Prehistory of the Rustler Hills: Granado Cave 9780292758025

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PREHISTORY OF THE RUSTLER HILLS Granado Cave

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Prehistory of

Texas Archaeology a n d Ethnohistory Series THOMAS R. HESTER, EDITOR

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t h e Rustler Hills GRANADO CAVE

UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS PRESS AUSTIN

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The Granado Cave excavations were funded by the Texas Historical Foundation and J. O. Hayhurst. This report was submitted to the Texas Historical Commission in September 1998, under Texas Antiquities Permit Number 177.

Copyright © 2001 b y t h e University off Texas P r e s s

All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America First edition, 2001 Requests for permission to reproduce material from this work should be sent to Permissions, University of Texas Press, Box 7819, Austin, TX 78713-7819. Library off C o n g r e s s C a t a l o g i n g - i n - P u b l i c a t i o n D a t a

Hamilton, Donny Leon. Prehistory of the Rustler Hills : Granado Cave / Donny L. Hamilton ; contributions by John R. Bratten . . . [et al.].— 1st ed. p. cm. — (Texas archaeology and ethnohistory series) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-292-73141-8 (hardcover)

1. Granado Cave (Tex.) 2. Indians of North America—Texas—Antiquities. 3. Indians of North America—Guadalupe Mountains (N.M. and Tex.)— Antiquities. 4. Indians of North America—Material culture—Guadalupe Mountains (N.M. and Tex.) 5. Excavations (Archaeology)—Guadalupe Mountains (N.M. and Tex.) 6. Guadalupe Mountains (N.M. and Tex.)— Antiquities. I. Bratten, John R. II. Title. III. Series. E78. T4 H19 2001 976.494.—dc2i 00-008892

A rattlesnake-rattler rattle found in Granado Cave. Ink drawing by Helen Dewolf. ISBN 978-0-292-75802-5 (library e-book) ISBN 978-0-292-78885-5 (individual e-book)

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/ dedicate this to my wife, Betsy Preston Hamilton who had nothing to do with the writing, but who gave up the most so that it could be written.

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Contents

Preface xv Acknowledgments

xvii

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction i CHAPTER TWO

Geological and Environmental Setting 4 CHAPTER THREE

Previous Archaeological Research 16 C H A P T E R FOUR

Site Excavation 24 C H A P T E R FIVE

Prehistoric Burials 53 C H A P T E R SIX

Cordage and Cotton 81 C H A P T E R SEVEN

Basketry 93 CHAPTER EIGHT

Matting, Bags, and Sandals 127

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Vlii

CONTENTS CHAPTER NINE

W o o d Artifacts

15 8

C H A P T E R TEN

Pottery

171

C H A P T E R ELEVEN

Lithic Artifacts

18 3

John E. Dockall and Harry f. Shafer C H A P T E R TWELVE

M i s c e l l a n e o u s Artifacts

204

CHAPTER THIRTEEN

Vertebrate Faunal R e m a i n s Cristi Assad

225

Hunter

CHAPTER FOURTEEN

T h e R u s t l e r Hills E c o n o m i c P o l l e n S p e c t r u m Donny L. Hamilton

237

and John R. Bratten

C H A P T E R FIFTEEN

Radiocarbon Dating

262

C H A P T E R SIXTEEN

Concluding Remarks

266

APPENDIX

O s t e o l o g i c a l I d e n t i f i c a t i o n off t h e E a s t e r n a n d D e s e r t C o t t o n t a i l 277 Cristi Assad Hunter and David L. Carlson References Cited Index 289

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FIGURES 2.1 Location and geological features of the northeastern Trans-Pecos, Texas 7 2.2 A spring on Two Mill Draw, located 3 k m north of Granado Cave 9 2.3 View of terrain surrounding Granado Cave 12 3.1 Entrance to Caldwell Shelter Number 1 (41CU1) 18 3.2 Entrance to Caldwell Shelter Number 2 (41CU2) 18 3.3 Entrance to 41CU5, one of the McAlpin caves 19 3.4 Entrance to Shelby Brooks Cave (41CU7) 21 3.5 Discovery of the burials in Granado Cave, as reported by the Pecos En terprise, 16 July 1976 22 4.1 Contour map and plan of exterior features at Granado Cave 25 4.2 Cross section and plan view of Granado Cave interior 26 4.3 Author's daughter, Amy Hamilton, at the entrance to Granado Cave 27 4.4 Mapping the cave's interior 29 4.5 Interior of the cave, looking southeast across the flat, up the talus slope to the sink opening 31 4.6 Interior of the cave, looking northwest across the flat to the ledge at the west side of the cave 32 4.7 Blowing the dust out of the cave 32 4.8 Excavation units in Granado Cave interior 34 4.9 Recording Feature 1 in Unit 1 35 4.10 Unit 1 profiles and plan 37 4.11 Unit 2 west wall profile and plan 38 4.12 Upper excavation plan 40 4.13 View of the anteroom, showing the excavation of Unit 4 41 4.14 Unit 4 north and west wall profiles and plan 42 4.15 Unit 4 south and east wall profiles and plan 42 4.16 Hearth in Unit 4, showing layers over the hearth still in place 43 4.17 Hearth and ash lens in Unit 4, showing Layers 1 and 2 removed to expose the living floor at the surface of Layer 3 44 4.18 View of Unit 5 in the center of the sink opening 46 4.19 Unit 5 west wall profile and plan 47 4.20 View of the sink from the anteroom, showing fieldworker Ray Kenmotsu on the sitting rock 49 4.21 Unit 6 east wall profile and plan 50 5.1 Burial 1 child 54

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X

ILLUSTRATIONS

5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5

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Burial 2 infant 57 Burial 3 infant 59 Burial 4 child 62 Burials 5, 6, and 7 skulls 68 Burial 9 in situ, after removal of the rocks to expose a coiled basket and a juniper branch 70 Burial 9 plan 70 Burial 10 before excavation 72 Burial 10 plan 73 Burial 10 skull 74 Examples of recovered cordage 82 Detail of recovered cordage, showing distinct fibers of Agave lechuguilla and Yucca elata 83 Examples of strung, knotted cordage from Burial 4 84 Pecos River style pictograph of a shaman and pictograph of a shaman from a rock shelter in Val Verde County 86 Plied cordage found inside the carrying basket "killed" over Burial 1 87 Four sections of cordage tied in sheet-bend knots 88 Red-dyed cotton string found in Burial 4 bag 90 Interior wall fragment of basket from east of Burial 9 97 Exterior wall fragment of basket from Burial 10 99 Interior wall fragment of a tray covering Burial 9 100 Interior work surface of a fragmented parching tray from Unit 4 102 Deep parching tray found inverted over Burials 2 and 3 103 Profile and interior of a small basket from Burial 2 105 Basket fragment from Burial 6 107 Schematic drawing of the smooth exterior surface of the weaver's knot used to construct the netting of the Rustler Hills kiaha 109 Kiaha reconstructed by the author 116 Large kiaha found "killed" over Burial 1 118 Small red-dyed kiaha covering Burial 1 119 Detail from small kiaha 120 Small kiaha recovered from Caldwell Shelter Number 1 122 Reverse side of a simple plaited mat fragment from Burial 10 128 Simple plaited mat fragment from Burial 6 129 Detail of shifts from artifact 6-11 130 Exotic simple plaited mat fragment from Burial 9 131 Schematic drawing of weave of artifact 105-2 132

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ILLUSTRATIONS

xi

8.6 Obverse and reverse sides of a twill-plaited mat fragment from east of Burial 9 133 8.7 Simple twined grass mat covering Burial 1 136 8.8 Simple twined grass mat covering Burial 4 137 8.9 Twined beargrass {Nolina sp.) mat covering Burial 1 138 8.10 Schematic drawing of nolina mat twining 139 8.11 Twined sedge mat covering Burial 4 141 8.12 Twined rabbit robe found with Burial 4 143 8.13 Twined grass bag containing Burial 2 147 8.14 Twined grass bag containing Burial 3 148 8.15 Twined grass bag containing Burial 4 149 8.16 Yucca elata fishtail sandal fragments from Granado Cave 152 8.17 Fishtail sandals from Shelby Brooks Cave and Caldwell Shelter Number 2 154 8.18 Examples of reconstructed sandals 155 9.1 Notched rhythm stick and sounding stick from Burial 5 159 9.2 Incomplete rabbit sticks found near Burial 6 161 9.3 Additional recovered broken rabbit sticks 161 9.4 Various types of rabbit sticks from Ceremonial Cave, Shelby Brooks Cave, and the McAlpin caves 162 9.5 Cane arrow fragment recovered from a packrat's nest near Burial 6 and notched foreshaft found near Burial 7 164 9.6 Complete arrow and its profile 166 9.7 Hearth stick fragment 168 9.8 Tablita fragment found near Burial 6 169 10.1 Mata Red-on-Brown Textured jar "killed" over Burials 2 and 3 173 10.2 Mata Red-on-Brown Textured jar, showing the painted and engraved designs 174 10.3 Convento Vertical Corrugated sherd from Unit 5 and Chupadero Black-on-White sherd from Unit 4 178 11.1 Examples of recovered multidimensional, multiplatform cores 184 11.2 Modified and utilized sequent flakes 185 11.3 Chert agave/sotol knives 187 11.4 Examples of utilized flakes recovered from Unit 5 189 11.5 Examples of unifaces recovered from Unit 5 190 11.6 Drills and perforators 191 11.7 Chert arrow points, dart points, and bifaces 193 11.8 Percentage of flake material 196

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ILLUSTRATIONS

11.9 11.10 11.11 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 12.10 12.11 12.12 14.1 15.1 A.i

Lithic flakes by size grade 197 Flake material by material 199 Flake cortex by material 200 Front view and cross section of limonite cone from Burial 5 and red clay balls from Burials 2 and 3 205 Rattlesnake-rattler rattle and deer-hoof tinklers from Burial 1 208 Ron Fiesler of the Texas Speleological Society with three rattlesnakes encountered in Granado Cave 209 Bird-head skin found with Burial 1 210 Neck and forelegs and back and stomach of a tanned deerskin found in Burials 2 and 3 211 Ink drawing of a shaman wearing a ceremonial deerskin 212 Large, tanned deerskin found with Burial 1 213 Recovered bone tools 216 Recovered beads 219 Lithospermum sp. seed bead pouch from one of the McAlpin caves (41CU6) 221 Feathers associated with Burial 1 222 Desiccated Torrey yucca found in Burial 1 223 Comparison of areal pollen spectrums 260 Granado Cave calibrated radiocarbon dates 263 Illustration of the LTL and the MD measurements on a rabbit jaw 279

TABLES 2.1 Analyses of Water Samples from the Rustler Hills Area 9 2.2 Analysis of Water Sample from a Spring on Two Mill Draw 10 2.3 Pecos River Water Sample Taken in 1894 10 3.1 List of Recorded Sites in the Rustler Hills 17 4.1 Artifact Distribution in Excavation Unit 4 39 4.2 Artifact Distribution in Excavation Unit 5 48 5.1 Cranial and Postcranial Measurements of Burial 10 75 5.2 Specific Features of the Dentition of Burial 10 78 5.3 Comparison of Granado Cave Cranial and Long-Bone Measurements to Those of Other West Texas Sites 79 9.1 Grooved Rabbit Sticks Found in the Rustler Hills 163 10.1 Ceramics from Sites in the Rustler Hills 181 13.1 Total Faunal Collection 226 13.2 Modified Bone of the Faunal Sample 227

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ILLUSTRATIONS

13.3 13.4 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 14.8 15.1

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Faunal Remains by Excavation Unit 233 Faunal Remains from Selected Granado Cave Coprolites 235 Granado Cave Coprolite Analysis 244 Caldwell Shelter Number 1 Coprolite Analysis 246 Caldwell Shelter Number 1 Coprolite Analysis 249 Pollen Count from Sediment Samples from Granado Cave Burials 250 Comparison of Coprolites from Granado and Caldwell Caves 251 Pollen Concentration in Coprolite and Sediment Samples from Granado Cave Burials 252 Pollen Concentration in Caldwell Shelter Number 1 Coprolite Samples 253 Comparison of Areal Pollen Spectrums 259 Radiocarbon Dates from Granado Cave 264

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Preface

Herein are the results of the archaeological excavations conducted at Granado Cave (41CU8), located in the Rustler Hills of eastern Culberson County, Texas. Granado Cave, like other caves in the area, was used both as a habitation site and for human interments by small groups of hunters and gatherers from at least A.D. 200/300 through A.D. 1450. Although archaeological excavations were first conducted in the area more than 60 years ago, there continues to be confusion over the identity of the known sites, their chronological position, and the cultural affinity and ethnic identity of the sites' occupants. The Granado Cave excavations make clear some of these ambiguities. This report begins with a description of the environmental setting of the Rustler Hills, since a knowledge of the area's geological history and vegetation pattern is crucial to the understanding of its prehistoric occupants. A review of previous archaeological excavations is also presented. This is to eliminate the confusion about the formerly investigated sites. The Granado Cave excavation methodology is then described, followed by detailed analyses of the different categories of material culture found associated with the human burials. The distinctive natures of, for example, basketry and matting, are explained, and new type descriptions are given for specific carrying baskets and twined grass bags. The burial associations allow for speculation on various ceremonial activities and trade contacts. The Granado Cave excavations allowed, for the first time for the area, a good sample of floral and faunal specimens to be collected and analyzed. In addition, one of the most thorough coprolite studies in Texas archaeology was conducted on coprolites collected both from Granado Cave and the nearby Caldwell Shelter Number 1 (41CU1). The results of the floral, faunal, and coprolite studies clearly demonstrate the cave dwellers' exploitation of this marginal environment. A limited number of subsistence-related arti-

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PREFACE

facts, such as rabbit sticks and a rather meager lithic industry, were also found associated with the cave's occupation. Twenty radiocarbon dates allow us, again for the first time, to make definitive statements about the time depth of the occupation of the Rustler Hills. Based on the available data, the occupation appears to be rather late. Combined with the archaeological and environmental data, as well as detailed skeletal analyses, we are also able to make some statements about cultural identifications. It appears that the Rustler Hills peoples are associated with the poorly defined Hueco Phase, a temporal phase that has been defined for the northern Trans-Pecos. Their relationship to the Manso, Suma, and Jumano Indian groups known to inhabit the Trans-Pecos in historic times is not understood. It is here argued that the late occupants of the Rustler Hills represent a remnant group, possibly Hokan-speaking, that was pushed into the environment by surrounding peoples. These peoples were possibly Tanoan speakers, who were followed later by various Athapaskan-speaking Apaches. It is also proposed that to understand the prehistory of welldefined regions, such as the northern Trans-Pecos, archaeologists should avoid using vague archaeological constructs, such as the Hueco Phase. A new archaeological phase, the Castile Phase, is thus here defined. It is used to distinguish the late prehistoric peoples of the Great Gypsum Plain and the Rustler Hills of the northeastern Trans-Pecos.

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Acknowledgments

Every archaeological excavation and the final written report are dependent upon the support and assistance of a great number of people. First, I would like to thank Mr. Frank Granado of Pecos, Texas, who in 1976 discovered Granado Cave and graciously allowed me to borrow the artifacts he had removed so that they could be analyzed. I would also like to thank the late Mr. Shelby Brooks, an old-time rancher who became very interested in the cave, which is located on his property, and who gave me the permission to conduct the excavations, just as he gave A. T. Jackson permission to excavate Brooks Cave some 47 years earlier. Special thanks also to Mr. Charles E. Locke, who in November 1976 accompanied me to the site and then served as a crew member in the formal excavations in June 1978. Other members of the crew included Ray Kenmotsu, Michael Mallouf, and Margaret L. Kluge. Even with the best field crew and support of the landowner, archaeological excavations are made possible only through funding. The Granado Cave excavations were made possible by a matching grant-in-aid from the Texas Historical Commission. The Texas Historical Foundation provided a grant to analyze the recovered material. Mr. J. O. Hayhurst provided additional funds. I also acknowledge the help of Mr. Curtis Tunnell, the State Archaeologist at the time of the excavations and formerly the Executive Director of the Texas Historical Commission, and Mr. Truitt Latimer, another former Executive Director of the Texas Historical Commission. Both were indispensable in securing funds and the state permit. The Granado Cave excavations, undertaken between 13 and 24 June 1978, were conducted under Texas Antiquities Permit Number 177. At the time of the excavations, I was a Research Associate at the Texas Archeological Research Laboratory (TARL) at the University of Texas at

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XViii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Austin, and my sincere thanks are extended to Dr. Dee Ann Story, the former Director of TARL, who allowed us to use the laboratory's vehicles and equipment. I would also like to acknowledge the support of Dr. Philip Grant, a former physical anthropology professor at the University of Texas at Austin. Mr. Sam Valastro, formerly at the University of Texas Radiocarbon Laboratory, ran all of the radiocarbon dates on materials collected from the site. I am indebted to Mr. Y. M. "Smokey" Briggs, editor of the Pecos Enterprise, for granting me permission to publish the front page of the 16 July 1976 edition of the newspaper. I also want to thank Thomas R. Hester, Director of the Texas Archeological Research Laboratory at the University of Texas at Austin, for allowing me to publish the photographs used in Figures 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 7.13, 8.17, 9.4, and 12.10.

I also want to thank two former students who are now colleagues of mine at Texas A&M University, but who as students worked with me when the manuscript was in preparation. Helen Dewolf prepared the illustrations used in Figures 6.2 and 9.6 and Kevin Crisman drew the Mata Redon-Brown jar depicted in Figure 10.2. Over the last 20 years, numerous individuals have analyzed the material collected from Granado Cave. Those who have contributed to the contents of this report include Robert Adams, Kenneth Cassavoy, John Bratten, Robert Murray, Wayne Smith, Chris Sobolik, Christi Assad Hunter, Glenna Dean-Williams, John Dockall, and Harry Shafer. And finally, a very special debt and sincere thanks to Madeleine Donachie, who undertook the monumental task of editing this manuscript. Madeleine took my handwritten, cryptic chapters and reconstructed them into a readable format. She also undertook all of the digital editing and formatting of the illustrations. As is always the case, I take full responsibility for any errors that may occur in the following pages.

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PREHISTORY OF THE RUSTLER HILLS G r a n a d o Cave

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CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

The northeastern portion of Trans-Pecos Texas, which is also the northeasternmost corner of the Chihuahuan Desert, is defined as that region that lies between the Guadalupe and Delaware Mountains on the west and the Pecos River on the east. The Rustler Hills, a chain of hills that run north and south through the center of this region, are well-known for karst deposits, as well as for sinkhole sites with well-preserved organic remains. In fact, most of the sites that have been excavated in the northeastern TransPecos are located in these hills. Much information about the cave sites in the Rustler Hills has been gleaned from archaeological investigations that date back to the 1930s. All that is known at present results from excavations of seven cave/sinkhole sites, two ring middens, and one rock shelter. Despite the excavations that have been conducted, the prehistory of the area is still poorly understood. The first archaeological excavations in the Texas Trans-Pecos were conducted by E. B. Sayles, as part of a survey of Texas for the Gila Pueblo. Sayles (1935) presents descriptive accounts of artifacts collected from the two Caldwell shelters (41CU1 and 41CU2), but he provides only limited trait lists and unfounded associations; neither maps nor photographs of the site locations are included in the report. In a later paper that discusses the same two caves, Sayles (1941) does describe more fully an infant burial discovered at Caldwell Shelter Number 1 (41CU1). Unfortunately, photographs of the two sites were switched and the figure captions are consequently mislabeled. Following a recommendation by Sayles, A. T. Jackson (1934a, 1934b, 1937) excavated five cave sites (the two McAlpin caves [41CU5 and 41CU6], Shelby Brooks Cave [41CU7], and the two sites excavated by Sayles [41CU1 and 41CU2]), as well as two ring middens [41CU3] and a small rock shelter

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2

P R E H I S T O R Y OF T H E RUSTLER HILLS

[41CU4). Although the resulting reports provide an array of information, there is no published final manuscript synthesizing the investigations. Realizing the limitations of these early studies, Robert Tanner (1949) attempted to present a more comprehensive, thorough analysis of the artifacts recovered by Jackson from the two Caldwell shelters (41CU1 and 41CU2). Skinner (1978) followed in the same vein by giving a detailed, analytical account of disturbed burials at ELCOR Cave, which is located nearby. Christine Ward (1992) has continued the tradition by reinterpreting the finds from Shelby Brooks Cave within a more modern archaeological frame of reference. The report presented herein is an account of the 1978 excavations at Granado Cave. It provides a detailed analysis of the material that was removed and attempts to fill in the gaps left by previous research in the Rustler Hills. This study's objective is to provide insights into the lives of Granado Cave's prehistoric inhabitants and their subsistence patterns, material culture, and social system, and to place the occupation in a temporal and cultural framework. By so doing, it contributes significantly to our understanding of a late prehistoric hunting and gathering culture subsisting in a very marginal environmental setting. Who were the Indians who occupied Granado Cave? When did these Indians occupy the cave? Why did these Indians live in such an unforgiving, desolate area? Was it purely by choice, or were some other factors responsible? What were these Indians' relationships, if any, with their neighbors? These are just some of the questions addressed in the following chapters. This report opens with a description of the geological and environmental setting of Trans-Pecos Texas and of the Rustler Hills. A brief overview of the material culture and the subsistence patterns of Granado Cave's inhabitants is also included in this section. Chapter 3 presents more fully the previous archaeological work conducted in the area, while Chapter 4 introduces the excavation methodology of the work at Granado Cave. A detailed analysis of each excavation unit, including radiocarbon dates, is also provided. From this, generalized statements are made about the prehistoric utilization and occupation of the cave. Eight burials were discovered in Granado Cave, and a description of each is the focus of Chapter 5. Bones of two additional individuals were also identified. Most of the artifacts associated with these burials are analyzed and discussed in the remaining chapters. The most interesting organic specimens are presented in the chapters on cordage, basketry, and mats, bags, and sandals (Chapters 6, 7, and 8). Chapters 9,10, and 11 include the limited inventory of wood artifacts, ce-

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INTRODUCTION

3

ramie sherds, and lithic flakes and debris. Chapter 12 includes those artifacts whose functions cannot be discerned with certainty. It is significant that, although it must have been abundant, little faunal material was collected from Sayles' and Jackson's excavations at the two Caldwell shelters, the two McAlpin caves, and Shelby Brooks Cave. In contrast, all faunal remains recovered from Granado Cave were analyzed and are catalogued. The results are presented in Chapter 13. Moreover, coprolites, which are common to all of the Rustler Hills sites, are not even mentioned in any of the previous reports. Thus Chapter 14 examines the coprolites collected from Granado Cave and Caldwell Shelter Number 1 (41CU1) and contrasts these data with those from other caves in the Lower Pecos and Chihuahua, Mexico. This comparison has resulted in a broader, more accurate picture of the prehistoric diet of the peoples of this area. Fitting the archaeology of the Rustler Hills into a chronological framework has been handicapped by the lack of radiocarbon dates. The penultimate chapter, therefore, includes all of the radiocarbon dates from the Granado Cave excavations. The concluding chapter in this study speculates on the ethnic/linguistic affiliation of the occupants of the caves in the Rustler Hills. It comments on the validity of the Hueco Phase, the widespread cultural development defined for the northern Trans-Pecos and southern New Mexico. Characteristics of an archaeological phase for the Rustler Hills and immediate area are also established.

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CHAPTER TWO

Geological and Environmental Setting

Granado Cave is located in the Rustler Hills in Culberson County, in the northeastern Trans-Pecos region of West Texas. These hills run north and south, just west of the county line between Culberson and Reeves Counties. The geology of this region dates primarily to the Permian period of the Paleozoic era; a few outcrops date to the Cretaceous, and subsequent erosion and deposition date to the Quaternary. There are only isolated geological formations of the Triassic or Jurassic periods in the Trans-Pecos region of West Texas. Many of the soil types and plant distributions, as well as the water quality, of the Rustler Hills have been determined by the geological events of the Permian period. Thus an introduction to this phase opens the following discussion, which focuses on the geological history and environmental setting of the Rustler Hills.

Geological History off the Trans-Pecos Region in West Texas The Permian Period (290-240 Million Years B.P.) The geological history of the Trans-Pecos of West Texas begins in the Permian period, when an extensive three-lobed sea, known as the Permian Sea, transgressed across the landscape and filled three large basins. These basins are known today as the Marfan, the Midland, and the Delaware. The most prominent geological features currently present in Culberson County result from reef formation around the periphery of the Delaware Basin and the deposition therein of clastic sediments (Brand and Jacka 1979:3). The Permian period is divided into two epochs, the Guadalupian and the Ochoan, each of which consists of a series of facies. Significant features in the region were formed during each of these facies. The three facies of the

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GEOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING

5

Guadalupian epoch resulted in the formation of the Guadalupe, the Delaware, and the Apache Mountains, all of which have built up around the Delaware Basin. The Guadalupe Mountains, composed of El Capitan limestone, are remnants of the ancient reef that formed in the Permian Sea. The limestone Apache Mountains and the sandstone Delaware Mountains formed from the sediments that were later deposited into the basin. The Glass Mountains in Brewster County, which are located to the southeast, represent the reef formation at the southern end of the Delaware Basin. The reefs that formed around the rest of the basin remain deeply buried by sediments. By the end of the Guadalupian epoch, the shoreline of the Permian Sea in the Delaware Basin coincided with the present Guadalupe escarpment. The basin at this time, largely empty of sediments, held water that was more than 300 m deep (Brand and Jacka 1979:9-10). During the following Ochoan epoch of the Permian period, the Delaware Basin's western half was tilted upward. In its eastern part, a small sea formed in what is now the eastern half of Culberson County. This sea quickly evaporated, since it was only erratically replenished with water. This resulted in the deposition of beds, as much as 600 m thick, of Castile gypsum and anhydrite, as well as of sulfur (Evans 1946). Late in the Ochoan epoch, the Rustler Sea was formed. It deposited beds of dolomite over the Castile gypsum. This deposition eventually created the Rustler Hills, which would come to hold the many sinkholes that sheltered later inhabitants. Small deposits of red sandstone are found on the eastern side of these hills' northern half. These deposits probably date from the terminal Permian period as the Rustler Sea made its final retreat (Evans 1946: Figure 2). By the end of the Ochoan epoch, the Delaware Basin was filled with sediments. The Guadalupe Mountains were merely knobs that projected slightly above a flat depositional plain (Brand and Jacka 1979:10). The Cretaceous Period (145-6$ Million Years B.P.) The next one hundred million years of the Triassic and Jurassic periods (230-145 million years B.P.) add little to the region's geological history. It was not until the following Cretaceous period that layers of limestone and sandstone were once again deposited across much of the area. For example, deposits of Fredericksburg-group limestone and Washita-group sandstone flank the eastern side of the southern Rustler Hills (Evans 1946: Figure 2). Subsequent erosion has since removed most of these formations.

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6

P R E H I S T O R Y OF T H E RUSTLER HILLS

The Paleocene-Pleistocene Periods (65 Million-10,000 Years B.R) The erosion of the Cretaceous deposits in the Rustler Hills continued through the Cenozoic era. Volcanic activity at this time formed the Davis Mountains, which are located to the south, and subsequent block-faulting and vertical uplift in the western part of this region has resulted in the dramatic relief of the present mountain ranges. Indeed, this uplift resulted in extensive erosion and runoff from the elevated areas to the west. Ground water dissolved much of the underlying soluble beds, which allowed the overlying bed to collapse and form the Pecos Depression (Brand and Jacka 1979:11).

During the Pliocene period (5-1.6 million years B.P.), the Pecos Depression was filled with sediments and the Guadalupe Mountains were covered by sands and gravels. By the beginning of the Pleistocene period, the Pecos River had cut through the Pecos Depression. This resulted in the removal of the sediments as the river valley progressively became deeper. The erosion of the overlying sediment that continues to the present exhumed the buried features that exist on the landscape today. The surface layers of alluvium and gypsite across most of the lower elevation area were formed during the Pleistocene period.

Geological Features off the Rustler Hills The Delaware Basin, which extends from the western flanks of the Delaware Mountains to west of the Pecos River, is dominated by three geological features. Extending from west to east, these include the Castile formation, the Rustler formation, and the alluvium and gypsite plain (Figure 2.1). The Castile Formation The Castile formation is more or less the same as that commonly referred to as the Great Gypsum Plain. This plain is a desolate area that lies in the Pecos Depression between the Rustler Hills and the Guadalupe, Delaware, and Apache Mountains. It is characterized by thick deposits of Castile gypsum, anhydrite, and sulfur; distinctive plant communities and poor water are typical of this area. The Rustler Formation Granado Cave is located in the Rustler Hills slightly to the north of Cottonwood Creek (see Figure 2.1). These hills are remnants of the Rustler formation of dolomite, or magnesium limestone, that were laid over the Castile

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GEOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING 7

FIGURE 2.1.

Location and geological features of the northeastern Trans-Pecos, Texas

gypsum in the last advance of the Permian Sea. In fact, it is the deposition of the less soluble Rustler formation over this very soluble gypsum that has resulted in this being one of the best-known regions for karst in the state of Texas. Moreover, due to the slumping of the underlying gypsum as it dissolves from percolating water, the Rustler formation is badly broken down in many places (Porch 1917:21). Such occurrences result in sinkholes and "caves" at different elevations and varied ecological settings. These features are common throughout the formation. For example, sinkholes, such as Caldwell Shelter Number 1 (41CU1), occur in the valleys between the ranges, and there are also a number of caves, such as Granado and Shelby Brooks (41CU7), whose entrances open up near the tops of hills. The Alluvium and Gypsite Plain To the east of the Rustler Hills, a plain of alluvium and gypsite stretches to the Pecos River. This plain is covered by a network of draws and creeks that eventually drain into the Pecos. Generally, drainage occurs from the southwest to the northeast; the exceptions are Cottonwood Creek and Salt Draw, which generally drain from the west to the east. Delaware Creek, which

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8

PREHISTORY OF T H E RUSTLER HILLS

drains the northern area and empties into the Pecos River slightly north of the Texas state line, is the only permanently flowing stream in the area. The others have scattered standing pools, usually at springs, and flow only duringfloods.The southern half of the plain is drained by the Salt Draw and China Draw systems. The channel of Cottonwood Creek cuts through the center of the Rustler Hills, but the flow is such that the channel disappears in the alluvial plain to the east before reaching the Pecos River. The gypsite alluvium mantle, located to the east and interdigitating to some degree to the west of the Rustler Hills, is a compact to semiconsolidated deposit of earthy secondary gypsum or gypsite, alluvial gravels, sands, clays, and sulfur deposits. Most of the gravels in the alluvium are reworked materials from the conglomerate and limestone beds of the Rustler formation and other overlying units. Flint pebbles are also common, and some igneous pebbles are evident on the hills' eastern side. It would appear that these pebbles move north in the erosional runoff from the Davis Mountains. No igneous pebbles have been found west of the Rustler Hills. The presence of scattered pebbles and coarse sand in the gypsite is the main criterion for distinguishing the gypsite alluvium from the in situ partially decomposed Castile gypsum (Evans 1946:7). Water Quality in the Rustler Hills More than any other factor, it is the Castile formation that plays a major role in determining the quality of water in the Rustler Hills. Indeed, throughout the Great Gypsum Plain, the spring water is full of minerals and is generally of poor quality. If ingested it results in diarrhea, and some of it may be poisonous. Even rainfall, which collects quickly in pools in low spots in the draws, becomes mineral-laden from contact with the soluble gypsum. Table 2.1 presents various analyses that were run on the spring water in the area by Richardson (1904), as part of a reconnaissance report. It demonstrates the heavy mineral load of the local water. Please note that although these analyses were conducted at the beginning of the twentieth century and are therefore not comparable to modern water-sample testing procedures, they do give a general idea of the quality of the water in the area. A spring on Two Mill Draw (41CU260, Figure 2.2) is the nearest presentday source of water to Granado Cave. It is located approximately 3 km north of the cave. After rains, water is found in pools both in this draw and in Big Canyon Draw to the south. It is assumed that the water quality quickly deteriorates as it absorbs the soluble substance in the substrata.

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9

T a b l e 2 . 1 . Analyses of Water Samples from the Rustler Hills Area

Compound Silica Alumina Iron Salts Sodium Carbonate Sodium Chloride Magnesium Chloride Magnesium Sulfate Calcium Sulfate Calcium Carbonate Calcium Chloride Potash Free Hydrogen Sulfide Calcium Sulfide Total Solids/100,000

Salt Creek, North of Maverick Spring

Salt Creek, West of Maverick Spring

Screwbean Springs

0.08 1.44 trace 126.56 1,761.89 72.26 123.72 470.13

4.64 2.48 trace 216.97 2,245.32 55.71 213.96 401.72

1.44 0.44 trace 28.72 2.40 16.78 63.96 198.62

— — —

considerable

—

2,556.08

— — —

considerable

—

3,140.80

— — —

considerable

—

312.36

Stinking Seep 2.72 trace trace 34.93

-

14.30

-

191.75

—

53.06

—

considerable 16.04 312.80

Sayles Ranch Well

Cooksey Ranch Well

3.16 trace trace 24.38 23.10

3.44 trace trace 4.83 23.10

—

—

trace 154.18 45.96

11.25 218.26

250.78

260.88

— — — —

— — — — —

FIGURE 2.2. A spring on Two Mill Draw, located 3 km north of Granado Cave

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1 0 PREHISTORY OF THE RUSTLER HILLS T a b l e 2 . 2 . Analysis of Water Sample from a Spring on Two Mill Draw Element Na+ K+ Mg+ Ca++

so4 Fe

cr

F SiOs Br" N03 NH 3 Ba HCO3

Mg/1 91.20 43.10 105.00 981.00 1,400.00 0.28 114.00 2.60 27.60 0.70 31.00 0.10 0.04 80.50 2884.92

Note: Analysis was by Dr. Clara L. Ho, Chemist, Mineral Studies Laboratory, University of Texas at Austin, on 17 December 1980.

T a b l e 2 . 3 . Pecos River Water Sample Taken in 1804 Element

Mg/1

Silica, alumina, and iron Lime Magnesia Soda Potash Sulfur trioxide Chlorine Carbon dioxide Crystal water and organic matter Total Oxygen equivalent of chlorine Total solids

1.20 61.26 27.81 76.97 4.26 116.74 94.41 6.15 27.54 416.34 21.34 395.00

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11

Table 2.2 presents a water analysis sample from the Two Mill Draw spring. It was collected by this author in 1978. The sample shows that the water is not suitable for h u m a n consumption. It is suffused with minerals, since the surface water must first percolate through the thick overlying gypsum. Moreover, although it is evident that wells in the area contain fewer minerals (see the Sayles and Cooksey samples in Table 2.1), the water from them is still far from being potable. It is interesting to note that most, if not all, of these springs are surrounded by the remains of Indian sites. Evidently the aboriginals drank the water, although probably with detrimental health consequences (see Chapter 14). Even the water of the Pecos River to the east is laden with salt, as shown in a sample taken from the river by Richardson in 1894 (Table 2.3). This sample was taken long before dams were constructed in New Mexico that have reduced water flow into Texas. As a result of these dams, the salt content of the Pecos River today is greater than it was in the past. Thus the 1894 sample in all probability more closely represents the water content of prehistoric times.

Regional Environment Vegetation The Rustler Hills are located in the eastern portion of the Chihuahuan biogeographic province. The boundaries of this province are somewhat ambiguous, but commonly the Pecos River is given as the dividing line between it and the Great Plains to the east. Van Devender (1986:6) places the division just east of the Guadalupe and Delaware Mountains. This author regards the Rustler Hills as marking the province's eastern limit, since the alluvial plain to the east represents the transition to grasslands. The Rustler Hills are located at the northern end of the Chihuahuan Desert, and as such the area is characterized by low average annual rainfall (less than 30 cm), which occurs mainly in the summer months. Some years, less than 8 cm of rain has been recorded. Accordingly, the plant communities are adapted to a desert environment, and xeric plants predominate (Figure 2.3). The vegetative zones of the Guadalupe Mountains and adjacent areas have been described at length, but no detailed study has been conducted for the Rustler Hills. Burgess and Northington (1977) give a general overview that characterizes the immediate area:

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PREHISTORY OF T H E RUSTLER HILLS

GRANADO CAVE

FIGURE 2.3. View of terrain surrounding Granado Cave, showing the typical dolomite

hills background and the Gypsum Plain in the foreground

About 40 km (25 miles) east of the [Guadalupe] mountains there is an abrupt change in the vegetation where the gypsum outcrops of the Castile Formation are exposed. This rolling plain is covered mostly by Coldenia hispidissima and Bouteloua breviseta, although some slopes are nearly barren. There are also scattered Juniperus pinchotii, Rhus microphylla, Koeberlinia spinosa, and Yucca elata, usually on small pockets of sandy soil. Depressions and sinks contain a more diverse association of Scleropogon brevifolius, Hilaria mutica, Athplex canescens, Larrea tridentata, Prosopis glandulosa, and Rhus microphylla. The gypsum plain is bordered on the east by low limestone hills of the Rustler formation, and here Larrea tridentata resumes dominance. Toward the Pecos River there is a gradual shift to Prosopis glandulosa grasslands of the Sandy South Plains, (p. 232) Henrickson and Johnson (1986) present a slightly different outline of the plant communities of the Chihuahuan Desert region, whereby 16 intergrading plant communities are described in four major divisions. Most relevant of these divisions to the Rustler Hills are the Larrea Scrub facie of the Chihuahuan Desert Scrub community and the Lechuguilla Scrub. Creosote bush or gobernadora (Larrea tridentata) predominate in the Larrea Scrub area, but increased diversity is found in deeper soils and along the

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13

drainages. Flourensia cernua, Acacia neovernicosa, Acacia greggii, Leucophyllum sp., Prosopis glandulosa, Prosopis laevigata, Cordia parviflora, Anisacanthus sp., and many other species commonly increase locally in these regions (Henrickson and Johnson 1986:24). Moreover, the Larrea Scrub often intergrades, as it does in the Rustler Hills, into more speciesrich communities, such as the Agave lechugu ilia-dominated scrub that is commonly found on the limestone or dolomite slopes (Henrickson and Johnson 1986:27). Janszen(i953)givesa more specific description of local vegetation by describing the Hurd Draw area, which is located slightly to the south of the Rustler Hills. The description corresponds well with the plant communities characteristic of the alluvium. An easily accessible source for Texas' vegetation types and physiognomic regions can be found on the Internet site maintained by the Texas Parks and Wildlife Division (TPWD) (1998). Each of the state's plant communities is described, illustrated on a map, and accompanied by a photograph. Relevant to the present discussion, the gypsite alluvium plain that lies between the Pecos River and the Rustler Hills is best characterized by TPWD's "Creosote-Tarbush Shrub." The vegetation types observed in the Rustler Hills are best characterized by two of the listed shrub regions: (1) the "Creosote-Mesquite Shrub" is most illustrative of the hills' eastern side; and (2) the "Creosote-Lechuguilla Shrub" describes more closely the hills' western and northern parts. It should be noted, however, that although yucca frequently occurs throughout this area, it is not listed by the TPWD as one of the commonly associated plants. The Great Gypsum Plain can be best described by the sparse vegetation typical of the "Tobosa-Black Gamma Grassland." During numerous visits to Granado Cave and the surrounding area, this author noted that Agave lechuguilla is often the predominant plant on the limestone hills north of Granado Cave; however, on the hills that lie adjacent to the cave, little to no lechuguilla is evident. In 1978, this author noted a desert sumac {Rhus microphylla), various grasses, and mullein growing in the cave sink, in the area around the cave opening, and also on the hill tops. Creosote [Larrea tridentata), various cacti (including scattered prickly pear tuna [Opuntia sp.j), broad-leaf yucca (Yucca torreyi), clusters of sotol (Dasylirion wheeleri), agarita (Berberis trifoliata), and Mormon tea (Ephedra sp.) were also present. Larrea tridentata, Yucca elata, and Juniperus pinochotii were the most obvious on the slopes of the hills and the flat gypsum areas. In 1978, a forest of dead junipers with sparse secondary growth extended

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14

P R E H I S T O R Y OF T H E RUSTLER HILLS

across the plains to the west of Granado Cave. The junipers died during a severe drought in the 1950s (Shelby Brooks 1978, pers. commj. Scattered among them, the occasional broad-leaf yucca, Koeberlinia spinosa, Opuntia sp., and Fouquiera splendens were evident. In the adjacent Two Mill Draw and Big Canyon Draw, extensive growth of mesquite [Prosopis glandulosa), white thorn (Acacia consthcta), hackberry (Celtis reticulata), and one cluster of ironwood (Ostrya knowltonii) were observed. Tarbush (Flourensia cernua) and creosote (Larrea tridentata) are also common, but the tarbush tends not to grow far from the betterwatered draws. Numerous vines, grasses, bushes, and miscellaneous plants grow in the low-lying draws. From the general climatic history of the Rustler Hills, as well as the archaeological finds recovered from Granado Cave, it can be assumed that similar plant communities were evident in prehistoric times but in greater abundance. For example, no lechuguilla is presently growing on the hills immediately around the cave, but it is one of the most common finds in the archaeological deposits. Similarly, sotol appears quite often. Moreover, ranching, grazing, and rainfall patterns have significantly altered the regional vegetation. Fauna The only large animals found in the Rustler Hills today or in the recent past are mule deer and pronghorn antelope, and these occur only rarely in the archaeological deposits. Archaeological remains show that the aboriginal inhabitants depended on rabbits, rodents, reptiles, birds, and possibly even insects. None of the 96 mammals present now or in the recent past (Schmidly 1977) are endemic to the area. Indeed, it appears that many of the mammals of the wider Trans-Pecos region do not occur, or are very rare, in the area surrounding Granado Cave. Members of the Rodentia and Lagomorpha orders predominate, a fact borne out by the faunal analysis of the Granado Cave excavated material (see Chapter 13 and Appendix).

Discussion Today, the Rustler Hills is a backwater area, just as it was in the prehistoric past. Why the Indians chose to inhabit this hot and arid region poses an interesting question. Vegetation and animal life are much less abundant than in the surrounding mountains, and the available water, both from the springs and rainfall runoff, is so laden with mineral salts that it can result in serious health consequences for those who dare to drink it.

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What were the cultural conditions that kept the Indians in this place? Did they live in isolation, or was there contact with the outside? Were these people a remnant group that was restricted to the area by either population or cultural pressure from the surrounding locales? Or did they instead make a choice to live among these hills, surrounded by a vegetation-depleted gypsum plain? Certainly, it appears that these people lived as conservative hunters and gatherers. They changed their lifeways little over the centuries that the area is known to have been occupied. Through time, there were new acquisitions, such as the bow and arrow, the use of ceramics (not locally manufactured), and the use of cotton, but there seem to have been no basic changes in the core cultural system, material culture, or subsistence patterns. From the available data, it appears that those who inhabited the caves in the Rustler Hills were centered in the area and even, perhaps, restricted to it. Others may disagree, suggesting that it is more likely that the caves were seasonally occupied; that they were used only as way stations for local groups as they moved from the mountains in the west to hunt on the plains in the east. But why would any group choose to travel through such a desolate area where even the water is almost undrinkable? Surely it would have been much easier to bypass this barren environment by diverting either to the north or to the south. Indeed, 19th-century maps of the Rustler Hills area were clearly marked "No Potable Water." Travelers used a northern route along Delaware Creek, such as the Butterfield Trail, or instead diverted to the south, around the Gypsum Plain.

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CHAPTER THREE

Previous Archaeological Research

Over the years, there have been numerous uncontrolled excavations in the various cave/sinkhole sites in the Rustler Hills. As a result, the published literature is somewhat confusing. Not only is the sequence of excavations in the area unclear, but often a single site has been surveyed more than once and recorded under varying names by different people. The reader should consult Table 3.1 to follow the discussion in this chapter and elsewhere in the report. It presents all of the known excavated components in the Rustler Hills, including all of the site names and numbers under which they have been recorded.

Previous Archaeological Investigations Caldwell Shelters (41CU1 and 41CU2) An example of the confusion in the literature is shown by the two Caldwell shelters, 41CU1 and 41CU2, excavated by Sayles (1935) and Jackson (1934a, 1937) (Figures 3.1, 3.2). In 1932, E. B. Sayles conducted the first professional excavations of both of these sites as part of the Gila Pueblo Survey of Texas. The work was completed in less than a week, and the final report includes only basic information,- for example, specific site locations and photographs are not presented. In a later report of the same area, Sayles (1941:79, Figure 13) includes a photograph of Caldwell Shelter Number 2; unfortunately, the photograph is noted as being Caldwell Shelter Number 1. In 1934, A. T. Jackson and a small crew took only five weeks to excavate five cave sites in the Rustler Hills—the two Caldwell shelters (41CU1 and 41CU2), the two McAlpin caves (41CU5 and 41CU6), and Shelby Brooks Cave (41CU7). At the same time, Jackson excavated two ring middens (41CU3) and one small rock shelter (41CU4). Unfortunately, the synopsis of these excavations and recorded finds contains a number of misinterpreta-

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Table 3 . 1 . List of Recorded Sites in the Rustler Hills

Site Name/Type of Site Caldwell Shelter No. 1 Sinkhole Site Caldwell Shelter No. 2 Sinkhole Site Caldwell Shelter No. 3 Ring Middens Caldwell Shelter No. 4 Rock Shelter McAlpin Cave No. 1 Sinkhole Site McAlpin Cave No. 2 Sinkhole Site Shelby Brooks Cave Sinkhole Site Granado Cave Sinkhole Site No Name, Spring Open Site ELCOR Cave Sinkhole Site

Present Trinomial No.

Gila Pueblo No.

Various Texas Systems No.

Texas Archaeology Site Map No.

41CU1

Tex 0:7:3

937A

32B6-2

41CU2

Tex 0:7:2

937

32B6-1

41CU3

—

93 7B

32B6-3

41CU4

—

937C

32B6-4

41CU5

—

—

32D2-2

41CU6

—

WT-1227

41CU7

-

WT-1226

41CU8

—

41CU240 (briefly)

—

-

—

—

—

—

—

41CU260 No site number

— 32D2-1

tions. For example, Jackson (1937:146-192) notes that "all [the caves] were completely excavated/' However, this is far from the truth, especially for Caldwell Shelter Number 1 and Shelby Brooks Cave. Indeed, with regard to the former, Jackson (1937:147) states: "[Sjomeone previously has dug part of the deposit." Jackson knew that Sayles had excavated Caldwell Shelter Number 1 two years previously. The fact is written in his field notes, and his plan of the site on file at the Texas Archeological Research Laboratory in Austin clearly delineates and labels the area that Sayles excavated. In fact, Jackson utilized the same grid stakes that Sayles had placed; the only difference was in their designation. Since Jackson failed to report that he had worked in the same cave as Sayles, researchers (e.g., Suhm et al. 1954:32) treated their excavations as two different sites. Lehmer (1960:123) continued the confusion by mislabeling two photographs of the two Caldwell shelters. Banks and Rutenberg (1982:50) inaccurately refer to the infant burial recovered by Sayles as being from Reeves County. The most significant find at Caldwell Shelter Number 1 was a burial of a still-born infant in a carrying basket (Sayles 1941). The carrying basket,

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1 8 PREHISTORY OF THE RUSTLER HILLS

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FIGURE 3.1. Entrance to Caldwell Shelter Number 1 (41CU1)

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FIGURE 3.2. Entrance to Caldwell Shelter Number 2 (41CU2)

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P R E V I O U S A R C H A E O L O G I C A L RESEARCH

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FIGURE 3.3. Entrance to 4iCU5, one of the McAlpin caves described more completely in Chapter 7, was placed against a wall where the floor dropped off to a lower elevation. The infant had been laid on a bed of fine feather down that had itself been placed on a squirrel (?) skin. A brown and white dog skin and a fox skin were placed beside the infant, and everything was then wrapped in a twined rabbit robe with a string of 10 Olivella sp. shell beads, a hank of h u m a n hair, human hair cordage, a coil of white cotton yarn, a flat wooden implement (a possible bullroarer), and two hollow bone shafts with tufts of iridescent feathers placed in one end (referenced as a "pahos" in the text). The rabbit robe and the listed contents were wrapped with a large, twined beargrass [Nolina sp.) mat. The rolled mat and its contents were inserted into the carrying basket. Once placed in the burial pit, the basket was covered with a tanned antelope skin. The two Caldwell shelters are also the subject of a University of Texas master's thesis (Tanner 1949). All of these analyses, however, are of limited use, since the artifacts from Sites 41CU1, -2, -3, and -4 were mixed together when the sites were renumbered some years after the excavations. McAlpin Caves faiCUf and 41CU6) The two McAlpin caves (Figure 3.3), named for the ranch foreman and brother-in-law of the owner of Grissom Ranch, are located on the south side of Cottonwood Creek. Both of these caves are relatively small and add little to our understanding of the prehistory of the Rustler Hills. The ma-

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20

PREHISTORY OF T H E RUSTLER HILLS

terial culture coincides with that found in the larger caves to the north. The most interesting find is the intricate Lithospermum sp. seed bead pouch found in 41CU6 (see Chapter 12). Shelby Brooks Cave (41CUJ) Shelby Brooks Cave, or simply Brooks Cave (Figure 3.4), is also sometimes referred to locally as the Bat Cave, since it contains a large population of bats, and during the 1930s was the site of a commercial guano extraction enterprise. It has the largest rooms of all of the caves in the area and extends further than most sinkhole sites. Its size is partially attributed to the fact that its opening is located near the top of a hill. Brooks Cave and Granado Cave, each of which opens up near the top of a hill, are the largest-known cave sites in the Rustler Hills. Several roof falls cover occupational deposits near the entrance of Brooks Cave. There is also evidence that a section of the back of the large entry room has collapsed. Some of the roof falls can be attributed to the earthquake that hit the area in 1931, three years before Jackson concluded his excavation of the site. In fact, local folklore states that there was once a lower room, now sealed with roof fall, that served as a burial room. Burial Z-i in Brooks Cave (Jackson 1934^12-16; Ward 1992:197-198), which was excavated in midden debris, contained a female 50+ years old. The body was apparently wrapped in a twined grass mat. Small manos, fragments of a twined rabbit robe, and fragments of a twined grass bag, like the ones found at Granado Cave and described in Chapter 8, were also found in the excavated area. Burial Z-2 (Jackson 1934^20-31; Ward 1992:198-199) contained two individuals, an adult and a juvenile, both of whom were placed in a crevice just north of the cave's main entrance. Skeleton 1, the adult, lay over the juvenile on a narrow, twilled beargrass mat. Skeleton 2, the juvenile, was wrapped in a larger twilled beargrass mat. The bottom of a coiled basket and a long gaming net rolled on six pointed agave or yucca stalks were associated with the two burials. For years, the only published manuscript on the Brooks Cave excavation was that written by Jackson in 1937. Suhm et al. (1954) and Lehmer (i960) presented a short synopsis of the data from the cave. More recently, Ward (1992) discussed the Jackson excavation and also analyzed the material culture of the cave's prehistoric inhabitants. By present standards, the records of the finds in the Rustler Hills by Sayles, and especially by Jackson, lack meaningful stratigraphic relationships. Too little time was spent at each site, and the information from each

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FIGURE 3.4. Entrance to Shelby Brooks Cave (41CU7)

is extremely limited. Very little floral and faunal data were collected, and the dating was based only on associated ceramics and unfounded assumptions. Indeed, no reliable radiocarbon dates were available for the area until the 20 samples from Granado Cave were run. Several dates are also available from ELCOR Cave, but since they were taken from bone apatite only, they have a large plus-minus factor and are therefore less precise than those from Granado Cave. Despite the lack of dates, these early excavations and others in the nearby Hueco Tanks and El Paso area (Alves 1932; Cosgrove 1947) reveal that the inhabitants of these caves can be placed in the HuCco Cave Dweller's Phase of the Trans-Pecos Culture (Sayles 1935:66). Subsequent work by Lehmer (1948) in the El Paso area has shortened this name to simply the Hueco Phase, which has since come to mean the regional variation of the widespread Desert Culture. Recently, however, even this all-encompassing Hueco Phase has itself come under close scrutiny (see Beckett 1979). ELCOR Cave The only other site in the Rustler Hills that has been excavated, or at least researched, by a professional archaeologist is ELCOR Cave (no site number assigned) (Skinner 1978), which is another sinkhole site a few kilometers

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PREHISTORY OF T H E RUSTLER HILLS

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