Prehistoric Mongoloid dispersals [1 ed.] 9780198523185, 0198523181

Citation preview

es

‘Pe is}—Lepu Jf ye279 rsM

Pup oaezoyy muzyo, £9 porpe / sessxd

pr

ng opol2uo wosRY ig yy BIg worerygny-ey-Tssas BueDBofopoLeeE)r] us

Arosa] yRIUG 241 ous AgoRDAD 8 x00 RYT 40f proces andOpRO Y

pasoduy

“sasoyaund juanbasgns 3y) wo

q womnpwo>5] sysory mpmWa)purJOY)wors JD/}uNS D NOYIA puDBur2pays 40D 40 4270 BY)pue> ygnd Sujpuyg fo wuof Kuo wy jwasuor so-sd $,z9ysyqnd ay) Moyne preps Sep40M “RO.A

DY “proI se O 3q “m B p a n fo Lon& ‘JOU ONS 1 pRiy OY) WORNpUOD “may ay} OF BAYQNSSPIOS405} 4009 SILL

"Mo go ssau ppo ay! 10 “ssa ud Asm amn puof io “no wuedag swyssmpo ry sdas 34) apss ino wors 40 ‘9961 ‘KY Stuer pun subcag kana” dpci n.ne phageare ct 40 wésqousts? 40 Te ees to mean aac oes dup fo yadsas uy pamoyyoee240 Suon dzoxa “Yi 41 KAI ps0fxo fo Iunim 0 et e cree dup wy ‘p ayny 20 uc “warstssujoars ns nas y2% syd 2q dow wowory sryt fogn ueddoN “pasos SAY HY

Preface

This volume derives from a conference, ‘Prehistoric Mongoloid Dispersals’, held at the University of Tokyo from November 16 to 2], 1992. The conference

brought together thirty-seven leading international scholars in a wide range of

disciplines including archaeology, physical anthropology, human genetics, pal-

contology, geomorphology, and linguistics. We were fortunate to have participants and the United States. from Argentina, Australia, Canada, Chile, New Zealand, The conference had three objectives. The first objective was to present the

results of a four-year (1989-92) project, also entitled ‘Prehistoric Mongoloid

Dispersals', sponsored by the Japanese Ministry of Education, Science and and dispersals of modern The project undertook to study the evolution Culture.

humans within the East Asian region, and the continuation of these processes onto the American continents and into the Pacific region. This interdisciplinary research project involved the cooperation of over 40 institutions—universities, in a a total ndof 100 participating specialists museums, research institutes—a

wide range of disciplines: archaeology, physical anthropology, human genetics,

ethnology, geomorphology, isotope science, and computer science. A second objective was to make Japanese research results available to the international anthropological community. While the project involved only scholars on and institutions within Japan, the organizers were keenly aware that research

prehistoric evolution and dispersals of the Mongoloid peoples was very advanced

in the various regions covered by the project: East Asia, Siberia, the Americas,

and the Pacific. It was for this reason that scholars from these areas were invited to Japan to address project members and share with them their most recent research findings.

A third objective of the conference was to contribute to the ongoing discussion Homo sapiens and the subsequent formand evolution of modern on the origins ation of the different varieties of the human family. The existence of many dif-

ferent cultures in the world today is witness to the history of human migration.

Of the many dispersal patterns taken by our early ancestors, those taken by prehistoric East Asians, or Mongoloids, represent the largest in scale, The study of prehistoric movements of Mongoloids has been the subject of only isolated

studies in the past, and it was the aim of the conference to bring together as many

disciplines as possible to be able to draw a comprehensive picture of human migration to the Americas and the Pacific. With the participation of our col-

leagues from abroad and project teams, further research directions have been delineated,

areas are addressed. The first of these conIn this volume five different topical

siders the origins of the Mongoloid peoples with particular reference to the

vi Preface

theories, and debate between the ‘Out of Africa’ versus multiregional evolution

incorporates genetic, linguistic, and modeling perspectives. The second area d peoples focuses on the debate on the evolution and dispersals of Mongoloi evidence within East Asia. Detailed consideration of morphological and genetic for the relationship between different Mongoloid groups is central to the discus-

sion in this area. The third focuses on human dispersal into the far north: Siberia and Alaska. This portion addresses the adaptive processes of the first humans

to settle successfully in the Arctic Zone. The fourth discusses the first Americans and their subsequent dispersals and migrations in the New World, with groups finally reaching the southern tip of South America.The fifth part concentrates on the group that migrated to the islands of the Pacific Ocean. This is of particular interest to us in that, starting their journey from East Asia, the Mongoloids were the first humans to adapt successfully to both the maritime environment and the Arctic Zone. How did the ancestral Mongoloid population break up into composite groups? What adaptation strategies were employed by the various groups in their migrations and dispersals as they came to live in different environments? When did ns io place, and over which routes? The answers take dispersals andat these migr to all these questions will help to clarify the historical relations between the various populations that now constitute different ethnic groups, and permit the drawing of a Mongoloid family tree. Unfortunately, the facts unearthed and the conclusions presented at the conference do not help us answer these questions satisfactorily. We are still unable to provide any significant illumination on how and where the Mongoloids originated. Nevertheless we hope that the present volume will provide readers with a more sophisticated understanding of the evolution and dispersals of modern humans from Asia, and thus the much more general problem of the origins and evolution of modern humans in specific parts of the world. On behalf of all the participants we are pleased to acknowledge the Japanese

Ministry of Education, Science and Culture, the Japan Society for the Promotion

of Science, the Commemorative Association for the Japan World Exposition,

and the University of Tokyo for their financial support and their interest in our

Hamilton June 1995

E.S.

•

.

viii

6.

Contents

Population genetic studies on national minorities in China

137

Keiichi Omoto et al.

PART Ill: Conquest of Siberia and Alaska Ancient migrations from Asia to North America

149

Dispersal of the ALDH2 mutant in Mongoloid populations

165

Emdke J.E. Szathmary 10.

Shoji Harada

11,

The Mammoth Steppe and the origin of

Mongoloids and their dispersal

172

R. Dale Guthrie

12,

On the origin and dispersal of east Asian

populations as viewed from HLA haplotypes

187

Katsushi Tokunaga, Tadashi Imanishi, Koki Takahashi, and Takeo Juji

PART IV: Peopling of the Americas 13.

What can be learned from hair? A hair record from the Mammoth Meadow locus, southwestern Montana

201

Robson Bonnichsen, Marvin T. Beatty, Mort D. Turner,

and Mark Stoneking

14,

Quaternary geology of the ice-free corridor:

glacial controls on the peopling of the New World

214

Lionel E. Jackson Jr. and Alejandra Duk-Hodkin 15.

Ethnographic analogy and migration to the

western hemisphere

Robert L. Kelly 16.

Environmental context for early human

occupation in western North America

Judith A. Willig

241

bitters

-

z

Contents

ix

New assessments of early human occupations in the southern cone

17.

Hugo Gabriel Nami

The first Americans: different waves of migration to the New World inferred from

18.

mitochondrial DNA sequence polymorphisms

Satoshi Horai, Rumi Kondo, Shunro Sonoda, and Kazuo Tajima

Pacific of theion PART V: Colonizat 19.

Early agriculture and the dispersal of the southern Mongoloids Peter Bellwood

20.

Paleolithic colonization in Sahul land

303

J. Peter White

21.

The genetic prehistory of Australia and

Oceania: new insights from DNA analyses

Susan W. Serjeantson and X. Gao 22,

What is southeast Asian about Lapita?

324

Matthew J. T. Spriggs

23.

Formation of the Japanese language in

connection with Austronesian languages

349

Osamu Sakiyama

24,

Adaptive voyaging and subsistence strategies in the early settlement of East Polynesia

359

Atholl J. Anderson

Author index

375

Subject index

382

|

adie

-

a

a

a

-

#-

r

’ /

under *[ 1p eurysi “sipmig poourapy

20} AysioAUN) MENpEID ay], ‘20U2>g 2yr7 Jo JoOyDS ‘sNaUID Jo 1uIUNIEdag

yumy ‘opuoy . : vsn COCOP AM "MASIMOT “apAsn Jo Ausso oT] amp ‘ASojodom jo ywoun puy medag "] Meqoy ‘ATey ueder *11Z BqIYD ‘opnsiey ‘1ysIN ‘oy>seyxeS *I-979-7 “AMSIOATUN, BOUIN ‘OpnsrEW 1k AnstjoUa JooYr g g ‘Kworeuy jo juawedsg nyosty

‘DMDZDUDY

ueder ‘9s] OAJOL “ny-BANQIYS “OOM If-1-p “39109 poojg jesIUID sso1D poy asoueder ooo “inj

SUI AOA BpeueD ‘eiquinjo> ysnug ‘s2AncouRA

“WAS J9PUId 1594 ODT “UOISIAIG S20UD19g UTEIJa | “epeUED Jo KaAing JeXBOjOI

4{ "J [euor] ‘uosy20{

weder ‘099 o1oddeg ‘ny-ony> ‘11-1594 “-yNOS "SUPIPIW, JO JOOYSS “AyssaatUy) [eHpa osoddeg ‘Aworeuy jo wawywedeg

euntoy “oprys] ueder “Et OAxOY ‘ny-oAqung ‘oSuoy] [-¢-/

‘OKYOL JO Ayssoatup) BI ‘UIDs Jo Aynsez ‘KBojodosy jo wouredag TysDpoy, ‘TysTUDW] ueder “Lip BUNTYSI ‘soNeueD JO sININSU] FeUONEN ‘soNeUED UeUIN Jo yuouNEdeg 1YS0jDg ‘TOJOH weder ‘E[] Oyo] “ny ~OxyuNg ‘OSUOH [-¢-L “OAXOL Jo Anssoaquy ayy ‘ASojodompuy jo ywounsedag ryOwoy ‘TOIT

ueder ‘¢1] OfXO] ‘ny ~okyung ‘oSuOH [-£-L ‘OAYOL Jo Ayssonquy) ayy “AZojodompuy jo juaupedag ifuryg "orDyOY Gog ‘weder ‘ryeseq]

“AUD eqnynsy ‘eqnynsy JO AysIeATUE), ‘UDIpeW AnunuWOD jo aNINSU]

ioyg ‘OposoH VSN ‘S166 MY ‘syuequIey “exseTy JO Anssontup) “ABojorg OnoZy Jo sINIISU] apog "Y ‘euYINS

Byensny ‘1097 LOV ‘B2queD “pet XO Odd ‘ArissoatUp) feUONEN UeTENSNY

UL ‘yoreasay yeoIpay JO JOOuIS WIND UYor “dnoID SOMeUID URN

"X ‘009 SIOINGUPUODIX

eee

xiv

Contributors

Tokunaga, Katsushi

Hiroo, Shibuya-ku, Toky, Japanese Red Cross Central Blood Center, 4-1-3! 150, Japan Turner. Mort D.

lder, CO 80309-0450, USA INSTARR, University of Colorado, Bou

White,

I. Pater

W 2006, Australia School of Archacology, University of Sydney, NS

Willig, Judith A.

INFOTEC Research Inc, 78 Centennial Loop, Suite H, Eugene, OR 97401, USA

4. Introduction: human evolution, dispersals, and adaptive strategies Takeru Akazawa _

—_

=

—

om

Introduction Where did humans originate? In ord to answer erthis questi a closer on look at

the relationship between humankind and the living non-human primates is

necessary. Of particular importance is the question of which primates are more closely related to humans—the living Asian pongid represented by the orangutan, or the living African apes represented by the chimpanzee and the gorilla. Recent research in the fie of genetics ld , however, has supplied a definitive answer: humans are closer genetically to the African apes. Only in relatively recent times

did they branch off and form a new lineage, This means that Africa rather than Asia is the cradle of humankind, When, then, did humans embark on a separate path from the non-human

primates on the plains of Africa? Results of genetic studies, calibrated by the paleontological records, have provided an ans to wer this as well: the divergence

of the human and ape lines may have taken place some 5 million years ago (c.g. Pilbeam 1984; Sibley and Ahlquist 1984), during the Late Miocene, Furthermore, research in the field of paleoanthropology does not contradict this estimate.

These studies illustrate the tremendous progress made in the research regarding

the evolutionary course taken by humankind, including the emergence of ana-

tomically modern Homo sapiens—the direct ancestor of modern humans.

According to one hypothesis concerning the process of evolution from Homo

erectus to anatomically modern H. sapiens, separate lines of H. erectus that

had dispersed within Africa and across the wide Eurasian continent developed independently into modern H, sapiens in each respective area. A few years ago, however, another startling hypothesis was introduced—the so-called ‘Eve hy-

pothesis’, based on genetic studies of mitochondrial DNA (e.g. Cann ef al. 1987). According to this theory, the genetic makeup of modern H. sapiens is not derived from A, erecfus once occupying the various areas throughout the world. Instead, the modern human species can be traced to perhaps a single population of an African H, erectus, Descendants of this common ancestral population of all living humans later migrated to the Eurasian continent and displaced populations of H. erectus or their descendants living there.

In this way, human genetics and molecular biology have increasingly elabo-

rated on themes involving the birth of the human species and its subsequent

2 Takeru Akorowa

evolution, although we are still unable to form a clear picture of our early

ancestors. This is largely because genetics can tell us nothing about the physica] characteristics—or even the lifestyle of “Eve'—our common ancestor as deduced

from research on mitochondrial DNA in living humans. The only way to clarify

such things is through the study of paleontological and paleolithic evidence, Given the theoretical and methodological maturity of genetic research, raising the standards of fossil research has become an increasingly important issue jp the study of human evolution. One area of research that would be greatly enhanced by the sharpening of such

research tools is the unsolved puzzle regarding the evolution of H. sapiens, and the development of the various groups of which modern humans are composed, A fertile subject for this research theme is the segment of our species generically known as the Mongoloids.

Why should the Mongololds be studied now? After the emergence of the human species, human beings have repeated the process of migration and developing a myriad however, the one that during the last Glacial

dispersal, gradually settling in all lands of the earth and of cultures. Of all human migrations and dispersals, occurred on the grandest scale was that of the Mongoloids period, Out of its Asian homeland, ancestral Mongoloids

splintered into several groups. Some advanced into Siberia for the first time in human history and traveled from there into the Americas; others crossed the

Pacific Ocean traversing various archipelagos. In this manner, the Mongoloids came to occupy a vast geographical area comprising two-thirds of the earth's surface. None the less, this dramatic movement remains largely obscured in mystery. But the attempt to disclose the concrete dynamics of the Mongoloid dispersals

is also an altempt to solve one of the greatest puzzles confronting evolutionary anthropology: the evolution of H. sapiens, and the subsequent formation of the

different races and ethnic groups of the human family. How and where did the Mongoloids originate? How and for what reason did they break up into their composite groups? What adaptive strategies were employed by the various groups in their migrations and dispersals as they came to live in different environments? What kind of natural environments did the Mongoloids have to adapt to? When did these migrations and dispersals take place, and over what routes? The answers to all these questions will help to clarify the historical relations between the various ethnic groups within the Mongoloid group, and permit the drawing of a Mongoloid family tree. In a broader sense, an inquiry into the origin and development of the Mongoloids can aid in the con-

crete reconstruction of the formation of the varieties of the human species living in various parts of the world today. Genetics provides us with the most efficient tool to construct such a family

tree, since the investigation into the genetic makeup of living humans will help determine the shape of that tree. However, hidden within ihe various branches of the human family tree are historical questions rel he formation of the

pose

Surpus pur da 000 0E-00007 2wOs SuTUEIG “syesuadsip pue suo! EsTyUI 3194) JO a SNOLBA OVU! peosds MOU oy) sem 2}0u Jo AyOm Apeinoneg “sjusUUOIAU poods Aqjenpes3 Aoyy se saBayens aandepe pastasp sdnos8 spuyye projosuow, snope,

sprojosuopy oy; SuourD uoNDIpos eandopy

*$ULIO} WopOw SNOLIBA Sit Oyu padopAap pure parjona suaydns "Fy MOY JO UONsoNb oy) 0} SioMsuE pjatA 2J0J294) ABW SPIOJOSUOW UO YoJeaSsoY “SoINJea} fexBojoydsow puw snjonys dun 0} awed Ady) sassaooud aan ue Aejdsip Apog pur s0janyaguy Apiss9Atp poporfese -depe ySnosyy *sUaWIUOJAUD asJ9AIp AJopim UI popes pue ‘possodsip ‘poyesdyw

Sprojosuoy jesssoue ‘saiPoies aandepe ut wossa] @ AjUO Inq AyOLedns

JO SUI Projosuow aeuu} Aue Jo JOARS UI ]UIUINIE UB JOU SI SIE “JOJABYOG -1ed mau Sundope Xq suorpuod jesnyeu snoueA 0} SuNdepe ut popascons sease URUINTY “So1Bo1eI1S JAIKEpe ATAOUL! PUT ASJ9AIP sBuroqsw Mou Ort Supes JO asn ay} pasinbos suoTIpUCD [EIWIWOIIAUS IWIIIjJIP YIM S¥ose OU! sUBWNY

Jo vorresSiw ay “vosess ay) 0} Supsoooe AjjesIpes saBueYD pure] Jo Ayaronposd ayy ‘semnorued ur ‘sapnyrrey YSiy Hy “syUaWUOMAUD JUDJ>;IP Ut PUB] dy) JO AIAN

“onposd ay} 0} Surpsos9e Sajjtp ‘pueY 42410 24) UO ‘ainyeU Aq papiAosd ABs9U2

Jo Wwnowre syy ‘dans 0} A8s9U2 Jo yuNOWe pox & saynbes suing UBWN} isfessodsip pue suoresdiw pussd syoy) apeu Kay $e spiojoSuoyy 94) SurALip sa8aqE21s 2ANdepe ay) d19m TeYM “IO LUaUeAoW Opi Sty) UIAID ‘S4O[LJ91U} reYym ‘fessods}p ayy semsd Peosg sty) 10 2950) Surjado

[ENWSUTUOD 0} SBasE [eISOD Woy ‘prBisy pue ‘oye1adwo) ‘jeoidongns ‘jeojdou

SWOWUOIALD [RINT §,yw ay) [Te A[ZeaU UqeYyUt oO} dW Ady) Ajenpess eH)

OF ‘aqoj8 ayy Jo syed JUEISIP UI Sease SBA UT PofrIes SplojOSUOW oy) ‘AEM SHI

Aseo 24) PoxD0]q S}UaWUOIIAUD feINFeU Bulppiqso) 904" Uj *suBIUNY Jo 2oURApE Ye Jy) JO SsaHTUOLS IS¥] 24 BUENASUI poposoons sdnosB projoSuoW ‘SPI0" 22410 Uy ‘seas 94) JO As21SeU UTES 0} SUEWNY 15315 24) DDH SPIOJOSUOWY ‘ApJEIIWIS

‘asoq) Surnas pue ‘suoros prBuy $,yse9 ay) 07 BurpesBjus uy poooons o7 suBLINY

1 8UI uoW sy) UY “Boze YO" 0} sEIND0d sauNyfnD ‘odsos Huly 2) azam spOjOS

“PIOI0" S2Af] 319471 NPC PUR ‘yLIBO IY) JO seare [Te NqeyL! ABpO) sBuIog UEWAH

spiojo8uoy oy} Jo sef8eq02)s eayjdopo 4] 24) ¥ ‘sydesBesed Bupmojjos ase 249411 “sa10ds UEWNY 94) Jo aanronsIs WEUAP 2034)eas pouyjano ‘sip 20} suOs

M4L aq) Aemuod 01 suare oy) uj jopous quazzoxe ue apiaosd spojosuow

‘payLIeS 2q Kew puryueuny jo saajrerucseuy es ueWINY ay Jo WoroNsIsUODN74 Mower ay) JO sdyysuonej ayy 203) Apurey wflnomys ‘senaMopy “SENIGEY J2Up Jo seBeux Sea} Aue apinosd 40 244] Jo AM JP

2quotap 9 URD JOU “AjueS VEUIY a4 dn oem rey) sdnosB squyro pur ‘s4NO¥

‘sBureq uewny snoUEA 2y3 Jo 20uRZRAdde jRoBojoydsow ay) mnoge sujyis? $n [Jat 1ouUED ‘Pe 2178 “soNaUID ‘sdnos¥ asou usoMIaq sdrysuoNEses [HON

2189009 247 ToNTISUONNS OF pasiNbos si yoreasas peUOHIppY ‘sdnosd 2quys? HOLM € sexSeq028 sandopo pun ‘sosiedsip ‘uonnoas uOUMY :uop}INpOIIU]

sal

ay) 29

aj escuela

eed

ea Gb eas

a eagsaia een

“‘OSepdrysze yey) UTYWA pUe O}UI sBuIEg GEUMY JO uIUAON

24) SLIPISUOD PUL “BISy W2}se2 JO SSW fEIUIUTIUCS SULOQYSr2U IY) YM poyUy Ajfeuonouns vase UE se OSejadiysue asouedes ay) suONSOd 1 asne2eq H YL “PSPUBAEL IY) JO SUIB{IO 3q) 40 (p9G| TUB “3*2) stssqpOdAy uBLsSanbe porfed-os ay) JO ArseinSuys ay) JOj OSEDs DUO SI BISY YIM DOTDoNUOD aq) UO sMI0} IAL "satwedsiod peurSu0 pue mou Ajpejo1 & pyetk ueD—ss9y) wWoIs OFepdnpaze

ssounder 24) Suimaia pus yujod Sureys oq) se eIsy SuryeI—sua] Jopim sry)

JOpUN Woy as9URdeL ay) JO SUBLUO ay) SuLmarA ‘UONIppe Uy “oAroedssad jo S80] B INOYIUM BISY Ul SpIojoSuo ay) JO fesiodsip pue UONEIBTW 24) JO Ixa1U00 ay)

wily poresedes 9q jouue> EUsWOUSYd 2s2y) ‘aIN}IND ssoURdELS Jo UOTTBUIOS 94)

pue ajdood asoueder ay) Jo uoneauap ay) SuLapIsuco Usy

“dros UEWINY FEY)

JO sovjdyuig oy) sem Gory “BIS INOYTnoI) spropjosuoy 241 JO syessodsip put

SuOr esr jeII3 By) JO Ix91U09 By) UNYIM JoRId YOO! aNIyN> JPY) pu aydood asoueder oy) JO WWawdofeasp aq) yey) Hes 2q3 porofFou aaey ep 0} SJaqpseIsU maj B UNA “WOIEsaprswoo Woy Ie} STI) pspnpxe Ajjensn savy wedes *‘suond2oxo Uy DINIINd sy) pue adood assueder aq) jo 1w2wdojaaap ay) wo saupnis ‘adood Plojosuopy aq) JO SIIqWAW ae asouEdel aq) GFnOYITE Tey) Si UOLNNJOAD WEUINY urejdxa 0) Burks) Usym sprojoSuop, wo FursNd05 105 Woseal feu) PUR Psyy) IY MON [fam se ‘suardos “Fy JO WONNJOAs aq) Jo ApNys ayy 40) J9IVBWI

2 AIS m0 jo8uo Me

Ac

acta

elgns yua{}I0xX9 se

ae

yonwi B ABidsip ABpo} 978018 AIp amnyonys ‘w0}) ASII pue 10faeyaq ‘2 ‘sdnoud ayi -os pajres , ETS onSaath. Pieiecpnisa ee amen pate spiojo3: uOW

uewnmae

ay} JO amyeay anbrun oy) ‘sdnou3 uswny

Sem

ire uy

‘

ay) ysnoyy Sudue sip pue suonesdyw aq] JO sjesuad

~2PIM 9Y) Ut Pornsad puke ‘snonuTUOD sea fesiadstp pur ‘uoLEIT yw “voreIuIUIsIS

vorejuaw

JO ssoooud aac 01} Burumuwssys

-825 w

Sta

u

7

WIEWIOUN st YyMOI8 BorEdod dno “Wor mg

perpen

AypangnOe

ee

ee

ur .

0 pena

mau

aes eae ac 1 Apia! ox San

[[e s1s180j01 aandepe

IY} JO [essadsip oy. UI2S23 SPLOJOSUOW

AxeuonnjonaOAD 1yey)uoUsWO!

aq} JO [fe owe NQeYU! OF pur YON wnb Ajuo 20ejd 400) woIsnyyIp

owe suet

FEY) WIJ JY) IPB SprUTwOY “ei3tu purus ut BuIuwaq “uea0q aie ayy ss0u98 eauds AENIU2A2 UE YING HENOW

Sdno8 projoSuoyy J2yjOUR JO UO ‘NOS CIV PUnore Supur pu DE OOOE JAA ay)

yp) EoUDUTY YINOG JO dn WsOqINOS a4)

Punose Sune *(spuRjs] OBang ep BIL

Ajjenyuaad ‘seouaury auf O7U! Jay Ny paysnd waxn pur ‘97e2s puss ¥ vo

Suryoeau BUIqIS pafnas ‘yOU paAou! sdnosd plojoSUoWN 20u 10 BuO ‘gg 0000! PuncrE DMDIDYY USL F

Introduction: human evolution, dispersals, and adoptive strategies

5

there is a marked tendency to consider the geological formation of Japan from a global viewpoint, focusing on the development of eastern Asia; likewise, the

examination of the origins of Japanese flora and fauna now tends to take a

similarly broad viewpoint. In contrast, when the subject of Japanese people and

culture arises, there is a tendency to ignore this broader perspective and to restrict

the examination to the Japanese archipelago—a tendency that seems only to

intensify the further back in time the study sets its aim.

By studying the historical formation of the Japanese people and Japanese culture in the context of the migrations and dispersals of the Mongoloids across more than two-thirds of the globe, a more original scenario of the Japanese and Japanese culture emerges. This new perspective might serve to shift the Japanese

cultural reference point from an innerto an outer one.

oids ng the Mongol Defini The Mongoloids, to which the Japanese people belong, comprise nearly 2 billion

of the more than 5.5 billion people on earth. They differ from other human

groups by virtue of common physical characteristics, including skin color. The specific physical characteristics selected to classify human beings are called ‘racial traits’. Furthermore, a group of people with the same racial traits is usually assigned to a specific ‘race’. The Mongoloids form one of the main human racial groupings; two others are the Caucasoids and the Negroids.

Morphological features , thick broad Some of the traits common to many Mongoloids are: short heiaght

to the trunk, small feet and hands, and chest, short and fat limbs in comparison

a relatively extensive distribution of subcutaneous fat. The combination of these

traits yields a stocky, thickset figure. In addition, Mongoloids are characterized

by dense, straight hair on the head but with relatively little facial and body hair.

small with a deep nasal cavity while their cheekbones are promiarees Their nos in a nent. This feature tends to lessen the prominence of the nose, resulting generally flat face. to many, but not all, Mongoloid The traits described above are common

groups, including the Japanese, and are thought to have been developed during their adaptation to frigid climatic conditions in the past. Several of the traits mentioned above have been considered advantageous for survival in cold areas, although well designed experiments (¢.g. Steegmann 1975, 1972) have yielded results that dispute old claims. A deep nasal cavity, however, may allow the reaches the lungs. Having sparse facial and it ore inhaled air to be warmed bef

body hair is claimed to help prevent frostbite caused by the hair freezing. For this reason, the physical traits mentioned above are not applicable to all Mongoloid ethnic groups, but are more common among some northern Mongoloids (Milan 1979), Though the various Mongoloid groups may derive froma common ancestor, the fact that they spread over a vast area and adapted to many different natural environments has resulted in a great diversity of

physical forms. To illustrate this point it is useful to compare the characteristics

| > J

me

Ps

UOTSUNP Jef) & ‘PIUIQUIOS SIF SET] THNS MOG FEU ON *,UIOg, TEM 208!

UTELIOS & Gaga Jum ou ywiod asead aq) YsTQeiss 0} apqissodun si Tey) woredde

SWOg

UOOS Tf ‘SUISTUEYOW Seus2 Ysnom) periods

34 01 SUR

Sen

Yyons Gory Aq ss200ud Zuo] aqi ‘st Tey) ‘siren Yons jo orsmboe aqi jo ss20d ay] vodn Suypsyjai Gay Ay “ATEN poly 2q 0) pounsse 2q sny) UED SEN EDTY

“ATEOnUss pexty suresoq pue poumboe Jae won

-e8edoid pur PEAMAMS 0] SNOSPEPUEAPE 210U1 S10/02 UTYS GIA WI “STUSUTONAT

}U3J9jjIP O1 UOTE MEpe jo WNs21 241 2q sng) Aew Aepo) saze! [Te JO s#ug UEWNY Aq PoOlqIYxXs SUO}OD UNAS SNOLTEA 34] “JOOS UTYS ITEP Aq PaZLaDerey> ose 2am WUSUTIUOD HEISEI 24) JO Stare WU) jIp 0} POTeTr Isr OGM SpruTMOY Apre> aq)

ey) Pawnee aq TED M ‘UONSOddns sy) Wory “STEMS WeSUpy 3g) Ui DOnEted

~O1d pUE JBALAINS Jaq) payloddns aaey pom ssusDEIEYyD STL] “EUyy NqeqU MOU yey) sdnowd prowWay] jo soquaw FuoUrE Jey) 3yY] YONW puE yep ayinb usaq

DARBY OF Apoyl] OJIAY) Sem SPITUIOY Apes JO JOOS UIYS IIL] “STEUNPD WESUY 3)

jo esd) shes JOLARIYN BuONs aq) NO INYs 0} IPI

WI UMTEPIU Jo spar YsrY

pourequos Ajqeqoad urys Mey) ‘syusuTWOS Joy) 0) FuryEII Tw a0jaq *sIeaA WONT

[eJ9Aas Jano suot8as jedonqns pue fesidoy aq] Ul DorNjoxs poyesdes jam -Japun pure ‘EUyy Ul payeuwuo sprommoy Apes sours Tey) WysNOY) $1 11 “JaAIMOH

‘SEM JOTOD UIYS [EUS

$,puryTeUNY yeyM Apexe Fuymouy JO Kem OU $1 219]

‘ABPOD WQIgxs Ad] TEY) $10]O9 UNYS SNOLTEA a1 peY SKEMle S9Ie1 UEUINY SNOLEA

SY} Tey? “F9AdMOY “WES

JOU S8OP TEY] “EN s1euM! Oe AlfEIwsUTEpUNy $1 10}02

Urys WEWNY ‘peuTuUaiep Ajjeoneued s1 UTUEpUI sonpoid O71 Aime aq) Sy “Shes JO JAJOIARIIN INO yNys OF ApUTEW sUOTIUNY If “WIM wTTEpSU Jo Spang] WaIa)JIP

[el SAEMTE St TY “IO[OS UNS “SoUINYU} J[Nsol SY} St Tel) [Eel B SE PHMONUIM [je sue Aepo) sdnosd -aWWUOIIAUS JapUN a/qesaie Ajrses )oU pure ‘paseq Alpeonauad

plojosuoy SurysinBunsip sonswswereys fesisAyd snouen 34) Tey) IUINSSE 24, joaaal saueds ay) jOYM

Sip) Ul souEIS ISTE “padsal

“Yess

yeo18 jO aq UES SONeueH

JELEM yey) sBuieq wewny jo dowd &

SB SplOjOSUOpAY IY} I1BIOSI O1 SN MOTTE 31 S2OP JOU “ae sprojoSuopy Oym uTE;dxe

IUOR] “SaIeI Joy MOLY SPIO|OTUOWA Sty) ‘Ssa] I Ip APANIUIJIP JOU S2OP WOIssNIs By) JO U0 9q WSN Tey] “ANSIOAIp IS97esIs }IeEYD ay) ZUNENusIajIP soNsus Ul Ys se way? sdnosd piojoSuopy SNOLUTeA aq] JO sonsUSereyD peosAyd ay

“splojosuoyy Wwayou

duew fuoure wey) Aydesodo) sow YM

oe) & aAey Adq) Sm] “pepsi WoW

298} 2y) pue s9FFIq Ose are sesoU Jay] “ska Puno! “apLn wt FuTynsad “poy Ih

“ueida padopanapsapun Ue pUe spats 2[qQnOp Inky Sprofosuopy We>yINOS * 400} PoX>-moseu & Ul SuNsad *,pjoy WeNOSuOW, pedofaaap-fjam© pue sprato paape -2(Furs aney sprlojoSuopy WIyOU sy) ay AA “2NTY Jopuayse Furjuasad Tey sno “SUBINIQNS Jo UOIINGUISIP AO] A[PATIepa E PABY PUB “YUN 24) OF WOTEpes H) SAINT] WIS ‘Buoy Aq pazuaDeseyD soundy Japuays anel] sprojosuojy Wiayynos

(ssoe3

Jao qui Aquressenou you yng) sexes woquoN su) qiem dostedine? UI WeyMos SuNIqeyUl sdnosd DuyNe JO Iq) YM splojosuopy WayWOU IOs jo OMnEyy hao,

§

‘Seuedey :f “ORD :D “Cy “R13 :2661 “7012 nowes) powaw (fp) SoD! ‘ogee 2—7 Sum par nus uco suo nem ndo d wew ny g1 10) Yom sou Ayuyye uy yt Sd

/

/

outs / "

f

/

/

poe

WY) SALP 0} Sem ‘SaAQMOY ‘B12 MIU YW “SQUID OM) I59q) JO adood aq) Gum

poreindod Ajaway w29q 2U0 aAvy IsNU EIze OFINy PP BUA zOyR ayy “WI?

Ws Som

Wes SuruejuTeW puE sinoqYsiau aq] YM soMpOUTMOS

SurBueyors Aq pasxdsosd A2yy “soznyjn> umo sy) podoprsp pur syuswuoMAUa 2at2odse2 2194) JO SUOIPUOS FeINTeU ay) 01 pardepe ‘1uIUNUOO WEDUIWY GInOS

24} JO Soyreas TOWTUJIGINOS 2H) 0} parEIBAU pey OYm ‘weSyeA PUR UC 241

s382 aq) joqess “Spsi

pure “ysisiPys “gsy $8 Spooy yons Sues Aq paatams A2yy “saeym AjpeworsEs00 pure ‘surydjop ‘“sjeas any 0) suoodsey pasn Koy) so0ur> woly “EQUITY qIROS

JO ju1od ysouruzaqinos aq “WOH, ade> 07 Spurysy 2150}] pur OULEARN wOIs SUI “yoiouys ‘OSIN{ PP R1sA | JO IO WIqINOS Jaq) Jj0 Fare Bq) PoNgeyu! Tey) 300d

Surysyy @ dJ9m ‘pEwY 29490 ay) UO ‘wEsyeA 24] “MOLE pUE MO Yum CoBUENS oy) powuny Aoy) aq] “OSIM PPP BIH] JO PUES! Ure aq) Jo JOLUZIUT 24) panqeyul sou ‘anbshyd Apsnjs paw [yer & quim su2junY UrejUNOW ‘BUG ay, ‘sdnos8 projoSuow 2q1 [fe JO 1saSuoj ay2 Sem sprojoSuopy 252q) Aq 2peu A2usnof DY] “SUBSLOUTY ISJIy 94) 2uBOSEq O1 WENG Sug Bq) PUR BLagIS pesseARs) pus "BIS 1j2] PeY OY splOjOSUoW UOIsTYIId Jy) Jo S\UEPUIOS9P 24) 25am Sajdood dsoy “URByeA Dy) PUR BUC IMF Se UNS sHoZIYIeT-s2)UNY JO aWOY 24) U0

239m ,O8on.y fop BML, poureu “eoLsUTY YINOS jo dn WayTNOS IYI JJO Spurs! 24) supedoing pub sprojoSuopy ‘srereaoostp poorydos30e*)

‘sonauad jo reyy pue sadAyouryd Jo fora] ay) UO qI0q

JQeIUapUN st sTYL “UIBUO UOWWOD SuLABY se PazTUBOes 2q Pynoys Ady) 'S)]BI} WUd19jj1p azINbow 01 awed Ajfenpesd spiojoSuowy Jo sdnouB snoweA oy) aIYA “$2084 J9yIO 2y) WEY) AussaAIP Ilauad 210W Aq paz|s9 e849 Wises Ady) ‘IINSas B SY “WIND AjHed Wy) JO Spueysi ay) pu ‘FoUIWY YINoS

PUB YON Jo s]UaUTUOD 24) SuIpNpUt Bare PeOIg & J9A0 pasiadsip splojoSUOW, ‘eIsy wos x22) s19y) SurUUTBag “sveNgeY MU ay) 0) pardepe Aoy) se sons

“Sesey> anbiun paunbse Kay) azay ‘suorSes yw2s2jj1p Oru! paves pue ‘Lede

24019 Ady) ‘outty Jo 963N0d ay) 4940 “SadAiouayd Jo suLs9) UY AyIsZ9AIp awaIIKe

1194) audsap *s}002 UOUTWOD aseYs OP PIOJOSUoWy wus) [esau98 24) s9puN pawns

“QNs sdnos8 s1uyse aut ‘Aes 0} St TEU, “Samu aesedas 3osy) OVU! dn 24024 4218]

Pur ised oy) wi youesg ploseone. aq] wos payesedas youesg sy) “Youesg UEWNY

PWES 24) 0} paduojaq 2u0 Ary) Tey) SMOYS ["] “By “worEUBis9p projoSuoW

wes 94) s9pun sdnosd 2214) 2504) 28}d 10U OP SUONEDRjISsEP awOs YBnoYHY

‘Suendeg pue sueiessny peurduoge jo pasoduioo dnos8 pury) & pur “suesuswy

Aaneu jo pasodwioo dnosd sayiowe ‘sURISY ISEIqINOS PUE SEI 12410 PUT

‘sou1y> ‘asoueder jo pasoduioo dnosd e ows papiatp Aypeosg 2q wed sprojoduoyy

‘SUOIsIA aoay) OyUI poresedas J9qUNy ave ‘sAIQMOY ‘SpIOYOSUOW 24) AJUD “gnoge pouoruaw sadXjousyd 24) wo poseq syes) [ep>es ay)

£4 poysinSujsip se 208s Jo suoreayssse24) quem ywowoou8e wy Aieyuourepan)

M8 suorsiarp 9524) ‘IAOSIOWY “POM IY) JO 25U2S pROIg 3) UY BITE DUES 24) Ut

40 ‘syuaunuos auses 4) UO AppsoUs S2At] SUBLINY JO SUOFSLAIp J98sB] IAL 24) JO 2J0w Surye>¢puy ‘sayueIG JaUOYs Aq P>yU] YO “£iBunsouoquy “2ouadsdaqp 12091 DMOTONY NUeHOL Q

———

splopoSuoyy aq) Aq poweus se AZ2A00srp peotydesBo08 Jo o8e ans) oy) Aym suostal

PeIPAIS SPVBIOGEID UOHHOES TOU oY] “youRId su) ssouDe fEssods|p put UO!eBIUw JO

RUNesp URWUNY pues ay) UI S10}9e Ise] ay) PUR ‘ssIIO;dxo FeorydesBOOS SAL) A

2am SPLOjOSuOW OY) FEY) SUIT SIL “SIONIUOIy $,ypeS 24) JO Je AdNd00 0} DUE suBWNY MWh Jo Ueds jeDZTUsIs pue WOYs yey) UIA Ing “AJOISIY UBUINYJO aapmodsied Su0j oy) Woy pomrA U9yM JIAD JUI00I AfoutaIIX? UE SEM Pjom 94) JTPY JO SABAOOSIP PlojoSuoW ay) Jo aSe ay) JO yasUO aU) ‘QAOgE PIUOHUIW SY

[IF ‘PALE Jy) JO au 2) 7e suRUMY Aq porqeyurUN

SA— OUP Ed 241 JO SpURlst 21) pur ‘seououry ayn ‘euaqgig—Surqeyut Ul P9pe?

i

10 Takeru Akozowa

of thar began at such a late point in time. The conclusions of the basic parts g off from the living African One reason is physiological, for after branchin

s of con. apes in the African Rift Valley, early humans spent several million year ropicay tinuous evolution mostly in an environment where a genial tropical or subt

y hominids succeeded jp climate prevailed. This situation continued until earl clj. emigrating from Africa. However, they were genetically program med to the icaj tion and phys matic conditions of Africa in terms of both physiological func the early humans characteristics (Eaton and Konner 1985). The areas in which le were environ. (i.e. H. erectus) who migrated from Africa first attempted to sett

Valley from ments which lay at the same latitudes as the eastern African Rift thus be seen as makinga ). They can which they had originated (Dennell 1985 conscious

choice to migrate

and disperse

into environments which

were

more physiologically congenial. This means that there was also much to dissuade recent humans from moving to such physiologically

hostile areas

as the frigid

regions of Siberia.

waited to move into Siberia humans le that kab On the other hand, it is unthin

adapt to frigid climates. Such reprotommed until they were genetically reprogra

cold areas and succeeded gramming could only take place once they had movtoed in adapting to the frigid climate. In other words, humans attempted their move into and succeeded in inhabiting cold areas before they had physiologically adapted to them. Adaptation was accomplished, instead, through technological means. The basic technology used by the first humans moving into cold regions was that which would enable them to secure a constant supply of the necessary

energy to live in those areas and technology to provide protection from cold. However, it is extremely difficult for human beings to secure such a supply of energy and, therefore, its acquisition was gradual. As in the case of physiological

adaptation, human beings developed a technological system that derived energy from food resources, mainly plant stuff, in their several million years of constant

evolution in tropical and subtropical areas. To survive in frigid areas such as

Siberia, however, the main energy source had to derive from animal resources

since the productivity of plants is limited and extremely seasonal. Humans equip-

ped with the technological system acquired in Africa would have had much to

deter their decision to move into a climate differing from the one to which they

had adapted over aeons, Human survival strategies in the form of technologically

securing plant resources took several million years to develop. That process meant that the human body was physiologically programmed to secure energy

from plant proteins (Eaton and Konner 1985). Human bodies were indeed doubly

ly y, to adapt to the concal ogicall and technol and triply programmed, both geneti ditions of temperate climates, and were thus unfit for living in colder climates.

The human attempt to venture into the ocean world took even more time to

develop. The migration of Mongoloids into the island region of the Pacific Ocean took place extremely late. Although their first venture into the broad ocean expanses occurred about 50000 years ago, the second wave happened much later

than the Mongoloid migration into Siberia. Hawaii was settled around 2000 years

jhe ay

.

s

8

HiiRIi# I !:

8

a

used

ma history.

million

OF mafor the fine 3 de eats what were the he { behavioral ad na a8S gained i by humane sotion? Di any ne w survival strategy rene

nfo

re they acquired

xsi)nBeyo allodowsubONE the10 CTY ONS Own food (ewes St AY, pet freercinedg tof liv early humandns whot, were fo thei nt in wo e ra hifro ghly mi ! rked ¢, ay Lovejoy

ae tena nenated for its conmumgretnnion en advantage e They were . for storing it for future use, Being bipedal also 10 Secure a safe ce jer view of their savanna surr oundings

of 1 On

it is doubtful, however, that the advantages cited specially useful surviv al strategies. Spe

cifically, bipedal locomotion is inferior to quadrupedal plainly locomotion in terms of spe ed and agility, tet be basic and necessary capacitie ta

s for catching prey withou t tools, Moreover, th physical characteristics requir ed for such an endeavor. ili

R

“Ip weWnY

24) Ul yeIw Jo WFeyu20NEd ay) UI ISBIIIUT 3) O} Papejas sem JwoudopAsp SL

Ady) “FOA0S0]K OSTe 34] SIE MpU T YILM PLY [OO] E JO I0UaTIAUID "S100] PSTIPIEPUE]S

“Uia}Osd [HUNTER YO aye

paseIIUT ay) JO WOTIDUNY B OSTe azam ‘7ySIsy Aq pazTog

t] Ut saBuEYyD weumnyzis az Apog “wis ‘“supesours ypd ope myYL “YO1SeAPe

parsadur aABy UOIINjOATY ELISNpUT ay) 20urS suRadoungy WapoU turers Apsoul ae

a Jo sigue) ay) afr ‘speUNTUE aBre] Woy ABsOUD TPNI” pousd Sumassiuy WOU poured sueadoung oMpoaeY aye] “ursjOad peurUE Jo ayBTUT ot) PUP wee

a1u saBuEyD as2yL “(586 JAI ay)DJo adurexa ayasouw OD uasmi9q UONEPUIO > Pure wove) Ajfeoneuresp paseazouy yf sum yorym 18 ‘uorNjoasy TeHISNPH woYys paurewe: soydood Fuywsey ueedoing pwr oy) [uN MHap “ J°“(S261 e aures eave Puy "UL ) ayy wi paar oum squEpusosap yesnynouse rou) “IF SHU! 9 INOQE 219m Ofe sreak OOO O¢ punore SurAy suadoung Wyo PP Oy pur uoIey ‘9461 SU2PIN) P pean

(S961 z2uU

DOHNJOAS 34) 01 spuodsaui0> Apog wewmny ay) jo UOHN|OA? a

weumy ‘preAuo Behe Z

y W2poUJo suoIsuaUNp ay) payreed Ped FF on

wsP* ™ y) 1yS19uyepue 'H Wory “(7661 Asuazzoyo w nsey(Tse™ az wad pou Igy

0} W295 om §

“Hy ayaa ‘s

oe 74

!

'

ow 0 1 Uretaz 2 ore , on ee So to 3 Axm aBCoR 30 kxmaTIO09 sem 21349 tom TT ao) ae as nt Rssofeoeyaze Uy “syIssoy rae, te 30 S422m ob apass0d 29 pynogs 2 ‘spuom ove } 2M) WO ABO 100 UR “sOLARYIq Jo ay) jou UO SIg eeI BO1 29 Pyn ogs Kym ana COR Jo vouamoUKd aq U2Mn ‘preau a

en eee

t

EY 240 Jt Pa "eo

Peajoas

By

ur

paoeydas

uyy Ur pareuBuo remy suados “Hy wapou SPIOOBUOW, A JO s\Os aq jy sey st JO SReiuRApe ra2>ujns Sure u39q 100 24Ry 24 GBaowye wwEpunge

re Moo

ge Ie STeuaTeUD [eoxdojooeys ‘isen|V0D By “au wr ¥9eq JoMUIN se ) sssom ed o eu zu de l} 230 08 Som oog pur ‘seUIEN feodojooRSR URYT Kym:

D Moy Pile SH) WWM WoRsaUDOD B aia 8 “spUOM WuOy Suryog PUB SSOUBARL SB IB} $B 4289 PE SpiO| MO UT LMA “Hy J0 OSuoW, Jo 1001 amp og "M0)SY poxow

ee EY Ut PaveUIaU0 OW suandes “1 wopoU Aeon 9 000.002 20 000001 J0 yRsa1 ay) $e 10 ‘sma uoHEGE we Jo wonnjoA2 jo “y que SamEUEg ‘eyo AISN}Ox9 20EId YOO} FEY) VORNJoAS WeumY Jo sseaK

YONTU U0 J0 yNsaI 29) se DP Pamaia aq TES Splojosuopy Jo ywomdorerap pure sous8ious 243 ‘yoa1s00 5

OW Yor

UO Su~pusdaq “‘Snpade "} Wesy yse2 pur

asoueaey wos Anoop Sie 2112u98 Aue pay.s2qur jou a4ey sprojeuoyy wzpom‘sa t2404 Yppom a8y PON

94) JO aansadsiad ay) wo1y “BIS Ul 20595 01 smusava ‘py 1814 aqp Jo syuEp NP * uew Suryad, pue ,Weu BARS, 01 x89 paDRN 29 TD SpIqOSUOp4 a4 J

HO 2qn ‘Tepow eiqefapure ayy Jo aunvodsiod “PIpuED ays Jo suxs3) ul poureyda aq ued suardayos woig ppom ry see “Hy wopow moyeue "BHO ay saqi2ya uo spuadep splojoduoy aq) Jo S100! aq) Aese Sug

Sn [[8} $]00} oy yOYM :AymuRUODs 40 AymuUEy

DMDIOTY NICO] 9g]

Introduction: human evolution, disper sals, and adaptive strategies

19

Acheulean culture that corresponded to the final Stage of Hf. erectus, to the Middle and Upper

Paleolithic cultures. If the descendants of the modern H, sapiens in the “Eve hypothesis’ did replace the anatomically aboriginal early humans of Eura sia, the phenomenon of cultural discontinuit

y should be observed during the time periods mentioned above. The phenomenon of discontinuity will

be investigated from the perspective of the contents of the tool kit in each of these periods (Fig . 1.3),

Early humans did not roam about with their tool kits in hand. The tools made

of stone, bone, and antlers discovered at various sites were tools that

the inhabitant of thos se sites used daily, especially combinations of tool s for capturing and exploiting sources of energy, and to prepare and proc ess them. In addition, the forms assume

d by these tools, and the combination of tools of vari ous shapes developed in a coordinated way that maintained the traditional, everyday behavior

of those inhabitants. The shape and combinations of tools need

ed by hunters and vegetarians are fundamentally different. In other words, they each carried and lived with tool kits containing different cont ents. When

the tool kits from the Upper Acheulean of the end of the Lower

Paleolithic period are compared to those of the Midd le and Upper Paleolithic, the contents and composition of the tool kits diff er between those of the Lower, Middle and Upper Paleolithic periods. The most characterist ic tool in the tool

kit of the early period was the core tool known as the Acheulean-tyhan ped axe, while the

most characteristic tool in that of the Midd le Paleolithic period was the Mousterian-type flake tool. Since core and

flake tools differ fundamentally in terms of shape, it is natural to assume that they also involved different processes of

production. They were, however, made in ba sica thell sam ye way. Flake tools can be defined as tools made from the flakes prod in uc the proc ess of ed

chipping off pieces from a raw material with a hammer stone. Core tools such as hand axes can be

defined as tools made from the standardized part of the stone once the flakes have come off. Only an assortment of variously-shaped flake tools can be found in the tool kit of

Middle Paleolithic humans who fabricated Mousterian-type flak

e tools. Meanwhile, in the tool kit of Lower Paleolit hic humans who used Acheulean-

type stone tool one can s, find many flak that es arose as by-products in the process of man ufacturing core tools, typified by the hand axe,

Why did the hand axe disappear from the tool kit? Either the behavior that required

hand axes disappeared, or that behavior continue d with a new tool devised to replace the hand axe. The behavioral ba ckgr to this ouques tion will nd be disc

ussed later; but for the moment an inquiry into the evol ution of tools may prove useful, While the tool kit of H, erectus also contained flake tools , they differed from

those in the Mousterian-type tool kit. The former were mere recy cled pieces of the

many fragments resulting from the process of making hand -axe core tools, while the latter were made from flakes that had been intentio nally struck for the purpose of tools, Neither case, however, could be expe cted to result in tools that

AN

near

ARREVLLIAN HAND AXES

Tarvava

cheoe & C vaNanGoroe

Vaal Pver.

Soulh AKa

Kont, Engtand

d. Swanombe.

AOHEULIAN HAND AXES

tChopper,Veanetcave

ONwGorge.

TanzanNa

CNOOrg ko

Commont, Prance

L'atehe

ngary

wessrokoa

Choonet

Us&A

Satani-Der Amenia

Bloan nda

t Chooet

eSN

AQHEULIAN

PINAL

Mou Came, Ireel

Handa.

Ch

Chopg oot Chotaouen

15

Faram Surrey Ergkd

t DI6covenYOFBEAUTY

mr

O

st

e asotet

v

ohe teassor gnEte ata

won Mo Ptegvngs

e

OnJetersjvee)my e seved (err

ons byond theeco

denceo agrateoconeoaes qa

fhepetbekc at ndchosoere Cho entan t n xe soao ae-noc Senan me as Ashnn n as ( hne gvee

Thetaaryo osb AN rc berona net ợụt ot ree as Peteyrvegt nahaoey otastaeahnte e0 o

Eto

fi

Angy-ur-Curw France

Krto.

France

ksrael

MouCarme!

ALMira

pont wth

cermel

Burin,

France

Haute.

Looerie

Bonepont thbevled

Frence

relouching, Laugerie Haute

Backedblade

PROTO. MAGDALENIAN

aet

PO

shouldored SAA

Sighly

La Forraisse, Franoe

langed point,

9. Font Robert

Scrapor.

Mount Carmel laraol

LEVALLOI8o: MOUSTERIAN

. Gerny

Point EhnngOort

S

0.

Uran ussIR

Burn.

Boan

Pekarna Morevia

HarUOn

Prarce

Combe-Gronal. Dordogne,

blaca sraper

CASscal

xnepon

SAMrOsel

Pont

MAQDAL ENIAN

Groece

Screpe Asprochaho.

Auoere Haute

tered

Papao

Larel leaf

lace plane Laugerie Maute Franco

Poinia

BQLUTRIAN

France

LeMoutio

Point

MOUSTERIAN

(onáuye

Fraxe

tsa

CUSSSA

Ayea

Soe e (aae

hcoyAe ak

Baed

CAPSIAN

Sahwa

n Crva

Fig. 1.3 Simpli ed sequence of major old Stone Age technologies (Campbell 1988, pp. 22-3.).

LaFoasaio

bone pont,

d.Sold-based

Austrsa

WWendort,

d,

ORAVEITIAN

Point. AatolPass, Kharga, EoYp

UPPER LEVALLOISIAN

Core scraper.

AUAIGNAGIAN

CoroaC

Fako,

Burin La Forrasio, France

La Fertasse, France

.Pake,

CHATEL. PERRONIAN

France

Normandy.

Houpeve

Point

LEVALLOIS

AEAIAN

rae

ADVANCED CAPSLAN

TargedN

Afocce

|

a

re -

put 2sn 0) Apieip ‘uorpuny

UNUT PoyUNy Ajfensn 29K 2109 243 JJO IWED FEUD SOBY 2g) JO aunyeU pus adeys ULL “ponusy Apurazyxe are saouersuy Yons ‘worUIIU! Jeo Wed B YIM IpeW sem days & Yons yey) aqeruapun si 1 YBN

“WWIOd e 40 ajfUy B WO) 0) passooOId

DYLAN SEM IAB] Iq) JO IBpo BuyyzIOM 94) YO!Ym Ut $}O0} DUIOS OSTE DUB 2194] *]00)

SE WO} [CUISUO SH UI posn aq UES IYBY AYL “posm Sem YURI

Speiq Hq) Fey

EM IY) Ul SEM IUBUIPPIP WL “SJOO) 2zBY JO 2504) WO) SULII) D15Eq UI 42jjIP DU PIP II! $[O0} apeyq JO UoHONposd Jo Spoyram ay “9xeLj PazIpsepuers MO! yeu pue Suoj B SuIsn poonposd-sseut AjsnoNuUTUOD UZAIq 2ABY O} Pres ae ‘JaAaMOY

100) apeig “ABM sures 24) Afpectseq U1 ape ase 5}00) OpFIq PUE S]OO} PYFL (2661 "6861 BLY) Aununuoosip

> QUO 2q 0) OM) Jy} WIIMI2q diysuorTE}as aq) SuLmoYs snyI “adK} WRLLIISNOW y) Wo

Ns “FAIMOY *9BE1S 2UI901519/4 318] AueUS Wt paJajjIp s1edse yeIuaUTEpU

Y) 1e DSOsB IEYD Wy [OOD HyMOoTEY Jaddy) ay “suf J9A0 JoquiNU pue VOTED ystydos ur padopap

joo) a5aq) ‘281N0D JO “OFE szeak 90D OT Pune

rium sodA)

90} JO SIUDIPIITUT [eyUIWePUN; sures aqh Woy IY 100) BEDEUTUNY MIU IY]

SB PIULjep St ‘uRLeUsUNY

Aq poItes UO UBLIDISNOW, ay? s9BId9I OF PoBsausa Tey) IHy JOO Jo aA) mau ayy

O4m dong JO a3do1 SUNIND SYL, *,UEUL UOUSEW-O1D, SB AjfeoUIIUes UMOUY aE

uaidps OUlOpY Wapoul Ajpewoveue ApquyeysTwUN Ie i PATE Om SUBLINY 24) syrx Oo) SNOIAgsd wosy Afasajdwor Suraj jAq] “sesodsnd feuoRDUNy 18942) )1p 4194) PU 1 Surpsogz" Payrsses> puw sadeys snOLTEA Jo soo) Ja;)UB/aG0q poSpalj-f24)in)Ut 100} apeiq jo soueseadde 114 ay) stureuOD pue adosng Jo Wed fesIus0 Sue1 peosq & J2A0 PUNOJ $4 IY [OO) MIU FRILL “IHy JOO? JO 24K) mau w Aq pade|da4 souTE PIUyeu>) JUappns sem rf Waym O8e STEAK QOOOY Ioge uN PAfuRyUN JOO) adAy-ueuaisnoyy 941 I

.

ofe sivak 000007 Punoz poresdde yt wy

PUE STeYWIPUIN NOW "$1001 aye adA-weuaIs Uy ‘s>IE>{pUt my pue ‘axe puey ay) pu smpaa “} UsomIeg diysuoreTs aq) SayNUTS Ose 1] SnoMUTIEOD B orAeyrqg Y) yrim Swose 14 JOO aM} W} BORIRJOA?UIIMIAg 290252]}1 [CIOAEPUA) JOMRYIQ JO SUID) Ut SITUMO JO S2dK) OM) Ja

DU Sem a9) yey? 19e) By) JO WOddns ul 2oUaptAd SE SIAI9S SL “apeU diam Kay)

UE Jo speayew ay Jo “andy wOTNpod Jay) "SUIOS ,5]003 214)JO SULI9} sry .

ny Aue az7uBoro1 0) prey St vt “Syyp OY} SPISY “AXE PuEY 24)

baowazajtp peyuaurepu 29807] 24) JO SIN 00} 409 ay} Jo 2oueseaddestp ay) Seam MYINOEA APPIN PUE

“synsd V69y) WOAY (00) ay3 usomzaq pardarap 2q URD Te) souasayyIP Ayuo au) "WONBURA FRUONOUN) 9fHIl]

Panoys veyr sjoor axeLy Jo Ajparsnpaxe pasodwoo sean 114 Joo! sAki-uRUaIsNOW O7UT 248) OF 19k) TROUT UE S| WoRDUR) JO SUD) Bl INE *L “voresapisuod JOO) 2015 OF TER) Pury ay) aoejdax pynos 7M) 1 [OO} mau 9y) WI PUNO) Ua9q SEG Suu }Apun punoss

JOIARYaq stu} JO UOrINjON? ayy

Re} aun ‘2910 paquiasap 2q |[\m sdnba 24) pay Nspo *Peq feuonouny ay) aptuAA °,Sf00} TeUOHUarUT, Yous Josauvo pareaddesip ae Pury Ui ro1aeyag jo pury a4] Jo WOTIMjOAD ay) wos} payn PABMOL IES Hq) “OPAL "U1 Inq resyu99 oz9m S]OOI BYR YOM Ul uSUpaso[OOD ons pur Ava zejnfa) & Ut PAs Suryeu

‘Saxe puey pozipsepuers si o1] “axe puwy w Surfeu aIyH ORES) "Ay yons vey 01 aqissodunt Ajpenb

———

Introduction: human evolution, dispersals, and adaptive strat egies 23 The standardized form and characteristics of the blade tool, however, signify

that it was not intended to be used as a tool in its original form. As a matter

of fact, the stone tools fouin nd the Upper Paleol tool kitith were origina iclly

standardized tool types processed in a variofety ways. Most have been processed

in a way that does not retain the original form of the blade blank. Moreover,

the form and characteristics of the processed goods suggest that they were each

processed for separate and specific purposes, such as scraping, cutting, poking, engraving, chiseling, and scratching. In addition to these specific characteristics,

their small size indicates that they were made to be attached to other materials

and serve as parts of tools used for such purp as throwi ng ores flinging. os The contents of the new tool kit, as well as the characteristics of its tools, differed fundamentally from the Mousterian-t toolype kit, The tooinls the

Mousterian tool kit can be classified into two basic types: (1) a hammer used to

strike the raw material to knock off flakes; and (2) various kiofnd flakessthat had been detached, Flakes do come in a variety of shapes and some have been

recognized as having secondary retouch, Bordes (1961) once classified and

defined more than 60 different types of flake tools. Nevertheless, these distinc-

tions were not disparities directly relating to use and function. Mo of st the secondary characteristics designated by Bordes as criteria for their classification were just repairs: for example, adjusting the shape of the flake (lining up the contour),

reinforcing the blade, or repairing a broken blade. These were not operations

undertaken for the tools to serve any special purp or functio os n (Dibble 1988; e

Jelinek 1988; Klein 1992), That is to say, while there may have been many tools

in the Mousterian-type tool kit, its contents were extremely limited: multi-use flake tools, and the hammer used to make them.

In contrast, the tool kit replacing the Mousterian type, and emerging in the

Upper Paleolithic era, was extremely sophisticated. It contained a variety of tool

types that can be classified and defined by their specific roles, corresponding to

usage and function. It contai an assort ned ment of stone tools, each of which functionally differed from the other in terms of the special action they allowed. Furthermore, small stone tools appeared that functioned as parts for tools used for throwing and flinging when attached to other materials. As pointed out by Klein (1992), this period witnessed the first emergence of tools in a tool kit having characteristic variations conforming to usage and function, The most prominent

of these are tools made for such purposes as engraving, chiseling, and piercing.

It is obvious, however, that these were not tools meant to make stone tools: instead, they were meant to make the bone/antler tools seen for the first time in the new tool kit. As in the case of stone tools, bone/antler tools were developed to function as tool parts: attached to other materials, for new types of tools used for throwing and flinging.

These tools signify another important point: they also served as carving blades

use to sculpt the art works that were made by humans for the first time in the d

Upper Paleolithic period. Along with cave drawings, this period marks the first

appearan ofce art works made of bone, horn, and tusk. There are examples of

ivory carvings of animals, Venus images, and accessories (beads, pendants, etc.)

r >="

_ /

pequosep Uoueatousyd oy) SB ures oy ase sm Sufpopun ssoursumMom 21 “SHEP J978] Gonul MOYs Wog) JO sow ‘AmpenweE Uy “sye] JO OFe sse2k NODONS

©} 000 00% Inoge 18 poyep seq ary adomngy UI punos soms sma “YY AL

"adoing 07 pexow pry yey) dnoud snpaue “1 2g) UI paum~o

uores8 fu WisyLIOU paXzfep jo WoUIWOUIYd sues yy “PATEIED N Op 24) JU Sq

Yong

‘OtIS WerpNoyNoYT aq7 Jo Aju

242 OF ayesSTw OF EIS SuTyDEas SHY Le

$1824 000 00S Mus way? YOO I] “ROUsY WISE Jo AaITEA IjNY 12D ay—wIUO

4194) JO 20e;d aq) Ut se Isnt punos seaX pofreazsd suorNpuCo SMeWID WEN 22

soidongns pue sidos aq) ut dam eIsy 0} poyesdrm Oym suBunY Ajsea aq Aq ponqeyuy ssoejd isnty aq) yey) suesus yey “s97e] JO Gq SIeIA 000.009 9} 000007

INOge O} URW Burjeg pue “gg SIX 000008 9) 0ND 0S 0) UENUET ‘gq siad 000 008 01 428q step OF 1ySnog) Noun, Woy SHIAVa “HY ay) YM “sayeT oR YOO) BUIYD O7U! suOHeBru 241 “gg s7e2K BONNE au0 am0s Fe porep ‘ueIISUES 1

DUO 24} 2q 0} SUIIES ISaPIO Jy) INg “BurVEp stay) INOGe pasodoud u20q daey SuOTU -1do SNOLIBA “BARS Ul US URNSURS Iq) PUL BUTY UI sous URNUE] puE noUrTEN; dy} 1B IPE U99q DAY SIL2ACOSIP J9I1O “BISITOPUT UI ARF JO puR[st 2q7 UO aE ULL 9Y) WiOIy ,WEW BABS, PUR ‘EUTY> UI 9NS UeIPNOYNOYT ay) ye punoy ew Suryag, Ipnjout O8e Suoj pasoaoosip eIsy wsases UI SMDaVa “Hy JO sodurexy "RIS OVW! Tey) Te) J27e] GonuT sed yoo! adosng ovr ouRApe 24) JY) SMOYS ‘SINY 100) SuruTeUIss ay) se [fom sv ‘sissoy UEUNY JO WLIO} a) Ur SOUDPIAd oY} ‘potls20UOd $1 SUOTTEABTUM Om) 2504) JO SuTNEP 24) SB IB SY “EISY JSBAYINOS SE IB; SE JUSUETOOGNS UeIPU] 2) puE eIsy Uisisom Gonos) povessru

pue yseo poumn) sayjouy “sdomy owl quou saquny ponuruco yey) pedous dnos8 suo ‘AaffeA YY 2S pead aq) Oya! pooweape pey yey) sme "HY WOIY

sentodsip joorydo13008 jsem-}sbe ‘eu stLAOW By fo aMyDU ay]

SsaS3ns Jey) VBuUeYD [RIOLART EG SNOPLAWOW Joy VOR sem Vag) SY] “MUN ISI}

9) 10J DIY ITFOATEg Joddy) ayy Sump Uses se asm JOO) Jo Ye) WON) AffeoEped pasa}

“Jip oBesnJo pury smL “squamBesy 2U0}S JO asm ayy AO Inq “syuaWwFeIy 2U0q

40 wioy Jo Surssaooad yp) 2AOAUT 10M PIP pouTaU! Z9pyO aq) ‘spu0m 19470 “RY S200; 0} ,JaYINOI, B PUR $]00) BU0IS IyeUI 0} JoUTUTEY 10S, F JO 96M 9M]

Paxjoaur Apu worrendts yey) ‘poLiad weUaysNoW 24 Suunp paztusore W229 Osfe Sey $100) Jo aBesn Yons afty A “S20INOS1 poo) ssa00ad pue “aredaid “yojdye 0}

103 spetsayeul Se AfyueISUOO pasn 29 01 UeBaq siaqpO “wI0) feUTBUO Jay)

pasn s}00} Sururevas sysom onsefd Se pasn azam $J00) 26am JO MOS aAuAy “S9eq sepNsa B

Yo ay11 ay) pu saLOAt ‘swsOY ‘su0g JO Ino soo) peut pouad angodFed dp)

U1 Uy sueuiny Jey) St ZoUBDIyIUBIS JO Inq WY [OO 24) 01 pave ATTANTP YON

JOO) Om) LN] SID}209 JayQ01 “WOTENIIS STI $978I0 Ui JO syuayuoo ayy ut aouasayyip ay, “spouad ompnoaped 2904/ pur aIPPAN 2m

Ue S ‘sduvaesp Waujaq diysuorejas snonunuoosip sis9B8ns yey) 1985 wreDodU

242 unum Suoze ‘s}20{qo Yons Jo souereadde ayy, “sayyeasayy AfansuarT padopap

KO]y+4) Ut nBpuEun PE ‘sHunoseg sxddp ayy ut pousd uereajppmm Pateadde ysiiy syaom 18 253011, “(6961 2HMAA) STP4S pe Alon ‘9009 wou] 2pem

OMDEDHY MPO] FZ

es

—™

8

Uu

co qured $8 Yons ‘su0%s weyl JaqN0 sfearew pos Kay) “Joo auons Jo 244) Jay 20u8 Uo Ajat 01 pay sm3229 yy “2yqefrene you sem “Ayre ada sey Jo 2u0)s unos , Sz Fy “6961 SHEAOW) Stan BeaDOHIAd 2946) Aire pare APpyyy Pop PHIOM PIC 24) auAyRD 100}-Fuiddoy> pare axe pury aymooTeY 32m07 Jo BoNAQUIED aq) SuMOG dey wr rt tu

:

ie

BUNAIND 1001-smeeour [FE]

ss aunrwo axy-onve 797) |

Ta)

H

r

8

clusions n o c d n a ied tt r n r a o c i s s o u h c w e i p human® and iho t i of tool l e o P o t y t m e Tho r e f three dif We have seen s, thenT ectu der: H er

nelOMich a d n a , s Ma '

nes hil

uYy jo wan anol jo soussvedds oy) Aq wodn payunsuy Ayenpesd wm woyq

y HI] JOO) adv ‘s(nyLApUBap FulAjAING aU wy) 8 uowuNpdxs Apyy] S10WW THY tupac pO tid usa en eos FuOTe pasayy“sy NG LIP oy) -UepHUs NY Jo Ruy WOPI

woyBosA we O) PAI LAI] 8 F114 [OO aday jo ued jesus. ay) uiouy Supyrrauy ay) oF adosng

"#001 JO spurx YROg JO Sumraquar wy IH sumjuosadyareyz) 94 JO UOPINGLIETP a4, SPALL *9]4 [OO UO JfouT OT jan) yo wadAy joo) jo adé) anbrun w uy parpneas "WIM UY

‘suRuUn 4 MOU POPP! pUE ‘NWNY JO WO) Mau sy AQ paoUANyu) Asam ADE),

SupUEApe oy) YIEM IETS DANY PIP sEYVAPUHIN) [eUPE}OGe

adi-uEpeudyuny uy Jy KHIY ‘ofe ameak QO OF 2WOg “WOLTENIIS HY) OF UdAT 9q WED wOIEasdsay

2WOT Te poysW *)) ati OE F ‘di OOLT F OO

aI0y ‘sUardDN "Hf Ag pap wseq oany sy) UW] pauaAcosp sajdumms 1uyYy Wng ‘saAdUBI_) THY) SUBIUO yn AymuUOS sy) JO Jooud speaBEns puw 'l) PHPAIpP RYLIP

SUL, (£66) “70.12 anbaaa’]) 44 JOO! Jo a4) SHY) Op}FBUCTE puNcy aEq aay s9UOq

peyeapuBany ROA) ‘sOUBI WY OD) DAB) DUYHERD IG IYI TY “UBpEUBNY 347 JO HOY) 2QUIIED AJDHO}D DOU

pannydes sul) sue asay

Ty fOO! 24) Fupsapusi ‘weonposd LAIINUKYD HY] FY

‘IIAORIOPY “[RUUITEW 1910 PUR "Woy “s0q JO INO

aprw nwepuad pUE EPEsg Fe YONS eLONEIOON He pjam se 'e1adEIO4 pud pue sung

#8 ons ‘HOO auOT Jo SIdh) MIU JO GOITE;IONNE 241 8] 14 JOO) YyIOI;"q 49007)

UE 9E POUYLAP PUN PAH] FEM yf IFY) UORED 24) “HY JOO) UELaNOW FEM aYT Buyyuny| “He S O) HID) HM) YUN) C1 2UO PEI P/M IUOTE HOO) WIN

SNOUHA az;UBOI—s UED I4EL) y TRY) HOO)TY 2am NO NE SY) Uy PURO “iy joo! sA-IEU

200 *H TRY, “AIMUNNUOD MONS BOP (SAIMIND HyNIOIeY 19dd/) ay1 Jo W844) 21) 2nynS CER LMy pauoruam Apmojaded ay) Surpasaid aunjns weyuossadjaTeyD

PAPRD-OF Iq) 50 IH] JOO) aH EYL IIE) Ay ZJ>pOW s1yT 1AYPEIINOD BrEp AOS

‘payeaaad suonIpuod jRiNieU sey APATES

aiaye sodas a sdomg jenuss sone papuedsa surumy say) ‘pasesdde Hl)

hag) ange rey sonoid MYL ‘adoInY Jo ssfuEs pRoig 1910 paseadde Ajpydes #104) HIM NHY JOO) Jo 2d4y maw sty) ‘OAOOIOYY “wasE ay) UI STEYLIZPUTIN 009 WIOIHTE proiuogs 2y1 jo wsuncmda: neqi pue ‘ny joo! jo sdhi mau ay) Bue

SURUINY JO Z2UEAPE 24) Sanju pur O1 sIwOD FEY sySOyIOdKY IHIIy MYL LOM S589K QOD 7, 2m

poYed FRIED We] 241 Jo SuTWOD ayi sours adosney WY PATE

aid pey Tey) SRM pJO? ApaairerEdwoD 24) Jo suCTHPUCD aquIs ApaleP! 7

pep Ajpenpes # jo soueseadde ayy se 1 joo so adAs nessag nised spun kyemo‘My INp jo JN) 100s Jy) sem EU ‘EIPpNs # YINS APEUOTINOASS wt ‘snONUTC

(£661 SHINY) BorIMOKS snoMUTIUOD OF paquOsE 2q soWNED pue TuaEsnEp ANIM

ase sous sours ‘suaides “py hq pwe ofe sek ooo oY jun dn sfequapuean 4 PALATES S109 Joo! aq) UxamIaq 2ouaLayJIp au wONS PaLOddns 51 Siy 5 “pEaTsU! PM

SUNEIg ING SUAS “7 OU JnjOns }OU PIP STEYLISPUEIA ‘1242K0}{ ‘oe suet

OOOO TROGE SFEYLIIPUEIY Iq) OTM Panjons pur ‘212q) paurewas omy OM Kone, Nd Bg Prag am) nos poresBrus pure rousy 19} pey rey) sme A jo sdnosey “speyLopwEay 201 01 Smi2az0 “fy Ww0s) WOHInYOAD snonurIaOD sem WT

‘adomrg Uy “2K0ge paqUosap symses 347 Woy PaTRISUOD aq we japow 280 ‘sereey Kye Dene

kgexdojoudsow ax90—s1

Joos 20m

J

27 hq ponso@Bns 1 woym usomrq Aunuroosip ay1—si1y oor OMI Ig JOS 241 FY SRENpUL SM, “]001 IpEIG poem suardos “jy wsopous AypeworEEE 62 sefeqn.ns aandopo pun ‘sposusdsrp ‘uonnjoss uDumyY -voRINpOLT]

30 Tokeru Akotowo

anatomically modern H. sapiens, underwent acculturation that resulted j, the hybrid tool kits.

The Movius line separates different survival strategies The differences in the tool kits between the eastern and western Parts of the Bur,

sian continent as pointed out by Movius correspond almost exactly to the gir ferences in the natural conditions to which early humans were forced (0 adap,

That border, the Movius line, separates areas having different natural VeRetation

that engendered differences in the characteristics of primary and secondary consumers. In the Great Rift Valley, plant resources are produced stably and according

to season. While using plants as their main energy source, early humans gradually came to eat more meat by making secondary use of the prey left by carnivores, As

a result, H. erectus developed strong, robust bodies, and their tool kits were syiy. able for the maintenance of such behavior. When these early humans crossed the

Movius line, however, they encountered a very different kind of natural environ. ment. Nevertheless, those physical conditions were more than sufficient to main. tain the kind of subsistence patterns that they were accustomed to—the use of

plants as a primary source. However, it would have been difficult for those early

humans who were not hunters, to depend on leftover prey from carnivores as

an energy source in the way that they once had in Africa. A different kind of t made it difficult for early humans Asia that operant in southeas wasin food cha to secure meat in the way they had been programmed to do. Upon further reflection, the chopper and chopping tools were the most important tools found in tool kits east of the Movius line. Morphologically these resemble one of the tools present in tool kits found at the Ubeidiya site (Bar-Yosef

and Goren-Inbar 1993) in the Dead Sea Rift Valley, which represents the traces of the first human venture out of Africa; it is a simple stone tool, made simply by chipping off one side of a round stone with a dull edge. It differs from the hand axe with its refined, sharp working edge, that appeared later when meat came to occupy a larger portion of the diet, The more primitive tool was not ng cutting mea adapted to such uses as dismemberi prey, or t, slicing through ten-

dons. It seems rather to have been a tool more adapted to the exploiting, cooking, = il paula, ahaamenaac 08 from the Oldwan-type

stone

tol,

In other words, the natural conditions that confronted H. erectus on the other

side of the Movius line had the effect of perpetuating his use of plant resources

as a main energy source. This, in turn, facili ed tat the further ment of a develop

tool kit that was geared to that kind of behavior. In this context, the hand axe, which probably developed west of the Movius line as a result of the increase in

the percentage of meat in the diet, would not have been a necessary tool in the

natural setting of Asia to which the early humans who migrated there had

This same interpretation is applicable to the tool kit of H. erectus that had

migrated to Europe. As already stated, the advance of humans into Europe

\

TEXUUOIAUS UL 10} B1eLIdOIdde yy JOO) Jo pury feeds UMO SH astADP OF PEY

Ing ‘OXB puBY B FufUFeIWOD 314 [00} B porsTed KyjeurBU0 dnosd siyy “dnos’ snpoea

'H © Aq pastaap sem aut] stacy ay) Jo ys¥9 ay) 03 poswodde yey? 14 [00 JUL

oY) USt

“RSV Ul aIQEAINSQO 2q OSTE PynoYys UOUSWOUDsuTES Yd

“Ht POLES OM suajdos "77 UOpOW AjpeoTWO}eUe Ue Jo soUEIREdde oy)

POTUBI IY 00) S JO aA} mou SyyI JO SoUDBJOWD oY) yey) Posse st

‘J9A2M0Y

‘J] “Ss9yUNY sv ye 0} URB9q SoAPswWIy) suUeEUMY—s>UUeW Asoyepeid pue jueysuos

© Wy UOLSMbIe yeIu) Jo DouEUDUTEUT IY JO} POMO]TE I] “SOZOAYIM 99Ud)S TUI EDT

“X909 JO 91838 B Uy SuryeD-ye9UT Jo soHDeId ays Oddns A}or9UI JOU PIP IY JOO) Mau

SUL “Pastas SBM Hy 100) JO ada mou AyTwIO? B ‘ry OIeg sadd¢ ay) UI ‘ose

S7eK 000 OF 2WOs SuruUIB2q ‘saAaM0R; “poudd yonbesqns oy) ul speyw opueaN 0} paus SEMes JUIUIdOJIADp ) P JO puss sIy] "s}OO} axey wew3e1y snoUeA pue ‘(head saquiawisip 0} 100) B se AyureW pedoja axeasp puey ) 24) au9m 31y JOO) sty} JO syusuodwio> Areunsd ay] “siuawaznbes jeans Mou IY) YIM aed d294 01

SEM If [OO} IY) AWM Sryp UY “sopninE] s2431y 94) UI YONA TeUOSeas Aq pozL9} “SBIBYD ‘ssOINOSD IU

JO VONSeBu] 94) YIM DXeIUI $11 pouIquIOS Ajyeuoseas pure

‘Wea a4OUr Is98uy OF JOLABYDg Sues stay) paSuEYD Kay ‘spiOM

29410 UT “PIP JAM) JO offer Supes-ye9w ap Uy ase220u1 241 01 BuLMO auOZ ayeIadw>) 9pnINe | “PRU 94) OU] BAOW OF dua} AY) UI papasdons AdUL, “314 100) ou) Jo aanyeu oy)

Sujduey> AjTeWsuTEpUNy InoyTIM OS pr adoungy OVW! 2ouRApE ay) poidw ane pur

Hou pesour yey) dnox8 aq2 “1se> pousm) pur AaTeA IY

Bag peag ay) YsnoI) POUJY JO INO pajares pey yey) smydaua “Fy Jo dnols 94) Wey) J97e] yonw BulAue

WEROUL “AA|TEA NY 12D 242 UI $1001 VOUTWIOD YIM smy22I0 “FF WIOG 219M 20M] STLAOW, 31 JO SOPIS OM) JY7 UO SHI JOO JUa2aJjIp pasn oy subuny Apes sy “AfUBpuoses ATO Ing ‘SOU SN 2WOS peyJU OsTe T aavy ABUT YONIIS 3q P]NOd sjoo)

SUOIS YOR WO) PEUIVE MEI 2y1WJO AUTIQEIEAR aanefas ay) ‘KTeINTEN, “s]00) 1U229)J1P SarUTeWWOD Sw 1001 jo ywamdoyarsp ay) ut SuryyNsou SOB VVIIS [BALAINS aANOUNSIP dojersp oF awe Ajenpes8 seaze ay) jo Yyoeo Zuniqeyut smjsava “HH

a) yey) si ‘swawuONAUS fesNJeU SNOLIEA JY) Ut S22INOS21 POos 30929)j1 2y) pO}

sesuodsox ueumy Ape PU

QUI] MEAD

By} JO IS9M PUL ISe2 PUNO SHy [001 2H)

UseM}9q S20U19j}IP 2) 10) UoNeUEIdxe feD180] IsOW oy] “yuauTUOMAUD pesnyeU

Ay) wou ABiou9 Aressoqou ay) Subse pue Sumofdxa jo ens [RAIA 2859 24) YILM WONEUIPIOOS Ut Parjors suBUINY AyTed Jo sir sofov Joo? ayy, “padozaAeP oxe pury oq) Yorym wr ‘adoung Jo wsuTUOD ay? Peuqeyut sosoat uses Aueul ‘390 “HOW “3x8 puey 21 JO wauidoparap ay) wi porynsay Aaid say) Suaquausip JO

Ananz

e oy “aid saajasuray azom pur ‘sasoarures JO Kasd s2a01j a4 Aaun peaisuy “siaquny Jo Auoedes ay) ut jou y8now) ‘sueumy Are ay)Aq Jo yoourd 901n0se!

emqUe JO SuuNIes WEISUOD IY) PoAJOAUT ABazeNS peAl

styNs “2 21098 01 4940 Ul Jatp stay} Jo UoNOd you ay) aseasouI 01 sueuImauAI

NY 40) ArESs3°4" U20q SABY POM 3 “Aypeuoseas poyseU shejdsip ssonosas yuejd jo Ananomposd

24) 2324 [aqTEIEM N Op 247 JO YuOU auoz ayezodwiay e ur Arysoun sox adoung SV ‘punoj uzoq aney soperq pauyas Ajowannxo pue dieys

adoung OM! Aumof punogyuon aq wo suave “Fy £q 1y8n0Iq Wyyunoo)saxeay)purey uy “saxsaTesIIPS Soe

carne

a? 20 1 Keep aq se jem Be ‘sono

EUR

AIRE

‘Suonmpucd FeIMIeU Jo YNSa1 ay) sem Sy “eISY OVI suEUINY Jo Tey) PAIEP 1€ seidoy0ns eandopo pun ‘syosedstp ‘uonnjoas woumy :uononpozyu]

|

92 Tokeru Akozowa

by the Hf. erectus east of the ved cei con kit l too new The bit. inha to t difficul chopper, and flake (pois Movius line was composed of a core tool that acted as a ofaEurtope ier date and in a way totally separate from th

it developed at an earl

thehone kit suasc East of the Movius line, however, no evolution of the tool

tools did not evolve from found in Europe can be observed. In other words, stone ally to the Upper Paleolithic the Acheulean type to the Mousterian type and fin nd in southeast Asia (including the southery, ad fou, ekit tool thet blade type. Ins flake tools and chopper-type stone part of China)—composed of roughly-made rs BP to 10 009 tools—hardly changed over a period stretching from 250000 yea

ear evidence in southeas no cle years BP (Pope 1988, 1992). In addition, thiser started to be observable Asia of the other examples of behavioral innovation that s ds of

variou kin e in Europe around 40000 years BP, such as the appearanc of ks. tools, tools made of bone and horn, and artistic wor

tomically modern H, From these facts, no evidence demonstrates that ana des. their s or tu inal H. erec sapiens moving in from Africa replaced the aborig enon of discontinuity in cendants who lived in southeast Asia. Thus the phenom

assume the validity the tool kit is not borne out. For that reason, it is easier lo , since the only evidence in Asia, at least, of the multiregional evolution theory

available supports continuity.

, forit ‘A measure of caution in drawing conclusions seems appropriatoteanahere tomically

twice is conceivable that the same thing could have happened ’. That is, when modern H. sapiens who made the second journey ‘out of Africa g ius line, H. sapiens originating in Africa might have the Mov at of in east migr essarily useful of found that their tool kit, with its bone/horn tools, was not nec ural conditions. functionally efficient during the process of adapting to new nat

influence of the They might have changed the contents of the tool kit under the n passed down in distinctive tool kit already existing in the area, which had bee

evidently an unbroken line from the time of H. erectus. The local tool kit had s southeast developed since the time of H. erectus under the natural condition of

mary Asia, This means thal it maintained the characteristic of obtaining pri

pointed energy from optimum use of plant resources. Accordingly, as Pope has e out, circumstances under which the same type of tool kit continued to exi sl wer the same with no fundamental changes until about 10000 years BP. At any rate, this hypothesis is impeded by a severe lack of archaeological data from southeast Asia. Few sites have been excavated in a well-organized manner and hence few materials are available for dates—ihe most important kind of data for resolving this kind of problem. It is thus impossible to discuss the problem

of the single- versus the multi-regional evolution theory fot modern humans on the basis of archacological evidence.

Seasonal migration as a human adaptive strategy

Around 40000 years ago the carly buman tool kit began (0 change in terms ©!

speed and the ability to kill instantaneously. Thus the functional role of thi human tool kit, once it started to contain very simple stone tools some two anc

la

WUIBM DY) 1J2] SUBUINY Ajrey “uy 2900 Sose229U1 UOTeINdod yenpes# puE pue]

JO 939) sejnoqed & yo AMANSNposd sy) UIIMIEqQ BoUE]EqQuIT dy) Woy SUN{NsII

dnosd ayi jo woNeUsWwFes :sorssocou peusayut se syesuadsip pue suoresTiW JO 262d 94) SMIIA JUSUINTIE J9yIOUR ‘J2A2MOH “SsJodsIp pues syesTiwW 0} SUBNY Suinds 20198) 2u0 sem Udy) Suey MEU “UOIEIBIW JO WOT}UTIX JO 2UO $1 03 suOTTEiNdod 10) auIT) OW St d29y) ‘SaTUEYD DEW UOppNs UOTSTIOp Su) “1SAfpe WA “SBueyS SEW sem SsyUsUZIEp FesNTeU sMOIAgO dy) DTIdSep SBIIE 191}0 0} asiadsip pue s7esS1w 01 sueway Sunpdwod 3103 3qusucdsos sem EY) JOE) Oy

“Sapniiyey say8iy OjUI DUBApE URWNY poos Sunde 105 padopaap 14 [00) 94) pue 24) poruitys Apporqnopun—saomnosai Sugey Sunes syI—pousd sty) SuuMp suEWNY UI Prdojarcp sUJdVEd PRIOLARYIG HUN ayi “UONIppe Uy “2duD}SNCo Spt JO SHEA WOU FEIIAIS ISLJ 34} JO} SPPELUT]D Ut 40198) 2U0 feordonqns pure pesos) ui Ajeaisnyoxe porjord Sulaey puryuEWNY SBM TEYL “SOPNIN] JMO] Ut UTeUTE OF ING BOYD OU pey Ady) ‘Sa1BoIEIIS 2594) JO Jaye Ino Arze> 03 Armge fenyeU sy) 30U AZojouy>e) ay) JoyIOU peYy sueWNY Apsed Sy “ITBUIIQIY 0} 10 S20INOS21 POO} 2101S 0} 3q Pynom IFuRY> peUOSEIs Aq P2IZA0S SPUSWUOMAUD Ut PRALAINS JO ABopeI)5 aqissod AjUO ay) ‘AB19U9 d1seq JO SOINOS B UTBIGO OF “AypEUOseas aJQANs Aq pazLZPETeYD We—Udy) [HUN ABs2U2 JO

SOUNOS UTBU Jay I—syUBId JeYs 1s Vy) SEM SopNyey JoyBIY 2594) OF PayesBiwW OY

sBujoq ueuNY Ajre2 dy) Suey WaIqQoJd FeONNUD sow Dy) “I2ACDIOW ‘dsseds AjSut

“SBOIDUY S9WIOIEG UOTE Joy ‘SopNy ye] Joys1y ye UONUN poseos29p J9j)Ns PINOM MOIG YEP Ia} Jo UE [Ip JOU P{NOd yey) jy (00) B ‘suss9) dduys Uy “spessadsip pue suones8rw weUINY JO S20B2) fEDLOISIY IY) WO WQOnpap Afiswo st sty] “sapnatrey Joysiy ye suoIFa1 pjoo pue ayesodwia) jo Suyyies

94) PUB OIU] SoUBAPE Oy) ParEITIOeJ WEY) SorBdvENIs JamaU apissuoje padojansp sueumny Apes Aq pasn yy [OO] BY] “SaiBaye2s PEALAINS Sy UI WOIeNUH] RUN “SUNY B SO1jTUBIS SI) ‘SISA WONT [EIZAIS 10} POAJOAD PEY SIO}SIOUR SH 2I9qyM

BOUJY WISE JO S804) 0} SoTeUITTD FeNIdoNIQns pue pedidos) Jers YIM Sere Ul

@Af] 01 2804D AlpenTUl pue ROU

WOIs poresTiUs Snydaza “FY IoUIS "s2DINOSA1 URI

weEpunge YSnosy) ABs9U9 IY] PoUTEIGO OYM SBOAIQsay Pander sasoArUse? SYM WIUUOMAUS [EINE 9} Ul UONIUIIXS pue Yeap WOI; SUBLUNY PoARs DUOTE

SaBovens say] “Auanonpoid punol-seak 3QeIS & pasajjo yey) samosas esNyeD UW You seaze feoidongns pue feridom ui peuonouny aaey A[UO pjnom aAoge

POUNINO SaBaye1s PEALAINS 9y3 “pous2OUOS aJ9m SUEUINY Alea asay) SE JE] SY

“Apuatyye ypy or Aypedes

B Yum $}00) Bursn Aq poureigo 2q 0} 20un0s ABsaua Ajrep & Se seomnosas ENE Was} 10U pip sueuINY Apres ‘spsOm 390 UT “2OINOS ABs9Ua JOfeW e Su;WwO4

WAU Woy INSe1 YOU pip IFuEYD yey) ‘pouad siys BuUNp aseasdUI pip VIP 74

Ur Tea Jo OFFeS By IIA “AjsnooueWUEIsUT FLY OF An[GQe ay) 40 poods asmnde

108 pip Tey) Spoyram Zursn ‘syed wosy papoou Koy) ABs9U2 ay) pourEigo aF4

sumumy ‘£30}SIY J19) JO ISOU! J2A0 pue 20urBJ9WL2 J9Yy) ours yey) Udy) SmOffO)

‘wORTEZIpIePUEIS JO FoA2] auTes 24) ZuIyDeaI JOU I]LYA SjOO) save] JO 2504) se SUCH

-OUN} UTES 24) YIU $}00) 2uIOS PaureIUOD 11y JOO} adA}-eMpIC ay) Jo 90U28.207

ay) a10joq s1eaK wor

¢ AjreuNXodde 405 suewny Aq pasn y1y [00 a4)

Suisoddng “spuaoes Asan frum yey) Jaye paBueyo kyprey ‘oBe sseak wowtes JH

€& se8ej0.y8 eandopo pun ‘sposiedsrp ‘uornjore uDUmy :yonINpodyy]

ing

Introduction: human evolution, dispersals, and adaptive strategies

35

kit that preceded it. The Neanderthals or the ancestors of anatomically modern H. sapiens must have made repeated seasonal migrations in a north-south direction (Dibble 1992). In the end, since they did not become extinct they evidently managed to engage in so-called hunting behavior. The aggressive pursuit of animals had been the result of the acquisition of speed and skilfulness in killing, either resulting from or put into practice by that process. Stated differently, once it becomes possible to secure energy from animal resources on a constant and daily basis, the necessity to conduct north-south migration disappears. Carrying the new type of tool kit as they advanced into and settled the higher latitudes,

early humans were thus able to proceed with their vast migrations and dispersals.

References

Angel, J. L. (1973). Paleoecology, paleodemography and health. In Population, ecology and social evolution, (ed. 5. Polgar), pp. 167-90. Mouton, The Hague. Bar-Yosef, O. and Goren-Inbar, N. (1993). The lithic assemblages of Ubeidiya: a Lower Paleolithic site in the Jordan valley. Qedem:

Monographs

of the Institute of Archeo-

logy, No. 34. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. ap bosre

L.R. (1984). Fawnal remains from Alasies river mouth. Academic Press, On. Blumenschine, KR. J. and Cavallo, J. A. (1992). Scavenging and human evolution. Scien-

tific American, 267, TO-6. Bordes, F. (1961). Typolopie du Paleolithique ancien et moyen, Institut de Prehistoire et Bordeaux.

introduction

to Ajrican

cave

Bunn, H. T. and Kroll, E. M. (1986). Systematic butchery by Plio/Pleistocene hominids at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Current Anthropology,

5, 431-52.

Campbell, J. (1988). Historica! atlas of world mythology, Vol. 1: The way of fhe animal powers.

Harper, New York.

Cann, R. L., Stoneking, M., and Wilson, A. C. (1987). National DNA and human evolution, Mature, 325, 31-6. Darwin, C. (1871). Landon.

The descent of man and selection in relation to sex. John

Murray,

Dennell, R. (1985). European economic prehistory: a new approach. Academic Press, London.

Derev'yanko, A. P. (1989). New archaeological discoveries in north and central Asia and

the problem of carly man’s migration. The Quafernary Research, 28, 219-34. Dibble, H. L. (1988). Typological aspects of reduction and intensity of utilization of lithic resources in the French Mousterian. In Upper Pleistocene prehistory of western Ewrasia

(ed. H. L, Dibble and A. Monte-White), pp. 181-94. The University Museum, University of Pennsylvania.

Dibble, H. L. (1992). Transhumance during the late Levantine Mousterian. In The Middle

Pateolithic: adaptation, behavior, and variability, (ed. H.L. Dibble and P. Mellars),

pp. 143-62. The University Museum, University of Pennsylvania.

Eaton, 5. B. and Konner, M. (1985). Paleolithic nutrition: a consideration of its nature and current implications. The New England Journal of Medicine, 311, 283-89. Egami, N. (1964). The formation of the people and the origin of the state in Japan. Memoirs of the Toyd Bunko, 73, 23-70.

jo, Be

"Universite de Bordeaux,

Brain, C.K. (1981). The Aunters or the hunted? An taphonomy. The University of Chicago Press.

Pl

f j ap

mf, th

EEE

ees

oi bathe eel engi” " 7s‘ i

.

‘hi

Wh

ie

he

M

L ‘"

hs

py ON arnt ae

wir

puede

r

pop,

MG

tii lodeeee

ity

wh

v

hf;

Py

if iy

f

hy Un‘ay

hi

"b ipl ha tt h

jhe

Ait

bbhblth Wi lapyMy

en

“Hive

é

é re in ft ; A Me foe D te Wy fare

i Ot wr / i dab ery tH EN i

1

'

mime fey

hy

ae

al

'

i

af / we

i

/

ied ey

/

%

WU

yy

nae pv wt Hf 96 ba

ly

re git / i Ail HA A UME bitte,

es

fae

ms SLi

im folae ry re) hth

|

bail bite

pi jen

os? Obie, penny

ig i

ty

hg

Pai Lit fh Wi

ae

Bribery Dill nal et tae

foe tl ty

Mor

ite Ni

8

hil fu

ie / d dh teh Bote

iv at f

:

tides

Bien

whe wiles

il

4

WPA

ETM

Ailiy

‘WE

itmile

le

fis“fi att if

We,

th oj Pty hy mi i ee ae (iie/

be a

ap

mtr

MS wgl h

" details uf,

ye

eet

Hp if

'

a

i"

i

hi

|

oe

'

2

i

S.

—

———_|

rE

r=

—

———

Sle

9, Hybrids, mothers, and clades: who is right? Rebecca L. Cann —

—

Introduction [have been asked to pro an overview vid of e human population subdivision that will help set the stage for later discussions of migration, geography, and local adaptation. My biases are known to some of you already. 1 advocate a model of recent human ancestry which places the root of our species’ shared genetic

pool among Africans, with the subsequent spread out of Africa and replacement of resident maternal genetic lineages on other continents by these African dispera silver spike through the heart of that model in the last year, but I believe that the rumors of its death have been greatly exaggerated. In fact, the recent description of a set of Chinese fossils, hailed by the popular and scientific press as the primary reason to dismiss the African origin hypothes provides some is, of the strongest evidence for this model as a tool to organize our thoughts about genes, populations,

and

geography.

Categori in history es One historical approach to the problem of studying morphological variability in fossil and modern humans has been the rather uneasy adopti of infraspecific on |

taxonomic categories. Ernst Mayr's discussion of subspecies and races (Mayr 1950) in human evolution reflected his struggle with communicating the reality

of dynamic processes in a non-typologicway. al ‘Lumpers’ gained ground under

his influence. Later, Simpson's (1961) discussion of subspecies allowed many

evolutionary biologists to describe intraspecific classes of individuals that differ in some measurable characteristic. Simpson advocated an arbitrary boundary of

75% for the number of individuals sharing these mean differences in characters (Fig. 2.1). This rule helped insure that the difference between identified groups would be statistically as well as evolutionarily significant. When mean character

differences fail to strictly correlate with each other and geography, subspecies

and race become useless terms for discussing trends in human morpholgical variation.

Accordingly, I have found this system to be difficult to apply to humans,

precisely because the mean differences between populations depend on how that population has been initially defined. Fine-grained studies on large samples led

42

Rebecca L. Cann

to the observation that morphological differences are not always coincident with

geography (Howells 1989). The concep of racetin humans as. a tool to understand

and partition mcnphologieal variation with ks genetic correiates ecntinocs to be a problem today, exactly as it was when anthropologists, mammologists, paleontologists, and geneticists discussed it 42 years ago at a Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory meeting (XV) on the origin and evelution of man. Some population geneticists remained optimistic that these issues could be solv by Sewalled Wright's hierarchic F statistics al (1965). Wright's contribution ofa powerful model to analyse the genetic ceionce using subdivisions that can be equated with genetic drift, such as F., is a cor-

previa

of modern genetics. Some reasoned tthat Wf thie enetles were taken orc

of, the morphology might prove understandable. With human populations haw-

ever, F,, is also very sensitive to the initial categories used (Long 1986). How-

¢

ever, this statistic confirmed that modern human population tended to be s fluid and unstructured relative to other mammalian species (Wright |1978).

|

A

-ị→

R-

1B

OH? (AHe) (Ch. He

In. He EV 9002 Dah Pet/BH Data fromm Thay

|

7

i 1

6 1

7 1

9 0

10 0

12 0

13 I

0

\

1

l

1

j

I

I

j

j

1

0 0

l l 0 7

I | 0 0

1 0 l 0

1 0 i 0

I I 0 0

l 0 0 0

J 0 0 0

i i 0 0

ited Elser (1792).

se H. erectus Chine EV 2 Hill Petrdana/Broken Dali

an H. erectus OH} Afric inderwa H. den erecta

Fig. 2.3 Strict consensus tree using the cherscters published by Tianyuan and Elter (1992)

fo construct a matrix suitable for analysis using parsimony. EV 9002, the newly described

Chinese fossil cranium, fails to group exclusively with either Asian HH. rani

aria ila

listed as + and ++ were qualitative grouped together ly(1, present), as were characters listed — and (—).as (0, absent). For the six taxa assessed, there should be 236 bifucating trees. Upon randomizing order of entry for the matrix and contrees were ducting exhaustive searches for the best tree, , [wo most parsimonious

found of 12 steps in length, and a third tree was 13 steps. A strict consensus tree as Fig. 2.3. is shown here

Altention is drawn to the typology of this tree. It is drawn unrooted, but EV 9002 is shown at a member of a cluster containing OH9, Dali, and Petralona/

Broken Hill. This tree topology fails to support the assertion that EV 9002

occupies a special relationship to either Asian AY, erectus or Asian Hf. sapiens as suggested by the multiregional hypothesis. fossils,

Hybrid models It is possible that cladistic analysis would help reveal the hybrid nature of EV

9002, and Lucinda McDade's recent discussion of hybridization and phylogenetic

|

ee

ee

ee

-_

a

Hybrids, mothers, and clades: who is right?

47

Table 2.2 ‘Hybrid’ characters and hybrid matrix Characters Taxa

9

10

12

14

afte

0

0

0

0

AsHe

1

]

l

I

0

0

I

0 0

l

o* 0

1

0

0 0

l 0

Hybrid 1

Hybrid 2 Hybrid 3

/

1 oO

1 1

Hybrid 5

, J

!

Hybrid 4

} 0

Hybrid 6 Hybrid 7

|

Hybrid 8

oO I 0

1

0 0

0

l I

0

a’

, Dali for these charscor. EV 9002 for these characters.

analysis (McDade 1992) provided much of the impetus to continue this analysis. Table 2.1 shows that in relation to African and Asian AY. erectus, characters 9,

10, 12, and 14 may be potentially informative. They represent characters that are

present in one group and absent in another. The original matrix was modified for these characters, and cight potential hybrids as shown in Table 2.2 were substituted for EV 9002 in the PAUP analysis,

Figure 2.4 shows how these modifications altered the original topology of the

tree. While some topologies are of the same total length, the consistency index (CI) in one case is lower (where Indonesian A. erectus is brought inside the modern cluster by the addition of hybrid set 1) and in other cases, a shorter tree by one step is found (hybrid sets 2, 3, and 7) which now cluster the hybrid with

the moderns and show Indonesian H. erectus as the base of the clade. A final set (3, 5, 6, and 8) shows a three-way split between the Indonesian fossil, the

hybrid, and the moderns. Recall that it should be possible to substitute Chimese for Indonesian H. erectus in these diagrams, because the character matrix is the same

for both.

By this analysis, no hybrid mix of characters between the ancient African, Chinese, and Indonesian fossils will result in a tree topology exactly like the one

produced for EV 9002, A shorter tree by one step places an Afro-Asian hybrid closer to the moderns than any other ancient human scored, but it is difficult to know how significant this one event change is. Additional work to evaluate 12 and 14, common to hybrid sets 2, 3, and 7, should of characters the absenc e be

a place

to start.

The wrong hybrid? t an Asian If the hybridization even is between H. erec and antus Asian H. sapiens, then the model to be tested must change. A new matrix, based on those listed in Table 2.3 (characters 2, 6, 7, 12, 13, 14, and 17) must be constructed.

-

aes

Cie

Cie

ong

OnD

Dali

Dali

P/Ba EV OZ

P/BE hy

ie

[ne

consensus —

|

tre ,

|

wybrid sets 5,30

an

bength 12 (2), Cl-0.6

ong

CHe

cHe

ong

Ihe

=

by

Lt rae

—— oa

Dali IlHe

hybrid sets 3, 12,24,25 bength

11 C1), Cl=0.818

bybrid cots 4, 10,11,15,206,

21.25,26.19

fength 12 (1), Cl=0.750 Cie

Che

Ine by

Ihe ong

ona

By

Dal

PRE bybrid sets 67,27

leogts 12 (2), Cl-0.700

rp

all

L.

F/R

bytrid pet 15

length 11(1), Cl-0.018

hybrid set 14

length 12(1), C1-0.750

hybrid sets 9,17, 15,22 length 1 M2), Cl-0.700 bybrid

wet

16

length 133), Cl-0.700

Fig. 2.5 The matrix used in Fig. 2.3, with EV 9002 removed; in its place are added hybrid

taxa constructed as hypothetical crosses between interspecific Asian taxa. Thirty hybrids were tested with modifications to the matrix as shown in Table 2.3. A few hybrid sets

give the same topology as shown in Fig. 2.3. Others give even shorter trees of slightly different topology. Again, no special relationship between EV 9002 and Asian fossils can be

inferred, although if is clear that EV 9002 may be some type of hybrid taxa. Cl: con-

Acknowledgements I wish to thank the J.D. and C.T. MacArthur Foundation for financial sup-

port in preparation of this manuscript, as well as NSF. Help with figures and discussion came from L. Freed, J. Hunt, J. Koji Lum, C. Reeb, and B. Feldman,

(

Hybrids, mothers, and clades: who is right? 51

geferences parinaga, M. (1992). ‘Afincan Eve’ backers beat a retreat. Science. 255, 686-7,

Cann, R. L. ef al. (1987). Mitochondrial DNA and human evolution, Nature, 325, 1-7.

tific American, 2166, 76-83

Tianyuan, L. and Eler, D. (1992), New Middle Pleistocene bominid crania from Yenxian ;

in China, Mefture, 357, 44-7.

L. et el. (19 ).

sn

innce,

|

). Af

1303-7,

Wilson, A.C. and Cann, R. (1992) The recent African genesis of humans. Scienuijfic 166, 63-13. American, Wright, 5. (1965). The interpretation of population structure by F-statistics with special regard to systems of mating. Evolution, 19,

0-420

Wright, S. (1978). Mariability within and among natural populations, V4. University of Chicago Press.

g

5

.

fi

pat(a)-

kenu

Foot

Knee

YOk.7

eku-7

Water

dy

tre

erek

mukn

cunr hin nor

mi

gju

ti

im du erku

otn

Albanian

Armenian

aśva-

műş-

sánas návas

pedgenū senex novus mūs aqua

asa-

ne(w)os mûs

gonu hénos

trēs

pod-

tũ duo

mẽ

Italic

treis

duo

su

eme

mẫm

tuvám duvấ tráyas pấdjánu

Greek

Indo-Iranian

nue

sen

glún naūjas

sẽnas

pèda 2

trỹs

manè tù dù

mé! tú dó trí

Baltic

Celtic

novŭ myši

pěsy3

trľje

ty

důva

mẹ

Slavic

ahva 8

niujis mūg6

sineigs

kniu

twai Orija fötus

Ou

mik

Germanic

i, 2foottrack, "onfoot, "lastyear's',"oldman', OldHighGerman,?'drink., "river'.

Unlessspeci ed otherwise, Anatolian is represented by Hitite, Tocharian by Tocharian B, Indo-iranian by Sanskrit, Italic by Latin, Celtie by Old Irish, Baltic by Lithuanian, Slavicby Old Church Slavonic, and Germanic by Gothic. Blank spaces mean that the root in question has not been preserved in that branch.

ñuwe

newas

paiyye keni

New Mouse

Old

trị-

Three

wi trey

twe

ammuk tuk twi-

I/me

Thou Two

Tocharian

Anatolian

Word

Table 3.1 Indo-European cognates

a half, the original d an y ur nt ce a st lea at for ily fam bated den rdao by all linguists as a validt tlya u hoe ap E y t en o es pr d e th n to s I in ma re o o homeland of Pr n) and the Ukraine the leading co topic, with Anatolia (modern-day Turkey

is Terrence Kaufman (1990, p. 23), ‘a temporal ceiling of 7000 to 8000 years

tic reconstruction. We can recover ive linguis inherent in the methods of comparat than that". genetic relationships that are that old, but probably no earlier between Numerous similar claims could be cited where the limiting date is placed

6000 and 10.000 years. As a consequence of this alleged temporal limit, the Indo-

European family continues to be viewed even today by most linguists as

ges. enreisted—or rather not known to be related—to any other family of langua Recently it has been shown that these beliefs are little more than Eurocentric myths, without any basis in fact. Does it not seem implausible that Jones should have discovered not only the comparative method, but its temporal limits as well? lt is as if Galileo's first telescope saw as far into the universe as it was in fact possible to see. And is it mot also implausible that the Indo-European family,

which is defined by over 2000 cognates, should share none of them with any other

can only be decided on empirical grounds, that is, by actually comparing IndoEuropean and the world’s other language families. Such a comparison, which las been carried out by Russian scholars since the 1960s (in particular, Vladislav

ky 1984] and by Joseph [1964, {lich-Svirych [1965, 1971-84] and Aron Dolgopols

Greenberg (im press) more recently, shows beyond a shadow of a doubt that

Indo-European is related to numerous other families and languages of Eurasia.

Greenberg calls this larger, more ancient, family Eurasiatic; its constituents (Indo-European, Uralic, Altaic, Korean-Japanese-Ainu, Gilyak, Chukchi-

Kamcharkss and Eskimco-Aleut) are shown im Fig. 3.2. Russian scholars call this family Nostratic, which for them includes the Dravidian family of southern

india the Kartvelian family of Georgia, and (for some) the Afro-Asiatic family

of North Africa and the Middle East (Kaiser and Shevoroshkin 1988). [llich-

Switych and Dolgopolsky proposed over 700 Nostratic cognates in the 1960s, and

Dolgopolsky’s current (but unpublished) number is between one and two thousand. Greenberg proposes over 500 Eurasiatic cognates in his forthcoming book.

{

IndoEuropean

IIUralic

Ainu

Fig. 3.2 The Eurasiatic family.

Altaic

Korean-

HHH Japanese-

Gilyak

Kamchatkan

Chukchi-

Eskimo-

Aleut

"tu-te

*ak Wa-

*horV met 24

2

nur22

"āka

-t12 tülüg !3

ikj9

men

Turkic

*mede.25

*nõr(u)

aqa kečj20

ikirę lo *-t

"ti

mini

Mongolian

mede 26

"hāru.23

akā

-te

mini3 -ti

Tungus 5

mit27

*kot

thalak 13

-ma

Korean

aka 30

nure

kisí21

aka

mi

Japanese

wakka

kese

aki l8

-ki -ti trax

Ainu

ŋur

kim

-gi -t

mitəlhən 28

ičelčly 14

misiyaa 29

t'uluk 1s

-t

-k

-t?

-t

-kl1 -ti

-ma

-m

Aleut

Eskimo-

ti

ChukchiKamchatkan me.6

Gilyak

28 'expert',

'end', Dagur,

shore', Chuvash, 2 'swamp',

'he perceives it', 0 bilge water'. Reconstructed forms are preceded by an asterisk.

of a feather, Yukaghir, !" Ryukyuan, 8 "youngerbrother",

Yukaghir 'inform', 25 'know', 26 'knowledge', 27 'believe',

Adapted from Indo-European and its clasest relatives: the Eurasiatic family, (J. H. Greenberg). (In press.) 'me', 2 Uzbek, 3 'my', expresses an emphatic wish on the part of the speaker, $ Old Japanese, 6 "we', 7 thy', Armenian plural in nouns, pronouns, and verbs, 'two', 10 'twins', " plural, 12 Old Turkish, 13 hair', 4 Kamchadal, 15 auill

Think Water

Wet

"käćä 19

Edge

16

aka'

*med-

-k

*-t *tulka

Older brother

Feather

-ke8

*-m

*mē.

I

Thou Dual Plural

*ti-te

Uralic

Word

IndoEuropean

Table 3.2 Eurasiatic cognates

H

KIBl

i!

fi

Niger-

Khoisan

HHKOrdofanian

Afro-

HHH Australian

ZAAsiatic

E Austric

Eurasiatic

Fig. 3.3 The world's major language families.

Paci c

Indo-

Saharan

Nilo-

Dene-

Amerind

Wcaucasian

fi

fi

fi

fi

fi

k"a 60

/kan29

but;53 kwe6!

Sum 48

tok 22 -kànj 30 boko 38

butų S4

*bóngó 43

*ak•W.

put

bunke 44 "somm-49

'p"oto $s "ak Wa.4

*bhāghu *bük(ay4s

-ganA 32

*kónò 31

*bókò 39

*-tik 65 *kony 33

*tak 24

*20y Wa62

shäm 30 "put'; 56

"bog 0

*kan 34

*tok 25

"ma l!

*pälä l8

*-bwV, 17

*mi)

bala l6 dike 23

ball 1s

*k W;5

*k W;4

DeneCaucasian

*mi l0

*k(w)

*kí

kukne2

ma9

!kū !

Eurasiatic

Asiatic

Saharan

Khoisan

Nostratic/

Afro-

NigerKordofanian

*betik 57

*Sjām S1

*-baya41

*xeen

35

"nto2 26

*2(m)bar 19

o-ko-e6 *m-anu 12

Austric

okho 63

bukų 46

akan 36

"dik 27

boula 20

mina 13

IndoPaci c

*gugu

puda 58

*dik; 28

summe 52 butie 59 *akwā 64

kano 37 boko 42 buka 47

*p'ā21

mana 14

kune 8

Amerind

Lezghian'drink',

s2Woccon, $ Gao, S4 Malinke, $$ Old Japanese, 56 Proto-Caucasian, $7 Proto-Austronesian 'vagina', 58 Luridya, $9 Move 'vagina', 60 Masarwa 'drink", 6 Awyu, Proto-Central Algonquian "from water", 65 Proto-Eskimo "index nger".

Nyimang,

Proto-

Burman,35 proto-Tai, 36Gapun, 37Piro, 38 Bagirmi,59Proto-Bantu, 40Proto-Yeniseian "hand', 4 Proto-Austronesian 'shoulder', 42 shiriana, 3 Proto-Bantu, 4 Oyde. SProto-Turkic "to bend, 46 Tobelo, 97Guamacaknee, elbow', 48 Nandi, 49Proto-Omotic 'pubic hair", 50 Proto-Sino-Tibetan, S Proto-Miao- Yao 'beard, moustache',

20Tasmanian, 21Proto-Nambikwara,22 Dinka 'one', 23 Gur 'one, 24 Proto-Afro-Asiatic 'one',25 Proto-Yeniseian " nger', 26 Proto-Miao-Yao ' nger', 27 Proto-Karonan 'one', 28 Proto-Hokan nger', 29 /Nu-/en "branch'",30 Teso 'hand', 3i Proto-Bantu '(fore-)arm", 32 Proto-West Chadic 'arm, shoulder', 33 Proto-Uralic 'armpit", 34 Proto-Tibeto-

Kung. 2Shabo, Proto-Bantu "which', Proto-indo-European, SProto-Caucasian,6Munda, 7 Tiwi, 8Chumash, 9 Kxoe 'who, which', 1o Proto-Uralig, " Proto-Caucasian interrogative particle, 12Proto-Austronesian,13 Matap, 14NezPerce, 15 lit, Ió Nimbari, 7 Proto-Central Chadic, 18 Proto-Uratic "half, side'. 19Proto-Austroasiatic.

forms from modern

*bugku

kuwa *minha *bula

Australian

Forms preceded by an asterisk are reconstructions, either of the entire family, or of a major subbranch of it. Forms without an asterisk are representative languagesin that family. For complete information, see Bengtson and Ruhlen (1994).

Hair Vulva Water

Knee

Armj Arm,

Finger

Who What Two

Word

Nilo-

Table 3.3 Global etymologies

8

fi

ma

Who What

Vulva Water

Hair

Knee

Arm

Finger

Two

Khoisan

Word

boko

Saharan

Nilo-

*bókò "bóngó

NigerKordofanian

Table 3.4 A subset of global etymologies

*ak "ā-

*k Wi

"ak".

*kWi *ma

Eurasiatic

Asiatic

*tok

DeneCaucasian

Nostratic/

Afro-

*nto2

Austric mina

IndoPaci c

*bugku

*minha

Australian

akwā

boko

Amerind

64 Merritt Ruhlen

Conclusions

The linguistic evidence indicates a recent origin for all extant human languages

probably within the past 50000 years. It does not, however, indicate an Africay homeland. Certainly an African homeland would be compatible with the linguistic evidence, bul since the structure of the linguistic tree, as it is presently understood, consists of ten coordinate branches, there is no hard linguistic evidence to root this family in Africa, The linguistic evidence favors a single recent origin for extant languages, but the original homeland of this population remains a goal for future research. Even if there is no firm linguistic evidence for an African homeland, there is nonetheless some circumstantial evidence. It is perhaps significant that four of these ten ancient families are found primarily in Africa, which parallels the high degree of genetic diversity (mitochondrial and nuclear) found in Africa. Further. more, the Khoisan family of southern Africa is the only family to use clicks as ordinary consonants and some linguists have interpreted this fact as indicating

that Khoisan represents the first branching in the human family. Other linguists,

however, see the clicks as a later development within Khoisan. It is unfortunate

that the languages of the African pygmies were replaced, before the historical epoch, by languages of either Nilo-Saharan or Niger-Kordofanian peoples with whom the pygmies lived in symbiosis so that nothing is known

of their original

language(s). Finally, one should note that Gregersen (1972) presented evidence

that Kiser Kordofanian and Nilo-Saharan form an even higher-level family that

Perhaps the most impressive piece of circumstantial evidence is the high degree

the later branchings, it seems likely that they will correspond equally well the earlier branchings. When all a of mankind

is said and done, it may yet turn out as Darwin

(l

genealogical arrangement of the races of man would af

rd

the

‘aug mam

qinqupy “gol-79 “4d “(FauNS “D> PoE ETP

/ “d pa) “sunny

-woI;NpOA2s UDLINY wapour fo sinfuo syt wo saansadsiad jorTopong pu jRsO|AByag w,

TTEJy) :orNjoas PeUuOPFamNNY “(6961) “HW *jpodjo FIO] MY Wl “Wap O1 PAIEWO

"EL-g9 “judy “woouawy jo HSIUIT WELW 19581 MLL (7661) “1 “A ‘wre pur Sy “MORTAL

ayuag “STEUMY oiL -pusqog ‘meng Grr] -odienduy jap anfu0,p pry, 7 (e061) “W “WequM

‘Ca-o4 ‘Had ‘wmoysewy 21/0)

PEF OD ‘y: SanOnS “weed

‘sopucy ‘Keumpy syor ‘sazeds fo w3uo ay: uo “([oc6t}6sal) ‘> ‘ued ‘ssug (roams

uowouUg

“sawaF uowiny

fo hyde.doa? puo Lowy “(yg61) “A “HrOuayy pue “wy ‘errerg “7 "1 “eZIONS IEA

2gsy jowonony 241 fo sturp%? fo Awape +2009 ‘Se "WSN ‘saoua

ig “Rrep JasmFuy pwr peNBopooqoue ‘sneusd wey2F0) FuFuug :wonnjoas uEWNY JP

GQ sousplue sysmiuq oy {,020/y fo no, 20 UORNNpOAs PFOUDamMN yy

————————

-

=

a = =

vit

tudy

+

+

+

+

+

i

E

+

+

+

+

7

:-

Yimoi8 wonemndod pure *yjmor8 uore;ndod aiojaq isnf Nd00 Wa1JO SesUa2syRO9 Jey) SI Ss20K9 Pansasgo 3) 10) WOseIT SY

“(UMOYS JOU) Fursesep auO}OUOM g

Joy paydyeut japour ayeys Apesys ay) 10 JIE] HL “Wy PUE AV SANEA Jayeurered

BONNQUISIp 341 Yi

peredwo Ysry Oe AYP PUE AY USaMjaq Sesse[> 201) 3) Jo

saiquanbayy at) ‘1s, “WONUSUI aAJasep SUOTINGLISIP 34) JO sisadse OM] “¢ = jy

WEI) OF CZI") = wi “aap “WWaseid alojaq suOHeIIUAs py 1B pepuNoy 5] AUo}oD Jy ‘st eq] Se] 3) puE ‘suOTEIIUDT Ay $1 S}UAD MONEZTUO[OD Usamjoq [EALIIUI ‘ay = Py pur ‘yz = ©) ‘Ng = ©) ase oy] JO] SUOTINQUISIp 24) SaAld Z'p omni

‘N SI [BAJOMU ssepD WreIBOISTy

OF =A St azIS aap 2y) ‘p’p-Z"pSBiy Uy “Wapuadapul OU ae suoN ay) pue -NQUISIP Yons Ul ssUaJajjIp suanbas 10 sou] sousIseyeos Isimured sy] “sured

ZA] — oo ame azayp ‘o azis apdures & YN

“(1661 BOS

Pue OZUANY IC] 995 “F'3)

sud Auew jo ajdures uo ul suosuedwos asimired ayqissod [je Woly paynysuod are suornquisip jeouidals penyse ‘jsesyu0D Ag ‘“sse201d juaosafeoo 9y) Sunejnum pue awep Jad sated sno#ojowoy Om) Suydures saajOAU! JEL] Yes say

359Y.L “Pp p-Z"p S8Ly Ul WAOYS QQ] UO paseq Be SUMEISOISTY ‘STRL] JWapuadapul are Salap UNA SUIT] BoUsosaTBO aslMITed Sy] JO SUOTINGIIISIP [EDTI9109q) si0g

S]e1} juepuedapyy 10; sammy soueDsaTe0D as_mazed yo uORNG UN "FW JO Sonyfea Joyfews Jo} paounoudid s10U! $1 s9ue)sIp

uo souapuadeg “wede Joyirey soulsp W2amieq JoyeorH ore sour) 2uU20s2/F0) UES ay) Tey) (J]}-(2]) suonenba woly a0U am ‘IXaN “BIS IS¥9 U] JO BOUyyUT wey) ‘Aes “BIS Isom UI AlISJaAIp a10ur ada am ‘snquipd siiajao ‘souapy “sdnowd

ut “Aouanibosy aatrejes a) axe sueayy ‘soften pousaut q pareorp

Soni SOre [ENLIAA JL") aWap UTM ‘7 ‘QUIN soUsdsa]VOD ay) SaINSOW sIxe fEWUOTUOY sousd om) ures 31] FUOIETNUNS YIN OOO UO peseq aze suTeIFOIsTE] “Wap Jad pojdsue ‘DONETNUNS Yee uy "Ay = *y pue ‘ae = ©) ‘we = ©) are sou) UONEZTUOPOD “sz1'D = 4

I aye] LONE

2) Ue ‘Op = AY SI azIs SUI9q “POW UONEZTUOTO aalsssoons ay) Ut

SEWN weapuadapul 30) SIU

UTD sau) soUI0S9TeOD asjaured yo suonnquisiq TPBM

69 Sewn eousasa~nos fo Apnys uoomums ojo; euOPY

oH

within deme | sinaecrepaiy trials timescence Fig. 4.3 Distributionsof pairwise coales = 0,5, sigan aptly guarc madara mheshesrilopmapeeir tpi = KN, and t4 = kN = Cehenbs ok tion are f.. = kN + times Coloniza suny puiien “ate. emphed per. dime, tt from tip de Biden: th auc axis measures the Peat les ti se 1000 such simulations. The horizontal coalescence time, /,;, within deme |. The vertical axis gives relative frequency. Means are tadicisid toy bavestad

iaialea.

is linked to colonization events in our model. Second, the means of the distribu-

tions are much smaller than those for the steady state model computed from equations (la) and (ib). This is because the mean coalescence time within a deme

is related to the average over time of the total population (comprising a maximum of four demes) size, and this is smaller for the colonization model. Figures 4.3 and 4.4 give the distributions of the coalescence times within deme | for the cases (4 = AN + 1, f.4 = KN, and f,, = KN — 1, where k = I, 2, 4, or

§. Hence, the interval between colonizations is just one generation, and greater

values of & indicate older colonization times. The distributions for demes 2, 3,

and 4 are similar (not shown). We wish to emphasize two results. First, for each choice of &, note the high frequency of the class between AN and (& + 1). This is more pronounced in Fig. 4.3 where the migration rate is high (m = 0.5) than in Fig. 4.4 where it is low (m = 0.0125). Second, the mean increases with &. In

fact, as & becomes very large the distribution becomes indistinguishable from that

obtaining under the steady state model (by the G-test for goodness of fit).

Lack of space precludes a detailed treatment of coalescence times between

s2Baq, E O]U! SOVE|SUBI) DUNT] JOUIOSITEOI jIp 2978213 quaj 2uanbes que am ‘sou

8 2OUIG “DWT 20U2059]0 URIUI WINUTTXEW SY) YIM DWP 94) Ul 4290 0} sous DUIULEHap Oo Sj 2194) J} D) AueSPU popduses op ay) JO JOjS29Ue UOWWOS 34) 205 ADU SY? UI pequosap SUOIEINUITS 24) SuINpUOd Uy 9A}}99(qO Use INC Sem WON}DS ‘PPOW WONEZTUOIOD SAIssd9Ns 9Yy) Ul A[quioadde 2Bueyo jou sop nq ‘fepow e375 Apeays ay} Ul S9sBIIDU! UOINGLISIP aq}Jo

soueyzeA 943 “(5000'0 *S00'0 = mH) Save UOTTEIByU Jomo] IY “p2zZ{[BO] OW ae

7B] 9yL ‘N =) pue ‘NZ = © ‘Ee = 77 YIM JopOU! UOTEZIUO[OD aaIss2d0ns aq)

Jo} SUOHINQUISIP ay) SMOYS Op 2INSLY “JapOW 9781S ApwoIs 9Y 40) SUOFINgU

yV0q WY ay) SMOYS ¢"p 2UNBLy ‘OS = AY YI OS SOO = MH PUB OOO! = AV ‘S9uNBty JIE PUL STII) YONS OO] UO pomg SSBIO B YIM UMEIP ouDs AY JO [BAJIU! ‘suopes asimured OCp WOJy JWAP YoRe Joy pomndwoo# ase suresBorsty 9y “suOsedUIO yoee uy “sap weow 24) pus owop Jed pojdures ore sould snoZojowoy Oy ‘fets)

UIYIM SUT} JUSIS9fVOO URIWI IY} JO SUOTINGLISIP 94) DAIS O"p PUR ¢'p soINdy

O UEEy ewoep [e1js90Ue oy} PUe SeUTT, ODUeISeTH0

‘$1U9A9 WOHTRZTUO}OS JapjO Joy pue Soyer WONEIBIW 29MO] 1 poounos

-o1d 210m Si yy “PpOUI ayes Apeais ay) Ur Se ‘2OURISIP UO JoUapUadep FA sty) ul sowep 2say]) SAWN] 20U2059/809 URIU By) 10; Jey) a}0U AjduuIs ayy “Jaded

‘(ued payorey hq poreoipur ss20xe) japour a7e1s Apears 24) 40j UoLNQursIp Surpaods

F uHF -300 uy wey saufiy St (AZ > "7 > WV) SsepD puodas ay Jo Kouanbasy a4) Inq “9po

‘z ‘| = ¥ pure sz10'o= wi id2oxe ¢"p “Big uy sv owes HP FU don 1 wormnquisiq “y pus

uy

NS

N

4

{90

’

My

I. IZ Sewn souscseyo0 fo Apnys uoyomuns o107 e1UOW V

Fig. 4.5 Distributions of mean coalescence times within demes in steady state model,

rate is m = 0.05. In each simulation, 10 genes are | Deme size is N = 1000, and migration J

sampled per deme, and means are computed from 45 pairwise comparisons. Histograms are based on 100 such simulations. The horizontal axis measures mean coalescence time, are Ty, within deme i. The vertical axis gives relative frequency. Theoretical expectations indicated by open triangles and means of means by inverted triangles.

|

al

}

2 ON fog

as

—>Tes

¥

tn .

bog=2N

{

N

SN

log=N

tas

N

v

SN

—

Fa,

Fig. 4.6 Distributions of mean coalescence times within demes in successive colonization mod Demeel. size is N = 1000, and migrat rate is ion m = 0.05, Colonization times are la =INiig = ev eet ns = In each simulation, 10 genes are sampled per deme, and

mea arens computed from 45 pairwise comparisons. Histograms are based on 100 such simulations. The horizontal axis measures mean coalescence time, Ty, within deme i. The

vertical axis gives relative frequency. Means of means are indicated by inverted triangles.

re Pe a ss280y put

jo uonnquisip oy) Tey) UMOYS DALY (2661) Surpuadiey SOUTH} SITED8eTeOD

jo wornqinsyp oq MOI $JUOAS WOPSZTUO}OS Supr0}0q “woneindod

ay) sou auad yexjsooue oy) Jouypeu YUA P2IBIOOSse St Ul}) 20090

uesus UMUIIXeU 2Y} ‘JOAODIOW *] PUP St uonejndod jesjsaoue 94) YSnoy uaao 7 ausap wt mn200 Wed suas ferSIOUE Oy) IBY) SMOUS Z°p PAGEL “TeINoNUed Uy]

-soyes vonesra Samo] JO} SPJOY OST INSII STL “2UapUrdapUT Jo Is91-D

hq

D daIssosons paspnf se wowyetoosse OU St 249U) ‘9689 IES Ul “S[IPOU! WOPEZTUOIO sgo ae pue ayes Apears ay} 10} sage AduaSuTUOS DIB Z"p PUL ["p SIIQEL “PoArso

YN [eupuoyDoy ur ssouasajIp 2ouanbes 1s2}8918 By) Qdoym UONEINdod ay) wi

E YNC p2ve20] 2q UD JOISOU ‘(copsaneo ,sUreN

[eUpuoyroNUI UOUUOS 3t) BY} wirep oy) Suns7

qu EL"1 =D) WeRyIURs 10U S| 2UapUadepuT JO I897-

am soust way “N= ™) pow ‘NT =r "NE =F ‘S00 = Me ‘OOD! = A YIM PPO Zz

6

sz

ool

16

unsaoy

pg

iz I

9

&

uC

92

wz

€ £Z

€

61

ZOU

“oUIaP Yoe> wor) pods

WOITETTUOIOD DIFFERS , wins UMnyoD 7 ex

peat

SC OWWA

somone

mnNWwIxeyy

_—

259098 Jo ajdures 243 Jo Jo}ssoue UOWTUIOD oy) pues oUIN gous0sa[em Nest MINUTE 2} JO WoTeDO} Snap ay SuLMOYS aIqe1 AoUaSUNUCD coal

He” é 9) wayne ( “so'0u0S= surety O1'S == japon A Yi ons sure ave APES a quem iw UE OOO! 024 10 HD "sap qo mous poydames ase so038 "(Bofme is

wns uesnged

az

001

y 207d s

i

8

1

s

z 200

$

¢ 2000

¥

8

+

+

8

pue ‘suey ‘suesdoing jo sdrysuonejas Areuonnpoag “(0661) “D “SHYSATT PUE WW "PN “QOE-ELT ‘1 ‘ABoyong wornyndog

poyasoayy ‘uore;ndod poprarpqns & uy sapatye yo sequin aan2aj3q “(OL61) “L ‘FureAnsEyy “Cr-LZ “WEL ‘Anqoqosd payddy fo jousnor ‘suorendod 81] jo ABopesuad aq) UG (97961) “DAf ‘UEwFOTY "BP-SET “EL

‘moosyddy sayy Pup sassa0ig NISPYIOIG “yEIIs2TeO2 IY “(07RG61) ‘D'A f “WEFT AusrAUE) BpuquIED

‘woysNpoAa soynsajow fo Asoay) josnau ayy *(¢961) “Wi “eNUITY

"LI-€02 ‘Le ‘vonnpoaz }uOS FuNsay “(¢961) "YY “UOSpnyY “giep 2ouanbes u12}0Id YUM J2POUW pesINaU ayes-yeag) "6-LEL ‘SST ‘aoustg “ssouanbes YN [eUpuoqDoW jo sTsAyeuE pue surdu0 UeUNgy “(Z661) “WW “BuryauOIS poe ‘-y “eUME] ‘“s ‘seuy “g's '23P3H "1OO-L6S1 ‘Se ‘wen ‘ssouaog fo uappop jouorDy ays fo s8uipaazorg “WNC [EUpuowpoynm Eun joj 291) ArevOTNjoAS 3y) UT wIsTEd SuyouBsg “(1661) “DV “BOS PuE “y ‘oZUeTY Iq

"O-1E ‘STE ‘aumoyy “BONN}OAD meuny pue WNC [EUPUOqIONy “(L861) “Dv ‘BOSTA pue W “Buppoois *]"Y “ODED "PES ‘gr ‘ABo;01g jooTDWaYyIOpy fo JoWAMOL “sOWRAPE JO SoABM aMYNI-22H (L961) “A “POV Sa00alajag

“2NI]|ND pue surg ‘uorneonpy jo AnstuyW wedef aq) Woy Pry UO suo Ue ee 4I-yueID& Aq wed ul poyoddns sem yJOm sy] “WduosNUEL JaT

WO9 JO} UIYIEIS “JL PUB MOID ‘4 “f S4C] O} PUR ‘OISsNISIp 10) URWPPy “AW

Iq] 0} [NJovesB ose ose apy “WrEIBONd s,oSeIIg jo sm BuyMUOJOY JOJ EPP EL

‘H iq pue ‘ieded sty yo yuudaid ay) sn Surpass 10) UPpeIS “WW Id {VEN 2M

syrameSpajmonyay s Iaey pynoo wIeq uso ‘ApjomMb gow yon payppd sod ay) ‘suonetndod snouasipur pooejdai yey) suandes owoyy J0 spueq SurZUO

409kq pares 19m sous’ pue oFensuey Jr ‘puey s2qI0 2) UC “(L961 OV) 2028

ul sOMFE]UEAPE Paje[Os! UE JO} WEY) JIMO/s YONU S| uorerndod ayers Apeais & Iq) peaids Agu rel) yeInj[nd sandepe Ue Yim peTeosse quad & YS ye prads ay) 0} AlyENTOaAS Wey} SMOYS SISATEUR JOUBAPE JO DABM Y “ABPO) 1995 AVISIOAIpD

oH YW Arnot dupes, soBueyo auOSsapuN Avy P[NOM JULIO} HY) yng “souad

omy) peads w2q] peaids savy pinom adensuey ‘uonendod aoym ay) jnoysn WOLFeoTUNUTOS feqJaa 10] pire dnos8 310 & UT 20U0 Paajoad ssessod |]e am Jey)

osfe St It way “pardaooe st yuzod syyp J] “saBEndur]

Kusedes snouad ayy yey? AfO¥t] id sey oym (eumnjoa Usyods yUR]Xa ay} JO SIsaUaTOUOW 34) JO} OUIpIAa paruasa

“Yio MON] “SST “Y WRT “Eg-I 1p “dd “(120ueds +4 pur YING “HY “a “p2) “aowapina jissof ays fo dams pyiom p ssumuny wapour fo surdtio ayy Jo As09y) jerUad F Uf “BISY Sey WoL] 2OUEPIAd fIssoy ay SuTAJOAU] UOFNJOAS pruywWOY owOJ] WApPOW *(p36I) “DW ‘eusONL pue ‘suIsU0 suardos

‘ssalg Amssaariy) qainguipy “gol-79 “dd ‘(sug

Ga

a

“ZK

i

‘NAA

an

B

“HW

a

‘Oodiom

“ysinquipy “D pue sreTeyy “ “pe) ‘swowny

wapow fo suiguo ayy uo saaysadsiad joorgojoig pup joinolapyag wOIpnjoAas UOWINY

ayy Ul “Capy 01 aANeWOTE [Iss0j ay) :uONNOAS PEUOIZamNAY (6861) “HW ‘Odom "L-£051 ‘eSt ‘souag “WNC [EUpUOIIOIM weLINY JO UONN[OAa ay) pue suoTe;nded ueuyy (1661) “D"V ‘UOSTM, pue “y ‘saymepy “HY “Surpuadseyy “yy “Buryauorg ‘7 ‘wepFlA “LEL “SST “souany

nbe yoyWsJo siskfeue pue sursuO uEUMNFY “(7661) “YY ‘Wordwal WN [EUpuO ‘ssoua "CZ-E1Z “TS ‘yoswasay jooieueD

‘suonemdod wormnyyip payejos! Ayjered om] Ut jusosafeoo ayy “(gR61) ‘N “BIEUPTPL “OO-LEP ‘SOL ‘oNeweD

‘suonemndod sym wm ssouanbes yNq Jo diysuoneyes Areuonnjoag ‘(eg61) “A ‘PUL wi ssousnbes ‘GT ‘SOuauan ‘suonedod Surmo1T Aypenusuodxa pue apqeis ‘T9-$66

VN [eupuoyomm jo suosuedwos asmueg “(1661) “AY ‘UOSspnH pue “WW ‘“UMIFS “6L-P9T ‘Ly ‘wONNjOAT

“suonerndod umugqymbs-nou pue wmiugembo ur soweys1p Aq worejosy *(£661) "abe— ‘gS ‘youpasay joowjauar “sau

2002089Te0o pUe $1091911]209 SuIpeciquy *(1661) "W “mrvetS

'S-ZEL ‘§ ‘auomyfog poonmuaysnpy wo SUOH

osubL, LDV “sO VEINS soqQuinU WopuES UENO, aqeuod alow Y “(6L61) “1 HPS

‘CO-TSS "6 ‘won mons puv ABojo1g soynz9}0~y “s20UDI24yI1p IHI9UaB asimTEd JO UO

“AQLISIP 2) Ul SAM SoyEM YLMOUT UoTEINdog “(7661) “H ‘Surpusdrepy pue “Y “V ss280%

"OAYOY, ‘weynyreg “¢9-[¢z "dd “(moss “4 “f pue BiETeTL

'N Pe) ‘saynaqjo pup seua®wfo «Boj019 uonojndog Uy “Jaaay Tensejour ay) 18 SUPOLY

££ $8 eoueosapooo fo Apnys wonDMUNS oD ayuOW Y

ey

ee Se

ee

SS

a a ae ig

a a, ee pa, ere ly

F

2.

D

(D

g.

g

EIEEP

L

Square Millimeters

B

liil

..: *

1

Modern human origins and the dynamics of regional continuity

states that living

87

Australo-Melanesians represent the descendants of the

Pleistocene inhabitants of the Indonesian archipelago (Weidenreich 1943, 1951;

Habgood 1985; Wolpoff 1989; Kramer 1991; Thorne and Wolpoff 1992). Unfor-

between the tunately, there are no Late Pleistocene specimens to test for linkage earlier and more recent inhabitants of the area. In northeastern Asia, there are at least two Late Pleistocene specimens between

the Homo erectus samples of the Middle Pleistocene and the ‘modern’ popula-

tion. The most complete of these, Jinniu Shan, was found in 1984 in Liaoning

some 400 km north of Zhoukoudian through field work done under the direction

of Professor Li Zun’er (Pope 1988a,b; called “Yinnu’ Shan in Wolpoff 1989 and

‘Jingiushan’ in Thorne and Wolpoff 1992).

No formal description is available, but a uranium date of between 100000 and 200000 years has been assigned. Cursory examination shows that it has the long, ically morphologd che and large -ar brow ridges, low cranial shape, heavy double complex maxillary incisors that are commonly associated with Neanderthal. On

the other hand, the details of the shaping of the occiput, the lateral margins of the orbits and the juncture of the nasal bones with the adjacent maxilla show similarities to the respective anatomical configurations regularly found in the living inhabitants of China and adjacent regions. Another as-yet-undescribed specimen was found in 1988 in Lai Shui County,

Hebei, dated more recently than Jinniu Shan, and displaying facial features that are between a candidate for a Chinese Neanderthal and the living Chinese. Withoul measurements we cannot test against the configuration found in living

humans, but these could be made on the casts of individual Late Pleistocene specimens from Liujiang in Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region in southern

China, and the male (101) from the Upper Cave at Zhoukoudian. The battery of craniofacial measurements previously used to compare living and fossil populations (Brace and Hunt 1990) was applied to the Upper Cave and Liujiang casts (Brace and Tracer 1992). The discriminant function probabilities of exclusion from a series of named groups are listed in Table 5.2.

The results indicate that the Upper Cave is excluded from configurations

represented by the living inhabitants of east Asia. However, neither the Upper Cave nor the Liujiang skull could be excluded from one or another of the prehistoric

(Jamon)

or living (Ainu,

Polynesian)

derivatives of the ancient

and inhabitants of the northeast Asian coast and its adjacent islands (Brace ern northeast the Tracer 1992). This agrees with Wu's conclusions (Wu 1992), In

as well as in the northwestern parts of the Old World, the most parsimonious explanation for the appearance of ‘modern’ human form is that it developed

displayed in sifu as the result of a reduction in robustness from the condition e. by its local predecessors in the latter part of the Middle Pleistocen Africa

kind of The single Narmada specimen from south Asia docs not allow a similar

ef af. 1991). assessment for the Indian sub-continent (Sonakia 19850,6; Kennedy

lity values that the specimen in the column can be

uk the group named in the row heading

eS

M

kites

Qafzeh 6°

Cro-Magnon

1°

118 0,986

0.000 487 0.009 = 0.002

inesiad

Australo-Melanes

ia 237 0,007 European Continen t 142 0,000 Europe

0,000

Eskimo

NW edge

South Asia

Komon-Pacific

0.000

0.955

155

(0.000

0.000

% 0.000

a tbe Masts de THommne it Pattee

rag

individual complete enough and probably male to

Previously used variables

“On

0.034

0.004

0.038

0.05)

0.003

0.005

0.039

0.074

0.002

0.002

"Mure

0.004

0.002

0.002

448 0.00

Upper Cave 101" Livan:

0.008

0.041

98

**eldeg

0.000

0.839 art

IL, foe

0.568 -

)

isa e taran African configuration ‘OW @ full metrj

COM

he svatium, Qafzeh 6, Eighteparenisa f the 24

•.*..*** **

T

Square Millimeters

p

=

oe

90

——

—_

c

r

C Loring Broce

Saharan African origin, why should we object to Qafzeh as representative of

in the movement of African people into the Middle East at a time when others

from area did not look ‘modern’? If Qafzeh could migrate into the Middle East

Africa, what was to stop them from continuing into Europe to initiate the

appearance of ‘modern’ morphology in the northwesternmost extent of human

habitation? And in corollary fashion, why could they not also go east and bring their ‘modernity’ to the Far East as well? Qafzeh illustrates an African incursion into the Middle East approximately 100000 years ago. Given that, two issues shape the answers to the questions,

lacks the robust features that still adorn the it use First, Qafzeh is ‘modern’ beca

skeletons of non-African people. Simultaneously the configuration of traits by es d remained stable from the end of the last interare calculate which its affiniti glacial right up to the present. It is a peculiarly African configuration and does not prefigure what emerges as ‘modern’ human form elsewhere, which is why

the term “Proto-Cro-Magnon’ is inappropriate. Meanwhile, populations at the

northwest, northeast, and southeast ends of the extent of human

habitation

on’ earlier regionally characati g the same niz retainin while underwent ‘moder

the pattern d and shape, toi ns the massize features: atio of trivial teristic configur of neck muscle attachments, the distance in the sagittal plane of the lateral parts

of the orbits relative to the root of the nose, and the nuances of how the nasal

bones attach to the maxilla. Those reductions in robustness in the non-African arrival of the African immigrants after theed the Old World occurr of ts par of Oafzeh, but they occurred without the adoption of any of the patterns of craniofacial form that identify the Qafzeh specimens as being of African origin. Second, the archaeological record provides no evidence for a movement of in people out of Africa and into the areas occupied by Qafzeh’s contemporaries Europe, the Far East or Australasia. Whal archaeology tells us in part is that the Mousterian technology of the Qafzeh immigrants was essentially the same

as that of their Neanderthal contemporaries and successors to the north and west

(Shea 1989). This is not the whole story, however. Qafzeh, sends different

mestages about craniofacial form on the one hand, and the dentition on the other,

The cultural ecological niche Thirty years ago, | noted that the most important human adaptations were in the behaviours that people learn as part of the traditions of the groups to which they belong (Brace 1962). The key factor in human survival is culture, which

some call the principal human ‘extrasomatic adaptation’ (White 1959, p. 8). To achievmnt anthropologists culture includes language when that is present, The of ‘modern’ levels of brain size was a prerequisite for the development of language. The archacological record provides clues demonstrating the presence of a linguistic dimension in the period that follows the cessation of further cerebral expansion.

Indeed, culturally learned aspects of adaptive behavior were so crucial for

human survival that one could regard humans as inhabiting a cu/fural ecological

ir i

Modern human origins and the dynamics of regional continuity

91

niche (Brace 1964; 19676; 1991d). Culture gave hum ans an enormous competitive

edge, but it also imposed selective constraints on those who were unable to absorb

the benefits of the learning of previous generations, It is in this rega rd that the select

ive forces operating on the inhabitants of the cultural ecologic al niche yranscend local selective forces that may be associated with survival in separate "TL ahieleek of cultural means of adaptation and the broadly similar selec. live pressures impinging on people in the cultural ecol ogical niche suggests that

those who entered and exploited that niche were members of one species. They

would remain so as long as cultural adaptation continue d to be the key element io their survival,

The reductions by which ‘modern’ form emerged clear ly occurred through changes in previous selective forces. The latter should be discernible as modificatio ns in the prehistoric cultural record. The key to understa nding past processes

and events can be gained from archaeological data. The latte r constitutes our

primary source of information concerning prehistoric survival strategies. It is only by an assessment of these that we can glimpse the nature of the selective

forces that impinged upon the people themselves. We need, then, to evaluate the archaeological record. Ironically, we cannot

rely on the analyses of archaeologists to tell us what we need to know (Brace 1992). We need their help, but archaeologists do not regard their material

from the perspective of biological requirements for survival, The biological anthropologists then must know the archaeological evidence enoug h to assess its meaning with regard to those biological requirements,

From Africa throughout the Old World tropics

The distribution of typologically similar tools in the Lower Pleistocene indicates

the geographic extent of the cultural ecological niche at that time, The distribution also

suggests that the tool makers and descendants maintained specific unity

al any given time. Figure $.4 depicts the spread of Homo from Plio-Pleistocene

Africa throughout the tropics of the Old World. There are few typological distinctions between the lithic industries of the Old World before the penultimate glaciation. The logical interpretation is that their makers maintained their biological relationship through gene flow and that they also pursued an essentially similar subsistence strategy. Consequently, no appreciabl e difference arose in the nature and intensity of the selective forces from one end of the human range to the other. After the initial spread of Homo erectus, the tropics remained the locus of continual occupation (Fig. 5,5), During periods of interglacial climat ic amelioration, human populations moved northwards and came to inhabit the area

schematically indicated in Figure 5.6. However, humans are tropical mamma ls. With every glacial chill they disappeared from the northerly parts of their range (Fig. 3.6) and were restricted to the tropical areas into which they had spread after their first departure from Africa.

If the periodic invasions of the ‘temperate’ zone were movements into new ter-

ritory, the subsequent ‘retreats’ back to the tropics were nol. It is almost certain

(

A

n

.

EIL

..

Jasts

A

0) PMey Aps

“wORDNpAL feIEsp

supur Ajuo s W qanogre ‘penedes 2q o1 1 weg snU ENY ay) 011889 FPP Weyuo0U ay) wor SUEUMNY Cepow o1 DOM E IU UTys m1 wot) “psd oy) mara AW Uy "soidood Suan Aue w jo Anssowe aq) 01 unrepur jo junoure

“qi

JO uly] YFnosy) asea & ure uydy 2s e pasp a am “PHUZOUOD 2SU2P B passessod auzso1sIag JMC] 90 ‘ORS 31 Cl UMW jo DON MI UY JO Ino peads ogm

EWN

Sway ay) ur wweredde Afusisisuo> yom $1 wonsmper fewa p 2aneas Ry) Sutsudsns pou s1 3] ‘owe sseaK 000 0OZ s940 adomgy auzisaM 01 sey APPIN

“) Wouy pUEQ & WI poLMzz0 IS

“AL

JIE] 2G) WEY sisaFTns swaps aqemee

“Uonesedoid pooy ul any pasn is2y oym ay) ep Snow e 10 01 “OK Nps [EIUSP JO Jau8ap rs2ye 9[doad aq) Jo sirepusss 219 ay) soodxa au wan ‘pada 5

Hi JeouSt yey) UONAUDP E Jo UoIssesso 9y) dUI AWAPOW, IE II0K) Surat aq

C'S PUR I's s81q UI UMOYs sy “sien a1esedas Aq apew SUOLI

NGLIUGD JO SesoW 19} 29nsnf op jou ssop TEY) UOTEZTeIUIT& st ‘raAamoy ‘ssemy d 917] 2] *,WUO) UEUNY Wapow, asemyd agi qUM ™}99 am Jey? ssoursnqos UF UONOMpod ay) sem HINsod yEWUTYN aq, “aUORe apa eoug RUT)

96

Modern human origins and the dynamics of regional continuity o7

those possessing the least amount of skin melanin. This suggests that those manifesting such depigmentation are the descendants of the Neanderthals who made those Mousterian tools.

By the end of the Middle Pleistocene, the cultural means of handling frozen

foods and surviving glacial cold had diffused to those parts of eastern Asia that

are equal in latitude to the Mousterian area in the west. The in sitw consequences

for the inhabitants of eastern Asia were the same as those for the inhabitants of the west except that they have had less time to accumulate. Dental reduction followed the use of cooking,

but not to the same extent, Depigmentation

followed the permanent occupation of the northeast aided by the necessary use

|

of protective clothing, but, again, it has not had time to proceed as far as in

the west. In the east too, there is a north-south gradient of pigmentation but,

reflecting the shorter period of time the PME has operated, it is less dramatic than in the west.

Projectiles and post-cranial gracilization My last concern focuses on reduction in robustness and evidences for reinforcement in the post-cranial skeleton and parts of the skull. Qafzeh shows that post-

cranial gracilization or ‘modernization’ had already taken place by 100.000 years

ago in some parts of the world. Qafzeh has a probable origin in Africa not too many years before its appearance in Israel. Clearly there should be archaeological evidence from the African Middle Sto Age ne showing a major difference in sub-

sistence activities between Africa and elsewhere. This indeed is the case. Recently Bar-Yosef (1992) suggested that regional differences within the ‘Mousterian culture area’ (Brace 19676, 1991d) might reflect Mousterian ‘cultural zones’ indicating ranges of common communication, mobility and mating. At the same time, Brooks and Yellen (personal communications) recorded that a focus on local resource utilization, accompanied by minor local typological variation in the Middle Stone Age of Africa, was of sufficient importance thal similar kinds of ‘cultural zones’ might be identified there. The Levallois flaking technique was distributed from the Mousterian of Europe throughout the Middle Stone Age of Africa, and via the Cawcasus through central Asia to Siberia (Bar-Yosef 1990-1991). Therefore, there is no reason to

apply different designations to the contemporary archaeological complexes in Africa and Europe. The Middle Stome Age of Africa is as much ‘Mousterian’ as is the Mousterian

Eurasian material (Bar-Yosef, personal communication),

This is presented in schematic fashion in Fig. 5.8. The lack of ‘cultural zones’ in south Asia and cast Asia is almost certainly the result of little knowledge,

One important technological innovation occurs in Middle Stone Age Africa long before it appears elsewhere, Points that evidently had been hafted suggest that hunters were throwing spears. Darwin had observed that effective throwing was a unique human activity (Darwin 1871, p. 134), and all living humans are proficient in throwing (Brace 19676, 1991a). Certainly, the selective forces that impinged upon the human physique were altered as soon as human beings could dispatch prey from a distance. That Mousterian points could have been hafted has long been understood, but,

frp

.

Modern human origins and the dynamics of regional continuity

99

Fig. 5.8 A bone harpoon point from the African Middle Stome Age. Drawn after Shreeve

(1992).

points were present (Shreeve 1992) (see Fig. 5.9). If the presence of projectile points documents the thrown hunting spear in the African Middle Stone Age, then the selective forces that had maintained human post-cranial robustness throughout the Middle Pleistocene may have been reduced in Africa before

anywhere else.

Churchill and Trinkaws (1990, p. 158) have suggested that ‘human throwing

behaviour and projectile use’ might be associated with the emergence of ‘carly

modern" human form

in regard to the details of scapular morphology, The

muscular reinforcements of the Neanderthal shoulder are well documented. That particular joint is more resistant to the forces that might produce dislocation than is true for the ‘modern’ condition (Trinkauws 1977).

The change from Neanderthalto ‘modern’ shoulder morphology coincides with the evidence that projectiles had become part of the subsistence technology.

g

ry “FEME fEOg wor paseddetp twengqeyu UEWNY fuOTpUOS priseyf yo sous,

“IRSA HY) FEU] “UOTIEIONSE TIES JO fu) FUN pauinsco ETTEINg UWld}tom. Pot GE Mm quOU sy) OTN! suoInoW Aroma) ‘padojaasp wo) manb

“Sine Te PON JPOAI9531 34j) 58 pealss soidouy poy, PED ay) [ye “ausDONIyA Jao] 24) W) aye] EOuyy JO INO Peas pey suy] UEWINY PeI}SIOUE 2Y) JUD

suo}snIUG) “au JUaRbesqns a0 mys Wy padojaasp aaky Pinoys WE; UEWNY ,Wiapow, Poe ‘paduEYS fem DOTSSPs JO sinyeu ay) ‘poops sen aFern yey) 29497944 ‘Ol's “Big Wy paresipuy sy Quaymasya asn appefoad jo worsnyyp pewstFns usy) pur saysefoid Surduyg apdoad jo jusiiacow pense ayy, “pesidour-wou Ajjeuoseas FEM JOY) BIE UE Ul PEALAINS JO) AIUTS290U JOLARYaq PRININD JO sioxise 19410 puE ‘AENUT FuyIOj2 ‘sunpesoud Furyooo jo aFpajmouy e suey Burpnapuy MY) 0] PAASAWOS SAEY AEW STEYLapUES_] 2504] “ApSI2AUO> “21941 103 Ady] Uy wm Ady) SEQUApUEAN IY) JO VOLWRIIE 24) 01 as aNSafold Jo ZIpajmouy aq)

ODD sg TI He HUeTEp UES U y Ag janie] 01 1yFnOIg

PMOL UIYOUG OY] “ORE SIE

studs Aeus Yozyet) Te SUOTIFIyS 9y) MIA AU O]

TysnOIg OYM SUB IUPY 2)

“POM PIGEY Sy) JOU! Meu sy) OF Jen aRAfOId Jo WOTENyyIpP ayy sieDIpUT

AVeRIOe tm sap pofoad yo sen sy) IYI SIESFEAS OWE pyos ayy “padojasap yssy Punyuny

parire-ayrioefoad auaqn aBy suns ajppipy UEDUpy 2y1 S0UEp EIue papEYys 24) OTS ‘By

TOL Aimunuoo jouordez jo sopwmucp ay) pun sup8z0 uowny usepoyy

PeSro] aaey Ajgresod pynos aowaqTEgNs jo 243] pur FurjuNY © Fe dnos ou d pur

“TEIUELIIIPOY Iq) JO SOUS 241 O1 adoFY poor jo ade> ay) WOW) Kem a Ie ajdoad sty auorg apppiyy Aq poreindod Ajsnonunuos sem eauyy “Kjrpenb 07 yinos Tej OO) TOW #] GINO} JaAry SSELY aeNEIeq AjwO YszsEL 10) somos aAQENOd E siussudas YRgry ow “sdomny PUT IsEy SAPPY ay) JO sjood sua% aqn o1

Ajiuateuuad angio

INO THEA

you pip pur ‘wormnou: Aresodwa) © Ajuo sem EUW Jo

Mey) sapeMpaT |“¢ “BLY tl yszye{) 0} Jumper] Mowe 94079 Iq] (PLP 'OP6! “OG! euDIpEm)

of Aimju29 © jyey meso20) HOEIUIPIAM, TE GINW (6961 JJOd}OM, *7661 27R2g) UIEWS AIMUPUOD feUOTa: mis wy JO suoTeDedxa prususd ayi ‘suondanx

TIqissod YON

uy, “MOMeDyisuatUT [eIIe;s stpouad yo moqya Sun

yinos inf suontnded may wa

ay) jo

HITy Waites pre sdoung wi suonended sory

aU) JO SIOWIIU8 Jy] Lag) “ny auam yey] J] “ood auz% jwanbesgqns o1 poinqui “UGS SABY 0] WY) 10) Qu0U JE) 00) U20q JAEY AE

IED 31 OT UEIpNoynOYZ

PUE 1% HY) Ul RUOfENAg pe OFery “popasm qaMIpe yy ry) suOnesqdan 24] UTE! SUOfSemneS FTG

pur ‘fruoFerp ‘feworuoy 24)

ve

uy

"(q"PT661

UOa[diay SeG6l ‘Pou BOSIPPEW, '76g1 |pONF SaBpapy) aannmyap se popdasce

2 MOU JOUUES 1] UO pateq FUONNPUOS pue suapqosd UMO f JAY

oO} CMOS

W39q ApPUISI FEY (766) GED POE DORN “ga6] UTED ‘yg61 ‘joss uUED) Oey feaopoquostyed, soq) SunGAEIID YN [FUpsoq ouWw jo juaUSs oe ayy ‘(Z-18¢ “dd "Opél Goteueepey) sow) peoopoaq) Grim sey soqpe) s9fu0] rmo edOU “MONNjOAS JO aseyd Mou & pal2yua ForY JIVE YUE BUTT) PED POM, PIO 241 J2A0 peouds ay Jousy 127039 avo Woy AParsNp xa paajoas URW Tey) SuNUTED e¢ “d aye oO} senuNUOD ‘(1 GonuIs ‘ALDH? PfO IY], WY) IM sureutes4] “as ‘OP6T YSIUapIa yy) JsqPOUE O! pepme pue aze]d 300 WI pareiajso0e, Ayqussod a8ueys jo 2503 2g) Yum ‘toreyd, 20 sey, penuanbes jo sini ayy

“11'S “Big OF “avep 01 din wots 5,qrazuapiay,

wgFnosg aay | “(107 "4 “OLp6I “OE4 ‘Ong! THewT2pIy, 295) suTELFeIp sry 10

DOHES HSN! 2g] SE i pos poe (166, ‘pes! AysUEY sm)ZQO pootsuap )UN (opET) IPRIUIPIOWA, “WN UA Aue ye Ayun sypeds unewrew o7 jays sem sds UEWUINY JWaSeipe UIIMIIg MOL) sUIE “sousTay Ip EDOM) MiseYIoIS Jo Juds UY

‘APSHOSTEYNUNS Ajaanioayy> pasodu sua

feAtwins Wewny Sunsoyye suoKIpwos wi saFuEyD yey) OF Appides peauds UOIEAOUTI

Fo]

“wonedn3s0 TEUNY jo feaTe [fe Ul awes a) Aprewmodde aoe ton

“FPUOD ISO) PUT "s}Oo) Jay) Aq PHeMpel ave Wepe o} peurestsuoo sam swEWNY

(PIM O} SUOT Jy] “II PEIN IY) JO sHOTEISayT3q) ss D IPfestFopo UO TEWUI

SOU

JIP [BUCO IQISIA OU IFaM BIA) “SUIIOIIA|g IPPIpY Hf Wl ate] [NUL

“SIUTEISUOD SAndepe pue aunssaid aansops MO SH LK

MIU (EMFOpOSS PEININD & 2ININISVOD 0) ured 1 yey) satreArd OF sem JOWEYAG

POEs] PIEYs Jey] UO soUapuadap 34) “fewNUE J9q10 Aue mi poqpecidde jou WI1X9 UE O} JOYS PLE] PAIeYs JO 2UeISTSSE IyI YIM Peavuns STRUM}

‘DONENQEY UEWINY JO Bae 34] jnoYyFnoM) sures ay) Alperusiss au9m PEALUMS

furpayye saouRIsuNaio sofew ay) ‘Apysys pasaygip aaey ABU sapnyne| yaua}jp JO sjueyqeyul ay) wo saunssasd saloapes pasoduy Alpesneuyp yinoqyy eoug fu]

701

———

=

Erectus

Archalc

Modern

ar

|

¢ ernieINbAUoS SOY) JO lush

nada

ayy "WUE peg EMG jo 208

SiqQns ay)4 0) Sousabestos Jofeu pey senbryoe: ssp Jo Wes

“(Zz

$"Fid) pom aq) 20 See

are OF pene Agee

feuorBas keqouE pojuasoidas EIUyYy Jo ay UCTS 2IPpY ay)YWI FoNUNY porsese

“a[rpafoad yoeee epee

pte

pa

suorDurrsip

feuowa: jo fumudsq aq) ryrew Burgos Aorefyqg “EOTENQEY UFuNG jo souipa

eisiseraiion aah te padiplacy Gskosy saasoey Bemien ts seinen eae

SABY SAIC pinom Tey) Pooy Fume: 10) sanbruyoa1 Furyoo> “vorROUIp

Tene Bete Seay Er Ol RQ APP 2) God) aALAINS ©] adood Mog o1 Ginousney popssdosd pry poswdopa pemyno sp uEUMY

JO PAs] e038 an Loouepa

stelblieeed oi je ions ap po ae on

JO aogasend 39) Joy soups In) aq) TUasadau Aw (g°¢ -914) UEUaITO2g) WyOF

2Aol POSTE natu peunins FUMIO; Ajasumsaos 2q) ot 1 wotedorsred yyy pouiruusd Tey) sounssqid aamDops aq “wonNedmoo oI am A2q) WOYR YILA sue

J9A0 STRIUEAPE UE SIEUINY QAe8 sySqU Peaoposs permis ay] jo vONENOTdxy “SHSUSZO JO puryqUO Army & posnay odsa “is2q Py “WSTUEySoU

AreuOnNjOAS Pedcud ay) ste saonkNM psonpoid Ajwopues uO Fulyeledo von

senna NIEUW Tey) PEORdays poUTEtiO (ALPEI “6E6I) GEUUApANy OST

‘ATO}OIG

0 wo

re au

Ul ae|d OU FEY SUGLEDEFEyS pormboe jo sae waqu 2g) pue ‘storys

WaPOW

TIUIIS J ra

ssarvsaieadl sds

O MIO

“PHom Ae JO) limo

ba) wt $24a:2)9p a

Arm

ee ord map

04 sed

ee

ol payjsmm pry

2 J PD a

a

Gow

ibn 2 J

ait] amue-beb Sa plinibes NanessGe slanauest ces Bice aod

WEWNY jo JUEIpENb wWarmaquo” aq) Te ForpOoD LaoreByQo Jo Purmurfeq 2UL ZI

ia aS

burn, oR

24) THM UOHEHURUNDOD AUBIOYS YO SONHWIOD

j

|

1(7661 ‘1661 ‘0661 "SR6I

‘9961 “S861 ‘P861) puns YouWIs>Y PRY ABojodomwy jo wnasnyy ues YW JO AUSIAAUA, BH *(€961) URBIYDW JO AUss9A1UF ‘sarpMig ayENPRID Jo JooUDS WEYPEY “H 29820} 2y) Aq wed uw! povoddns sem os9y poyuasazd yose2ses 244

syuowespopmonyoy “U1-07 "dd "7661 2982g) .2uIn jo

a8INOD BY) Ut Bs9UI2 OF ABOjoydsour ws2pou! jo sSuruUsB2q ay) Zodx> PINOYs om

“** URUDISNOW PUY OM JATIN Udy) “SONIANDE o594) JO 2uBWsIOJIId DY 40; Azessaoou Apsnowcid anbiskyd 241 Jo suojuod 24) uo Sunesado $2020) aanso;3s

2y) U} SUEY? Jwassudos sanbeuyr9) UoNEsEdoad pooy pue SuNUNY UI sju2UIU Iyas

UBLOISRO OY) W Jf, JOJ * JS UBLAISNOW ay) UE dq 02 aABY *** BIOS Wsopoul

JO souesead ay)de0) Kay ayy, ‘Adosua fq uornjoas JO 258

—,Porjonsp, yj

“WUPESE poI29]5 20U 40} poo9]9s J2qWIU Sem ‘u>y) “UOIPUCS ,wW2POW, >q1

"MBeroys Moped jo souasq ~UBAPE OU PIX2AUOd AyureyI39 suNeAy IsNGOI $$>1 & Suimos8 Aq pores e ay) Ut 28e) AB29u9 pew

“dopeap 241 “pare20}81p Appeas 210m 232m yey) ssapINOYS 30 "UI0) AjISeD 220m

39m STHAUIENE SNOWWIUES!] ISOYM SOPfUE pue so9Uy JO ‘STEM permed Udx019

Ayisvo 2s0W pu s2uUTYy) SuLARY Ut “Yi29} JomM2j puw J2];eWs pul smel JoyEAR

moge snosSeyeape Surppou sem as2y J ‘suvsw fesnynd Aq popre sem peavuns ss0YM SUBWNY 34) JO souRFeadde .w2pour, APBuysess0uy ay) moge oandepe Sunpou sem au0y) ‘JoAQMOH “SYST PBI}BO}OSS yesNyNd ay) ut SuTesado $200}

eAThopes aq) JO Sionposd diam sanipiqedes onsinSuy pue az1s uresq ,wopow,

“SUONEIN prjes9uIs KjWOpUeI JO VOHEINWNIOe 34) JO 2oUDNbesuD

@ SB padsowe WO) UBWINY WaPo,

“poxejal sem WLIO} UBUINY Ja17e ay Jo

SMsuAPEIBYD SIUAWIVO;UIEA [RIAs pue AyeMIsNU ay) UTEUTEW O1 vomeR | “tjod yey) Hy “souRReSIP woIy poysredsip 2q 0) auTeF pomolye samnsofowd 95M JO} SYEYS OFUO syulod Zunyey Jo UONUDAU! ay] “EOLIyW Ut AjsnooueymEN# #s0s8 ApOg 2M] JO 1894 at) Jo—onezTUsapOW,—uONEZTI>eI8 dy 0} po SH Te

“BAOUUT 3g) Ing “YOU IY) Ur feALAINS paunsud yey) S2ONDeId pesNyI Jo asMEIH ND UvBaq WLIO} 298} WOW, P2onposd yey) 9z1S 4100) pu MeL UI suONIIMpe! aL “Hom aU UL $B 3394) papazooid aaey uoNeuaUTd Uys puB azIs YOO! WOE

SOON

PUR “BISY Wiese Ul QUOZ aeJAdWa} YOU a4) Ul UONeNQeY UIE

“tad pamojre ‘Bunyioj> pue Sury009 Jo peaads anbasqns ayy “suotBan yeau09Pe

“equ Is38U0} ay) Ur ysoyrINy QUOS sey WoNEWUIWEIdag “Bury opHF Aft—TWauIUONAUD JUIIQUIE 2y) PUe UTS dy) UdIMIEg JOULTEQI0}9 & jo jowwamd LONSOE Se

ae a

ae

a

(1661 96161 208g) £8ojouys9) 8u14009 jo yed B aUTeD9q A1D)}0d se UO seOS auy™

paresafacoe ‘Aep juasaid ay 0} dn panuruos sey yey Arixajduos peosdoyoaen®

ue 2218 Yj00} UI UoKONpOL B poonposd way) AW SY, “suaddrstalg

JMO] ay) Moysnosy) 2zIs YOO) poureiUTEWE peY rey) sosnssaid aanjaN raps AP

Aysuayal 24) paxejou ysamuusou ay) wi SuryoO9 {soyeSyj esOY eM) 0} SuIpuodsas us9q anvy Boxe UaAIs e ut aJdoadQ0 Joay) asnIN)AyaL aun SOl Aymunuod youre. fo soamusp ey, pu sur8izo woumy wepO HY

f AN

ce} “

MHIRD UI “bONHWAp WELINY IY) JO BOHINJOAD 24) WI ssOrDey feanyN- “(z9g1) “1-2 “seg «

6E i '8ooHMOpD yp afopoyowmorg ua anbiuaos ayosysey Dy snod wapdomms‘PE-TZE juaus

“adnoig AP upapng -a®jaq wouejndod ev] ap ajmauewuad VNILIP El SUEP soprojpoFuopy

SRPEIED SureL129 ap sauanbysj ef INS SUOLIEAIISO “(S761) “Y ‘IUeqIIay pur “fy “wequIg ; "\ SUEY 2p gIssoATuE ‘anbuoYypId aojouyis us mapop PRL “MaLpISHOW np sy20f sap auiqoLsoA Of ap appauONDUOs aysouddy *(yg61) ‘S “suka i

“WEPJINOY “eulayeg “77-197 “dd “(QIN “Hd PUE Jongg “SD “ps) “worny osa suande s OMe FT U) SLIA0sNOD “purua.0IdIs JO CHAMTUOD Ul “Ey MMyINOs UF syMpOs eTEY

Jadd/) 241 01 Comyn ag) por ABojouosYS myNOOeTEY APpIPY (Z661) "O ‘Jes, -s2eq

“T6-$L5 “I ‘PAOA! DLIDUIIIOND) “mA feqopd e—suoundepe UELPI NOW (1661-0661) “O “Josor-seg

‘BOpUC] “sUIyuay “Hy “UOTIP? paraay “aeyro pup—wausods 40f junosI0 arydwor 8 :Bumjuny-Boy so FunpusTig “Wt6l) “§"Y ‘ypmog-uapeg sa0Ta1ajay

‘wouedistued Au SuSueue Joy emezeyy - |, 01 peiqapul ue | “Ayyeury ‘sound

pue sulmesp oy) Jo [Te Suedaud soy ‘uoqry uu ‘ASojodomuy jo umasnyy ‘KSSSEYE]D “HY Ol [NyaTeIE ure | “wUyY Jo By au0IS AIPpIY ay) UT s9qNID9F0ud Jo

sousseid 9Y} UO UONEULIO;U! Weed Wy) WONEaE AW oO} SuFuLIg 10) “9204 Man] ‘Boeyy] 'N394YOH "A 'D 01 08 syuey) peneds -uowurysey, ‘uonepunog Stag

euONeN ‘uremsoi1g ABojodommy ‘uae, -qQ°p tuoqry uy ‘KSojodoiyuy jo mnasnyy ‘yore, “] -Builieg ‘AZojodoimyweoaeg pur ASopowoaeg a1eqaua,, JO} FINNS

NAA OgIY UN “KZojodonpoy jo umasnpy “up “DOTEY “3°u

OUI/E] “XNBIPIOG Ip PISIIAIUP) ‘aFopodompuy,p anovesoqe’] "y>ss99uApUEA ‘€@ 340A MON ‘ONSITE EINIEN JO WNesn UeoUsUTY “fesaE] "| ‘yOo1g Auoig *yoolg AuoIg ANS

‘AZojodomwy jo wauuedag ‘rays “f'y

“Suifjagq ‘s20usIg [PHOS jo Awapesy asaumy> ‘ASojoseyy jo anisU

“O Ue “UesyW ‘Oqry UITY “ABojodoRpUY Jo Wnasny ‘UOSPN “YW

“UBLY “UOUIeTY pue Aijmany ‘NeamMopy “py ‘aIISFePy *20UDA0Ig 9p pIsIZATUN) ‘HOT IP jo VUFeUUNEY BTOpOWUOR[Eg aNOTEIOge’] ‘KarwN] ap “y-"W ‘sug UWI AFopOwogeg ap wmaysuy ‘Aaqum'] ap “yy “Suifiag ‘Kusweap Builiag ‘ABQpOsEYIY JO WoUTLEda ‘s92,uNZ M7 ‘Aaayiog ‘EMO; TE) Jo Auss2AUl

‘Mojodoryiiny Jo waunedag ‘yre[D “q'f ‘sueg ‘sunMO},| ap aysnyy “WIA

“TT 3404 MON “BUEYD pur UOPIOD "y"W ‘ooeuoy, ‘anbuoITypg so] “Odor,p psn 942 JO BOWS “g pur auzissng “4~‘f [ANssaATUP) UOIBUTySEMy,

Moen ‘ASojodomuy jo jwauwyedsg ‘syoolg “S*y ‘ueByay “JOqIY Uy ‘BIg “] “Wy '90ueI4 ‘S119]UERY Jo 082g “FD ‘ASAT preweY ‘MSojodomuy

JO lusupredag ‘jas0,-1eg “Q Aq paptaoid useq ose sey soURISISSE penUaSy Weg “TH PUe AAO de] 24) ‘puepseop “gq 'y ove] 2y) Aq pure ‘(z661) BON Epunog fEIZojOIeYIY FAV

BSS [Ao] B27] *(7661-1661) 166L016-LNI PUR

‘8361 ‘L861) 8679196-SNA ‘Uonepunoy 2ouaIsg jeuoNeN ‘(1961) HOH UEqelg

PUBIC *(986]) UONEpUNO. KaqeI7] GST “(SR61 ‘O861) BUTI Jo oNqnday s,2dooq

eoo1g Guo] 2) 901

i

nssilesleiti

“Boydonrey sown mong “sso wen w39pOU Jo ABOFODHDI IL 2661)" sed “SP-8T ‘TZ tsoyodonuy fo maaay jonuuy “upy Weqinos |io iced ety nore oui. teks "oO “OO-SLr “9g ‘Bopodosyuy ae aen tee, ¥ ismpaua OWOHPhan aber “ROY SPRUE 240 5] (1661) “MM eauS, ““¢ “UsMy ““Y ee acess

wounpy fo jousnoy

ete

ST

en

TIP-SLe ‘Ot ‘wOUNjong eae eMart

SS-6r “Z “AFoyoyndsy pooavoayy fo souuy “joordo

ee eee

wou} QUID snonpre 24], -Cojoyrisd rena224yp puE kFopO:000S “(¥861) “ys V “ussusy “SO-1 “GOL “Aaog poondosopyg wrsuawy wi fo stupor WHEAT] A OY Ceut Areo pure AydesBHess susoor}ag saddr (6561) "D‘d ‘IpeoH | 1 “epupuog "tee is wpbaizg

aq) 0) ouanyed Pepads ius [NAS YsPsUy sq) jo Apnis pamW “(9761) “AD “g@ ‘a{00H

‘Mbopong poruauya fo syn20g dhey una

"Z8-9181 ny eee ate oe fo UOLOapay “syqeires

PRSUONJOADS (a]Js -UTYS SY) Ol C] UTE A po siteqisolOYy *(1961 g)

uo wouf mandy Comowiye

“ed ppenygd “sumefueg -f na :suoopunos sno Sunysrqunfoy

ve

ROH

fo mod poung

(L861) “4D “HeapoYH

“6-BE1 “19 ‘MOpy “Seare [erseOD WeSTRUINpPIy ay) Jo euNR) auaconsild

ae

‘PUL

JUNO PU

“ele b "Sst “2oua2S

BUY YUON “(1961) “Sa ‘sti

“souanbes YN

[elupuoqoon w Jo se

PUE suHsUO DEW “(7661) "W “Furysuog pue *y ‘emurey ‘s ‘muy'g “s‘seBpoy ‘duedwo;} puke UscN suBUITUOT]

“woynyoaa fo sama ayy

Piha

keg

oe

Tie

“OS-L9E “(FEIQOL “A 4s) “aman puo miesand ‘ss0d :woumous preraoyp

bai tes

yoeoudde oareuszye oe ‘SIULOQY UBENsNY 24) JO UFO FY] “(S961) ‘f ‘a ‘poosqry “és

‘POE “aunjony “eXusy “efuemossy> WON] any JO S998 pure suTEWIN prummoy “sous pesto]

“OORIUE Ape *(1861) “Wd "Poo pur ““q ‘wore, AE

“suey * “TW TE “Mapaop oe

djaisog jocoy ay) fo siuypaasosg “sumuresBoud ysonedep ay;ejo

WeTsOpsUEY 3) PUE CON

ena

UES jo saupueds ay)

i

19 8 swaipered

ey oe ameees pur “Spon win teetesies ween rae

“TLE YM woIpen Surypesg ‘prnor Aer wayders

L'16dng “Gapog suoisyaug jaousy 944 fo jousnor -

pu

ape

eri

ces a

aeJINIEU WeyIE Jy] *

“SOMAET“O] “ON “Bopodomprwi ywi SSORONNTA-FerONS QO Kean

"aC

‘Ae

sda

SYM puD OSI Y wy uoKUa Jymoaog sad) ays fop woRMOAy “(gL61) “N° ‘KEL "07-601 L ‘Op ‘MBojodouymy¥ joishie {0 jousnoy unoamy P “MUORW

Mayr, E. (1968). Biological aspects (ed. M. Mead, T. Dobzhansky, University Press, New York. Mercier, N., Valladas, H., Joron, B. (1991). Thermoluminescence Césaire, Nature, 351, 737-9.

of race in man. In Science and the concept of race, E. Tobach, and R. E. Light), pp. 103-5. Columbia J-L., Reyss, J-L., Lévéque, F., and Vandermeersch, dating of the late Neanderthal remains from Saint-

ver, N., Valladas, H., Valladas, G., and Jelinek, A. (1992).

New

Tabun

cave

ology: TL dating of burnt flints from the Jelinek excavation. Journal of the Israel

Prehistoric Society, Suppl. 1.

:

TREBLE

ve, J. H. (1971). How dextrous was Neanderthal man? Nature, 233, 538-4], . and Cowan, F. (1986), Experiments with spears and arrows on animal of Field Archaeology, 13, 195-212.

J.A., Anderson, R.R., Urbach, F., and Pitts, D, (1978), U'F-A: biological

i!

8.

D

Fig. 6.1° Location of 26 Siberian and east Asian populations. and Chinese populations were examined for evidence bearing on their differentia-

tion and population affinities. The four prehistoric skeletal series included Troitskoe of the Mo-ho culture from the Amur River Basin, Neolithic Baikalian

collections from the east and west coasts of Lake Baikal, Iron Age Ekven from an ancient Eskimo cemetery in the Chukotka Peninsula, and Iron Age Tagar

from western Siberia. The Tagar culture thrived from the 7th to the 3rd century

BC. Tagar crania show many characteristics in common with modern Caucasians. Cranial traits of 18 modern populations were also examined. Using the pooled covariance matrix obtained from 22 cranial measuremen

of Siberians, Mahalanobis’ distances (D*) between the 22 populations were computed. Clustering (group average method) and principal coordinate analyses were applied to the matrix of Mahalanobis’ distances to establish two dimen-

sional relationships, as drawn in Figs 6.2 and 6.3, respectively.

The cluster analysis showed that the Russian and Tagar samples, stemming

from Europeans, are isolated from the others, and that the northern Chinese and

Troitskoe samples are also isolated from Siberians. The latter are in a large

cluster within which four subclusters are identifiable. The first consisted of the

Nivkh, Negidal, Ulch, and Nanay samples, all of which are from the Amur and

Sakhalin regions. Asian Eskimos, Chukchis, and Yakuts are joined to make the

second subcluster, with Mongolian, Buryat and Kazach (= Kazakh) samples in

the third cluster. The fourth subcluster contains Yukagir, Evenki, and Neolithic —_

-

i|

-UOU UO pose “SUBLAQIS [EXIEG FY) OF Wey) sUELZgIG UeIY [eID oO} sep JOU 23M SURE MYOSIN 24) EY) pousTey> (7761) UEASSAOPY PUT AOA Y ‘FASMOH “S1INSI 3594) POWLUIJUOD sakYy sosAfeUE DUPUI-UOU pue SU juss sO puE (Eg6] UEUYZOR pure ssaeyapy “4161 “aid 2y] “(7661 Opoc] pue Eprys]) AdDSHHY) S19yI7eI89) UEISNY IY) JO SISKEUE PENTO;OMMEI ay) YIOg WY AWUYyE 250] EF MOUS SURTERTEg DIYINOIp] ay] YONA 0} ‘UIseg InUTY ayi oI sdnoud Sy

fesaAas pure ‘aseyn, “tyusAy ay) JO IsisuOD ,adA) peyreg, ay) yo Sajdoad ayy

“2CRYs Ul UONEUEA sWOs oO) Delqns

Sf I[MBA [ETE ay) yey) SurIseRAns ‘sIsAPEUE DLISUI ay) WI /YSyNYD PUR soUNTysy UEISY FY) PUR GaAyT ay) UaomJaq SIUSIAIJIP IE Judy) ‘JIAIMO} “SIPNIS HEU “DOU UT SINapy pur ‘iysynyy ‘SOWNsy URISY ay) YM Jopsnp & Woy "saydoed on

“MY 23 y UOJ] JO SIO SITE 9g) ATE OY ‘WIAAA ay) “AEM JUIES ay UY “BUT WO

aidoad Aq peouanyur Ajpesnauad us0q aaey 0} woes sapdood ueisy fesiuso OL "sapdood UBLIIgIS 34) WOIy IS9UTY-) 34) JO WONTE}OSI JE2[> B POMOYs SISATEUE IUIICI a] YSNOUIE “SPN

SueuI-UOU OI ISeTEY IY) 0) OSE Inq BUY Waquou

aq) 01 AjUO JOU 25049 are “suEqOFUO,y poe sreKing jo Funsisu0> ‘saydood adit)

DEI [e1IU29, 34] “(C661 EPIys]) SesAfewe EMEID DUNIuI-GOU pur IU} Ino Aq wWo}se2 24) Jo Burdnosd 34), pauULijuos Ajpesiseq seas (1561) Slaqaq] Aq sueLaqrs “S29q0O WOU) PITE[OS! OSTE IE NUTY OpPmeyyOH 2yy ‘ozs adures

Jo asneseq Ajqeqoud ryeaag ay] MOge paqre 2q WED suOISN;UOD Jreuts say) MI] “PSTE[OS! UE PYUIAT 9y) SeaIIYM “soISNID JIIOUE syeW Oo} pourol sue sjdures

IBEYNA PWe “UREA NyMOoN “INUTY ay] “FeFe] ay) pue saisnj> Tey) Uaam Oe Ul ave SapduTes SsouIy> WeqUuOU =Jaq PITEIO] YSETEY SY) YA “IITs SEWN

pie ‘yung ‘ueyoTuo aq] ‘s9q1a8o) padum) Apsooy ae ‘uaayy ay) Surpnyout ‘suonendod snamy ayt ‘andy sip O] “p’9 “814 Ul GMOYs se “XLVEU JOURISIP 24) 0) paydde sem sisk[eue a1eulpsooo FedisuLg "yoo pur ‘pepiBayy ‘AEuER 'YH/) 94150

Sunsisuos ‘suonepndod asoy) pauiquios am ‘(0661 BPIys]) JayOUE 2UO 2"quIDSII

Apso. mury sy) JO wIseq Jomo] ay Ol Buta suotENdod yey) pamoys Apnis

SIaU-LOU SNOLAaId B asNeeg *(066] FeqssTOy) SEN EIEID SUTSt-LOU Zz Sq)

WOL) POUTEIQO XUIEW UONE0S MpOyIeNs) aq) Furs ‘s)fes) WTIW-WOU J9A09 01 (,q7) S2OURISIP ,SIQOURTEYEW JO poylsal sq) Zurpuarre Aq payeusiss asa suoN

pur URWAgIS 1] at) UsAMjeq SIOMRWIP [EHTOpOIg 4) “NaN -eindod soqysiau “sp yn

pUE SOUS UEIsY 24) Woy Wede aue ‘sajdoad anary Jo szols2ouR a1qeqold aq) ‘UdANY Jy) ‘AUBISOYIOP Jy) JO IsTEIIg “AEME JE) JOU ae ARUEN) PUR sS9UTY)

s1 adures JoysWOI], we Aq payepost Way LIOU ay) !suNjINIIs I9ey PsUayey Apwesre

dy) ‘a1jUId JY) PUNE PIENyIs ae SURTTEYME DYIOON| IY) SIA “PessisMpP Apsoo] 2q 0] puay suonerndod ueuaqig wWapow ay) Jo SOW PUR PaIE[Os ae sajdures JsauIy) WY OU pue ‘nUTY Opreyxyop ‘se8e] “UEISSNY a) ‘TEMAS

1 ‘Weap9 of Jou Ysnoye ‘(¢"9 “Biq) sisAjeue sieurpsood yediouLd Jo ypnsed 34

‘(E961 URUIYYOH pUE AdIsyaTY ‘6161 A995YeT¥) SHAYIO Aq Puno) Uaeq OsTe

sey SUBLINYDUEPY-SNBUNL dy) O} UOrEMNdod WeITEYyTEg WyMOIN Fy) Wo Ayu

“109 INaUAL “SUBITEYTE TGM[OON pure “ryuang ‘FeyN A ay) pue sajdoad many aq)

24.4) eyreg, 24) AjQE2oNON “FIs ‘sdnou3 om) oni poplaip aue suBtagis

yOu

Oj JaypaFo) padumny ae UIFEYYeS pUe OPreyxxOH wos nuTy “sajdures uEEyreEY opog onm, pup opnysy sunlopy 91]

—

Cranial morphology of the Siberians and east Asians

117

, TET Fig. 6.4 Three-dimensional representation of 17 population samples by

coor:

dinate analysis applied to the biological distance matrix obtained from 22 non-metric

cranial traits.

metric cranial traits that are different from orbitalia into account. Turner (1987), on mentioned that Neolithic Baikalians and Mongolia are lumped to make a cluster.

those we used, which took even cribra the basis of his dental morphology, the peoples of northern China and The sheer physical complexity of the

Neolithic Baikalians seems to have brought out contradictions between the results . Further scientific research of studies based on cranial and dental morphology is surely necessary to refine our understanding. Although the Hokkaido and Sakhalin Ainu are joined to makea cluster in both to Siberians, metric and non-metric analyses, the Sakhalin Ainu are more similar

especially the peoples in the Amur Basin. The Nivkh occupy an intermediate position between the Amur peoples and the Ainu in many traits including non-metric ones (Levin 1963; Ishida 1990). The similarity between the Sakhalin Ainu and Nivkh suggests that the Sakhalin Ainu had intermarried considerably with the

peoples in the Amur and Sakhalin regions, as mentioned by Kodama (1970). Facial flatness of Siberians Facial flatness is one of the major identifying characteristics of Asian populations collectively called ‘Mongoloid’. This feature has been of particular interest to Russian anthropologists who collected a wealth of data on facial flatness in the former Soviet Union. They concluded that facial flatness measurements not only distinguish between European and Mongoloid crania in Siberia, but also reveal local variations within Siberian Mongoloids (Debets 1951; Alekseev 1979). In Japan, Yamaguchi (1973) used his own method to measure facial flatness in

human crania from Japan.

/

We employed Yamaguchi's method to measure the Siberian and neighboring

i Jf

“(LL61 JopuepApy) s2010) Jessie aati tp “BITEseU poysurd *s} 1ey) ‘SuNjONIIs Sug [ESEU JANSUTISIp E ih

pl

pt cash

ore suoHeindod snsry “(7661 EPiys]) ssauIeL Pere Jo jUIIxX> ay) UT APT ys 19yy Pus) ‘WOlapays [ee yey AjauesxXe pue aneUFZOYUO Ue Fuwey Appesiseq enc “SsuUONeINdod uELagig 1eYy) Ie3aj> s1 1 ‘SBuTpULy WWaLMD pue snotasid imo waatry

88

“jsyos Isofew ay] Uf snury pue suesdomy poutol ‘rej $$3] OSE Siam S2OR} asym ‘ueder wow) saLias uOWOs EF PUE SUEIPU] WESLOUTy

“s97SNP JYIOUE psuLEs UEdeEs WOIy UNJOY WUO}sTY OIOIY pue joke, ByIOoUTy

a]

PUP SUBLgIS

J3y10 S121sNnP & OT Jayi@%o] pedwny s1ysyng> poe ‘DIAyy

“SOURRSH URSUSUTy PUE UISy “¢°9 “BLY OI paiidap se yNses sures ay) OUTE

PIMOYs SISAPEUE I3}1SN[> “(7661 EPS] Apis snotaaad & ul pawodas azam ‘sUELIgIS ay) Surpnyouy ‘suonemdod syiseg-umssD pe jo sjuswemMsEsW ssoUTEy [EDey

“BENP 10(EW Poses 39] Ul are “saTey Tey

ssa] Suidejdsip ‘sojdures nury pus ‘qoezey ‘reFey ‘weissny aL “1993280 podumny o78 “SUOTS[o4S [EES J2EL) Yond Aq pezLia ere ‘suELaQIS Joyo ays ‘sINTEA

aq) Ylim SuoTe Jeisnpoqns puosss ay) asudur0d ‘sau0q jeseu poyouid Appoyreu

J19Y) YIM “UAAA Pure “syNY ‘soUNsy UeIsy st] ‘soydures ssuryD Wequo" pue YOIQ 24) Sapnpoul dnowgns isny sq] “J21snyD sty UIQIEK mm200 sdnousqns 231] PUB 'S39Bj JI) JO SsUTEY aq] JO SssNeI0q SS9UTYD WAYWOU pur sUFLIZQIC [Te SOPNpOU! JaISNP IsMy IQ] “$"9 “BLy Wl UMOYs are syMsed DY] “KLITEUI 2OURISIP

q) 0} pordde sem siskpeue i91snj> pur ‘pomnduo> az9m suorerndod zz ay) Usam)

-3q (,q7) SSOUEISIP

,SIQOURTEQE]

“SeIPNIS SU}IW INO Ul Pasn am saLas [RIAs

0) ee ee cel Reed 2 at Pann JO XPTEW ou) UO paseq (pom IesAF dnosd) sysspeue J21sm(3 $°9 Ba SIQOULTEYRY

I rm——_—

qoowO ope opm, pu oprys; eumlopy = QTTt

|

vd B ay “saUOG [RE] WY AtsA YIM BTUEIS stesUI 9°9 “B14 Jo uorod 1a] saddn aq) wo payord quied @ ‘opdurexs 10,4 ‘ssoIpul STMOKIDEp pue spOUNS ay) JO West

24) siussside she 2s1sAsuEN oy) pu so[SuE AreyMEWORAz pue feu 241 Jo UES ay) susseudal SNe [ENIDA ay) :ssoNIEY fee] Jo ydesd e smoYs 979 DUNS Y "sa2ueyS

“H1Ul PUL SUE

UoHENded wo Buesq souapIAd Joy paskyeue Dam

s}USW

eLIsgig ay) WO) EVEP PETUeID PI1d9]]09 Jay) pure OPY “OIMSEIU SEINE] EIDE) ‘EORU SUIs() “(L861 ‘212 AsasyaTYy) SteUSgIS pue suesdomny jusDUE JO sUOTEIBIU 34)

TEPONp OF IGWIWE UE UI Bare sIq) UO pesnso) aAeYy sistBopodomyjuE UETORUO}Y

PUE UEISSNY “FUAqIS Ws}em Jo AloisTy UOTEMdod ay] yFnoMp poureldxs oq we) xopered peorydesoss sry] “suesdomy Wspowl quM SaUIJE J950]9 pamoys BLAgIS Walton Wl) FFE] sy WOI] 24) apyM ‘soIpNIs SU-UOU PUE SU

ay] UY SUBLIOGIS WI9}SED 0) SITLIE[MUBIS MOYs EIS feNIUIO Woy EIUEID YDeTeY Hy

suvedoimy

019}8044, pue sppoposuopy wepreqys Jo are }Ie};U0I—BLIEQIS ‘spouedunjoy pur

fOkB A IE) Sup weder pueyurew OVE payerBrurUN yIUTWWOS UTS IY) JO a)dood

pue uowigs ay) jo yey) ssaFFns sousaypip wey, “sjdoed nury opreyyoR] 4 jauTWOld APTIpPoU 34) oO) ISEIUOD poyeW E yWosaid sajdoed unjoy pue ike, ay) JO 228y IY) JO ssauTey ay) ‘weder uy ‘swesdoung saey se ‘sooey yusUTUOUd S20 YONW SARY SUBIPU] WEIUIUNY “SSOUTEL FeIDeY Ui SUOHEeA J9ye078 SABy suON “eindod projotuopy 19970 ‘sunsusury aI Ty pure suBLagis ay] TM poredwo->

‘EqReqQe? put ‘peqrequd “Teyyy aq) wos sydunes woreyndod samy) po seme] fee) Jo suctees fesodwa) ge ‘By

ar

a

ro oO. +

ys.

«X

zi

i

tical ee

BI suDpsy ys0e pup supers ey fo ABopoydsour joRUDI) oe

. ==

eg

a

|

ih

~

= aa,

sila

a

“th

mi

a:

} aw

“ND PITejoON OF IzeAI OT

4j19801 podumy ae nury Oprey {OH Puk VOWOL sessyM “(7661) OPO PUE EPIys] Aq Apenojagid poyodss se ‘sUReUNyY smousz;puy pue sry 24) puF SUBLIGIS SK) weisy pesuao ay) “SUETSY ISE2 24) UsaMieg AjoTerpsuustuT porenys Jam) Gory $1 jdures snury su “aaisny> s9yjOUe WO) UEder WOW sUOIPE~Ndod SEA JIS & wo) YIETEY sy) PUE s2UNY Waquo" ay) * ad) WeIsy fesTes9, aq) Sunusioidas ‘sueyotuoyy pur sredung ‘sjonbosy OUeIUC 24) ae wey) snows on

]D01 PaUpOf ApasOO} B IEW “UY SY] 01 J980]9 are suBtAnag 2y1 ‘K[SuNsIuI}U! “19ISN

ase suopeindod spary pur uesusury snousiipul aq] “s1sAjeue ayeulpioos pedp

-uLd JO I[Nsa aq) MOUs ("9 aINgLy “SURIUAUTY PUR SUBIS Ise? ‘sueUagIS SuoUE

Oz JO) peindusos SIU JE UOTE;dod supmaep 0) suoneENded ayDEY-wNIIP quam “SIPES] 2120I-Gou 9] Uo poreg ‘souzTaAIp JO HIMFFI

URW

§,qMS

“suorrendod

Apnis IeN ANeW-uoU Jno yey) uaamiag SurysinBunsip soy [yssn st poy sanoid ANPIGEIS YINS “(Z661 EPTYs] PUE OPO) nysuOR] pue nysnty WaquOTU ut Aepo} 0} pouad ode, ay) wow SuruuRds ‘sreak ENT 5240 aqeIs ayNb U99q

SEY S1TE1) SIN-1OU JO S9USLINI[0 Jy) FEY) payeangy Ospe ApNys 102991 INK “(0661

Eprys] PUR OPod) 2UIN sy]

Ao STEITYIEIq OF SWEDOYOp wou sdeys oI

PSUBA )[NA ferTeZD ay) ‘ssspyIAay “pouad sig] ZuUNP NYsUOH OV! seasIaK0

juesoud

“Wedel jo pueys} UTEW

-OWIOY 3[QEYIEUGY & MOYS SITE) JUPW-LOU aq) JO IOW

sI9eIPYy IT

UOJ] MOL[U! sted IUEYTUSIs OU SMOys DONETUIMIOp

24] 01 fRASIPw Ayres sy) Woy ‘sueaK Ng 158] 24) BuLMp Aouanbayy w) Ay2u38

au) ‘nysuop Wo ‘apdurexs 10.3 “(0661 EPS] “0661 EPTYS] PUE Opod) jeMUONAUS aq] jO

safeaes

oy) isuyefe povosoud

[jam Aprey s1 Syfey) RMIEIS

Su eu-lOU

jo Az9178q Ino Tey] peTestpul suonEdod UELagis put ssoueder wo SypNIs INH

SUBPSY 1589 OG) JO VOREPTEA [eyUEID IN0W-DON

“ARTS 01

,PLAGIS

Us9q JAEY JS Oras ay) OU! PIAOU! OYM ADOT UeISY ISS JO ITOIMIOS

WI9ISeD Ul URW ISU) ayi, Wey) FupsaSFns ‘sou Worssysud inoysnomp) ayqers stom sopdoad WEITEYreqeZ JY) JO SONfEA SHIUIEY [Ee] ay) “puUeY J9y0 aq) UO “SOUIT] WOISTY PUR WOT 0} Ws Suump saBueyssaiut peuonemndod xajdwos YyFnom pow9} Useq SAEy sadoad ueUagIg WZISIM PUB YIeZEY ay

“(9961 URH 11961 7972 Asosyaty “F2)

Jaye] auay) pasuodsip sajdoad uemsy apm ‘soBy aruoig pur yon aq] Soup

PUY PUE BIOSuOPY W9IS9m ponqequl ose adomny wos) SuEULIUO sydood Tey) snowaid “arousing “By IZuOIg a) ino pajuiod aaey soipnys jeooyodosyyue

SuUNp feYequg Pure Bagi WisIs9m papeaut sdomng wl Surpeursu0 sedood res SIIRIPUL SIU “ATW WO] A[Teg ay) Uy LIEBE Tey suo pure ay azuoig 24) Ul }oIU oad 210 JUFeDaq IS9y) ‘aBy SNTOIN ay) UI s2oB) pouaTTEY s9yrEs pey sdnoud (Og “awry J9A0 POUEA Sa[dUTEs [EYMQU PUE FEI[Y IY} JO SeN[eA SSIUTEL) FEES

‘(JeyTeG aye] JO eC se oy) [EIEGEZ

sm) Woy pur ‘(jexeg aye] JO ISHOD IS3M SYN) EYEqUA ‘FeITy ay) -sUOLFe!

poauap ose pure ‘ody woul Ayeq oy OF aBy npOaRy 94) Wouy pode soydures uoneindod ayy “sae juOUTUTOId YIN BfUEID smOys 1ysU Jamo] 24) TE WOM

opog onmA pup opnys] eunioyy = OZT

Bao L

H

122 Hojime Ishido and Yukio Dodo

related to the populations who lived in northern Asia, though the detailed resy of the metric and non-metric cranial studies seem to contradict this notion,

Affinities between Siberians and American populations The ‘Arctic type’ peoples in Siberia are close to Arctic Americans, as both «

them have the following physical characteristics: high value of the mandibul; ramus index, high occurrences of the mandibular canons

three-rooted fir

lower molar, lower incidence of the transverse zygomatic suture vestige, and pre

nounced nasal bones (Laughlin ef al, 1979; Turner 1986, iae7; Dodo and Ishid 1987; Ishida 1992). Those features demarcate considerably the Arctic people

from other Siberian Mongoloids.

A few craniometric studies have indicated an affinity of American Indian to Europeans (Howells 1989), or with the JOmon-Pacific cluster (Li ef af. 1991) Many anthropological studies, however, have reached the conclusion tha American Indians are generally closer to northeast Asians than to southeast Asian: or to Europeans. These agree with the results of our non-metric studies (Dodc and Ishida 1987; Ishida 1993). Om the other hand, cranial and dental analyse: have linked American Indians with the Arctic peoples, by non-metric crania variant analyses (Ossenberg 1992; Ishida 1993) and craniometry (Trubnikove 1980); with east Asians, by craniometry (Alekseev and Trubnikova 1984): with

Buryat by craniometry (Howells 1989); and with the people in the Upper Lena

by dental morphology (Turner 1986). In conse we conclude quenc that American e

Indians are derived from north Asian populations including the Arctic peoples, though their exact origins remain unclear.

Alekseev, V.P. (1979). Anthropometry of Siberian Peoples. In The firss Americans:

ois,

nes and aeons.

W. Laughlin and A. Harp pp. er), 57-90. Gustav

Fischer, hye ieYork. Alekseev, V.P. and Gokhman,| DS dues Ie fone Rassengechichie der Menschheit, . Asien [T: Sowjet-Asien

Minchen.

-166,R. Oldenbourg vee

ae (ed. 1, Schw

ao

Ate P, Ta I. (1987). Remain of child s skeletonsfrom the eed tle burials a { the Mal'ta site. /rvestivya sibirskoavo oideleniva akademil nowka SSSR (In

Russian.)

eat V.P. and Trubnikov of the Asia

B.

(1984), So

Mongcods rnionty

en,

axonomy an peneaiogy

Nauka, Novosibirsk. (In Russian.)

Alekseev,V.P., Gokhman, |. 1., and Tumen D, (1987). , A brief report on the palcoanana

abe

igh ail

the Centrali hae pee

nae

ee

he awe

Iron Age). In archaeoloand gy

Nauka, Novosibirsk(im . Russian.)

Brace,C.L. and Hunt, K.D. (1990).A mon-racial craniofacial perspective on human

variation: A(ustraia)

to Z(un ni). American Journal af Physical Anthropology, 81,

Debets, G. F. (1951) ce ere studies in the Kamchatka regio Trudi Jastiruse n. Etmografil (new series), 1 1-263. (In Russian.)

—

I

=

ee

ee

in

4

—

aE

anal

124 Hojime Ishida and Yukio Dodo N.S. (1992). rin cesar hiro sierlanagciary Ossenderg,

population history

Soe Bo semen of skull morphology. In The evolution and dispersal of modern humans in Asio, (ed. T. Akarawa, K. Aoki, and T. Kimura), pp. 493-530. Hokusep. sha, Tokyo aychitov, Yu. G. and Mveecyan A A. (1972),A genetical-ant hropological analysis on

the distri bation of cranial aeocalies ia the Mongoloids of Siberia in connection with rep ungptnap oe evaglar age Transactions of the Moscow Society of Naturalists, 43, ee ee

earn

(1968). The Mal'ta Man. In The origin of the Jopanese, (ed.B. Yamaguchi,

="

Tozawa, and M. Anbiru), pp. 34-9. Yomiuru Shinbunsha, Tokyo, (In

Trubnikova,©. B. (1980). On the classification of the Neolithic Series from the northern

tut Aad on fh neti save statistical method). In Paleoanthropology of Siberia, (ed. A. P. Okladnikoy and V.P. Alekseev), oo, bale, tesa gna Russian.) Turner, C a ee ee Se National Geographic Turner, C

TA

Lm

a

f East Asia

Sestd 6a deca sandal: AGG Hd he 73, 305-21, Turner, C. G. 1 (1990). Major features of Sundadonty and Sinodonty, including sugges-

7. Dental characteristics of the Japanese population Hirofumi Matsumura, Nobuo Shigehara, and Eisaku Kanazawa

Introduction There can be no doubt that immigrants from the Asian continent entered Japan during the Aeneolithic Yayoi period (300 BC to AD 300) and the protohis toric Kofun period (AD 300 to 700). In particular, the Yayoi people of the northern Kyushu and Yamaguchi districts of western Japan are considered to be immi-

grants from the Asian continent. Regarding the origin of modern Japanese, a problem arises when considering the scale of the influx of immigrants into Japan. According to the transformation theory, the genetic influence of the immigrants was negligible, and

thus present-day Japanese are direct descendants of the

Neolithic Jémon natives (Suzuki 1969, 1981), On the other hand, the immigration theory (Kanaseki 1976) emphasizes that modern Japane are descend seed from hybrids formed between the natives and immigrants, or from the immigrants

themselves. Numerous recent studies of cranial measurements have supported the immigration theory (Howells 1966; Yamaguchi 1982; Hanihara 1985: Mizoguchi 1988). In the last few years, non-metric cranial studies (Dodo and Ishida 1990; Kozinisev 1990) have produced evidence which supports the immigration theory more strongly than have the previous cranial metric studies, The obvious differences in dental morphology between the Neolithic Jémon natives and the present-day Japanese have been pointed out by several authors

(Turner 1976; Brace and Nagai 1982; Matsumura 1989, 1990). To determine the

biological history and ancestry of the Japanese populations, however, dental data

are not sufficient, What see to be poorly understood is the diachronic change ms in dental characteristics throughout the historic periods,

The first purpose of the present study was to reveal microevolutionary trends in the dental characteristics of the Japanese population from prehistoricto modern

limes: the second was to clarify its biological affinities with the east Asians.

Comparative population samples and characteristics The data for the present study were obtained from the permanent dentition of

17 skeletal series (2616 specimens) dating from prehistoric to modern times. The

list of population samples studied is given in Table 7.1. Figure 7.1 displays their geographical provenance.

| saa

a

-

Thiel

=

ee

_—

his

:

—.

——

—

5

—

—

Dental characof te theri Japane st se ic populas tion

_

127

Mesiodistal and buccolingual crown diameters were measured fr theom central

ioco to thers second molars of the maxilla and mandible to elucidate metrical

characteristics. We used Fujita's (1949) system of measurement. In addition, 11

soa-metric traits enumerated below were also examined.

For statistical analyses, data from the male samples were used in the comparison of metrical characteristics. In compof ar non-me is tricalon characs teristics, the data from both sexes were combined. Four population samples were not incl in the ud non-m ed etric trait study beca of insuff usicient e sample sizes.

Diachronic change of the Japanese dentition Metrical characteristics To simplify the comparison of tooth size, the measurements were summar ized

into small categories of values with consideration of intermeasure ment correla-

tions. For this purpose, factor analysis was applied to the mesiodistal and buc-

|

|

colingual diameters. As a result, six primary factors whose eigenv alues were greater than 1.0 were elucidated. The cumulative proportion of their variance was - 71%. The six factors were overall sizes as follows:

(1) (buccolingual) incisor (2) (mesiodistal) premolar

(3) canine (4) first molar

(5) (mesiodistal) incisor (6) (mesiodistal) second molar. Based on the characteristics of these six main factors, scores were calculated for each popula andtio compare nd. Figure 7.2 is a diagramatic representation based on the standardized factor scores, On the horizontal axis, the six factors were arranged in the anatomical order of teeth in the jaw. This simple diagram

simultaneously shows both the overall tooth size and its proportion.

The first noticeable point is that overall tooth size is the largest in Yayoi

immigrants in northern KyusThe hu. tooth size of Kofun people is comparable,

Conversely, those of the Jémon natives, the Tanegashima Yayoi people, and the

Hokkaido Ainu are quite small. The next remarkable feature is tooth size proportion. The deviation patterns in the northern Kyushu Yayoi immigran and Kofun ts people clearly contrast with

those of the JGmon natives, the Tanegashima Yayoi people, and the Hokkaido

Ainu. The former people are characterized by larger canines, premolars, and

second molars both in proportion and absolute size than the latter. A diachronic change in historic Japanese is also evident in this deviation

diagram, Overall tooth size decreases gradually from the Kofun period to the modern, although there is a sudden dip in the Kamakura period, The proportion |

in tooth size, however, docs not change throughout the historic horizon. This

diagram suggests that the metric tooth characteristics of the post-Yayoi Japanese

| (\

*****se************

...oo*e. ---

nr

eS

Ss —l—=E

ee

eae

ieoeeeieell

Dental charocte of therist Japanese ics population

129

| rhe post-Yayoi Japanese of the Kofun, Kamakura, Edo and modern periods are related to each other. The

northern

Kyushu

Yayoi

immigrants are loosely

grouped with them. In the other main cluster, the JOmon natives, Tanegashima yayol people and Hokkaido Ainu are lumped together.

Nonmetric characteristics The non-metric characteristics examined in this study include the following: (1) shoveling of the upper central incisor (2) spine of the upper central incisor (3) interruption groove of the upper lateral incisor

(4) De Terra’s tuberculum of the upper first premolar (5) Carabelli’s cusp of the upper first molar (6) 6th cusp of the lower first molar

(7) 7th cusp of the lower first molar (8) protostylid of the lower first molar (9) deflecting wrinkle of the lower first molar (10) four cusps of the lower second molar

(11) groove pattern ‘X' of the lower second molar, The frequencies of these 11 traits in eight Japanese populations are represented

in Fig. 7.4. Interpopulation variations are very small in the 6th cusp, the 7th cusp,

and the protostylid, The frequency of the spine also has minimal variation, except in the Tanegashima Yayoi people. The frequent presence of the spine is unique

|

tothem. The frequencies of both the shoveling and the deflecting wrinkle classify the eight populations into two major groups. The JOmon natives, Tanegashima and Hokkaido Ainu show a lesser occurrence of these trait freYayoi people,

quencies than the remaining peoples.

The frequency data on the 11 traits was used to calculate Smith's distances among Japanese populations. Figure 7.5 shows the result of cluster analysis

applied to the Smith's distances. The dendrogram exhibits two main clusters. are clustered The Hokkaido Ainu, Jémon natives, and Tanegashima Yayoi people together. The other main cluster includes the Northern Kyushu Yayoi immigrants and post-Yayoi Japanese.

populations Asianon is other east with ar Comp Metric and non-metric tooth characteristics of Japanese populations were compared with those of nine other east Asian populations, including three from southeast Asia. The methods used were the same as employed in our study within

Japanese. For the comparisons of metric characteristics, we adopted the previous

result of factor analysis of Japanese population data. Figure 7.6 shows the dendrogram

obtained from cluster analysis of the correlation coefficients derived

from the six standardized factor scores. The populations form two major divisions. The post-Yayoi Japanese are clustered with Korean and Chinese, including

their ancestors. The northern Kyushu Yayoi immigrants are uniquely tied to the

fy

10x

20%-

30%-

40%4

50%4

60x-

70%

80%-

90%

100%-

Freq-

int.

(UI2)

CẢR.

(UN1)

e

PrRt

er. 4Cps.

\ Jomon

Fig. 7.4 Distribution diagram of 11 non-metric trait frequencies of eight Japanese populations.

shov. (UI1)

***.....

S ern Japanese , Tanegashima Yayoi N-Kyushu Yayoi Hokkaido Aimu

Edo Kamakura

a

2,

ie

i

Dental characteristics of the Japanese popu lation Kamsakura

Modern Japanese Edo oa

:

Kofun M-Kyushu Yayoi

Le

Alou Jomon

Tanogashima Yayo!

ara |

Te

Fig.7.5 Dendrogram obtained from the

8

results of cluster analysis based on 11 non-metric tooth traits of eigh t Japanese populations.

f Smith's distances,

131

!

Fig. 7.7 Dendrogram obtained from the results of cluster analysis of Smith's distances, based on 1] non-metric tooth traits of 13 east Asian populations.

Thai people and Thai Chinese. Among the Asian continental peoples, Neolithic Thai are uniquely clustered with Jémon natives, the Tanegashima Yayoi people, and Hokkaido Ainu. The Sakhalin Ainu and Amami-Okinawan people are also clustered with them.

Figure 7.7 depicts a dendrogram derived from Smith's distances based on the

I] non-metric trait frequencies. Population affinities mostly coincide with those

based on the metrical traits (Fig. 7.6), except for the Sakhalin Ainu and AmamiOkinawan people. These two peoples are included in the Chinese-Japanese

cluster.

Figure 7.8 shows the population affinities with east Asia from the viewpoint

of the most remarkable characteristics discriminating between JSmon natives and Yayoi immigrants: the size of canines, the premolars, and the second molars relative to the first molars, and frequency of shoveling of the upper central incisor. The different data sets and attendant methods produce similar results: except

fora few populations, most fall into [wo major groups.

The biological history and ancestry of the Japanese populations Present findings indicate that modern-day Japanese populations are descended from two major groups. One is the small population of indigenous prehistoric

Jomon natives, who are ancestorsof the modern Hokkaido Ainu. The other is formed by post-Yayoi stock people, who include the aeneolithic Yayo”

* nts.

Area ratl

2.50

CePleP2en? mi

Distribution frequency

Thai

of shoveling In UTi

Thal Chinese

ocet ees t re

100%

Rodern Japanese

Edo

eee

Fi

Anant “Okinawa 2.40

Kamakura Korean

1 30

Scans Re Northern Chines Ta e ae

Anan! -Ckinewe

~

fe Thal

——Tanegashiaa Tayo!

Tanctgashina Tayo!

-|—— Hokkaldo

Aleu

~-— é0%

-——~— Neolithic That ——= —

Sakhalin

Alnw

Hokkaido Ales

|= Seal Ethic thal ree

Jonon

"I 4m

molars (left), and frequencies of shoveling of the upper central incisor (rig of cast htAce ) populations. The most remarkable tooth trait comp lex that distinguishes these two transitions is summarized in Fig. 7.9,

8

“OGL ‘(yddns) 06 ‘woddiyy fo 4iaeg ootopodangiwy fo joumor ~weder 2vorsmpud ui LEN

eindod uowor ay) JO STsUATTENEYD FRoHBojoIsO aq jo mHAa

{206 “a “pooner “Lee

OGE TETY “STMT UaW poor uOQ fo yg ‘eg ‘WSoyodosyiupy josd

Yum sdqys

“UONE}OU SUDIOTSIO|g 278] pure "AronsTy UOTE _Adod “onNjOAsOOND BETSY Ie Moge HOT

sampeay soley 10661) “11 “DD ROL “83ns Surpnjoui ‘Kjuopours pire Ajwopepopung jo prumoy ae E; EQu ‘Compy "EL

“Se-1e “dd “(rewyrers “gy pue Ty “Yl “P) ‘aya ay) pup scouauy ay) Tuyo

“ey fo ing uy “surfwo WeIuaUry JATIe_] 20) Ganess TEMPQL (SR61) a2‘ene oer

ay) UO s0UNpIA? [FIA “(9161) ‘11D “PUL ‘aouapog ‘asaueder put nury ay) Jo suysO “usp

“Emoquappo “y “6-1 dd “(AqzpLAIpS ‘| "pad “s

‘ayy suapy sap aryoryssaTuassoy ul “seweder wp yo Lowy (eowY “(1961) “H “AAS "GOC-G6LZ “E “A BONIS ‘oLpoy fo Ayssaarup ayy ‘aouaizg fo Ssouenbas ,Surpunoy, anbrun ou reyh “(1661 ‘} 12 preYAA) 205woRpoI RZUOIOS Hayy JO Suu

“Me 10.4 “WEIZOpUap WYNN 2q) 01 20U3Jaj21 OYA pourngo aiam Ady) outs “Pauoo 2q Kew Apnis (97661) "o12 MOMOY ay) HI SHUIpUly Iun0s "soAaMOp

‘(92661 ‘01? wou0]) seouauy ay)

Sf SMUSIIUE 34) JO [RALUE 131) 3ours poreadde ary susiydsowjod AUB, “WNCMU 403 Stydsounjod fqeqosd 1am wouauTy YLON ay ods-jequi Jo IY y} ‘A[Surpsosoy °(97661 "049 WOU) sueIsy fuoUTe ose puesuaidn330 SURI PUL THusuy Fuowe peodsopim, are sadXyodey g74y 2nso udep soy ye ey EUIJUOD sasA[BUE JUSIO1 TOY “39N) ay) Ul saPeout] jo syidap awn pur suonesiim

40) SuSpIAd pouirels PSPApSU! IS9y] “SINjEWIId ayam 227) sry) UO poseq "Hi JO Suos 'soFeouT] seNI}UEd YN presse ApEMoyTUdIs 3q 10U pod sep sedi) “Oldey WNW SoUu)s pure ‘auO sty) Wey) YIBu9] s9N04S Jo soon YIU aq Anu SHY} SUIS “9]qEIS 249m 990) 24) UI S9FE2UT]Jo sapou Furysu CIMWyUWE “a*t) jUZDSIp JO 200) aU) SEM Vy TEU) USQe1ss OF BIG ay TRY) 10 *(yi8uay 2/QrUN sam SIOYINE 2y) nq “Paies2ua8 Aoy) WesSoupuap YNCIW ay) Jo UIyEUApUN sem sIEKTEU sH9UR8 Cyd euOy “auag-BN Jo saqun samy pue ‘(WOTTEDY issep ansInBuy §,Suaquacdy) PULSWY JO $aquy) 9A Woy sadAiojdey Jo uoreuTure say xa Ut OF pip (ozGG I)

P12 (OuU0) “pauruLuarep 9q wed suoneMdod Jo 1 e UI YAGI Jo Kuors

‘SAjeue onauad uonemndod ur sno asus B se povead) st YNCIw yFnoyy 21 yy Anunpo | rs equ

gg]

i

!

wet| Zz

yv "tug ferey po irc

PPOLOPTY Bea pea yy aasou Jo atonbuey

oneal

camara

6460 Cpe) WN “anquy poe “7 “gpqdare>

“$1166 ‘pp “efonFeey (1961) Fequaes po manag “(Ee61) “1 ‘IPadeeD "POA MIR seme =meD

21 ‘(Li41) (Av “py y pa) ‘caaey pun apdoayUl “FEusuy “TOE 16d “Od “(eanug

Set

eg

a s Scheaemene eae ciasasar (6 Ananya? p escenueeaa ons ssrsmeid

241 :KydeosBop(ydaypedrensy “(:961) eindod usemieq sfpuq Yd fUpUOIDOIM O12

“At PONY

“ROUIUrY QUO

eT

"q ‘ueyforusg “eee * TpORV

"5 °1 ony

O10] SUOTEUBA JOSIP My) JO Ppou Iq) UI 20 “eLinjag

aBy 22] JO pow snuedu) © w penned you 1 yeqa poe ‘AymuMoad stop) OF

aq 01 pey 2[dood atoq) “euueg 80 sI0}20UR Iq) GIIMIEq MOY 2U38 10 yu205 ~@P VOUS

109502 H1 J] JaqRYA ‘sHURsOP suAg-EN] PUE OUNASY surepdxa iy)

s8OD MYUOU ay) UO WISTUEYIOW SY) JIARTeYM “OMEN (1661 TGF)

BIanjas 393J-291 UNMOUY JO Wopednss0 UEUMY JO] S2UIpiAs OU H JIN] “FOUNTYIY

Aq prised WOJ; PUL IUI-EN Woy ,spuLsury, saveredos yey) (1461) /O 18 SIsBOY

-9ns Enjol PoiU]-39| ery) Jo

Hy) Iso Ay 3u0W fe Ppow pow JInTedL]

Aq ose pre “sosApeUE sUTISIp si) 325 | “RIED WNCIW pue WO UyNgoPounnu

os eee nynw Aq peyesnss susaed anaes ayy poonpoud aaRy pynos JU ay) UO Apeaufe ajdoed jo ere 2y) U] "UIUNWOD ‘IMOARY| OLMEUIOS ~Feq Jy) Sues se pons 2 Y pynos suatseys ayy ‘1Sayj2 Uy] *(¢ 461 AneuTyTEZS) sadood on

Ory pur SHS7EQns Wepow FuOUrE Uses 2604) Pspquiasal SMPTUTS [RIS FH) J!

meets

‘squad afuryoxe O1 spueq FuTUNY WayseaquO" JO) Ainuoddo aydure

Usemiag ‘sreak QOOE Ie] Te 10) padnoso Sem ausy] ‘oSe seIk OOO TI-0O0S1 Jaq) Wo] SEM BIZULIDG ISNeIog “SIEIA OOD) INOGE 10] SAALTEpP Wiateayou sajdood way ines 2g) Payeredas Saky Pow 5904 991 WiTsES PUR Wotan 3) JO yy 241 JO 2am Jy) Aq ssaDe78 aq) Jo YInOS adood JMUIIITEO?) “WINWINKEU USUOIS

payuad JAey P[NOM Jey? UISBOSSI A JTF] 9] UT Ales WIA GOTELFAN 2fduTs, ©

oq UE TY WO Sayns FuMpION) {S9SATEUE SNI0/-1]]NW JO Siseq I) DO PapNpUdd

Snauad paasssqo ay) “snouadipurst Auszantp

JO 4yNq ay) puke

‘syuaUTIUyoo yiog stox9e sadKvojdey [pe Jo souausns90 peaudsapin

YON [EN souls awn HUI O} YsNOUS Bud] U99q SEY UOIEZTUOIOS MOITE ae wens suistydsouldjod ueysy YENOMITE Ie) BONOU ah SpARMOl PEA

10} yyoq ‘parnyel useq aney Iuuims st wnynpuad oy) SNYL "WD PUE VNC jo S192 aes O} sBjNap wed 10} swITE]D Ayre “(9Q61 HN PUE OpuEg) suOHEINdod ay) are se a4rHs Asowsiy ay) aonpap POUUED ‘190] WNCNL pue WO UTMgo;sounumusy

SII) 2uIs 12)j9 LpUNd}Jo U3S SB UDAD ‘190] JjSUTS “QOUIYYN,] “UOIEZTUOIOD Aq sind90 adKyojdey wand & sayeqm ARs MIU JO aNyA Kq JO ‘UOIVEINUE MUNA Hy Arpunpgy]ors

(O81

F

F

ltialnit!

162 Embke |. E Szothmary

Krauss, M.E. (19738). Na-Dene. In Current frends in linguistics, Vol. 10: Linguistics jy,

North America, (ed. T. A. Sebeok), pp. 903-78. Mouton, The Hague.

Krauss, M. E. (1979). Na-Dene and Eskimo-Aleut. In The Janguages of North America

(ed. L. Campbell and M. Mithun), pp. 803-901. University of Texas Press, Austin, Meriwether, D.A., Rothhammer, F., and Ferrell, R. E. (1992). Mitochondrial DNA variation in ancient and contemporary Amerindians using the TRNA“*5-COII dele.

tion and diagnostic restriction sites. American Journal of Human Genetics, $1, Al}, Nei, M. (1972). Genetic distance between populations. American Naturalist, 106, 283-9). Nei, M. (1985). Human evolution at the molecular level. In Population genetics ang

molecular evolution, (ed. T, Ohta and K. Aoki), pp. 41-64. Japan Science Society Press/Springer Verlag, Tokyo/Berlin.

Nei, M. and Roychoudhury, A. (1982). Genetic relationship and evolution of human

races. Evolutionary Biology, 14, 1-99. Nei, M., Tajima, F., and Tateno, Y. (1983). Accuracy of estimated phylogenetic trees

from molecular data. I]. Gene frequency data. Journal of Molecular Evolution, 19. 153-70.

Nichols, J, (1990), Linguistic diversity and the first settlement of the New World.

Language, 66, 475-521. O'Rourke, D.H., Suarez, B.K., and Crouse, J. D. (1985). Genetic variation in North Amerindian populations: covariance with climate. American Journal of Physical

Anthropology, 67, 241-40.

O'Rourke, D.H., Mobarry, A., and Suarez, B. Y. (1992). Patterns of genetic variation in Native America, Human Biology, 64, 417-34, Ouenberg, N. 5. (1992), Native people of the American Northwest: population history from the perspect ofive skull morphology. In The evolution and dispersal of modern hurmen in Asia s (ed, T. Akarawa, K. Aoki, and T. Kimura), pp. 493-530. Hokusen-Sha

Publishing, Tokyo.

Pamilo,

P. and

Nei, M.

(1988),

i

between

trees and

ies

trees.

Powers, W. R. and Hoffecker, J. F, (1989). Late Pleistocene settlement in the Nenana

«New World. spejaa Bities , 64, 381-402,

. L. and Bho B.S. (1988). Alloalbuminemia and the migrations of Native Americans. Year of Physic al Anthro bo pology, 31, 1-13, ok Schurr, T.G., Ballinger, 5. W., Gan, ¥-¥. Hodge, J. A., Merriw ether, D, A. Lawrence,

DN. et af. (1990). Amerindian mitochondrial DNAs have rare Asian mutations at high frequencies. American Journa of Human l Genetics, 46, 613-23. partic F., eee « K., Voewoda, M. I. and Reed, J. K. (1992). Absen ce of Asianregion VW mitochondrial marker in Native Beringians. American fourna l Human Genetics, 40, 758-65. o Spubler, J.N. (1972). Genetic , linguistic and geographical distances in iative

North America. In The attersment of population affinity in man, (ed. J. 5. Weiner and J Huizinga), pp. 72-95,

Oxford University Press.

Spubler, J. N., (1979), Genetic distances, trees and maps of North American indians in

i

\

lili

BL, ape Ward, R.H.,

Redd, A., Valencia,

and Santos, M

ragier, B.L., Matsumara

. Journal of Physical Anthropology, Suppl. 14, 170-1. ation (1988). In search of times past: gene flow and invasion in the gener s. Weiss, Masci Biological aspects of human migration, (ed human diversity. In

aylor and Whil

_ Lasker), pp. 130-66, Cambridge University Press

Mathewes,

Late (1985).s, W. H.ew R. W., and Math

tdor’ of northwestern en corri ‘ice free of the nm and enviro

Pleistoce

Alberta

chronology

Quaternary

173-86 24,ch, Resear

Williams, R.C., Steinberg, A.G., Gershowitz, H., Bennett, P.H., Knowler, W.C.,

distinct Pettitt, D. J. ef af. (1985). Gm allotypes in native Americans: evidence for three

migrations across the Bering land bridge. American Journal af Physical Anthropology, “, I-20.

Williams, R. C., Steinberg, A.G., Knowler, W.C., and Pettit, D. J. (1986). Gm?" and stated admixture: independent estimates of admixture in American

Indians.

al Genetics, 9, 409-13. of Human Americon Journ

Workman, P. L. and Miswander, J. D. (1970). Population studies on southwestern tribes.

ion American Journal of Human Genetics, in the Papago. Il. Local genetic differentiat

2, 7-23.

Workman, P. L., Niswander, J.D., Brown, K.S., and Leyshon, W.C. (1974). Popula-

tion studies on southwestern Indian tribes. IV. The Zuni, American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 41, 119-32.

Wright, J. ¥. (1981). Prehistory of the Canadian Shield, In Handbook of North American Indiens, Vol.6: Subarctic, (ed. J. Helm), pp. 86-96. Smithsonian Institution, Washington,

Wright, J.E. Jr. (1991). Environmental conditions for Paleoindian immigration.

In

: ans T.D. Dillehay and D. J. Meltzer), (ed. ric and research, The first Amesearch

ss, Raton, FL. Boca pp. 113-56. CRC Pre

10. Dispersal of the ALDH2 mutant in Mongoloid populations Shoji Harada

Introduction A number of recent studies have indicated that individual and ethnic differences are seen in the manifestation of acute symptoms after alcoh ol intake (Ewing ef ai.

1974; Goedde and Agarwal 1986; Reed er al. 1976: Mizoi ef al. 1979; Zeiner et al. 1979). Individual and ethnic differences are also associated with multiple forms

of alcohol metabolizing enzymes (Von Wartburg efal. 1965, Smith ef af. 1971,

Harada ef al. 1980a,b, 1981; Goedde ef al 1983). The first metabolite of ethanol

by alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) is acetaldehyde, which is oxidi zed by aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) into acetic acid. Among human ALDH isozymes, which consist of at least four different components, mitochondr ial enzyme (ALDH2)

contributes most to the oxidation of acetaldehyde because it has higher affinity

to the substrate than the other isozymes. Our previous studies revea led that the catalytic deficiency of ALDH2 isozyme is responsible for facial Mushing and other symptoms, such as tachycardia and headache. The enzym e deficiency per-

mits accumulation of a higher acetaldehyde level after alcohol intake and it is

these high levels of acetaldehyde that are responsible for the unpleasant symp-

toms following alcohol ingestion (Harada ef al, 1982). The defic iency of ALDH?

occurs primarily among peoples of Mongoloid origin (Harada er al. 1980g, 198!

Goedde er af. 1986, 1990; Harada 1989), Individuals deficient in ALDHz2 refrain from excessive drinking of alcohol due to their averse reaction, thus ALDH? defi-

ciency affords protection against alcoholism (Harada ef al, 1981). The latter may explain why alcoholism in Japanese and many other Mongoloid population is less common than among Caucasians, Recent molecular biological research has shown that the cause of the isozyme deficiency is a structural mutat ion leading

to the synthesis of an enzymatically inactive protein (Impraim er al. 1982; Hsu

ef al. 1987). The ALDH2 isozyme is a tetram of er four identical subunits of about 500 amino acid residues, The inactive isozyme subunit is produced by a structural

point mutation at amino acid position 487 of the polypeptide. At this position lysine is substituted for glutamic acid, resulting in a transi tion of G(C) to A(T) in the DNA sequence (Hempel e al, 1985; Hsu ef af. 1985), The full-l ength cDNA structure of ALDH2 has now been reported (Hsu etal, 1988). Two alleles,

designated ALDH2"1 and ALDH2*2 are known at the ALDH? locus. The mutant allele, ALDH2"2, is responsible for the deficiency of the enzyme. This single-base mutation was identified by the hybridization techn ique using

/

UIpuErsuapun no Ul

“SPEUIGSIP ProjoFuoyy yu2oue jo

BVEP 218q Fe Sass WED Joy FEW sty) -suoMEMdod propoPuayy M9] NP Ut 9u98 JEP ZC TY BM} Jo oNquIsIpay) Wtasaud | ‘saded siyiay

fi

No MbolI recognition site

MbolI recognition site

5'

5'... ACTAAAGAGAAA ...3'

TTCTCTTT...

3'

5' ... ACTGAAGAGAAA ... 3

5'

3'

TTCŤCTTT...

s'...ACTĂAAGTGAAA... 3'

#

Mutant allele

S'...ACTGAAGTGAAA... 3'

Position of the mismatched nucleotide of the antisense primer. # Substituted necleotide in the ALDH2 mutant.

Antisense primer Polymerization chain reaction product

Template DNA

Wild-type allele

Table 10.1 Principle behind the making of an ampli cation created restriction site

168 Shoji Horeda

123486

Fig. 10.1 ALDH2 genotypes analyzed by amplification created restriction site using Mboll restriction enzyme. 1 and 4: ALDH2"1/ALDH2°2; 3: ALDH2°2/ALDH2"2; 2

and 5: ALDH2"1/ALDH2"!; 6: untreated polymerization chain reaction product; M: 123 b.p. DMA ladder. The arrow indicates the direction of migration.

(10%

polyacrylamide

gel,

Tris-borate-EDTA

buffer).

After

electrophoresis

(10 V/cm, 5 hours), the gel was stained with ethidium bromide and the oligonucleotide band patterns were visualized under UV

light.

The photograph of the restriction enzyme cleavage pattern of wild-type and

mutant alleles after the addition of Mboll is shown in Fig. 10.1. On the basis of the existence or the absence of the fragment (125b.p.) after treatment with Mboll, wild-type and mutant genotypes of ALDH? were detected rapidly and reliably in population genetic study.

Dispersal of ALDH2 mutants in Mongoloids and their significance The allele frequencies of genetic markers obtained from published data have been used for estimating genetic distances and genetic relationships among different

populations (Cavalli-Sforza ef a/. 1992). Some genetic markers are restricted to specific populations. The ALDH2 mutant has been detected only in Mongoloids. Distribution of genotypes and gene frequencies of alleles at the ALDH?

locus

in different Mongoloid populations have been reported by many authors (Harada

etal. 19800; Goedde and Agarwal 1986; Goedde ef a/. 1983; 1984a,b, logs joR6,

1990, 1992; Harada 1989, 1990, 1992; Singh eral. 1989; O'Dowd ey af, 1990:

Thomasson ef al. 1992), There are no reports of the ALDH2 mutant in Caucasoid

or in Negroid populations.

H

5

2

F

spersa

Steppe heartland, where I suggest all Mongoloids arose, Fig. 11.1: Map of the Mammoth Arrows indicate how storm tracks moderated Mongoloids. northern and most recently, face of the on the margins of Eurasia at the glacial maximum. The south the climate Himalayas blocked monsoonal moisture to the interior, resulting in a cold dry grassland

environment in the high uplands even at moderately low latitudes. The horizontal line 40 degrees north latitude. represents

margins, it had an overall integrity. Past models using pollen profiles of simple Pleistocene vegetational communities moving north and south are not consistent with the no-modern-analog reconstructions using macropaleontological samples of whole communities (Guthrie 1990a). Most Pleistocene communities indeed Steppe. have no good modern analogs. Certainly among these is the Mammoth

The stable high pressure system, diverse land forms, reduced tree cover, dramatic

insolation variations, proximity to glaciers, and other factors produced consider-

able wind in all seasons on the Mammoth Steppe (Guthrie 1982). Wind, incom-

pletely vegetated surfaces, and newly generated glacial silt produced a dusty landscape, of which the thick loess deposits bear witness. In addition to the woolly mammoth,

other large mammals included: woolly

rhino (Coelodonta antiquitatis), steppe bison (Bison priscus), caballine horses (Equus ferus), hemionids (Equus hemionus), reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), muskoxen (Ovibos moschatus), saiga antelope (Saiga fafarica), and other bess numerous species (Guthrie 1982). These species developed unique adaptations to life on the was apparwindswept, tree-barren steppes. Natural selection in this environment

ently very intense (from mammoths to collared lemmings, these northern

j

S21uIM Ysrey ai aAuns O1 suoneidepe padojaaap GA BOY) Wey) s1s28Fns Sipeds

Auews Aq PeUTEE ozis Apo snowous ay) puy “(spewurew Suoure payuen “Op sofueys Areuonnjoas pide BOW JY) JO MMOS TIQnIKs Seeds suss0}s—H4 ND 9d YY

—

FLT

$a

MLL “SO8}IMS pazuem jons aunsse odysa34) Suisnpa “GOMUDAS di] poonpey aary

SPIojosuo; Aueyy

‘(8461 Saqoy) suONtidepe swanxe sow au) sa 00 rey) S98] 3) OF 81 3] pue “Kpog ay jo ued J9 y1 AUe 0 wey) WONDaf25

penyeu 0} Deiqns A[IWBISWOS 240u somyEay feDey Soy eUN JuNsOdya 514] “2y7e 2Iq pur 905 Isnw Ajduns

JAA

‘SUOHIPUOD [Te

IsoWTE JopuN pasodxa 2q Isnt 228) UEWINY ay) Jo sues ALOSUaS ayy ‘SUOP qu parejnsur aq Aew Apog ay) Jo sued sayio sre anyA K

xejdme2 aagdepe prreypjoo ‘Ward paywawgesy pur SS39ATP 341 WOU ised au) SuTonsuOse are aM JEU) PUe WoIsssidxs 3]QeueA aymb

SWEIBYDJO xajdur ay) os0} paedar qin dno’ snousSouoy & [fe ye Jou Ie Spioj

~OSUO

W, ‘SI Tey) “("212 “suersaut}og ‘ssouung “sourddi.y “O101g se sdnos8 asoy) 0) pouayal sary Maysieasay “fesia)dsipsproposuojy-ooeg 40 sy) 0} soud ‘pur

“May Pfoo pie qry ay) ur Fupaq “(¢ ers adovost) apersusi 1aweM snoLaad oy) Sump SSSUPSIGEPE ploo [ENMU 2wos 2uoHapun Apesuye pey ajdoad ueysy feujuas as9y) sdeyiag “(9961 1y8Uy pues eSurwey) uMUNeU Fei2e/2

Ise] ay Jo Dnpold & Useq JAEY 0) susos “SplojoSuopy-O9y] JO WEYWI ON UI Usas Se “SNE |

“9q) JO 1Woudopsaap aus1x9 ay] ‘parseBins avey sisyio sy ‘(8L61 Seqo y) sum) “Giadula) MO] YE Spoysaiy) wosWOS 07 prego YM SIU IP [ELOABYIQ fees

Muss 3q 0] W295 OSTE sI9q | ‘AUPUE PU poo Oo} suolEndepe fexgojoydiow

Pure fEsIFojoIsKyd projoSuopy Jo ays & Jo 3208} U0 Ing s STUY “{cg6F

PRY “19AQ)) [Je JE SOAK SLMS] OU SUESUY pue ssuodsau renFau Aisa 8 aAey ‘souny “tisdia) SUTES ay] 01 poiseiqns ‘suesdomg “Burzaady Woy squat] sdaay pure $50} Woy SOZyUTUTL YIOg asuodsaz pesZojorshyd oNeWOINE sty “saNTEA 0} Pouaj au

| SAM

SIMS] 3YI—UONt EnposeA pue UONSLISUOIOSEA JO Wianed 32K) & wu

poojg Apog Wem Yim spaq Aseypides pessyduad ay) ysny (splojoSuopy wayyoU 4a10 ISOUI pu) SOUNySy “Surzeeyy mojaq doxp souniesadusay puey vaya ‘2ydurexs 104 “(MOIADI B JOY 8761 $142Q0Y 995) UISU0 WeDUyy 40 uesdosng Jo adoad Jayna VEY) PlOS 0} Sasuodsas yeorSojorsAyd 1329) yrp Ayeonewresp axey (saum 20200

o MMOU Jequiny aBues say) papuarxa Ajduns pey oym sproj oSuop y) soumrysg “os buOp Aja}a;du0> Jo woys jj2j Apuaredde IE “SVEUNED 0} Zuryeya saanss aud vONs3

Enjeu wor adood pasayyng ay pue Sunpop jo ABojouysa) ay) pin

saGaI§

OUUE WY 24) JO wONJOd UE 341 UO paNs IS Y00 yom suoNedepe uEREW MUI JO UsaiTed JUaISISUOD E Ty SPIOjOSUOPY Jo soNsUa}ETeYD jeorBojo1sAyd pue

eSojoydiow ay) pury 7 se;nanued uy ‘addais youmeyy 34) ‘adesspue] enon ted ® Jo s208u1 ay) 01 sasuodsas ATEUONIN[OA Jo ayINs Hondxa we se yy8q xapduI09 ayn) 9g Y

Oct

jo cold and wind exposure. The fatty insulati on in the upper lid even reduces heat

loss when the eye is closed. Eyelid folds also reduce glare in open country, The

low profile of the Mongoloid nose also significan tly reduces the potential for heat loss and frostbite. The more general

blanket of facial subcutaneous

padding around the eyes and on the cheeks, jaw, and chin act as important insulating tissue. The more round, brachycephalic, Mongoloid head form is an efficient heat-retaining design (Roberts 1978). All of these Mong oloid facial traits combine in a smoothed facial profile against wind and cold, One has to be able to function all winter long in a life based on hunting terr estrial mammals. Unlike fishing or whaling, long-term food stores are difficult to amass for terrestrial

hunters (red meat is nutrient rich but calorie poor). Work ing, walking, stalking for long episodes of —40°C or -60°C femperat ures is more than difficult.

Exposed skin freezes in one minute at these temperatures with a breeze of 7 km/h (Folk 1974). It is in such extreme sorts of situations that subtle differences in

performance can make all the difference. I can speak from personal experiences |

Alaska. As with other large northern mammals, frost bite avoidance is a critical factor for humans; however, this can be accomplished with Lewis wave warming. Probably equally important in the long run is the overall effect of these

anatomical structures of Mongoloids on the heat budget. But the interactin g forces are complex: for example, while Eskimo anatomy is extrem heat el consey rv-

ion and keeping extremities warm and operational (Robe rts 1978).

In relation to that equation of heat budget, one can obser ve that cold, windy, arid climates are places where overall body proportions can be important in heat retention just as heat dissipation requirements in Austr alian 40°C and 10°C temperatures has influenced Aboriginal Australian body build. It is not by chance that Austraand lia Afric nsan Nilotics are at Opposite poles to northern Mongo -

loids in body proportion

(Fig. 11.2a), the relative length of appendages in relat

ion t6 torso length (that is, sitting height to standing height), and span arm reach

compared to height (Houghton 1980; Hanihara 1986: Harrison ef af. 1988). As

a general figure, northern Mongoloids have a sitting height-sta ture index of 55: Cauca sians, 50; and Black Africans and Aboriginal Australians, 45, Northern Mongoloids have a higher proportion of supernumerary verteb rae and a smaller

proportion with subnumerary vertebrae than other groups (Kauf man 1974). Hip

width is normally greater among Mongoloids in proportion to shoulder width

(Overfield

1985).

Mongoloids

also tend to have

reduced

waist constriction

(Hanihara 1986), Long torsoed, with large chests, Mongoloids have reduc ed lumbar curvature producing a straight profile, Mongoloid body shapes are further accented by disproportionately shorter and comparatively thicker distal limbs,

shortened digit length and the well developed appendage musculatur e and fat

ae

(a)

S

iitilii

>

=

The Mammoth Steppe and the origin of Mongoloids and their dispersal 181 of grist of which natural selection is made. Selection is only about relative performance.

The great wear seen among prehistoric and historic teeth of northern Mongo-

loids indicates they had stepped into a lifestyle in which evolution had not yet

produced a tooth form commensurate with its uses. Mongoloids, despite other

enhanced technological capacities, had not found a substitute for over-exploiting a critical biological organ. As such, they were laid bare to selection pressure. | suspec the tooth t character of northern Mongoloids was, until this century, probably not in an evolutionary equilibrium—it was still evolving rapidly. The fact

that the incid of ence three-rooted first lower molars is higher in Eskimo-Aleuts than Amerindians or Asiatics (Turner 1990) suggests that their teeth have continue to evolve d unidir in theect Holocene, ion as a result all of Pleistocene-l yike dental demands of the far-north. In the same manner, but ina different direction, the teeth of most Holocene agriculturalists have been reduced in size and com-

plexity along with those of their domestic mammals (Scott 1991) in a rather short of time. perio d

Australian Aboriginals also experience tremendous dental attrition, but their diet has been basically different from that of northern Mongoloids. The Australian diet of many coarse raw carbohydrates is at the opposite end of the spectrum from the northern Mongoloid diet of coarse raw animal tissue. Coarse carbohydrates require mainly posterior buccal processing using the whole molar and premolar battery, Australian Aboriginals have huge cheek teeth, includin well g developed third molars and even frequent supernumerary fourth molars (Allegro 1982), consistent with a posterior emphasis opposite that of the Mongoloid

Ecological context required for rapid adaptations to cold ‘On the basis of other mammals, ] would argue that a certain level of intensely cold, Arctic-type conditions are required to initiate this Mongoloid complex of

traits. Furthermore, this complex could not have occurred in cold conditions even in northern temperate climates. Among temperate mammals there are anatomical responses to selection for cold tolerances, say, in the form of thicker pelages and

well furred ears dnd tail, but ears and tails remain quite long. This is different from that seen in Subarctic and Arctic mammals that have not only well-furred ears, but also have greatly reduced the size of the car and tail. Cold, wet conditions experienced in severe, but short, winters of temperate climates are not sufficient to create extreme anatomical adaptations, like those seen among Mongoloids.

The reason for this is that most mammals havea comparatively broad thermal neutral zone, that plateau on the graph in which capillary bed symphonics can regulate body temperature without actually increasing metabolic rate (Fig. 11:3).

Al more extreme temperatures, one must increase metabolic rate, In this part of the curve, individual variations in ability to conserve heat, especially on greatly influences exposed surfaces, are magnified (Fig. 11.3). This magnification selection intensity and hence evolutionary rate, especially when these conditions

e

‘afdurexe 307 ‘strnqey mau Fupusuedxs sprue UT sa8uey> seureIp 205 WED

om SUT) SUIOOOH Ur usAq "(P9661 FUYIND) suuOy powoY-wo syeMSYs yoNM

0} SULOY 38ny Yim aunjears sUeRs & FuIIq WO’ OF ‘apdurexa soy ‘uoRg “3IqQe “ATEMOT SIE 3218 poe adeys Apog uy seBuey> “sores Areuonnjoas pide Ajensnun

20} S1QEIOU "SEIOIQ £,ppiom sy) JOJ SUIT) JU2INGINI E SEM sUIS0ISIIIY STE] SUL

addajg qweourmep,

eq) Uo saye2 Arevopnypoag

‘sddaig qnouTureyy 9q7 JO pueLesy aq) wm poouauadxs Taeq SABY O} A[aqT] SOW are suOTpPUOD aF9y1 “YOU Fe) ay) WI Satis FEABoposeyse

sa2O}S [qq OU STF 2197) Tey) UIAIh “xapdimos propos& uopy FE 305 om SUNIES) ay) 218919 0} SSUES [EFINIU PEULIZY) ay1 JO pus auIITxX9 34) PreMmo} sanyeisdw>) psu)

‘SNS SOY) HW “WwOYs a] ‘suesdawe omy wey) ‘sampezs dy sFu1ydwa) pue 2109 Aq IMOUS FE “JIULEM SULAEIS SFE SOUTYSY SIWIIEXD Ppoo 2594) Te asneI9q ‘ALOIS aq

Pols BIOIG ALL "Sswsy) SANdepe jo ino BULAOUULA B UO} poynsos 1 Ing ‘xapdumos

sem dn-ye21g Jey) JO Wisjyed sy] “MINUKEW fee[s yeu] sy) Jo soreyd FuluEM ay)

Ul SOUaN|O! SUNELpPow sy) FuLNp syess2}UISIp 0} URFSq Sddaig YouUTEyY 3yL

az9q}I0N uop] Jo [esiedsyp Sppopos 10)

opondgd seudoidde iow & premo) FmAcW

“‘PURPSIOG MIU I) ‘("5)9 "sp Ee Evan fine

ples yesdoporsAqd) mo yoeaq, Afeuonnjoss0} Suyuurdeq ave sires) AueW

‘(se “ee) Kapdunos ‘sskaIq [ews “suonIedold quiy-yunN ) SITeN plopoSuopy

TSAUP ppd J) JO AUEW 340] 0) SUN) JUS INS JO] SWOY MIU Jy) Wi W2Ieq OU SABY SUBIPU] UE ay) 341 ajdoad yYsnoyy “sajdood yons Woy Moy oe PSMan[jUL Useq BABY JO ¢ WBe}s ado}Os! FuuNp puepesy sddars yYoOwUWey 3) U paonpoid Teg sary pros ‘sprojosuopy-oop] JO WaywouJo Gavsita Gir eyes

se ‘(2 “aspuuing ‘suBisusjog ‘souddiig) spropoBucjy-Osjeg JO w2yINOs se imp a4 syadoad po dnowd snousFols}ay sy] JO s101s29UT Sy) “SNy] “sUIDIyx2 O85

200 Ng ‘Ey CT 01 OF “E aFers sdoion ‘apeisiayul Jse] ay) FULNP a79A95 O57 aM SUOUPUOS SEU ‘IMO Y

“[RpRnod Ayeumrew sion

(“3

‘ssourg7) WOU

‘HYNYS “Owrysy “yeAIMg) sprojofopy-Osp] JO WIqQUOU SE J9}SN}> am OM sapd

ad snosusgoJ2}99 37) Psonpoud YS SUOTIPUCS SteEWITD BI9A95 Ot] “EY EE] 01 67 ‘UMUeW peels pre] oy) “z aFe7s sdojyos! FuuNp “yey) Jwnsse Apuo WeD sug

“BISY ISAT INOS Ul PUNO) SIss0) Plojosuopy aus0IsIa]}g UTEldxa p[noOM J9I7e] Iq] “S020 519 [q STE] 2) Ul SWTSwos JO SUSDO[OHY

3) Ul PIEWMYINGS paaow Ady) Jayya

OF “(NOU ay) Uy paumnboe Ayuo seq JAeY Pnos “aqeureysns s} JUDUINTIE Aw JI

‘TDI xajduo> paydepe pues ppoo ay) Jo awios sJeys Op Asy] suoIIpUOS pesdon “QS pUe feSIdos] UI MOU SQuepisel Jay) ayidsap Jo "YOU ay) Woy paaap ATE

“UHLIO Taq SABY O} Waes Ay) ‘tIsy IsESYyINOS perdnsso splojoFuopy JaAsusy A

snsseaA sppoposuopy-oay Sppoposuepy-Osyeg “SUOHIPUOD MIU OJ Psnow Asq) SF

Aqpesedss ‘sounssaud fenpxa}u09 [E20] Ss9q71 JO 2uI0s 0} papuodsas pur paouauadya

SAR] OSE TYSTW SUBUINY JEU) PUEISIOPUN TED 24 thi

hcl

ce

“9URDO/OF] pUe suUs0ISHId

ear

U 218 SJo], “S10409

oaoadser sy) “SYM PUB YIeIq Ayes] SuTEINq “WINWEXeUT feIoe(s se] 24) BUI “np pareredas "(pop jop S14) daoys [eq pur ‘(rawoys yop sig) daays aos

yr

pc

“ROLY FON

bss

pared tere eS

“}SaJ9 IU! $1 1] “YURI Syedsqns ye woreredss 20] UAT) yNs ApUrELIa2—suOTE;ndod

fuianis ‘asain

dieeonigbas is IARYIq puUe Ce

yemmobeos onal

FUEM TUBS Je 2194) 12k “SUOTIELTEAYNQIU OU ATTENLIA JIQhyxe 2s00Ul URIUIWY

vem Apusoal os pauaddey wonezMojos Js00W auZD0/OF] SIL “nUEpTY 74

0] SODe HUY YON jo sued ayes2duia)

20m pozuojoo asoour ‘e4SeIV

MOL “(90661 SUYIND) sow [eIDe/H-1s0d UI eYsePY UIy) pu ELIgIS WaIsEIqUOU

Suppeauy “}sJ0y [e0J0g UEISeINg ay) YM premyyou Jao (saz sayy) 25000) EBT jossedsip ey) pup sprojofuopy fo wSi0 ay) pun eddayg yjourummmpy oY

—=

.

3

A ted

nie ay ee

A'S pur ‘safamgpg

‘2 Af smoqnepy “a, “f “surydory “ps) ‘erfiuag fo «Topoosog uy -“su0T ny HPO! feiuaWtORATOoKed se addaxg “Wd MOUTUTEWY aq Jo meee, (72961 tone ) ‘ay ‘sun is tae MALIN

“sUIpIAd 31 uedpur ‘peyusp* aging

© WamaNIE ayy

((9861) “S “einfazy poe *

“OOOO ‘ome WOAH OMAN) “fg O00 gy 10 POM ayy Gu

“LO“LLe “Lt “ATopod

0 DOsuEdWwOSB :srouUy

OS ieee

Gabe

"H't “Sequeip

1D

Hd ppenyg ‘maieehg be aor ‘Adoporsdyd pouaumuvonauy *(p761) “WD‘qUED “od “05A Man

‘Sd

Spey

onsedtis woe5s esenar dein ie cia jo. walpaery (E560) “V'z ‘spreapg “SOON! ysuuds ‘semouL “D 59[2 ey> “uous My Wy Mone MeOs aoe fo susapqosd 243 fo Apnys 0 “PPp oey “(0S61) af 1PsPig pur “py “Ss ‘weE “s -> ‘noo>

“STOUT! PRufunds ‘sewowy

“2 s4rey

wou fo savuour jeF (286 ‘Wor 1) ‘oufaqy

saoualajay ‘addai¢ youurepy ay) aU JO DOTHUNYS aq) Yim peyerZaursip sug peNFo}ODE

“SHern|? Veep) Se pasins00 spiojoBuopy jo yesiadsip premquou ayy -adda g

IOWL AyWE 3) JO puBpesy enait snesyeont

See

Ge Mhadinn

hoUEIU orD splojoBuoy se ‘3MAO

Ge coe

IE] I) Ut Appedes Aras

peajoas Apwaredde siren jo aims smyy “yawuosaus pemods & 6 ashes aes

~depe jo 1]NsaJ 34) arepet

3p am

ne eee! pr

fawojoydsow jo wiayyed MLL “addarg yourmeyy ay) Jo adoad auam sprojo suopy

suopsnyIuo)

“(S261 JeajOp 2218 y) Apoq ‘apdurexa 10} -SUOTNPUOS [EI0]01 sIBueYyD aandepe suos jwaxuspun sprojosuopy wesusury ‘gU220/0}] 9y) oo anna “EN ZI INOQE ppio4, May aq) INOYSNOIY) 3194) Woy puE “eYseTY ‘eLIagIS UssIsE Oj!IY sploj OFuOP y1 y Jo ON HoIso[dxs UeJ Ss ihc

409 (9861

ipl

oe | S#Aep{) puoser peaPojose ay) yjz sspes0e qou

‘/2 42 Braquasin) sauepias 32039 pue ‘fesFopoydsow “IsmnZury]

aisiscaeenc cee FEUD 24

“Pol SBA WU] wsqwOU “pip Aayypor spnqecyy am.

AaU Sty) OFUT 2AoU 0} AjaxT WOU adoad 34) PB

a PUY pa a)

“UOH23po] ETyia dpy ns u oy

ao S300] PUE [AN JO} POom sex aay) Ing YOU

4}UW! PJOS [TIS FIM SIOVUT AA “OUEM0} UeBIq SpULM FU200)S191g aU

"ajdood pue

%oow se yon S$ “S291] UO popusdYIM ap S[EUMUTEW JUNE) Way) YI PU M YINOS

“41 Wor addaig yrouureyy 34) papeAut sisaz0y ‘2U290 24) JO/0 tas }4ay) IY

“GiNOs 29430 Jy) pue quoU FuAour suo ‘poyeredas Aqpides suonnquisip

Hes pue J99pUIoI‘aUID0[OF] 24) Jo SuTU ay) Ie INg ‘2U2001SI2 U2 q q 2E] I

fuunp eyse puery ersemng jo sow noySnomp JayIa80) pains *UYyINE) asueys sta1

ae

Inq “SUONIUTIXS

J0

STEW QWs we ESTES pue Issputay

IU] “(2966

“wayed suzc0;0]]

@ Ul pepeszyjesem l Woo] ay) UayMpene coer eae

UI ISO] 29M SPEa 2UIOGTY “sadu) ys JO yas Jadu yon = O} pred

Peuzoied épeopduioo v seS8 (Qp861 2UYIND) asoy poquoMo | Tey9WO] sap acysp een *Oog

Yel

Ta

‘otgou, Jo Aaquarn ‘umssnyy AmSuSAIUp) “onst] [eeds “LON ‘HESedSTP Pro} e

—

—

~-—

a nT oS

go

,

S.

$

28gu

2

26

11 3 1

1

2

3

S

3+3

S

54 46 62 61

6 3

8

4 9 3

4

4

0301 0301

O103

0401 0601 0302 0303

O501

1.9% 1.2%

6.3% 5.3% 3.7% 3.6%

5

0604

1

13

1

3

7

O102 0101 0301

S

44

33

24

10.0% 0601

0103

1502 1302 0101 0405 0803 0406 0901

6 6

15

1

3 + 2

S F

52

24

Av. freq. (0) DQBI

DQAI

DRBI

HLA-DQ

HLA-DR

Class II DNA C4B Q0

CAA

HLA-C

BF

HLA-A

HLA-B

Table 12.1 Common HLA haplotypes in Japanese

III!

"Ered jo suonepndod st) Ul fe

sem edAio[ded STL "(Z661 jjom se SuBISy IeayOU UT LOUIS sso] ATyTEOYTUBIS oj Apres sf PM CAC 442 wBeunyoy) suorejndod weisy yseayinos ut pasns i{2) W9ISEM PUR WIGINOS UW] VOUT

Ss] ApUWoIyTUs}s Ing “suESIOy UE NOW

ssoum TWOped rs0Us Br 34 OF “quo osfe pue ss9uryD UR] WoyoU ut adMojdey ueU Ut y61 Mf pue efeunyo] '766] J2 9 Wy) Bis y 1see “(76 sulde umoys sem sdAjoj s LYC-C1d-94D sdhrojdey suonendod msaquou wy poxlssqo AjuOUIUOS S| Holuornquisip ediojdey WH payiodas Ajsnojasid am,

eodé) # Jo woHNQUNsTp au IS¥9 UI suONTEINdoS BiHINe jo erep 2p Aq pauoddns s2yuny sem sey, “eis apie WIH Uo peed yOU Jo WONeHUAIIIsIP & SEIU! sstuanbel)

pue Wiay r ‘TT Se Yons Eula Hine sorpms onousdojkud ‘Ajurpsoooy “oer pur “ng “we MY> WsIYINOS BL. “PRAA'S ut sdnow ommmpa pue ‘STeyL ‘asoureUyatA, SOpNIIU! JaIs‘gsUTYyD UE} ‘sUBTOSUON , WeayWOU Uy SUBLNGOURPur

ul ekg pue “BUTYD ay) pue “BUTYD YLOU Uy SUOyIOIO PHF tsueasoy ‘asauedes Jo pasodusos S| 90 }sNfoqNs OM)

suaqig ul syne se yons sdnox8 usoyWOU

85 JO pasodusod s aud :ssa

|

|

16] suonomdod unrsy ys00 fo jossedsip pu uysy10 oY UO

AAAA A AA

> On the origin and dispersal of east Asian populations

193

I

!

paRT IV —

_ |

=

—_———

Peopling of the Americas

—_

.

D

D

ron

-¥ ) . gf

(2661 SUPERP QFE py) x2ydur09 J gjDAs aq) oF

sHusUS dia suO}s payEy Jo UONONposd aq] Joy speuatew FouINbse wr poysauaqu!

adosd

map

samopasyeyD

pomojoo

AlNynNtsq

ay

“sTEDuUryY

aAneEN

10J SNOT PEUSTeW mes pUeWOdUT UE Se Poses sq PEeye pure spaced peany peisodspes pue yor peq ul Auopeapey> jo 2ouausn200 ayy “wapsds afeuresp

341 [O peasyg3y] 12 pores] xaydw09 & ‘IOATY PEIIDAEI U1 JO wed] J3AlY UNOS

doysysom 21] pue Kumenb aise] & st sty “(99GDaS) x2PdwWos doysys0m pur

AieN 4391 UOAUE

YIE}G PU y90I7) UOSIaAT YINOS ay] Jo VONETNSIAU! ay) UO

Pesnooy S¥Y YIIeIso1 pry (y4sD) suesueury iq yi yo Apmys ayn Joy J2702D

‘Wuasssd S41 01 $96] Wosy “(1-E{ “Fig) Pag] E9s 2A0ge WI OOTZ OF O9OT TE aFurY OO

If) JO SUMEWUNOP PEMyFARSg JY1 UI psreso] s1 are Defoid sayy

“(E661 “Z661 ‘0661 222 wasystuWOg) Uomo: aq yo AsonsTy peyUsMUOMALS Pur

[FINNS

3) PUEMII 0) Syeer sua) WelToid PUN

Yyoresssu FuFu0

ing

“SUEIUOPY WI91S9MQINOS ‘YooI7 UOSISAT JO YO GINS “snd0] MOPEDpY POWUEPY

aq) JO SpaAo] Jeno] 94) Wolj Ploles Iney UELOdUN UF PalaAoo p am ATUeeY “SEP COQ IEOIPEL da Je34 OOS pl

© 01

Wwecelpe punoy mey wey jo sjUsuTHeIy OM) Jo 2003

“INI9O SY} SUM 1S9I97U1 TEN ed JC “ays ay Woy sy] EXE] UMOTY 3y) papuBdxa pue poruswusydios YIOq Prose Irey sy] “(ORg] Oe WasyUUOg) ext) 77 Woy]

SITBY OOR J2A0 PapjatA WUINpOS sty) “UOTE IOY Oo} pasaiqns Day yy “WI E-Z Jo Yidap B

0} [fea YSUST) sy) Woy souanbes Snydeunens WM paso

sem UUMjoOD arenbs

WS ¢F F UOTBABDYS JO UOSEIS [RUT] 9q) JO PUS 3U) TW "Pldss! Irey & pyetA oO} [en

Jy] Jo Pua aq) UN azIpeIs “Uajod ay) pry JeINO-D asyey ye susOdap yey) VONEAEIA 10U PIP 244 “FIEIUIOUOD XUJEW 3y) Ul sajdures MEY PUNO) AlpewoIsEDo0 sJoyoid “KLE Fuse UsasIS Tursssooid ayy “(UM Op) WUT ay) 0} Soul OQ] YIM U9819s JaVeM YFNOIY) siwsUIpes [fe Funpsem uses popes AFojopoyyew mo

IpNye-qay FH FINO

‘s1isodap AB[> “Jam “PO SUTEIUOS JE) AES STO}

HEI TUEIUOPY “SUTEIUNOPY JOAIg ‘aAB> TeBN0> seq Je Foro aH Pains390

JO APA y IMaIUOD FRFOpOseYyIIE UE Woy Je

Jy) YM auIUadx ysIly INE

punosdy eq soded s1y) yo sn90) aq)

isn yre Ivey a10Jaq passauaqppe Wed sorpnys ue Ady] “souIUTWOId PpPQhs aar

adays ysi1y asoyy, ‘poumnbas ore sommpasosd worenyruap! Suretyewrsis pur ‘sounp id Surssaoudaap JuUIpas pur ‘samnpsoooja oid uonesedoid ajdures jo juauid

IONBABDXS pozipeiseds ‘aOULIYUN “SINII0 sey YOM UI TxsyUOI TEUOTISOdIP

0 Suipueyssopun we sauinbas sey jo swunowe yuRIyIUis jo AraA0s0y “suOTEA EAS JO] PIZI[EXIUN PoUleUulas sey feuapod siy) ‘sed ay) Jo FuIpuRyepuN nO 0} aSpajmouy MIU JINQLIUOS O) feUD}Od jeo73 aay soipnys Jey YFnoYyyY

‘Bulag weUINY [ENPLAIpU] Ue JO Ie Iq) SaplAoud sey WEWNY WO ATDaNp 24 UMa Ag paTepIe NPY ‘passedAqaq WED UOTE DOSSe jnOge sju‘SyyY © (Sui Q] “8-9) s1ey UEUNY apSuIs B UIOAy a[dures [jeUIsB asnEDog “ssoURIsNII y 0) peNUAOd 3) OVI J2qUa TE Jy)oae buoursodap sadoid sapuN pilosa [ENFop

suas yzopy puD “zeumy, ‘Gg OW ‘ANOS “|, VAIDPY ‘wesyOUUOG UOSGOY ZZ

CB5

CL

MEADOW

Fig. 13.2Contour map of Mammoth Meadow locus illustrating locations of excavation units.

24 8E 559

SOUTH EVERSON CREEK SITE

MAMMOTH

Trench

Avger

O Survty Dotum 2091. 7im

Site Dofum 2092 33m

o 20

\MM

8

8

8

9.

) ‘Sununow Asesoduis] & 10) JJO 13] 0 WoNses-s8019 ay) JaA0 pared 2q

a 1 ABU dyysisAcoy ‘opis 241 0} UOT1IIs-ss 3y] 019 GIND95 0} pasn aq uay) UES

NOW-[D “Spiys ay) WO WONes sey 24) 27e;d 0) posn are dacs) ‘(gg6| seIFNOG sod) pesmtimce 1 UOL}I95-89019 Jy “IIEY 24) JO UOTOd Je]INpsw pu xzL02

ay] as0dx3 01 pom 5] poyjaw! sTYL “sapYS woNNIAS-ssou2 =z poysaus Buyjunopy

“OPYs FY) OF diypsz3a09 Sy)

YOe1E O} pssn sf Se) YspOSg “sney aq) Jaa0 dipssan09 & Sued Aq paywnow aq way)

ABW J/EY SY] “sd2as0y Buys apys ay) UO sry FUR] pooeyd s1 Jey 2U) “OPES 2y) GO JyeY SY) Dipoud o7 psn s} poyysur sryy “sapys ap fosd 27 poyyaw Fuypunopy “Sununow

yuueUUed

5o Aresodwia) Jo) dn ps aq

ABW SPOLIW S6y) JO JIYNY “spoutaM WwIU2yjIp Om) Jo 2u0 Aq p2unOW aq Aew spey 2y) ‘SuLup yy Lil pe th ogi hace pa Tey PENPIAIPUL [TE “SpPTTS 24) GO Iney ZuNUNOUO} JOLLY “SIUTE}UOS SFEsONs SF aise vey ste UIIN|SUBI) pajaqey ul Ai oe at } pasn ave sdasio4g

“ySy] TupkyuBew wyFy-Suu so sua puey oz x w YM pauruexs ase speusTEyy

ee 0 a001d UEapD & O10 S#eq WONTEIOY ay) Woy PRUsTEW ay) BuLZaysues) Aq

euiog sasteuy ‘ULEUO jo saiseds pue odX) sey jo UONTEDYTUap! ay) UO s1 2294 INDO]INO “ssAyeUe JO sodA) Walayip [elaaas 0} papelqns 9q WED Jey YFnoYyTy

syekyeur ayy ‘spsApeUe AIO}EIOgR] 10) psso1s pus ‘dys soueUaAold payeposse yiim eq y20]-drzU poet “Aap 91 899 UOIEIOL & 29UK) “rssL9Tu apqussod jo jeUaveWJ peda “$9019 $f XUIGW FUNUTEWIO! YY

“UES

[NUN 2s0y azTOU & yA padeuds voy)

iia apaee ta BA 3] Ul SIUSWIPSS "030195 Is1em ay] UO padunp way) ae gn) vor

“B)O[) 24) Ul 1UDUIPIs pue Jaye yy “Ap 0} spise jas pure ‘poyaqe| “inys pan ‘ioFids JafINO ay) Wool] Paacwal aie sFeq WONE)OY

‘Kay “QN) VOTE POY ay) Ul EM2

JO SoBJINS 9Y) UO EAs 3q JaBUO] OU WED SeUZyEW MweBI0 UsyMm paddors s1 pue saqei ssa001d vonFoy sy ‘Vayong Yes JO) UT QO] Ajovewnoidde

“Feq wawysiT

st 1 auaym ‘adid yapno ayn ino syeOY FeUayeW seTIC “ss2200Id ay)ut poddesy BONRIOY 34) S2TENIID) GYM "pappe st 1 SB Qn) IY) UI Poyepnss> si Joye yy “2s0Y wnssesd & Yl Qn) UONEIOY Jy) 0} Ja7em Turppe Aq payenjpors $1 VONEIOLY IE JO/puE [eENsopoas "Wasa PEMFOPOIEY JO ae AY) JI JUIULIDISP 0} PIUUTEXS 3q [fla Ady) suatyM “031 J9}EM DY] JO JOD U0 Ul paseid pUe JO poysem are wIas35 Joddoy 34) Wl S40 ‘2qzz0U Anads PQA 3504 & FuIsy) “Qn UONEIOY 2y) OU! Usens Joddoy aq) YSnomy) pounod

$1 Jpst UONeJIdO UONEIOY ML UE SjUSUWIpEs passedsip SU] “PAEMUOjIyBeNs

“S100p 1U9) WO pain Apwanbaxy $1 vey) (Ysa

Wl Z) UIIIDS DIQVy B PIIapas aaa “speLITEUT JUSFajjup [eIBAIS YIM BurUAWLAdKE yy “yInomy) Furssed woy soprped SweFs0 Joyo pue sey jaaad o} Ysnous Ui) 2q ISN Ing ‘YFnOIY) ssed OF JITEM MOTTE [IM TEY) [ELST YsoU-Ouly B WoL] PRIONIISUOD dq IST SIFUTEUOD 9594 |, “2PM qn} IY) JO Pua ay) WO Ajaund—as paTeyd

9q isn (sfeq pews) su9UTe]UOD JUDWIDTED UONE OY ‘sutfsq UONEIOY wojeg

UOSqOY BDz yr puD ‘rou, '@ HOW ‘ADEg \J, ULAIOWY ‘UasyoTUUDG fueuoys

8

,B

fomiy

T. Beatty, Mort D. Turner, and Mark Stoneking Marvinsen, 210 Robson Bonnich

compare known and unknown images on the monitor screen at the same time. Furthermore, this software allows us to label images, and print files to disk, which then can be made into 35mm slides or black and white prints.

Mammoth Meadow hair record At this time, we have a significant amount of mammalian hair from the lower

of the Mammoth Meadow locus. Mammalian hair from levels 9C and JOC levels of the Mammoth Meadow excavation unit (160 x 360cm) is presented here (Fig. 13.3). The hair record to date indicates the presence ofa complex late Pleistocene fauna, The hair reported here was collected from level 9C, which occurs at considerable depth below the surface in the phreatic zone just above the water table, where conditions are cool and moist to wet. These conditions would retard oxidation. Taphonomic questions of whether humans, animals or other agents are

responsible for the hair assemblage have yet to be considered. In total, 18 taxa have been tentatively identified from one or more surviving hair or hair fragments. The number of identified hairs per taxa (NIHPT) are enclosed in square brackets. Lagomorphs are represented by a single rabbit [5] (Syvilfagus sp.) Rodent hairs are from chipmunk [23] (Ewfamias sp.), deer mouse [> 5] (Peromyscus maniculatus), golden-mantled ground squirrel [> 20] (Spermmophilus faterlis), Richardson's grownd squirrel [> 25) (S. nicherdsonii), the northern pocket gopher [15] (Thomonys talpoides). Carnivores are well represented and include black bear [1] (Ursus americanus), wolverine [1] (Guio fuscus), badger [1] (Tax-

idea faxus), ermine (6) (Mustela erminea muricus), long-tailed weasel [2] (M. frenata), and back-footed ferret [34] (MM. nigripes).. Artiodactyls include mule deer [2] (Odocileus hemionus), bison (1) (Bison sp.), and caribou [1] (Rangifer sp.). The only extinct genera are horse [1] (Equus sp.) and mammoth

[1] (Afem-

muthus sp.). The most interesting specimen is a 32m

[1] (Homo

long human

sapiens sapiens) hair. A scanning electron microscope photo (x $50) illustrates that the outer surface of the human hair has undergone degradation and this has resulted in alteration of the scale pattern (Fig. 13.5). The profile and cross-section analysis of the hair (Fig. 13.6) compare favorably

with Mongoloid hair (Steggerda 1941) and do not match favorably with hair collected from crew members. Human DNA has been recovered from the follicle

end of this hair, but it is still undergoing analysis to verify that it is authentic, ancient hair DNA, and not contemporary human DNA that has contaminated the specimen. If it is verified that DNA can be obtained from ancient hairs, then

it becomes possible to determine directly the genetic affinities of archaeologically defined populations. Furthermore, analysis of appropriate DNA segments can aid in the species identification of unknown hairs. Although the lower component of Mammoth Meadow II has yet to be dated

by “C, hair from extinct horse, mammoth, and caribou, which are no longer in the area, suggest the lower cultural component is of late Pleistocene age.

a a

8

X

212 Robson Bonnichsen, Marvin T. Beatty, Mort D. Turner, and Mark Stoneking

Conclusions

can play an important new role in reconstruc. that hair studies We have proposed ting the past. Hair studies have not generally been included as a line of investiga. tion in multidisciplinary research, because the presence of hair is usually not

recognized in archaeological and paleoecological deposits due to its small size. We propose that hair may occur in many different types of archaeological

deposits. Not only does hair occur in open-air sites as outlined in the Mammoth Meadow case study, it is also known to occur in permafrost, dry cave, and wet cave deposits. Additional research is needed to understand fully what types of depositional contexts preserve hair.

We think that hair studies can be readily integrated into multidisciplinary research projects that seek to reconstruct cultural and environmental relationships.

In the past, lack of a methodology for quickly processing large volumes of sediments from archaeological and paleontological sites limited the development of hair studies. We suggest pretreatment of sediments with sodium-based dispersants that break the bonds between clay particles and hair. Flotation and screen washing methods can then be used to extract hair from the supersaturated sediments. Hair studies require reference collections of hair from known species for con-

trol. The extraction of hair from existing mammalian study skins together with preserved specimens of extinct species will allow us to develop a reference collection of mounted hair slides. For documentation purpose, the use of video-digital imagery allows detailed morphological comparisons between control and unknown hair, Hair studies can be rapidly integrated into cultural and environ-

mental reconstructions. A benefit ofa digital-imagery database of stored hair images is that control reference images can serve as electronic keys for identification purposes. Once a hair database is established, others need not duplicate this

aspect of hair research. Investigators with 386 and 486 computers can readily

import reference key images into their own systems.

Our limited case study indicates how hair research is contributing new information about past environments, paleobiology, and age of the Mammoth Meadow

locus. Hair samples show that 18 taxa are present in level 9C, including extinct

mammoth, horse, and caribou, together with human hair. When fully studied, this hair assemblage will allow inferences about local paleoecology. The preservation of human hair in old archaeological deposits is a very signifi-

cant finding. Human hair in old deposits is better than finding an artifact, since

identification of human hair is not ambiguous, and hair can be dated providing

an age for a specific human being. The discovery of old DNA in hair opens the possibility of linking specific archaeological complexes with DNA models.

Acknowledgements We wish to acknothe wledg support ofethe Butte and Dillon Bureau of Land

Management offices for their conti support nued of our First Americans project.

Without the unwavand ering continued support of the projects loyal volunteers,

14. Quaternary geology of the ice-free corridor: glacial controls on the peopling of the New World Lionel E. Jackson Jr. and Alejandra Duk-Rodkin

Introduction

between the Cordilleran and The notion that an ice-free zone may have existed (late Wisconsinan) glaciation Laurentide ice sheets at the height of the last son and Clague 1991) withoriginated in the last century (Chamberlin 1895; Jack The discovery of artifacts with out reference to the peopling of the New World. on at Folsom, New Mexico, in 1927 led to the suggesti extinct Ice Age megafauna via a passage between ice sheets that people may have entered the New World (Johnston 1933; Antevs 1937). stigations and the advent of Regional surficial geology and archaeology inve timing and extent of the Wisconradiocarbon dating subsequently clarified the 1980), but the existence and sinan Glaciation and the Clovis Culture (Haynes lematic (Reeves 1973). Rutter geography of an ice-free corridor remained prob hronological data bearing on the (1980) summarized available geological and geoc of the Canadian Cordillera and late Pleistocene history of the eastern margin the Cordilleran and Laurentide ice adjacent Interior Plains. He concluded that a 14-1), (Fig. eastern margin of the Cordiller the h of c sheets had coalesced along mu years BP), 00070 nan (ca. 50 000although this may have been in the early Wisconsi

at about 68° N. It is about 900 km Linited States border at 49° N to the Arctic Ocean Rocky, Mackenzie, and The ). (Fig. 14.1 south h tort west and 2500 km no to st ea in us barrier along the eastern marg Richardson mountains form a nearly continuo nnet ched only by the Peace, Liard, Peele/Bo

of the Cordillera. They are brea ran interior and an abandoned river Plume ivers which drain pasts of the Cordille on

a \

sting «t

VIGNNN09HSIHg

n

NY3OOOLOYA

YUKON

B

5'

Quaternary geology of the ice-free corridor: glacial controls

217

Columbia (Clague ef al. 1980; Table 14.1; Fig. 14.2). The ice sheet rapidly grew in size after about 20000 BP and reached its maximum extent along its southern margin approximately 15000 BP (Clague 1980, 1981; Clague ef af. 1980) and its

maximum along its northern margin prior to 13600 years BP (Rampton 1971).

The Cordilleran Ice Sheet began to recede before |

BP and had disappeared

by 10000 BP (Clague 1981; Jackson ef a/. 1991).

Late Wisconsinan glacial chronology of the western Interior Plains and Rocky Mountains 49-60°N

The extent of ice at the height of the late Wisconsinan glaciation in the southwestern Interior Plains and the Foothills of the Rocky Mountains has been a source of continuing controversy (¢.g. Stalker 1977; Clayton and Moran 1982: ef al. Jackson 1983; Moran and Clayton 1983; Fullerton and Colton 1986; Young 1994). Studies carried out in the late 1970s and early 1980s have reported radiocarbon ages from lakes and bogs in the Rocky Mountain Foothills that indicated continuous ice-free conditions from the mid-Wisconsinan until the present (White ef a/. 1979; Jackson 1980; Mott and Jackson 1982; Schweger 1989). It was this evidence that caused Rutter (1980) to be uncertain about assigning

a late Wisconsinan age to the last coalescence of Cordilleran and Laurentide ice. However, these radiocarbon ages are probably anomalously old due to contamination by radiogenically ‘dead’ carbon derived from coals, organic-rich shales and carbonate rocks (Clayton and Moran 1982; White efa/. 1985; Mac-

Donald ef a/. 1987). Reliable radiocarbon ages from this region are presently only those determined on wood or bone (Clayton and Moran 1982; Jackson 1983).

(Reliable sub-till radiocarbon ages indicate that the Laurentide Ice Sheet reached 50° N on the southeastern Interior Plains 24000 years BP (Dyck ef al. 1965; Fig. 14.2) and reached the late Wisconsinan maximum position of Fullerton and Colton (1986) in northern Montana sometime between 20000 BP (Clayton and

Moran

1982) and

17000 BP (Christiansen

1979). During this advance, the

Laurentide Ice Sheet advanced into the Rocky Mountain Foothills’ valleys up to with valley 50° N and locally coalesced elevations of 1450m between 49° N and

glaciers from the Rocky Mountains and outlet glaciers from the Cordilleran Ice Sheet (Jackson ef a/. 1989). This created an almost continuous glacial cover over the ‘ice-free corridor’

(The timing of deglaciation in this region is known with assurance only after

12.000 years BP (Jackson and Pawson 1984). The position of the margin of the Laurentide Ice Sheet around 12000 BP has been mapped by Dyke and Prest

(1987) using radiocarbon ages to provide minimum and maximum age control for ice marginal features. Their 12.000 BP ice marginal position is independently

corroborated through archaeological evidence as the eastern and northern limit of known occurrences of fluted points (circa 11500 BP; Haynes 1980) occurs tightly within it (Wilson 1983). The well-defined position of the Laurentide Ice Sheet at around 12000 BP and

its advance to its southwestern limit about 18000 BP indicate that closure of the

fi

TO-393

S

13

6

GSC-1802-2 GSC-1802-4

WAT-199

GSC-205 GSC-1803 BGS-303

DAL-254

GSC-S73 GSC-2859

3

28

26

AECV-352C AEVC-379C GX-2032

GSC-2422 TO-124 GSC-2739 GSC-9$2 AEVC-349C TO-292

Lab, no.

27

2

1

19

18

17

16

Site (Pg. 14.2)

139°s4' 125°15 135°S6 125°17* 125°27 115°17

67°28*

S7°18' 63°36

25 000 + 270

25 320 +t 400 25 200 +t 260

- 1000 26350 t 280 25 940 t 380 25 800 t 320 24 800 t 1070 24490 t 200 25 800 t 310 25620 t 300

26 800 + 1200

28280 t 1230 26 800 t 1450

29 600t 300

31 400 t 660 32 400 t 770 29 880 t 1680

S2°07*

$2°07 S2°07 S2°07 S2°07*

S2°07

S0°06

110°38 118°24 118°24. 118°24 118°24' 118°24

Pt

W

W W

W

W Pt W

TC

B

132°9.5 124°21 122°07 118°24

W

W

61°44.5 S6°01

W FP

P

Plains"

Material b

P Sh

S6°18

S7°11 S7°18 49°21

137 °03 139 °34. 1

13S°30

65°34.5 67°14.7 67°50

36 900 t 300

34 220 + 120

Lat "N

(years BP)

Long W

Location

Age

Interior

Mathews 1978 Lowdon and Blake 1979 Dyck and Fyles 1965 Fulton and Smith 1978 Lowdon and Blake 1979 Lowdon and Blake 1979 Lowdon and Blake 1979 Lowdon and Blake 1979

Rutter I977

Jackson et al. 1991I

Clague 1973

Matthews et al. 1990 Bobrowsky 1989 Bobrowsky 1989

Hughes et al. 1981 Schweger and Matthews 1992 Lowdon and Blake 1979 Lowdon and Blake 1979 Bobrowsky 1989

Reference

Table 14.1 Signi cant radiocarbon dates limiting ice-free conditions and timing of glaciations prior to 9600 years before

present (BP) in the northern, central, and eastern Cordillera and adjacent

I-10021 GSC-1784-2 GSC-1995 I-3734 GSC-1573 GSC-2379 GSC-1049 GSC-2038 GSC-3402 GSC-913

TO-709 -10021

GSC-1258 GSC-477 GSC-173 GSC-194 GX-2033

AECV-3S1C I-773

GSC-2811

19 100 t 240

9910 + 90

24 980 t 950 24 900 t 350 24 800 t 280 23900 t l140 23 280 t 750 22 900 t 1500 21 700 t 240 21 630 t 870 21 500 t 300 20230 t 270 19 100 t 850 18 750 t 120 17240 t 330 17440 t 330 12900 t 150 13000 t 130 11 $30 t 170 11 200 t 200 9600 t 80 11 400 t 190 11 300 t 110 111°25" 118°S1

58°15 S0°17.9

McNeely Lowdon Lowdon Jackson Lowdon

1989 et al. 1971 et al. 1977 and Pawson 1984 and Blake 1970

Lowdon and Blake 1979 Dyck et al. 1965 Lowdon et al. 1971 Lowdon et al. 1967 Dyck et al. 1965 Dyck et al. 1965 Clague 1973 Bobrowsky 1989 Clague et al. 1980 Clague et al. 1980 Blake 1986 Blake 1986 McKay and Matthews 1973 Lowdon and Blake 1979

Klassen 1987

Lowdon and Bake 1979 Lowdon and Blake 1979 Lowdon and Blake 1979

bW: wood; P: peat; Pt: plant material; TC: tusk collagen; B: bone; S: seeds; Sh: shell; G: grass; Ga: gyttja; L: organic lake sediments; FP: faccal pellet.

Pt

W

Ga

Ga

P

126°20 112°29 112°01

65°00 65°49 65°34 54°44' S5°S7*

W

W

P W

W

W W

W

W

W

W W

W

W

W W

132°00 132°00

118°23 119°24 115°18 125°34' 117°30* 117°30

119°11'

I18°24" 118°24' 118°27

128°00

118°24 118°24'

I18°24

129°0S 129°00

69°25"

69°29

49°23 S7°22 49°02* 49°02*

S0°S6

52°12'

S2°12* S0°38

S2°07 S2°07 60°14* S2°07 52°07

S2°07°

• Listed agesare thought to be free of contamination by young or radiogenically 'dead'C.

32

31

30

25 29

21 23 24

20

15

14

1

10

11

12

9

8

7

QU-153 GSC-1802-5 GSC-1802-3

fl

fi

37-25 ka

4,10

13

60

49

CIS 1.

13

25-20 ka

14,

1L1232

58.9

CIS

CIS Cis

LIS

12-11 ka

29.

30 -

31.

1992). The numbers refer to locations of signi cant radiocarbon ages listed in Table 14.1. LIS: Laurentide lce Sheet; CIS: Cordilran

Fig. 14.2 Generalized representation of regions that were ice free (stipple pattern) prior to and immediately lowing the cimax of the late Wisconsinan glaciation, based on compilations of radiocarbon ages by Clague (1980, 1981I), Jackson and Pawson (1984), and Bobrowsky and Rutter (1992), and lce Sheet reconstructions by Dyke and Prest (1987), Hughes (1987), and Duk-Rodkin and Hughes(1991,

3

ARCTIC OCEAN

Mountains via the Bonnet Plumedepression; A: an alternate route south to the 'ice-free corridor' via the Arctic Coastal Plain north of Richardson Mountains; T: an alternate intitial dry land connection following Tintina Trench and the Liard River.

TUSIceDJpossblL IHII dy-1a1dconnection betweenBeringiaandtheInterior Plainsthrough an "ice-free corridor' east of Mackenzie

ou Yat JOy) ‘panojdxe Appides auom Aaqy yng “}sulJ SUED SUOTIOUUOS BFa st ty “(z"pl “BLg) YINos oy O} SUTE[G sOLAIO] ay ud apgessod you -iap 01 Ajuasa

pur ADEA STUDYTEY JAMO /SEOD IMITY “JOLIN UOYN A IU) WIIMIaq pu] sayy ay) JO YINOS 99] 9qs oy yo spuemesddeas oy) yo Furmn) Apoyy ay) QM [Jam $1 S19

df sreat OOO 11 PUB COOT! U22mI9q SIMYND SIAO[D 24) JO souRIadde sy) Uy

"dd OOOE! 22k [NUN Gg OOO, Punore wo 34 Aq poyeredas aa pure wFuueg ‘Apusnbssuo> ‘qq OOO EI] MEI] 1 TUON) PAeNEtun

[HUN Saye] PIwWUEp 291 pue 2t Fureuses jo wepdwod & FEM BIpPIOD We

“quod aL “dd OOO TT moge Lye [UN JA OOO OE PuNnore Woy JOPLUIOS J97] 31 ‘sread QOS TEY) ssa] payse] surEIUNOPY AYO" “Oot, LEY UOU oy) peysorq

WOU) 291 [ROE]S PUE WAYS 23] SprUAMe'] ay) UssMJoq JoUISaTBOO YsNOYNW “Ef fepeys [NJ SNOUT SOW GIAa JIPUN TOReITTW PIEMYMOS 10] BINO1 BqQEtA B Streq Boras aanonpomdun AjjexSoyorg ‘pas8ru Apuasaad sry) sulseu 1 NI FP UH dd 000 Fz SAE [UN suatsePF Kaypea Aq pessord 1OU slam SUTETUNO;Y

TEEPE 24) YEnodiY “dg 000 £1 punoze HUN os pauyewa! pur o8e sxeoK

OQOOOE Moge st Apes se }2qS 29] sprue] ag) YEIUDG pang sem SUIEI

PUE UOSPIEISNY ay) Suoye JOpus0s souj-so1, waywOU WL “TZ “SRO AZHPEW

hace

ni

“ROqS 2] apruase-] ayn Aq P2940?

1589 JOPLUOD I94J-201, [EIST] ay) JO Yor waym PUN}

SWISS ADEA JOfew BuoTe yINos oF YOU Woy BIPITIPIOD

Pesskel] aby pmnoo ydoog “sum jeq) jun aiqeniqey sem Apusredde

saAry py PPEPURID

wes

7h)

mPa. men eS OD nose (osnld 2171 ge

7 eed amy WWotms,., 1661 Suan pue IAPOAMA) «0 1 oy,

SuIStsAS foureyo suaats pawn”? -,o1pt PUR soyE) THO on, auf) Parsiew 301 ym payeiosse sade u "HY om Ona

b

n:irisiditiuI!

i

9,

,5

Pero“suas joAinouayy amya URW JOiy UMasHy eUOTTEN “EpEUED E12Q[V eT Comuaion®) “TAqTY UPWIKMYYOU JO ,LOpUIOD sayj-201, I Mojouonp sa2c0nt

‘OR-ELI ‘WE * JO yuauruosiAu? Pi

3727 “(686 1) "H “A “SmayTEyy pure “yy “a ee

ay

“P-OL8I ‘91 ‘s2uang yz fo younor umpouny “epeueD JO UIA Ary eq 2) Wl JOpLUIOD 3945-991, aq) 0} uorrepes Mol} STEP OQIEDOIPEY “(6L6I) "HM “SmauTEyy pue “yy sioun ue 291 AP ‘somayreW “WS

£2% Sjoru0d foro0f8 -20prs309 aeuf-2o1 ayy Jo AZojoas AroUure}OND)

15. Ethnographic analogy and migration

to the western hemisphere

Robert L. Kelly

Introduction by Asians who crossed Beringia into The western hemisphere was first occupied Alaska. Linguistic, dental, and genetic data suggest three to four migrations (Turner 1992), possibly more. People were in North America by at least 11 500 years ago (Goebel er a/. 1991); perhaps earlier if dates from Bluefish Cave,

Meadowcroft, Monte Verde, and other South American sites prove accurate.!

a heavy reliance The lives of these first inhabitants have been reconstructed with

on ethnographic analogies to Arctic or Subarctic large game hunting cultures. Given the bias towards hunting in these models, a ‘generalized foraging model’,

y foragers, and which emphasizes small game and South African ongel based lar

plant utilization, has been used more recently. Let me say immediately that ethnographic analogies are useful, and Paleoindians were undoubtedly similar to

ethnographically known foragers in some ways. But models of past lifeways are linked to explanations of that past. A model of Paleoindian society must account ns foragers, but also for and modern not only for similarities between Paleoindia

differences. Archacological data suggest that the early occupants of the western

hemisphere differed from modern foragers in ways that limit the usefulness of

the broad brush of ethnographic analogy. Reconstructions of the Paleoindian lifeway must proceed hand-in-hand with a theoretical framework focusing on how unpopulated continents would be occupied by Homo sapiens sapiens.

the New World of zation Coloni Recognizing that Paleoindian society was fundamentally different from societies of modern foragers rests on acknowledging the speed with which Paleoindian colonization took place. Regardless of the date of arrival, data suggest that movement through the Americas was rapid, compared to movement across Beringia.

At the height of the last glacial maximum in northeastern Asia, Upper Paleolithic people had apparently penetrated eastern Siberia only as far east as the ' Arguments that postulate humans were in the western hemisphere 20000 or more years ago are are based on linguin methods thal may not have much credibility for dating linguistic breaks date to 1992) Torroni and (Wallace miDNA use to efforts Likewise, older than 4000 of 6000 years.

the appearance of humans is thwarted by a lack of agreement over the mutation rate. [n the end the question of when humans arrived in the New World musi rest upon archaeological data.

f

Cs

8

.

change. Paleoindians entered a continent where game was more abundant and more homogeneously distributed than today, but rapidly diminished in abun-

dance and became more localized as the climate changed from non-seasonal to

seasonal. Consequently, hunting would have been unsuccessful periodically. In

suc a case, h the colo would ni either ze havers turned to new resour orces moved to. anew location. It is diffic to ult predict which option they would have selected.

However, since experimenting with new resources is costly in the short term,

Paleoindians may have chosen to move, following famgame resourc ili es, rather ar than stay in place and shift to new foods (Kelly and Todd 1988), Modern foragers

frequently move in pref to er using second enary ce or less familiar resources. We

did not argue that Paleoindians hunted their food resources to depletion throug h

greed or that , population growth was the primary reason for movement, as some

have interpre ourted work (Anderson 1990; Shott 1990; Dillehay ef al, 19972). We thought that Paleoindians faced a unique difficul in moving ty into a new hunting area in response to local resource failure, When modern foragers move,

they move to be with relative or friends s who know their home region well, But

the first occupants of North America had few or no neighbors—they moved into unknown terrain. Under these circumstances Paleoindians would have continu ed

to rely upon game as (heir primar food source, y because knowledge of game is

more easily transferred from one region to another, than knowledg of plants. e This strategy would have been possible in the late Pleistocene given that game

|

was more homogeneously distributed than during the Holocene. This strateg y, however, also put Paleoindians in a bind: to survive in a new place using familiar

skills, they had to rely on animals that were rapidly disappearing. This required

strategies. Paleoindians had no recourse to ‘resource geography’ to fall back upon, that is, knowing where to find food im a particular region, during a par-

ticular season, under particular conditions. Resource areas used initially could

have been used repetitively because they were locations that, although they may

not have been the best places to use, could nonetheless be counted on to meet minimal needs. This is not a place-oriented system as we described it (contra

free-wanderers (comfra Smith 1990; Storck and Tomenchuk 1990),

Early Paleoindians were ‘high technology foragers’, relying more on technique

and a knowledge of animal behavior than on a knowledge of particular land-

scapes. We predicted that high quality raw material sources—critical to the

technology—would be used repeatedly. However, a lack of geographic know-

ledge, perhaps a lack of emphasis on obtaining such knowledge, means that

unique or hard-to-find features of the landscape, such as rockshekers, would

have gone unused.

8

i

a

fl

fl

fl

fl

fi

Gramly 1988b MacDonald 1968 Mehringer 1988

Frison 1991b

Ontario

Ontario

Ontario

Maine

Maine

Nova Scotia

Washington

sw Wyoming?

Thedford II

Udora

Crow eld

Vail

Adkins

Debert

Richey-Roberts

Fenn

Gramly 1982

Deller and Ellis 1984

Storck and Tomenchuk 1990

Deller and Ellis 1984

Gramly 1988a

New York

Lamb

Reference

Location

Site

Table 15.2 Description of Clovis cache and storage locations uted points and 9 knives; plowed

endscraper;

2

end/side

scrapers

ocher on artifacts; exact location unknown

S6 tools, including 1 blade tool, crescent, 7 uted points (including 1 obsidian, 3 quartz crystal); red

At least 20 Clovis points, 13 bifaces, scrapers, bevelled bone tool; red ocher on artifacts

Pit 9B: two points, biface, and 'numerous end scrapers'; too small for burial

Boulder structure: meat cache? associated with habitation structure?

Feature 2, shallow pit, single sidescraper

Pit containing 177 burned artifacts, including 29 uted bifaces; 26 unburned pieces; calcine bone present, none human; cremation? or trash pit?

akes; 3 unifaces; 1

24 unretouched, 27 retouched, and 21 worked

Fluted points: may have accompanied burial (2)

10

Description

fl

fl

fl

fi

fl

fl

as

At Clovis locality in Gray Sand; 17 blade or bladelike akes found by heavy machinery Three polyhedral blade cores

Fourteen prismatic blades

Green 1963

Goode and Mallouf 1991

Young and Collins 1989

Texas

Texas

Evant

Keven Davis

13 uted points, hammerstone, bits of ivory; found in plowed eld; 11 points of Alibates

New Mexico

Green

interpreted

Discovered by heavy equipment; red ocher on tools; over 100 stone and-bone artifacts including 5 bone foreshafts, 7 uted points; human bone fragments of 2 subadults; probable burial

frozen meat storage

Two mammoth bone piles, 1 opened;

17 uted points and point fragments, no debitage; discovered by heavy equipment

Iowa

Rummells-Maske

Stanford and Jodry 1988

Lahren and Bonnichsen 1974

Frison and Todd 1986

tools

Discovered by heavy equipment; 29 tools including uted points, 4 quartz crystal bifaces; red ocher on

Anderson and Tiffany 1972

Colorado

Montana

Wyoming

Idaho

Drake

Anzick

Colby

Simon

Butler 1963

236

Kelly L rt Robe

d.re at the Adkins site rock structu The ar a single scraper which might be a disc an ice-rafted cluster of boulders. The Crowfield could be many things, including could be a an) cache contains burnt bone (none definitely identified as humand

cremation or trash pit. The Anzick and Richey-Roberts sites, occasionally cri are Clearly burials. Thus, there are few definite carly Paleo. caches,bed desas

indian caches. Indeed, it is possible to find more in some Archaic sites than for ti e America. Rela periods, then, tool timeve fo later North all of late Pleistocen sbe on is to mmthe carly Paleoindian period. Thi during caching was unco expected in a system of high range mobility.

Meat storage generally results in intensive processing of fauna, including marrow extraction and bone grease rendering (Kelly and Todd 1988). These leave

ve remains in kill sites, and result in the complete procti on skeletal traces distin

cessing of nearly all carcasses. Such evidence is fairly common in Late Prehistoric kill sites, but uncommon for early Paleoindian kill sites, where many carcasses

went untouched. Exceptions include Stewart's Cattle Guard site, a Folsom locality in Colorado, where some bones from eight bison were broken for marrow extrac-

tion. However, there is no evidence of bone grease processing at any Clovis or Folsom sites. This suggests a lack of emphasis on stored food (Jodry and Stanford t, no Folsom 1992). In fac

esone Clovis locality, the Colby mammoth and only sit

n 1986), contain direct evidence for food storage. Again, and Todd site (Friso relative fo jater time periods, meal storage was apparently unimportant to early Paleoindians. Todd and | argued that Paleoindians used a kill as a foraging resi-

dential base, but moved when a kill elsewhere insured a longer supply of food. ans tropical foragers than Arctic more like werendi In this regard, early Paleoi hunters.

Fluted points and stone tool assemblages While there are some functional and stylistic differences in fluted points in early Paleoindian stone tool assemblages and stylistic differences in fluted points relative to later time periods, these assemblages, obtained from widely separated areas of North America, are more similar to each other than are later Archaic assemblages from the same regions. Todd and | suggested that as Paleoindians moved rapidly across the continent, depending primarily on large game (but not

necestarily megafauna), they inhabited essentially the same niche and thus used the same basic tool kit of bifaces, Muted points, steep-edged end scrapers, spurred scrapers, and engraving tools.

The emphasis on a bifacial technology and the wie of high quality stone also makes sense in a highly mobile society. Acting a5 a core and a tool, bifaces are like Swiss Army knives: they maximize the number of tools carried while minimizing weight—the ideal tool for a mobile people. Lothrop (1989) disagreed with this atsumption because a majority of flakes and tools at the Potis site in New York derived from block, not biface reduction.

However, Muted points at the

Pots site were clearly not ‘finished" at the quarry, but continued to be reduced. Flakes removed from these points were used as tools. At many other localities, biface: were used as cores (see Boldurian 1990; Ingbar 1997; Hofman 1992).

ff i

i

Ethnographic analogy and migration to the western hemisphere 237

|

it is in Paleoindian sites (and the few caches) that we find large, pyrthermore, even enormous bifaces, 25 or more centimeters in length (Frison 19915).

|

Nonetheless, it is admittedly overly simplistic to say thal Paleoindians used a pifacial technology. There is geographic variability in the extent to which it was

ysed and the extent to which other stone tool manufacturing methods were

used.’ However, Ingbar (1992) and Hofman (1992) have shown that Folsom wechnology is remarkably complex, with points designed for reduction in stages.

of a be related to the positioning Such careful technological organization may group relative to raw material localities and the number of tool-depleting events (e.g. bison kills) between quarry visits. The many formal scrapers and engraving

a comof bone, antler, and wood tools, indicating tools point to the importance

hike arctic hunters than plex technology. In this regard, Paleoindians were more tropical foragers.

Fluted points themselves also argue for strong cultural continuity across North and into Central and South America. While these points take on difAmerica ferent characteristics in South America, becoming stemmed or fishtailed, many still retain the distinctive flute. Removing the channel flakes to create flutes is not an easy skill, and it argues for strong cultural and perhaps physical continuity across North America. The question is: did Clovis technology enter with the first explorers, or did it diffuse later across a populated landscape? Tankersley (1991) contends that the

areas argues distribution of Clovis points in the eastern US relative to their source silicified Hixton and flint River Knife of points that against diffusion. The fact sandstone were transported eastward some 800 to 2000 km while eastern material

remained only in the east suggests to him that the points were brought in by a colonizing population. Given the similarity of Paleoindian tool kits across North

tool complex America, if it was the idea of fluting that diffused, then an entire diffused along with it—an event that Storck (1991) finds unlikely. Fluted points and the accompanying tool kit probably came in with a wave of arctic colonists. in functional terms, since Muting enhances Many have tried to explain fluting

tool durability and reliability by helping to hold it tightly in its haft. However,

in less than 1000 years, perhaps the technique disappeared rapidly in prehistory,

because fluting was difficult to master and resulted in point breakage. Yet in human terms, the technique lasted for many generations. Why? we could to the Americas, then First, if small groups of people first migrated expect that only a small amount of cultural variability came with them. Like

thal founder effect in genctics, one ‘model" of stone tool manufacture—one

the originator was an included fluting—could have caught hold, perhaps because

in cases especially good hunter. Models of cultural transmission suggest that costly, is where an individual confronts circumstances where experimentation Loshrop (1989), for example, notes that bipolar reduction is more common on sites in the Canadian

maritimes region and New England than for sites in western New York and the Greai Lakes region.

ve, blade production may have been a significant part of siome tool technology in the southern

ollins 100). These probably indicate some differences in the organization of techaology related to the nature of group mobility relative to the distribution of raw material sources.

i

card aan

tN sstsey fo Roo2my21y “oursuo usnsonyinos

lel

u voyeuats ep” “SaPed AaeaoUd ® GO wodas Aneurumasd v :praqjno1 -(yg61) “fD ‘sina pur “g -q ‘s3IRG

“Td “Worey mog 'ssa1g ay “29-161 ‘(BORN “f°q pur keyamg ‘G'L “P®) ‘yowwases puw yosas ‘Sunuawy isaf ay “ddU1

‘seousuTy UE

OS

BOOMER AT Rp SEHEHEAOY

661)

SPD

Mehringer, P. J. Jr. (198%). Weapons of ancient Americans. National Geographic, 14,

Meltzer

, D, J. (1988). Late Pleistocene human adaptations in eastern North America af World Prehisto 2,ry, 1-52.

Nelson, R. K. (1986). Hunters of the northern forest, 2nd edn. University of Chicago Press

Schurr, , T.G.,

Ballinger, $.W.,

Gan,

Y.-Y., Hodge,

J.A.,

Merriwether,

D, A.,

Lawrence, D. N. ef ai. (1990), Amerindian mitochondrial DNAs have rare Asian muts.

Hons at high frequencies, suggesting they derived from four primary maternal lineages, American Journal of Human Genetics, 4, 613-23,

Shott, M. J. (1990). Stone tools and economics: Great Lakes Paleoindian examples. Ip

Early Paleoindian economies of eastern North America. Research in Economic Anthro. pology, Suppl. 5, (ed. K.B. Tankersley and B.L.

Isaac), pp. 3-44,

JAI Press,

Turner, C. G. (1992). New World origins: new research from the Americas and the Soviet Union.

In for Age hunters of the Rockies, (ed. D.J. Stanford and J. 5. Day), pp. 7-50. University of Colorado Press, Boulder. Wallace, D. c. T » A. (1992),

mitoDNA: cha on review.dr Humania Biolol gy, 64, 403-16.

Vi, 5. and Clark, G. (1985). The Anthropology, 24,

‘

1-20.

Young, 8. and CollinM. s,B. (1 A eastern Texas. Current Research in

16. Environmental context for early human occupation in western North America Judith A. Willig

_

Intreduction In North America, the Clovis fluted point tradition represents the earliest widespread culture accepted without controversy. Originally formulated as the Llano-Clovis big-game hunting tradition (Sellards 1952), the complex was archaeologically indexed by the association of Clovis-type fluted points with extinct Pleistocene megafauna in buried, Stratigraphic contexts from kill sites in the

Great Plains and southwest dating 11840-10620 BP (Haynes eral 1984). The

Clovis complex was later expanded into a pan-continental pattern based on broad

similarities in fluted point forms, tool kits, and site types, and a site distribution ranging from Alaska to South Americ anda, from the west-to-east coasts of North Amer The presen ic cea. of small, widely scattered, low density sites and isolated finds, with few large base camps suggested a low population density, The

inferred adaptational pattern was one of small groups of highly mobile, wideranging foragers and big-game hunters focusing on now-extinct Pleistocene fauna for food, shelter, and clothing (Haynes 1964, 1980). Pre-Clovis assemblages in the west have been asserted but either dates or human workmanship are questioned (Dincauze 1984). Sites like Fort Rock Cave in Oregon (Bedwell 1970), Smith Creek Cave in Nevada (Bryan 1979, 1989), and Wilson Butte Cave in Idaho (Gruhn 1965) have prod dates uc on ed cultural assemblages as early as 12000-15000 BP that have engendered much debate. Interest in the possibility of an earlier presence has increased in recent years. Earlier dates supported by reliable evidence may be forthcoming. Research in recent years has shown that many questions still remain regarding

Clovis origins, dating, environmental context, and economy. Besides ‘fluting’,

pan-continental assemblages share broadly similar tool kits and site types, with striking variations in regional point morphology, environmental settings, inferred

economic patterns, and dating in a cultural horizon once noted for its homogene-

ity (Fig. 16.1). It may be that so much new

data have outgrown the scop of e the

“Llano-Clovis’ pattern as originally defined, or it may be that the time has come to formulate

a series of new, more regional definitions for Clovis in North

America (Willig 1989¢, 1991).

Oregon, Clovis fluted points from the Dietz site (35KL1329), Sample 35: (cy size and morphology. Nos: (a) 553-417; (b) 553-4 i hepiore o Nacaton 58; (i) $53-262; (j)

§53-14; (d) 553-260; (e) 593-241; (f) 553-232; (g) 553-319; (h) §53=2

S$3-19; (k) 553-199. (Drawings by Wyndeth V. Moisan.)

Western Clovis occupation

In far western North America, fluted point assemblages similar to Clovis~Llano are well documented from many sites in a wide range of environmental settings

throughout Washington, Oregon, Idaho, California, Nevada, and Utah (Fig. 16.2). The current range of distribution includes the Columbia Plateau and the Basin and Range geographic provinces of the Intermontane West (Dohrenwend 1987; Dohrenwend ef af. 1991), as well as the Pacific Coastal Province (Willig 19892). Geographically, several major southwestern Clovis sites, like Lehner and

Murray Springs in Arizona (Haynes efal. 1984), are actually included in this

distribution because portions of southern Arizona and New Mexico fall within

the Basin and Range Province.

_ The pan-western Clovis expression compares closely with Llano-Clovis in tool

kits and typology, and includes a wide variety of point morphology and ‘fluting’ themes. There are many small scattered sites and isolated finds, and onlya few large campsites. However, in the west, there is a distinct lack of acceptable evi-

dence for kill sites. Associations with megafa unabut not confirmed. are reported

Furthermore, six sites producing major point concentrations occur in western

lake basins along the margins of former shallow lake-marsh habitats and their

ueeo

...

.,..** .

eBueu

Cpue

useg

...

oujaosd

|ejseoɔ

SUSY pue Sy

1661 “o6g61 BMA) SIUMUUONAND UIIISIM Jey

0} poicepe Aanbiun worrpes) peinyno a8e-staoj & ayeusisa -)p 0} Paidope uoeq sey sor usa MOM WIN BL *StA0[)-OuRry Aq paydun

vorpen Sununy owed -81q pazyeoeds MOW 9y) JO }UBL IBA feuo neid epe ‘e um e wosandos Aew uonedas0 stop) W989

JEY) sayeaIpul Yoreasal Wasoy ‘Wes [ews pur 28.2]

yI0g pur *syueyd ‘Poy *ysiy 241] soounosag otsaw [890] ©} paXdy Awou ors asiontp & isafEns soxayd “WOS JuIOd pany sofew asay) jo wayyed WUSUN IINIS PU }x2IU0D [eEIMUOULALD

“Sayed 24) UO BIep aIqQUITCAL SYL “(1661 SHTIM {6961 SUAYTY puw By) woOUY qUON waiIsom ul suoNendod UEMLNY A[se9 20) uOHedepe YysUI-3yR) omyry “O9[Bd 40 apeyoay-osd w aiujmsod 0} ssoyowasejos JSQWBIN pa] U SHY “saps [ITY JO PR] Oy) TW Suoye ‘yxo}WOo jeuswuoAUD pure WOHNQIIS !P Ins anbeuN sy) ‘(6861 Suayry puw Sup 2696 MNILAA) ed 0052-00501 twos) prodss jwoySojoaRyo ue 24) Ut POIUBWNIOP |] SOU 238 suonepdupe yssuw-oyu pub AULOWOSS Is39A1p 20y m ‘uOHpeL pounEDIS “894A BY1 0} aQuUBIssv 1001 YIM 3nI90-09 UIYJO Says YsIHUU-9yR} SA0L

MANIA JOfeu os9y) yey? rN) JUND]|IUBIS w Ospe 5} 1] “swDISAS UIBOLNS wase/pe> SM 'V WAY

pee

———————s

LONE AID svaydsouje pue ssposida jeleys “spona] oye] UI saTuUEYD JO peuortas yuaredde we 3q 0} 7YFNOY) 3200 SEM Jey aydsaq] “SLO IY INO 9]q B18] JO ABpsjmouy TEUNY PUE dye] 2U200/0}] Ajres-sus20181

—

pauljar pue pepundxe Apyea8 aaey yey) SUONINI}sUOIO! WyHeds-usseq “palreiep OW UO PesNsO) SEY SEI JUIIOI WI SUISEG 34E] WIISIM Ul PsPnpuos YJeIs9y

a

“wOIssI 3q) JO

=

ee

1 ISA}IBS 2) O} [SaATEY MUIOUNT YOU B pasajjO FAB P(NOm Jey) syUsUT JO woryeas2 ay) jeusis Apusredde ere ere nee OW Aq ,WOIEDISep, se 0] pallajal suOTIpUCS perAnyd

asa) ING “AE OOOL 01 00901 Woy Are UI puds) [eIOUaB Aq pamojto}

soe YON 07 322) OOE 0) dn jo stpdap wou) payoumunyd suseq sa Sek aa J2MO]

u era Tennyd 3se] OM) SE AA OOIOT © COOL! IMoge wor sFuuds

pure “sioAlr ‘saxe] JO WOHEOONSIp oq) YM SuIBIq UD00ISI9]q [EUFULID) BY) 10) ‘PRONG ML] “(71661“P1661 UOSWUIOW

+166] '/2 J# puamusTyoOd

“06961 Sq, “9961 SBUUIPPY “ERET PEA PUE IATIIW] “ERG1 SUPATY “786 feuneyetem jo UONSUNXe ay) pur soqE] feLAn|d Joyem-daap dais

Je

S000 JO UONESSIp 34) FWApOAT! pue ATEPUTIOG 9390/0} {-SUS50)5t2/q IU] mum 0 aFory) anew Jofew jo pousd & sueds UOIEdNI00 S140] UI915944,

SO}fS SPAOT) W19}89\\ JO yx9}UOD [e;TOUTUONATY “siEak

i peseeusa! Apesd sey SuIseg 24e] Wise UT UOTTeEdn3sO UEWINY pur

UD ‘IEW

SUSIO}OP] ATED PUE UdI0ISI9]q JV] JO POI91 3y} JO Tp

-MOUY INQ) “S9S SAOT) WSs

JOlEUIJO 1X9]UOD [EIUSWIUONAUS SI ods-UIseq

ysnosmy) safayerys aandepe suo ssid jnoqe pauses] aq WED

YOnul “eyep SwOMESS WaNp JO souasqe 9y) U] “WISeq S4e] YRS UY

pastoed

solfap pur afuel 3q) pur ssOINOSI PUR]IOM UO JUSpUsdap fesn)[Nd

ynoge urewas suonsanb Auew “FumPujui 1 uonedepe qsew

aye] Aprea jo idsou0 aq) apy “(7°91 “314) BORO Jo uIseq SyR] YEATY 24) puw sqqny aye"] Sy) -eMWOJ TED JO SEE 29] PHY-29E] YEdouo] SEPEADH]

JO SUSIE SAR] Fea -24e'] KEIO PUR “DAE ] BEN] “ye ] BUY aq) -apnpul 25 “(1661 “P6861 BNA) ausD0NT[g feUTUa) ay) SuLNp sEeyPp SaysseU ‘saye] MOTTEYS Aq paydnsz0 s2u0 sulseq aye] PBIANjd UI Saul

Jamo] 34) BuoTe payenyis are siese pus syujod pany s{Ao[D WM UsOUOS yele] oy) Peonpod SABY EY) ISIM FY) Ul SaINTeIO] XS

(986) O[seAOPY “PL6I

Layo a8re] Om) pue syusuFesy Anoyseq YM UOTeposse wy ‘eUnd

paddeim y2eq sodrunf pouras wo gq OST 11 PUB 006 01 Jo SEP ‘EPBAIN ‘AAR DUOqUSTY UI Jara] UOREdNI00 Isamo] ay) ‘AlpeUTy "(986 Hyihg) da OS 11 JO Hep Yweay B Bunpoid ysodap B WI) PaJaACIe! 319M HEU WD Ym GUN) Jae payey, B pur ‘Buywrusa ose ‘uapwus “poured pup IT PY OYEp] ‘aABd zender ry ‘(0161 [Pprg) Aparoadsas ‘aq OOT

JO sarep paonpoud gy ane A2quuo-) pue 7 “ON 2A87) UTBJUNOP JeBNOD

WOd) ROSIEYD eININd “wORIG Uy ‘jWIOd aF¥q DARIUS p2nyuN Ue PUF AU voumny Ajroe Jo jxejUCD fO}UGUTUOI

pay.

i Yedouos, Ny “EpBAayy fesTU29 Jo Fease 248] pnyy-24r] yedouos

B WOLy pouaAcoes Uaeq aaRy HUyOd paInyy gs JO fRIOl y aq) Ul Souls JO sae “Uae aye] ay) Huoye saounose1 Jaqis pure [mos ‘Ysty Jo Bulss200id Jy] JO pure "BurnoU par ‘ssom “Spullg JO UONSnUOS ay) JO) ‘FuNOM-poom pur Ansqreq Joy myn nud jo auoz fessor yu & pavoddns avery prom a8po 6,131 ay) 01 JUscefpe Apie F WO “(Pay S228] assoq_L ‘ids pues pur sounp MO] QIN patuadsiajuy QI

0} INO Peasds Faby PINOm JIVE JY) “PUNO HY) PUOKDY ‘aye] MOTTEYS ‘pEOlg F

O1U! PSSrEYySsIP JAEY P/NOM J] 319YM PUY WEI) MOLIEU FO pod mojpa40

JY) JEIU PITESO] Jue SII/s 2APONpoOsd Wow puE wee]

WYL “SqQQN

aye] peyanyd

JO uoresses Joffe WE] ay) Je pent payreaaid sary prnom yy (a9p> dureas MoO pur ‘USTEW aye] ‘SpINWeal) HeNQEY JOfEW Jay) JO aunjoun! ay)

FEE

IY

“(6861 AYONL, “686] VOFUTYZIN}{) MoEjyUN pawWwWag Wise, JO

sary yey) AURA B YIM UOTE DONTE 260;9 UF FuLINIIO syut0d pany [Z paonposd

HLL, BPEAIN [EsTUIO-peD Uy SIs ApwS Z] JO sas98 Bs] ANIC] [PA DUPYSUNG DpOAeyy ‘pany sagy Apu

Aoy) awed oy) pure sUBWINY YO" JO) Jem Buyquyp yey Fe [je Fe UOTE EA

PUB JARY Pjnom Tey) 1978] MOTEYS on] uELEd" YIOg Jo AraiseA E paszjjo fespue SIYHIEW NeIIP paj-wWesss papnpoul suyiyas BydsowoIW paions}eUOIe/ ay) ‘HIFED WOW Uy “AJEPUNOY sUzd0/0}{-9U290)8121g 24) 18 FUO;HE;Ndod UBWNY [e>0) paisod

“dns ‘Ajpeuoress Wea] 18 ‘SAY pjnom Tey) sIDUNOFA PUE]EM a/qQe{fa) Bujure ture

JO] SATEPIPUED 1U3{J99X9 UIIq JABY P[Nom sais FAO[D Jofew FujujEWUOS sulsEG

wy) aeNpUl stpNs adeospuBjoaed puw yydesBosphy “(7°91 ‘Md *1661

‘D6G6I ByIiAA) S218 HAO[D Uae

Tupnposd suyreq 948] UsasIm HOFUNE

LIOW puRjoqed ‘Supunos pus 'ades* WIYILM PaIINpUo weg IARY SIUAWUOA

UEIPISqO “LOINGUINIP 2118 JO s2IpNIs WOTNjOSI YBIy ‘ofVBUUDIEAS ‘ayers aEIEY S Nj poeds-cpseg SO} GAOT) DISSE, JB SO;PNY aJoW YYm seauE “(1661 Bypim) S22snO8es 918m puE poo ajqupuadap

4B] WH *0Y) 01 paresiie Useq DARBY pjnom ayye euNEy puR adoad YIOg ‘HpaA9] jo LOIN Pur aurYD PaIENiound MONENIN

B INS Ul ‘saOINONA) JBM pur

Kg sUOTIEINdOD NAOT a4) BUyjosUOD POoy feI1119 JO BOYING NIP PUB 2oUBpPUNQE jo wusteed m3Wa{)IeN pus AwWOLOSsOREd a4) porajje A\masE aaBy ppnow Fo]

TAUIUOUALS puIEl Toa Apsed DOD) JO AD [IGEIS PUN IZ)6 FY) Ul SUOL ENEMY “moyen ZR unsqns 0127" 421s JO BOURTEG 94) (y) PUR SepoLpLLaTEM BULINGLIUD Jo Jayss jeROS

Paap pur suis (¢) ‘sens PUB aINToNID ‘AsyHUOET UyNEG (7) ‘SOI Ns UorsodEeD

PU wore ndisasd (1) : papa UOINELABA sy) BUlI904)8 840198) [820] “(1661 PamEae OI TP 1661 wossOWy “¢96{ NOLOA

PUR YIWG) URNEG ows U| Ggesapemes

PEs suINeg IPRPLMpUW] HUOINPUDD 9QIOIPAY Pu YAs 9X8] JO Suo—madns

he pom ay) wy) pur ‘UOLNINY spn)jdun stan ‘pies PE suorsuedxo

OF ompR 94) NY) I59lBNS ear Hem 2a QOyY) PUB QO) {1 UAmieg PO}lEd SmyDy JO waonaEt amp AH HLL nau 1 o20y 5 “oyu

osc

JB) 94 0) UO

nwr Vv ors Hi

ililimai

|

et “USE WYO" auljua ay) pauueds yey) sFUUy PUFA YL s9qe] Jones Apsop

‘(doop wi 0'Z-¢"1) sadzep Apyys Om) po Asaqduad ay) say yey) sons [¢ me sdnoud

POUNDS WISI JO MMOS Ipisoqe] ITers-OmI PENUETEGNS F Xq 2UIOOYOH ALES FY) Ul PIMo]O) Fea OFOY SE] YM poreposse worednsso snot)

(P6861 Tq) #9001 Jo saqpyed

[Pets Ajqissod pue sqruys Apoom ‘seed Jo UOTEREIA & Ya “seUS Lappoo ‘Janam EF TUUNP PoLNI00 UOTEULIOY []OS ITeENpU] jOsMpOyy powoung-epep S14) JO Sounjeay [Os 2yy “UorednIo0 sours WEdLNp & OT Eoqts Aq persue

APARaY Pur UOIsOl2 2uD0}0H Aq payeouN) O0q sey BOTY [los Jaddn ayy “207

“MOYS $,090H IFE] OF 1aTe(pE sTuSMNIPSs adopsyTY EUISIA) ‘Apues UI pom]

aS ZI] 34) Te WOEdNS00 BISIAOL Yim poTeDosse (posooped) plos poung ay] “Apuesyrudis peddoup prey spurns qin peanyd ‘sopem-dosp ‘ se] aq) Ye d@ 000 Z1-000 £1 2942 isnf wiseg Sqe] EXPY WqUOU aq) Oy suOTpUCS ysreW

948] MO[TEYS JO aousssid au) azENpUl sSOdap OYOY aye] BID-sIAO[D Ay]

“SIMDWETL) [eRe pue woIyUE;d eUTUE UO Poay FEY) $4209 pur Hye] LEM

yso4y UI S19]}aMp WO}}Og a7e sJayang ‘ssuagduad pareisdaa que spuod pur ‘say8 ‘sfuuds ‘SUrea1S MO[S JO SUaTEM YsaJ) MOTTEYS ‘Nb ay) NQEyU) 1p) sFeIO) SNOIOATUWO JE Qny? ML “sxouuT jo Ajuey seprmuddD agi yo ‘qny> mm

J0 ‘JO/OI1G B/LD PUB ‘siayINS PIsoU-LWOYs Jo ATTUMEy PrMOIsETED aq) JO suaTOUM “aug SajsnusDYyD :ystj JO ssbeds Om) paynuapt sey (AZojOOZ jo umasnpy TesySTPY

(Jo Aisuaatu) (Mg presen 4g “donEadsa felony Asse pue svonpuos

SHIM MOTTEYS “Ysoyy STEIpU Yor “Zouy Apqessod pie ‘yey ‘spew Sure

287e] JO SUPEUIDI feuNe) psonposd ave OYOY JET] GM payeHosse syLAUNIpes

2YE] MOTEYS 9Y.] “SUOTIIPUCS JaTeM plod “daap *Telan|d [jny JO 2aryeSIpUl SUaWIpes aq sysodap yotaq 1] “(¢°9] “BLy) UoON 48] pappeq-[jam jo do} wo Ajqeuoyuooun

“2dn200 SIAO]D SULINP po}sixa aABy ISN BOIEMp pure AUTIGeIs ‘TeUOSEIS Iea] Te

pur AqdesFodo) aq), ‘Sesapow JO Apog J3a7emB s2aF8ns OYOY sye] JO susuNpes

‘(Oyo aye7) UISeQ sy) JO aNUS9 SE) Ol BONRASpS W gpiE] We (dep wIg5-E) YSIEU 10 SE] MOTPEYS “[PEWS F PO BOYS ILIseM ION 4) O} PONTO “IIS Ze]

IY] 18 WONEMNIO STAD] WSIS Ay 220 /SI/g [EUTLIO @ sIseFENs JoUIpLAd 24],

“(6°91 “81 [0661 “O6R6] FTA) 90 SArep OT Sadepquiasse Om as9y) Funeredes Joy 159 34) Ul payodas yA ase> yasUONS aq) —SUOTIEdNI90 B1a-PaUlars UL91s9q, WO] SAO] Wsisa yy JO UONENedes PEUOTOY

PUE [ENLI9A JES[D E PHTEIISUOLWSP SARY S[aAe] aE] UE ‘ssoejINs UOHEdNIOO ‘s}o8y

‘(UE Jo UONE}QI03-ss019 JnydeTaes pue Fuiddew wornjoss yi “seuTAOYS [sO]

poyai-mo]

Fuoye wWyOsz]

10) pla

“HYyio)

‘ey

snp

jovodWOS

“ai8urs “sqasosip Ajyermeds ut imss0 35941 “(0661 SNTA “6861 ‘9861 UeSEZ) sd

yoIod poyny sA0p) WII Wiod paumsis WaIssy, 1 PUE (GT Big) swe 09 psonpoud sey ays zi

ogy “(g'DgRG1 Fy) Useq SyET] TeYPY WequoU

a) wy Ao sry aye] pure sWsTed JUIWA_Es UEUINY Apes nsUOoI

pedpYy aAFy

ays ‘syxayWOO JEJE Jo smpnys aydess SAMIRIy 2IOYSIYL] [ISSO] PUE SUONNQUYSIP ‘Hens pue Surddew ‘swonseqod soepns “Aaams 3115 apim-UIseq “sAnUsIIY

“ssonpns woredn300 pue spepILe

i) pO IxayuOo pUe DONNQUIpP ssheld ay) JUTMUS}2p 0) pur dq OO, 9) 000TI

Mou useq 24) ut Azo}s1y aye] pue ade2spuejooped ionssvooN 0) EVEp feIUIM Mp ‘A[PEAHdS UONALS pure peBoposeyase Jo 2Bues proud & INOS sey YosEss

Pa{ BZ “V M So

TT TTTTTTm

L

-

L

R

Rl

252

Judith A. Willig

AUÉHBiruHnsin

17. New assessments of early human occupations in the southern cone Hugo Gabriel Nami

Introduction Archaeological research has shown much

progress in recent decades. The

advances have paved the way for new methodological appraisals of old problems

such as the peopling of the American continents and the nature of their earliest inhabitants, and they have provided theories, methods,

and data on ancient

human occupations (e.g. Politis 1988; Nami 1994; Nami, in press), presumably by Paleoindians (Bray 1988: Dillehay 1991).

The southern cone of the American continent comprises Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, and the south of Brazil. In this paper | discuss sites located in the

Argentine provinces of Jujuy, Buenos Aires, Mendoza, Neuquén, and Santa Cruz, and also sites in the Chilean regions of Ultima Esperanza and Tierra del Fuego. Tagua Tagua and Monte Verde will be discussed by Nufiez and Dillehay,

respectively. Since the 1980s the archaeological research on early occupations in the south-

ern cone area has been interdisciplinary, producing a great quantity of informalion, especially for the sites located in the regions of Patagonia and the pampas.

I offer a broad picture of the archaeological findings south of the 22nd parallel made during the last |2 years.

My focus is on recent factual findings as opposed to theoretical and methodological developments. | providea description of the archaeological sites that show

signs of human occupation during the end of the Pleistocene and the PleistoceneHolocene transition (i.e. 10000 BP), focusing on their location (Fig. 17.1), cultural and ecofactual findings, and their context and chronology. Recent archacological discoveries allow for a better understanding of the lifestyles, environments,

chronologies, and adaptive strategies of hunter-gatherer societies at the time under consideration. | also take into account those sites which show evidence of

the survival and exploitation of late Pleistocene fauna. During this time, the environment of the southern tip of the Americas was very different from what it is now (Oschenius 1985).

Stratigraphic findings south of the 22nd parallel in Argentina Jujuy province Inca Cueva 4

Archaeological excavations were started in Inca Cueva

4 in

1979. The site is located in the Humahuaca district of the province of Jujuy, in

y

en

B

F9,9 2,#

2,

ou0 pappeld AUC day | NYA JO SUONEdnocO feu! ot FEY) I98j Oy) onNdsaq (2661 FEN) Aprusces po1s0daz w20q sey 20uU2s0Id 3194) JO 20U2ptA2 feryjsodns wos ySnowre ‘uynbnay ut poynusp! u29q sney sIDe;IUT Gens JO surpuy xydeSpens ON “pyfered TOE 24) JO YINOS poyyUSp ! UD0q Savy poLiad oures spy Woy SWIDISAS [eINYNIO}OS | [P43 “ABOjOUOIY ag OFS POUONUSU SA0QE 3G) Yim SpIoUjO yey? sSuNEp Popyord aavy surew9s YO]s JULIB pu asoy SurUpEIUOD says “2ouLAOIg UPMbNaN UI 2224m251q “SBuIpULy psUONUDW 4) Us poreposse Apooup U20q su aaey Adq) INQ ‘ous ay) UI PUNO] U2I0q Ose anny “ds wopopy Bunok e jo syuourSe2y qu Om} yey) SuNOU YryMYyWOM $1 1]

“(wnUIKeW) IE OFT F OFFS 18 Prep sem Yor ‘aad AUTRES 9Y) Ul Pas Wap! | [Ye JO 940AL dy) WEY) Japjo Ajse $1 UONEdND0 2}> 0 sty, "WOIYDOID AQ pesssood Suteq Apuaund st yay 24) wos Udxe) 2dures FeWS Y “SLY EMES 6] PUE 2109 B YUM PoyeIsosse ye DY sosuduIO> JU2UOdWIOD yso1IFe9

oq, “Funes Asesodussiu02 pur syurod appsofoud sepnSueuy apayour | jnyesy Jo

SUPEUIDT YL *] [MFR] PorPed Jerr] 94) YresUEq ,suONedn jerUT, jooco sureWwoL punoj aaey Siaqoressel ay] “deep wie sero AydesSrers Suons & siuassid dae

AL “OAH [RYE] MY) JO YURG

BL Vy) UO parEr0] $1 3S SIYY

sory, DAON)

eoutaoid ugnbney

"(6861 OGRE pue EPID) UOHIsuEN aU290]0}]-2U290;SI91q OY) UT pared}

Useq Sey ABOJOUOIYD $,eAand BI 9p ENFy “surewo jeune; Aue oJ9y) ze JOU PUNO) Us9q sey syuIOd anDefoud ON “(ss29A8I8 pur ssadesds) sjoo1 pur ‘59109 ‘SAB JO punodwoo sy1y & apnpouy sureutas eNyM ysapjo yy, “ssaKe] [eIDAIS WO1y SuOD SSurpUYy FErSojooeyoIe ay] “ZOUSpLAD UI OSTE a7e SYED} “porsNUIp!

Wa9q DAY Spora{ 1YB}o YoryM UT AYdesBryeIs xa}dwiOD & syuaseid US dy “poropdxe SBM SUS 9y) JO wed Waysam Nos y ay) UT payed] (apUM Wy Ajovewixoidde) sayjous

“POI [EUS B “GONeA ISB] 94)RIK SuLING D “796 pu “S961 ‘7961 UI—souNTy fes9A25

PATEARKD G30q Sey BAIN B] ap ENFy ~souLA0Id sures 24) UI BAIND FI ap ENSY JO sSur aq) powoda aavy (6961) Os2qDe pusy pue BIOFED g ‘{pu2I002 B10; “(6161

B1B1Be]) UMoUy [Jom $1 ‘20ULAOId BZOPUDY UI ‘>IS OIP JapUT BINIH “eUNUasIY JO

Bare [EIU 359M 94) UI PUNO] UI9q DABY SONS UIIDUe Maz DAMN Dj ap D ONSY aoutaoid vz0puey

BL 29) “(HLT

aU200/0} 24) UI PUNEy ZusdOISIa}q JO [BALAINS ay) SULMOYs ‘sBuNVEp UOger0IPeJ

JaquINU 2qQeI9pISUOD B YBNOIY) paystqerse UI9q sey a11s 24) Jo ABO}OUOIY? MUL “S2SNED femNyeU Aue WIM pareosse u20q 10U sey aus

Uy sousseud s2y) puR DONUAAJZIUT WeUINY JO JoUIpLAD OU MOYS

sUTeUID! [RUNES DUN 3y7 JO 1894 24, ‘poumMsuoD ose 239M S104 UROUUTY pue uNUdIeI

‘shod 01 Suspsoc9e “yBnoyye “(oouoNF nwo) oreuENd us2q 284 o sues 20mnoss porn WOU Jy “(6961 SMHOd) BD!WOY>0V0d ay) puayanD.DOH PH “MMISNGOL WMRLIBYIOSSO}D ‘snuDIUaUID uinuaylosapy ‘(snddiysayy) wwopordis

“ds owoT ‘worprddiyy oma Suxpnyout ‘satsods yournx2 jexanas pur ‘190p “(207mm

Dui) ooeuens ueadurey jo saiseds Aresodwia}u0> apnyout sSuipuly

"(6861 S1}04) Sconseid yeUnNg UO siseyduia Ue YILA aus ec

oe

“In & se parasdsami u29q sey 7 On9g Ofoury *(Z66| “7012 stIOd) SPEdUH 62 u0o useyynos oy) uF suoRDdn200 uDWMY AjIDe fo sjuaUIssessO MON

fi

AS2

LC3 AS2 AS2

1

Fell

Fell 1 Lower Lower Lower

1

Fell

Lower Lower Lower Lower Lower Lower Lower

IC4 IC4 IC4 IC4 AC

AC AC LCI LCI

Archaeological component

Site*

Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Bone Bone Bone

Material dated

8980 + 100

8890 ± 90

7000 ± 80

10 790 + 120 10 610 + 180

10350 t 220 10730 t 150

8800 ± 70 9840 + 90

10620 t 140

9230 + 70 9650 + 110 9900 + 200

Age (BP)

A-1328 TO-1503 TO-1504 TO-1505

Beta-29886 Beta-26781 Beta-26250 I-12741 A-1327

CSIC-498 LP-102 AC-S64 LP-137

Table 17.1 Radiocarbon dates obtained in the archaeological sites mentioned in the text Laboratory identi cation

Poitis 1988 Politis 1988

Flegenheimer 1987 Flegenheimer 1987 Flegenheimer 1987 Politis 1988

Garcia and Sachero 1989

Aschero 1988 Aschero 1988 Aschero 1988 Aschero 1988 Garcia and Sachero 1989 Garcia and Sachero 1989

Reference

fi

1

Fell Fell Fell Fell

1

1

1

1

Fell 1

1

1

1

Fell

Fell Fell Fell Fell Fell

Charcoal Charcoal Charred bone Charcoal Charred bone Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal

Bone

Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal

50

+ + + +

600 115 70 70

AG: Agua de la Cueva; CEG:

Beta-20219

11880 t 250

10420 + 100

10 280 + 110

11 570 + 60

12 290 + 180

12990 t 241

Beta-40281 Gr-N 14913 Beta-52522 Gr-N 14911 Beta-39081

PITT-0343 PITT-0684 PITT-0939 DIC-2732 DIC-2333

10430 t 80 10550 t 120 10930 t 230

12 600 9595 9770 10 310

10 400 ± 80

9970 ± 100

PITT-0344

TO-1507 Beta-7824 LP-213 AA-8428 FRA-98

12 330 + 370

6550 + 160**

Beta-11251

TO-1506 LP-S3 LP-$S

5250 + 110

6450 + 60

8390 ± 240 8560 + 320

7320

* Sites. IC4: Inca Cueva 4; LCI: La China 1; LC3: La China 3; AS2: Arroyo Seco 2; LM: La Moderna; Museo; EC: EI Ceibo; CM: Cueva del Medio; CLS: Cuevo Lago So a; TA: Tres Arroyos. t Taken from the same quadrant and very close to the rib bone dated at the Toronto Laboratory. ** Questioned by Politis and Beukens (1991). Taken from the same hearth.

TA TA TA

CLS

Fell

CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CLS

1

Lower Lower Lower

Lower Lower Lower Lower Lower Lower

Lower

CEG PM EC

LM LM

AS2 AS2 AS2 AS2 AS2

Bone Bone Bone Bone Bone Bone Bone

1988 1988 1988 1988 1988 and Beukens 1991 and Beukens 1991

1 987

Cueva

Epullan

Grande;

Prieto 1991 Prieto 1991 Massone 1987 Massone 1987 Massone 1987

Nami

PM:

Piedra

Cardich 1987 Nami 1987 Nami 1987 Nami and Menegaz 1991 Nami l992 Nami l987 Nami and Menegaz 1991

Miotti 1991

S. de Bórmida 1992

Politis Politis Politis Politis Politis Politis Politis

Jam OpUNT) UNiNda, PUM pO

OfogY "| (nJMLy ‘OUNUNYy UYAN) edeyioY

MUNN) DUDDON/{,) Yj HNODUMIOdIINOT Bian UpAEMa UN wno nny ed - sayungy

OUR)

QUBIOJOP]-aUdd0)HFII,4 9) FuyNp yey eating ‘iain pooqoonya

a1 Aq POHOdaN WOpMENIAE ApsHS AY) YA JOC AHO) “HO MUIO UY YL “il OO CI

D1 0080] Wor) SujSus sapumy HOqUMDO;pEN INO) YBNONy patep usaq HRY 1949] ey], “HUEUAS O[s PUNOAT pu sey FUIIKD Uy “pag Head # uy Jahe] (2qFOy COHN H Par yIApE Apuaas win ( [GG] ‘Ol TeDuMUED jeuonsd) pupusa,

‘upnbnapy, jo soupanid

qi Wy PUNeY BUAD0}N{”| JO souanaud Areroduayuod 34) 10) 18 (jen WF GopedNID0

mony Oy) JOY BUyMP HW AUdyJO YIwIY Dy) “wERRYLSARY “]PA9] HMI uy puna)

JO AIRyqIMOd ONE HuyysyqeiN® fungy UPD Oy) PU KPLUMaY ay) IIMIAg HOLUNIAP

agi Syjuszqu0d juaprsd 2g 0} SYSIM |IF>A|:;) “saAdMO}{ “PuBO) 240m HUW! “ds

wopoppy Fag] SUES DU) TE PUT "| [NJwAY, UE FY “aHAD0)0}{-2099018}Iq 41 JO Pe?

2) 0} HOP FNP HOQUMDOPEA POplaHA YLMaY aqJ, "FIU0g PIPUNED sau PATTI)

RY 2wOS PAPN[IU! HITE Ip “LOOY 4.2489 Ij) UO HDE]ILIE yy] JO quING rus YHA POIMDONWA YUHAY B PUROY OLIIHOYY IIJPAU.) “(toh PHO oP

—— ee, ee

api we Ym “paylHuapy JO ITUMYNY HAUINgUES) SpsOIIU pEAOPOUOIYD puUle FRUOYTOU SrpYt 20q 2ARY LOFTEdNI90 URWUNG JO 8f9A2] [ELIS °/ID5 dpremmoidde jo fap Cpa 4301 BSS S WILE] JO BIO 8] ABD APUEUT UYINGA "CAG!aus Ware BIN sa)UY UaTjaySYIO! HUPMABIND UDIq HEY OLDTUOP (1/4) BADE) @puoss UpTNdY | PEL si 1peFeq u sdurpuy ay) Jo UORTsOds~p ay) Buyjquiossad ‘synod arIefoud separ prune) Areod poe “eqs ‘UeIpIsqo ‘(ds sduouar) pure soquond owery) suprucs AL dag qwad YT faA9{ [EATOOIEYIE pauyap [Jom B F7pUN pareroy ae SFuypuy 74 ‘paysyqeiss A|2ea[> UDDq JOU SEY VOPO|AWY 24) O sadwu9s Jy) JO UOLTHDORE SqRY AOS fuRWos [UNE ISI) 24) JEDU PUNOY Dam PE; UE sy sOdeS # 01PURFunpuodeai cd {tg ‘sonequAWuros peuosiad ‘yon{pe}{) SPENPIAIPHY 227g) [rears pasuadsrp (jqissod ‘surewas aug J2q10 SB [Jam SE s2U0q WOPO|AWY >EIUIp OA) PIAIZSGO YONE PEP, J9KE] STI Wl “HIE $248 41 MOY) HHPOP

fuguejuOD 5f9A2] “BOPOHAy JO FEOG Oe) YI SUDWIPSS 38ueso-32490 Jo paroduI0d 51 PAI ALL 2Ae> SHI FOA|PEH t HT IUap F504 UIIm FPA] E Payf 9UOG UDI HULIOp RUS PU SUTEL [ELIOT aq) JO HINO ‘minos sousdns 5,s941y ABWIE] JO YUE 19] 941 FWO "UPEDUTS feuo) ofouny “BOuTArIT i wor WOSE PITe20] 215 WeuodWOSTNa

UOREIOGETION I) 01 SATE fy jo areyo wl widojoseyose sup ‘AONIPEH WePY JO pagsyqndan '320!PtH) Ppnpur st woreuOsU FuIMoyoy MHL “(9R61 “Mods

ayye F PorEMENe Fs PaqHgnd useq 1A 70U AjqenasBaa sey yoda: ap: ‘ofe OAL) posior) akoLry OueTD) Y TUDP 28 fexBoposeysze sty) YFNOyyY [oUDJOP

~wsaodmao | [Ps eve 1 PEL JP

‘1961 BEN) FOIE Monednsso pent ay) sdeqiod -(woyveredand a ‘rue

wt endey-eneeL pUE ‘zn BUES “(1661 wosyses) 2fmc> fers) Rsis jemIROONT ul) S YINO xoud aq) Jo smaa

'(b661sunsquaiay) SosTy sousng Jo avui

P }, TPAD “F3) BN I iP 9g) Aq pasn sem anbruysar SL “(666l 012 oxo “SAY AMOS Pew AO nqep froesiq payjnnuapt sey (SR6T) OFBRD ades ulo P am moon peg) fey TOT

$

PUE ‘OUTS

a

{

=Z "(iad ot “eroBor)

Y p ON uonrtods «ay Founp ‘purey) BOTTUEN sOOop-sS

IUSWUIPSS JO sogapias papacud saty SPN

MEUTewWooE_IIy “(["L] AGEL 24)

SPOYRW SUR TWOSEYSIE put GOQIESOIPEJ apnjsui ips PEHBopOUOIYD Jy

“(£860 Marepy) sonyayioe Supddeuy pue Supstsooud pewree yee dryrworpeyau a60;2 wy

JOLIFIU! IY] Ul INO PILED Jam SHALISE MOUEA Tey) FIPEDPUl HeKpEUR JET ay) JO aeeyd july sy) “sYLRaY ay) Jo uO punoIe payruapt sem aFengap 9nqM FESesiq JO [ap ead y “(gag| PED PUE MUTEN * 7861 fuEN)) a11s oy) Fuypunons

zayUEg OUT) 94) WY SU;reULUO SusOdap [EET ay) Woy JyN) pue ayesawoFucD FIHUEINA

Bla

SIRE

B94] SEW

OF POeN SELITW

ME aL

‘Hue

PELSUNLLE SEY [IAT] HY) Woy BOD SYN] SUC) “SILOM aprefosd | [fe JO ,[PeTYSHY, Ol PUB 'SIFGEL-PUs PUB -[ELITE] ‘SATUY [ELIATS pO FuNsISUOD JPEPQULTTE SYN fENSNUN Ue PIppaLt OlpIpy PP BAIND “qN) [PEWS F pUE LYINOPY QuOq F FurpHyoU

§]00] 2UOq PUT SUC} TNOUEA PUE 104 JESU UE Jo JqipUEW 2g) Furpnpu! ‘s2U0q JO ad & paUleIGOd YUEIY pudoes YW “au0g 20g PRTFUPTED pu ‘feoD “FEY “ied ,[re1ysij, F Pappas syLEAY ay) Jo uC “syLEsY WyRL ore un AIS 2g) Suouly

“punoy U2eq JAEY FPEjO

puE ‘sPEyTUE ‘SMU

pO quinn jee

&

POE “Pal NUSp! UIIq OSE QARY CULAguNatoU DduO May JO SUTEMIDY “(1661 TREUayy

pur rwepy) (emo ad wopopd py ‘reEypyes worpyd “diy sRUNEY UIiKe Yin sUEWNY BuryUT ‘ay0D DEIPUIOAE

Me[9 T SIE SwOWSIp

FUOTEEY 24) SuUN suf, “(O66 | W197) UONISUEN sus90}0}]-2u2 001IA4 sSurpuyy

UW PAUNIIO YIM Wasa SydousEVED & 0} anp Ajqeqoud sem fy] “Buyeo poe i

ay) wo) pau *2pqq09 STEM DABD SY) WOIy [J2y YY F490}g JO VOIEFRTFestp pue sajqqed jo sade] 421) © Aq paraAcd sem 1x2]U09 (RFOjOIeYaIE aq) “BARD

See

femyEU aq; jo adoyspes 9q) JO XUTEW PeAFoyoyaUNI yy) JO wed JOU! 9Y) UY ‘SARS

= =

MS

ay) SmOTPOY YY JMB] APUBS IY) BAOGE PITESO]$1 FSAI] | PANG IMEIMLL ‘sumed aprnoofoud sejnSueLl) poppit sey joasy Worednsc0 ¢ pig Su) “f Pg ue]

sees

pulg] JO ‘soueypeseyy “(12.4 SF Peyjiuap! useq sey proses feaGojooeya Te aq | “PeUITEW ~ pure ¢ SIIAE] “pasodys uI9q sary suDKe] NOY “X[PENdEIITENS FENIND UTEIUOS ING “OLIV “SHOT FIO IY] Ut PUNOJ WIIq OSTE SAkY SUTEUEI FEBOpOIeYITE 29)U1 PITeI0]$1 Bare pRNBooseyse ysayeaTs aq) Mey OS “JOLUZTEN aq) Ot AjLeMd FY) PUT ‘OUT ‘PaeARIxa guam ,Wg, AprewMonddy "(06-6961 MEN) 3Peq

aj) ‘2OUEIIUD 3Y) S9UOT 39FY) OU! PopPlarp Sem INS 24) sasodund PENMMywUE O04

“RONSUES) 30350/0}{

“MuaD0ISI9[g IY) UI VONDESIU! [EFoporq pue fed O7 jwRAsfe paleqred

Gulag st UOTTEMUOJUI IUBDTUaIS “weder pu ‘apy ‘sereIg pap ay) ‘euNEadry

UW SomisI9ArUN WoL) sysTBO}OaT pue ‘sistFojoig ‘sojoyuoaped ‘sisBojosey

Spnpou! pue ‘Areuypdiosipnyjnw $1 aloud ay] “76h PUE 1641 “GRET 'LE6T JO Se

“Uns 94) pure 996] Jo JaWUNS pur SuLds ay) BULINp ynO pate) sam suOTIpHdee

wi 96 inogest aaed sqyp Jo SuuAdo Podopseyosy ‘y8iy wig pur ‘apm Wop Buoy TL “ersWO;SUOS sa}UIG O19 IYI WON] PAULI] SI IAED IY] OTPayY [ep 49N) DUT] ap OMIUTAOLY DzuDJedsy

ary) uy paqezed puzz oq) yo qinos sSuppuy omdesdpens pump

Igo) OBnYY FOZ

New assessments of early human occupations in the southern cone 265 Prieto and Cardenas recently discovered this site, located Queva del Lago Sofia

simost 8km north of Cueva del Medio. Cueva del Lago Sofia is situated on a terrace 100m above the level of the Rivas River, directly across the valley from

wide the Medio and Mylodon caves. The Lago Sofia Cave is 25 m long by 5 m

(Prieto 1991). The site has been excavated in four expeditions to date. The

characteristics of the findings are similar to those of Cueva del Medio. Large

wones have fallen from the ceiling of the cave and a layer of sand is found be-

rween these stones and the rock floor of the cave. In this layer of sand a level of human occupation was identified which included the remains of the same

species identified in the Cueva del Medio. Many of these remains show signs of

having been eaten by humans (Prieto 1991). A hearth surrounded by a great quantity of broken bones of extinct fauna was

structure has been dated with two radiocarbon dates, placing the Thisnd. fou

occupation during the Pleistocene-Holocene transition (see Table 17.1). Bifacial and unifacial flakes, other lithic debitage, and a bird bone awl were also found

Tierra del Fuego province

Tres Arroyos rockshelter ‘This site is located in ‘De Los Onas’ hill, approxfrom imately 10 km southeast of the Chilean locality of San Sebastian and 20 km

the Atlantic coast (Massone 1987). Tres Arroyos is one of a series of rockshelters ary sediment outcrops, on the lower skirts of the Camen Sylva Tertid on te loca

range. The excavations of the site were initiated in 198], followed by two other expeditions in 1983 and 1986.

in two foundon was ti The earliest evidence of the rockshelter’s human occupa a layers located at depths of 60-80cm and 125cm. Both layers are a part of Level VI stratigraphic unit of sand (probably of fluvial origin) called Level V. No cultural lies under this level, reaching 1.66m in depth over the base rock.

been remains have been found at this level, although some faunal remains have

levels have reported. Level V has been subdivided into Levels Va and Vb. These lithic artifacts yielded a number of extinct faunal remains as well as debitage and with retouched (mn = 213). The artifacts include end- and lateral-scrapers, knives tile points. These edges, a core with rififting flakes, and two fragments of projec fragments

(a tip and

a stem) resemble

the shapes which characterize Fell |

debitniofng one piece ntio projectile points (Massone 1987). It is also worth me whose edges show traces of age seemingly related to bifacial thinning and others

usage (Jackson 1987).

camelid bones are among Canis (Dusicyon) avus, Hippidion saldiasi and large in this site (Mengoni Gofalons the identified species of extinct fauna found

Medio and in Cueva de Lago Sofia.

266 Hugo Gabriel Nami

Conclusion

a general view of the archaeologicg in this paper offer The findings reviewed landscape of the southern cone of the Americas during the Pleistocene-Holacen transition, This view would have been difficult to imagine just a few years ago, | believe thal some findings need further analysis and assessment, especially cop.

cerning the process of site formation, given the unclear associations betwee,

faunal and cultural findings. Nevertheless, this overview calls attention to the great environmental diversity in which hunter-gatherer groups lived, as did Pleistocene fauna, in climates varying greatly from those known today, This fac

implies the development of diverse adaptation strategies, some of which included as a resource for survival. Although the archaeo. the exploitation of extinct fauna

logical evidence in some cases docs not show exploitation of extinct fauna, as

in Inca Cueva 4, the paleontological record for northwestern Argentina during the Pleistocene-Holocene transition document that species such as Hippidion deville! were present. To date, we are unable to infer the attitudes of ancieni hunter-gatherers regarding this resource.

The region of the pampas was inhabited by a different species of horse, thus another set of strategies could have included their exploitation and consumption,

Still, certain techniques were shared regarding the manufacturing of projectile points, The presence of Hippidion saldiasi has been reported in almost all of the Argentine-Chilean archaeological sites of Patagonia (Alberdi eral. 1988; Menegaz ef a/, 1989). The human-Mylodon coexistence has been also noted in some of the more norihern provinces, but the faunal exploitation remains uncertain. Borrero ef a/, (1988) have put forth a scavenging hypothesis. At least (wo camelid species have also been identified during thia time. One of them, Lama gracilis, now extinct, inhabited both the pampas and Patagonia regions during the late Pleistocene (Menegaz ef a/. 1989). The other one, Lama sp., inhabited

the southern tip of the continent, Recent findings show that the hunter-gatherers who lived during the PleistoceneHolocene

transition had developed

sophisticated

flint-knapping

techniques.

Bifacial reduction sequences were widespread and, at least south of the 30th parallel, similar patterns were shared for manufacturing projectile poinis and

olher polished stone artifacts, such as diseoidals, From the point of view of the

artifacts’ development, some regions such as those south of the 30th parallel, show technical homogeneity regarding the production of projectile points. This

is evident both in the design and the manufacturing of the Fell | or ‘fishtail’ projectile points. The designs of the lithic artifacts also seem to show similarities,

especially in Patagonia. This is very different from what has been observed in the rest of South America (Bonnichsen and Nami, in preparation).

Much more research is needed to clarify the mew scenario which is appearing

before our eyes, Undoubtedly, changes in theory and method will expand our understanding of the adaplive strategies used by Paleoindians during the Pheistocene-Holocene transition in the southern cone of South America.

pred

pipe

1369 and Prado, J. L. (1992). El registrode Mippidion owen, de}

ee

1950 (Mammalia, persissodactyla) en América

ar

rela

T., Menegaz, A., and Prado, J. L. (1988). Formas terminales Parmar .peryssodactyla) de los yacimientos del Pleistoceno Tardio-H

en ta FI sitio ICC-4: Un asentamiento-preceriimico

juy. Argentina). Estudios Atacamedos, 7, 62-72,

=

ro

i eaehit A \

albert

ae

ii Quebrada

joke). De punta a punta: produccién, mantenimientoy disetioLx en s def micas de la Punia Argentina. In Precireulado

Puntas

i

Argentina, University of Buenos Abres. Nami, H.G. (in preparation). Clovis and the emerpe of nce the new

fi,

3% 5# p i

er

‘ile points patterns: a search for the cause,

Lanata, J. L. and Borella, F. (1988). Reestudiando bwesou: nuevas con-

sobre sitios de Ultima Esperanza. Ametes del Instinuto de la Patagonia, 1,

coe).

The

Paleoindian debate. Nature, 332, 107.

Crur, nca ia de Sant de Los ToldyosEl Celbo (Provi A. (1987). Arqueologiatos, 8, 98-117. ‘ina), Estudios Atacamen Cuevaa de iaafi Silveira, M. (1993). La estratigr and B., Montero, E., Curtio, D.

| (Provincia del oe s, 1, 9-160. rico isid pren "Estudio Cinco ae dela Cues

vader T

q, 12-13

de estudios Neuquén). Prachistoria Publicacién del Programa CONICET, Buenas Aires, y del Coen de los desechos de talla de las ocupaciones iniciales of Buenos Tragul 1, Unpublished Master's thesis. University

Americans. Anthropology Tock (1991). The great debate on the First

Garci C. and Sachero, a, P. (1989). Investigaciones arqueoldgicas en Agua de la Cueva Secto Sur (1987-1989), r Revista Ceider, 4, 27-51, Hadjuck, A. (1986). Report io CONICET. Manuscript, Jackson, D. (1987). Componente litico del sitios arqueolégico Tres Arroyos. Anates dei Instituto de fa Patagonia, 17, 67-72.

Jackson, D. (1991). Componentes culturales de la ocupacién Paleo-India de Tagua Tagua, Manuscript.

Lagiglia, H. A. (1975). Primer diagrama polinico de la estratigrafia arqueolégica Argen. tina. In Actas¥ Trabajos del Primer Congreso de Arqueologla Argentina, pp. 163-74. Rotario, Argentina.

Madrazo, G. (1972). Arqueologia de Loberia y Salliqueld (Pcia, de Bs. As.). Etnia, 15, 1-18. Massone, M. (1987). Los cazadores paleoindios de Tres Arroyos (Tierra del Fuego),

Anales dei Instituto de la Patagonia, 11, 47-60,

Menegaz, A.N., Goin, F.J., and Ortiz Jaureguizar, E. (1989), Analisis morfoldgico y morfométrico multivariado de los representantes fésiles y viventes del género Loma

J

| }

pnysz2eod& weeq av0jaz2y) FEY WAC Jo stsXpeur sures woruTssy “speNpLUpuT sk la

teagan acre

ee

O DONEXMJNUEND pur UOEUTTLONp

Sued (WNCIM) YNC [eUpUoYoNU ‘(6.6 ] jo12 UMOI

“pL6t ‘ye 42 DOTTYZIN})

‘(0661 [P20py “0661 [Teyszepy) 2imdemp u1 2nsst aq) suroceq pur Appun pours

po JWT) Jy) JO SapeuMIse ‘ApFuIpODTY °(9961 FSUy Iq) JO PEALE OABY SHETIW

C] ERG] “fo s2 OTSEAOpY *7961 (fo Fa KEYG SELIQIA PUE UOPINT OFe smexK) OOD EE 01 000 07 Woy afues yoy sou Borednso0 Jones IsTEns ETEp PEHBoposeyry

oF sresk “PRG! yous EpeR) JOKE L “p96 1 DAKO ] [696] You? ‘(9861 ‘O12 WOT

ago Fm apug poe] Fuusg 2g) peso oga 000 $1-000 ZI Noge wonedon

dnd qrews f ee

eee

mousy eee

any

en

aeses: Meee” eileen “6 pala

Suet

Sane {IN SaCIy: So

‘pure wnjkyd afen#ury apfurs © areys oys ‘sourysy pur sinapy aq1 1y¥n02g DOR

“BST JUIN! 1SOW IY, “SEOD WYDSY GUO pur JOUTTN MEASLY 2 JO SUETPT]

2U9(]-EN 01 251) ane8 voTerem puoses jo Ayofew aq] “spuumury quON pure [es pyres

-027) ‘WINES 01 2sU aaed VOIeIITM pools aq) Mou 20s pus DOLE

agi po ajdoed aq] “2020hD(g 218] a fuump ey BEaquO" Wow suodEam

us0q seyd1] s2N 2g) FEW) pesodou overedas aazy) Aq peremdod sem poy,

“peajosar Aymy jad JOU 5] SAININD pe SpUNoIyeq DnTST Tey GLA POE JUTE Aaq] Doge Ad

Gunes 30 san) OMmNNINCE Say poneest AMS PUR EST Saat “SAL ay) yo sued snoures oO! pees pur pasedsp Gag ‘spuq poe] Img a SSOLIE EISY WEIYLIOU WO) JUTED SUEDLIUTY JATTEN JO SOS IONE agi TET Qnop

aN 2g) JO Saqdosd, aun ‘sesusary rj aq JO GORsINb

Auoyne ON "PHO

aq s] sajdoad projoduoyy 2nermy jo pesedsip suorsmpad agi OM qaureasu 10) fNss] JOLEM ay] JO sug “sITIMMONALS Jo ApueA & On peMdepe Fuey “Bod WU-MyI9Eq Fy) JO EAE IPL

E

AO PIINQUETp mou ae SHTEpUIsSp pepoduopy

woqrapeng]

onzDy pup “Dpowosg oFUMYS ‘opuoy muMYy TIO

oumipy, Ayso}Dg

suistydiouAjod souanbes yNd [BLIpUOyooO}UM Woy paiseyut

POM MeN eT} 0} UoReIsAUH jo

S8ABM JUBIOJJIP ‘SUBINEUTY jSIT oY], “Bt

The first Americans: different waves of migration ip the New Work

271

gol in attempts to quantify evolutionary relationships among human cthaic Srodi of mtDNA es polymorphism of Native Americans (Wallace etal

os saute’. 1980), have shown that North, Catal, nd South Aner

pstios exhibited high frequencies ofthe same set of rare Ain variants

roey suggested that all Amerinds are founded by an Asiatic Mongoloid popula-

goa wnat experienced a severe bottleneck before or during inhabitation of the agericas. From recent restriction enzyme analysis, however, the same group

cqqonted that (WO migrations gave rise to distinct populations of Na-Dene and

goerinds (Torroni ef al. 1992).

auhough restriction enzyme analyses represent polymorphisms over the whole

piochondrial

genome, some ambiguities remain with respect to the actual

ganber of nucleotide differences and the esti of mati genetic distances (Kocher on

gal. 1989). In recent mtDNA analyses, it has become popular to employ direct

quencing by means of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (Saiki et ol. 1988). The

rarget in such studies is a major non-coding region of mtDNA that has apparently polved several times faster than other parts (Vigilant ef af. 1989, 1991; Horai

sod Hayasaka 1990; Horai 1991; Horai etal. 1991; Di Rienzo and Wilson 1991).

Squenct analysis of this region therefore offers a high resolution that discrimi-

aaies among even closely related individuals. Utilizing this advantage, Ward etal, (1991) analysed the major non-coding region of Native American mtDNAs from

4 angle tribe. Their observation suggested that a considerable amount of mito-

chondrial diversity was introduced into the New World at the time of initial

sae

To further investigate the peopling of the Americas, we have examined the

miDNA sequence variations in the major non-coding region from 16 different

locations (Laitec, Yaldad and Quellon

from Chiloe Inland: La Mision, Los

Galpones, Guinimo, Paraquina, Cocauque, and Icalma from inland) in Chile. Four major lineages of mtDNA in Native Americans

We determined the mecleotide sequence of a 482-b.p. fragment of the major aoncoding region (positions 16129-16569, 1-41 in the reference sequence of Anderson eval. (1981)) for 72 Native Americans from 16 local popalations. There are 43

types of sequences defined by 47 variable positions. The most frequent type is

scored in & individuals, whereas 29 types are observed only once. Differences between the sequences are mostly attributed to tranditional substitutions (98%), except for insertions of Cs and deletions of As in a hypervariable domain of the region (Horai and Hayasaka 1990).

|

Based on the pairwise number of nucieotide substitutions, a phylogenetic tree

was comstructed (Fig. 18.1). This tree indicates that all lineages except two fall

Genetic distance (D x 1000) Fig. 18.1 Phylogenetic tree showing the 72 Native American miDNA

lineages from

16

populations. The phylogenetic tree was constructed based on the pairwise number of nuckootide substituiions by the neighbor-joining (NJ) method (Saitou and Nei 1987), The four distinct clusters in the the tree are indicated by brackets with cluster numbers |, I,

IN and 1V. The name of the location where sampled is indicated by the characters at the

tip of cach branch: APA for Apache, MAY

Brazil, and CHI for Chile.

for Maya, COL

for Colombia,

BRA for

(

HY1O Sq) PUE 1H Ut Fuueavo xd‘soF de esut om so Gondsox 6D “PD “ZO “3! ‘sdnos8 qwasayy—p inoy on qey sue sUaUT ay) iim ‘| [15 pur SH} Weg) SwOus €'91 “S1q “aver Aue ry “suewmy jo sdnos y aANEN JO saeauy EUIUW SATEN JO SYNCIu! Jo sdiysuoneras ay) Suypweysreq Jo asoq yum i9pan soy jnyosn $1 aU) Uy SaPesul] JO SuolTed0] pue swis Seuye ieNpdjo SFeq FY) UC “Egy “Hey my DMOU Se "PoUs Taw (fN) Summof-JOquastp Aq payonnsuoD sem 20N snaUaSoLhud rsU e* FEAPIAIPU! UIaMIeq SUORNINSQNS spHos jsnu jo Jaqu mu mse 24) SuIsr) “(L861 '/922 WUD ‘9g6I “yw 1a eI0}4 ‘gg] MOG) suI00R8 psyru WNaIw JOY JY] JO SISATEUR SULAZUS UONDUISe wo PSTEUNTIss anjes SuIpuods aues aq) GRY) J9YsIY S30N IMOY O) 227g 1 YT ) “eypE'| 2]

0] PSTEWN $1 Spenp IS Larpa ST E6] 31 Fuowe Ayszzarp SPHOSPAU SY] “PIEWINSa Ose FEM soousnbes jo ied

Pes U99K)}9q SUOHINIISANS Spos}Ing Jo

quMU 24) pure ‘Paredios poe pousiye

“19M STENPIAIPUY £6] JO [EIO} & uO) S29UINbeS “d'q Zep aq) ‘ssoU *ANEN ZL Wosaid 3y1 Jo WORIpPE ayy YUM “(1661 "7072 TIO INbes WesU=UTY ‘661 ryesedey pus fe0}) SUEISy pue ‘suesdomy ‘suesuyy Sumpnpu spe

npLmpu paspung r M0 1940 10] POBTHUSISP WIG SAkY BOs sures aq) JO sSsouanbes spno2onu aq] seousnbes yuqnm yo AuaSoyigy

‘SS3y) Ujo IFund OT osd Y an o1 Painguiwo> aaey soSeouy [eUpEoyONN Jofeu mo} yey SuTEDN “9saMn 200 jo pA T SW! Pepnyout ave gy Furuyeuas ay) ‘SI3 INOY}S 2q71 yo N/ Awe>OV payyrsyOu se} au TFAPUAIpUY Om YSNOYIPY *]{ 2215 Jo N] suaquIOW > [fe m1 OI95 OSE $1 YOM

E9] oq FD) $€ “sd Joyjoue azeys saisnp sup my sisquiaw aalj-Ammam “(S7 “(27691

S418 L ‘9¢ “sd pue “g6z91 “dq ¥e 5 ‘gz “$-4) sous semonsed om Jo voremg wo 8 SEY AL J9ISNI “(Z9E91 “d'q 18 >) OF sd & pur 1 “9 FY ‘ze “Fd PU 'O6Z91 “d-q ye I ‘pz “s'd) sous anbaum Oral Ssaasod [I](6I¢9 J9ISNP jo su9quEm [Ty “SHMI> sty) 0} oytoads st yorum “(.g191 °d3'q 1) OI “Sd “msmdsomAg e nqnx od> Dunfo, onzoy pun ‘opouog osumys ‘opuoy nuny THIN MSCS 4/7

a

ae

L

(5 SSa8

a * inchoding ome Ageecter Nadieet

Nucleotide diversity in human populations We analyzed nucleotide diversities within and between local populations of

Native Americans andthe four human racial groups onthe bass of estimate

oe

Linus Gea tach fae: + ALS

ppc

antec

ab cheeniie diva distinc

ecg oe

ree ante sme

Seca

auaieant

Aece inrda, mucleide

differences per site) within populations ranges from 0.71%

ies

Riomsaael, cocal

dvr

nucleotide

to 1.75%, indicating

Tid Gaates of sei Hc Serinton es fs 0s Acuericues Gomuaatses Average Mi Let dened bed na tO This is exactly the same magnitude as the mean value (1.21%) for within population diversity, indicating that a considerable degree o feicaie acre

tween populations after the senlement in each locality. Purthermore, the overall sucleotide diversity among the Native Americans is estimated to be 1.29%, w

pe

Pi Oat Fei JajUt Im “sy, “saFesuy Om) Jo au soUaDs2 TOD PSEA DARY ISMN SURLOWTY ANERY 259y) JO sLO}S90UE ‘(eouFENNUE oy 49158 sury pue eisy) syUaUI}OD WSJ3]JIP OM) UO apie sURDUDUrY Saey 3 pue ssoueder ayi sy “SSTENP 23]) 22400 2) WI PAAIIgO Ose aI SURUZWIY SAITE 94 sousos2T#OD JO SOPNIFUBEW Sures YJ “JoUZISIEOD [ENT N PUE sUBISY 29M) S14) Joy OTe suwac 000 17 01.000 pT JO s31ep au) ae 3a ay) ui 2ousBz24Ip a8eauT] yo 0} so1ep 28941 SULKIddy “(7661 (12 FEIOH $1661 BOS PUE Z2qD0H $1661 "7019 ORLA * 1661 HIOH PUE BMUESSEH]) SOskTEUR S2ouaNbes se [OM se (Lg6]

“f7Ia UUE- !og6| “)D Ja reO}4) SSSA PER SULAZUD UONDLUIF2d JO saipnas snotazid til) panpep se ‘ove sywst

OOO ODE ©) OOOONE INOge soFId yoo) sou=BraAIp afeauy feUpuOYroIu

ay) rey) Sense M4 “9941 SU) JO 1003 ay 07 Sdn ay) woody syBUa] YouRIG ;eI0I ay Jo YIFU>

4 2H! JO Sei ApUO $1 Vey) JuIOd ¥ Te sM290 souaDsITEsty] OD “‘wyod Zurysvesg peuy Be JJ0 pasialp YOTYM J2IsNp [PEWS E UI sTED UZUTY sANERY OM] QA J313980) parwadde ssouedey suo ‘tj s9\snj> uy ‘2durexa 104 “Ay pure {J sx91SN]> 10) Y>eD O00 paw “TIL 4915} 205 Sa *] 27 Joy M aay :yDeD UTSENPIAIpUY URIS MUS Se 35) UEMMTY QANCH] ae s19)sSUIS N]9 NO] aq] JO Saquisjo w Ajwofeum F qenoqiTy “seuy paysep Aq uMesp ame soBeauy weUMY s31}0 SeII yM “SUT PHOS Aq UMOYs ore Si9Isny> IMO} aq UT papnfoU! sofeoUT UeSU

|

OUTY DAITENY ‘so SY) Uy “(p's “Bty) wortas pssuay) an wi be Aoueisu03 s 2181 JO UOndWnSsE ay) WIA

“Bonefndod uemny aie 247 Woy ssouanbes apno ojnu aq) Jo stsApeue

SMHEINUEND 34) Aq pouLnjwo ase (1661 TENBIA Kq poyodsy suey JO} stskpetre aouanbes aarsuaixa pure (/ 96 ) ‘72“yosa 9 WORD [996] “222 FeJOB

)) siskpeue omATWS DONOUTSI HOA, PSONPEp auam Yom ‘suBIsY pue suea doms yum pared “W0o

Se “SWNNM paysuoap Ayysy saey SuSE yey) sBuI HOMO] 317 51 (966'0) sueadoung uN yey) pure ysaySry au 51 pUy Jayjrea “STL (%7¢

Gry AUSIOAIP apnospnu ayy “(aE {"]) C-URISW PUE (4)¢9 °Z) suey °]) [-UEIy JO SonfeA UIOMIOG SITE) (%GZ"]) SEDUIUTY JANA) UTYDA AMSI9AIp aspnoajanu 3qL

‘CUP

WEY] SIAN 210 YON SI [-UEESY Fey) ]EIpIAD S| I “sUEISY JO WOKS “HIPQNS StU Waal) “(9961 EFeUNSAY yE PUR rex0F4) stsApeUe suLKzUD UOHSLISA I) a“

“SHOS SUBASY JO suonEIndodgns s2y1 “Z-uRIsy oFe 11 YBNI pr)UI Is0% a1 "[-UBISY SP paUYyap are EO YFNON) 15 0) Surtuojaq suvy sy ‘Ajourepy *32] oppustojAyd ay Jo swaned Suoisnp> ay) uo pase si 7-u pureR|-uE Is ISy y UsIm (Ped DONEULAP "TS | 3q8L Uy “suRsY pur g“sug sdoung ‘suusuyy Surpnpul “woneindod uBwnG 780) 2y1 30) Sypp'] Jo angen ay) wey) s9;jeuss ATIUANS 5

Liz PHOM MON 81) 0} UoRDUBpW Jo soaDm jUBZo{fIp :suos{ZoUry I81f OY

a

|

|

|

|

a

!

The first Americans: different waves of migration to the New World 279 appearance of Native Americans in the New World occurred 1400 to 210000 years ago. Paleogeographic data indicate that during the last glacial maximum, which occurred 18000 years ago, the whole Bering platform was less than 110

meters below modern sea level. The lower sea level exposed the Beringian plain over a distance of more than 1000km at its southern margin (Hopkins 1967). Our estimate for the migration time (the median being 17 500 years ago) is consistent with the time suggested by the paleogeographi data. c

Different waves of migration The phylogenetic tree also suggests that the four distinct clusters containing Native Americans may represent different waves of migration to the New World. The coalescence time within each cluster is less than one-fourth of the way from the tips to the root of the tree (shown by arrowheads in Fig. 18.4). However, the coalescence time among the four cluster goes s back to over one-h of alf the same pathway. When we assume that mitochondrial lineage divergence took place

about 200 000 years ago, this coalescenc time (shown e by solid circle in Fig. 18.4) amo to unt 3000 generation s s if the generation time of humans is 20 years. To mainsuch tain distinct lineages in a single panmictic population during such a

long time, it is required that the number of breeding females is at least 1000

(Takahata (991). It seems that this estimated number of breeding females is too

large compared with the effective size of the entire human population (10%)

estimated by Nei and Graur (1984). [t appears more likely that individuals in the four clusters are descendants of four different ancient populations, which were

well isolated from each other for a relatively long period of time. We therefore postulate that four ancestral populations gave rise to different waves of migration to the New World. Although it is difficult to detthe order ofine erm each migration, the timing may be somewhere between 14000 to 21000 years ago, if the initial coalescence time inferred from the phylogenetic tree is valid.

Pairwise nucleotide differences among Native Americans Episodes of demographic processes in human populations can be inferred from

the distribution of nucleotide differences between all pairs of individuals in a population (Di Rienzo and Wilson 1991). Previous observation for non-African

populations including Caucasians, Japanese, and American Indians, exhibited distributions with a single peak for pairwise differences (Di Rienzo and Wilson 1991). They noted that only African populations show distributions with two or more modes, which is significantly different from the Poisson, for which the mean is expected from the observed distribution. Based on the distributions of pairwise differences, they proposed that there are two likely scenarios of demographic growth and geographic expansion of non-African populations as opposed to the ostensibly constant size of African populations. To check this point in the present Native American populations, we looked at the distribution of sequence differences between all possible pairs of individuals among the Native Americans. A clear bimodal distribution in all pairwise

i

260 Sotoshi Horai, Rumi Kondo, Shunro Sonoda, and Kazuo Tajima

comparison of Native Americans was observed (data not shown). Moreover, wh we en reanalyzed the sequence data presente by Ward d ef al. (1991), an exactly

similar bimodal distribution was observed in a single tribe of American Indians.

Our observation is therefore contradictory to the previous observation for non-

African populations including Caucasians, Japanese, and American Indians, which exhibited distributions with single peaks (Di Rienzo and Wilson 1991), The

disagreement in the observation of Japanese population is probably due to an

inadequate interpretation of our previous sequence data (Horai and Hayasak a 1990). Since 61 Japanese individuals, all of whose restriction types were different

from one another among 116 subjects (Horai and Matsunaga

1986), were chosen

for sequence analysis, they are not random samples of the Japanese population,

In fact, when we also reanalysed the Japanese population, taking into consideration the frequency of each restriction type, we observed a trimodal distribu tion

of pairwise differences. The approximately Poisson distribution of pairwise dif-

ferences, therefore, may hold true only for Caucasian populations. The previous studies have suggested that the original colonists to the America s

passed through a narrow bottleneck before or during the colonized time (Wallace efaf. 1985; Schurr erai, 1990). Because the severe bottleneck should have generated a unimodal distribution of pairwise differences, the bimodal distribu.

tion in the present Native American populations suggests that there was neither a severe bottleneck, albeit there might have existed a milder one, nor rapid expan-

sion in popula size during tio n g of the New World. This agrees with the peoplin dispersed

and distinct locations of the four Native American lineages in the phylogenetic tree, which is in contrast to the star-like phylogeny as seen in Cauca-

sians (Figure | in Di Rieand nzo Wilson 1991), wh er most e ng points are branchi

clustered into a harrow range of sequence divergence.

Conclusions The nucleotide sequences of mtDNA from 72 Native Americans sampled in a wide range of North, Central, and South America were determined. Through an extensive analysis of sequence dat we tried a, to deduce the genetic background of the Native Americans, and when and how the first Americans people d the New World. Owing to the large amount of sequence data from other geographical or

racial populations, we were able to gain insights into the structure and the history

of the first Americ As ans Mongoloids, . contemporary Native Americans possess

characters similar to Asians with respect to nucleotide diversity and shared poly. morphic sites. We identified four distinct clusters in the Native Americans, Phylogenetic analysis indicates that these four clusters are not only distinct but are dispersed in the entire human population. Although no Native American was identical im sequence to an Asian, some Asian lineages always intermingled in every cluster. Thus, we postulate that these four cluster s represent respective

ancesiral populations in northeast Asia, which were well isolated from one another. These populations migrated separately and gradua lly towards the Bering land bridge

. While they migrated, part of the ancestral Asian s and ancestral

L-L961 “OL "WSN

ae teil

Lee

oe tir tea

“WNC [eupuoysonu

eee eee

ones ct

‘safung ‘yy ‘wosnaD*

Maal ay) uy wow Aer Mee

tee car a

pus aouenbes

‘ulmug ag “5 "@ ‘eae

“LW

“(1861)

ora

DI

y ‘Teun

:

‘ayueg ca aiaediy

“Yl sttH A3sog “38S. "68-191 ‘dd “(ag sayings YOHMOPwaI WoIy IOUNPIATa (E861) Ol] IPH

“a Sues

“yf “enyEUOg * Nit

oe

Mesias

‘seare Aqwoud WO YITeIsd AjNUINS PUE YoTessad DMUs [eIIUsT JJ TeIOH

ay) Aq "§ 0} pre-ur-syue8 (ueder) amyn> pue aouIHs ‘uoNEonpy Jo Asis pawoddns sem 30m S1]] “SUB ISIESE [EIUID| PUE [EDTUYIO] JO) BUEAEINY “yy SIV pure ‘suoIssnssip FUNENUNS PUE sJUIUTWIOD [NJasN 1OJ BEYEXC] “NIC AVE AAA

|

|

|

sjuewespalmMouyay ‘SROLIWYy

ay Jo Surpueissepun Jedeap aq7 jo yesszadsip ay) jo Fudoad sgn pue spropofuopy ‘Suypdures onde

B Ure}e 07 odxo om “EYSETY PUE BUAqIS ol) pr

-028 yfno10y) s10U! UO paseq aze sompnys sunny Wsyyy “sTIUIUTY ay) JO BuT|dosd Sy] JO OLNEWIOS [RIO] ay aTEISNTT! pmmoys suoHe;ndod asay) Joy suO!EsHsoAu! YUN “SUOTIEISTW J978] WO) POALOp Ivey O} Woes SOWA PUe ore “sUEIpU] 2y) sours ‘suonesn ayeredas Aq Apqeqoid Sey, 6 Oo] paonpolul aaq]-8N) der

Sem AVISISAIP [EUPUOYSONW JO JUNOUTE 3/qEJepisuds & ce

Je aA

°(996[) */8 19 Braquaai_H ]0} Burpso3Ie POM ‘yey poyeaaas Apnis Mo ‘ssapayIaUO er ee ee eee 0 oe ee ee man] 3y) 0

moO PE) “J9ASMOY‘SOU O} Pssu 3/4 24) juassidal SURDUSUTY SANE, JO ajdures

"juswUayIes

ehhh

yey]

eel

le

sisa8Bns suorerndod Roo] UaaMeq PUB UTYIIM ATSIOAIP APHODINU JO [ara] SUES

ay] “SHusuTy ay) JO sed snouraA m1 Surpes pue Bursuadstp ‘yinos ay) 1 spsenol

IOD ay) Jo UONEINdod ay) so1yesZIy “aBse] UIIq DEY FeINU! parexru sisUO

s are TEU! 2) fo o715 ay] ‘sUeSUIDUTY SAneR) 0} JYIsed mdod pelsesue nw wone

L}Od 01 JIps0 Uy ° etaucny wie N jo aydures SNOURA 34) UTEIUTEW SMSTLIOU

OU §sr aus, ‘ote si¥2h mo worsuedxa pided 10 49909]190q 219495 E 10) 20UapPIAd 000IZ 91 000FI| ponaz ced oo) s8puq poe] Sung

on) sou) stoma

a $50.58 wOpesB

pas ‘staan yeemyjp v1 Aqenpe:® pasmooo pyosa wan

oF

2

wos pefi2arp sueqeUry JATTEN ded Jey] Jayu} ayy “wounyora 2q) sr DOTe ySI1f OYL

1L8Z POM MON Ot) 0] UoRDI~W fo seaDM jueteffp suDsOUTY

gel

ae

982 Sotoshi Horai, Rumi Kondo, Shunro Sonoda, and Kazuo Tajima Cann, R: L. and Wilson, A. C. (1983). Length mutations in human mitochondrial DNA. Genetics, 104, 699-711.

Cann, R. L., Stoneking, M., and Wilson, A.C. (1987). Mitochondrial DNA and human

evolution. Nature, 325, 31-6.

Di Rienzo, A., and Wilson, A.C. (1991). Branching pattern in the evolutionary tree for

human mitochondrial DNA. Proceedings, National Academy of Sciences, USA, &,

1597-601. Dillchay, T.D.,

Pino, O.M.,

Davis, E.M.,

Valastro, 5. Jr., Valrela, A.G.,

and

Casamiquela, R. (1982). Monte Verde: radiocarbon dates from an early-man site in south-central Chile. Archaeology, 9, 547-50.

Greenberg, J.H., Turner, C.G. Ul, and Zegura, S.L. (1986). The setthement of the kc

lems, naman

cing nya

ieee

maaan

Curren

Anthropology, I7, 477-97. ias, Carbon-14 dates point to man in the Americas 32 000 G. (1986), Guidon,N. and Delibr

years ago. Nafure, 321, 769-71 Hasegawa, M. and Pa. (lai) “Thies ea

mitochondrial DNA.

M., Mickleson, Hertzberg, (1989). pepe

ei

a ae

Madsbat tak ar ptyiaGeha ae

n human

32, 37-42,

, Serjeantson, §. W., Prior, J. F., and Trent, R. J.

She bbce of cauaaahial DMA Gs frequently found in

Polynesians. AmericanJournal of Human Genetics, 44, 504-10. g Stanford University Press, Palo land bridge. Hopkins, D. M. (ed.) (1967). The Berin Alto. Horai, 5. (1991). Molecular phylogeny and evolution of human mitochondrial DNA. In New aspects of the genetics in molecular evolution, (ed. M. Kimura and N. Takahata), pp. 135-52. Japan Science Society Press, Tokyo,/Springer-Verlag, Berlin. 5. and Hayasaka,K. (1990). Intraspecific nucleotide sequence differences in the Horai,

DNA. American Journal of Human major noncoding region of human mitochondrial

Genetics, 46, 829-42. IT. m Japanese. Horai, $. and Matsunaga,E. (1996). Mitochondrial DNA polymorphisin Analysis with restriction enzymes of four or five base pair recognition. Human Genetics, TL, 105-17. ring of mitochondrial Horai, 5., Gojobori,T., and Matsunaga,E. (1986). Distinct cluste

Negroes. Japanese Journal of Genetics, and ans DNAA types among Japanese, Caucasi 61, Z71-

, H., and Nakai, N. (1991). 5., Koike, K., Hayashi Murayama, Reside Nees mitochonf from i inferred kata coaensray Pisieclaic afte af midis cod drial DMA. Philosophical Transactions, Royal Society, London8, 333, 409-17. 5., Satta, Y., Hayasaka, K., Kondo, R., Inoue, T., Ishida, T. ef af. (1992). Man's Horai,

l af Molecular place in Hominoidea revealed by mitochondrial DNA genealogy. Journa Evolution, 45, 32-43. J. E., Potter, 5.'5., and Edgell, M. H. (1974). Maternal Hutchison, C. A. I], Newbold, ee rien ee Nature, 251, 536-2.

Kocher,T. D. and Wilson,A C. (1991). Sequence evolution of mitochondrial DNA iecaiaiiea seit hdencioames: comivol vealcn wad a protemn-coding region. In mika

ak

culture, (ed. 5. Osawa and T. Honjo), pp. 391-413. and es, life: fossils, molecul

Springer-Verlag, Tokyo. Kocher,T. D., Thomas, W. K., Meyer, A., Edwards,5. V., Padbo, S., Villablanca, F. X. ics DNA evolution in animals: amplification and eval. (1989). Dynam of mitochondrial National Academy of Sciences, USA, i a gg hg aaa I

.

Marshall, E. (1990). Clovis counterrevolution. Science, 249, 738-41,

rid

ta

9,

senpold

DONEWIOJUT JY) JO UONRUNWEX

OW HE) OW Ajprey s7e YY

“suOT od

sUoTeldsojur eoddns o

af) WO ApOIIWS SI1]2I WE VEYD F] NOTA STI YIM Woyqoad oy ‘(ed “ZEH61 Fg pue sINEGer) auNyNsFT jo peauds

og AOU ISN UOPTEZUOpOS © ** “aydoad onda 2y) $8 Uset

pur srapl jo DORMYyIP ay) YBnomy) speads AyMsauaT aunynouiy sseFopooeqaue Auew “SUIMO[O) 39) SE YINE SUSUISPETS YA SNS! 2qE |

endo ay) se yons adood popejas-AjpesndAjousyd jo SSEnsueE] “suNyNIuse pO pesids Ayes ay) Wl pue “somes

PUE Sse2I2U1 UoNe;ndod moys Ag Ajurem aq] 12 DOnUEdYS

JO idsou03 ay) Ss] ansst Ty “SWy) PEININSUBE Apreswy HESINGS OFM! BOISNE! ploposuoyy Jolew sy) ESTA WH

yuasaid | WoIssnIsip ATeUNdiosupsojul Sep nuns OL “Sdol) ay) JO YOU

syRIWOS

WO)

UOWNQUTp

As] “PAs [EDysedns & uo pdaoxe ‘uoedepe

Jaby jn

s8RuIRWO

ing) oy

“suoqemdod

Soe ENE Teryt Wen

snousdipul

yn

erenes Ss. C1061 surqqoy

JOU Op (RISAUBIAWy “BITENISMY “eIPUy WuayINOS iN390 Aymbuidoud pewoyenbs oj snp padojaasp

ns

|

Ul spuagy aidAjouayd ayy sido)sy) apisino

ie hoped Ge

ja Ajsnolago puke) sofew ay wou

y ISEIYINOS WIL AYES BIS ) id 9POINE] AO] WO

2oya ©Tan heeninadedl guvitciani many

ae nos 9)

PUB WAY LWOU a4) Ul paysixa aAeY yyw WaIsaM

ADUIE

yy ‘S905 Ne ae Yu suoneyndod peanynase-sid apy aq) paidnsce Aprouye oy suoneyndod UBISSUEPAW SsAaieltbes Glia’ siemaeoas Ruccuom Gaal epceernd 2700 SWOs UI Ajpeso] BuINUIIUODs1 pur >yq WnTUusT

UOIEZTUOPOD sy, “auNyN2UFe uo souapuadap jo seseyd

quoU 24) wory wore! ay) 2zTU0]O9 0} URS2q splojoduoy A~P yey) MIIA 34] UIxe] Sney | (OZEG1 “P1661 ‘S86l suonemdod Aw Ul IFEIYINGS UO aarjsadssad onsiNFuI] pu pErsoposeysE moTInposT]

—

poomyeg 18)4d

Splojosuoy] UleyyNOS ay} JO SIp oy} pue ammymose Ajreg ‘6

c

!

—_—_— 200

—_——

Peter Dollwood

live in deserts, full-time agriculture can be countered by stating thattruemany of all groups: some

not equatorial rain forest or boreal regions. But this is

native Australians were certainly occupying regions of great agricultural fertility

as recently as 150 years ago, and so were some native Californians. | am unaware of any successful attempts by these societies, some semi-sedentary, to adops

they have been agriculture of any kind during the two centuries through which it at first hand. I accept that there might have been some complex able to observe foraging groups in the fertile agricultural regions of the world, for instance in North America, who long ago adopted agriculture pe eastern ro northern Euand diffuand fully-Medged Neolithic/Formative lifestyles mainly through cultural Agia, sion. But | do not see evidence for such situations anywhere in southeast

where evidence for complex foraging (in the sense of Keeley 1988) is so far absent . from the archaeological record, I suggest that it is not the adoption of some form of cultivatory activity that is of greatest significance in the origins of agriculture debate, but the shift to agri-

cultural dependence and the consequent release given to processes of coloniza-

tion. Perhaps the linguistic record reveals this most clearly.”

4. World linguistic diversity is categorized into a series of language families

or phyla, with occasional interstitial isolates. The patterning of cognate (i.c.

genetically inherited, not borrowed) forms in lexicon, phonology, and grammar within and between these language aggregates allows us, after distinguishing shared innovations from retentions, to postulate homeland regions for them, to

reconstruct aspects of their proto-vocabularies, and to approximate their relative

time depths. Such language groupings, when well studied, normally turn out to

be sufficiently discrete that languages can usually be allocated to one or another

\ _ ff

:

without dispute. Thus, language families are not merely gradualistic erystallizations out of an even mesh of worldwide linguistic diversity, but carry in their

cognate sets evidence of differential dispersal from homeland regions, followed

| by consequent intrafamily boundary formation, Deep-seated cognacy cannot be attributed purely to chance, borrowing or areal convergence. Also, language families cannot be attributed to historical conquests or imposed shifts: in most

cases their present geographical distributions had been attained long before the

period of historical nation states. They are essentially the products of small-scale prehistoric societies.

Language families, therefore, reflect linguistic expansion from homelands rather than borrowing or convergence alone. But how did such expansion occur? ft is here that archacologists tend to bring in diffusionary mechanisms—lingua francas, bilingualism, élite dominance and so forth, However,

if languages

spread on the scale of whole families by such means, replacing hundreds of diverse vernaculars, we would surely see strong and very widespread indicators

of interference through shift,” Such indicators are not evident on a widespread

and consistent scale throughout the major agriculturalist language families of the Old World, although language shift historically has obviously been very important in some regions on a local scale (Cooper 1982; Thomason and Kaufmann

ET

"URIAq LOWS AYE : Sy MeL -oneny Apes 3p ya Soreonmy Aum :yyq

‘UMIPIARIC] ApS 2) a wNey oy WEEMS 2G Sere) Ayred tq !uexdomy-opuy Ayres

“BI

EIS -Ouyy Apes oy-Wa [61 “BLY OT OMoys spoRy Ray pENyn a oUiE qs AsOp

dias CepaA0 FHOIE SF | “FoNUney aPenToy po PIO 40) SpUEPOY pareTIng ggT “Ay

}MIINOS 3] “PLO PIO 2g) JO SpueyuRag pemyRoUsy. Ter By

Early ogriculture and the dispersal of the southern Mongoloids

293

mountains and outflowing sediments in and around regions of early agriculture,

and low homogencous outwash plains between,’ Sucha pattern would not exist if the major mechanism of cultural spread since agricultural beginnings was purely cultural or linguistic diffusion without colonization. In short, agriculture has caused a massive restructuring of the world’s language map, equal to that

caused by the first spread of sapient humans and more significant even than that of the spread of colonialist languages since the Middle Ages.

The early agricultural colonization hypothesis and southeast Asia Clearly, | am hypothesizing strong links between language and colonizing populations in prehistory. Both languages and cultures are extrasomalic systems which

follow similar patterns of transmission. But genes are another matter. People of

can intermarry; but in such entirely unrelated cultural and linguistic backgrounds we would expect the cultural background of one or other of the parents cases

to predominate in transmission to offspring (dependent in part on postmarital with the genes. mix of both as happens residence location), rather than an equal

While there is surely a generalized geographical and historical correlation beis tween languages and racial variation on a broad world scale, the correlation aot absolute. Colonizing agriculturalists must have met and intermarnied with existing native peoples in innumerable situations, often to the extent that the biological populations at the end of a line of linguistic expansion were quite dif-

ferent biologically from those at the start—witness northern Europeans versus west Asian peoples, and even more markedly, Taiwanese Austronesian-speakers versus their linguistic relatives in island Melanesia.

in mind, I now turn to a brief overview, with the above theoretical perspectives of the linguistic and archaeological correlates of prehistoric Mongoloid dispersal.

in southeast Asia. Because the archaeological record is of uneven quality and

because of my stress on linguistic evidence, [ will structure the information in the around the prehistory of the major language families: Austronesian on the mainland. | have no very useful s, and Tai-Kadai and Austroasiatic island observations to make on Tibeto-Burman because of an almost complete lack of

archaeological data. in the Austronesian prehistory has been heavily influenced by the two regions western part of the Pacific basin that are known from the archaeological record to have been early and independent centres of agricultural development. These are the central and southeastern parts of China, the ultimate Austronesian source, and western Melanesia, an area where Austronesian colonists interacted with existing Papuan populations. Taiwan, an island appendage of the southern Chinese region, occupied a very important geographical and structural position

as the presumed location of Protowithin Austronesian prehistory. It served Austronesian, perhaps by 3000 BC. It therefore played a crucial role in the initial dispersal of the Austronesian languages and their speakers, who ultimately

spread more than half-way round the world from Madagascar to Easter Island.

over a period of about 4000 years, culminating in the sal took place This disper

settlements of Madagascar and New Zealand around 1000 years ago."

i

7000 BC

6000 BC

S000 BC

4000 BC

3000 BC

2000 BC

1000 BC

(FORAGERS, POSSIBLE ACTORS IN AGRICULTURAL ORIGINS IN YANGZI RGGION)

IOADINHAN PEDDL.STOOL. INDUSTRIBS

AUSTROASIATIC AND AUSTRO-TAI

|LANGUAGES ANCESTRALTO

RICG

LANGUACIES

SE ASIA

MAINLAND

SOUTHERN

AUSTROASIATIC LANGUAGE DISPERSAL

UsE OF BRONZE

TAI-KADAI ANI) HMONG-MIEN

?

-

SE ASIA

MAINLAND

NORTHERN

USE OF IRON

SOUTH CHINA

MAINLAND

|

USE OF IRON

AND

EAST INDONESIA

(APITA INDISMARCKS)

DRONZE APPEAR TOGETHER

PHILIPPINES

WEST

INDONESIA

(NOT IIOADINIIAN)

FLAKE AND DLADE INDUSTRIES

•Bellwood et al. 1992

(AGRICUITURAL (ORIGINS IN WLST MLANESIA)

NO ROLEN AGRICULTURAL ORIGINS

PROTO-AUSTRONESLAN

AGRICULTURE - RICE, WITH IN AUSTRONESAN LANGUAGEDISPERSAL.

TURE- RICE, WITH NCREASINGEMPILASISON FRUITSANDTUDERS TOWARDS EQUATORAND INTOMELANESIARICE*

TAIWAN

ISLANDS

developments in southeast Asia.

linguistic and archaeological

of the major

Fig. 19.4 A chronological chart

colonization of Oceama. > The Austronesian homeland

region

(linguistically

speaking,

a

pre-

tching from the Austronesian concept) was located within the same zone, streh to the Austrohwards to northern Vietnam, which also gave birt

Yangzi sout uages (Chamberlain 1977; asiatic, Tai-Kadai and Hmong-Mien (Miao-Yao) lang 1984-5). This zone is marked Benedict 1975, 1976; Norman and Mei 1976; Reid lay, by very high linguistic diversity expressed

today, beneath the Han Chinese over families. Each of not solely in numbers of languages, but in numbers of language in this region rather these has postulated origins, in terms of subgroup ranking, t Asia. The linguistic than in the more southerly regions of mainland southeas here it le inythe homeland region reflects the fact that populations rs visib still dive ards first, and remained grew first, “filled in’ their landscapes first, expanded outw

until the historical subsequently unreplaced, despite complex interdigitation, s Thai, and Vietnamese expansion (mainly since AD 1). Chinese, of od peri would pnmarily 3. Hunter-gatherers in the path of agricultural colonization

als, although peoples land have been assimilated or forced to retreat to margin higher chance of adoptwith fairly sedentary lifestyles might have stooda much

Philippine Negritos ing agriculture successfully. For instance, a few groups of a (Headland and have probably practised casual agriculture for several millenni past intermarriage Reid 1989), although most of these groups also show traces of

with a small with Mongoloid populations so the adoption could have occurred ale adoption of amount of demic intrusion. However, had there been large-sc

in island southeast Asia, we would agriculture by pre-existing forager populations ronesian family. expect some survival there of other languages outside the Aust

ges in No such survival has ever been clearly recorded. The Papuan langua

centre Halmahera and Timor represent quite separate oul-movements from the of early agriculture in New Guinea.

colved from recent episodes of agricultural ap lshi deric §. Using demogrmode

nizing onization (e.g. Australia), we would expect the early Austronesian colo

populations to: grow fast, through high rates of live births combined with relatively good health and little stress on food sources; move fast, through constant budding off of new families into mewly-cleared land; and eschew conservationist measures, i.¢., promote high rates of deforestation, soil erosion, and faunal extinction.

6. Other inferences about early Austronesian colonization can finally be

OU] aeouUINg pue Mig I) :s9UNT PEDUOISIY Uy speasds syisiNFuy sofew aymb

MOS Used OFF IARY aly) EISy IseayINOS JO Wed Ws)sam ay) UTYLIAA “SOY

fueweg TuuNogysien ay) yp ApoE (WeRsy) M1sINFuY] pue jeAFojoIg yonw PHUE I! Ose Sey Gy UONEiNdod & “EIsKEpeyy JE[NsUNUSd JOLIZTUT JO SIOTEAIYND bOWas ay) aye Aepo) FIUEpUsosSep III] UOTFII WIDYINOS Jey Sty] UY *(G EG] POOMIPG) 22 OOO] POF OOO, Geemieq emnsutusd Wekeyeyy-M 2y)eyy UMOp spremynos JaqUMy pepuedxs M00) 34) Jo sulos yey) pur ‘sJayvads fepey-1e| JOU pue Wee

~Ousn'y jerour yussoudau (ol) neg ‘wadndyy Sunyg ‘ey, YOR WOR “Suenweg

S'9) POETRY], PUR WWIII, WIG WOU JO says [EININIIFE Apres 3y) yey) 81 VON

~dumsse Fuyyiom Ajay “i9y8] powmsc0 sdeyzad jsamyInos 24) 07 siayeods UEWINg

“OPGLL JO peaids ay) ysnoyye ‘Sq OOsZ-000E Aq (dnowZqns epunyy) erpuy

OFM} S018 Ward sduysad puE BIS ISeAYINOS WIYWOU OVW! BUY WayINOSs Woy

TWOP [Jom Pods Pel SIOPEATITNS DyerseOlNy JO suoTE;ndod yey) sisaFsns aun)

“nd spsndoy aq] *(a8enBue]10 ABojo1g ayeFNs3AU! Jou s90p Inq ‘AFojoseyue 3y) JO WROIIe YIsUI-YOo B Saals GRET WYRE 'E661 ‘PTEGI POO) aqQUIEAT

2E SJNOWE JIN) PUR EG] “Fy Ul Vaal ame s[rejap 2uOg “worEIOgET? 40)

YP]

eds Spy H1 S29q) pswsssM09 S| ITY ISEIYINOS JO PUE;UTEW ay) SE Ie] Sy

3UO OU! paypos svan[yu meadoung pur “UETS] ‘SmpUy JO spouted juanbasqns ay) [je EY? 1weWOduN sOW

sdeqiod sem }| EIFY Iseoq]NOs pUEPS JO Je) UEUINY oy) UO jEdUNT sy Jo SWI Oy “AMEUORMpOAM-OU pre ‘mops ‘fenpeld Aypuessaoou sem

pessadsip snusmduy

TESUONENy Alto 1EY) BP! Iq) JO SApsINO PL Oo} peau ospe ayy “AuOUNS

FEANYNIUEEJO suo) Fuidopaasp Ajmau Aq paplaosd sayuniioddo ay) sapisu0s oF Paed am “PRasN] “UOMUBCKS Moy) UeHeq suBIssUOISsNYy Ay Ureldxe 0} jsanbuco

40 “HORAIE}S ‘ssouys “Asusp vorepndod ysiy jo ssuspias sainbai you op 344

“RUBIO OF] SIAOW UEISIUOUISNY [ETO ay) wl juWeAafas aNd

Weg sary WES YM UONEdeEpe Ue yUssoude1 Ady] “(6961 POOMTIG) JE OOO! Trea] ye Ag Weqes wi yussod uI0q aaey PynoD “sJayeads peureS Ayres jo WO) 9) Or sdeyzad “saq7e] 24) TEU) SUNY FEMBOPOOEYIIE SIE 2J9y,] “spewoOU eas STUUR se Apoo Inq 0) feucyenbs mi Apsom pedopasp ‘suoneidepe sour Pur

‘paloqied pus payng 24 0] UTEMISy ssomMOseI ay

SARM[E SE ‘AWOUODS UE

“ony Ayres 3q) jo tpedse se panunuos sary 07 poisedxa aq ues Buuayse? pur Fe SAU 2y) IsBuOUTE [Jom _Sonuny 180) BUIYD Wayinos ay) JJO spUEys! [JEWS TESsuoNny-sd wt uo) suIOs UI Ajqeumsaid put ‘ysea] 12. som) UErssut}Od

~OARTEPI-O101g Aq padopasp jam auam saBopouyse; peuonesiaeu pue 2008)

“(1661 Yury) suOPfas mau yo uONeI0;dxa jeNIU! pay}owod axey osye yySrU spood pue ABOpOIP! 30] aIEP YY "(666] POOmsjag) yUsWZ2UEYUD yu JapUNOy aBnsead peiidso] apUNO) poua) asym? JAeY | YIM sessa90Id Aq poplacid u20q 4F4

PIMOm “Snes IUNINY PU WIsd IDEN

0} ‘spuIWI]IIIs MoU Puno 07 VOI TOF

EF Wow ABME ACW O} SMsduT jwEIsUOD Y “szaISN[D UOHENdod Mau yo FuIpUne) WEES 34) PUL—pur] M20 TED 0} AOU siayIO ‘swWOY Ie AeIs sPurqe 2%

—vorsy Apurey 0} Sunmsad ‘snonunUOD uI9q aARY PInOM yrMoss uoNEINOd

“Oamlog 58 YON spuBys feuorenbs wi susau dn Suracw Aq Ajpensn ‘soul

2878] Jo Suu! J97e] AO YM “TeyseO AypeInTUT idm syusWa]TIaS “PPPS puryst

5

-8

ce nl

=

ieee

=

a

—_

300 Pater Bellwood reflects that itred Australia and California, and again the possibility has to be conside California and Australia northern Both time. over net stability or outflow of population had high density forager populations vis-d-vis neighboring regions.

® That the Austronesians developed navigational methods and voyaged much further in

search of new land than the Papuans is self-evident, and | suspect there are cultura) reasons for these differences, Papuans, as the inhabitants of the interior of a large lang. mass when agriculture was first developed, did not need to colonize new regions and could, when necessary, intensify their agriculture and population densities in sifu, Early

presumably already marine-oriented whenthe cree weresians Austrone

ene

agriculture took place somewhere along the island-fringed east coast 0of southern China,

the prestigegiven ip Subsequently, many aspects oHence bog alam for colonization desire a peat as 1995), (Bellwood sadigtinin aad soilaiabal founders

the which we can see most clearly expressed in the prehistoryof Lapita and subsequently

r parts of Oceania. remote

References

Ammerman, A.J. and Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. (1984). The Neolithic transition and genetics of population in Europe. Princeton University Press.

Anthony, D. W. (1991). The archaeology of Indo-European origins, Journal of JIndo-

European Studies, 19, 193-222.

Bellwood, P. (1978). Man's comguwest af the Pacific. Collins, Auckland, Bellwood, P. (1984-5). A hypothesis for Austronesian origins. Asian Perspectives, 16, 107-17. Bellwood, P..(1985). Prehistory of the Indo-Malaysian archipelago. Academic, Sydney.

Bellwood,P. (1989). Archaeological investigations at Bukit Tengkorak and Segarong, of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association, 9, 122-62. southeastern Sabah: Bulletin a decisive transition or a millennial blur? —s Bellwood,P. (1990). ig 1 Archaeology, of Review

Bellwood, P 95), Hach, oud

ely a

Austronesian expansion. In Origin,

ancestry and alliance, (ed.J. Fox and C. Sather). Department of Anthropology, Research School of Pacific “gad “Asian: Soodies. Australian National University, Canberra. Bellwood,P. (1991). The Austronesian dispersal and the origins of languages. Scientific American, 145, $8-93.

Bellwood, families.

e (in press). Prehistoric cultural explanations for widespread language Understanding Ancien! Atsiralig:

Perspectives from archaeology and

and N. Evans). Oxford University Press, Melbourne. ingui,. P. McConvell Bellwood, P _ (19922). Southeast Asa before history. In The Cambridge history of sowtheast Asia, Vol. 1, pp. 55-134. Cambridge University Press.

Bellwood, P. (19925). New discoveries in southeast. Asia relevant for Melanesian (especially Lapita) prehistory. In Poterie Lapita ef peuplement, (ed. J.C. Galipaud), ee

eehligee desrpaey

st 1000 yen

Posen, 3

goes

ee Gillespie,R., Thompson,G. B., Vogel,J.5., Ardika,I ws , and Datan, oe sit date: bat seikeoks falar vie ite Paraective, 3 161-70, Benedict,P. (1975). Ausiro-That longuage and culture. HRAF

Press, New Haven.

Benedict,F. (1976).Austro-Thai and Austro-Asiatic, In Ausroasigticstudies, (ed. P

erfrtitiliseeeiijiu

302 Peter Ballwood

nic language Commint Pawicy, A. K. and Green, R. C. (1984), The Proto-Ocea

Journey

Pacific History, 19, 123-46.

Asian Perspec, reid L. A. (1984-5). Benedict's Austro-Tai hypothesis: an evaluation. fives, 16, 19-34. on language. Jonathan Cape, Londlingui Renfrew, C. (1987). Archaeology and specu stic diversity of s origin the on ns latio Renfrew, C. (1991). Beyond Babel:

Cambridge Archaelogical Journal, 1, 3-23.

Press, Orlando FL Rindos, D. (1984). The origins of agriculture. Academic n pigmentation. Cambridge Robbins, A.H. (1991). Biological perspectives on Auma University Press.

of language Ross, M. (1991). Refining Guy's sociolinguistic types #, 119-29.

iniroduction Ruhlen, M. (1987). Press. Stanford University

he world’s language

Academ Sauder, G. (1990). Europe between the languages. Australian

change. Digchronigg classification

the

Humanities,

Canberra.

Antiquity, 249 Spriggs, M. (1989). The dating of the island southeast Asian Neolithic, $87-612.

T. (1988). Longuage contact credlization and genes Thomason, $.G. and Kaufman, of California Press, Berkeley. linguistics. University the Sino-Tibetan af cs Thurgood, G., Matisoff, J., and Bradley, D. (eds) (1985). Linguisti alian National area: the state of the art. Pacific Linguistics Series C, Number 87. Austr

/

ansina, J, (1979-80). Bantu in the crystal ball.

History in Africa, 6, 289-333; 7, 293-325.

In Pacific andry in China. ‘an Wenming (1993). Origins of agriculture and animal husb ) Rhee Song

y, Aikens and (eds C.M. northeast Asia in prehistor n , to ng University Press Pullman State ashi

D

304 |. Peter White

chronological e a major in there was if rm r,ed to dete is requir research, howeve and temperate regionsal t men of tropic division between the first settle

to the important point that by 30000 Cl4 Allen's paper also drew attention in two coryears ago regional variation in cultural traditions was already visible Archiners of the continent—the future islands of Tasmania and the Bismarck pelago. Previous general discussions of the Sahul evidence (¢.g. White and only O'Connell 1982: Lourandos 1987) have treated the continent as containing ation one cultural system until Holocene times, with the further general implic that, despite adaptations to local environments, the “Aboriginality’ of the continent’s inhabitants was established by 30000 years ago and has remained essen-

tially unchanged. This has been more specifically argued by Jones (1990). It is in relation to this question that the American settlement evidence is of

interest. Other papers in this volume discuss the date of American settlement and here I simply draw attention to one implication. If settlement of the Americas

adapoccurredat 14.000 C14 years BP or less then the rates of human spread and

tation there were quite unlike those of Sahul. There, by 10000 BP at least, humanity had reached Tierra del Fuego, 17000 km from its presumed starting point in western North America, Not long after this, within at most three millenwith plant cultivation were beginning. If, on the other hand, nia, experiments occurredtby 30000 years ago, then the archaeological had men American settle records of the two continents appear much more similar. Resolution of this question is likely to bear on such general questions as human adaptive mechanisms,

rates of population growth in newly settled environments and other broad questions of human cultural evolution.

on of Sahul Colonizati I turn now to the cultural evidence from early Sahul, evidence which, | suggest, tends to support the idea that this did not derive from a long-established Homo

erectus cultural base in southeast Asia, but from a relatively newly-arrived Homo

The most obvious candidate for consideration, both negatively and positively,

occupation of 00 00 is sea travel, First, we may note that despite at least 50years of Sunda by Homo erectus, there is no evidence of its presence on any of the islands of Wallacea or in Sahul

(Jones

1989). The

change

in the

period

50 000-35 000 years ago is stunning: not merely the invasion of the mainland of

s to sustain human existence enough and also of,all those isllarge butelf Sahul its

without intensive agriculture, notably New Britain, New Ireland and the Solomons. Some of the voyages to these places certainly took people out of sight of land. Most previous discussions of this, including my own (e.g. White and O'Connell

1982: Jones 1989), have taken the parsimonious view, requiring the simplest possible technology such as rafts, the smallest number of possible migrants and the high probability of accidental transits. The first Australians, in this view, acquired their country as the result of a series of mistakes some 50000 years ago. That was all very well when attention was focused only on Sahul, i.e. Australia and New Guinea.

.

pur A[pides J39yit9 ‘sUOTDUTIXa UET[Ida) PUE UFIAE JuOs pue UEEWUEW AceU JO 36NED JY) SB W205 90g UI1JO SEY Fase POEs Ul PEALE USUI p] “FEIUSUTy 2)

pur [NYeS JO sSeUNE ay) UO SHEdUT! UEWNY aq) UIaMm)9q (066| UOSMEID) pomndsip

pure (pag) UNTEpy [996] SoU0s) UMeIp U20q FuC] Jey ssdUdpeAINdy “yes “ousTEE -qns Uewny jo sodse JOfewW 19470 34) UO SJpEW oq OS[E ISNW JUSWWOS sus

JY) UO “S}USWUOJIAUS

SOUIN|JUT I[I] IABY OYM saayIEF WOPUE Jo spdaouOd jENsN ay) Woy Pexou

Je) Se SUCH Efe

TweldsUBUINY jedos) JO suIOy YONs TY) 1 INO WwWlOd isn |

oq UED Tin Bity sess TeUAA “Save OWOpy 01 Payuy Apsop A[QeUOsEa!

$1 EY) Ing “seare peNdon WO) $]00] JWOS IABY IM UIYM ‘DININY IY] 10) YSTEISII

say) Ul spew ysz1y ApoyT] 21Mb sem jy jwaides Gus) ay) SunuaW Ajpeas put aq)

sdeysod ‘woruaauy ueWNY ApulIstp B FEM POO JOY s1TEPd IPO) Jo Fuyss200Id ay)

S Ua}es aAeY ISN sHyIIua JO} “PUTy WyBIw aM FEY) ING—ZuIySWO Tey) ‘SOUETSUT

owopy ‘ye Iyye—suandos owopyy Aq pasaacssip sem syuepd asay) [fe JO ArpIqips

ay) Tey) ‘asuNod JO ‘WTEP 01 INEM JOU pinom | “eer ay) yo ajdoed Aq wares jpNs

SPIOIe SE PolpUapt Uasq JARY S591] JO SWOS PUE (E461 SUA PU VOLE) puEpal]

Se (Z4GI ‘7212 AO “ERG SBBUdS pur 49]491) MAN] Ul $1001 2UIIOISIO[q WO se [Jam

ay) JO aulos UO pun] IEA OOO F$7—1SeI]L Jesyo SPUR]S] WOWOLOS IY) Ul SIeNIE—p

uae IABYy SUTEIS YoreTs “A[peoteds opy “sdos> 20OU PUR 397) YO SUTAPOAUT ‘osn jepd suas07s1a}.g 10) 22u2p1Aa 3q) pomsiaas Apuacas sey (7461) UapSOH “00 S1 asn yoeyd po }2e) 24) “parsaiun yuasasd ye $1 STI Jy “PNYES I PUNdY SEITE HaTTES ot)

JuoWeE 210M Sty) JOY $]001 3Y) JEU) pUe oUIISIEqQNS HEMINY Ul Bers Furse]-Fuo]

pue jwevodul we Ajqeqoud sem uorrerns jueyd req) wounsre ay) podopanap seq

(661) 2Qnoss ‘Apuaced QIOpY “SPRUTUE DEY) JoyTes s1veyd 0) pu Bare ay) 0) TEY)

JOYPEI JUSWUOJIAUS 3) 01 Sem BOT dEpE Jey) Ino Funupod ‘nyEs pue Epuns jo SHOU pesn ATUEUNY dy) Ul SONPUEp] JOEVOdUT AUeW 94) OF WORUAITE maup aq

aq Sty) JO Yy2eI7 9y) WO sn ind (1 ,G]) UOS}OR yes Oe sek QZ TET) 20}y

puE eIsy IsEIyINOS Se Tons "HYeS WeaqUoU

stare porsasoy Aqjeandon wy Saray suewny Jo) areudosdde 3q 0} Fu108 you st a1)

“ed soua)sisqns & ysns yey) Surzyead Wey) asaq 1WeLOduTT $59] sdequad si Somanoe

ITE JEM! yey WOU) APIOzIp S2ALap 10 an) se 395 sIStFOpOSEY jweWOduN APesLis

sy UO pasns0y ATenyoe sem sty) soyveu,yy “SeOAIqJaY 2Bze] JO ZuTjuNY peztereds

uaeq sey wapeambe sy Jo Sryosyeg saddp) ay JO Mata INO “splIOAA Ayrenored

MAN] PUE PIC 24] YIOg UI IBY) NOX puywad | “suTsISqQns UeUNY ‘sse501d UOTEZTUO

-109 sty) jo wed Sureuoses OW ay) sdeqsad jo uotssnasqp swos O1 MOU LIM) |

‘adomg JO Iu) se ‘yeUUOY jwasajjip F Ul YFnou) ‘sanbruyss)

@ATeTUNUUOD sures 2g) Fursn sss90Id WoNEZTTO[OS FO} SyuIOd SoUaplAs |nyES

ay) “Ajyesauad azopy “Bursudins 00} 3q 10U Pmoys soyep Jappo “We juss)

oul

JO TONED] ay) USAT ‘pUe SAB> poso}oud-ffam WEY) J9q10 SITs 2UIOS TE FOO] 0]

sn more Aew Surep jo sanbruyse) mau yeq) Zanow quom sty! Ing “(0661 je le

Aor]) uses aney | SEP SW HeP[O ay] aze siesX ONO OT WANT B—Pjo 05 aq 01 UMOYs UZ0q ‘Fey Os ‘)OU aARY sfuNUIEY “PuNEp SWwY YsNoIy) seek BOgreIOIpes O} poyur ‘Suryep 2Anepl Ofel-UONED UO peseq ae ss, “(£66] WOM pur

SQQON ‘961 “72 12 WG) BITENISNY YINOS plre-Tules wl sFuLAwIBua 10) S7EOK DOO OF

JIAO JO sae JO SWITEPD 10002) 94) B78 919q) “Hay

“peiqnop 34 yOUUED FUN

MOS

Zunured azom aq) ve) Ing ‘aQuUTUUs}ep 10U S| s[jeEm JO ‘SHEFWE ‘sqpoq mM 27 [1 SOE

EEE

=

gong with

times.

All of these adaptations occu

¥ until well into

This is not the Paleolith; it. to se clo y ver or ul, Sah of ization

e and in what sense the chi colonization is been brought up to know and siolov n. cus dis for s paleolithic remain geferences

st colonize Australi J. (1990). When did humans fir

ae

Hes 2, New

evolution in East Asia and hea grown, P. (1992). Recent humanoc on, series B, ndy Lot i of e

Philosophical

at-81,or ofctsto 93)ia.n UsPeerspe H. and White, GuJ.inP.ea. (19As 32, 169 ivesne, and w Ne a pu Pa Ireland.

S Transactions af the Royal

;

n region is onization of the AustratiaBi 994). Why the first .colArc tes in Davidson, I. and Noble, W. de(1rn gy olo hae vior ha be n ma hu 135 mo » of ce e en the earliest evid (1988). Cation-ratio ee at

Cahill, T. A. Dorn, R. I. Nobbs, M. and

, 62, 681-9. — d South Australia. Amfiguity origins the reas ing ’: from the Olary province of ari ca ri yond ‘out of Af Be . 92) (19 M. MM. , ee Foley, R. and Lahr n, 22, 523-9. io ut ol Ev n ma Hu of l na ur Jo cult s. Homo sapien me ecological and Aboriginal food plants: so Golson, J. (1971).

Australian

of

d environment in Australia, (ed. D. J. an n al ma in ig or . Ab ns In io at ic pl l im ica histor

a taming of the rai Groube, L. (1989). The lma Fiyman: London. in Unw -304, Harris and G. C. Hil n), pp. 292and Price, D. (508. S po year old occupation J., Groube, L., Chappell, J., Muke, 2% 0° New Guinea. Nofure, Arc haeology in Oceania, 27, site at Huon Peninsula, Papr’sua eye . ion lut evo of view

Groves, C.P. (1992). A tige 153-60,

fi

i riii:!siint

e,

21. The genetic prehistory of Australia and Oceania: new insights from DNA analyses Susan W. Serjeantson and X. Gao

Introduction The origins of the Polynesians remain a matter for debate. Some conclude

Polynesians evolved out of Melanesia (e.g. Allen and White 1989; Houghton

1991), mainly because the Bismarck Archipelago region near Rabaul (Fig. 21.1) has been suggested as a source of Lapita or Polynesian culture (Spriggs 1985).

Others suggest a substantial Melanesian contribution on the basis of the high fre-

quency (15%) of a Melanesian-specific alphdeletion a-gl in eastern obin Polynesia (Hill et af. 1985). HLA class I genetic analyses have shown that the Polynesian

repertoire can be derived from the east Asian gene pool, except that Polynesians

and Amerindians share uniquely high frequencies of HLA-B48 (Serjeantson 1989) that may reflect common Mong ancestry oloi rather thand direct contact.

Linguistic reconstructions of Austronesian languages suggest that protoAustronesian expansion from Taiwan and southern China some 6000 years ago led to coastal settlements in the Philippines, northern Borneo, and Sulawesi, with

later dispersal to Java and Oceania (Blust 1988). By 3000 years ago, prePolynesians had carried Lapita-style pottery as far east as Samoa, via island

Melanesia (Spriggs 1989). For Micronesia, linguistic and archaeological evidence suggest two separate waves of migrat about ion 3500 years ago, one from island southeast Asia (represented by the western Malayo-Pol speakers of ynesi Palauan and Chamorro an

langua andges) another from island Melanesia, giving rise to nuclear Micronesian

languages that include those spoken in Nauru and Kiribati (Bellwood 1989). For Australia, the history of occupa spans tion at least 50000 years (Roberts ef ai, 1900). The earliest arrivals in Sahul land, the single continent of Australia-

New Guinea, were Australoids migrating from the west (White and O'Connell 1982). The archaic languages of the Australoids evolved into languages now spoken by Australian Aborigines, but in New Guinea they were overlaid with at

least three waves of Papuan immigrants (Wurm 1983). The first of these may have occurred 15.000 years ago, but most Papuan migration is thought to have occurred 5000-10000 years ago, increasing the linguistic and genetic diversity of New Guin and Australia ea when they were already separ by the rising seas ated at the end of the Pleistocene.

222.

A

ee

The genetic prehistory of Australia and Oceania: new insights

311

whether identical alleles arose independently on different haplotypes, as indicated

by examination of flanking DNA sequences, so that independent mutation and convergent evolution can be detected; and (4) identification of single ancestral mutational events, the converse of point (3), that confirm certain ancestral

population links. Additional new insights provided by DNA analyses arise from

the more pedestrian, but nevertheless important, aspect, that larger numbers of individuals from many more, often previously inaccessible populations, are available for study. This paper focuses on findings that are of relevance to reconstruction of the genetic prehistory of Australia and Oceania. The analyses focus

largely on the HLA class II loci, HLA-DRBI, DQAI and DQBI. These are closely linked and highly polymorphic, and encode 82 different DRBI, DOAI,

(Gao and in the populations of Australia and Asia-Oceania DOB! haplotypes are represented Serjeantson 1992) although by no means all of the &2 haplotypes

in any given population. Diversity among phenotypically identical alleles HLA class [1 serological studies in Australia, Oceania, and island southeast Asia have been limited in number due to logistic difficulties in obtaining viable B lym-

phocytes in field situations. Similarly, limited numbers of donors have been

examined for mixed lymphocyte culture (MLC) determinants (Crane et a/, 1985;

Honeyman efal. 1986), with donors recruited mainly in major population centres, such as Sydney. The MLC studies in Australians (Honeyman ef a/, 1986) and in Melanesians (Crane ef a/. 1985) have been characterized by high frequencies of undefinable MLC determinants, of the order of 30%, due to an unavoidable reliance on ML-C-typing cells of mainly Caucasoid origin. The high frequencies

in MLC of ‘blank’ alleles

and Melanesians of Australian Aborigines studies

foreshadowed the likelihood of new or unusual HLA-DR alleles among them.

The HLA-DR serological studies in Australia and Oceania, although hindered by logistic problems that meant study of only the most accessible populations, were seemingly able to detect most HLA-DR alleles, by 1986 (Serjeantson 1989). The repertoire A fairly simple picture of population HLA-DR profiles emerged. to HLA-DR2, -DR4, -DR6and neity, essentially confined showed limited heteroge ef af. 1985) and in Australian -DR& in Papua New Guinean highlanders (Crane

Aborigines (Hay ef al. 1986). Aborigines had a high frequency of HLA-DR& n, and markedly different (about 30%), the highest reported for any populatio from the frequences of 13% in Japanese, 5% in Chinese, 4% in Africans, and 3% in Caucasoids (Aizawa etal. 1986). Coastal and island Melanesians and Micronesians had only one additional antigen, HLA-DR, albeit at high fred by yet another quency (about 30%), while Polynesians were characterize antigen, HLA-DR9, and a low frequency of HLA-DR2 (Serjeantson 1989),

The apparently limited heterogeneity at the HLA-DRBI locus in Australia and

Oceania has now been shown, by DNA analyses, to reflect limitations of early

typing reagents rather than any severe restriction in HLA-DR allelic diversity.

all of the of MLC studies to detect This was first suggested by the failure HLA-DR alleles present in the populations tested. The second piece of evidence

312

3S. W. Serjeantson and X. Gao

suggesting there was additional HLA-DR diversity undetected by serology, came from restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs). The early DNA pro-

tocols for HLA-DR typing by RFLPs (Kohonen-Corish and Serjeantson 1986q) relied to some extent on the linkage disequilibrium relationships between the

HLA-DR, HLA-DQAI, and HLA-DQBI

loci. When these protocols were

applied in Australian (Davies ef a/. 1990) and Oceanic (e.g. Kohonen-Corish and Serjeantson 1986b; Serjeantson ef al. 1987) populations, some novel DR, DO

linkage arrangements emerged. For instance, unusual DR, DQ linkage disequilibwith DR6 in Australian Aborigines (Davies ef al. 1990) and rium was associated in Polynesians (Serjeantson ef a/. 1987). Similarly, DR8 could be associated with three different HLA-DQ haplotypes (Serjeantson efa/. 1987). For DR? and DRS5, not only were there heterogeneous DQ linkage arrangements, but the Tag

L/DRB RFLPs were also heterogeneous (Jazwinska and Serjeantson | 9&8). could not indicate whether novel DR, DQ haplotypes The early RFLP studies

simply reflected ancestral recombination events between HLA-DR and HLADQ loci, or whether the new haplotypes were markers for new HLA-DR or HLA-DQ alleles. More sensitive DNA-based HLA-DR typing protocols, such

as the hybridization of sequence-specific oligonucleotides (SSOs) with polymerase chain reaction (PCR) products of exon 2 of the HLA-DR and DQ genes, allowed examination of this question. Gao efail. (1992a) found that in some but not all instances, the unusual DR, DQ linkage arrangements correlated with

novel PCR-SSO patterns that subsequently, following DNA sequencing, proved indicative of new HLA-DRBI alleles.

| _

Nucleotide diversity in HLA-DR¢ alleles The limitationsof the early serological studies, compared with PCR-SSO typing, are demonstrate in Table d 21.1, using as an example the report of HLA-DR4

related haplotypes in Australia and Asia~Oceania by Gao and Serjeantson (1991). The allele frequencies of the serologically-defined HLA-DR4

antigens in eight

populations are comparatively homogeneous, with the exception of the Javanese, where the occurrenceof HLA-D is only R4 sporadic. In Melanesians, Micronesians and Chinese, HLA-DR4 has an allele frequency of 13-18%, with a slightly

higher frequency (25-26%) in Australian Aborigines and Polynesians. However, the WHO Commit for HLA tee class II nomenclature (Bodmer ef a/. 1991) now recognizes |2 allelic HLA-DR4 subtypes, as well as additional allele, DRB1*1410, whoch reacts serologically as HLA-DR4 (Serjeantson ef a/., unpublished). RFLPs at HLA-DR could not discriminate thes HLA-DR4 subtypes, since the various alleles represent subtle differences at the nucleotide level of exon 2 of the HLADR4 gene, rather than any major rearrangements or substitutions in DNA flank-

ing the HLA-DR genes. The apparent similarities in HLA-DR4 frequencies between populations are

shown in Table 21.1 to reflect the inadeq uacies of early HLA-typing procedures.

HLA-DRt4-subtype alleles present at a frequency of greater than 5% are given in Table 21.1 in bold lettering. Two DR4-related alleles, DRB*0412 and 1410, that are unique to Australian Aborigines have substantial frequencies. Additionally,

0.0 0.7 0.7 6.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.8 0.9

0402 0403 0404 0405 0406 0407 0408 0409 0410

8.0

0.0

0.0 0.0 0.0 7.0 0.0 0.0

0.0 0.0 0.0 7.9 0.0

0.0

14.9

(N = 114)

PNGH

0.0 0.0 0.0

1.8

0.0 6.3 0.2 4.3 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0

17.8 1.9

25.0

13.6 0.8

0.0 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

0.3

0.0

15.5

19.1

4.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0

0.0

0.3

1.3

(N = 258)

MICR

(N = 398)

POLY

(N = 494)

MEL

1.2

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

0.7 0.0 0.0 0.0

0.0

0.0 2.9

6.3 3.7

0.0

1.8

2.2 0.9

18.5

11.0 0.0 0.0 4.4 0.7 4.7 1.8

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

(N = 342) (N = 270)

(N= 154)

NCHI

SCHI

JAVA

N: number of chromosomes. ABOR: Australian Aborigines; PNGH: Papua New Guinean Highlanders; MEL: coastal and island Melanesians; POLY: Polynesians; MICR: Micronesians; JAVA: Javanese: SCHI: southern Chinese; NCHI: northern Chinese.

0411 0412 1410

S.4

25.8 0.5

DR4

0401

allele

ABOR* (N= 424)

HLA-DR4

Table 21.1 Frequency (o) of HLA-DR4 alleles in Australia and Asia-Oceania

Among Chinese, only DRB1*0405 exceeds 5% in frequency, but eigh t of the allelic subtypes are represented, compar ed with only two in Papua New Gui nean highlanders and with a different two in Micronesians.

the basis of frequencies of phenotypic similarities and diss imilarities ¢ potentially as accurate as clustering on the basi s of nucleo

tide similarities. This is because the current algorithms for phylog enetic analysis of populations according to s

0412 and 1410, apparently derived fro m DRB1*041(or 0 0405) (Gao ef al. 1992g), DRBI*0412 and its flanking DNA, inc luding HLA-DQBI and DRB4 gen es, is apparently identical to DRBI 041 F

0 except for the insertion of a short stretch of

tor allele, DRB1*0410, is located in the Papua New Guinea highlands, Whe n this na Phvlogeny is not incorporated int o the estimates of genetic distanees be (WEEN groups, some important inform

ation is lost. In contrast, when pop ulation

i

2

ee

The genetic prehistory of Avstratia any

of #% in Australian

a {rea

66 in Polynesiansb (ne

Aboro:

eS: 18% in

pua New Guinean highlanders while the ai rary PS

pRB!

140

{, ' DRB3*0301 : appears absent fjrom =Oceanic_

o ROW insights 347

evident in contempo Progenitor haplotype

Populations

i

Another marker of interest in southeast Asia and New Guinea is that

itary ovalocytosis, which occurs in the aboriginal hill tribes of Malaysis nay

and sea Dyaks in Borneo and in about , 10% of coastal and lowland Melanesians

so-called hereditary elliptocytosis of southe Asia and the hereditary ovaloast cytosis in coastal and lowland Melanesians were identical. Recent description of

a molecular defect in the Band 3 protein gene, which removes 27 base pairs (b.p.)

of coding DNA (Jarolim ef al, 1991), has permitted analyses of hereditary ovalo-

cyt at osi the molecuslar level. Segregat of ion the 27 b.p. deleti in a Melanes onian

family from the north coast of Papua New Guinea shows the Melanesian deletion to be identical to that described by Jarolim efa!, (1991) in southeast Asian

ovalocytics (Fig. 21.3).

DNA analyses in Australian Aborigines We have examined HLA-DRB1 nucleotide sequence polymorphisms in Aborigines from northern Australia, from the Kimberley region and from Cape York

X, Gao andtson 318 S. W. Serjean Maree (FD

a

goood

in the Band 3 protein gene of a of a 27 base-pair (bp) deletion Fig. 21.3 Segregation Melanesian family, showing identity between the Melanesian mutation in hereditary ovalpcytosis and that in southeast Asian ovalocytics described by Jarolim eral. 1991. Peninsula (Fig. 21.1). The subpopulations share some features (Table 21.3), such

as the high frequencies of DRBI"0803 and 1502. For some alleles, however, there is no overlap, as for DRBI"0412 and 1409 in the Kimberley and as for DRBI"0410 and 1402 in Cape York. The main feature of the Aboriginal HLA-

DRBI allele profile is the high frequency of alleles that are unique to Australians, namely DRBI"O412, 1409, and 1410. These have candidate progenitors in the

Aboriginal gene pool, but the new alleles have tended to replace the progenitors

within regional subgroups. DRB1*0412 has replaced 0410 in the Kimberley region and DRB1*1402 has replaced 1409 in Cape York Peninsula. Thus although the

two contemporary populations now have quite distinctive HLA-DRBI allele profiles, allelic phylogeny clearly identifies them as derived from the same ancestors. Population subdivision and genetic drift can account for differential loss of alleles from the two groups.

The finding of new and unique alleles in Aboriginal Australians has been detailed here for the HLA-DRBI locus, but when loci such as HLA-DP, HLAA, HLA-B have been examined at the nucleotide level, additional novel alleles have been found (Gao ef af. 1992c). HLA-DPB1"2201,

for example,

is wide-

spread in Australia, present in about one-third of donors tested, but has not been found in the Papua New Guinea highlands (5. Easteal, personal communication) or elsewhere. Phylogenetic analyses based on frequencies of HLA-DR, DQ haplotypes

showed Australian populations clustering first with each other and then with the Papua New Guinean highlanders. The finding resembles that based on HLA

*:reseeelgl*

‘food aua3 uepsauos1y aq) OF UoRNqLTUOD UeoNRDYY rENURISGns & s 212m TMI i [OPO

[Aq

2ne20q

‘eISIUOLY JO 1waWaTTs fenp 50} aouaplaa onsmfuq

Gis aqredusos st ‘2saueAes Uy 100 Ing “sUESFTOLN PY TI CORO, [AYC Jo sUsUd

) “aquny °(7g6| ‘jos? UNS) as90N) MTINOS mI (yE{)

you s AuanodULL

THUD MQ) Wy pdm aye~poUUT ayy oy ApuO yng wiyder]-2d

PPM 2G) 20) PHUNAYDH] UDUEDD J9YIF_y “pRosds Bide] 210;2q WOrHas aq! UF

eteld 29 0) WAYS 2m Daye Bide] snOTNbygn

OU Jy) PUR 21e/IHWOP

peo] MLL SPURS) URE SG) J POUAY PUNE oq pom ede] JO) sees TUSUROyaaap

o8)d poe As0)ed BEE

oie] ynoqe uEpy jeDeyiHynon joyA,

fi

Stone Fully-polished axe/adzes Oval/lenticular cross-section axe/adzes Quadrangular cross-section axe/adzes Obsidian or chert stemmed tools Polished stone chisels Grindstones Nutcracking anvils

Lip notching, scalloping Dentate-stamp decoration

'Lime'-in lling

Simple vessel forms Complex vessel forms Red slip

Pottery

Element

Bismarcks

Melanesian

Pre-Lapita distribution New Guinea

X

Pre-Neolithic

SE Asian

Table 22.1 Lapita elements present in island southeast Asia and Melanesia prior to Lapita

Neolithic

fi

fi

fi

fi

X

?

(x)

X

?

X

X

X

X

X

?

X X

X

Sources. Southeast Asia: Spriggs (1989). Melanesia: Allen and Gosden (1991): Bellwood (199); Gorecki et al. (1991): White (1972); White and O'Connell (1902). Also text.

Pigs Dogs Chickens

Movement of wild animals/plants Shell shing/reef- shing Evidence for betel-chewing

Bone points, awls Earth ovens Rectangular house plan Stilt houses Large, open village sites Long-distance exchange Vegetation clearance by re

Other

Conus shell beads, rings, disks One-piece shhooks

Trochus armbands Tridacna rings Conus shell rectangular units

Shell beads

Marine shell Hinge-region Tridacna adze Dorsal-region Tridacna adze Pierced shell pendants

1

Conventional

6040 2650 S770 s950

+ + + +

+ + + +

130 90 130 90

3280 + 200 6360 + 90 Beta-19075 S690 + 170 Beta-19076 5810 + 80 Beta-19077 5830 + 90 (Swadling et al. 1991)

1630 + 120 6320 + 90

5980 6170 5580 6400

Charcoal Marine shell Charcoal Marine shell Charcoal Marine shell Charcoal Marine shell Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal

ANU-6087 ANU-6085

ANU-7079 ANU-7080 ANU-7083 ANU-7084 ANU-7081 ANU-7082 ANU-7085 ANU-7086

shell shell shell shell shell

Marine shell Marine shell

Marine Marine Marine Marine Marine

Material

6130 ± 80 3S10 ± 80 (Swadling et al. 1989)

East Sepik

80 70 90 70

5810 + 90

age BP

(Gorecki et al. 1991)

ANU-7612 ANU-7701 ANU-7702 ANU-7604

ANU-761

West Sepik

Lab. no.

7179-6528 6819-6409 6721-6103 7119-6679 1830-1300 6999-6599 4073-2989 7059-6639 6889-6115 6847-6439 6885-6439

6739-6389 3579-3209

6409-5989 6689-6269 2489-2149 6369-59s9 6519-6249

date BP (2 s.d.)

Calibrated

30 cm, 50 cm, 15 cm, 40 cm, 50 cm,

Taora Taora Taora Taora Taora

(pottery association) (aceramic) (pottery association) (pottery association) (aceramic)

lens, lens, Akari Akari Akari Akari

Akari A (aceramic) Akari A (aceramic) A (aceramic?) A (aceramic?) A (pottery association) A (pottery association) Basal level, Akari B (aceramic) Basal level, Akari B (aceramic) Spit 4, Dongan (aceramic) Spit 11, Dongan (aceramic) Spit 27, Dongan (aceramic)

Midden Midden Spit 6, Spit 6, Spit 5, Spit 5,

Beri site (pottery association) No site name given (pottery association)

F4, F4, X2, X2, X2,

Site and context

Table 22.2 Radiocarbon dates calibration of putative pre-Lapita pottery associations in New Guinea and island Melanesia

fi

fi

fi

fi

5860 4760 5830 4830 8190

+ + + ± +

240 140 190 230 250

230 180 210 90 90

Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Celtis sp. nut Charcoal

Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal 6459-5957 4827-3731 4149-3278 4080-2859 3889-2979 3899-2849 3322-2779 3250-2769

Charcoal Charcoal

S728-4896 7669-7370

I, level 2, DJA, Kilu Cave (pottery association) I, level 4, DJA, Kilu Cave (aceramic)

4NW, Spit 4A, Pamwak (aceramic)

3SE, Spit 5B, Pamwak (aceramic) 4SW, Spit 2A, Pamwak (pottery association)

1, Spit 4, Pamwak (pottery association) 1, Spit 5, Pamwak (aceramic)

17-18B(II), pit, top of layer 6, Unit D, Wanelek (pottery association) TRI, pit, deepest ll, Unit D, Wanelek (pottery association) TRI, replace in Layer 4, Unit D, Wanelek (pottery association)

10A, Layer 10. Unit E, Wanelek (pottery association?) 11B, Layer 9. Unit D, Wanelek (pottery association) 17-18B(1), replace in Layer 7, Unit D, Wanelek (pottery association) 17-18B(1), Layer S, Unit D, Wanelek (pottery association) 16B, replace in Layer 6, Unit D, Wanelek (pottery association)

s.d.: standard deviation. Calibration after Stuiver and Reimer (1986). For charcoal dates the 20 year values have been used, for marine shell Delta-R - 0.

4680 ± 140 Beta-25617 6670 + 80 (Wickler 1990)

ANU-6757

Buka Island, North Solomons

ANU-6973 ANU-6974 ANU-8248 ANU-7761 ANU-8246

7263-6189 5880-5049 7169-6289 6168-4876 No calibration available (Author's data; general ref. Fredericksen et al. 1993)

Manus

+ + ± ± ±

5455 ± 105 3840 + 175 3430 ± 175

3230 3225 3170 2865 2840 (Bulmer 1991)

I-6860 GX-3333B GX-3326 GX-3227B GX-3330 GX-3332 I-6859 I-6861

Enga

8

&.

woRPINSWOP Apes Ue $s} ANTIQIssod py) Y “S¥ere JU9I9j;IP Ut 2oU0 UEY) sI0W POTESISIWOP 39M ICY) BISIUEPY] PUL Bisy IsesyINOS Uy poINqusip Ajjesou svueyd aiam Aou) Ajpanewiayy “BIssUEsW Ul PIy!ss2AIp Pu O} poled as9m Tey) SSTENSHWOp WEIS ISBIyINOS oq Alea] 1YSTWwW UONsanb uy syuejd oy) snYy “eTEp UO! “AQUISHP 212038 10 /pue eotuEI0g 2Y1 JO UOIEI OUI USYEISIw 2Id SI ISI1y DY “sUON “BUEAx2 24qISS0d pesIATS DIB DIN] {BISY ISEOYINOS pueyst Ut $IX91 woo endey-aid u qu2sid SHEONSWOP UESIUBPy se U2, Aq po} syueyd Auew os ose Au “suoro qWd Aq 2194 nsu powuesoidas oce s 10 ‘surewos jue] pene pue S1yIOON 4q powiassidas ‘opp oon-osd soyne ‘eIsy IseoyINOS puUR]s! UT six21U0D pousd eudey-oid U} MI00 OsTe SJUSUIZ} Yons>Jt PoUTe]D 9q JOURS siUSWIa;9eNIdeT-21d

fe20] Jo worresBoqu “1241782 podojaaap 1) se oUTeS 2y} S{ 919y pasn

yoeordde ay

“SIND SYWJOON UEISY ISEIqINOS PUES! 243 JO pessds SyI JO IETS Ajszes Ue

que dW porenbo sary | (6861 eae

@ FY) Uy syusUTzIIe5

euler eae utonu wO2yoy (Wd) BESIUA}Og-OAREWY-OW0LYWI SUED) sTEUZOO 3 i Woncataia’ os 66. ee 0c “0661 “S861 ‘Z96I ail wedecpsene

oo5 aceslge@eiear uber

x vache

suppisel souks ja Scuniinsas aay, “Wbda: ove oun Ul te SOUS DIYWTOON 1055 powsodas

sg SAY SIE! OS AREA

"V seme poops bun eyraEpETy By coNeEINS

endey-21d may) 10} 2UIpIAd pure sous Ende] wos surewss wUWeTd sist]¢°7Z FIGEL

si scasaann

malimminndaicd

“PRU OF Apres om ut Bid prim :oureu aIqQIss0d zos UO Ss} EISY IseoqNOS WOH

sed ob vincapeneiiewos V “Peajoant u20q aary isn Ww Sonoires poTesmsswop Aqmy ws288ns Aluons *1a2moy ‘sous Ende] suis ul sn200 surewias Bid qory™ UI

stxamc 341 “(8-181 o “dd ‘7961 [PUVCD,C pue a1y AA) POUND MN UI Bid

“SABOP, PUE .piim, w0m39q SurysMBurIsIp J0j HUI

Pe2CSojoydiow resp OU Ie

ULL “(6661 7072 BaryUIPAL51661 FIA pue A2UURLY 19961 4240[D) SPUFI!

STE] FE Bt EY) PUPS FEIN JO spss s9qID O1 BIEP Woy MOU

2M “R2UIND MPN 1

© surema Bid endey-2ig s ‘poresrp you are ponjoaus ur sopnuenb 241 “(1661

79 2 DRA daIN) SES9-EZHL 1 G>TYM 30j aTEp ySoHIFeD ay “BLORL Te USOdaP 24 moySnonp panos s 2009 8.4 “nds yeyp wi sms Iss00 OSTE YOTYAme Kia 293n520P Se suyqosd sures ogi sosyes Bunep 241 “(1661 70 12 Bupems)AydesBrre1s SP So eos nit mela gs ‘preadn 9 nds 20 0220 2009 900 P tid ous y URR 2 IVY “(81 “d ‘2961 [EUOD.C puE any AK) EMOTY PUT MAMA “VURAEYey 1sapodep mac} ove eopennnay su028er hyreets i desBrrens ays “(von “fMENOD FEUOSod ‘“SLUREY piAkq) sin200 11 YT Uti enjeodlan ogi tangs mene (paw 81 2u0q aq) poss) Sosed [ye ut yey? SuNENSUOULP ‘sous puelysry 2UI0s WO jo

Wild NG X

NG

?

Wild

. 1

NG?

SEANG?

NG NG

Wild Wild

SEANG SEANG

?

Putative domestication

X

X

PMP reconstruction

Cordia subcordata

NG

2

Pre-Neolithic

Wild Wild

X ?

New Guinea

Diospyros sp.

x

Bismarcks

SE Asian

Burckella obovata

Calophyllum sp. Pangiumn edule Bruguiera sp. Terminalia sp.

Canarium indicum Aleurites moluccana Corynocarpus cribbeanus Dracontomelon dao Spondias dulcis Pometia pinnata

Inocarpus sp.

Casuarina equisetifolia

Nipa fruticans

Mussau Lapita Cycas circinalis Pandanus spp. Cocos nucifera

Plant

Melanesian

Pre-Lapita occurrence

Table 22.3 Pre-Lapita occurrences of plants known or inferred from Lapita sites in the Bismarck Archipelago

fi

Colocasia sp.

Proto-Malayo-Polynesian;

SEA: southeast Asia; NG: New Guinea and island Melanesia.

(x)

X

?

X

SEA NG NG SEA NG NG

Wild SEA

SEA

SEA/NG

NG

communication.

Reconstructable only back to Proto-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian.

reconstructions: Pawley and Green (1984); J. Marck, personal

Putative

domestication:

Yen (1982, 1985, 1990, 199).

Sources. Mussau Lapita reference: Kirch (1989). Other Lapita sites: Gosden et al. (1989); J. Hather, personal communication: T. Loy, personal communiation, Melanesia: Allen and Gosden (1991); Loy et al. (1992); Swadling et al. (1991); D. Yen, personal communication. Pre-Neolithic SE Asia: Giover (1979). Proto-alayo-

PMP:

Dioscorea alata Saccharum of cinarum Cordyline fruticosa

Artocarpus altilis

Other probable Lapita crops Musa banana Australimusa banana

Celtis sp. Areca catechu

Pre-Lapita Melanesia

X

X

Sterculia sp.

Dioscorea esculenta

?

Other Lapita sites Metroxylon sp.

Preapita Pobneian

338

Motthew |. T. Spriggs

into in New Guinea and subsequent pre-Austronesian spread to the west of these plants into an intrusive Neolithic culture southeast Asia, The integration

sia, could therefore have occurred in southeast Asia rather than in Melane

or

occurred more than once in both areas. If we postulate a Melanesian/New

Guinea centre of plant domestication we need also to delimit its estern boundary;

Maluku? Sulawesi? Archacologists who have stressed the local development model for Lapita seem

to have engaged in a too literal reading of Yen's treatments of these issues. Both

the undoubted pre-Lapita southeast Asian occurrence of many of the key puta-

tive Melanesian domesticates and the undeveloped state of research on these

crops undermine simplistic statements about their supposed

integration

from

local sources into the Bismarcks Lapita sites. Further genetic and distributional

studies of wild and cultivated varieties, such as that carried out on taro (Coates

etal, 1988: Matthews 1990, 1991) will be informative, as will sustained apptica*

tion of current recovery and analytical techniques for the examination of archaeo-

logical plant remains (Hather 1991; Loy eva/.

1992). Even if we assume an

ultimately Melanesian domesticalion of many of the plants, the timing and

geography of their ‘integration’ into the cultural complex that is best represented in the Bismarcks as Lapita are open questions.

Agricultural technology is another area where the last word is not in. The highland New Guinea swamp management systems of Kuk phases I to II have

no modern parallels, Evidence for the rectangular-gridded swamp gardens which are common in New Guinea and the rest of the island Pacific (Golson

1977;

Bayliss-Smith and Golson 1992) exists only within the last 2000 years. The Yeni

Swamp gardens in the northern New Guinea lowlands with a minimum age of 3400 + 120 BP (ANU-3824) are of the earlier Kuk type (Gillieson eral. 1985). Currently it is unwise to designate an area of origin for the more regular patterns

of swamp drainage given their general Oceanic distribution.

in 1982 | suggested that the distribution of pondfield irrigation technology in southeast Asia and the island Pacific but largely excluding New Guinea was associated with the movement of Austronesian speakers into the Pacific (Spriggs

1982). Yen on the other hand (1992) suggests independent development on either

side of New Guinea. Further archaeological evidence and finding cognate terms

in the lexicon of irrigation farmers in southeast Asia and island Melanesia might

resolve the issue. Historical linguistics can suggest likely places of ‘origin’ of a language group,

and the geography of its spread from there. Earlier stages of the language can be deduced with associated vocabularies and likely cultural associations. What

historical linguistics cannot achieve on its own isa chronology for the spread of a language group or for the dating of a particular language stage or proto-

language. When a connection is made between the distribution of a language and of an archaeological horizon or cultural complex we can postulate the chronology

of spread of the language. The complementary distributions of the island southa west east Asian Neolithic and the Lapua cultural complex on the one hand with

1o cast time cline, and that of the Austronesian languages of the region witha

aq) sud xapdunO peanayN wyIde'] Sy] OTM, paresBaiuy pure wisyo ey) woIsNUOS JO 9q 0} PRIDPISUCS syUIUEPS IF YOO] RIT Apy “soPe|quiosse endey jo wed Fedo} oe 0] Gora Ing wudey-oid qaqetue Puno) }OU S}UIUS;2—UOHEAOULT 10)

2) apeW OSE EY UIE “wore 2) UI SII Jo Sup pure joWOS JydEsTNENS ETT AGEL UW] SUSpLAd JO Is] SUL “(166 zaiieq Ye papusnes 2q [pom 1B AifeOy IngY waaiE) RIS HESYINOS PUN[S Wl IEP Jaye. Ue Te JUSssud Sue Yo

PIySTeME 24 JOUUED Tey WIde'] JO SUMUD[D SWOS WE DIY] “URIS IseeynoF Kono bude] Jey) 1es8ns souepIAs snsinFuy oy) YM “ETT PUR Te SAL

jaye] 8] wey

MOY WweeqNos “(9L61 1)

Ie] E JO TUIY JIYLINY *}SkOD 34) WI) TB) SHSIN Hl [EUITE SY) 40) VOKNPONIU!

SN Yy-WOU BIUIA) Ue A;uenbesy st seFENTUE] UEIsSUOI UDA? PIOMURO] UETIUONSNYy

mon] Uy Syd JO] PAOM 3ET JEN) PION 3q OSTE PINOYS 1] “PUByU! szNI~N> yeLa EW jo

porsnyyip @ Surussaiday sazpe seypSuerpenb paysyod pue As9)j0d jo adepquessse

xajauemy, ayy Sdeysad pur ‘(pp areiq “ag61 7077 Buypems) yrdog ysam wy adeny

eUOSIAd "SOY zea jod ender] w jo puy apfuys oy osye sj oy.) “(UOMESTUNUIWOS uo 288s Suypacosd AyoyerpowuN Jo ym Aswsodwa wroseyy) Seue2og-c1org IUOISNY-UOU BsUInD MN © mou) safendue] wessuoMY Woy SFeNFuR] UE WOU Of

SPlOMUPo] WI OCD "ARKO

‘op pesids 1st2 01 1$9m © JO SUI

unsu (6261 “961 S80Y) STEAK QOOT IB] 24) UIGIPA Isom 0} ISHS WO) giayeads

onsny 2meI9Q Jo WONT yoeG, Jaye] B Aq paunrsqo seq sey SpUTls HOU

~JJO UO 20 JsROd sTy] FuOPR UIWAPIES URJsoUOIISsMY AjIBD aPqISSOg “porsan Ul

ZBI A 24) 5878) pouad sum aq] 10) UFEIUG Map JO 159M 94) 0} AjovErpausU! NES

& §] FF Fe EQUINE) Map| WEqUOU JO 159d Jy) St SB “YURI PeTopo2eyoze a}2]du09 07 Ajay

ILO] 3Y) yeasaud Ny “SYM

SY) Ut Se UOTEaI syy) UT paumnsso aaey

Ea] Je 1 SUNY DAIMLITUL UE OP! SJUIUIDID UBISSUE[aY JO UONEITI}] “ound UO Aeg USEMBapUT) je 10 Wades pue yeIg SP YoNs spunys! uo MON] PUR|UTEW

mano pnoys Bude] pure IY IMORY URIS ISBaYINOS PURIST 94) 01 povepo4 A|feINIIN Sms Tem seeped voOAQLISP SnsinBuy ayy, “S39” ay) 01 Aprerpomtust SPUR 24) U pUR RUIN) MON WIYLWOU UI Poad auIT) IUEADfOI Sy) JO Suis Jo Fuydures useq sy UONTOUUOD UEISUE/spy-URISY jsBayinos def afrej v Aq pamnasgo

LL

‘dG OOZE Inoge saye IyPed MP

OWI yho puR suOWOIOS ay) YBNOUN) IED PUL YINOS peauds syudUsajries ENdET

(90g) 2ueQ-o101g Jo dn-yeauq ay) PUE dA OOSE Aq syszeusig ayy UE -sjuss wade] pur uersouonnsny u paynsai sea peasds s2quuny y “da OOF PUNO”

OU aye azay)) sdeysod “eauIND Man] Wa}saM JO 15802 quee (raze 2y)Ui Sones payep

am) uo eg yisemesapua-) uo pasaju29 Kjqeqoud “yseo oy) 01 juoMaAous afentuT

yds onsimuy wou ay, “soKwD ApYsys 10 da OOSP modF 8 yum paumnzoo nynEYY YUOU 01 SSOIDE ISoMBING wosy 2AOW v Yr dn 2x01 (dINd) WeHsmAIOE -oefeW-Oi0lg “OMEMMS pue soUIddyyg 24) OF YINOS UDWIDAOUE B YNA JIE

10 dg OOS Punowe FurdnowT unssuspog-odeepy & pun UBSOWIO4 e ont 1%

‘TEMIE] J8aU J0 DO Uayods Ajqeqoud ‘(Wjyq) UBIssUOIsNYy-o104 “(686 ssapds)

WORIUNOD BYNES JO) 268d inlamod B apiAcud sny) prods }s8001 some ses

poy BEE youd] jogo UOPSY pFORY)syNOS

1661) Uaaity “ABOjouys9) Bupledon jo ney aqn apes extuRyTD soup Buc} WatssS 102095)(P ayn w Hy 3] ‘dnosd puny iyi apne ump

AGO STIPE UIP JO LOPeuMs) Hayy 94) NeAjOAUy pUE—peMD ay)Ky (fh “iO OW) LA WPGES O}— OANA1xS PUM SApsua}UY SOU Yom Ff auNy TED URYpRg o Hyde] ‘(gcd

‘C661 UYMa]) Wye) parMsaaHexa uw syuasaidas 9m (6c) “d “eg) GM puN UD) Aitiod wide] jo ssayeur ay1 Aq syoydes souRmp-sxiuo] ing se_uNS, mopeys

Oj OF Pres “sauNy) wIde]-asd wy UNYpHNQO jo sBuRYKa SUNNP-BuCy ‘HKD

HOS Bye; Wes) AUW UNY) jUaZay sip aynb A[PEST HORA

378 (iNUEY) FEMUEY po

REP PUIO PIA, Mf. “UOTISUNY mWaJal)ip anh jo sdayiad pun (146) pone Wyrede)

AOU BAH 8/0) D1) Ny UM SUAQUUNU ‘pare MsdKO § UOPaN HoNEyE] ay) UY Hyder O) de y-aud wesy 800) PIUUEay weIpiego wy ANAUIWUO- “parep djamae jad Jou

paw (c-Oee “Od "pgG| MOLI) [peur Hy EININT) ap WYy SaTpR NSE ]-20d poyNod

“Ary JO snidsoo ay Jf, “UPR ZOUN are NUD, [RIO] ApuarEdde ay) jo WOR WaAg

"MOYES HIYT MNoUdaL {gg oun “YN

I UO/TEARS)Uy OU Papaau IMY) sUsWI pareYys Appin oq Amw doy so ‘ys reuNG

1 UY WOLTEBaWJo y SINAN SB PIYyNYGEND 34 oUUED s9yy9 Uy) jo dow

‘Pt

(rtd | | +

“a

|

Ss

|

|

H

1 NG a

amr

ae

i

Gy!

\r

‘ie ams

‘

wpe uOMOjOS WBIqINOS OY) WO) satejquiawe Asaypod

ake UN TON HOP ‘waq duo3 dows oup 0911228 yey) Soujdo ing “sscpeUR s]yI AYWLAp pusnyyna a oF HusKUE SHY am

mene

Dat

HIG “HAUPI!IOUUOS [F p WY)or snmad am sayj sud

aoudeaud

Seti ’

InoyM sq/8 WICH] [ep now nuns aor fuusyere-

ay) JO) pono

s pdasaiscanany) i

say) yovoudde ey ‘spscyeuw sa9snyo pwopeyely Buyer sisakAns (2661)

me

a¥KY a1\¥ OULOP OL sa ‘yajdwon manyno ede] 94) Jo HuaqUIOW su saBETqUIsBIV ‘guawale UBOUNpA wIKey-aud yo WOJB U) DWOF sdeysadl MA}a pappe YI ‘UIBLO concen sjUIUY pur ‘FyDIRUIRI 94) U] PARACU unpFY weaqinod yo Ajensag #| Bde] ey) spNjsuoS OF BABY jepson

‘uaAd yuea ay) sdeyzad puw ‘(as0qe 908 Ing) sazpU HUIDp]s, WO[F|

PUR HOO) PALIN URIPIEQO ‘sdouD DWOS :e}UDII[D May ADA asa

par keg YITRAROpUZ) UIAMIDg AYyMIWOF PoyEIBajul) IUepfAd jIWINI

ey anbjuy ‘suey “DO1

wes

s2ueINp-Fuoj Jo ja4a] WON Pu ‘#UDAO YE? Ayapsvo"

‘Suyyey j20s pow Suyysyyays ‘xadusoo dos paresjwawiop sumaaQ ay) Jo HOH

ieee

‘NUE (PRIOR Pip JO 1USAOW ‘QuNyNIUeE yO WO) LOS PUB AL hq sonsseP

ley! pesuaid ‘szpe pusepy uoBos-afuyy “sU0

0 94) uj suofnayuy so suf NsBOTU *UAIa® eA euyg syaz jauj/J :apn9] payrjod se;n2n1u Se

Nba Pes TRENDY pet ORY WEay INOS Li ded peetcenget™ nn Ful 5 “saat MUSH “OES Dee uO} sNopEA pue ‘soo

WPuH ead “spEYD COTE] ‘KBojOUY>221 10g Jo siseden Ajquqosd PUB ‘stents! tein ase] “(siyp16 wo awos) samnoYy seynBuR;Ies ‘sadA) WuauNEUZO [fF oe ‘SAY suo paynyod * IPE imjnduespenh ‘ ‘sypewyue MOWOP iniod yo spury Feed

apnjsuy UO

WEY

espeFI eg rng

INEDYINOS JO equ22/) wy yt

‘20RD aqnop on 30

Poa] asm HUD) say) Jo soyHUBOZD ‘RIKQUEIIIN “I oy

aes

woven pups ora J} MOUy JOU op Ajduys 944, ‘poyad wide} 24 oi yesd) 834 /Te0g PAE ‘s0UED

Ce

nn

oaks as

‘apped

Japp

0902 er sean

i

‘aa \uino "ye "teog soy as0y) apnjruy #u9I

2 ceee HOY su

090

10 Ii

“auaoowjajg 24) $0 PU? PHN gexonJ?

put

asay) pure) aU" idoisdrap16 asoj 909 sUW Muaw TA ou wasa 8] B19UL{, “saounor aa

oa

iF Hh i

3 ¥

sou

Hl |

3

:

fll i iii

"sal ‘Trung Sat ested OfsIEW-o104 spuryey AnesyuPy Poa wdnodpie ign re ou) U) payiies 249m ae pesep

UY (A$o40uys9,

mee

AHH) ByR20¢) srouay oqwy xaydusoo ysnll » apoio"

BHO] 40 auuys ayy yw syyyqn ogre MyANY PE

na

oo

a

My

_

ht UMBC} snore ee

}
:> * SBUIpUNOUNs Wod) Lede Jas, ‘manoy ~ mroWOy ~ muy

Aqurey pio

24) 0] preps |W 1ey) sMes worMdo 2uQ “uMoUZUN 9 auOy

)O HOWATS oy] “SoureU feuosJed Wy) pur soureu soe ul asm mt Apoo mou f1 aos ‘auod pagepda sey awoy s Ing “awed JO awoy peoUNoUoA stm ou ‘amudey uy

Ajzea-cowo/

(joke, [Pupmz9} pue a8e}s puooes ceysouonsn y) powed ,auo,,

"(0661 EMIRATES) ssouspuodssuoo poasasgo agi

PaOU aARY | ‘OSTE NW

PU asouEdel piQ U2eMIeq WaIsds peUMMOUOId ay) 104

‘UBISAUOTISNY Uy SUITIIO say) BABY Saxtjaud asaqyJo [TY "(OGG EINYEYES) Was yp

JO FuyIOMm JY) JO UOTE ay] JO aprs yenuasss sow ay) sessaudxe Tey) LOTUNY SUEWSS ay) Aq saxijoid sumnusd se Fuou quam ae suede pyc Ul -) pur -Dy

“oy “0s “ou $8 ons saxijeid jo fuss sy) Ing “FenFee sey pur UENO Y

UW! PUNO; OS[E 238 S29UEISUI JuIOS “pIUI20 1 WEAWApe 11) ay) se Fey SY “plow 09 PUnodWOD E JO JUSWIOp 1uIy 2y) WOU) HENUUAYIPoO} MAY H aeURdEL UI

Myjud ay1 jo uBuo ayy ‘asouedes jusuy oO] KW

Woy UaATd sam ‘ssoueder

PI Wt suoHOUTY J19Y) ISO] Yor Jo Is0W ‘saxtjaud ‘syuaW9]9 peoeUUTEL 0} SY

(Pulm WAYINOS "yinos, ‘anny (RON) LITGS

AMipry fooure saddig waqinos, “(iE Wins =) ind oF od (nXqndy) FUMIE}

aordiorg, “pyod (itaaeng jo quoE) sues

JOUETPIUOD&, “(ISMAEINS WaqUoN) wed wROqUZIUO]

OEP TuOS 8,

od (eeNg WoyloU) mopuctuoyy-furepog

pUONeyIiuCSB, "(HAMEPNG WsYyINOS) Lind asauIng SPR,

MU),

ed sueY

nu), ‘wand (eayeUISpO ym) snpeUNES ee Oe eas ae ef (Ureut A) Wey)

xnuD, Oo Lian Gee enin fy, "ved Aupepy

Amu}, ‘ad UA,PID sofendur] Wapow

Ul suo; pareja

st pue Aes Buns, ‘yod, uEwoENNYy-0 TET 101g QPL

OUTS RUA) {St é =

ae *

qe

=

is

ae

et

Lod

“vee

—

=

.

—

=

— ie

i

a

new to Japan (Table 23.4). A semantic change affecting ‘millet (Setaria italicay’ also in Miyako dialects suggests that the word yuni had existed before the incoming of rice. This word appears as the dependent form yona- (yuna-) in place names like Yuna-haru, Yuna-kuni, Yuna-ha, Yuna-mine, etc. in the Rytkyi

Istands. The semantic association between rice and sand in Ryfikylan dialects

can be found in Konk6-Kenshit (Old RytikyDan lexicon 1711): Yone is rice, but

sand is also called yone, Yone is spread in the palace yard on New Year's Day. The Austronesian

people who came from the Ryfkyian Islands to settle in

western Japan named the newly brought rice after sand by utilizin their g Austronesian original vocabulary. It goes without saying that one word alone

does not prove that rice was brought to Japan by Austronesian people. But this

Jomon type

Kamegaoka type Eastern Japan

Totsuta imonty

apa,

n

este

?

=

_—— —

——"

Eom

i

a

—

356 Oeamu Sakiyama

uru-man, ‘tice doughboy’, an offering to (he gods and Buddha, is used On Kikai Island, Kagoshima, Common to both cases is the point that ‘rice’ was considergy

a taboo word. Actually, the word mai is normal for denoting rice in RyOkyfay

dialects. In Okinawa-Hont® dialects particularly, mai was replaced by kumy

which came directly from Aome in Japanese, Mai is a borrowing from [he southern dialects of China and derives from the Chinese archaic form “pig, *miei, as B. Karlgren reconstructed it, That it is borrowed is supported by (ph,

|

fact that in Japanese mai appears only in the last clement of the compound of

a Chinese borrowing, like Aaku-mai, ‘polished rice’, gen-mai, ‘unpolished rigg

and so forth,

‘Hayato’ period (Austronesian third stage and Kofun ‘Tumulus') Assuming that Aai (hae) was an Austronesian term meaning ‘south, south-wind’,

what is the etymological interpretation of Hayafo, the name given to a well. \

J

known alien people of southern Kyfishil?

The Aumaso and MHayeto in southern KyOshO are believed to be the las Austronesian populations to immigrate to the Japanese islands since the Kofuy

period in the 4th century. It is generally bebieved that the Aurnaso and Hayaya belonged to different races. If it is correct to attribute -so of Auwmaso to PAN *rawu ("Cau), ‘person’, and -kaya to PAN “kaya, ‘property, rich’, both terms

came from Austronesian people, even though their places of origin and languages were not the same. -Aaya denotes a part of a personal name—of Aumaso individuals—written down in the Nihon-Shoki (The chronicles of Japan: Tennp

Aetkd 720). In addition to Hayate or more commonly Hayahito, Hawito and Afaito are also found. Etymologically Haifo used to be explained as a secondary form derived from Haya-hito.

However, | claim that Aai is older than Aaya- and Agi-fo is a compound with hito, ‘person’ (-to is an independent form). The reason why a phonological change like Aaya-hifo appeared is explained by the reinterpretation of the usual rules govering adjacent vowels. Vowels that appear between independent and

dependent forms undergo a shift. For example, the ‘é’ in saké, ‘sake’ becomes ‘a’ in soke-duki, ‘sake-cup’; amé, ‘rain' ~ ama-dare,

‘rain-drops', ine, ‘rice

plant" ~ ina-ta, ‘rice field’ in Old Japanese, This alternation can be observed, for example, yuni ~ yuna- in RyOkyQan dialects.

The Hayato settled mainly in Osumi and Satsuma. It is clear that Yamato's

government considered them to be people from the south, who brought with them an alien culture, because Hayao is not a term for self, but an address term.

A folk etymology explains that ‘Hayato' comes

from Aayai-hito,

meaning

“speedy man’, owing to their braveness. But from the viewpoint of semantic

association, this is unnatural. Why should braveness relate to speediness? Possibly the Austronesian original haya became synonymous with ‘speedy’, i.e.

haye-, and the different terms were confounded. At any rate, etymologically Hayato has no relation to Agyai-hi ship fo, though the etymon of Aayai, ‘speedy’ i moet yet decided.

ef ne Ee inet

| al

Haye

gat Ne

fo, n Japan ane played

an im in spite of their Austronesian’ Oformigg ie

hele

pmunicate

“M1. 0 it erne

on

ee

ted

suggested ed

how

OW

the Austronesian languages

were involved

re of | ae Japanese language. However, the whole structu be a g plained by Austronesian alone. In particular, ran ihe suffix, reflect @ trait that is of northern language origin, [1 is

lands, before Austronesian arrived. Before the late Jomon period, the popula. ‘ion of Japan was dense in the east and sparse in the west (Koyama 1984), The oothern peoples preceded the Austronesian peoples in the east-west boundary.

Considering this linguistic situation, arguments regarding which side is the

wbstratum and which the superstratum are fruitless. The fact is that the prototype of the Japanese language was steadily established through the process of

iii

g

SuPEAoA [nysss20ns APIUNN FER TYR JO EMU ay) uoq? “sq ENOUKjoY HAG

Hor Ul WOT SuI2y) p $1 STY) 2ou1s paw ApErsBOD OW mO;g FspEN IsEqINOS Ay 22A9M0Y ‘1583 JYLINY “EISUX/Og 152, 01 AUaTIUUDIUI put sUOWOPOS 3] Waop BOUIN) MAN-ENdeg Wol) papusixs yTyM squ2Isae ZUTUMSjo JOPUKD, FU PUIMUMOP Suy[rEs paxjoau! Doruedxs premis pades yo es Covent ence]ap wp

(6861) (yo s2 Kouuy poe (O66) you ULMsy ‘7661 6961) WRU] Aq pond #1 yy

“HSUA}Og NEY PUF 4 Usoepg de? meso wry OOT| Aa awprosdde ay) sso15e FuyFeKon yeny 9q) wodn atese29u0s pue—iuans

DWES JY) A[PUNISE OU Jsam Ady)Jt ‘sVyIATO) 25079 pawNs.0 Aypensn say) sysasns

worsuvdxa wide] Jo a.uapiAs ayI—(/9"d ‘zgG] WLau]) worEZTUOPOS Ag Kpyep

“SUL $83] JO SOU! PImoj]}O) U2Ieq 2aFy pou Aww KEAconp pry) lusUNEe ay)

Ose pue “eIssuA;Og Iseq wrYILA (UZA0o8Ip jo JouInbos par vONEINp aq) ‘wOd STU) 18 “OPIS DAR] WED 244 “(9861 [RueL) G2.comp ot smnry uF Ajuo sussudy asned 3y) Pur aOjag 1 YNW

ponuuOD FuFefor ‘spIom 2yI0 UT] “UOMUEdTD

Bide] 34) Suunp petojdwe yey) wou ABsyens Suyres oy) wt aFueys & 4g Jou

*‘ADWMAND IL) Ul SUNIap IWR URS BUD JO ‘SuPPeXoa pO worEsss & Ag pasned jou FEM J yey) ange oO} uo OF Ay) pure ‘uonenp jaug ApAlep jo jr ‘peas 1 aened

24) Jey) DUINSSe JUDUIIIII25 UEISUAjOg Ist jNOgE suONOdoNd ju

BYIO

JO) punosd jeuonippe we spicid *(idusmew poynypqndun ‘je ya vowepuy | 144)

NIOY 16961 WRUpwsIS) WwIWI]))I5 JO aFeis Apes ue JO 2ansaFIns “exe Dur Jo

PoEd INS JO LOY) UT SUTEUY RUT “sors 1SqFRS dy) JO] ate Eye ]-WOd AyEI0 “AINDOUN JO S2NP UOQIESOIPR AQ POY RU St RISSUAPOY ISR WI s1x9}U00 Aue WOW

s}9ey1e Bde] JO Juasqe Ue Ng AFopooRyoe UI ae;duOUMIOD H1 HINq FundurES ‘yussaid ye ayqeqoidwi Ajpessuad se poprefai oq pnw yf pur wonsodond sy) JO WOddNs UI SDUSPIAS IRS OU $1 Si9j] “AdmO}] “YOM Ppl MEWS HRY

“JNSUL JO SsNBI9q PUNOY UI9q JOU JawY Apdumts Aoq) sdeysod so “(zg7 “d “6g61 PM Aauuty $651 °O “9861 YUEN) De] MyNeg 2y) pO UONNpgns FunuTUOSfq podusw “QNs 10 ‘S}USUUIPSs poonpul-A|peotussodomiie ‘doop sopun sdeqied—routjog BEY Ul WsIXa Op says Bde] PUL AIOSN]]! SI DOUapIAd PAWN) Ty) HW RAST *qissod suo Ity) PEI poaymouyIe ag Nu HN ‘ssred pHOUID])IS5 3y) 0} Pun yy

“peed SpouI 2y) OF! MOndWNssE su palisjsues) ApdUns 3g WES “SUORUTISOp UMOUYy amg Serre HOYs APANCIECWUOS JO SUOTIPUOS UL PadopPAdrp Ivey YTYM JO Yq ‘saBoieNs

SuiteXoa pouayoid Sy) 10 WONeSIARE [RUOTIPEN Jo spOYIsU jusc By) YYR MyIqnop st iq ‘ssouND UByssUA}Og JuOISsTYysId Jo SonyENd Fuydaoyeos pur Sunes ay) NOgE sUOIsATINs jNjasn sasopssip ans

Funes MydwBougiy “ye

PUB auoyaq UOHEZINO;OD aAIsUa)Xe JO Anpides yuauedde ay) Aq pavenjuacoe asned

PBIssUAjOg IS9,AQ UI JIU] UONEZIUO]OD ay) JO [ISpUTYS Burwaas & INOgE aouaP

ys wos) SadUZJIzUI YIM J9yjeFo) ‘WapoW pus jeUOUIpEN) “2n 9 feNZojouo

“id Fuypes sydesFouy)s JO UoIeIIpISUOD B Wo syUIWNTE Popul {jUO H9q Hy Fe 1 Sung uv om YI UO UO Pure auNjpafwos JO) J2)NeW BH BISUdjOg

NPM se seq Jo uaa}as ay) U! payfeasad ABayeNs Bujecor sures ay) s9YRY

yone Foyyes OOF

| oY uoepuy

'@, 40¥OH] i JO Sipupe Atypeas *(¢5 “Ad “gu61) A2uULy se ‘saBefon peiusmuada put eid woydas ay yo Aue ) oy pais) Aprenbope uasq jou

sey yong Amgen aan 1 Mg "CONDEY! ES Joey IA pon gY as0u E Aiqrqoid fm ‘usy) ‘senuONEeS

(661 “d ‘9961 Uotepoy) APOYINOS JJ E Ut PUYMUMOP wry Oo} pain Kay) UIyA SIAN] OF JO S50] 94) Padopunoy PUL Lede 27029 Ynys PURPEIZ m2py WISYINOS WI GOURD payNy-sqnORLM FRIAS JO) (pyPuapy JO}ND [erMOPOD) jay UYOT UrENde> hq EzZg] UI papso P oa SVE) SY) Sm “ey UE “SI “BUE pure Ty sueds jo wonsnz 10 ‘dnsa Furyepaug ‘Jaw0 Suyjjos 07 Suypesy “Su pue “Aug6 rg S “sapu n SuaU e sp jo wusfuEp jroceuppe UE 2194) “PUIMUMOp JayLINy suum) UND 3q) SY “KapEN soqENd BAY JIqI0

aq} JO Kuet24) asne2 on g9q jo Paxeq3q LOUUED 20uRD parNYy-2j F WO jNY

op Podems & pur ‘sayem wo Burye) pur “furjos-fauzeq 01 aod $1 passanPo|PnqQn y-ayqnop

B 'SL91Sm UOPA JO spurm D Ajpenbs pur seas soyfiey aq) uy djpeoodse “exuno> Supypesi-peosg uC “ss2zoxd jo woronp jesauad © upPerEW 0} -poxru

snosu2ZOWOY

#2]-J0-2J0N

211

‘puRys] sey UO PUNO; sem [moj 24) AJUO pu ‘suTEYTEYD 24) 10U Inq ‘pURTEZZ MIN poqredd Sop 24) Apuo ‘soSepadryose UBssoUt}Og Wey [eIIUGI |e }0U Inq 2WOS WI paLND

-20 Sid oy, “ponquinp Aymyoted 19m ‘gam se ‘speuUR onsewWO

"(1661 GT)

UNIJPEI1q JUEISISII-IyBNOIp WO siseyduss UESINbsepy 24) UI SE $99135 [EUOSEDS 30

“SnjOUTEN | 94) Uy $e sSUOTPUCO [JoTe YsseY ‘HTEMEP] PoYyrers Gorm x40. 2010 Jo AYOIEIS BY} Ul $e ‘sopMOY IP UONELOdsuEN Heyes Ajqeqosd psy UISNAND oq7 UI SUOHIPLIEA J9UIQ “PUBTEIZ MIN WIZYLIOU SB YONS S}UIWUOSAU? 124009 OUT WOH “UEdXS FEINIINONUOY PoreH|IBs 1 PuE si9qn) URISY 24) UY) J9pUd) S89) SEM (166) YOY PUE 4947EH) OOO! CV Is¥aq Te Aq spuEysy YOO 24) UT UMOLS ‘OTBIOd HOMs AL “PUBTeIZ MON UI paatains Auaqinur Jaded pue syouyuisa) auypXps0D “pino8 *stoqn) ay) Aquo pur “(gg¢ “d ‘6661 weutses,3) yynos sayUNy Jo Bdey UO ‘MOs3 10u

Pinom yMAypessg puUe ‘yN4y JOU PINoM ynUOoD ayy “sINyMIUBE UEISIUKJOg jo uoneiuesdsues oy) UO edu] Wweoyruds © pey Ose AussoAIp perusUUONAUY “SpsIQees pue seas reJoduNINS yo 2ues Furpedsq aq) OVNI popustxs TY) WOHNeIO] B peejes Gym wuney asz2aIp Apysry © pue AZojoOqN) prIUIUN “WOO B ‘SJaoJ [2J09 OU :UTeSe Juas2;Ip Sem pueyeZZ man sesdwIA, “WIG! yoTeD 0) YoryA UT SUOOBE] posazpaYs JO Aipqesreae Oy) UI Se [fom Se “Exe? YS) J20I JO

ANSJ2AID 94} UI PUB YS [PEYS JO ZOUEPUNge pUE AjUEA aq] UI FUTPep B EIU SHEL

‘Syoou BuBuyy MOLEU PoULIO) Ajpes2028 Aaqy a19q4 STEN puR ‘sesonbseyy aq) ‘Temeyy se yons sosepedrysse peussew ut Afpepedss ‘eissucjog yey Uy podojesap J SB JOU Jam SUIISAS $201 [RIOD “(psp “d ‘1661 U201D) Pus] UOssapur} UO

uy QZ ‘Boures uF ¢¢ p Ajuo pue sesonbsey qi UW! [] ‘senepog ay) ur L{ ‘eBuoy 0} ‘ify ut pS WIJ PeUroep setoeds priqpuE] jo Jaquinu 4) ‘souBISUt 404 “BI0Ig ay) UI ATISIOAIP JaMO] YON OF Pa] UOTTejOS! pue szis [Tews “(qVOq 40 auOIsaMT] fes0o “speseq AfUO) Ayoudums peaSojoyry ‘spurs: peordosy aq uj *$1S7U0]0> Ajse 0} eq Vorsodosd fEJWSWUOIIAUS dQeUEA QJ0UI B Paywasesd ‘Fanamoy “eissUAjOg

pue 2a jo vonenoydxs ‘swuzjd snousdi pur “poy ‘soqun) Jo SuNUNY 2WOS sem 2224) puE JwEWOduN OsTE sam ‘aut Pu YOY Wey) Joyses SIOIASP eps pue sdes ‘ssw jo asn ayy Aq Apurew ‘Sarysiy uoosey PUE Jody “SEQ JOUIISISNS 24) PoULIOS 2Aey O} Poratfeg st ‘Moy puE ‘Sid “Bop jo

Aipueqsny ay} pur ‘(ynu0909 pu ‘ynaypeaig ‘eueUeg kjqeioU) sdos 294) put (ore)

pue wreck Aypetsedsa) ssaqny jo Suruapred pepnpout yorym aunynouse jo waysis

qeuodsuen Apysry W “(651d ‘B61 “ys "4 “p86 YOUTY) UONENOYdxe suueM

pue Aspuegsny jeuue ‘ainynouse Surpnjour saayens Jo yas ysiyesauad ‘paseq

Brde] paystqerse ay) 0} porns spuEisy TeodoN) palsieM ‘Peolg, B Jo Awouors

‘IP ‘28ze] Jo 198 JeNTUIES B possjUNOSU wIseUAjog 1594, OVW! UO!sUEdxa [eNTU]

sahoyenys soueysrsqns

Pee uoneinuns sayndwos Aq—skem sures oy) Apesioed Ut Mt 152) OF [njesn Goma SPUBISOD sIU ay 0} 1SBUy 9 Pinom It ING ‘sisayjodAy possajosd-ApUaLIND

OMY ‘| uy wossep

OF

9,9,

JUDUII{II28

O78]

“‘Ppow

(q) pue uoneztuojoo uRseUt}og jo Ppow yuawapies Ayey (®) ove Pu (3

Tas JO saseyd Jaye] Ul WEY) WOIJs ZuyFeI0y pue FuNUNY JoyeoIF AjaArepl © ‘aap

01 TOS Isey ay) JO SUapIAa asopNstp sos Wide] WapsEs Ape ‘sed UETSAUA]Og

B saptAcud BIsaUA[O Way, JO TWAUTAS Edey peryuy “APET -[Zedwoo jnjasn ‘(uo}esyunumMOS peuosiod ‘y>e2] “AW “H) g1aqyesy pol pue [eqs peed se yons sanipounmos snomysoud pue peumoun jo sonissad payednue ysea1 07 oOHNMadmos Aq ‘Adus8In waA2 20 ‘siseyduts UOT “IPP! WE PaurEd sary ABW

| puE ‘onder sem ‘Aquasedde ‘uotsuedss 24] “(1661

UOSIapUY OE) PUETEIZ MAN] Ul OOTT AV Moqe 40 pues] JaseY Ut Cy WhyU| -[fU SII} OTE] ay) “IeEMEEY pure (7661 po I# Ayspods'] ose) soBejadyyouw peau

OU Sss0/I51P D NES JO BoUapyAd SUPSULAUO 391 U1 009 CY MOgE WEY) Ja}Tea JWoUIAT

S59) JO SISkpeue pESTUS yey) sonBre ‘(duosnuew poysyqndun ‘uotepuy pue

s8Buds) mataal ju2001 Y “ETsVUA}Og Iseq Jo JopureMIa ay? INoYSNONY) S215 USM

-9[19S UO STEP VOGIEION*PE! ISI] FED 2) JO] UMEIP 3q WES SUOISHPUOD JER }s PUE

‘QduomTEW peysyqndun “yo za UosIspry) Cy WNTUuaU Ismj-pr 9q) WOjeq g29q1 N20 100 PIP WeUINas Waqres ay) Tey) “(ORGI) YUTY suswos ‘sysaTsns 2oUaplAa sesanbreyy aq) JO sIsKTEUE Jace

& “ATYWNO “Suoye [fe aay) Useq PeY

YSTYM SOBIQSIISA a[qissIo0" aEse] Jo UOHEO[dxNe snonsidsuos AlpesFojoveyoTE

“QAISUATUT ULM JpOst 2su9AI1 Ayqeondweut way) PUE “spULTS! [JEWS UO Ward “sous OU IAB]50] SE SEAM JO SpUupuNY Ad Indi Os 3q Pjnom siIsTUOTO? JEIWI]}2

[rea JO LOLARY Sq 3q] Tey] SuINSsE 0} ZQEUOSesuUN sus—I5 Ht “APpuTy, “MyBt] 0} 2UI0D

72K FVY VON “TUIUTA[TIOS PRINYMITUOY UETsIUAjOY seg Jo aseyd Ajsea poyejnisod

B WOU, soUIpIAa apqesedwos aq pynom aisy) yey) APA st i] Os “poywassudas

-fjfos $1 ‘SaqBOTISIWOP FUIpPNpIu ‘EUNEy [ELISIII) PUE BULTEW JO Lapp Yorya Ul

|

sayis Aq payed []NS SSSI WIAIU J7e ‘TONEISUS)U! PIM NIWOY peUEISENs Fem

au3q) Gory ut ‘Asoisysid ueiseudjog sty pesto) Jo saseyd Jaye] ay) “APpuUooeS

(766 280] DOW PUe UOSUIpUY) AUTNUDS 20 poisisel JOU aney ‘puRyeIZ Man) Ul

Ajqeyou “omapies Ajree jo woddns wi paid us0q saey yoryn IBueYD UONE}23IA

INA WAM TE JO SuTs29009 ETEp 2) Jo aus “ApS *FIPOUl 29N1e] IY) SINOAR] TUsW 24) MITA AU OT Ing “UTEUIIUN FUTEUIAI 2OyM E se BIssUAjog Iseq JO UOTEZTO “(09 24) Ol pauajyaid ATPENIOe sem azay POTTING SABIVENS UE IY) JO YORUM

“aanyNDAUOY Jo PEALE Joye] B Sursodozd you wt Apuevodul! e1agyip m “(1Z61) 2qn0ID Ag pooweape sissqpody sodoolpuess, 34) 0} Jey 1 SIU) ay TEI IMO pamod aq pmoys 3] “(z"p7 “B14) eIseudjog Iseq Jo HE

‘wn) Uy “worsuEdxe peanyinIn04 4 su)un -af1i9s aq 20] poured jauq Aprey ¥ soqd

A@izaua 21000 TS2A0! Oo] SuTUNRUI Jo pearsut ‘moreZTO]OD 13172 WOOS ayNb saazes7! 301 JO YOTeSs W1 UO AOU! O} "dood auNOS JO] 2ANUZOUI UE sem az9y) ‘ApyoIND PAF

jeunes pauiayoud 2ous rey) pue vojsuedy? Asea Ayres paraydap azam ssomosos femmynonoy t9A0 s9uspaeud Apres yoo! uorepaud yey) sandze worsodosd sm. 2q 01 '496] uossspuy) purfesZ “ON “(paysyqnd 72 PITY) SPURS] YOO) ‘fdusmeEeW poysyqndun “jo 72 WOsIPEY

pore "(1661

eTeMFH pue wos}O) amp “(6961 ‘2861 FUT ‘yg61 Se ‘7661 Najou) sesonbreyy n Aiqnio ‘eseakjog ie

34P inoySnom) wos) s32In0s21 yons Jo uorTENO|dx?

-aayu ‘Kpmea Jo 2002piaa peaidsapn wou si au9q “(.96) puoureig pue ese)

s you aon We e ysnf Sury00] UO d20q 01 aANNUZ0U! UE ING ‘AsaAOosIP jo prema jpas pur ‘sosmppour ‘sopum yo saasasau paddezun pur ‘feruojoo 10 Suypse2q pun? 6o¢ se@sqons souspsreqns pun SufoAoa oandopy ails eee

a

eat

teal

9470

Atholl J, Anderson

ne faunal populg sequence Is said to show that abundant, pristi The Tikoplan decades of this behen were st by the Initial settlers and that a few resulted in ‘extirpation of the megapode, a great reduction in turtle, q ectiny

numbers of bird ang fis in the quantity and sizes of shellfish and a reduction in en sites’ (Kirch 1984, p. 147). Similar evidence cay 5,

represented in later midd

1984, p. 146; Swadling \g9¢ discerned in the Reef Islands, Fiji, Tonga (Kirch

», 146; Spennemann 1987, p. 81), and, arguably, Samoa (Kirch ef al, 1990, p, 12),

ons on silusi and conc Discus

subsistence economic There was adapative change in more than voyaging and ges jp ple, various chan when East Polynesia was settled. There were, for exam

ed possibilities of the material culture. Adze forms were adapted to the restrict manuscript), oceanic basalts (Green, to be published; Anderson ef a/. unpu blished

in part a scarcity of Pottery disappeared from the inventory, reflecting at least by suitable clays in tropical East Polynesia—pottery

functions were replaced

s. There was an wooden bowls and increasing emphasis on cooking in earth oven

icted reef efflorescence in hook types and abundance as adaptation to the restr development of East Polynesia and the greater demand

for fishing in small,

lure hooks for use isolated islands, induced development of a range of bait and r particular on the reef front and at sea (Kirch 1984, p. 89). Behind these and othe ng voyaging and changes, however, were the basic adaptive responses concerni subsistence.

was to discover new If the initial objective of Polynesian explorers sailing east d risk and result land by prudent means, then a voyaging strategy which optimize accommodate the probably entailed a reassortment of tactical constituents to a. I have suggested greater distances and different wind patterns in East Polynesi ng, and this, in turn, (hat amongst these may have been a shift to windward saili ry of the Polynesian could have had consequences for the morphological trajecto phenotype. Houghton (199la, p. 177; 19915,c) argues that large

body

mass,

relatively

ct adaptation short limbs and other features, of the Polynesian phenotype refle

no effective proto unusually cold conditions at sea: constant wind and wet with

Oceanic tection from exerted selective pressure on body heat balance in the

was parphenotype as early as the Pleistocene settlement of Near Oceania, and

ods at ticularly important from the Lapita era onward. Substantially longer peri sailing prosea than usually envisaged, which is the implication of the windward

position, could only have assisted that process. It might be expected that there

on of e would be further modification of the phenotype in the cool temperat regi

East Polynesia, but there is no evidence of this, One reason might be that Polyneerson sian vessel design was reaching its seakeeping limits at these latitudes (And 1986), and most travel there, and perhaps generally in New Zealand,

was over-

er of land, Houghton's hypothesis, however, may only describe one of a numb

potentially important factors. The roles of aesthetics, status, and dietary prefed

alsoeto be consider needyp n the Polynesian phenot erence in the selectioof

(

QE

a

a

5

eo

7

eT

__

Ss

en

Be

i

!

strategies 371 Adaptive voyaging and subsistence

|

van Dijk 1991), and possibly the value of size and strength for lineage survival during feuding on small islands, an endemic condition judging by traditions. if the objective of successful East Polynesian explorers was to quickly establish

viable colonies, then it can be argued that an optimally adaptive subsistence grategy would seek to maintain economic Mexibility by retaining transplanted constituents, and also take full advantage of untapped and easily gathered reserves of faunal resources. The best chance of survival lay in rapid initial population

than consermore by liberal growth and it can be assumed that this was assured vative harvesting of high-quality foods, and more by cost-efficient energy extraction than its comparatively laborious production by non-intensive horticulture.

As faunal resources declined the relative efficiency of agriculture increased

everywhere in tropical East Polynesia. In the temperate zone horticulture was only locally productive and subsistence economies, which can be regarded analogicallyas neotonous, remained in something like their colonization states, exploiting the much larger faunal reserves of New Zealand.

In this general model of economic optimization (Anderson, to be published), one of the obvious choices for colonists of islands where faunal reserves were manifestly failing was to seek another where they were yet unexploited, thus maintaining

efficient

energetic

relationships,

rapid population growth,

and

evolutionary fitness. Relatively safe voyaging practices would have to be, of course, an integral part of such an adaptive strategy, since there would be no for short-term gain if by intensive exploitation of resources advantage obtained

many people were lost in moving from one rich patch to another. It can be argued that several aspects of the archaeology of colonization in the eastern Pacific conform with this hypothesis. Within each of three phases, the

Lapita expansion, the settlement of tropical East Polynesia and the later settlement of temperate East Polynesia, there now appears to be common characteristics of rapid expansion and early intensive exploitation of pristine faunal

resources.

Acknowledgements I thank Helen Leach, Richard Walter ul on this paper ghtf comments For thou

(both at University of Otago), and Geoffrey Irwin (University of Auckland), none of whom bears responsibility for the views I have expressed.

References , J. (1986). Mahinga ika o te moana: selection in the pre-Ewropean fish catch AndersonA. of southern New Zealand. In Traditional fishing in the Pacific, (ed. A. J. Anderson),

pp. 151-65. Pacific Anthropological Records 37, B.P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu. Anderson, A.J. (1989). Prodigious birds: moas and moa-hunting in prehistoric New Fealand, Cambridge University Press,

Anderson, A.J. (1991). The chronology of colonization in New Zealand, Antiquity, 65, 767-95.

H

Adaptive voyaging and subsistence strategies

ees

Kirch, P.V.

ete

Se

>

373

ee f the prehistoric Polynesians on the Hawaiian ecosystem.

(1

iverti

Kirch,

sD

Press

pp.

Kirch, P. V., Hun coat

ste

» Nagaoka, L -» and Tyler, J

ee

ToL e fu Island, American Semon. AArchoeology in Oceania,15

epee

ich, P.V., Plentey, 3 -R., and Steadman, D. W. (1991). A radiocarbon chronology for human-induced environmental change on Mangaa, southern Cook lstnds, Polynesia. Rediocarbon, 33, 317-28. Lepofsky,D Hane H. C., and Kellum M.,(1992). Early cocomuts on Mo'orea Island, sam see ie ham 299-308. ' es ie

Tonga: ss Of Miah paca 81-96. 22, Oceania,

snd

eee

ee

Spriggs, M. and Anderson, A.J. (not dated). Late colonization of East Polynesia. Unpublished manuscript, Australian National University Steadman, D. W. (1989). Extinction of birds in eastern Polynesia: a review of the record

Sutton, D. G, (198 A paradigmat 7). ic shift in Polynesian prehistory: implications for New Zealand, New Zealand Journal of Archaeology, 9, 135-55 Swadling, P. (1986). Lapita shellfishing from sites in the Reef/Santa Cruz group southeast Solomons. In eG ened (ed. A.J. Anderson), oP Pacific ee P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu.

Terrell,J. (1986). Prehistory in egy ecco study of variation in language, customs and human biology. Cambri University Press. van Dijk, N. (1991). The Hansel and Gretel symdrome: a critique of Houghton’s cold adaptation hypothesis and in alternative model. New Zeeland Journal of Archaeology, 13, 65-89,

| it; l a ifasst i

A. 316 a BA: 216 , J. M.

155, 229, 244, 245, 270

P. 165, 168 1

232? 3

M. 244, 245 194, 311, 320 . T. 263, 266

v.P - WS, 116, 117, 119, 120, 121,

ig

“or

~

im a :

Ammerman

. 16)

» 309, 324, 325, 327, 330, 337,

A.J.

28

a‘