Proceedings of the Worldwide Music Conference 2021: Volume 1 (Current Research in Systematic Musicology, 8) 3030740382, 9783030740382

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Current Research in Systematic Musicology

Ildar D. Khannanov Roman Ruditsa   Editors

Proceedings of the Worldwide Music Conference 2021 Volume 1

Current Research in Systematic Musicology Volume 8

Series Editors Rolf Bader, Musikwissenschaftliches Institut, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany Marc Leman, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium Rolf-Inge Godoy, Blindern, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

The series covers recent research, hot topics, and trends in Systematic Musicology. Following the highly interdisciplinary nature of the field, the publications connect different views upon musical topics and problems with the field’s multiple methodology, theoretical background, and models. It fuses experimental findings, computational models, psychological and neurocognitive research, and ethnic and urban field work into an understanding of music and its features. It also supports a pro-active view on the field, suggesting hard- and software solutions, new musical instruments and instrument controls, content systems, or patents in the field of music. Its aim is to proceed in the over 100 years international and interdisciplinary tradition of Systematic Musicology by presenting current research and new ideas next to review papers and conceptual outlooks. It is open for thematic volumes, monographs, and conference proceedings. The series therefore covers the core of Systematic Musicology, - Musical Acoustics, which covers the whole range of instrument building and improvement, Musical Signal Processing and Music Information Retrieval, models of acoustical systems, Sound and Studio Production, Room Acoustics, Soundscapes and Sound Design, Music Production software, and all aspects of music tone production. It also covers applications like the design of synthesizers, tone, rhythm, or timbre models based on sound, gaming, or streaming and distribution of music via global networks. • Music Psychology, both in its psychoacoustic and neurocognitive as well as in its performance and action sense, which also includes musical gesture research, models and findings in music therapy, forensic music psychology as used in legal cases, neurocognitive modeling and experimental investigations of the auditory pathway, or synaesthetic and multimodal perception. It also covers ideas and basic concepts of perception and music psychology and global models of music and action. • Music Ethnology in terms of Comparative Musicology, as the search for universals in music by comparing the music of ethnic groups and social structures, including endemic music all over the world, popular music as distributed via global media, art music of ethnic groups, or ethnographic findings in modern urban spaces. Furthermore, the series covers all neighbouring topics of Systematic Musicology.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11684

Ildar D. Khannanov Roman Ruditsa •

Editors

Proceedings of the Worldwide Music Conference 2021 Volume 1

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Editors Ildar D. Khannanov Peabody Institute Johns Hopkins University Baltimore, MD, USA

Roman Ruditsa St. Petersburg Union of Composers St. Petersburg, Russia

ISSN 2196-6966 ISSN 2196-6974 (electronic) Current Research in Systematic Musicology ISBN 978-3-030-74038-2 ISBN 978-3-030-74039-9 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74039-9 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

Worldwide Music Conference (WWMC) entitled “Scientific World Explores Music,” the proceedings of which are offered in this volume, is unique in many aspects. While other conferences compete for the title of the most interdisciplinary, this one has achieved the highest level in this area. Participants tie China with USA and Russia, Greece and Poland with Mexico. There are figures well established in the field; there are as well the young scholars with ideas that await discovery. The organizers of the conference, Andrey Bayadzhan, Anastasia Kulachinskaya and Roman Ruditsa, braved the new spaces unprecedented in music scholarship. The forum offers the podium for scientists to talk about music in a variety of specialized languages without the restrictions of the musicological jargon. This opening of the field to the world has been anticipated. Generations of music theorists of the recent past complained about narrow scope and fragmented optics of our discipline. There were the times when music theory was interdisciplinary; it had been developing in sync with philosophy and mathemata in ancient Greece and early European history. Before music theory had become compartmentalized, it used to follow Heraclitan premonition sὸ ἀmsίnotm rtluέqom. Putting together the selection of papers from the program of the conference was not an easy task. How it is possible to achieve a coherent hierarchical structure, such as required by the book format, if papers spread through the space between Russian Orthodox chant theory and musical information retrieval systems? How to harmonize findings in pedagogy with those in medicine? The former is covered in a paper on the use of tempo-rhythm in musical education, written by Andrei A. Bogatyrev, Elena G. Milyugina, and Dmitry S. Komarov; the latter is represented by the paper on the effects of music on hemodialysis, presented by Nina P. Vanchakova, Natalia V. Krasilnikova, Elizaveta A. Vatskel, and Anna A. Babina. Yet, the concept of the book can be redeemed by its reliance on natural curiosity of the reader. After reading a chapter by Lyudmila P. Kazantseva and Polina S. Volkova on musical semantics, it is reasonable to ask, for example, how this paradigm applies to Russian Orthodox znamenny chant? One of the most prominent scholars of this chant, Tatiana Vladyshevskaia, provides a view on it, this time from v

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standpoint of musical semiotics. The book opens with the block of chapters on various interdisciplinary topics, beginning with Mario Baroni’s summary of this approach to music. Konstantin Zenkin delves into neo-Platonic philosophy of Alexei Losev. Ildar Khannanov places theory of harmony of Jean Philippe Rameau in the context of sciences of the Enlightenment. Elena Kuprina connects music with the ideas of Prigozhin; Violetta Kostka adds the concepts of Lawrence Zbikowski into the mix. These topics rarely, if at all, meet in one context. A paper by Tatiana Kartashova and Victor Kartashov on Indian universal genre up-shastriya is balanced by two papers on contemporary musical technologies, by Füsun Köksal İncirlioğlu and by Andrew Blanton. The latter suggests an ultimately useful innovation, the technology for electro-acoustic music performance, compact and mobile, just what is needed in this uneasy time of the pandemic. A paper on scales —a millennial theme of music theory—by Ricardo Gómez Aíza stands alone. Yet it connects all other papers by the power of mathematics. The music information retrieval (MIR) is commonly discussed at specialized conferences. This book connects Russian and Greek approaches in this subfield, in chapters by Kostis Paraskevoudis and Theodoros Giannakopoulos and by Marina G. Dolgushina. Musical instruments are not left without attention. And here, again, one can see truly international collaboration: Greek instruments meet Chinese in the paper written by Hsien Han Ng and Jer-Ming Chen and both encounter voice in the chapter by Dolgushina. All this wealth of scientific knowledge and artistic experience is represented by sixteen short chapters. The results, the conclusions, are clearly stated at the end of each chapter. What will be the conclusion to the conference and what would be the path of reasoning upon reading of our volume is left to be seen. However, many crucial and eternal questions that music theory carries in itself without being able to resolve may yield to the efforts of a constellation of scientific disciplines and their representatives, all united by the love and admiration for music. We hope you will truly enjoy reading the first volume of the Worldwide Music Conference proceedings, and we thank everyone involved in its creation. Ildar Khannanov Roman Ruditsa

Contents

Music in Interdisciplinary Contexts On the Concept of Interdisciplinarity in the Study of Music . . . . . . . . . Mario Baroni

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Rameau and the Sciences: The Impact of Scientific Discoveries of the Lumières on Rameau’s Theory of Harmony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ildar Khannanov

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Music – Number – Word. History and Theory of Connections . . . . . . . Konstantin Zenkin

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The Musical Co-creation as an Artistic-Dynamic System . . . . . . . . . . . . Elena Kuprina

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Conceptual Integration Network as Musicologist’s Work Tool . . . . . . . Violetta Kostka

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Genre Paradigms of the Vocal Up-Shastriya Music in the Culture of South Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tatiana Kartashova and Victor Kartashov

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Semantic Analysis of a Musical Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lyudmila P. Kazantseva and Polina S. Volkova

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Ancient Russian Znamenny Chant Notation as a Semiotic System . . . . . Tatiana Vladyshevskaia

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Music and Current Technology “Zero Gravity”: A Specific Textural Type in Contemporary European Art Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Füsun Köksal İncirlioğlu

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Networks of Symbolic Dynamical Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ricardo Gómez Aíza

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Mobile Deployment of Electro Acoustic Compositions and Media Artworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Andrew Blanton Musical Instruments and Voice A Pilot-Study of Chinese Wind and String Instrumentalists’ Intonation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Hsien Han Ng and Jer-Ming Chen Instrument Playing Technique Recognition: A Greek Music Use Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Kostis Paraskevoudis and Theodoros Giannakopoulos Approaching the Problem of National Strata Ratio: Statistical Analysis Methods for Assessing Vocal Chamber Repertoire in Russia of the First Half of the 19th Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Marina Gennadievna Dolgushina Musical Pedagogy and Medicine Music Activities as Tempo-Rhythmic Culture of Personality Development Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Andrei A. Bogatyrev, Elena G. Milyugina, and Dmitry S. Komarov Hemodialysis Patients Care by Means of Audiotherapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Nina Pavlovna Vanchakova, Natalia Valerjevna Krasilnikova, Elizaveta Aleksandrovna Vatskel, and Anna Artemjevna Babina Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

Music in Interdisciplinary Contexts

On the Concept of Interdisciplinarity in the Study of Music Mario Baroni(B) University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy [email protected]

Abstract. In all western cultures from ancient Greece onwards, the theory of music was based on what each culture considered its main philosophical and scientific knowledge. This happened, for example, in the epoch of Boethius and, after more than a thousand years, in that of the Baroque Affektenlehre and subsequently in that of the Romantic Musikwissenschaft. The differences among such theories of music depended on the changed structures of music itself but basically on the general structures of thinking in each of such epochs. Therefore, according to Guido Adler in 1885, the “science of music” (Musikwissenschaft or Musicology) had to be considered not only a historical, but also a “systematic” knowledge, in which the study of non-European music or the analytical study of music as a language, or its social applications such as therapy, education, and criticism were included. During the 20th century musical events tended to be replaced by a diffusion based on means of mass communication such as the disk and radio, and technology radically transformed traditional music and the conception of music itself. Musicology became a multidisciplinary area with contributions from physics, anatomy, sociology and linguistics, and with biological extensions to animal hearing, and the origins of music considered both in phylogenetic and ontogenetic terms. In the present Conference many aspects of this complex aggregation of knowledge will be described and discussed. Keywords: Music theory · Adler · Interdisciplinary musicology · Psychology of music · Biology of music · 20th century music

1 Introduction The present conference invites us to highlight the relation between today’s scientific knowledge and the music theories that could derive from it. I would first like to point out that a large part of those invited to the conference are scientists working in different fields, scientists who are interested in music, while I am a musicologist who is interested in scientific research. So, our points of views are differently oriented, but this could also be a positive aspect. I will begin with some historical considerations: in every era and in all cultures of the world, music has been studied “scientifically” on the basis of what that era and that culture considered “science”, even though it was not science in the modern sense © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. D. Khannanov and R. Ruditsa (Eds.): WWMC 2021, CRSM 8, pp. 3–10, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74039-9_1

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of the term. I will begin from the example of Severinus Boethius [3], who at the start of the sixth century A.C. was the first, in the ancient culture that would then become European, to attempt to define a sort of musical theory in a systematic way. His aim was to explain the music of his time, and in order to expound his theory he turned to the philosophical, mathematical and astronomical research of his era, which had its roots in Greek philosophy. Boethius believed that the relations between the notes, that is their “tonal” properties, those that he considered perceptible through our sense of hearing and that he called musica humana, were linked to the mathematical ratios (the “harmonies”) that governed the relations between the stars (musica mundana). Boethius was not wrong in being amazed by the relations between mathematics and the notes. Today we have scientific explanations that are much more plausible and complex, but the relation between our sensation of tonality and the numerical ratios between the notes still gives rise to amazement. The theories of Boethius are important because they remained alive and were studied throughout the Middle Ages and the Renaissance (they lasted for around 1000 years). However, it was obvious that when the relations between men and between the social classes began to change substantially, a change also necessarily came about in the culturally widespread ideologies, the philosophical principles and the ways of conceiving science. And so, after many centuries, the so-called Baroque era saw the emergence of new modes of reflection associated with a growing freedom of thought and of action in the fields of religion, the study of nature, business, economy and obviously also the arts. All the arts began to leave the confines of a world in which thought was collectively shared and to turn instead to the individual display of affect (music did so with the madrigal, and then with monody and opera). Descartes’ 1649 treatise on the passions of the soul [8] is the philosophical equivalent of these tendencies. The substratum of mathematical knowledge as seen by Boethius certainly did not disappear from music theory, but a reflection of the theory of the affects that German scholars called Affektenlehere began to emerge as a new and more up-to-date approach. Although this obviously occurred because the trends of musical style were now changing, the theories that were necessary to explain these new tendencies did not depend solely on the observation of music: they were also based on what the new scientific knowledge and new philosophical thought of the time could offer, especially in a freer, more secular and less dogmatic way of observing and studying the things of the world. It would of course be fruitful to offer a careful comparative study on the changes in philosophical and scientific knowledge compared to the changes in music theories over the centuries, but here it is obviously not possible to rewrite the whole story of these theories. I will limit myself to recalling that for the last hundred or so years a sector of study known as Ethnomusicology has affirmed itself in Europe, thanks to which the phenomenon that we were accustomed to calling music has also begun to take on a more pluralistic meaning. Moreover, the 19th century saw a progressive infraction of the classical tonal system that for two centuries had lain at the basis of European music in its most intellectually sophisticated forms, but also in the simpler and more popular genres. The 20th century, in its turn, with the musical practices of the so-called avant-garde, witnessed a crisis in the structures of the diatonic scale, their chromatic passages and the internal hierarchies that identified the dialectic pivots of the tonic and dominant. In the most extreme cases they were replaced by a dodecaphonic-serial approach that acted as

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an expedient for the radical departure from tonality and furthermore led to a tradition, initially defined as “electronic music”, which replaced the scalar approach with one of a timbral-technological kind. Generally speaking, however, live musical events tended to be replaced by a diffusion based on means of mass communication like the disk and radio, which made it possible to expand its dissemination in quantities never previously achieved. And so, a set of genres of mass music, which on account of its wide diffusion came to be known as “popular music”, overtook the local models and styles of music that had existed for centuries in Europe and throughout the world. The upshot of these groundbreaking transformations is that today it has become hard to describe the general situation of music not only due to the amount of music widely listened to, but also because the infinite genres of previously live music, while having lost their traditional predominance, have in fact not totally disappeared. The only criterion that seems reasonable to adopt would be a description of the thousands of types of music existing or that existed, using the denominations they have, or have had, in one or more languages, grouping them into systems and describing each system and their internal features in quantitative (the percentage of people that know and practise them) and qualitative terms (their history, their localization and expansion, their structures). Although information of this kind may already exist in the large international encyclopedias, like Grove or the MGG, I doubt whether every single musicologist is able to keep up-to-date with all of this.

2 Music Theories Returning now to our theme, namely the theories of music, I should underline once more that the brief “overview” with which I opened this article has shown us how in every place and in every era these theories were built, for obvious reasons of necessity, on the basis of the scientific and philosophical knowledge that in that place and at that time was known and considered valid. The western culture (European and American) of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries did not escape this principle. Clearly, it is not possible here to describe two centuries of the history of science and philosophy, also because I would not be the right person to do so. But it is possible to offer some considerations on the relation between music theory and the general knowledge of its time, taking into account some significant clues: the first and maybe most important is that in Germany, towards the mid-nineteenth century, the traditional “theory of music” was radically transformed and was finally named “science of music”: Musikwissenschaft. This term was confirmed in the second half of the nineteenth century when two important journals were published: the «Jahrbuch für Musikalische Wissenschaft» (1855) and the «Vierteljahrsschrift für Musikwissenschaft» (1885). In the subsequent hundred years the “science of music” (that is, the “musicological” research) underwent an enormous development in Europe and the United States of America. German musicology, in the wake of Romantic aesthetics and the general cultural tendencies of the epoch, was initially born as a mainly historical and philological discipline but Guido Adler, already in the first issue of the “Vierteljahrsschrift”, proposed a distinction between “historical” and “systematical” musicology [1]. The latter name was applied to the study of music as a cultural phenomenon: for example, to the analysis of its structures, to its listening,

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to the social conventions which governed the functions of music in different epochs and places, and to its aesthetic and philosophical thinking. Ethnomusicology (initially named “comparative” musicology), devoted to the study of non-European music, was a particular and different branch of musicology. And another branch was often named “applied” musicology and included a number of sub-disciplines, such as music therapy, music education, and musical criticism. As a result of these processes, today’s musicology cannot be conceived as a single entity, but as a “disciplinary” area, where many possible disciplines can be present. Over the last thirty years Richard Parncutt has worked on the specific aspect of “multidisciplinary” music theory. In 1989 he proposed a model [14] concerning the perception of harmony as a convergent mixture of two apparently distant disciplines: the physics and the psychology of music. In 2004 he published a short history of multi- and inter- disciplinary musicology [12, p. 13] where he listed a number of research areas pertaining to the so called “systematic” musicology: «by “systematic musicology” – he says – we mean theory/analysis, psychology, acoustics, psychoacoustics, sociology, aesthetics, philosophy, physiology, informatic sciences, mathematics, popular music, jazz, technological media». Such a complex mixture sometimes had consequences even in the organization of university departments: in 2005–2006 Parncutt wrote comments to the cycle of Conferences on Interdisciplinary Musicology (CIM) [13, pp. 8–9]: «scientists often have serious difficulties understanding the concerns and arguments of humanities scholars, and vice-versa […] A common reaction is to retreat to the safety of one’s own (sub-) discipline and to ignore the possible contribution of other (sub-) disciplines to one’s research questions. Conventional hierarchical university structures tend to encourage this kind of response […]. CIM counters this tendency by encouraging people form distant disciplines to work together». A Society for Interdisciplinary Musicology was then born in 2012. This circumstance was evidently due to the fact that the scope of scientific research in our time had become so vast and complex that it was practically impossible that a single musicologist could be adequately versed in it. At this point, then, we must ask ourselves a question: could this mean that music theory has lost its own identity as a unique and self-standing discipline? Might one say that “musicology” in the sense of a scientific doctrine of music, a Musikwissenschaft, no longer exists, or even can no longer exist? To answer this question, I will now try to outline more precisely the contents that the concept of multidisciplinary has acquired within the “scientific study” of music.

3 Multidisciplinarity in Music I will begin with a seemingly commonplace observation: a sort of “multidisciplinarity” exists not only in the field of what Adler had called “Systematic Musicology”, but also in what we traditionally call “Historical Musicology” or in more familiar terms “History of Music”. We all know that also within this field there exist well established specializations: some scholars have carried out research on the history of musical life in Ancient Greece, in the Middle Ages or during the Italian Renaissance, others have focused on the work of Verdi or on that of Wagner, or else on the music of the twentieth century, and so on. An extensive literature exists on these topics and those doing any specific research must be

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aware of it, study it, discuss it and above all must place it within the social, cultural and political context of its time. And yet no one has ever suggested that the scope of history has become so vast that it is practically impossible for a single musicologist to deal with it, and that historical musicology should therefore cease to exist. In reality we all know that historical musicology exists. It should however be added that it will continue to exist only as long as a valid scientific dissemination of the subject still continues to be practiced. Besides, all disciplines find themselves in exactly the same situation: we learn this from the schools of every type and level where a reasonable level of divulgation has long been established and where textbooks, at least in Italy, continue to be published and are adapted to the new research that inevitably modifies them. And also, regarding the so called “systematic” musicology or “interdisciplinary”, if we prefer to call it such, I will offer now some examples starting first from the natural sciences and then the human sciences. Today’s knowledge in the field of acoustic physics is quite elaborate, not only due to the developments in this sector, but also because new issues have arisen in the language of music: issues regarding above all the use of orchestral timbre and the increasingly more widespread use of dissonances and noise; not to mention the electronic means of producing sounds that have supplemented the natural emissions of voices and instruments. Acoustic physics is able to account for all of this [6]. The study of the relations between such a varied and diverse assortment of sound phenomena and their perception, has in turn given rise to research on the working of the human ear in order to understand the passage between the pressures of the air, the movements of the inner ear, the functions of the acoustic nerve and those of the brain, see Cecchetti [5]. And furthermore, the analysis of sound has been extended to much more broadly biological facts: for example, research into the acoustic perception of animals, where the idea of music became far removed from what it had always been in the minds of men in the European tradition, but at the same time made it possible to problematize the matter and identify new aspects, see Fitch [9], Stoeger and Manger [17]. For instance, some biological studies have investigated the archaic nature of music and the possible relations between the origins of music and those of spoken language, see Brown [4]. Finally, it was inevitable that these studies of a phylogenetic nature would find a parallel in aspects of an ontogenetic nature. So, in the IX International Conference on Music Perception and Cognition held in Bologna in 2006, Ian Cross [7, p. 140] spoke on musical phylogenesis and Michel Imberty [10, p. 39] on musical ontogenesis. In sectors of this type, it is of course almost impossible to distinguish whether we are dealing with natural sciences or human sciences, since in these cases man is seen as a fundamentally biological subject. But even the results of these wide sectors of research are starting to be known by authors of school textbooks, who include them where and when they deem appropriate. In the field of human sciences, I will mention three sectors: the sciences of the mind, the sciences of society and the sciences of language. I will start with psychology, observing that here too an enormous bibliography exists that has, in fact, generated a true and proper discipline or sub-discipline: the psychology of music, with its countless branches, such as the study of perception, that of the cognitive activities, and that of the emotions in music, without forgetting psychoanalysis, which also has significant

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contributions to its credit. We know that important university departments have been created in which the results of scientific research in this sector are widely and carefully disseminated. Throughout Europe, including Italy, courses in the Psychology of music have been established also in institutes that teach how to “make” music, and not always dealing with research (for example, in the music conservatories). Sociology, in its turn, has provided essential tools for understanding the changes that have characterized the political and cultural history of Europe since the Middle Ages until today, with direct consequences on those who produce music professionally and on those who listen to it. The study of non-European cultures has similarly been an essential point of reference to relativize (in space, not only in time) the nature of music and especially so as not to confuse the “phenomenon” of music with Euro-American music. The great musical traditions of China, India, Japan and Indonesia, as well as those of certain smaller communities now risking extinction, have offered new sources of knowledge to help us understand what, today, we can call music. And in these sectors too, the dissemination of the results, at various levels of depth, is now widely in course. Finally, the sciences of language have (for some decades now) introduced subdisciplines like the semiotics of music, see Stefani [16] and more recently have begun careful comparisons between the verbal and musical systems, Rebuschat et al. [15]. All this has encouraged musicologists and musicians to remember that in music, as in languages, there is not only a so called “phonetic” aspect endowed with “syntactic” rules able to create “musical grammars” (obviously differing from style to style: see for example the work by Baroni et al. [2]), but there are also (and still to be explored with adequate attention) aspects of content and communication, see Mirka [11]. In the latter field the most evident difficulty lies in the fact that musical contents, which do not use words and have no lexicon, are of a totally different nature compared to those of languages and for this reason are more difficult to investigate. I have not mentioned musical analysis because I believe its techniques and operative traditions are quite familiar to the readers of this paper. I would nevertheless like to point out that the best known of these techniques, for example Schenkerian, NeoRiemannian and Set analysis, were born to obtain an in-depth description of some of the tonal, late-tonal or post-tonal features typical of the syntactic transformations that have characterized European music over the last three centuries. They do not, however, cover all the analytical and theoretical questions that music theory is expected to resolve. Not only because they can only be applied to a limited percentage of the musical creations existing and analyzable today, but also because they very often focus their attention on the aspects of musical “syntax” that, although important, do not exhaust the overall system of the structural parameters that characterize music as an instrument of communication. I have already observed how work on this matter is still ongoing and is anything but simple to bring to fruition.

4 Conclusion Finally, at this point, I would like to add a last observation. I wish to conclude by stressing that the theory of music (or systematic musicology or interdisciplinary musicology, or whatever we like to call it) has doubtlessly become more complex, but we should not

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on this account consider it insurmountable. The task of those dedicating themselves as specialists in a non-musical scientific field aiming to contribute to the creation of a theory of music, is clearly to identify which aspects of their own specific field they intend to exploit in order to apply them to music, but maybe they also have another equally important task: that of making sure that their most significant contributions in this sense can be disseminated, that is are understandable to those not belonging to their field. On this matter I have my own personal belief that I take the liberty of adding here: scientific divulgation can acquire validity only to the extent that it is able to gradually modify current musicological language. Disciplines with their own “closed” terminology are of no use to musicology: it can only benefit from those that are able (with suitable terminologies) to make their contents fully accessible to the world of musicologists and musicians. Obviously, those attending this conference (precisely on account of the fact that they are here) have no need to be reminded of this point, but I have sometimes come up against serious difficulties in fully understanding articles coming from disciplines I am not familiar with. In summary, I believe that the term “inter-disciplinarity” also incorporates the meaning of a real and concrete interaction and not just a simple commonality of purpose between musicology and the disciplines external to it.

References 1. Adler, G.: Umfang, Methode und Ziel der Musikwissenschaft. Vierteljahrsschrift für Musikwissenschaft 1(1), 5–20 (1885) 2. Baroni, M., Dalmonte, R., Jacoboni, C.: Le regole della musica. Indagine sui meccanismi della comunicazione. EDT, Torino (1999). Engl. transl.: A computer aided inquiry on music composition. The rules of music. Mellen Press (2003). French transl.: Les règles de la musique. Étude sur les mécanismes de la communication, Delatour (2008) 3. Boethius, S.: De institutione musica. In: Marzi, G. (ed.) Istituto italiano per la storia della musica, Roma (1990). 4. Brown, S.: The “musilanguage” model of music evolution. In: Wallin, N., Merker, B., Brown, S. (eds.) The Origins of Music, pp. 271–300. MIT Press, Cambridge (2000) 5. Cecchetti, G.: Exploring tonal hierarchies with an information-theoretic approach to cognitive similarity. Diss. University of Cambridge Faculty of Music, Cambridge (2019) 6. Co’, G.: La fisica della musica. https://ithaca.unisalento.it/nr-03_04_14/articolo_IIp_04.pdf. Accessed 29 Jan 2021 7. Cross, I.: Musicality and the human capacity for culture. In: ESCOM-ICMPC IX International Conference (Bologna), Symposium: Exploring the origins of human musicality, vol. II, p. 140 (2006) 8. Descartes, R.: Les passions de l’ame. Le Gras, Paris (1649) 9. Fitch, T.: The biology and evolution of music: a comparative perspective. Cognition 100, 173–215 (2006) 10. Imberty, M.: Narrative, splintered temporalities and the unconscious in 20th -century music. In: ESCOM-ICMPC IX International Conference (Bologna), Symposium: Exploring the Origins of Human Musicality, vol. I (2006) 11. Mirka, D. (ed.): The Oxford Handbook of Topic Theory. Oxford University Press, Oxford/New York (2014) 12. Parncutt, R.: Breve storia della musicologia multi- e inter-disciplinare. Riv. Analisi Teoria Musicale 10(2), 7–12 (2004)

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13. Parncutt, R.: Introduction: “interdisciplinary musicology”. Musicae Sci. 10(Special Issue), 7–11 (2005–2006) 14. Parncutt, R.: Harmony: A Psychoacoustical Approach. Springer, Berlin (2011) 15. Rebuschat, P., Rohrmeier, M., Hawkins, J., Cross, I. (eds.): Language and Music as Cognitive Systems. Oxford University Press, Oxford/New York (2012) 16. Stefani, G.: Introduzione alla semiotica della musica. Sellerio, Palermo (1976) 17. Stoeger, A., Manger, P.: Vocal learning in elephants: neural bases and adaptive context. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 28, 101–107 (2014)

Rameau and the Sciences: The Impact of Scientific Discoveries of the Lumières on Rameau’s Theory of Harmony Ildar Khannanov(B) Peabody Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21202, USA [email protected]

Abstract. The current Anglophone theorists criticize Jean-Philippe Rameau for the imperfection of mathematical apparatus, the problem of natural interpretation of a minor triad, and unartistic treatment of the bass line. However, if to look at this with an unbiased eye, one can notice that Rameau lived in the center of the emerging scientific culture of unprecedented magnitude and depth. Rameau’s contemporary mathematics, physics, geometry, language theory and general scientific categories should have influenced him. The method used in this presentation takes into consideration the possibility for Rameau of absorbing these ideas without directly referencing them. It is difficult to explain, otherwise, the discovery of tonal-harmonic functions by Rameau without the analogy with the introduction of the term function by Gottfried Leibniz and Johann Bernoulli. It is hard to imagine that Rameau himself put all chords and their modifications into classification in a form of magnificent double hierarchy without the innovations of Carolus Linnaeus. The order of chords in the fundamental bass progression could not have seen the light without the universal syntax of Antoine Arnauld and Pierre Nicole. The concept of physical or quasi-physical motion in music, established by Rameau, depends on discoveries of differential calculus by Leibniz and Newton. The infinite approximation of the leading tone to tonic is the manifestation of the idea of infinitesimal (inverted infinity) of Leibniz. It is time to revisit Rameau, to place him in the real context of his time and, perhaps, reevaluate the significance of his contribution to the theory and art of music. . Keywords: Jean Philippe Rameau · Sciences of Enlightenment · Function by Leibniz and Bernoulli · Classification of Carolus Linnaeus · Harmonic syntax · Grammar of Port Royal

1 Introduction In history of music theory, the figure of Jean-Philippe Rameau stands out as one of the most radical, pioneering, and provocative. It has been such for his contemporaries and generations that immediately followed his; it remains such for many theorists today globally. He took an unprecedented direction in his musical studies: an alliance with © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. D. Khannanov and R. Ruditsa (Eds.): WWMC 2021, CRSM 8, pp. 11–22, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74039-9_2

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natural sciences. The tradition, preceding Rameau—that of the figured bass—was a kind of pragmatic compendium of recommendations for the organist apprentices; the method of partimenti was based upon the series of patterns and blocks for memorization and performance. None of these would have the courage to step outside the narrow borders of music making as a craft. The great musical thinkers of the distant past—Anicius Manlius Severinus Boëthius, Johannes Tinctoris, and Gioseffo Zarlino had close ties with philosophy and theology of their times, but their scientific references had nothing to compare with the new scientific world of the Enlightenment. Rameau was alone in his passion. Even his countrymen colleagues, such as CharlesSimon Catel (in 1790s) and François-Joseph Fétis (in 1840s) did not embrace his intentions; they were critical of his excursions into natural sciences and considered the union of science and music unartistic.1 There has been a scandal at the Académie, with Jean le Rond d’Alembert first embracing Rameau’s theory and then, for some reason, presenting it as based upon false mathematics. Only German theorists in the middle of the 19th century (Moritz Hauptmann and Hugo Riemann) rediscovered Rameau and introduced him to the place where he really belonged: to the pedestal of greatest thinkers on music.

2 Materials There is much written on Rameau in critical terms. Noteworthy are the book by Thomas Christensen Rameau and Musical Thought in the Enlightenment [4] and articles on the Marpurg-Sorge controversy and Rameau’s problems with D’Alembert by Jonathan Bernhard [3]. Most of the criticisms of Rameau’s mathematics are focusing on his use of arithmetic, geometric and harmonic proportions in description of major and minor triads (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Proportions, used in Rameau and Zarlino for description of the triads: arithmetic (for minor triad) and harmonic (for major triad), quoted in Yuri Kholopov [12, p. 242]. 1 « Du moment que Rameau eut adopte l’idée de faire ressortir toute l’harmonie de certaines

phénomènes physiques, il fut obligé de recourir à des inductions forces, car toute harmonie n’est point renfermée dans l’accord parfait majeur. [] D’ailleurs Rameau avait le mérite d’être le premier qui eut aperçu le mécanisme du renversement des accords; à ce titre, il méritait d’être place au rang des fondateurs de la science harmonique. [] Il est fâcheux qu’il ait gâte l’utilité que ses découvertes pourraient avoir pour la science par l’idée de sa basse fondamentale, qu’il composait des sons graves des accords primitifs, et pur laquelle il avait établi des règles de fantaisie qui ne pourraient avoir qu’une application force dans la pratique». Fétis [7, p. 95].

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In this chrestomathy example, the intervals, known as natural, are expressed in wellknown proportions of the lengths of the string. Thus, major third is 5:4 and minor third is 6:5, while the perfect fifth is the ratio of 3:2. It was Zarlino’s discovery that the perfect fifth, divided by a middle tone into minor third below and major third above, fits into arithmetic progression (6:5:4, where outer members are related as 3:2). This is the numeric description of a minor triad. For the major triad, Zarlino suggested harmonic progression: numbers 15, 12, and 10. This elegant and tight-knit description does not take into consideration the difficulty of tuning systems (natural intervals are unusable for tuning the complete modal pitch collections). However, this argument was rendered inadequate by introduction of equal-temperament—the system that divided the octave into 12 000 increments and used the logarithmic calculation of exact pitch for each tone of the scale. This, again, could be a weak point of Rameau’s discovery, but in fact it is an ancient category that comes from the middle ages. The arithmetic and harmonic proportions were used for description of division of the fifth by the third in Gioseffo Zarlino’s opus magnum, Le institutioni harmoniche in the middle of the 16th century [22, Parte I, p. 54 et Parte III, p. 211]. If this argument is rejected, we are left with nothing to be displeased about Rameau’s work. Then, a new question—or, perhaps, an old one that had been intentionally neglected—opens a perspective on Rameau’s contributions into the sciences of le siècle des Lumières. Indeed, the critique itself reveals rather limited view on mathematics and physics. At the time of publication of Traité de l’harmonie by Rameau [18], the following events have overturned the history of sciences: 1) Discovery and mathematical formulation of the natural overtone series (by Thomas Pigot, Joseph Sauveur, and Marin Mersenne) at the end of the 17th century. 2) Consequent “debates of the string,” namely, mathematical explanation of the vibrating string (D’Alembert, Leonhard Euler, Daniel Bernoulli, and Joseph-Louis Lagrange took part in this discussion). 3) The concept of function based upon the idea of variable and the introduction of mathematical analysis and analytical mechanics by Leibniz and Bernoulli in the late 17th century. 4) Mathematical description of movement (theory of infinitesimals of Leibniz) and the idea of optics (René Descartes) and dynamics (Isaac Newton). 5) Differential calculus, started by Pierre de Fermat, Christaan Huygens, Blaise Pascal, John Wallis and fully developed by Leibniz (17th and early 18th century). 6) Leonhard Euler’s theory of number, differential geometry, mathematical physics, approximation calculus, and music theory. 7) Introduction of the idea of mathematical topology, analysis situs, by Euler (“Seven Bridges of Königsberg”). 8) Carolus Linnaeus, classification of plants and animals. 9) Theory of language: John Locke, Étienne Bonnot de Condillac, Antoine Arnauld (grammar of Port Royale), and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Jean Philippe Rameau worked in this environment. His achievements should be placed on this rich background and measured against the discoveries of the age of

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Enlightenment as a whole. Otherwise, the judgments and criticisms will remain myopic and misinformed. These are true materials for discussion of Rameau’s contribution. A narrow-minded critique “from the standpoint of Schenker” cannot substitute for the encyclopedic breadth of Rameau’s achievements.

3 Method The method of evaluation that the author proposes is radically different from that which is present in current musicological literature. Although Rameau did not document all his references and did not disclose all his sources, the circumstantial evidence, the mere fact of his life in the context of the constellation of scientific discoveries, listed above, obliges us to consider the influence of each of them on Rameau’s theory.

4 Results The results of such an innovative approach are staggering. The list of discoveries of Rameau in music theory proves to have direct correspondences with the list of scientific achievements of the 17th and18th centuries. Rameau was the first to introduce the following concepts: 1) The idea of chord, l’accord parfait, as the independent element of harmony. 2) The idea of the root of the chord (racine) that defines all its inversions. 3) The idea of classification and hierarchy of the triads and their inversions, as well as the hierarchy of primary and secondary triads. 4) The idea of harmonic functions of the chord, tonique, sous-dominant and dominanttonique (in Génération harmonique) [19]. 5) The discovery of the leading tone. 6) The idea of fundamental bass that is the succession of the roots of the chords. 7) The idea of the natural laws of music, le corps sonore (in Traité de l’harmonie).

5 Discussion Going through this list, point-by-point, will reveal the connections between Rameau’s theory and the leading scientific ideas of his time. 5.1 The Idea of Chord, l’accord parfait, as the Independent Element of Harmony The first on the list is the discovery of l’accord parfait—a chord as an independent functional element of musical syntax. The theoretical ground for this discovery was laid out by Zarlino; the idea of a perfect chord—l’accord parfait—was exhaustively formulated by Rameau. Perfection of the perfect chord is a separate issue, related to philosophy and theology. The very fact that Rameau provided the definition of the chord as an independent and high-level musical structure, adds the laurels into his wreath of honor. It took 2000 years, from the realization of tone and the interval (Ð τóνoς and σστημα) ´ by Greeks, then, 1500 years to get to the point of adding the third and the sixth into a perfect fifth (in Zarlino) and, finally, 1722 marked the realization of triad as a perfect sonority that crowns the hierarchy of other musical elements.

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5.2 The Idea of the Root of the Chord (racine) that Defines all its Inversions The idea of the root of the chord (la racine) that defines all its inversions has met significant resistance from the supporters of figured bass and today, in 2021, there are the voices against the use of this innovation. What is the meaning and the value of this discovery? The chord (cordo in terms of Zarlino and Dreyklang in German figured bass terminology) has been developing as a category throughout the centuries of history of polyphony. It is difficult for a musician of the 21st century to imagine that there has been a time when the root of the triad has not been recognized. Without the root, the triad remains a kind of concatenation of the note heads, a pure graphic structure. It manifests no tendency for development or movement of any kind. It lacks identity—especially in the aural space. Attuning the ear for hearing the roots of the chords allows to navigate the chord progression aurally. A trained ear can understand the value of each chord (say, C major triad, or triad on scale step 4) and anticipate the further steps in harmonic progression. Without the knowledge of the roots of the chords, building meaningful and syntactically solid harmonic progressions is impossible; that explains the transition from the era of figured bass (in which the roots where not recognized) to the period ruled by harmony (and it covers at least three stylistic periods, that of Baroque, Classicism and Romanticism). No analogies with language—a major achievement of 18th-century Formenlehre—would have been possible without these clarifications of the structure of chords. 5.3 The Idea of Classification and Hierarchy of the Triads and Their Inversions, as Well as the Hierarchy of Primary and Secondary Triads For the first time in history of music theory, Rameau introduced the idea of classification and hierarchy of the triads and their inversions, as well as the hierarchy of primary and secondary triads. And here, again, we must look around, in the scientific world, for the precedent. It is found in ground-breaking discovery of classification of plants and animals by Carolus Linnaeus. His ideas exerted unprecedented influence on all sciences; Rameau was not alone in accepting some of them hovering in the Zeitgeist. All the strategies of Linnaeus, expressed in his Genera Plantarum (1737) [16] and disseminated by Jean-Jacques Rousseau in France, seem to be adopted by Rameau. These include the precise definitions of the element of hierarchy of taxonomies by their morphology. It is exactly what distinguishes Rameau’s hierarchy of chords from the arbitrary descriptions of figured bass teachers, including Johann David Heinichen. In order to establish a functioning hierarchy, a scientist must find the ways to determine the essential characteristics of each element and the points of its divergence from other elements. For Rameau, it was the morphology of the triad—the perfect chord—in its inner hierarchy of elements, the root, the third and the fifth. This allowed Rameau to build a hierarchy “root position triad—first inversion—second inversion.” Similar to Linnaeus, Rameau disregarded the arbitrary differences among chords (used by figured bass tradition) and introduced the abstract binomial definitions, referring to genera and species of chords. Rameau created a double hierarchy: that of root-position triad and its inversions and that of primary triads (tonique, sous-dominante, and dominante) and its substitutes.

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There is an interesting difference between the simple tree-like, top-down hierarchy of rhythm notation of ars nova and Rameau’s bottom-up double hierarchy of chords and chord structures. He did not emphasize it, but it is implied in his system. The chord— l’accord parfait—is the ultimate, highest-level achievement of this hierarchical system which is, by default, bottom-up emergence type. It means that the path up from tone to interval to chord and to chord function is based upon irreversible transformations and obtaining new quality—quale novum—on each higher level. Remarkably, the chord— the highest point in hierarchy of tangible sounding structures—is irreducible to interval or tone. The tonal-harmonic function—the highest category of the hierarchy—is not reducible to the chord and presents a heterogenous phenomenon—albeit cognitively rooted in the millennial evolution. The concept of hierarchy as emergence has been developing in the 19th century in British scientific and philosophical traditions, namely, in the works of John Stuart Mill (as homopathic and heteropathic causation) [17, pp. 433– 434]. 5.4 The Idea of Harmonic Function of the Chord, tonique, sous-dominant and dominant-tonique (in Génération harmonique) Perhaps the most well-known and useful connection between Rameau’s discoveries and sciences of his time is represented by the idea of tonal-harmonic function. Rameau introduced the names of three tonal-harmonic functions, such as tonique, sous-dominant and dominant-tonique in his second treatise Génération harmonique, ou Traité de musique théorique et pratique (1737); Hugo Riemann later formulated and formalized them in mathematical terms in his Vereinfachte Harmonielehre oder die Lehre von den tonalen Funktionen der Akkorde (1893) [20]. Function, the conceptual presentation of which is y = f (x), (or, as dy/dx in Leibniz (1692) [15, pp. 168–171]) deals with the most advanced approach in mathematics. It is distanced from description of real objects. Instead of real numeric values, function operates with variables. Musical expressions of the variables are tonique, sous-dominant or dominant-tonique. Mathematically speaking, the y is dependent variable, the x is independent variable (or argument of function), while f denotes the action over the independent variable. Thus, in musical terms y = f (x) translates into “tonique = resolution of the dominante”, where y is tonique, x is dominante and f is the act of resolution. Obviously, “dominante = creation of tension toward tonique”. This means that in music theory the word “function” has the meaning of action over a given tone, interval or chord. The types of tonal-harmonic functions are the following: resolution (or the function of tonic in relation to dominant) and creation of tension (the function of dominant in relation to tonic). The function of sous-dominante is more difficult to define. It will be discussed a few paragraphs later. Why to call tonique, sous-dominante and dominante-tonique variables? Discovered by Rameau, the phenomena of double employee (retaining of the function in the substitution of a primary chord by the chord a third below) and variable function of scale step 4 (liaison between the functions of sous-dominante and l’accord de la septième de dominante) were the first cases of possible substitutions of chords within a single functional definition. Fétis has introduced the idea of substitution and alteration which he called modifications des accords naturels in his Traité complet de la théorie et de la

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pratique de l’harmonie [8, p. 56]. As a result, we have put all the variety of chords into three functional categories (Fig. 2):

Fig. 2. Three groups of substitutes, i. e., values for three variables.

This paradigm, essential for the study of harmony, offers the ultimately necessary ordering and hierarchy of chords and their connections. In contrast with over 22 000 chords and chord connections, described in figured bass and scale step theories (this number was suggested by Gottfried Weber), Rameau’s innovation allowed to group all of them into three categories according to their function (either tonic, or subdominant or dominant). The T, S, and D, in bold script, are not the descriptors of any given chord. The T, S, and D mark what is happening with the chords. The arrows that connect these three functional groups denote the type of action and the allowed direction of such actions. For example, there is no logically sound movement from dominant to subdominant. Thus, we add a new dimension to chord progression: the invisible, ideal, yet easily detectable and cognitively rooted interplay of three functions that are, mathematically speaking, variables with unlimited number of values and well-determined directionality. In the words of Jean-Pierre Bartoli, tonal-harmonic functions are inaudible, sousentendue.2 More precisely, they are operating “under the radar of hearing” (sous). Unlike musical sounds that are audible and musical notes that are visible, tonal-harmonic functions exist beyond directly perceptible region. Tonal functions are not given by birth; 2 « Mais ce n’est pas tant la théorie de la génération de l’accord par la nature physique, ni même

le principe de renversements à partir de la position fondamentale de l’accord parfait [] qui sont les apports plus révolutionnaires, mais plutôt leur résultante logique [] ligne de basse, virtuelle et sous-entendue, qui est constituée de la fondamentale des accords.» Bartoli [2, p. 20].

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some individuals hear them naturally (great composers, child prodigies, etc.). For most of the population, tonal functions must be acquired as a skill, and this acquisition takes years of early training. What makes a great musical talent? Is it the knowledge of patterns and blocks, memorized or learned by rote? Is it the application of extraneous abstract “concepts” to composition? The answer is, most probably, the well-trained or inborn hearing of tonal-harmonic functions. It is used as an Ariadne’s thread in composition, performance and perception of music. All the aspects of Rameau’s theory, listed above, are supported by music of Johann Sebastian Bach. One can notice an impeccable functional syntaxis in all Bach’s music and often not so perfect following of the functional idea in music of his contemporaries. The triangle of primary tonal functions, S, D, and T is asymmetrical. The distance from T to S is four scale steps; the distance from S to D is one, and distance back to tonic is five (we are not counting with zero—musical math is pre-Arabic). This asymmetry sets musical structure off balance and creates the possibility of dynamic development. Thus, music becomes associated with organic world, with breathing and moving live organisms. One can be aware that the point of this discussion is not pure abstract geometry and calculation of distances in digits. The lister perceives the interaction of real sounds in time. Cognitive apparatus of the listener translates this information into Pavlovian “second signal system”. The inaudible and invisible interaction of tonal-harmonic functions is a superstructure above the real physical interaction. Thus, harmonic progression is based upon the physical category of force, albeit in translation. The dominant “moves toward” the tonic; it gravitates toward it (tyagoteniye, in terms of Boleslav Yavorski). Hence the term tonic—from Latin verb tenere, to hold. The opposite point of tonal space is represented by the dominant. The etymology of this term is challenging and deserves special investigation. One thing is clear though: it pulls outside of tonic. Tonality, in this sense, is a system that is controlled by centrifugal and centripetal forces. This seesaw of two functions generates a system that is filled with force but is static. This is taken for granted by Schenker and his followers who do not recognize the subdominant as a self-standing function (they renamed it into predominant). The subdominant adds the extraneous point to the overall symmetrical system. Like a grain of sand in the clockwork, it sets the system off balance and generates the potential for dynamic unfolding. Thus, the function of sous-dominante is dual. Regarding dominante, it prepares it. Regarding tonique, it diverts the syntax away from the binary opposition. Thus, the category of time comes to being. It is rather difficult to determine the coordinates of the sous-dominante in the tonal system. Due to the octave equivalence, all functions recur in different octaves, so it is hard to decide whether subdominant is located right under the dominant (which seems to justify its name sub-dominant) or it is placed below tonic, on the other side from the dominant. The theory of tonal-harmonic function of Rameau had been neglected in the first half of the 19th century; it has been repudiated in music theory after World War Two in the 20th . Functional notation has been replaced by more pragmatic Roman numeral, about which Serge Gut had to say the following:

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Functional chord notation vs. Roman numerals (Stufenlehre): Roman numeral does not indicate a function but only the location of a chord on the scale; for this reason, it does not correspond to any theory.3 Functional theory of harmony was partially shared by Joann Philipp Kirnberger [13]. It has been accepted wholesale by the traditions of ex-Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, from Yavorski to Kholopov [12]. 5.5 The Discovery of the Leading Tone The 18th century was the time of discovery of the leading tone—scale step seven, le ton sensible, that exerts immense tension toward the tonic. There are other steps and half steps in the key, but the relationship of scale step 7 to scale step 8 has been a point of excitation for many theorists, including Ernst Kurth, who labeled it as the most powerful indicator of tonality: In my theoretical work, I referred to it as “potential” energy, also taking this expression freely based on the relation to physics. The conversion of kinetic to potential energy in chords is based largely, but not exclusively, on the increased energy states of so-called leading tones.4 This phenomenon, together with three functions, forms the principle of the physicaltranscendental system of tonality. These descriptions inevitably lead to an observation of specificity of tonal space, its difference from the real cartesian two- or three-dimensional model. The very category of distance (a difference of points in space measured in equal increments, that is, in whole numbers) seems very strangely inapplicable to music. Philosopher Gilles Deleuze, in Le Pli. Leibniz et le baroque [5], suggests that harmony is the relationship of numbers, but not the digits. He refers to Leibniz’s idea of l’harmonie préétablie, expressed by the inverted infinity, 1/∞, the infinitesimal. In music it is expressed by the movement (or tendency of movement) toward the object by the infinite approximation, or iteration. That is exactly what the leading tone does: it has the tendency to come closer and closer to tonic. Its intended movement is not linear: it moves with acceleration. We deal here not with the linear function but with the derived function, or differential. These events that take place in complete darkness and in undefined time of aural space do not map directly on a Cartesian plane. Rather than producing a topographic map, musical space is reflected in a topological one. In a sense, tonal relationships are better described by what Euler suggested as the project of analysis situs, mathematical topology [6]. (For this aspect of music theory, I refer to my recent keynote speech “Extension and Directionality”, published in Music and Spatiality collection in Belgrade) [10].

3 «Le chiffrage fonctionnel ou de Stufenlehre: le chiffrage n’indique pas une fonction, mais seule-

ment un emplacement de l’accord sur l’échelle utilisée; pour cette même raison, il ne peut correspondre à une théorie quelconque». Gut [9, p. 13]. 4 “Ich bezeichnete sie in meinen theoretischen Arbeiten als „potentielle“ Energie, auch diesen Ausdruck in freier Anlehnung der Beziehungsweise der Physik entnehmend. Die Umsetzung von kinetischer zu potenzieller Energie in Akkorden beruht hierbei zum wesentlichen Teil, aber nicht ausschließlich, in den erhöhten Energiezuständen sogenannter Leittöne”. Kurth [14, p. 11].

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5.6 The Idea of Fundamental Bass That is the Succession of the Roots of the Chords Another manifestation of hierarchy, besides the chord system, is Rameau’s idea of fundamental bass—basso fondamentale. Again, his critics try to pinch him for the “unartistic quality” of such bass. Indeed, it is comprised solely of roots of the triads and thus presents an angular line of wide leaps on the fifths and fourths (“il composait des sons graves des accords primitifs”, in words of Fétis, see the quotation above). This objection, however, is as mundane and uninformed, as all others. The fundamental bass is not there to create a smooth line. On the contrary, it shows the syntactic nodes through which harmonic progression, no matter how richly embellished and filled with non-chord tones, passes with necessity. One tone of the fundamental bass leads to another with the force of tension, created by complex cognitive mechanisms that are still to be studied. It equals, in its inevitable and unavoidable results, to the category of inference in logic. On the contrary, using the basso continuo, one can create a “beautiful and linear” bass line that violates these rules of progression. The result will be the opposite of the expected, far from creating a meaningful musical expression. In this sense, the fundamental bass line, basso fondamentale, is an equivalent of newly discovered principles of grammar. The authors of these new principles, Antoine Arnauld and Pierre Nicole, entitled their treatise of 1662 La Logique ou l’art de penser [1] this way for a reason. They have created the precedent of ordered linguistic syntax, regulations and ordering of the words in a sentence that Noam Chomski called, later, in the 20th century, a “generative grammar”. Hugo Riemann, in his 1877 dissertation Musikalische Syntaxis, relates the fundamental bass and tonal-functional cycle to the poetic meter (anapest) [20, p. 76]. He ties together harmonic function, metric distribution and linguistic-poetic structure, suggesting that the concatenation of the fundamental sounds (Klänge) results from “a certain law of inertia, or an economy of imagination” [20, p. 76].5 Riemann uses analogies between music and language. One can add that the syntactic cycle of subject – modal verb – predicate – object functions, roughly, as tonic – subdominant – dominant – tonic, with far-reaching consequences, connecting the discoveries of Arnauld with the birth of German Formlenhre of the 18th century. 5.7 The Idea of the Natural Laws of Music, le corps sonore (in Traité de l’harmonie) Le corps sonore. The roots of this concept go back to Greek antiquity, to the very idea of the union between music and science (mathema). The opponents of Rameau accuse him in attempts to explain music in scientific terms. This critique misses the point—it should be directed at the disciples of Pythagoras. Is there anything wrong in connecting the laws of music with the laws of nature? Would not such connection benefit both and helped us to avoid our universal misunderstanding of Being as such, as suggested by both Heraclitus and Heidegger? There is a consensus in current North American music theory about the irrelevance of natural overtone series in explanations of harmony. Yet, under such critique, together with Rameau, would fall several very 5 « Ein gewisses Trägheitgesetz, oder eine Oekonomie des Vorstellens», Riemann [21, p. 15].

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important events and developments in music history. For example, the rejection of natural overtone series would have left jobless a group of prominent French composers, united under the conceptual definition of spectralism. Music of Pierre Boulez would suffer too, since his Le Marteau was not written in the serialist paradigm but used instead the idea of multiplication of pitch intervals (the same principle as in the foundation of series of harmonics). The concept of vocal resonance that allowed for the development of opera would have also needed a protection from the attacks of anti-harmonic theorists. And all the instruments of the concert hall, including the Cremona violin and grand piano, would be out of use.

6 Conclusion The further we will go into Rameau’s conceptual world, more and more we will discover the references to his current scientific ideas. More and more the picture that connects music to the knowledge of nature, albeit by times problematic, will open before our eyes. In this sense, Rameau is a pioneer of the transdisciplinary strategy—a forerunner that was first to connect the theory of music with the sciences of modernity.

References 1. Arnauld, A., Nicole, P.: La logique de Port Royal ou l’art de penser (1662). Hard Press, Miami (2017) 2. Bartoli, J.-P.: L’harmonie classique et romantique (1750–1900). Minerve, Paris (2001) 3. Bernhard, J.: The principle and the elements: Rameau’s ‘controversy with d’Alembert’. J. Music Theory 24(1), 37–62 (1980) 4. Christensen, Th.: Rameau and Musical Thought in the Enlightenment. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2006) 5. Deleuze, G.: Le pli. Leibniz et le baroque. Edition de Minuit, Paris (1988) 6. Euler, L.: Solutio problematis ad geometriam situs pertinentis. In: Commentarii Academiae Scientiarum Petropolitanae, St. Petersburg, vol. VIII, pp. 128–140 (1741) 7. Fétis, Fr.-J.: La musique mise à la portée de tout le monde, expose succinct de tout ce qui est nécessaire pour juger de cet art, et pour en parler sans l’avoir étudié. Alexander Mesnier, Paris (1830) 8. Fétis, Fr.-J.: Traité complète de la théorie et de la pratique de l’harmonie contenant la doctrine de la science et de l’art. 8-me édition. Brandus et Dufour, Paris (1867) 9. Gut, S.: Plaidoyer pour une utilisation pondérée des principes riemanniens d’analyse tonale. Anal. Musicale 30, 13–20 (1993) 10. Khannanov, I.: Extension and directionality. A sketch for musical topology. Music and Spatiality. SANA, Belgrade (2021) 11. Khannanov, I.: Hierarchical structures in music theory before Schenker. Res. Musica Tallinn 3, 92–111 (2011) 12. Kholopov, Y.: Harmony. Theoretic course [Gapmoni. Teopetiqecki kypc]. Lan’, Moscow (2003) 13. Kirnberger, J.P.: Die wahren Grundsätze zum Gebrauch der Harmonie. Decker und Hartung, Berlin and Königsberg (1773) 14. Kurth, E.: Romantische Harmonik und ihre Krise in Wagners “Tristan.” Max Hess Verlag, Bern (1920)

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15. Leibniz, G.: De linea ex lineis numero infinitis ordinatim ductis inter se concurrentibus formata, easque omnes tangente, ac de novo in ea re Analysis infinitorum usu». In: Acta Eruditorum, Aprilis, pp. 168–171 (1692) 16. Linnaeus, C.: Genera Plantarum. (Leiden, 1735). Editio VI. Johann Thomae de Trattern, Vienna (1767) 17. Mill, J.St.: Reproduction of the original. In: A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive. J.W. Parker, London (1843) 18. Rameau, J.-P.: Traité de l’harmonie réduite à ces principes naturels. J. B. C. Ballard, Paris (1722) 19. Rameau, J.-P.: Génération harmonique ou traité de musique théorique et pratique. Prault fils, Paris (1737) 20. Riemann, H.: Vereinfachte Harmonielehre oder die Lehre von den tonalen Funktionen der Akkorde. Augener, Leipzig (1893) 21. Riemann, H.: Musikalische Syntaxis. Grundriβ einer harmonischen Satzbildungslehre. (Leipzig: Breitkopf und Härtel, 1877) Sandig Reprint Verlag, Vaduz (1998) 22. Zarlino, G.: Le instituzioni harmoniche (1558). 3rd ed. Venice (1573)

Music – Number – Word. History and Theory of Connections Konstantin Zenkin(B) Moscow P.I. Tchaikovsky Conservatory, Moscow, Russia [email protected]

Abstract. The purpose of the article is to analyze the history of connections of music with the world of numbers, on the one hand, and the world of words and verbal utterance, on the other. Number and word, usually considered to be drastically opposed in relation to music, in the doctrine of the Russian philosopher of the 20th century Alexei Losev became the components of an integral system. The novelty of the article is in the conclusions made from the analyzed musical-philosophical texts. Namely, Losev’s doctrine of music as an expression of becoming of number, in integrity with his doctrine of musical myth, synthesized the centuries-old evolution of musical theory and provided an optimal methodology for studying musical meaning, thereby opening the way to understanding the latest forms of music. Inspired by philosophical texts on this issue, an interdisciplinary approach seems to be of value on the way towards identification the specifics of musical thinking. The conclusions of the article concern new ways of studying the musical meaning - both in general and in individual musical texts. Keywords: Music theory · Number in music · Word in music · Music sense · Music time · A.F. Losev

1 Introduction There is no doubt that music is an independent and self-sufficient world that cannot be reduced to anything else. But in the world, everything is interconnected, and each phenomenon has akin to itself and adjacent phenomena. Since, in order to define a phenomenon, one, as it is known, needs to transcend its limits and see it within a wider system, then, undoubtedly, it makes sense to consider what is most closely related to music. There can be quite a lot of such subjects, let us name at least other art forms that are comparable to music because they all belong to artistic activities. But now we will refer to two phenomena correlated not by artistic criteria, but by the circumstances evidenced by the very substance of music, its, so to speak, “structure”. One of them is number and the world of numbers; the other is word and verbal expression. Both number and word, as well as music, represent non-iconic sign systems. Word is an element of a verbal language; number is an element of a conventional specialized sign system. In conjunction, it is number and word that bear the most important data about the world, which no other means can replace. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. D. Khannanov and R. Ruditsa (Eds.): WWMC 2021, CRSM 8, pp. 23–32, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74039-9_3

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Music is related to the world of numbers by its structure: the ratios of pitches and rhythms are nothing more than numeric ratios expressed through sound. It would not be an exaggeration to say that number is the material of music, almost to the same extent as word is the material of literature. “Almost” - because musicians apply numbers, in most cases, unintentionally, but because of that numbers, of course, do not cease to be numbers. And sound expression relates music to word and verbal language with inextricable bonds. The purpose of the article is to analyze the link between the structural-numeric and verbal-expressive aspects of music, which in conjunction determine its meaning. Thus, it is ultimately about approaches to comprehending the meaning of music.

2 Number and Word in Music History (Short Review) 2.1 Number and Music The history of European music demonstrates that, since the Ancient Greek era, music was not only connected with numbers but has been perceived as a mathematical science. The Pythagorean understanding of harmony and sound relationships as relationships of numbers has forever since been incorporated into musical theory. This thesis was developed in the medieval theory: according to Boethius, who summarized the achievements of ancient philosophical thought, music became a part of the quadrivium - the system of exact sciences, and not of the trivium, which comprised the sciences of language, word, and verbal speech. Such a position of music in the system of the seven liberal arts began to lose its relevance, probably, in the Baroque era. At the same time, in the 17th century, the separation of the science of a new, modern type and art intensified, while in the previous centuries these areas had not been segregated to such an extent. However, it must be borne in mind that for practical music-making - singing, playing instruments—in the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, not to mention the Baroque era, the understanding of the fundamental mathematical basis was not necessary. At the same time, the structural and mathematical elements of music were naturally reflected in the musical texts. E.g., chord structures had various forms of numeric denomination, of which the figured bass of the Baroque era is historically most significant. Numeric designations have been used in various tablatures - from ancient (organ and lute ones) to modern guitar tablatures, as well as in jazz notation. Number as an element of the musical text appears in the time signatures. Moreover, the staff notation itself is a mathematical structure - a graph (where the abscissa is time, the ordinate is pitch). All of the above concerns only notation, but number is hidden in sound matter, in musical texture itself, is intrinsic to it. Its presence is associated with the indication of a) quantity, b) relationships, c) structure, in accordance with which number appears in different ways in arithmetic, algebra, geometry, higher mathematics. And if in musical texts number appears primarily in the form of a graph with auxiliary arithmetic denominations, then in the sound matter we deal with special, “musical numbers” (Alexei Losev’s term [9]), which can rather remind of relationships, “geometric” figures and bodies. However, for music is especially important the specificity of number, which allows it to transfer with utter precision the information about quantity, relationships, and structure, while being free from the certainty of the conceptual-subject sphere, from which no other art is liberated (in some respects, with the exception of architecture).

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The use of numeric symbolism in music also has a long history [2, 6], but here we deal not with “musical number,” but with a purely arithmetic one, which function is close to that of a verbal program - namely, to identify some extra-musical meaning. Although, unlike a verbal program, numeric symbols can be not so obvious and require detection. During the classical-romantic era, the numeric basis of music was mentioned rarely, but each time by the greatest thinkers of the time. It is noteworthy that they, as a rule, were not musicians, but sought to comprehend the essence of music in all its profoundness. Well-known examples are in the treatises by Leibniz and Novalis: “Musica est exercitium arithmeticae occultum nescientis se numerare animi”— “Music is a secret arithmetic exercise of a soul which keeps count but does not realize it;” [15] “music has a lot in common with algebra” [14]. The fact that architecture was not once called the “frozen music”—a tendency popular in European culture at about the same time (the era of J.W. Goethe) also indirectly confirm the geometrically constructive expressiveness of the art of sounds [16]. The statement of a representative of the new era, Claude Debussy, is in the same vein: “Music is a mysterious mathematical process whose elements are part of Infinity” [19]. If the cited statements are to a great extent metaphorical, then Igor Stravinsky, an adherent of Debussy, has made his conclusion on the basis of intentional reflections: The musical form is much closer to mathematics than to literature - perhaps not to mathematics itself, but to something certainly similar to mathematical thinking and mathematical relationships [17]. It is not surprising that in the 20th century, when the previously dominant “verbalspeech paradigm” of music [21] has been significantly shaken, the interest in its numeric nature, including the Pythagorean-Platonic “harmony of the spheres”, inaudible “world music”, enhanced again. We can notice it at least on the example of Paul Hindemith or Karlheinz Stockhausen’s oeuvre. Actually, even Arnold Schoenberg’s dodecaphonic technique could already give rise to the above statement by Stravinsky. But the further course of the history of music, the innovations of the second half of the 20th century, significantly intensified the composers’ inclination to mathematical methods: such are the combinatorics of total serialism, stochastic music, probabilistic models, finally, computer modelling of sound and composition, spectral technique. 2.2 Word and Music Music has long been related to word, as well as with human gesture (dance, movement). The expressiveness of vocal genres from a song to an opera is connected with the simultaneous impact of music and words. There is always word in the musical text, primarily as the title of a piece. The most common case is the designation of a genre, which from long ago bore information about the purpose of the work, and therefore, in the most general terms, about its meaning. Later, the marks indicating tempo and character were added to the titles, and in many cases they bore a specific program extra-musical meaning. But now we (as in the case of number) are interested not so much in the actual presence of word in a musical composition, as in a special issue. By the way, it historically

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originated in the situation of verbal-musical synthesis: music as word, the expression in music of something certain enough, related to word. The presence of word in music can be detected at various levels. First of all, at the level of the tiniest semantic unit an intonation, a motif, which can be associated with a certain object, concept, character and then it turns into a leitmotif. Further, at the syntactic level, musical phrases and sentences in styles from baroque to later romanticism are arranged with the explicit regard to speech syntax - it is no coincidence that musical theory borrowed the terms “phrase”, “sentence”, and, to some extent, “intonation” [1] from phonetics. Finally, at the compositional level, a piece can be more or less narrative - in such cases, the form is likened to a verbal narration of certain events. It is interesting to note that the narrative quality can be manifested in music even without a definite program - when it is obvious that there is a narration of some events, but it is unknown what exactly these events are. Chopin’s ballades make a good example of later. The convergence of music with verbal speech at all three indicated levels was realized due to rhetoric [2], which continuously influenced European music - almost from the very beginning of its existence in Ancient Greece. As noted by Losev: The Antiquity, as well as the European Renaissance, was not capable to create pure music, because plasticity hindered and restricted the infinite and free elusiveness of musical rapture. But for that very non-eradicable plasticity of its spirit the Antiquity understood music verbally, expressed in externally logical way [8]. Since music accompanied word, the rules of rhetoric were naturally applied to both the verbal and the musical sequence at the same time. But instrumental music, free from verbal text, which undergone significant development in the Baroque era, was also arranged taking into account the rules of rhetoric - thereby its similarity to the art of literature was recognized. At the level of individual words and concepts, this similarity was manifested through the rhetorical figures, at the level of composition - in adherence to the rules of rhetorical disposition. The concept of “ready word”, applied by A. Mikhailov [12] to the verbal texts created in the era of the bloom of rhetoric culture, transgresses the limits of literature and is quite suitable to music. Numerous musicalrhetorical treatises have for a long time actually been manuals on composition. The rhetorical treatment of music as a “language” with more or less definite extra-musical semantics was supplemented by the theory of affections, which made it possible to consider music as a “language of feelings”. But even when the regulatory framework of rhetoric and the theory of affections became a thing of the past (at the end of the 18th - the beginning of the 19th century), the “verbal” qualities of music did not disappear. On the contrary, it was the romantic 19th century that constituted the climax of the history of perceiving music as a “metaphor for word” (Lévy-Strauss [4]). The music was focused on poetry (Schumann’s desire to “express in his songs the ideas of a poem almost literally” is well-known [3]), the spoken word (Mussorgsky), the literary program (Berlioz, Liszt, Tchaikovsky). First, Wagner [18], and then Liszt [5], in their theoretical treatises trace the history of the consistent convergence of music and literature in order to achieve their deeper synthesis in the future. As it is known, the harbinger of such a synthesis Wagner considered the use of verbal text by Beethoven in the finale of the Ninth Symphony - the example which largely

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determined the development of romantic and post-romantic symphonism, regardless of in what way - explicitly or implicitly - word was present in it. The mentioned naturally led to the emergence of scholarly disciplines related to the study of the musical “meanings” - musical hermeneutics and musical semiotics. Their development took place already in the 20th century, when, on the whole, the correlation of music and verbal language in the old, classical-romantic meaning, became “outdated”. And, it is possible to say that one of the main merits of the named disciplines in the historical perspective is precisely in demonstrating their own irreparable insufficiency for comprehending the musical meaning. Music of the 20th - 21st centuries continues to be broadly word-oriented, and here we should highlight a number of new aspects. First, word is often used not as a bearer of meaning, but only as sound, musical material. This applies to both the spoken or sung word, and the word mechanically translated into sound by assigning the meanings of letters to certain sounds. Actually, the symbolism of letters, like the numeric one, has a long history - but usually it was limited to single words, names (e.g., BACH), encrypted in sound. The method of musical cryptogram, used in the music of the 20th century, involves the arrangement of sound matter by “translating” letters into sounds. Of course, this method of creating music is quite mechanical, which is why it could not become widespread. It is interesting to compare how number and word sometimes exchange places. Applying numeric symbolism, composers, in fact, gave number the functions of word (since number in this case actually took the functions of word and concept, symbolizing them). On the contrary, according to the method of musical cryptogram, word is interpreted as number, since its meaning is not conveyed by music, does not “sound” in it - e.g., in the way the meaning of a poetic text is reflected in the music of a romance; word in this case is a purely formal structure. Secondly, in modern music, the purpose of titles of works is often not to clarify the meaning (by indicating some literary plot, natural phenomena or events of human history), but, on the contrary, to give impetus for reflection, to puzzle (e.g., TurangalîlaSymphonie by Messiaen, “(K)ein Sommernachtstraum” by Schnittke, “Be@thovenInvocation” by Tarnopolsky, etc.). And in this case, word, although, in a completely different way, by avoiding a precise, unambiguous interpretation, takes the function of music. In any case, music, making a direct impact on the listener, remains “word” in the broadest sense—in the sense that Losev had in mind, saying, “the whole world is word and words, for it means something and it is something understandable” [10].

3 Number and Word (Name) in A. Losev’s Philosophy of Music 3.1 Music as Expression of Becoming of Number Russian philosopher of the 20th century Alexei Losev (1893–1988) in the work “Music as a Subject of Logic” (1927) synthesized philosophy (Pythagoras, Plato, Neoplatonism) and phenomenology (Husserl) and practically created a new foundation for questioning the essence of music. The Pythagorean-Platonic concepts of music as the numeric entity were significantly remodeled by the adoption of the ideas of the 19th century philosophy (the romanticists, Schopenhauer, Wagner). For Wagner, music was equal to the

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emotional formation and life; one would think he was far away from its numeric structure. However, Losev, as his adherer, understood this spontaneous musical establishment as the numeric formation. He used the mathematical theory of sets by G. Cantor and compared its aspects, in particular the abstraction of actual infinity and transfinite numbers, to “numbers in music” and their formation. Wagner thought that music by itself, “unfertilized” by word, is unable to generate its own form; supposedly, this form should be provided by word. Losev found this structuring force inside the music and called it the “semantic figurality of number” [9]. From the perspective of the numeric structural properties of all musical elements Losev focuses on the following correlation between number and music: numbers, as well as music, provide insight into the structure and relationships in the context of nonobjectivity. Just as for mathematics it does not matter what exactly is being calculated with the mathematical formula, so absolute music is indifferent towards what caused any given sound in our reality, or, vice versa, to which real-world phenomena “corresponds” a particular piece of music. According to Losev, number is musical eidos. What does this thesis imply? First of all, eidos is a concept, attributed to Plato and his followers, updated by Husserl, and it means the ideal model of things. Supposing that the model of music is not a specific image, e.g., an image of a particular emotion, but a number, then, as part of Losev’s philosophy, it means the following: • music does not simply speak in terms of numbers, but it uses abstract structures that make up the foundation of all things and ideas in the world (the “things” and “ideas” themselves might not be involved and remain “interpenetrated”, “merged”, or in the “meonological state” (from the Ancient Greek me on - “nothing”, “not this” - meaning “something indefinite”); • moreover, not only potential “things” and “ideas”, but also the number is being become; the latter in synthesis with becoming produces time. Practically speaking, all time structures of music are identical to the numeric ones, however, they are set in motion, sort of being “alive” and “living,” able to “think” and “feel”; • becoming of numeric structures, their “life” in time is expressed in sound; in such a way number becomes “word,” however, still just an intra-musical one. • musical meaning, similar to mathematical meanings, exists outside of objectconceptual certainty, as if above it. According to Losev’s adherent A.V. Mikhailov, “musical meaning is oriented only towards itself - towards that kind, which locks and engraves itself inside own flesh and is not subject to verbal narration/paraphrasing” [13]; • object-conceptual abstractiveness (aloofness) can only enhance artistry, creative thinking, imagination; it is the main peculiarity of music; “musical number” and “musical word” from the point of view of formal logic are inaccurate towards the precise information. However, such informational uncertainty, semantic potentiality makes up the essence of music and art in general, including the mechanisms of “self-expanding information” (the term belongs to Y. Lotman [11]) in human consciousness, thus, turning him if not into a co-creator of an artwork, then at least into a zealous part of artistic communication process.

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3.2 “Music Myth” as a Name and Meaning of Music Losev, being fully aware that it is impossible to narrate music in words, nevertheless, did not reject the importance of verbal characteristics of musical pieces. Now it is essential to understand the status of such verbal descriptions of music. The essence of music can include its own uninterpretable intra-musical “word,” that expresses the formation of numeric structures in time. However, the essence of any type receives its own title, a name. We will not enunciate Losev’s philosophy that traces back to Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite and, especially, to the medieval Byzantine Name-Glorifiers (Imiaslavie) and St. Gregory Palamas; the main theses of his philosophy, relevant for the modern humanities and necessary in the contest of the given article, can be mentioned here. A name is not equal to a “tag” assigned by someone to some kind of substance and detached from the essence it refers to. The essence manifests itself in a name (a name provides an alternative demonstration of essence, as well as within the scope of human perception). At the same time, name never equals to the essence itself, always remaining its “shadow”. Yet, the word “shadow” was used by the author only to make the hierarchy of essence and name clearer. By contrast, Losev, like St. Gregory Palamas, used to teach about the energy of name, not its passive “shadow” nature. For this medieval philosopher, contemplating about the Name of God, name is manifestation of the semantic energy of essence, in other words, it is the lever of essence to influence the rest of the world [6]. Losev, following Schelling and Wagner, calls a myth the most complete manifestation of essence. If characteristics are given in the metaphorical form, then it is possible to approach such all-encompassing, “mythological” designation. Scientific-conceptual, analytical thinking does not advance us towards the comprehensive artistic essence, but only “highlights” any given regularities. Thus, when Losev added a stylistically discordant chapter “Musical Myth” (attributing it to “unrenowned German writer”) in his work “Music as a Subject of Logic”, he drew the most significant conclusions in the figurative-artistic, synthesizing form. When defining specific works (Beethoven’s 5th Symphony, Tchaikovsky’s Piano Trio, Verdi’s “La Traviata” or Rimsky-Korsakov’s “The Snow Maiden”), Losev is generous with the figurative-emotional characteristics. Using the word of literature, he strives to approach the musical “word” of the works mentioned above. Fundamentally, Losev offers his own adaptation of artistic musical “hermeneutics”, while, being perfectly acquainted with this term, he prefers to use “mythology,” which is more suitable in this context. The myth about music in general, as well as myths about specific musical pieces, is the fact, because the essence by itself is inexpressible, and one should do with its manifestation in a different form of existence (in the otherness). Parallel to the Myths, expressing the essence of the world, that historically were part of the human culture, there always appeared and continue to appear many myths that claim to be of high profile. The latter, however, fall short to express the essence and remain myths in the common sense of the word (tales, fables). Not every interpretation of music attains the status of “myth” that can express its essence. But by far, not all music develops into a true work of art that appeared as a milestone inherent in the human culture.

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4 Conclusion Throughout the history European music had the closest and the most essential ties with both number and word. Obviously, the roles of these fundamental all-encompassing structures towards music are generally varied: while existing within the scope of different systems, they function in music, and music applies itself through them as if “in diverse channels”, with little to no “intersections” (there are some exceptions, but they do not change the whole fundamental picture). Therefore, understanding the importance of number and word in music happened as if in different discourses, scientific traditions and very often in different courses of study, too. In such context Losev’s music philosophy is notable because it targets the research of music as number and word - all within the realm of one conception. Even within the framework of one doctrine these two trends remain to be relatively segregated. The article attempts to find out the aspects of Losev’s music philosophy that could be relevant for the future: first of all, the understanding of music as formation of a number in time and, just as important, the expression of this numeric formation. A whole scope of things, prominent today, such as logical derivation of new categories of music theories (brightness, colour qualities, density, weight of sound) were not considered in this work, because they do not have a direct application to the problem of “music and number”. The following statements made by Losev are of drastic significance for understanding the nature and status of musical meaning: • musical meaning, with number at the core, is structurally accurate, however, does not aim for conceptual and objective clarity; • becoming of a number, musical meaning objectively exists only in movement, process, in other words, inside its numeric structure there is always a substantial space left for uncertainty (counting probability, chance, potentiality); • musical becoming is versatile: it implies a) practical (including physical) existence in time, b) variation of “emotional and semantic” ranges, and, most importantly, c) potentiality of the rise of meaning in different contexts—starting with differences in performance interpretations—to reconsideration through the lens of new historic periods. • being conspicuous, musical meaning stands far away from the definiteness of word, but music “word”, likewise number, bears a certain function in the structure of the whole and, as a result, acquires structural (sort of “numeric”) definiteness. Upon that, structural definiteness should not be mistaken for functional unambiguity - quite the opposite, in music, the same element most commonly performs many different functions all at the same time. The variability methods (in harmony and composition), along with the ambivalence of functions, are widely used. To conclude, we can say, that music is a fundamental and consistent “empire” of ambiguity, which every time has to restate itself in the utmost certainty. Since the article touches upon certainty and meaningfulness of a delineated numeric formation, then, in more habitual terms for musicians, it can be said, that the only ultimate definiteness of music and its maximum precision lie in the forming meaning being expressed to the utmost, that is being made more specific in every single performance - “here and now”.

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Not surprisingly, such understanding of music and its meaning largely corresponds with Losev’s definition of the artistic: “The essence of artistic meaning resides in the fact that the ultimate meaning is here, in front of us” [7]. It is possible, that right here, rather than in the so-called “mimicry” and correspondence to the physical world (mimesis), lies the supreme imitation of life by music, as well as consolidation of all meanings in the form of a living, variational processuality, as distinguished from motionless, everlasting ideas and principles.

References 1. Asafiev, B.: Musical form as a process [Muzykal’naja forma kak protsess]. Muzgiz, Leningrad (1963) 2. Dahlhaus, C.: Zur Geschichtlichkeit der musikalischen Figurenlehre. In: Festschrift Martin Ruhnke zum 65. Geburtstag, pp. 83–93. Neuhausen, Stuttgart (1986) 3. Konen, V.: History of western music [Istorija zarubezhnoj muzyki], vol. 3. Muzyka, Moscow (1976) 4. Levi-Strauss, C.: Mythologiques. Du miel aux cendres. Plon, Paris (1966) 5. Liszt, F.: Berlioz and his symphony “Harold” [Berlioz i ego simfonija “Garol’d]. In: Liszt, F. (ed.) Selected articles [Izbrannyje statji], pp. 270–349. Muzgiz, Moscow (1959) 6. Lobanova, M.: Western-European Musical Baroque: Problems of Aesthetics and Poetics [Zapadno-Evropeiskoe muzykal’noe barokko: problem estetiki I poetiki]. Muzyka, Moscow (1994) 7. Losev, A.: Dialectics of an artistic form [Dialektika khudozhestvennoj fomy]. In: Losev, A. (ed.) Form – Style – Expression [Forma – Stil’ – Vyrazhenie], pp. 5–296. Mysl’, Moscow (1995) 8. Losev, A.: History of antic aesthetics. Early hellenism [Istorija antichnoj estetiki. Rannij ellinizm]. Iskusstvo, Moscow (1979) 9. Losev, A.: Music as a subject of logic [Muzyka kak predmet logiki]. In: Losev, A. (ed.) Form – Style – Expression [Forma – Stil’ – Vyrazhenie], pp. 405–602. Mysl’, Moscow (1995) 10. Losev, A.: Philosophy of name [Filosofija imeni]. In: Losev, A. (ed.) Being – Name – Cosmos [Bytije – Imia – Kosmos], pp. 613–801. Mysl’, Moscow (1993) 11. Lotman, Yu.: Selected articles, in 3 vol., vol. 1 [Izbrannyje statyi, v 3 t., t. 1]. Alexandra, Tallinn (1992) 12. Mikhailov, A.: Baroque poetics: the end of historical epoch [Poetika barokko: zavershenije istoricheskoj epokhi]. In: Mikhailov, A. (ed.) Languages of Culture [Jazyki kul’tury], pp. 112– 175. Jazyki russkoj kul’tury, Moscow (1997) 13. Mikhailov, A.: Word and music. Music as an event in the history of word [Slovo i muzyka. Muzyka kak sobytije v istorii slova]. In: Mikhailov A.V. (ed.) Word and Music [Slovo i muzyka], pp. 6–23. Moscow P.I. Tchaikovsky Conservatory, Moscow (2002) 14. Novalis: Heinrich von Offterdingen. Fragments. Pupils in Sais [Genrikh fon Ofterdingen. Fragmenty. Ucheniki v Saise]. Eurasia, St.-Petersburg (1995) 15. Primas, H.: Knowledge and Time. Springer, New York (2017). Edited and Annotated by Harald Atmanspacher 16. Rovenko, E.: Architecture as frozen music: gothic art by eyes of Romanticists [Arkhitektura kak zastyvshaja muzyka: iskusstvo gotiki glazami romantikov]. In: Music in paradigms of artistic connections [Muzyka v paradigm khudozhestvennykh sviazej], pp. 142–151. M.M. Ippolitov-Ivanov music pedagogical institute, Moscow (2014) 17. Stravinsky, I.: Dialogues [Dialogi]. Muzyka, Leningrad (1971)

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18. Wagner, R.: Opera and drama [Opera I drama] In: Wagner, R. (ed.) Selected Works [Izbrannyje raboty], pp. 262– 493. Iskusstvo, Moscow (1978) 19. Wenk, A.: Claude Debussy and the Poets. University of California Press, Berkeley, Los Angeles, London (1976) 20. Zenkin, K.: Music – Eidos – Time. Aleksey Losev and scope of contemporary discipline of music. Progress-Tradition, Moscow (2018) 21. Zenkin, K.: On the paradigms of music composition [O paradigmakh muzykal’noj kompozitsii]. Nauchnyj vestnik Moskovskoj konservatorii 1(40), 23–36 (2020)

The Musical Co-creation as an Artistic-Dynamic System Elena Kuprina(B) Volga Orthodox Institute named after St. Alexis, Metropolitan of Moscow, Central District School of Art, Tolyatti, Samara Region 445028, Russia

Abstract. This chapter presents a systematic review of so-called musical cocreation as the activity of the performer. The author intends to go beyond the established in the XX century paradigm that treats performer’s activity as “secondary” and listener’s as “tertiary” to that of a composer. In the cross-cultural communication space of musical art, musical co-creation manifests its specificity in all types of musical activities (composition, performance, education, art-management). Musical co-creation is studied as an artistic-dynamic system of musical art, which has the personality of the musician in its center. Reflection of a complex system of musical co-creation is implemented using the method of synergetic modeling. The model of the musical co-creation system is presented in communicative, cognitive and ontological projections. This “three-dimensional” angle allows us to use this model to analyze various phenomena of musical art from both retrospective and perspective standpoints. Keywords: Musical co-creation · Artistic-dynamic system · Musician’s personality · The model of the musical co-creation system · Ontological projection · Communicative projection · Cognitive projection

1 Introduction Despite the centuries-old history research on creativity, there are still many poorly defined categories. One of them is co-creation in the art of music. The complex concept of “cocreation” contains, on the one hand, the concept of “creativity”, and on the other—the micromorpheme “co -”, which is the reflection of the deepest context and a great number of facets. It is no coincidence that this term carries an interdisciplinary meaning and is characterized by a wide range of interpretations. On the one hand, musicology traditionally positions co-creation mainly as a secondary creativity of the performer along with the “primary” creativity of the composer and the “tertiary” one of the listener (M. Aranovsky, B. Asafiev, A. Mukha, E. Gurenko, J. Milstein, A. Sokhor, J. Flier, G. Tsypin and many others). On the other hand, the widest range of applicability of the concept of “co-creation” in the humanities (philosophy, general and musical psychology, general and musical pedagogy, cultural studies, art history, musical sociology) indicates that the scale of this © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. D. Khannanov and R. Ruditsa (Eds.): WWMC 2021, CRSM 8, pp. 33–43, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74039-9_4

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complex interdisciplinary category within the framework of musicology has not been sufficiently studied and stimulates its systemic research. Musical co-creation is a continuation of the creative process; its origins are revealed by the very nature of music, which has a great magnetic and penetrating power of deep influence on the human soul. It is possible to speak about the participation of a musician (or, more broadly, a person) in the creative process only from the standpoint of co-creativity (D. Pivovarov, O. Zarubina, L. Shapovalova, etc.). For instance, the composer’s work on the interpretation of the proto-idea and the design of the musical concept is a continuation of co-Creation in the form of a phenomenal spiritual dialogue of the earthly creative consciousness with the Higher Creative Principle (in philosophical terms – God, Absolute, Single, Universum, etc.). The unpredictable atmosphere of earthly life is the place for the restoration and interpretation of the Proto-Idea of the musical project (the eidos of beauty that possesses magnetism and the power of attraction) embodied in the musical text (that of the composer, performer, editor), that which is the subject of perception and subsequent interpretations. A brilliant idea that is born in the creative mind, over time, generates a grand polylogue, involving in the process of co-creation more and more new participants, both contemporary and distant from each other in time and space. Musical co-creation is distinguished by its characteristic specificity; it manifests itself in all types of musical activity (composition, performance, teaching, art management) and is at the basis of the evolutionary processes of musical art. The scale of the problem of musical co-creation should be evaluated using multidimensional approach: • as a megasystem (the object of analysis is the “external” dynamics of the phenomena of musical co-creation, which reveals the tendencies, principles and patterns of the system’s functioning against the background of the ongoing socio-economic processes); • as a microsystem (the object of analysis is the value-evaluative polylogue of musical communication of co-creation, and the individual skill of the musician is at the epicenter of everyone’s attention); • as an autosystem (the object of analysis is a musical text (that of the composer, performer, editor), which generates a semantic field of interpretations as a result of the musician’s co-creative activity). Based on the statements above, the purpose of the study is to develop a holistic concept of musical co-creation as an artistic-dynamic system. Within the framework of the article, we will focus on the research methodology.

2 Materials and Methods The versatility of co-creation is reflected by researchers of the humanitarian sciences. Philosophers made the statement about the dialogical essence of creativity (the dialogue of a person is established with the Absolute, with the world, with himself and herself through the spiritual principle), in which the role of a person is exclusively co-creative (O. Zarubina, D. Pivovarov, etc.).

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In pedagogy, the term “co-creation” was organically fit into the research of the pedagogical process as a guarantor of “successful” cooperation and self-realization of all its participants. The researchers discovered the most diverse facets of co-creation, which manifested itself as a sense (Sh. Amonashvili), type (G. Batishchev), style (M. Berulava) of pedagogics, type, atmosphere, model of learning (V. Kraevsky, V. Bukhvalov, etc.) in the contexts of both the “teacher – student” tandem (Yu. Senko, etc.) and personal self-development (V. Andreev, etc.). In cultural studies, art studies, the term of co-creation was used not only to characterize the complex relationships between creative people (S. Makarenko, V. Zolotukhin, etc.), but also manifested as the principle of synergy of creativity (S. Usenyuk), spiritual service (N. Vorobyova), and the generator of the activity of side parties in the area of their imagination (M. Kagan and others). It was finally presented in a number of concepts united by the activity principle “co” (Yu. Ovchinnikova). Researchers of the most diverse aspects of professional music education paid considerable attention to the topic of co-creation, in the context of both the improvement of pedagogical activity (E. Galitskikh, L. Zimovina, V. Tsaliev, E. Nikitina, V. Yakonyuk, etc.), and the development of learners’ creative abilities (N. Egorova, K. Kulaev, T. Raitseva and others). In musicology, the term “co-creation” was used in the context of: 1) the historical task of music at the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries to interpret the poetic text (M. Kharlap); 2) the interaction of composers and master manufacturers of musical instruments in the search for timbre colors ((W. Landowska)); 3) the creation of piano transcriptions by composers-pianists (B. Borodin, etc.); 4) mediation in the transmission of cultural messages from the author to the audience (A. Baigusheva, etc.); 4) the emergence of a favorable atmosphere by interacting with each other, both musicians of different specialities, and musicians with listeners (m. Annamamedov, Yu. Vorontsov, T. Shchikunova, Ya. Flier and many others). Musicologists (M. Aranovsky, B. Asafiev, A. Mukha, E. Gurenko, J. Milstein, A. Sokhor, G. Tsypin and many others) developed a survey about the question of co-creation of a composer and a performer, mainly in the context of the latter’s interpretive activity. As a rule, theorists put a generalized meaning in the concept of “co-creation” reflecting, on the one hand, the complex problem of understanding the author’s concept by Another (performer, critic, listener), and on the other hand, the difficult task of the personal contribution of the performer to the development of the composer’s idea. Thus, the breadth of applicability of the term co-creation is due to its phenomenal specificity at the immanent level to play the role of a specific “amplifier” of this or that phenomenon, the effect of which is due to the synergy of the sides of interaction. Outstanding representatives of musicology (Ya. Milshtein, E. Nazaikinsky and many others) wrote about the extention of musicology beyond the limits of the “narrow-shop” scientific field. The range of musicological knowledge covers the fields of phenomenology, sociology, cultural studies, psychology, cybernetics and synergetics (Th. Adorno, E. Ansermet, D. Dyatlov, M. Kagan, D. Kirnarskaya, A. Sokhor, P. Suvchinsky, G. Tsypin and many other). The polyphonic complexity of the problem of musical cocreation necessitated its conceptual study from the positions of systemic (I. Blauberg, B.

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Biryukov, E. Geller, E. Yudin, A. Leontiev, M. Kagan, etc.), interdisciplinary (V. Stepin, I. Frolov, V. Kholopova, etc.), synergetic (H. Haken, I. Prigogine, etc.) approaches. The sources of this research are numerous conceptual musicological works of Russian and Western authors (the bibliography includes more than 500 works), works of scientists from the fields of related sciences on problems isomorphic to the subject of study. Narrative literature constituted a special research line. Methods of cognitive analysis (A. Amrakhova, M. Aranovskiy, A. Williamon, J.-J. Nattiez, J. Molino, etc.) and modeling (P. Galperin, Ya. Ponomarev, E. Brian, R. Kopiez, D. Hodges, J. Mishra, etc.) were used as tools for building the concept. The conclusions of modern musicologists (V. Medushevsky, V. Martynov, G. Lukina, etc.), who are in an indirect dialogue with prominent representatives of classical philosophy (Plato, Hegel, Schelling, etc.), have become fundamental for the problem of musical co-creation. We want to make our humble input to the studies of the matter. Proceeding from the perfect and unknowable nature of creative activity, scientists comprehend various problems of musical art from the standpoint of an ontological approach. To substantiate a number of aspects of musical co-creation in the city of Togliatti, two empirical studies (2009–2014) were carried out in collaboration with the methodologists of the Scientific and Methodological Center of the Togliatti Conservatory. The first study was an interview on the current aspects in pedagogy with 57 leading experts in the field of music pedagogy [16]. The second one is an experimental study on the impact of stage performance on the performer’s sensory system [13] with the participation of 66 young musical contestants (6 to 15 years old) of various performing majors and their concertmasters. The experiment was devoted to the study of the “manifestations” of psychic activity of musicians (a key mechanism underlying the functioning of musical co-creation) during a stage performance, which is expressed in self-organization and the ability to act with the utmost concentration of forces. The scope of the article does not allow for their description, the but the research results are published [13, 16].

3 Results Musical co-creation is a complex systemic phenomenon of musical art. The system of musical co-creation is characterized by openness, non-linearity, instability, and selforganization [6, 21]. We consider the process and effectiveness of co-creation through the lens of a multi-projection model of the musician’s co-creation, which is unified in three projections (communicative, cognitive and ontological). The dynamics of the co-creation process is reflected by the ontological projection of the model, represented by the “vertical” and “horizontal” orientation vectors. The “vertical” vector is aligned with the spiritual mission of musical art. It strives for perfection and beauty, for the restoration of spiritual integrity, seeks to remove the contradiction between the realities of existence and the height of ideal absolute values [8, 18]. The movement of the system along the vertical vector is realized through the repeated revival of ideas embodied in works of musical art, through the stages of its evolution, accompanied by a change of schools, directions, and styles. A sphere of musical communication stretches across the “horizontal” of the unstable and unpredictable earthly life. It hides the mobile role dislocations of its subjects [12]

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in the boiling “evaluative atmosphere”. Here musical co-creation is differentiated into spheres (conception, realization, education, perception), types (internal and external musical co-creation, direct and mediated, in parity, authoritative, integrated subspecies) and forms (structured by types and spheres) of professional realization of musicians and other participants of musical co-creation, according to their functional purpose. Another “dimension” of musical co-creation is detected through the communicative projection of the model of musical co-creation, represented by the mega-level (socioeconomic atmosphere to which the system detects sensitivity), micro-level (polylogue of musical communication), and auto-level (auto-dialog, cross-text connections). Musical co-creation functioning in the cross-cultural value-evaluative dialogical space of musical communication reflects the sphere of a multitude of intersecting systems (“I – I”, “I – Another”). Musical co-creation on an individual level is realized through the musical-co-creative activity (internal and external) of musicians to create a piece of musical art, and it is a kind of “functional measurement” of the personal properties and professional qualities of a musician (D. Bogoyavlenskaya and others). The performance of a piece of musical art in front of the listener results in a certain quality assessment, which has a prolonged effect (reviews of critics, media publications, etc.). This period becomes a phase transition in the cyclic spiral movement of the cocreation system as an act of self-organization (depending on the success or failure of the performance with a tendency to strengthening or dissipation). The personality of the musician is always at the center of the system of musical co-creation, actively realizing its creative potential in the process of creation of works of musical art (in any form). This disposition of the system-forming factor of musical co-creation correlates with the new paradigm of the approach to “system” in post-nonclassical science (I. Frolov, V. Stepin, etc.), and is also compatible to Yu. Lotman’s idea of “memory organization” [14]. The principal of uncertainty [21], immanent to the creative process, based on the excessive growth of all possible connections, increases the degree of personal responsibility of the musician in his “or her” individual trajectory of formation and development, in addition to complicating the strategies and orientations of musical co-creative activity, introducing problems into the a priori existing complexity. Cognitive projection reflects the broadest field of the musician’s musical-co-creative activity through a system of components – order-parameters [6]: goal, attitudes, actions, operations and conditions (each element is considered in detail in the monograph [10]). “Order-parameters” (musical Time, Rhythm, Intonation, Breath, Will) reflect the current and constantly updated information bank about the components (innovations of musicians-theorists and practitioners, personal professional experience), and it also helps to identify the individual style of the musician. In the system of musical co-creation, the “Time” parameter performs the function of an “invisible” instrument that forms musical substance (M. Arkadiev, T. Tsaregradskaya and many others). Musical time is determined by the psychological time of the musician’s personality, which determines his “or her” again individual temporal feeling. Since the time of mental activity occurs from the future to the past [19, p. 127] (in contrast to the real “physical” one, in which the movement is carried out from the past to the future), musical time can be both organized and distorted by a musician. The intense, pulsating

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continuum of musical time conveys aggregate information about the style of a musical piece, the “heartbeat” of an artistic image, as well as the author’s/performer’s energy of a musical utterance. The “Rhythm” component in the unity of its constituent concepts (meter, tempo, rhythm intonation, accentuation, etc.) as a whole reveals, among other things, two integrative properties: “unifying” (a hypnotic force that can unite people, even psychologically incompatible with each other in ordinary life) and “differentiating” (manifests an individual tempo, energy). In the system of musical co-creation, the “Rhythm” parameter, which manifests the undulating flow of sounding matter in an intentionally fragmented form, plays the role of an organizing component that manifests itself in the sounding through the affective plasticity of the emerging artistic image of a musical piece. The “Intonation” component is a semantic, emotional and psychological parameter that shows correlations with all musical expressive means [17]. The peculiar “intonating of the psyche” («intonipyemoct pcixiki») [1, p. 318] determines both the mechanism of the birth of the intonation process and the effect of its impact on others (based on internal co-intonation [15]). In the system of musical co-creation, the “Intonation” parameter reflects the semantic and psychological facets of the musical text, uniting both musicians and listeners with a subtle emotional resonance and confessional sincerity. The “Performing Breath” component is a unique “channel of emotional transfusion” («kanal mocionalno tpanclcii») (V. Levi) and is a super-performing (nad-icpolnitelckim), procedural component of musical- co-creative activity. This parameter has, by analogy, all the properties and patterns of “living breathing” (rhythm, flexibility, lability, adaptability, definability and controllability [3]). It sensitively “catches” the labile emotional score of the musical image, the subtlest gradations of the development of the musical flow, revealing intuitive landmarks towards which the musician’s actions and operations can be directed. The component “Performing Will” is at the base of the mechanism of “thinking by music” [1, 2], representing the metacognitive process [7]. “Performer’s Will” is a regulating component of musical and creative activity. It conveys comprehensive information about the interpretation of the musical idea, about the well-thought-out direction of the performance, both in the field of musical and performing discoveries, and stage forms of expression. The overall goal of musical co-creation is to achieve mastery of interpretation and implementation of the figurative idea in a work of musical art reflected in the text (author’s, editorial, performer’s). At certain moments the order-parameters and the subelements included in them become particular goals derived from the general one, to which the activity of the musician is directed. Moments of «switching” the musicians’ performing attention to particular goals organize consciously developed and fixed co-creative mental sets to: 1) co-perception (orientation of the subjects of co-creation towards each other); 2) self-activation; 3) future musical sound. Mental sets expand “the number of degrees of freedom of possible directions of action and present the basis of the generation and setting of new goals” [27, pp. 462–463]. They do so by maintaining and preserving the overall goal of co-creative performance activities in musicians’ mind as time passes in the subconscious, which results in the “splitting” of the primary purpose-motive into private purposes, to which the following action-processes and operations are generated:

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• the internal level – the constitution, listening, empathy, experience of artistic and creative design and sound implementation (interpretation); • external level – implementation of the idea, individual and joint rehearsals, stage performance, etc. Actions and operations aimed at solving the diverse tasks concentrated within each component form a deterministic field [9] of co-creative activity. To perform these operations, certain conditions are necessary: • internal: value-based attitude to work; psychological readiness to cooperation; active focus on the partner(s); actualization of intersubjective relations; work in the mode of “intentionally adjusted” consciousness; distribution of “multi-plane” attention; selfregulation; • external: material security; optimal mode of self-training and rehearsals; organization of performances. Their choice depends on both conscious and intuitive decisions of the musician; in the educational process, it is largely due to the methodological skills of teachers. Musical and co-creative activity is multidimensional (reflects the unity of the spiritual and the material (S. Rubinstein, M. Kagan, etc.)), due to the principle of temporary reversibility (both direct and reverse temporal connections are relevant (M. Aranovsky and others)), and is realized in the course of the most complex process of goal-setting (movement towards the main goal, laid through the myriad of intermediate goals and tasks accompanying it). Therefore, on the one hand, the effectiveness of musical co-creative activity, is always different, and on the other hand, it is associatively comparable with the philosophical concept of “horizon” (Heidegger’s “time horizon”), with the mythical search for the “blue bird”. The presented model of musical co-creation, in the unity of three interdependent projections, like any conditional reflection of reality, has a potential that, to one degree or another, can be comprehended by every creatively thinking person.

4 Discussion On the one hand, the problem of musical co-creation is connected with the understanding of its nature and origins (the phenomenal nature of creativity is currently not in doubt), and, on the other hand, it is connected with its scale of distribution and orientation (it is traditionally considered that it is oriented on the perception). Since the time of Plato, “art” (including music) has been understood as the process of achieving “skill and mastery” in “grasping”, “processing of Divine ideas in order to present them to the listener in the form of works of art [20]. In modern terms (holistically formulated by H. H. Eggebrecht), art is an embodiment and realization of musical intent by the spiritual “language” of the material world, reflected and ordered thanks to theoretical knowledge [22, p. 601]. However, there is an alarming trend to the loss of the ideals of Truth, Goodness, Holiness, and Beauty by modern art. That makes the need to

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introduce spiritual guidelines into the methodological tools of science, from the position of which it is important to consider creative phenomena, including co-creation. Musical co-creation arises in the intuitive “dimension” of the creative consciousness of the Earth creator, who is in a state of inspiration. In the emerging spiritual “portal”, a phenomenal dialogue between the earth artist and the Creator (Supreme Creator) takes place, representing the interpenetration of two “spiritual realities that become in mutual transcending” [26, p. 146], when the questions “ how?” and why? disappear” (M. Mamardashvili). The narratives of the great composers reflected the fact that music came to their creative minds spontaneously. For example, according to the memoirs of his brother, P. Tchaikovsky, when he was a child, sometimes covered his ears with his hands, intuitively trying to protect his psyche from the avalanche of sounds that sounded inside him: «“Oh, this music, music! Relieve me from it! I have it here, here” – the boy said, sobbing and pointing to his head, – “it does not give me peace!”» [24]. But as soon as the creative process extends from the “unknowable” dimension into the world of the earth’s unpredictability, the First Idea, which illuminated the earth’s consciousness, undergoes restoration, transformation and is interpreted into an artistic image, embodied into a piece of musical art with the aim of presenting it to the listener. Otherwise, who does it exist for? So, the musical idea plunges into the earth’s abyss of co-perception and finds itself in the epicenter of various “perceiving projections” of the participants of musical communication. That is why co-creation in the art of music is not only a process of making music. The listener (professional and non-professional), in one way or another, influences the activity of musicians, entering into co-creativity with them, officially or privately guided by certain criteria for “evaluating” the quality of their art [5, 25]. Ups and downs, dizzying success and draining depressions saturate a gigantic polylogue – the spiritual conjugation of people united by music. On this basis, the consideration of systemic manifestations (patterns, principles) of musical co-creation in the “horizontal” dimension – the space of musical communication – must be carried out, among other things, in the context of social specifics. But how can one separate “the wheat from the chaff” in music, distinguish a simulacrum from a masterpiece? The “three-dimensional objective” of the presented model of musical co-creation makes it possible to analyze the phenomena of musical art and draw certain conclusions. In the “vertical” cycle of the permanently unwinding spiral of musical co-creation, the idea discovers the magnetism, attraction and potential of infinity set from Above. For example, the moral lessons of the mythical Aesop were echoed in the XIX century in the masterpiece “Feast of Aesop” by the French romantic recluse Ch. - V. Alkan (1813–1888), whose code has yet to be unraveled by musicologists and performers of subsequent centuries. A “systematic look” at the legacy of Alkan, who became a kind of victim of the crisis of co-perception (mega-level) and has chosen a secluded lifestyle, allows us to discover the impressive effects of the system of musical co-creation, in the center of which was this amazing composer of the era of middle Romanticism. Despite the fact that Alkan is accompanied by the persistent myth of seclusion, we are convinced that the composer never interrupted the mediated dialogue with the masters of the past and his contemporaries (micro-level). His powerful talent, dramatically emerging creative will (auto-level), passionate spiritual message (vertical aspiration) of his musical opuses

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had predetermined a powerful co-creative resonance among prominent representatives of different generations of musicians who “picked up” his intentions. Among them are the “titans of pianism” of the XX-XXI centuries Egon Petri, Raymond Leventhal, Ronald Smith, Jack Gibbons, Marc-André Hamelin and many others. (Unfortunately, we can just mention the composer-pianist Alkan in this article. More information is provided in our other publications [11]). Each of them made a unique contribution to “alkaniana”, demonstrating unlimited spiritual energy, love, faith and hard work, revealing impressive heights of musical co-creation.

5 Conclusions The study of musical co-creation as an artistic-dynamic system of musical art is undertaken in order to go beyond the boundaries of the paradigm of “secondariness” of cocreation, established in the XX century. Musical co-creation is a part of the creative process on the way of developing a creative idea from conception to embodiment in a musical text (by composer, performer, and editor). Musical co-creation functions systematically in an interactive energetic multi-level space of conjugation of two vectors – “vertical”, aspiring to the ideals of perfection and beauty, and “horizontal”, encompassing musical communication in all the variety of accidents in musical practice, characterized by pronounced dialogical value-evaluative specificity. Individual and interacting (co-directed) participants of co-creation demonstrate their personal and professional potential in the course of musical co-creation actively. It represents: 1) the art of interpreting the First-Idea in the author’s conception in order to create a work of musical art and the skill of its stage embodiment to meet the needs of the listener; 2) the transfer of professional knowledge and skills with the aim, in the narrow sense, – of the formation of the professional and personal qualities of musicians; in the broad sense – providing of continuity in the evolutionary development of musical art (by composer’s, performer’s schools). The presented model of musical co-creation as a subject of study, has a dense informational richness and contributes to 1) a clearer understanding of the deep components of co-creation process, 2) understanding of the psychological mediations affecting the creative process (the communication of musicians), 3) the detection of processes, connected with creativity indirectly, 4) a more objective approach to assessing the phenomena of musical art. Acknowledgments. The Author is eternally grateful to the scientific mentors O.V. Oshchepkova, M.M. Berlyanchik, O.A. Urvantseva, G.U. Lukina, A.D. Nemtsev, whose wise instructions honed the research idea. I am immeasurably grateful to all my colleagues at the Tolyatti Conservatory, the staff of the Scientific and methodological center (V.V. Khodyreva, O.V. Butovicheva, etc.), whose cooperation contributed to the implementation of this research. My sincere thanks to the family and friends who accompanied the author for a long time during the research. Author’s Contribution. The author is the initiator of the study of the problem, was directly involved in the implementation of the research, the formulation of conclusions and the compilation of the manuscript.

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Disclosure of Conflict of Interest. The author declares no conflict of interest.

References 1. Aranovsky, M.: Musical text. Structure and properties [Muzykal’nyi text. Struktura i svoistva]. Composer, Moscow (1998) 2. Asafyev, B.: Musical form as a process [Muzykal’naya forma kak prozess], Books 1 and 2. 2nd edn. Muzyka, Leningrad (1971) 3. Breslav, I.: How human respiration is controlled [Kak upravlyaetsya dykhanie cheloveka]. Nauka, Leningr. Department, Leningrad (1986) 4. Evin, I.: Art and synergetics [Iskusstvo i sinergetika]. Editorial URSS, Moscow (2004) 5. Gabrielsson, A.: Emotion perceived and emotion felt: same or different? Music. Sci. 5(1), 123–147 (2001) 6. Haken, H.: The mysteries of nature. Synergetics: the study of interaction. In: Logunov, A. (translator) Institute of Computer Research, Moscow-Izhevsk (2003) 7. Karpov, A., Kitaeva, I.: Psychology of metacognitive processes of the personality [Psikhologia metakognitivnykh prozessov lichnosti]. Institute of psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow (2005) 8. Kholopova, V.: Sofia Gubaidulina: Guide to compositions [Sofia Gubaidulina. Putevoditel’ po proizvedeniyam]. Composer, Moscow (2001) 9. Knyazeva, E., Kurdyumov, S.: Laws of Evolution and Self-organization of Complex Systems. Nauka, Moscow (1994) 10. Kuprina, E.: Co-creative performing activity. INFRA-M, Moscow (2019) 11. Kuprina, E.: Spiritual categories of musical co-creation. Artist. Cult. 1(32), 429–458 (2020) 12. Kuprina, E.: Subject dislocations of co-creation in the context of B. V. Asafiev’s triad [Subjektnye dislokatsii sotvorchestva v kontexte triady B. V. Asafieva]. Sci. Bull. Moscow Conservat. 2(37), 116–131 (2019) 13. Kuprina, E., Khodyreva, V., Butovicheva, O.: Influence of competitive performance on the sensory system of a student-musician [Vliyanie Konkursnogo Vystupleniya na Sensornuyu Sistemy Muzykanta-Ispolnitelya]. Pedag. Art 4, 29–35 (2017) 14. Lotman, Yu.: Memory in cultural coverage [Pamyat’ v Kultorologicheskom Osveshenii]. In: Selected Articles in 3 vols. Vol. 1. 200–202. Alexandra, Tallinn (1992) 15. Mazel. L.: On the nature and means of music [O prirode i sredstvakh muzyki]. Music, Moscow (1983) 16. Materials of the round table “Gifted children of Togliatti (pedagogy of co-creation)” [Materialy Kruglogo Stola: Talantlivye Deti Toliatti (Pedagogika Sotvorchestva)]. In: Kuprina, E., Khodyreva, V. (eds.) 2nd edn. Tolyatti Conservatory, Tolyatti (2017) 17. Medushevsky, V.: Intonational form of music [Intonazionnaya forma muzyki]. Composer, Moscow (1993) 18. Medushevsky, V.: Spiritual analysis of music [Dukhovnyi analiz musyki]. Composer, Moscow (2014) 19. Moiseeva, N.: Time in us and time out of us [Vremya v nas i vne nas]. Lenizdat, Leningrad (1991) 20. Plato: Ion. In: Losev, A.F., et al. (eds.) Collected Works in 4 vols, vol. 1, pp. 372–386. Thought, Moscow (1990) 21. Prigogine, I.: The end of certainty. Time, chaos and new laws of nature. In: Danilov, Yu. (translator). SIC “Regular and chaotic dynamics”, Izhevsk (1999) 22. Riemann. H.: Musik lexikon. Sachteil. 12te Aufl. Mainz, Schott. Band 3, Hg. Willibald Gurlitt, Hans Heinrich Eggebrecht (1967)

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23. Stepin, V. (ed.): Science, Society, People [Vremya, obshestvo, liudi] (to the 75th anniversary of academician I.T. Frolov). Nauka, Moscow (2004) 24. Tchaikovsky, M.: The childhood years of P.I. Tchaikovsky. Tchaikovsky: The life and work of a Russian composer, https://www.tchaikov.ru/memuar007.html. Accessed 19 Jan 2021 25. Wu, L., Spieß, M., Lehmann, M.: The effect of authenticity in music on the subjective theories and aesthetical evaluation of listeners: a randomized experiment. Music. Sci. 21(4), 442–464 (2017) 26. Zarubina, O.: Emanation and immanation as aspects of creativity [Emanatsia i immanatsia kak aspektu tvorchestva]. Ph.D. thesis. Ekaterinburg (1999) 27. Zinchenko, V.: The image and activity [Obraz i deistviye]. Moscow, Institute of Practical Psychology. NPO MODEK, Voronezh (1997)

Conceptual Integration Network as Musicologist’s Work Tool Violetta Kostka(B) Academy of Music in Gda´nsk, Gda´nsk, Poland [email protected]

Abstract. Recent advances in cognitive sciences change musicological perspective on musical works, especially on their meanings. According to Gilles Fauconnier, Mark Turner, Lawrence Zbikowski and others, musical concepts, although expressed linguistically, are entirely independent of linguistic concepts. When, for example, we listen to any verbal-musical work, musical concepts together with linguistic concepts form a double-scope process of Conceptual Integration Network (CIN) in which these concepts are blended, and in this manner, the final meaning emerges. In my article, I am presenting – in the light of this theory – the fifth movement of Paweł Szyma´nski’s Villanelle for countertenor, two violas and harpsichord to a text by James Joyce [1981]. The CIN for this movement is composed of four mental spaces: text, musical, generic and blended. The text space includes three following concepts: repetitions of chorus lines, rhymes of two kinds and alternative: lover’s balancing between fascination and exhaustion. The musical space includes also three concepts: repetitions of the ground bass, variation of the ground bass and alternative: old-timey and (infrequent) modern means. In the generic space I put the ideas of repeatability, cyclicity, circularity, while the blended space – created from selected attributes of text and musical spaces – is the ritual of adoration. The ritual of adoration is the meaning of the fifth movement of Villanelle. Keywords: Conceptual Integration Network · Meaning · Double-scope blend · Gilles Fauconnier · Mark Turner · Paweł Szyma´nki · Villanelle

1 Introduction Recent advances in cognitive sciences change musicological perspective on the issue of meaning in music. Faucounnier and Turner (2002) state that we go through processes of conceptual integration in the course of thinking and speaking, and that these processes play a crucial role in our lives, also in contacts with music. The key concept in their theory is ‘mental space’, which is a small, conceptual package. The basic diagram of Conceptual Integration Network (CIN) contains four such mental spaces: two input spaces, a generic space and a blended space. The relationships between these mental spaces are based on, at least, three rules. First, the elements of one input space have their counterparts in another input space. Second, the blend, i.e. the new meaning, is built from © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. D. Khannanov and R. Ruditsa (Eds.): WWMC 2021, CRSM 8, pp. 44–51, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74039-9_5

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selected elements from both input spaces. Third, both input spaces originate from one overarching generic space. The authors emphasise that all mental spaces are dynamic, which means that they can be modified depending on the reasoning being developed. Turner and Fauconnier’s blends resonated widely in academia. Due to its popularity, the described achievement also interested musicologists. Cook (2001) states that music and certain other media (text, image, film) have common or similar attributes, and when we perceive a work with at least two different media, for example, visual-musical advertisement of a product or a musical work with a program title, these unique attributes are combined in our mind, and eventually, a new meaning emerges. For Lawrence Zbikowski the first important issue was to answer the fundamental question: does music have its own concepts? In his first book [2002] he states that musical concepts result from processes of categorisation, offer a resource that organism can use for present and future actions, can be related to concepts of another sort, and are different from the language concepts. From his second book [2017] one can learn that music is a sonic analog for a dynamic process and as such it easily combines with emotions, dances, gestures and words, all taking place in time. From the interrelations between different media new meaning emerges and on this level of his explanation Zbikowski usually uses Conceptual Integration Network. The greatest contribution to the conceptual blending theory in the field of musicology, however, is a collective publication from 2018, namely Special issue of Musicae Scientiae entitled ‘Creative conceptual blending in music’, edited by Emilios Cambouropoulos, Danae Stefanou and Costas Tsougras. The aforementioned issue contains eight articles, four of which were written by Zbikowski (2018), Spitzer (2018), Stefanou (2018) and Antovi´c (2018), and the rest is the result of the collaboration of several authors. The problems raised by all authors concern, inter alia, musical emotion in the light of conceptual blending, intra-musical and cross-domain conceptual blending, detailed explanations on generic space and grounding box, vital relations, attempts to apply the discussed theory to intermedial and open-form scores, as well as showing the theory as a means for the invention of novel harmonic idioms. Despite the enormous efforts of many musicologists and music theorists, the conceptual blending theory is not yet as known in the music milieu as it is in other disciplines. Above all, it requires interpretation of stylistically and functionally diverse works. With this article, I am going to prove that the theory in question is appropriate for determining the meanings of postmodern works, including those that are explicitly intertextual.

2 Case Study The piece I am going to discuss was created by one of the leading contemporary Polish composers Paweł Szyma´nski (born 1954). His music is typical of our time, i.e. explicitly intertextual. Compared to the same sort of music of other composers, Paweł Szyma´nski’s works are considered to be clearly idiomatic. In addition to references to various musical styles, including medieval, renaissance, baroque, classical and modern, it contains many of the composer’s original ideas. Szyma´nski calls this a ‘two-level technique’. His works are very popular among listeners in Poland and abroad, and researchers have already devoted dozens of books, chapters and articles to them (Kostka 2018a, b; Szwab 2020; Kramer (2016); Brodsky 2017).

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Paweł Szyma´nski is best known for instrumental music, but I choose one of his ten pieces with lyrics to discuss, namely Villanelle for countertenor, two violas and harpsichord to a text by Joyce (1981). The piece was written in April 1981, performed few times, recorded on a 4-disc DVD album. The sheet music is available from the composer. The poem by James Joyce used in the piece is entitled Villanelle of the Temptress and comes from his famous novel A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, completed in 1914 [pp. 278–9], (see the poem below1 ).

Are you not weary of ardent ways, Lure of the fallen seraphim? Tell no more of enchanted days. Your eyes have set man’s heart ablaze And you have had your will of him. Are you not weary of ardent ways? Above the flame the smoke of praise Goes up from ocean rim to rim. Tell no more of enchanted days. Our broken cries and mournful lays Rise in one eucharistic hymn. Are you not weary of ardent ways? While sacrificing hands upraise The chalice flowing to the brim. Tell no more of enchanted days. And still you hold our longing gaze With languorous look and lavish limb! Are you not weary of ardent ways? Tell no more of enchanted days. Villanelle of the Temptress is a lyrical work belonging to the old literary genre villanelle [Boland and Strand 2001, p. 5], which experienced a renaissance in the early period of modernism (Dembi´nska-Pawelec 2006). As we can see in the poem above, each of the two refrain lines (‘Are you not weary of ardent ways?’, ‘Tell no more of enchanted days’) appears alternately four times, the sound one type of rhyme (harmonised with the last word of the first line: ‘ways’) appears thirteen times, and the other type (harmonized with the last word of the second line: ‘seraphim’) − six times. The guiding thread here is reflections on sensual love, associated with an undefined temptress. According to Manfred Pfister Villanelle of the Temptress is attractive for two reasons. Firstly, because it is perfectly directed to the central gesture: ‘the circulating return of refrains and rhymes represents the ritual of adoration, and its alternation − swinging between exhaustion and fascination, and between both aspects of the "Temptress", as an angel and a demon’ 1 The poem exists in the public domain.

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[1982, pp. 300–301]. Secondly, because it is characterised by such outstanding features as dense alliteration and assonances, deliberate use of sophisticated words, Catholicliturgical symbolism of a love cult, suggestive ambiguity of the situation, and tension between a strictly defined form and an elusive, undefined mood. Szyma´nski placed the entire poem in the last, quite extensive movement, preceding it with four other movements, in which he used only the first stanza of the text (the entire stanza in the first three movements, only the first line in the fourth). Of course, like many composers before him, he repeated certain phrases and words, sometimes to emphasize the meaning, sometimes to neatly develop the musical structure. The whole piece is stylistically diversified. The first movement is interesting because it was composed using the material of the harmonic scale in D minor, but most of its sound objects are treated as if in defiance of the major-minor system, not to mention the fact that it contains articulation techniques associated exclusively with modernity. The second movement is the most modern of the cycle. It is post-tonal, which is manifested through the use of twelve-tone material, chromatic motifs and dissonant chords. The third movement, on the other hand, is a dance in G minor in 3/8. We clearly perceive it as referencing the Baroque, but in a few more places modern means appear: polymetry, polyrhythm and limited aleatoric, as well as the glissandi characteristic of Szyma´nski. The fourth movement − the shortest of all − is one long viola glissando, as a background against which the voice and the harpsichord perform their simplified figures. The last movement of Villanelle reaches all the way to the modal system. The composer relied on the Hypophrygian church mode and the ground bass technique popular in the Baroque period adding to these also some modern means. The subject of my interpretation in the light of the conceptual blending theory will be the fifth movement of the work, in which the entire poem of Joyce appears. The purpose of the interpretation is to establish the meaning of the work. To achieve this, I use the diagram of a conceptual integration network created by myself, based on the theory and diagram of Fauconnier and Turner (Fig. 1). Zbikowski writes that: The theory of conceptual blending assumes that there are structural invariances between the input spaces of a blend: these invariances, encapsulated in the elements and relations of the generic space, are what make conceptual blends possible. In the case of songs, the invariances are between the mental space set up by the text and the mental space set up by the music [2002, p. 254]. In the case of the fifth movement of Villanelle what makes a conceptual blend possible is the abstract ideas of repeatability, cyclicity and circularity. All these ideas are well known from our human experience, and we recognize them easily in things or events. They become the content of the generic space of the CIN. The text space contains three important concepts: repetition of two chorus lines, repeating rhymes of two kinds and a general alternative concerning the entire poem: lover’s balancing between fascination and exhaustion. The musical space is analogous to the literary space. This is because the fifth movement is composed on the basis of ground bass, known for many centuries and especially but widespread in the Baroque (‘Ground/Ostinato’ 1995). This is a formula of four notes falling through a fourth, repeated many times in order to develop various melodic lines

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Generic space Repeatability, cyclicity, circularity

Text space Repetition of chorus lines Rhymes of two kinds Alternative: lover’s balancing between fascination & exhaustion

Music space Repetitions of the ground bass Variation of the ground bass Alternative: oldtimey and modern means

Blended space Ritual of adoration

Fig. 1. Conceptual Integration Network for the fifth movement of Villanelle.

above it. It was used by composers to create forms such as chaconne, passacaglia, aria in the expression of dolores in early operas. The most famous pieces with ground bass are Monteverdi’s laments (for example, the Lamento della ninfa from Book VIII of the madrigals) and Dido’s lament from Purcell’s opera Dido and Aeneas [Zbikowski, 2018, pp. 14–20]. Szyma´nski introduced a quite simple ground to his Villanelle; the pitches G-F-E flat-D walk calmly in quarter notes in the metre 3/4, then this unfolds first up to F, then down to C, in order to return upwards to F again at the end. This entire formula, which is a part of the two-voiced left hand of the harpsichord, is contained in four bars and is repeated twenty times. A different kind of repetition occurs in all the other parts except the left-hand part of the harpsichord. It is the repetition with transformation, or in other words, the technique of variation. As shown by Zbikowski (2018, pp. 12–13), the theme and its transformations belong to the same musical category. In the discussed last movement of the Villanelle, the technique of transforming ground bass is combined with a gentle desynchronisation of voices. This desynchronisation is most interestingly presented between the left-hand part of the harpsichord and the vocal part (nineteen melodic phrases develop against a twenty-phrase ground background). The ground and vocal phrases sometimes start simultaneously, sometimes they are shifted relative to each other by a small rhythmic

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value, and sometimes even by three bars. The last concept in the musical space is alternative encompassing the old-timey and modern compositional means (infrequently). Szyma´nski needed modern means in the form of longer pauses, gradually built chords and ‘juicy’ passages in the violas to vary the last formulae. The result, the ground itself and also the whole movement, is a sonic analog for a relentless circulation, one in which there is a sense of going round and round or working on something without making any progress. When it comes to the blend, let us quote Zbikowski once more. He writes: ‘Guided by the conceptual framework provided by the generic space, structure from each of the input spaces is projected into the fourth space […]’ [2002, p. 79]. As we know from Fauconnier and Turner this projection can be selective, which means that not every concept from input spaces takes part in creating a new meaning. In the case of Conceptual Integration Network for the fifth movement of Villanelle, of all the concepts inscribed in the textual and musical spaces, only those relating to various repetitions go into the blending space. Through singer’s/lover’s voice, two choruses are recorded in our memory, both types of rhymes, circling around a ground, and short motifs arranged in variations. Lover’s balancing between fascination and exhaustion permeating the entire poem is constrained here to fascination only, and stylistic dualism in music space is relegated to the background. It turns out that merely the first four concepts create the meaning of the last movement of Villanelle. As mentioned before, the idea of repetition is very popular in cultures and exists, for example, in the magic formula of spells or in the folk ritualisation of life. Jerzy Bartmi´nski writes about the link between the refrain form of the text and ritualised customs as follows: One meaning returns in the following stanzas, just as in the ritual cycle the same important content constantly returns. […] Repetition is also clearly related to the concept of recurrent (sacred) time, expressed in an elementary manner through language devices. It is not conducive to the enrichment and cognitive development of the meaning of the text, as it is the opposite of change, the opposite of movement towards the new. […] its time is time excluded from a unidirectional, linear course; it is time stopped. […] repetition co-creates mythical time, the ‘eternal now’ [1983, pp. 264–266]. Similarly, since the fifth movement of Villanelle is characterized by the suspension of the narrative course and the constant repetition of lines, individual words, word sounds and musical motifs in basic and transformed versions. Since it is itself a constant circle, in the same way, it becomes part of all wider phenomena of this type. It becomes a part of the ritual. The first consequence may be leading this movement of Villanelle into the realm of the ritual of adoration, the second − into the area of stopped, sacred, mythical time. On account of the main hero of this piece, the first solution seems to be more justified; lover entered the realm of the ritual of adoration. It should be stressed that the meaning of the fifth movement of Szyma´nski’s Villanelle is composed partly of poem concepts and partly of musical concepts. The other issue is that the meaning is integrated with the inputs and the generic space, and as such seems to be well grounded in the thinking process. And last issue is as following: if for Pfister the ritual of adoration is exclusively the result of circulation of refrains and rhymes, for me it is the meaning of the fifth movement of Szyma´nski’s Villanelle.

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3 Conclusion At the end I would like to return to the question of the role that conceptual blending theory plays in musicology. The literature review shows that our discipline is still at the stage of adapting this theory to its needs, but for justice to be done, it should also be stated that there are already the first − made in the light of this theory − interpretations of film, popular and classical music. In terms of classical music that interests me the most, one should mention the interpretation of two pieces from Modest Mussorgsky’s Pictures at an Exhibition by Tsougras and Stefanou (2018) and numerous interpretations of vocalinstrumental pieces from Baroque and the Romantic era by Lawrence Zbikowski (2002, 2017, 2018). With my article, I showed that it is also possible to interpret a postmodern work in this spirit. In my opinion, the conceptual blending theory has great potential that could be used to interpret works from different times and styles. Thus, we would focus on what today − according to Fauconnier and Turner and many others − is the most important: on conceptual blending/meaning that plays a key role in our thinking and our lives.

References Antovi´c, M.: Schemas, grounds, meaning. On the emergence of musical concepts through conceptual blending. Musicae Scientiae 22(1), 57−71 (2018). Special issue ‘Creative conceptual blending in music’, Cambouropoulos, E., Stefanou, D., Tsougras, C. (eds.) Bartmi´nski, J.: O rytualnej funkcji powtórzenia w folklorze. Przyczynek do poetyki sacrum. In: Gotfryd, J., Jasi´nska-Wojtkowska, M., Sawicki, S. (eds.) Sacrum w literaturze, pp. 264−266. Towarzystwo Naukowe KUL, Lublin (1983) Boland, E., Strand, M. (eds.): The Making of a Poem. A Norton Anthology of Poetic Forms. W.W. Norton & Company, New York-London (2001) Brodsky, S.: From 1989, or European Music and the Modernist Unconscious. University of California Press, Oakland (2017) Cook, N.: Theorizing musical meaning. music theory spectrum. J. Soc. Music Theory 23(2), 170−193 (2001) Dembi´nska-Pawelec, J.: Vilanella od Anonima do Bara´nczaka. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu ´ askiego, Katowice (2006) Sl˛ Fauconnier, G., Turner, M.: The Way We Think: Conceptual Blending and the Mind’s Hidden Complexities. Basic Books, New York (2002) ‘Ground/Ostinato’. In: Chodkowski, A. (ed.) Encyklopedia muzyki, p. 658−660. Polskie Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Warszawa (1995) Joyce, J.: A Portrait of the artist as a young man. Planet eBook. https://www.planetebook.com/ free-ebooks/a-portrait-of-the-artist-as-a-young-man.pdf. Accessed 14 Dec 2020 Kostka, V.: Muzyka Pawła Szyma´nskiego w s´wietle poetyki intertekstualnej postmodernizmu. Musica Iagellonica, Kraków (2018a) Kostka, V.: Intertextuality in the music of our time: Paweł Szyma´nski’s riddles. Tempo: Q. Rev. New Music 72(286), 42−52 (2018b) Kramer, J.: Postmodern music, postmodern listening. In: Carl, R. (ed.) Bloomsbury Academic, New York-London-Oxford-New Dehli-Sydney (2016) Pfister, M.: Die Villanelle in der englischen Moderne. Joyce, Empson, Dylan Thomas. Archiv für das Studium der neueren Sprachen und Literaturen (2), 296−312 (1982)

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Spitzer, M.: Conceptual blending and musical emotion. Musicae Scientiae 22(1), 24−37 (2018). Special issue ‘Creative conceptual blending in music’, Cambouropoulos, E., Stefanou, D., Tsougras, C. (eds.) Stefanou, D.: The way we blend: rethinking conceptual integration through intermedial and openform scores. Musicae Scientiae 22(1), 108−118 (2018). Special issue ‘Creative conceptual blending in music’, Cambouropoulos, E., Stefanou, D., Tsougras, C. (eds.) Szwab, N.: Surkonwencjonalizm Pawła Szyma´nskiego. Idee i muzyka. Akademia Muzyczna, Kraków (2020) Tsougras, C., Stefanou D.: Embedded blends and meaning construction in Modest Musorgsky’s ‘Pictures at an Exhibition’. Musicae Scientiae 22(1), 38−56 (2018). Special issue ‘Creative conceptual blending in music’, Cambouropoulos, E., Stefanou, D., Tsougras, C. (eds.) Zbikowski, L.: Conceptualizing Music: Cognitive Structure, Theory, and Analysis. Oxford University Press, Oxford (2002) Zbikowski, L.: Foundations of Musical Grammar. Oxford University Press, Oxford (2017) Zbikowski, L.: Conceptual blending, creativity, and music. Musicae Scientiae 22(1), 6−23 (2018). Special issue ‘Creative conceptual blending in music’, Cambouropoulos, E., Stefanou, D., Tsougras, C. (eds.)

Genre Paradigms of the Vocal Up-Shastriya Music in the Culture of South Asia Tatiana Kartashova(B) and Victor Kartashov Saratov Sobinov State Conservatory, Kirova pr. 1, 410028 Saratov, Russia

Abstract. The article presents a system of the musical culture of North India where the category of up-shastriya, or semi-classics, takes a special place. This stratum of music is the most extensive and multi-layered one and is the main type of musical art in India nowadays. Thumri is music of a lyrical nature and romantic mood. The authors see into the leading genre of the up-shastriya, a vocal thumri, and place it in the context of the related genres dadra and tappa and the regional music of Hindustani (chaiti, kajri, savani, hori, jhula, baramasi). In the XXI century, the up-shastriya music continues to develop not only in many style varieties in the vast net of gharana (schools) and in many local genre variants of Hindustani. It forms the main part of the sound “field” of the South Asia. Keywords: Indian music · Up-shastriya · Shastriya-sangeet · Thumri · Dadra · Tappa

1 Introduction Inside the system of the musical art of North India (Hindustani) the most multilayered and self-sufficient part is the up-shastriya, or the semi-classics, that represents the biggest part of the South Asian music nowadays. Although this social and cultural stratum emerged inside the Indian tradition, its basic meanings naturally spread inside the musical cultures of the whole South Asia region. The first mentions of the “simplified” types of music you can find in the theatre treaty of Muni Bharata “Natya Shastra” dated II century BC – III century AD. The semiclassics is characterized here as a music of the creative imagination, or manodharmasangeet. Prior to the considering the specifics of the up-shastriya, we need to note that the musical culture of India developed a coordinated system many ages ago, and every its stratum and musical genres related to it were historically conceptualized, theorized, named authentically, and had their own aesthetics and musical development laws that ensured reaching the one real aim – the joy of experienced sound. The whole organization of the Indian musical culture functions as an indivisible whole and consists of the next strata: shastriya-sangeet or the music of “high tradition” (classics), up-shastriya (“semiclassics”), lok-sangeet (traditional music), “light classics”, pop, music etc. The most fundamental stratum is the shastriya-sangeet, i.e. “academic music”, the equivalent of the European definition of the classics. “Classics” means music of the © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. D. Khannanov and R. Ruditsa (Eds.): WWMC 2021, CRSM 8, pp. 52–58, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74039-9_6

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“high tradition” with a strongly developed complex of philosophical-aesthetic and musictheoretical principles that was shaped over the centuries of historical development of the Indian culture. Although the Indian music underwent different transformations from the time of its emergence to the present time, it kept the “perfect balance with the tradition of the past” [1]. Up-shastriya is considered to be a music of a “reduced tradition”: “up” is a prefix meaning “half”, “under”. The literal meaning of the term is “semi-academic”. The culture-bearers determine this stratum of music in English as a “semi-classical music”, which can be interpreted as “graded below; located under the main”. It should be noted that in the Indian musicology this is not the only term using the prefix “up”: there are some ragas1 which are classified as up-raga (semi-raga), for instance, “Sindhu Bhairavi” is considered by the Indian musicians to be a short version of the most popular raga “Bhairavi” coming from the traditional music of Sindh (Pakistan). This fact confirms the assumption that up-shastriya has separated as a specific stratum already in old times and later adopted its official status as a “light” classical music, occupying its own cultural niche. This is one more proof of the highest level of self-consciousness, self-regulation, and self-description in the Indian tradition.

2 Classics and Semi-classics: Common Traits and Differences Up-shastriya and shastriya-sangeet (classics) are genetically related categories and the “semi-classics” uses the entire range of classical musical grammar but is intended for a broader audience. It is also important to note that for the Indian classics up-shastriya is a source of a life force, refreshing and nourishing. On the one hand, the tradition of “semi-classics” is a living mother lode of intonation thesaurus for both traditional and classical genres; on the other, it is a very convenient “field” for testing the classical norms of musical development. Particularly refined, “purified” sound ideas ripened in the depths of this music stratum are easily replicated by classical musicians and smoothly introduced into the sound world of the “high” music, adding to the sound vocabulary of classical genres. Bright, memorable motives and rhythms are sporadically captured by the many-faced up-shastriya from the classics and then with the same ease “spread” into traditional genres. This vibrant life of traditions imbued with the constant exchange of ideas between the culture layers allows us to speak about the dynamics within the integrated musical system of the Indian civilization. We must say that up-shastriya is on the edge between the “high” classics (shatriyasangeet) and traditional art (lok-sangeet) and absorbs elements from both sides. It is a phenomenal mediation space, a closely-knit synthesis of the massive cultural layers 1 Raga “as a Sanskrit word “raag” is masculine, but in Russia there is a tradition to use “raga”

it as feminine. Its etymology is related to the root “ranj”, from the verb “to color”, “to give a shade”. Raga is a multi-level concept: 1) in the theory of Indian classical music it is a system of techniques to develop the sound matter, after the impact of which humans enter a certain emotional state (Rasa); 2) a scale with the endogenous hierarchy of tones, and the strict system of their relationships; 3) a model-frame of a musical composition” [22].

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formed during many centuries. The essence of this interconnection and mutual knowledge of the two categories is the concept of the “up-shastriya” itself: this kind of music is filled with the aroma of the “high” classics but moved further and further from the traditional roots. The emergence of the up-shastriya stratum is related to many processes that led to a transformation of the Indian society in XVII–XVIII centuries and influenced different spheres of art. The blooming of cities, social stratification, and democratization of art facilitated emergence of many different art forms that tended to have a comprehensible content, a simple musical language and wilfully lyrical mood, strong worldly element. It was time of forming and flourishing of “semi-classics” represented by different types of music.

3 Vocal Thumri as a Genre Standard of the Up-Shastriya The basic representative of the up-shastriya (“semi-classics”) is thumri, a vocal genre that can be seen as a “base fabric” of the multi-coloured “tapestry” of the Indian musical culture and shows all the main characteristics of this category of music. According to the Indians, it is a charming song about love, poetically sublime and moving, revealing diverse and subtle gradations of moods and emotions. The genre thumri is a result of the aesthetic principles interacting. Those principals came from the Indian classical vocal music on the one hand and the traditional singing in various parts of the Uttar Pradesh territory on the other. That is why the genre has an ambivalent position between the “high” classics and traditional works, is a sort of “compromise” [2] between them. The etymology of the word “thumri” supposes several meanings: “a little song associated with the dance” [3], “children dance with the coquettish gait” [4, 5], «graceful dancing steps» [6, 7], etc. Most of them indicate the connection of the genre with the dance. Verbal texts in thumri usually come from the “high” poetry in bhasha braj (the western dialect of the Hindi language), and these texts are clearly articulated and generally expressed “literally”, with revealing of the meanings set in a poetic source. As a rule, thumri tells the sad “romantic story about the love of God Krishna and Radha” [8]. These allegorical images express a bhakti idea of the eternal sorrow of a human soul, the longing to reunite with infinitely elusive truth. Nomenclature of the thumri genre varieties is surprisingly multi-level. There are samples cultivated at court, close to general characteristic of the “high” classic type of expression, though with a more liberal, sensual and sentimental character. There is a big part of this genre common among townspeople inclined to music making at home as a kind of salon leisure. A huge number of thumri circulates in between the classical and traditional music, picking up the characteristic features of a local singing literally “in passing” and “going to the people” with the same easiness. Flexible, pliable to the various changes genre is readily used in numerous synthetic arts: dance scenes, theatrical performances, and cinema. In modern India, thumri exists as an independent instrumental genre and influences other “semi-classical” genres actively as well.

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4 The Genre Overview of the Up-Shastriya: Chaiti, Kajri, Hori, Savani, Jhula, Baramasi Beside thumri, another two genres belong to the up-shastriya family – dadra and tappa, as well as traditional regional music: chaiti, kajri, savani, jhula, hori and baramasi. Dadra is a light rhythmical song of erotic content in a dialect braj bhasha, often with addition of some verses in Urdu. It has a relatively lively pace and is accompanied by Dadra tala (6 beats). As doctor Swatantra Sharma thinks, dadra “unites the characteristics of the classical music and the technics of thumri” [9]. Etymologically “dadra” is related to the word “frog” because the movement of dadra, according to the metaphor of Indian researchers, “is similar to the hurried tones of the frog’s heart” [10]. Indian musicologists suppose the dadra genre to be closely related and similar to thumri, but “lighter” in the musical sense” [11]. The difference lies in the pace: dadra is performed faster than thumri. The most virtuoso genre of the up-shastriya is tappa, it is barely performed in India nowadays. Tappa is believed to originate from the songs of camel drivers in Punjab and Rajasthan. It is firstly mentioned in “Ragadarpana” (1665). The perfection and establishing of tappa as a “semi-classical” vocal form in the late XVIII are attributed to a Punjabi musician Shori Mian (1742–1792), real name Ghulam Nabi of Ayodhya (Audha). He composed shori-tappa (“shori” means “beloved” or “wife”) and created over 100 songs dedicated to his Sona whose name comes often on the old compositions. Tappa translates literally as “jump” [12], “hoping, spurning step” [13]. Let us describe the main characteristics of this genre. Firstly, it is a romantic content of the text in Braj and Awadhi dialects. That shows a similarity to thumri and other “semiclassical” genres. The text usually describes love feelings, separation of lovers or the search for love. Secondly, the same as all the up-shastriya, tappa uses “more freely ragas with little tone rows” [14]. Thirdly, the singing is characterized by the generous use of brilliant virtuoso passages with cascades of decorative winding taans2 , which is a specific stile characteristic of tappa. Thumri and dadra are closely connected to the traditional music in their themes, texts and expression. That is why many traditional songs from the state Uttar-Pradesh were adapted as a part of thumri family: these are chaiti, kajri, savani, hori, jhula, baramasi etc. Almost all these genres can be placed in “the category of seasonal and ritual music” [15]. The most researchers notice that difference between them and thumri is “only subjects and thereafter the time of performing” [11]. According to the Indian musicians, depending on the pace, these songs can become thumri or dadra. Scientists call this type of songs a kind of “stylization” and classifies them as a “sub-genre of thumri” [16]. Chaitis are seasonal summer songs performed only in the Chaitra month which gives them their name. They are characterized by specific composition: verses begin with the word “Rama” or end with “oh Rama”. Kajris are a type of traditional songs of the Purab region (Eastern Uttar-Pradesh, Bihar) related to the rainy season in the Shraavana month (July–August). The word “kajri” means “black” [17]. The songs may be performed, according to the Indian musicians, “by housewives and farmers in a 2 Taans from Sanskrit taanana (root “taan” – “expanse, extension”): virtuoso phrases of different

length demonstrating the vocal skills of the performer.

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plane, undecorated style” [18], but also by professionals, in a more complicated, “semiclassical” style. Women also sing kajris in the night on the third day of the second half of the month Bhadrapada (August) together with a traditional dance. Savanis is a type of songs performed in the month Shraavana (July–August, rainy period) and is closely related to the concept of seasonal music. But savani differ from kaji being a part of the traditional repertoire of professional musicians. The subject of lovers’ separation is presented here in all its diversity. But according to Indian musicians, savani is more about the beauty of the rainy season than about human feelings. Jhulas are sung by women in North India by playing on a swing during the rainy season. They usually express romantic mood of two characters, the god Krishna and Radhi. Hori are performed only during the Holi festival celebrating the arrival of spring: people throw coloured powders on each other, colour their cars and pets, and make colourful soap bubbles. The celebration includes merry games, singing and dancing. Baramasi literally means “a song for all seasons” where “barah” is for “twelve” and “mas” for “month” [19]. Love in its different forms is the main subject of these songs in many languages of the Eastern regions. The names of all twelve month occur in the texts of baramasis describing the everyday life of a person during every month (Uttar-Pradesh). The boundary between the up-shastriya and the named genres of traditional music is as difficult to draw, professor Prabha Atre says, “as between classics and semi-classics” [20]. Today the “semi-classical” music takes the most part of the sound “field” of the Indian culture. Let us discuss its main stylistic criteria. In comparison to classical genres, up-shastriya is characterized by more unstrained expression, comprehensible poetic content, usage of simple tone scales and ethically simple ragas, employing of talas3 with less complex structure (often of the folk origin), absence of strict limits in terms of rhythmic and melodic composition of the musical text, free borrowing of traditional music elements, modifications of the structure sections of the form, “erosion” of the style features within genres. It should be noted that the up-shastriya is the most multilayered part of the musical culture in the modern India and considered its major form. This includes “multi-colour” “film music, music for theatrical performances, for radio and TV shows” [21], etc.

5 Local Traditions of South Asia in the Context of the Up-Shastriya Genres The concept of “plurality” is applicable to the whole of India; its nationalities, religions, philosophies, dialects, social structures, cultural phenomena, music genres and forms of artistic expression exist constantly in this state. Moreover, even the gods, according to the Hindu mythology, are many-faced for they have the ability to reincarnate (transform). The same for up-shastriya: it has evolved in a variety of genre forms, so in every state of North and South India and in neighbouring countries, there are regional varieties of thumri and a whole range of stylistic subtypes which have their own names and follow all the laws of semi-classics. 3 “Tala (from Sanskrit “clap hands”) is 1. a metrorythmical system in the Indian music; 2. a

cyclical arrangement of musical time units” [22].

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Emerging and developing in the depths of the North India culture, the up-shastriya began its triumphant progress around the South Asian subcontinent and beyond it. By moving from the north regions to the Central India, the influence of the Hindustani traditional musical genres rises, especially those from the “semi-classics”. The Maharashtra state belongs to North India according to its geography, culture and language. It acts as a filter for the interchange between the North and the South. Many musical genres belonging to Maharashtra and the South India, “semi-classical” lawni for instance, the local variant of the North “semi-classics”, extended their influence to the North and can be found now in the traditional music of Gujarat and Rajasthan. The musical theatre tamasha began to flourish in the end of XVIII century; its core consists of love songs lawni. After being at first occupied with erotic and entertaining subjects, tamasha restored later its religious basis when the theme of Krishna came into it and episodes about life and fun of the god with the shepardesses (gopi) joined the common outline of its plays. Its musical style stays inside the limits of the Hindustani music that can be described as the up-shastriya. Therefore, Central India is a “buffer” zone between spreading the North Indian up-shastriya and accepting the Karnataka traditions. Active contacts between the two style systems of Hindustani and Karnataka went through the Maharashtra state and led to the intrusion and blooming of “semi-classical” maratha songs lawni in the South states (Tamilnadu and Karnataka) in the local languages (kannada and telegu). Up-shastriya in Orissa appears in the form of odissi music with the South Indian structure but performing style close to those of Hindustani. In certain parts of songs, the specific winding (zamzama) virtuoso sequences (taans) were used which belong to the Northern “semi-classical” music. In the musical culture of Eastern India (Western Bengal) and Bangladesh the main representatives of the up-shastriya are prachin bangla gan (old Bengalese song) and ragpradhan (“Bengalese song with dominating raga element”). The word “rag-pradhan” means the modern regional song poetry performed in the “semi-classical” style with classical talas, but with more freedom in using melodic combinations, which is caused by the modern up-shastriya performing code. Prachin bangla gan are related to the old raga music and belong to the traditional music, but came under the influence of the “semi-classical” genre tappa, which raised their status to the “semi-classics”. The middle and the end of the XX century are described as a period of neo-music in Bengal and Bangladesh based on the up-shastriya. Lyrical songs adhunik are the dominant form of the modern music in Bengal, Orissa and Assam. They represent a new stage of the development of development pf the musical art in the Eastern India and Bangladeh. It is a vast area of “semi-classical” songs used for radio and films. This makes obvious the growth of the complexity in the Indian culture that is nevertheless amazingly united and organized by the spirituality of the highest order.

6 Conclusion The sphere of the up-shastriya influence amazes with its extent and unique allpervasiveness into the different kinds of the Indian art. The musical fabric of dancing, religious and traditional drama performances is imbued with the immensely fine and deeply lyrical “semi-classical” melodies that appeal to the mystery of human love feelings. This music is in truth as poetic and spiritual, bright and colourful as India itself.

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In the XXI century, the up-shastriya music continues to develop not only in many style varieties in the vast net of gharana (schools) and in many local genre variants of Hindustani. It forms the main part of the sound “field” of the South Asia. All regional genres elevated to the “semi-classical” level came to the concert stage and are popular now not only in the Indian states, but also beyond the Indian subcontinent.

References 1. Vedabala, S.: Indian classical music in a globalized world. Sangeet Galaxy 5(1), 3–9 (2016) 2. Sharma, P.L.: The origin of thumari. In: Aspects of Indian Music, pp. 73–86. Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, New Delhi (1976) 3. Gautam, M.: The Musical Heritage of India. Munishiram Manoharlal Publishers, New Delhi (2001) 4. Pohankar, S.: Folk elements in thumri. In: Thumri – Tradition and Trends, pp. 75–78. Indian Musicological Society, Bombay (1990) 5. Dhond, M.: The Evolution of Khyal. Sangeet Natak Akademy, New Delhi (1974) 6. Nadkarni, M.: The Great Masters. Profiles in Hindustani Classical Vocal Music. Harpet Collins Publishers, New Delhi (1999) 7. Banerjee, P.: Dance in Thumri. Abhinav Publications, New Delhi (1986) 8. Saxena, A.: Basic Concepts of North Indian Classical Music. AAS Publications, Lucknow (2020) 9. Sharma, S.: Fundamentals of Indian Music. Pratibha Prakashar, New Delhi (1996) 10. Platts, J.T.: A Dictionary of Urdu Classical Hindi and English. Oxford University, Oxford (1968) 11. Ranade, A.: Hindustani Music. National Book Trust, New Delhi (1993) 12. Amarnath, P.: Living Idioms in Hindustani Music: A Dictionary of Terms and Terminology. Harper Collins Publishers India, New Delhi (1994) 13. Sharma, M.: Music of India. A.P.H. Publishing Corporation, New Delhi (2015) 14. Srivastava, S.C.: Raag Shastra Parichay (Part 1). Sangeet Shree Prakashan, Kanpur (2018) 15. Bhatnagar, M.L.: Aesthetics of Indian Music. Jai Bharat, Mumbai (2019) 16. Mehta, R.: Indian Classical Music and Gharana Tradition. Readworthy Publications, New Delhi (2011) 17. Thielemann, S.: The Music of South Asia. A.P.H. Publishing Corp., New Delhi (1999) 18. Khan, P.Z.I.: The minqar-i musiqar: Hazrat Inayat Khan’s Classic 1912. Work on Indian Musical Theory and Practice. Transl. by A. Miner. Omega Publications, New Delhi (2016) 19. Bose, S.: Indian Classical Music Essence and Emotions. Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi (1990) 20. Atre, P.: Enlightening the Listener. Contemporary North Indian Classical Vocal Music Performance. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi (2000) 21. Singh, A., Chakraborty, S.: The Influence of Hindustani Classical Music on Bollywood Songs. A Statistical Outlook. GRIN Verlag, Munich (2019) 22. Kartashova, T.V.: Up-Shastriya as a Common Sound Space of Musical Culture of North and South India [Upshastriya kak obsheye zvukovoye prostranstvo muzukal’noin kultury Severnoi i Yuzhnoi Indii]. Composer, Moscow (2010)

Semantic Analysis of a Musical Work Lyudmila P. Kazantseva1(B) and Polina S. Volkova2(B) 1 Astrakhan State Conservatory, Astrakhan 414000, Russia 2 Krasnodar Higher Military School named after the General of the Army S. M. Shtemenko,

Krasnodar 350063, Russia

Abstract. The content aspect of music has long been the subject of professional interest in musicology. In just recent decades the works of scientists significantly advanced science in comprehending the main secret of music – what it is about, have appeared. Realizing the scientific and practical need for a semantic analysis and relying on the already existing powerful research base, the authors of this publication substantiate and enunciate the main theses of the concept of the content of a musical work. The musical content, or the spiritual side of music, is seen as an integral and hierarchically-structured complex of sense-making elements such as sound, means of musical expression, intonation, image, dramaturgy, theme and idea, author’s basis. The complex that develops at the stage of composer’s creativity is corrected at the stages of performing activity and listening perception – here, in each specific sound, the meanings programmed by the author are re-emphasized, filled up with new ones, or freed from irrelevant ones. The totality of the composer’s, performer’s and listener’s layers can only be called the content of a musical work with full right. The structural model of musical content makes it possible not only to identify the main semantic components, but also to establish the interrelationships between them (mainly hierarchical), showing the musical content as a complex multidimensional whole. Due to it, the process of sense-making is traced, which unfolds from the most microscopic components (sound) to large units covering the entire musical work (themes and ideas of a musical work). The proposed theoretical concept is based on the practice of analytical identification of features of musical content. It consists in describing the structural elements and their interrelationships in the composer-performer-listener triad. This methodology has proven its effectiveness in the process of teaching subjects of the “content” cycle. Keywords: Theory of musical content · Musical intonation · Image · Drama · Author’s basis · Means of musical expression

1 Introduction Cognition of music is associated with the search for new and effective methods of its analysis. Along the way, many achievements have been made in the form of theoretical concepts and analytical algorithms such as the functional analysis of H. Riemann’s music, © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. D. Khannanov and R. Ruditsa (Eds.): WWMC 2021, CRSM 8, pp. 59–64, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74039-9_7

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the metrotectonic analysis of G. E. Konyus, a holistic analysis of V. A. Zuckerman’s and L. A. Mazel’s music and etc. Undoubtedly the knowledge necessary for any professional musician, obtained in this way, however, gives a one-sided view of the music focusing on how the musical work is arranged. At the same time, it becomes increasingly clear that there is a lack of knowledge about another area of music – what it actually expresses, what the composer talks about to his audience and ultimately – what a musical work is written for and how it takes place in society. It has to state that science stops at pause at the questions: what exactly is “expressed” in a musical opus by the composer, how exactly the author “sees” what is “depicted” or “expressed” by him or her. A fundamentally different, specific scientific view of a musical work as an artistic phenomenon, as a carrier of semantic essence, is intended to target the musician at them. This approach is taken in the proposed semantic analysis of music.

2 Materials and Methods Over the recent decades, musicology in alliance with aesthetics, philology, linguistics, semiotics and other sciences has accumulated a lot of knowledge about the artistic possibilities of music. Among these there is information about the semantic side of musical sound, individual elements of music (melody, harmony, polyphony, texture, metro rhythm, timbre, etc.), musical intonation, semantics in music, musical imagery, musical drama, the theme of a musical work, about the expressive potential of music as an art form. A large body of knowledge accumulated by science about certain aspects and properties of musical content is reflected in the works of B.V. Asafiev, V.P. Bobrovsky, L.A. Mazel, V.V. Medushevsky, V.N. Kholopova, T.Yu. Chernova, L.N. Shaimukhametova and many other researchers. A huge fund of research devoted to the artistic regularities of music contains that valuable scientific information that is not only useful, but also necessary for a professional musician. Paying tribute to colleagues, we have to admit the need to consolidate the scattered developments. The latter was made possible by applying a system-structural approach. Within the framework of this methodology, individual facets of musical content are considered as elements that combine into a solid holistic system. Thus, it becomes possible to obtain new, systematic knowledge about the content of music. Semantic analysis is applicable to music of any genre and style. Meanwhile, its special productivity can be seen in the application to the work of contemporary composers. Music priority of the XX–XXI centuries is determined with the fact that the works appeared in recent decades sometimes reveal the regularities of musical content quite sharply (for example, the temporal and spatial parameters of the artistic image, the features of the embodiment of human mental states, etc.), which often slip away in the analysis of music of the past, and thus serve to comprehend the universal foundations of musical art.

3 Results The scientific concept of the theory of musical content was formed, to a large extent, in the publications of one of the authors of these lines [6–10]. It consists primarily in

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vision of the musical content as the artistic essence of the work, for the embodiment and detection of which everything that it has is directly or indirectly directed in the musical work. If you ask yourself what this artistic essence is, you will likely have to talk about the spiritual (in the philosophical sense of the word) side of music. It is generated by a system of representations that can be conditionally grouped into three major areas: the human world (his or her emotions, thoughts, ideals, worldview, his or her life and relationships with other people), the macroworld located outside of the human (the world of nature, urban civilization, space, ideas, things, geographical space and historical time) and the microworld (the knowledge of music of its own resources). The subject side of music resides in one of these spheres or connects two of them and even all three (for example, in the themes “man and nature”, “man and fate”). Being a product of human activity, music certainly includes the subjective and personal principle basis, the author’s reflection. Musical content is understood as an extremely complex system that includes a number of components. Most of them in this system are related as levels of hierarchy: a musical intonation is born on the basis of the expressiveness of sound, the intonation process forms a musical image, the relationship of images solves a certain artistic theme, and that, in turn, revealing itself in one way or another, crystallizes the artistic idea of the work. An intermediate place between the levels of structure is occupied by means of musical expression (partly accompanying the sound but partly forming the musical intonation). A special role belongs to dramaturgy, which provides movement, the temporal process of deployment at different levels – sound, intonation, image, artistic theme and idea. Finally, a specific component of the structure of musical content, called the author’s basis, manifests itself specifically – the author’s personality is ubiquitous in the territory of a musical work, the author’s basis is potentially (and possibly actually) distributed throughout the structure of musical content. The content of a musical work is not confined to the composer’s opus. In the latter, only the foundation is formed, which is then corrected in the performing and listening layers of the content. The totality of the composer’s, performer’s and listener’s layers can only be called the content of a musical work with full right. The semantic side of music also experiences a powerful influence of musical culture in the form of a system of its genres, styles, and laws of composition, and in turn actively affects them. A musical work enters into an intertextual semantic dialogue with other musical and – as the wide context of artistic culture shows – not only musical works. Finally, the semantic space of music is mastered at the intersection of many currents of spiritual culture emanating from the aesthetic, ethical, scientific, religious, and philosophical ideas of culture.

4 Discussion At first sight, the systemically understood musical content has a very rigid formalized structure, which is quite conditionally correlated with a living, non-stop moving musical texture. However, it should be remembered that the structure does not reflect the actual

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content, it is only its backbone which adapts flexibly to the processes of unfolding musical thought, and to quite different paradigms of composer’s thinking. Creating the basic foundations of a musical work, the structure of its content does not interfere with the individuality and uniqueness of each individual opus. A subtle sensitive musician may suspect the structural organization of the musical content in the fact that it does not correspond to such a natural feature of music as the well-known subjectivity. Indeed, our judgments about music are not only amateurish, but also professional – inevitably bear the stamp of subjectivity. However, understanding the musical content as a structured meaning-generating system insures against excessive subjectivism, which leads away from the true intention of the composer. It gives confidence in the sufficient objectivity and adequacy of the picture obtained in the course of analysis to the author’s statement. It should be recognized that the vision of musical content as a systemically organized integrity carries with it the impulses of its further in-depth study. Thus, separate semantic facets of music need special research. Despite the existing developments, we do not know much about the musical image and its objectivity. The comprehension of the categories “theme” and “idea” as aesthetic categories, revealing the artistic features of a musical work, is still to be done. Musicology, in contrast, for example, with literary studies, will still have to investigate the phenomenon called “the author’s basis” or “the author’s presence” in music – the reflection of the composer in the artistic world of his or her own musical work. Special attention is required to study the relationships of elements.

5 Conclusion Thus, the constructed structure of musical content covers the main elements of the content and – what is especially important – establishes interrelationships between them, causing the emergence of a complex system unity. In the procedure of actualization of meaning, it is considered as functioning in the musical life, that is, in the intersection of the creativity of the composer, performer and listener. The hierarchically organized structure makes it possible to trace the process of meaning formation unfolding over time which generates multi-scale components connected with each other. It can serve as an objective basis for immersion in the subtle and infinitely complex world of a musical work, scientific knowledge and comprehension of this world. Undoubtedly, the semantic analysis of a musical work is not able to give a complete and adequate picture of the musical content, because it is impossible. A musical work always keeps its main secrets, which allows it to be attractively interesting and relevant for new generations of listeners. Nevertheless, the proposed structure of musical content helps us to get away from the amateurish helplessness that feeds exclusively on intuition, and to approach this fullness and depth. Acknowledgements. The theory of musical content continues to develop. The evidence of this is the scientific research based on it, considering various problems of sense-making in music – in musical sound [17], means of musical expression [4], music themes [11, 12, 15, 19], artistic image [13], musical dramaturgy [18], musical genres [1, 2, 20] and styles [14], artistic interpretation [21, 3], in the art world of a synthetic work [22, 16], etc.

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It is natural that the scientific concept of musical content has entered the pedagogical practice of Russia and other countries and has given life to the academic disciplines “Musical content”, “Theory of musical content” and others. They are successfully studied at different stages of music education. The long-term experience of the teacher S. A. Davydova, who experimentally established that students of a children’s music school operating with elements of semantic analysis achieved significantly greater results in mastering their musical instruments and more effectively realized themselves on the path of professional development [5], is indicative here. This confirms not only the scientific, but also the practical need for knowledge about musical content and in the methodology of analyzing music from a semantic perspective.

References 1. Begicheva, O.V.: Genre metamorphoses of romantic ballad in art of the XIX – XXI centuries [Zhanrovye metamorfozy romanticheskoi ballady v iskusstve XIX–XXI vekov]. Magarin O.G., Maykop (2019) 2. Begicheva, O.V.: Romantic ballad in art of the XIX–XX centuries: essays on typology and history [Romanticheskaya ballada v iskusstve XIX – XX vekov: ocherki tipologii i istorii]. Magarin O.G., Maykop (2019) 3. Beskrovnaya, G.N.: Musical performance: process-dynamic aspect [Muzykal’noe ispolnitel’stvo: protsessual’no-dinamicheskii aspect]: dis. … kand. Iskusstvovedeniya, Saratov (2010) 4. Bozina, O.A.: Semantics of tonality in operatic creativity of N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov [Semantika tonal’nosti v opernom tvorchestve N.A. Rimskogo-Korsakova: Monografiya]. KGAMiT, Krasnoyarsk (2013) 5. Davydova, S.A.: The subject “Musical content” in the aspect of hermeneutics: primary pedagogy [Predmet «Muzykal’noe soderzhanie» v aspekte germenevtiki: nachal’naya pedagogika]: dis. … kand. ped. Nauk, Saint Petersburg (2011) 6. Kazantseva, L.P.: Author in musical content: monograph [Avtor v muzykal’nom soderzhanii: monografiya]. RAM im. Gnesinykh, Moscow (1998) 7. Kazantseva, L.P.: Musical content in the context of culture [Muzykal’noe soderzhanie v kontekste kul’tury]. Volga, Astrakhan (2009) 8. Kazantseva, L.P.: Musical portrait [Muzykal’nyi portret]. NTTs «Konservatoriya», Moscow (1995) 9. Kazantseva, L.P.: Fundamentals of the theory of musical content [Osnovy teorii muzykal’nogo soderzhaniya]. Fakel, Astrakhan (2001). 2nd edn. Volga, Astrakhan (2009) 10. Kazantseva, L.P.: Content of a musical work in the context of musical life [Soderzhanie muzykal’nogo proizvedeniya v kontekste muzykal’noi zhizni]. AGK, Astrakhan (2004). 2nd edn. Lan’, Planeta muzyki, Saint Petersburg (2017). 3nd edn. Lan’, Planeta muzyki, Saint Petersburg (2018). 4nd edn. Lan’, Planeta muzyki, Saint Petersburg (2020) 11. Mozgot, S.A.: Category of space in music [Kategoriya prostranstva v muzyke]. AGU, Maykop (2018) 12. Mozgot, S.A.: Musical space in the works of Claude Debussy: monograph [Muzykal’noe prostranstvo v tvorchestve Kloda Debyussi: monografiya]. AGU, Maykop (2008) 13. Mozgot, S.A.: Space as a musical image [Prostranstvo kak muzykal’nyi obraz]. Vest. Adygeiskogo Gosudarstvennogo Univ. 4(187), 255–261 (2016) 14. Rakhimova, D.A.: Orientalism in the music of S.V. Rachmaninov: monograph [Orientalizm v muzyke S.V. Rakhmaninova: monografiya]. VII im. P.A. Serebryakova, MIRIA, Volgograd (2013)

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15. Salnikova, M.V.: Temperament as a musical and artistic phenomenon [Temperament kak muzykal’no-khudozhestvennyi fenomen]: dis. … kand. iskusstvovedeniya. Saratov (2008) 16. Sevastyanova, S.S.: The problem of art synthesis in screen musical theatre [Problema sinteza iskusstv v ekrannom muzykal’nom teatre ]: dis. … kand. iskusstvovedeniya. Kazan (2004) 17. Shepsheleva, O.V.: Modern Russian choral music: expressiveness of sound: monograph [Sovremennaya otechestvennaya khorovaya muzyka: vyrazitel’nost’ zvuka: monografiya]. Volga, Astrakhan (2012) 18. Shmakova, O.V.: Finale in the symphonic cycles of Bartok, Honegger and Hindemith (1930– 1950) [Final v simfonicheskikh tsiklakh Bartoka, Oneggera i Khindemita (1930–1950 gody)]. Miria, Volgograd (2009) 19. Stupnitskaya, M.A.: Memory as a musical and artistic phenomenon in the works of romantic composers [Vospominanie kak muzykal’no-khudozhestvennyi fenomen v tvorchestve kompozitorov-romantikov]: dis. … kand. Iskusstvovedeniya, Rostov-on-Don, (2016) 20. Vasiruk, I.I.: Modern fugue: substantive aspects: monograph [Sovremennaya fuga: soderzhatel’nye aspekty: monografiya]. IP Magarina O.G., Volgograd (2011) 21. Volkova, P.S.: Reinterpretation of literary text (based on XX century art): monograph [Reinterpretatsiya khudozhestvennogo teksta (na materiale iskusstva XX veka): Monografiya]. KUKiI, Krasnodar (2008) 22. Volkova P.S., Nevskaya, P.V.: Portrait in the space of semiotics: verbal and non-verbal: monograph [Portret v prostranstve semiotiki: verbal’noe i neverbal’noe: monografiya]. KuGAU, Krasnodar (2013)

Ancient Russian Znamenny Chant Notation as a Semiotic System Tatiana Vladyshevskaia(B) Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia

Abstract. The article deals with the semiotic roots of the signs of the Old Russian znamenny notation. The source of the znamenny notation was the Paleo-Byzantine notation. In Russia, the znamenny notation has been developing for more than seven centuries. The methodological approach to the study of znamenny semiography in this article is based on the theory of the sign by Charles Peirce, according to which there are three main classes of signs: signs-icons, signs-indices and signssymbols. Banners - signs of znamenny notation, are also divided into three types: signs-icons - alphabet signs, popevki (kokizy) - signs-indexes, and fit outlines respectively signs-symbols. There are also mega-signs that regulate vocal technique of chants. Znamenny chant is viewed as the musical language of the Russian Middle Ages, the melody of which is closely related to the intonation of words in chants. Keywords: Semiotics · Kinovar · Hooks · Banners · Znamenny chant · Znamenny notation · Neumatic signs · Pillar notation · Stichera · Tunes · Fitas · Russian middle ages musical language · Old Russian znamenny notation · Melodies of the old Russian chants

1 Introduction Ancient Russian znamenny chant notation is one of the ancient semiotic systems. Signs, banners, or hooks are used for recording the melodies of the Old Russian znamenny chant. The very name of the notation speaks of its semiotic nature: znamenny comes from the Slavic term for a banner, a sign; these sings are used for all kinds of ancient Russian chants, znamenny, kondakarny, putevoi, demestvenny. The origin of the ancient Russian musical writing was the Byzantine semiography. The system of neumatic signs, not in linear notation, during the Middle Ages spread throughout the Christian world, in the East and the West. In Russia, it appeared together with the baptism of Russia, but earliest written singing manuscripts have come down to us only from the end of the 11th or even 12th centuries. For seven centuries of its development in Russia, the znamenny notation experienced transformation and acquired its Russian national features. Znamenny chant became the main one in the era of the Russian Middle Ages, used in all the main liturgical singing books. The research was carried out within the framework of the Russian Foundation for Basic Research project No. 20-012-00386\20. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. D. Khannanov and R. Ruditsa (Eds.): WWMC 2021, CRSM 8, pp. 65–75, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74039-9_8

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The musical language of ancient Russian chants is based on speech intonation. Melodies of the znamenny chant have a wave-like structure; phrasing and construction of phrases are based on speech intonation; stresses and semantic accents of the text play an important role. Words, sounds and signs in the znamenny chant are inseparable from each other, like spirit, soul and body. Signs employed in the znamenny notation are varied in function: there are simple signs that denote one or two sounds or groups of signs, popevki denoting individual melodic formulas, and faces and fitas, long melodic phrases that adorn chants. Some signs can be compared to letters, some to syllables, and others to idiomatic expressions that, similarly to hieroglyphs, include large melodic formations, and decorate the chant. Znamenny notation thus contains different types of signs that are comparable to alphabetic, syllabic, and hieroglyphic writing. The founder of the semiotics, Charles S. Peirce [3, p. 45], points out that all the signs have a dual nature of form and content. Signs of the znamenny notation, in addition to these two features, their form and their musical content, have a third feature, the name, which indicates that the znamenny notation belongs to the signs of professional use. Names were given to signs by professionals, theorists of the znamenny chant, who were training singers. Ancient Russian theorists, experts at church singing, developed the theory of notation and the peculiar terminology of the znamenny notation, which helped in studying and memorizing it.

2 Znamenny Notation The first written theoretical sources in Russia appeared only in the early 15th century. These were monastic manuscripts, one of which was created in the Kirillo-Belozer monastery during the 1430s to 1440s; it already has a certain established system, which has manifested itself in the hierarchy of signs [9]. In this manuscript on sheet 302 (Fig. 1) there is an alphabet listing, which records the names of the signs of the znamenny notation along with their names, located above the hook signs. This oldest alphabet listing starts with a phrase “A se imena znameniem”. The first sign, written with kinovar, the red dye, ´ is paraclete (from Greek παρακλητoς), a holy sign, depicting the Holy Spirit (Fig. 1). This list names 44 signs, including names of signs, popevki and fitas. We will list their names according to the way they were written in the alphabetic list “A se imena znameniem”, restoring their full names in the process (Fig. 2). These signs of the znamenny notation have their own semiotic system. From Peirce’s point of view, these signs are divided into three groups, iconic, index signs and symbol signs. Iconic signs of the znamenny notation are alphabetical, simple signs, in which there is a correspondence between their shapes and names, for example, the krjuk sign (7) is depicted as a hook, the angle of which varied during different centuries, from blunt it turned into sharp, which is associated with the change of the quill shape in the handwriting scriptoriums. Some signs have kinship, variants of signs associated with the need to distinguish the height of the sign, for example, krjuk svetlyj (8), s dvema oˇckami (9). The names of signs of the znamenny notation are quite witty and inventive, they are clearly connected with the Russian folk life. Pauk (21), a spider, resembles an arachnid creature with legs. Stopica (42), from stopa, a foot, looks like a foot, and several stopicas

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Fig. 1. Russian National Library, The Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery collection 9/1086

in a row denote a psalmody and look like running legs. Kryž (34), a cross, denotes a completion, crowning a temple or a grave, and is depicted as a cross and appears in the end of chants. The statja sign (24) is based on a word stojatˇ, to stand, and denotes stopping of movement in the end of a phrase, and strela (35), an arrow, is depicted with an arrow pointing upwards. The strela sign has many versions, in znamenny notation there are four versions of arrow: povodnaja (3), leashing, poezdnaja (4), riding, gromnaja (5), thunderous, and osoka (6), sedge. The sign besedka (12), skameica, a bench, otherwise, resembles a bench. Složitia (28), addition, is made of two lines together. Palka (29), a stick, is depicted as a vertical line, and has the following versions: palka svetlaja (30), a light stick, and palka vzdernutaja (36), a raised stick. Golubˇcik borzyj (37), a brave (or fast) dove, looks like a pigeon spreading its wings in flight. The dva v cˇ elnu sign (31), two in a boat, depicts a boat with two people in it. Soroˇca nožka (32), a magpie leg,

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Fig. 2. List of 44 signs of the znamenny notation as per “A se imena znameniem”

ˇ resembles a trail of magpies in the snow. Celustka (39), from cˇ elustˇ, a jaw, depicts a jaw ˇ ready to close; kluˇc (26), a key, is similar to the key inserted into a keyhole. Zmeica (19), a serpent, looks like a wriggling snake; cˇ aša (11), a chalice, polnaja cˇ aša (10), a full chalice, and podˇcašie, a pedestal, all are varieties of the cˇ aša sign, the image of which is associated with the sacred vessel, a chalice for the sacrament, including a chalice covered with a veil (podˇcašie). The image of meˇcik (33), a small sword, resembles a

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sword with a handle. All of these signs have an iconic shape and are alphabetical signs of znamenny notation, which do not change during deciphering. So, a page from the manuscript of the beginning of the 15th century is the oldest alphabetic listing; it contains 44 signs in their graphic form and provides the names of each sign. The names of the signs given by theorists have different origins, Byzantine, Old Russian, or Slavic. Of course, not all signs are represented in the “A se imena znameniem” alphabet, this is a minimal set of signs, popevki and fitas. 44 signs are presented inconsistently, mixing signs of different categories. Only in the 16th century the signs start being presented in an orderly manner, their arrangement takes the form of a reference book. Manuals are created, which include all sections: the alphabet, a collection of popevki, kokiznik, and the set of faces and fitas, fitnik. One example of such ˇ c znamenny” by the monk Christopher (1604) [6]. manual is the “Kluˇ The alphabetic signs, fitting the conditions of the second type of index signs, can change their meaning in the composition of popevki for eight echoi. Three types of signs defined by C. Pierce as icon, index and symbol, correspond to three types of signs in the znamenny notation system. The first type of signs, iconic, alphabetical, the second type of signs of the znamenny notation, popevki, can be attributed to the index signs; they are associated with the system of Octoechos. These melodic formulas, popevki, in the alphabets of znamenny notation are usually set out in lists according to the Octoechos system in the form of kokizniks, each echos has its own popevki, but in echoi 1–5, 2–6 popevki are akin to musical tunes. Arranged by echos, popevki characterize the essence of each echos of the znamenny chant. The echos were designated by Slavic numbers, which are the mega-signs governing popevki, faces, and fitas. These vocal designations are Slavic numbers, which in the system of znamenny notation denote the numbers of the voices, and they are regulatory signs. C. Morris calls these control signs mega-signs; the echos numbers regulate the popevki and fitas associated with the echos. Popevki (index signs) and (symbol signs) of faces and fitas, is how these systems interact with each other using mega-signs [4]. Popevki are melodic and graphic forms of the znamenny notation, the whole fabric ˇ c”, key of underof the znamenny chants formed from a combination of popevki. In “Kluˇ standing, by the monk Christopher, in the collection of popevki “Imena popevkam”, names of popevki, the hook part of all popevki is subtitled by their names. Names of popevki are often associated with the nature of the melody movement or with the chant, for example, popevki skoˇcek, a jump, perevivka, weaving, perevoloka, dragging over, peregibka, bending, peremetka, throwing over, perehvat, taking over, povertka, turning around, kaˇcalka, swaying, koleso, a wheel, pod"jem, a raise, derbica, from the word drobitˇ, to crush, and others. Some chants are represented by several types, showing their modifications: skoˇcok menšoj, skoˇcok srednij, skoˇcok bolšoj, small, average and big jumps, respectively. Among the Alphabetical signs (Fig. 1), a few popevki are interspersed with alphabetical signs: polkulizma (2), kulizma (38), trjaska (15), pauk velikij (22), xamila (23), derbica (20), and perevjaska (27). The musical language of znamenny chant and znamenny notation imitate verbal speech and its sound: alphabetical (iconic) signs in znamenny notation are comparable to letters, popevki (indices) to words. The basis of the popevki in the znamenny chant is their core, which corresponds to the root of the word. Particles are usually added to

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this root, which are like a prefix, suffix and ending; with their help popevki become connected with each other. Znamenny chants have verbal intonation, they resemble sung speech, where popevki are linked to each other like words in the text, and chanting of the chant is decorated with melodic inserts, faces and fitas, which are facial (encrypted) symbol signs. The third type of signs are symbol signs, fitas and faces, which are the sacred signs of the znamenny notation. The face is a sign with multiple meanings, the very sign of the face is depicted in the form of three commas, set vertically (Fig. 2). The face sign personifies the musical secret writing, “tajnozamknennostˇ”», the face is a face, a mask, a hieroglyph. In the manuscripts, we can meet the phrase: “the face of the fita”, the fita formula without its explanation, without deciphering. The face here is understood as evidence of the tajnozamknennostˇ, encryption [3]. Each echos has a set of facial melodic formulas, such as “carski konec”, the king’s end, or “polucarski konec”, half the king’s end (Fig. 2) that have their own graphical and melodic formulas, in which the face sign is required to be in the form of three commas set vertically. Fita is an old Greek letter, as well as a number 9, a symbol of the Trinity, as it is a sign of the triple Trinity (3 × 3), as well as the first letter of the Greek (εoς) holy word Theos, God, which begins with the letter fita. Fita can be compared to the titlo diacritic sign. Fita, like the titlo, shortens the record. Titlo shortens the records of sacred words in Church Slavic texts. For example, in the word God (Bog), using titlo, the letter o (Bg) is omitted. Thus, the titlo indicates the sacred meaning of the words over which it stands, and at the same time serves as a sign of its reduction, an abbreviation. Fita also notes important, sacred words in the text of the chant and at the same time shortens the recording of the melody. Fitas have names, and can be used in multiple echos, just like popevki. In the alphabet “A se imena znameniem” (Fig. 1), three fitas are given: kobylka (14), zeln(aja) (40), and fita (41). Faces and fitas are symbol signs of the znamenny notation, graphic insignia concealing developed, extensive melodic turns recorded in abbreviated form. The signs of faces or fitas could be combined into single formulas with statˇja, kryž and other signs. The specificity of the writing of the fita formulas lays in the fact that alphabetical one-, two- and three-stage signs, used in the fita formula, lost their primary singing meaning, and turned into formulas. Singers mastered faces and fitas in the process of their prolonged training, their melodies were learned by heart. Fitas and faces were called “wise, intimate lines”, these “tajnozamknennyje” fita formulas in fitnics were “rozvodili drobnym znamenem” that is, they were deciphered with alphabetical signs to remind the singers initiated into this secret knowledge (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Fita

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Signs of the znamenny notation were considered sacred, they could not be removed from the singing text. This explains the appearance, starting with the XV century, of homonic, or separate speech singing manuscripts, in which the disappearing semi-vowel eras were replaced by full-voiced letters o and e, while the ancient singing signs were preserved. There is a sacred interpretation of signs, indicating sacred symbolism and the divine meaning of signs. The author of the interpretation [5, pp. 155, 157] in each sign of the znamenny notation reveals its spiritual meaning, testifying to their sacred significance: “paraklit is the message of the holy spirit to the apostles, krjuk is for being strongly mindful to stay away from evils, zmeica is the escape from earthly glory and vanity of this world, kulizma is unhypocritical love for all people, golubˇcik is destruction of pride and all untruths, stopica is acquiring wisdom with humility and meekness, cˇ elustka is for ˇ c is the key to salvation and not condemning barring and crushing the evil-minded, kluˇ anyone, dva v cˇ elnu is to think twice about the deposition of truth, fita is for a presence of philosophy of truth”. Old Russian znamenny notation is a semiotic system with different groups of signs (alphabetical signs, popevki and fitas, secret signs), which interact with each other in the octoechos system. The faces and fitas were called “secret” signs, “wise lines” not only because they required special knowledge and training, but also because they were located in important places in the text of the chant. For example, in the stichera from the 1152 manuscript of the 6th voice to the Exaltation of the Holy Cross “The fourpointed world is being sanctified today” (Fig. 4), the Cross is glorified, which sanctifies all the ends of the world, and the “faithful horn” rises above the “enemy’s horn” The culmination of the stichera is a phrase that glorifies God: “Great Thou, Lord.” This key moment of the text is the culmination of the stichera, it is emphasized by two fitas. The structure of znamenny chants is determined by the structure of the text, syntax and a set of symbolic means - banners, chants, faces and fit, which make up the musical fabric of the chant. In the upper left corner under the title is the Slavic number 6 (S), indicating the voice of the chant (mega-sign). Each line of the stichera is separated by dots. The first line of “Four-armed world” ends with a hamila (Xamila) (No. 23), it also uses a light hook (Krjuk svetlyj) (No. 8) and a serpent (Zmeica) (No. 19). The second line “now sanctified” ends with Kulisma (No. 38). The third line ends with a light hook (Krjuk svetlyj), an article and a light stick (Palka svetlaja). The fourth line “Christ our God” ends with an article (Stat’ja) (No. 24). The fifth phrase in the words “and the horn is highlighted” stands out, which is notated by the serpent, hamila and fita (Zmeica, Xamila, Fita) (No. 19, 23 and 41). The sixth phrase “rising our prince” ends with Kulisma (No 38). The seventh line “on the broken horn of the enemy" ends with three articles. The eighth line is the main one becausr it is an exclamation. Fita, as already mentioned, underlines the most important words. Culmination, “You are great Lord,”all three words are separated from each other by dots and are notated with complex signs: on the first word paraklit and the great spider (22), on the second fita, on the third fita “Habuva”. The deep connection between the word and the melody characterizes the chants of the znamenny chant.

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Fig. 4. State Historical Museum. The singing manuscript of the Synodal Assembly 1152. Stichera for the Exaltation of the “Four-pointed world”.

Melody is born from a word that carries meaning. It comments on the text, dividing its structure, distributing tunes and recitatives, accentuating the most important words. Znamenny notation signs flexibly reflect the melody, its rhythm, pitch and movement, marking stressed and unstressed syllables, the beginnings and the ends of phrases, development, accents and semantic centers of chanting.

3 Znamenny Notation as a Semiotic System Znamenny notation – is a professional musical semiotic system which came to Russia from Byzantium. Due to hard work by Russian singers and music theorists, the notation kept constantly improving. Since the fifteenth century it has undergone dramatic changes. The split in the Russian Church was a direct response to the change in the cultural code of Russia. The changes that took place in Russia at the end of the 17th century destroyed many ancient Russian cultural values. These changes had influenced the life of the people of that time. Alexander Mezenets, in his ABC of Znamenny Singing, sets out his understanding of the semiotics of znamenny notation, he writes about mysterious faces and the secret banner, about singing and the intricacies of their transcript [9]. The traditions of the ancient Russian singing culture are very rich, the musical language of the znamenny chant combines melodiousness and declamation. The musical structure of chants is based on the melodic intonation of speech. Its wavy intonations

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and lines are close to speech intonation, and the semantic accents of the text are often emphasized by special signs - faces and feats. Thanks to the connection between the word and the melody in Ancient Russia, the musical language of chants was created the znamenny chant, which formed the Russian professional musical culture. Singing signs of znamenny notation are similar to the text of chants. The iconic signs are like words. The index signs are melodic-graphic formulas. The signs-symbols— faces and fits—correspond to idiomatic expressions. In chants, they are divided into lines that play a syntactic role. A shape-generating role is played by the structure of the znamenny chant; it is close to the structure of words: a root, which often consists of three signs, prefixes and endings are attached to it. They modify the singing, forming various melodic modifications, thus connecting the entire fabric of the chant. This is how the entire text is formed. To make it easier to teach and memorize, the ancient Russian theorists provided names not only for the main signs, the simplest ones, but also for tunes, faces and fitas. Their terminology is often common in nature, but at the same time it reflects the characteristic features of their melodic structure. Singers used fitas (detailed musical formulas) to emphasize the most significant moments of the text. The harmonious and logical structure of znamenny notation is a musical-semiotic system designed for recording Old Russian chants and their performance by professional singers. Until now, it has not yet been deciphered in many of its parts, some of its elements are a long-standing stumbling-blocks in the study of the musical culture of Ancient Russia. That is why many ancient musical monuments are waiting to be studied.

4 Conclusion The results of research in several areas of modern science - semiotics, musical medieval writing, and the Church Slavonic language showed that the znamenny chant was the musical language of Ancient Russia. The musical and literary languages of chants are related to each other. The znamenny, hook, or chief notation was in active use from the 11th to the 17th centuries in the church services; the Old Believers use it to this day. The signs of the znamenny notation are viewed in this chapter from the standpoint of the general theory of signs. According to the theory of the sign by Charles Pearce, signs are divided into three categories: iconic, index signs and symbols. Signs of the znamenny notation were considered sacred, they could not be removed from the singing text. This explains the appearance of so-called homony in singing texts starting from the 15th century. In such texts the disappearing semi-vowels “Yer” (Russian semivowel) were replaced by full-voiced letters “o” and “e”, in order to preserve ancient musical signs. In the seventeenth century the sacred interpretation of signs has become ubiquitous indicating the sacramental symbolism of signs of the Old Russian znamenny notation.

References 1. Brazhnikov, M.V.: Faces and fitas of the znamenny chant [litsa i fity znamennogo raspeva]. Muzyka, Leningrad (1984)

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2. Vladyshevskaia, T.F.: Musical culture of Ancient Rus [Muzykal’naya kul’tura Drevnei Rusi], Moscow (2006) 3. Vladyshevskaia, T.F.: About the Old Russian singing culture. Musical education in the spiritual culture of medieval Russia: An interdisciplinary approach [O drevnerusskoi pevcheskoi kul’ture. Muzukal’noye obrazovaniye v dukhovnoi kul’ture Rossii. Mezhdisziplinarnyi podkhod]. In: Materials of the International Symposium, Veliky Novgorod-Perm, pp. 117–126 (2012) 4. Pierce Ch.S.: Logical Foundations of the Theory of Signs. Russian translation. Aletheia, St. Petersburg (2000) 5. Morris, C.W.: Meaning and signification: signs and actions. Semiotics. Transl. into Russian, pp. 20–45. Raduga, Moscow (1983) 6. Musical aesthetics of Russia of the XI-XVIII centuries. Compilation of texts, translation and general introductory article by A.I. Rogov. Musika, Moscow (1973) 7. Uspensky, B.A.: Semiotics of art [Semiotika iskusstva]. School of Languages of Russian Culture, Moscow (1995) 8. Uspensky, N.D.: Old Russian singing art [drevnerusskoe pevcheskoye iskusstvo]. Sovetskyi compositor, Moscow (1971) 9. Shabalin, D.S.: Singing ABCs of ancient Rus. Translations, research, comments. T. II. Sov Kuban, Krasnodar (2004) 10. Wagner, G.K., Vladyshevskaia, T.F.: The art of ancient Russia. Iskusstvo, Moscow (1993) 11. Kartashova, T.P.: Fita singing in the twelfth century sticherars [Fitnoye penie v stikhirakh 12 veka]. In: Greek-Russian Singing Parallels, Moscow - St. Petersburg, pp. 211–221 (2008) 12. Keldysh, Yu.V.: Essays and studies on the history of Russian music [Ocherki i issledovaniya po istorii Russkoi Muzyki]. Sovetskyi compositor, Moscow (1978) 13. Keldysh, Yu.V.: Monuments of Russian musical art [Pamyatniki russkogo muzykal’nogo iskusstva], Issue 9. Musika, Moscow (1983) 14. Nikolaev, B.N.: Znamenny chant and hook notation as the basis of Russian Orthodox church singing [znamennyi raspev i kryukovaya notatsia kak osnova russkogo Pravoslavnogo peniya]. Talan, Iosifo-Volotskiy Monastery (1995) 15. Parfentiev, N.P.: Outstanding Russian musicians of the XVI-XVII centuries [Vydayushiesya russkiye muzukanty 16-17 vekov]. SUSU Publishing House, Chelyabinsk (2005) 16. Ramazanova, N.V.: Singing manuscript books of the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery [Pevcheskie knigi Kirillo-Belozerskogo monastyrya]. Word portal. https://www.portal-slovo.ru/art/ 36060.php. Accessed 29 Jan 2021 17. Kholopov, Yu., Kirillina, L., Kyuregyan, T., Lyzhov, G., Pospelova, R., Tsenova, V.: Musicaltheoretical systems [Muzukal’no-teoreticheskiye sistemy]. Kompozitor Publishing House, Moscow (2006) 18. Kholopova, V.N.: Russian musical rhythm [Russkaya muzukal’naya ritmika]. Melodica, Moscow (1983) 19. Smolenskij, St.: Paläographischer Atlas der altrussischen linienlosen Gesangsnotationen. Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Philosophisch-historische Klasse. Abhandlungen. N. F. Heft 80, München (1976) 20. Herausgegeben von Johann von Gardner und Erwin Koschmieder: Ein handschriftliches Lehrbuch der altrussishen Neumenschrift. Teil I, Verlag der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Munshen (1963) 21. Herausgegeben von Johann von Gardner und Erwin Koschmieder: Ein handschriftliches Lehrbuch der altrussishen Neumenschrift. Teil II, Verlag der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Munshen (1966) 22. Herausgegeben von Johann von Gardner und Erwin Koschmieder: Ein handschriftliches Lehrbuch der altrussishen Neumenschrift. Teil III, Verlag der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Munshen (1972)

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23. Høeg, C.: La notation ekphonétique, Copenhagen (1935) 24. Levy, K.: On the origin of neumes. In: Fenlon, I. (ed.) Early music history. Studies in Medieval and Early Modern Music, vol. 7, pp. 59–90, Cambridge (1987) 25. Raasted, J.: Intonation formulas and modal signatures in Byzantine musical manuscripts, Copenhagen (1966) 26. Floros, C.: Universale Neumenkunde, 3 Bde, Kassel (1970) 27. Wellesz, E.: A history of Byzantine Music and Hymnography, Oxford (1971)

Music and Current Technology

“Zero Gravity”: A Specific Textural Type in Contemporary European Art Music Füsun Köksal ˙Incirlio˘glu(B) Ya¸sar University, ˙Izmir, Turkey

Abstract. Unlike the pointillist style of mid-century serialism, contemporary European art music possesses gestural-textural units with the potential to stimulate the listener to form associative links. This paper focuses on a specific slow-paced textural type, which appears to have emerged as part of the vocabulary of today’s music and suggests it may fruitfully be analysed in the light of various perspectives of musical gestures. While such an approach suggests a path going beyond analytical methods focusing on the internal working mechanisms of the post-serial repertory, it will in fact concentrate on auditory perception of the gestural-textural vocabulary of this repertory and its expressive qualities, from the oft-neglected listener’s experience. This study focuses on prominent composers of contemporary European concert music, who follow the modernist lines of the avant-garde, including Ivan Fedele (b.1953), Michael Jarrell (b.1958), Unsuk Chin (b.1961), Philippe Hurel (b.1955), and aims to lay the groundwork for further study to put the repertory in question in a historical, cultural and stylistic perspective. Keywords: Contemporary music · Musical gesture and expression · Topicality in contemporary music · Gestural-textural types in recent music · Music perception

1 I Although, during the twentieth-century, music theory was able to develop analytical methods to understand the internal working mechanisms of the post-tonal repertory, the expressive qualities of gestural-textural elements of abstract concert music—music without text—have not been discussed widely. Inspired by Lehrdahl’s often quoted argument about serial music’s failure to create mental representation [1], this paper suggests that contemporary European art music written in the past thirty years accommodates unconventional gestural-textural types that are more likely to stimulate mental associations and focuses on a specific slow-paced textural type, in the light of various perspectives on musical gesture theory. The term ‘unconventional’ generally stands here for the gestural-textural type(s) that seem to have emerged after the traditional canon and which are not a continuation or imitation of conventional textural types or topics. While applying such an approach to today’s music expands the panoply of the structural investigation of this particular © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. D. Khannanov and R. Ruditsa (Eds.): WWMC 2021, CRSM 8, pp. 79–93, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74039-9_9

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repertory towards hermeneutical reading, it also opens up this repertory to historical, cultural and sociological reading. One of the earliest publications cultivating an approach that illuminates the aural perception of the listener is The Pleasure of Modernist Music, edited by Arved Ashby. The book offers a compilation of essays approaching mid-century modernism and its predecessors from various perspectives, which go beyond the scientific mode of discourse usually associated with this particular repertory [2]. The collection presents, among other authors, an essay by Ashby himself exploring the psychosocial connotations of modernist musical gestures through their employment in film. Another publication, Ali di Cantor, a book edited by Cesare Fertonani, published in 2011, presents a comprehensive look at the topics in Ivan Fedele’s music [3]. The book looks into narrativity, theatricality and directionality, all issues close to the listener’s perspective. Moreover, note should also be made of Yayoi Uno Everett’s work focusing on contemporary opera of the post-serial era and the music of Louis Andriessen. Particular attention should be paid to her article Counting Down Time: Musical Topics in John Adams’ Doctor Atomic, in which Everett employs various references from established topics such as fanfare, lamento etc. [4]. This treatise, which ranges from motivic and textural structures with extramusical references such as the ‘clock motive’ to style quotations, provides an analytical approach operating both on the intrinsic and extrinsic level. Before going into the analysis, I should make clear that this paper understands musical gestures as coherent musical units, capable of isolating themselves from their surroundings and considers textures as supersets—once again—structural musical events with clear borders and distinctive character, generated by dense juxtaposition of a limited variety of gestures. Both textures and gestures are understood here as the vocabulary of music, and as structural building-blocks operating within a higher order.

2 II Musical gestures’ expressive qualities have been approached by various disciplines, such as semiotics, linguistics and topics theory. Recent empirical approaches involving examination of the human body’s reaction to perceived music, and the performer’s movements to produce sound, aim to expand our understanding of these qualities. Among them is the prolific writer on embodied music cognition, Marc Leman, who introduces a different level to this research, emphasizing the correlation between musical and human gesture [5]. In his article Music, Gesture, and the Formation of Embodied Meaning, Leman notes: “what is important in this framework is the idea that music is performed and perceived through gestures whose deployment can be directly felt and understood through the body, without the need for verbal descriptions.” In the ‘Interpreting Musical Gestures, Topics, and Tropes’, Robert Hatten defines musical gestures as energetic shapes through time, and constructs his theory of musical gesture on perceptual and cognitive competencies [6]. In his recent book The Theory of Virtual Agency, Hatten further develops his gestural theory into the concept of virtual agency. Mainly focusing on the tonal repertory, in the 10th chapter, Hatten mentions that Ligeti’s micropolyphonic textures “offer the basis for plausible actantial interpretation”,

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which would direct listeners to build elementary dramas and narratives. In the same chapter, Hatten also mentions that these sound masses have topical effects [7]. Indeed, Ligeti’s vocabulary consists of different types of textures which are open to extramusical referentiality, as discussed by himself in various interviews, as well as by Ulrich Dibelius [8]1 , and later on by Amy Bauer [9]. Already in the 1960s, while Ligeti’s Athmospheres (1961) built upon the idea of creating direction-narrative on the changing densities of clusters, Lutoslawski’s Venetian Games from the same year created its trajectory by juxtaposition of contrasting textural units [10].2 As is the case in both pieces, in the absence of tonal medium, clearly recognizable melodic structures, rhythmic groove, and iconic referentiality, I believe the strategic use of clearly perceivable textural and gestural shapes appear to be musical elements providing a first-hand dialogue between the music and its listener. This distinguishes this repertory from the pointillism of mid-century serialism. Indeed, the short, non-repetitive and mostly contrasting nature of musical events of a punctual-textural type makes us focus on individual events, rather than their longterm trajectory. Such an issue has been addressed by Hatten as follows: “If we cannot hear logical connections between pitches (in the absence of linear, registral, or dynamic continuities, to say nothing of the absence of tonal hierarchies), it is harder to organize them into meaningful gestures” [7]. The reference to Ligeti here is not to examine his music but to acknowledge his work as an early example of a musical vocabulary that opens up to extramusical referentiality, which at the same time is a structure-building element within the whole work. Textural-gestural elements with various levels of referentiality also appear in the more recent music of composers such as Ivan Fedele (b.1953), Michael Jarrell (b.1958), Unsuk Chin (b.1961), and Philippe Hurel (b.1955) among others, whose works are informed by the modernist lines of Pierre Boulez, Luciano Berio, and Karlheinz Stockhausen. However, on the other hand, their music departs from serial aesthetics’ pointillist texture. Although all the above-mentioned composers have an individual approach to composition and their music may vary stylistically, the works have some shared gestural-textural types carrying extramusical referentiality or intertextuality which are open to representational associations such as bee buzz, bird song, fanfare type textures, among others.3 Such textural units remind me strongly of the classical topics, defined as characteristic figures associated with various feelings and emotions by Leonard Ratner in Classic Music: Expression, Form and Style [15]. Although some of these topics have different cultural connotations and might be different in terms of 1 In his book Ligeti, Eine Monography in Essays, Ulrich Dibelius adresses characteristic musical

units with certain effects. He defines them as Types, and mentions that these types take their place as Satztechnischen Modellen in Ligeti’s oeuvre. 2 The relationship of musical narrative and linearity has been addressed widely in the 4th chapter of New Sounds, New Stories of Vincert Meelberg. The chapter submits detailed discussion on linearity-goal-directedness and narrative in tonal music and also in contemporary repertory. 3 A prominent example here would be the first 22 s of Unsuk Chin’s Rocana (2008), where the texture created by string instruments high register remind sus a bee buzz effect [11]. A similar texture also appears in Michael Jarrell’s Sillages for flute, clarinet in Bb, oboe, and orchestra (2005) in mm. 200–212, this time creating a kind of a babbling effect, which suggests the sound arises from under something [12]. The fanfare-like texture in the opening of Feria (1997) by Magnus Lindberg or the bird song appearing at Bruno Mantovani’s Les Danses Interrompues composed in 2000. Between mm. 154–197 project other relevant examples [13, 14].

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tonality and metric regularity, they still exist in today’s repertory, and are projection(s) of the past and still recognizable.4 Moreover, there are newer textural types appearing as the building blocks of contemporary repertory with strong extramusical associations, one of them being a specific slow-paced type, zero gravity. The expressive quality of zero gravity points to a collective experience or perception, which goes beyond the subjective realm. That is to say regardless of what the composer him/herself explains about his/her music, the expressive quality of musical gestures-textures in a specific musical work have the potential to be perceived in similar ways among individuals. This, for example, is the case in perceptions of conventional topics, where correspondence between listener and music is realized by shared cultural connotations. In a broader perspective though, such mutual correspondence between listener and music can also be provided by the capacity of musical gestures to transfer experiences that we perceive with other sensory faculties.

3 III In his article Music, Gesture, and the Formation of Embodied Meaning, Marc Leman mentions that: The first step in the course of meaning formation may be seen in terms of processes that account for the transformation of sonic features into the presence of sensory qualities and motor action-related features. These transformations can be termed either synaesthetic or kinaesthetic…During kinaesthetic transformation, it is the dynamics of physical properties (frequency, amplitude, and so on) through time that generate in our perception segregated streams and objects that lead, via integrated processing to impressions of movement, gesture, tension, and release tension [5]. The zero gravity type of texture takes its label from its kineasthetic features. This type of texture metaphorically reminds me of the gestures and mood in a zero gravity environment—quiet and spacey—giving the impression that the gesture is static and not completely predictable. As the steps of an astronaut are not wholly in his control, so the music unfolds unpredictably. The working mechanism of the labeling process and the anaytical approach in this paper unfolds in three levels. The first level explores the inner workings of the gestural-textural units. The second relates musical motion to bodily motion through kineasthetic transformation, which is considered as the first step of meaning formation by Marc Leman in the article referred to above. The third one establishes the correlation interpreting bodily motion metaphorically, through its associative quality, which then leads to the labeling. Since there is no previous study specifically focusing on this particular repertorie’s gestural-textural vocabulary from the listener’s perspective, the title zero gravity applied to this specific type of texture is personal. The label here is founded on the expressivity of this textural unit through 4 The continuation of classical topics has been discussed by scholars among them Yayoi Uno

Everett, the 4th chapter of her book Reconfiguring Myth and Narrative in Contemporary Opera, “John Adam’s Doctor Atomic: A Faustian Parable for the Modern Age?” [16], by Edward Venn, in his article Thomas Adès and the Pianto [17], and by Johanna Frymoyer’s article The Musical Topic in the Twentieth Century: A Case Study of Schoenberg’s Ironic Walzes [18].

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its correlation to a physical/bodily motion. On the other hand, I believe such naming is necessary and can be employed in teaching, especially in music performance practice. This type of texture might be projected by a single melodic line, or appear as a combination of a couple of melodic lines. The study of musical gesture in the field of music theory is commonly concerned with the rhythmic component as the most significant mediator towards its expressive meaning. We find such an understanding also in the scholarship of topics theory.5 Similarly, in this type of textural unit, the rhythmic flow generated by a non-metrical rhythmic structure appears to be one of the most characteristic elements. However, in this case, the melodic structure formed around large intervallic skips and the slow oscillation between high and low registers plays an important role as much as the rhythmic structure. The non-metrical rhythmic formation is kept throughout the textural unit, creating the effect of an event which unfolds in an uncontrolled and unpredictable manner. Constant oscillation between high and low pitches contribute to the effect of non-directionality. The non-directional and static nature of the texture reminds me somewhat of the concept of “inertia” as explained by Steve Larson in the 4th chapter of Musical Forces. Although Larson’s inertia is mostly related to sequences in melodic patterns, his definition as “…the tendency of a pattern of motion to continue in the same fashion” relates to this particular case as well [20].

4 IV In my research, I found that zero gravity has been a characteristic structural element in the works of composers such as Michael Jarrell, Unsuk Chin, Ivan Fedele, and Philippe Hurel, all prominent composers of contemporary European art music from the last decades of the twentieth-century, to the present day, and whose music follows modernist lines. This type appears in Ivan Fedele’s music both as a foreground and as a background element. To start with, I will analyze Ètudes Boreales No. 2 (1990). A collection of 6 short works, Ètudes Boreales (1990) displays an almost non-developmental, instantaneous type of music. Most of the etudes in this cycle exhibit a monothematic approach, as is usually the case in the etude genre [21]. In Etude No. 2—a fine example of zero gravity—the term of expression at the beginning of the piece, Calmo e meditative (q = 40) reflects the quiet and spacy character of this textural type. The dynamic range remains in p throughout the piece and all pitches are to be performed in a soft and sonorous way, creating associations suggesting the slow motion of an object or a 5 In her book Rhythmic Gesture in Mozart, Wye Allanbrook, a former Ratner student, focuses on

the rhythmic aspects of the topics. She grounds her thesis on the doctrine of art as imitation, which goes back to the Aristotelian understanding that art imitates “man in Action.” According to this view, rhythm is the most important factor, transmitting the emotions or the quality of the action into music. In this process, imitations translate the nature of Actions through human gesture. The human gesture then stimulates the rhythm. “… Yet, the music of the Classic style is pervasively mimetic, not of Nature itself but of our natures of the world of men, their habits and action…. Each passion is considered to be distinguished by a certain kind of motion, which differentiates it from other passions (Gemütsbewegungen (soul-movements). Music can successfully imitate the motions of the passions, stirring up a similar motion, slumbering in the spectators…” [19].

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person in a weightless environment, moving in an involuntary sense of flow. As Fig. 1 shows, zero gravity is represented here by the interaction of two individual melodic lines marked by meticulous notation, clearly dividing two lines to the left and right hand. The intervallic structure of the individual lines is coherently kept in skip-wise motion, mostly oscillating between closer and distant intervals, associated with the sense of uncontrolled, unbalanced motion of this type of texture. Close intervals, such as a major second or augmented second, occur when two lines come together. However, one has the sense that it is a mere accident, as a result of the involuntary motion. One might ask here whether the description I have given above would also be appropriate for a passage in a pointillist texture. The answer would be “no”, since music in a pointillist texture moves within an infinite space. The variety of dynamics, articulation and note durations constantly change, such that it is almost impossible for us to come across places or objects we remember from the past. As Lehrdahl explains, in such situations, the grouping of surface elements becomes impossible because of the lack of distinctive transition in the musical surface, caused by constant change. In Fedele’s piece, the pitch space is limited to C3 to C6 (until m. 17). There is a register dispersal of pitch classes. Also present is a homogenous sense of rhythmic formation, which gives the sense that the pitches move in a limited space, and the irregularity of the static motion does not involve extremes. Furthermore, there are micro events that we come across more than once, such as the pitch succession of Eb–F, which appears first in mm. 4–5 and afterwards in m. 6. The same happens (F–G) in m. 11, 12, and 13. Although the pitches are the same here, in all of these cases, the rhythmic component is slightly different. These instances within the irregularities strongly suggest that the texture differs from the pointillist texture. From m. 18 onwards, the pitch space between the lowest and highest point is expanded to G2- C7. In this work by Fedele, the texture manifests itself in a twelve-note series between mm. 1–4. In the next measures (mm. 4– 7), starting from Gb5, the retrograde of the same series is employed but with a variation. Figure 1 provides the section between mm. 1–19.

Fig. 1. Ètudes Boreales No. 2, mm. 1–19

We find the same type, with the same pitch collection in Mixtim (1989–2009) for flute, oboe, clarinet in Bb, piano, violin, viola and cello. In this work, Fedele employs

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Fig. 2. Mixtim, mm. 62–69

the same textural type in slow-paced sections such as mm. 46–53, 62–69, 71–78, 80– 87 [22]. All four passages operate with the same pitch collection employed in the first sixteen measures of Ètudes Boreales No. 2. The rhythmic structure is almost the same, although there is a rhythmic delay in some spots, such as the D4 in m. 47. The register disposal is the same as Ètudes Boreales mm. 1–16 and moves between C3 and C6. In both pieces, the first phrase—Mixtim mm. 46–53, Ètudes Boreales mm. 1–8 is based

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on a twelve-note series. Starting with B5, the first series concludes on m. 50 on Gb and starts immediately with the same pitch in m. 50 again. A variation of the first series is involved again in a quasi-retrograde manner but with some variations and concludes in B5 in m. 53. The second section (mm. 62–69) starts with the same pitch B6. However, this time the pitches are echoed between right and left hand as shown in Fig. 2. The B6 is immediately repeated in m, 62 by the left hand. Registral dispersal is maintained. From m. 66 onwards three pitches are used in different registers. The B6 is transferred to B3, B3 is transferred to C6, Gb (F#) 5 is transferred to F3, C#2 is transferred to C#3. The third (mm. 71–78) and the fourth passages (mm. 80–87) are a repetition of section two. Working with a similar register disposal and slow type motion is the first thirteen measures of Unsuk Chin’s Piano Etudes No. 2. [23] composed in 1999—revised in 2005—titled Sequenzen, which exposes zero gravity as the main musical material, similar to Fedele’s Ètudes Boreales No. 2. The whole piece is a composed accelerando starting with an initial zero gravity type of texture, in low register. Figure 3 illustrates the first thirteen measures, moving between Db1-F3. In the whole section, six pitch classes are involved, appearing each time at the same register: Db1-Cb2-Eb- 2-G2-A2-F3. This time, instead of a twelve-note frame the texture operates around a whole-tone scale between mm. 1–13. The melodic structure on the right hand frequently uses skip-wise motion. The left hand is based on a two-pitch, quasi melodic structure, moving in minor seventh distance.

Fig. 3. Piano Etude No. 2, mm. 1–13

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Michael Jarrell’s Sillages (2005), for flute, oboe, clarinet in Bb and orchestra provides an illustrative example of this type [12]. The sections of the work are arranged in a fast– slow–fast–slow–fast–slow order, where the zero gravity type becomes dominant in the slow sections. It is presented here distinctively both as background and foreground types by the solo parts. In mm. 60–64 the zero gravity type is introduced by solo flute. In the first three measures (mm.60–62), it employs an eight-pitch collection of G5-C#4-Bb5-A4C5-E5-Eb4-F4. All new pitch occurrences are sustained by the orchestra, all appear in pp and disappear through decrescendo towards ppp or al niente. The texture is generated by the combination of the flute’s accented new pitch occurrences, sustained by orchestra instruments. Figure 4a provides a textural reduction of mm. 60–64 based on the new pitch occurrences. The limited registral spacing is similar to Fedele’s previously shown examples. It moves between C#4 and Bb5. The extensive intervallic gap between the successive pitches contributes to a sense of empty space. In the solo part, the dynamic stays in p throughout the passage. Another element enhancing the effect of spatiality is the dynamic components of the single pitches performed by orchestra instruments. Applied to a single pitch, the succession of those dynamic components creates the effect of an object gradually coming closer and then moving away (Fig. 4b).

Fig. 4. a. Sillages, mm. 60–64 (reduction). b. Sillages, mm. 60–62 (reduction)

Another illustrative passage appears between mm. 161–170. Figure 5a shows a textural reduction between mm. 161–164, based on the new pitch entrances, initiated by oboe. This time the first phrase or wave is based on an eight-pitch collection between mm. 161–164—E5-G5-Ab4-F4-D5-C#5-C-4-A3. Similar to the previous example, the new pitch occurrences are sustained by the orchestra. Although the projection of zero

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gravity is mainly carried with the oboe, the complete 8-pitch collection is provided by the contribution of other instruments as well. This is illustrated with diamond shaped notes in Fig. 5a.

Fig. 5. a. Sillages, mm. 161–164 (reduction). b. Sillages, mm. 167–171 (reduction)

Between mm. 167–171, the additional three pitches, Eb, Bb in m. 167, B in m. 170 occur (Fig. 5b). In this passage, both the part of the soloist and the orchestra move within the dynamic range of pp and mp, mostly framed by a crescendo followed by a decrescendo. The swaying nature of the melodic line for the oboe, between F4 and E5, and G5 touching on the same pitches from time to time in an irregular manner (mm. 161–164), together with the dynamic behaviour of the passage, contributes to the sense of spatiality and emptiness. Throughout the passage, the new pitch entrances of the main melodic line in the solo oboe part are echoed by the orchestra. The passage starts in m. 161, with the synchronized doublings of the pitch entrances of the main melodic line by the orchestra, which then starts echoing them in an unsynchronized way. This generates an unfocused, blurry effect, reminiscent of involuntary gestures of objects moving in a zero gravity environment, which cannot move straight to their target. As illustrated in Fig. 6a, the first pitch E5 in the oboe part is sustained immediately by clarinet 2 in the same measure. The second time it is echoed by trumpet 1 on the 3rd beat. The G5 on the 3rd beat is sustained by clarinet, and the Ab with bass clarinet. Another occurrence of echoing takes place in m. 166. Here, the gestures based on repeated notes in composed accelerando and ritardando manner are echoed by the flutes and the solo oboe and, immediately in m. 167, reflected by the whole string section. The composed accelerando and ritardando is extended to four beats starting with quintuplets on beat one and gradually slowing down to two eight notes on beat four (Fig. 6b). Jarrell’s Assonance VII from 2002 for percussion, mm. 16–26, exposes a similar technic used in Sillages as provided in Fig. 7. The zero gravity appears in the vibraphone part, based on a seven-pitch collection of C4-D5-C#4-F5-B5-Bb3-A4, mostly moving

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Fig. 6. a. Sillages, mm.161–163. b. Sillages, mm. 164–167

between Bb3-B5. The identical pitch-classes appear at an identical register, except in m. 26, where the F5 is transferred to F3. The tempo mark is q = 42–48. The melodic structure involves large skips except the beginning of this passage. Both in Fedele and Jarrell, this type of texture prolongs a harmonic field. The second movement of Philippe Hurel’s Tambeau for Piano and Percussion (1999) constitutes the last example of this paper [24]. Concluding with a composed accelerando—similar to Unsuk Chin’s Piano Etude No. 2—the whole movement is based on two melodic lines moving statically and independently, yet with similar gestural features, exposing a significant rhythmic flow.

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Fig. 7. Assonance VII, mm. 16–26

Fig. 8. Tambeau for Piano and Percussion, mm. 122–131.

Except for the piano’s accented harmonics appearing first in m. 122, the whole texture moves in a limited dynamic space and sound world, involving resonating sound colors produced by vibraphone, glockenspiel, crotales and piano. As indicated in Fig. 8, the melodic line that is based on large interval skips, gives a sense of a random oscillation between high and low pitches. Similar to the previous examples, the texture moves in the middle register from F#3 to A5. The crotales, however, sound two octaves higher. The employment of a nine-pitch collection between mm. 119– 126 is similar to the previous example of Jarrell’s Sillages, exhibiting new pitch-classes each time and reiterating pitch-classes from time to time, which can be seen for example in m. 121, where E5 appears for the second time.

5 V As presented above, this type of texture is employed both on its own as the musical material of various pieces, and as the main musical element in certain sections of larger works, as shown in Jarrell’s pieces. Occurring both as a foreground and background element, the employment of this type of texture by various composers in a number of pieces indicates it belongs within the vocabulary to describe today’s contemporary European art music and has become a building block. In most of the cases zero gravity projects a static musical field and does not create expectation, nor does it signal later events. It does not have a functional beginning or ending. All parameters are immediately

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in play from the beginning to the end. There is a sense of motion provided by the entrance of pitches, one by one, in a similar manner. The absence of metric regularity and temporal development, the irregular exchange between large intervallic leaps and small skips and stable degrees of intensity throughout the textural unit contribute to its non-goaldirectedness, recalling the type of musical motion, non-directed linear time, described by Jonathan Kramer in The Time of Music [25]. Although such non-goal-directed motion provides a sense of arbitrariness, the coherent register disposal, constant employment of soft dynamics, homogenous rhythmic flow, and slow tempo generates a unified textural type, which allows the listener to perceive it as a specific musical event, diverging itself from its surroundings. As such, zero gravity behaves like a complete musical object unfolding gradually in time. Its relatively longer duration—in comparison to the short musical events (moments) that we come across in total serialism—appears to be one of the main factors contributing to its associative quality. Accordingly, the sufficient duration of the unified soundscape provides adequate time for the listener to interpret this unfolding musical event. As explained above, the distinctive kinesthetic features of this textural unit contribute to its associative quality beyond individual associations to a collective one. Zero gravity presents an instance where different people, regardless of their education, cultural background, and geographical location, are likely to interpret its gestural qualities in a similar way, if not in exactly the same way. As analyzed, zero gravity might employ various types of pitch collections, suggesting that the pitch collections can be considered as a secondary characteristic component of this type of texture. At this point I should mention that this paper would not be complete without pointing out its similarities to the analytical concerns of topics theory. First of all, its employment by various composers as a building block of larger musical works, suggests a stylistic commonality as is the case in the common practice era. Secondly, because of its specific characteristics and its presence as an individual textural unit, it is easily recognizable both by listeners who are familiar with contemporary music and also by those who are not from the field. There are nevertheless questions regarding the applicability of topics theory to the music of today. The first of these questions concerns the difficulty in defining today’s cultural conventions because of their wide variety as compared to those in the 18th century; the second concerns the difficulty of defining today’s cultural conventions from today’s perspective. However, delving into a topical discussion at this point will exceed the limits of this paper. This paper takes its inspiration firstly from the works of the above-mentioned composers, whose music I admire a lot, and secondly, from the fact that there is not much scholarly writing on works of contemporary European modernism, its auditory perception, its stylistic aspects and its expressive qualities, which go beyond its internal structural features. Lastly, studying the working mechanisms of such gesturaltextural units from the listener’s perspective will, I believe, stimulate alternative ways of thinking about the issue of the comprehensibility of contemporary music, which is generally labeled as being incomprehensible by listeners. As mentioned above, such extramusical referentiality in contemporary music has been addressed by various scholars as an extension of conventional topics. However, the focus on this particular repertory—rather than, say, contemporary repertory in a post-romantic frame has allowed me to put forward the idea that the unconventional

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vocabulary6 of today’s music possesses expressive qualities. While I had to limit the group of composers only to the European territories, I have been able to provide an objective variety of composers to be able to address zero gravity with great detail. The selection of works specifically without text gave me the possibility to concentrate merely on the referentiality of pure music or sound, which is the main concern of this paper. As explained previously, the metaphorical outcome of this study mentioned above as interpreting bodily motion metaphorically through its associative quality which then leads to the labeling, is personal. Because my interest in this subject reflects my interaction with the literature through years of intense listening, analysis, and asking questions, it was not very difficult to find identical textural types from different composers. An examination of style has not been the focus of this paper, although such an approach also points to a matter of style in contemporary music which has not been addressed much in music scholarship. I strongly believe that the subject calls for more research extended through the study of common gestural types between different stylistic traits in contemporary music and hope that this repertory will attract more attention from music theorists and musicologists.

References 1. Lehrdahl, F.: Cognitive constraints on compositional systems. Contemp. Music. Rev. 6(2), 97–121 (1992) 2. Ashby, A.: Modernism goes to the movies. In: Ashby, A. (ed.) The Pleasure of Modernist Music, pp. 345–390. University of Rochester Press, New York (2004) 3. Fertanoni, C. (ed.): The music of Ivan Fedele. Ali di Cantor. Edizioni Suvini Zerboni, Milano (2011) 4. Everett, Y.U.: Counting down: musical topics in John Adams’ Doctor Atomic. In: Sheinberg, E. (ed.) Music Semiotics: A Network of Significations, pp. 263–274. Routledge, London and New York (2016) 5. Leman, M.: Music, gesture, and the formation of embodied meaning. In: Godoy, R.I., Leman, M. (eds.) Musical Gestures Sound, Movement, and Meaning, pp. 126–153. Routledge, London (2010) 6. Hatten, S.R.: Interpreting Musical Gestures, Topics, and Tropes, pp. 93–95. Indiana University Press, Bloomington (2004) 7. Hatten, S. R.: A Theory of Virtual Agency for Western Art Music, pp. 279–280. Indiana University Press, Bloomington (2018) 8. Dibelius, U.: Ligeti, Eine Monography in Essays, pp. 79–80. Schott, Mainz (1994) 9. Bauer, A.: Tone color, movement, changing harmonic planes: cognition, constraints and conceptual blends in modernist music. In: Ashby, A. (ed.) The Pleasure of Modernist Music, pp. 121–152. University of Rochester Press, New York (2004) 10. Meelberg, V.: New Sounds, New Stories: Narrativity in Contemporary Music, pp.147–174. Leiden University Press, Leiden (2006) 11. Chin, U.: Rocana. Boosey & Hawkes, London (2008) 12. Jarrell, M.: Sillages (Congruences II), pour flute, clarinette en Sib, hautbois et orchestre. Editions Henry Lemoine (2005) 13. Lindberg, M.: Feria. Boosey and Hawkes Music Publishers, London (1999) 6 The term unconventional here refers to gestural-textural units that seem to have emerged after

the traditional canon.

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14. Mantovani, B.: Les Dances Interrompues. Henry Lemoine, Paris (2001) 15. Ratner, G.L.: Classic Music; Expression, Form, and Style, p. xiv. Schirmer Books, New York (1980) 16. Everett, Y.U.: Reconfiguring Myth and Narrative in Contemporary Opera. Indiana University Press, Bloomington (2015) 17. Venn, E.: Thomas Adès and the Pianto. In: Panos, N., Lympouridis, V., Athanasopoulos, G., Nelson, P. (eds.) International Conference on Music Semiotics in Memory of Raymond Monelle 2012, pp. 309–318. The International Project on Music and Dance Semiotics, Edinburgh (2013) 18. Frymoyer, J.: The musical topic in the twentieth century: a case study of Schoenberg’s ironic Walzes. Music Theory Spectr. 39(1), 83–108 (2017) 19. Allanbrook, W.J.: Rhythmic Gesture in Mozart: Le nozze di Figaro and Don Giovanni, p. 94. University of Chicago Press, Chicago (1983) 20. Larson, S.: Melodic forces: gravity, magnetism, and inertia. In: Larson, S. (ed.) Musical Forces, pp. 82–109. Indiana University Press, Bloomington (2012) 21. Fedele, I.: Ètudes Boreales No. 2 per pianoforte. Edizioni Zerboni, Milano (1990) 22. Fedele, I.: Mixtim: Musica rituale per sette esecutori. Edizioni Zerboni, Milano (1989) 23. Chin, U.: Piano Etudes. Boosey & Hawkes, London (2001) 24. Hurel, P.: Tombeau pour percussion et piano. Edition Henry Lemoine, Paris (1999) 25. Kramer, J.: The Time of Music: New Meanings, New Temporalities, New Listening Strategies, p. 46. Schirmer Books, New York (1998)

Networks of Symbolic Dynamical Scales Ricardo Gómez Aíza(B) Instituto de Matemáticas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 04510 Mexico City, Mexico [email protected]

Abstract. Symbolic dynamical scales are sets of musical scales obtained from symbolic sequences. Here we present and identify classes of Fibonacci and Feigenbaum scales and analyze their modes and the cardinalities of their transversals and orbitals, together with Thue-Morse scales. Then we construct their modal interpolation networks. We use binary sequences, integer compositions, intervalic circles, and coding rules. The purpose is thus to show more ways in which symbolic sequences can systematically determine structural properties in music that can serve to develop theory and composition. Keywords: Scales · Symbolic dynamics · Coding · Fibonacci · Feigenbaum · Networks · Systematic composition

1 Introduction Analyzing music from mathematical perspectives has long been a source for interesting research, with scopes that continue offering new contexts and generalizations [4–7, 10, 12, 16, 18]. Here we focus on sets of musical scales that can be obtained from symbolic sequences through coding rules. This kind of scales have been considered in [5] where a set of scales obtained from the Thue-Morse sequence is presented, and in [4] where transversal and orbital generating functions of symbolic dynamical scales are studied. The coding rule is the first symbol rule that essentially encodes the time lapses of consecutive recurrences of a distinguished symbol in a word1 . Now we present, deduce and identify the admissible elements of the transversals, and establish interpolation correlations between the Fibonacci and the Feigenbaum scales, together with the ThueMorse scales. These are classes of symbolic dynamical scales obtained from certain low complexity systems in symbolic dynamics [9, 11, 13]. The modes and interpolations of scales are instances that establish correlations that can be observed in networks, and here we elaborate this principle with the three sets of scales we are considering. We use representations of scales as binary sequences, integer compositions, and also as rooted polygons in the circle of fifths. We conclude discussing how the systematic methods presented here can be extended in many forms. This work was supported by DGAPA-PAPIIT grants IN107718 and IN110221. 1 See [2] for a historical survey on music and combinatorics on words.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. D. Khannanov and R. Ruditsa (Eds.): WWMC 2021, CRSM 8, pp. 94–105, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74039-9_10

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2 Preliminaries 2.1 Scales: Binary Sequences, Intervalic Circles, and Integer Compositions For any n-TET tuning system2 , the set of musical scales can be represented in different forms. For instance, as sequences of length n made out of symbols in a binary alphabet like {0, 1}, with the symbol 1 meaning that the corresponding pitch class (in ascending order) is part of the scale. We focus on the 12-TET tuning system. For example, the chromatic and major scales are coded by (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1) and (1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1), respectively (all scales start with 1). Scales are also represented as rooted polygons in intervalic circles, like in circles of fifths —a base note is chosen as the root—. The polygons can also be coded with binary sequences, e.g. by constructing them in order that start from the root and moves along the circle in clockwise direction (again the first symbol must be 1). The chromatic and major scales are (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1) and (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1) in the circle of fifths. Scales are also combinatorially isomorphic to the class C of integer compositions (see [4]), that is, all the different ways a positive integer n ≥ 1 can be written as a sum of positive integers less than or equal to n, taking into account the order of the summands (see e.g. [3]). We will write integer compositions as finite sequences (n1 , . . . , nk )  n1 +· · ·+nk . The summands are thought as the number of “units of tone” between consecutive notes in a scale. As compositions, the chromatic and major scales are (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1) and (2, 2, 1, 2, 2, 2, 1), respectively. See Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. The chromatic and major scales. They are represented as a binary sequence that indicates which pitch classes belong to the scale —they are illustrated on top of the pentagram as the sequence of black and white dots as the binary alphabet 0 and 1, respectively—. The sequence of numbers is the corresponding composition of 12. To the left we see the representations as polygons in the circle of fifths. Here the black vertices of the polygon represent 1.

Observe that the number of summands in an integer composition, i.e., its length, is the number of notes in the corresponding scale. However, the binary representation of the scales in the n-TET tuning system have all length n, and the same occurs with the representation in the circle of fifths. This establishes a combinatorial isomorphism between these classes. Essentially, for every positive integer k ≥ 1 relatively prime with 2 That is, the octave is divided into n equally tempered parts, see e.g. [7, 10, 18].

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n, that is gcd (n, k) = 1, we are considering the map θk : An → An defined for every w = w0 . . . wn−1 ∈ An by θk (w) = u = u0 . . . un−1 with uj = wkjmodn . For example, in the circle of fifths representation we have k = 7 and we have seen that θ7 (1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1) = (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1).

(1)

Thus, the binary representation of the major scale corresponds to a chromatic heptachord scale in the circle of fifths, and vice versa, see Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. The chromatic and chromatic heptachord scales. The binary representation of the chromatic heptachord scale maps under θ7 to the binary representation of the polygon that corresponds to the major scale, see Fig. 1.

2.2 The First Symbol Rule and Symbolic Dynamical Scales In [4, 5], a mechanism to produce integer compositions from symbolic sequences has been considered: the first symbol rule. It is essentially the binary representation. Let A be a countable alphabet, for example a binary alphabet A = {0, 1}, or a finite alphabet 3 like A = {a, b, c, . . . , y, z}, or an infinite alphabet like the positive integers A = {1, 2, 3, . . . }. Let A∗  n≥1 An be the set of finite words formed with the symbols of A, and for every w ∈ A∗ , let l(w) denote the length of w. Given a word u ∈ A∗ , let uk  u . . . u denote the word that results from concatenating of u with itself k times. A word w ∈ A∗ is primitive if w = uk for some u ∈ A∗ implies k = 1 (and thus u = w). For every word w ∈ A∗ , there exists a primitive word u ∈ A∗ , called the primitive root of w, such that w = uk , and in this case we let l(w)/k be the (minimal) period of w. The first symbol rule is a map ϕ : A∗ → C defined for every w = w1 . . . wn ∈ An ⊂ A∗ as certain composition ϕ(w) of n in which the summands are the discrete time lapses between consecutive occurrences of the first symbol of w within itself. To be precise, let s  w1 and then let 1 = n1 < n2 < . . . < nr(w) ≤ n

(2)

3 This is the case of the class C of integer compositions since they are represented as sequences

of positive integers, that is, the elements of C are words over the alphabet {1, 2, 3, . . . }, i.e., C  {1, 2, 3, . . . }∗ , see [3].

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be the coordinates where s occurs in w, that is, wj = s if and only if j = ni for some i = 1, . . . , r(w). Then the length of the composition ϕ(w) that w induces is r(w) and is defined by ϕ(w)  (n2 − 1, n3 − n2 , . . . , nr(w) − nr(w)−1 , n + 1 − nr(w) ).

(3)

For example, an instance of a binary sequence that that yields the major scale is ϕ(1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1) = (2, 2, 1, 2, 2, 2, 1).

(4)

Thus, we must look at words of length n to define a scale in an n-TET tuning system with the first symbol rule. If we are considering a set X of infinite symbolic sequences, e.g. shift spaces in symbolic dynamics, then we first let the language of X be the set L(X ) ⊆ A∗ of admissible words, i.e. words that occur in the sequences that belong to X , and then map them with the first symbol rule into integer compositions, thus the first symbol rule is a function ϕ : L(X ) → C. The image ϕ(L(X )) is the set of admissible scales of X . An alternative rule can be defined if a distinguished symbol s ∈ A is given that does not necessarily is the first symbol of a word (i.e., we only require n1 ≥ 1). Then we can define the distinguished symbol rule as a function ϕ : An \ (A \ {s})n → C by letting ϕ(w)  (n2 − n1 , n3 − n2 , . . . , nr(w) − nr(w)−1 , n + n1 − nr(w) ).

(5)

For example, the binary sequence (0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1) yields the dorian mode if the distinguished symbol is s = 1. Let us focus on the first symbol rule. 2.3 Modes, Orbitals, and Transversals The modes of a scale consist of all the integer compositions in its orbit under the cyclic shift α : A∗ → A∗ defined for every w = w1 . . . wn ∈ An by α(w)  w2 . . . wn w1

(6)

(here A = {1, 2, 3, . . . }). The orbit of w is O(w) = {α k (w) : k ∈ Z}. For example, the ionian mode, which corresponds to the major scale (2, 2, 1, 2, 2, 2, 1), becomes the mixolydian mode (2, 2, 1, 2, 2, 1, 2) (i.e., these two compositions of 12 are equal modulo a cyclic shift). The cyclic shift equivalence classes (i.e., the α-orbits) of the integer compositions are known as wheels [3]. For example, 6 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 1 and 6 = 1 + 3 + 2 + 1 are both compositions of 6, however they belong to different α-orbits, they are so called independent: they are distinct as wheels. In general, the set of admissible scales of X is not independent nor α-invariant, i.e., two distinct admissible scales may be equal as wheels and a mode of an admissible scale may not be admissible. Nevertheless, we also consider the modes of the admissible scales as being induced by X , i.e. the set of induced scales of X is the union of the α-orbits of the elements of ϕ(L(X )). A set of mutually independent scales that generates the set of scales induced by X is called a transversal. Hence the cardinality of a transversal, the so called transversal dimension dimT (X ), is the number of essentially different scales an instrumentalist would have to learn in order to play all the scales induced by X . The total number of induced scales is the orbital dimension dimO (X ).

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3 Thue-Morse, Fibonacci, and Feigenbaum Scales Recall that the Thue-Morse, Fibonacci, and Feigenbaum binary sequences (see A010060, A005614 and A035263 in [20], respectively) are defined by the morphisms shown in Table 1 (see [11]): Table 1. Substitutions and their fixed points. (M)

Thue-Morse:

φ : 1 → 10 and φ : 0 → 01,

(F)

Fibonacci:

ψ : 1 → 10 and ψ : 0 → 1,

m  lim φ n (1) = 10010110 . . . n→∞

f  lim ψ n (1) = 10110101 . . . n→∞

(G)

Feigenbaum:

χ : 1 → 10 and χ : 0 → 11,

g  lim χ n (1) = 10111010 . . . n→∞

These sequences define languages that in turn define sets of both admissible and induced scales, hence transversals can be found. The 18 admissible Thue-Morse scales were first introduced in [4]. Let us work out in detail the Thue-Morse and the Fibonacci scales in 12-TET tuning system, with modal transversals and orbitals. We also consider the Feigenbaum scales but leave the details to the reader.

Fig. 3. The 18 admissible words of Thue-Morse sequence that start with a 1, with black and white points representing the binary alphabet {0, 1}, and the corresponding compositions. See [5].

Example 1 (Thue-Morse scales). The set M ⊂ C of admissible Thue-Morse scales reported in [5], as integer compositions, consists of the 18 elements shown in Fig. 3. Observe that Oα (m(1) ) = {m(1) , m(4) , m(7) , m(10) , m(14) , m(16) } Oα (m(2) ) = {m(2) , m(5) , m(8) , m(11) , m(3) , m(6) }

(7)

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Fig. 4. A transversal of (admissible) Thue-Morse scales. The names correspond to [17] (if the scale is not a source, the name of the source scale is shown).

and also that the set M \ (Oα (m(1) ) ∪ Oα (m(2) )) = {m(9) , m(12) , m(13) , m(15) , m(17) , m(18) }

(8)

is independent. Therefore, the transversals of M (contained in M ) are the sets formed by M \ (Oα (m(1) ) ∪ Oα (m(2) )) and one element from each of the two α-orbits Oα (m(1) ) and Oα (m(2) ). In particular,   (9) T (M )  {m(1) , m(2) } ∪ M \ (Oα (m(1) ) ∪ Oα (m(2) )) is a transversal of M that is shown in various representations in Fig. 4. There are dimT (m) = 8

(10)

essentially different Thue-Morse scales. Now, the elements of T (M ) are primitive except for scale M6.3 that has length 6 and period 3. Scales M6.1, M6.2, and M6.4 have all length 6 too. All the scales with label M7 have length 7. Hence the total number of induced Thue-Morse scales is dimO (m) = 1 ×

6 + 3 × 6 + 4 × 7 = 49. 2

(11)

♦ Example 2 (Fibonacci scales). First we need to find all the admissible Fibonacci words of length 12. For this, it is well known that the infinite Fibonacci word f has minimal complexity (see e.g. [11]), which means that the cardinality of the set Ln (f) of admissible words of length n is n + 1. Thus, with the aid of a computer, we can easily find through exhaustive search all the 13 elements of L12 (f). Let us split this set into two disjoint parts, namely  L12 (f) = L12 (f, 0) L12 (f, 1), (12)

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according to the first symbol s of the words: the 0-admissible Fibonacci scales F0  ϕ(L12 (f, 0)) and the 1-admissible Fibonacci scales F1  ϕ(L12 (f, 1)). These are shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. The 13 admissible words of the Fibonacci sequence. They are grouped according their first symbol, with black and white corresponding to 0 and 1, respectively.

Observe that when s = 1 we have α(f (1) ) = f (5) , α −1 (f (6) ) = f (8) , and the set

(F) T1  {f (1) , f (2) , f (3) , f (4) , f (7) , f (8) } is independent, and for the case when s = 0, (F) (F) α −1 (f (11) ) = f (13) and T0  {f (9) , f (10) , f (11) , f (12) } is independent. Thus, both T0 (F) (F) (F) and T1 are transversals of F0 and F1 , respectively, and since T0 and T1 are mutu (F) (F) T1 as a transversal of the (admissible) ally independent, we obtain T (F)  T0  Fibonacci scales F  F0 F1 . The elements of T (F) are shown in Fig. 6. Thus (F)

dimT (f) = #T0

(F)

+ #T1

= 4 + 6 = 10.

(13)

Since every element of T (F) is primitive, the orbital dimension of the Fibonacci scales is dimO (f) = (4 × 8 + 2 × 7) + (4 × 5) = 66.

(14)

Observe that the Thue-Morse and the Fibonacci scales are mutually independent. ♦ Example (Feigenbaum scales). A transversal of (admissible) Feigenbaum scales is shown in Fig. 7. We let the reader verify that dimT (g) = 6 and dimO (g) = 28. Again, we observe that the Feigenbaum scales are independent of both the Thue-Morse and the Fibonacci scales. ♦

4 Networks of Symbolic Dynamical Scales Recall that, according to the terminology in [21], an interpolation is the scale that results from interpolating a note between two consecutive notes in a given scale. In

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Fig. 6. A transversal of (admissible) Fibonacci scales (well know scales occur here).

Fig. 7. A transversal of (admissible) Feigenbaum scales.

terms of integer compositions, an interpolation corresponds to a binary splitting, i.e., a substitution of a summand with a composition of itself with exactly two parts. In the representation of scales in the circle of fifths, an interpolation is the polygon that results from adding a new vertex to another polygon. For example, the Thue-Morse scale M6.2 is obtained from the Fibonacci scale F5.1 by interpolating the note F, and we can illustrate this with an arrow from the initial scale to the terminal scale, labeled with the note being interpolated, as shown in Fig. 8 (in the illustration, the underlined entries of the corresponding composition correspond to the binary splitting). Intuitively, in an interpolation, any chord formed with notes from the initial scale would be “compatible” with the notes of the terminal scale. It may be the case, however, that a scale does not result from another scale by interpolation, but some of its modes does: a modal interpolation. For example, in Fig. 9 it is shown how the Fibonacci scale

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Fig. 8. An interpolation between Fibonacci and Thue-Morse scales.

F8.1 results from the Thue-Morse scale M7.4 by the modal interpolation that adds G and then turns clockwise the resulting polygon in the circle of fifths by 7 units, a number that is appended in the edge labelling.

Fig. 9. A modal interpolation between Thue-Morse and Fibonacci scales.

If the difference between the number of notes in two different scales is greater than one, we may still be able to find a sequence of (modal) interpolations that connects the two scales. Furthermore, we can use networks to illustrate the (modal) interpolation correlations between sets of scales, e.g., the symbolic dynamical scales we have considered here. For example, the interpolation network of Feigenbaum scales is illustrated in Fig. 10. The modal interpolation network of the Thue-Morse scales is shown in Fig. 11. The modal interpolation network of Fibonacci scales is shown in two parts in Figs. 12

Fig. 10. Interpolation network of Feigenbaum scales.

Fig. 11. Modal interpolation network of Thue-Morse scales.

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Fig. 12. Modal interpolation network of Fibonacci scales (one-step).

Fig. 13. Modal interpolation network of Fibonacci scales (two-steps).

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and 13, according to steps when scales are grouped and ordered according to the number of pitch classes they possess (that is, according to their length, i.e., the number of summands, if thought as integer compositions).

5 Conclusions Many techniques from symbolic sequences can be used to model structures in music [1, 3, 9, 11, 13, 20]. Networks of scales can be systematically obtained (for example we can mix elements of the Thue-Morse, Fibonacci and Feigenbaum scales and get their modal interpolation networks). The coding rules can vary, like through the intervalic circle map θk , or for example, compare ϕ and ϕ. Other type of networks can be built from operations like substitutions, also combining the methods with other classification theories like [16] is plausible. The sequences used here admit generalizations [14, 19, 22], and there exists an immense source in the Online Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences [20]. Diverse properties of interest, e.g. [7, 10, 15, 18, 20, 21], can be analyzed within sets of symbolic dynamical scales. Extending the scope of all these techniques to rhythmical aspects can be done, see [5, 8, 12, 15]. The interpolation network of all the scales in n-TET tuning system is a lattice, the n-hypercube (the modal interpolation network has further edges, and in general determining the correlations can be nontrivial). Thus here we show ways to obtain scales that form “shapes” in lattices, and this can be implemented e.g. in computer applications or in models of thermodynamic formalism. These are possible instances to motivate future work.

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13. Lind, D., Marcus, B.: Introduction to Symbolic Dynamics and Coding. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1995) 14. Martin, J.C.: The structure of generalized Morse minimal sets on n symbols. Trans. Am. Math. Soc. 232, 343–355 (1977) 15. Milne, A.J.: Exploring the space of perfectly balanced rhythms and scales. J. Math. Music 11(2–3), 101–133 (2017) 16. Nuño, L.: A detailed and a periodic table of set classes. J. Math. Music (2020) 17. Ramos, A.J.: The Universal Encyclopedia of Scales. Independently Published (2020) 18. Romanowska, A.: Algebraic language in the theory of harmony. Tatra Mt. Math Publ. 23, 113–123 (2001) 19. Séébold, P.: On some generalizations of the Thue-Morse morphism. Theor. Comput. Sci. 292, 283–298 (2003) 20. The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences® (OEIS®). https://oeis.org. Accessed 04 Feb 2021 21. Slonimsky, N.: Thesaurus of Scales and Melodic Patterns. Amsco Publications, New York (1947) 22. Tromp, J.: Subword complexity of a generalized Thue-Morse word. Inform. Process. Lett. 54(6), 313–316 (1995)

Mobile Deployment of Electro Acoustic Compositions and Media Artworks Andrew Blanton(B) Center for New Music and Audio Technology (CNMAT), University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720-4206, USA [email protected]

Abstract. One of the principal complications in the performance of electroacoustic music is the need for complex and large sound systems. Working with minimal hardware, P0LARITIES: YOUR REFLECTION IN MYSELF utilizes mobile phone technology and serves as a robust platform for electro-acoustic performance through lightweight and universal hardware installation. The final work resulted in an electroacoustic composition for two percussionists and augmented drums with iOS and LibPD. Hybridizing and augmenting traditional musical instruments provides a compelling path forward but is restricted to either custom instruments or massive computational infrastructure. P0LARITIES: YOUR REFLECTION IN MYSELF acts as a proof of concept for future explorations in the distribution of electro-acoustic music and media artworks by augmenting with mobile phone hardware. Keywords: Mobile audio · Realtime audio · Signal processing · Creative computing

1 Introduction With the recent explosion in mobile hardware, new and novel projects are possible, allowing for explorations that just a few years ago would be impossible. The introduction of ARM processors for mobile, and in particular the ARM4 processing line, have allowed for some important development possibilities both in terms of processing speed and compatible architecture [1, 2]. The P0LARITIES: YOUR REFLECTION IN MYSELF project was successful in building a performance environment that used off the shelf hardware including a single Apple iPad mini (tested and working on both a 2012 with Apple A5 processor and a 2019 with an A12 Bionic processor) [3], a Roland GoMixer [4], and four Korg clip-on microphone pickups [5]. This hardware was accompanied by custom software built with PureData deployed on iOS. The software was able to handle realtime processing of four drums principally using extrapolations on tap line delays. The overall system was fast with delays from the drums to the speakers in less than 40 ms making it suitable for real-time performance.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. D. Khannanov and R. Ruditsa (Eds.): WWMC 2021, CRSM 8, pp. 106–110, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74039-9_11

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2 Deployment to iOS The development of iOS software is relatively straight forward in comparison to development for other mobile platforms including the Android environment because of apple’s restrictive hardware offerings. In this instance, Apple’s ‘closed garden’ approach helped significantly with the development of applications and the distribution across their entire line of hardware. The development of this software happened using Apple’s Xcode with the external library libPD developed by Peter Brinkman [6, 7]. The libPD library allowed for flexible development in the exploration of sonic material for the final composition. The original MAX/MSP book outlines several methods for manipulating tap line delays starting with single sample delays and expanding from there [8]. The P0LARITIES: YOUR REFLECTION IN MYSELF patch has three principal sections each with its own variation on tap line and buffer based delays with pitch bending and feedback. The first two major sections use a tapline delay with feedback, fed into a tapline based pitch shift to create the audio environment. These variations create rich and complex sounds when the drums are fed through them. Two of these were used to allow for blending between the sonic environments helping to avoid sharp sonic changes. The third section uses a buffer-based approach and records longer sections of the performance for playback and manipulation. In this section, the magnetometer (compass) of the iPad was accessed to affect the playback rate of the buffer. This adds another element for the performers to control during performance. Working in this post PC paradigm, mobile computers open new pathways forward for performance and realtime audio. It’s clear that mobile platforms are having a significant impact on the performing arts. But in particular, signal based processing for performance is an area that remains largely unexplored. In many ways, the development of mobile computation is similar to earlier developments in computer music including early signalbased computers like synthesizers and early digital signal processing. Mobile environments present significant pathways forward in the development of computer music and will be discussed in pathways forward and this has all been contextualized by the deep and rich history discussed in the historical context section.

3 Working with Compositional Material The overall P0LARITIES work is a cycle of three works including: I.

P0LARITIES: REMEMBRANCE OF A PAST FUTURE (Planetarium dome installation) II. P0LARITIES: IN THE TWILIGHT OF A POLAR EVENING (Virtual reality installation) III. P0LARITIES: YOUR REFLECTION IN MYSELF (Composition for percussion duo) The three works explore the idea of political polarization and our societies impending planetary climate crisis. The composition for percussion duo, YOUR REFLECTION IN MYSELF was written for percussion duo, working with the poetics of the mirror

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image or a space for reflection. The compositional material uses rhythmic counterpoint to explore this idea. The on-stage set up also emphasizes this concept. The work is written for two percussionists, four drums, and electronics. In the composition, the performers use drumsticks, choreographed movement of an iPad, and their hands on the amplified drumheads. Because of these extended techniques on the drums, the score incorporates some nonconventional notation techniques to more clearly reflect the movement of the iOS device. The data feed produced by the movement of the iOS device modulates the first percussionist’s sound during the performance. The score uses a solid line moving up and down on the percussion staff to denote the picking up and twisting of the iPad by the performer. The two percussion parts closely mirror one another and the rhythms explored in the composition are offset from each other creating contrasting and complementary phase patterns. The work has two main contrasting sections that are bookended by the introduction and the conclusion phrases. These two primary sections oscillate between sharp percussive rhythms and amorphous sound masses created by the percussionists playing the amplified surface of the drumheads.

4 Aesthetics and Computation Augmentation of musical instruments provides an interesting space for understanding how humans situate themselves in 2020. Drums are perhaps one of the most primitive of all musical instruments but are a type of technology. Jaron Lanier postulates that flutes are one of the oldest forms of mechanical computation. P0LARITIES tries to pick up that thread by augmenting the mechanical nature of drums with digital signal processing. This is used poetically to explore our sharply divided political environment as well as our ongoing struggles with climate change. From the art statement for the work: “As we are seeing the melting of the polar caps of our planet coupled with fires in the polar regions seen for the first time in 10,000 years, we also see a society with sharply increased political divisions. The dream of networked technologies was to bring societies together, to connect communities across the globe. Instead, we are seeing technologies used as a force of division, a force of polarization. This is coupled with the dramatic acceleration in fossil fuel consumption is exacerbating the impact that humans have on our environment. Your reflection in myself is part of a larger body of works titled Polarities exploring the impacts of technology on our communities and on our environment”. This work is conceptually exploring our way of seeing the world through technology and our relationship to interactions with technology. If we can consider the real, the physical instrument, the actual, the sound produced by the instrument, and the virtual, the performers interaction with the instrument and the software, we can begin to frame out conceptually the paradigm for interaction explored in the aesthetics of the work. Overall, this work tries to weave conceptually the idea of humans interaction with technology being both extremely powerful while also with potential pitfalls on a global scale.

5 Historical Context All of this work is situated in a long and complex history of signal-based performance. Works like Stockhausen’s Mikrophonie [9] from 1964–65, Robert Ashley’s Wolfman

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[10] from 1964, Lucier’s I am Sitting in a Room [11] from 1969–70, Reich’s Pendulum Music [12] from 1968, into later works like David Tudor’s Pulsers [13] from 1976, or David Behrman’s Figures in a clearing [14] from 1977. Further developments were made with early tools like for digital signal-based processing like CSound [15] developed in 1985 and Max [16] developed at IRCAM [17] in 1987 for development of Pierre Boulez’s works by Miller Puckette. The development of computer music is deeply connected to the development of technologies. Mobile platforms provide a newer platform for the exploration of ideas that have been developing for the past 70 years in computer-based music.

6 Paths Forward The development pipeline for deployment of software continues to evolve and simplify. Robust frameworks like libPD and OpenframeWorks are simplifying development and deployment allowing composers and computer musicians more flexibility in the creation of computer aided performance. Developments in JavaScript are also rapidly shifting what is capable in the browser, and unlike Flash, because JavaScript is open source, it seems to have a lot more longevity. Through the continual reduction in computer size with increases in networking potentials, arrays of computers working in unison at audio rate is now possible, creating even more areas for artistic exploration. All of this is enabled through the development of mobile processors. Currently the ARM architecture and chipset is dominating but with apple moving all of its platforms to a new Apple designed chipset, things could get interesting fast.

7 Conclusions As a proof of concept, P0LARITIES: YOUR REFLECTION IN MYSELF worked well to show that it was possible to deploy an electroacoustic composition on an iPad. But this system is not perfect and points to other types of implementations to achieve the same results. The current principal limitations of this system are three-fold. Firstly, there is a concession in sound quality when compared to running the drums straight into a MOTU 896mk3. The second is that iOS’s audio handling presented significant challenges and the device must be hooked up in the exact order of launching the application, plugging in the lightning connector to the device, and then connecting the 1/8-in. audio connector for the main audio out. If these exact steps are not followed, then the audio handling in iOS will not work correctly. The third is that the development environment of Pure Data [18] is significantly limited in comparison to an environment like Max/MSP. Pure Data, as currently supported, only handles audio and would need to be integrated with another environment such as OpenFrameworks [19] or Unity [20] to produce generative visual content. There are specific aesthetic concerns that this work is trying to address in the context of electroacoustic music. First, laptops on stage can be distracting and ultimately impose on the performance space. Secondly, electroacoustic works create technical debt in that they must be maintained or will no longer be performable. This system works well on a device that is eight years old as well as a current device. That is a positive sign but

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not a guarantee that this composition will be performable in eight years from now with little to no maintenance. The system does work, but there are significant concessions of working within the ARM core architecture. There are some promising developments in the realm of x86 architectures including microcomputers that can run full operating systems. This approach could open many possibilities for a robust system that supports Max/MSP with audio and visual outputs in a small form factor that could travel as a single or multiple node electroacoustic environment as composition.

References 1. What processor or processors do the iPhone models use? https://everymac.com/systems/apple/ iphone/iphone-faq/iphone-processor-types.html. Accessed 24 Nov 2019 2. Apple-designed processors – Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple-designed_pro cessors. Accessed 24 Nov 2019 3. iPad Mini – Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPad_Mini. Accessed 24 Nov 2019 4. Roland – GOMIXER PRO. https://my.roland.com/products/gomixer_pro/. Accessed 24 Nov 2019 5. CM-200 – CONTACT MICROPHONE | KORG (USA). https://www.korg.com/us/products/ tuners/cm_200/. Accessed 24 Nov 2019 6. Interview – Peter Brinkmann & libpd. https://designingsound.org/2013/09/19/interviewpeter-brinkmann-libpd/. Accessed 24 Nov 2019 7. Brinkmann, P.: Making Musical Apps - Real-time Audio Synthesis on Android and iOS. O’Reilly, Newton (2012) 8. Zicarelli, D., Taylor, G., Clayton, J.K., Dudas, R., DuBois, R.L., Pask, A.: MSP Reference Manual. Cycling, London (2005) 9. Mikrophonie I, Karlheinz Stockhausen (1964). https://www.stockhausen-essays.org/mikrop honie1.htm. Accessed 30 June 2020 10. Untitled Mixes and The Wolfman, on Explosions, featuring the Bob James Trio, ESP 1009, 1965 and The Wolfman, Robert Ashley (1964). https://robertashley.org/. Accessed 30 June 2020 11. Lucier, A.: I Am Sitting in a Room. Lovely Music Ltd., New York (1981) 12. Pendulium Music, Steve Reich. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pendulum_Music. Accessed 30 June 2020 13. Pulsers, David Tudor, Festival d’Automne (1976). https://davidtudor.org/Works/works.html. Accessed 30 June 2020 14. Behrman, D.: Figures in a Clearing On the Other Ocean. Lovely Music Ltd., New York (1978) 15. CSound. https://csound.com/. Accessed 30 June 2020 16. Max. https://cycling74.com/. Accessed 30 June 2020 17. IRCAM. https://www.ircam.fr/. Accessed 30 June 2020 18. https://puredata.info/. Accessed 30 June 2020 19. https://openframeworks.cc/. Accessed 30 June 2020 20. https://unity.com/. Accessed 30 June 2020

Musical Instruments and Voice

A Pilot-Study of Chinese Wind and String Instrumentalists’ Intonation Hsien Han Ng(B) and Jer-Ming Chen University of Technology and Design, Singapore, Singapore [email protected]

Abstract. Chinese music has a long and varied musical history, with a diversity of associated musical tuning systems and temperaments documented since antiquity. However, in the modern context, with the rise of the contemporary Chinese orchestra and western-influenced compositional harmonies, there is a need for an understanding of Chinese instrumentalists’ intonation practice and agreement. Accordingly, this study examines the intonation practices of Chinese performers. Seventeen expert instrumentalists (9 winds and 8 strings) were chosen and asked to perform 3 performance tasks in 2 musical keys, and the pitches (n = 1428) extracted. Results show a scale contour favouring a slightly flattened ‘Re’ (–2.8¢), raised ‘Mi’ (+1.8¢) and raised ‘Ti’ (+2.1¢), computed relative to equal temperament. Further, ‘Mi’ (SD = ±7.9¢) and ‘Ti’ (SD = ±8.7¢) differed consistently (and noticeably) amongst wind and string instrumentalists. Subtler traits were also observed, with winds preferring a somewhat raised ‘Fa’ (+2.1¢) while strings preferred pronounced ‘Mi’ (+4.6¢) and ‘Ti’ (+4.7¢). The effect due to different musical key and performance tasks were also analysed and found to have a subtly systematic but minimal effect on pitch consistency. Keywords: Intonation · Chinese instrumentalists · Pitch preference · Music temperament

1 Introduction Playing “in tune” is a basic requirement and expectation of good musical performance (if one plays a pitched instrument, that is), but “in tune” according to who (or what)? In some musical contexts, this means adhering as precisely as possible to a musical temperament, while in other performance practice, it is ensuring intonation is attentively adjusted (dynamically) to the musical context to ensure richness of harmonic and avoid ‘roughness’ or unpleasant beating. Researchers have reported that string instrumentalists do not conform or favour simply any particular tuning system (e.g. Pythagorean, just & equal temperament), but are found to generally follow Pythagorean intonation (Greene 1937; Nickerson 1949). Mason (1960) also reported that wind instrumentalists deviated most from just intonation, with some differences between the groups studied: the professional quintet deviated least from equal temperament while the student ensemble deviated least from Pythagorean tuning. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. D. Khannanov and R. Ruditsa (Eds.): WWMC 2021, CRSM 8, pp. 113–123, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74039-9_12

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Because musical output results from an interaction between the musician’s intended musical objective (and discrimination threshold) and the instrument’s control parameters, it is important to understand both. Previous research shows musicians’ sensitivity in identification of pitch flatness (Vurma and Ross 2006; Elliot 1983; Wapnick and Freeman 1980; Geringer et al. 2015) and a pitch propensity for sharpness (Madsen 1966; Madsen et al. 1969; Mason 1960). On musicians’ pitch discrimination ability, Han (1992) studied 145 musicians and reported most musicians having a pitch discrimination level of –10 to +10 cents (¢) and –38 to +14 cents, when playing in unison and harmony interval respectively. The acoustics of an instrument complicates the concept of pitch discrimination level in musicians, which can then indirectly impact performance output i.e. pitch. Musicians who play instruments whose tones contain many partials can play in tune better than musicians who play instruments whose tones contain fewer partials (Ely 1992). Geringer (2015) reported that wind (trumpet) and string (violin) instruments were judged differently despite being adjusted equally in the same sharp or flat direction. Trumpet was judged as more out of tune as compared to violin when presented between 10 to 30 cents flat. Besides the contribution of musician and their instruments, could the choice of musical performance task e.g. key, direction, melody or harmony also influence intonation? Musical scale direction (ascending and descending) could have an impact on pitch accuracy: Madsen (1966) reported that scale direction was found to affect pitch accuracy with subjects’ vocal cent deviations for ascending scales four times greater than that of descending scales. Duke (1985) reported that direction affects intonation accuracy as intervals tended to expand when performed descending and contract when performed ascending. Sogin (1989) reported similar results where string instrumentalists performed sharper pitch regardless of the melodic direction. Studies on interval performance by string performers (Papich and Rainbow 1974), and vocal and instrumental scalar performance (Madsen 1966; Geringer 1978) also shared similar findings where performers exhibit a propensity for sharpness in intonation. The aforementioned studies focused on players of western instruments and music; in this current study, however, we investigate the performance pitches of musicians who perform on Chinese musical instruments (hereafter referred to as ‘Chinese instrumentalists’), namely the wind instrument Dizi (transverse membrane flute) and string instruments Gaohu, Erhu and Zhonghu (members of the double-stringed spike fiddle family, or simply, Huqin family). With a long musical history of several millennia, Chinese music theory and practice has evolved over various temperaments and scale systems, with the current repertoire of traditional music conforming nominally to pentatonic modes. However, with the rise of the contemporary Chinese orchestra (a phenomena of the modern age) and ingress of western harmony and western-style musical influences, it seems timely to investigate if contemporary Chinese instrumentalists who perform primarily in a traditional musical milieu have a characteristic or identifiable musical tuning (pitch) preference in terms of scale or temperament, which is distinct, consistent and identifiable. The pitch produced on a Dizi is largely controlled by the opening or closing of finger holes on the instrument, resulting in largely discrete steps of pitch. The Dizi is made

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from organic material (non-uniform in shape, typically bamboo) and results in intonation limitations. For the Chinese spike fiddle family instruments, which are unfretted and possess no fingerboard, the two open strings are tuned with appropriate tension to achieve a perfect fifth, and other notes consequently obtained through the musician’s finger placement on the string to vary the speaking length of the vibrating string, resulting in largely continuous pitch control available to the player. Given the different instruments’ workings, acoustic mechanisms and player control parameters, this study seeks to investigate if Chinese wind and string instrumentalists have characteristic or identifiable pitch preferences (cf . scale/temperament), as well as any intonation similarities and differences among them.

2 Methodology Participants were 9 expert wind (Dizi) instrumentalists and 8 expert string (Gaohu, Erhu, Zhonghu) instrumentalists from Singapore. They were identified by the authors, fulfilling at least 2 of the following criteria: • • • •

At least 2 years of working experience in a professional orchestra, or Possess a conservatory level qualification in music performance, or At least 10 years of regular public performance experiences, or Awarded a prize in a reputable national or international music performance competition.

To facilitate the collection of pitch data, three performance tasks in two musical keys (C and G major) were used: scale (ascending/descending), interval of thirds (ascending/descending) and interval of fifths (ascending/descending). These three performance tasks are non-melodically driven and were chosen to minimise possible ‘melodic’ biases, as well as ensuring a good distribution and representation of all 7 degrees of the diatonic scale. Figure 1 shows one of the three performance tasks in G major, as an example.

Fig. 1. An example of a performance task: Interval of fifths performance task in G major, ascending (top line) and descending (bottom line) sequences.

To determine the pitch produced for each note played, a segment of stable pitch was identified by ear and its fundamental frequency then extracted using the frequency analyser function in Adobe Audition CC 2018, which reports pitch accurate to the nearest cent. Because each musician may have a different tonal reference (and preference), to account for this and to consider only relative pitch, all pitches were collated with respect to each individual’s idiosyncratic reference tonic note ‘Do’ when performing each task:

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for ascending sequence, the pitches were compared against the starting lower ‘Do’; for descending sequence, the pitches were compared against the starting upper octave ‘Do’. As an example, Table 1 shows data typical for the three performance tasks in G major. Table 1. Sample pitch data for performance tasks in G major. For each degree of the scale (i.e. ‘Do’, ‘Re’, ‘Mi’ etc.), the raw [absolute] pitch (in Cents) is shown in the upper row, while the relative pitch corrected with respect to the reference tonic pitch ‘Do’ is shown in the lower row. For an ascending sequence, the reference pitch is the lower ‘Do’, while the reference pitch is the upper octave ‘Do’ for a descending sequence. Performance Task Sequence Direction Reference Pitch Do Re Mi Fa So La Ti Do

Scale Ascending Descending G5 + 15¢ G5 + 15¢ +0¢ A5 + 16¢ +1¢ B5 + 21¢ +5¢ C6 + 16¢ +1¢ D6 + 12¢ -3¢ E6 - 5¢ -20¢ F#6 + 17¢ +2¢ G6 + 4¢ -11¢

G6 + 9¢ G5 + 11¢ +2¢ A5 + 11¢ +2¢ B5 + 22¢ +13¢ C6 + 12¢ +3¢ D6 + 15¢ +6¢ E6 + 8¢ -1¢ F#6 + 18¢ +9¢ G6 + 9¢ +0¢

Interval of 5th Ascending Descending G5 + 13¢ G5 + 13¢ +0¢ A5 + 17¢ +4¢ B5 + 22¢ +9¢ C6 + 17¢ +4¢ D6 + 10¢ -3¢ E6 + 1¢ -12¢ F#6 + 17¢ +4¢ G6 - 1¢ -14¢

G6 + 10¢ G5 + 11¢ +1¢ A5 + 16¢ +6¢ B5 + 17¢ +7¢ C6 + 17¢ +7¢ D6 + 14¢ +4¢ E6 + 10¢ +0¢ F#6 + 15¢ +5¢ G6 + 10¢ +0¢

Interval of 3rd Ascending Descending G5 + 13¢ G5 + 13¢ +0¢ A5 + 18¢ +5¢ B5 + 30¢ +17¢ C6 + 31¢ +18¢ D6 + 23¢ +10¢ E6 + 12¢ -1¢ F#6 + 31¢ +18¢ G6 + 7¢ -6¢

G6 + 16¢ G5 + 24¢ +8¢ A5 +22¢ +6¢ B5 + 33¢ +17¢ C6 + 19¢ +3¢ D6 + 22¢ +6¢ E6 + 10¢ -6¢ F#6 + 21¢ +5¢ G6 + 16¢ +0¢

3 Results and Discussions Overall descriptive statistics for all instrumentalists (N = 17) were computed (Table 2), and pitch comparisons and observations are presented and discussed below (Sect. 3.1); behaviour differences between wind and string instrumentalists are also highlighted (Sect. 3.2). Lastly, Sect. 3.3 presents the behaviour of Chinese instrumentalists with regards to our proposed performance tasks. Table 2. Descriptive statistics for all 17 wind and string instrumentalists, with the following computed: mean, standard deviation, average mean and average standard deviation. Degree of scale Do Re Mi Fa So La Ti Do Average Mean ± SD (n = 1428)

All Instrumentalists (N = 17) Mean (cents) SD (cents) -2.8 +1.8 +1.2 -0.7 -0.05 +2.1 -0.1

±4.1 ±7.9 ±5 ±3.6 ±4.6 ±8.7 ±4.1

+0.2

±5.4

Wind Instrumentalists (N = 9) Mean (cents) SD (cents) Reference Note -3.4 ±5.1 -0.7 ±8.1 +2.1 ±5.5 -1.4 ±3.8 -0.8 ±5.5 -0.2 ±10.1 -0.9 ±4.6 -0.8

±6.1

String Instrumentalists (N = 8) Mean (cents) SD (cents) -2.1 +4.6 +0.3 +0.1 +0.8 +4.7 +0.7

±3 ±7.1 ±4.6 ±3.4 ±3.4 ±6.6 ±3.6

+1.3

±4.5

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3.1 Observations Across all Instrumentalists Overall, the average mean pitch of n = 1428 data points over all seven degrees of the scale is practically zero cents (+0.2¢). However, this does not actually mean that our instrumentalists adhere to equal temperament; far from it, this observation breaks down when we consider wind and string instrumentalists separately: overall average mean values associated with each group are –0.8¢ and +1.3¢ respectively, thereby resulting in a combined mean of +0.2¢. Although subtle, Table 2 also shows that wind instrumentalists have slightly wider average standard deviation (SD) (±6.1¢) than string instrumentalists (±4.5¢). Such difference may not be surprising because the instrumentalists’ pitch control (and adjustment) parameters are different: discrete tone-hole fingerings in wind instruments versus continuous pitch adjustment available to unfretted stringed instruments. The overall mean of the upper octave ‘Do’ is approximately zero (–0.1¢) across all instrumentalists, and this is not unexpected, given the universal consonance and persistence of the octave being a simple ratio (2:1) of frequency (Applebaum 1973; Jacoby et. al, 2019) from the tonic pitch (and correspondingly, period fraction and autocorrelation cycles in the time domain). However, the SD of ±4.1¢ is non-negligible (cf . threshold of pitch discrimination in trained musicians), indicating some degree of accumulated “tonal drift” in the instrumentalists’ “pitch memory” or tonal reference across the performance tasks surveyed. Nevertheless, this SD value of ±4.1¢ for the upper octave ‘Do’ is not as severe as those seen in other scale degrees such as ‘Ti’ (±8.7¢) or ‘Mi’ (±7.9¢) – almost double – and such degree of uncertainty may perhaps be even regarded as an indicator of typical pitch consistency to be expected of expert musicians (Karrick 1994; Kopiez 2003; Worthy 2000). Considering SD across the scale degrees, ‘So’ (±3.6¢) is the smallest, but that is again not unexpected, because like the upper octave ‘Do’, ‘So’ is also a simple ratio (3:2) of frequency from the tonic pitch, and the interval of the fifth shares universality of consistency across musical cultures (Chiba et al. 2019; McPherson et al. 2020); unsurprisingly, the corresponding mean value for ‘So’ (–0.7¢) has minimal mean pitch deviation (like the upper octave ‘Do’) and also observed for ‘La’ (–0.05¢). The remaining degrees of the scale, however, show greater mean pitch deviation from equal temperament: ‘Re’ (–2.8¢) and ‘Ti’ (+2.1¢) being respectively the largest, followed by ‘Mi’ (+1.8¢) and ‘Fa’ (+1.2¢); it is worth noting that the values –2.8¢ and +2.1¢ approach the pitch discrimination JND for trained musicians, which is typically ~3–5¢ for musical frequency range (Pierce 1983; Micheyl et al. 2006) and thus could be musically significant. Accordingly, we note here the typical scale contour observed across the 17 Chinese instrumentalists surveyed: • good adherence to equal temperament for ‘So’ and ‘La’, • with a generally flat ‘Re’ but sharp ‘Ti’, and • slightly raised ‘Mi’ and ‘Fa’ scale degrees. Similar to Nickerson (1949) and Mason (1960), our subjects do not appear to conform to any particular musical tuning system but deviates least from equal temperament.

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Fig. 2. Results of performance tasks for wind and string musicians plotted with respect to equal temperament.

3.2 Comparison Between Wind and String Instrumentalists To better understand nuances across the instrumentalists, Fig. 2 compares the pitch data between wind and string instrumentalists respectively. Here, we can observe subtle but consistent differences between the wind and string instrumentalists studied. String instrumentalists (average SD ±4.5¢) seem to show better overall consistency of pitch than wind instrumentalists (average SD ±6.1¢), while also preferring sharper scale degrees (average mean + 1.3¢) than wind instrumentalists (average mean –0.8¢) for every note except ‘Fa’. But as alluded earlier, both upper octave ‘Do’ and ‘So’ show good consistency in both minimal (mean) pitch deviation from equal temperament as well as low SD. Similarly, poorer consistency for ‘Mi’ and ‘Ti’ is seen in the SD for both wind and string instrumentalists (ranging from ±6.6–10.1¢) compared with only ±3.0–5.5¢ for the other notes (cf . the earlier observation above that ±4¢ is typical agreement for instrumentalists), but interestingly only string instrumentalists show a preference for noticeably sharpening ‘Mi’ and ‘Ti’ (+4.6¢ and + 4.7¢, respectively) but not wind instrumentalists, who prefers a slightly raised ‘Fa’ (+2.1¢). Consistent with general observations in Sect. 3.1, the remaining scale degrees for both winds and strings show general agreement with equal temperament and range from –1.4¢ to +2.1¢ (within JND), with the marked exception of flat ‘Re’ shared consistently by both winds and strings (–3.4¢ and –2.1¢ respectively), which is musically and perceptually significant. The biggest difference in the tuning of scale degrees between wind and string instrumentalists are namely at ‘Mi’ and ‘Ti’, having a difference () in mean of 5.3¢ and 4.9¢ respectively. The remaining notes are in fine agreement (0.5 s) in order to perform one complete trembling in 2 strings. Both tremblings can occur repeatedly one after another. All kinds of trembling have in common the technique of rapidly and consecutively striking the strings. Slurring is a general technique in which a player brings sharply and rapidly a finger down on the fingerboard behind a fret, causing a note to sound. Slurring can have subcategories such as legato and hammer-ons. Slurring is a fast performed technique, which requires high familiarity with the instrument. Therefore, this technique can be completely performed just in less than 0.5 s. Of course, slurring can also be consecutive, which means that many complete performances of it occur one after another even while moving between different notes and places in the instrument’s neck.

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Two strings play is the playing (not trembling) of two notes together. In a bowed stringed instrument such as bouzouki, in order to achieve this, one has to play together two strings. Two strings play is used widely in folk Greek music especially on specific genres in order to replace simple one string melodies giving a richer sound. The technique “chord” refers to a set of notes played together. This technique is mostly used to accompany vocals or at the end of songs for final bars. When played to accompany vocal, different chords are usually played consecutively one after another. In the case of using chords to end a song, usually a maximum of 3 different chords are played consecutively. Chord differs from “two strings”, as 3 or more notes are needed in the case of bouzouki in order to play one. In addition, “two strings” play is found more often in solos, whereas chord is found mostly in vocals or at the end of songs.

3 Dataset Description For training our segment-level instrument playing technique classifiers, a training dataset of 500 audio recordings of the five described techniques has been recorded and manually annotated. The training samples were generated by the same player and instrument and recorded using the Audacity software [19] and under the exact same environment (microphone, room). In all cases, the noise was limited to low values. In addition, all audio segments are mono and their length varies from 1 to 4 s. The training dataset is available for research purposes in the Github repository (TrainingData folder). The distribution of total length and training samples per class is presented in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. The distribution of total length and samples per class (training and test datasets).

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In addition, in order to evaluate the ability of the trained classifiers to predict the instrument playing technique in real recordings, a test dataset has been compiled. This test dataset consists of 5 long recordings, which are samples of popular bouzouki songs. They were selected due to their rich content in different techniques that one can play in them. These songs were studied in order to evaluate the parts of them, in which technique could be introduced. After appropriate adjustment, the final samples were recorded with as many techniques as possible. All samples are solo tracks without accompaniment. For each generated test recording, a ground truth file has been created, which describes the technique (or the None class) of each time point of the recording. The test dataset, along with the respective ground truth files are also available for research purposes1 . The total duration of this test dataset is 416 s.

4 Instrument Playing Technique Recognition Using Audio Analysis 4.1 Feature Extraction In this section we describe the implemented approach towards automatic instrument playing technique recognition. As described in Sect. 3, 500 audio recordings annotated in any of the five classes are used as training set. As a first step, the audio recordings are analysed and their audio features are extracted. Audio features extraction is carried out at a short-term basis and then segment-level feature statistics are computed and compose the final segment representation [14]. In particular, the audio signal is first divided into segment-level windows (either overlapping or nonoverlapping) and for each segment a short-term processing is taken place, according to which 68 features are computed (34 features and 34 deltas at a short-term basis). The short-term features are of three categories: time-domain, frequency domain and cepstral domain. The adopted shortterm features are implemented in the pyAudioAnalysis library [15] and are shown in Table 1. Therefore, for each audio segment a sequence of 68D feature vectors is extracted on a short-term basis. These vectors are used to compute segment-level statistics, as the final segment representation. In particular, for each segment, two segment-level statistics are extracted and selected, namely the mean and standard deviation. So, in total, 2 × 68 = 136 audio statistics are used to represent the segments. The mean and standard deviation of these 68 audio features are standard audio features that are used for audio classification and regression tasks. However, the output of the segmentation process and the audio features extraction (audio features) depends on some variables that were selected during segmentation. These variables are the short-term window, the short-term step, the mid-term window and the mid-term step. The segmentation process starts by splitting the audio recording into short frames, which have a size (seconds) equal to short-term window value and an overlap equal to the value of short-term step. For each resulted short-term frame, a feature vector with 68 audio short-term features is calculated. The audio is also divided into mid-term frames. The mid-term frames have a size (seconds) equal to mid-term window value and and an overlap (seconds) equal to the value of mid-term step. Then, each short-term feature vector belongs to a specific mid-term bin. In every mid-term bin, 1 https://github.com/kostispar/InstrumentPlayingTechniqueRecognition.

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the mean and standard deviation of the audio features of all short-term frames inside that bin are calculated. Every mid-term bin has then 128 features. A long term averaging results in a final feature vector with 128 audio features (long-term averaged feature statistics) for the total signal. To classify each 136-dimensional feature vector of each audio segment, five machine learning algorithms have been used, namely: Support Vector Machines (SVM) with linear kernel, SVM with radial basis function (RBF) kernel [16], Gradient Boosting (multiple Decision Trees) [17], Random Forests and Extra Trees [18]. After extensive experimentation on the segment size and overlaps and short-term size and overlaps we decided to keep the parameters 1.0, 0.5, 0.1, 0.05 for midterm window, mid-term step, short-term window and short-term step respectively. Also, a cross validation (10 folds) procedure is performed in order to search for the optimal classifier parameter, that maximizes the training F1-Score and Accuracy. Specifically, for the SVM classifiers, the soft margin parameter C is optimized. The number of trees is the optimized parameter in both Random Forest Classifier and Extra Trees Classifier. In the case of Gradient Boosting, the number of boosting stages is optimized during training. Table 1. Adopted short-term audio features Index

Name

Description

1

Zero crossing rate

The rate of sign-changes of the signal during the duration of a particular frame

2

Energy

The sum of squares of the signal values, normalized by the respective frame length

3

Entropy of energy

The entropy of sub-frames’ normalized energies. It can be interpreted as a measure of abrupt changes

4

Spectral centroid

The center of gravity of the spectrum

5

Spectral spread

The second central moment of the spectrum

6

Spectral entropy

Entropy of the normalized spectral energies for a set of sub-frames

7

Spectral flux

The squared difference between the normalized magnitudes of the spectra of the two successive frames

8

Spectral rolloff

The frequency below which 90% of the magnitude distribution of the spectrum is concentrated

9–21

MFCCs

Mel Frequency Cepstral Coefficients form a cepstral representation where the frequency bands are not linear but distributed according to the mel-scale

22–33

Chroma vector

A 12-element representation of the spectral energy where the bins represent the 12 equal-tempered pitch classes of western-type music (semitone spacing)

34

Chroma deviation

The standard deviation of the 12 chroma coefficients

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4.2 Classifier Training, Prediction and Probability Thresholding As soon as we have the model trained, and in order to apply the trained model on an uninterrupted audio file (i.e. whole song), the test audio recording is broken into segments. Then, each segment is analysed and its features are extracted using the same parameters (segment size and overlap, short-term size and overlap) used during training. Then, the corresponding model is applied on the extracted audio segment features to predict the instrument playing technique class and the respective estimated probability (posterior). This posterior is used as an estimate of the “winner” class’s probability. As a final step, a threshold is applied on this posterior to exclude predictions with low confidence (borderline class winners): if the probability of the winner class in a given segment is greater than the investigated threshold for the particular technique, we keep the classification, otherwise the ‘None’ class is assigned (i.e. no particular instrument technique is detected). Towards this end, a different threshold per class has been used. Thresholds have been selected through a cross validation procedure (10 folds), in order to achieve maximization of the F1 metric per class (e.g. the threshold that maximizes F1 for the “slurring” class has been selected as the class’s threshold) (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Methodology of classifying the segments in the test set.

5 Baseline Classification Results 5.1 Performance Results Precision, Recall and F1 have been extracted after evaluation on the whole testing dataset. In order to evaluate the results, the means of Precision, Recall and F1 for all classes were also computed. The SVM model with RBF kernel with midterm (segment-level) window of 1 s, mid-term step of 0.5 s, short-term window of 0.1 s and short-term step of 0.05 s has been selected as the best classifier (by cross-validating on the training dataset with 10 folds). Also, the selected thresholds are: 0.3, 0.3, 0.6, 0.5 and 0.9 for trembling in one

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string, trembling in two strings, slurring, 2 strings play and chord classes respectively. The above thresholds are selected after extensive experimentation and optimization as the overall classification metrics of each classifier depend on these thresholds. Therefore, for each algorithm, we experimented with different combinations of the class probability thresholds and selected these, which achieved the best average F1-Score. The model achieved an average F1-Score of 86% on a segment-basis on the training data (computed using cross-validation). The overall F1-Score on the test dataset has been found to be equal to 56% between all 6 classes (5 techniques and None). Note that the test dataset is on uninterrupted audio recordings, which means that the error rate also includes possible errors that are due to the temporal resolution of the applied models. The resolution of both the predicted values and the ground truth is 0.5, i.e. half the size of the selected segment size (1 s). The average F1-Score is calculated per segment for all Data together. Figure 3 illustrates the overall normalized confusion matrix of the predictions of the best model on the testing dataset and Fig. 4 the recall, precision and F1 per class. In general, the most dominant misclassifications among the classes are between “trembling in two strings” and “Trembling in one string”. This can be expected, given the similarity of content of these two techniques: both techniques have in common the continuity of string striking but differ in the amount of strings used. However, in very small segments, the continuous strike of 2 strings (trembling in two strings) might not be easy to discriminate from the continuous strike of 1 string (trembling in one string). As a result, 3.7% of the data were misclassified from “trembling in two strings” to “trembling in one string”, which corresponds to 15.6% of the class “trembling in two strings”. Furthermore, 5.5% of the Data (23.1% of the class) were misclassified from “trembling in two strings” to “2 strings play”. These two techniques have practically a lot in common, as both include the striking of exact two strings. 7.4% of the Data were misclassified from ‘None’ class to ‘slurring’, which corresponds to 32.1% of the ‘None’ data. This can be explained by the similarity of these two labels. None refers to simple melodies in one string, while slurring is a technique applied in simple melodies in order to make them sound richer. In contrast to the rest of techniques, Slurring is the only technique which can be applied direct to None segments by just sharply and rapidly bringing a finger down on the fingerboard behind a fret. 5.2 Performance Results with Subjective Misclassification Penalties In order to evaluate the discrimination ability of the classifier also with respect to the similarities of some techniques, normalized penalties are selected. Some techniques have similarities, both in the execution and the sound the make. For instance, in small time segments, a “two strings trembling” and a “two strings play” might sound exactly the same. “Trembling in one” and “trembling in two strings” have a normalized penalty of

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Fig. 3. Confusion matrix of the SVM with rbf kernel model. Values are normalized: each element (i, j) of the normalized confusion matrix is the percentage of information that has been classified to class j, while it belonged to class i.

Fig. 4. Class metrics of the SVM with rbf kernel mode.

0.5 in the case of predicting either as the other one, due to their similarity in trembling motive. “Trembling in two strings” and “2 strings play” also get a 0.5 penalty, as they

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share exact 2 strings. “Slurring” and “None” are also similar and get a 0.5 penalty, as well as “2 strings play” and “chord”. The normalized penalties are shown in Fig. 5. By evaluation of the confusion matrix of Fig. 4 with the new weights of 5, the new (normalized) accuracy is 63% (6% higher than the non-weighted Accuracy) and the average F1 is 61% (5% higher than the non-weighted accuracy. 5.3 Classifier Comparison Figure 6 illustrates the differences in average precision, average recall, accuracy and average F1 for the adopted classification methods. For all metrics, it is obvious that the SVM with RBF kernel method outperforms the others, for the selected feature extraction parameters.

Fig. 5. Normalized penalties for misclassification between classes.

6 Implementation Issues The proposed methodology has been implemented in Python and shared in a public repository. Specifically, the Python library pyAudioAnalysis [15] was used for audio feature extraction, model training and segmentation. Besides pyAudioAnalysis, the libraries numpy [20], pandas [21] and matplotlib [22] were used. A script for training models

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on the training dataset (segment-level) presented above is available for reproduction of results (to train the classifiers). An open-source standalone python script was also developed, in order to classify each segment of a solo bouzouki long recording with regards to the corresponding playing technique. Apart from the training and testing scripts, the repository also contains two pre-trained SVM models, and the training and test data.

Fig. 6. Classifier comparison: average precision, average recall, accuracy and average F1 per classification method.

7 Conclusions - Future Work In this paper, we presented a generic pipeline for recognition of playing technique of the Greek stringed instrument bouzouki. Towards this end, we adopted hand crafted short-term audio features with segment-level statistics to represent each music segment and applied SVM classifiers to recognize the underlying techniques. During testing the classifier on real recordings, we propose using a fixed sized segment (the same used during training the classifier) and a basic probabilistic thresholding step to detect segments that do not contain a particular playing technique (None class). The proposed approach is provided in an open-source Python repository. In addition, in the same repository, we provide both training (segment-level) and testing data, which is also presented in this paper. A demo of the SVM classifier applied on a real recording is demonstrated in this video2 . Extensive experimentation proves that the best model achieved a total Accuracy of 57% including the None class. The average F1-Score is 56%, the average Precision is 65% and the average Recall is 55%. Also, we present a “subjective” evaluation metric according to which some errors are assigned to smaller weights of importance than others. This weighted evaluation led to a F1-Score of 61% and 63% accuracy. 2 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u5Ccj7vwbm4.

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In the future, we plan to introduce of a dynamic programming, or Hidden-Markov Modelling technique, or Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) methodology to also take into account the longer-term temporal correlations between the audio features, which is currently modelled in a very simple way through the segment statistics. The existence of a playing technique in a specific segment often depends on previous or following segments. For instance, it is quite common that slurring occurs mainly after a None class (simple melody) and also that 2 strings play is more possible to be followed by a Chord play. Such dependencies and relations can only be addressed through a sequential architecture that ensures that information persists throughout the time. In addition, new data should be generated for the training purposes of such models, with data augmentation also to be taken into consideration, and with a higher diversity with regards to humans (players), instruments and noise levels. This will help achieve better generalization results.

References 1. Lostanlen, V., Andén, J., Lagrange, M.: Extended playing techniques: the next milestone in musical instrument recognition. In: Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Digital Libraries for Musicology, p. 10 (2018) 2. Chen, Y.P., Su, L., Yang, Y.H.: Electric guitar playing technique detection in real-world recording based on F0 sequence pattern recognition. In: International Society for Music Information Retrieval, pp. 708–714 (2015) 3. Chen, S.H., Wu, S.H., Lee, Y.S., Lo, R., Wang, J.C.: Hierarchical representation based on Bayesian nonparametric tree-structured mixture model for playing technique classification. In: Proceedings of the on Thematic Workshops of ACM Multimedia 2017, pp. 537–543 (2017) 4. Reboursière, L., Lähdeoja, O., Drugman, T., Dupont, S., Picard-Limpens, C., Riche, N.: Left and right-hand guitar playing techniques detection. In: International Conference on New Interfaces for Musical Expression (2012) 5. Su, L., Lin, H.M., Yang, Y.H.: Sparse modeling of magnitude and phase-derived spectra for playing technique classification. IEEE/ACM Trans. Audio Speech Lang. Process. 22(12), 2122–2132 (2014) 6. Abeßer, J., Lukashevich, H., Schuller, G.: Feature-based extraction of plucking and expression styles of the electric bass guitar. In: 2010 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing, pp. 2290–2293 (2010) 7. Abeßer, J., Schuller, G.: Instrument-centered music transcription of solo bass guitar recordings. IEEE/ACM Trans. Audio Speech Lang. Process. 25(9), 1741–1750 (2017) 8. Young, D.: Classification of common violin bowing techniques using gesture data from a playable measurement system. In: International Conference on New Interfaces for Musical Expression, pp. 44–48 (2008) 9. Barbancho, I., de la Bandera, C., Barbancho, A. M., Tardon, L. J.: Transcription and expressiveness detection system for violin music. In: 2009 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing, pp. 189–192 (2009) 10. Liang, B., Fazekas, G., McPherson, A., Sandler, M.: Piano pedaller: a measurement system for classification and visualisation of piano pedalling techniques. In: International Conference on New Interfaces for Musical Expression (2017) 11. Herrera, P., Yeterian, A., Gouyon, F.: Automatic classification of drum sounds: a comparison of feature selection methods and classification techniques. In: International Conference on Music and Artificial Intelligence, pp. 69–80. Springer, Heidelberg. (2002)

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12. Prockup, M., Schmidt, E.M., Scott, J.J., Kim, Y.E.: Toward understanding expressive percussion through content-based analysis. In: International Society for Music Information Retrieval, pp. 143–148 (2013) 13. Wang, C., Benetos, E., Meng, X., Chew, E.: HMM–based glissando detection for recordings of Chinese bamboo flute. In: Sound and Music Computing Conference. 14 Konstantinos Paraskevoudis and Theodoros Giannakopoulos (2019) 14. Giannakopoulos, T., Aggelos, P.: Introduction to Audio Analysis: A MATLAB® Approach. Academic Press, Cambridge (2014) 15. Giannakopoulos, T.: pyaudioanalysis: an open–source python library for audio signal analysis. PLoS One 10(12), e0144610 (2015) 16. Theodoridis, S., Pikrakis, A., Koutroumbas, K., Cavouras, D.: Introduction to Pattern Recognition: A MATLAB® Approach. Academic Press, Cambridge (2010) 17. Duda, R.O., Hart, P.E., Stork, D.G.: Pattern Classification. Wiley, New York (2012) 18. Theodoridis, S.: Machine Learning: A Bayesian and Optimization Perspective. Academic Press, Cambridge (2015) 19. Audacity Homepage. https://www.audacityteam.org/. Accessed 17 Oct 2020 20. Harris, C.R., Millman, K.J., van der Walt, S.J., Gommers, R., Virtanen, P., Cournapeau, D., Kern, R.: Array programming with NumPy. Nature 585(7825), 357–362 (2020) 21. Reback, J., McKinney, W.: Pandas–dev/pandas: Pandas 1.1.2. Published online 8 September (2020). https://pandas.pydatay.org/. Accessed 17 Oct 2020 22. Matplotlib Homepage. https://matplotlib.org/. Accessed 17 Oct 2020

Approaching the Problem of National Strata Ratio: Statistical Analysis Methods for Assessing Vocal Chamber Repertoire in Russia of the First Half of the 19th Century Marina Gennadievna Dolgushina(B) Vologda State University, Vologda, Russia

Abstract. This article, based on statistical analysis of the information obtained from the sheet music publishing catalogues and sheet music trading catalogues, analyzes the ratio of national strata in the vocal repertoire of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. Its goal is to draw the attention of researchers to catalogues as a little-known and insufficiently demanded historical source and to characterize the dynamics of the ratio of national strata in the vocal repertoire of Russia from the beginning to the middle of the century. The article lists catalogues identified during the research process, characterizes their contents, proposes possible approaches to working with them, notes the difficulties that arise when studying them. The dynamics of the national strata ratio is demonstrated based on the statistical analysis of six catalogues of K.P. and P. Lehnhold for different years (from 1806 to 1843) and a catalogue of A. Gabler for 1846. This analysis confirmed the value of catalogues as a historical source. On the basis of statistical analysis of the data, conclusions have been drawn about the gradual quantitative increase of the Russian vocal chamber repertoire and the decrease in the Italian one (but at the same time, a temporary rise of interest in it at the turn of the 1810–1820s), the constant interest of Russian society in French vocal chamber music and the stability of the volume of the German repertoire, oriented at ethnic Germans living in Russia. The proposed method of research may be of interest to source researchers and can be extended to studying other genre varieties of musical art of the first half of the 19th century. Keywords: Vocal chamber music · Repertoire · Catalogue · Russia · 19th century

1 Introduction The first half of the 19th century is an important period in the history of Russian vocal chamber music. The vocal chamber genres have most fully reflected the spirit and worldview of the era; Russian romance has formed as an independent genre by the mid-1820s and its first classical samples appeared in the 1830–1840s. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. D. Khannanov and R. Ruditsa (Eds.): WWMC 2021, CRSM 8, pp. 137–143, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74039-9_14

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However, the level of study of the Russian vocal culture in the first half of the 19th century cannot claim to be complete and exhaustive. One of the obvious lacunae is the insufficiency of information about the vocal repertoire, in which the works of composers famous today were a noticeable part, but small in quantitative terms. The purpose of this study is to characterize the vocal repertoire based on statistical analysis of unique historical sources: catalogues of publishers and sellers of sheet music. The objectives of the study are: 1) to draw the attention of researchers to the new historical source; 2) to characterize the national layers that make up Russian vocal repertoire of the first half of the 19th century. As we know, the national layering was a feature of the Russian culture during the period under study: art lovers were well aware of the specific features of Russian, French, Italian and German music. A large number of scientific works is devoted to the vocal culture of Russia of the first half of the 19th century. The object of the research of scientists of the early 20th century and Soviet music scholars was the legacy of composers of the second quarter of the 19th century, who composed vocal music to Russian poems. Fundamental monographs of B.V. Dobrokhotov about A.A. Alyabyev [1], N.A. Listova about A.E. Varlamov [2], O.E. Levasheva about M.I. Glinka [3], M.S. Pequelis about A.S. Dargomyzhsky [4], S.K. Bulich about N.A. Titov [5] contain voluminous sections dedicated to vocal chamber works. An extended monographic article by B.V. Dobrokhotov and A.N. Glumov is dedicated to the works of A.A. Plescheev [6], a research by M.P. Alekseev to the work of A.D. Zhilin [7]. O.E. Levasheva through the prism of playing music in the circle of A.A. Delvig considered romances and songs by M.L. Yakovlev [8]. The devoted to vocal chamber music works of a generalized nature analyzed, mainly, the works of the same composers and investigated their influence on the style of national song traditions [9–13]. For a long time, the vocal culture of the first quarter of the 19th century was almost not studied. Having received the title of “the era of amateur romance” at the end of the 19th century, it was characterized as an intermediate link between the period of the birth of the Russian romance and “the beginning of its artistic flourishing” [14, p. 3]. In addition, during the Soviet period, the Soviet vocal chamber music of the first half of the 19th century was considered out of touch with the European art. Some aspects of the interaction were noted, not from the point of view of intercultural communication, but as “the dominance of foreign influences” associated with “the requirements of a thoroughly “French” aristocracy” [11, p. 214]. In the musicological works of the last two decades, the analysis of the interaction of Russian and European origins became the subject of research, but, still, only in relation to the works of famous authors. The problem was posed by E.M. Petrushanskaia in connection with the “Italian” opus of M.I. Glinka [15], E.M. Levashev and A. Vinogradova in terms of the comparative characteristics of the work of F. Schubert and A.A. Alyabayev [16], M.A. Bukrinskaya when studying the stylistic features of early Alyabyev’s romances [17]. The names of most composers, whose works made up the repertoire of salon and household music-making, remained little-known or completely unknown. Introduction of information about them and their works to scientific circulation will allow not only to form a holistic view of the repertoire of household vocal chamber music, but also to systematize it using different approaches, including in terms of national composition and dynamics of its changes. The results of the study allow us to consider the Russian romance emerging during this period in a broad historical context and in the future will

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make it possible to determine the points of its interaction with the French, Italian and German vocal chamber genres.

2 Materials and Methods To study the vocal chamber repertoire, we will use materials not yet well-known to musicologists-historians: catalogues of publishers and sellers of music. They were published regularly and were one of the ways to advertise the produced (offered to the buyer) sheet music products. Among other historical sources, such as music editions, handwritten notes, mentions in memoirs, correspondence, and periodicals, catalogues provide the most complete representation of the vocal repertoire in general. The reliability of the information contained in them is due to the fact that both the publishers and sellers of notes closely monitored the interests of music lovers. Without focusing on the aesthetic tastes and preferences of buyers, their businesses would inevitably face commercial collapse. Catalogues of Russian publishers and sellers of music of the first half of the 19th century are unique printed editions, in single copies preserved in the funds of the largest libraries in Moscow and St. Petersburg. They range from small brochures to books containing over 300 pages of text. The information contained in them is divided into sections corresponding to different types and forms of music making. During the study, 23 catalogues were found: catalogues of K.P. and P. Lehnhold of 1806, 1814, 1816, 1820, 1823, 1828, 1834, 1843, 1845; catalogue of O.-J. Dalmas of 1815; catalogues of G.N. Reinsdorp of 1818,1821, catalogue of the music library of K.F. Richter of 1826; catalogues of K.K. Schildbach of 1833, 1842, 1843, 1847, 1848; catalogue of I.I. Groesser and A.A. Miller of 1836; catalogues of Groesser of 1842, 1847; catalogue of A. Gabler of 1846; catalogue of K. Grotrian and A. Lang of 1848. Almost all the catalogues found contain sections devoted to vocal chamber music: their presence and significant volume confirm the popularity of this form of musicmaking. The vocal sections of the catalogues contain last names and sometimes initials of the composer, genre and name of the work, its cost, allowing to make a rough idea of its volume, and very rarely information about the author of the lyrics and the year of publication. The research work with catalogues is laden with a number of difficulties. Last names nay contain typos; initials, mainly, are missing. Some collections (“Recueil de romances…”, “Choix de romances…”) do not specify the numbers of works in them. The analysis of catalogues should therefore be supported by information from other sources, and the general trends identified from their study may contain a small degree of error.

3 Results The information contained in the catalogues confirms the national layering of Russian culture of the first half of the 19th century. Information on the vocal chamber compositions is contained in the sections “Musique (or “Pièces”) pour le chant français”, “Musique pour le chant italien”, “Musique pour le chant allemand”, “Musique pour le chant russe”. Sometimes the sections have internal rubrication: that is especially relevant

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for the French sections of catalogues of the first quarter of the century and shows the special popularity of French vocal music during these years. In the later catalogues there is a tendency to shorten Italian sections and merge them with the French ones. The conciseness of the information presented in the catalogues is compensated by its quantity. The most promising way to work with this material is statistical data processing. Using statistical analysis methods, we can answer a number of important questions concerning the national and genre affiliation of the vocal chamber repertoire; the general characteristics of the composition of authors of vocal chamber music; problems of assimilation of European music in Russia; the appearance, existence, disappearance of certain genre varieties of vocal art; popularity of individual composers and their works, etc. As an example of the use of this method, the dynamics of quantitative change of Russian, French, Italian and German vocal sections from the beginning to the middle of the century will be demonstrated.

4 Discussion The material for analysis will be Lehnhold’s catalogues for 1806, 1816, 1820, 1828, 1834, 1843 [18–23]. Figure 1a shows the percentage of composer names in the Russian, French,

Fig. 1. a. The ratio of composers in Lehnhold’s catalogues. b. The ratio of musical works in Lehnhold’s catalogues

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Italian, and German sections. Figure 1a demonstrates the ratio of musical works. The percentage of the number of composers and musical works of each section is highlighted with color, the columns are directly marked with absolute figures. These figures show a consistent expansion of the volume of Russian sections, a decrease in the significance of German and Italian ones (but at the same time, a temporary rise in interest in Italian singing at the turn of 1810–1820s, probably associated with the surge in popularity of Italian opera music, especially the operas of G. Rossini) and the relative stability of the French ones. They clearly confirm the information available in other sources that the Russian romance acquired a firm place in Russian vocal culture only since the 1830s. The stability of the German sections is due to the fact that the German-language vocal literature was intended primarily for ethnic Germans living in Russia who sought to preserve national cultural traditions. We should note that the data of the 1806 catalogue with its dominant German section are not an adequate reflection of the tastes of the Russian singing lovers. It is natural to assume that in the early years of

Fig. 2. a. The ratio of composers in Gabler’s catalogue. b. The ratio of musical works in Gabler’s catalogue

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his work in Russia, Lehnhold maintained particularly close ties with publishing houses in Austria and Germany. Despite the establishment of Russian vocal lyricism in the1830s and 1840s, Russian vocal culture was characterized by a diverse repertoire throughout the first half of the 19th century. In particular, A. Gabler’s 1846 catalogue, the most voluminous catalogue of the discovered, confirms this [24]. Figures 2a and 2b reflect the decline of the Italian share of the vocal repertoire, the stability of its French part and the rise of the Russian one. The considerable quantitative advantage of the German opuses with a relatively small number of their authors is due to the sale of works by F. Kücken (more than 50), K. Loewe (more than 60), H. Proch (more than 80), C.G. Reissiger (more than 130), F. Schubert (about 90), R. Schumann (about 30).

5 Conclusions This analysis confirms the high value of catalogues of publishers and sellers of sheet music as a unique historical source. Based on the statistical analysis of the data presented in the catalogues, it is possible to draw conclusions about the change in tastes of music lovers, the density of a certain stylistic layer, the possibility of influence of European models on the emerging Russian vocal chamber music, etc. The proposed method of working with sheet music catalogues may be of interest to source researchers and can be extended to studying other genre varieties of musical art of the first half of the 19th century. The work with catalogues was carried out in the department of music publications and sound recordings of the Russian State Library, the Russian State Library Book Museum, the department of sheet music and music recordings of the Russian National Library, and the department of the rare books of the Library of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The author of the article expresses deep gratitude to the employees of these departments. The author is particularly grateful to Tatiana Fedorovna Muzychuk [25], head of the sector of sheet music of the department of sheet music and music recordings of the Russian National Library.

References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Dobrokhotov, B.V.: Alexander Alyabyev. Creative way. Music, Moscow (1966) Listova, N.: Alexander Varlamov. Music, Moscow (1968) Levasheva, O.E.: M.I. Glinka 1–2. Music, Moscow (1987, 1988) Pequelis, M.: Alexander Sergeevich Dargomyzhsky and his entourage 1–3. Music, Moscow (1966, 1973, 1983) Bulich, S.K.: Grandfather of Russian romance N.A. Titov, St. Petersburg (1900) Glumov, A.N., Dobrokhotov, B.V.: Alexander Plescheev. Musical Legacy, vol. 4, pp. 28–72 (1976) Alexeyev, M.P.: To the question of A.D. Zhilin, Russian musician of the early 19th century. History of Russian Music in Research and Materials, no. 1, pp. 106–113 (1924) Levasheva, O.E.: Music in A.A. Delvig’s circle. Issues of Musicology, vol. 2, pp. 323–360 (1956)

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9. Vasina-Grossman, V.A.: Russian classic romance of the 19th century. Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Moscow (1956) 10. Durandina, E.E.: Chamber vocal genres in Russian music of the 19th and 20th centuries: Historical and style aspects. The Gnesins RAM, Moscow (2002) 11. Levasheva, O.E.: Vocal chamber music. In: History of Russian Music, no. 4, pp. 209–235. Music, Moscow (1986) 12. Levasheva, O.E.: Folk origins of everyday romance. Song collections by D.N. Kashin, I.A. Rupin, A.L. Gurilev. In: History of Russian Music, no. 5, pp. 132–146. Music, Moscow (1988) 13. Ovchinnikov, M.A.: Romance in Russian culture of the 19th century (the main genrestylistic trends of Russian vocal lyrics and the problems of its interpretation). Moscow State Conservatory, Moscow (1993) 14. Findeisen, N.F.: Russian romance of the 1800–1840s. Manuscripts Department of the RNL. Fund 816. Inventory 1, no 526 15. Petrushanskaia, E.M.: Italian opuses of M.I. Glinka of the St. Petersburg period. Poetics and metamorphoses. In: Glinka, M.I. (ed.) To the 200th Anniversary of His Birth 1, pp. 126–133. Moscow State Conservatory, Saint Petersburg State Conservatory, Moscow (2006) 16. Levashev, E., Vinogradova, A.: Franz Schubert and Alexander Alyabyev (experience of comparative characteristics of vocal chamber creativity). In: Musical Culture: XIX–XX, pp. 19–54. Trovant, Moscow (1998) 17. Bukrinskaya, M.A.: Alabyev and his romances. M.A. Bukrinskaya, Moscow (2017) 18. Catalogue de musique chez Charles Lois Lehnhold magasin de Musique et des instruments. Rue Illinsky, maison de Rossius, vis-à-vis de la Boutique Nurenbergeoise à Moscou. Lehnhold, Moscou (1806) 19. Catalogue and the first addition of various sheet music sold from Karl Pavlov Lehnhold in Moscow, in his music shop in Plotnikov’s house, opposite from the Nirenberg shop. Lehnhold, Moscow (1816) 20. Catalogue of various sheet music sold from Karl Pavlov Lehnhold, in Moscow, in his music shop, situated on Ilyinka in Plotnikov’s house. Lehnhold, Moscow (1820) 21. A large catalogue of various sheet music, musical instruments and other things sold at Karl Pavlov Lehnhold, in Moscow, on Ilyinka in Plotnikov’s house. Lehnhold, Moscow (1828) 22. Musical news of the 1834 year, sold at Karl Pavlov Lehnhold in Moscow, on Ilyinka in Plotnikov’s house. Lehnhold, Moscow (1835) 23. Nouveautes en musique. Music news sold at Pavel Lehnhold in Moscow. Lehnhold, Moscow (1843) 24. Catalogue general du magazine de musique et cabinet de lecture de A. Gabler. À pont de Casan, maison d’Engelhardt, l’entrée du coté du Canal. Gabler, Saint Petersburg (1846) 25. Muzychuk, T.F.: Materials for the study of sheet music publishing business in Russia. In: Sheet Music Publishing in the Musical Life of Russia (Russian music editions of the late 18th – first half of the 19th century), pp. 9–50. RNL, Saint Petersburg (1999)

Musical Pedagogy and Medicine

Music Activities as Tempo-Rhythmic Culture of Personality Development Technology Andrei A. Bogatyrev1(B) , Elena G. Milyugina2 , and Dmitry S. Komarov2 1 Institute of International Education, Moscow Pedagogical State University,

119991 Moscow, Russia [email protected] 2 Institute of Pedagogical Education and Social Technologies, Tver State University, 170100 Tver, Russia

Abstract. The immediate purpose of the study is to disclose the technology of theoretically grounded, logically consistent and successive interplay of interrelated music activities, targeted at tempo-rhythmic components of personality formation and development. This development is treated as possessing a major educational and personal tuning function, exceeding the narrow confines of music practices per se and providing for attaining deep and crucial personality development targets. The article purports the definition of the notion of the tempo-rhythmic culture of a person, as well as theoretical elaboration and empirical testing of an instructional design technology scheme. The notion of the tempo-rhythmic culture of a person is specified as an integrated personal quality, viewed as a holistic complex of three closely interconnected/interwoven components. Each component requires its own criticism in the context of the semiotics of the artistic whole. These components are: the rhythm (queried “What to play?”), tempo (queried “When to play?”), coordination skills (queried “How to play?”). The experimental research results provide evidence of plausibility of the background hypothesis of the study, stating that the tempo-rhythmic activity under purposefully constructed art and music milieu can form tempo-rhythmic culture as universal integrate subsystem of human personality. Another important empirical research outcome is justification of the derivative hypothesis, based on the claim that personal tempo-rhythmic culture can be formed successfully although not necessitated by any productive music activity (such as playing musical instruments etc.). The experimental research has provided objective evidence of efficiency of three-stage instructional technology used for tempo-rhythmic components of personality formation.

1 Introduction Anthropometric concept of music activities and music arts admits a view on human development as a process of finding harmony of a person (conceived as microcosm), their complex environment (conceived as macrocosm), and the universe (conceived as megacosmos). This harmony is built on the basic concept of some adaptation mechanism, fostering human involvement, socialization, development and creativity in compliance with intense complex interplay of rhythms and tempos of universe. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. D. Khannanov and R. Ruditsa (Eds.): WWMC 2021, CRSM 8, pp. 147–161, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74039-9_15

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The problem of the research is both theoretical and applied one. In spite of the fact of rich philosophic tradition of treating the harmonious order of the universe, known both in the West (Pythagoras, the Neo-Platonist etc.) and in the East (e.g. Confucius versus Laotzu), a wholesome practical instructional design technology of personal development, based on general human ability to adapt to and further develop the sets of rhythms of universe is still missing nowadays. The central notion of such a technology should be the tempo-rhythmic culture of a person (personality). The tempo-rhythmic culture of person is a subject of interdisciplinary research, performed on the crossroads of psychology, neuroscience, philosophy and culture studies, dedicated to issues of human socialization and vocationalisation, one’s ontogenesis, selfdevelopment, and spiritual power. The immediate purpose of this study is to disclose the technology of theoretically grounded, logically consistent and successive interplay of interrelated music education activities, targeted at tempo-rhythmic components of personality formation and development. This development is treated as possessing a major educational and personal tuning function, exceeding the narrow confines of vocational or vocationally biased music practices per se and providing for attaining deep and crucial personality development targets.

2 Literature Review There can be distinguished four major approaches, dedicated to studies of temporhythmic nature of human personality. The first one belongs to aesthetic theory, viewing it within frame of establishing proportionality and harmony between human individual (i.e. microcosm) and the social and cultural world, conceived as macrocosm. This approach can be found in works of V. G. Vlasov, A. I. Makarov, D. R. Yavorsky [13, 23, 26]. The second one approach is inherent in music and art criticism, pursuing the dynamics of creative rhythms of the musician within “pendular motions” in variety of influential music culture’ styles, represented in the works of D. I. Chizhevsky, H. Rieamann, V. N. Kholopova [6, 9, 17]. The third one is neuroscientific approach to studying psychology of creativity, paying attention to interconnectedness and productive interaction between chosen tempo-rhythmic patterns and vocationalization and professional selfactualization of musician in creative methods and creative heritage/music masterpieces. This aspect has benn investigated in works of K. S. Stanislavsky, E. V. Nazajkinsky, as well as Eric Barr, Mark Westbrook, J. Devin McAuley etc. [4, 14, 16, 19, 25]. There finally comes the applied semiotics approach, used in methodology of teaching eurhythmics, choreography, musical composition skills, scenic speech, actor’s plastic movement on stage etc., presented in works of G. E. Bagdasar’jan, N. I. Efremova, E. V. Golova, K. V. Tarasova and other researches [2, 7, 8, 21]. It should be pinpointed that the first three major approaches in investigating temporhythmic components of personal development largely belong to Arts Chronotope (the conceived structured unity of meeting place of space, time and meaningful activity, introduced by Russian Scholar Mikhail Bakhtin [3]). It reflects some universal creative personality agenda. The fourth approach is dedicated to methodological issues of some technical skills formation, development, and performance. This approach (and agenda) is goal-centered, pragmatic and instrumental. The special analytical and instructional

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techniques, introduced by the followers of the fourth direction of studies allow to diagnose some specified individual features of a person and to form successfully a set of desired skills. Such methods as ‘rhythm-and-breath’, ‘rhythmical games’, ‘rhythm-andplastics’, ‘eurhythmics’, ‘rhythm-and-word’, ‘rhythmic geometry’, ‘rhythmic image of the environment’, dancing rhythms, musical instrument rhythm performance (T. P. Varlamova, D. G. Savov, A. A. Lipatov etc.) [12, 18, 22] etc. belong to the fourth direction of research and instructional design. The four major approaches appeal to harmony. However, it cannot be asserted today that humanity has finally bridged the gap between some individual indicators and measurable variables and particular instructional techniques on the one part, and existing demand for holistic development of creative personality of the youth, on the other part. Thus, the phenomenon of the tempo-rhythmic culture of the individual remains an underinvestigated subject of interest, not well-equipped with corresponding diagnostic and formative instructional programs. Elaboration of the hypothesis of the study en gros involves two key stages and two components – firstly, defining the notion of the tempo-rhythmic culture of a person (personality); secondly, designing an instructional design technology scheme and conducting empirical research in order to test its efficiency. The background hypothesis of the study is that the tempo-rhythmic activity under purposefully constructed art and music culture milieu can form tempo-rhythmic culture as universal integrate subsystem of human personality. The derivative hypothesis of the research is that personal tempo-rhythmic culture can be formed not necessitated by any productive music activity (such as playing musical instruments etc.). There is no need in finding authority in the widespread opinion giving priority of the rhythm and tempo and other musical structural patterns of auditory perception to players of musical instruments rather than average music event audience. However, it has been stated that even among musicians a certain “emploi” (French word for person’s occupation and the job one does) can make a differences. In a study of auditory space perception the authors T. F. Münte, W. Nager, T. Beiss, C. Schroeder, E. Altenmüller came to conclusion that conductors appear to have greater sensitivity for peripheral sound sources than pianists, and the drummers showed more complex representation of the temporal aspects stimulus sequence [15]. And at the same time it has been acknowledged in research literature that even mere music lovers may have a chance in developing competitive listening skills. E. Bigand suggests that when the experimental setting requires participants to process musical structures, the large audience of untrained listeners exhibits sophisticated musical abilities that are similar to those of musical experts and that musically untrained listeners are “experienced listeners” who use the same principles as musical experts in organizing their hearing of music [5]. The derivative hypothesis of the research embraces the idea of successful implementation of the task of forming the tempo-rhythmic culture of person not involved in professional interest of learning to play musical instrument or sing on stage.

3 Materials and Methods The study is performed with regard to anthropocentric and systemic approaches in treating human capacity of music arts reception and reproduction. The key methodological

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principles of research have been introduced in activity theory, developed by Lev Vygotsky (the ideas of leading activity and proximal development zone) and Alexey Leont’ev (the idea of meaning construction and meaning deconstruction in human goal-centered activity) [11, 24]. Another underlying idea, that one of tempo-rhythmic culture and tempo-rhythmic personality was inspired and elaborated in the works of Konstantin Stanislavsky, Danila Savov, Eric Barr, and Mark Westbrook [4, 18, 19, 25]. There is an obvious gap between desired analysis of tempo-rhythmic patterns development within the human personality system (as well as its diagnostics and development strategies) and the interdisciplinary definition of human tempo-rhythmic activity as the missing link in corresponding educational design. Therefore the range of tasks of the research includes the following items: 1) to specify the interdisciplinary concept of tempo-rhythmic patterns within the human personality (development) system; 2) to hypothesize and elicit the influence of musical rhythmic activity on personal tempo-rhythmic patterns; 3) to formulate a definition of tempo-rhythmic culture of a person; 4) to specify and tune (or even correct) certain significant details of the current system of knowledges and sets concerned with modelling interconnection between music, its psychological and social functions and personal self-development potential; 5) to develop a three-stage instructional design technology targeted at tempo-rhythmic culture of a person formation; 6) to test empirically the background and the derivative hypotheses of the study by applying of an elaborated instructional design technology targeted at temporhythmic culture of a person formation. The theoretical research methods included: literature review; hermeneutic circle technique; deduction; conception elaboration; definition of key terms and notions; hypothesizing; modelling the technology scheme and elaborating in detail both theoretical justification and minor methodological issues and techniques. In order to ensure attainability of the objective of the research the notion of temporhythmic culture of a person was regarded as key component of learners’ educational experience and empirical enquiry conducted in Russian secondary educational institution (English Gymnasium). The research design was based on introducing a complex structured three-stage model of tempo-rhythmic culture of a person as an entity, disclosed as an integrated set of descriptors. The set of personal tempo-rhythmic culture descriptors, represented in a net of measurable variables laid the basis for both designing empirical research and elaborating an instructional design program aimed at fostering tempo-rhythmic preparedness and skills of the learners. The empirical research methods included application of expedient testing techniques, based on such measurable variables as following the tempo, following the rhythms, showing good individual coordination skills; formative pedagogical experiment; conducting observations and analyzing the questionnaire.

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3.1 The Base of Empirical Research The formative experiment was conducted on the basis of English Gymnasium No. 44 in Tver city (Russia). The tempo-rhythmic culture of a person indicators was checked in the focus group of 7th grade school students – teenagers aged 13 years. There were used two groups of learners – the experimental group and the control group of approximately the same level of tempo-rhythmic skills preparedness and the same (but one) number of students. The measurements were collected in the time span from February 2019 to February 2020. Music was not a major or somewhat privileged educational school subject in the groups of learners. The learners did not attend any extra classes in music or get some extracurricular education in singing or playing musical instruments. 3.2 The Two Hypotheses of Research The background hypothesis of the study is that the tempo-rhythmic activity under purposefully constructed art culture milieu can form tempo-rhythmic culture as universal integrate subsystem of human personality. The derivative hypothesis of the research is that personal tempo-rhythmic culture can be formed not necessitated by any productive (vocational) music activity (such as playing musical instruments etc.). 3.3 The Key Concepts of Research As a result of theoretical study the key terms of the research have been defined as follows. The rhythmic culture of a person is an integrated entity, targeted at establishing proportionality and harmony of a person and the person’s sociocultural environment as well as timely interaction with it in the form of successful adaptation and mutual regulation. The rhythmical culture of a person is viewed as providing for successful self-actualization of a person both in labor and entertainment contexts. The productive forms of creativity (as a writer, music player, dancer, actor, designer, composer, inventor etc.) are viewed as particular instances of successful self-actualization/self-fulfillment of a person. The tempo-rhythmic culture (or the ‘tempo-rhythmics’) of a person is regarded as the crucial underpinning for developing the rhythmical culture of a person. This base is viewed as an innate individual tempo-rhythmic pattern, which can develop to perfection under the condition of person’s involvement into goal-centered systemic cultivation and improvement process. Comprehension of theoretical construct and practical skills acquisition of rhythm and tempo unity by learner contributes to formation and development of the learner’s personal tempo-rhythmic culture. The first component can be viewed as cognitive, while the second can be viewed as a dynamic projection and a practical performance of the idea nested in the first. These two together are to answer such primary questions as “What to play?” and “How to play it?”. The tempo-rhythmic culture of person is an integrated personal entity, based on steady personal necessity of individual as a learner to develop one’s capacity of successful performance of activity (or multiple activities). It is implemented in mastering physical, psychic, social and spiritual elements of personal potential and stamina. These four components of personality are to be treated in their inextricable interrelatedness and

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interconnection, supported by rhythmic nature of thinking and moving powers, implemented in time and space environment. The development of the four elements of human personality can be viewed as a matter of proper elaboration, creation and implementation of instructional design program. A three-fold model can be used as a methodological tool for the tempo-rhythmic culture of a person development. The authors of the article claim that the tempo-rhythmic culture of a person must be investigated and described as a complex entity, a holistic complex of three closely interconnected/interwoven components. Each component requires its own criticism in the context of the semiotics of the artistic whole. These components are: the rhythm (queried “What to play/enact?”), tempo (queried “When to play/enact?”), coordination (queried “How to play/enact?”). Below a more detailed consideration will be imparted on each of each component of the tempo-rhythmic culture model. The rhythm component (queried as “What to play?”) involves the analysis of methods for constructing rhythmic figurations, including all the variants known to date. This also includes the theoretical base of the stylistic grooves developed to date (various musical cultures specific and recognizable features of the rhythm) – starting from marches and classical dances (bolero, mazurka, minuet, waltz) and going on to modern rhythmic forms. This component can be interpreted as a static basis for the formation of tempo-rhythmic culture, the cognitive component of personal tempo-rhythmic competence. The category of time is valid in the rhythm component, yet it depends on the ratio of sound and pause that make up the rhythmic pattern. One can claim that the timing is conditioned by the rhythm pattern. This predominant patterning principle may admit some irregularities when parsing and memorizing the music piece. The tempo component (queried as “When to play?”) is a dynamic fulfillment of rhythmic patterns in real life performance. As a matter of fact, it admits modifications. The tempo is closely related to the meter (schematically conceived as evenly alternating beats), since the key category here is time. The shorter the time interval between beats, the faster the tempo is, and vice versa. The difficulty in mastering this component is that timing is challenged by rhythmic irregularities. This component is related to the concept of time intensity. It should be noted that time can be viewed as nonlinear and its flow can be viewed as relational. These features can be reflected in the following two terms: ‘double time’ and ‘half time’. If one takes the second hand of a clock-face as a guiding instance of reference, the rate of movement of which is 60 beats per minute, then the double-time will make it 120 beats per minute, and the half-time will correspond to 30 beats per minute pulsation. The rhythmic figurations subject to tempo changes, introduce the style shift of the music piece as a holistic entity. Thus, a triplet pulsation at 60 beats per minute may remotely resemble a blues groove, but the same sort of pulsation in 120 beats doubletime is more likely to fit shuffle rock or lezginka groove patterns. It needs to be pinpointed that today there are no generally accepted methods for forming learners’ sense of the pace and sense of the pace shift. There are only three generally accepted labelling terms for assessing the pace as slow, moderate and fast. This promitive and relational technique cannot be efficient for developing person’s sensitivity to subtle shifts in tempo. And this

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methodological gap can negatively affect the quality of performance in a lame tendency to unduly accelerate or decelerate/slow down the pace. The coordination component (queried as “How to play?”) is both connected to tempo and rhythm competences and human somatic skills. The “know- how” skills embraces personal bodily mechanics of the learner (posture, managing hands and fingers techniques etc.). Another extension is connected to one’s ‘personal tempo comfort zone’, allowing for predicting and controlling a series of coming s in music events and corresponding moves. These two imply one’s endurance capacity based on personal stamina. A properly tuned coordination apparatus provides a confident pace implementation and the feeling of easiness in the execution of rhythmic patterns/movements in its utmost form become impeccably pure and natural. Within propoesd model of person’s tempo-rhythmic culture formation the three key parts and stages can be distinguished: adaptation, retention, improvisation. These have been used as three structural stages of pedagogical experimentation. The first stage is that of adaptation. It is associated with the adjustment of the coordination apparatus. The task lies in adapting it to the music and specifying ways and techniques of controlling it (at a slow pace). It is standardly based on the pace of humans’ usual daily practices – 50–60 beats per minute. This slow pace training may seem somewhat easy (dedicated to mastering a rather elementary skill), but it also helps to elicit the problem of learners’ uncontrolled movements. Due to the slow pace, this stage can be assessed as quite time-consuming in the lesson. However, the productivity of this part of a lesson was empirically evidenced as high to be compared to lessons, omitting application of this technique. Without it, a sense of a clear tempo core may not be successfully attained and developed by learners. Omitting this tuning procedure would cause the learner’s coordination apparatus work unevenly, preconditioning failures and errors in the future. The tempo core is the basis and essence of the instructional methodology, and the starting point in organizing further stages of the development of tempo-rhythmic culture. As soon as the coordination apparatus is set up properly, and the feeling of comfort is attained, the instruction can proceed to the second stage. The second stage is that of retention. This one includes mastering the tempos of 70, 80, 90, and 100 (the double-time of 50) beats per minute. The privileged focus is set on keeping the tempo. It is based on the skills, formed at the first stage of instruction. The measurable variable used is based on assessment of learner’s ability to keep the right pace smoothly. The acceleration skill is trained step by step. This stage is viewed as less time-consuming than the previous one. The third stage is improvisation. In classical and modern music, durations are conventionally divided into two: first, there comes the whole, then halves, quarters, eighths and sixteenths; then there come some smaller durations which can be used as melismata in classical music compositions. There are also conditional divisions by 3, 5, 7, etc. In the latter case, the group of sixteenths seems especially interesting. Using these durations as sounding ones, and then replacing some of them with pauses at different time intervals, one can get eight rhythmic combinations. At the stage of improvising pulsation of the group of sixteenths would produce the comfort zone, because by breaking the beat of the metronome into smaller durations, one can form personal perception (a sense of/a

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feeling) of transition from the main tempo to half-time or double-time. So, the pulsation of sixteenths at a tempo of 50 allows one to master it as half-time in relation to 100 tempo and double-time in relation to the tempo of 200. The same way 60, 70, 80, and 90 beats tempos can be mastered. Using a complex of eight rhythmic combinations, one can adapt with ease to the doubled tempo. Application of this approach makes the Melzel’s metronome linear scale function as a three-level one. So one can trace the pulsations of quarters, eighths and sixteenths, which makes it easier for perception, analysis and mastering of the rhythmic material, which has long been presented cumbersome in traditional manuals (see, for example: [1, 10, 25]. Now based on the clear idea of the grouping, it makes possible to accelerate the pace without difficulty. Moreover, the division into smaller durations allows the learner to hear well the pulsations of the double and half tempos. This point contributes to formation in the coordination apparatus an idea of the tempo and its shifts on cognitive layer and then finally contributes to the development of good timing, coherence and perfection of coordinated actions, like that a reliable clock mechanism. The third stage allows implementation of all the previously incrementally formed skills, since the sense of tempo formed in various pulsations allows one to experiment with various short-stretch rhythmic patterns and contributes to the development of patterned templates for more complex compositions. The patterns, in turn, are filled into ‘musical loops’. As a result, going on from studying the musical rhythmic alphabet through mastering the tempo-rhythmic system, the learner can move further on to mastering the level of musical phrasing and to proceed to creatively forming various intricate branches of rhythmic style grooves.

4 Results The placement testing of learners’ tempo-rhythmic culture was carried out in February 2019 on the basis of the Gymnasium No. 44 in Tver city (Russia); the study involved 55 school students aged 13 years (grade 7). The basis of the complex diagnostic program was the auctorial diagnostics system “Stomp-response”, elaborated by Dmitry Komarov. “Stomp-response” made it possible to measure such indicators as the ‘sense of pace’ (following both the tempo or shift of tempo), sense of rhythm and rhythmic memory, coordination and then track their further development in the process of implementing the formative instructional design program. The inspiring prototype of the approach can be found at https://stomponline.com/STOMP site [20]. The tempo-rhythmic culture concept is based on the tight interconnection between the three components – sense of pace (tempo), rhythmic memory, and rhythmic coordination. This three-fold model allows one to test and track personal changes in the formation of the tempo-rhythmic culture of learners. At the initial stage of experiment processing of the pre-test results of individual learners’ diagnostics within the experimental group (EG) had shown the following status quo measurements: • the tempo component – high level of preparedness elicited in 20% of learners, an average one – elicited in 80% of learners, while the low level was not detected;

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• the rhythmic component – high level of preparedness elicited (5% of learners), above average (25%), average (60%), low (10%); • the coordination component – high level of preparedness (5% of learners), above average (25%), average (40%), low (30%). Processing of the results of individual learners’ diagnostics within the control group (CG) had shown the following status quo measurements: • the tempo component – a high level of readiness elicited in 12% of learners, an average one level of readiness – elicited in 88% of learners, while low level of readiness was not revealed; • the rhythmic component – high level of readiness elicited in 12% of learners, above average level in elicited 40% of learners, medium level of readiness elicited in 28% of learners, low level of readiness elicited in 20% of learners; • the coordination component is high in 10%, above average in 20%, medium in 40%, low in 30% (Table 1).

Table 1. Comparison of educational outcomes in experimental and control groups of learners.

The overall sum of the points for all the tests taken into account, 80% of learners showed average level of tempo-rhythmic culture formation/preparedness, 10% above average level and 10% low level. One of the problems elicited was the learners’ general tendency to unduly accelerate at a slow pace tempo, as well as the learners’ general tendency to slow down at a fast pace. Another remarkable issue elicited was that the majority of students of both groups had shown a comparatively low level of progress in development of the coordination apparatus in comparison to other indicators of the

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components. It might be accounted tentatively as an inherent personal feature with restricted dynamics potential. However, this needs a special investigation. At the next stage the program of tempo-rhythmic culture formation was tested (February 2019–February 2020). Based on newly formed learners’ perceptions on the music theory primary foundations proper adjustment and reorganization of the thinking and coordination processes were carried out. The learners demonstrated better performance – the acquired skill of hearing temporal pulsation and mastered their sensitivity and skill to identify minor tempo shifts and lags. The artificially constructed audio-visual educational environment laid the base and worked as showroom and an augmented reality interactive tool for tracing interconnectedness of temporal and spatial continua and eliciting good timing in rhythmic pulsations [20]. The competence the learners had acquired is termed ‘rhythmics’. The learners managed to identify the standard tempo and worked on slowdown in order to practice conscientious management of coordination apparatus and differentiated interaction with various surrounding environment tempos. Following the experience of ensemble rhythmic interaction, the schoolchildren identified the pace of various processes in their daily routine and managed to proportionate their activity with them. At the final stage of the program (February 2020) the control measurements were performed. The performed comparison of the results of the initial and final levels of the tempo-rhythmic culture of students reflected a sizeable increase in the level of its indicators formation in the experimental group. This also resulted in significant improvements in the development of learners’ coordination apparatus and a decrease in tempo lag. At the same time the measurable variables of the same indicators in control group had not changed significantly. These results featured efficiency of the instructional temporhythmic culture formation technology applied and tested in the experimental group of learners (Table 2). The pre-experimental monitoring of leaners’ competences and performance had been conducted on the base of learners’ musical and rhythmic activity. At the final stage of pedagogical experiment conducted the output level of development of the tempo-rhythmic culture of learners was tested. However, in order to test the idea that programmed and guided musical activity contributes to the formation of tempo-rhythmic culture as a universal characteristic of the personality, we had to trace how successfully the knowledges, skills and especially preparedness mastered by schoolchildren were transferred from the sphere of musical activity proper to other spheres of daily and educational activity. To test this transfer, we conducted a questionnaire survey of the teachers of various school subjects, who had been teaching their subjects in the experimental and control groups. Filling in the questionnaire, the teachers noted that learners of the experimental group managed to form an integrated characteristics of this particular group, which included pace of thinking was formed, the level of synchronization of students with the teacher in general educational work increased, a set of basic skills necessary for a flexible trajectory for choosing, adopting and retaining a certain pace of working during the school-day was formed, depending on the performance of the teacher and the class, the day of the week and the time of the lesson in the schedule. This traced trend towards successful socialization and internal tempo-rhythmic coordination of the educational class as a team

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Table 2. Comparison of educational outcomes in experimental and control groups of learners at the final of experiment.

of learners confirms the background hypothesis of usefulness of the technology applied in learners’ daily life contexts of various activities and modes of social interaction. As a result of the technology-based instructional program implementation, the group developed an integrated collective subject with a set of certain shared common temporhythmic characteristics, amenable to influence and changes in the conditions of a specially created auditory-visual environment. This also confirms (at least partly) our background hypothesis that tempo-rhythmic activity in a purposefully constructed environment of artistic culture can form a tempo-rhythmic culture as a universal integrable subsystem of the human personality structure. In order to test the derivative hypothesis idea (the one that the formation of a personality-rhythmic culture is possible without productive/vocational musical activity), we analyzed the hierarchy of learning values settings. In standard practice, the patterns of musical rhythm are mastered along the way, as expedient applied skill in the lessons of playing musical instrument and/or singing, at solfeggio classes etc., meanwhile the comprehension of rhythm as one of the key organizing factors in culture and self-realization of a personality inevitably would remain on the outskirts of attention focus… We put the rhythm in the center of attention of schoolchildren as a key factor in the organization of thinking and movement of the personality in time. We turned to music as a supporting tool for managing time flow. And we chose the human body as a primary percussionnoise instrument, supplementing its capabilities with improvised means: hands clapping, stamping feet, etc. In the lessons the learners composed simplistic grooves by applying sounds from the surrounding world (shuffling foot, clattering keys, clicking their tongues or fingers, etc.), making “music” out of noises. By technique of complicating the task of thinking in dynamics, not only rhythmically/linearly/horizontally, but also

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poly-rhythmically/non-linearly/vertically, students learned to perceive their body in the context of environmental pulsating rhythms of the macrocosm.

5 Discussion The empirical research results point to the fact that the elaborated tempo-rhythmic activation instructional design program provides formation of learner’s representations of tempo-rhythmic pattern on such levels as visual, audial and coordinative ones. This program supplies learners with a universal tool for mastering a vast range of real life human activities. Educational outcomes of the tempo-rhythmic activation program can be used and further developed both in school and in practical life contexts. Such school educational courses as ‘musical education’, ‘singing’, ‘rhythmics’, and ‘physical education’ come first. There are a number of reasons why. Firstly, they deal with metrics, which preconditions accountability and smoothness of performance. Secondly, learner’s awareness of plurality of style helps one to grasp and specify the stylistic features of the subject of the study. Identifying the tempo and rhythmic patterns facilitates the learner’s perception and interpretation of the study matter (eliciting the key elements and reproducibility of them within the system of the subject of the study). These special learning skills contribute to formation of learner’s holistic perception and representation of the matter. As a result, the learning process tends to become easier, more controllable and less time-consuming. The tempo-rhythmic basis remasters the system of individual’s ideas about routine actions and activities. This means that students learn (or develop their own skills) to calculate, to work out and coordinate their forces required for solving the topical tasks. The benefits of tempo-rhythmic skills are not limited to health and stamina issues. High performance of tempo-rhythmic skills and competences also involves development of person’s reflective abilities, taking into account the pace of the world outside and inside, preparedness to make rational decisions and not to succumb to emotional pressure of the moment. This adds to controllability and successful management of wide span of human activities. 5.1 Extended Applicability of Results The tempo-rhythmic activation program acquired skills can be applied in extracurricular activities – such as playing musical instruments, at poetry club meetings, in martial arts groups and in aerobics practices. Students can apply the acquired knowledges and skills in extracurricular and leisure activities, in sports, running, swimming, in mastering various skills and practices, such as yoga, qigong, which require endurance, diligence, personal stamina, good coordination skills under conditions challenging human vestibular apparatus and somatosensory system. Combining the tempo-rhythmic activation program with scenic speech classes proved beneficial not only for articulation rhythm and self-control, but also for development of musicality in pronunciation and diction. This additional function is in demand not only in the eloquence lessons, but also in cantillation, recitation, or narration performance, in doing DJ job and (quite predictably) in such popular genres and styles as those referring to Rap or hip-hop musical culture.

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The application of the acquired skills is outreaching and exceeds by far the frame of mere educational agenda. However it could prove fruitful in various life-long learning contexts, such as increasing typing speed, for example. It has been observed with a number of learners that tempo-rhythmic activation program has influenced positively the speed typing acquisition process and has also bolstered increase in speed typing with experienced typists. 5.2 Limitations of the Study The sampling of the experiment participants was restricted in number (which never exceeded 55 students). All the learners who took part in experiment were generally quite motivated and ambitious English gymnasium students. The value of genetic etc. factors may need some extra attention and investigation, and the efficacy of application of some individual methodological techniques some closer supervision. The results acquired appeal for longitudinal study of the long-term impact on the adaptive and creative skills and performance of the students of experimental group.

6 Conclusion The proposed three-stage instructional technology used for tempo-rhythmic components of personality formation proved its productivity. The empirical research results received have provided evidence in support of the background hypothesis of our research: temporhythmic activity under purposefully constructed art culture milieu can form personal tempo-rhythmic culture as universal integrate subsystem of human personality. The empirical research has also confirmed the derivative hypothesis of the study – that personal tempo-rhythmic culture can be formed successfully even when not necessitated by any productive/vocational music activity (such as composing, singing or playing musical instruments). The acquired results and conclusion are most likely to be overturning a most widely acknowledged assumption of a person’s involvement into productive/vocational music activity as a sine qua non condition for personal tempo-rhythmic culture development. The immediate results of the study provided the experimental of confirmation of the derivative hypothesis. They help to clarify the concept of universalistic tempo-rhythmic component of human personality, to specify its influence on the music and rhythmic activities and impart new valuable details to the current system of knowledges and practices concerned with modelling interconnection between music, its functions and personal self-development potential. Acknowledgments. The researchers express gratitude to the administration of Gymnasium No. 44 (Tver, Russia) and all participants of experimental study.

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Hemodialysis Patients Care by Means of Audiotherapy Nina Pavlovna Vanchakova, Natalia Valerjevna Krasilnikova, Elizaveta Aleksandrovna Vatskel(B) , and Anna Artemjevna Babina Chair of Pedagogy and Psychology, Postgraduate Education Faculty, Pavlov First Saint Petersburg State Medical University, 1197022 Saint Petersburg, Russia

Abstract. Hemodialysis treatment is long-lasting, exhausting, and has many side effects. Patients need to be taught how to cope with stress, fear, anxiety that may arise during the hemodialysis session. Psychological and educational support is oriented at increasing patients’ tolerance to the hemodialysis session and correcting patients’ psychological state during the hemodialysis session. It can be provided with the help of audiotherapy (listening to special combinations of music, nature sounds, and further discussion of their psychological state with the specialist). The objective of the study is to evaluate the therapeutic effect of audiotherapy on anxiety and the attitude to dialysis sessions (as a part of adherence) in hemodialysis patients in comparison with the patients who receive standard care. A total of 90 patients took part in the research (the experimental group consisted of 43; the control group consisted of 47 patients). Patients from the experimental group received 20-min audiotherapy-influence during each hemodialysis session. They were also taught how to use the results of audiotherapy listening (not only listen to it passively but also study to realize the feeling that arose and how to consolidate the results obtained). After audiotherapy that lasted for 3 months a statistically significant decrease in state anxiety in the experimental group was found. No statistically significant differences were found in trait anxiety when comparing experimental and control groups. The analysis of the interview results showed that the patients had a positive experience during the playlists listening. Audiotherapy can be seen as a psychological and educational tool that has the potential to help the patient to withstand the exhausting treatment session: to lower levels of state anxiety, to structure the session duration, and to make the perception of treatment more positive. Keywords: Music therapy · Audiotherapy · Adherence to hemodialysis · Anxiety · Patient support

1 Introduction Chronic renal disease represents a serious medical, social and psychological problem and is increasingly rising in the population worldwide (Lange et al. 2017; Tonelli and Riela 2014). Chronic renal disease corresponds with mortality risk (Tonelli 2006; Weisboard et al. 2004) and lowering of patient’s quality of life (Dabrowska-Bender et al. 2018). © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. D. Khannanov and R. Ruditsa (Eds.): WWMC 2021, CRSM 8, pp. 162–174, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74039-9_16

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Chronic renal disease is divided into five stages. Stage 5 is called end-stage renal disease, it is connected with high mortality and is fatal unless treated properly (Elsharif 2011). End-stage renal disease is a state that requires substitutive renal therapy such as kidney transplantation, hemodialysis, peritoneal dialysis of which hemodialysis is most commonly used. In fact, end-stage renal disease patients have to live under the conditions of “artificial life”, when sustaining therapy is the key factor of the patient’s survival (Vanchakova 2004). Hemodialysis patients experience various problems such as chronic pain, chronic itch, anemia, asthenia, nausea, muscle cramps, sexual difficulty, sleep disturbance (Weisboard et al. 2004). Over the past decade, great progress has been made to improve the quality of therapy provided to hemodialysis patients. Pharmaceutical achievement and new technical models of kidney machines are produced to make the procedure more and more efficient. Regular dialysis procedures allow patients to save their lives, but prolonged sessions often cause stress. Such patients are concerned the most about the threat of losing their independence. The point is that all these patients are almost completely dependent on medical personnel and their relatives. Often, they have to give up working or studying only because of the fact that at least 3 times a week they should give time to this procedure. As a result, their rhythm of life changes completely, because they need to follow a certain schedule, which in no case can’t be avoided. Thus, it creates a complex situation that involves biomedical, social, psychological, ethical issues. The biopsychosocial model of health promoted by the WHO declares concern not only for problems of body functioning but also for problems of the psychological and social well-being of a person (according to the Constitution of the World Health Organization 2006). Thus, it is obvious nowadays that we should not only think how to provide the physical well-being of patients but also how to help them to get through the stressful situation of disease, especially the chronic one. It’s important to think about how to provide a dignified quality of life for the patient. It is also important to note the fact that patients meet various types of deprivations and challenges. They need the physical or psychological support of relatives and personnel, there may appear maladjustment to new conditions and social attitudes, professional and financial difficulties, problems in family relations (Shangolian et al. 2012). The procedure of hemodialysis can be accompanied by complications and gastrointestinal, bone, neurological pathologies (Rizzo et al. 2012; Hammer et al. 1998; Baretto et al. 2006, etc.). Experts recommend such patients to regularly consult a psychologist. It is especially necessary when there are obvious troubles of behavior, prolonged depression, and other problems that are directly related to physical limitations or adaptation to this rhythm of life (Davison and Jhangri 2005). During the hemodialysis session patient may experience various unpleasant conditions such as fear, anxiety, boredom, increase or decrease in blood pressure, etc. The doctor for each patient determines the duration and frequency of sessions individually. In most cases, hemodialysis is carried out three times a week and takes a minimum of four hours.

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Thus, hemodialysis patients should receive not only treatment in a narrow sense but also care. Care can be understood as a complex of medical efforts itself, psychological support, patient education, social help, respecting patient’s rights, etc. The standard hemodialysis care team includes physicians (nephrologists, endocrinologists, renal dietarians, etc.), nurses, biomedical technicians, clinical managers, psychotherapy specialists. The team may also include social workers, clinical occupation therapists, music therapists, and other specialists as additional staff. The structure of additional stuff may vary according to the country and its national specifics. It is obvious that a person-centered approach is necessary while taking care of hemodialysis patients. One of the important directions of care is psychological care (Bath et al. 2003). Chronic renal disease patients under hemodialysis have various psychological peculiarities due to the disease and its consequences: these patients have high levels of depression, and anxiety (Kohli et al. 2011; McDade-Montez et al. 2006), chronic pain and itching syndromes (Akhiani et al. 2005; Davison 2003). They may also have affective disorders, psychosomatic conflicts (Vanchakova 2004a, b). All these problems can affect patients’ compliance (Kimmel et al. 1998). Thus, the need for psychological support for these patients is evident. Patients need to be taught how to cope with stress, fear, anxiety that may arise during the hemodialysis session. Patients require support that may help them to withstand the hemodialysis session and to change their attitude towards the hemodialysis treatment. In fact, these patients should acquire a new lifestyle and should be taught how to live in new circumstances. This involves not only a psychological but also an educational dimension of care. One of the key problems is forming new cultural patterns for living under conditions of chronic illness that is connected to adherence to hemodialysis procedure. Such educational efforts may include not only patient education within special classes but in a broader sense patient’s shift of attitudes towards treatment and promoting adherence. The problem of adherence in hemodialysis patients is a complex one as it is strongly connected with various medical, social, and psychological factors (Ghimire et al. 2015). As a result, psychological and educational efforts oriented at teaching to cope with psychological problems seem to help a patient on the way to finding a new lifestyle under conditions of chronic illness. One of the possible ways of maintaining this type of care and support is through music influence. Music has a profound effect on emotions. This feature has become the reason for the development of various areas of music therapy and audiotherapy, which are aimed at the formation of positive emotions and stabilization of the autonomic nervous system. Being a non-invasive method of influence, music therapy offers great opportunities for working with different groups of patients in order to improve compliance and psychological adaptation.

2 Literature Review The concept of music therapy in the literature is addressed in the following way. According to the definition given by American Music Therapy Association - music therapy is the clinical and evidence-based use of music interventions to accomplish individualized goals within a therapeutic relationship by a credentialed professional who has completed

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an approved music therapy program (American Music Therapy Association). Music therapy can be used in various surroundings including hemodialysis environment. It includes such forms as active and passive (receptive) one. Active music therapy implies active music producing (i.e. singing, playing musical instruments performed by a patient with the help of a specialist). Passive or receptive music therapy supposes music listening to reach the therapeutic effect. There may also be integrative forms, where music can be used with other forms of art such as painting or dancing (Shushardjan 2009). Receptive music therapy is most commonly used in hemodialysis patients due to the peculiarities of the patient’s rather restrained condition during the session. There appear studies dedicated to music therapy appliance in hemodialysis patients (Cantekin and Tan 2012; Itoh et al. 2002; Bechert Caminha et al. 2009; Kim et al. 2006; 2015). These studies show that music can be an effective tool in lowering anxiety, influencing depression, helping patients to withstand treatment duration. We propose to use not only music but also the sound of nature to provide a more complex audio influence. The therapeutic effect on music regarding neurophysiology is covered in a number of studies (O’Kelly; Kotchoubey). For example, Kotchoubey B. et al. in the review state that music can act as a starting point of rehabilitation in patients with disorders of consciousness as it can reach basic levels of patients’ self-consciousness, induce emotions, affect the dopaminergic reward system and motor-system (Kotchoubey et al. 2015). O’Kelly et al. (2013) while studying music as a therapeutic intervention revealed certain physiological responses in research subjects (patients with disorders of consciousness and healthy subjects), drawing attention that further studies are needed for exploring music therapy potential. Neurophysiological foundations of music effect receive certain coverage. Studies show that it can activate the reward-system of the brain (Blood and Zattore 2001; Gebauer et al. 2012), affect neurobiochemical parameters of blood (Sharma and Mathur 2011), cardiac rhythm, respiratory rhythm and skin temperature (Decker-Voigt 2003). Listening to sounds of nature brings patients relaxation and helps to shift from the hospital environment. Ribeiro et al. found that listening to sounds of nature combined with music leads to various psychophysiological reactions that promote relaxation (lowering of blood pressure, heart rhythm, breathing rate, raise in arterial oxygen saturation) (Ribeiro et al. 2014). Cutshall S.A. et al. showed that listening to sounds of nature produces a relaxation effect and lowers anxiety in patients after cardiological surgery (Cutshall et al. 2011) In the study conducted by Brauchli relaxation effect of nature sounds listening in healthy people was found (Brauchli 1993). The combination of music and sounds of nature selected in a special way we call audiotherapy. Audiotherapy can be regarded as a tool that helps a patient to withstand hemodialysis session and to make the psychological state during the hemodialysis more comfortable by means of its components – music, and sounds of nature. One of the main aims of audiotherapy is to change the attitude of a patient towards a hemodialysis session, in particular, lowering the anxiety level during the procedure and helping to distract from hospital surroundings. It can be done by teaching the patient how to perpetuate the condition of relaxation and how to reach self-regulation during the treatment session.

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Thus, the effect appears by a combination of audiotherapy listening itself and special educational support that included relaxation skills forming.

3 Objective The objective of the study is to evaluate the therapeutic effect of audiotherapy on anxiety and the attitude to dialysis sessions (as a part of adherence) in hemodialysis patients in comparison with the patients who receive standard treatment/care.

4 Methods The research was conducted at the hemodialysis department of the Pavlov First Saint Petersburg State Medical University. For the study, a group of patients with chronic end-stage renal disease receiving hemodialysis treatment was selected. 90 patients who received hemodialysis treatment were examined. In the examined group there were 41 women and 49 men, age 51 ± 14,07, the duration of hemodialysis was 6,89 ± 6,15 years. The social status of the patients was heterogeneous. The experimental group included 43 patients (21 male, 22 female), age 50 ± 15,14, the duration of hemodialysis 5,49 ± 5,54. The control group included 47 patients (28 male, 19 female), age 46 ± 12,72, the duration of hemodialysis 3,04 ± 1,3. For the diagnosis of patients, the following methods were used: Beck depression scale, the state-trait anxiety inventory Spielberger, Lazarus test “Stress and coping model”, Level of subjective control scale (an adaptation of Rotter’s locus of control scale by E.F. Bazhin, E.A. Golynkin, L.M. Etkind, that enables to study locus of control in various social spheres – (Bazhin et al. 1984). These methods were used to obtain more specific data about a patient and led to specialize audiotherapy playlist according to the peculiarities of each patient. Interviewing was used to receive more precise and personalized data from each patient (for example his/her music preferences, the reaction for each audiotherapy playlist like emotions, associations, etc.). Psychological and educational support was oriented at increasing the patient’s tolerance to the hemodialysis session and correcting the patient’s psychological state during the hemodialysis session with the help of audiotherapy. It implied listening to special combinations of music, in particular, classical music and nature sounds and further discussion of one’s psychological state with the specialist. Patients were taught to analyze the feelings that arose during the listening, to reach, and to perpetuate the state of relaxation and to manage self-regulation during the procedure. The audiotherapy course was as follows. Firstly, the psychological state of the patient was determined by testing on the following parameters: anxiety, depression, a locus of control, and coping strategies. Each patient was also interviewed by a specialist with the aim of studying the patient’s psychological-pedagogical features and requirements, his/her health, and needs during the hemodialysis session, his/her musical preferences, and cultural-educational level. Then on the basis of the results obtained, the patient could listen to four types of playlists aimed at reflection and self-regulation, anxiety, at structuring of the time of hemodialysis, or at achieving catharsis. Patients were motivated to participate in the program of audio therapy by informing them about the method of audio therapy, its features, and ways of self-regulation during

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the audio therapy session. A playlist was chosen aimed at solving the actual problem: to reduce anxiety, to harmonize feelings, to transfer them into calmness, joy, optimism, hope, reflection. The playlists were offered to a patient taking into account the principle of differentiation. A primary psycho-pedagogical research enabled to highlight two groups of patients in order to obtain more differentiated targets of audiotherapy. Patients from one group were seen as more adaptive. They showed lower levels of anxiety and no depression, they used constructive coping strategies and their locus of control was internal. These patients were referred to a more adaptive group. These patients had no depressive symptoms, a low or moderate situational anxiety, a low, moderate or high personal anxiety (with a combination of high anxiety with no depression, internality, and predominance of constructive coping strategies), an average, approximate to the norm or internal parameters of the locus of control, the most used coping strategies were “Problem Solving Planning”, “Self-Control”, “Positive Revaluation”, “Acceptance of responsibility.” Representatives of this subgroup were more easily contacted and expressed a desire to participate in the study. Another group of patients referred to a so-called less adaptive group. These patients had a combination of mild, moderate, or severe depression, a moderate or high situational or personal anxiety, predominantly an external control locus. They used such coping strategies as “Problem-solving planning”, “Self-control”, “Social support search”, “Distancing”, “Positive revaluation”, somewhat, “Confrontational copying” and “Evasionavoidance” more actively. This division made it possible to reach more differentiated therapeutic goals. The audiotherapy session was performed at the time of the hemodialysis procedure twice a week for three months. Patients didn’t only listen to the music itself but also experienced a process of psychological and educational support provided by a specialist. The patients were taught to analyze emotions, thoughts, images, psychological states that arose during listening audiotherapy playlists. While directly listening to the playlists, the patient’s “inner work” took place. An increase in the tolerability of the hemodialysis session was achieved due to forming the skills of self-regulation, and due to the aestheticization of the hospital atmosphere. Patients were taught to regulate their state during the session. Thus, audiotherapy specialist worked not only in the sphere of psychology but also an educational one. A playlist itself is an ordered list of files that are played in a certain sequence. Playlists were made by a team that included psychologists, psychotherapists, music experts taking into account the musicological characteristics of works (means of musical expression). Orientation to genre, form, harmony, musical instruments timbre, tempo, rhythm, dynamics, melody, and also music mood, the presence or absence of sudden ups or downs in the fragment, of dissonances or consonances, and others. Playlists also included the sounds of nature, providing a harmonizing and relaxing effect (birdsong, water sound, etc.). There were no specific requirements for acoustic parameters established, except for the requirement for clarity of its reproduction and transmission of the whole palette of sound, which can be achieved through the use of high-quality audio equipment. Listening to the playlists took place at a comfortable volume level for the patients. Listening to the

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playlists was done with the help of individual players and headphones directly during the sessions of hemodialysis. The main aim of listening was to transfer the patient’s negative state into a neutral or positive state and to teach a patient how to do it with the help of music i.e., how to reach the state of relaxation and how to regulate their condition on hemodialysis procedure with the help of a playlist.

5 Results Audiotherapy sessions were conducted for three months during hemodialysis sessions. Patients were provided with individual players and headphones. They were offered playlists in accordance with their psychological state, needs identified during the interview that took place before listening, as well as taking into account their wishes and musical preferences. The listening was accompanied by a specialist who interviewed the patients before and after the listening and monitored the process of listening. The data obtained during the interview before listening helped to select an appropriate type of playlist. The data obtained during the interview after listening were used to summarize and analyze the effect of audiotherapy influence and to form skills of relaxation and self-adjustment during listening. After 3 months course, repeated measurements of levels of anxiety were made. The paired comparison t-test with Benjamini and Yekutieli correction was used to compare the results of the experimental and control groups before and after listening. The results obtained are shown in Table 1. Table 1. Anxiety levels before and after audiotherapy course in experimental and control groups (independent samples) Groups of patients before the course of audiotherapy

Groups of patients after the course of audiotherapy

Experimental (n = 43)

Control (n = 47)

p

Experimental (n = 43)

Control (n = 47)

P

State anxiety

39.13 ± 6.34

41.44 ± 48.19

0.32

35.9 ± 5.19

42.48 ± 6.99