Professional Identity Development through Incidental Learning: A theoretical framework for teacher education, based on lived experiences 3030860914, 9783030860912

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Professional Identity Development through Incidental Learning

Amanda Turner

Professional Identity Development through Incidental Learning

Amanda Turner

Professional Identity Development through Incidental Learning

Amanda Turner Institute of Education Staffordshire University Stoke on Trent, UK

ISBN 978-3-030-86091-2    ISBN 978-3-030-86092-9 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86092-9 © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Cover illustration: Pattern © Melisa Hasan This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

This book represents the findings of research that began as a small nugget of an idea, discussed with a colleague as we travelled to a conference in the Lake District, back in 2014. I remember distinctly that he warned me against trying to research something too ambitious or intangible, and to aim instead to find a topic I enjoyed as I would be wedded to it for a very long time. Six years later and I am just as passionate and invested in the topic and excited to see my research published, so that it may reach a wider audience. However, as with any great love affair, it has not been an easy journey, but one that I believe is more important than ever, in the wake of the Covid-19 pandemic. The past two years have been like no other in my living memory. A shift has been seen in the professionalism of the sector and those working within it, as a bottom-up approach has been adopted and the neo-liberal ideology is shelved, even if temporarily. It has called upon all teachers, both experienced and those in training, to adopt new working practices, often flexibly and collegiately as we navigate alternative ways of facilitating learning in this changed landscape. Incidental learning, also defined as learning through unexpected and unplanned experiences, has been pivotal in the success of this to inform current and future practice. Teacher’s professional identity has strengthened through this experience, enforced by the major disjuncture caused by the Covid-19 pandemic. Sitting at the brink of 2022, we continue to work within what is being termed the ‘new normal’ of blended, online and face to face teaching and learning environments (Quilter-Pinner and Ambrose, 2020). As teachers v

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continue to grapple with the challenge of working remotely in often isolated conditions, with less time based within the professional work environment and more time isolated at home, incidental learning should continue to take centre stage. It is at this unprecedented time, that I am excited to be able to share my research on incidental learning and the way that disjuncture can enable teachers to develop their practice and professional identity. Although this research focussed on trainee teachers within the post-compulsory sector, I believe that all teachers will benefit from the insights that this research provides. I would like to acknowledge the professional support provided by Dr. Daniela Bacova, Dr. Dai Griffiths and the patience and valuable feedback provided by Mike Ross. Finally, I would like to thank the trainee teachers who generously gave their time and shared their experiences, which made this book possible. Stoke on Trent, UK

Amanda Turner

Contents

1 An Historical Account of Teacher Education in the FE and Skills Sector  1 Chapter Introduction   1 Background to the Sector   2 Government Involvement and Policies for Initial Teacher Education (ITE)   4 Strategies to Increase Excellence in the Sector   6 The Current Professional Standards   8 Challenges of Delivering ITE for Universities   9 Current ITE Models of Delivery  10 An Alternative ITE Curriculum Model  12 Conclusion  14 References  15 2 Developing Professional Identity of Teachers in the FE and Skills Sector 19 Chapter Introduction  19 Definitions of Professionalism  20 Professional Development of Teachers  20 Dual Professionalism  23 Theory of Self and Identity Development  24 Teacher Development and Professional Identity  26 The Placement Experience, the Mentor and the Impact on Teacher Development  29 vii

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The Impact of the Wider Team  32 Conclusion  33 References  34 3 A Theoretical Framework for Incidental Learning 39 Chapter Introduction  39 Defining Different Types of Learning  40 A Definition of Incidental Learning  41 The Key Factors that Impact on the Way Incidental Learning Is Experienced and Engaged with  43 Concepts Around Adult Learning  45 Tacit Knowledge  46 Transformational Learning  47 Reflective Practice  49 A Theoretical Framework for Incidental Learning  50 Conclusion  54 References  55 4 Methodological Approach 59 Introduction and Biographical Context of the Author  59 The Research Approach  61 The Argument for a Multiple Case Studies Approach  62 Quality Measures of the Research  63 Ethics and the Sample  64 The Methods Used to Collect Data  66 Focus Groups  67 Interviews  69 Semi-Structured Interviews: The Trainees  71 The Mentor Interviews  74 Document Analysis  75 Data Analysis  75 Conclusion  77 References  78 5 Incidental Learning Through Disjuncture 81 Introduction  81 Disjuncture Leading to Incidental Learning  82 Starting Identity and Aspirations  82

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Negative Learner Behaviours  85 Responsibilities of the Role  88 The Political Context  90 Developed Professional Identity  93 Conclusion  96 References  97 6 The Role of the Mentor and the Wider Team 99 Chapter Introduction  99 Trainee Teacher Expectations Versus the Reality 100 The Positive Impact of the Mentor 101 Barriers to a Successful Mentoring Experience 103 The Community of Practice 108 The Community of Practice and Disjuncture around Professional Behaviours 111 Conclusion 114 References 116 7 Teacher Professional Development Through Incidental Learning119 Chapter Introduction 119 The Professional Standards and Teacher Professional Development 120 Dual Professionalism 124 Reflective Practice and Tacit Knowledge Development 127 A Holistic Approach to Professionalism 130 So What Next? 131 Incidental Learning and Covid-19 133 References 134 Index137

List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 The Professional Standards (ETF 2014a) 9 Fig. 3.1 The position of incidental learning in relation to formal and informal learning 41 Fig. 3.2 Theoretical Framework for Incidental Learning 51 Fig. 5.1 The process of identity development through incidental learning 95 Fig. 6.1 The impact of incidental learning where support is limited or non-existent104 Fig. 6.2 Daloz’s matrix of support and change 115 Fig. 7.1 The space between the dual professional identities 127

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List of Tables

Table 2.1 Concepts of identity construction (adapted from Rodgers and Scott 2008) 25 Table 2.2 The last three stages of teacher identity development (as suggested by Rodgers and Scott 2008, p. 740) 28 Table 3.1 Transformative model of professional development 48 Table 3.2 Index for the theoretical framework 52 Table 4.1 Approaches to Rigor (adapted from Houghton et al. 2013, p. 14)64 Table 4.2 Sample of participants 66 Table 4.3 Pre-set questions for the focus group 68 Table 4.4 Interview stages (adapted from Punch and Oancea 2014, p. 188) 69 Table 4.5 The questions used in the first semi-structured interviews 72 Table 4.6 Interview questions used for second wave of interviews 73 Table 4.7 Questions used in the mentor interviews 74 Table 4.8 Emerging themes from the online journal entries 76 Table 4.9 Emerging themes from the semi-structured interviews 77 Table 5.1 Disjuncture which led to incidental learning 83 Table 6.1 Expected levels of support compared to the actual support provided100

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CHAPTER 1

An Historical Account of Teacher Education in the FE and Skills Sector

Chapter Introduction According to the Social Mobility Commission, “Further education (FE) refers to ‘any study after secondary education that is not part of higher education (that is, not taken as part of an undergraduate or graduate degree).’ The Further Education and adult learning sector (FE sector) comprises a wide range of public, private and voluntary sector providers and includes FE colleges, Adult and Community Learning and Work Based Learning providers” (2020, p. 1). This sector was famously referred to by Lingfield as the “Cinderella sector” (2012), and the neglected middle child (Pleasance, 2016) due to underinvestment and research, in comparison to both the school and university sectors. Gavin Williamson recently referred to the sector as the “forgotten education” in his speech delivered to the backdrop of the publication of the Augar Review (2020). Williamson described FE colleges as “the beating hearts of so many of our towns” which are well placed to “give people the skills they need to get a good and meaningful job.” This vision of the sector and its purpose, is not a new one. This chapter provides an historical account of the sector over the past thirty years, exploring the shift from providing opportunities for social inclusion and individual development (Aspin and Chapman 2000), towards a more skills-based educational model.

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Background to the Sector Post-compulsory education is by its very nature diverse. It offers multitudes of qualifications and non-accredited learning opportunities, which can be studied within a plethora of settings, to learners aged fourteen years and above. Historically this sector was defined as post-compulsory education as it set out to meet the needs of adults as they left compulsory education at the age of sixteen. It became known as the Lifelong Learning (LL) sector and suffered from a lack of clear purpose (Aspin and Chapman 2000). The focus for the LL sector changed as each new government initiative defined and ultimately repurposed it, to meet the political agenda at the time. Matheson and Matheson (1996) argued against the “political buzz-word” (p. 232) Lifelong Learning, comparing the sector instead to a “device with so many accessories bolted on that its original purpose is forgotten (Matheson and Matheson 1996, p. 231). Lifelong Learning is described by Laal (2011) as the continuous development of skills and knowledge throughout life, aquired through experience. It also provides a second chance to update core, basic skills, such as English and maths, as well as providing more advanced learning opportunities in a flexible and individualised way. In a paper delivered at the University of East London, Aspin and Chapman (2001), described Lifelong Learning in terms of its function in creating a more “advanced and competitive economy” (p. 1). Aspin and Chapman defended lifelong learning as being “good in and for itself” (p. 1) as it enables emancipation for individuals through personal growth and transformation. They proposed that lifelong learning has three central elements at its core: • Economic progress and development • Individual development and fulfilment • Social inclusion and democratic understanding (p. 3) The Increased Flexibility Programme launched in 2002, offered opportunities for 14–16 year olds to study for part of their week at an FE provider, in partnership with the school. This scheme aimed to broaden the vocational offer for young people through a cross-institutional model. However, challenges were often experienced by the college provider who typically encountered a “dumping” of learners by the school and a lack of opportunity to choose learners who they considered appropriate for the Scheme (O’Donnell et al. 2006).

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The white paper, 14–19 Education and Skills (DfES 2005) proposed a range of specialist diplomas to encourage learners aged 14–19 to attend FE college as one way to tackle the issue around learners who were defined as NEET (Not in Employment, Education or Training). However, this had a major impact in changing the face of the sector as schools took the opportunity to direct their most challenging learners towards FE colleges (Avis and Bathmaker 2004). There was a distinct lack of training in place for college lecturers, who were at times forced to teach this age group. This lead to disgruntled lecturers and a demand for Continuous Professional Development (CPD) to address this knowledge and skill deficit. According to research conducted by McCrone et al. (2007), “teaching 14–16 year olds in colleges was becoming increasingly embedded and an expected element of the lecturers’ role” (p. 3). Alison Wolf (DfES 2011) carried out a review of the sector in 2011 which resulted in the re-branding of the sector from the Lifelong Learning sector to the FE and Skills sector, the umbrella term still in use today. The coalition government in power at the time, published new guidelines allowing colleges of Further Education (FE) to directly enrol 14–16 year olds onto vocational qualifications (DfE 2012). The sector continued to provide a diverse range of educational opportunities, but had a renewed focus on skills-based provision that leads to employment. This is described by Halfon (2018) as a way for young people from low socio-economic backgrounds to “skill their way out of deprivation” and a way to create a “skills revolution” (p. 1). Although subtle, this change in emphasis from individual growth to economic growth resulted in a changed identity for the sector and those that worked within it. This was further exacerbated by the decision to open up the provision to learners aged fourteen years onwards. In response to the change in age of learners who can be taught in the sector, Initial Teacher Education (ITE) programmes were re-­written to take this into account at the time and the sector remains referred to as the 14 plus sector. The recent Augar report (2020) re-affirms the purpose of the FE sector and its role in re-building the economy after the Covid-19 crisis. A focus on vocational skills building is not a residual choice, but a vital building block in the UK’s platform for future prosperity. It gives FE colleges an unequivocal mission and the basis of a renewed and powerful brand image. (Augar 2020, p. 131)

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Government Involvement and Policies for Initial Teacher Education (ITE) ITE qualifications for the Education and Skills sector have undergone significant changes since their introduction in 2001. When the new Labour Government came into power in 1997, they inherited a largely unregulated and mostly voluntary system of teacher training for teachers working in this sector. A number of HE providers offered ITE qualifications at the time, but these lacked any kind of standardised approach. A number of reviews conducted at the time made the recommendation for compulsory and comprehensive, sector-relevant ITE qualifications (Haycocks 1975; Lucas 2002). With the sector pivotal in the future economic success of the country (Pleasance 2016), the Department for Education and Employment (DfEE), laid out plans for the introduction of a standardised sector-based qualification. This was underpinned by the rationale that teacher education was critical to an improvement in teaching standards within this sector. The University Council for the Education of Teachers (UCET 1999) welcomed the interjection by the government, as they acknowledged the unacceptable variation in both structure and quality in existence. The qualifications at the time were structured around the model of practitioner as reflective professional. This encouraged trainee teachers to develop an ability to adapt to unpredictable and intuitive elements of a professional teaching role, through critical reflection. It was this reflective practice that many working in the sector considered as “the ‘credo’ of the ITE curriculum” (Nasta 2008, p. 29). A new employer-led professional body for the FE sector was created, the Further Education National Training Organisation (FENTO), which proposed standards for ITE, based on an occupational outcomes model. However, these standards were met with fierce criticism from teacher educators in both the FE and HE sectors alike (Bathmaker 2000; Ecclestone 1997; Eraut 1994). The standards were also met with opposition by those working in the sector, as they were viewed as inappropriate for recognising teacher professionalism (Mahony and Hextall 2000). FENTO published the ITE teaching standards for the FE sector in 1999, but made subsequent revisions to take into account the diversity of the sector and the changing nature of the labour market towards more part-time teachers. The final suite of ITE qualifications came into force in 2001, with disaggregated standards according to role and employment

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status (FENTO 2001). Although the idea of having a defined set of standards was viewed as a positive step within the sector, it was the prescriptive element of the standards which caused concern. According to Lucas (2002), the sector was in danger of adopting an over-regulatory and standardised approach to teaching, due partly to a “lack of clear professional identity and culture among FE college teachers” (p. 459). It was felt that ITE courses had become reduced to a ‘tick box’ exercise, rather than focussing on teaching and learning, particularly in terms of meeting learner needs within an extremely diverse sector (Lucas 2002). Two years after the standards and state regulation of FE teacher qualifications were introduced, OfSTED (2003) published a rather damning report following a longitudinal study. This concluded that the taught and work-based elements of ITE courses were not integrated to suitably prepare trainees for a teaching role in the FE sector. One main criticism was the apparent lack of mentor support and professional development opportunities for trainees to learn how to teach specific, specialist subjects whilst in placement (OfSTED 2003). FENTO was rebadged as Lifelong Learning UK (LLUK) and the standards were reformed and replaced by 2006, and in use by 2007. LLUK believed that the new standards would represent “a vital first step in the construction of a new framework of qualifications for teachers in the further education system” (LLUK 2006 p. ii). However, some felt that the new professional standards had been introduced quickly, with insufficient consultation from professionals working in the sector (Nasta 2008). The competency-based formal model of education, underpinned and achieved by clear and measurable outcomes, continued to take precedence over more personal and autonomous, or reflective approaches to the learning of knowledge and skills (DIUS 2009). This ultimately shaped the way that the ITE standards were designed, in line with this type of formal learning that educators were expected to value. The DfES (2006) responded to further criticism of this skills-based approach to ITE with a document entitled, ‘Professionalisation of the learning and skills sector’ setting out compulsory regulation for all teachers in the FE sector to undertake 30 hours of CPD a year. It was envisaged that this would provide the minimum engagement needed to create a sector-wide professional workforce. Despite the changes, the newly revised suite of ITE qualifications continued to be criticised further.

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There has been concern that the model of teaching and learning which is developing across the sector is leaning towards a more instrumental and managed model, and that the reflective practice and critical professionalism of teachers in the sector could be undermined by this. (Crawley, 2012, p. 9)

It was largely assumed that the poor quality of provision within the FE sector was the result of unsatisfactory teaching and this could be solved through tighter regulation and control on the training that FE teachers received, underpinned by a prescriptive set of standards. However, simply meeting the standards does not guarantee critical engagement with them (Lawy and Tedder 2012). However, teacher training remained limited, lacking opportunities for the development of wider and more personalised learning experiences, particularly through the engagement with reflective practice.

Strategies to Increase Excellence in the Sector Historically, the FE and Skills sector was termed “the Cinderella sector” (Lingfield 2012, p. 18). Although it provides education on a diverse scale, traditionally it was not as highly regarded or as well funded, as either the school or Higher Education (HE) sector. In his report, Lingfield (2012) highlighted this as a key issue and discussed the need to raise the status of the FE sector and those teaching within it: The professionalism of most established groups includes the extension of their body of knowledge and practice. Personally directed research is fundamental to the professionalism of HE lecturers … too many colleges are characterised by restrictive features of job design and work organisation which render FE lecturers into productive workers without the dual identity of teacher and learner found in HE. (p. 38)

The report recognised professionalism as the ability to have autonomy, creativity, innovation and a depth of understanding of the world outside of the FE and skills sector, at both an organisational and individual level. This is achieved by creating an environment where professionalism can naturally thrive, thus refreshing the sector with new ideas and a constant, continual improvement to practice. One key recommendation Lingfield made was to revoke the regulation of ITE qualifications and enforced Continuous Professional Development (CPD) activity.

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In 2007, LLUK was replaced by the Institute for Learning (IfL), an independent body responsible for managing the regulation and professionalism of the teaching force working in the FE and Skills sector. The IfL published a Code of Professional Practice which defined the professional behaviours expected by those working in the sector and aimed to ensure compliance by FE teachers to the priorities of government and the employer. However, as the ITE qualifications were revised again in an attempt to simplify the choice, a new professional body, the Education and Training Foundation (ETF), was introduced in 2012. OfSTED (2012) conducted an inspection of ITE provision and recommended that government departments should: Develop a more succinct set of professional teaching standards with a clear focus on planning, teaching and the assessment of learners’ achievements that can be used to support the continuing professional development of FE and skills teachers, as well as providing a threshold measure of achievement at the end of the initial period of training. Secure ways of ensuring that all teachers in training have access to good-quality work-based specialist mentoring support. (p. 7)

According to a paper, The Government’s Strategy to Support Excellence in FE, released by BIS (2014), the ETF were responsible for a number of initiatives aimed to support and drive up excellence in teaching within the FE and Skills sector. Of these, promoting professionalism through the implementation of the experience and outcomes for trainee teachers, were of key importance. The objective is to increase the number of high quality graduates choosing to teach in FE, to improve the quality and professionalism of teachers and to empower and challenge all teachers to develop themselves, thereby raising the levels of outstanding and good teaching and improving outcomes for all students. (p. 14)

BIS (2014) aimed to encourage and support the sector by increasing the number of recruits into teaching, particularly in maths and English subject areas. They sought to achieve this by creating new routes to teaching in FE, such as recruiting applicants who might not have degree level qualifications, “but otherwise have exceptional potential to become good teachers” (p.  22). Alongside this local employers were involved in the development of programmes, making them more industry relevant. A new

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two stage OfSTED inspection process, was seen as a way to make a more comprehensive judgement on the quality of ITE provision, as it provided a judgement both during the ITE programme and afterwards, once trainees secured employed in a teaching role. The widening participation agenda and the increased scrutiny the inspection framework caused, created more tension and less autonomy for HEI’s, rather than the intended support. Based on Lingfield’s recommendation that regulation of the sector was unworkable, the government took the controversial decision in 2014, to revoke the need for teaching staff working in the FE sector to gain a full teaching qualification. In respect of the current regulations, it is proposed that these should be revoked in full … this will remove the statutory obligations for teachers in colleges to hold or obtain particular qualifications, and to undertake at least 30 hours of continued professional development. (BIS 2014, p. 12)

All new entrants to the sector were still expected to complete as a minimum requirement, a preparatory award in teaching and undertake at least 30 hours of CPD a year, but this was no longer monitored by the IfL, or the ETF.

The Current Professional Standards Historically teacher training programmes were written, validated and delivered by experienced scholars, within HEI’s. These qualifications are now delivered through a wide variety of providers and are fundamentally based on the ETF professional standards (2014a) which consist of twenty statements, beneath three subheadings (Fig. 1.1). These standards are used as a “framework when planning and delivering” the programme and as a basis for trainee teachers to map their own professional development whilst undertaking the course. The professional standards have been written to be inspirational and not focussed on assessing competence. Central to our approach is a belief in professionalism which recognises the importance of teacher/trainer responsibility for, and ownership of, their own professional learning as a continuing development process. (ETF 2014b, p. 13)

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Fig. 1.1  The Professional Standards (ETF 2014a)

The standards were not meant to be prescriptive, but in order to demonstrate how trainees meet the standards, the process of mapping is often reduced to a rather clinical tick-box exercise. A dichotomy exists where on the one hand it is important for a trainee to demonstrate how they have met the standards by the end of the programme, and on the other developing a depth of professional competence and identity which meets the standards on a more holistic basis, through embodiment.

Challenges of Delivering ITE for Universities Teacher education has come under increased regulation and as a result of this, much of its content is prescribed by government-led agencies. Compliance with such regulations is a requirement for providers, including Higher Education Institutions (HEI), if they want endorsement for the qualifications. Some interpretation of the standards is possible to fit their own systems of verification, but this is limited. Since the de-regulation of the sector, the landscape of teacher education has become even more complex and diverse. The majority of programmes (77%) are being delivered through an FE college, via a range of awarding organisations (Zaidiet al. 2016). Although nationally there has been a decline in the number of courses being offered, within the North

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West of England there has been a significant increase in the number of providers offering the programme, from 25  in 2013/14, to 45  in 2014/15. This has resulted in more choice for trainees and a subsequent drop in the number of trainees applying to study the qualification through a HEI. The deregulation introduced in 2014 has also had an impact on recruitment. HEI’s have responded to this by offering level 7 qualifications which many trainees believe provides a better opportunity for future employment in a competitive industry. The increase in FE colleges running their own programmes, presents a significant challenge for HEI providers in finding suitable placements within the FE sector, as the market place becomes ever more competitive and saturated.

Current ITE Models of Delivery ITE programmes can be either accredited by a range of awarding bodies, or validated by a HEI and are offered at a range of levels from Level 3, which is a basic introductory award, to Level 7 which is a full Masters level Post Graduate Certificate in Education (PGCE). Specialist pathways can be studied in English, maths or Special Educational Needs (SEN) which are viewed as priority areas by the government and attract bursaries (DfE 2020). A typical ITE programme consists of two elements; the theory of how to teach and the practical delivery within a placement. The programme takes one academic year to complete on a full time basis and is a post graduate qualification undertaken once an initial qualification has been successfully completed in a specialist subject; typically this is in a vocational area, although not necessarily. Trainees may also have experience within their chosen industry, although this is not always the case. Some subject areas require this experience, such as hair and beauty or the construction trades, whereas other subject areas that are more academic, place less importance on previous industry experience. This means that the cohort of trainee teachers can range in age, vocational practice and recent academic experience. In addition, trainees may be already employed within a teaching post and come to the course to gain the necessary qualification while they are in-service, or begin the course with none, or very little experience of teaching and are classed as pre-service. Typically, trainees only experience one main placement throughout the programme. Different delivery models exist which provides trainees with an opportunity to study theory and practice throughout the programme. Within

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the most common model trainees study both elements of theory and practice simultaneously throughout the duration of the programme. This offers opportunities for regular contact with peers, personal tutors, and mentors. However, this model can be stressful for the trainee as they have to juggle the demands of the practical element and the academic workload of the programme. Within this model, trainees typically teach the same group of learners throughout the academic year, which provides consistency and the opportunity for relationships to be formed with their learners and the team they are placed within. This can also be a more holistic way to study the programmes as theory and practice are developed simultaneously. Some programmes are taught in block format, where theory is studied for a defined period of time before the trainee attends their placement on block release. This is the common model within the compulsory sector and provides complete emersion into the practical element through the placement experience. This also enables two different types of placement to be experienced and something that is viewed as beneficial for pre-­service trainee teachers (Ofsted 2019). The latest OfSTED report outlines that during inspections, Ofsted will gather evidence about how well trainees are prepared to meet the ‘minimum level of practice expected of teachers,’ as defined in the professional standards (2019, p. 15). It is anticipated that an exploration of the partnership that is in place between the PGCE provider and the teaching placement, will determine how well prepared the trainees are to teach across a range of settings, in different circumstances, and/or subject specialisms for which they are being trained. A key judgement made against this is based on “the quality and range of placements” (p29). The formal, theory element of the course can be considered as the core trunk of the programme. However, the branches and roots also make up the whole development of a trainee teacher and as such theory and practice should be considered together, rather than separate elements. The environments within which trainees are positioned, the characteristics, conditions and demands placed on them, lead to interpretations in order to make sense of the legitimate choices available within such circumstances. This happens through reflective practice and within a community of practice (Hargreaves 1994; Tickle 2000; Zaichner and Tabachnick 1981). The practical element of the course, where trainee teachers are delivering their own taught sessions, supported by a mentor, could be considered as the iceberg of learning opportunities, due to the non-­formal, incidental and situated nature of this experience.

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An Alternative ITE Curriculum Model Learning more about teacher beliefs in the aspect of learning and knowing, and their epistemological beliefs, can provide valuable insights into improvements that can be made to pre-service ITE programmes (Hoffer 2001). To develop such epistemological beliefs both elements need to be connected and holistic and trainee teachers supported to draw from their own experience, alongside theoretical knowledge. There has been an increasing need for “college managers and policy makers to promote the workplace environments and conditions conducive to ‘expansive learning’” (Orr and Simmons 2011, p. 7). Such a learning environment would require a supportive culture throughout the placement organisation and driven through the institution at all levels. The ETF (2014b) recognise that the range of placement experiences can be diverse and present challenges that are particular to this sector. The education and training sector is unique in that, even within a single institution or provider, it requires professionalism with a very wide range of skills and knowledge working in very different learning environments and with many different types of learners. (ETF 2014b, p. 7)

A vocational curriculum, according to Osborne et  al. (2007) should provide learners with a grounding in knowledge as well as an opportunity to test given knowledge. This is underpinned with the development of criticality and an open-minded way of processing knowledge in terms of the context that it describes. This enables learners to develop tacit knowledge as they internalise skills concepts and ideas. This can also be described as knowing ‘with’ or using cumulative set of knowledge and skills and experiences to perceive, interpret and judge situations based on this in relation to past experiences. Testing knowledge in context, or situ, can result in a sense of vulnerability making it critical for the learner to be supported in an open and collaborative way. Barnett (2004) challenged the idea that vocational skills are based on a particular set of skills and a finite knowledge base needed for a particular job. He describes this as a ‘cul-de-sac’ view of education, presenting an alternative view based around problem identification and resolution which leads ultimately to knowledge creation in situ.

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This is a world in which solutions cannot be designed, in the sense that a problem has been entirely satisfactorily met; there are always repercussions, unintended consequences and loose ends. (Barnett 2004, p. 251)

Due to the unpredictable and dynamic nature of the learning environment, it is impossible to predict all possible situations and therefore to try and train someone to learn all there is to know about that given situation, is a redundant concept. However, what is possible is to enable a trainee to be autonomous and develop a strong professional identity, so they are better equipped to deal with all possible eventualities. The philosophical concept of a rhizome, was first developed by Deleuze and Guattari (1987, cited in Hunt 2016) as a way of viewing the ever changing world around us. This fluid model offers a flexible way to think about ideas and information, particularly in how these emerge, flow and evolve. “The rhizome as a model of thought embraces multiplicities and rejects the notion of a clear beginning, middle, and end” (p. 1). Strom (2015) also challenged the notion of linear curriculum design that is bound by measurable outcomes, the reductionist view of learning that has become prevalent in western society. She makes the argument that teacher education should include opportunities for development of attitudes and beliefs about teaching, alongside skills development. Enacting pre-professional learning is a complex undertaking shaped by the ways the elements present in the school setting work together, and, thus, teaching is a collectively negotiated activity. (Strom 2015, p. 3)

Although her research is based within the compulsory sector, it is this inherent complexity and multiple collective approach to a dynamic situation that is part of the professional skills set that teachers need to be able to develop in order to work effectively and is suitable across all sectors. Strom terms this development set as ‘assemblage’, which means considering all different elements of the learning environment and working in a collegiate way to inform teaching practice. This also correlates with Bourdieu who writes, An educational system based on a traditional type of pedagogy can fulfil its function of inculcation only so long as it addresses itself to students equipped with the linguistic and cultural capital—and the capacity to invest it profitably—which the system presupposes and consecrates without ever expressly demanding it and without methodically transmitting it. (1998, p. 99)

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The unpredictable nature of this model allows for ideas to be freely considered and is particularly suited to the “changeable nature of creativity, self-expression, identity and cultural endeavour” (Hunt 2016, p.  1) that can be found in teaching. A key characteristic of the rhizome model of curriculum is that it always has multiple entryways making it a suitable model for professional development. Although the professional standards provide clear guidance on different elements of the teaching role, the curriculum should incorporate a more holistic element around the development of professionalism and professional identity, and allow space for reflection to take place in a supported, yet critical way.

Conclusion This chapter presents some of the challenges that the FE sector has faced over the last thirty years. The sector is diverse and multi-faceted with an original focus on lifelong learning for individual growth, as well as skills development. It has become used as a vehicle to realise government policy, particularly around economic growth and skills development, alongside the agenda for social mobility. The changing face of the sector has resulted in an often disengaged and disillusioned workforce which remains under-­ funded and stretched in terms of capacity. The marketization of education has resulted in policy initiatives and performance management regimes that have intensified the bureaucratic workload for teachers. The nature of this educational reform mandates what we should teach but also increasingly how to teach, which constrains our practice and reduces our autonomy as professionals. (Pleasance 2016, p. 27)

Trying to recruit and then retain new teachers has become a challenge and ITE programmes an even more important part of this agenda. However, the programmes remain largely structured around an outcomes-­ based model which only partly meet the professional development needs of a trainee teacher preparing for a future in this sector. The next chapter explores the ideas around professional identity development of trainee teachers and some of the barriers and enabling factors surrounding this.

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References Aspin, D; Chapman, J (2000) Lifelong Learning: concepts and conceptions. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 19 (1), p. 2-19. Aspin, D; Chapman, J (2001) Lifelong learning: concepts, theories and values. Paper presented at SCUTREA, 31st Annual conference, University of East London. Augar, P (2020) Review of Post-18 Education and Funding. Available online at: www.gov.uk/government/publications. Accessed on 2/11/2020 Accessed on 29/12/2020. Avis J, Bathmaker A, M (2004) “How do I cope with that?” The development of ‘schooling identities’ amongst trainee FE lecturers. Paper presented at the British Educational Research Association Conference at Manchester, 15–18 September 2004. Barnett, R (2004) Learning for an unknown future. Higher Education Research and Development, vol 23, 247–260. Bathmaker, A (2000) Standardising teaching. The introduction of standards for teaching and supporting learning in further education in England and Wales. Journal of In-Service Education, vol 26:1, 261–277. BIS (2014) The government’s strategy to support excellence in FE. London: Gov. Bordieau, (1998) Practical Reason: On the Theory of Action. California: Stanford University Press. Crawley, J (2012) On the brink or Designing the future? Where next for Lifelong Learning Initial Teacher Education? Teaching in Lifelong Learning. 4 (1) pp. 2–12. Deleuze, G. and Guattari, F. 1987. A thousand plateaus: capitalism and schizophrenia, London: Athlone Press. Department for Education and Skills (2005) 14–19 Education and skills. London: DfES. Department for Education and Skills (2006) Professionalisation of the learning and skills sector. London: DfES. Department for Education and Skills (2011) Review of vocational education— Wolf Report. London: DfES. Department for Education (2012) More teenagers free to enrol at further education colleges to study vocational qualifications. Online. Available at: www.gov. uk. Accessed on 6/4/2020. Department for Education (2020) Further Education (FE) initial teacher education (ITE) bursaries funding manual. 2020 to 2021 academic year. Available online: www.gov.uk accessed on 9/4/2020. Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills (2009) The Learning Revolution. London: DIUS.

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Ecclestone, K (1997) On the frontline or at the margins? Research in post-­ compulsory education. Research issues in post-compulsory education. Vol 2, 219–31. Education and Training Foundation (ETF) (2014a) Professional Standards for teachers and trainers in education and training—England. Available online at: www.et-­foundation.co.uk. Accessed on 06/07/2015. Education and Training Foundation (ETF) (2014b) Initial guidance for users of the professional standards for teachers and trainers in education –England. Available online at: www.et-­foundation.co.uk. Accessed on 08/10/2016. Eraut, M (1994) Developing professional knowledge and competence. London: The Falmer Press. FENTO (2001) Standards for teaching and supporting learning in further education in England and Wales. Available online at: http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/4191/1/ Standards%2520for%2520teaching%2520and%2520supporting%2520learnin g%2520in%2520%2520FE.pdf Accessed on 06/08/2018. Halfon, R (2018) Voices of the further education sector. The purpose of the further education sector now? Adapted from a speech to the Learning and Work Institute. Available online at: https://www.aoc.co.uk/sites/default/files/ voices-­of-­the-­further-­education-­sector-­the-­purpose-­of-­the-­further-­education-­ sector-­now-­2_0.pdf Accessed on 30/3/2019. Hargreaves, D (1994) The new professionalism: The synthesis of professional and institutional development. Teaching and Teacher Education. Vol 10, 4, 423–438 Haycocks Report (1975) Advisory committee on the supply and training of teachers: FE Sub-committee. The training of teachers for further education. Hoffer, B (2001) Personal epistemology research. Implications for learning and teaching. Journal of educational psychology review. Vol 13.4. pp. 353–383 Hunt, K (2016) A Rhizomatic Approach to Fashion. Paper presented at Nottingham Trent University School of Art and Design on 22/4/2016. Available online at: www.irep.ntu.ac.uk accessed on 20/2/2019. Laal, M (2011) Lifelong Learning: What does it Mean? Procedia, Social and Behavioural Sciences 28, p. 470–474 Lawy, R; Tedder, M (2012) Beyond compliance: Teacher education practice in a performative framework. Research Papers in Education Available online at: www.ore.exeter.ac.uk accessed on 20/2/2019. Lingfield, R (2012) Professionalism in Further Education. Final report of the independent review panel. London: BIS LLUK (2006) New Overarching Professional Standards for Teachers, Tutors and Trainers in the Lifelong Learning Sector. London: Lifelong Learning UK. Lucas, N (2002) The introduction of national standards and compulsory teacher education for further education for further education college teachers in England: issues and challenges. Teacher Development, vol 6 (3) pp. 459–473. Mahony, P; Hextall, I (2000) Standards, Performance and Accountability. London: RoutledgeFalmer.

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Matheson, D; Matheson, C (1996) Lifelong learning and lifelong education: a critique. Research in Post-Compulsory Education, Vol 1. p. 219–236. McCrone, T; Wade, P; Golden, S. (2007) The impact of 14–16 year olds on further education colleges. Berkshire: National Foundation for Educational Research. Nasta, A (2008) Translating National Standards into Practice for the Initial Training of Further Education Teachers in England. London: Institute of Education. OfSTED (2003) The initial training of Further Education teachers. A survey. London: HMI. OfSTED (2012) The initial training of Further Education and Skills teachers. Findings from 2011–2012 inspections of courses leading to awarding body qualifications. Manchester: OfSTED. OfSTED (2019) The education inspection framework. Draft consultation. Available online at: www.ofsted.gov.uk. Accessed on 3/4/2019. O’Donnell, L; Golden, S; McCrone, T; Rudd, P; Walker, M (2006) Evaluation of Increased Flexibility for 14–16 Year Olds Programme: Delivery for Cohorts 3 and 4 and the Future. Nottingham: National Foundation for Educational Research, DfES. Orr, K; Simmons, R (2011) Restrictive Practice: The Work-Based Learning Experience of Trainee Teachers in English Further Education Colleges. Journal of Workplace Learning, 23 (4). pp. 243–257. Osborne, M; Houston, M; Toman, N (2007) The pedagogy of lifelong learning. Understanding effective teaching and learning in diverse contexts. London: Routledge. Pleasance, S (2016) Wider professional practice in education and training. London: Sage. Social Mobility Commission (2020) Investing in ‘what works’ activity in Further Education and Adult Learning. Policy Brief. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_ data/file/859091/SMC_FE_policy_briefing.pdf Accessed on 28/10/2020. Strom, K. J (2015). Teaching as assemblage: Negotiating learning and practice in the first year of teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 66 (4), 321–333. Tickle, L (2000) Teacher induction: The way ahead. Buckingham: Open University Press. UCET (1999) Teachers: Meeting the Challenge of Change. London: University Council for the Education of Teachers. Zaichner, K; Tabachnick, B. R (1981) The development of teacher perspectives. Journal of Education for Teaching, Vol 11, 1–25. Zaidi, A; Howat, C; Caisl, J (2016) Initial Teacher Education provision in FE.  Available online at: http://www.et-­foundation.co.uk/wp-­content/ uploads/2016/07/Data-­analysis-­of-­ITE-­in-­FE-­Year-­2-­r eport-­FINAL-­PC. pdf. Accessed on 8/10/2020.

CHAPTER 2

Developing Professional Identity of Teachers in the FE and Skills Sector

Chapter Introduction This chapter explores the concept of professionalism and professional identity development, particularly in relation to trainee teachers working in the FE and skills sector. Since 2001, there has been systematic criticism of those teaching in this sector and a subsequent drive towards professionalising what was largely unregulated prior to this. Underpinning this has been the introduction of a plethora of professional teaching standards, as discussed in Chap. 1. The drive towards professionalising the teachers working in the sector is based on assumptions that criteria and professionalism are somehow linked. This chapter also explores the role of the mentor and wider team on the development of the trainee teacher and identifies some of the tensions that exist within this relationship. What this chapter argues for is the recognition that professionalism is more than criteria, it is embodiment of a professional identity. This chapter proposes that teacher education programmes should enable trainee teachers to develop their professional identity, so they are able to meet the challenges of this diverse sector in a flexible and autonomous way. This is even more important in light of the recent pandemic, as trainee teachers and more experienced teachers alike faced unfamiliar territory, paving the way towards new pedagogical practice, through lived experiences.

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Definitions of Professionalism Professionalism has been discussed and defined in many ways, often attributed to one’s conduct and how we perceive ourselves and are perceived by others, in relation to a professional role. Historically professionalism was improved through reflective practice as an autonomous activity, but since the introduction of the teacher standards, it has become measured against outcomes and set criteria (ETF 2014b). Rytivaara and Kershner (2012) argue that professional learning is not the superficial acquisition of information, but deep learning that happens when connections are made resulting in transformation, or “seeking meaning through understanding” (p. 1000). This can be seen by changes in the individual when they adopt the practices being modelled. According to Evans (2015), professionalism has become a contested concept which has multiple definitions depending on context and therefore, “trying to reach consensus, then, on what professionalism means in today’s context is probably a hopeless pursuit” (p.  2). Professionalism “relates to people’s being in the context of their work; it is simply something that is, not something that ought to be” (Evans 2015, p. 7). She argues that it is the very nature of someone’s professionalism that is the focus of what is being developed, rather than individual criteria. Sachs (2005) also argues that it is critical for teachers to develop professional values and specialised knowledge because they “face complex and unpredictable situations” and they “need the autonomy to make their own judgements... and act with responsibility” (p. 150). This is more than a check list of professional standards, but embodiment of what it means to be a professional. Since the sudden onset of the recent and still very current pandemic, this definition of professionalism is more important than ever. Teachers initially needed to respond individually in order to adjust their practice and continue teaching in a dramatically altered, pedagogical landscape. It was crucial that they were able to work autonomously and the majority demonstrated professionalism in this way.

Professional Development of Teachers The reflective practitioner model of professional development encourages the individual to be autonomous and make decisions about practice based on the expertise that grows from reflection. However, as the competency model of teaching became prevalent and accountability took precedence,

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the ideas embedded in the discourse about the reflective practitioner, took somewhat of a back seat. The sector witnessed steady “increasing bureaucratic pressures to meet targets, and performance-management regimes” (Pleasance 2016, p. 22). This has been met by strong opposition by those working in the sector, due to the potential lack of focus on professional identity development. Currently, teacher training programmes are designed using a performance-­based approach, measuring individual competency against the achievement of the professional standards. This methodology was challenged by Combs as early as 1972, when he suggested that effective teacher education programmes should provide opportunities for trainees in personal discovery, through a personalised, humanistic approach. This suggested approach enabled trainee teachers to develop ‘individual agency’ through social interaction, rather than learning a precise set of skills. According to Diamond (1991) a deductive methodology to teaching and learning is fundamentally flawed as the premise assumes a set of teaching skills which can be taught and will result in effective teachers after training. In reality, teaching is a far more fluid and intuitive act which requires an ability to approach the [often dynamic] learning environment with the aptitude to choose appropriate and effective responses, often without support. Although it could be argued that this is underpinned by a set of pre-established behaviours or teacher characteristics, this is limited due to the diversity of the sector and those teaching in it. The delineation of specific behavioural objectives, prior to or early in a teacher-learning sequence, assumes that the teacher as learner is inert and passive, that there is a stable body of knowledge and of skills and that there are fixed approaches to learning. However, from an alternative constructivist position, the teacher is seen as essentially active and world-making. The goal of teacher education may be nothing less than the creation of perspectives of worlds. (Diamond 1991, p. 10)

This approach suggested personalised teacher training programmes, where teachers are developed to be able to create “adequate selves,” underpinned by a premise of organic growth, as opposed to “mechanistic functioning” (p. 11). Tickle (2000) also warned against a checklist of professional behaviours and skills and argued more towards “the synthesis of holistic practice” (p. 88) which would provide a more inclusive idea of professional teacher

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development. He argued for this type of approach, because of the substantial change being experienced within the FE sector at the time, which often resulted in trainees joining established teachers who were in “states of disaffection and cynicism, brought on by changes in identity, created by the nature and direction of the demands and requirements being made on them” (Tickle 2000, p. 89). This resulted in an unstable and fluctuating community of practice where appropriate professional conduct was not always being modelled. The overwhelming scrutiny alongside rapid reform of the sector resulted in altered identities of existing teachers. What Tickle argued for was a greater need to equip trainee teachers with the ability to critically evaluate situations, in order to develop their own professional identity within this challenging context. Unless one has a sense of self-development and the expertise to examine, develop and appropriately deploy professional characteristics and personal qualities, it seems unlikely that the adoption of a critical perspective on teaching and its circumstances will carry very far. (Tickle 2000, p. 92)

In 2003, Ball heavily criticised performativity in relation to its cost on the profession. He argued that the performance-driven culture had created an inner conflict for teachers, where “increasingly, we choose and judge our actions and they are judged by others on the basis of their contribution to organisational performance, rendered in terms of measurable outputs” (p. 223). This creates a newly constructed idea of what it means to be a teacher and causes feelings of inauthenticity arising from the pressure felt to perform and improve against set targets. This presumes a set criteria of what is seen as good practice and what it means to be an effective teacher, which limits teachers from potentially reflecting on wider aspects of the role. In addition to this is an expectation that teachers in the FE and Skills sector will undertake additional workload, something that causes unnecessary stress. An important part of professional identity is about how to challenge systems and conventions by being a confident agent of change, contributing to a community of practice, in order for it to move forwards (Lucas and Unwin 2009). However, this contradicts what is at the heart of the professional standards and is an element of teacher education programmes which happens co-incidentally. James and Unwin (2016) were commissioned to identify ways to foster high quality vocational teaching in the FE sector. What they found through

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their research was a tension between what the teachers deemed as professionalism and the expectations of the organisation. Their research also uncovered a stark difference between the way that professionalism was defined within the sector; managers viewed teachers as professional if the job was done “unsupervised, and without complaint” (p.  26); whereas, teachers viewed professionalism linked to the notion of identity. This led to teachers feeling undervalued, resulting in conflict and “high staff turnover” (James and Unwin 2016, p. 17). ITE programmes have not previously been designed to prepare trainees for this type of situation, something recognised by Cort et al. (2015). Training should provide teachers with managerial, organisational, counselling and communication skills; training programmes work best when teachers and trainers take part in identifying their own training needs and designing the training. (p. 7)

Themes around social, management and personal skills are not included within the learning outcomes for initial teacher education, or included in the professional standards. However, the topic of teacher well-being is currently being included as part of the curriculum by some organisations (Russell, 2020). Education is continually changing and part of the teaching role must be about cultivating resilience. According to Ofsted (2015), teacher education will be judged on “how well prepared they [teachers] are for employment as a result of their training” (p. 21). One of the ways that this can be achieved is to ensure that “expert mentors and trainers have consistently high expectations and work collaboratively to ensure training is coherent and highly relevant to the needs of trainees” (p. 40). This assumes that the placement context provides access to stability and expertise. However, within this sector this is not always the case.

Dual Professionalism The concept of a dual professional is where a trainee teacher has a body of subject specialist knowledge and pedagogic, or applied theoretical knowledge. This was initially introduced by the IfL and is still firmly rooted within the current professional standards (ETF 2014a; Table  1.1) and viewed as a way to drive up the professionalism of the sector. The root of the problem lies in the belief that teaching is in fact somehow divorced from context and that pedagogy can be organised into a

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specific body of knowledge, rather than a more intuitive and reflexive activity. This is what is described by Schön as the ‘high ground’ of technical knowledge and the ‘swampy lowlands’ of ‘indeterminate practice’ (Schön 2003). Schön argues for an approach which places practical knowledge at the heart of developing professional expertise. This is based on personal activity and developed through reflection-on-action after the event, and through creatively applying knowledge during the activity, through reflection-in-action. It is only through reflection that Schon argues practitioners are able to articulate and analyse their tacit knowledge about professional practice, which in turn leads to new understanding about unique and often challenging situations. Thus, it is not simply possible to ascertain a professional as someone who claims expertise based upon a body of knowledge, either in their own subject area or a pedagogical knowledge base. This reductionist approach to professionalism does not take into account the breadth of teaching within the diverse FE sector which draws teachers from a rich variety of industries and occupations (Nasta 2008). Trying to find and define what the essence of teaching is in such a diverse landscape is simply irrelevant. The context is critical in the development of professional identity and cannot and should not be divorced from this. Context includes the demographic of the learners, as well as the inseparable links between subject content and delivery, and the relationship between the learner and the teacher within this unique setting, particular to that time and place. According to Plowright and Barr (2012), continuing to promote the idea of dual professionalism will only act to reinforce tensions within the ‘fractured environment of the FE workplace”. They believe that the professionalism of the teacher within FE “is rooted in the fusion of the subject and its teaching, and not in the IfL’s ‘dual professionalism’ of tandem allegiances” (Plowright and Barr 2012).

Theory of Self and Identity Development Becoming critically aware of one’s own ‘composing of reality’ requires acknowledging that one’s identity is a part of knowing. Participation in the ‘dialogue toward truth’ hinges on assuming that one has something to contribute. Cultivating a ‘capacity to respond’ requires self-reflection on one’s identity and relations with others. (Baxter Magolda 2003, p. 231)

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A critical aspect of learning for trainee teachers proposed by Gilar et al. (2007) is that they are able to construct their own meaning and knowledge and self-direct their learning. According to Rodgers and Scott (2008), teachers should work towards an awareness of their identity and the contexts, relationships, and emotions that shape them, and (re)claim the authority of their own voice (Table 2.1). This calls upon teachers to make a psychological shift in how they think about themselves as teachers. Awareness and voice represent the “contested” place where the normative demands of the external encounter the internal meaning-making and desires of the teacher (p. 739). New experiences are interpreted in relation to past experiences and in a personal way, leading to “a greater understanding of how we, as individuals, can behave and learn” (Jarvis 2010, p.  7). However, according to Brookfield (1987), this takes a certain degree of critical thinking and creativity to arrive at possible solutions rather than looking for one definitive answer, by using forecasting techniques. Winch (2006) concurred with the idea that an essential element of decision making rests in the ability to predict possible consequences by making informed and rational judgements. This is made possible by having sufficient information about the subject and a degree of autonomy, which he describes as potentially restricted within the learning context for trainee teachers. Being autonomous requires knowledge and skill on the part of the autonomous individual. It also requires permission to make and implement Table 2.1  Concepts of identity construction (adapted from Rodgers and Scott 2008) Identity formation

Internal and external aspects

Dependent upon and formed within multiple contexts which bring social, cultural, political, and historical forces to bear upon that formation Developed in relationship with others and involves emotions

External

Is shifting, unstable, and multiple Involves the construction and reconstruction of meaning through stories over time.

External and internal External and internal Internal

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r­ easonable or worthwhile choices. But it further requires appropriate social conditions. (p. 11)

These social conditions may be limiting for an individual, particularly where there is an inequality of power, or access to resources. The role of the mentor becomes even more critical in enabling trainees to be able to exercise autonomy in decision making, and is dependent upon their stage of development. The trainee teacher must have the opportunity to develop autonomy. However, this process also involves the development of the self, both in terms of knowledge and awareness (Winch 2006).

Teacher Development and Professional Identity According to Lortie (1975) the initial vantage point that trainee teachers approach the ITE programme with is based on their idea of what it means to be a teacher. This is formed over years of being a learner and observing at close proximity teachers in action, within a classroom environment and “see teaching as the ‘living out’ of prior conceptions of good teaching” (p. 66). The teaching profession is unique in this sense, but although it is common to have had regular opportunity to observe teachers teaching, this does not provide full access to the complete picture of what it is to be a teacher, because it is a procedural knowledge base. This lack of analytical stance, coupled with limited knowledge of pedagogical principles results in an unreliable basis for any kind of evaluation on the challenges and demands of the teaching role. This results in an underestimation about the challenges inherent in the role, while at the same time there is a formation of clear and “definite ideas about the nature of the role” (Lortie 1975, p. 65). Many trainees therefore, enter teacher education with a strong idea about teacher identity, based upon their own observations and experiences as a learner. However, the experience can be in stark contrast to this perception resulting in anxiety, which has a negative impact on the trainee teachers development due to the difficulty they have in “making accurate perceptions and thoughtful decisions as they learn on the job” (p.  72). This anxiety increases when support is limited, or not actively sought. The trainee teacher often wants to be seen as coping, thus preventing them from expressing a need for help, or advice, often compounding the isolation they feel. In addition to this, teacher educators can present an idealised and unachievable theory of teaching which can exacerbate the feelings of

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incompetence in the trainees as they are unable to perform as the theory suggests. This ultimately impacts on the identity being formed by the trainee as they are forced to shift their perceptions about teaching and their ideal of how they wish to be seen (the identity they want to adopt as a teacher) in order to survive in the placement practice. A resulting shift between expectations and the reality is experienced, referred to as ‘practice shock’ (Orr and Simmons 2011). A constructivist model of identity development, suggested by Kegan (1994) was adapted by Rodgers and Scott (2008) as a useful theoretical framework to guide the understanding of teacher identity development (Table  2.2). Rodgers and Scott argued that the way the trainee teacher assimilates and ultimately makes sense of their experience develops over time, through different developmental stages as their identity constantly evolves, as ‘the teacher self makes sense of his/her experience’ (p. 739). The trainee begins with a concrete, yet limited view of the teaching role and the relationships that operate within that. As their identity develops through experience, they are more able to identify with the social and political forces being experienced, but still find it challenging to question these due to their tethered relationships within the placement context. It is only once the trainee reaches the final stages they are more likely to become defined internally with a clear set of values and are more able to have ownership over their identity as a teacher. The trainee is able to make judgements and evaluate information in order to take a perspective on it. This leads to an ability to be able to “engage in a critique of their teaching according to their own standards rather than by the standards of others” (Rodgers and Scott 2008, p. 742). Challenges experienced within the FE and skills sector ultimately shape the identity of the teacher, such as the culture of the team and the overarching placement organisation. Alongside this, ‘Structuring factors’, such as the qualifications system and targets related to achievement and success, impact on the developing professional identity, in a positive or negative way. The constant threat of external inspections combined with other quality measures and a reduction in teaching time allocated to certain subjects, also create additional pressure and concern. Research conducted by Avis and Bathmaker (2004) highlighted the way in which certain restrictions results in trainees developing identities that are different to what they had initially envisaged. However, personal disposition of the trainees, as well as the way their own learners approach learning, also impact on identity development.

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Table 2.2  The last three stages of teacher identity development (as suggested by Rodgers and Scott 2008, p. 740) How does the teacher make sense of social, political and historical forces?

Stage 2: The They are viewed as instrumental external concrete knower states

Stage 3: The The self is identified socializing with these forces; knower readily conforms to them—is defined by them Not yet able to take a perspective on them—threatened by values associated with social/political/ historical forces that are not one’s own

How do they make sense How do they construct of their relationship with and reconstruct meaning others? through stories? What are the developmental limitations of the stories they tell? Concrete conception of teacher role Interactions with others are rule bound No perspectives on oneself in relationship to others Self is defined through relationships—the opinions and expectations of others Feels empathy for others; feels responsible for others’ feelings and holds others responsible for their feelings Because they seeks to stay in the good graces of others, they struggle with conflicting agenda’s or needs Criticism experienced as an assault to the self

External, concrete rendering of experiences Views experiences in black and white; self-reflection eludes them

Able to report on feelings and emotions that surround teaching Stories bound by relationships—impact that they have on learners, teachers, institution and vice versa Not yet able to reflect on ways in which their own thinking or teaching is coloured by relationships with learners, their history, and vice versa Stories likely to be shaped by what they thinks people what to hear Stage 4: The Has a perspective on Clear sense of self; Author of one’s selfthese forces, and the takes responsibility for experiences; best able to authoring ways in which they own feelings as separate engage in self-­reflection knower shape the self and distinct from Tells stories according to Holds a perspective on others their own internal how they know and is Integrates others’ standards known in the world perspectives, including They are able to see the Able to define for criticism according to ways in which oneself where they one’s own internally relationships impact stand in relationship to generated standards upon their teaching these forces, rather and values than being defined by Can hold contradictory them feelings simultaneously

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Jephcote and Salisbury (2009) define the FE sector as a “deficit model of provision, reacting to new economic and industrial imperatives, broadly to do with bringing about economic growth and social cohesion” (p. 967). Increased pressure on teachers to ensure retention and ultimately successful completion of qualifications by learners, can have a detrimental effect on professional identity. They present the argument that professional identity is shaped by the culture of the organisation and the existing colleagues, but that this happens alongside the trainee’s own values. This is often linked directly to the needs of their own learners, even at the expense of alienation from managers, or colleagues. Trainee teachers form and re-­ form their professional identity in response to the dynamic learning environment, as they interpret and make sense of the interactions between themselves and the learners through “an interpretation of the social processes inside their classrooms” (Jephcote and Salisbury 2009, p. 971). Societal expectations, such as prescribed standards also impact on identity development, particularly if these are different to the value attributed by an individual. The placement a trainee teacher is based within can be “very persuasive, very demanding, and in most cases, very restrictive” (Reynolds, cited in Beijaard et  al. 2003, p.  110). However, this is also influenced by what the trainee allows to have an impact on them. When confronted with a new situation, Jarvis (2010) suggests that individuals imitate as a way to learn the subculture of the group that they find themselves within. This is then replaced with a more interactive and in turn, intractive learning experience as a specific set of behaviours is learnt associated with that situation. However, this can conflict with the trainee teachers own initial beliefs and idea of the sort of professional identity that they aspire to, causing anxiety. Prior industry experience and former occupational identity also play a part. Trainee teachers can often be seen to draw from this to inspire and engage their own learners and embrace dual professionalism.

The Placement Experience, the Mentor and the Impact on Teacher Development When Dixon et al. carried out their research in 2010, undertaking a placement within the FE and Skills sector was a relatively new phenomena. Due to a lack of experience the quality of the placement could differ somewhat within the same organisation and even the same department, resulting in

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a major cause for anxiety. Trainees felt uncertain about when the placement would start, felt the placement was disorganised and found they were expected to teach across a range of subjects and topics, that they might not be qualified in. This experience resulted in the trainees learning how to cope and be flexible within placement, something that can be considered as central when learning how to teach in what has been termed a ‘messy’ business. However, by learning to cope with dysfunctional practice the trainee teacher can go on to reproduce, rather than challenge this (Rodgers and Scott 2008). In addition, the trainee may suffer with a lack of confidence if they are not supported properly, or are subjected to criticism from the mentor, or other teachers at the placement. This could adversely affect a trainee in terms of their mental health, and also their career choice of becoming a teacher. Dixon et al. (2010) suggest that, “a smooth, problem-free and incrementally introduced placement may be a false preparation for the erratic and hectic environment of FE” (p.  391). They argue that the training programme should equip trainees with the skills, knowledge and ability to judge and ultimately ‘survive’ their individual experiences of placement. Although some trainees have the analytical ability to make judgements about the placement that they experience, this takes time and confidence in order to adapt to what can be a challenging placement experience. The way that individual ‘agents’ perform within practice in order to make meaningful contributions was defined by Bordieau (1998) as ‘habitus’. Bourdieu argued that deep rooted assumptions, both individually and collectively inherited, are both physical and mental and “that society comprises people, classes and groups who occupy positions relative to each other and to society as a whole” (p. 141). Bourdieu believed that a high degree of competition and struggle occurs between different groups as they compete for validation and recognition within their field. An additional cause of anxiety and disjuncture for trainee teachers is when they have been placed in a habitus which is unfamiliar. This is compounded by a lack of shared language, or what Bordieau (1998) termed as ‘informational capital’. Although, trainees might possess an assumed information capital based on prior knowledge of education (Lortie 1975), this is limited to experiences of observing from the side lines, rather than emersion within the culture. This reflects a wider political agenda within which the education sector is located and the challenge of reconciliation

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that exists between social class and social mobility, and the struggle that this can generate in terms of habitus. Bourdieu’s symbolic power relations and symbolic violence that ensues from this imbalance of power is evident within a placement provision as mentors naturally hold more power within the trainee teacher/mentor relationship because of the capital they possess. In addition, the amount of further investment that they carry out leads to an even greater ‘debt’ leading to an asymmetry of power relations (Bordieau 1998). Winch (2006) suggests that in addition to being qualified, the mentor should be competent to assess the abilities of the trainee and that they possess a “settled disposition of character” (p. 39). However, in reality, placements in the FE sector are often agreed upon in a more ad hoc manner. Although in the best examples mentors are selected based on their competency, this is not always the case. Orr and Simmons (2011) argue for significant changes to the FE work-based experiences that trainee teachers are subjected to. The constant changes and relatively recent de-regulation of teaching qualifications in 2014, and decreased levels of funding have left a mark on teaching teams within the FE and skills sector. The sector is made up of a mixture of qualified and non-qualified teachers and differing levels of professionalism, making access to quality placement provision and experienced mentors a challenge. Seidel and Stürmer (2014) argues that pre-service teachers do not have the ability to effectively direct attention to the relevant areas of pedagogical practice within the learning environment in order to make informed decisions about their practice. They relate this directly to the challenges facing new teachers in a complex, dynamic learning environment, particularly when trying to apply theory to practice. They defined professional vision as “the ability to notice and interpret relevant features of classroom situations” (Seidel and Stürmer 2014, p. 741). They argue that pre-service teachers “lack the elaborated and integrated knowledge structures that would allow them to link observed situations with knowledge about teaching and learning” (p. 746). This reiterates the critical nature of the mentor to provide guidance for the trainee in terms of what to notice, and subsequently reflect upon. However, this is dependent on the experience and knowledge of the mentor as well as the professional relationship that they have with the trainee.

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The Impact of the Wider Team Research conducted by Lave and Wenger (2008) explored Communities of Practice and subsequent sociocultural transformation that takes place between newcomers and the existing team, particularly in terms of the developing relationships and “the construction of identities” (p.  53). Their research described access to all aspects of that community, including “a wide range of ongoing activity, old-timers, and other members of the community; and to information, resources and opportunities for trainees” (p. 101). It also included gradual access and participation in the flow of information through conversations and within a context where this can be applied. This resulted in an improved skills-base, developed over time and under supervision, which enables the trainee to begin to develop an increased sense of identity “as a master practitioner” (Lave and Wenger 2008, p. 111). In order to get to this stage it is necessary to also understand the whole context of the profession and the wider sector. This transformative model, both for the individual and the community by social reproduction, leads ultimately to change, but also potential conflict due to competing views of practice and when differences in identity are experienced. Newcomers are caught in a dilemma. On the one hand, they need to engage in the existing practice, which has developed over time to understand it, to participate in it, and to become full members of the community in which it exists. On the other hand, they have a stake in its development as they begin to establish their own identity in its future. (Lave and Wenger 2008, p. 115)

Trainees may develop a vested interest in the placement and its development, particularly when a trainee observes practice which differs to their own ideals and professional identity. Learning within social groups can create a dilemma as consequent actions are heavily influenced by social conventions and cultural norms. The way an individual learns new specific behaviours associated within a new position, or social group, can result in dynamic identity development. This informal and incidental process of learning, should be guided by experienced colleagues and based on the individual needs of the trainee (Velzan et al. 2012; Jarvis 2010; Consuegra et al. 2014). The incidental learning that can take place within each community of practice is an area of particular interest, particularly as a model of professional identity development. A dual relationship exists between the

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identities and the different landscapes of practice. It is the constant shift and struggle between this that shapes the experience, transforms the community and enables transformation of the individual, unbound by measurable objectives. It is an ongoing and continually changing experience as specific interactions and activities take place over a series of events and not as isolated occurrences. Negotiation and learning within an often diverse and complex community of practice, continually creates new and shared histories, even when there are no serious conflicts. As the trainee moves through the stages of development, they begin to specialise and develop new ways of doing things; exert authority, comply with processes or challenge conventions. This can create a tension as established practice comes under question. Boud and Middleton (2003) argue that informal learning undertaken in the workplace can be considered as more valuable than formal learning experiences, due to three areas particularly significant within this context; mastery of organisational processes; negotiating the political; and dealing with the atypical. Informal and loosely-based relationships are particularly important when negotiating the “less tangible, political aspects of a job” (p. 199). Sideways learning, in particular to atypical problems is deemed as valuable learning opportunities in their research, as individuals address problems through informal interactions with peers, often resulting in the crossing of boundaries or work groups, and what they deem as overlapping of informal networks. Communities of practice as originally defined by Wenger (1998) could be regarded as a rather straight-jacketed notion and the reality is far more fluid, with naturally occurring relationships. Boud and Middleton (2003) argue that the idea of communities of practice may even limit the recognition of the learning that is more likely to be taking place in a far more complex manner, particularly within a sector that is typically in a constant state of flux.

Conclusion Williamson (2020) presents the view that “Further Education is vital if we want our country to grow economically and our productivity to improve.” FE is seen as the vehicle to help drive the country out of the looming recession brought about by the Covid-19 pandemic. However, more teachers are needed within the sector and the new ‘Taking Teaching Further’ programme is seen as a way to address this through fully funded places to industry experts.

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There is a vital need to bring the very best industry talent into the sector, so they can pass on their expertise and experience to both learners and fellow teachers and trainers. (Russell 2019)

The programme is classroom-based with practical support, including team teaching and work shadowing. As discussed in this chapter, concerns around the role and relationship with the mentor and the culture of the team are often raised by trainees. Some trainees experience poor practice whilst on placement, but feel powerless to raise this or make changes within the organisation, due to their trainee status. In order for the successful recruitment and subsequent support of teachers into this sector, several things need to happen. A revision and update to the way that teacher identity is developed needs to take place, alongside careful recruitment of experienced mentors within a team where the culture is one of positive challenge and change towards transformation, rather than mechanistic functioning within a top-down management structure. The next chapter reviews and examines alternative theories of learning, with a particular emphasis on incidental learning, providing discussions around this in relation to teacher identity development.

References Avis J, Bathmaker A, M (2004) “How do I cope with that?” The development of ‘schooling identities’ amongst trainee FE lecturers. Paper presented at the British Educational Research Association Conference at Manchester, 15–18 September 2004. Baxter Magolda, M (2003) Identity and learning: student affairs’ role in transforming HE. Journal of college student development. Pgs 231–247. Beijaard, D; Meijer, P; Verloop, N (2003) Reconsidering research on teachers’ professional identity. Teaching and Teacher Education, vol 20, 107–128. Boud, D; Middleton, H (2003) Learning from others at work: communities of practice and informal learning. Journal of workplace learning. Vol 15 (1) pgs 194–202. Bordieau, (1998) Practical Reason: On the Theory of Action. California: Stanford University Press. Brookfield, S.  D (1987) Developing Critical Thinkers: Challenging Adults to Explore Alternative Ways of Thinking and Acting. San Francisco : Jossey-Bass. Consuegra, E; Engels, N; Struyven, K (2014) Beginning teachers’ experience of the workplace learning environment in alternative teacher certification programs: A mixed methods approach. Teaching and Teacher Education, vol 42, 79–88.

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Cort, P; Harkonen, A; Volmari, K (2015) PROFF—Professionalisation of VET teachers for the future. CEDEFOP Available online at (PDF) PROFF— Professionalisation of VET teachers for the future (researchgate.net) Accessed on 30/12/2020. Diamond, C. T. P (1991) Teacher Education as Transformation. Milton Keynes: Open University Press Dixon, L; Jennings, A; Orr, K; Tummons, J (2010) Dominant discourses of pre-­ service teacher education and the exigencies of the workplace: an ethnographic study from English further education. Journal of vocational education and training, 62 (4). pp. 381–393. Education and Training Foundation (ETF) (2014a) Professional Standards for teachers and trainers in education and training—England. Available online at: www.et-­foundation.co.uk. Accessed on 06/07/2015. Education and Training Foundation (ETF) (2014b) Initial guidance for users of the professional standards for teachers and trainers in education –England. Available online at: www.et-­foundation.co.uk. Accessed on 08/10/2016. Evans, L (2015) Professionalism and professional development: what these research fields look like today—and what tomorrow should bring. Hilary place papers, 2nd Edition, University of Leeds.. Gilar, R; Ruiz, M; Costa, J (2007) Diary-based strategy assessment and its relationship to performance in a group of trainee teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, vol 23, 1334–1344. James, P; Unwin, L (2016) Fostering High Quality Vocational Further Education in Wales. HMSO.  Available online at: http://ppiw.org.uk/files/2016/01/ PPIW-­R eport-­F ostering-­H igh-­Q uality-­F urther-­E ducation-­i n-­Wales.pdf. Accessed on 21/03/2017. Jarvis, P (2010) Adult Education and Lifelong Learning. Theory and Practice. 4th Edition. London: Routledge. Jephcote, M; Salisbury, J (2009) Further education teachers’ accounts of their professional identities. Teaching and Teacher Education, vol 25, 966–972. Kegan, R. 1994. In over our heads: The mental demands of modern life., Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Lave, J; Wenger, E (2008) Situated learning. Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge: Cambridge university press. Lortie, D (1975) Schoolteacher: A sociological study. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Lucas, N; Unwin, L (2009) Developing teacher expertise at work: in-service trainee teachers in colleges of further education in England. Journal of Further and Higher Education Vol 33 (4) pp. 423–433. Nasta, A (2008) Translating National Standards into Practice for the Initial Training of Further Education Teachers in England. London: Institute of Education.

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OfSTED (2015) Initial Teacher Education Inspection Handbook. Available online at: www.ofsted.gov.uk. Accessed on 07/07/2015. Orr, K; Simmons, R (2011) Restrictive Practice: The Work-Based Learning Experience of Trainee Teachers in English Further Education Colleges. Journal of Workplace Learning, 23 (4). pp. 243–257. Pleasance, S (2016) Wider professional practice in education and training. London: Sage. Plowright, D; Barr, G (2012) An integrated professionalism in further education: a time for phronesis? Available online at: https://hull-­repository.worktribe. com/preview/468673/An%20integrated%20professionalism%20in%20further%20education.pdf Accessed on 27/10/2020. Rodgers, C. R; Scott, K. H (2008) The development of the personal self and professional identity in learning to teach. In Cochran-Smith, M; Feiman-Nernser, S; Mcintyre, J; Demers, K (eds) Handbook of Research on Teacher Education. 3rd Ed. New York and London: Routledge. Russell, D (2019) Taking Teaching Further. Available online at: https://www. fenews.co.uk/press-­r eleases/36131-­applications-­to-­become-­an-­fe-­teacher-­ through-­taking-­teaching-­further-­close-­on-­31-­october Accessed on 2/11/2020. Russell, K (2020) Mental Health and Well-being Project. Available online: https://www.uea.ac.uk/education/research/areas/other-­r esearch/sport-­ health-­a nd-­e ducation/our-­w ork/mental-­h ealth-­a nd-­w ellbeing-­t rainee-­ teachers-­project Accessed on 8/4/2020. Rytivaara, A; Kershner, R (2012) Co-teaching as a context for teachers’ professional learning and joint knowledge construction. Teaching and Teacher Education, vol 28, 999–1008. Sachs, J (2005) Teacher education and the development of professional identity: Learning to be a teacher. In Denicolo, P and Kompf, M (Eds) Connecting policy and practice. Challenges for teaching and learning in schools and universities (pp 5–21) Oxford: Routledge. Schön, D (2003) The reflective practitioner. How professionals think in action. London: Ashgate. Seidel, T; Stürmer, K (2014) Modelling and Measuring the structure of professional vision for preservice teachers. American Educational Research Journal. Vol 51 (4) 739–771. Tickle, L (2000) Teacher induction: The way ahead. Buckingham: Open University Press. Velzen, C; Volman, M; Brekelmans, M; White, S (2012) Guided work-based learning: sharing practical teaching knowledge with student teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, vol 28, 229–239.

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Wenger, E (1998) Communities of Practice: Learning as a Social System. The systems thinker. Available online: The Systems Thinker – Communities of Practice: Learning as a Social System - The Systems Thinker. Accessed on 2/11/2021. Williamson, G (2020) FE Reform. Available online at: Gavin Williamson’s speech on FE reform: The full text (feweek.co.uk) accessed on: 29/12/2020. Winch, C (2006) Education, Autonomy and Critical Thinking. London: Routledge.

CHAPTER 3

A Theoretical Framework for Incidental Learning

Chapter Introduction Government policy ultimately determines what kind of learning is valued within society. Within the current neo-liberal ideology, the purpose of education is employability and ‘job readiness.’ This has resulted in the FE sector being dominated by an outcome-based model. This state-funded education system, is heavily regulated and teachers are held accountable through a variety of data-based quality measures, such as internal and external inspections. Teacher identity development has not been prioritised by either senior management or government, resulting in underdeveloped or conflicted professional teacher identity (Kennedy 2005). Teacher development programmes have become ever-increasingly prescribed with an emphasis on learning about procedures and underpinned by professional standards, rather than based on an individualised approach to achieving personal goals (Desimone 2009). This chapter explores literature written around the concepts of learning with a particular focus on incidental learning. This type of learning is unique to the individual, focused on experience as a catalyst for reflection and leads to tacit knowledge development. This is an area that has often been ignored due to its hidden, often serendipitous nature. The largely unplanned and extremely personal characteristic of incidental learning can make it challenging to research and interpret. However, because it is most

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prevalent in non-routine and unpredictable situations, it is a key type of learning for teachers, and particularly trainee teachers (Marsick and Watkins 1992). Existing literature suggests strategies to make incidental learning more prominent and in turn easier to identify, interpret and apply. However, little research has been carried out with particular regard to the impact that incidental learning has on professional identity development, in the context of ITE. Key factors are presented as a theoretical framework in this chapter. This framework supports the trainee teacher when faced with disjuncture so that incidental learning is more likely to be noticed and lead to changes to future practice.

Defining Different Types of Learning Learning can be classified in terms of different types, such as formal, non-­ formal, informal and incidental. Formal learning is defined as any education and training that is organised by professional educators and takes place in an institution of education. There is normally a defined curriculum, with pre-set learning outcomes, leading to qualifications. In contrast, non-formal learning normally takes place in the workplace or the community and can be a one off instruction that meets an individual need, or an on-going learning experience. It can involve support from more knowledgeable others, such as mentors and although it can be pre-planned, it does not necessarily lead to a qualification as such (Jarvis 2010; Foley 2004). Informal learning does not involve any formal instruction and is unplanned and pre-conscious. According to Jeffs and Smith (2005), the important aspect that differentiates this type of learning from formal learning, is that it happens outside of the traditional classroom. Halliday-Wynes and Beddie (2009) define informal learning as “learning resulting from daily work-related, family or leisure activities” (p. 2). The learning experience develops in a responsive, individual, self-directed way without being consciously pre-organised, often within the workplace (Tough 1979). Incidental learning differs from informal and non-formal learning, defined by Marsick and Watkins (1990) as learning that occurs in an unstructured way and as a derivative of another activity. Incidental learning is defined as a by-product of some other activity, such as task accomplishment, interpersonal interaction, sensing the organisational culture, or trial and error experimentation. As such, it is never planned or intentional. (p. 7)

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Informal Learning

Incidental Learning Fig. 3.1  The position of incidental learning in relation to formal and informal learning

In other words, incidental learning is learning from mistakes, assumptions or beliefs that have been challenged, and it requires the process of internally re-constructed understanding. Incidental learning in contrast to other types of learning is spontaneous and by its very nature, unplanned and can therefore happen within any of the other types of learning. This is what makes this a unique type of learning. Incidental learning is often discussed alongside informal learning and is at times seen as a component, or subcategory of informal learning (Marsick and Watkins 1992; Gilley et al. 2001; Polly 2007; Hunter 2014). However, I argue that incidental learning can occur in a variety of settings and alongside both formal and informal learning. Incidental learning is therefore a type of learning in its own right and should not be thought of as a sub-set of informal learning (Fig. 3.1).

A Definition of Incidental Learning The concept of incidental learning was first presented in 1942, as learning that takes place without specified formal instruction, motive or given material (McGeouch 1952). Although incidental learning can take place as part of a prescribed and formally delivered curriculum, or course of study in a traditional learning environment, such as a classroom context, it is nevertheless by definition unplanned and unexpected. This means that it is never intentional. It is serendipitous and always takes place as part of another activity. It is largely coincidental and therefore hidden, or buried within other tasks and most effective when situated and social (Kerka 2000; Hunter 2010). Marsick and Watkins (1990) established that incidental learning most likely occurs when something being experienced by the learner is non-­ routine, often a by-product of other learning experiences, often prevalent within a non-traditional learning environment, such as the workplace.

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A certain degree of attention needs to be in place by the individual if incidental learning is to be recognised when it takes place. Even though this often happens within the normal course of daily events, non-routine activities harvest more opportunities for the unexpected. In order to capture and utilise learning opportunities, it is necessary for people to “shift their attention to these by-product messages and see them clearly before they can learn” (p.  14). This can take place through mistakes, as well as successes. In later research, Marsick and Watkins (2001) argued that incidental learning is prevalent in a teaching role, due to the dynamic nature of the teaching and learning environment. Although the curriculum is a known quantity, the unpredictability of the teaching role and the dynamics of the learning environment creates the sort of conditions where incidental learning can flourish. However, people have to have the need, motivation and opportunity before learning from this type of experience can happen, as well as support to direct attention to the learning in order to interpret and apply it. When people learn incidentally, their learning may be taken for granted, tacit or unconscious. However, a passing insight can then be probed and intentionally explored. (Marsick and Watkins 2001, p. 26)

The hidden and personalised nature of incidental learning, presents challenges and is one of the main reasons why it remains an area that is under researched and deemed to lack value. Incidental learning is not pre-­ planned, arranged or pre-considered. By its very nature, it is a spontaneous learning experience and unpredictable. Halliday-Wynes and Beddie (2009) warn against giving too much structure to this type of learning as this can potentially stifle the very nature and associated benefits. Incidental learning takes place in a number of ways, but needs some sort of trigger or external stimulus which forces the individual to question their existing knowledge, or position on a subject. Due to the unstructured, personal nature of incidental learning, it is difficult to measure what has been learnt and the quality of the learning in terms of the impact that this has. It is often viewed as a flawed type of learning which should not be used to build knowledge. However, if an individual has access to a more knowledgeable other, rather than working in isolation, they are more likely to have support and guidance which leads to a meaningful learning experience. An important consideration here is

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the way that the learner engages with incidents as they happen and the context within which these types of learning experiences take place, such as the teaching environment. This is what Marsick and Watkins (2001) identify as the “worldview” (p. 29) held by the individual that frames what our attention is drawn to and how the trigger is subsequently interpreted. Incidental learning can also be defined as a natural form of learning, due to the inherent nature, often occurring through experience that is self-directed by the learner. The focus of the learning is the experience of the learner and the reflection that takes place. Kolb (1984) argued that it is the interaction between content and experience that is of most importance. It is the way that this is conceptualised by the individual and the meaning that is made from experience, which means that learning is taking place through natural occurrences. The Covid-19 pandemic has resulted in a worldwide crisis, forcing whole nations into lockdown and away from a Neo-liberal ideology, albeit temporarily (Gov.uk 2020). Businesses are having to rethink the way that they operate under these new restrictions, education included. Teachers, faced with the need to teach remotely are driven to find creative solutions triggered by this major disjuncture. This has not only led to individuals updating skills and knowledge in order to function in a changed landscape, but the very structure and nature of education has come under review as society adjusts to what has become a ‘new normal’ (Quilter-­ Pinner and Ambrose 2020).

The Key Factors that Impact on the Way Incidental Learning Is Experienced and Engaged with There is a danger that incidental learning opportunities are not always noticed, or interpreted fully and are therefore going unrecognised and ultimately lost. Potential ‘blind spots’ exist, when an individual’s own knowledge, prior experience, assumptions and values, result in a limited interpretation. This notion of non-learning, or learning the wrong thing and even the very nature of the ‘hit or miss’ style of learning is seen as problematic, leading to a lack of value placed on incidental learning (Kerka 2000). By identifying key factors to create a theoretical framework, incidental learning can become more widely valued in education, particularly in the field of workplace learning and professional development.

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A trigger or surprise incident is widely viewed as the initial occurrence that takes place in incidental learning. This unplanned disjuncture, often a by-product of another experience or activity, forces individuals to find new knowledge, new explanations or new ways of doing things because they are not in harmony with the world around them. This disjuncture is subject to interpretation and is related to the individuals’ prior knowledge (Marsick and Watkins 2001; Jarvis 2010). It can be argued that initially professional identity determines the disjuncture that an individual chooses to recognise and respond to. The individuals’ professional identity is shaped through prior experience and the context they operate within, and as such can limit what they are able to ‘notice’ (Gilley et al. 2001). Due to the hidden nature of incidental learning, social interaction is deemed as a critical element in the way that incidental learning leads to knowledge development (Jarvis 2010; Kerka 2000; Hunter 2010). The opportunity to interact with peers and especially more knowledgeable others, within a community of practice is also a way to move knowledge forwards, particularly in terms of professional behaviours and professional culture of an organisation (Lave and Wenger 2008; Polly 2007; Halliday-­ Wynes and Beddie 2009). Marsick and Watkins (1992) argue that although incidental learning primarily occurs intrinsically on a personal, individual level, it is through critical reflective engagement on the experience and in collaboration with others that meaning can come from such insights. They discuss this in terms of the continuous and collective learning that takes place within organisations. They include context be it personal, social, business or cultural as an additional, critical aspect of the way in which an individual engages with incidental learning. The context plays a pivotal role in how the individual interprets the learning experience and the actions that they choose to take. Research undertaken by Hunter (2014) highlighted the importance for participants to remain alert and receptive to potential learning within a variety of contexts, both professionally and personally. Through observation and subsequent reflection on learning experiences, the participants were able to file away as much as possible in the hope that it might have some use in their professional role, at a later date. This is a successful way to holistically approach learning as “woven into the fabric” of everyday experiences (Hunter 2014, p. 51). The individual is responsive on a very personal level, often involved in creative solutions and innovation that this type of learning can present, due to its unbounded nature. This makes it a

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cost effective and efficient type of professional learning. However, due to its unstructured and unmeasurable nature, organisations were prone to continue to isolate professional development away from other aspects of life and work (Passmore et al. 2019). Incidental learning enables individuals the transition to a more learner-­ centred, self-directed, autonomous style of learning, resulting in valuable, personally-significant learning which holds transferability. Over the past two years during the Covid-19 pandemic, teachers have been forced to respond on an individual level, finding pedagogical solutions to ensure that teaching and learning continues. Incidental learning is not without criticism. Concerns around lack of clarity about content and expectations, leads to stressful experiences for some learners (Crawford and Machemer 2008). Kerka (2000) further criticised incidental learning because it is guilty of ignoring some of the established, agreed principles of instructional design that is used in formal types of learning situations, such as learning outcomes. Although it is not possible to plan incidental learning in a formal manner, it is important that learners are supported and guided through incidental learning experiences, regardless of setting or context. Marsick and Watkins (2001) stressed the importance of offering strategies so that incidental learning is made more visible and in turn becomes a more rigorous learning experience. This is particularly true for trainee teachers who are often launched within established communities of practice, which can heavily influence their interpretation of learning experiences.

Concepts Around Adult Learning Adult education was first defined by Lindeman in 1926 as a new concept that was valuable for all, regardless of position or prior learning experiences. Central to adult learning was experience which he believed provided an opportunity for rich learning to take place on an individual basis. Lindeman argued against simply “studying ‘subjects’ in the hope that one day this information will be useful,” preferring instead a more informal type of learning. my conception of adult education is this: a cooperative venture in non-­ authoritarian, informal learning, the chief purpose of which is to discover the meaning of experience. (Lindeman, 1926, as cited in Gessner 1956, p. 166)

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Dewey (1958) also challenged the formal education system as rigid, arguing instead for experience as the root for all learning. He proposed the idea that identity is modified through experience, and as such, future experiences are altered, “For it is a somewhat different person who enters into them” (p. 27). Significance of an action is only learnt when the consequences of such actions are understood from previous experiences. Once an experience has become familiar to an individual, implicit knowledge of consequences develops and it is only within unfamiliar experiences that a degree of immediate reflection is required. A process of observation linked to prior knowledge and judgement is critical in order to make informed decisions. This can be more effective if a learner has the support of a more experienced person, thus ensuring that a broader perspective ensues, removing the potential of limitation based on current individual context and perception. This type of learning also needs a certain amount of independence, creativity to the unexpected, perceived self-efficacy and prior experience, as well as being able to accept responsibility for learning (Jourard 1972). Jarvis (1987) believed that all adult learning should take place through life experiences, within social context. However, in order for learning to take place there needs to be a readiness to learn and a certain amount of learner autonomy. People can ultimately become agents of change as they become knowledgeable and experienced in their chosen topic. Adults learn through experience and are more able to define their learning needs, personal goals, what they expect to learn and what they regard as relevant to their practice. The curriculum should be structured around the needs of the individual and the subject matter generated as a collaborative act between the learner and the teacher (Knowles et al. 2005). Ryle (2009) proposed that knowledge does not only consist of an accumulation of facts, but it is the mastery of these methods through putting them into practice, which is of significance and leads to mastery learning.

Tacit Knowledge Tacit knowledge is defined by Polanyi (2009), as knowledge derived from acts of discovery which are personal and motivated by passions. It is internalised and can be further defined as knowledge that you cannot explain, or articulate and as such it is personal knowledge rather than theoretical or practical knowledge. Tacit knowledge includes sensory, conceptual information and images that can be drawn from to make sense of something,

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and in turn continues to build through the process of discovery and active comprehension. Whereas explicit knowledge is the tip of the iceberg, and as such is both visible and expressible, tacit, or implicit knowledge is everything else and as such is highly personal and hard to formalise (Lewis 2017). Tacit knowledge is a personal type of knowledge, developed through experience and therefore making tacit knowledge explicit, requires awareness and representation, both of which can be challenging (Eraut 2000; Horvarth et al. 1996; Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995). Individuals are more likely to talk explicitly about knowledge that has been gathered through non-formal learning opportunities if they have experienced some form of crisis which “caused people to exchange opinions and experiences, sometimes also making values more explicit” (Eraut 2000, p. 120). Tacit knowledge provides the basis from which to recognise the rule of conduct, by drawing attention to the context and conditions where it is appropriate to exercise such rules. That, according to Eraut (2000) “is when the ‘real’ tacit knowledge begins to be disclosed and further learning is more likely to occur” (p.  124). Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) describe knowledge construction through an interactive spiral which relies on an interplay between both extrinsic and intrinsic (tacit) knowledge, though experience and internalisation.

Transformational Learning For Bruner (1972) learning was seen as the process of widening skills and knowledge, leading to a deepening of understanding and was as such transformational. Habermas (cited in Murphy 2013) argued that a learner must confront their cultural, corporate beliefs, community and family values at the same time as they confront the self, resulting in practical action for change. “The ultimate point of the learning game is to be found in knowing oneself and the consequent change of belief and behaviour that inevitably follows” (Habermas, cited in Murphy 2013, p. 72). Perspective transformation is based on the belief that we interpret our experiences and how we see the world, as a result of our perceptions of our experiences. Mezirow (1991) argued that habitual expectations can include distortions and stereo-types which we are guided by until we experience a situation which is different and challenges our expectations. This triggers the process that can lead to a transformed perspective, and a shift to an individuals’ world view.

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[Perspective transformation] is the process of becoming critically aware of how and who our presuppositions have come to constrain the way we perceive, understand and feel about our world. (Mezirow 1991, p. 14)

A transformative model for professional development, is structured around personal experience of encountered problems which have been reflected on in order to have significance on current and future performance. Eraut (1994) argued that “Professional knowledge is constructed through experience and its nature depends on the cumulative acquisition, selection and interpretation of that experience” (p. 20). The majority of this learning occurs in context and although some of the problem solving that a teacher undertakes involves pro-active reflection, “much of it has to be reactive with decisions being taken in mid-performance” (p. 38). Eraut described a three stage transformative model of professionalism (Table 3.1). Eraut (1994) argued that professional knowledge can only be learnt in practice and is dependent on the quality of the practice experience and the role that the mentor undertakes when supporting a trainee. The quality of the professional placement depends not only on the skills, experience and attitudes of the mentor and the wider team, but also on the continuous development of the mentor which ensures that their practice has remained current. This tends to occur over a period of time and once a repetition of the experience has happened, in order for sound generalisations to be made. The pathway to competence is characterised mainly by the ability to recognise features of practical situations and to discriminate between them, to carry out routine procedures under pressure and to plan ahead. (p. 125) Table 3.1  Transformative model of professional development Transmission

Individual is passive in the process. Normally associated with a criteria-­ based training model, such as mapping against professional standards Transitional More active process which involves some level of coaching or mentoring from a more knowledgeable other, or Community of Practice Transformative Individual is fully active and takes responsibility for their professional development, this can be through action research and leads to change in practice. This involves reflection and development of tacit and explicit knowledge

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According to Eraut (1994), the placement provides rich opportunities to discuss practice and raise concerns while they remain current. He concluded that “theoretical ideas usually cannot be applied ‘off-the-shelf’, their implications have to be worked out and thought through” (Eraut 1994, p. 71). However, this involves time and regular access to a more-­ knowledgeable other which often the trainee teacher may not have, and so is more likely to develop a more intuitive grasp of teaching and pedagogical concepts. This is something that experienced and inexperienced teachers alike recently faced during the pandemic as they tried to establish ways of working in an unfamiliar context, through different online learning platforms.

Reflective Practice Reflection has firmly been established as a key, central aspect within knowledge development through the continual conceptualisation of practice experience (Dewey 1933; Boud et  al. 1985; Loughran 2002; Schön 2003). Reflection can take place in different ways, often internalised through thoughts and ultimately written down, although not always. Reflective practice, according to Loughran (2002), is undertaken by framing and reframing a puzzling or perplexing situation which is identified as a problem, in order to arrive at a possible way forwards, particularly in regards to learning about teaching. The ‘way in’ to reflection—the need to reflect—the context, the nature of the problem, and the anticipated value of such reflection all impact on what is reflected on and for what purpose. Simply being encouraged to reflect is likely to be as meaningful as a lecture on cooperative group work. (Loughran 2002, p. 33)

Reflection undertaken by trainee teachers is seen as a way to document action in order to identify what could be replicated, or what changes need to be made to ensure future success and is one of the professional standards (ETF 2014). However, although reflection is an expectation within teacher education programmes, there is often little opportunity for “guided practice in self-reflection” (Gay and Kirkland 2003, p.  182). What Danielewicz (2001) argues for is the embodiment of reflection within the programme so that trainee teachers may fully utilise this in practice by developing the habit of reflection in their own learning environments.

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Although an individual may experience some form of disjuncture, it is only through the act of critical reflection, both individually and with others, that incidental learning can become part of knowledge creation (Marsick and Watkins 2001; Foley 2004). This relates to an idea proposed by Dewey (1933) that a forked road leading to dilemma, forces an opportunity for an individual to engage with an experience and in so doing reflect, in order to find a solution. It is not just the act of reflection which is important, but the way that this is externalised through social interaction (Jeffs and Smith 2005) and this can take place, not only after an event, but also during the experience itself, as ‘reflection-in-action’ (Schön 2003; Clarke 2006). In order for reflection to be successful, Boud et al. (1993) proposed that it needs to include an opportunity to revisit the experience as a way to recall important details, connect with and attend to feelings and subsequently evaluate the experience. Reflection is therefore at the heart of developing understanding about the way one works, in order to become a skilled practitioner, by developing professional judgement, supported with critical feedback (Day 1999; Molloy and Boud 2013).

A Theoretical Framework for Incidental Learning Based on the models proposed by both Brasher et al. (2012) and Polly (2007) as well as key factors outlined in the secondary research, I have created a theoretical framework for incidental learning (Fig.  3.2). This makes it possible to make incidental learning more explicit, in order to be able to capture these significant incidences, and use these in an insightful way. Experiencing disjuncture is only one part of incidental learning. How the other factors operate in order to shape professional identity, future knowledge, skills or practice is equally important (Table 3.2). The central sphere is the space where incidental learning occurs. Identity and reflective practice are included in this space, but overlap with context as these are influenced and ultimately shaped within context of prior, existing experience, as well as political landscapes. The lines are not solid to reflect this movement between these areas. Included within identity are different elements such as desire and intentionality to learn, self-­ efficacy, noticing and creativity in solving problems (Gilley et al. 2001). These characteristics, arrived at after a review of both current and historical literature, are deemed as being significant in the field of research into incidental learning. Additionally, I have drawn on my own experience as a

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Non- learning

Disjuncture

Identity

Incidental Learning Space

Tacit Knowledge

Reflective practice

The Mentor Context :Prior Experience and the Community of Practice

Context: Political

Fig. 3.2  Theoretical Framework for Incidental Learning

teacher educator when deciding upon the factors to be included. Identity determines the way an individual engages with disjuncture, either in a confident and well-informed manner, or not at all. The experience of the disjuncture has an impact on professional identity, leading to further development of identity, through the process of reflection and tacit knowledge. After disjuncture has happened, this experience adds to pre-existing, individual tacit knowledge which is implicit, rather than explicit knowledge. This means that it is difficult for the individual to conceptualise, thus restricting the use of this knowledge to inform future practice (Eraut

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Table 3.2  Index for the theoretical framework Element Identity

Explanation

The way an individual perceives themselves. Shaped through a process of interpretation and re-interpretation and through interaction with others and the environment. It is dynamic and shifting through stages of development and informed by own values Disjuncture When individuals are forced to find new knowledge, new explanations or new ways of doing things because they are not in harmony with the world around them (trigger) Tacit knowledge Knowledge derived from acts of discovery which are personal. It is internalised knowledge that you cannot explain, or articulate and as such it is personal knowledge rather than theoretical or practical knowledge Reflective Reflective practice is undertaken by framing practice and reframing a puzzling or perplexing situation which is identified as a problem, in order to arrive at a possible way forwards, particularly in regards to learning about teaching The mentor The qualified teacher in the placement who is identified to provide pedagogical and subject specialist support and guidance. Incidental Learning from mistakes, assumptions, or learning beliefs that have been challenged. It requires the process of internally re-constructed understanding Unplanned, unexpected, unintentional type of learning. It is serendipitous and always takes place as part of another activity. It is largely coincidental and therefore hidden, or buried within other tasks and most effective when situated and social Incidental The place where incidental learning occurs as learning space a result of the other factors operating in this space (identity; disjuncture; tacit knowledge; reflection).

Source Avis and Bathmaker (2004), Rodgers and Scott (2008), Jephcote and Salisbury (2009), Beijaard et al. (2003), Schepens et al. (2009) Marsick and Watkins (2001), Jarvis (2010)

Polanyi (2009), Lewis (2017), Eraut (2000), Horvarth et al. (1996), Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) Loughran (2002), Marsick and Watkins (2001), Foley (2004), Jeffs and Smith (2005)

Marsick and Watkins (1992), Kerka (2000), Hunter (2010)

(continued)

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Table 3.2  (continued) Element

Explanation

Source

Context: Prior experience and Community of Practice

We interpret our experiences and how we see the world is a result of our perceptions of our experiences. We develop habitual expectations based on past experiences and we expect things to be as they have always been which can include distortions and stereo-types which we are guided by until we experience a situation which is different and challenges our expectations. This triggers the process that can lead to a transformed perspective, and a shift to an individuals’ world view. This should happen as a social activity with others who share the same community of practice Wider, external forces and values that are driven from government and other stakeholders which create additional pressure in the role

Mezirow (1991)

Context: Political

Arrows

Lines used

Matheson and Matheson (1996), Aspin and Chapman (2001), Rodgers and Scott (2008)

The arrows denote the direction that the cycle operates in. Other adaptions of the model identify variants to this The lines are not solid to illustrate the inter-relationship between the different factors in the model

1994; Polanyi 2009). However, if the individual spends time reflecting back on the incident then the incidental learning becomes more meaningful. It is in this period of reflection and engagement in an established community of practice with more knowledgeable others, that the learner can see all aspects of the experience and critically examine these, within the context of prior knowledge and experiences (Loughran 2002). This can happen either on an individual level, or by learning from peers/mentors and colleagues within a community of practice. Through social interaction, an individual increases their ability to ‘notice’ and the more precise their ‘noticing’ or ‘professional vision’ becomes. This then becomes part of their explicit, cognitive knowledge. A decision to combine prior experience and the community of practice was made because of the symbiotic relationship between these.

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The more an individual experiences and reflects the more skilled they become at the act of reflection. Therefore, the symbiotic relationship between reflective practice and disjuncture, determines the perception and engagement with both of these. Alongside this, professional identity develops further through the act of reflective practice which builds both personal, tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge. Ultimately, this leads to change in practice through strategic critical thinking. However, incidental learning through social interaction is also determined by context. Existing knowledge and prior experience an individual has through work or life impacts on the way they engage with every factor within this framework. In addition, political context has an impact on the experience for the individual. By making this context explicit to trainee teachers they are able to recognise potential limiting factors that impact on the way they engage with each key factor in the framework. In doing so, incidental learning is more likely to lead to meaningful learning which impacts on the development of each key factor and change in practice.

Conclusion Teacher identity development is a complex, dynamic phenomenon, shaped through experience and different, often conflicting factors. What I believe is that incidental learning offers a unique, very personal learning opportunity which is particularly suitable for trainee teachers and the challenges they face within the teaching practice placement. The teaching and learning environment is a hot bed for disjuncture, the catalyst for incidental learning. Although this can provide opportunities for learning, it can also cause anxiety and stress for an inexperienced or trainee teacher. By providing a clear framework it is anticipated that trainee teachers will be better equipped to identify, interpret and therefore make use of incidental learning as and when it naturally occurs. A combination of formal and informal learning experiences can foster the development of deeper knowledge as the individual constructs their own meaning, particular to their own needs and prior skills and knowledge, via incidental learning. I present the argument that this is of particular relevance to the development of professional identity. Incidental learning provides individuals with an opportunity to develop a more autonomous approach to learning which also leads to emancipation and

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empowerment, something that I believe is central to the successful career of a teacher within this demanding sector (Crawford and Machemer 2008). I propose that incidental learning can provide the knowledge of the teaching experience for trainee teachers, and more experienced teachers, to move from a purely transmission style of delivery to transitional and with the right factors in place to support their development, ultimately, transformative teachers.

References Aspin, D; Chapman, J (2001) Lifelong learning: concepts, theories and values. Paper presented at SCUTREA, 31st Annual conference, University of East London. Avis J, Bathmaker A. M (2004) “How do I cope with that?” The development of ‘schooling identities’ amongst trainee FE lecturers. Paper presented at the British Educational Research Association Conference at Manchester, 15–18 September 2004. Beijaard, D; Meijer, P; Verloop, N (2003) Reconsidering research on teachers’ professional identity. Teaching and Teacher Education, vol 20, 107–128. Boud, D; Cohen, R; Walker, D (1993) Using experience for learning. Buckingham: Open university press. Boud, D; Keogh, R; Walker, D (1985) Reflection. Thinking experience into learning. London: Kogan Page. Brasher, A; Dunwell, I; Akiki, O; Gaved, M (2012) Incidental Learning Framework. Available online at: http://oro.open.ac.uk/39698/ accessed on 22/01/2018. Bruner, J (1972) The relevance of education. Trowbridge: Redwood Press Limited. Clarke, A (2006) The nature and substance of cooperating teacher reflection. Teaching and Teacher Education, vol 22, 910–921. Crawford, P; Machemer, P (2008) Measuring incidental learning in a PBL environment. Journal of faculty development. Vol 22 (2) pgs 104–111. Danielewicz, J (2001) Teaching selves: Identity, pedagogy and teacher education. New York: SUNY press. Day, C (1999) Researching teaching through reflective practice. London: Falmer. Dewey, J (1933) How we think. New York: D.C Heath and Co. Dewey, J (1958) Experience and Education. New York: The Macmillan Company. Desimone, L (2009) Improving impact studies of teachers’ professional development: Toward better conceptualizations and measures. Educational Researcher, 38 (3), 181–199.

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Education and Training Foundation (ETF) (2014) Professional Standards for teachers and trainers in education and training—England. Available online at: www.et-­foundation.co.uk. Accessed on 06/07/2015. Eraut, M (1994) Developing professional knowledge and competence. London: The Falmer Press. Eraut, M (2000) Non-formal learning and tacit knowledge in professional work. British Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol 70, 113–136. Foley, G (2004) Dimensions of Adult Learning. Adult education and training in a global era. Berkshire: Open University Press. Gay, G; Kirkland, K (2003) Developing cultural critical consciousness and self-­ reflection in preservice teacher education. Theory into practice, vol 42:3. Gessner, R (1956) The democtratic man. Selected writings of Edward Lindeman. Boston: Beacon. Gilley, J.W; Dean, P; Bierema, L (2001) Philosophy and practice of organisational learning, performance and change. Cambridge: Perseus Books Group. Gov.UK (2020) Coronavirus (COVID-19): guidance. Available online: www.gov. uk Accessed on 10/4/2020. Halliday-Wynes, S; Beddie, F (2009) Informal Learning at a Glance. Available online at: www.NCVER.edu.org. Accessed on 12/6/2015. Horvarth, J; Sternberg, R; Forsyth, E; Bullis, R; Williams, W; Sweeney, P (1996) Implicit theories of leadership practice. Paper presented at the Annual meeting of AERA, New York. Hunter, C (2010) Ways of learning in the pharmaceutical sales industry. Journal of workplace learning. Vol 22 (7) pgs 451–462. Hunter, C (2014) Perspectives in AE. Intentional incidental learning in the workplace: implications for adult learning. New horizons in adult education and human resource development. Vol 26 (2) pgs 49–53. Jarvis, P (1987) Adult Learning in the Social Context. Kent: Croon Helm Ltd. Jarvis, P (2010) Adult Education and Lifelong Learning. Theory and Practice. 4th Edition. London: Routledge. Jeffs, T; Smith, M (2005) Informal Education: conversation, democracy and learning. 3rd Edition. Nottingham: Educational Heretics Press. Jephcote, M; Salisbury, J (2009) Further education teachers’ accounts of their professional identities. Teaching and Teacher Education, vol 25, 966–972. Jourard, S, M (1972) Fascination. A phenomenological perspective on independent learning. The psychology of open teaching and learning. Boston: Little Brown. Kennedy, A (2005) Models of continuing professional development: a framework for analysis. Journal of In-Service Education, 31 (2), 235–250.

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Kerka, S (2000) Incidental Learning. Trends and issues. No18. ERIC clearing house on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education. Available online: www.ericacve.org/fulltext.asp. Knowles, M; Holton, E; Swanson, R (2005) The adult learner. Sixth edition. London: Elsevier. Kolb, D (1984) Experiential Learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. London: Pearson. Lave, J; Wenger, E (2008) Situated learning. Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge: Cambridge university press. Lewis, P (2017) Building Tacit Knowledge programs for B-schools. Journal of Higher Education Theory and Practice. Vol 17 (4) pgs 48–56. Loughran, J (2002) Effective reflective practice. In search of meaning in learning about teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, vol 53 (1), pp. 33–43. Marsick, V; Watkins, K (1990). Models of informal and incidental learning. Model of mentoring in HE. Marsick, V; Watkins, K (1992) Towards a theory of informal and incidental learning in organsiations. International journal of lifelong education. Vol11 (4) pgs 287–300. Marsick, V; Watkins, K (2001) Informal and incidental learning. New directions for adult and continuing education Vol 89. p. 25–34. Matheson, D; Matheson, C (1996) Lifelong learning and lifelong education: a critique. Research in Post-Compulsory Education, Vol 1. p. 219–236. McGeouch, A (1952) The Psychology of Human Learning. London: Longmans. Mezirow, J (1991) Transformative Dimensions of Adult Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Molloy, E.K; Boud, D (2013) Seeking a different angle on feedback in clinical education. The learner as seeker, judge and user of performance information. Medical Education, vol 47, pp. 227–229. Murphy, M (2013) Social Theory and Education Research. Understanding Foucault, Habermas, Bourdieu and Derrida. London: Routledge. Nonaka, I; Takeuchi, H (1995) The knowledge creating company: How Japanese companies create the dynamics of innovation. New York: Oxford University Press. Passmore, G; Turner, A; Prescott, J (2019) Identity Structure Analysis and Teacher Mentorship: Across the context of schools and the individual. Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillon. Polanyi, M (2009) The tacit dimension. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Polly, S (2007) An epistemology of incidental learning. Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Quilter-Pinner, H; Ambrose, A (2020) The ‘new normal’ The future of education after Covid-19. Institute for Public Policy Research. Available online at: the-­ new-­normal-­oct20.pdf (ippr.org) Accessed on 29/12/2020.

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CHAPTER 4

Methodological Approach

Introduction and Biographical Context of the Author While the [FE] sector use available evidence to inform strategic decision making and teaching practice, there is work to do in building a structured and systematic approach to producing and sharing evidence with practitioners on the ground. When compared to other areas such as early years education, there is limited evidence on the effectiveness of different interventions, what works for whom and in what context, and very little information on the cost effectiveness of interventions. (Social Mobility Commission 2020, p. 2)

Training to be a teacher in any sector can be challenging, made manageable by the support offered from an experienced, professional mentor and the wider team. There is a depth of knowledge and research around this topic, but this tends to be drawn from the compulsory and Higher Education sectors. Over the past twenty five years, working as a teacher in the FE and Skills sector, I have experienced the turbulent nature of the FE sector first hand. Annual restructures brought about by ever changing policy and re-imagining of this sector, alongside underinvestment, has resulted in the constant need for recruitment of new teachers. However, as this sector continues to draw new teachers from industry, the

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professional development programmes and support which is in place, remains increasingly critical to the retention and mental well-being of these teachers. The Augar Review, published in 2020, identified a number of key areas that need to be addressed within the FE and Skills sector, investment in the workforce being one of them. The vision includes a greatly enlarged and professionalised workforce with clear progression routes and development opportunities. What remains as the most “important barrier to workforce improvement is simply a lack of money” (Morgan 2020) and the inability for the sector to currently be able to compete with the salaries being offered within the schools or HE sectors. A recommendation was made in the review to improve the financial position of the sector so in turn it becomes possible to attract and retain good staff. It is from this political backdrop that I undertook this research study in order to explore the impact that incidental learning has on the development of professional skills and knowledge for pre-service trainee teachers. I particularly focussed on trainee teachers studying a full time Initial Teacher Education (ITE) 14+ programme. The theoretical framework, derived from secondary research was applied throughout the primary research stage in order to critically appraise and make subsequent adaptions, based on data collected. Cohen et al. (2008) argue for a research approach which is a combination of deductive and inductive reasoning. This provides the researcher an opportunity to become involved “in a back-and-forth process of induction (from observation to hypothesis, from the specific to the general) and deduction (from hypothesis to implications)” (p.  5). This results in rigorous testing of hypothesis and a revision, if necessary. This iterative approach to research allows the researcher to return to experience to validate research findings and provides an opportunity for research to be self-­correcting. This builds theory from the field in a dynamic way. As a researcher working in the field it is necessary to understand the needs of the trainees and by taking an empathic stance it becomes possible to start to understand their world from their point of view. It is also important to note that my experience of teaching in the sector provides me with a well-informed professional viewpoint of what a teaching role in the FE sector constitutes. This experience is also fairly recent, having

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only moved into the HE sector in 2014, but having continued to work closely with colleagues in the FE sector as the Lead for PGCE 14+ programmes. I hold the position that a teacher learns most about what it means to be a teacher while on the job, through teaching experience. They also gain valuable knowledge through formal lectures, identified key theories and texts, and participating in structured discussions with peers and experienced teachers. However, it is my belief that it is through engaging with critical reflection based on incidental learning that occurs while actually teaching, that a teacher develops their professional teacher identify. Through experiencing the dynamic nature of the teaching role, a trainee teacher develops their expertise through guided reflection, ideally within a functioning community of practice. This chapter explores these ideas through primary data collection tools in order to identify and analyse ways to make explicit and tangible, what is typically a type of learning associated with implicit, individual and internalised processes.

The Research Approach Since the 1960’s the growth area of social science research based on an interpretivist paradigmatic position led to disputes over what constitutes as “legitimate research methods and approaches” (Punch and Oancea 2014, p. 17). This has resulted in a move to far more mainstream qualitative research methods being used and recognised as holding value, particularly in the area of educational research. The social world can only be understood through the experiences and standpoint of the individuals taking part in the research and their continued interpretations of the world around them. By placing the individual participants at the heart of the study, understanding can develop from within their context and perceptions of their world, resulting in potential recommendation for changes to practice (Cohen et al. 2008). Underpinning an interpretivist approach is the belief that situations are fluid and ever changing, resulting in events evolving and behaviour changing over time (O’Leary 2013). Context affects situated activities in a rich and dynamic way. There are multiple interpretations of, and perspectives on single events and situations which allows rich descriptions and explanations of what is being researched to flourish.

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The Argument for a Multiple Case Studies Approach A case study is an empirical enquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context especially when boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident. (Yin 2003, p. 13)

A case study approach works well when the focus is on contemporary situations and experiences, in real-life contexts. This type of approach, according to Newby (2014), is also most appropriate for exploratory or descriptive types of research, born from the desire to understand complex social situations through exploration. The use of a case study approach provides insight into the various interactive processes at work that may not otherwise be visible in a large scale survey (Bell 2007). Case studies also provide in-depth understanding of a particular area, especially if complex social behaviour is involved. Thomas and Myers (2015), argue that understanding that occurs from the research, comes through the connections and insights that the research offers, between another’s experience and the researcher, or readers’ own. The individualistic nature of teaching and learning experiences are lived dimensions and a case study is an effective way to represent the significance of localised experience. There can be issues about the application of findings from a qualitative approach, particularly in reference to a case study. However, by using a multiple case study approach the findings become more robust, but this is more time-consuming and resource heavy (Freebody 2004). Where possible, each case should be chosen to either predict similar, or contrasting results, based on a theoretical framework. If the theoretical framework is appropriately developed, then generalisation of the case study is more likely to be possible (Yin 2003; Freebody 2004). If any commonalities are found across a variety of case studies, an increase in confidence in any theories generated from the findings is more likely. In addition, a variety of methods to collect data can be used, enabling flexibility over a longer period of time. This creates a more objective evidence base from which to draw conclusions. Case studies have been criticised in the past for having a lack of rigour and this has made them appear less desirable as a form of research. It is therefore important to consider the quality measures of the research.

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Quality Measures of the Research Validity can be defined as a measure of precision, accuracy and relevance. When designing the research tools, it is important to consider how well they measure what they are intended to measure. Validity also refers to how well the findings concur with theoretical frameworks, concepts or values. Reliability on the other hand is a measure of the quality of the research tools and the ability to replicate the same findings if the study was to be repeated at another time. It is therefore a measure of consistency and precision (Sarantakos 2013). The research tools were carefully chosen to ensure suitability for gathering the sort of information that was needed. When conducting the interviews for example, it was important to listen rather than spend time talking and to record the findings as accurately as possible, via the use of digital recording devices that were fully transcribed after use. When undertaking research in context, it can be difficult to escape the researchers’ own standpoint. Orne and Bell (2015) argue that it is not possible to get complete objective views or information about something, which they consider as a positive element of the findings. They argue that the positionality of the researcher provides a clearer insight into the situation being researched. This provides the potential for the data to be discussed alongside insights from the researcher. A range of suitable methods increases reliability, alongside careful consideration about the design of the tool. Before carrying out interviews, for example, carefully considered interview techniques were essential. Although the interviews were planned as semi-structured interviews, it was still possible to consider these in terms of the questions set, as well as other preparatory activities such as location and timings for the interviews. Additionally the tools should be piloted and a careful audit trail also increases reliability of any findings through robust and transparent systems. Posing the same question in more than one way can increase reliability and this principle was applied at the design stage of the research, thus enabling the results to be triangulated and compared, in order to provide a more reliable interpretation. Although validity and reliability are equally important considerations at the stage of research design, there are other criteria that can also be used as a way to measure the quality of the research (Tight 2017). According to Newby (2014), some qualitative researchers reject the terminology of quantitative research, preferring to use terms such as credibility in the

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Table 4.1  Approaches to Rigor (adapted from Houghton et al. 2013, p. 14) Approaches to rigor

Strategies

Credibility

Prolonged engagement and persistent observations Triangulation Use of a knowledgeable other Checking of participants Audit trail Reflexivity Thick/rich descriptions

Dependability and Confirmability Transferability

place of validity and dependability for reliability (p. 121). Consideration of rigor when conducting qualitative research, and according to Houghton et al. (2013), in particular when undertaking a case study approach, is also important. Ways to increase the rigor of the research at the planning and design stage, result in more credible, dependable results, which can be transferred to new contexts (Table 4.1). The findings from this research study have credibility because it was a longitudinal study that used a range of tools, throughout the prolonged research period. Alongside this, a focussed sample from the population was used which provided rich descriptions from the research tools. The data was collected over one academic year, through a range of methods. These were carefully designed and planned to enable empathetic, professional dialogues to take place between myself as the researcher and the trainees taking part in the study. The inclusion of the mentor’s voice provided triangulation of the data, which further cements the credibility of the findings (Bell 2007). This enabled some transferability of the results to take place. Due to the typically small scale nature of case study research design, representativeness of the findings is not something that can always be claimed (Sarantakos 2013). However, by increasing the number of cases, some claims around representativeness may be possible.

Ethics and the Sample Before carrying out any type of research which involves gathering data on people, particular protocols need to be followed. This ensures that the individuals give their informed consent, and that the information collected will be kept safe and in a confidential, autonomous manner. The individual participants were informed about their right to withdraw from the study at any time and standard ethical procedures were followed.

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The researcher held the position as programme leader for the programme that the participants were enrolled on and this could cause some ethical tension. It was crucial that the participants knew when they were taking part in the research and which aspect of the dialogue and information shared was going to be used as part of the data. For example, there were occasions when a participant wanted to discuss the research and their experiences with me outside of the role as researcher. It was necessary to ask if they gave consent for this information to be used as part of the data collection. This made sure that the lines between the different roles did not become blurred and cause any ethical compromises. These were recorded as unstructured, informal interviews. The dual role of the researcher as programme leader and researcher gave a positive bias for the research as the participants and their individual placement experiences were known providing an opportunity of an insider viewpoint (Sarantakos 2013). Due to the longitudinal nature of the study, it was necessary to stress to all of the participants within the sample that their contributions at each stage would be anonymous and their participation was optional. This was of particular relevance due to possible power relationships that could exist with some of the participants, due to the researchers’ dual position as personal tutor. It could become difficult for a participant to withdraw consent during the study because of this. It was also important to consider this during the data collection stage of the study in terms of how this could influence the data. An opportunist style of sampling took place, where an offer to volunteer to be part of the research was made to the whole PGCE cohort, irrespective of placement (Bell 2007). The main criteria that was applied to potential participants, was the programme that they were studying, a generic PGCE 14+ programme, rather than context of their teaching placement. All applicants who met the criteria were invited to be part of the research. This provided a rich source of information due to the variety of contexts within which the trainees were placed. A main concern was mortality, in that not every participant that began the study would continue throughout the full duration of the study. The sample initially was thirteen participants, but due to mortality and a lack of engagement, only the findings from seven are reported on (Table 4.2).

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Table 4.2  Sample of participants Name

DDA

Gender Ethnicity

Age

Vocational area

Aafiya

F

EM— Asian

U24 Sport

General FE college

Karen Darren

ADHD, dyspraxia and dyslexia No Dyslexia

F M

WB WB

General FE college General FE college

Joanne

No

F

WB

Omar

No

M

Erica

No

F

EM— Asian WB

U24 Photography U24 Art and Design O24 Art and Design U24 Graphic Design O24 Art and Design

Charlotte No

F

WB

U24 Textiles

Placement

Prison General FE college Community Centre & FE college HEI

The Methods Used to Collect Data The following methods were used at different stages throughout the research study: • Focus groups • One to one interviews • Documents in the form of reflective diaries and online posts During the first stage of the study, an initial online journal entry was reviewed and interpreted in terms of emergent key themes. A focus group was also conducted to clarify key themes that were present at the early stage of the course. A set of one to one semi-structured interviews took place, within the first semester, to explore these themes, alongside a second online journal entry. A second round of one to one interviews was carried out towards the end of the second semester, alongside a final online journal entry. The purpose of the second round of interviews was to capture and clarify previous findings. Unstructured interviews were also carried out throughout the study, as a response to the needs to the participants, who occasionally wanted to share their thoughts unexpectedly, hence in an unplanned way. Finally, the mentors were invited to be interviewed as part of the study. This data was used to triangulate the findings.

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According to Nind et al. (2016), the researcher may have to use methods which allow the participants opportunity to share with the researcher, lived experiences, by feeling again how they felt, making visible the often “hard-to-see and hard-to-know” (p.  165). By using a series of semi-­ structured, unstructured one to one interviews and focus groups, this became possible.

Focus Groups Focus groups can be an effective way to learn how participants talk about the topic of interest which can help to structure further research tools, such as interviews that will be used in the later stages of the research study. Structuring the questions for a focus group can also follow the same approach as that used for interviews. Focus groups can generate a more time efficient way to gather information and rich data, than a one to one interview can yield initially. However in order for this to be true, careful consideration must be given to the following: • Group composition • Interpersonal influences • Research environmental factors (Stewart and Shamdasani 2015) The recommended size for a focus group is 8–12 individuals. Any more than this and the group can become difficult to manage and keep on track. Less than this and Stewart and Shamdasani (2015) suggest that a few members could dominate the discussion. The focus group should take sufficient time in order for the topics to be explored in depth and the moderator’s role should be non-directive, allowing for topics to flow. Fewer topics enable the group to have in depth discussions without the session lasting too long. Although key topics should be provided as a prompt to engage individuals in the conversation initially, these should be left then to flourish unaided by the moderator, only guided if off topic. The main advantages of a focus group are highlighted by Stewart and Shamdasani (2015), in so much as they provide the researcher with an opportunity to directly interact with more than one participant at a time and therefore provide possibility for clarification and further probing of key issues. Deeper levels of meaning can be obtained and connections can be made within a group setting that may not otherwise have been uncovered. However, the very nature of having a group of participants could

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restrict generalizability due to bias by dominant members of the group, as well as the role that the moderator takes by way of providing possible cues to lead the discussion, either knowingly, or unknowingly. At the start of the focus group, interpersonal influences were considered and all participants introduced themselves and ground rules were set, thus clarifying the social conventions ensuring these were understood by all. This minimised the risk that some trainees could dominate the group, thus increasing participation for all members of the group. Refreshments were offered as a way to encourage a more relaxed environment. According to Polkinghorne (1983), the inquiry method should encourage and enable participants to recognise and interpret their experiences. In order for this to occur, the following aspects are important to consider: • Noticing (one’s own experience) • Re-interpreting (another’s shared experience) • Theorizing (an abstract representation and relating this to other pre-knowledge) • Questioning (assumptions) This can be done by bringing to the forefront an experience to be examined. This then resonates with others and through re-interpreting, similarities and differences can be identified between these shared experiences. Theorising begins to take place as members of the group translate experiences into abstract concepts. The participants were supported through these stages with the use of questions (Table 4.3). Table 4.3  Pre-set questions for the focus group Questions used within the focus group • What sort of experiences have you had so far of going into placement? • What were you expecting? • What if any are the challenges you think you are going to face? • What processes do you use to enable you to be self-directed? • How effective are you at constructing your own meaning and knowledge about a new subject? • What previous learning experiences have you had that has equipped you with this skill/ ability? • What ways do you use to reflect on experiences?

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The focus group was managed in a fluid and organic way as emerging themes were explored and prompt questions used throughout to explore some of the developing ideas. The set questions were not rigidly adhered to, but a more reactive, exploratory strategy was used. The emerging themes were used to inform the subsequent interview questions used in the later stages of the research study.

Interviews In order for interviews to be manageable and provide data in an objective and useable format, several considerations must be made. A range of interview techniques could be adopted. Critical incident enquiry is a way for participants to examine a moment of significance, whereas account analysis provides an open-ended style of enquiry into more general experiences. It is also important to provide some structure to support the participant, while they verbalise the learning that is naturally occurring. According to Frey et al. (1999), this should provide a space for verbal reflection to take place. Semi-structured interviews allow for some pre-set and pre-­ determined questions to be asked, while also allowing for some development or pursuit of ideas with more ad-hoc questions following lines of enquiry, normally concerned with what is relevant to the interviewee. Following the five step approach to interviews as proposed by Punch and Oancea (2014), provides clear structure and ensures that the interview is focussed, while remaining flexible (table). This staged approach also allows for due consideration to possible sensitive issues and appropriate vocabulary chosen with this in mind (Table 4.4). Table 4.4  Interview stages (adapted from Punch and Oancea 2014, p. 188) Stage Prepare

Considerations

Decide on the key words and concepts. The type of interview to be conducted, aim, sample size Produce Brainstorm themes, topics, questions. Start to group questions into topics. Explore alternative sources of topics Prune Cut redundant themes/topics and questions. Check relevance and importance. Check accessibility/answerabilit Polish Reflect on assumption/ consider sensitivity and level of threat. Decide on structure and sequence. Prepare the introduction and closure Pilot Simulate interview with colleague. Plan and run a pilot

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Orne and Bell (2015) posit the view that a successful interview involves active listening by the researcher, which can be “mentally draining” (p. 74). They warn against the lure to act as therapist and discuss this in relation to ethics, an important aspect to consider during interviews. They recommend a co-constructed, semi-structured interview technique as this is often most suitable for most topics. This is also a good technique to use as the participant can bring topics to the attention of the researcher that otherwise might not have been considered. However, one recommendation is for the researcher to return to a more structured style of interview towards the end of the study to capture any information which might not have been covered in previous, less structured interviews. The use of probes, as suggested by Orne and Bell (2015, p. 76) can enable the researcher to elicit further information, or clarify the information being provided, thus avoiding shallow answers being given. They proposed three levels that questions can operate within, in an interview situation; • Narratives, experiences • Opinions, feelings, facts • Theorising Referring to answers provided by other participants in previous interviews provides an opportunity for correlation of the data. Orne and Bell (2015) also suggest asking antagonistic questions as this can help to prompt the participants to defend their position, thus providing additional and possibly substantiating evidence. According to Brinkmann and Kvale (2015) the context that interviews are conducted in are of importance and can directly impact on the quality of the interaction between the interviewer and the interviewee. Environmental factors may have an impact on the quality of the information given by the interviewee and the way that the interviewer carries out the interviews. These can be small distractions such as light, noise or the temperature within the room. Alternatively, they could be more significant, such as the choice of setting and the way that either party can react towards this. It was important to ensure that the trainees were comfortable with the choice of location and that they were very clear about the purpose of the interview and that their rights to participate were explained fully before each interview commenced.

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Semi-Structured Interviews: The Trainees One way to reduce potential anxiety is through the way that the questions are staged. It was important to ensure that the questions asked were expressed in the everyday language of the trainees. A successful interview is “self-reported, a self-reliant story that hardly requires additional explanations” (Brinkmann and Kvale 2015, p. 192). However, it is important that the interviewer asks clarifying questions throughout in order to keep the participant on track and also to get further explanation about the topics being disclosed (Table  4.5). The interviews lasted approximately between twenty and thirty minutes each. The supplementary questions were also labelled to identify clearly which of the main research questions were being covered by each question. This provided useful identifiers when coding the findings during the transcript stage of the research. I decided not to ask direct questions using the terminology such as incidental learning, but rather to use language that was familiar to the trainees to increase their understanding. It is also worth noting that I applied the theoretical framework within the questions, but did not make direct reference to this. Again, this was to draw information out from each trainee in order to clarify or discount elements of the suggested framework. As this piece of research is exploratory it was deemed important for the researcher not to have a pre-determined position, but to allow the data to speak for itself. The role of the researcher during the interviews can be compared to that of a traveller. While conducting the interviews I was “actively participating in creating a conversation. The goal of the conversation can be to reach knowledge.” (Brinkmann and Kvale 2015, p.  109). By traversing through the myriad of different ideas as they were presented was a good way to elucidate new knowledge. As such, during the initial interviews a range of probing questions were asked to gather information from trainees in terms of their opinions and feelings. The participants were asked for examples to clarify and further support the information given. The second wave of interviews were conducted in a similar way to the first wave of interviews (Table 4.6). Each trainee was reminded of their right to contribute or to withdraw from the study. The interview questions were pre-set, but these were only used as a guide. Again, the interview questions were coded against the initial research questions to ensure equal coverage against these. However, these interviews were more loosely structured allowing for the trainee to provide

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Table 4.5  The questions used in the first semi-structured interviews Researcher questions

Interviewer questions

Additional questions

What key factors need to be in place to enable incidental learning to happen, in a meaningful way?

What do you think makes your placement successful? How does this help you deal with unexpected problems? How self-directed are you? Would you consider yourself as having a creative approach when dealing with problems? What do you think has been in place to enable you to be successful so far? What information were you given before going into placement? Was this useful? Is there anything that you would have found useful to know before starting the placement? What type of relationship do you have with your mentor? What do they do which makes it a positive experience? What would you like them to do more of? What is the learning environment like where you are working?

What have you done to make unexpected learning meaningful/ inform your future practice? Has your practice changed because of this? How? What do you do when something unexpected happens? If you have experienced something since starting the course that you weren’t expecting, how have you dealt with that?

To what extent does the community of practice within the FE and skills sector provide opportunities for incidental learning for trainee teachers?

To what extent, can we say, does incidental learning have an impact on trainees’ ability to meet the professional standards for their teaching practice?

How do you think being a trainee has impacted on your placement? (attitudes of staff/ students)

In what ways does the mentor support you? Who else do you think has supported or guided you? Have you seen anything so far which you would consider to be unprofessional by staff? Are you working as part of a team, or are you mainly working on your own? How do you think that helps your progress? What have you learnt since going into placement that has surprised you? Have you learnt anything that you weren’t expecting?

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Table 4.6  Interview questions used for second wave of interviews Researcher questions

Interviewer questions

What key factors need to be in place to enable incidental learning to happen, in a meaningful way? To what extent does the community of practice within the FE and skills sector provide opportunities for incidental learning for trainee teachers?

What have you leant since starting the course that you were not expecting? What have you learnt about being a teacher? Can you give me an example of when something has happened that you were not expecting What did you do in that situation? What did you do after that situation? (Reflect, talk to anyone)? Has your practice changed in light of this? Is there anything that would help you to learn more? To what extent, can we say, does incidental learning How have you developed as a have an impact on trainees’ ability to meet the professional? What has enabled this professional standards for their teaching practice? to happen?

information that could be coded against the research questions at a later stage. Other probing techniques were employed at this stage to move the trainees to theorising, such as ‘why do you think that is the case?” Additionally, reference was made to answers given by other participants in order for these to be clarified or discounted during the interview. This is a useful strategy towards the end of the research to provide a prompt for the participant and see if anything else exists that has not previously come to the surface (Orne and Bell 2015). This strategy is discussed by Brinkmann and Kvale (2015) as a useful way to clarify for a trainee that they are not the only one to have experienced a particular phenomenon. This can give them the confidence to explore an experience in more detail once they realise that they are not alone in this experience. This is particularly true when disclosing something that could be considered to be controversial. For example, when disclosing poor professional practice which had been observed during placement. This is a useful reassuring strategy and also can enhance the validity and reliability of the data.

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The Mentor Interviews For the purpose of triangulation, data was also collected from the mentors working with the trainees. Of the potential seven mentors contacted, only two responded and participated in semi-structured interviews. In order to remove potential barriers that may have prevented the interview from taking place, the interviews were conducted at a time and place convenient for the mentor. Before each interview started, a clear explanation was given about how the data was going to be recorded, stored and used for the purpose of the study. For the purpose of increasing transparency and reliability of the data, each mentor was made aware of their rights to withdraw from the study at any time. The questions used to guide the interviews were pre-set and again mapped against the researcher questions without referring to these directly (Table 4.7). Although I had prepared pre-set questions, the actual interviews were far more organic in their execution, exploring naturally occurring themes, such as; orientation to the organisation, modelling pedagogical approaches, carrying out observations and involving the trainee in the wider ‘extra-­ curricular’ activities of the role (Clarke 2006). Brook (1996, cited by Clarke 2006) identified within his research that mentors recognise the Table 4.7  Questions used in the mentor interviews Researcher questions Background information

Interviewer questions

How long have you been a qualified teacher? Have you mentored a trainee before? What key factors need to be in What type of support did you provide? place to enable incidental learning How do you think the relationship developed? (can to happen, in a meaningful way? you give examples?) To what extent does the Which areas did you support? community of practice within the Was the support directed by yourself or the trainee? FE and skills sector provide Were there any challenges? opportunities for incidental learning How do you think you enabled the trainee to for trainee teachers? develop—teaching skills; professionalism; subject specialism How much time did you spend with the trainee? Additional supplementary Did you learn anything unexpected? information about the incidental What did you enjoy the most? learning for the mentor How did this experience help you to develop? Anything else that the university could have done to support you?

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opportunity for their own professional development as a direct result of having a mentee and as such place value on the role. This is in part due to the necessity for the mentor to “articulate more explicitly what they know and believe about teaching” (1996, p.  912). Although this was evident during the interviews, the main objective was to triangulate data already collected rather than explore this view further.

Document Analysis Equality of voice is critical in the researcher-participant relationship as the participant must feel empowered and therefore able to share their ‘story’ through a variety of research tools. Re-storying is the process of gathering stories from participants in order to construct a narrative that increases understanding about issues that may hold relevance for others in a similar position. The validity of the account comes from the participant confirming that it is an accurate record of their experiences (Gay et al. 2006). “Researchers can obtain a great deal of significant information by reviewing documents and records” (Stringer 2014, p. 115). The trainees write three reflective pieces throughout their placement experience, often centred on incidental learning experiences. These are submitted online, via a virtual learning environment, which has shared access for the other learners in the same personal tutor group and contribute towards a final grade for the professional practice module. For the purpose of this research study, the journal entries were downloaded so they could be coded in terms of shared themes (Table 4.8). These themes will be explored in the following chapters, alongside the other themes and in terms of development that can be seen as the trainees undertake the teaching placement.

Data Analysis According to Miles and Huberman (1994), there are several methods for analysing qualitative data which are grouped according to, what they class as ‘summarising, coding, thinking and reports’. First level coding consists of identifying commonalities and assigning labels to words or groups of words to categorise the data. Whereas, second level coding takes place where patterns emerge and as such pattern codes are generated. As codes were not established before the focus group, ideas were able to emerge and develop and patterns flourish. The recording was transcribed from the

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Table 4.8  Emerging themes from the online journal entries Common themes Journal entry one

Journal entry two

Journal entry three

Lacking in confidence about being in front of learners Confident with own subject knowledge, organisation and planning skills Positive about being able to encourage learners to adopt growth mind sets, creativity and individualism Concerned about own maths, English and ICT skills

Grown in confidence Student behaviour and appropriate and successful strategies to deal with this Positive and collaborative relationships, with a range of people, the mentor, the wider staff team, peers, students and personal tutors Practical lesson planning and active strategies that are being used in sessions The importance of being a dual professional (this is particular in the arts subject areas) The use of reflective practice and the links of this to the ETF standards The direct link from what is being learnt in the theory part of the course and the execution of this in practice

How the theory informs ways to manage behaviour in the classroom, particularly around the importance of building rapport with the learners and using a range of teaching approaches Teacher identity and a link to professionalism, resilience and dual professionalism, in particular within the Arts The intensity and speed of the course The support networks utilised, in particular the peers and the mentor The range of experiences within the placement and how this has widened their knowledge of teaching

focus group, and subsequent one to one interviews and categories were assigned during the first level coding of the raw data. This was then analysed to identify key themes as they emerged. As similar codes were found to relate to one another, broader themes could be distinguished (Table 4.9). These will be explored in more depth in the follow chapters. Finally, revision of the narratives was possible after further discussion and feedback from participants. This approach was deemed important because the interaction with the participants allowed for a gradual and co-­ constructed narrative, after consensual agreement. This type of analysis is supported by Yin (2003), who presents this as particularly relevant to case study methodology.

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Table 4.9  Emerging themes from the semi-structured interviews Themes from the focus group (later stages of programme)

Themes from the first Themes from the second wave of interviews (early stage interviews (later stages of of the programme) programme)

The relationship with the mentor and other colleagues in placement is important and can be either positive or negative There was a common concern about their subject knowledge and experience

The support that was Theory to practice through being provided by the reflection and different support mentor (and the networks wider team) The ability to be autonomous and self-assured

Age was not seen as an issue The unprofessional practice of experienced teachers that was being seen The mentors were very busy and seemed to have high work loads Poor student behaviour, lack of motivation, lack of interest Issues around how they were perceived ‘as trainee teachers’ by their own students Diversity of learners

Dual professionalism was discussed in terms of identity, confidence, sense of responsibility and development of their own subject specialism Professionalism of the teaching staff (negative attitudes and behaviours witnessed in the staff room) Ethos of the organisation in terms of locality and deprivation

The importance of building credibility as a way to manage behaviour

Lack of engagement by students, resulting behaviour and the need for behaviour management strategies—particularly differentiation and meeting individual need

Feeling over-­ whelmed, under pressure and not having enough time

Conclusion A reflexive approach to research is defined by Attia and Edge (2017) as the process by which researchers use observation and reflection, through interaction with others, such as colleagues and peers to develop their research outcomes. This approach is also an iterative process through which knowledge is built up from a variety of rich data. This chapter

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justifies the use of a multiple case study approach as the best option in order to gather data for the primary research. Due to the hidden nature of tacit knowledge and incidental learning, a number of problems were faced throughout the research. It can be difficult to elucidate the learning experiences encountered by the participants as they may not view them as learning at all, but just part of their everyday experiences. It was important to focus on how participants solved problems in order to uncover elements that may otherwise have been taken for granted as just part of the job. It was important methodologically to ensure that the participants were comfortable, felt at ease in the context of the interviews and were made aware that it was a safe place for them to explore some of the issues experienced without reprise. This was made possible by ensuring that “a climate of mutual consultation” and “a training or mentoring relationship in which explanations were expected” (Eraut 2000, p. 120) had been generated. The opportunity for participants to be offered a safe space within which to articulate their experiences was also important. This enabled them an opportunity to explore and articulate areas previously hidden, or difficult to discuss in order to make sense or validate such experiences, particularly in light of theory or similar experiences shared with others. This was made possible by the relationship that had developed between the researcher and the participants which empowered them to provide honest and open accounts. By providing examples from other participants, particularly around some of the difficult to discuss topics, they were more confident to confide in the researcher during the interviews. The emerging themes include commonly shared disjuncture experienced around learner behaviour and teacher identity development. The rich descriptions generated from the data is presented and discussed in the final three chapters of this book.

References Attia, M; Edge, J (2017) Be(com)ing a reflexive researcher: a developmental approach to research methodology. Open review of Educational Research, vol 4, 33–45. Augar, P (2020) Review of Post-18 Education and Funding. Available online at: www.gov.uk/government/publications. Accessed on 2/11/2020 Accessed on 29/12/2020. Bell, J (2007) Doing your research project. 4th Edition. Berkshire: Open University Press.

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Brinkmann, S; Kvale, S (2015) Interviews. Learning the craft of qualitative research interviewing. 3rd Edition. London: Sage. Clarke, A (2006) The nature and substance of cooperating teacher reflection. Teaching and Teacher Education, vol 22, 910–921. Cohen, L; Manion, L; Morrison, K (2008) Research methods in education. 6th Edition. London: Routledge. Eraut, M (2000) Non-formal learning and tacit knowledge in professional work. British Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol 70, 113–136. Frey, L; Botan, C; Kreps, G (1999) Investigating communication: An introduction to research methods. (2nd ed.) Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Freebody, P (2004) Qualitative Research in Education. Interaction and Practice. Introducing Qualitative Methods. London: Sage. Gay, L.R; Mills, G.E; Airasian, P (2006) Educational Research. Competencies for analysis and applications. 8th Edition. New Jersey: Pearson. Houghton, C; Casey, D; Shaw, D; Murphy, K (2013) Rigor in qualitative casestudy research. Nurse Researcher. 20(4) pgs 12–17. Miles, M; Huberman, M (1994) Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook. London:Sage. Morgan, J (2020) Giving universities lead on vocational HE ‘could pivot post-­92s’. Times Higher Education. Available online at: https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news. Newby, P (2014) Research Methods for Education. Second Edition. London: Routledge. Nind, M; Curtin, A; Hall, K (2016) Research methods for pedagogy. London: Bloomsbury Publishing PLC. O’Leary, Z (2013) Researching Real-world Problems. A guide to methods of Inquiry. London: Sage. Orne, J; Bell, M (2015) An invitation to qualitative fieldwork. London: Routledge. Polkinghorne, D (1983) Methodology for the Human Sciences: Systems of Inquiry. London: SUNY Press. Punch, K. F; Oancea, A (2014) Introduction to Research Methods in Education. 2nd Edition. London: Sage. Sarantakos, S (2013) Social Research. Fourth Edition. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Social Mobility Commission (2020) Investing in ‘what works’ activity in Further Education and Adult Learning. Policy Brief. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_ data/file/859091/SMC_FE_policy_briefing.pdf Accessed on 28/10/2020. Stewart, D; Shamdasani, P (2015) Focus Groups. Theory and Practice. London: Sage. Stringer, E (2014) Action Research. California: Thousand Oaks Publisher. Thomas, G; Myers, K (2015) The anatomy of the case study. London: Sage. Tight, M (2017) Understanding Case Study Research. London: Sage. Yin, R.  K (2003) Case Study Research. Design and Methods. Third Edition. London: Sage.

CHAPTER 5

Incidental Learning Through Disjuncture

Introduction While there are a number of other organisations conducting research on FE and adult learning, there is not a coordinated or joined up approach across them. (Social Mobility Commission 2020, p. 5)

The following three chapters present the research findings from a longitudinal multiple case study which examined the placement experiences for pre-service trainee teachers, based in the FE and Skills sector. The research took place as a three way interaction between the data that was being collected throughout the research process, the literature being reviewed and the resulting theoretical framework. The literature review changed throughout as new ideas emerged, particularly around tacit knowledge and identity development. This was shaped through the primary data collected at each stage of the research and resulted in revisions to the framework as ideas shifted. This has resulted in an emerging model through the process of sense-making and a reflexive approach. The argument that professional identity develops over a period of time and through experience, as presented by Rodgers and Scott (2008), is central to the findings from this piece of research. This chapter explores the different elements within the placement that impact upon this and in particular the different types of disjuncture experienced by the trainees within the placement. What the research discovered was the critical © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 A. Turner, Professional Identity Development through Incidental Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86092-9_5

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importance of disjuncture and the incidental learning that followed and the resulting development of identity. This confirms the theoretical framework presented in Chap. 3. The research revealed a number of different disjuncture’s experienced by the trainee teachers. Identity was a critical and central aspect of the way that disjuncture was engaged with initially, interpreted and finally assimilated with existing knowledge, enhancing identity further. Identity also impacted on the relationship that developed between the mentor and the trainee, and the wider team. Identity is shaped in a dynamic way, shifting through experience as interpretation and reinterpretation takes places over duration of time. The process of critical reflection was also crucial within this process.

Disjuncture Leading to Incidental Learning The trainee teachers experienced a variety of different types of disjuncture throughout the placement which will be discussed as core themes within this chapter (Table  5.1). However, the identity of the trainees not only influenced the way that disjuncture was assimilated, but whether the disjuncture was noticed at all. What the research discovered and this chapter will explore, was the cyclical, symbiotic nature of this experience. Not only did identity impact on disjuncture, but the disjuncture also had an impact on the developing identity of the trainee, as their identity was shaped through this experience. The influence of the mentor, the wider context and the team warrant in-depth discussion and will form the basis for Chap. 6.

Starting Identity and Aspirations Professional identity is often based on a trainee’s own values, shaped by prior learning experiences, rather than purely cultural factors. Jephcote and Salisbury (2009) argued that those working in the FE sector “embodied a strong commitment to the notion that FE provided opportunities for their students to compensate for the shortcomings of their previous educational experiences” (p. 970). This altruistic view of teaching can also be coupled with an overly idealistic and romantic notion of the role, which can lead to frustration and disappointment when the reality does not meet this aspiration.

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Table 5.1  Disjuncture which led to incidental learning Disjuncture

Action

Incidental learning

Negative learner behaviour

Conduct research into different strategies Seek advice from colleagues and peers Trial and error Seek support and reassurance from mentor Take on board feedback from assessors

Developed teaching Professional identity strategies, informed developed through action from experience research and support and theory

Lack of confidence and feeling incompetent

Lack of time for the role

Unprofessional behaviours of existing teachers within the team

Inappropriate language used within the team

Pressure of the job and heightened sense of responsibility

Increased confidence Better understanding about own identity Ability to seek positive support To prioritise work Better load and manage understanding of expectations of the role the role Better informed about future progression within the sector Internalise own Locality impacts on identity in order learner motivation to reconcile this Limited funding with the culture impacts on the of the team quality of provision and staff morale Seek support from Better outside the team understanding Take a nonabout the unwritten obtrusive role codes that are used within the team within teams until a stronger identity was shaped To prioritise work Reconcile load to manage preconceived views expectations of about the role the role

Impact

Professional identity developed through experience and feedback/ affirmation

Altered perception of the role Increased ability to manage high volumes of workload Developed resilience Professional identity is strengthened Clearer idea of future progression

Clearer more defined perception of the role Increased confidence

Clearer understanding that the role denotes high levels of responsibility and that teachers are measured by data and this creates additional pressure

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All of the trainees who took part in this research had a clear idea about the sort of teacher they wanted to be. This starting identity was mainly based on a set of ideals, born from previous experiences as a learner and inspirational teachers who had been pivotal in their development. The trainees placed a lot of value on this and strived to emulate this when working with their own learners. Some viewed this as the driving force behind their decision to become a teacher. They had aspirations to be innovative, inclusive and approachable. They viewed the teaching role as an opportunity to change lives and felt inspired by their own journeys which often involved overcoming barriers. At the start of the course, Darren was enthusiastic and keen to use his subject knowledge. “Although I don’t have much experience, I feel I do have a fresh perspective, where I can utilise my first-hand knowledge, industry experience and pass on valuable creative skills” (Journal 1). Joanne believed that by passing on her own skills and “love of Art”, she would get a “huge sense of achievement and job satisfaction”, particularly by enabling “someone to get to their own, final goals” (Journal 1). Karen aspired to emulate a positive teaching persona, particularly in terms of her passion “for the subject and passion to teach” (Journal 1). She set out to be “someone else’s inspiration to better themselves” (Journal 1). This aspiration was shared by Omar, “I want my future learners to believe in me and not see me as the nine to five teacher, aiming to rush home and looking forward to the week’s salary” (Journal 1). At the beginning of the programme Erica was confident in her own subject knowledge, because she was a recent degree graduate. She considered studying the subject at a range of levels important for teaching. “it has given me a broad knowledge of the area and should give me the skills and knowledge I need in becoming an Art and Design Tutor” (Journal 1). Alongside this, Erica placed value on other qualities such as passion, enthusiasm, confidence, organisation, and believed it was necessary for her to be open to new experiences. Charlotte also aspired to be an inspirational teacher who championed the individual, but she lacked confidence, which was mainly due to her age and lack of experience. She thought her closeness in age to the learners might generate negativity, particularly as she was placed in a university context. However, the learners showed genuine interest in her work and felt that they could learn from her, which she did not expect. “I thought they’d think, well why is she here? It wasn’t like that at all” (Interview 1).

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These aspirations and high ideals caused a certain degree of anxiety for the trainees as some quickly discovered that this was rather unrealistic. Lortie (1975) argued that trainee teachers underestimate the challenges of the role, as they enter the profession with fixed “ideas about the nature of the role” (p. 65) and therefore often face a dilemma when this is not the reality experienced. This continued to challenge the trainees as they were presented with a range of barriers often making it difficult for them to be able to adopt the professional identity they initially intended.

Negative Learner Behaviours The initial disjuncture that most of the trainees experienced was around poorly motivated learners who demonstrated challenging behaviour within the learning environment. All of the trainees initially believed that the learners were going to be motivated and engaged because they had chosen to study the subject in this post-compulsory sector. However, this was not the case. The trainees expressed anxiety over the negative behaviour they experienced by the learners in the placement. This was true of all who were undertaking their placement in a college environment. Although some poor behaviour was expected, the level and challenge that this presented to the trainees was unexpected. This caused a certain amount of stress and uncertainty due to the tension experienced between external contextual forces and internal forces in terms of their own sense of self, their own beliefs, expectations and values. The trainees were forced to adopt different pedagogical strategies resulting in a re-negotiation of identity, at times conflicted with their individual cultural and personal ethos. Joanne was based in an all-male prison and initially adopted a laid back approach to the learners and was able to form a strong rapport with them quickly. However, she acknowledged this could present difficulties around a lack of respect and authority. It’s a bit of a weakness of mine. I kind of see them like, as friends, but they’re not. I’ll go in and I’ll have fun. They’ll have fun. Erm I enjoy it cos I know they’re liking the work and they’re loving what they’re doing. (Interview 1)

This approach was quickly replaced with a stricter, more professional attitude which Joanne needed to develop as she taught more hours and experienced some negative behaviour. As the reality of the challenging environment she was teaching in became apparent, her confidence

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diminished and even in the mid and later stages of the placement, Joanne described herself as “just a student teacher,” particularly in the eyes of the learners (Interview 2). Aafiya struggled with a number of different elements of the placement practice, including the negative attitude of the learners. This was further compounded by the distance she travelled to get to the placement, which left her feeling exhausted. The difference in reality of the experience compared to the expectations she had starting out in the role resulted in a major disjuncture. “It’s just really tiring, you have situations where you put so much effort into a lesson plan and they just don’t give a crap” (Interview 1). She experienced a negative response from the learners and found it difficult to build a rapport with them as the formal language she used differed from the language used by both the learners, and the other teachers in the placement. The students felt that my way of teaching was slightly too formal, many students felt like I was a strict teacher with a vocabulary most students could not comprehend. I also felt this in the classroom whilst teaching; many students would fail to understand terms or phrases I used. (Journal 2)

Karen shared her industry experience with the learners which increased engagement and although she had managed to build a positive relationship with the second year group, the first year group were less motivated and she felt she had got “more to prove to them” (Interview 1). Karen chose to spend more time teaching the more challenging group as a way to try and develop more of a rapport with them. In doing so, she was able to address their perception of her and consequently impact positively on their behaviour towards her. Karen invested time and effort exploring causes behind negative learner behaviour which she did not expect to be part of the role. This led to a shift in her perception of the learners and the role. Her interpersonal skills were also developed in light of this. Initially Darren drew from his own experiences as a learner and from working in a pub, to inform his approach, preferring a relaxed, informal style of delivery and communication. However, the strategy to try and be liked did not work, resulting in problems with learner motivation and behaviour. He subsequently found it difficult to adopt a more formal teacher identity as it was unlike any other previous identity and therefore alien to him.

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I’m aware I’m not there to be their friend … you’re not a parent and you’re not a friend … It’s like a business transaction in a way, and it’s a weird transition. (Interview 2)

Erica had two different placements, one in a large FE college and the other in a community setting. She had a clear idea about the sort of teacher she wanted to be and an essential element of this was to be liked. This informed her teaching approach and the resulting relationships she formed with the learners, at both placements. I ask these learners, like my community learners, if there is anything they are interested in and I will try and fit it in; and it’s worked. I think because of this approach the learners have come to respect me and most of all like me. (Journal 2)

Within the college placement Erica struggled with the behaviour of the learners and their apparent lack of motivation and lack of interest in the subject area. “They do test your patience with swearing and yeah, being loud, not doing what they’re supposed to be” (Interview 2). Erica believed that Art is an easy option to choose and therefore attracted learners who lacked in motivation and ability. She also based this on her own attitude when she was an FE learner. “I know what I was like, umm. At times I was very challenging” (Interview 2). She tried to collaborate with the learners and worked in a fairly independent and relaxed manner. “I try and do it in a fun way, but then you have to be strict with them” (Interview 2). Erica, Joanne and Darren could not be as informal with the learners as they would have liked. This resulted in a conflicted identity between a desire to be a friend to the learners and the need to adopt a more formalised teacher-learner relationship. In particular, Erica and Darren set out initially to be liked by their learners as they related more with the identity as a learner, rather than as a teacher, a concept which initially felt alien to them. Although this caused frustration it also resulted in a strong connection being formed between themselves and the learners, rather than the teaching team. This caused further disjuncture for them as they were forced to transition from being a trainee teacher, where they viewed themselves as a learner, towards a more established teacher identity. This was an emotional experience as they wrestled with the desire to be accepted into the learners’ community and the realisation that they needed to belong within the teacher community of practice, something that felt alien

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to them initially. There was a period of isolation between being rejected from one community and before being accepted, or wanting to be accepted into another. The role of the community of practice will be discussed further in the next chapter. The disjuncture was particularly profound for the trainees when it challenged their starting aspiration to be an inspirational teacher and their expectations about the motivation level of the learners was different to the reality being experienced. This disjuncture created heightened stress as the trainees were forced to adapt their own identity in order to manage the situation. However, where the trainee received support and reassurance, they were more equipped to devise effective strategies. Additionally, clear ground rules and shared expectations with the mentor about learner behaviour which the trainee followed, also enabled this to be managed in a positive way. Where the trainees were not provided with support or clear guidance, or they chose not to acknowledge the guidance being provided, this disjuncture continued for a much longer period of time and caused greater anxiety for the trainee. This was particularly true for the trainees whose professional identity and values differed from that of the mentor and the culture in the team. This will be discussed in further depth in the next chapter.

Responsibilities of the Role Over a period of time as the trainees taught more hours they grew in confidence and their professional identity was strengthened. The disjuncture being noticed was around wider themes, such as the culture of the team and accountability. All of the trainees came to recognise the high volume of work associated with the role which they had not previously appreciated, or realised. This disjuncture led to further incidental learning as their perceptions about the teaching role shifted in light of this. This also supports the findings by Orr and Simmons (2011) around the notion of ‘practice shock’, when a trainee teacher experiences something different in the placement to what they expected. This led to a better understanding about the role, which altered their perception and shaped future decisions about working within the sector. Not only was Aafiya surprised by the physical demands of teaching, but she viewed the placement as being substandard and different to what she was expecting. The reality of the role was at odds with her expectations and even though she actively sought out and subsequently used a number

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of different sources of support, she still did not feel able to cope with the work load and the different challenges of the role. It’s worth it when you teach someone and they get it. It feels good, but that whole process before you get to that hour, the seven hours you put in is just too much and I can’t handle it. I don’t like it at all. (Interview 1)

The feelings of anxiety were further compounded when decisions were made which were out of her control. Part way through the first term, Aafiya was given a different group to teach, which caused her a lot of stress as it was an unexpected change. She struggled to adapt to this. “Monday is a challenge and Tuesday is going to be a whole new challenge. It’ll take me about a month to get used to it” (Interview 1). She did not feel able to challenge the decision, because of her role as a trainee teacher. “I don’t really have a say” (Interview 1). Aafiya also recognised she needed to adapt her approach to meet the needs of the learners. “I’m learning that you can’t go in with a lesson plan and it’ll go to plan cos it won’t” (Interview 1). Aafiya attended extra-curricular activities, such as team meetings, parents evening and a staff dinner, even though she was reluctant due to limited time and course demands. However, she clearly recognised the extra responsibilities of the role, as well as her part in the team and the importance of supporting one other. You just have to man up and deal with it … I don’t like it. I’ve got so much work going on but then you can’t complain you have to appreciate, you know, the lengths they’re going too to get me involved. (Interview 1)

This disjuncture caused Aafiya to change her perception about teaching and resulted in her questioning her future in the industry. “It’s hard. It’s hard. It makes you think if teaching is for you … It’s put me off FE” (Interview 1). In the later stage of the programme, Charlotte became more aware of the impact she had on learners’ work which heightened her sense of responsibility and the pressure of the teaching role. However, this also helped to increase her confidence levels and had a positive impact on her identity. “The fact that they find me to ask me questions makes me feel more confident. They do listen to what I’m saying” (Interview 2). Charlotte also focussed on the needs of the learners and adopted an inclusive approach from the start which she continued to value as an underpinning ethos.

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I have found myself taking on a pastoral role at times. I think this is such an important part of teaching and is something I’ve looked into quite a lot. (Journal 3)

Darren perceived a heightened responsibility associated with the teaching role and subsequent fear of getting it wrong, which was exacerbated by a lack of guidance from the mentor about his progress. He clearly identified as a trainee teacher, “that’s the level I am at, wouldn’t want to think of myself as anything else. Don’t want to bite off more than I can chew” (Interview1). By managing unexpected pressures and high volumes of workload, the trainees developed professional characteristics such as time management strategies and resilience. This led to a strengthened professional identity as they developed clear ideas about future options for progression. Omar was surprised by how time consuming and tiring teaching was which had resulted in him having to prioritise the demands of the programme over social activities. I noticed he was quite tired sometimes, so he would come to me to say, oh I’ve got all these assignments to be in, and I think that affected him a little bit, but he didn’t ever let the students know. That was very, very separate … so that was really professional. (Mentor interview)

With a strengthened identity, some trainees were able to notice and respond positively to gaps in the curriculum being offered. This led to the development of resources and teaching sessions to address this need. This clearly demonstrates a sense of empowerment and confidence towards the end of the placement. Although not all trainees received the same levels of support from the mentor, they remained determined to place the learner at the centre of their role.

The Political Context The trainee teachers entered into the role within the FE sector largely unaware of the wider political context that teaching operates within and they were therefore surprised to discover some of the pressures that they experienced. The most significant pressure was the expectation from the teaching team that all the learners on programme would successfully complete the qualification being studied, apparently regardless of ability or

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motivation. The responsibility to make this possible lay with the teachers and was driven from the organisation, which operates within the wider political agenda, of a competitive market place. This is a direct result of the rise of neoliberalism as the dominant ideology which has seen an increase in criteria based measurements of teachers through scrutiny and accountability. Although there was an expectation that there would be a certain amount of pressure, all the trainees found the sheer amount and the nature of the pressure unexpected. This caused a major disjuncture once they became aware of this during the later stages of the programme and once their teacher identity was more developed. Even though some of the trainees wanted to challenge this, they were compelled to conform, at times against their moral judgement. This was most significant within the FE context rather than the other placement providers. Darren, Erica and Aafiya struggled with this and felt conflicted when faced with this disjuncture. Darren took an active interest in the learner’s artwork, but found this differed to the actions and behaviours of the rest of the teaching team. He found that “some of them (teachers) are driven by the learning outcomes and the curriculum and all the rest of it first and the person on the receiving end is second” (Interview 2). Omar was surprised by the pressure he felt he was under to get his learners to meet achievement targets and he found the learners were de-­ motivated for a number of reasons; some might not have chosen the subject; low levels of literacy, particularly in the first year group; level of engagement from the teaching team. I think teachers are disengaged as well and then they’re not as motivated if they’re getting funding cuts so that has an impact on them, so that has an impact on the students. (Interview 2)

Aafiya noticed the amount of pressure placed on staff to ensure high levels of learner recruitment, retention and success, regardless of ability. This challenged her own work ethic and presented a negative view of the sector which she was not expecting, yet she was forced to adopt a similar approach. Kids swear in lesson all the time, they swear at you. [You] can’t kick them out cos you won’t see them again, and you need them for the numbers. (Interview 2)

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Erica also discovered that the teaching team did not share her own professional values. What I found shocking though, one of the teachers said to me all you need to do is get them to pass, which is fair enough, but for them to get onto level three, they have to have a merit, so for me, I’m thinking, well, no, I know that they’re capable of getting a merit, some of them, even a distinction … and that’s what I’m trying to aim for with them. (Interview 2)

The latest political legislation to increase the age for compulsory education to eighteen, has resulted in a learning landscape in FE where not all learners are motivated or engaged with the subject. This appeared to be most prevalent in subjects that could be considered as less academic, such as the Arts. The political agenda in terms of accountability and performance indicators as a way to measure teaching quality challenged the initial aspiration that some of the trainees had about the type of teacher they aimed to be, as they realised that not all of their learners were as enthusiastic about learning the subject as they thought they would be. However, rather than be discouraged by this disjuncture, most of the trainees worked harder to engage with the learners, thus demonstrating professional characteristics such as resilience and determination as they worked towards realising their ideal self. This involved a number of different strategies which revolved around building rapport with the learners through praise and rewards. The pastoral element of the role also surprised some of the trainees as they had initially entered the placement with the view that learning was about transmission, whether of knowledge or skills and that the role of the teacher was to provide the information to make this happen. This was shaped by their own typical experiences of their own education and observing teachers in the past. Over duration of time, the trainees began to realise that learning is about the process that the learners have to go through and that the role of the teacher is to facilitate this. During the later stages of their placement, some of the trainees began to appreciate the amount of responsibility of the role. This was unexpected and this disjuncture caused a certain sense of anxiety. This was particularly prevalent in the trainees who entered the role with high expectations of themselves. Once they felt an increased sense of the seriousness of the role and the impact that they had on learners, a shift in their identity from trainee to teacher could be seen. This was only possible over duration of

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time and once they had developed a heightened awareness of the wider context of the role. OfSTED (2019) have identified high teacher workloads as an area of concern and as such have produced new inspection framework which takes the emphasis away from data and more towards teaching practice. Leaders engage with their staff and are aware and take account of the main pressures on them. They are realistic and constructive in the way they manage staff including their workload. (p. 13)

The criteria has changed and ‘outcomes for learners’ has been removed. This should stimulate a change in the strategic focus for senior managers and the organisation, but the impact of this is yet to be seen. It could take some time to realise the positive change that sits at the heart of this agenda.

Developed Professional Identity As the trainee teachers’ professional identity strengthened, they became more aware of all aspects of their placement experience. This resulted in a heightened awareness and they began to ‘notice’ a wider range of disjuncture which was in turn interpreted, reflected on and assimilated with existing knowledge. This took place over a period of time and their practice developed in light of this along with further development of their professional identity. By the end of the course Darren was able to link the theory to his practice and demonstrated increased confidence in his abilities and formed a strong teacher identity, aided by the support given by “more knowledgeable others” (Journal 3). He also recognised that his deliberate and intentional use of reflection enabled him to progress. With support from my tutor, mentor and peers I welcomed each new experience and slowly everything began to make sense, my planning developed to include more than just my specialism content. I created learner profiles, got to know my learners and their learning preferences and overcome any challenging behaviour. This enabled me to put the learners at the centre of my teaching. This created a good teacher, learner relationship and a welcoming learning environment for all. I have since become much more at ease in the classroom. (Journal 3)

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Although Erica approached the community placement with confidence, she did not view herself as a teacher in a conventional sense, which was mainly due to the type of placement and her own perceptions of teaching. “I feel more like a carer, like I’m just, this sounds bad, I feel like I’m just baby-sitting in a sense, a little bit” (Interview 1). Erica believed that imparting subject knowledge was the defining element of the teaching role and therefore judged her experience in these terms. “If I was in a college I’d be giving more, umm, of myself if you know what I mean, in terms of knowledge.” (Interview 1). Once placed within a college setting, Erica felt her abilities as a teacher were confirmed and this enabled her to develop a stronger teacher identity, something she struggled with at the community-based placement. It’s challenging me and then that’s what I wanted, for me to know if I can handle it or not which I feel I can. (Interview 2)

Towards the end of the placement, Omar continued to demonstrate an increase in confidence in his abilities as a teacher and identified a range of teaching strategies, such as starter activities, lesson planning and behaviour management approaches that he had developed since starting the course. He adopted an autonomous and creative approach to dealing with an issues. Karen actively engaged in professional development, outside of the placement and university, demonstrating a continuation of the high standards she initially set herself. A strong teacher identity had developed, shaped by the interactions experienced with the mentor, the team and the role she played within the team. Yeah, I see myself as a teacher. As well as people learning from [the mentor] as he’s the course leader, they’re also learning from me. (Interview 2)

Some trainees needed a lot of reassurance and continued support and struggled to feel confident with a teacher identity. Even though Aafiya drew on a number of different sources of support, such as her personal tutor, the mentor, the wider team at the placement and members of her family who are qualified teachers, she needed regular support and lacked in confidence. “No I don’t think I’m nowhere near a teacher yet. I think I’m still, like, training” (Interview 1).

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The reality of the role that they experienced once in placement, continued to challenge the trainees as they were presented with a range of barriers often making it difficult for them to be able to adopt the professional identity they initially intended. The easiest transition could be seen when appropriate guidance and support was offered and professional behaviour modelled by both the mentor and the wider team, or community of practice. Where this was not the case, professional identity development was a far more stressful and lengthy process, as confirmed by Rodgers and Scott (2008). However, this also provided rich incidental learning to take place as the disjuncture being experienced was far greater. Feedback on progress was also a critical element in this as it directly impacted on confidence levels which the research has revealed is a fundamental aspect in identity development. Once confidence in their ability as a teacher strengthened, the trainees were more likely to adapt more readily and ultimately adopt the professional identity they started out to achieve, even if this differed to that of the mentor, or the team. The trainees’ professional identity developed in a dynamic way in response to the placement and also the feedback they received. It was shaped by prior experiences and also their own cultural values. This was most profound when there was disjuncture experienced that forced critical reflection and incidental learning took place because of this (Fig. 5.1). Through these positive experiences, Charlotte’s confidence and consequently identity strengthened. Although Charlotte was hesitant, she viewed herself as a teacher even at the early stages of the programme. “as a teacher, I think, I don’t know, weird saying that, yeah, I feel like I’m teaching them” (Interview 1). The FE sector is known to be a challenging environment which can often require high levels of flexibility, autonomy and an ability to be adaptable within what can feel like a turbulent ocean of constant change. Where the trainees embraced this approach, they were more likely to experience

Aspirations

Critical reflection

Cultural values

Feedback

Disjuncture

Renewed and strengthened identity

Incidental learning

Fig. 5.1  The process of identity development through incidental learning

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incidental learning in a positive way, which further shaped their professional identity. This resulted in a confident, resilient teacher identity, with a realistic view of the sector. The trainees who were prepared to take risks within their teaching practice in terms of pedagogical approaches, seemed to create potential for disjuncture to happen. Through this opportunity they were able to develop in light of the incidental learning they experienced, provided this was coupled with guided reflection, as previously discussed. Where risk was taken, but support limited, a negative experience resulted. However, when the trainee demonstrated a willingness to expect challenges and an openness to support being offered, then the initial high expectation became more realistic and therefore achievable. Both Omar and Karen demonstrated continual high levels of enthusiasm, positivity, as well as an ability to remain adaptable and flexible, characteristics they deemed as important from the beginning of the placement.

Conclusion This chapter presents a critical discussion based on the primary data and in relation to the theoretical framework. A key emerging theme is the relationship between the starting identity of the trainees and the way this shapes their ability for professional vision. The way that professional identity and professionalism develops as a result of disjuncture has been explored, along with the different types of disjuncture that have been experienced. One of the initial aims of the research was to discover how incidental learning could be harnessed in order for it to act as a bridge between formal knowledge about teaching and the practical application of this within a placement context. However, what the research has uncovered is somewhat more complex than this original aim. By its very nature, incidental learning is a highly personal experience and relies on a number of different factors for it to take place with meaning, for each individual. It depends on the interaction of these factors and the identity of the trainee, which has begun to be explored in this chapter. However, there are certain things which could be embedded within a PGCE programme in order for incidental learning to become a recognised and valued part of the learning for the trainee. Building into the programme an opportunity for trainees to explore the notion of identity from

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the start will increase their ability to recognise the way that identity influences their experience and subsequent development as a teacher. This should be coupled with structured opportunities to learn how to undertake observation on practice. This is an area which is currently lacking. There is often an assumption that observing practice is an existing skill that the trainees have, as discussed by Lortie (1975). However, this is often informed from experience as a learner and is not as developed as it needs to be. This research sits against a backdrop of data about teacher retention in the sector, which makes for rather stark reading. One in seven (14%) teachers said they were very likely to leave FE and two per cent said they already had a job outside FE … [the] teachers who said they were likely to leave FE in the next twelve months were asked why they were considering leaving. The most common responses were workload (40%), perceived poor college management (39%) and pay (35%). (Thornton et al. 2018, p. 11)

It is important that lessons are drawn from the research around professional identity development in order to redress the issue of teacher retention and to continue to endorse incidental learning as central to the success of the sector in dealing with all challenges that it may encounter, not just now, but in the future.

References Jephcote, M; Salisbury, J (2009) Further education teachers’ accounts of their professional identities. Teaching and Teacher Education, vol 25, 966–972. Lortie, D (1975) Schoolteacher: A sociological study. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Orr, K; Simmons, R (2011) Restrictive Practice: The Work-Based Learning Experience of Trainee Teachers in English Further Education Colleges. Journal of Workplace Learning, 23 (4). pp. 243–257. OfSTED (2019) The education inspection framework. Draft consultation. Available online at: www.ofsted.gov.uk. Accessed on 3/4/2019. Rodgers, C. R; Scott, K. H (2008) The development of the personal self and professional identity in learning to teach. In Cochran-Smith, M; Feiman-Nernser, S; Mcintyre, J; Demers, K (eds) Handbook of Research on Teacher Education. 3rd Ed. New York and London: Routledge.

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Social Mobility Commission (2020) Investing in ‘what works’ activity in Further Education and Adult Learning. Policy Brief. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_ data/file/859091/SMC_FE_policy_briefing.pdf Accessed on 28/10/2020. Thornton, A; Hingley, S; Edwards-Hughes, E; Boniface, R; Wilson, G. (2018) College Staff Survey. Available online at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov. uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/920244/ College_Staff_Survey_2018_main_report.pdf Accessed on 2/11/2020.

CHAPTER 6

The Role of the Mentor and the Wider Team

Chapter Introduction This chapter explores the symbiotic relationship between the developing identity of the trainee teacher and the relationship they form with the mentor and the wider team. The ETF (2014) recognise that mentoring is a major factor in the success of teacher retention and success. What is evident within this chapter is the way that the mentor influences the development of the trainee teacher, particularly in terms of their identity and teaching practice. If the relationship is positive and respectful, teacher identity develops more quickly and with less conflict (Izadinia 2013). The mentor can provide the necessary knowledge and skills to ensure that reflection happens in a positive way, leading to development of explicit knowledge and identity development. However, this needs to happen in a supportive and approachable manner for it to be accepted and used. Clear and regular feedback and initial reassurance from the mentor also enables the trainee to develop confidence quickly, leading to more autonomy in the role. As the trainee begins to develop their professional identity, the mentor challenges the trainee which leads to further development. On the flip side, negative experiences can result in a decline in teacher confidence (Yuan 2016). Mentoring can also lead to enhanced career progression as the mentee learns important social constructs operating within the organisation, in order to advance within it, as well as increased exposure to management (Kram 1985). © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 A. Turner, Professional Identity Development through Incidental Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86092-9_6

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Trainee Teacher Expectations Versus the Reality Initially as the trainee teachers began their placement, they had a particular idea about the amount and type of support they expected. They believed that the mentor would provide reassurance, particularly at the early stages of the programme, as well as pedagogical and subject specific knowledge and guidance. The trainees approached the placement hungry for feedback, seeing this as the key to their successful development. However, in most cases the reality was quite different to this, causing frustration and stress. Most of the trainees felt that they were not supported as much as they expected or would have liked. They expected the placement to be well organised and to spend a significant amount of time with their mentor. However, it quickly became apparent that this was an unrealistic expectation, within the FE sector. The trainees expressed disappointment about the type of support given, particularly as it was not as focussed on teaching strategies as they were expecting (Table 6.1). This resulted in less critical

Table 6.1  Expected levels of support compared to the actual support provided Expectation of support Reality of support

Action

Regular and detailed feedback after sessions with enough time to fully discuss progress Access to range of pre-prepared resources Advice about pedagogical strategies (theory)

Identified and used alternative support with mixed results

Learner profiles and detailed individual plans provided Clear behaviour strategies provided

Limited time available with the mentor

Impact

Incidental learning opportunities not fully utilised. Critical reflection not undertaken by trainees Limited availability Had to create own Additional stress of resources, or resources or seek Lack of time available unavailable other sources for other activities Limited guidance Support used from Restricted the reflective provided on alternative sources, practice undertaken pedagogical such as university Less development of approaches tutors and peers teaching skills initially In some cases, this To create their Confidence developed was provided but own profiles alongside teacher not always in a identity timely manner In some cases, To develop own Confidence developed limited advice behaviour and a strengthened provided strategies teacher identity

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reflection around the topic of pedagogy and teaching strategies by the trainees, particularly in the early stages of the placement experience. The trainees who expressed high aspirations in terms of their development at the start of the course, were expecting high levels of quality feedback, regardless of how successful their teaching sessions were. Where they felt dissatisfied with the amount of support being provided by the mentor, the majority of the trainees accessed alternative support networks. However, this did not always result in the feedback they were looking for and at times resulted in increased anxiety. In particular, Aafiya had a clear preconceived idea about the level of support that she expected and she demonstrated a lack of awareness about the reality of teaching in an FE environment and the associated workload. Before the placement started Aafiya was given a Scheme of Work, general resources and visual aids. The mentor had responded positively to her dyslexia by ensuring the resources were accessible and she received daily, targeted feedback from her mentor and reassurance, even outside of the working day. In spite of this, Aafiya wanted more guidance in terms of teaching strategies. “he’s not given me techniques … I’d expect him or her to say, oh, by the way this is how I did it last year, so you can adapt it” (Interview 1). In this case, the trainee lacked in confidence and needed an extremely high level of support, which was unrealistic.

The Positive Impact of the Mentor A critical factor that enabled the trainees to develop their identity quickly was access to structured and suitable guidance and support. This included a formal induction to the processes and procedures of the organisation, as well as clear expectations about working practice. Where there was evidence of strong support in place and reassurance and regular feedback was provided, the trainees developed confidence more quickly, which enabled them to become more autonomous after a short amount of time. This then also led to more confidence and a strong teacher identity being developed quickly. Omar was proactive and settled into the placement rapidly, understanding the expectations of him. He worked successfully with the mentor who was approachable and provided him with regular guidance and support, which increased his confidence. Omar was given the opportunity to teach the group autonomously from an early stage. This enabled him to use his

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initiative and develop a strong identity by learning how to manage difficult situations independently. When I left him to it in the sessions you could see his confidence build up because he’s not feeling the pressure as such, he’s more in his own space doing what he loves to do. (Mentor 1 interview)

The feedback he received was at times targeted, regular and linked to pedagogical strategies. However, sometimes it was quick and consisted of praise, rather than being focussed on specific areas. This was due to a lack of time and conflicting timetables which restricted when they could meet. Omar would have preferred more in depth feedback, particularly around subject content and planning. However, the mentor felt that she provided Omar with regular development points and was impressed by his professional approach to constructive criticism. I noticed at the beginning quite a few development points that he needed to develop and he listened really well and then took those on board which I then noticed in the session … He’d have development points from those (other observers) and he’d implement them straight away. (Mentor interview)

Additionally the praise provided by the mentor impacted positively on Omar’s confidence, particularly when given in front of the programme leader, which he recognised as important for future career prospects. Joanne’s mentor also gave her the opportunity to be autonomous, by teaching her own lessons right from the start, which she enjoyed. This helped her to feel settled and her confidence developed. “I’d rather be left on my own, if I’m honest (laughs) and be in charge of it” (interview 1). Although she felt fully supported by the mentor, who was always on hand to answer questions and give advice, she felt there was limited guidance about how the sessions could be structured, and how to plan her ideas in with the existing work that was being undertaken by the learners. Charlotte’s mentor also regularly provided support, gave specific pedagogical advice and ideas informed from the mentors’ knowledge of Charlotte’s work and previous experience. Charlotte moved quickly from initially needing support to being more autonomous, only checking with the mentor just before teaching. “I enjoy when I am just left to get on with it” (Interview 1). Feedback and support was particularly important

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to help resolve initial concerns. Charlotte’s confidence grew because she “developed positive and collaborative relationships” with the learners, the mentor and the “other teaching staff at the university” (Journal 2). She considered this level of support as invaluable to the growth in her confidence. Karen had known her mentor for a number of years as he had previously taught her. The mentor was keen, knowledgeable and exhibited confidence in Karen’s subject knowledge and ability to teach. Karen had a formal induction and although he encouraged her to work independently, the mentor also provided substantial support and specific pedagogical advice, as well as reassurance, at times outside of the working day. I was always available, so she’d text and email me, maybe at 10 o’clock at night, she might have something that was nagging her about the next day and I’d always reply and try and give her advice … which I think is quite important. (Mentor 2 interview)

However, Karen also looked for additional support from her peers and the technician at the placement. Structured, formal and informal feedback from the mentor continued to build her confidence throughout the placement and she remained enthusiastic, seeing changes to her practice. The mentor also adopted an informal approach to regularly observing Karen in an unobtrusive manner which he considered important as a way to build her confidence, “so she didn’t feel pressured” (Mentor interview). The mentor was impressed by Karen’s enthusiasm and her ability to work independently, which she demonstrated from the first day. However, Karen felt a lack of self-belief and was concerned that this would have a detrimental effect on her development as a teacher. Through the quality of the relationship and regular feedback, her confidence levels increased quickly and this enabled her to develop her attitude and professional approach. “I’ve still got things to learn but I’m confident in teaching, I’m not scared anymore like I was when I first started (laughs)” (Interview 1).

Barriers to a Successful Mentoring Experience It was evident that identity developed over a period of time, as the trainees transitioned into a teacher. The trainees were able to engage more critically with disjuncture as their identity strengthened. The relationship with the mentor was pivotal in affirming this identity shift. This was particularly

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evident when the relationship was symbiotic and the mentor openly demonstrated their willingness to learn from the trainee. However, not all trainees felt that they had had a positive experience with the mentor and access to feedback was limited. This was often due to time restrictions and the mentor being unavailable. Where support had not been in place, or the support did not meet the expectations or needs of the trainee, then incidental learning from disjuncture was restricted, or non-learning occurred (Fig. 6.1).

Non- learning

Disjuncture Not fully interpreted Identity Existing views become unaltered

Incidental Learning Space

Tacit Knowledge Remains implicit

Reflective practice Lacks guidance or critical analysis from mentor

Context – Prior Experience and the Community of Practice

Context – Political

Fig. 6.1  The impact of incidental learning where support is limited or non-existent

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The development of teacher identity was critical in order for the trainees to notice and therefore engage with disjuncture in a constructive manner. When the trainees started in placement, some found it difficult to interpret disjuncture due to the overwhelming amount of disjuncture being experienced, resulting in some non-learning. Karen disclosed how she only realised she had to develop her communication skills when this was brought to her attention by the mentor. The approach that Darren adopted to teaching was rather informal and in direct contrast to the formal approach of the mentor. Darren felt conflicted about the support that he received from the mentor. Some aspects were helpful such as support with planning, but he wanted more guidance about session delivery, teaching strategies and a formal induction. “Makes me a bit pissed off because I don’t know and I should know things like [where] materials and resources [are kept]” (Interview 1). Darren felt frustrated by the relationship he had with the mentor, but was reluctant to criticise them because of the co-dependency of the relationship. It is a bit bad because I don’t like to say that things are bad with my mentor … they’re your lifeline really and if they’re helpful in some ways then you don’t want to outline the weaknesses. (Interview 1)

He felt insufficient time had been provided and feedback was often given “on the way to the lift” (Interview 1) and this resulted in him feeling unsure of his progress, “I really don’t know. I need feedback and that’s what I am lacking” (Interview 1). Darren continued to feel frustrated with the support he received from the mentor and their relationship felt restrictive, lacking opportunities for discussion. I feel like a student when I’m talking to her … you think it’s a discussion, but it’s not. Cos you start giving a bit of input based on what she’s just said … I’ll get a couple of words in and the conversation will keep going. It’s very much charging forward, and I’m just getting information given to me. (Interview 2)

Darren felt that the mentor did not have time spare to support him. “I can’t go to her cos she’s so busy” (Interview2). Despite coming towards the end of his teaching hours, the mentor continued to treat him like a trainee, making last minute changes to lessons he was teaching without notice, making him feel “very unprepared” (Interview 2). This caused him

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anxiety as he was still establishing himself as a teacher, both in the eyes of the learners and other members of the team. Darren felt powerless to challenge this due to his position within the relationship. This obvious lack of empowerment had a detrimental effect on the development of his professional identity as a teacher. Darren felt unable to challenge the decision with the mentor or have a fruitful discussion with her about it. My mentor ultimately decides things … we’re going to have a very difficult conversation at some point if she comes in and sees we’re doing it my way. She’s going to wonder what’s going on and I just couldn’t be bothered with the hassle … in that place if I need anything, I have to go through my mentor. (Interview 2)

Darren recognised the power dynamics of the relationship and conformed in order to continue to work successfully with the mentor. This had a detrimental effect on his confidence and his growing identity as a teacher, even in the later stages of the placement. It “reminded me of that, oh, I’m not there yet, I’m definitely not a teacher yet” (Interview 2). Not only was the level and suitability of the support important, the trainee also needed to be receptive to the feedback being provided and this was not always the case. A trainee may not be receptive to feedback because they mis-conceptualise it, seeing it as personal criticism, resulting in the feedback being perceived on an emotional level. This results in the trainee refusing to acknowledge, or avoid receiving the feedback altogether. The trainee may also believe that they know better, or may want to prove that they can do it better without any feedback. Here identity and the concept of ‘self’ overlap. The actual self-now, ‘how I see myself at the moment’ and the notion of ideal-self, ‘what I aspire to be’ and ought-self ‘how others see me’ (Beauchamp and Thomas 2009) impacts on the ability to accept feedback. Where the trainee was not open to feedback the disjuncture was not fully interpreted, or at times not noticed. The subsequent incidental learning that could be assimilated with prior knowledge was restricted, or at worse misguided. Additionally, where there was a lack of support or guidance the trainees tended to remain self-reliant and the initial lack of confidence remained because of the isolation experienced. Erica had two placements, one in a community centre and the second one in an FE college. She did not have an active mentor in her first placement and this prevented her from developing teaching skills and

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pedagogical approaches. “I think I’m learning about how to deal with people, not so much the teaching” (Interview 1). When she did have contact with the mentor it was more around practical issues to do with health and safety or buying resources for the group, rather than any pedagogical advice. The mentor was not readily available and the subsequent lack of feedback made her undervalue the experience and the progress she was making. The lack of guidance prompted her to actively seek support from other sources, such as peers and previous trainees. However, Erica found it difficult to relate to their experiences as they differed considerably to her own. This caused additional anxiety and made her question the validity of her own placement experience, thus increasing her desire to experience a more traditional college placement where she could judge herself as a teacher within this different environment. Erica was unable to recognise the impact that she was having on her learners and was only concerned about why she did not feel the same way as her peers. Working relatively independently, had a detrimental impact on her development and future confidence as a teacher. “I feel I’ll know nothing … where I am is all like rainbows and butterflies. It’s just so easy and I don’t want that to be my perspective” (Interview 1). Even by the middle of the programme and whilst in the second placement, Erica found it challenging to identify clearly any progress she had made since the start of the course. This demonstrates the detrimental impact that the lack of mentor support and directed guidance had on her development. “It’s hard to say how I have progressed. I still feel like the same person.” (Journal 2). She continued to lack in confidence, and experienced feelings of inadequacy, particularly within the college context. I still feel I have a long way to go in terms of confidence, but I think that is lacking in the classroom due to me feeling like I am entering their [the learners] space and the previous tutor’s space. (Journal 2)

The mentor support Erica received during the college placement was also sporadic and impartial, often lacking in direct guidance. However, Erica liked this as it enabled her to remain independent, something she valued. When I mention things to her, oh can I do this and can I do that, she’s like, all for it. She’s not questioned it at all. That’s quite nice. (Interview 2)

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Erica did not appear to value feedback and was reluctant to take on board guidance, preferring to work autonomously. “I think it’s nice that I’m learning from myself” (Interview 2). Erica did not fully develop her confidence over the duration of the course. “My confidence has risen immensely; but still needs work” (Journal 3). More contact and feedback from a mentor or the community of practice might have helped this develop further.

The Community of Practice Initially, all of the trainees worked solely with the mentor who provided support and guidance. Where this relationship provided sufficient advice and support, the trainee did not immediately look to other sources for additional support. Where additional support was used, this was from a variety of places and not always from the wider team within the context of the placement, even though the wider team offered an opportunity to access an established community of practice (CoP). In order to navigate the political aspects that operate in the placement context, informal relationships can provide opportunities of support in a less structured way to the formality of the mentor relationship (Boud and Middleton 2003). The way that the CoP operates differed by placement and was influenced by the way the trainee approached it. Where the trainee felt comfortable and confident within the CoP, they were more likely to receive support from the wider team and access to a more diverse placement experience, such as attending team meetings, parents’ evenings and social events. This is because the external factors in terms of the context they were placed in were not in tension with their internal self, such as their stories and beliefs. Joanne found the course challenging and attributed her success to the support provided by the mentor and team she worked with. The positive approach of the team and shared values enabled Joanne to develop a strong, professional identity. I liked the positive mental attitude of everyone that worked there. They all seemed to have the same goal to the values of the prison, and that was, to make sure each and every one, was educated to the highest possible standard. (Journal 3)

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Joanne regularly used the staff room and felt “dead comfortable like, just like one of them really” (Interview 1). This was due to her age and prior experience. Being regarded as one of the team was important to her confidence development at an early stage of placement. She also attended staff meetings where she felt confident enough to engage fully “I actually gave my input as well of ideas” (Interview 1). Discussions about future employment opportunities had also taken place. Aafiya was based in an all-male, mature team of approximately five, which she saw as a positive experience because she received a lot of support, making her feel part of the team. She also used the staff room and was included in conversations. I really feel like part of the team, every little thing I’m notified, um, which makes me probably stay focussed and be more mature, like a teacher as opposed to a trainee. (Interview 1)

However, some of the trainees did not feel comfortable within this context and declined to use the staff room, thus removing themselves from the opportunity of access to the community and associated benefits. This was particularly evident in the ‘under twenty four’ category, who expressed a fear of using the staff room. This could be due to a lack of previous experience of a similar workplace setting. Alternatively it could be the way that the wider team and the facilities in the staff room were initially introduced. This resulted in a limited experience and restricted access to formal support systems. Erica failed to acknowledge the importance and potential impact that being a member of a CoP could have on her identity formation. Erica felt more of a connection to the learners than the staff team. She had not been in the staffroom, preferring to spend her break times in the classroom with the learners. Initially, Omar felt unsure of his role within the wider team and due to his age and limited experience, had not used the staff room, because he was “too scared to go in (laughs)” (interview 1). Omar relied on other sources of support, such as friends, family and even the learners when faced with disjuncture in class. However, once he had been “formally invited” (interview 2) into the staff room, Omar felt confident in this environment and began to understand the codes of conduct and felt able to operate within these. This also gave him access to privileged information which he dealt with in a professional way.

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it’s very informal, err, and it’s like everyone’s just letting their rage out … I like to listen but I don’t like to give my opinion on something unless I kind of understand what’s going on. (Interview 2)

Darren also had access to the wider team, but he did not feel able to approach them, because they were “busy people” (Interview 1). He did not feel comfortable using the staff room. “I wouldn’t know where to put myself” (Interview 1). However, Darren had attended team meetings, but also did not feel comfortable in these situations because he did not understand what was being discussed. “I’m thinking, oh, what are they talking about?” (Interview1). He did not share the professional language being used in this context by the existing team and he was reluctant to ask for an explanation. “They’re not going to slow down and discuss things for my benefit” (Interview 1). Darren had a clear identity as trainee teacher in this situation, appreciating the time restraints on the team and was also reluctant to appear incompetent. By the later stage of the programme, Darren had developed more of a relationship with the wider team. This was a somewhat forced collaboration as the learners were working on final major projects which required the team to work together. Darren felt valued within this context resulting in an increased sense of credibility. I’ve found myself knocking around some ideas and things with other teachers … They’re asking me the same questions that they’d ask anyone else. (Interview 2)

Where the trainees chose to access the CoP, their experience of this was initially hindered by their understanding of the conventions within this context. In two cases the placement and the team were familiar because the trainee had previously studied there. Although this gave the trainees confidence due to familiarity to use the staff room and access the community of practice, this also resulted in tension for Charlotte, derived from a change in her own identity within this context. This soon shifted though as the mentor and team made her feel like she fitted “into the team” (Interview 1) and that they trusted her. Karen did not experience this disjuncture because a period of time had passed since she was a learner. She had maintained a relationship with her old lecturer (who became her mentor) on a professional basis so their relationship had already developed from learner/teacher before the placement began. Karen felt confident and able to use her own lap top in the

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staff room. The mentor described how she “would sit and talk and tell us what she was up to as if she was one of us, really confident like that” (Mentor interview). As the placement progressed, the trainees were able to access the CoP more as their sense of teacher identity developed through experience. They moved from periphery participation, where they were initially an outsider, to a more internal position as their confidence developed. This was true of all the trainees. This correlates with the findings presented by Lave and Wenger (2008) who argued that the apprentice, in this case the trainee teacher, gradually gains access to the inner sanctum of the community and all of the benefits associated with this. However, in order to gain access, the trainees had to develop a greater sense of their own identity which only happens over a period of time, and with support. moving toward full participation in practice involves not just greater commitment of time, intensified effort, more and broader responsibilities within the community, and more difficult and risky tasks, but, more significantly, an increasing sense of identity as a master practitioner. (p. 111)

The Community of Practice and Disjuncture around Professional Behaviours Once the trainees gained more confidence and subsequently became involved in the CoP, they had an opportunity to access the codes that operate within that community. This included the language used, the hierarchy and unwritten rules. Until these conventions were better understood, some of the trainees found this context intimidating. Lave and Wenger (2008) acknowledged that the trainee has the opportunity to access and subsequently participate in “information flows and conversations, in a context in which they can make sense of what they observe and hear” (p. 102). Some of the trainees observed and reflected on behaviours which they deemed unprofessional. These included negative comments about learners, swearing, lateness, stress and being unplanned and disorganised. This challenged their previous perception about teacher identity and professionalism. This disjuncture caused the trainees to reflect on their previous perception and adjust their view of professional identity leading to incidental learning. The impact of this could be seen in terms of how they chose to respond to this experience while they reconciled this with their

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existing ethos and beliefs. This demonstrates how identity is developed in a dynamic way within the fluid and unpredictable contexts that surround teaching. This correlates with the findings by Avis and Bathmaker (2004), whose research highlighted structuring factors placed on teachers, such as quality measures and other restrictions. These factors encouraged the trainees to develop different identities to what they had initially envisaged. Charlotte discussed the informal way that the staff communicated with the learners which included swearing in front of them. Although she felt it was acceptable at the placement because it was a Higher Education establishment, she did not believe this approach would be appropriate in a college environment. If I went into a college or somewhere else and saw teachers talking like that to their students, I’d think (pause) I think it’s the environment, it’s an art school, it’s kind of more ok. (Interview 2)

Charlotte chose not to swear because of her age and she was cautious about being too friendly. She adjusted her attitude and approach to the learners to ensure she was seen as professional and credible as a teacher. “If they were more friendly towards me, I’d be more formal with them” (Interview 2). The staff also swore in the office and although they recognised that this might be inappropriate in front of a trainee teacher, she was not offended by this. There’s one woman who swears quite a lot and she’d look over at me and say I’m really sorry, I’m meant to be setting an example, but it doesn’t bother me … I think it’s quite funny. (Interview 2)

As part of her undergraduate studies, Charlotte had undertaken a short school-based placement where she had also observed swearing by the teachers which she had found shocking at the time. However, she subsequently considered this to be normal teacher behaviour and was not surprised during this placement as she was expecting it. This also concurs with findings by Jarvis (2010) who presented the notion of dynamic identity development. It may be seen that every new experience is interpreted by the mind and has a personal meaning given to it, which is then integrated into the meanings

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of past experiences already stored in the brain, which gives us a greater understanding of how we, as individuals, can behave and learn. (p. 7)

Jarvis (2010) argued that identity develops in a dynamic way in response to new social situations, or behaviours associated with a particular context. The trainees did not purely imitate the behaviours witnessed in the community, but were able to process these in a critical way. This resulted in the trainees adopting the role as an agent of change, developing a more holistic professional identity, through a process of interpretation and re-­ interpretation (Schepens et al. 2009). Velzen et al. (2012) agreed with the research undertaken by Lave and Wenger, that identity develops in line with modelled and expected behaviours. However, there is an assumption here that the CoP will model expected professional behaviours, whereas this was not the experience for all the trainees. This caused conflict as some wanted to challenge the behaviours, but were unable to do so due to their ‘apprentice’ status. These trainees were conflicted between their actual self-now, the ideal-self where they aspired to be and the ought-self which was seen by the CoP and their mentor (Beauchamp and Thomas 2009). Aafiya felt respected by the team and equated this to working late and helping where possible. Aafiya used the staff room, but did not have a seat which meant she felt obliged to leave if someone else came in. There’s no place for me to sit, so what do I do? Watch a sixty year old man eat his lunch in the corner, sit there myself when I can perfectly go sit in my car. (Interview 1)

Her awareness of her position and respect for the older members of the team is clear. However, the staff swore regularly which Aafiya found offensive, but she felt uncomfortable when they apologised. She felt conflicted between wanting to fit in with the team and her professional identity and values. She felt grateful for the support they had given her, but recognised that “they’re not meant to be good to me, they’re meant to be good teachers” (Interview 2). Aafiya believed that the poor behaviour witnessed was largely down to the low socio-economic status of the local area where the college was located. The mentor and the learners found it difficult to relate to her because she had a different attitude and she was even advised to “chill out a bit” (interview 2). She could see how a more relaxed approach could work, but she remained firm in her view of professional

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behaviours and the experience did not change this. “If they think I’m not on their level because I don’t swear, well then, they need to change THEIR level” (Interview 2). In addition, two of the trainees expressed how they felt the mentor was their lifeline, particularly in the beginning stages of the placement. This also hindered their ability to challenge what they considered unprofessional practice. This acute disjuncture further cemented their future professional identity as they chose to reject the ‘norm’ being modelled by the CoP. This correlates with findings from Beijaard et al. (2003), who discovered that the placement can be cause for anxiety and conflict for a trainee teacher. It also confirms the model of teacher identity development presented by Rodgers and Scott (2008), who argued that identity is developed through a five stage process. This also provided a realistic experience of the sector and some of the possible types of experiences they might have in the future. The trainees were forced to shift their perceptions and cultural values in order to navigate this. However, in some cases the mentor consistently modelled expected professional behaviour and where this was the case, the trainees equally modelled this, with little conflict. Karen observed unprofessional behaviours within the CoP, but this generated a heightened sense of responsibility towards the learners and strengthened her convictions about the sort of teacher she wanted to be. “It’s given me the push to be that inspirational teacher” (Interview 2). This is an example of the trainee aspiring to the ideal-self. Omar’s mentor adopted a very formal approach to the partnership, modelling the expected behaviours and instilling the need for standard college paperwork and correct procedures to be followed. This influenced the way Omar developed his own professional identity and professional behaviour in front of learners. The mentor was also inspired by having a mentee, particularly the resources that Omar developed. “I’ve been inspired by his [resources], [this] has made me more creative with mine” (Mentor interview).

Conclusion The mentor was crucial in providing a bridge between the developmental demands of the programme as experienced within the practice and the developmental stage of the trainee, as outlined in Daloz’s matrix of support and change (1986, as cited in Rodgers and Scott 2008) (Fig. 6.2).

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High Challenge

Retreat

Growth

Statis

Confirmation

Low Challenge Low support

115

High Support

Fig. 6.2  Daloz’s matrix of support and change

The mentor was able to adapt the support they provided to enable growth, from low challenge to high challenge with high levels of support, as they best understood the specific needs of the trainee and the developmental stage they were at. The trainees also identified and turned to additional support systems, with varying levels of success. This was a fluid solution which sat hidden from the formal structures of support provided on the programme. Embedding a system to monitor and guide these support networks is an area that would benefit future programmes, based on Daloz’s matrix of support and change. Identifying and working with these hidden support systems is also an area that would benefit from further research. Access to a suitable mentor who is working in a professional CoP is an expectation and measures are in place, such as entry requirements and training provided to try and reduce the risk of unsuitable mentors. However, the FE sector is an area that is in constant flux and consistency of placements from one academic year to the next is often an unrealistic aspiration. The reality is all too often quite different. Some of the trainees felt that the lack of support they had been given by the mentor, provided an opportunity as it allowed them to deal with disjuncture in the form of challenges, as they arose. However, it was crucial that support was readily available after the event to guide the interpretation of the experience, so that tacit knowledge, via incidental learning could be developed. In addition, regular praise and acknowledgement also enabled the trainee to develop confidence. The effect of the praise was heightened when expressed in a public domain, particularly in front of influential people within the CoP, such as the Head of Department. This also built confidence and a positive subsequent impact on teacher identity.

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Nearly all of the trainees experienced disjuncture in terms of the expected behaviour of the mentor and the wider team and the reality. Although mentors are appointed through rigorous recruitment processes, additional training and support strategies should be in place regardless of prior qualifications and experience. This research has demonstrated that it is not always possible to ensure that the mentor embodies the professionalism expected. The training and guidance provided for mentors needs to include opportunities for discussions about how to mentor a trainee from the beginning of the programme to the end, and should also incorporate the theory of and research on teacher development. It has become evident through this research that a formal induction should be provided for the trainee to the rest of the team at the placement and clarity about the expectations of their role within the team should be explained. Where possible, trainees should be provided with a defined workspace within the staff room. Further research into the impact that incidental learning has on the development of the mentor, as both subject and teaching expert would be beneficial.

References Avis J, Bathmaker A M (2004) “How do I cope with that?” The development of ‘schooling identities’ amongst trainee FE lecturers. Paper presented at the British Educational Research Association Conference at Manchester, 15–18 September 2004. Beauchamp, C; Thomas, L (2009) Understanding teacher identity: An overview of issues in the literature and implications for teacher education. Cambridge Journal of Education, vol 39:2, 175–199. Beijaard, D; Meijer, P; Verloop, N (2003) Reconsidering research on teachers’ professional identity. Teaching and Teacher Education, vol 20, 107–128. Boud, D; Middleton, H (2003) Learning from others at work: communities of practice and informal learning. Journal of workplace learning. Vol 15 (1) pgs 194–202. Daloz, L. (1986) Effective Teaching and Mentoring. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. Education and Training Foundation (ETF) (2014) Professional Standards for teachers and trainers in education and training – England. Available online at: www.etfoundation.co.uk. Accessed on 06/07/2019. Izadinia, M (2013) A review of research on student teachers’ professional identity. British Educational Research Journal, vol 39 (4) pgs 694–713. Jarvis, P (2010) Adult Education and Lifelong Learning. Theory and Practice. 4th Edition. London: Routledge.

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Kram, K. E. (1985) Mentoring at work: Developmental relationships in organizational life. Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman. Lave, J; Wenger, E (2008) Situated learning. Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge: Cambridge university press. Rodgers, C. R; Scott, K. H (2008) The development of the personal self and professional identity in learning to teach. In Cochran-Smith, M; Feiman-Nernser, S; Mcintyre, J; Demers, K (eds) Handbook of Research on Teacher Education. 3rd Ed. New York and London: Routledge. Schepens, A; Aelterman, A; Vlerick, P (2009) Student Teachers’ Professional Identity Formation: Between being born as a teacher and becoming one. Educational studies, vol35 (4) 361–378. Velzen, C; Volman, M; Brekelmans, M; White, S (2012) Guided work-based learning: sharing practical teaching knowledge with student teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, vol 28, 229–239. Yuan, E (2016) The dark side of mentoring on pre-service language teachers’ identity formation. Teaching and Teacher Education vol 55, pgs 188–197.

CHAPTER 7

Teacher Professional Development Through Incidental Learning

Chapter Introduction The theoretical framework presented in Chap. 3 provides a clear structure from which to discuss how incidental learning could lead to tacit knowledge development. Different factors which make up the framework have been explored throughout this book. Initially the framework placed an emphasis on the disjuncture experienced, as this was viewed as central to incidental learning. Although this remains the case, the primary research signified that all of the elements are of equal importance, in order for incidental learning to lead to change in practice. Identity was central in this process, as discussed in Chap. 5, because this enables the individual to notice the disjuncture in the first place. With a developed professional identity, disjuncture is approached with confidence and assimilated with prior knowledge, through incidental learning. Identity develops further, shaped through these experiences, over a period of time and as discussed by Kegan (1994, cited in Rodgers and Scott 2008), through a series of developmental stages. During the developmental stages of identity, disjuncture can be a stressful experience which can further compound this developing identity and negatively impact on confidence. The incidental learning space provides an opportunity for critical reflection in a supported and structured way. Context was also important in this process. Professionalism can be achieved within an environment where creativity and innovation are celebrated, and individuals are empowered to © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 A. Turner, Professional Identity Development through Incidental Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86092-9_7

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challenge ideas in order to refresh the sector (Lingfield 2012). This ideal was proposed by Lingfield at the time when the professional standards were being developed. This chapter discusses the development of professionalism through incidental learning. It expands on the ideas explored in Chaps. 5 and 6 around the development of identity. This chapter also argues for a more holistic development of professionalism through an embodiment of what it means to be a professional teacher, rejecting the idea of meeting the professional standards through a criterion based approach, which can often be seen as a ‘tick box’ exercise.

The Professional Standards and Teacher Professional Development As discussed in Chap. 1, traditional models of teacher training were structured around reflective practice as this was viewed as central to identity development. Critical reflection was used to equip trainee teachers with the ability to be adaptable when faced with disjuncture. This enabled them to deal effectively with the intuitive elements of the role, or in other words, the incidental learning as it occurred. When the most recent Professional Standards for the Further Education and Skills sector came into existence in 2014 (ETF 2014), they placed less emphasis on reflective practice and gave more priority to an outcomes based model. One of the results of this has been a distinct lack of structured reflection that trainees engage with, often viewing reflection as a ‘bolt on’ to the rest of their evidence. The professional standards were created with a focus on planning, delivery and assessment in order to drive up standards (BIS 2014). However, although these are accepted as a rational model based on research, they were overly simplistic and fell short of measuring the complexities of professionalism. Not only are they mechanistic, but they lack differentiation so do not take into account individual profiles and variables, within this wide and diverse sector. The ETF set out clear expectations that trainee teachers will be supported by professional subject-specific mentors so they are able to observe professional behaviours and pedagogic expertise. However, the trainees who were part of this research study had very different experiences in relation to this. In some cases although the mentor demonstrated professional behaviour, the trainee witnessed unprofessional behaviours displayed by the wider team, as discussed in Chap. 6. A major area of disjuncture that

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Erica experienced was the attitude of the teaching team who did not share her own professional values. What I found shocking though, one of the teachers said to me all you need to do is get them to pass, which is fair enough, but for them to get onto level three, they have to have a merit, so for me, I’m thinking, well, no, I know that they’re capable of getting a merit, some of them, even a distinction, ummm at the level 2 and that’s what I’m trying to aim for with them. (Interview 2)

In some cases, even the mentor did not demonstrate the level of professionalism expected. Although this was a source of anxiety because it challenged the trainees’ ethos and desired professional behaviour, it can be argued that it provided a realistic experience of the sector. This ultimately shaped their professional identity, by not only adhering to the professional standards, but by reconciling and strengthening professionalism, shaped by their own values (Jephcote and Salisbury 2009). The de-regulation of the sector in 2014 has resulted in differing levels of qualified teachers and subsequently differing levels of professionalism. One of the difficulties that pre-service trainee teachers face is the lack of professional vision which allows them to notice and interpret teaching experiences (Seidel and Stürmer 2014). This makes the role of the mentor and subsequent wider team all the more critical. Where this support network was in place, the trainee was guided towards noticing disjuncture and incidental learning was more likely to occur. This took place through informal observations and regular opportunities to critically reflect. However, where it was not in place, the incidental learning was severely limited. The idea of personalised, organic growth of a professional identity as argued by Diamond (1991) can be seen through the research findings. In most cases, the trainees embodied professionalism rather than simply aiming to meet a set of prescribed standards. Without structured reflection being built into the programme this can be a difficult and stressful experience, particularly when faced with the disjuncture of observing unprofessional behaviours within the placement context. Navigating an individual path towards what it means to be a professional can be seen to cause frustration. Once Charlotte became aware of the amount of pressure the team was under from management, this resulted in a positive experience because she

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felt “more aware and prepared for when I start work” (Journal 3). Charlotte had a pre-set view of what teaching was before starting her placement and struggled to relate this to her experience, mainly because she was working on such an individual basis with the learners. I wasn’t sure if what I was doing or saying was actually worthwhile because I wasn’t standing at the front of a classroom ‘teaching a lesson’. However I soon realised that teaching can take many forms. (Journal 3)

This conflict around her role and her expectations resulted in her seeking reassurance throughout the placement, from a number of sources. Not only did the trainees meet the ETF (2014) professional standards throughout the programme, through incidental learning, they embodied a professional identity shaped through experience and informed by their cultural values. This provided a more organic and dynamic professional identity to develop that was unique to each individual. The research shows that it is possible to meet the professional standards, as well as also approach professionalism in a more holistic way, as discussed by Tickle (2000). This leads to a more personalised professional identity which enables critical judgement about situations, through self-development, which is born from experience (Eraut 1994; Rodgers and Scott 2008). This can be seen in the research findings where tacit knowledge was constructed over a period of time and through a variety of experiences. The successful interpretation of experience relies on reflection and guidance from a mentor, who has remained current in their own practice. However, it also relies on the process of repetition in order for the experience to lead to generalisations so that future experiences are able to be interpreted and acted on. “I feel I have been able to portray the type of teacher I always felt I would be” (Karen, Journal 3). This transformative model of professional knowledge as presented by Eraut (1994) and later developed by Rodgers and Scott (2008) relies heavily on access to a professional mentor and shared technical language, as highlighted in Chap. 6. This was only seen in the research findings after a period of time. Initially the trainees remained in a purely transmission role. Aafiya developed resilience because of the negative experiences she had throughout her placement. She learnt to “understand certain codes” (Interview 2), because she had developed a shared language with the team. She was shocked about the negative comments staff made about

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learners in the staff room, which resulted in Aafiya questioning the professionalism of all teachers. This ultimately resulted in a changed opinion about the profession as a whole. Aafiya also felt disappointed that the staff team were not there “to make a difference” (Interview 2), a work ethic she felt strongly about. Aafiya still felt like a learner, even towards the end of the programme, which caused conflict. She had a pre-disposed view of how teachers should behave and this was very different to what she observed and subsequently discovered. Teachers “are meant to protect us and meant to care about us, you know, [they’re] meant to look after us” (Interview 2). This resulted in a realisation that she needed to teach in a context aligned to her own professional values and ethos. “I don’t wanna be like them, it’s depressing. I don’t want to live like that” (Interview 2). The experience enabled her to become “a bit more mature,” (Interview 2) by working in an adult environment. Although Charlotte described some unprofessional behaviour she had observed, being in the role as trainee teacher enabled her to understand the reasons behind the behaviour, demonstrating a shift in her identity resulting from changed perception. “The staff are late sometimes which I knew from my experience [as a learner here] … being on the other side [as a teacher], there’s often a valid reason for it” (Interview 1). Charlotte was surprised by how stressed the team felt at times which she drew reassurance from. When you’re in the office and they’re about to go and teach and they’re stressing cos it’s not quite right … It’s reassuring I think that they feel the same way I do sometimes, even though they’ve been doing it for years … it’s nice to see it’s not just me. (Interview 2)

The professional standards, although not intended to be prescriptive, are expected to be used to map and judge a trainee teachers’ professionalism against. What this research has discovered is the pivotal role that incidental learning has in the development of professional identity through a strengthened embodiment of professionalism, which occurred through practice. One element that has not been included in the research is the identity of the teacher trainer who is responsible for delivering the programme. Their role is often so much more than that of pure knowledge provider. They provide the sort of example of professional identity that they expect from their own trainees. The teacher trainer embodies the model professional teacher and yet this is an area that is often neglected in

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research, or programme construction. According to Beauchamp and Thomas (2009), identity refers to knowing how to be; how to understand the profession and knowing how to act accordingly. This is also relevant to the identity of the mentor and is an area that is under-researched and yet comes under a certain degree of scrutiny.

Dual Professionalism The concept of dual professionalism is a central theme in the professional standards (ETF 2014), where there is an expectation that teachers will also be active professionals within their subject area. Dual professionalism, particularly for the trainees from the arts based subjects, was clearly evident. They entered the placement with strong subject knowledge which provided them with confidence in the topics they were going to teach. They also valued their prior industry knowledge and experience and were keen to share this with their learners. In some cases, their dual professionalism became central to their role as they found that their own subject knowledge improved through the delivery of it. In addition, for some trainees, they felt a certain responsibility towards their learners to be an active practitioner. This was particularly true in the Higher Education context that Charlotte was placed within, but was also evident in the college context experienced by Karen. This was driven by the interaction and shared dialogue that the trainees experienced with some of their learners. This positive disjuncture resulted in incidental learning for some of the trainees who viewed their own work in a different way, resulting in change to the way they engaged with the subject. Omar recognised the importance of dual professionalism such as keeping up to date with his own subject skills and knowledge and continued to use feedback to develop his teaching skills and confidence. He was surprised by the high grade he received for the graded observations which reinforced his self-belief as a teacher. Omar had begun to recognise and embrace the element of risk taking within the learning environment. By “employing new methods and techniques to get the class’s attention is not something I should be afraid of” (Journal 2). Although surprised by the amount of theory involved in the course, this had been a positive element of the experience. “Everything that we get taught at the university helps with placement, they both inform each other” (Interview 2).

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Karen continued to keep her subject knowledge up to date, viewing this as necessary in order to meet the needs of the learners. Her identity as a photographer was firmly embedded, which she drew confidence from, viewing this as essential to her teaching role. For example when she took a group of students on a trip, she took her camera with her. When asked about why she did this, she simply replied “because I am a photographer” (Interview 2). She took the opportunity to model her own subject identity to her students by doing this. This came as a surprise to the mentor who did not consider taking the same opportunity to also take photographs alongside the students. This forced the mentor to reflect on his own practice as a photographer. When asked if he shared his own photographs with students he had not considered this, wanting to keep this separate. However, he changed his perception about this and consequently his practice in light of the trainee taking these opportunities. Karen also planned and delivered workshops without guidance, utilising her industry knowledge to develop the learners’ wider skills, demonstrating her autonomy at the later stage of the course and developed teacher identity. “I did see her as a fellow tutor really, rather than as a student” (Mentor interview). Karen celebrated the importance of being a dual professional, and the ability to work symbiotically as a photographer and teacher which was something she had concerns about. I have realised that being a teacher and being a Practitioner work hand in hand. That this isn’t a barrier, if anything it makes me a better teacher. (Journal 2)

Charlotte also realised the value of her own artwork which she continued to practice, even when time restrictions made this difficult. I have found that using examples from my own experience really helps to engage and motivate the students, and although it is often difficult to find the time to carry on with my own work, I feel that it really does have a positive impact on the learners. (Journal 2)

Charlotte continually practiced her own artwork (textiles) which the learners took an active interest in, which further increased her motivation. She felt surprised by the level of interest her learners showed towards her work. “I didn’t think that would have an impact, but it has” (Interview 2).

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This resulted in a change to the way she engaged with her own art-­practice; being more conscious while creating pieces and thinking about how she would articulate this to the learners. “I was in a bit of a bubble and now I think how would I explain what I’m doing? I don’t think it changes it, I just think about it slightly differently” (Interview 2). Charlotte felt more inspired as a textile artist and also a heightened sense of responsibility to engage in her own work, even when feeling demotivated. This was a result of the expectations she felt from her learners. This was an unexpected aspect of the experience. Her learners also followed her work via her website and on social media, often discussing it with her, which she found a nice surprise. Charlotte used this to inform her teaching approach, by putting their work in context, so it was relatable to the learners rather than abstract ideas. Doing her own artwork which she shared with the learners also made her “feel more like a professional teacher” (Interview 2). This could be due to her strong identity as an artist, a role she was comfortable with. Charlotte placed a lot of value on being able to work alongside professional, practicing artists and found this “really inspiring, to see how they balance the different aspects of their professional lives” (Journal 3). Placed within an all-male offender learning provision, Joanne was also interested in how the learners perceived her and this shaped her identity. She gained respect from them by sharing examples of her own art work (fine art), demonstrating her strong dual professionalism as a fine artist and a teacher. I know I am a trainee teacher but I do feel like I’m a teacher cos I’m giving my knowledge and teaching them while I’m there and I don’t think they see me as a trainee teacher. (Interview 1)

The mentors who were interviewed for the research, also both found that their own subject knowledge and pedagogical practice had improved since working with the trainees. They both experienced renewed motivation about their own teaching practice, as well as their own subject knowledge and practice. What could be seen was an overlap between two professional identities, which operate in a symbiotic way. This combined professional identity was shaped by each other, but is separate as it changed in light of the interaction between the two identities (Fig. 7.1). This correlates with the argument against professionalism as separate or dual entities, as posed by Plowright and Barr (2012). By recognising the

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Fig. 7.1  The space between the dual professional identities

Subject Specialist

Professional Teacher

importance of developing a joint professionalism, there are more opportunities for a grounded professional identity with equal importance and is something that should be encouraged. Not all the trainees viewed continuing with their own practice as a requirement. However, these trainees tended to be supporting lower level learners, or expressed high levels of confidence in their subject knowledge, so did not feel the need to develop this further alongside the teaching commitments. In some cases, there was an appreciation of the importance of dual professionalism, but due to the demands of the ITE proragmme, they felt that they did not have the time for their own practice. This was particularly true for Omar and Darren. The impact that a trainee teacher can have on the dynamics of an existing community of practice and its perceived identity, is an area which lacks research. It would be of interest to investigate this further, particularly within the subject area of the Arts.

Reflective Practice and Tacit Knowledge Development Bourdieu (1998) argued that reflective practice is central to interpretation of experience and in order to make changes to practice, there is the need to be able to be reflexive about practice in context. Reflective practice can take place individually, or as a group and during, or after the event (Marsick and Watkins 2001; Foley 2004; Jeffs and Smith 2005; Schön 2003; Clarke 2006). Tacit knowledge that has been developed through personal experience requires awareness and representation in order for it to be able to impact on future practice. It is through reflection that tacit, or implicit knowledge can become explicit, so that it feeds into future practice. Where

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reflection is not present, or is under-developed, Eraut (2000) argues that it is more likely that tacit knowledge will remain largely hidden and difficult to articulate. The trainees taking part in the research felt able to talk explicitly about their experiences, particularly when this had challenged their own values and beliefs. It became more likely that tacit knowledge developed into explicit knowledge, through the opportunity to reflect with another person. Although the trainees were encouraged to keep a reflective diary throughout this programme, this was not formally assessed and therefore optional. The trainees struggled to find or make time for structured, formal reflection. However, all of the trainees discussed how they engaged in reflective practice, but the majority chose to internalise reflection, rather than record it formally. “Most of my reflection has been in my head rather than written down” (Erica, Journal 3); “I’ve been reflecting in my head” (Omar, Interview 2). According to Focault (cited in Murphy 2013), reflection does not always need to be written down for it to have impact. However, when reflection occurs without the formal process of recording it, there is a reliance on memory that can be unreliable. It is difficult to recall all the details of the event, or the events are not reconstructed in terms of precise sequence. The ITE programme is highly intensive, with often limited time being divided between university attendance and placement practice. Time for purposeful reflection, or time to pause for thought, may appear limited for the trainees. According to Rodgers and Scott (2008), it is the skill in noticing and being able to recognise the importance of a detail, which requires such time. The incidental learning would have had a larger impact on trainee cognition, if there had been more time and guidance provided for them to reflect. This would have ensured that tacit knowledge became part of their explicit knowledge base. The lack of recorded reflections makes it difficult to analyse the quality of the reflective practice that was taking place. Even when the trainees disclosed that they were reflecting on a regular basis and that this had impact, this discourse was not submitted as part of the research. “I went away and reflected on what I’d done … which then made my next lesson even better (Joanne, Journal 3). Again, it is unclear as to the format this reflection took. Several of the trainees claimed that they used regular reflection which enabled them to develop and improve practice. “It’s (reflection) become like second nature” (Darren, Journal 2). This reflection was often based

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on the desire to provide the best possible learning experience for the learners who remained central to their role. Over the duration of the course the learners remain the most important element of the practice experience, especially when they did not demonstrate the sort of engagement with the subject that the trainee had expected. This disjuncture forced deep reflection to occur so that “an engaging, inclusive environment” (Erica, Journal 3) could be provided. Erica valued her own intuition, or tacit knowledge, and reflection-in-­ action to support her when faced with issues in everyday teaching situations. “I think it is a mixture of both intuition and analysis that help your teaching, as it is the intuition which helps progress the next steps from your analysis” (Journal 3). However, she did not seem to have reflected with anyone, but preferred to work independently. Throughout the research, Erica demonstrated a limited awareness of her pedagogical practice, focussing instead on the relationship she had developed with the learners. Karen was confident about using reflection and did this in a number of ways to enable her to develop and learn continually. From approaches and theories learnt in lesson, to reflections and conversations with my mentor. I am continuously reflecting and improving my best practice to provide an engaging, inclusive environment for my learners. (Journal 2)

Even though Karen began the course with a clear focus on reflective practice, this was one area that Karen found difficult to find the time for. Karen found the course challenging, but a positive experience because she was well prepared for the challenges. Karen took a risk by leaving a full-­ time job to enrol on the programme and she viewed this as an integral part of her success on the course. “The element of risk continued throughout my teacher training and this “risk” strangely was something that kept me focused and allowed me to achieve grades that I am extremely proud of” (Journal 3). Darren regularly used reflection which had become integral to his role. He not only identified what had happened, but more significantly, why certain things had happened. The use of setting targets helped him improve, which positively increased his confidence levels. Darren recognised by the middle of the placement, the importance of other members of staff who could support him and provide feedback, aiding his

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development. The sort of teacher Darren initially wanted to be had changed in light of the experience, as he gained a better understanding of the role. When I began teaching I felt as if I was stepping into their [the learners] environment, looking for acceptance as a credible teacher, from them and from the teaching staff. I realise this may not have been the most effective approach. I have since come into my own with my classes. (Journal 2)

According to Boud et al. (1993) in order for reflection to be the most effective, the experience must be analysed in terms of the detail, feelings and judgement in relation to prior knowledge. Reflection can be based on the event in question, or on self-identity (Murphy 2013). Due to the nature of the three online journal entries being submitted to a shared platform and therefore open to scrutiny by others, this also can have a limiting impact on the type of reflections being shared. The lack of additional personal journal submissions for the research study has limited the analysis of the reflective practice being undertaken by the trainees. Although the trainees reported that they engaged in reflection, this was an internal process and therefore this element of the theoretical framework is largely unreported on. Due to this lack of evidence, this is an area that would benefit from additional further research.

A Holistic Approach to Professionalism The post fourteen sector has been the victim of constant policy change, driven by a desire to regulate and ultimately professionalise what was considered to be the poor relation within the UK education system, as discussed in Chap. 1. This was initially resolved by creating professional standards and initially regulating the sector and those who taught within it. However, by arriving at a set of twenty professional standards, the ETF (2014), have only managed to provide part of a solution to a complex problem. The assumption that teachers operating in the FE sector are unprofessional was founded on an ideological bias about the nature of teaching in this sector and driven by the government skills agenda for economic prosperity. This is in part because teachers are historically recruited from industry and may not have a teaching qualification and the view that vocational subjects can often be considered less important than academic subjects.

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This stems from an assumption that vocational subjects are mainly skills based and do not involve cognition. As discussed by McNamara and Murray (2013, cited in Czerniawski 2018), there has been a shift towards “an ideologically driven understanding of teaching as essentially only a craft rather than a complex and fundamentally intellectual activity” (p.  5). Czerniawski (2018) warns against this model because an apprentice who merely imitates the sorcerer without the pre-requisite knowledge, skills or experience can find themselves in deep water! The notion of identity for trainee teachers has become a central, crucial theme throughout this research. What has become apparent, is in order to professionalise the sector, it is not enough to provide a set of standards and expect teachers to adhere to these and ultimately model them in practice. Professionalism is far greater than this. It is crucial that professionalism is viewed as a more complex concept that has an impact on the different developmental stages of identity construction and inevitably requires the teachers to make “the psychological shift from being authored by … to authoring their own stories” (Rodgers and Scott 2008, p. 742). One way to develop a professional work force is to provide support and structure so that the incidental learning space can be fully utilised on a collaborative and personal level which will lead to a more dynamic and holistic embodiment of what it is to a professional teacher in the FE sector. This also relies on the theoretical, taught element of the programme and an opportunity for all teachers to be active researchers in their field. However, in order for this to be productive it does require time, something that appears to be lacking in this sector. The role of incidental learning as a way for individuals and teams to develop individual identities as well as a team identity, is an area which would benefit from further research, particularly in the wake of the apprenticeship model of teacher training. As the trainees develop their professional identity, they could be given structured opportunities to reflect in a supported and professional context. This is an area which could be more explicitly embedded within programmes.

So What Next? The teaching placement for trainee teachers is central to their development of a professional identity and the type of experiences they have access to is pivotal in shaping the sort of teacher they will become (Avalos 2011;

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Jephcote and Salisbury 2009). Current teacher training programmes in the FE and skills sector are based on measurable learning outcomes, delivered and assessed under formal conditions. This research has identified that an incidental learning space is created within the placement environment, prompted by disjuncture. However, for learning to take place, this needs to be in collaboration with others and through the process of critical, and transformative reflection (Velzen et al. 2012). Without this support, making sense of experience can be a lengthy and stressful experience. Previous research carried out by Orr (2012) found that trainee teachers develop coping mechanisms as they are often thrust within an uncertain and turbulent placement that is too often the norm in the FE sector. However, what this research has uncovered is that through incidental learning, trainee teachers did not merely adopt coping mechanisms, but developed a deeper sense of professional identity in the face of this disjuncture. Resilience developed as they successfully construct and reconstruct their developing professional identity through a systematic negotiation and renegotiation with their own beliefs, principles and moral values, that underpinned their idea of self, with those encountered in the sector (Rodgers and Scott 2008). The original definition for incidental learning (Marsick and Watkins 1992), described it as something that occurs through interaction, experimentation and negotiating the codes that exist within organisational culture. This research corroborates this definition. However, it has extended this definition to also include identity as a critical element in the process of incidental learning. Identity is considered in relation to context; personally in the histories of the individual, the social and political. These operate together and lead to further identity development, through incidental learning in a dynamic and socially constructed way. This is an embodied form of professional identity and professionalism which is more than meeting a set of criteria based standards, but lived through the embodiment of values and beliefs. Gilar et al. (2007), posited that teachers need to be self-directed and able to be authors of their own stories and voice. This research has identified that this is a critical element in the development of professional identity and that prior knowledge and experience influence the way that incidental learning is recognised and utilised in identity formation (Kissling 2014). This research uncovered the importance of understanding codes of behaviour when trying to navigate the CoP and how the trainees are able

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to embrace their own individual professional identity, at times in stark contrast to the accepted, modelled identity within the team. Jarvis (2010) suggested that part of the professional role is demonstrated by the ability to be confident enough to challenge existing norms. However, the research did not find this to be the case. The trainees did not develop sufficient confidence to feel able to be direct agents of change, even when faced with cultural norms which were in direct contrast to their own values (Rodgers and Scott 2008). The placement experience provided a rich incidental learning space where the trainee was able to cultivate resilience through managing disjuncture. Although this was at times stressful, it did provide a realistic experience of the sector and thereby prepared the trainees for a future career as a teacher. This is something that was not always as a result of the trainee having access to “expert mentors” (OfSTED 2015, p. 40). Although this is an expected standard of the programme, this is not always the experience of the trainee. Acting as a mentor and having a trainee within a team remains a relatively new experience and this did impact on the quality of mentoring being offered for some (Dixon et al. 2010). One aspect the research explored was around the survival phase at the beginning of the placement. However, what came to light was that the first stages were challenging in terms of managing learner behaviour, whereas the later stages of the placement posed new challenges around cultural values and professional identity, as discussed throughout this book. The research has highlighted that different types of support is needed at different stages, to guide the trainee through this journey. This is an area that would benefit from further research.

Incidental Learning and Covid-19 The topic of incidental learning is a challenging area to research due to the personal and largely hidden nature of this type of learning. This is an area that should be further explored as it holds such value, particularly for professional development and identity constructs. This is particularly true in light of the latest challenges that education faces, due to the Covid-19 pandemic. I believe that it is through incidental learning that teachers across all sectors have been able to adapt their teaching practice, to a largely on-line model. The forced disjuncture that faced the sector provided a hot-bed of opportunity for teaching to be re-considered and ultimately re-invented, in order for learning to continue, in what has been an unprecedented experience. What has made this happen has been

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collaboration across teams and organisations and constant reflection on practice, which has led to a strengthened professional identity of not only individual teachers, but the teaching profession as a whole. Moving forwards, it is hoped that the lessons learnt through this most challenging time will continue and incidental learning will continue to be given the value that it so clearly deserves. FE emphasises the importance of having an open mind, questioning the status quo, and fostering creativity. If FE leaders can embrace these values themselves, then I am confident that our sector will continue to thrive post COVID-19. (Heydarov 2020)

References Avalos, B (2011) Teacher professional development in Teaching and teacher education over ten years. Teaching and Teacher Education, vol 27, 10–20. Beauchamp, C; Thomas, L (2009) Understanding teacher identity: An overview of issues in the literature and implications for teacher education. Cambridge Journal of Education, vol 39:2, 175–199. BIS (2014) The government’s strategy to support excellence in FE. London: Gov. Boud, D; Cohen, R; Walker, D (1993) Using experience for learning. Buckingham: Open university press. Bordieau, (1998) Practical Reason: On the Theory of Action. California: Stanford University Press. Clarke, A (2006) The nature and substance of cooperating teacher reflection. Teaching and Teacher Education, vol 22, 910–921. Czerniawski, G (2018) Teacher Educators in the twenty-first century. St Albans: Critical Publishing. Diamond, C. T. P (1991) Teacher Education as Transformation. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Dixon, L; Jennings, A; Orr, K; Tummons, J (2010) Dominant discourses of pre-­ service teacher education and the exigencies of the workplace: an ethnographic study from English further education. Journal of vocational education and training, 62 (4). pp. 381–393. Education and Training Foundation (ETF) (2014) Professional Standards for teachers and trainers in education and training—England. Available online at: www.et-­foundation.co.uk. Accessed on 06/07/2015. Eraut, M (1994) Developing professional knowledge and competence. London: The Falmer Press.

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Index

C Cinderella sector, 1, 6

M Mentoring, 7, 78, 99, 103–108

D Disjuncture, 30, 44, 50–55, 78, 82–89, 96, 104–116, 120–122, 129

P Post-compulsory, 2, 85 Professionalism, 4–14, 48, 116, 119, 120, 132

F FE and Skills sector, 1–14, 19–34, 60, 81

R Reflection, 4, 24, 46–51, 54, 61, 69, 77, 82, 93, 95, 101, 120–121, 127–129 Rhizome, 14

I Identity development, 14, 19–34, 39, 40, 54, 78, 95, 97, 99, 114, 119, 120, 132 ITE qualifications, 4–7 L Lifelong Learning (LL), 2–5, 14

T Tacit knowledge, 12, 24, 39, 46–47, 51, 54, 78, 81, 115, 119, 122, 127–130 Transformational Learning, 47–49

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 A. Turner, Professional Identity Development through Incidental Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86092-9

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