (§2.1), Chronicles (§2.2), and the Gospel of Luke (§2.3), this

314

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

last providing perhaps the richest reading of the Salvation Oracles and their theology. 2.1 Reading Salvation Back into the Psalter 2.1.1 Servants of the Eternal Covenant in Ps 105 In Ps 105, the psalmist reads Second Isaiah very closely in order to situate the covenant with respect to Abraham.27 Thus in v. 6, the people identified as “sons of Jacob, his chosen ones” ( ‫ )בני יעקב בחיריו‬are “seed of Abraham, his servant” (‫)זרע אברהם עבדו‬. The author’s later identification of Moses as “his servant” (‫עבדו‬, v. 26a) and Aaron as “whom he has chosen” (‫בחר־בו‬, v. 26b; see Isa 44,1b), particularly with respect to exodus miracles – and without mention of the Sinai covenant – seems to locate the “eternal covenant” (‫ברית עו לם‬, v. 10) of which Second Isaiah speaks (Isa 55,3; 61,8) with respect to God’s word to Abraham. Moses and Aaron serve to reinforce that first covenant with their acts of salvation. In Ps 105, salvation is in the covenant of land. 2.1.2 Consequences for the Wise in Ps 107 In Ps 107, the psalmist quotes the Announcement of Salvation to the Friend in Isa 41,17–20 in the context of non-specific situations of salvation. After first addressing his readers as “redeemed,” 28 and giving several examples of situations in which those in trouble call upon God for salvation (vv. 4–32), the psalmist then quotes Isa 41,18 in Ps 107,35. 29 In Ps 107, the psalmist reads the

Hossfeld (Psalms 3, 66.76) holds to the unity of Ps 105, in which he sees “not a trace of redactional reworking.” He then posits the influence of Second Isaiah upon this psalm as “palpable” (Ibid., 70). Along the course of his exposition (Ibid., 69–74), he shows many verbal and thematic linkages to Ps 78 (alluded to in Isa 40–54, as shown in ch. V, §3.1), so much so that he considers Ps 105 a “deutero-Asaphite” psalm, along with Ps 96; 106. We might give here one example of literary dependence of Ps 105 upon the Salvation Oracles: Ps 105,6a ‫זרע אב רהם עבד ו‬ ‫ו א ת ה י שׂ ר א ל ע בד י‬ Isa 41,8a Ps 105,6b ‫בנ י יעק ב בח יריו‬ ‫יע קב א שׁר בח רת יך‬ ‫זרע אב רהם א הב י‬ Isa 41,8b The psalmist shifts the identification of the Addressee by one step, such that where JacobIsrael is once Servant, now that is Abraham, and where Jacob-Israel is once Addressee, now that is the psalmist’s congregation, the “sons of Jacob.” 28 In its opening lines, the psalmist identifies his readers as the “redeemed of the Lord” (‫גאו לי יהו ה‬, v. 2a), a designation found only in Isa 34–66 (Isa 62,12; cf. Isa 35,9; 51,10 for ‫)גאו לים‬. 29 This quotation is part of a “dialogue” between Isa 40–66, Job, and Proverbs, according to Zenger (Psalms 3, 101): Ps 107,35 ‫ישׂם מד ב ר לא גם ־מים ו א רץ ציה למצא י מים‬ Isa 41,18b ‫אשׂים מדב ר לאג ם ־מים וא רץ ציה למוצא י מים‬ See ch. III, §2.1.1, n. 7, for vv. 2–3.33–43 as a post-exilic addition. 27

Chapter VII. A Theological Dialogism

315

promise of salvation in the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 into a more generalized, wisdom literature setting. 30 2.1.3 An Eschatological Moment in Ps 149 In Ps 149, the psalmist alludes to the Consequence for the Servant in order to read the Friend into the final, “eschatological” moment. The author conflates the parallel expressions regarding the Servant in Isa 41,15a; 49,2a, such that the “master of many mouths” (‫בעל פיפיות‬, Isa 41,15a) and “my mouth like a sword… in the shadow of his hand” ( ‫ בצל ידו‬...‫פי כחר ב‬, Isa 49,2a) becomes, in Ps 149,6b, “And a two-edged sword in their hand” (‫)וחר ב פיפיות בידם‬. 31 What God speaks of as an ongoing, durative event for Jacob-Israel before the “mountains and hills” in Isa 41,14–16 and before the “isles and peoples” in Isa 49,1– 6 reaches, for the author of Ps 149, a definitive moment. This psalm reads the Servant Songs of Isa 40–55 together with Ps 96 and 98, particularly in their Summons to Praise, and in a way that brings forward the identity of the Friend as the “afflicted” (‫ענו ים‬, Ps 149,4b). 32 2.1.4 Conclusions Just as the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 read the psalms into the prophetic book, so the psalmists read the Salvation Oracles back into the psalter. The word of salvation born out of Israel’s praise is carried back into Israel’s praise, according to three particular themes: the Abrahamic covenant (Ps 105), the lessons of wisdom (Ps 107), and eschatology (Ps 149). Given the allusions to Ps 103, and possibly to Ps 104, in Isa 34–35; 40–66, we might wonder if in Ps 105 there begins the contribution of Second Isaiah, as psalmist, into the canonical psalter he is reading, continuing the dialogue. 2.2 Reading the Psalms into the War Oracle of 2 Chr 20,1–30 The Chronicler quotes Isa 41,8b in 2 Chr 20,7b, amidst other formal elements shared with the Salvation Oracles, in order to demonstrate the prophetic power of the psalms. First, we hear in the prayer of king Jehoshaphat to God (2 Chr 20,6–13): 30 Given especially the last line of the psalm, which begins as an allusion to Hos 14,10: “Whoever is wise, let him consider these things” (‫ ;)מי חכם ו יבן א לה‬see N. DE CLAISSÉWALFORD/R. J ACOBSON/B.L. TANNER, Psalms, 820). 31 We have shown Isa 49,2 to be a double paraphrase of Isa 41,15a in ch. VII, §2.3.1. See also §1.2.2b, above. 32 Zenger (Psalms 3, 647–652), calling Ps 149 an “eschatologizing relecture” of Ps 96 and 98, demonstrates its reading as well of Isa 42,1–9; 49,1–12 and the two hymnic sections following in Isa 42,10–13; 49,13. Allen (Psalms 101–150, 319–320) demonstrates a number of words shared with Isa 60–61 as well.

316 2 Chr 20,7b

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form ‫ותתנ ה לזרע אב רהם א הבך לעו לם‬ You gave it to the seed of Abraham, who loves you, forever

‫זרע אב רהם א הבי‬ The seed of Abraham, who loves me

Isa 41,8b

Jehoshaphat also builds his prayer around alternating “But you” (‫ואתה‬, v. 6a) and “But now” (‫ועתה‬, v. 10a) statements, suggesting the form of the Salvation Oracles in their sequence within Isa 41–44. In the prophetic utterance of the Levite Jehaziel that follows (vv. 14–17), we hear twice the Fear-Not Formula, which he attaches to statements indicative of God’s presence. The double Fear-Not Formula appears both in v. 15b.17b in the masculine plural, addressed to the assembly of Judahites, “Fear not and be not dismayed” (‫)אל־תיר או ואל־תחתו‬. The Reason joined to the first Fear-Not Formula in v. 15b is a double ‫ כי‬statement, “For not their’s is the battle, indeed, it is God’s” (‫)כי לא לכם המלחמה כי לאלהים‬, while in v. 17b, as “and the Lord will be with you” (‫)ו יהוה עמכם‬, it more closely resonates the Formula of Divine Presence of Isa 41,10a ( ‫)כי עמך־אני‬.33 With each Fear-Not Formula stands an imperative, “Go down” (‫רדו‬, v. 16a) and “Go forth” (‫)צאו‬, the latter resonant of Isa 48,20a, suggesting that, for the author of 2 Chr 20,1–30, what the Salvation Oracles do for Jacob-Israel regarding Babylon in Isa 40–48, they do for Judah before Moab and Ammon. The importance of hearing, however briefly, 2 Chr 20,1–30 is in the identification of Jehaziel as a prophet and in the power of that prophetic word in the psalms. We hear of Jehaziel in 2 Chr 20,14 that “the spirit of the Lord was upon him” (‫)היתה עליו רוח יהוה‬, and while the author gives us his genealogy in that same verse, we also hear that this selection by the spirit occurs “in the midst of the assembly” (‫ ;)בתוך הקהל‬in other words, we hear of Jehaziel’s ancestry because the spirit has chosen him out of the assembly. The Levites lead this assembly in the recitation of the psalms, having moved from the temple (2 Chr 20,1–19) to the battlefront (vv. 20–30). 34 On the battlefront, two things happen that identify the psalms as a prophetic word. First, Jehoshaphat confirms Jehaziel’s Salvation Oracle, telling the assembly in v. 20b, “believe his [i.e., the Lords’] prophets and he will make you prosper” (‫)האמינו בנביאיו והצליחו‬. Second, the Narrator indicates in v. 22 that the moment of the assembly’s psalmic chanting becomes the moment of salvation: “At the time they began singing and praising, the Lord set ambushes against 33 The apposition of ‫ א ל ־תחת ו‬along with the use of ‫ עם‬for “with” points to the Deuteronomistic utterances alluded to in Isa 41,8–10, like Josh 1,9; see ch. III, §2.3.1. 34 2 Chr 20,22b, “Give thanks to the Lord, for his mercy is forever” could represent a conflation of typical psalm elements, as from Ps 105,1a; 106,1a; 107,1a; 118,1a.29a; 136,1a, “Give thanks to the Lord” ( ‫ )הוד ו ליהו ה‬and Ps 118,1b–4b.29b; 136,1b–26b, “For his mercy is forever” ( ‫)כי לעו לם חס דו‬. Dillard (2 Chronicles, 158) notes that, rather than being unusual to bring the temple singers to the battlefront, this practice is well-established in OT literature.

Chapter VII. A Theological Dialogism

317

the Ammonites, Moab, and the mountain of Seir coming against Judah, and they were stricken” ( ‫ובעת החלו ברנה ותהלה נתן יהוה מארבים על־בני עמון מואב והר־‬ ‫)שׂעיר הבאים ליהודה וינגפו‬. The psalms, as prayed by the assembly, have the power to bring about the salvation desired, and importantly, not by their own hand. 35 The psalms here are not simple encouragement, but effect their purpose through a read and spoken word, in their consummation. The assembly, as reader of the psalms, fulfills them in faith as prophets. 36 The psalms become a prophetic word in their utterance, especially by those upon whom the “spirit of the Lord” has descended. We would suggest, as a corollary, that God’s allusive utterance of the psalms in the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 through the prophet is also an effective word. In the case of the Salvation Oracles, the salvation has been achieved, and what remains is to give form and identity to the one saved. It would be, as it were, the reverse process of what we hear in 2 Chr 20,1–30: gathering an assembly in the knowledge of their salvation already achieved. 2.3 Reading the Prophetic Assembly into the Gospel: Lucan Canticles as a Consummation of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44 We shall look at the Lucan canticles in light of the Salvation Oracles because 1) they are composed by way of literary allusion, including allusion directly to the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44; 2) their length, number, and Object of Discourse in sequence roughly correspond to those of the Salvation Oracles; 3) they appear in the context of a reading of Isa 40,3–5 and 61,1–2. These canticles are Luke 1,46–55 (Magnificat).68–79 (Benedictus); 2,14 (Gloria).29–32 (Nunc dimittis). We hope to gain from treating the canticles in Luke 1,5–2,40 a sense of how the prophecy of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44 are fulfilled in their reading. 2.3.1 Lucan Canticles as Allusive Compositions Scholars have long studied the numerous allusions to the psalms and prophetic hymns contained in the Lucan canticles, which allusions have been more obvious (until now) than those in the Salvation Oracles. 37 Their overall

In the Psalms of Lament, the Lamenter calls for the destruction of the Enemy by the Enemy’s own hand. See examples in ch. III, §3.1.2. 36 Klein (1 Chronicles, 370) sees the purpose of the psalms in Chronicles as establishing “a continuity between the worship life established by David and that of his own day.” Based on Dillard’s claim and our results, the narration in 2 Chr 20,22 would seem to indicate a more dynamic theology than one of “continuity.” 37 For instance, Plummer (Luke, 30–31.39), Brown (Birth of the Messiah, 358–360.386– 389.458), and Fitzmyer (Luke I-IX, 356–357.374–375) provide detailed tables comparing the Magnificat and the Benedictus to their inner-biblical sources. 35

318

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

compositional form is like that of the psalms, 38 though architectonically, Luke presents at least the Benedictus explicitly as prophecy in its narrative frame.39 In this way, as prophetic compositions allusive of the psalms, they closely resemble the Salvation Oracles. Some of these allusions are to the Salvation Oracles themselves and to psalms to which the Salvation Oracles allude, and others are to utterances within Isa 40–54, suggesting that Luke, or the authors from whom Luke has imported the canticles, looks to the Salvation Oracles as a compositional model. Given the exhaustive study already performed on the Lucan canticles, we shall focus here, then, on just those parts of the canticles that allude to Isa 41,8–16.17–20; 43,1–7; 44,1–5 and their own alluded psalms and which bring forward other literary or theological motifs from them. a) Allusion and Motif in Luke 1,46–55 The Magnificat (Luke 1,46–55) makes perhaps the clearest allusion to the Salvation Oracles, especially Isa 41,8–16. The Magnificat, as a whole, is composed much like the Song of Hannah in 1 Sam 2,1–10 (and alludes to it in Luke 1,52–53//1 Sam 2,2.5.7), each hymn a response to an Announcement of Birth (Luke 1,26–38//1 Sam 1,1–28). Among the many allusions that the Speaker, Mary, makes in the Magnificat, three stand out as echoing the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44: Luke 1,46b–47//Ps 35,9 and Hab 3,18; Luke 1,50// Ps 103,17a; Luke 1,54–55//Isa 41,8–9a and 2 Sam 22,51b; Ps 98,3a). Table 47: Luke 1,46b–47//Ps 35,9 (Ps 34,9 LXX) and Hab 3,18 Luke 1,46b

µεγαλύνει ἡ ψυχή µου τὸν κύριον

Luke 1,47

καὶ ἠγαλλίασεν τὸ πνεῦµά µου ἐπὶ τῷ θεῷ τῷ σωτῆρί µου

ἡ δὲ ψυχή µου ἀγαλλιάσεται ἐπὶ τῷ κυρίῳ τερφθήσεται ἐπὶ τῷ σωτηρίῳ αὐτοῦ

Ps 34,9a (LXX)

ἐγὼ δὲ ἐν τῷ κυρίῳ ἀγαλλιάσοµαι χαρήσοµαι ἐπὶ τῷ θεῷ τῷ σωτῆρί µου

Hab 3,18a

Ps 34,9b (LXX)

Hab 3,18b

38 Fitzmyer (Luke I-IX, 359) calls the Magnificat a “cento-like composition”; Simons (“The Magnificat,” 25–46) disagrees, calling it an imitatio as taught in the Greco-Roman progymnasmata. Having seen literary allusion as a compositional device in the Salvation Oracles, we might look for a model outside of Greco-Roman rhetoric and within Hebrewlanguage literature – indeed, Fitzmyer (Luke I-IX, 359) and Brown (Birth of the Messiah, 350–355) see compositional parallels in intertestamental literature. On the other hand, Nolland (Luke, 74.91) sees the Magnificat and Benedictus as less allusive these scholars propose, relying instead on more common biblical motifs and language. 39 “And his father Zechariah was filled with the Holy Spirit, and prophesied, saying” (καὶ Ζαχαρίας ὁ πατὴρ αὐτοῦ ἐπλήσθη πνεύµατος ἁγίου καὶ ἐπροφήτευσεν λέγων, Luke 1,67).

319

Chapter VII. A Theological Dialogism

Luke 1,46b–47 seems to be a conflation of Ps 35,9 and Hab 3,18, the former of which is clearly alluded to in Isa 41,16b. 40 The purpose of drawing in Ps 35,9 seems to be that Mary can identify herself through “my soul” (ἡ ψυχή µου), in parallel to “my spirit” (τὸ πνεῦµά µου). The positive connotation that Mary gives her spirit is unique among psalms and hymns of an individual, in which the human spirit is typically a place of suffering, 41 and so we must understand this as the positive value of man’s spirit in a position of weakness or dependence upon God seen in Isa 1–66, 42 and indeed Mary refers to her “lowliness” (ταπείνωσιν) in v. 48. With this word, Mary indeed identifies herself as the “afflicted” of the Psalms of Lament, the word ταπείνωσιν, heard in v. 48a, often translating ‫עני‬ and ‫ עניה‬in the LXX, and the word ταπείνους, heard in v. 52b, often translating ‫ עני‬in the LXX. 43 In relation to this, she speaks of “those who fear him” (τοῖς φοβουµένοις αὐτόν) in v. 50, translating ‫ יר אי יהוה‬of the Psalms of Lament. This identification of the psalmist as “afflicted” is, as we have shown, essential to the Salvation Oracles, especially Isa 41,8–16.17–20. 44 In Luke 1,50, we hear allusion to Ps 103,17, a psalm alluded to in Isa 43,5b– 6b:45 Luke 1,50

καὶ τὸ ἔλεος αὐτοῦ εἰς γενεὰς καὶ γενεὰς τοῖς φοβοθµένοις αὐτόν

τὸ δὲ ἔλεος τοῦ κυρίου ἀπὸ τοῦ αἰῶνος καὶ ἕως τοῦ αἰῶνος ἐπὶ τοὺς φοβουµένους αὐτόν

Ps 102,17a (LXX)

The allusion to Ps 103,17a is rather clear, with Mary replacing one expression of time, “from age to age” (Heb.: ‫ )מעולם ועד־עולם‬with another very common one, “from generation to generation” (Heb.: ‫ ;דור ודור‬cf. Ps 100,5b in connection with “his mercy”). The expression regarding “upon those who fear him” (τοῖς φοβοθµένοις αὐτόν) we hear also in Ps 103,11b.13b, surrounding the verse most closely alluded to in Isa 43,5b, Ps 103,12–13. In Luke 1,54–55, we hear allusion directly to Isa 41,8–9, in conflation with other psalms alluded to in Isa 41–44:

40 See ch. III, §2.2.4–§2.2.6. Fitzmyer (Luke I-IX, 356) has here allusions to 1 Sam 2,1 (1 Kgs 2,1 LXX) (ἐστέρεώθη ἡ καρδία µου ἐν κθρίῳ) and Ps 24,5 (LXX) (ὁ θεὸς ὁ σωτήρ µου), but the words of Ps 35,9 and Hab 3,18 and their form are much closer. 41 See Job 6,4; 7,11; 17,1; 21,4; Ps 77,4.7; 143,4.7; Dan 2,3. 42 See §1.2.3c, above. 43 See E. H ATCH/H. REDPATH, Concordance, II, 1334–1335. 44 See ch. III, §3.1.2. 45 See ch. IV, §2.2.4.

320

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

Table 48: Luke 1,54–55//Isa 41,8–9; 2 Sam 18,22,51b; 98,3a Luke 1,54a

ἀντελάβετο Ἰσραὴλ παιδὸς αὐτοῦ

Luke 1,54b

µνησθῆναι ἐλέους

Luke 1,55a

καθὼς ἐλάλησεν πρὸς τοὺς πατέρας ἡµῶν τῷ Ἀβραὰµ καὶ τῷ σπέρµατι αὐτοῦ εἰς τὸν αἰῶνα

Luke 1,55b

σὺ δε Ισραηλ παῖς µου Ιακωβ ὅν ἐξελεξάµην οὗ ἀντελαβόµην ἀπ’ ἄκρων τῆς γῆς ἐµνήσθη τοῦ ἐλέους αὐτοῦ τῷ Ιακωβ

Isa 41,8a Isa 41,9a Ps 97,3a (LXX)

καὶ οἱ πατέρας ἡµῶν διηγήσαντο ἡµῖν τῷ Δαυιδ καὶ τῷ σπέρµατι 2 Sam 22,51b αὐτοῦ ἕως αἰῶνος σπέρµα Αβρααµ ὅν ἠγάπησα

Isa 41,8b

Mary concludes her song in vv. 54–55 with a dense set of allusions to psalms alluded to in Isa 41–44, framed within allusion to the Address of Assurance in Isa 41,8–10. Perhaps most notably, she replaces David in the quotation of 2 Sam 22,51b with Abraham, by attraction to the mention of his “seed” in Isa 41,8b, the surrounding words in Isa 41,8a.9a opening this last part of the canticle; this follows upon the transfer of the Davidic title of “servant” from Ps 78,68–72 in Isa 44,1–2 and in Ps 105,6a. By way of literary motif, Mary twice identifies a “servant.” First, she identifies herself as δούλη in v. 48a, then by way of allusion to Isa 41,8a, Israel as παιδός in v. 54a. Both of these words translate the Hebrew ‫עבד‬.46 b) Allusion and Motif in Luke 1,68–79 The Benedictus features little or no allusion to the Salvation Oracles directly, but it achieves the same purpose, to base the call for a present state of fearlessness in service to God within the allusive-compositional framework of recounting God’s promise of salvation. In this case, Zechariah speaks of “redemption” (λὺτρωσιν) in v. 68a in parallel to “salvation” (σωτηρίας) in v. 69a, like in Isa 41,14b; 43,1b.3a. Conformed to the purpose of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44 is the identification of the Servant as God’s word about salvation. In the Benedictus, matched to the typological-thematic allusions to “his servant David” (Δαυὶδ παιδὸς αὐτοῦ, v. 69) and “our father Abraham” (Ἀβραὰµ τὸν πατέρα ἡνῶν, v. 73) is the identification of John the Baptist as “child” (παιδίον, v. 76) and

46

See E. HATCH/H. REDPATH, Concordance, I, 346–348; Concordance, II, 1049–1051.

Chapter VII. A Theological Dialogism

321

“prophet” (προφήτης, v. 76), the word παιδίον closely related to παιδός in form and semantic range, ergo “servant.” 47 Where Luke and the other evangelists cite Isa 40,3(-5) directly in identifying John the Baptist as the prophet spoken to there, the author of the Benedictus alludes to this more subtly. Zechariah’s Address to his infant son begins in v. 76 with “But you” (καὶ σὺ δέ), nearly identically to the Address of Assurance in Isa 41,8a.16b (σὺ δε; ‫)ואתה‬. 48 He finishes this verse with an allusion to Isa 40,3, that John the Baptist will go “before the Lord to prepare his way” (ἐνώπιον κυρίου ἑτοιµάσαι ὁδοὺς αὐτοῦ; compare Isa 40,3: ἑτοιµάσατε τὴν ὁδὸν κυρίου). As servant-prophet, John the Baptist is to take up the prophetic task once assigned to the masculine plural of Jacob-Israel in Isa 34–35; 40–66. This prophetic task is to make salvation known through the forgiveness of sins, the word for the servant Jacob-Israel especially in Isa 42,18–43,13. In Luke 1,77, we hear, “to give knowledge of salvation to his people in the forgiveness of their sins” (τοῦ δοῦναι γνῶσιν σωτηρίας τῷ λαῷ αὐτοῦ ἐν ἀφέσει ἁµαρτιῶν αὐτῶν). Jacob-Israel acknowledges his sins against God in Isa 42,24 (in the first-person plural “we/our”), and God alludes to the forgiveness of these sins in the allusion to Ps 103,12–13 in Isa 43,5b–6b, after first speaking of redemption from among the nations in Isa 43,3b–4b//Ps 47,4; Law of Talion. In Isa 42,18–22; 43,8–10, servant Jacob-Israel is instituted as messenger precisely to make salvation known through the forgiveness of sins (see especially Isa 43,10, “that you may know” [ ‫)]למען תדעו‬. Zechariah, and Luke with him, consummates the form of the Salvation Oracles, especially in the larger utterance of Isa 40–48, by reading them into the birth of his child. This incarnation of the word of salvation does not set John the Baptist apart from corporate Israel, for just as in Isa 34–35; 40–66, the “people” are described in the same words as the Servant, using double-valued words. In Luke 1,68b, “to his people” (τῷ λαῷ αὐτοῦ) is set in parallel to what in v. 69b is “in the house of his servant David” (ἐν οἴκῳ Δαυὶδ παιδὸς αὐτοῦ). The word of salvation from John the Baptist, indeed, carries forward the knowledge of salvation given to David and Abraham, so that people themselves may be Servants, as Zechariah says in v. 74: “granting us that, without fear, from the hands of our enemies liberated, we might serve him” (τοῦ δοῦναι ἡµῖν ἀφόβως ἐκ χειρὸς ἐχθρῶν ῥυσθέντας λατρεύειν αὐτῷ). The word of salvation for the people, the servant John the Baptist, is meant to make the people into fearless Servants, bearers of the word of salvation.

47 The extra iota providing, perhaps, a particular emphasis on the word of salvation emerging genetically from Israel. 48 Lambrecht (“‘But You Too’,” 487–490) shows that καὶ indicates John in conjunction with Israel’s prophets and δέ indicates John in contrast to Jesus, such that one should translate the expression as “But you too, child.”

322

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

c) Allusion and Motif in Luke 2,29–32 If John the Baptist becomes, in the Benedictus, the incarnation of servant Israel’s word of salvation particularly in Isa 43,1–7, the Nunc dimittis of Simeon consummates that word regarding the Friend in Isa 44,1–5. Just as Isa 44,1–5 is, through allusive word, more closely bound to Isa 41,1–44,23 as an utterance, so Simeon’s canticle situates the incarnation of Christ within the larger utterance of Israel’s consolation in Isa 40,1–49,13. In Luke 2,25, we hear that Simeon is “looking for the consolation of Israel” (προσδεχόµενος παράκλησιν τοῦ Ἰσραήλ). The word to Simeon does not come in response to an angelic visitation, but directly through his ongoing, durative study of Scripture. In particular, he is “looking for the consolation of Israel,” promised in Isa 40,1 (παρακαλεῖτε παρακαλεῖτε τὸν λαόν µου) and fulfilled already in Isa 49,13 (και τοῦς ταπεινοῦς τοῦ λαοῦ αὐτοῦ παρεκάλεσεν). Simeon’s meditation takes him to the word between Isa 40,1 and 49,13. We also hear in Luke 2,25, about Simeon, that “upon him was the Holy Spirit” (πνεῦµα ἧν ἅγιον ἐπ’ αὐτόν). Just as Mary utters the Magnificat in her “spirit” (Luke 1,47) and Zechariah “prophesies” in the Holy Spirit (Luke 1,67), Simeon utters his prophetic word in the Holy Spirit. This meditation on the word in the Holy Spirit makes Simeon into a Servant, and in speaking in the Spirit of the fulfillment of the word in the event of Jesus’ birth, this meditation makes Simeon a prophet. Simeon, addressing God directly, calls himself “your servant” (τὸν δοῦλόν σου), and now that he has been able to consummate the prophetic word in his own reading, in the situation of Jesus’ presentation in the temple, he is a prophet, his service at an end: “Now you release your servant” (νῦν ἀπολύεις τὸν δοῦλόν σου, Luke 2,29). The consummation of the prophetic word of Isa 40,1–49,13 in Luke 2,29– 32 occurs in several allusions and motifs. First, he declares that “my eyes have seen” (εἶδον οἱ ὀφθαλµοί µου, Luke 2,30), reversing servant Jacob-Israel’s charge of blindness in Isa 42,18–19. Second, this sight is of salvation “before all people” (κατὰ πρόσωπον πάντων τῶν λαῶν, v. 31), as per Isa 40,5b (“all flesh shall see” [‫ ;)]וראו כל־בשׂר‬41,5 (“the isles will see and fear” [ ‫ראו איים‬ ‫ ;)]וייראו‬43,9 (“the nations… the isles, who among you will show them this?” [‫ לאמים מי בהם יגיד זאת‬...‫)]כל־הגוים‬. Third, this sight is through a “light of revelation to the nations” (φῶς εἰς ἀποκάλυψιν ἐθνῶν, v. 32a) as spoken regarding the Servant in Isa 42,6b; 49,6b (‫)לאור גו ים‬. Fourth, this light is for “the glory of your people Israel” (δόξαν λαοῦ σου Ἰσραήλ), Israel’s glory spoken of in Isa 43,4b; 49,5b. Simeon’s canticle consummates the reading of the consolation of Israel in Isa 40,1–49,13 through the word to the Servant in the situation of Jesus’ presentation of the temple in Luke 2,22–40.

Chapter VII. A Theological Dialogism

323

2.3.2 The Compositional Form of the Lucan Canticles All Together We have seen that the Lucan canticles are highly allusive to the psalms in ways compositionally similar to the Salvation Oracles, and indeed allude to the Salvation Oracles themselves, suggesting that their author(s) see them, in some way, as a literary model. 49 The Lucan canticles also seem to progress in length and level of allusiveness in ways similar to the Salvation Oracles, and in response to the Fear-Not Formula. 50 First, we shall see the progression of their compositional form, then their form as a response to the Fear-Not Formula. a) Progression of Compositional Form of the Lucan Canticles Three of the four Lucan canticles differ in terms of length, degree of allusiveness, and Object of Discourse, in ways similar to Isa 41,8–16.17–20; 43,1–7; 44,1–5. The Magnificat (Luke 1,46–55) and Benedictus (Luke 1,68–79) are ten and eleven poetic lines in length, comparable to the nine of Isa 41,8–16 and the seven of Isa 43,1–7; the Nunc dimittis (Luke 2,29–32) is three lines, comparable to the five of Isa 44,1–5. The Gloria (Luke 3,14) is one line, and seems to correpond to the hymnic fragments of Isa 42,10–13; 44,23. The Magnificat and Benedictus are notably allusive of the psalms and prophetic hymns, like Isa 41,8–16; 43,1–7, while the Nunc dimittis is less so, like Isa 44,1–5. These canticles seem to develop the theme of salvation, from one personal to one universal, like the Salvation Oracles. 51 The Magnificat, at first glance, seems to concern the relationship of the Speaker to God through the Enemy, like Isa 41,8–16. The Benedictus, while still speaking of the Enemy, notably speaks of the forgiveness of sins (Luke 2,77), like Isa 43,1–7. The Nunc dimittis speaks of the relationship of Israel to the nations, like Isa 44,1–5. The Gloria, sung to the shepherds, seems to universalize the message of salvation, like the brief hymnic exhortations of Isa 42,10–13; 44,23. There seems to be a kind of correspondance in form between the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 and the Lucan canticles: within their respective literary contexts, each set of utterances becomes shorter, less allusive, and more outward in focus.

49 Whether Luke brings in all or some of the canticles from outside literary sources, composes them himself, or some combination thereof (see R. BROWN, Birth of the Messiah, 346– 347), we can understand the final redaction of Luke 1,5–2,40 as authorial. That is, even if – or perhaps especially if – redacted into the gospel, Luke intends us to read these four canticles as preparation for Luke 4,16–30. 50 See ch. VI, §1. 51 Lohfink (“Psalmen im Neuen Testament,” 105–125) sees among the Lucan canticles a Verkettung (“chain”) that complement each other’s theology, a messianology that moves toward ecclesiology.

324

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

b) Lucan Canticles as Response to the Fear-Not Formula Within the literary context of Luke 1,5–2,40, each of the Lucan canticles, except for Simeon’s Nunc dimittis, is uttered in response to the Fear-Not Formula. Where the Fear-Not Formula is woven into the composition of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44, in Luke 1–2 the Fear-Not Formula is found in in the voice of angels in narratives distinct from the canticles. This, on form-critical grounds, might immediately disqualify the Lucan canticles from having anything to do with the Salvation Oracles, but, after having shown the other formal, compositional, and allusive echoes of the Salvation Oracles in the Lucan canticles, we should rather examine what purpose there be in separating out the Fear-Not Formula. The account of the Announcement of Birth of John the Baptist occurs in Luke 1,5–25 and features the Fear-Not Formula (µὴ φοβοῦ) in v. 13. Zechariah, to whom the angel Gabriel speaks, does not (according to Gabriel’s response to Zechariah), believe the word. Correspondingly, Zechariah is nowhere identified as Servant. The account of the Announcement of Birth of Jesus occurs in Luke 1,26–38 and features the Fear-Not Formula (µὴ φοβοῦ) in v. 30. In the same moment in which Mary declares her belief in Gabriel’s word, v. 38, she identifies herself as “the servant of the Lord” (ἡ δούλη κυρίου). It is possible that the compositional purpose in following the narrative frame of Mary’s Magnificat (Luke 1,39–56) directly upon her Announcement of Birth is due to her belief in the angel’s word and her identification as Servant. Or, in the corollary, the separation of that narrative frame of Zechariah’s Benedictus in Luke 1,57–80 is due to his express unbelief. His Benedictus would be given to echo the Magnificat of Mary, thus the word moving from Servant to prophet. The account of the announcement to the shepherds occurs in Luke 2,8–20 and features the Fear-Not Formula (µὴ φοβεῖσθε) in v. 10. A singular angel gives the Fear-Not Formula, and then plural angels give the Gloria canticle in v. 14. No one here is identified as Servant, as no human gives a canticle. The account of the presentation of Jesus in the temple in Luke 2,22–40 features no Fear-Not Formula. The angelic announcement is replaced here with Simeon’s assiduous study of Isa 40,1–49,13, for which he has the title of Servant. It seems the the Fear-Not Formula, as given by an angel in Luke 1,5–2,40, is meant to identify the Addressee as Servant as one who reads Israel’s scriptures. This would correspond to the Address of Assurace to Jacob-Israel in Isa 41,8–10; 43,1; 44,1–2. Mary and Zechariah become Servant and prophet in response to the Fear-Not Formula by consummating their reading of Scripture in highly allusive canticles. Simeon becomes a Servant already in his consummating reading of the Book of Consolation of Second Isaiah and requires no Fear-Not Formula to provoke this reading. The Fear-Not Formula, once again,

Chapter VII. A Theological Dialogism

325

calls for an ontological repositioning, an identification of one’s being with the event of salvation, as seen in §1.1.1, above. 2.3.3 The Lucan Canticles as Prophetic Preparation for Jesus’ SelfManifestation in Luke 1,5–4,15 and Luke 4,16–30//Isa 61,1–2 We have seen that the Lucan canticles model the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41– 44 in terms of allusive composition (§2.3.1) and progressive form in response to the Fear-Not Formula (§2.3.2), and, as we shall see now, this conforms to the overall architectonic form of the Salvation Oracles as preparation by readers within Isa 34–35; 40–66 for the eventual self-presentation of the prophet in Isa 61,1–9. That is, that this utterance is read in part by Jesus in Luke 4,16–30 leads us to consider that the Lucan canticles function in relation to Luke 4,16– 30 just as Isa 41,8–16.17–20; 43,1–7; 44,1–5 function in relation, eventually, to Isa 61,1–9. Before we can understand this idea, we should first delineate the compositional form of Luke 1,5–4,15 as determinative of this architectonic form of reading within the book. a) Lucan Infancy Narrative as preparation for Jesus’ self-presentation in Luke 4,16–30 Luke 1,5–4,15 is composed of a series of shorter utterances that bring the reader to the moment of the beginning of Jesus’ public ministry (Luke 4,15– 30). Thus, we hear: The parallel Infancy Narratives of John and Jesus (Luke 1,5–2,40), set in its specific historical situation, “In the days of Herod, king of Judea” (ἐγένετο ἐν ταῖς ἡµέραις Ἡρῷδου βασιλέως τῆς Ἰουδαίας, Luke 1,5a), and ending with the expression, “and the grace of God was upon him” (καὶ χάρις θεοῦ ἦν ἐπ’ αὐτό, Luke 2,40b). The account of finding Jesus in the temple (Luke 2,41–52), set in within the iterative situation of the yearly custom of going to the temple (v. 41) and ending with the expression, “And Jesus increased… in grace before God and men” (καὶ Ἰησοῦς προέκοπτεν ἐν… χάριτι παρὰ θεὼ καὶ ἀνθρώποις, v. 52). The convergence of the parallel stories of John and Jesus, baptizer and baptized (Luke 3,1–4,15), set in its specific historical situation, “In the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar” (ἐν ἔτει δὲ πεντεκαιδεκάτω τῆς ἡγεµονίας Τιβερίου Καίσαρος, Luke 3,1a) and personal situation, “Jesus, when he began, was about thirty years old” (καὶ αὐτὸς ἦν Ἰησοῦς ἀρχόµενος ὡσεὶ ἐτῶν τριάκοντα, Luke 3,23a), and ending with the expression, “And he taught in their synagogues, being glorified by all” (καὶ αὐτὸς ἐδίδασκεν ἐν ταῖς συναγωγαῖς αὐτῶν δοξαζόµενος ὑπὸ πάντων, Luke 4,15). We find three utterances – Luke 1,5–2,40.41–52; 3,1–4,15 – comprising Luke 1,5–4,15 as preamble to the account of Jesus’ public ministry, each beginning with a temporal-spatial marker and ending with an expression of

326

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

positive valuation of Jesus by God and humans. It is within this first utterance, Luke 1,5–2,40, that we hear the four Lucan canticles as reading and consummating the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 by Speakers within the book, and in Luke 3,1–4,15 that the author himself as Narrator consummates the reading of Isa 40,3–5 for John the Baptist. In Luke 4,16–30, we shall hear Jesus consummate the reading of Isa 61,1–2, and thus, consummating the whole of Luke 1,5–4,15 – its Announcements of Birth, its canticles and their prophetic reading, and its citation of Isa 40,3–5 – in himself. b) The Consummation or Fulfillment of Prophecy in Luke 4,16–30 Luke’s narrative account of Jesus’ reading Isa 61,1–2 in the synagogue of Nazareth corresponds to Luke’s highly sensitive reading of Isa 34–35; 40–66. He tends to make a bit more than the other evangelists of these readings of Second Isaiah, citing Isa 40,3–5 in reference to John the Baptist (Luke 3,4–6) where the other gospel writers include only Isa 40,3 (Matt 3,3; Mark 1,2; John 1,23), and making a reference to Isa 52,13–53,12 a quotation by Jesus as Speaker in reference to himself (Luke 22,37//Isa 53,12) where other gospel writers make the association as Narrator (Matt 8,17//Isa 53,4). 52 Perhaps most notable is his account of Jesus’ reciting Isa 61,1–2 in the synagogue of Nazareth (Luke 4,16– 30), not found in parallel gospel passages, 53 with the Speaker’s express declaration “Today this scripture passage has been fulfilled in your hearing” (ὅτι σήµερον πεπλήρωται ἡ γραφὴ αὕτη ἐν τοῖς ὠσὶν ὑµῶν; Luke 4,21). Jesus does not explain what he means by “fulfillment” in the synagogue of Nazareth, and in fact he only “begins” (ἤρξατο, v. 21) to speak of this before the congregants confront his claim of prophetic readership (v. 22). This becomes, for Luke, the beginning of Jesus’ public ministry. We have seen that already within the book of Isaiah, the internal reader “brings to fulfillment” or consummates an utterance, and that this process, in regard to the Servant specifically, begins with God’s reading the psalms, through literary allusion, into the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44. 54 With regard to Jesus’ reading Isa 61,1–2 in the synagogue, we might simply say that, as a reader like any other reader, he “fulfills” or consummates the utterance, and as the divine reader, the Word made flesh, he consummates it perfectly, especially in anticipation of the physical fulfillment of Isa 52,13–53,12 in the event of his

52 This is to say nothing of Luke’s expanding the expression “from east and west” (ἀπὸ ἀνατολῶν καὶ δυσµῶν) of Matt 8,11 into “from east and west and from north and south” (ἀπὸ ἀνατολῶν καὶ δυσµῶν καὶ ἀπὸ βορρᾶ καὶ νότου) via Isa 43,5b–6a. 53 See Matt 13,53–58; Mark 6,1–6. However, Matt 12,18–21 features a citation of Isa 42,1–4 (perhaps conflated with Isa 41,8 in rendering the servant “my beloved” [ὁ ἀγαπητός µου]) not found elsewhere in the gospels. 54 See our summary in §1, above, and at the end of ch. VI, esp. §3.

Chapter VII. A Theological Dialogism

327

passion (as written in Matt 26,36–27,54; Mark 14,32–15,41; Luke 22,39– 23,55; John 18,1–19,37). Seen in relation to the Lucan canticles, out of whose literary situation the narrative of Jesus’ self-presentation emerges, we can understand that the fulfillment of prophecy in this case, that Jesus preaches “good news to the afflicted” (εὐαγγελίσθαι πτωχοῖς, Luke 4,18//Isa 61,1) emerges from the prophetic self-definition of those assembled around Jesus’ birth as the very same “afflicted” (Luke 1,48.52//Isa 41,14.17; 49,13). Just as Second Isaiah uses subtle literary allusion to have his servant Jacob-Israel define himself as God’s afflicted people, the Lamenter of the psalms, so Luke uses less subtle literary allusion to have the servants of God – Mary, Zechariah, and Simeon – define themselves as God’s afflicted. 55 That the assembly in Nazareth does not recognize themselves as the afflicted Lamenter or Friend leads Jesus to speak of his eventual universalization of the Friend through allusion to the work of Elijah (Luke 4,25–26//1 Kgs 17,7–17) and Elisha (Luke 4,27//2 Kgs 5,1–27) among the nations, a universalization about which Second Isaiah already prophesies. 56 2.4 Conclusions Each of the utterances we have treated above as alluding to or quoting from the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44 consummate their reading of them in new theological situations (covenant theology in Ps 105, wisdom theology in Ps 107, and eschatology in Ps 149), as if fulfilled in them, into an “old” historical situation (2 Chr 20,1–30), demonstrating the present power of the prophecy in terms of past success, or in the situation of the incarnation of salvation itself in the Infancy Narrative of John and Jesus in Luke 1–4. In this brief treatment, we have heard of the power of the psalms as uttered for achieving salvation, especially as by an assembly of the “afflicted,” the ‫ענוים‬. In fact, we might consider that Luke does not simply model the form of the Salvation Oracles, but that, in the creation within the Salvation Oracles of an assembly of Lamenter and Friend before God reading the psalms, the author of Salvation Oracles creates a situation that continues, ongoing, into Luke’s day. Each of these situations reveals that, despite the Salvation Oracles being given in a particular historical situation, or represented as such, in Babylonian exile and the rise of Persian rule, prophecy comes to be fulfilled, its form 55 Brown (Birth of the Messiah, 35–355) asserts that the Lucan canticles emerge, in fact, from a self-defined group of the Anawim. We do not intend to define the “afflicted” here as a particular socio-political group, lest we fall into the same problems of defining the “afflicted” according to our theological interests, as summarized by Lohfink (“Kirche der Armen,” 153–176). Rather, we continue to hold that the “afflicted,” the Anawim, as it were, are an entirely literary reality, consummated or fulfilled by whoever reads the Psalms of Lament in their particular situation, a position that we feel Brown’s assertion indirectly confirms. 56 See Isa 45,9–25.

328

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

consummated, in successive and ongoing readings in “great time.” Prophecy is fulfilled when it is read. Uttering words in a particular place nad time is thus the necessary condition for prophecy, but not its sufficient condition. Only reading prophecy in connection to events makes prophecy what it is, and indeed it makes the reader, along with the author, a prophet.

3. Theological Dialogism: Fulfilling Prophecy through Reading We have seen in our study of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44 that the prophetic word emerges as a word between two voices, a dialogue. In the oracle itself, God speaks through the voices of those to whose word he alludes, be they Moses and Joshua in their encouragement to a people chosen to occupy a land (Isa 41,8–10; 44,1–2), the psalmist as center of Lament (Isa 41,11– 12.13.14–16.17–20) or Praise (Isa 43,2.3b–4b.5b–6b), Amos as prophet of God the creator (Isa 43,1.7), or Moses again as prophet of God the savior (Isa 44,3– 4). These all speak again together in God's voice, a true polyphony of prophets and psalmists, uttering a new word of salvation to a new prophet, a new Servant of God's word, Jacob-Israel. Servant Jacob-Israel himself, in reading aloud the many alluded passages of the Salvation Oracles, completes them and adds his own voice to the prophetic polyphony. As reader, he consummates the form of the oracle, makes it complete in himself, embodies it in his time and place. He fulfills the prophecy in his reading it. The one saved makes his salvation known to himself, becoming prophet and psalmist before God the creator and king. Before God the creator and king, and with a symphony of voices between them, the saved Servant gathers around himself an assembly. He is the “afflicted one,” ‫עני‬, around whom an assembly of “afflicted,” ‫ענוים‬, gather to hear of salvation. This assembly, in praise and lament, is a liturgical assembly, or is to become so as God promises his spirit cast upon them. 3.1 From Reading Salvation from Without to Reading it Within With polyphony as the form of prophetic speech, the assembly made within the prophetic book, we must now reconsider some earlier claims about the form of the Salvation Oracles. That is, while we may never properly be able to determine the origin of their form – if the form does not, indeed, not originate with Second Isaiah himself – we may certainly now ascertain the purpose of their form: to create an assembly in their recitation. Thus, Begrich is accurate when he calls the Salvation Oracles an “imitation,” but not because of a supposed pre-existing form that they imitate, a priestly Oracle of Salvation between two parts of a psalm, but because the Salvation Oracles create in exilic and post-

Chapter VII. A Theological Dialogism

329

exilic Israel, bereft of king and temple, an assembly that prays the psalms. 57 We would concur with Schoors, Melugin, and Schüpphaus that the Salvation Oracles are prophetic originals, but with God’s word active in them, they make prophets of their human author and all who read them in God’s spirit. 58 We follow Conrad in reading them as central to the book of Isaiah, but their “democratization” is not of the kingship – God remains king – but of the assembly around him.59 Their War Oracle is now of a people who, through the weapons of their words of praise and lament, participate in God’s holy war against idolatry and ignorance of him. 60 The prophetic book is no longer simply a record of prophetic oracles, but the place in which prophecy itself is happening. 3.2 From a Word to the Assembly to a Word from the Assembly With this teleological shift in form, from origin to purpose, we can properly reconsider the relation of these oracles to their literary situation. We should no longer limit our interpretation of them to their historical situation, nor indeed seek to identify their prophet in one time and place. Second Isaiah is anonymous because his readers become prophets in the same Spirit of Holiness promised in his words. The historical situations of Babylonian exile or Persian occupation provide the necessary condition for the utterance of these salvific words, the situation without which they cannot have been conceived. These particular points in space-time do not exhaustively explain them, however, as their sufficient condition, their fulfillment, occurs in “great-time,” the ongoing event of Israel and the Church. This is the assembly that continues to gather around God the creator, king, and savior. Indeed, the reverse process may actually have occurred, as the assembly, formed first in a literary way within Isa 34–35; 40–66 takes historical form through those assembled around Christ Jesus beginning at the synagogue in Nazareth (Luke 4,16–30), making God’s salvation known to the nations. 3.3 From Prophecy to Fulfillment in the Assembly Jesus gathers an assembly around himself upon the cross when he calls out as the “afflicted one,” “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?” (Ps 22,1a). He gathers the “worm” and remnant of Israel to thresh the mountains of ignorance and the hills of injustice with his assembly's regular word of lament and praise (Isa 41,14–16), making known that “the Lord has acted” (Ps 22,32b). This assembly becomes the place of salvation for the world, for as the psalmist See our summary on Begrich's work in ch. I, §1.1.1 and of von Waldow's in §1.1.2. See ch. I, §1.2.2. 59 See ch. I, §1.3.1. 60 In distinction to the theological “quietism” of the neo-Assyrian oracles in Dijkstra, Weippert, and Nissinen, ch. I, §1.3.3. 57 58

330

Part III. Author and Reader in Architectonic Form

prophetically proclaims to God: “But you dwell on the praises of Israel” (Ps 22,4). In this way, this assembly becomes the Servant, a word from God about itself and a word for the world. The mandate to this assembly, “among whom you are precious in my eyes, made glorious, and I love you” (Isa 43,4a), is to make this love of God known to all the nations. Those who read the word of God as text in the assembly of the afflicted make the text a divine utterance and themselves prophets in their time and place.

Conclusion “And in the last days it shall be,” God declares, “that I will pour out my Spirit upon all flesh, and your sons and your daughters shall prophesy, and your young men shall see visions, and your old men shall dream dreams; yea, and on my menservants and my maidservants in those days I will pour out my Spirit;” and they shall prophesy (Acts 2,17–18//Joel 3,1–3).

Just as a mother forms the identity of her child through their exchange of words, God forms a prophetic people through his dialogue with them. In this study, we have seen how the salvation of Israel means Israel’s coming to know himself by reading, in God’s words to him, words that Israel has already uttered to God in lament, praise, and wisdom. In the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44, God speaks those words back to Israel through many prophetic voices, like those of Moses, Aaron, Joshua, Amos, and the psalmist. Israel enters into this prophetic polyphony as a fellow Servant of God’s word in its ongoing proclamation. This Servant takes on the form of the voices through which God is speaking to him, most especially that of an individual “afflicted one,” ‫עני‬, whose Lament and Praise makes possible the Lament, Praise, and salvation of a plurality of “afflicted ones,” ‫ענוים‬, fellow Servants of the Lord who carry forward the message of salvation to the ends of the earth. These are united, young and old, men and women of every race, in the Spirit of the Lord promised in these Salvation Oracles. In this study, we have developed a methodology and an approach to prophetic oracles long-defined in themselves and well-established for comparison. Isa 41,8–16.17–20; 43,1–7; 44,1–5 have been at the center of form-critical scholarship for a century, as we have shown in Chapter I, §1. Our method of allusion criticism, developed in Chapter II and practiced in §2 and §3 of Chapters III–V, has shown that the close, formal relationship between the Psalms of Lament and the Salvation Oracles that scholars have long noticed is, in fact, a relationship of direct literary dependence through biblical allusion. These allusions are not only to the Psalms of Lament, as evident in Isa 41,8–16.17–20 (Chapter III), but also to the Psalms of Praise in Isa 43,1–7 (Chapter IV), the Historical Hymns in Isa 44,1–5 (Chapter V), and each of these genres in dialogue with historical narratives, legal prescriptions, and other prophetic oracles. Through allusion criticism, we have also seen that inner-biblical allusion, in fact, gives compositional form to the Salvation Oracles (§2.3 and §3.3 of Chapters III-V). We have applied the gains of allusion criticism on the

332

Conclusion

Salvation Oracles to an understanding, however tentative, of the composition of larger literary contexts, like Isa 41–44, 44–48, 49–50, 51–54, and 34,1–63,6 in relation to the Salvation Oracles (Chapter VI, §2). The gains of allusion criticism can help readers discern literary allusion elsewhere within the book of Isaiah and without. We have shown that Second Isaiah’s poetic style is a vehicle for bearing literary allusion from author to reader, even in very densely-packed ways. The stylistic patterns of semantic and syntactic parallelism, alliteration, rhyme, anaphora/epiphora, the use of prepositions, word play, sound play, and inclusio help integrate the forms of allusion making we have encountered, like the splitting up and interweaving of allusive markers, line copying, and the insertion of thematic-typological proper names and expressions. We can foresee applying these stylistic criteria to allusions that other scholars have already identified within Isa 34–66 and beyond to demonstrate that allusion is no accidental quality of those prophetic utterances, but indeed belong to their very essence. In our dialogical approach to form, adapted from Bakhtin’s philosophical anthropology, we have shown that the compositional form of the allusive utterance determines the architectonic form of the prophetic oracle, a relationship between author and reader formed especially through the reader’s entry into the event of authorship. This has put our study in close dialogue with the work of form-critical scholarship on these oracles, not to devalue its results but, on the contrary, to reorient the approach to form and the identification of formcritical elements teleologically, toward the reader’s understanding of himself, his self-conscious identification before the author. This has meant, concretely, realigning the architectonic labels that scholars have given to the parts of the Salvation Oracles with the allusive units we have identified and with the specific form of the human-divine relationship which allusion in these units has shaped, as seen in §3 of Chapters III–V. In dialogical terms, this has also meant understanding the chronotope, or the shape of space and time, within these allusive-architectonic units and within each Salvation Oracle as a whole. This has also meant turning a “sideways glance” toward the immediate literary context of each Salvation Oracle, looking for the ways in which the author shapes the message of salvation in light of Trial Speeches and Disputations, as in §4 of Chapters III–V. Having realigned the architectonic elements of the Salvation Oracles has led to a better understanding of their form as a series within Isa 41–44, their progression in form, allusion, and message from Jacob-Israel in himself (Isa 41,8–16.17–20) to Jacob-Israel in relation to God as universal king (Isa 43,1–7) to Jacob-Israel in relation to the Friend (Isa 44,1–5), the Other who comes to know salvation through Jacob-Israel’s prophetic proclamation of his own, as seen in §1 of Chapter VI. This dialogical approach to form has also helped us to situate the Salvation Oracles as speaking voices within Isa 1–66, shaping and being shaped by the various parts or value contexts of the book of Isaiah. Thus, in Chapter VI, we

Conclusion

333

have traced a pattern of reading and authoring within the book that emerges first in the Salvation Oracles, whereby reader becomes author. In the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44, God enters into the event of authorship by reading, through allusion, Israel’s sacred literature to the Servant, Jacob-Israel. The Servant, in turn, enters into the authorship of the book by reading his Salvation Oracles through allusion in a new value context, Zion-Jerusalem, in Isa 49–50. This establishes the voice of the Friend, who in turn enters into prophetic authorship in Isa 51–54 by reading the suffering of the Servant in terms of the Lamenter of the psalms and, having gained self-awareness as Servants, takes on a prophetic role before the nations in the value context of Edom-Bozrah in Isa 34–63. Readers of the Salvation Oracles in Isa 41–44 elsewhere in the Bible do so sometimes for specific thematic purposes, as we have seen in in the psalter in Chapter VII, §2.1. The Chronicler develops, through the Salvation Oracles, a theology on the prophetic power of singing the psalms, as seen in §2.2. It is in the canticles of Luke’s gospel, though, in which we find readers of the Salvation Oracles do what the Salvation Oracles themselves do, making their readers Servants by alluding both to the psalms and to the Salvation Oracles in their own situation (§2.3). The authors of these canticles – Mary, Zechariah, and Simeon – form, in the Holy Spirit, the prophetic assembly welcoming the Word made flesh. Luke continues this dialogical theology in his reading of the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44 into the Acts of the Apostles. With Peter’s quotation of Joel 3,1–5 in Acts 2,17–21, he declares this prophetic utterance fulfilled in a specific event. This event is not Pentecost per se, but its fruit, the gift of glossalalia (of the xenoglossic type), such that those listening to the apostles, gathered from many nations, hear as one assembly. The event is to make the apostles a word to others in the Holy Spirit, an event fulfilling the Salvation Oracles of Isa 41–44, especially in their summation in Isa 44,3: “I will pour out my spirit upon your descendants, and my blessings upon your issue.” To bring to fulfillment the Salvation Oracles, these oracles composed as dialogues of allusions to the psalms, prophets, and law, Peter brings into dialogue this quotation from Joel 3,1–5 with others from Ps 16,8–11 (Acts 2,25–28) and Ps 110,1 (Acts 2,34–35). The result is what God promises in Isa 44,5, the inscription of the people into the assembly around God and who live in service to others (Acts 2,37–47). Prophetic reading makes Peter a Servant of God’s word, forming an assembly of Servants around him.

Bibliography ACKROYD, P., “Criteria for the Maccabean Dating of OT Literature,” VT 3 (1953) 113–132. –, “The Vitality of the Word of God in the Old Testament. A Contribution to the Study of the Transmission of Old Testament Material,” ASTI 1 (1962) 7–23. –, “Hosea and Jacob,” VT 13 (1963) 245–259. –, “ ‫יד‬,” in TDOT, V, Grand Rapids, MI 1986, 393–426. ALLEGRO, J., “The Meaning of byn in Isaiah 44:4,” ZAW 63 (1951) 154–156. ALLEN, L., Psalms 101–150, WBC 21, Waco, TX 1983. ALONSO S CHÖKEL, L., Manual de Poética Hebrea, Madrid 1987. ALONSO S CHÖKEL, L./MATEOS, J./VOGT , E./VALVERDE , J.M., Isaías, Madrid 1968. ANDERSON, B., “Exodus Typology in Second Isaiah,” in B. Anderson/W. Harrelson, ed., Israel’s Prophetic Heritage, Fs. J. Muilenburg, New York, NY 1962, 177–195. ANDERSON, F./F REEDMAN, D.N., Amos. A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB 24A, New York 1989. AUFFRET, P., “Voyez les œuvres de Dieu: étude structurelle du psaume LXVI,” VT 53 (2003) 431–444. BAKHTIN, M.M., “Forms of Time and of the Chronotope in the Novel,” in M. Holquist, ed., The Dialogic Imagination. Four Essays by M.M. Bakhtin, UTP.SS 1, Austin, TX 1981, 84–258. –, “Discourse in the Novel,” in M. Holquist, ed., The Dialogic Imagination. Four Essays by M.M. Bakhtin, UTP.SS 1, Austin, TX 1981, 259–422. –, Problems of Dostoevksy’s Poetics, TH.Lit 8, Minneapolis, MN; London 1984. –, “Author and Hero in Aesthetic Activity,” in M. Holquist/V. Liapunov, ed., Art and Answerability. Early Philosophical Essays by M.M. Bakhtin, UTP.SS 9, Austin, TX 1990, 4–256. –, “The Problem of Content, Material, and Form in Verbal Art,” in M. Holquist/V. Liapunov, ed., Art and Answerability. Early Philosophical Essays by M.M. Bakhtin, UTP.SS 9, Austin, TX 1990, 257–325. –, Toward a Philosophy of the Act, UTP.SS 10, Austin, TX 1993. BALTZER, K., Deutero-Jesaja, KAT 10.2, Gütersloh 1999. BARTELMUS, G., “ ‫שׁמים‬,” in TDOT, XV, 204–236. BARTHES, R., “The Death of the Author,” in S. Heath, ed., Image–Music–Text, London 1977, 142–148. BAT-EL , O., “Reduplication” [accessed: 1.3.2018], https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/ entries/encyclopedia-of-hebrew-language-and-linguistics/*-EHLL_COM_00000089. BEENTJES, P., Jesus Sirach en Tenach, Nieuwegein, 1981. –, “Inverted Quotations in the Bible. A Neglected Stylistic Pattern,” Bib 63 (1982) 506– 523.

336

Bibliography

–, “Discovering a New Path of Intertextuality. Inverted Quotations and Their Dynamics,” in L.J. de Regt/J. de Waard/J.P. Fokkelman, ed., Literary Structure and Rhetorical Strategies in the Hebrew Bible, Assen, 1996, 31–50. BEGRICH, J., “Das priesterliche Heilsorakel,” ZAW 52 (1934) 81–92. –, Studien zu Deuterojesaja, BWANT 77, Stuttgart 1938 = TB 20, 1963. BEN-PORAT, Z., “The Poetics of Literary Allusion,” PTL 1 (1976) 105–128. BEN ZVI, E., “The Prophetic Book. A Key Form of Prophetic Literature,” in M. Sweeney/E. Ben Zvi, ed., The Changing Face of Form Criticism for the Twenty-First Century, Grand Rapids, MI 2003, 276–297. BERGES, U., “Die Armen im Buch Jesaja. Ein Beitrag zur Literaturgeschichte des AT,” Bib 80 (1999) 153–177. –, “Die Knechte im Psalter. Ein Beitrag zu seiner Kompositionsgeschichte,” Bib 81 (2000) 153–178. –, “Who Were the Servants? A Comparative Inquiry in the Book of Isaiah and the Psalms,” in J. Moor/H.R. Rooy, ed., Past, Present, Future. The Deuteronomistic History and the Prophets, Leiden 2000, 1–18. –, Jesaja I. Jesaja 40–48. II. Jesaja 49–54. HThKAT, Freiburg 2008, 2015. –, “The Literary Construction of the Servant in Isaiah 40–55. A Discussion about Individual and Collective Identities,” SJOT 24 (2010) 28–38. BERGEY , R., “The Song of Moses (Deuteronomy 32.1–43) and Isaianic Prophecies. A Case of Early Intertextuality?,” JSOT 28 (2003) 33–54. BEUKEN, W.A.M., “Psalm 47. Structure and Drama,” in A.S. van der Woude, ed., Remembering All the Way. A Collection of Old Testament Studies, OTS 21, Leiden 1981, 38– 54. –, Jesaja, IIA, POuT, Nijkerk 1982. –, “Servant and Herald of Good Tidings. Isaiah 61 as an Interpretation of Isaiah 40–55,” in Le livre d’Isaie. Les oracles et leurs relecteurs: unité et complexité de l’ouvrage, BETL 81, Louvain 1989, 411–442. BEYERLIN, W., Werden und Wesen des 107. Psalms, BZAW 153, Berlin 1979. BLENKINSOPP, J., “The ‘Servants of the Lord’ in Third Isaiah. Profile of a Piestistic Group in the Persian Epoch,” in R. Gordon, ed., ‘The Place is Too Small for Us.’ The Israelite Prophets in Recent Scholarship, SBTS 5, Winona Lake, IN 1995, 392–412. –, Isaiah. I. Isa 1–39. II. Isa 40–55. AB 19, 19A, New York 2000, 2002. –, The Beauty of Holiness. Re-Reading Isaiah in the Light of the Psalms, London 2019. BOADT, L., “Isaiah 41,8–13. Notes on Poetic Structure and Style,” CBQ 35 (1973) 20–34. –, “Intentional Alliteration in Second Isaiah,” CBQ 45 (1983) 353–363. BONNARD, P.-É., Le second Isaïe: son disciple et leurs éditeurs. Isaïe 40–66, EBib, Paris 1972. BRANDSCHEIDT , R., “Die Frohbotschaft von Gott als Schöpfer und Erlöser nach Jesaja 43,1– 7,” in F. Sedlmeier, ed., Gottes Wege suchend. Beiträge zum Verständnis der Bibel und ihrer Botschaft, Fs. R. Mosis, Würzburg 2003, 131–151. BROWN, R., The Birth of the Messiah. A Commentary on the Infancy Narratives in Matthew and Luke, Garden City, NY 1977. BRUEGGEMANN, W., Isaiah 40–66, WeBC, Louisville, KY 1998. BUDD , P., Numbers, WBC 5, Waco, TX 1984. BUTLER, T., Joshua, WBC 7, Waco, TX 1983. –, Joshua 1–12, WBC 7a, Grand Rapids, MI 20142. CAMPBELL, A., “Psalm 78. A Contribution to the Theology of Tenth Century Israel,” CBQ 41 (1979) 51–79.

Bibliography

337

CASANOWICZ, I., Paronomasia in the Old Testament, Boston, MA 1894. CASSUTO, U., “On the Formal and Stylistic Relationship between Deutero-Isaiah and Other Biblical Writers,” in Biblical and Oriental Studies, I, Jerusalem 1973, 141–177. CERESKO, A., “The Function of Antanaclasis (mṣ’ ‘to find’/mṣ’ ’to reach, overtake, grasp’) in Hebrew Poetry, Especially in the Book of Qoheleth,” CBQ 44 (1982) 551–569. CHILDS, B., Isaiah, OTL, Louisville, KY 2001. CHRISTENSEN, D., Deuteronomy 21,10–34,12, WBC 6B, Nashville, TN 2002. DE CLAISSÉ-W ALFORD , N./JACOBSON, R./TANNER, B.L., The Book of Psalms, NICOT, Grand Rapids, MI 2014. CLARKE , E., The Later Affluence of W.B. Yeats and Wallace Stevens, London 2011. CLEMENTS, R., “Psalm 72 and Isaiah 40–66. A Study in Tradition,” PRSt 28 (2001) 333– 341. CLIFFORD, R., “In Zion and David a New Beginning. An Interpretation of Psalm 78,” in B. Halpern/J. Levenson, ed., Traditions in Transformation. Turning Points in Biblical Faith, Fs. F.M. Cross, Winona Lake, IN 1981, 121–141. –, Fair Spoken and Persuading. An Interpretation of Second Isaiah, Ramsey, NJ 1984. –, “Isaiah, Book of (Second Isaiah),” in ABD, III, New York 1992, 490–501. –, “The Unity of the Book of Isaiah and Its Cosmogonic Language,” CBQ 55 (1993) 1–17. CONRAD, E., “Second Isaiah and the Priestly Oracle of Salvation,” ZAW 93 (1981) 234–246. –, “The ‘Fear Not’ Oracles in Second Isaiah,” VT 34 (1984) 129–152. –, “The Community as King in Second Isaiah,” in J. Butler, ed., Understanding the Word, JSOTSup 37, Sheffield 1985, 99–111. –, Fear Not Warrior. A Study of ’al tîrā’ Pericopes in the Hebrew Scriptures, BJS 75, Chico, CA 1985. –, “The Royal Narratives and the Structure of the Book of Isaiah,” JSOT 13 (1988) 67–81. –, Reading Isaiah, Minneapolis, MN 1991. CRAIGIE , P., Psalms 1–50, WBC 19, Nashville, TN 20042. DAHOOD , M., Psalms. I. Ps 1–50, AB 16, Garden City, NY 1966. DIJKSTRA, M., Gods Voorstelling. Predikatieve expressie van zelfopenbaring in Oudoosterse teksten en Deutero-Jesaja, DNL.T 2, Kampen 1980. DILLARD , R., 2 Chronicles, WBC 15, Waco, TX 1987. DION, H.M., “Patriarchal Traditions and the Literary Form of the ‘Oracle of Salvation’,” CBQ 29 (1967) 198–206. DION, P.-E., “The ‘Fear Not’ Formula and Holy War,” CBQ 32 (1970) 565–570. DOZEMAN, T., Joshua 1–12, AB 6B, New Haven, CT; London 2015. DRIVER, G.R., “Linguistic and Textual Problems. Isaiah xl–lxvi,” JTS 36 (1935) 396–406. EISSFELDT , O., Das Lied Moses, Deuteronomium 32,1–43, und das Lehrgedicht Asaphs, Psalm 78, samt einer Analyse der Umgebung des Mose-Liedes, BVSGW.PH 104.5, Berlin 1958. ELLIGER, K., Deuterojesaja 40,1–45,7, BKAT 11.1, Neukirchen-Vluyn 1978. EMERSON, C., “The Early Philosophical Essays,” in All the Same The Words Don’t Go Away. Essays on Authors, Heroes, Aesthetics, and Stage Adaptations from the Russian Tradition, SRSLCH, Boston, MA 2011, 42–52. ESHEL, H./STRUGNELL, J., “Alphabetical Acrostics in Pre-Tannaitic Hebrew,” CBQ 62 (2000) 441–458. ESLINGER, L., “Inner-biblical Exegesis and Inner-biblical Allusion. The Question of Category,” VT 42 (1992) 47–58. FABRY, H.-J./LIPINSKI, E., “‫נתן‬,” in TDOT, X, Grand Rapids, MI 1999, 90–108. FABRY, H.-J./SAWYER, J.F., “ ‫ישׁע‬,” in TDOT, VI, Grand Rapids, MI 1990, 441–463.

338

Bibliography

FABRY, H.-J./SOGGIN, J.A., “‫ימין‬,” in TDOT, VI, Grand Rapids, MI 1990, 99–104. FISHBANE , M., Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel, Oxford 1988. FITZMYER, J.A., The Gospel According to Luke I-IX, AB 28, New York, NY 1981. FOHRER, G., “Zum Text von Jes 41,8–13,” VT 5 (1955) 239–249. –, “Remarks on Modern Interpretation of the Prophets,” JBL 80 (1961) 309–319. –, Jesaja 40–66. Deuterojesaja/Tritojesaja, ZBK.AT 19.3, Zürich 19862 . FOKKELMAN, J., “Stylistic Analysis of Isaiah 40:1–11,” in Remembering All the Way. A Collection of Old Testament Studies, OTS 21, Leiden 1981, 68–90. –, “The Cyrus Oracle (Isaiah 44,24–45,7) from the Perspectives of Syntax, Versification and Structure,” in Studies in the Book of Isaiah, Fs. W.A.M. Beuken, Louvain 1997, 303– 323. –, “Psalm 103. Design, Boundaries, and Mergers,” in Psalms and Prayers. Papers Read at the Joint Meeting of the Society of Old Testament Study and Het Oudtestamentische Werkgezelschap in Nederland en België, Apeldoorn August 2006, OTS 55, Leiden 2007, 109–118. FORESTI, F., “Funzione semantica dei brani participiali di Amos: Amos 4:13; 5:8s; 9:5s,” Bib 62 (1981) 169–184. FOX, M., “The Identification of Quotations in Biblical Literature,” ZAW 92 (1980) 416–431. –, The Song of Songs and the Ancient Egyptian Love Songs, Madison, WI 1985. GARRETT, D./HOUSE, P., Song of Songs/Lamentations, WBC 23B, Nashville, TN 2004. GEVIRTZ, S., Patterns in the Early Poetry of Israel, SAOC 32, Chicago, IL 1963. GIANTO, A., “Mood and Modality in Classical Hebrew,” in S. Izre’el/I. Singer/R. Zadok, ed., Israel Oriental Studies XVIII. Past Links: Studies in the Languages and Cultures of the Ancient Near East, Winona Lake, IN 1998, 183–198. GITAY , Y., Prophecy and Persuasion. A Study of Isaiah 40–48, FThL 14, Bonn 1981. GOLDINGAY, J., “The Arrangement of Isaiah XLI–XLV,” VT 29 (1979) 289–299. –, “‘You are Abraham’s Offspring, My Friend.’ Abraham in Isaiah 41,” in R.S. Hess, ed., He Swore an Oath. Biblical Themes from Genesis 12–50, Grand Rapids, MI 1994, 29– 54. –, Isaiah, NIBCOT 13, Peabody, MA 2001. GOLDINGAY, J./PAYNE , D., Isaiah 40–55. I. Isa 40,1–44,23. II. Isa 40,24–55,13. ICC, London; New York, NY 2006. GOSHEN-GOTTSTEIN, M., “Afterthought and the Syntax of Relative Clauses in Biblical Hebrew,” JBL 68 (1949) 35–47. –, “Abraham – Lover or Beloved of God,” in J. Marks/R.M. Good, ed., Love and Death in the Ancient Near East, Fs. M. Pope, Guilford, CT 1987, 101–104. GOSSE, B., “Deutéronome 32,1–43 et les rédactions des livres d’Ezéchiel et d’Isaïe,” ZAW 107 (1995) 110–117. –, “Abraham comme figure de substitution à la royauté davidique, et sa dimension internationale à l’époque postexilique,” Theoforum 33 (2002) 163–186. –, “Abraham dans les Ps 105 et 47,” BZ 54 (2010) 83–91. GRAF REVENTLOW, H., Liturgie und prophetisches Ich bei Jeremia, Gütersloh 1963. GREEN, W.S., “Doing the Text’s Work for It. Richard Hays on Paul’s Use of Scripture,” in J. Sanders/C. Evans, ed., Paul and the Scriptures of Israel, JSNTSup 83, Sheffield 1993. GREßMANN, H., “Die literarische Analyse Deuterojesajas,” ZAW 34 (1914) 254–297. GRIMM, W., Die Verkündigung Jesu und Deuterojesaia, Frankfurt am Main 19812 . –, Fürchte dich nicht. Ein exegetischer Zugang zum Seelsorgepotential einer deuterojesajanischen Gattung, EHS.T 298, Frankfurt am Main 1986.

Bibliography

339

GROGAN, G., “Isaiah,” in F. Gaebelein/R. Polcyn, ed., EBC, VI, Grand Rapids, MI 1986, 3– 356. GUILLAUME, A., “Isa 44:5 in the Light of the Elephantine Papyri,” ExpTim 32 (1920) 377– 379. –, “Note on the Meaning of byn,” JTS 13 (1962) 109–111. GUNKEL, H./BEGRICH, J., Einleitung in die Psalmen. Die Gattungen der religiösen Lyrik Israels, HKAT, Göttingen 1933. GUNN , D., “Deutero-Isaiah and the Flood,” JBL 94 (1975) 493–508. GUTHE , H., “Der Prophet Amos,” in A. Bertholet/E.F. Kautzsch, ed., Die Heilige Schrift des Alten Testaments, Tübingen 19234, 30–47. HAAG , H., “‫ב ן‬,” in TDOT, II, 145–159. HABEL, N., “He Who Stretches out the Heavens,” CBQ 34 (1972) 417–430. HAMLIN, E.J., “The Meaning of ‘Mountains and Hills’ in Isaiah 41,14–16,” JNES 13 (1954) 185–190. HANSON, P., Isaiah 40–66, IBC, Louisville, KY 1995. HARDMEIER, C., “‘Geschwiegen habe ich seit langem... wie die Gebärende schreie ich jetzt’. Zur Komposition und Geschichtstheologie von Jes 42,14–44,23,” in H.-P. Stähli, ed., Wort und Dienst. Jahrbuch der Kirchlichen Hochschule Bethel, WD 20, 1989, 155–179. HARNER, P., “Salvation Oracle in Second Isaiah,” JBL 88 (1969) 418–434. –, Grace and Law in Second Isaiah. “I am the Lord,” ANETS 2, Lewiston, NY 1988. HATCH, E./REDPATH, H., A Concordance to the Septuagint and Other Greek Versions of the Old Testament (Including the Apocryphal Books). I. Α-Λ. ΙΙ. Κ-Ω, Graz 1954. HAUSMANN , J., “‘Gott ist König über die Völker’. Der Beitrag von Ps 47 zum Thema Israel und die Völker,” in J.A. Loader/H.V. Kieweler, ed., Vielseitigkeit des Alten Testaments, Fs. G. Sauer, Frankfurt am Main 1999, 91–102. HAYS, C., “Echoes of the ancient Near East? Intertextuality and the Comparative Study of the Old Testament,” in J.R. Wagner/C.K. Rowe/A.K. Grieb, ed., The Word Leaps the Gap. Essays on Scripture and Theology, Fs. R. Hays, Grand Rapids, MI 2008, 20–43. HAYS, R., Echoes of Scripture in the Letters of Paul, New Haven, CT 1989. –, “On the Rebound. A Response to Critiques of Echoes of Scripture in the Letters of Paul,” in R. Hays, ed., The Conversion of the Imagination. Paul as Interpreter of Israel’s Scripture, Grand Rapids, MI 2005, 163–189. –, “‘Who Has Believed Our Message?’ Paul’s Reading of Isaiah,” in R. Hays, ed., The Conversion of the Imagination. Paul as Interpreter of Israel’s Scripture, Grand Rapids, MI 2005, 25–49. HAYS, R.W.P., “Trauma, Remembrance, and Healing. The Meeting of Wisdom and History in Psalm 78,” JSOT 41 (2016) 183–204. HELEWA, G., “Per la mia gloria li ho creati,” Ter (1989) 435–478. HEßLER, E., “Die Struktur der Bilder bei Deuterojesaja,” EvT 25 (1965) 349–369. –, Das Heilsdrama. Der Weg zur Weltherrschaft Jahwes (Jes. 40–55), RWTS 2, Hildesheim 1988. HIRSCH, E./BENZINGER, I., “Olive” [accessed: 3.3.2018], http://www.jewishencyclopedia. com/articles/11686-olive#ixzz1DQO0yfnc. HÖFFKEN, P., Das Buch Jesaja. Kapitel 40–66, NSKAT 18.2, Stuttgart 1998. HOLLANDER, J., The Figure of Echo. A Mode of Allusion in Milton and After, Berkeley, CA 1984. HOLQUIST, M., “Glossary,” in idem, ed., The Dialogic Imagination. Four Essays by M.M. Bakhtin, UTP.SS 1, Austin, TX 1981, 423–434.

340

Bibliography

HORST, F., “Die Doxologien im Amosbuch (1929),” in H.W. Wolff, ed., Gottes Recht. Gesammelte Studien zum Recht im Alten Testament, TB 12, München 1961, 155–166. HOSSFELD, F.-L./ZENGER, E., Psalms. II. Ps 51–100. III. Ps 101–150, Hermeneia 19B, 19C, Minneapolis, MN 2005, 2011. JACOBSON , A.D., review of W. Grimm, Die Verkündigung Jesu und Deutero-jesaias, [Frankfurt am Main 19812 ], JBL 102 (1983) 642–644. JANOWSKI, B., Sühne als Heilsgeschehen: Studien zur Sühnetheologie der Priesterschrift und zur Wurzel KPR, WMANT 55, Neukirchen-Vluyn 1982. JENNY, L., “Stratégie de la forme,” Poétique 27 (1976) 257–281. JEREMIAS, J., The Book of Amos. A Commentary, OTL, 1998. JOHNSTON, P., “Ordeals in the Psalms?,” in J. Day, ed., Temple and Worship in Biblical Israel, OTS 422, London 2005, 271–291. JOÜON, P./MURAOKA , T., A Grammar of Biblical Hebrew, SubBi 27, Rome 20112. KABERGS, V./AUSLOOS, H., “Paronomasia or Wordplay? A Babel-Like Confusion Towards a Definition of Hebrew Wordplay,” Bib 93 (2012) 1–20. KEISER, T., “The Song of Moses a Basis for Isaiah’s Prophecy,” VT 55 (2005) 486–500. KELLEY, P., “Isaiah,” in BBC, V, Nashville, TN 1971, 149–374. KILIAN , R., “Ps 22 und das priesterliche Heilsorakel,” BZ 12 (1968) 172–185. KIM , H.C.P., “The Song of Moses (Deuteronomy 32.1–43) in Isaiah 40–55,” in J.H. Ellens/D. Ellens/R. Knierim/I. Kalimi, ed., God’s Word for Our World, I, JSOTSup 388, London 2004, 147–171. –, “The Spider-Poet. Signs and Symbols in Isaiah 41,” in A.J. EVERSON/H.C.P. KIM, ed., The Desert Will Bloom. Poetic Visions in Isaiah, AIL 4, Leiden 2009, 159–180. KLEIN, R., Chronicles. I. 1 Chronicles. II. 2 Chronicles, Hermeneia, Minneapolis, MN 2006, 2012. KLINE, J., Allusive Soundplay in the Hebrew Bible, AIL 28, Atlanta, GA 2016. KNIERIM, R., “Old Testament Form Criticism Reconsidered,” Int 27 (1973) 435–468. –, “Criticism of Literary Features, Form, Tradition, and Redaction,” in D. Knight/G. Tucker, ed., The Hebrew Bible and Its Modern Interpreters, Philadelphia 1985, 123–165. KOCH, K., “Die Rolle der hymnischen Abschnitte in der Komposition des Amos-Buches,” ZAW 86 (1974) 504–537. KÖHLER, L., “Die Offenbarungsformel ‘Fürchte dich nicht’ im Alten Testament,” SThZ 36 (1919) 33–39. –, Deuterojesaja (Jesaja 40–55). Stilkritisch untersucht, BZAW 37, Giessen 1923. KOOLE , J.L., Isaiah III. Isaiah 40–48, I, HCOT, Kampen 1997. KRATZ, R.G., Kyros im Deuterojesaja-Buch. Redaktionsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen zu Entstehung und Theologie von Jes 40–55, FAT 1, Tübingen 1991. KRISTEVA, J., “Word, Dialogue, and Novel,” in L. Roudiez, ed., Desire in Language. A Semiotic Approach to Literature and Art, New York, NY 1980, 64–91. –, “Breaching the Thetic. Mimesis,” in Revolution in Poetic Language, New York 1984, 57–61. KÜCHLER, F., “Das priesterliche Orakel in Israel und Juda,” in Abhandlugen zur semitischen Religionskunde und Sprachwissenschaft, Fs. W.W. von Baudissin, Giessen 1918, 285– 301. KWON, J.J., Scribal Culture and Intertextuality. Literary and Historical Relationships between Job and Deutero-Isaiah, FAT II 85, Tübingen 2016. KYNES, W., “Job and Isaiah 40–55. Intertextualities in Dialogue,” in K. Dell/W. Kynes, ed., Reading Job Intertextually, LHBOTS 574, New York, NY; London 2013, 94–105. LAATO, A., “The Composition of Isaiah 40–55,” JBL 109 (1990) 207–228.

Bibliography

341

LAMBRECHT , J., “‘But You Too’. A Note on Luke 1,76,” ETL 81 (2005) 487–490. LEE, S., Creation and Redemption in Isaiah 40–55, Jian Dao DS 2, Hong Kong 1995. LEENE, H., “History and Eschatology in Deutero-Isaiah,” in Studies in the Book of Isaiah, Fs. W.A.M. Beuken, Louvain 1997, 223–249. LEONARD, J., “Identifying Inner-Biblical Allusions. Psalm 78 as a Test Case,” JBL 127 (2008) 241–265. LESIC-THOMAS, A., “Behind Bakhtin. Russian Formalism and Kristeva’s Intertextuality,” Paragraph. 28 (2005) 1–20. LESTER, G.B., Daniel Evokes Isaiah. Allusive Characterization of Foreign Rule in the Hebrew-Aramaic Book of Daniel, OTS 606, London 2015. LEVINE, B., Numbers 21–36, AB 4A, New York, NY 2000. LEVINSON, B., Deuteronomy and the Hermeneutics of Legal Innovation, New York, NY 1997. LIFTON, R.J., Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism. A Study of “Brainwashing” in China, Chapel Hill, NC 1961. LIPTON, D., “Bezalel in Babylon? Anti-Priestly Polemics in Isaiah 40–55,” JANES 31 (2008) 63–84. LOHFINK, N., “Die deuteronomistische Darstellung des Übergangs der Führung Israels von Moses auf Josue,” Schol 37 (1962) 32–44. –, “Von der ‘Anawim-Partei’ zur ‘Kirche der Armen’. Die bibelwissenschaftliche Ahnentafel eines Hauptbegriffs der ‘Theologie der Befreiung’,” Bib 67 (1986) 153–176. –, “Psalmen im Neuen Testament. Die Lieder in der Kindheitsgeschichte bei Lukas,” in K. Seybold/E. Zenger, ed., Neue Wege der Psalmenforschung, 1994, 105–125. LUDWIG, T., “Traditions of the Establishing of the Earth in Deutero-Isaiah,” JBL 92 (1973) 345–357. LUNDBOM, J., Jeremiah 21–26, AB 21B, New York, NY 2004. LYONS, M., “Marking Innerbibilical Allusion in the Book of Ezekiel,” Bib 88 (2007) 245– 250. MA , W., Until the Spirit Comes. The Spirit of God in the Book of Isaiah, JSOTSup 271, Sheffield 1999. MAALSTAD, K., “Einige Erwägungen zu Jes 43:4,” VT 16 (1966) 512–514. MARGALIT, B., “Studia Ugaritica I. Introduction to Ugaritic Prosody,” UF 7 (1975) 289– 313. –, “Alliteration in Ugaritic Poetry. Its Rôle in Composition and Analysis,” UF 11 (1979) 537–557. –, “Alliteration in Ugaritic Poetry. Its Role in Composition and Analysis (Part II),” JNSL 8 (1980) 57–80. MARTI, K., Das Buch Jesaja, KHC, Tübingen 1904. MAYS, J.L., Amos. A Commentary, OTL, London 1969. MCCARTER, P.K., “River Ordeal in Israelite Literature,” HTR 66 (1973) 403–412. MCCONVILLE, J.G., “Statement of Assurance in Psalms of Lament,” IBS 8 (1986) 64–75. MCKENZIE, J., Second Isaiah. Introduction, Translation, and Notes, AB 20, Garden City, NY 1968. MEEK, R., “Intertextuality, Inner-Biblical Exegesis, and Inner-Biblical Allusion. The Ethics of a Methodology,” Bib 95 (2014) 280–291. MELAMED, E.Z., “Break-up of Stereotype Phrases as an Artistic Device in Biblical Poetry,” ScrHier 8 (1961) 115–153. MELLO, A., Isaia. Introduzione, traduzione e commento, NVBTA 10, Cinisello Balsamo 2012.

342

Bibliography

MELUGIN, R., The Formation of Isaiah 40–55, BZAW 141, Berlin; New York, NY 1976. –, “Recent Form Criticism Revisited in an Age of Reader Response,” in M. Sweeney/E. Ben Zvi, ed., The Changing Face of Form Criticism for the Twenty-First Century, Grand Rapids, MI 2003, 46–64. –, “Form Criticism, Rhetorical Criticism, and Beyond in Isaiah,” in C. Mathews McGinnis/P. Tull, ed., “As those who are taught.” The Interpretation of Isaiah from the LXX to the SBL, Atlanta, GA 2006, 263–279. MERENDINO , R.P., “Literarkritisches, Gattungskritisches und Exegetisches zu Jes 41,8–16,” Bib 53 (1972) 1–42. –, Der Erste und der Letzte. Eine Untersuchung von Jes 40–48, VTSup 31, Leiden 1981. MERRILL , E.H., “The Literary Character of Isaiah 40–55, Part 1: Survey of a Century of Studies,” BSac 144 (1987) 24–43. –, “The Literary Character of Isaiah 40–55, Part 2: Literary Genres,” BSac 144 (1987) 144– 156. VAN DER M ERWE, B.J., “Echoes from Teaching of Hosea in Isaiah 40–55,” in Studies on the Books of Hosea and Amos. Papers Read at the 7th and 8th Meetings of die O.T. Wekgemeenskap in Suid-Afrika, OTWSA 8, Potchefstroom, South Africa 1965, 90–99. MILGROM , J., Numbers. The Traditional Hebrew Text with the New JPS Translation, JPSTC, Philadelphia, PA 1990. –, Leviticus. III. Lev 23–27, AB 3B, New York 2001. MILLER, G., “Intertextuality in Old Testament Research,” CurBR 9 (2011) 283–309. MINER, E./PREMINGER, A./WARNKE, F./HARDISON, O.B./BROGAN, T., ed., “Allusion,” in The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics, Princeton, NJ 1993, 38–40. MISCALL , P., “Isaiah. New Heavens, New Earth, New Book,” in D. Nolan Fewell, ed., Reading Between Texts. Intertextuality and the Hebrew Bible, Louisville, KY 1992, 41–56. MORGENSTERN, J., “The Message of Deutero-Isaiah in its Sequential Unfolding,” I, HUCA 29 (1958) 1–67; II, HUCA 30 (1959) 1–102. MOTYER, J.A., The Prophecy of Isaiah, Downers Grove, IL 1993. MOWINCKEL, S., Psalmenstudien, I-VI, Kristiania 1924 1921. –, “Die Komposition des deuterojesajanischen Buches,” ZAW 49 (1931) 87–112.242–260. –, The Psalms in Israel’s Worship, II, New York, NY 1962. MUILENBURG, J., “Psalm 47,” JBL 63 (1944) 235–256. –, “The Book of Isaiah. Chapters 40–66,” in The Interpreter’s Bible, V, New York, NY 1956. –, “A Study in Hebrew Rhetoric. Repetition and Style,” in Congress Volume Copenhagen 1953, VTSup 1, Leiden 1953, 97–111. –, “Form Criticism and Beyond,” JBL 88 (1969) 1–18. NIELSEN, E., “Deuterojesaja. Erwägungen zur Formkritik, Traditions- und Redaktionsgeschichte,” VT 20 (1970) 190–205. NIGOSIAN, S., “The Song of Moses (Deut 32). A Structural Analysis,” ETL 72 (1996) 5–22. –, “Linguistic Patterns of Deuteronomy 32,” Bib 78 (1997) 206–224. NISSINEN, M., “Fear Not. A Study on an Ancient Near Eastern Phrase,” in M. Sweeney/E. Ben Zvi, ed., The Changing Face of Form Criticism for the Twenty-First Century, Grand Rapids, MI 2003, 122–161. NOEGEL, S., “Janus Parallelism in Job and Its Literary Significance,” JBL 115 (1996) 313– 320. –, Janus Parallelism in the Book of Job, Sheffield 1996. NOLLAND , J., Luke 1–9:20, WBC 35A, Dallas, TX 1989.

Bibliography

343

NORDEN, E., Agnostos Theos. Untersuchungen zur Formengeschichte religiöser Rede, Leipzig 1913. NORTH, C., The Second Isaiah. Introduction, Translation and Commentary to Chapters XL– LV, Oxford 1964. NURMELA, R., The Mouth of the Lord Has Spoken. Inner-Biblical Allusions in Second and Third Isaiah, Studies in Judaism, Lanham 2006. OBARA, E.M., Le strategie di Dio. Dinamiche comunicative nei discorsi divini del TritoIsaia, AnBib 188, Rome 2010. –, Lamentazioni, NVBTA 24, Cinisello Balsamo 2012. VAN OORSCHOT , J., Von Babel zum Zion. Eine literarkritische und redaktionsgeschichtliche Untersuchung, BZAW 206, Berlin 1993. OSWALT, J., The Book of Isaiah. Chapters 40–66, NICOT, Grand Rapids, MI 1998. PAUL , S., “Deutero-Isaiah and Cuneiform Royal Inscriptions,” in W. Hallo, ed., Essays in Memory of E.A. Speiser, AOS 53, New Haven, CT 1968, 180–186. –, “Literary and Ideological Echoes of Jeremiah in Deutero-Isaiah,” in P. Peli, ed., Proceedings of the 5th World Congress of Jewish Studies, IV, Jerusalem 1973, 102–120 = Divrei Shalom. Collected Studies of Shalom M. Paul on the Bible and the Ancient Near East 1967–2005, CHANE 23, Leiden 2005, 399–416. –, Amos. A Commentary on the Book of Amos, Hermeneia, Minneapolis, MN 1991. –, “Polysensuous Polyvalency in Poetic Parallelism,” in M. Fishbane/E. Tov, ed., “Shaʻarei Talmon.” Studies in the Bible, Qumran, and the Ancient Near East, Fs. S. Talmon, Winona Lake, IN 1992, 147–163 = Divrei Shalom. Collected Studies of Shalom M. Paul on the Bible and the Ancient Near East 1967–2005, CHANE 23, Leiden 2005, 457–476. –, “Polysemous Pivotal Punctuation. More Janus Double Entendres,” in M. Fox/V. Hurowitz/A. Hurvitz/M. Klein/B. Schwartz/N. Shupak, ed., Texts, Temples, and Traditions, Fs. M. Haran, Winona Lake, IN 1996, 369–374 = Divrei Shalom. Collected Studies of Shalom M. Paul on the Bible and the Ancient Near East 1967–2005, CHANE 23, Leiden 2005, 477–483. –, Isaiah 40–66. Translation and Commentary, ECC, Grand Rapids, MI 2012. PAULI , C.W.H., ed., Targum Jonathan Ben Uziel. The Chaldee Paraphrase on The Prophet Isaiah, London 1871. PAYNE, D., “Characteristic Word-Play in Second Isaiah. A Reappraisal,” JSS 12 (1967) 207– 229. PERDUE , L., “‘Yahweh is King over all the Earth’. An Exegesis of Psalm 47,” RestQ 17 (1974) 85–98. PERRI, C., “On Alluding,” Poetics 7 (1978) 289–307. PETERSEN, D., Late Israelite Prophecy. Studies in Deutero-Prophetic literature and in Chronicles, SBLMS 23, Missoula, MT 1977. PLETT, H., “Intertextualities,” in H. Plett, ed., Intertextuality, XV, Research in Text Theory, Berlin 1991, 3–29. PLUMMER, A., The Gospel According to S. Luke, ICC, Edinburgh 19225. POLLIACK, M., “Deutero-Isaiah’s Typological Use of Jacob in the Portrayal of Israel’s National Renewal,” in H. Graf Reventlow/Y. Hoffman, ed., Creation in Jewish and Christian Tradition, JSOTSup 319, London 2002, 72–110. PONTIFICAL BIBLICAL COMMISSION, The Interpretation of the Bible in the Church. Address of His Holines John Paul II and Documents of the Pontifical Biblical Commission, Città del Vaticano, 1993. PREUß, H.D., Deuterojesaja. Eine Einführung in seine Botschaft, Neukirchen-Vluyn 1976.

344

Bibliography

PROPP, W.H.C., Water in the Wilderness. A Biblical Motif and Its Mythological Background, HSM, Atlanta, GA 1987. –, Exodus 19–40, AB 2A, New York, NY 2006. PUCCI , J., The Full-Knowing Reader. Allusion and the Power of the Reader in the Western Literary Tradition, New Haven, CT 1998. VON RAD, G., Der Heilige Krieg im alten Israel, Göttingen 1951, 19654. –, Theologie des Alten Testaments. Die Theologie der prophetischen Überlieferungen Israels, II, Munich 1960; English trans., Old Testament Theology. The Theology of Israel’s Prophetic Traditions, II, Edinburgh 1965. RAITT, T., A Theology of Exile. Judgment, Deliverance in Jeremiah and Ezekiel, Philadelphia 1977. RAMIS DARDER, F., “Perdó i reconciliació en Isaïes 40–55,” in A. Puig i Tàrrech, ed., Perdó i reconciliació en la tradició jueva, ScrBib 4, Barcelona 2002, 145–173. –, Isaías (40–66), ComP 19B, Madrid 2016. RAVASI , G., “Verso una teologia biblica dell’ispirazione,” in P. Dubovský/J.-P. Sonnet, ed., Ogni Scrittura è ispirata. Nuove prospettive sull’ispirazione biblica, Cinisello Balsamo 2013, 271–282. REISEL , M., “The Relation between the Creative Function and the verbs ‫ ע שׂה יצר ב רא‬in Isaiah 43:7 and 45:7,” in M. Boertien/A. van Daalen/F.J. Hoogewoud/E. Plantenga, ed., Verkenningen in een Stroomgebied. Proeven van oudtestamentisch onderzoek, Fs. M.A. Beek, Amsterdam 1974, 65–79. ROUDIEZ, L., “Introduction,” in idem, ed., Desire in Language. A Semiotic Approach to Literature and Art, New York, NY 1980, 1–20. SAWYER, J.F., “What was a mošiaʻ,” VT 15 (1965) 475–486. SCHAPER, J., “Psalm 47 und sein ‘Sitz im Leben’,” ZAW 106 (1994) 262–275. SCHMITT , H.-C., “Erlösung und Gericht. Jes 43,1–7 und sein literarischer und theologischer Kontext,” in J. Hausmann/H.-J. Zobel, ed., Alttestamentlicher Glaube und biblische Theologie, Fs. H.D. Preuss, Stuttgart 1992, 120–131. SCHOORS, A., I am God Your Saviour. A Form-Critical Study of the Main Genres in Isa XL– LV, VTSup 24, Leiden 1973. SCHORCH, S., “Between Science and Magic. The Function and Roots of Paronomasia in the Prophetic Books of the Hebrew Bible,” in S. Noegel, ed., Puns and Pundits. Word Play in the Hebrew Bible and Ancient Near Eastern Literature, Bethesda, MD 2000, 205–222. SCHREINER, J., “‫א מץ‬,” in TDOT, I, Grand Rapids, MI 1974, 323–327. SCHULTZ, R., Search for Quotation. Verbal Parallels in the Prophets, JSOTSup 180, Sheffield 1999. –, “Intertextuality, Canon, and ‘Undecidability’. Understanding Isaiah’s ‘New Heavens and New Earth’ (Isaiah 65:17–25),” BBR 20 (2010) 19–38. –, “Isaianic Intertextuality and Intratextuality as Composition-Historical Indicators. Methodological Challenges in Determining Literary Influence,” in D. Block/R. Schultz, ed., Bind up the Testimony. Explorations in the Genesis of the Book of Isaiah, Peabody, MA 2015, 33–63. SCHÜPPHAUS, J., “Stellung und Funktion der sogenannten Heilsankündigung bei Deuterojesaja,” TZ 27 (1971) 161–181. SCULLION, J., Isaiah 40–66, OTM 12, Wilmington, DE 1982. SEGERT, S., “Assonance and Rhyme in Hebrew Poetry,” Maarav 8 (1992) 171–179. SEIDEL , M., “Parallels between the Book of Isaiah and the Book of Psalms” [Hebrew], Sinai 38 (1955) 149–172, 229–242, 272–280, 333–355.

Bibliography

345

SEITZ, C., “The Divine Council. Temporal Transition and New Prophecy in the Book of Isaiah,” JBL 109 (1990) 229–247. SIMIAN-YOFRE, H., Isaías. Texto y comentario, MAT 12, Madrid 1995. SIMONS, R.G., “The Magnificat. Cento, Psalm or Imitatio?,” TynBul 60 (2009) 25–46. SMITH , G., Isaiah 40–66, NAC 15B, Nashville 2009. SNAITH, N.H., Leviticus and Numbers, The Century Bible. New Edition, London 1967. SOMMER, B., “Allusions and Illusions. The Unity of the Book of Isaiah in Light of DeuteroIsaiah’s Use of Prophetic Tradition,” in M. Sweeney/R. Melugin, ed., New Visions of Isaiah, Sheffield 1996, 156–186. –, “Exegesis, Allusion and Intertextuality in the Hebrew Bible. A Response to Lyle Eslinger,” VT 46 (1996) 479–489. –, A Prophet Reads Scripture. Allusion in Isaiah 40–66, Stanford, CA 1998. SPENCER, B., “The ‘New Deal’ for Post-Exilic Judah in Isaiah 41,17–20,” ZAW 112 (2000) 583–597. STASSEN, S.L., “‘Die eindes van die aarde’ in Jes. 40:28a, 41:5a, 41:9a,” JSem 2 (1990) 191–202. –, “Die rol van Egipte, Kus en Seba in Jesaja 43,3 en 45,14,” JSem 4 (1992) 160–180. STEINER, T.M., “‘Gott stieg hinauf...’ (Ps 47,6)--wohin? Psalm 47 als exilische Hoffnung auf Restitution,” Bib 95 (2014) 161–178. STEINMANN, J., Le livre de la consolation d’Israël et les Prophètes du retour de l’exil, LD 28, Paris 1960. STUHLMUELLER, C., Creative Redemption in Deutero-Isaiah, AnBib 43, Rome 1970. STUMMER, F., Sumerisch-akkadische Parallelen zum Aufbau alttestamentlicher Psalmen, SGKA 11.1–2, Paderborn 1922. –, “Einige keilschriftliche Parallelen zu Jes 40–66,” JBL 45 (1926) 171–189. SULLIVAN, L., “The Tall Office Building Reconsidered,” Lippincott. 57 (1896) 403–409. SWEENEY, M., Isaiah 1–4 and the Post-Exilic Understanding of the Isaianic Tradition, BZAW 171, Berlin 1988. –, Isaiah. I. Isa 1–39. II. Isa 40–66. FOTL 16, 19, Grand Rapids, MI 1996, 2016. –, “Jeremiah 30–31 and King Josiah’s Program of National Restoration,” in Form and Intertextuality in Prophetic and Apocalyptic Literature, FAT 45, Tübingen 2005, 109–122. –, “The Legacy of Josiah in Isa 40–55,” in Reading Prophetic Books. Form, Intertextuality, and Reception in Prophetic and Post-Biblical Literature, FAT 89, Tübingen 2014, 114– 132. –, “Eschatology in the Book of Isaiah,” in R. Bautch/J.T. Hibbard, ed., The Book of Isaiah. Enduring Questions Answered Anew, Fs. J. Blenkinsopp, Grand Rapids, MI 2014, 179– 195. –, “Isaiah 60–62 in Intertextual Perspective,” in Z. Zevit, ed., Subtle Citation, Allusion, and Translation in the Hebrew Bible, Sheffield; Bristol, CT 2017, 139–142. TAMMUZ, O., “Psalm 78. A Case Study in Redaction as Propaganda,” CBQ 79 (2017) 205– 221. TATE, M., Psalms 51–100, WBC 20, Dallas, TX 1990. TERRIEN, S., “Quelques remarques sur les affinités de Job avec le Deutéro-Esaïe,” in Congress Volume Genève 1965, VTSup 15, Leiden 1966, 295–310. THIESSEN, M., “The Form and Function of the Song of Moses (Deuteronomy 32:1–43),” JBL 123 (2004) 401–424. THOMPSON, M., Isaiah 40–66, EpC, Peterborough 2001. TIEMEYER, L.-S., For the Comfort of Zion. The Geographical and Theological Location of Isaiah 40–55, Leiden 2011.

346

Bibliography

TORREY, C.C., “Isaiah 41,” HTR 44 (1951) 121–136. –, The Second Isaiah. A New Interpretation, Edinburgh 1928. TREVASKIS, L., “The Purpose of Leviticus 24 within Its Literary Context,” VT 59 (2009) 295–312. TULL, P., “Intertextuality and the Hebrew Scriptures,” CurBS 8 (2000) 59–90. –, “What’s New in Lowth? Synchronic Reading in the Eighteenth and Twenty-First Centuries,” in Society of Biblical Literature 2000 Seminar Papers, SBL.SP 39, 2000, 183–217. –, “Bakhtin’s Confessional Self-Accounting and Psalms of Lament,” BibInt 13 (2005) 41– 55. TULL WILLEY, P., Remember the Former Things. The Recollection of Previous Texts in Second Isaiah, SBLDS 161, Atlanta 1997. VANONI, G., “ ‫שׂים‬,” in TDOT, XIV, Grand Rapids, MI 2004, 89–112. VAN WINKLE , D.W., “Proselytes in Isaiah XL-LV? A Study of Isaiah XLIV 1–5,” VT 47 (1997) 341–359. VIEWEGER, D./BÖCKLER, A., “‘Ich gebe Ägypten als Lösegeld für dich’. Mark 10,45 und die jüdische Tradition zu Jes 43,3b.4,” ZAW 108 (1996) 594–607. VINCENT , J.M., Studien zur literarischen Eigenart und zur geistigen Heimat von Jesaja, Kap. 40–55, BBET 5, Frankfurt am Main 1977. VON WALDOW, H.-E., Anlass und Hintergrund der Verkündigung des Deutero-jesaja, Bonn 1953. –, “The Message of Deutero-Isaiah,” Int 22 (1968) 259–287. WALSH, J.T., “Summons to Judgement. A Close Reading of Isaiah xli 1–20,” VT 43 (1993) 351–371. WATTS, J.D.W., “An Old Hymn Preserved in the Book of Amos,” in Vision and Prophecy in Amos, Macon, GA 19972, 9–27. –, Isaiah. I. Isa 1–33, II. Isa 34–66. WBC 24, 25 Nashville, TN 20052. WEIDNER, A., Das Ende Deuterojesajas. Eine literarkritische und redaktionsgeschichtliche Studie zur Entstehung von Jes 40–60, FAT II 94, Tübingen 2017. WEINFELD, M., “The Creator God in Genesis 1 and the Prophecies of Deutero-Isaiah” [Hebrew], Tarbiz 37 (1967) 105–132. –, Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomic School, Oxford 1972. WEIPPERT, M., “Assyrische Prophetien der Zeit Assarhaddons und Assur-banipals,” in F.M. Fales, ed., Assyrian Royal Inscriptions: New Horizons in Literary, Ideological, and Historical Analysis. Papers of a Symposium Held in Cetona (Siena), June 26–28, 1980, Rome 1981, 71–115 = Götterwort in Menschenmund. Studien zur Prophetie in Assyrien, Israel und Juda, FRLANT 252, Göttingen 2014, 9–47. –, “De herkomst van het heilsorakel voor Israël bij Deutero-Jesaja,” NedTT 36 (1982) 1–11 = “Die Herkunft des Heilsorakels für Israel bei Deuterojesaja,” in Götterwort in Menschenmund. Studien zur Prophetie in Assyrien, Israel und Juda, FRLANT 252, Göttingen 2014, 48–59. –, “Aspekte israelitischer Prophetie im Lichte verwandter Erscheinungen des Alten Orients,” in G. Mauer/U. Magen, ed., Ad bene et fideliter seminandum. Fs. K. Deller, AOAT 220, Neukirchen-Vluyn 1988, 287–319 = Götterwort in Menschenmund. Studien zur Prophetie in Assyrien, Israel und Juda, FRLANT 252, Göttingen 2014, 87–103. –, “‘Ich bin Jahwe’/‘Ich bin Ištar von Arbela’. Deuterojesaja im Lichte der neuassyrischen Prophetie,” in B. Huwler/H.-P. Mathys/B. Weber, ed., Prophetie und Psalmen. Fs. K. Seybold, AOAT 280, Münster 2001, 31–59 = in Götterwort in Menschenmund. Studien zur Prophetie in Assyrien, Israel und Juda, FRLANT 252, Göttingen 2014, 132– 158.

Bibliography

347

WESTERMANN, C., “Das Heilswort bei Deuterojesaja,” EvT 24 (1964) 355–373. –, “The Way of Promise through the Old Testament,” in B. Anderson, ed., The Old Testament and Christian Faith, London 1964, 200–224. –, Das Buch Jesaja. Kapitel 40–66, ATD 19, Göttingen 19661; English trans., Isaiah 40– 66, OTL, London 1969. –, Der Aufbau des Buches Hiob, Stuttgart 19772. English trans., The Structure of the Book of Job. A Form-Critical Analysis, Philadelphia, PA 1981. –, Lob und Klage in den Psalmen, Göttingen, 1977. English trans., Praise and Lament in the Psalms, Atlanta, GA 1981. –, Grundformen prophetischer Rede, BEvT 031, München 19785. –, Sprache und Struktur der Prophetie Deuterojesajas, CThM 11, Stuttgart 1981. –, Prophetische Heilsworte im Alten Testament, Göttingen 1987; English trans., Prophetic Oracles of Salvation in the Old Testament, Louisville, KY 1991. WHYBRAY , R.N., Isaiah 40–66, NCB, Grand Rapids, MI 1981. WIENER, C., Le deuxième Isaïe, CaE 20, Paris 1977. WILLGREN , D., “Antwort Gottes. Isaiah 40–55 and the Transformation of Psalmody,” in T. Wasserman/G. Andersson/D. Willgren, ed., Studies in Isaiah. History, Theology and Reception, OTS 654, London 2017, 96–115. WILLIAMSON, H.G.M., The Book Called Isaiah. Deutero-Isaiah’s Role in Composition and Redaction, Oxford 1994. –, “Abraham in Exile,” in Perspectives on Our Father Abraham, Fs. M. Wilson, Grand Rapids, MI 2010, 68–78. –, review of R.F. De Sousa, Eschatology and Messianism in LXX Isaiah 1–12 [OTS 516, London 2010], CBQ 73 (2011) 118–119. WILLIS, T.M., “‘So Great is His Steadfast Love’. A Rhetorical Analysis of Psalm 103,” Bib 72 (1991) 525–537. WILLMES, B., “Gott erlöst sein Volk. Gedanken zum Gottesbild Deuterojesajas nach Jes 43,1–7,” BN 51 (1990) 61–93. VAN W OLDE, E., “Trendy Intertextuality,” in Intertextuality in Biblical Writings, Fs. B. van Iersel, Kampen 1989, 43–49. WOLFSON, H.A., Cresca’s Critique of Aristotle. Problems of Aristotle’s “Physics” in Jewish and Arabic Philosophy, HSS 6, Cambridge 1929. WRIGHT, D., “Purification from Corpse-contamination in Numbers 31:19–24,” VT 35 (1985) 213–223. YOUNG, E., The Book of Isaiah. The English Text, with Introduction, Exposition, and Notes, III, Grand Rapids, MI 1972. ZAPFF, B., Jesaja 40–55, NEchtB 36, Würzburg 2001. ZENGER, E., “Der Gott Abrahams und die Völker. Beobachtungen zu Psalm 47,” in M. Görg, ed., Die Väter Israels. Beiträge zur Theologie der Patriarchenüberlieferungen im Alten Testament, Stuttgart 1989, 413–430. ZIMMERLI , W., “Ich bin Jahwe,” in idem, ed., Gottes Offenbarung. Gesammelte Aufsätze zum Alten Testament, TB 19, Munich 1963, 11–40.

Index of Biblical References Page numbers in italics indicate where biblical passages are treated in the identification of allusions. Page numbers in bold indicate sustained treatment of biblical passages. Genesis 1–2 1,1–2,25 1,1–2,3 1,1 1,2 2,4–3,24 2,4–3,16 2,7 2,18 7,11 12,1–3 12,3 18,16–19,29 26,24 49,22

70, 239 155 110 150 155 110 150 150 150 68, 84, 107, 235 308 239 297 85, 88 203

15,8.19b

Exodus 3 3,1–4,17 5,11 7,14–8,11 7,19 8,1 14,10–31 15 15,1b–21 15,1b–19 15,1b 15,2a 15,2b 15,3 15,4a 15,5b

287 282 147 107 84, 107, 235 84, 107, 235 181 254 177 213, 220 213, 214 298 229 150, 213 214 213

21,28–32 21,30 24,11 25–31 25–28 25–27 29,27 30 35–40 35–37 36 39

205, 212–14, 219, 235, 251 223, 236 229 229 244 214 223 213 214, 229 213 213 214, 229 214 125 152, 161, 162–63, 185–87 186 154, 164, 185, 186 116 70 86 85, 108 147 85, 108 70 85, 108 86 86

Leviticus 14,30 17–26 23–25 24,10–23

147 86, 117 187 187

15,8 15,8a 15,10b 15,11 15,11a 15,13–18 15,13 15,13a 15,14b 15,15b 15,16b 15,19a 20,6 21,22–25

350 24,17–22

Numbers 6,11 10–12 19,1–22 20,5 20,5b 31,1–54 31,21–24 31,23

Deuteronomy 3,26–28 3,27 3,28 3,29 4,37 5,10 6,4 7,7–9 7,9 10,15 10,19 11,1 19,21 28,49a 30,19–20 31,1–6 31,6 31,7–8 31,7 31,14–23 31,23 32 32,1–43 32,1 32,2a 32,4–5 32,6b 32,7a 32,8b 32,9a 32,13a 32,14 32,15

Index of Biblical References 152, 161, 162–63, 164, 185–87

147 287 181 105, 133 84 152 152, 181 152, 157, 160, 165, 179, 251

125, 190 153, 167, 190, 251 90, 167 165 84, 94–95, 123 125 150 84, 87 125 84, 87 125 125 153, 163, 185 153, 165, 167 87 125 90, 92 93, 125 90 125 90 243, 254 220, 232 211, 221 265 210 228 211 228 228 225 291 205, 210–12, 228, 244, 251

32,16 32,18 32,21b 32,22a 32,22b 32,23b 32,28–29 32,36a 32,38a 32,39 32,42b 32,43a 33 33,5 33,26 Joshua 1,1–9 1,5–9 1,6 1,7 1,9

222 222 228 211 225 225 211 228 211, 225 211 225 228 232 210 210

1,9b 1,16–18 1,18 10,11 10,20–25 10,25

123–26 93 90, 93 90, 92 82, 90, 89–94, 95, 99, 155, 234, 250, 316 93 126 90 147 126 90, 92

Judges 3,16 16,30

131 147

1 Samuel 1,1–28 2,1–10 16,21

318 318 154

2 Samuel 2,1 18,8 22,1a 22,3 22,32 22,48 22,51b 26,21

319 147 175 175 211 162 320 176

Index of Biblical References 1 Kings 5–6 6 17,7–17

85, 108 86, 108 327

2 Kings 1,13–14 1,13 1,14 5,1–27 6,16 18,13–20,19 23,27

154 176 176 327 147 290 84, 89

Isaiah 1,1–33,24 1 1,1 1,9–10 5 5,26 7,4 7,15–16 8,1–22 9,7–11 10,20–34 12,1–6 13,1–14,23 13,1–22 14,3–23 14,4b–21 28 28,23–28 29,17–24 30 30,25a 32,2 32,15 34,1–63,6 34,1–35,10 34,5–6 34,5b 34,6 34,6b 34,8a 35,7 36–39 40–54 40,1–11

297–99 205 297 297 205 153, 167 298 88 298 298 298 298 299 107 107 107 205 117 299 205 207 310 310 37, 256–94, 296 291–92 291 291 291 291 291 107 290 37 8, 40, 65, 259

40,1 40,3–5 40,3 40,3a 40,3b 40,4a 40,5b 40,6b 40,6b–8 40,9–11 40,9 40,10a 40,11a 40,11b 40,12–31 40,12–14 40,27–31 40,27 40,28 41,1–44,23 41,1–29 41,1–20 41,1–7 41,1–5 41,2–3 41,2 41,2a 41,3a 41,4b 41,5 41,6–7 41,8–16.17–20 41,8–16 41,8–13 41,8–10

41,8–9 41,8–9a 41,8

351 277, 322 71, 326 321 276 277 276 322 69 65, 152, 310 263 289 267 276 276 8 236 71, 272 65, 277 115 7–9, 251, 254, 256– 62, 295 18, 138–42 40 8, 77, 138 77, 138, 139 141 141 268 268 244 115, 140, 322 77, 116, 117, 138, 139, 140 137, 77–143, 171, 240, 250, 253 7, 8, 138, 250, 323 15, 17, 18, 24, 26, 27, 71, 115, 128 14, 18, 95, 113, 117, 123–26, 134, 155, 169, 190, 231, 234, 250, 305, 316, 324 24 319 35, 84, 85, 87–89, 133, 140, 184, 191, 314, 326

352 41,8a 41,8b 41,9–10 41,9a 41,9b

41,9b–10a 41,10 41,10a 41,10b 41,11–13 41,11–12

41,11 41,11b 41,12b 41,13

41,13a 41,14–16

41,14–15a 41,14b–15a 41,14 41,14a 41,14b 41,15–16 41,15b–16 41,15 41,15a 41,15b–16a

41,16a 41,16b 41,17–20

Index of Biblical References 85, 120, 229, 232, 254, 255, 321 81, 316 82, 89–94, 99, 140, 167, 234, 291 86, 115, 116, 271 84, 87–89, 229, 232, 254, 255, 260, 272 85 14, 24, 237 85, 169, 254, 262, 292, 316 141, 264, 292 14, 18 24, 82, 95–99, 100, 113, 123, 129, 135, 137, 182, 192, 235, 250, 253, 306 117 140 86, 117, 140 14, 24, 82, 98, 99– 100, 113, 116, 129, 135, 140, 192, 237, 241, 250, 291, 305 86, 169, 254, 264 14, 15, 17, 18, 24, 27, 100–104, 113, 115, 117, 129–32, 235, 250, 253 135, 231, 233, 305 24 14, 106 24, 83, 309 169, 174, 213, 239, 292, 301 82 24 128 272, 310, 315 117, 128, 135, 192, 235, 239, 306, 310, 311 86, 117, 230 83, 237, 265, 313, 321 7, 8, 15, 17, 42, 71, 104–12, 113, 115,

41,17 41,17a 41,17b 41,17b–19 41,18–19 41,18 41,18a 41,18b 41,19 41,20 41,20a 41,20b 41,21–29 41,21–24 41,21 41,21b 41,22b 41,23 41,23b 41,24 41,25–29 41,25 41,26b–27a 41,29 41,29b 42,1–9 42,1–4 42,1 42,1a 42,3 42,5–8 42,5 42,5b 42,6a 42,6b 42,7b 42,8b 42,9 42,10–17 42,10–13 42,10 42,13a 42,14–43,13 42,14–25

117, 130, 132–33, 135, 138, 176, 250, 254 230, 238 84, 135, 235, 276 83, 292 135, 234, 306 309 68, 179, 230, 235, 251, 292, 314 84, 276 81, 84 85, 116, 235, 251 135, 237, 241, 313 83, 140 132, 233 8, 138 138, 139 140 140 140 92 140 140 138, 139 141 289 140, 230 230 8, 236, 254, 257– 59, 261, 315 257, 326 230 264 230 258 215 263 264, 268 274, 322 276 267 259 182 8, 315, 323 213 213 18 145

Index of Biblical References 43,14–21 42,14–17 42,14–16 42,15 42,16 42,18–43,13 42,18–43,7 42,18–25 42,18–20 42,18–19 42,18a 42,19 42,19a 42,19b 42,21–25 42,25 43,1–8 43,1–7

43,1–3a.5a+3b–7 43,1.7 43,1–4 43,1–3 43,1–3a 43,1–2 43,1b 43,1 43,1a 43,1b

43,2

43,2a 43,3–4 43,3 43,3a

43,3b

195 8, 15, 17, 18 71 107, 179 210 195–99, 261, 321 145 8, 25, 145, 177, 186, 195 195 146, 322 292 232 146, 254 146, 254 196 159, 179, 196 145 7, 8, 14, 15, 18, 25, 71, 128, 145–200, 239, 240, 251, 254, 256, 323 17 150, 155–57, 172, 176–78, 251 24, 27 71 15 15 24 14, 169, 191, 231, 234, 305, 324 171, 174, 232, 233, 260 146, 168, 170, 171, 174, 237, 239, 254, 260, 271, 292 67, 151, 152, 157– 61, 165, 169, 171, 178–83, 189, 191, 230, 235, 251, 306, 308 149 304 117, 152 24, 169, 171, 174, 192, 251, 254, 264, 292, 305 154, 186

43,3b–4 43,3b–4b

43,4 43,4a

43,4b 43,5–7 43,5b–7 43,5 43,5a

43,5b 43,5b–6a 43,5b–6b

43,6 43,6b 43,7 43,7a 43,7b 43,8–13 43,8–9 43,8 43,9 43,10–13 43,10 43,10a 43,13a 43,14–44,23 43,14–21 43,14 43,14a 43,14b 43,16–21 43,16 43,17a 43,18–19 43,18 43,20b 43,21 43,21a

353 24 161–65, 165, 169, 171, 183–87, 189, 192, 240, 251, 256, 307 125, 151 154, 170, 174, 175, 176, 186, 256, 273, 330 152, 322 24, 27 24 14, 15, 24 15, 146, 171, 192, 231, 241, 251, 254, 305 151, 239 153 165–68, 169, 171, 185, 187–90, 192, 229, 234, 235, 243, 251, 277, 306 116 150, 151, 153 193, 237, 238, 313 169, 171, 174 169, 171, 233, 260 8, 145, 186, 197, 244 197 146, 292 322 197 146 232, 254, 255 211 18 9, 71, 182 169 213 261 15, 17 179 214 18 211 228 214 228

354 43,22–44,8 43,22–44,4 43,22–28 43,24a 43,25 43,25a 43,27a 44,1–8 44,1–5

44,1–2

44,1a 44,1b 44,2–5 44,2 44,2a 44,2b 44,2b.8b 44,3–5 44,3–4

44,3 44,3a 44,3b 44,3b–4a 44,4 44,4a 44,4b 44,5

44,6–22 44,6–8 44,6a 44,7a 44,8b 44,9–20 44,9–11 44,13–14 44,18–19a 44,21–24 44,21–23 44,21

Index of Biblical References 242–44 71 9, 201, 242–43 211 232 261 229 243 7, 9, 14, 15, 17, 18, 24, 27, 128, 201– 45, 251, 254, 323 204, 207–8, 218, 219, 231–34, 251, 305, 324 229, 254, 260 255 15 14 24, 206, 208–10, 260, 271 229, 254, 255 205, 210–12 24 18, 219, 234–36, 251, 306, 309, 310, 311 205, 212–14, 230, 333 264, 276, 292 207, 292 264 205, 215–16 292 207 206, 216–18, 219, 220, 236–40, 251, 277, 313 9 202, 243–44 292 214, 229 228 217 217 261 211 71 260–61 120, 124

44,22b 44,23 44,23a 44,23b 44,24–48,22 44,24–45,25 44,24–45,8 44,24–45,7 44,24–28 44,27 44,28 45,1–7 45,1 45,6b–7 45,7 45,8 45,8a 45,9–25 45,14–17 45,14 45,18–19 45,18 45,24 46,1–48,22 46,3–4 46,3a 46,7b 46,11 46,12–13 46,12a 47,2b 47,4 47,8a 47,11 47,13 47,14a 48,1–20 48,1a 48,10 48,11b 48,12–21 48,12a 48,14 48,16a 48,16b 48,17–20 48,17–19 48,17 48,20–22

259, 307 9, 323 211 272 262–70, 295 262–66 264 40, 254 9, 262 71 141 9, 15, 263, 306 99, 141 156, 233 177 264 265 265 15 185 155 156, 177, 233 96 266–69 15, 17 266 267 141 15, 17 266 267 169 266 267 147 267 71 266 267 267 268 266, 267 141 266 267 254 15, 268 169, 213 268

355

Index of Biblical References 48,20–21 48,20a 48,21b 49,1–54,17 49,1–50,11 49,1–12 49,1–6 49,1 49,1b 49,2 49,2a 49,3 49,4 49,5–6 49,5a 49,5b 49,6 49,6a 49,6b 49,7–50,3 49,7–12 49,7 49,7a 49,8–26 49,8–12 49,8–10 49,8a 49,11–13 49,13 49,13b 49,14–50,3 49,14–21 49,14–15 49,14 49,15 49,22–23 49,24–26 49,26 50,2 50,4–11 50,4 50,4b 50,8a 51,1–54,17 51,1–3 51,1a 51,1b 51,2a 51,3a

71 307, 316 73, 269 270–90 282–83, 295 315 136, 254, 271–74 273 271 272, 310 315 120, 124, 272 272 273 273 273, 322 303 273, 276 322 274–79 254 15, 16, 169 275 18 16, 71, 275 17 275 17 277, 315, 322 308 279 16, 17 15 65, 277 15 16, 17 16, 17 174 71 254, 280, 279–81 288 306 288 283–88, 296 284 285 284 284 284

51,6–8 51,7–8 51,7 51,7a 51,7b 51,9–11 51,9–10 51,9a 51,9b 51,10 51,10a 51,10b–11a 51,12–16 51,12–15 51,12a 51,12b 51,13 51,15 51,17–23 51,17a 51,21a 52,1a 52,3a 52,4a 52,4b 52,7–10 52,7 52,11–12 52,11 52,13–53,12 53,3–4 53,11 53,11b 53,12 54,1a 54,1b 54,2 54,3b 54,4–8 54,4–6 54,4 54,4a 54,4b 54,5 54,5a 54,7–10 54,8a 54,9–10 54,10b

16 15, 17 15 285 284 284 71 284 284 71 284 292 16 17 285 284, 298 215 169 17 285 284 285 285 285 289 289 289 71 285 254, 286 286 287 284 326 284 284 284 288 15 16, 17, 288 15 284 285 169, 213 285, 288 16, 17 285 71, 284 286

356 54,11–17 54,11–12+13b 54,11a 54,12b 54,13a 54,14a+13a–17 54,14a 54,14b 54,15a 54,16–17a 54,17 54,17b 55–62 55,1–13 55,1a 55,3b–5 55,8–13 55,12–13 55,13 56,3–5 56,6 57,11 59,16 60–62 60–61 60,13 60,16 61,1–9 61,1–2 63,1–6 63,1–3 63,1 63,4a 63,7–66,24 63,7–64,11 63,10a 63,11–12 63,11b 63,16 63,16a 63,17 64,7 65,7 65,8–25 65,9 65,11–16 66,1 66,2b 66,12–16

Index of Biblical References 17 16 284 285 285, 288 16 288 284 285 288 254 285, 287, 288 37 284, 309 288 17 16 71 109 309 254 298 292 293 315 110, 309 174 293–94 326 291–92 291 291 291 37, 299–302 254 312 297 312 300 297 300 300 300 254 300 300 308 302, 308 254

66,24b

301

Jeremiah 1,4–19 1,5 25,11 30,10–11 30,10 30,11 31,10 33,24 38,12 46,27–28 46,27 46,28 51,32

282 206, 210, 251, 273 279 85, 169 15, 169 15, 169 273 84, 88 116 85 15 15 107

Ezekiel 13,18 20 27,6 27,10 27,27 41,8 47,3–4

116 86 109 86, 117 86, 117 116 158

Hosea 12,6 12,9 13,4

150 86 86

Joel 3,1–5 3,1–3

333 331

Amos 4,4–13 4,12–13 4,13 5,1–17 5,8–9 9,1–6 9,5–6

177 150, 155–57, 169, 176–78, 234, 251 173, 191, 264 177 150, 177 177 150, 177

Micah 4,13

117

Index of Biblical References Nahum 2,1

289

Habakkuk 3,18

319

Zechariah 1,8 1,10 1,11 12,1

109 109 109 215

Psalms 2 2,4a 7,3 8,7b 9–10 10,9 16,8–11 17,12 18,1a 18,3–4a 18,32 18,48b 22 22,1a 22,2–3.32 22,2–3 22,2b–3a 22,4–9 22,4 22,7 22,7b 22,10–12 22,13 22,14 22,15 22,19 22,22 22,23 22,24 22,25 22,25a 22,27 22,27a

53, 264 264 122 162 277 122 333 122 175 175 211 162, 164 129–32, 136, 235, 253 329 104–12, 235, 251 83, 133 258 100–104, 115, 233, 250 83, 330 83 275, 286 206, 208–10, 219, 233, 251 130 122 130 123 122 130 43 132 275, 286 132 122, 130, 287

22,28–29 22,31a 22,32b 23,1b 24,6–10 25,5 34,3b 34,19 35 35,1–8 35,1–6 35,1.4–6 35,1–3 35,1–2 35,1 35,2–3 35,2 35,3 35,4 35,4b 35,5–6 35,5a 35,9–10 35,9 35,9a 35,11–17 35,13 35,13a 35,14 35,18 35,19–26 35,20b 35,22–24 35,26 35,27–28 35,27 40,4b 47 47,3b 47,4–5 47,4 47,5 47,5b 47,7b 47,8a 47,9a

357 275 287 83, 329 263 216 319 122 294 126–29, 235, 253 127 128 95–99, 115, 123, 250 24 82 128 97 99–100, 115, 128, 250 15 82, 117, 128 287 82 100, 102 127 82, 319 100, 102 127 121 286 294 127 127 287 127 98 127 127 122 172, 183–84, 254 186 161–65, 169, 192, 251 151, 165, 184 184 151, 307 186 186 186

358 47,10 49,8–9 49,8 51,9–12 52,8 66 66,2 66,4 66,6.12 66,6 66,10–12 66,12 68 68,4 69,13a 69,14 69,22b 69,27b 69,30a 69,33 69,33a 69,36a 69,37a 71,6 72 72,10b 72,12–14 72,14 72,14a 74,15 75,7 78 78,1 78,1a 78,3b 78,5b 78,7 78,8a 78,8b 78,12a 78,13 78,13b 78,16b 78,18b 78,20a 78,20b 78,23a 78,24a

Index of Biblical References 307 154, 186 164 260 122 172, 179, 235, 254 178 178 157–61, 165, 169, 178–83, 191, 251 151 181 67, 71, 151 177 150 299 275 123 286 286 122 287 263 287 209 53 176 176 154 175 68, 84, 107, 235 165 220, 243, 254 221 228 229 229 222 229 230 229 223 229 230 225 73, 230, 269 228 265 225

78,25a 78,29a 78,30b 78,31b 78,39a 78,45a 78,52–55 78,52a 78,57a 78,58 78,62a 78,63a 78,67–71 78,67–68 78,67b 78,68–70 78,68a 78,70a 78,71a 81,6–17 81,14 86,13 87,4 89 89,4 96 97,8a 98 98,3a 100,5b 103 103,1 103,7a 103,11–14 103,12–13 103,12a 103,13a 103,15–17 103,15 103,17a 103,19 104 104,2–6 104,3b 104,4a 104,10–14

225 225 225 229 230 225 223 228 229 222 228 225, 229 88 88 229 204, 207–8, 218, 232, 251 229 229 228 268 268 211 239 53 88 315 122 315 320 319 172, 187, 235, 254 178 190 188 165–68, 169, 188, 192, 243, 251 151 151 152 69 319 189 150, 220, 254 215, 236 230 230 215

359

Index of Biblical References 104,14 104,24–27 104,25–26 104,29b 104,30a 105 105,6 105,26 107 107,35 107,42a 110,1 114,8 116,16 119,74a 119,91 139,13 147,3 147,8b–9b 149 149,6b 149,7

205, 215–16, 219, 235, 251 217 206, 218, 219, 237, 238, 251 230 230 314 303, 314 303 314 81, 107, 314 122 333 107 154, 176 122 303 209 294 205 315 315 131

Job 1–42

150

Proverbs 6,28 21,18

163 163

Ruth 2,9

147

Canticle of Canticles 2,16 149 6,3 149 8,6–7 149 8,7a 149 Qoheleth 3,22

147

Lamentations 3,1–66 3,30 3,57

280 280 15

Esther 4,11

147

Nehemiah 8,15

109

1 Chronicles 17,13

147

2 Chronicles 20,1–30 20,5–19 20,7 20,7b

315–17 17 81 316

Matthew 12,18–21 23,16–22 27,48

326 309 123

Mark 10,45 15,36

304 123

Luke 1,5–4,15 1,5–2,40 1,5–25 1,26–38 1,39–56 1,46–55 1,46b–47 1,50 1,54–55 1,57–80 1,67 1,68–79 2,8–20 2,22–40 2,29–32 3,4–6 3,14 4,16–30 4,25–26 4,27 22,37 23,34 23,36

325 323 324 318, 324 324 318–20, 323–25 319 319 319 324 318 320–21, 323–25 324 324 322, 323–25 326 323 327 327 327 326 123 123

360 John 19,24 19,28–30

Index of Biblical References

123 123

Acts of the Apostles 2,17–21 333

2,17–18 2,25–28 2,34–35 2,37–47 13,47

331 333 333 333 303

Author Index

Ackroyd, P. 57, 61, 311 Allegro, J. 203 Allen, L. 81, 172, 205, 217, 315 Alonso Schökel, L. 19, 68 Anderson, F./Freedman, D.N. 150, 173 Anderson, B. 71 Auffret, P. 180 Bakhtin, M.M. 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 23, 28, 29– 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 47, 48, 51, 52, 54, 55, 119, 136, 137, 250, 256, 270, 281, 282, 283, 290, 302, 303, 332 Baltzer, K. 25, 98, 233, 260, 262, 263, 266, 273, 279, 280, 282, 287, 288 Bartelmus, G. 211 Barthes, R. 54 Bat-El, O. 131 Beentjes, P. 66, 67 Begrich, J. 2, 15–16, 17, 18, 20, 22, 23, 27, 28, 43, 328, 329 Ben Zvi, E. 34 Ben-Porat, Z. 51, 62 Berges, U. 19, 43, 53, 78, 79, 98, 122, 133, 138, 147, 148, 193, 195, 196, 197, 198, 209, 213, 239, 241, 260, 261, 262, 266, 270, 274, 280, 281, 282, 283, 286, 287, 288, 289 Bergey, R. 205 Beuken, W.A.M. 19, 184, 293, 341 Beyerlin, W. 81 Blenkinsopp, J. 19, 43, 98, 107, 122, 138, 147, 197, 201, 229, 257, 260, 275, 281, 292, 310 Boadt, L. 68, 88, 91 Bonnard, P.É. 19 Brandscheidt, R. 179, 185, 192, 197 Brown, R. 317, 318, 323, 327

Brueggemann, W. 19 Budd, P. 152, 179 Butler, T. 82, 94 Campbell, A. 220, 221 Casanowicz, I. 68 Cassuto, U. 59 Ceresko, A. 67 Childs, B. 19, 310 Christensen, D. 220 DeClaissé-Walford, N. et al. 315 Clarke, E. 4 Clements, R. 53, 56 Clifford, R. 18, 223 Conrad, E. 2, 3, 24–25, 25, 27, 146, 329 Craigie, P. 82, 129, 151, 172, 175, 183 Dahood, M. 162 Dijkstra, M. 26–27, 27, 146, 329 Dillard, R. 316 Dion, H.M. 22 Dozeman, T. 82 Driver, G.R. 78, 79 Eissfeldt, O. 221 Elliger, K. 19, 145, 201 Emerson, C. 7, 41 Eshel, H./Strugnell, J. 278 Eslinger, L. 59 Fabry, H.-J./Lipiński, E. 108 Fabry, H.-J./Soggin, J.A. 311 Fishbane, M. 50, 57, 59, 61, 65, 71 Fitzmyer, J.A. 317, 318, 319 Fohrer, G. 17 Fokkelman, J. 40, 187 Foresti, F. 150 Fox, M. 64, 65, 149

362

Author Index

Garrett, D. 149 Gevirtz, S. 72, 123 Gianto, A. 42 Gitay, Y. 18, 195 Goldingay, J. 25, 138, 141 Goldingay, J./Payne, D. 78, 79, 109, 130, 136, 138, 159, 195, 197, 202, 209, 217, 241, 243, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 267, 268, 270, 272, 274, 277, 281, 288, 289, 310 Goshen-Gottstein, M. 78, 147 Gosse, B. 184, 210 Graf Reventlow, H. 22, 93 Green, W.S. 48 Greßmann, H. 13, 14, 24, 28 Grimm, W. 25, 304 Grogan, G. 19 Guillaume, A. 203 Gunkel, H. 2, 14, 43, 53 Gunkel, H./Begrich, J. 2, 15, 16 Gunn, D. 71 Guthe, H. 173, 177 Haag, H. 166 Habel, N. 215 Hamlin, E.J. 117 Hanson, P. 19 Hardmeier, C. 179 Harner, P. 26, 28, 146, 253 Hatch, E./Redpath, H. 319, 320 Hausmann, J. 151 Hays, R. 48, 57, 62 Hays, R.W.P. 220 Helewa, G. 194 Heßler, E. 24 Hirsch, E./Benzinger, I. 109 Höffken, P. 19 Hollander, J. 62, 63 Holquist, M. 30, 34, 54 Horst, F. 173 Hossfeld, F.-L. 172, 180, 181, 217, 220, 314 Hossfeld, F.-L./Zenger, E. 239, 240 Jacobson, A.D. 304 Janowski, B. 185 Jenny, L. 48, 52, 55, 67 Jeremias, J. 173, 177 Johnston, P. 179

Joüon, P./Muraoka, T. 42 Kabergs, V./Ausloos, H. 68 Keiser, T. 210 Kelley, P. 19 Kilian, R. 24 Kim, H.C.P. 205, 210, 211, 224, 228, 230 Klein, R. 81, 317 Kline, J. 68, 84 Knierim, R. 40 Koch, K. 177 Köhler, L. 14, 16, 28 Koole, J.L. 19, 116, 239 Kratz, R.G. 38 Kristeva, J. 47, 48, 49, 54 Küchler, F. 15 Kwon, J.J. 50 Kynes, W. 59 Laato, A. 138, 139, 266, 270 Lambrecht, J. 321 Lee, S. 19 Leene, H. 213, 295 Leonard, J. 221, 223 Lesic-Thomas, A. 48 Lester, G.B. 4 Levine, B. 152, 179 Levinson, B. 66 Lifton, R.J. 72 Lipton, D. 70 Lohfink, N. 93, 323, 327 Ludwig, T. 13, 179, 215 Lundbom, J. 86 Lyons, M. 67 Ma, W. 312 Maalstad, K. 147 Margalit, B. 68, 69, 91 Marti, K. 145 Mays, J.L. 150, 173, 177 McCarter, P.K. 179 McConville, J.G. 23 McKenzie, J. 19 Meek, R. 48 Melamed, E.Z. 67 Mello, A. 19 Melugin, R. 14, 20, 21, 22, 40, 168, 195, 201, 239, 329

Author Index Merendino, R.P. 23–24, 24, 25, 146, 148, 232 Merrill, E.H. 20 Van der Merwe, B.J. 70 Milgrom, J. 152, 185, 186 Miller, G. 45, 47 Miner, E. et al. 49 Miscall, P. 47, 48 Morgenstern, J. 35 Motyer, J.A. 19 Mowinckel, S. 16, 35, 224 Muilenburg, J. 17–18, 22, 39, 40, 151, 157 Nielsen, E. 22 Nigosian, S. 205, 220 Nissinen, M. 26, 27, 329 Noegel, S. 68 Nolland, J. 318 Norden, E. 14 North, C. 19 Nurmela, R. 3, 59, 69, 82, 149, 150, 153, 271, 275, 294 Obara, E.M. 280 Van Oorschot, J. 157 Oswalt, J. 19 Paul, S. 67, 68, 72, 82, 98, 102, 145, 148, 150, 156, 157, 169, 173, 174, 177, 197, 209, 211, 213, 214, 239, 258, 263, 265, 275, 289, 310 Pauli, C.W.H. 141 Payne, D. 67 Perdue, L. 151, 184 Perri, C. 51 Petersen, D. 312 Plett, H. 49 Plummer, A. 317 Polliack, M. 71, 124 Pontifical Biblical Commission 4 Preuß, H.D. 25, 26 Propp, W.H.C. 185, 309 Pucci, J. 52, 58 Von Rad, G. 16 Raitt, T. 22–23 Ramis Darder, F. 19, 178 Ravasi, G. 36

363

Reisel, M. 178 Roudiez, L. 47, 48 Sawyer, J.F. 175 Schaper, J. 151 Schmitt, H.-C. 25, 26, 194 Schoors, A. 21, 146, 233, 236, 329 Schorch, S. 68 Schreiner, J. 89 Schultz, R. 48, 49, 53, 59, 61 Schüpphaus, J. 21, 22, 329 Scullion, J. 19, 145, 201 Segert, S. 69 Seidel, M. 66 Seitz, C. 259 Simian-Yofre, H. 19 Simons, R.G. 318 Smith, G. 19 Snaith, N.H. 179 Sommer, B. 3, 4, 45, 46, 49, 53, 54, 56, 57, 58, 62, 63, 66, 67, 69, 82, 84, 86, 264, 268, 271, 290 Spencer, B. 309 Stassen, S.L. 115, 185 Steiner, T.M. 151 Steinmann, J. 19 Stuhlmueller, C. 21 Stummer, F. 16 Sullivan, L. 60 Sweeney, M. 50, 53, 86, 145, 197, 290, 293, 295, 297, 310 Tammuz, O. 204 Tate, M. 151, 157, 159, 172, 180, 240 Terrien, S. 70 Thiessen, M. 220 Thompson, M. 19 Tiemeyer, L.-S. 136 Torrey, C.C. 67, 141 Trevaskis, L. 186 Tull, P. 3, 41, 46, 47, 48, 49, 60, 63, 86, 273, 280, 283 Vanoni, G. 108 Vieweger, D./Böckler, A. 164 Vincent, J.M. 25, 26 Von Waldow, H.-E. 14, 16–17, 20, 146, 329

364 Walsh, J.T. 138, 141 Watts, J.D.W. 25, 150, 155, 173, 266, 270 Weidner, A. 38 Weinfeld, M. 70, 93, 155 Weippert, M. 3, 26, 27–28, 329 Westermann, C. 2, 14, 17, 18–21, 21, 22, 23, 24, 27, 28, 42, 43, 118, 134, 146, 191, 197, 231, 232, 236, 239, 253, 268 Whybray, R.N. 19 Wiéner, C. 20 Willgren, D. 52

Author Index Williamson, H.G.M. 50, 53, 57, 59, 88, 295, 297 Willis, T.M. 188 Willmes, B. 191, 192, 194 Van Winkle, D.W. 238 Van Wolde, E. 48 Wolfson, H.A. 57 Wright, D. 179, 182 Young, E. 19 Zapff, B. 19 Zenger, E. 151, 162, 314, 315

Subject Index Akkadian 16, 28, 78, 84 – see also Neo-Assyrian Oracle Allusion – Evidence 56–60 – Genre 52–56, 119 – Function 60–62 – Inductive Reasoning 57–58 – As Method 4 – Stylistics, see Stylistics – Quotation 64–66 – Theme and Typology, 70–71 – Reader 51–52, 55–56 Anawim 120–22, 129, 132–33, 275–76, 279–82, 284–87, 293–94, 298–99, 301, 312–13, 319, 327–28 Arbela 26 Assyria 297–298 Authorship – Historical 37 (see also Dialogism: Great Time) – Intention 47, 49–51, 54–55 – Prophecy 35–38 – Redaction 38 Babylon 9, 14, 24, 107, 117, 194, 261– 68, 298 Buber, Martin 30, 301 Chaoskampf 84, 106–08, 157–58, 179, 181 Covenant 88, 258–59, 275–76, 292–93, 314 Creation 110, 150, 155, 178, 213, 215, 233, 264 Cult – Priestly 15–16, 18, 115–16 – Prophetic 16–17, 18, 25–28, 116– 17, 316–17 Cyrus 9, 38, 99, 138–39, 141, 262–65, 268–69

Deuteronomist – see also Election – Angels 97, 272 Dialogism – Aesthetics 30–32, 283 – Architectonic Form 31–32, 41, 251– 56 – As Approach 56 – Bakhtin, Mikhail 29–33 – Chronotope 29, 35–36, 42–43, 136– 137 – Compositional Form 31–32, 40–41 – Confessional Self-Accounting 282– 83 – Discourse 55 – Genre 33, 42–44, 119–23, 253–55 – Great Time 37–38, 300, 329 – Hero 5–6, 32–33, 41–42, 119, 254– 56, 262, 268, 272, 282–83, 300–01, 326–27 – Heteroglossia 29, 35, 72 – Sideways Glance 35, 137, 140, 259 Echo 62–63, 268, 291 Edom 290–292 Election 87–89, 97, 208 Elohist 151 Esarhaddon 26 Eschatology 151, 295, 315 Encouragement Formula 89–94 Formalism 29 Genre 52–56, 119 – Psalms 43–44 Idolatry 222, 261, 263, 267 Intertextuality 5, 47–49 Kant, Immanuel 29–30 Law of Talion 163–64, 185–86

366

Subject Index

Leviathan 107–08, 238 Neo-Assyrian Oracle 14, 23–24, 26–28, 40, 84, 86, 179 Ordeal 157–58, 179 Personalism 30, 43 Poetry – Northwest Semitic 69 – Old Norse 69 – Stylistics 39–40, 64–70 – Ugaritic 69 Post-Structuralism 47–48 Priestly Source 152 – see also Creation Prophecy 267, 289, 318, 320–21 – Authorship 35–38 – Calling 267, 292–93 – Fulfillment 326–30 see also Dialogism: Hero – Reader 283, 301 Psalms – Genre 43–44 Quotation 64–66 Redaction Criticism 38 Rhetorical Criticism 18 Ritual Purification 181–83, 267 Semitotics, see Post-Structuralism Sodom 296 Structuralism 40 Stylistics 66–70, 250–51 – Alliteration 68–69, 91–93 – Anaphora/Epiphora 97–98, 163, 191, 208, 218–19, 280–81

– Inversion of Elements 67, 100–02, 105, 167, 222 – Line Copying 69–70, 162, 221–22 – Reduplication 131 – Sound Play 68, 222, 284 – Split-Pair 67, 91–93, 95–98, 166–67 – Word Play 67–68, 110, 141, 161– 64, 207, 212, 222, 297–98 Temple 108–10 Textuality, see Utterance Theology – Conversion 261 – Fatherhood of God 166, 233, 299 – Forgiveness 187–89, 242–43, 260– 61 – Kingship of God 172–90, 307 – Memory 260, 262 – Righteousness 264–66, 268, 285 – Service 242–43, 257–59, 269–70, 273–74, 289 – Spirit 236, 267, 293, 311–12, 322 – Universalism 140, 184, 238–40, 258, 265, 274, 307–08 – Witness 197–98, 243–44 Typology 71, 124, 297 Utterance 7, 34–35 Verbs – Aspect/Modality 42 – Instantaneous Perfect 136 – Prophetic Perfect 24 Wisdom 315 Yahwist, see Creation