Prehistoric and Later Settlement and Landscape from Chiltern Scarp to Aylesbury Vale: The archaeology of the Aston Clinton Bypass, Buckinghamshire 9781407303741, 9781407321349

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BAR 473 2008 MASEFIELD

Prehistoric and Later Settlement and Landscape from Chiltern Scarp to Aylesbury Vale The archaeology of the Aston Clinton Bypass, Buckinghamshire

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE

Robert Masefield with contributions by

Dr Michael Allen, Luke Barber, Holly Duncan, Dr Peter Guest, Professor John Hines, Charles LeQuesne, Dr Rob Scaife, Lucy Sibun, Anna Slowikowski, Felicity Wild site illustrations by

Matthew Pearson and finds illustrations by

Cecily Marshall

BAR British Series 473 2008 B A R

Prehistoric and Later Settlement and Landscape from Chiltern Scarp to Aylesbury Vale The archaeology of the Aston Clinton Bypass, Buckinghamshire

Robert Masefield with contributions by

Dr Michael Allen, Luke Barber, Holly Duncan, Dr Peter Guest, Professor John Hines, Charles LeQuesne, Dr Rob Scaife, Lucy Sibun, Anna Slowikowski, Felicity Wild site illustrations by

Matthew Pearson and finds illustrations by

Cecily Marshall

BAR British Series 473 2008

ISBN 9781407303741 paperback ISBN 9781407321349 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407303741 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

BAR

PUBLISHING

CONTENTS List of Plates................................................................................................................................................................... ii List of Figures ................................................................................................................................................................ ii List of Tables ................................................................................................................................................................. iii Contributors.................................................................................................................................................................... v Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................................................... vi Summary .................................................................................................................................................................... vii Chapter 1 Setting the Scene ......................................................................................................................................... 1 I II III IV

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 1 Route Topography and Geological Overview ............................................................................................... 2 Summary of Evaluation Surveys ................................................................................................................... 2 Methods ........................................................................................................................................................ 4

Chapter 2 Results .......................................................................................................................................................... 5 I II III IV V VI VII

Note on Report Format and Dating .............................................................................................................. 5 Woodlands Roundabout to Vatches Farm Site A .......................................................................................... 5 Vatches Farm Site A to Lower Icknield Way Site B ..................................................................................... 17 Lower Icknield Way Site B .......................................................................................................................... 18 Lower Icknield Way Site B to Tring Hill Site D ............................................................................................. 63 Tring Hill Site D ........................................................................................................................................... 63 Tring Roundabout and Slip Roads .............................................................................................................. 77

Chapter 3 Finds and Environmental Analysis .............................................................................................................. 78 I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX

The Pottery from the Aston Clinton Bypass ................................................................................................. 78 The Ceramic Building Material and Fired Clay .......................................................................................... 119 Non-Ceramic Finds ................................................................................................................................... 120 The Metallurgical Remains (inc.related debris) ......................................................................................... 144 The Charred Plant Remains ...................................................................................................................... 147 Land and Freshwater Mollusca; the Landscape Evidence ........................................................................ 156 Pollen Analysis of the Fills of a Romano-British Well Feature 68 .............................................................. 163 The Human Skeletal Remains from Tring Hill Site D ................................................................................. 166 The Animal Bone from the Aston Clinton Bypass ..................................................................................... 169

Chapter 4 Project Discussion and Regional Context ................................................................................................ 179 I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X

Prehistoric Until the Early Bronze Age ..................................................................................................... 179 Middle Bronze Age .................................................................................................................................... 179 The late Bronze Age/ Early Iron Age ......................................................................................................... 181 The Early Iron Age .................................................................................................................................... 186 The Middle Iron Age .................................................................................................................................. 189 The Late Iron Age...................................................................................................................................... 190 The Roman Period .................................................................................................................................... 193 The Saxon Period...................................................................................................................................... 199 The Medieval Period ................................................................................................................................. 205 The Post-Medieval Period ......................................................................................................................... 210

Chapter 5 Landscape Character and Conclusions .................................................................................................... 211 I II III

Development of Boundaries at Site B ....................................................................................................... 211 Landscape Origins, Continuity and Change .............................................................................................. 211 Conclusions .............................................................................................................................................. 213

Bibliography ............................................................................................................................................................... 215 Appendix 1. Pottery Type Descriptions ...................................................................................................................... 224 Appendix 2. Brick, Tile and Fired Clay Fabric Descriptions ...................................................................................... 233

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List of Plates Plate 1 View SE from Lower Icknield Way Site B after Route Cutting Plate 2 Late Bronze Age Pottery in Pit 1151 Plate 3 Iron Age Four-Poster G1649 Plate 4 Iron Age Dog Skull and Scapula in Pit 1088 Plate 5 Excavation of Trackside Ditches at Site B (Area 3) Plate 6 Roman Well Feature 68 Plate 7 View NW of the Road Strip and Aylesbury Vale from Tring Hill Plate 8 Anglo-Saxon Burial 2 Plate 9 Anglo-Saxon Child Burial 7 Plate 10 Richly Furnished Burial 12, Child Burial 5with Pot and Detail of Knife on Pelvis of Male Burial 1 Plate 11 Detail of Saucer Brooches and Beads – Burial 12 List of Figures Fig. 1 – Scheme Location Fig. 2 – Overall Scheme Showing Areas of Archaeological Investigation Fig. 3 – Plan of the Western Segment of Bypass Route, Showing Site A and Related Archaeological Finds Fig. 4 – Site A Overview, Showing all Archaeological Features Fig. 5 – Site A Detail of Oval Gully and Large Pit Containing Skull Fig. 6 – Site A Detail of Large 4-Post Structure and Ring Ditch and Adjacent Features Fig. 7 – Site A Plan of Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age Activity, Showing Interpretation and Structure Groups Fig. 8 – Reconstruction of Pottery Group from Pit 8271 Fig. 9 – Site A Detail of Features at North End of Site Fig. 10 – Site A Sections through Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age Features Fig. 11 – Site A Plan of Probable Roman and Later Features Fig. 12 – Site A Sections through Probable Roman Features Fig. 13 – Plan of the Bypass Route, Showing Site B, Trial Trenches, Areas of Archaeological Investigation and CAS Find Locations Fig. 14 – Site B Overview, Showing all Archaeological Features Fig. 15 – Late Bronze Age/ Early Iron Age Features Fig. 16 – Possible Structure Group 1679 Fig. 17 – Early-Middle Iron Age Features Fig. 18 – Site B Detail of Iron Age Enclosure Showing Later Features Fig. 19 – Site B Sections through Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age Features Fig. 20 – Site B Detail of Roundhouse G1667 Fig. 21 – Site B Detail of 4-Post Structures and Pit Complex G1638 in Area 2 Fig. 22 – Site B Detail Showing Possible Posthole Structures in Area 2 Fig. 23 – Enclosure G1623 and Related Ditches Fig. 24 – Site B Sections – Post Holes of Iron Age Structures Fig. 25 – Site B Plan of Main Late Iron Age/Early Roman Transition Activity Fig. 26 – Site B Late Iron Age/Transitional Square Enclosure and Later Phases (Areas 1 and 3) Fig. 27 – Site B Detail of Square Enclosure Showing Later Phases Including Roman Waterholes (Area 3) Fig. 28 – Site B Sections through Iron Age Features Fig. 29 – Site B Plan Showing Main Roman Features Fig. 30 – Site B Detail of Trackway across Area 3 Fig. 31 – Site B Sections through G149 Trackway Showing G1623 Iron Age Enclosure Ditch Sections Fig. 32 – Site B Roman Cremations Fig. 33 – Site B Iron Working Features G1709 Fig. 34 – Site B Detail of Roman Waterhole and Leat in Area 1 Fig. 35 – Site B Selected Sections through Roman Features Fig. 36 – Site B Plan of Late Roman to Early Saxon Activity Phases 6-7 Fig. 37 – Site B Saxon Pit Groups G1673/1676 in Area 2 Fig. 38 – Site B Sections through Saxon Features Fig. 39 – Site B Detail of Post-Roman Enclosure Showing Bronze Age Cremations Fig. 40 – Plan Showing Medieval and Later Activity Fig. 41 – Plan of the Bypass Route, Showing Site D, Trial Trenches and Archaeological Finds Fig. 42 – Site D Overview Showing All Archaeological Features Overlaid on A41 Bypass Route Fig. 43 – Site D Plan Showing Phases of Activity Fig. 44 – Site D Selected Sections through Iron Age Features Fig. 45 – Burials 1-3 and 5-7 ii

Fig. 46 – Burials 8-13 Fig. 47 – Burials 14-16 and 18 Fig. 48 – Site D Plan and Section of Medieval Windmill Base Fig 49 – Site A Pottery: nos 1-8 Fig 50 – Site B Pottery: F16C (nos 10); F01A (nos 11-19); F01B (nos 20-21); F01C (no.22) Fig 51 – Site B Pottery: F28 (nos 23-35); F31 (nos 36-40) Fig 52– Site B Pottery: F35 (nos 41-49); F16 (nos 50-52); F32 (nos 53-58); F37 (no.59) (scale 1:4) Fig 53 – Site B Pottery: F06B (nos 60-67); F06C (no. 68) Fig 54 – Site B Pottery: F07 (nos 69-73); F05 (no. 74); F09 (nos 75-77) (scale 1:4) Fig 55 – Site B Pottery: F09A (nos 78-94) (scale 1:4) Fig 56 – Site B Pottery: Roman (nos 95-101); Saxon (nos 102-111) (scale 1:4) Fig 57– Site D Pottery: Late Iron Age (nos 112-115); Saxon (no 116) (scale 1:4) Fig 58 – Site B Non-ceramic Finds: Sheet 1 Fig 59 – Site B Non-ceramic Finds: Sheet 2 Fig 60 – Site B Non-ceramic Finds: Sheet 3 Fig 61– Site B Non-ceramic Finds: Sheet 4 Fig 62 – Grave goods from Burials 1, 3, 5 to 8, 11, 13, and 15 to 16. Fig 63 – Grave goods from Burial 12. Fig. 64 – Cultural Heritage Landscape (Selected Sites) Fig 65 – The Strip Parishes of the Central Chilterns Showing the Aston Clinton Bypass List of Tables Table 1 – Site Phases and Dates Table 2 – Site A Phase 1a – Pottery quantified by vessel: sherd: weight Table 3 – Site A Phase 1b – Pottery quantified by vessel: sherd: weight Table 4 – Site A Phase 2b – Pottery quantified by vessel: sherd: weight Table 5 – Site A Phase 6b – 8 – Pottery quantified by vessel: sherd: weight Table 6 – Site A Unphased Contexts – Pottery quantified by vessel: sherd: weight Table 7 – Site B Phase 1a – Pottery summary by Fabric and form Table 8 – Site B Phase 1b – Pottery summary by Fabric and form Table 9 – Site B Phase 2a – Pottery summary by Fabric and form Table 10 – Site B Phase 2a/2b – Pottery summary by Fabric and form Table 11 – Site B Phase 2b – Pottery summary by Fabric and form Table 12 – Site B Phase 3 – Pottery summary by Fabric and form Table 13 – Site B Phase 3/4a – Pottery summary by Fabric and form Table 14 – Site B Phase 3/4a/4b – Pottery summary by Fabric and form (excluding G149) Table 15 – Site B Phase 3/4a/4b/5 – Group G149 Table 16 – Site B Phase 4 – Pottery summary by Fabric and form (general) Table 17 – Site B Phase 4a – Pottery summary by Fabric and form Table 18 – Site B Phase 4b – Pottery summary by Fabric and form Table 19 – Site B Phase 5 – Pottery summary by Fabric and form Table 20 – Site B Phase 5/6– Pottery summary by Fabric and form Table 21 – Site B Phase 6b – Pottery summary by Fabric and form Table 22 – Site B Phase 7 – Pottery summary by Fabric and form Table 23 – Site D – Pottery farm ditches and post holes phases 1,2,3 and 6 Table 24 – Site D – Pottery farm graves Table 25 – Catalogue of Site A illustrated pottery Table 26 – Catalogue of Site B illustrated pottery Table 27 – Catalogue of Site D illustrated pottery Table 28 – Non-ceramic description format Table 29 – Catalogue of the coins from Site B Table 30 – Roman coins from Site B arranged according to Issue Periods Table 31 – Presence of fragmentary objects by context Table 32 – Necklace components by burial number Table 33 – Occurrences of knives in burials Table 34 – Metal working waste and ore by period Table 35 – The LBA/EIA undifferentiated Table 36 – The LIA Ditch plant macrofossils Table 37 – The LIA pit context macrofossils Table 38 – The early Roman context plant macrofossils Table 39 – The early Roman boundary ditch sequence (117/175) plant macrofossils iii

Table 40 – The late Roman context plant macrofossils Table 41 – The Saxon period plan macrofossils Table 42 – Mollusca Site B – Area 3 Table 43 – Mollusca from Site A and Site D Table 44 – Pollen diagram – Roman-British well 68 Table 45 – Human age categories Table 46 – Demographic analysis of the Anglo-Saxon individuals at Site D Table 47 – Stature of Anglo-Saxon individuals at Site D Table 48 – Percentages of butchered, gnawed and burnt bone fragments (Site A) Table 49 – Quantification of Site A assemblage Table 50 – Percentage of main food species in LBA/EIA (Site A) Table 51 – Body part data from the LBA/EIA (Site A) Table 52 – Cattle aging data (Site A) Table 53 – Percentages of butchered, gnawed and burnt bone fragments (Site B) Table 54 – Quantification of assemblage by phase (Site B) Table 55 – Quantification of assemblage studied in detail by phase (Site B) Table 56 – Percentages of main food species by period (Site B) Table 57 – LBA/EIA animal BPD (Site B) Table 58 – EIA animal BPD (Site B) Table 59 – LIA animal BPD (Site B) Table 60 – Early Roman-British animal BPD (Site B) Table 61 – Late Roman-British animal BPD (Site B) Table 62 – Saxon Roman-British animal BPD (Site B) Table 63 – Dental eruption: cattle (Site B) Table 64 – Dental eruption: sheep/pig (Site B) Table 65 – LIA epiphyseal fusion (Site B) Table 66 – Early Roman-British epiphyseal fusion (Site B) Table 67 – Late Roman-British epiphyseal fusion (Site B) Table 68 – Quantification of assemblage (Site D) Table 69 – Saxon body position data (Site D) Table 70 – Summary of the Domesday Book inventory for parishes affected by the Aston Clinton Bypass

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Contributors ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ

Robert Masefield, RPS Group Plc, 1st Floor West, Cottons Centre, Cottons Lane, London, SE1 2QG Charles LeQuesne, RPS Group Plc, Mallams Court, 18 Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxfordshire, OX14 4RP Luke Barber, Sussex Archaeological Society, Barbican House, 169 High Street, Lewes, East Sussex, BN7 1YE Holly Duncan, Albion Archaeology, St Mary’s Church, St Mary’s Street, Bedford, MK42 0AS Anna Slowikowski, Albion Archaeology, St Mary’s Church, St Mary’s Street, Bedford, MK42 0AS Dr Rob Scaife, School of Geography, 2035 Shackleton Building, Highfield Campus, University of Southampton, Highfield, Southampton, SO17 1BJ Dr Michael J. Allen, Environmental Archaeology, Redroof, Green Road, Codford St. Peter, Warminster, Wiltshire, BA12 0NW Lucy Sibun, Archaeology South East, Units 1&2, 2 Chapel Place, Portslade, East Sussex, BN41 1DR Professor John Hines, School of History and Archaeology, Cardiff University, Humanities Building, Colum Drive, Cardiff, CF10 3EU Dr Peter Guest, School of History & Archaeology, Cardiff University, Humanities Building, Colum Drive, Cardiff, CF10 3EU Felicity Wild, 30 Prince’s Road, Heaton Moor, Stockport SK4 3NQ Matthew Pearson, RPS Group Plc, Mallams Court, 18 Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxfordshire, OX14 4RP Cecily Marshall, Albion Archaeology, St Mary’s Church, St Mary’s Street, Bedford, MK42 OAS

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Acknowledgements As always with a project of this size a large number of people have contributed to make it possible. Particular thanks go to the hard working digging team who worked unflinchingly in all weather to complete on time without compromising standards. I am grateful to the Highways Agency and their agents Owen Williams, in particular Pradip Kotecha, for their commitment to the project and to Andy Salmon, Chris Brooks and Diane Champion of Balfour Beatty whose assistance and co-operation on site was invaluable. Special thanks to the various specialists including Dr Rob Scaife, Dr Mike Allen, Luke Barber, Lucy Sibun, Anna Slowikowski, Holly Duncan and Lincolnshire Archives and the illustrators Cecily Marshall and Matthew Pearson. Luke Barber would like to thank Sarah Paynter and Justine Bayley of English Heritage’s AM Lab, Fort Cumberland, for commenting on some of the slag and clay vessel fragments and for undertaking sample assessment using XRF analysis. Dr M. Allen’s snail shell analysis was conducted under the aegis of Rob Scaife who co-ordinated the palaeo-environmental programme, and supplied the samples assessed and analysed. The roles of Sandy Kidd of Buckinghamshire County Council, Dominique de Moulins of English Heritage and the project consultant Steve Haynes of Arup are also gratefully acknowledged.

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Summary RPS were commissioned in 2001 by Balfour Beatty on behalf of The Highways Agency to undertake archaeological excavation and watching brief works in advance of and during the construction of a 6.3km bypass around Aston Clinton, Buckinghamshire. Excavation at Woodlands Roundabout Site A in 2002 (CAS 8402) revealed late Bronze Age to early Iron Age activity, on the fringes of settlement and included placed human bone and rare ‘concertina’ vessels in pits. Structures, including an unusually robust 4-poster within a pennaular gully and an oval structure may have associations with mortuary practices. This site was abandoned no later than the middle Iron Age, well before the construction of Roman Akeman Street, which lies beneath the A41, and over which Woodlands Roundabout has been constructed. The Roman road’s construction was evidenced by gravel quarries and by its probable make-up layers. Excavation on either side of the B489 Lower Icknield Way Site B near Buckland, in 2001 and 2002 (CAS 6332) identified a multiperiod settlement site. The earliest activity comprised cremations and pits of middle/late Bronze Age date. Further pits of late Bronze Age/ early Iron Age date were located on slightly higher ground of Area 2 which also produced a possible roundhouse and fenced compound. An early Iron Age settlement included several four-post structures, a pit complex, and at least one roundhouse. The roundhouse was situated within an L-shaped ditched compound linked to a large stock enclosure. Cattle and sheep bone of all periods demonstrated a pastoral element to the economy. Several features, including a ‘beehive’ profile storage pit and a large pit cutting the stock enclosure, date to the middle Iron Age, whilst the northern and western sides of the enclosure were recut in the late Iron Age phase when further domestic activity is apparent. The enclosure straddled the Lower Icknield Way (the B489) often postulated as a prehistoric, Roman and Saxon route-way, suggesting that such a route was not in use on this alignment in the Iron Age. Wider evidence of late Iron Age/ Roman transition landscape enclosure comprised plot divisions adjacent to a ditch and holloway defined trackway. The track led towards the Chilterns and was the key feature influencing the site’s layout. It followed the west edge of the earlier Iron Age enclosure whilst a ‘funnel’ shaped enclosure linked its east side and a sub-square enclosure connected to the west. It is postulated that the track followed an earlier routeway, based on its continuity with the earlier enclosure, and that it was used to drove livestock to/from the Chiltern scarp and valley pastures to the south-east, and to/from the fattening pastures of the Vale to the north-west. The track was metalled with compacted flint and gravel on at least three occasions, perhaps initially in the 1st century AD whilst the farm’s layout remained little changed in the western site area until the mid Roman period. Evidence of late Iron Age and early Roman iron smelting and working was recovered, although no in situ furnaces survived. Later Roman settlement features included waterholes, wells and pits clustered in the western area of the site, apparently extending beyond the excavation. The coin profile suggests occupation to at least the end of the 4th century, whilst Roman brick and tile finds suggest the presence of a associated Romanised building (probably to the west). Disuse deposits accumulated over the track surface largely during the late Roman period and possibly into the 5th century. Settlement did not necessarily cease after the 4th century as early Saxon features, though low in density, were widespread. Features close to the track produced Saxon finds typical of the 5th-6th centuries, whilst pitting on the higher ground of Area 2 may indicate adjacent settlement in the 6th-7th century. However, no sunken-floored buildings or halls were found. It is uncertain whether these features represent Saxon colonisation or a continuation of occupation by the indigenous population (or both). Settlement ceased c.AD700 possibly due to Buckland’s emergence. Excavation in 2001 on former arable land at Tring Hill Site D, just within the Buckinghamshire boundary with Hertfordshire (CAS 6622) produced plough truncated remnants of late Iron Age enclosure ditches, pits and post-holes, including four-post structures. It appears likely that the associated settlement was abandoned by the Roman period. The discovery of a dispersed early Saxon cemetery comprising at least 18 burials was unexpected. The most spectacular inhumation was a mature female adorned with a pair of gilded saucer brooches with a bead necklace and a toiletry set. These finds, combined with artefacts from the other graves and two radiocarbon determinations, date the cemetery to a few decades either side of AD600. The cemetery is comparable to examples at Walton, Stone, Dinton, Cursely Hill Bishopstone, Upper Winchendon and Eythorpe in the region. The location probably reverted to solely agricultural use following the 7th century until the construction of a medieval windmill. Pottery from the cross trestle foundation dates to the 13th-14th century. The most striking contribution of the project relates to the antiquity of the present dominant ‘bi-axial’ landscape form of the area at the foot of the Chiltern scarp. The modern landscape appears to encompass traces of ancient landscapes in the form of road lines and boundaries (Bull 1993). Two clearly ancient roads are the ‘The Holloway’ running parallel to the bypass at Drayton Beauchamp and Roman Akeman Street (Fig.1). The latter route dissects the Chiltern ‘cross-country’ routes of the Lower Icknield Way and the Upper Icknield Way, both believed to date from prehistoric times. This project’s late Iron Age and Roman trackway (at Site B) ran parallel to ‘the Holloway’ road at Drayton Beauchamp and both appear to have originated as skeletal components of the much wider grid of early lanes in this area. This landscape form is clearly earlier than Akeman Street, which slices obliquely through it. The Site B track thus vii

reinforces the view that the area’s medieval elongated parishes, which extend from upland to lowland to exploit a variety of farmlands and woods, were overlaid on the framework of a late prehistoric landscape.

viii

Chapter 1

Setting the Scene

Figure 1 – Scheme Location

County Archaeological Service provided the archaeological brief for the project (Kidd 2000) and in response RPS produced a project specification and research proposal (Masefield 2001a and 2001b).

I Introduction

(text by RM unless indicated) The bypass route comprises a 6.3km dual two-lane road between Woodlands Roundabout to the west and Tring Hill Roundabout to the east, passing south-east of Drayton Beauchamp and north of Aston Clinton and Buckland (Fig.1). Desk based studies, fieldwalking and geophysical survey were undertaken previously (Oxford Archaeotechnics, 1993; Bucks County Museum Archaeology Service (BCMAS), 1994) and informed areas of potential archaeological interest for trial trenching. The trenching was undertaken by RPS in 2000 (Masefield 2000) at four previously selected high potential sites along the route corridor (Sites A-D). Bucks

Site A (Figs 2-3) was initially located north of a medieval moated site at Vatches Farm. Although evaluation trenches in this area were devoid of archaeological features the easement was subject to ‘detailed watching brief’ (or strip and map - see methodology below). Site A was extended to cover the far western extent of the bypass at the new ‘Woodlands Roundabout’ (the intersection with the A41 on the former line of the Roman road, Akeman Street) where following topsoil stripping (in 2002) a cluster of features required full excavation. 1

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Site B (at c.108m AOD) and to the foot of the Chilterns escarpment (at c.115m AOD). After crossing the Wendover Arm of the Grand Union Canal the route ascends more steeply to Tring Hill Site D (at c.155m AOD) before linking the Tring Bypass at Tring Roundabout.

Site B (Figs 2 & 13) was located on either side of the B489 Lower Icknield Way. The multi-period site was detected via fieldwalking, geophysical survey and trial trenching. Excavation proceeded in two phases, from August to October 2001 and October 2002 (Masefield 2002). Areas to the north-west and south-east of the main excavation were also subject to strip and map. In practice much of this work was conducted concurrently with the excavation.

The Gault and Kimmeridge Clays of the Vale of Aylesbury are drained by the River Thames headwaters as part of the Thames catchment area and by small streams rising at intervals along the ‘Icknield Belt’ (Avery 1964, 4). Close to the Chilterns the Vale constitutes a ‘sub-edge plain’ up to four miles wide, based chiefly on Lower Cretaceous Gault. The regions heavy clays, derived from the underlying weathered Gault, are particularly prone to flooding in the winter months.

Site C (Fig. 1) between the Grand Union Canal and Tring Hill was identified as being of possible archaeological interest by geophysical survey but was subsequently found to be unimportant by trial trenching. Tring Hill Site D (Figs 1, 2 & 41) was selected for mitigation due to the existence of late Iron Age (henceforth LIA) ditches identified by geophysical survey and trial trenching. The exercise was upgraded to a full excavation following the unexpected discovery of a dispersed Saxon cemetery. The excavation of Site D was completed in December 2001 (Masefield 2003a and 2005).

Site A at Woodlands Roundabout intercepts the edge of a thin spread of Head Gravel over the Gault that extends from Western Turville. The site is crossed by a tributary of Bear Brook which has attendant thin deposits of alluvium. The soils of the north-west end of the route are classified as gleys.

An intermittent watching brief was required in all route areas not covered by excavation or strip and map. The contractors utilised a combination of 360-degree excavators with toothed buckets and bulldozers to undertake topsoil stripping in the remaining areas and therefore the potential to observe all archaeological features was diminished to a degree.

The transition between clay and chalk occurs within the Lower Cretaceous Upper Greensand belt followed by the Lower Icknield Way (widely held to have been a significant communication route since the later prehistoric period). Avery regarded the Lower Icknield Way belt, upon which Site B is partially sited, as part of the Vale since its soils are slow draining in comparison with dry chalky soils at the foot of the scarp. In stratigraphic terms the Chalk overlies the Upper Greensand, which is in turn above the Gault. The Gault is up to 65m deep in the Vale and becomes increasing calcareous close to the Chilterns (Avery 1964, 6-7). The Lower Icknield Way soils are still gley but give way to rendzina soils close to the canal (BCMAS 1994,10).

Co-operation between all interested parties, including English Heritage and Buckinghamshire County Council, was maintained throughout the process, in order to alleviate the inherent difficulties of undertaking archaeological work within a busy construction period. However, the main archaeological interventions were allowed for within the overall project thus reducing the risk to the construction programme and avoiding compromising the archaeological works.

The 0.6km stretch of road from the canal to Site D ascends Tring Hill where thin glacial drift deposits no longer overlay the solid chalk. Site D is thus located within the ‘Icknield Belt’ which comprises a variable breadth of well-drained rolling Middle and Lower Chalk landscape bordering the escarpment between 133m and 165m AOD. This belt is widest opposite the Tring and Dagnell Gaps. These well-drained soils of Icknield Belt were, it seems, particularly attractive to early farmers.

This report presents the combined results of these archaeological works and has been compiled by Rob Masefield assisted by Charles LeQuesne and Mathew Pearson. Lucy Sibun, Anna Slowikowski et al, Holly Duncan et al, Luke Barber, John Hines, Dr Mike Allen and Dr Rob Scaife provided specialist reports. Rob Masefield of RPS managed the project. The paper archive is held at Buckinghamshire County Museum, Resource Centre at Halton under Accession 2001.73.1 (Site A), 2001.73.2 (Site B) and 2001.73.3 (Site C/D).

III

Summary of Evaluation Surveys

Site A, the 0.5km length of easement located towards the western extent of the By-pass, comprised several pasture and arable fields (see Fig.3). The route section passes immediately north of Vatches Farm, a scheduled medieval moated site (CAS 0129). LIA potential was suggested by sites CAS 0043 and 5725 to the south of the former A41 (the bypassed section through Aston Clinton). A ‘Welwyn type’ burial is suggested at the

II Route Topography and Geological Overview (see Figs 1, 2, 64 & 65) The route traverses initially very gradually ascending topography from its north-west origin at Woodlands Roundabout (Site A) within the Vale of Aylesbury (at c.85m AOD), south-east to the Lower Icknield Way at 2

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 2 – Overall Scheme Showing Areas of Archaeological Investigation

latter by the 19th century find of an amphora containing ‘burnt material’. A single Roman pottery findspot had previously been recorded on the new road line towards the eastern end of Site A (CAS 2957).The major arterial Roman Road, Akeman Street (Margary 1973, route 16a; CAS 1626), follows the line of the A41 from Aylesbury and is intercepted by the bypass route at Woodlands Roundabout.

exercise, including Woodlands Roundabout, undertaken to confirm the evaluation findings.

was

The evaluation area for Lower Icknield Way Site B (Figs 1, 2 & 13) comprised a 430m length of easement on either side of the B489 Lower Icknield Way. Fieldwalking (BCMAS, 1994) provided evidence of LIA and Roman occupation, whilst geophysical surveys (magnetic susceptibility and magnetometer survey; Oxford Archaeotechnics 1993) demonstrated survival of archaeological features. Seven evaluation trenches targeting geophysical survey features confirmed the suspected existence of Roman settlement activity, particularly north of the Lower Icknield Way. In addition significant evidence for LIA settlement included ditches containing iron-smelting residues. A series of intercutting pits containing both Roman and early Saxon pottery suggested the possibility of Saxon settlement (Masefield 2000). The central c.220m (c.2.29ha) was the subject of the subsequent excavation with the remaining areas of Site B subject to strip and map.

Magnetic susceptibility geophysical survey of the western extent of the by-pass route (including the location of Woodlands Roundabout) provided no indications of high levels of enhancement that might be associated with archaeological activity (Oxford Archaeotechnics 1993). As a result further detailed geophysical survey of the extreme western end of the bypass route was considered unnecessary. Fieldwalking (BCMAS, 1994) also produced negative results in available fields within Site A. The trial trenching exercise at Site A (Masefield 2000) was limited to four evaluation trenches in the vicinity of Vatches Farm, none of which produced significant archaeological features or finds. It was therefore concluded that occupation of the moated site was unlikely to have extended north of the stream bordering its northern side. Fortunately a strip and map

Site C of the evaluation (Fig.1) comprised an anomaly highlighted by magnetometer survey (Oxford Archaeotechnics 1994). As trial trenching demonstrated 3

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE the feature to be of modern derivation strip and map was not required in this area.

using a mechanical excavator equipped with toothless bucket under archaeological supervision. All archaeological features exposed by this method were sample excavated (at a lower sample level than for excavation apart from 100% excavation in the case of burials) and recorded to an adequate level in order to characterize their form, function and date (where possible) in accordance with recording methods adopted for Site B.

Site D comprised the south eastern-most 200m section of road easement adjacent to the Tring roundabout (Figs.1, 2, & 41). Fieldwalking was unproductive although two possible ditches and a curvilinear magnetic anomaly were detected by the magnetometer survey (Oxford Archaeotechnics 1994). Roman pottery (CAS 1977) has been found previously in the area of Tring Roundabout (close to Akeman Street). Trial trenching produced a single heavily truncated ditch with a crushed ‘Belgic’ period pot on its base. Further features were scarce within the evaluation trenches but included a post-hole and possible pit adjacent to the roundabout. Buckinghamshire County Archaeological Service required strip and map of this area as mitigation.

IV

Intermittent Watching Brief for the remainder of the route comprised regular site visits by a RPS archaeologist following topsoil removal, ditch cutting and other relevant construction activities. Any identified archaeology was recorded. Either 360-degree tracked excavators or bulldozers conducted the topsoil strip in areas beyond the scope of the strip and map.

Methodology

Site B - Lower Icknield Way Excavation - The excavation of Site B was conducted immediately ahead of the main construction phase in 2001. Sub Areas 1 (0.41ha) and 2 (1.26ha) were located to the north-west of the Lower Icknield Way. Area 3 (0.62ha) comprised the area of the former B489 Lower Icknield Way (now bridged) and the area to the south-east (Fig. 13). Archaeology below the B489 was excavated following removal of the road section by the contractors in 2002. The detailed methodology was set out in the written scheme of investigation. A brief outline of the strategy is included here. Topsoil and overburden deposits were machine removed under archaeological supervision to the uppermost level of the archaeological deposits and features or the natural subsoil. Archaeological excavation was conducted by hand and respected the stratigraphical sequence of archaeological layers, features, deposits and structures. All significant archaeological features were sampled and recorded using standard procedures. Site plans and sections were related to the national grid based upon accurate control points established by the contractor. All artefacts were retained for specialist assessment and reporting. Bulk soil samples were obtained from all significant datable features and were as a minimum subsampled for assessment level. Much of the floatation processing for environmental remains was conducted on site. A single sequence of site phases, based on ceramic and metalwork classification, and enhanced by radiocarbon determinations, was used for all the bypass sites. A single sequence of site phases, based on ceramic and metalwork classification, and enhanced by radiocarbon determinations, was used for all the bypass sites. Comprehensive Watching Brief (Strip and Map) - The scope of strip and map at Site’s A, B and D was defined in the project brief (S. Kidd 2000). The construction contractor was required to undertake the topsoil strip 4

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Chapter 2

Results

Note on Report Format and Dating The following text is sub-divided by route section from north-west to south-east along the road corridor beginning with Site A, Woodlands Roundabout to Vatches Farm, followed by the route between Site A and Site B at the Lower Icknield Way. The Site B excavation and strip and map area is then described followed by the route between Site B and Site D. Tring Hill Site D and the eastern extent of the route including the slip roads off Tring roundabout is described last. Table 1 below sets out the dates attributed to phases within this report. It is acknowledged that the LBA/EIA indicated here as 800-600BC is increasingly referred to as EIA. 1 1a 1b 2a 2b 3 4a 4b 5 6a 6b 7 8 9

Middle Bronze Age (MBA) Late Bronze Age (LBA) Late Bronze Age/earliest Iron Age (LBA/EIA) Early Iron Age (EIA) Middle Iron Age (MIA) Late Iron Age (LIA) Late Iron Age/early Roman (LIA/Rom) Early Roman Late Roman Late Roman/early Saxon Late Roman/early Saxon Early Saxon Medieval Post-medieval

1400-1000BC 1000-800BC 800-600BC 600-400BC 400-100BC 100BC-AD43 0-AD100 AD43-200 AD200-350 AD350-450 AD350-450 AD450-750 AD1066-1500 AD1500-1900

Table 1 Site phases and dates

related activity on the north of the A41/Akeman Street and intensive quarry pitting on either side of the former Roman road. Remains of the potentially Roman and later road sequence were limited to watching brief observations during the excavation of a culvert across the road line.

II Woodlands Roundabout to Vatches Farm (Site A) (RM & CLQ) Site A was situated within the ‘Aylesbury Vale’ at c.8587mOD (see Figs 1-3) and was crossed by a small stream. The new Woodlands Roundabout was constructed within a former pasture field (known as Lower Field and Meadow in 1799) and just within the parish of Western Turville. The eastern boundary of this field marks the parish boundary between Western Turville and Aston Clinton. The desk based study (BCMAS 1994) noted very feint traces of ridge and furrow within the field. Solid geology at this location is documented as Upper Greensand and Gault (weathered Gault at this particular location) of the Cretaceous partially capped by the northern extent of a discrete area of ‘Valley Gravel and Gravel opposite Chalk Gaps’ of the Recent and Pleistocene (BGS Sheet 238, 1923). The gravel extends as far south as Western Turville and is of particular interest since it effectively demarks the northern extent of IA activity found during the strip and map (see below). The stream is part of the Bear Brook drainage and separates the northern side of the medieval moated site from the new road easement at Vatches Farm passing beneath the new road line immediately north-east of Woodlands Roundabout.

Archaeological activity was unexpectedly discovered during drainage ditch cutting at Woodlands Roundabout. Several probable pits containing IA pottery (8160, 8171 and 8174) were cut by the ditch along the north-western edge of the easement to the stream. The profile of the contractor’s ditch demonstrated 0.3m of topsoil sealing a c.0.2m thick alluvial layer (8500). This sealed the pits and contained several Roman pottery sherds. The easement to the east of the new Woodlands Roundabout and the roundabout itself were subsequently machine stripped under archaeological supervision. A scatter of mainly small pits, post-holes and several gullies of LBA to EIA date were exposed on the north-east side of the roundabout. The roundabout area on the south-west side of the road and the area to the immediate north-east of the road (Akeman Street) were characterised by dense pitting and roadside ditches.

There were two chronologically distinct phases activity on the Woodlands Roundabout site: LBA/EIA settlement

The southern and eastern limits of the LBA to EIA activity seem to have fallen within the site boundaries,

Phases 1a to 2a – Late Bronze Age to earliest Iron Age (Figs 4-10)

5

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 3 - Plan of the Western Segment of the Bypass Route Showing Site A and Related Archaeological Finds

although it seems highly likely from the distribution of features that activity continued to the north and west into fields presently under arable cultivation. Its exposed extent was up to 50m east-west by 70m north-south, with an outlier of further IA activity some 45m further to the north-east. The predominantly LBA/EIA site appeared to be unenclosed but was focussed on the remains of four former standing structures (Structures A1-A4) and an unusual elongated pit to their north-east.

eastern end of the pit was significantly deeper (up to 0.57m) than the south-western end (max. 0.4m deep). It comprised, in effect, two oval pits with concave sides and flat bases connected by a round-bottomed gully. The whole contained multiple fills that had seemingly accumulated naturally (there were no tip-lines or signs of dumping). At the south end there was a single primary fill of light greyish-brown gravely silt (8265) beneath the upper fill of mid greyish-brown silt (8266) that was up to 0.3m thick and extended across the whole cut. Both contained animal bone and sherds of flint-tempered pottery. The sequence at the north-eastern end was more complex, with three layers of silt accumulating below (8266). The lowest, (8269) was dark grey-brown sandy silt, with the two layers above, (8268) and (8267) distinguished by greater quantities of gravel. A fragmentary human skull without its mandible was found lying upturned above the primary fill (8269). The base of the pit sloped up from the ends towards the centre, which contained only the final fill (8266). Immediately southwest of the point where the central gully began to slope down into the north-eastern ‘pit’, there was a distinct dip in its base. The lower three fills described above were only visible beyond this point.

Phase 1a - Late Bronze Age It is clear from the presence of small quantities of flinttempered pottery in a number of features that there was LBA activity on the site. These features cluster in the northern part of the main site. Elongated Pit 8263 (Figs 4, 5, 7 & 10) Elongated ‘dumbbell’ shaped pit 8263 was located just inside the northern limit of the zone of development, on the north-eastern edge of the main area of transitional LBA-EIA activity (Fig. 5). It was 13.2m long, c.1.6m wide at its north-eastern end, 1.3m wide in the centre and up to 2.5m wide at its south-western end. The north6

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Fig 4 – Site Overview showing all Archaeological Features

The only datable artefactual material found in the lower fills of this unusual pit was LBA flint-tempered pottery in 8265 and 8268. Fragments of similar pottery, again without any later material, were found in nearby pits/post-holes 8228 and 8249. The latter feature was c.0.6m in diameter and seemed to be associated with a second similar post-hole to the south, 8251. These could have been part of a short north-south fence alignment taking in a smaller post-hole 8300. However, the isolated nature of these similar features may support a possible interpretation as a descete 2-post structure (Structure A6) such as a ‘drying rack’. These features suggest an early phase of activity in this area. The final fill (8266) of the elongated pit contained a quantity of transitional LBA/EIA pottery that could suggest it silted over a long period of time, or that some settling/ compression of the pit fills over time, with later infilling of the slumped upper level.

Rimbury Plain Ware could be as early as 1300 BC (J.D. Hill pers comm).

Phase 1b - Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age to Phase 2a earliest Iron Age 4-Post Structure A1 (Figs 4, 6, 7 & 10) Structure A1 was defined by a penannular gully 8116, 8.4m in external diameter (7.5m internally), up to 0.25m deep and 0.85m wide. No traces of post-pipes could be discerned in its fill (8095) that contained substantial quantities of EIA pottery and animal bone. A square structure within was formed by four substantial postholes (8092, 8094, 8359 and 8361) centred 2.5m-3m apart. These were 0.65-0.75m in diameter and up to 0.28m deep, indicating that they must have held large upright timbers. There was no other trace of the internal arrangements of the structure. Substantial truncation had clearly taken place, probably as the result of ploughing, removing any traces of former floors. This seems to have been more exaggerated to the north-east, as the gully was significantly shallower on this side (the same phenomenon was observed with oval gully 8320 of Structure A2 to the north). Gully 8116 was interrupted on

A Radiocarbon date of 1430-1270 Cal BC (2 standard deviations - Beta 189875: 3090+/- 40BP) was obtained from the skull found in pit 8263. This appears to place the skull in the MBA. Given the suggested LBA pottery from the associated deposit, the skull was possibly placed in this context when already old, although Post-Deverel 7

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 5 – Site A Detail of Oval Gully and Large Pit Containing Skull

its western side by a 2.5m-wide entrance, correlating with the east-west alignment of the internal four posts. A substantial sub-rectangular pit 8086=8175 or conceivably a very large post-hole (c.1.2m wide x 0.4m deep) was cut into the edge of the fill of gully 8116, immediately beside its terminus, on the east side of this entrance. Together with two post-holes, 8088 and 8090, to the north-west, this feature created a north-south alignment. This may have acted as a windbreak against the prevailing southwesterlies, as well as and perhaps more importantly, as a screen/barrier to the interior. There was a further 9m long, shallow, flat-bottomed gully, 8066, running c.3m south of and parallel with (thus respecting) the south portion of the circular gully. This might have formed a drainage gully on the south side of a track leading to Structure A1 from the east (see Structure A5 below).

suggested that it had originally formed a complete oval but that its north-eastern portion had been removed through erosion or plough-truncation. The surviving 15.6m was at no point deeper than 0.1m or wider than 0.13m. It had a rounded profile. If symmetrical, it is likely that this slot would have described an oval some 12m south-west to north-east by approximately 10m across. The narrow form of this feature suggested a foundation rather than a drainage gully, perhaps designed to support a plank or wattle fence, although there was no sign of stake or post-holes within it. In the preserved section of the gully there was an apparent entrance, c.3m wide with a post-hole 8185 in its centre. This faced directly towards the entrance of the four-post structure to the south-west. There were two shallow pits or post-holes potentially associated, pit 8226 which would have fallen in line with, or just beyond its projected eastern side, and 8228 close to the centre (of the projected oval). However, the presence of fragments of LBA pottery the fill of 8228 may indicate that it was already filled when A2 was created.

Oval Gully Structure A2 (Figs 4, 5 and 10) The second obviously structural EIA feature (Structure A2) laid 16m north of the robust four-poster. This comprised a partial semi-oval slot 8230. Its form 8

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 6 – Site A Detail Showing Large Four-Post Structure and Adjacent Features

9

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Possible Sub-Triangular Compound A5 (Figs 5- 7)

represent the rooting of a large tree. Immediately to the east was a 0.2m wide, 0.4m deep post-hole (8244) whilst three more similarly sized post-holes were found to the south-west (8262, 8260 and, as already mentioned, 8181). Post-hole 8262 contained sherds of EIA pottery and some animal bone.

This group is somewhat tentative but if along the right lines would link the major structural elements (Structures A1 and A2) as a single phase. Gully 8066 to the southwest of Structure A1 with its sinuous north-east/ southwest alignment created an 8m plus long passage between itself and the penannular gully of Structure A1. The second postulated component of the enclosure comprised a north-east/ south-west alignment of post-holes between the northernmost post-hole of the three apparently screening the entrance into Structure A1 (post-hole 8090) and the entranceway post-hole (8185) of Structure A2. The group comprises post-holes 8122, 8124, 8132, 8136 and 8150. Feature 8150 produced bone but none of the post-holes contained pottery. These posts may have formed the northern side of the compound and may have also functioned to funnel people/animals through a narrow gap between post-hole 8090 and the entrance terminal of gully 8116. The postulated narrow entrance into Structure A1 may have been further emphasised by a possible perpendicular barrier or gate between gully 8116 and the north-east/south-west aligned fenceline, suggested by the existence of post-holes 8118 and 8120. A cluster of small pits (including 8134, 8138, 8140 and 8142) were located immediately north-east of the alignment. The fence also aligned with the axis of the elongated pit 8263, to the north-east.

4-Post Structures A3 and A4 (Figs 6, 7 and 10) Two possible square four-post structures (A3 and A4) were located at the southern extent of enclosure A5. Structure A3 comprised four sub-rectangular post-holes (8099, 8101, 8103 and 8105) which were 270-500mm wide and up to 300mm deep set c.2.25m apart. A second four-post building, Structure A4 (comprising post-holes 8068, 8070, 8072 and 8074) was encountered a further c.10m to the south-west of Structure A3. Its posts were generally smaller (c.150-260mm wide) as were their distance apart (c.1.75m). Four-poster A4 was on the same orthogonal alignment as the much more substantial group inside the circular drainage gully 8116, by contrast with A3 which was set on a very slightly varying northnorth-west to south-south-east alignment. In both cases EIA pot was recovered from the silting of single postholes in the group. It is possible that further features to the south of these structures were cut away by extensive later roadside quarrying. There were a number of pits/post-holes within the postulated fenced enclosure A5. These did not cohere into any obvious overall pattern. Post-holes or pits 8238, 8236, 8234 and 8232 formed a curving south-west to north-east arc, which, if they were post-holes, could have flanked a path between the two structures from the southeast. All were substantial (0.13m-0.29m across) and contained darker central fills (possibly post-pipes). However, one of these (8236) contained a deliberate deposit of a complete EIA vessel with a quantity of animal bone. This apparent ritual deposit suggests the possibility that, despite their alignment, these were small pits for offerings rather than post-holes. The central position of votive pit 8326 within enclosure A5 may be significant.

The eastern side of the postulated compound was defined from south to north by six post-holes (8324, 8282, 8294, 8296, 8298, and 8226). The fenceline aligned well with the projected eastern (ploughed away) extent of oval gully 8230 of Structure A2. Interestingly the southern end of the alignment (post-hole 8324) also lined up with the projected continuation of the shallow (plough truncated) gully 8066, which is postulated as part defining the southern side of the enclosure. Although none of these features produced pottery, several other dated post-holes appear to have been associated, including two sets of paired post-holes which were identically aligned to the east (8288/8290 and 8284/8286). These, in addition to four more post-holes (8292, 8273, 8302 and 8304) on the eastern side of the postulated enclosure, produced a total of 17 LBA/EIA sherds.

2-Post Structures A6, A7 and A8 (Figs 4 - 7) A configuration of a further group of post-holes located to the south-west of Structure A1 and 5m to the northwest of the a four-post structure (Structure A4 – see below), and two more to the east of Structure A2 suggest no obvious structural explanation except as supports for two vertical frames or racks. Structure A6 (post-holes 8249 and 8251) and Structure A7 (post- holes 8076 and 8078) exhibited post-holes some 2m apart. Another possible frame or rack support, Structure A8 (post-holes 8080 and 8082) may have had a mortuary significance as the fill of 8080 produced a fragment of ‘polished’ human long bone (see Sibun below). Several other possibly paired post-holes (described as elements of Structure A5 above) may also have been for racks.

A post-hole (8181) was cut into the extreme southwestern end of the elongated pit 8263 at the northern ‘apex’ of the A5 triangular compound. This may indicate both that this proposed fenced compound post-dated the filling of the elongated pit and that the pits location may have been marked, and therefore have been of continuing significance. There were a number of other pits and gullies adjacent to and cut through the fills of pit 8263. Immediately south of the narrow central gully of the pit were a series of silted curving gullies (8240, 8242 and 8182) forming a rough interrupted circle c.2m in diameter (Fig.5). Gully 8182 also seemed to cut the final fill of the elongated pit although it is possible that these 10

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 7 – Site A Plan of the Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age Activity Showing Interpretation and Structure Groups

Notable Pit Features (Figs 4, 5, 7 & 10)

rounded pits, 8062 and 8064, 1.15m in diameter x 0.4m deep and 1.5m in diameter by 0.8m deep respectively. They contained occasional sherds of EIA pottery as well as animal bone suggesting that they might have been used to deposit rubbish. Further to the north-west was another group of pits (8050, 8052, 8054, 8056, 8058 and 8060) apparently respecting the southern side of gully 8066. Only one of these contained pottery, dating to the EIA.

A number of other pit features were of interest. Some of these, such as 8128, to the north of Structure A1 and enclosure fence A5, had very distinct forms suggesting that they were created for a specific purpose. This pit was a 1.8m-long slot with steep sides and a flat base. Five metres to the north-east was another elongated pit 8134, up to 5m long and 0.33m deep, perhaps designed to hold liquid. A large pit 8257, to the immediate east of the southern end of the eastern side of enclosure A5, may have been part of the area of quarry pitting seen immediately to the east, although its depth and profile were quite different from any of the other quarry pits investigated north or south of the road. Another small pit (8271) located to the south of the postulated enclosure is of particular interest. The pit was 0.78m wide by 0.67m deep and contained a mass of sherds from a series of elaborate, decorated high status LBA/EIA bowls including concertina bowls within the secondary fill (8305). Some 8m north-west of pit 8271 were two larger

An Isolated Feature Group (Figs 4, 7 and 9) A second small group of features (gullies, pits and postholes) of EIA date were identified some 45m east-northeast of the main concentration. There were indications of at least two phases of activity, apparently consisting of some kind of ditched enclosure. Two lengths of gully, 8224 and 8205 seemed to belong to the first phase. The first of these was c.1m wide and c.0.26m deep and ran north-east to south-west for c.4.7m. To the south-west, after an interval of c.9m, a portion of 8205, which was 11

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 8 – Reconstruction of Pottery group from Pit 8271

Figure 9 – Site A Detail of Features at North End of the Site

12

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 10 – Site A Sections Through Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age Features

13

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE c.340mm wide by c.0.13m deep, ran on roughly the same alignment for a short distance before curving to the south-east. Both contained fragments of sand-tempered EIA pottery and animal bone. Both were subsequently cut by later gullies/ditches (8203 and 8220) which ran on a similar north-south alignment and could have been part of a single boundary feature. Ditch 8203 was quite a substantial feature, 1.2m wide, 0.6m deep and over 6m long whilst gully 8220, 7m further north, was far more ephemeral at only 0.6m wide and up to 0.16m deep. The fills of both contained considerable quantities of EIA pottery and animal bone. To the east of ditch 8203 were a further series of features including possible rubbish pits and a straight 1.1m length of narrow gully (8216) that may have had a structural function (although this was unclear as it ran into the south-eastern limit of the excavation).

operation. The form of the individual pits, where they could be distinguished, varied from oval, to sub-circular to subrectangular, with the latter being the most common. Some of these individual pits were as little as a metre in diameter, most were at least 2-3m across, while a number were 5-6m wide. They formed clusters that could be as much as 1520m north-south and, 30m+ east-west (although this may represent a cross-over between the pit clusters and the linear pits). Their mostly greyish clay-silt fills confirmed a single phase of backfilling, with very little evidence for weathering, in the form of primary gravely fills. Pit complex 8046 to the south of the road formed a U-shape around a central tongue of unexcavated gravel c.3m wide (Fig. 11). This perhaps indicates that the gravel was being loaded straight onto a cart, or perhaps into sacks or containers for carriage by pack animals. Other pits, such as the smaller pits immediately east of this cluster, clearly respected each other, probably also indicating that the whole group were open (and presumably backfilled) at broadly the same time.

Middle-Late Iron Age (M-LIA) Activity (Phases 2b-3)

The linear pits occurred mostly to the north of the road but some sections of the pitting on the south shared some of their characteristics. On the north side of the road the linear pits extended from the west end of the site for c.65m in a strip extending c.5m out from the road verge. Their irregular and intermittent form made it very clear that they were not roadside ditches. Their purpose as gravel extraction pits was made explicit by the fact that they terminated wherever small natural outcrops of the underlying dense, grey Gault Clay occurred. In one particular stretch towards the centre of the site, two parallel pits, 8115 and 8357 ran beside each other over a distance of some 18m before dividing around a pre-existing oval pit 8364 to the east (S.1 on Figs 11 & 12). A similar pair of parallel linear pits, 8367 and 8369, was observed 10m further to the east, on the other side of a baulk of unexcavated material. These pits, where sampled, seemed to be around 1.5m wide, possibly created by a single labourer working his way along the roadside. They were clearly dug with knowledge both of each other’s position and that of pre-existing gravel pits, and were presumably, therefore, either contemporary or very nearly so. On the western side of the site, to the south of the road, there was a succession of pit clusters of the first category, apparently linked by linear-type pits, albeit set back three or four metres from the road verge, forming a continuous chain at least 35m long.

One of the pits in the area of activity east of the main site (8207) contained a sherd with a lug-handle of possible MIA type. This, together with a second similar piece, found in a possible Roman roadside gully (8113) and a single sherd from a pit north of Structure A1 (8126) are the only suggestions of later IA activity on the site. Roman and Later Activity (Phase 4) (Figs 11 & 12) Gravel Pits Potentially Associated with Akeman Street The second major group of features comprised extensive shallow pits, encountered for c.90m flanking both sides of the A41/Akeman Street (within construction area for the new roundabout). When topsoil stripping began on the south side of the road, the pitting was so widespread that almost no natural gravel was visible until c.15m away from the road. Similar pitting was subsequently found to the north of the road, but with a much more discreet distribution, mostly in a zone of c.5m immediately adjacent to the road but also in two clusters at the south-eastern and north-western ends of the site, extending in these areas up to 25m from the modern road verge. The pits came in two distinctive categories: multi-lobal clusters and linear, running parallel and close to the roadline. Both types were of similar depth – generally 0.30.7m deep. The depth seemed to relate more to the level of ground water than any other factor. Pit bases were consistently around 85.2-85.35mOD on both sides of the road and in both categories of pit, while surface levels of natural gravel varied from 85.5-85.8mOD. Both types had vertical or concave edges and slightly uneven, though basically flat, bases.

Stratigraphically, there was not a single example of these gravel extraction pits cutting through any earlier feature. There were no examples where quarry pits could be seen to have cut any of the LBA/EIA. The quarry pits were (after backfilling) consistently cut through by the roadside ditches observed to south and north of the road. In the limited samples excavated, only residual and abraded EIA pottery was recovered, with the single exception of a possible medieval sherd found on the surface of one of the quarry pits after machine stripping. This evidence leaves open the possibility that these quarry pits were of EIA date. They are not unlike the EIA pit clusters found at Coldharbour Farm, where, by contrast with Site A, they were cut into a band of white clay (Parkhouse and Bonner 1997, 85-6). On balance,

Essentially, they seemed to have been formed by a series of presumably contemporary large, shallow pits, which interlinked and were then apparently backfilled in a single 14

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 11 – Site A Plan of Probable Roman and Later Features

though, the fact that they were clearly intended to extract gravel, and the fact that the linear pits seemingly respect the road-line, makes a Roman date probable.

The lowest deposit encountered in this section was light greyish-brown sandy gravel, which appeared to be natural. However, its surface rose as high as c.85.9m OD, some 0.20.4m higher than the surface of the natural gravel north or south of the road. It is difficult to explain such a variation away through the effects of natural or anthropogenic erosion and it seems likely, therefore, that this material was gravel deliberately redeposited to form the agger of the Roman road. This was observed by Margary as standing to a height of around a metre along this stretch of the road (Margary 1955, 143). The primary deposit (8290) on top of this was greyish-brown sandy silt, up to 0.35m thick, with only 20% flint gravel as well as some larger flint cobbles. Nevertheless, this does seem to have been used as a surface as a number of potholes or ruts were apparently cut into it. The deposit above it (8396) was up to 0.2m thick and was similar in character but displayed a clear camber to permit surface run-off. At least two substantial pits, ruts or gullies had been cut into this. A further 0.1m-thick layer of coarse sandy material 8419 was observed above this. A much denser layer of gravel (8401), up to 0.25m thick, was laid on top of this, with a surface level of c.86.5mOD, substantially above the former ground levels either side of the road. It is quite possible that all of these layers formed part of the

Evidence for Roman and Later Roads Under the A41 (Figs 11 and 12) The resurfacing of the road at Woodlands Roundabout involved grading to c.400mm below the pre-existing road surface (which lay at c.87m OD). This only removed hardcore from twentieth century resurfacing, and did not impact on archaeologically sensitive deposits beneath. The only point at which the road sequence was visible was within a reconstructed culvert carrying a feeder of Bear Brook beneath the road, c.10m from the western end of the site (Fig 11). In the watching brief conditions prevailing it was possible to record a section extending 6.5m south from the southern limit of excavation on the north side of the road, as well as a longitudinal east-west section in the centre of the road, which broadly confirmed this sequence. It was clear from the camber visible in this north-south section that the greater part of the former probable Roman and subsequent roads fell within it.

15

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 12 – Site A Sections Through Probable Roman Features

16

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Roman road or different phases of its use. The only one, which resembled typical Roman metalling, was the upper layer 8401. It could be that all of the underlying deposits were simply make-up to permit the creation of an elevated causeway, well above the damp surrounding landscape, the surface of which, extrapolating from the remains found to north and south, would have been at c.86m OD. The sequence is truncated at this point by a post-medieval laid brick surface, 8409, which seemed to extend for some distance under the modern hard-core. The former revetment wall of the modern culvert caused the large straight-sided, flat-bottomed cut at the eastern end of the section. No significant dateable finds were recovered.

known as Ninnings Field and Meadow in 1816 (BCMAS 1994). Its eastern end and a pasture field known as Goslands Close (1816) to the east are located just north of Vatches Farm moated site (CAS 0129). The desk-based study also noted faint linear striations of probable ridge and furrow on aerial photographs within these fields. In accordance with the archaeological evaluation trenches adjacent to Vatches Farm moated manor house, no significant archaeological features were found within the road easement associated with the site. A shallow linear feature was however noted running perpendicular to the stream line, bordering the southern side of the easement (8501 on Fig.3). The feature was interpreted as a probable ridge and furrow headland and is visible on an aerial photograph of the moated site (Hepple and Doggett 1994, 109, fig.70).

Roadside drainage ditches cut through the quarry pit fills either side of the road (not including the two flanking modern ditches). There were two ditches on the north side (8113 and 8329) and one on the south (8006). Ditch 8113 was 0.6-0.9m wide and 0.15m deep with its base at 83.35m OD with its inner edge c.8m from the road verge. Its fill comprised very dark sandy silt with residual EIA pottery. Ditch 8006 on the south side of the road, immediately south of the verge, was up to 1.05m wide and 0.52m deep with a U-shaped profile and a base at c.85.25m OD. It is not possible to state with any confidence if these ditches are primary Roman roadside drainage ditches. While it is tempting to suggest that 8113 and 8006, represent the primary drainage ditches, given their similar form, their distance apart – c.19m – seems excessive. Indeed another ditch (8329) partially exposed immediately adjacent to the former A41 might be a better candidate to be paired with 8006. However, given the fact that what seemed to be the greater part of the Roman road camber fell within the section recorded under the northern half of the road, it seems likely that at least one further ditch runs under the south side of the modern road. It also remains possible that the presence of further roadside ditches was obscured by the modern drainage ditches.

III Vatches Farm Site A to Lower Icknield Way Site B (Figs 2 & 3) The easement stripping for this route section extended from east of Vatches Farm, crossed College Road and Buckland Road, and continued to the north western extent of Lower Icknield Way Site B. With the exception of two fields to the east of College Road this segment of route is dominated by pasture. The solid geology comprises weathered Gault Clay and Upper Greensand overlaid by glacial till (BGS). The only previous archaeological finds from this area comprised two Roman sherds found during the cutting of a sewer pipe in the field to the east of Vatches Farm (CAS2957 – see Fig. 3). Traces of ridge and furrow agriculture were also visible on aerial photographs throughout this area and is confirmed by the associated field names Broad Furrows piece, Broad Furrows Pen Furlong, Lower Towns Furlong, Long Furlong and Nag Pits Furlong (all noted on map of 1844, BCMAS 1994). As noted above the bypass route from Vatches Farm eastwards to Buckland Road is raised on embankment and consequently there was no cutting following removal of the topsoil. Due to the stripping requirements the exposure of the natural clay subsoil was less clean than within the designated strip and map areas. This route segment was monitored intermittently.

Post Iron Age Alluviation at Site A (Fig 3) A thin (c.0.15m thick) expanse of the alluvium was exposed within the easement to the north of the stream and also appeared to seal the IA features noted above. Since the bypass was to be raised on a bund from the area to the north of the Woodlands roundabout to west of Vatches Farm, the alluvium was not removed. Several sherds of pottery including a flint tempered prehistoric sherd, several Roman sherds and possibly a medieval sherd were recovered from alluvial deposit (8500) suggesting deposition in the Roman to post Roman period.

With the exception of a small post-medieval field ditch, cutting a post medieval chalk drain within new drainage for a linking track for Buckland Road, no significant archaeological features or deposits were noted within this section of the route. The approximately east-west orientated post medieval ditch was in line with an existing field boundary to the west, and was clearly part of the postenclosure field system. The ditch must pre-date 1844 at which time the existing and extant field boundaries enclosed the field named ‘Broad Furrows Pen’ (BCMAS 1994).

Cartographic Evidence and the Vatches Farm Medieval Moated Site (Fig 3). The boundary between the Parishes of Weston Turville and Aston Clinton crosses the A41 c.100m east of the Woodlands Roundabout excavation. The road-front properties beyond this are listed as Wet Close and Middle Close on the 1816 Aston Clinton Enclosure map (Fig. 3). The arable field to the north-east of these properties was

Monitoring of the cutting of the roadside drainage ditch confirmed the negative results of topsoil stripping in this route section. There was no further alluviation above the rather heavy and wet Gault Clay and Greensand within this 17

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 13 – Plan of the Bypass Route Showing Site B, Trial Trenches, Areas of Archaeological Investigation and CAS Find Locations

area. Examination of the spoil heaps from the topsoil strip for this route section produced very few finds. These comprised several fragments of post medieval peg tile and pottery found widely scattered and two small and abraded Roman sherds, from an area to the west of College Road. These are considered derived from post medieval and Roman field manuring respectively. Modern disturbance within the route corridor was generally slight, although an area west of College Road (largely confined to a field known as Middle North Field (1816)) was found to have been heavily disturbed a former sewage works. The parish boundaries of Aston Clinton with Buckland and of Buckland Drayton Breauchamp are defined by existing hedge lines, and were crossed by the route. However, no archaeological features were noted at these potentially significant locations. With the periodically wet and boggy nature of this low-lying area in mind it is not surprising that the similarly low-lying archaeological site at Woodlands Roundabout was deliberately sited upon well drained gravel, whilst the intensive multi-period activity at the

Lower Icknield Way Site B (above), was sited on a slightly higher exposure of Upper Greensand.

IV Lower Icknield Way Site B (Figs 1, 2 & 1340) The entire area of Site B, including both the designated ‘strip and map’ areas and the formal excavation areas is shown on Fig. 13. The combined results are provided here. The site crosses the B489 Lower Icknield Way, the junction of the Lower Chalk geology with the heavy Gaults and Upper Greensands of the Lower Cretaceous, at c.108m OD. The topography and geology is variable across Site B, with a slightly higher plateau within the north eastern part of Area 2, comprising a thin mantle of degraded Lower Chalk (Chalk marl) overlaying the Upper Greensand. This slightly higher ground sloped down gently to the northwest where Upper Greensand is directly overlaid by topsoil. Elsewhere within Area 1 exposure of Greensand and Chalk marl was mixed. Heavier 18

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Plate 1 – View SE from Lower Icknield Way Site B

clay, overlying the Chalk, dominates Area 3 and the Site B strip and map area to the south east of the B489.

an organic basket or wooden vessel (i.e. the configuration of the fills, with the central cremation deposits 6047, 6048, surrounded and enclosed by fill 6050, which lined the steep sided and flat-bottomed cut). An AMS radiocarbon date of 1440-1290 Cal BC (2 standard deviations - Beta 189877) was obtained from pyre charcoal of fast growing hazel (R. Gale identification) derived from the cremation deposits. This therefore suggests an earlier date than had been suspected from the pottery, back into the MBA. It is unclear whether the other three cremations, whose dating is based on pottery alone, are of similar date, but the likelihood, given their proximity to one another, is that they were.

Site B included the parish boundary of Drayton Beauchamp with Buckland (Figs 13 and 65). The boundary ran along the line of the hedgerow dividing site Areas 1 and 2. South-east of the Lower Icknield Way the boundary runs adjacent and parallel with the northeastern side of the by-pass corridor. Area 3 and the strip and map area to the south east were located within arable fields known as Inner and Outer Endlands (1844).

Phase 1a – Middle to Late Bronze Age

A concentration of pits and post-holes with dark fills (6051, 6057, 6060, 6065, 6066, 6069 and 6071) to the south of these cremations may also be prehistoric. The features may have formed a succession of phases of simple structures such as gates or racks but no discernible building was recognised. Many contained burnt daub suggesting that a mud-walled, timber-framed structure stood close to here at some point. It is clear that the MLBA activity within the Site B strip and map area was concentrated in the southern area.

Cremation Group 1699 (Figs 15, 19 and 39) Four middle to LBA cremations were located towards the southern end of the strip and map area, to the south east of Area 3. Of these two oval cremations (6031 and 6033) were found towards the eastern edge of the site. These were badly truncated and produced only fragments of flint tempered LBA or possibly EIA pottery and traces of burning within dark brown and reddish brown silty clay fills. Cremation 6031 was 0.8m by 0.5m in extent and 0.08m deep, whilst cremation 6033 was 0.6m by 0.46m in extent and 0.2m deep. The other two cremations (6046 and 6073) were closer to the centre of the stripped area and were substantially better preserved containing multiple fills. The secondary fills of both comprised blackish burnt sandy silts containing slightly higher quantities of fragmentary burnt human bone and LBA or EIA pottery. There were some indications within cut 6046 that this material might have been deposited within

Pit Group 1704 for Pit 1151 (Phase 1a) (Figs 15, 19 & 21) A small pit 1151 on the marginally higher ground of chalk marl capped Greensand of Area 2 (c.108m OD compared to c.106.5-107m) contained a quantity of fresh and very large sherds of flint tempered pot characteristic of the LBA. The pit was truncated by a large bell shaped 19

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 14 – Site B Overview Showing all Archaeological Features

20

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Possible Roundhouse and D-Shaped Enclosure Group 1679 (Figs 15, 16 & 19) As with similar groups 1677 and 1678 (below) this dense clustering of post-hole features is considered to represent a structure or structures and has led to the very tentative interpretation provided here as structure Group 1679. It is suggested that an arc of post-holes (460, 464, 922, 925, 988, 1096, 1098 and 1102) may represent the deeper surviving post-holes of a small (c.6m diameter) roundhouse. These ranged from 0.24m to 0.48m in diameter and 0.07m to 0.17m in surviving depth with very similar grey/brown clayey silt fills. Post-holes 460, 464, 922 and 988 produced 30 LBA/EIA pottery sheds (although 26 from 922 may alternatively date to the EIA) suggesting that this might be the earliest structure on the site. Plate 2 – Late Bronze Age Pottery in Pit 1151

A possible D-shaped post-hole arrangement potentially enclosed an area approximately 13 metres by 8 metres in extent and if so may represent a fenced compound with the possible roundhouse on its northern side. The outer arc of the ‘D’ was represented by relatively regularly spaced post-holes (731, 733, 735, 917 and 976). Of these 735 (8 sherds) and 917 (2 sherds) produced LBA/EIA pottery. Post-hole 748 also appears to be associated with the arc (although this may be co-incidental if the Roman loomweight fragment within is correctly identified). If the interpretation is correct this arc may have been linked in to the walls of the roundhouse by via post-hole 462 (which contained a LBA/EIA sherd) on the west-side and post-holes 583 and 980 on the east side. The features were between 0.2m and 0.46m in diameter (with the exception of c.0.6m diameter feature 735) and were 0.12m to 0.27m deep. They contained similar greyish brown/brownish grey, clay/silt fills. There were several features within the possible enclosure including a storage pit 466 and a charcoal rich slot 469, both of which produced moderately large LBA/EIA pottery assemblages (see above). These features may have been deliberately located within the ‘enclosure’ and/or adjacent to the roundhouse.

storage pit 1154 containing E-MIA pottery, with perhaps about half remaining (0.6m in length). The feature was only 0.3m in depth and was backfilled with mid brown silty clay. This sealed a pile of large fragments of flinttempered pottery (1153) lying on the base of the pit. The assemblage was exceptional for the site and was apparently deliberately placed on the base of the pit soon or just after it was cut (Plate 2). Post-holes 579 and 717 were c.0.3m in diameter, with depths of 0.16m and 0.23m respectively. These are considered likely to be contemporary with the LBA phase. Around twenty other features were broadly LBA/EIA indicating the possibility that some of these were also contemporary with pit 1151 (see below). No BA landscape divisions were encountered and it is therefore unclear from ‘structural’ evidence what form the contemporary landscape took.

Phase 1b – Late Bronze Age/ Early Iron Age: (Fig 15) Pit Group 1707 (Phase 1b) (Figs 15, 16 & 19) Of the features broadly attributed to this period those with adequate pottery assemblages for secure dating purposes were pits 147, 365, 466, 469, 528 and 560 and these widely spaced features comprise Group 1707. Pit 147 was within Area 3 with the remainder on the higher ground of Area 2. The pits were typically around a metre in diameter, flat bottomed and usually less than 0.25m in depth. The fills of 147 comprised greyish brown silty clay with common chalk whilst cuts 528 and 560 had more variable silty clay fills. Two deeper vertical sided features (466 and 619) in Area 2 may relate to storage. Feature 466 was c.0.8m in diameter and 0.78m in depth whilst pit 619 was 0.7m in diameter and 0.7m in depth. Fills comprised greyish brown and brown clayey silts with moderate amounts of relatively fresh pottery. Greensand lenses from edge collapse within pit 619 suggest that the feature was left open for some time, a factor in favour of a storage interpretation.

A closely spaced slightly arced line of post-holes, four metres in length, internal to, but linking to the ‘enclosures’ southern side (comprising post-holes 472, 742, 744, and 746) may represent a partition or possibly a drying rack. These post-holes were between 0.21m and 0.45m in diameter and between 0.15m and 0.3m in depth with similar greyish clayey silt fills. The possible Dshaped enclosure produced pottery of LBA/EIA date from 462 and 583 whilst an EIA pot fabric was recorded for post-hole 917. The cluster of features in this area is broadly dateable to Phase 1b and possibly into Phase 2a. Although two post holes (735 and 922) of the combined group contained fabrics typical of the EIA Slowikowski (below) states that the entire assemblage could fall within the slightly earlier LBA/EIA period.

21

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 15 – Bronze Age and late Bronze Age/Early iron Age Features

22

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 16 – Possible Structure Group 1679

Early Iron Age Enclosure Ditch Group 1623 and Related L-Shaped Ditch Group 855/789 (Figs 17, 18, 23 & 31)

Phase 2a – Early Iron Age (Fig 17) Phase 2a represents evidence of occupation, stock management and probable grain storage on the site. This evidence is most apparent within Area 2 where a number of postholes (22 features) and pits (35 features) contained EIA pottery. Associated postholes containing no dateable material, but belonging to structures with EIA post-hole elements, are also attributed to this phase.

The most striking element of the EIA phase was an enclosure ditch in the centre of Site B, with elements within Areas 1, 2 and 3. This was the widest and deepest ditch on the site and defined a skewed rectangular enclosure 70m long by 50m wide. A total of 14 segments were excavated (10, 14, 86, 118, 409, 594, 846, 1488, 1513, 1589, 4064, 4068, 4070 and 4087). The enclosure 23

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 17 – Early-Middle Iron Age Features

24

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 18 – Site B Detail of Iron Age Enclosure

25

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE ditch varied in width between 2m and 2.7m and was typically 0.7m to 1.3m in depth, though some sections were only c.0.5m deep. The northern, southern and western ditch segments were deepest, with broad, VShaped or rounded upper portions and usually narrow near vertical (‘ankle breaker’) slots at the base, which were most notable on the northern limb. The ditch was slighter in the eastern and south-eastern segments of the enclosure, presumably because they were less visible from the settlement and entrance (thought to be located on its western side). There were no obvious recuts of EIA date although it is possible that silting within the ditch was repeatedly raked out over an extended period. The northern side of the enclosure ditch was recut by LIA ditch Group 1700 recutting ditch segment 409 (as 1701) and segment 1513 (as 1434) and had a contemporary eastern extension as ditch 858. Another LIA ditch group (G445) also cut the northern and western alignments of the enclosure ditch. Significantly this followed the alignment of G1623 demonstrating that the enclosure’s ditch, bank/ hedge were still visible in the LIA (and therefore had been present through the MIA). The modern Lower Icknield Way (B489) truncated the southern area of the enclosure. Despite this truncation the enclosure ditch was found to be remarkably intact below the roads make-up layers (following diversion and removal of the road in 2002).

Pottery finds from the lower fills, although found in relatively small quantities, consistently date this enclosure to the EIA. The density of pottery and animal bone was highest along the northern side, closer to the focus of EIA settlement activity to the north within Area 2. Plant macrofossils were also found only in small numbers within the soil samples (for example, ditch segment 846, context 892, produced only two cereal crop indicators). A virtual absence of internal features and particularly of structures within enclosure G1623 strongly suggests that it was primarily used as a stock holding area. The enclosure ditch was contemporary with a shallower and narrower L-shaped ditch which projects from the north-eastern corner of the enclosure for 13 metres (as ditch 855) before returning north-westwards at right a right angle for a further 18 metres to a terminal end (as segment 789). Ditch 789 was a metre wide at the terminal and with steep sides to a flat base at a depth of 0.69m. The primary fill comprised re-deposited greensand derived silt, whilst the secondary and upper fills comprised clayey silt deposits and contained pottery of early or MIA date. This dating evidence therefore suggests an E-MIA date for the L-shaped ditch, whilst a small amount of possibly LIA pottery from segment 861 is probably intrusive (since the ditch was cut by LIA ditch 858 at that point). Although the pottery is broadly contemporary the precise stratigraphic relationship between enclosure G1623 and the L-shaped extension was obscured by MIA pit 827 (see below), which cut away the junction. A combination of the northern side of the enclosure and the L-shaped extension partially enclosed a plot for an IA roundhouse (G1667 – see below).

The sequence of fills along the north limb was similar in each excavated slot. These fills tended to be clay or silty clay derived at the base, representing silting, with more humic greyish brown clay silts and dark silty deposits at the upper levels. The lower fills therefore represent use of the ditches for drainage, with domestic debris and humic material allowed to accumulate in the latter phase, representing lack of management. In particular the noticeably darker upper fills in the northern limb suggest adjacent settlement. Elsewhere in the ditch circuit, the deposits were more variable, tending to be light-mid grey-brown less humic silty-clays with some evidence of collapse from a bank on the inside (most evident in the south eastern area of enclosure ditch). The chalk content of the fills was unsurprisingly higher in the south-western area of the enclosure where the ditch cut through a mantle of chalk marl above the Greensand.

Ditch Group 1550 (Phase 2a Early Iron Age?) (Fig. 17) This irregular ditch ran NW/SE within Area 1 for some 30m parallel with and just west of the later trackway G149 (see above). Two slots were cut through it (1317 and 1297) and there appeared to be the terminal end of a recut in slot 1297. The profile remains similar along the ditch – with slightly concave sides sloping at 45° and curving into a gently rounded base. The main fill varied from dark-brown clayey silt in slot 1317 to mid-brown clayey silt in 1297. The recut fill was dark-brown, almost black silt. It was cut away by ditch G1480 at its southeast end and was parallel to Area 1 ditch G1550 that appears to be LIA in date. A relatively large number of unabraded pottery finds from segment 1317 suggest an EIA date and thus the ditch may have been contemporary with enclosure G1623, with which it is parallel. If so the gap between ditch G1550 and the western ditch of enclosure G1623 might have demarked the west and east sides of a routeway. This is significant since this track is on precisely the alignment of a very clearly defined later trackway (G149) known to have been in operation in the LIA/early Roman periods (see below).

Interestingly there were no breaks in the ditch for entrance causeways. The enclosure ditch may simply have been bridged at some point(s). Although an original entrance into the enclosure has not been identified a possible later phase entrance was found at ditch segment 4070 on the western side of the enclosure. Here the infilled ditch was capped by a thick layer of compacted chalk as a deliberate consolidation, thus allowing a crossing point over the formerly soft silted ditch line. It is probably not coincidental that this possible post ditch silting entrance into the enclosure was located on its western side as it was flush to a droveway track in operation in the LIA and Romano-British periods (G149 see below).

26

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 19 – Site B – Sections through Bronze Age, Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age Features 27

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 20 – Site B Detail of Roundhouse G1667

Structure Group 1667 – Hut Circle (Area 2) (Figs 20 & 24)

three others (608, 637 and 1585) contained traces of chalk packing and indications of the post pipes. There was dating material from several cuts, indicating a broadly IA date for the structure with some residual LBA fragments. On balance given the location of the structure, partially enclosed by the northern side of the major EIA stock enclosure and by a north-westward projecting ditch of the same date (see above), it is considered that the roundhouse probably dates to the EIA, although a MIA is also possible.

Roundhouse plans were difficult to identify amongst the mass of post-holes, however one ring was clear. Group 1667 comprised a roughly circular group of post-holes c. 7.5m in diameter, with a porch facing south-south-east. There were 13 post-holes in total (608, 627, 629, 633, 637, 639, 641, 647, 649, 568, 651, 783 and 1585) forming the circuit with 601 and 605 forming the porch. Several other post-holes (603, 635, 631, 566 and 729) may also be associated. The post-holes were generally very similar in size and shape, being near circular in plan, with steep sides and rounded bases. Typically, the cuts were c.0.3m in diameter and c.0.25m deep. The only exceptions were pits 641 and 651, which were larger oval cuts with shallow bases. The fills all consisted of clayey silt, with varying quantities of chalk and although the textures varied somewhat most were greyish-brown in colour. Post-hole 649 contained packing stones, while

Four-Post Structures Six four-post structures and a probable four-post structure were identified on the higher ground of Area 2. Several of the associated post-holes produced IA pottery and where specifically dated, EIA pottery. Given that all are similarly aligned, an EIA date could be applicable to all. This type of structure is typically interpreted as being utilised for grain storage during the IA period, although 28

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Plate 3 – Iron Age Four-Poster G1649

other functions are possible. The four post structures are described below:

with a diameter of 0.20m. The others vary in diameter from 0.40m to 0.73m, although the 0.73m diameter feature may have appeared wider due to possible pit digging to remove the post. The truncated depths were all similar at 0.20-0.25m. Their fills were consistently clayey silts but the colour and texture were variable with the two earlier incarnations, post-holes 452 and 1619, having noticeably lighter fills. Three of the cuts produced pottery of IA date.

Structure Group 1649 – 4-Post Structure 1 (Area 2) (Figs 21 and 24) A square formation of 4 post-holes forming sides of c.2.7 by 2.6m, was apparently associated with a large group of EIA pits (group 1638). The group comprises cuts 1402, 1404, 1422 and 1424, all of which were nearly identical in shape, size and fill. Their shape and profiles were quite distinct and well defined compared to other post-holes on the site, partly because they were cut directly into Greensand. Three were c.0.34m across, the fourth being slightly smaller whilst depths were about 0.25m (though two cuts had been truncated during machining). The fills were nearly identical comprising dark greyish-brown firm clayey silts. Post-holes 1422 and 1424 produced EIA and LBA/EIA respectively. It is suggested that the structure is dated to the EIA based on these finds and an apparent association with the adjacent EIA pit complex (see below).

Structure Group 1669 – 4-Post Stucture 3 (Area 2) (Figs 21 and 24) A roughly square group of 4 post-holes forming sides of c.2.5 by 2.6m was located c.4m south-east of pit group 1638. The four cuts, 1356, 1358, 1364 and 1382 were very similar in form and profiles, with diameters of 0.300.35m and depths between 0.11m and 0.20m. Three had mid grey-brown silty clay fills whilst fill 1383 was darker and contained more chalk and flint fragments. Two of the post-holes contained IA pottery. Structure Group 1670 – 4-Post Stucture 4 (Area 2) (Figs 21 and 24)

Structure Group 1668 – Probable 4-Post Structure 2 (Area 2) (Figs 21 and 24)

This possible 4-post structure, just north of LIA boundary ditch 407, was truncated by a post-medieval furrow, with only post-holes 1416, 1418 and 1420 preserved. The original dimensions would have been c.1.7x2m. The cuts were similar in shape, all being oval with slightly curved sides, in profile, and rounded bases, but were somewhat variable in size, ranging from 0.31 by 0.38m to 0.40 by 0.48m. The depths also varied from

A roughly square formation of 4 post- holes with sides of c.2.5 by 2.6m was found just south of LIA boundary ditch 407. The structure group comprised cuts 452/454, 458, 933 and 965/1619, with the two northern post-holes possibly having been recut. There was more variability in the form and fills of these cuts. Post-hole 1619 was truncated but was still clearly smaller than the other cuts, 29

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 21 – Site B Detail of Four-Post Structures and Pit Complex G1638 in Area 2

0.19m to 0.27m. However the fills were virtually identical mid grey/grey-brown clay silts with a little chalky material supporting the hypothesis that they belonged to the same structure. Only one post-hole contained IA pottery.

varied from 0.20m to 0.34m. The fills were identical middark brownish grey firm clay silts, with the exception of fill 1195, which was darker and contained a higher proportion of chalky material. One of the post-holes contained pottery of EIA date.

Structure Group 1671 – 4-Post Structure 5 (Area 2) (Figs 21 and 24)

Structure Group 1672 – 4-Post Structure 6 (Area 2) (Figs 21 and 24)

This probable 4-post structure, comprised cuts 1190, 1194, 1196 and 1201, with 1201 slightly skewed from square. Its dimensions were roughly 1.9 by 2m.The cuts were generally similar in circular plan form, but their size varied. Their profiles were steep-sided with almost flat bases at depths of 0.12m to 0.21m and the diameters

The final and least convincing possible 4-post structure identified comprised post-holes 1376, 1378, 1396 and 1398, with sides measuring 1.8 by 2.5m. This structure could have been associated with pit group 1638, however the pottery dates recovered are inconsistent with such an interpretation. There was also some variability in size 30

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE (from 0.20m to 0.35m) and form suggesting that they may not have been contemporary features. The profiles tended to be steep sided with flatish bases, though 1398 was more rounded. In terms of the fills, 1398 again stood out as dissimilar, with a lighter mid grey fill; the others were filled with dark grey-brown silty clay. Two of the cuts produced pottery sherds of possible LIA to RomanoBritish date. It is therefore concluded that this set of posts was probably not associated with this phase of storage activity.

post-holes on a north-east/ south-west alignments (673, 705, 707, 681, 683, 691, 705, 707, 1110 and 1112) the majority of which were between 0.29m and 0.38m in diameter and 0.16m and 0.25m in depth. All were similarly filled with greyish brown or brownish grey clayey silt. There were no clear post pipes, suggesting the posts were removed. Features 673 (0.64m diameter), 681 (0.5m), 1110 (0.72m) and 1112 (0.6m) were somewhat larger, although no deeper, also implying the digging out of posts. A somewhat coherent group of post-holes to the north may define the remaining sides of a sub-rectangular structure (post-holes 689, 693, 711, 715, 717, 765, 1114, 1118 and 1122). These were between 0.15m and 0.47m in diameter and between 0.11m and 0.26m in depth, with similar brownish grey or greyish brown clayey silts fills. The enclosed area is trapezoidal and may have been a pen or compound rather than a roofed structure. Pottery was scarce although post-hole 673 produced IA sherds. Three potentially internal features 687, 942 and 1124 produced IA, specifically EIA and BA/EIA pottery respectively, perhaps suggesting a broad EIA date for the post-hole cluster.

Other Possible Early Iron Age Structures within Area 2 There were several other clusters of post-holes, many with an IA date (and often demonstrably EIA date). These clusters are likely to represent a variety of structures such as fence lines, stock pens, racks and huts. It is acknowledged that the validity of the structure Groups 1677 to 1682 provided below is questionable. However, each represents a necessary attempt to make sense of a particular cluster of post-holes. Therefore whilst the precise form of the structures is debatable the broad identification of structure zones is valid. This cluster of structures in Area 2 is broadly datable to the LBA/EIA and EIA periods and relates to the broad plateau of chalk marl capped Greensand, providing a suitable, well drained and prominent location for prehistoric structural activity.

Possible Fence line Group 1681 (Fig. 22) This putative fence line comprises 15 post-holes of generally similar size and depth tentatively linked to form a north-east/ south-west oriented straight line for a length of 40 metres (extending to the eastern site baulk). The possible fence may have included 15 post-holes (761, 763, 767, 769, 771, 773, 984, 986, 988, 990, 999, 1003, 1005, 1008 and 1055). However post-holes 999, 1003 and 1005 are also included in possible roundhouse G1677 and this combined with the relatively uneven spacing of the post-holes may suggest that this alignment is co-incidental. Alternatively the southern edge of the structure may have been linked to the fence in one phase. EIA pottery from posthole 988, and BA/ IA pottery from 1055 and IA pottery from post-hole 1008 together hint at an (early) IA date, should all the features be contemporary. The post-holes varied in diameter from 0.1m to 0.44m and in depth from 0.1m to 0.34m. The fills were grey/brown clayey silts or silty clays.

Possible Structure Group 1677 (Figs 22 and 24) An arc of postholes (999, 1001, 1003, 1005, 1034, 1040, 1042 and 1044) possibly associated with post-holes 1014, 1016 and 1030 (or alternatively with post holes 1008 and 1010 instead of 1014 and 1016) may have formed a structure on the north-eastern edge of Area 2. Although the plan is not wholly convincing this may be due to possible removal of post-holes on its north-west side by a medieval furrow. The diameters varied from 0.12m to 0.52m with depths between 0.1m and 0.38m. Despite the variation in size the fills were very similar greyish brown clayey silts, with several cuts exhibiting evidence of chalk packing on their edges. Very few pottery sherds were recovered from the fills although pottery of EIA date was recovered from post-hole 1001. At least two phases of EIA activity are represented at this location since postholes 1040 and 1044 truncate an earlier EIA pit 940. A possible MIA pit (1012) in the centre of the postulated structure could be related to a later phase.

Possible Fencline Group 1674 (Northern Strip and Map Area) This north-south alignment of post-holes (1530, 1532, 1536, 1538, 1546, 1548, 1526 and 1528) in the northern watching brief area is interpreted as a settlement boundary fence. This is supported by the lack of IA features beyond it to the north-west. Only three of the post-holes contained pottery, which dated to the IA. The post-holes were generally similar in shape and size (between 0.15m and 0.4m in diameter and between 0.08m and 0.16m in surviving depth) and were welldefined cuts into Greensand, beyond the chalk marl capped higher ground to the south-east. Their fills were of similar dark grey slightly silty clay.

Possible Compound/Structure Group 1678 (Figs 22 and 24) A general cluster of post-holes holes to the north-west of and possibly associated with Group 1677 must represent several phases of a sub-rectangular building. Although there is no clear pattern an attempt has been made to define a general phase of activity here. G1678 includes

31

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 22 – Detail Showing Possible Post-hole Structures Area 2

Pit Group 1638 – Early Iron Age Pitting (Area 2) (Figs 19 & 21)

length by 2.45m in width with a depth of 0.7m. The majority of the other pits of G1638 were under 2.5m in length and under 0.5m in depth and were of oval or irregular rounded form with steep sides and flat or rounded bases. Pit 1327 is described in detail here as a large but otherwise typical pit of the complex. The basal fill 1330 comprised pale whitish grey chalk marl interleaved with dark grey silt lenses typical of turf lines. Secondary fill 1329 comprised mid greyish brown silt with chalk marl and dark grey silt lenses; whilst the upper fill 1328 comprised a dark grey clay/silt deposit typical of topsoil. The pit was flat bottomed but exhibited a stepped side, presumably used for accessing its base.

A group of 24 or more intercutting pits of EIA date were located on high ground within Area 2, in the vicinity of several of the 4-post ‘granaries’. This complex (pits 1309, 1327, 1386, 1450, 1455, 1458, 1463, 1467, 1470, 1472, 1474, 1476, 1501, 1504, 1508, 1629, 1632, 1631, 1633, 1634, 1635, 1636, 1637 and 1647) covered an area of about 11m by 8.5m. Several of the pits were relatively large, for example oval pits 1327, 1463, 1504, and 1508 were all over 2.75m in length, over 1.85m in width and over 0.5m in depth. The largest, pit (1327), was 3.6m in 32

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 23 – Site B Sections Through Iron Age Enclosure G1623 and Related Ditches 33

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 24 – Site B Sections – Post-holes of Iron Age Structures

34

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE A relatively large quantity of EIA pottery and animal bone finds were recovered from the upper fills supporting the notion that they could have been used as rubbish pits. However, the lower fills were characteristically nonorganic and finds poor, comprising re-deposited natural subsoils with thin silt lenses (turf lines). Therefore rubbish disposal is unlikely to have been a primary function. In contrast the finds rich upper fills were characteristically rich in organic debris, providing evidence that the pits only became repositories for domestic material only as a secondary function. The intercutting nature of the pits and the identification of turf lines within individual pits suggest that both the pits and the pit complex were utilised consistently over an extended period of time. Re-deposited lenses of chalk marl and greensand suggest capping of earlier silty fills. This may indicate that old, rotting or otherwise undesirable soft deposits were deliberately sanitised ahead of new periods of use.

EIA pits included a 2.6m diameter and 0.50m deep feature 1283 and a 0.6m by 0.25m feature 1522. A biconical spindle whorl (SF67) was recovered from EIA post-hole 1249. A 0.35m diameter by 0.27m deep pit 1083 was excavated on the high ground of Area 2, close to pit group 1638 (Figs 19 and 21 and Plate 4). The pit contained a dog’s skull placed on its side at a depth of 0.15m. A vertically positioned dog scapula was carefully placed adjacent to the skull. A radiocarbon date of 850-760 AND 640-560 Cal BC for the skull (2 standard deviations, Beta 189876 - AMS) provides an overall range of 850-560 Cal BC and is in accordance with the EIA date of the adjacent pit group G1638. Further EIA pits including 940, 942, and post-holes 1001 and 1033 were located within a cluster of mainly undated post-holes to the south east of the main pit complex in Area 2. These may relate to a specific settlement/structural focus. A possible well (71) (Fig. 29) was excavated within Area 3 to the south of the stock enclosure and the main settlement area. The pit was circular with a diameter of 2 metres and was conical in profile to a depth of 1.2m. The primary fill (74) comprised pale brown chalky silty clay and was sealed by yellowish brown silty clay with chalk pea grit (73) and clay with chalk pea grit and flints (72). Pottery finds within the feature were scarce but where found were consistently of EIA date. As the deepest EIA pit on the site, and given the high nature of the water table in the Vale, is likely that the feature was periodically flooded. Its form was similar to a very well preserved conical form stake lined well of LBA date excavated at Swalecliffe, Kent (Masefield et al 2003b).

A single radiocarbon date of 788-410 Cal BC (2 standard deviations; Beta 189878) was obtained from the group – derived from fast growing hazel charcoal (R. Gale identification) from a hearth clearance deposit (1502B) within pit 1501. The lack of flint tempering within the pottery assemblage allows this date range to be narrowed to c.600/500-c.400 BC for the pit group as a whole. The group was truncated by early Saxon pit 1498 at its northeastern extent. Pit Group 826 and Isolated Features Within Area 2 (Phase 2a) (Figs 19 and 22) At least eight intercutting pits (796, 798, 802, 805, 808, 815, 819 and 822) were cut by LIA ditch G407 to the south west of pit group 1638. The shapes, profiles and sizes of the pits were variable but were generally rather smaller than those of G1638. The fills varied from dark greyish brown silty clays to light greyish green chalky silts (redposited chalk marl and greensand). Two stake holes (801 and 831) were identified in the bases of two of the pits suggesting that there may have been associated structures, perhaps simple tent-like covers over the pits. The function of the pit group is uncertain but is likely to have been similar to G1638. The majority have been dated to the EIA date, although latest pits 796 and 798 may date to the LIA. In addition there were a number of more isolated and dispersed EIA pits and post-holes within Areas 1, 2 and 3. Several pits containing pottery of this date were excavated within Area 1 suggesting that settlement activity was not necessarily confined to the higher ground of Area 2. An isolated cluster adjacent to the western edge of the excavation comprised pits 1049, 1058 and 1279. The pits were 0.77m, 1.9m and 1.12m in diameter respectively with depths up to 0.43m and contained greyish brown silty clay fills. A further similar group included pits 1147 (1.19m by 1.08m) and 1269 (over 1.24m by over 0.6m), both dated to the EIA, and undated but probably associated pits 1149 and 1164. Other nearby

Plate 4 – Dog Skull and Scapula in Pit 1088 35

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Phase 2b – The Middle Iron Age

quantities of burnt grain (generally thought to represent in situ burning of the previous seasons rotting grain residue ahead of new deposition). Nevertheless the form is typical, so either other food substances were stored within this example, or the old grain reserves were not burnt off or it had been carefully cleaned out. The storage pit cut through the well-dated LBA pit 1151 (see above). In addition a shallow 0.69m diameter pit (1012) in Area 2 is allocated a MIA date. Its location in the centre of possible EIA structure G1677 may alternatively suggest a MIA date for this building or a later phase of the structural activities here. A proportion of the broadly dated IA post-holes and pits across Area 2 could additionally belong to the MIA period.

The MIA phase is more difficult to define, mainly because of a paucity of diagnostic sherds and difficulties in separating the ceramic fabrics from EIA and MIA assemblages. However the layout of ditches at this site strongly suggests continuity of use. For example there is a remarkable coincidence of the western edge of the EIA enclosure G1623 with the later LIA and Roman trackway G149 (see Fig 25), whilst the recutting of the enclosure’s northern side in two segments in the LIA again demonstrates a respect for the earlier boundary. An example of the problem is the dating of the pottery from the L-shaped ditch 789, partially enclosing the hut circle G1667 described above. The ambiguity in the pot dating leaves open the possibility that the L-shaped ditch was cleaned out and re-used in the MIA, although the earlier dating seems more likely, given the juxtaposition with the EIA enclosure.

Possible Compound/Structure (phase 2b?) (Fig 21)

Group

1680

This tentative group may represent the location of a poorly defined rectangular MIA structure on the eastern edge of Area 2. A north-east/south-west orientated rectangular area 6 metres in length by 5 metres in width, is defined by nine post-holes (1126, 1128, 1130, 1176, 1180, 1182, 1184, 1186 and 1267). The features were between 0.15m and 0.35m in diameter (with the exception of 0.6m diameter feature 1176) and were 0.11m to 0.34m in depth. The fills were similar grey/brown clayey silts. This possible structure was truncated by LIA/ early Roman ditch Group 407 (see below) which would have removed post-holes. The pottery from post-holes 1126, 1184 and 1186, although small in quantity, is typical of the middle (or possibly early) IA. With this advice from the pottery specialist the tentative structure may belong in phase 2b (although clearly phase 2a is also possible).

Pit Group 1706 Comprising Pit 827 (Phase 2b) (Figs 18 and 23) Pit 827 is a key feature for the site stratigraphy. The large sub-oval pit (3.7m in length and 0.95m in depth) was cut neatly into the north-eastern corner of the silted enclosure ditch. The lower fills, 8030c above 8030b, comprised greyish brown silty clays typical of gradual silting. These were sealed by a sandy gravel tip 8030a, further silting 8029c, another sandy gravel tip 8029b and final silting deposits (possibly within a recut) 8029a and 8028. The gravel tips are of particular interest, given that the feature was not cut through gravel. Pottery and bone within the gravel indicate that it was deposited following a use associated with domestic activity. The most plausible explanation is that the pit was situated adjacent to a gravel surface or yard, from which the imported gravel was derived. The gravel tips and the silty fills contained pottery dated to the MIA. Following their deposition a small pit was cut through them indicating that the upper level of the feature remained open for some time before the deposition of the final silts containing LIA pottery. The MIA dating of the pit’s lower levels confirms that the enclosure pre-dated the LIA. The pit’s function is uncertain although its location in the corner of the enclosure might suggest it was a sump.

Phase 3 – Late Iron Age (c.100BC- AD43), Phase 4a – Late Iron Age/Early Roman (Transitional Phase c.AD20 – c.AD80) and Phase 4b Early Roman (later 1st-2nd Century AD) (Fig. 25) Ditched division of the landscape became more prevalent in the LIA, comprising a series of north-east/south-west and north-west/south-east orientated ditches perpendicular to and flanking a trackway (G149) that ran from north-west to south-east through Site B (Fig. 25). A rectangular enclosure now flanking the western side of the track (comprised by ditch groups G173/221 and G870) is likely to have been a settlement compound. The space within the EIA enclosure on the eastern side of the main trackway remained open, possibly as a hedged enclosure (the ditch having filled). However, the westernmost and northernmost sides of the enclosure were recut by a LIA to early Roman ditch. This ditch flanked the track before returning perpendicular to the track through Area 2, a situation mirrored by a ditch further to the north. It is considered appropriate to describe the ditches of phases 3, 4a and 4b together below because it is clear that some of the LIA ditches of

Pit Group 1705 (Phase 2a or 2b) (Figs 19 & 21) A c.2m diameter and 1.5m deep pit (1154) in Area 2 was certainly used for storage, given its typical ‘beehive’ or bell-shaped undercut profile (see section on Fig. 19). The feature produced a relatively large quantity of pottery, which may date to the EIA although Anna Slowikowski prefers a MIA date based on the absence of identifiable carinated vessels and the presence of possible scoring. Bell-shaped pits are typical of the MIA and were typically used for grain storage. Unfortunately the systematic bulk sampling of its silty clay fills (1155, 1198, 1199 and 1200) failed to provide significant 36

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Fig. 25 – Site B – Plan Showing Main Late Iron Age / Early Roman Activity

37

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE phase 3, were simply recut or cleaned out in phase 4a and 4b. This period in the history of the site is therefore characterised by continuity.

Seven segments of group 407 were excavated. Segments 1571 and 1573 were slots through the north-east/southwest orientated extension. This ditch here was recut by early Roman ditch G240 (recuts 1444 and 1573). Segment 1571 produced a single LIA sherd whilst segment 401 contained EIA pottery within primary fill (403) and LIA pottery within the secondary fill (402). Whilst the EIA material is probably residual it is possible that fill (403) represents an earlier IA phase of this ditch. Segment 1606 contained LIA pottery within its primary fill and secondary fills. However segments 1489, 1494 and 875 all contained both LIA pottery and small quantities of early Roman pottery (9 sherds altogether). Segment, 1489 produced LIA pottery from its lower fill and mixed pottery from the upper fill whilst 1494 produced LIA and early Roman pottery from the sole identified fill (the Roman pottery may have been in the upper levels). Finally segment 875 produced LIA pottery in its lower fill and LIA to late 1st century AD pottery from its upper fill.

Ditch Group 1700 (Probably Late Iron Age Phase 3) (Figs 18, 23 & 25) This group comprises evidence for recutting of the northern ditch of enclosure G1623 in the LIA. The recut was well defined as cut 1434 (fills 1435/1436) where it recut G1623 segment 1513. It was also identified as cut 1701 the recut of G1623 segment 409, where deposits 408 and 410 filled it. These fills of both recuts have produced LIA pottery. Recut 1434 was 2.15m in width and 0.57m in depth. Its fills comprised dark greyishbrown clayey silts. Recut 1701 was 2.45m in width and 0.58m in depth and its fills comprised greyish brown clayey silts. The recuts may be equivalent to ditch G855/858 that cut enclosure ditch G1623 further along its length to the north-east with segment 858 cutting the L-shaped extension of enclosure G1623. The ditch here was slighter narrower at 0.96m in width and was shallower at 0.3m in depth. Its clayey silt fills also contained LIA pottery. This recutting episode demonstrates that the enclosure edge was still a visible or marked in the LIA. The G1700 ditches were similarly aligned to another ditch G445/1622, which ran parallel and usually just to the south of G1700. They intersected one at one point where ditch 1432 of G445/1622 clearly cut ditch 1434 of G1700.

The pottery from G407 is strongly suggestive of a LIA origin (or possibly even earlier). However the upper fills of 875 and 1489 and mixed upper and lower fill finds from 1494 suggest that the feature was either recut towards the north-eastern extent of Area 2 or completed silting in that part of the ditch in the later 1st century AD. The ditch varied in width from 1.1m to 1.95m and in depth from 0.42m to 0.60m. Its fills comprised brownish grey to dark grey clayey silts in most segments, with the darker more humic fills found in the upper levels of the north-east/ south-west orientated segment, suggesting occupation in the vicinity. The ground sloped down to the north-west within Area 2 and the furthest excavated segment to the north-west (1571) was located in an area prone to flooding (the location of a later pond). Consequently its fill was alluvial clay.

Ditch Groups 407 and 445/1622 (Late Iron Age Phase 3 to Transitional Phase 4a) (Figs 14, 18, 21, 22, 23 & 25) Ditch G407 was orientated north-east/south-west through Area 2 before turning north-west to flank the northeastern side of track G149 (excavated as segments 1444 and 1571 where it was recut by early Roman ditch G240). The ditch’s curvilinear alignment was mirrored (in reverse image) by ditch G445/1622 some 40 metres to the south-east and these two ditches clearly comprised contemporary and functionally related landscape features. Thus the north-east/south-west orientated segments of the ditches opened out in a wide funnel shape in plan, onto droveway track G149 (in its earlier phase). The complimentary ditch groups (G407 and G445/1622) thus turned to flank the north-eastern side of the track G149. It seems probable that the higher ground of Area 2, between the ditches, where they extended northeastwards perpendicular to the trackway, was utilised as a stock holding area or perhaps even as a very wide drove leading onto the north-west/ south-east orientated track. However, this wide drove or enclosure did not continue on the west side of the track and therefore is unlikely to represent a version of the Lower Icknield Way. Details of these ditches are as follows:

There were pit intrusions within the north-easternmost extension of the ditch, apparently cut periodically throughout its use, locally widening it. This suggests that the ditch (or the land adjacent to the ditch) was considered an appropriate location for the disposal of domestic (or ritual – see Slowikowski below) pottery in the LIA and earliest Roman period. Recorded pits included 1168, 1170, 1172 and 1496 were associated with segment 1494. For example elongated oval pit 1172 was over 1.3m in length by 0.9m in width and was cut in a U-shaped profile to a depth of 0.62m. Its friable brownish grey silty clay fills contained domestic debris comprising frequent pottery and animal bone. This pit cut both ditch G409 and another LIA pit 1168. Ditch Group 445/1622 (late Iron Age/Transitional Phase 3 and 4a) (Figs 14, 18, 23 & 25) This ditch ran alongside the northern and western limbs of G1623, cutting it in three places, (in addition to within ditch G1700), and appears to mirror ditch G407 as part of a contemporary landscape. The ditch was orientated south-east/ north-west, inside the western edge of

Ditch Group 407 (Late Iron Age/Transitional Phases 3 and 4a) (Figs 21, 22, 25 & 28) 38

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE enclosure G1623, and then followed the enclosure ditch to the north-east before curving further south and running into the eastern limit of the site. Seven segments were excavated (615, 1587, 442, 1294, 1432 and 236) five of which contained pottery. There were no clear traces of the ditch within Area 3, as it was cut away completely at this point by an early Roman recut G240. The ditch was typically 1.2m wide and 0.5m to 0.7m deep with a rounded profile. A possible terminal end may have been represented in the southern part of Area 3 within segment 236. The ditch was labelled as 902 towards the eastern edge of Area 2, where a LIA coin of Cunobelin of the Catuvellauni (c.AD5-c.AD40) was recovered from the upper fill by metal detecting.

fills were variable, with a lighter chalky basal fill in one section. Upper fills were usually grey-brown silty clays with variable amounts of chalk and flint. There was no direct correlation between the fills in each of the sections, a factor reflecting the variable geology, with the chalk marl giving way to exposure of Greensand within Area 1. Two of the segments (1326 and 1604) contained IA pottery with the terminal end 1604 producing specifically LIA sherds. It is therefore likely that this ditch also flanked the LIA version of trackway G149 contemporary with the track flanking ditches in Areas 2 and 3 (G407, G445/1622, G41 in its earlier phase and G173/221 in its earlier phase). However, once again the upper fill of one segment (1333) produced fragments of Roman pottery comprising six beaker sherds. These may be intrusive, but given similar early Roman finds in restricted locations within other otherwise clearly LIA ditches, may simply represent final silting in the transitional phase.

The number and nature of the fills within each segment varied along the length of the ditch, though the main fills tended to be fairly similar mid greyish-brown clay silts, with basal fills of mixed re-deposited natural/silt. Pottery from several sections (including segment 1294, where it’s recut 1292 - as part of group 240 - contained 2nd century finds including Samian) indicates a LIA to transitional date for this ditch. The LIA coin from segment 902 is generally consistent with the pottery data and its location within the upper fill might suggest this ditch ceased being maintained in the first half of the 1st century AD. Segment 1432, however, produced South Gaulish Samian Ware of later 1st century date (Forms 27 and 18R; see Wild below) indicating the strong possibility of final silting in the earliest Roman period. Since the fill of 1432 (1433) was not separated into upper and lower levels by its excavator it is possible the Roman pottery was from the upper levels. This seems probable as the other excavated segments produced exclusively LIA pottery from upper and lower fills. As stated above it is likely that this ditch was in use at the same time as ditch G407 (40m to the north-west of its north-east/ south west orientated arm). However, ditch G407 has produced ceramics of an almost uniformly LIA date for much of its length, which either implies that it slightly pre-dates G1622/445, or more probably that the latter group had been partially recut removing traces of its earlier version. Later recutting or cleaning in places is also implied by the consistently LIA date of the three fills of the most north-easterly segment 615. The ditch group flanked trackway group G149 for its north-west/south-east orientated arm and was clearly contemporary with the tracks’ use.

Ditch Group 195 (Late Iron Age Phases 3 and Transitional Phase 4a – see also G173/221) (Figs 25-27 & 28) This north-east/south-west orientated Area 3 ditch or gully was rather irregular in plan, with a width of 0.6m and a depth of c.0.3m. The profile was straight sided and flat bottomed. The main fills within the five excavated slots (133, 144, 51, 142 and 4136) were of clay or clayey silt of variable colour and texture. All contained chalky fragments and small flints from the chalk marl through which the ditch cut. Segments 144 and 51 both contained lighter basal fills. Ditch G195 terminated at the point it met ditch G173/221 therefore suggesting that they were contemporary (at least in their earlier phases as G195 was cut by segment 75 of G173/221). Segments 133, 142 and 144 produced exclusively LIA pottery, apart from a single very small (thus possibly intrusive) grey ware sherd from segment 144. This western part of the gully was excavated within the 2002 excavation of Area 3 as 4136. The ditch terminated here at a sump feature (4138) whose various dark silty fills dated to the ‘Belgic period’. The drainage feature was oval in form with dimensions of 2.5m by 1.5m and was steep sided to a depth of 0.9m. The fill of the connecting gully 4136 appeared to overlay the upper fill of the sump. This is explained simply as the result of continuous cleaning out of the gully during its use, whilst the certainly associated sump must have been allowed to silt up before the abandonment of the gully. G195 appears to delimit one side of a narrow linear plot along with G173/221 (below). This segmentation within the wider enclosure was presumably for stock management purposes.

Ditch Group 1551 (Late Iron Age Phase 3 to transitional Roman Phase 4a) (Figs 25 & 26) This slightly sinuous ditch ran north-west to south-east, flanking and defining the west side of the track G149, roughly on line with ditch group G173/221, from 10 metres to the south-east. There were four excavated segments (1604, 1333, 1437 and 1326). The profile of these was generally U-shaped at the southern end and became broader and more concave further north. It varied in width from 0.43m at its southern terminus to 1.75m further north, with a depth of approximately 0.4m. The

Late Iron Age/ Early Roman Enclosure Ditch Groups 173/221 and 870 (Phases 3 and 4a - see also G195) (Figs 25 – 28) This L-shaped narrow ditched enclosure is located within Area 3 orientated north-west/south-east as 173 with a right-angle corner to connect its north-east/south-west arm 221. The G221 arm continued north-eastwards via 39

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 26 – Site B late Iron Age/Transitional Square Enclosure and Later Phases

segment 4042 (cut by a short ditch 4044) into Area 1 where the terminal was excavated as segment 1659. The ditch as a whole was somewhat irregular in profile along its length but was generally narrow and relatively shallow. Three slots were cut through ditch G173 (163, 165 and 171) whilst five slots (113, 75, 82, 4042 and 1659) were excavated through G221.

Ditch G173 varied in width from 0.7m to 0.82m, typically with a rounded profile, and was 0.25m to 0.47m deep. Ditch G221 was generally a little narrower and shallower broadening out at segment 82, near the intersection with 80. The fills of 173 comprised a mid brown clay/silt with some chalk and flint fragments. The fills of G221 were darker and contained less flint. Finds from several segments indicate a LIA/Belgic date (such 40

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE as 4042 and its recut 4044, which produced only Belgic pottery). A single early Roman white ware sherd was recovered from segment 171, which once again could be intrusive but is perhaps more likely to indicate a transitional date for the final silting.

Probable Ditch Terminal Group 1710 (4101) (Late Iron Age Phase 3) (Figs. 26 - 28) Feature 4101, located entering the western extent of Area 3 is significant for the site chronology because it truncated the enclosure’s postulated western side (ditch 4116). The feature was over 3.5m in length (entering the baulk) and was 1.75m in width, dimensions that suggest it was probably a wide north-east/south-west orientated ditch terminal rather than a pit. If so this was a substantial boundary, which extended further to the south-west. The probable ditch was 0.65m in depth with a U-shaped profile. Basal fill 4108 comprised brownish green clayey silt derived from the greensand. Fill 4108 was sealed by a 0.2m thick dark brown humic clayey silt ‘rubbish’ deposit (4103) containing large quantities of fired clay and animal bone, in addition to pottery in fresh condition. The upper dark brown clayey silt fill was probably also a deliberate dump, although it contained slightly less domestic refuse.

The north-west/south-east alignment of G221 was continued to the north-east as ditch G1551 following a short gap representing an entranceway onto the track G149. Ditches G221 and G1551 therefore demarked the western edge of the LIA track as well as eastern side of enclosures/fields to the west. The north-east/ south-west orientated ditch 173 (that formed a right angle corner with ditch 221 to form two sides on an enclosure) terminated within the strip and map area at its north-west end (as segment 4008). The probable western side of this postulated sub-square enclosure was identified in Area 3 as gully/ditch 4116 (Fig. 27). There appears to have been an entrance into the enclosure defined via a wide gap between the north-western end of ditch G173 and the south-western end of ditch 4116. Ditch 4116 was undated but was cut by a pit or ditch terminal 4101, which contained a moderate quantity of reliably dated ‘Belgic’ pottery. Only a short length of ditch/gully 4116 was exposed before it entered the excavation baulk but its probable alignment to complete a square compound is dashed on Figure 27. The northern side of the square sided enclosure is demarked by group G870 (see below).

The feature also contained the remains of both a large, sun-baked triangular loom weight (SF 241) and a secondary whetstone (SF237). The fire-cracked condition of the utilised quartzite pebble suggests it may have had a second use within a hearth. The sizable and unabraded ‘Belgic period’ pottery assemblage suggests contemporary adjacent settlement, probably to the northwest. Although ditch 4116 (part of G173/221) was undated, it was clearly earlier than ‘Belgic’ feature 4101 and must therefore be LIA to earliest Roman or earlier in date.

Ditch G870 was clearly related to G173/221 and ditch/gully 4116 as the northern side of the subrectangular enclosure. The ditch was orientated northeast/south-west from the western baulk of Area 1 to a terminal at its north-east extent (segment 887). A 10m gap was left open between this terminal and the perpendicular terminal of ditch 221 (of G173/221) within Area 1. The ditch had a similar profile along its length, with steep, straight sides breaking sharply to a flat base. G870 was generally just over 1m wide, while its depth varied from 0.38m to 0.57m. Its terminal end and one other segment, 871, were excavated. The terminal segment (887) included a probable posthole 1140 cut into its base. Since the primary ditch fill and that of the posthole were identical it was concluded that they were contemporary. This basal fill was 0.17m thick and comprised mixed silty-redeposited natural at the northeast end, becoming more chalky and compacted further along. Finds from the main fills would suggest an EIA date for this feature but for a single LIA sherd from the primary fill of segment 887. Again two very small Roman sherds within the uppermost levels may be intrusive or may derive from final silting in the early Roman period. The gap between ditch G870 and ditch G221 represented an entrance way into the sub-square enclosure’s interior (indeed the post-hole 1140 may have been a gatepost). This is particularly striking given the alignment of ditch G173/221 continued to the north-east as ditch G1551, but was similarly broken at this point, suggesting a three-way junction with entrances onto the trackway G149 to the north-east, and enclosed plots/fields to the north west and south-west.

Several finds rich LIA pits and transitional period pits (such as 267 and 272 within Area 3 and 492 within Area 1) also demonstrate contemporary occupation within or adjacent to these areas. Ditch Group 41 – Late Iron Age to early Roman Trackside/ Boundary Ditch (Phases 3/4a to 4b) (Figs 26, 29, 30 & 35) This ditch was orientated north-east/ south-west within the southern extent of Area 3, before returning at a right angle to run north-west/ south-east where it flanked the western side of gravel metalled track G149. It continued to do so through the strip and map area south-west of Area 3 (labelled as cut 6022). The ditch became much shallower and narrower as it progressed to the south-east (at only c.0.2m depth and c.1m in width). The ditch was broadest and deepest at its corner within Area 3 with a width of 3.6m and a depth of 1.4m, although this depth was exaggerated by use of the corner as a drainage sump. The ditch was around 1m deep elsewhere within Area 3. The excavated corner segment comprised several episodes of cutting and recutting and demonstrated that the ditch was open for an extended period. The latest (early Roman) phase is represented by a major recut 196 (Fig. 35) and by two less substantial but deep ditch terminals 284 and 286, adjacent to ditch 196, within 41

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 27 – Detail of Square Enclosure Showing Later Phases Including Roman Waterholes

the inside angle of the ditch corner, and running within the line of an earlier and wider phase of the ditch (cut 282). The primary fill (175) of re-cut ditch 196 yielded the remains of a copper alloy hair-pin (SF6) thought to date to the 2nd century AD (Duncan in Masefield 2005). The recut slots (284 and 286) were similar, with rounded terminals, near vertical sides and slightly rounded bases and are considered to have been contemporary. It is likely that the wide earlier phase of ditch (282) was itself recut, given the irregular profile of the recorded cut. The deepest sump-like cut was recorded as 282A during the analysis phase, with cut 282B attributed to the upper levels (of the originally recorded cut 282) in order to reflect the probability that it represented a recut of 282A. The effect of this re-interpretation is that pottery from fill 281, which has be given an overall early Roman date on the basis of five small Roman sherds, actually represents

the combined finds from two phases of ditch. This is significant as although the earliest deposit 281 is dated as early Roman it contained 14 LIA sherds, which may represent the finds from the earliest ditch 282A. Alternatively, and perhaps more likely, all traces of a LIA phase of the ditch may have been removed by its predecessors. Although the lower fills of the sump were waterlogged during the excavation they failed to produce pollen preservation. Segment 57 through the ditch to the south-west, was narrower and shallower and provided evidence for a LIA phase for ditch group G41. The ‘primary weathering fill’ 77 produced an assemblage of LIA sherds. This fill was overlaid by an early Roman (2nd century) deposit 64, which may have been within a recut (see section Fig. 35). This fill in turn appeared to be recut (recut 57B) and was 42

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 28 – Site B Sections Through Late Iron Age/Transitional Features 43

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE filled by an early Roman deposit 63. The upper fill included late Roman pottery due to slumping of the early Roman fills in this segment of the ditch. The upper fill was darker and more humic than the lower deposits, perhaps reflecting deposition of domestic refuse. A relatively large quantity of pottery was generally found within ditch G41 in Area 3. This was in sharp contrast to a very low density of finds noted within the ditch in the strip and map area. It is therefore suggested that the north-east/south-west orientated part of ditch G41, in Area 3, formed the south-east boundary of the farmstead compounds.

Ditch 4126 is interpreted as the same feature as cut 66 to the south. Ditch 4128 was the narrower, at 0.5m and shallower, at 0.27m and was apparently the earlier version of the G66 drainage alignment. It has been securely dated to the ‘Belgic’ period by pottery within its mid grey silty clay fill 4129 and by its relationship with pit 4146 (G1703). Pit 4146 was seemingly deliberately cut through the junction of ditch 4128 with another perpendicular north-east/ south-west orientated ditch 4149 that would otherwise have connected with ditch 4128. The pit was oval 1m x 0.75m with vertical to slightly undercut sides to a flat base at a depth of 0.36m. A complete ‘Belgic’ pot was placed upright on the base of the pit, presumably as an offering. Curiously, the upper fill contained a number of late Roman sherds. These must be intrusive although the coincidence of their position directly over the earlier pot is of interest.

The south-west alignment of ditch 41 ran parallel with LIA or transitional ditch G173/221, with a consistent gap of 2.5m between the two ditch groups. Both ditch groups turned to form right angle corners at the connection with trackway G149 but with their returns running in opposite directions so that each then continued as flanking ditches of the north east/ south west trackway G149 (see Figs 26 and 30). The pottery from both suggests that the ditches were contemporary in their earliest phase (phase 3/4a). The gap between G41 and G173 was therefore used as a narrow track way, in phase 3/4a, which opened out onto the main track G149. This subsidiary route was probably used to drive stock onto the main droveway from grazing land to the south-west. Its narrow form may also have assisted selection and sorting of animals. Interestingly the gap between the ditches at the entrance onto the wide droveway was blocked in the early Roman (phase 4b) period by a short gully (37) (Fig. 30). Several earlier features at this point are likely to represent use of this location as a gateway. This disuse of the minor track was further emphasised by two 2nd century Roman ditches (later phase of G66 and G125/842) which cut through ditch G173 and the narrow track and drained into the later (early Roman) phase of ditch G41. Thus the wider and deeper ditch G41 clearly had a longer use than ditch G173/221, well into the 2nd century AD.

Recut ditch 4126 was 1.87m wide and 0.75m in depth with grey silty clay fills containing sherds of early Roman pottery. The northern terminal (segment 4192) demonstrated a further recut (4206). It is possible that a small amount of ‘Belgic’ pottery within the terminal 4192 was residual, however, as the recut contained Roman pottery it is possible that the terminal also illustrates a LIA/transitional phase of boundary G66. This earlier cut had been therefore been removed elsewhere by the early Roman recut. Thus the ditch alignment G66 clearly had a complex history of use and it is likely that its apparent LIA/transitional and early Roman phases respected the corresponding earliest and latest phases of the major boundary ditch G41. Ditch G125/842 in Area 3 ran parallel to G66, 18m to the west, through Area 3 and apparently into Area 1 via an unexcavated zone between the two areas. The alignment was slightly broader within Area 1. Five slots were excavated (269, 97, 121 in Area 3 - where it was subgrouped as G125, and 572 and 793 in Area 1 - where it sub-grouped as G842). The profiles were similar, with steep sides and a flattish base. The width varied from 0.5m in segment 121 to 1.07m in segment 793, while the depth was typically around 0.4m to 0.5m. The basal fills generally comprised light brownish grey clay silt, often mixed with re-deposited greensand or chalk, sealed by progressively darker grey-brown clay silt fills with chalk and flint inclusions. Many of the fills contained pottery of an early Roman (2nd century – phase 4b) date. Study of the Samian Ware (see Wild below) identified Central Gaulish Samian (Hadrianic or Antonine) from the seconadry fill of 572 whilst Antonine Samian was identified within the secondary fill of segment 793. Segment 572 also contained late Roman pottery but this anomaly is explained by the location of the segment at the intersection with late Roman ditch 575 leading to finds mixing. Ditches G66 and G125/842 may have formed components of a contemporary drainage/plot system (at least in their early Roman phase), as both appear to have drained into the later phase of settlement boundary/trackside ditch G41.

Ditch Groups 66 and 125/842 Pit Group 1703 (Phases 3/4a to 4b) (Figs 25 - 29) This north-west/ south-east orientated ditch, located within Areas 1 and 3, was numbered G66 after the southern numbered segment in Area 3 where only one phase of ditch was apparent. This segment was 1.0m in width with a V-shaped profile to a depth of 0.38m. The lower grey/brown clayey silt fill produced early Roman pottery (phase 4b), although only Belgic finds were recovered from its upper darker fill. This ditch was reidentified below the line of the removed section of the B489 road, running to the north-east. Here the ditch was split into two arms – an earlier version 4128 and a later counterpart (4126/4206/4192) that complicated its history. These ditches both terminated within the northern part of Area 3, although ditch 4126 projected further north-west than ditch 4128.

44

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 29 – Site B Showing Main Roman Features

45

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Possible Fence line Group 1682 (Phase 3 - late Iron Age) (Fig 21)

3/4a ‘funnel’ ditches of Area 2 were apparently not recut in phase 4b (although associated hedges may have remained). Indeed part of Area 2 ‘enclosed’ by the ‘funnel’ contained very few phase 4b or phase 5 features, confirming a reduction of activities to the east of track G149 in the Roman period.

This group comprises a line of post-holes (1205, 1213, 1215 and 1227) orientated north-west/ south-east on the higher chalk marl capped ground of Area 2. The regular spacing of these at approximately 5 metres apart gives this alignment some credibility. There is some possibility that post-hole 1184 was also associated although it is attributed to G1680 (a possible MIA structure). Jar fragments of LIA date were found within cut 1213, which the pottery specialist has indicated may have been post-packing or ritually placed. Thirteen fragments of daub within post-hole 1227 may have derived from a nearby wattle and daub structure.

This ditch flanked the track G149 through the southern strip and map area and within Areas 3 and 2 appeared to be contemporary with the later (early Roman – phase 4b) use of ditch G41 that flanked the opposite side of the trackway. The eastern track-flanking ditch was here represented by ditch 6090 and stratigraphically later (early Roman) ditch 6026. Ditches 6026 and 6090 ran side by side before ditch 6090 was cut away by ditch 6026. The earlier ditch though undated by finds, may therefore represent the continuation of LIA track flanking group G445/1622, whilst the later ditch is an extension of early Roman G240. It remains possible that ditch G240, or at least a hedged boundary respecting the alignment, remained in use later in the Roman period, given the late Roman pottery from segment 4096.

Early Roman Ditch Group 240 (Phase 4b) (Figs 28-30 & 35) This north-west-south-east orientated ditch ran the length of Site B and its adjacent strip and map areas to the north-west and south-east. It consistently flanked the eastern side of trackway G149 neatly recutting the earlier trackway flanking ditch alignment G445/1622 (for example segment 1442 of G240 cut phase 3/4a segment 1444 of ditch G407 and 1292 of G240 cut phase 3/4a segment 1296 of ditch G445/1622). In total, ten segments were dug along its length (205, itself recut by 207, 233, 1292, 1160, 1442, 1573/5, 4046, 4096 and 6026). The ditch generally had a rounded, concave profile, which varied in depth from 0.2m (south-east) to 0.68m (northwest). The width varied from 0.9m to 1.7m. Segment 205 demonstrated a distinctive ‘ankle breaker’ gully at its base. The variable fills were siltier towards the northern end whilst the fills of cuts 207 and 233 contained frequent flint and chalk gravel, probably from the adjacent track’s metalling. Three of the segments produced early Roman (2nd century) pottery. A further two of the more northerly segments contained residual IA material. Samian Ware, from the fill of ditch segment 1292 provides further refinement of the broad 2nd century dating with Central Gaulish Samian Form 45 dating to c.170-200 (Wild below). Segments 205, 233 and 1292 also produced non-ceramic finds comprising structural fittings, six nails, a hinge fragment (SF90), remains of possible furniture mounts (SF76 and SF89), an animal shackle (SF92) and a secondary whetstone (SF200) (Duncan in Masefield 2005). These items indicate ongoing domestic and subsistence activity. The majority of the non-ceramic finds (ten of twelve) from G240 derived from ditch segment 1292 suggesting either more intensive activity in Area 1, or a deliberate dump of material.

Late Iron Age/ Roman Trackway Group 149 (Phases 3 to 4b/5) (Figs 14, 26, 28-30 & 31) This group comprises the creation of a holloway via gradual erosion of a north-west/south-east orientated trackway through Areas 1, 2 3 and the Site B strip and map area. The group also includes its subsequent metalling, interleaved silt deposits, plus the final silting over the upper metalling. The group does not include the track flanking ditches (see Groups 41, 240, 173/221, 1551, 445, 1480 and 1550), which were important demarkation and drainage features for the track. As noted above these flanking ditches suggest that the track was operational from the LIA (or possibly even the EIA – see G1550 and G1623) and continued at least into the early Roman period. The dating evidence suggests that it was abandoned, at least in the form in which it is archaeologically traceable, in the late Roman period with its final silting also including early Saxon sherds. The holloway was most pronounced in Area 1 and in the segment of Area 3 south of the B489 road, where the silted western ditch of the large EIA enclosure G1623 was eroded by its eastern edge. It is apparent that linear features (dated to the LIA in their earliest phases) flanked both sides of the holloway, and that the dated LIA plot system within Area 1 also respected its alignment. Furthermore, a number of LIA settlement related pits were identified adjacent to the holloway within Areas 13. It is clear that there were at least three episodes of gravel surfacing of the track within the segment excavated below the B489 road in Area 3. Each episode was followed by a period of silt accumulation (see section Fig 31). However, it is by no means certain that these were all Roman metalling episodes. Pottery was unfortunately scant but sherds recovered from the silts above the earliest metalling suggest a possible LIA or transitional date. The excavated track segments within

Ditch G240 thus represents a high degree of continuity with the preceding track flanking ditches G407 and G445/1622 of phase 3/4a. However, the wide ‘funnel entrance’ opening onto the LIA/transitional track from the higher ground of Area 2 (i.e. the north-east/southwest alignments of ditches 407 and G445/1622) was closed by ditch G240 in phase 4b. Therefore the phase 46

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE each site sub-area are discussed below with the route described from north-west to south-east.

secondary deposition intended to fill the hollow way. A late medieval horseshoe nail is likely to have originated from subsequent medieval ploughing.

Track G149 in Area 2

A Subsidiary Gravel Metalled Path 1323

The track way hollow was relatively narrow in the northernmost part of Area 1 and within Area 2, where two segments were excavated through the sequence. Gravel metalling was not as well compacted as within segments excavated to the south and had higher silt content but nevertheless showed a consistent attempt to consolidate the eroded holloway. The most northerly segment 1577 was filled by gravel and silt deposit (1576) whilst segment 1592 contained gravel metalling and silting (1591 and 1593). A lack of finds from the Area 2 segments confirmed that the track was increasingly distant from the associated settlement focus. The track was traced to a westward kink at a waterlogged area at its north-west extent within Area 2. This appears to have been a pond.

The gravel metalling within Area 1 included a separate offshoot (1323). This apparent metalled path was c.0.09m in depth and c.1m in width and ran oblique to the main track, with which it connected at its southern end (Fig. 29). The path was orientated north-west/southeast, through the north-western part of Area 1 and was cut by a cluster of undated pits and by a post-medieval furrow. It overlaid the fills of IA ditches G1550 and G1551. Fragments of Roman tile from the gravel rich layer are consistent with the Roman date that can be attributed to the main track’s metalling. Track G149 in Area 3 The northern sector of the track in Area 3 was investigated within a wide slot (as cut 4055) where the trackway was at its broadest. Two further slots were investigated to the south. Three episodes of metalling were excavated (4054 and repairs 4106 then 4104). Interestingly silts (4107 – the primary silt, then 4080, 4105, 4100, 4041 and 4040) were interleaved between the surfaces suggesting a prolonged period of use and maintenance. The upper silts were again late Roman whilst the earliest metalling was probably LIA/early Roman in date. Uppermost silt layer 4040 produced a looped hinge and three coins, an illegible radiate dated AD270-300, an illegible AE4 dated AD347-48 and an AE4 of the House of Theodosius AD388-402. This coin evidence supports the view that the track ceased to be maintained in the late 3rd-4th century but that the silting was not complete until the very end of the ‘Roman period’, if not later. The silt deposits also yielded structural fittings including a looped hinge (SF213) and a nail (SF214).

Track G149 in Area 1 The hollow was becoming wider and more pronounced within Area 1. Here the sequence comprised an initial trackway metalling (866) trample above the metalling (867) re-surfacing (868) and further dark brown silting layers (865 and 869). Deposit 865 produced five sherds of ‘Belgic’ grog and sand tempered pottery with no later material. This may therefore represent a survival of LIA/transitional silting within the holloway. The holloway cut was numbered 1484 within the fourth segment where a primary gravel surface (1516) was overlain by a thick gravel surfacing (626 - perhaps indicative of several phases of consolidation). Metalling 626 produced late Roman pottery and was overlain by dark grey silty clay layer (623) that produced 4th century finds. The former suggests late Roman use of the track and the latter a lack of maintenance. Surface 626 also produced an assemblage of flat headed nails conforming to Manning’s Type 1B (1985, 134) and portions of nail shanks. Although this small concentration of nine nails may hint at occupation within the vicinity, the quantity is not large enough to suggest the presence of a nailed structure (Duncan in Masefield 2005). The layer was cut by a pit or post-hole (625) containing a single sherd of early Saxon pottery. This feature was overlaid by a thick layer of dark grey silt (430) containing late Roman pottery (320 sheds) and three early Saxon sherds. The dark, humic nature of the deposit plus the large number of unabraded finds contained within it, suggest that rubbish was dumped directly into the holloway. This layer also produced the greatest quantity of non-ceramic finds (Duncan in Masefield 2005) and as in previous track way deposits, structural fasteners (15 nails and a staple) and personal items (hobnails and a bracelet SF23) featured. Both residual and intrusive finds were identified within this silt layer. The presence of a probable LIA Nauheim brooch (SF22) and a mixture of LIA and Roman pottery suggest this deposit may have been a

Segments 4076 and 4081 (Fig. 31) were excavated through a narrower ditch-like hollow connecting with 4055. This narrow hollow may indicate a preference route for stock in that section of track, before the holloway broadened out, possibly immediately adjacent to settlement to the west. The broadening and deepening of the holloway may therefore have been an area where stock were held or congregated, prior to being driven into the farm compounds. Basal metalling (4086) was overlain by silts (4083 and 4075) within ‘hollow’ segment 4076, whilst a more complete sequence within hollow slot 4081 comprised basal metalling (4085) and later re-surfacing (4079 and 4077) separated by silt build ups (4084 and 4078). The lower silts (4078) produced low quantities of grog tempered LIA pottery that may hint at the earliest phase of metalling. The final resurfacing (4077) contained a fragment of a battlement bangle bracelet, popular in the late 3rd and 4th centuries (Duncan in Masefield 2005) suggesting the final period of re-surfacing and therefore perhaps the final period of final use. 47

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 30 – Site B Detail of Trackway Across Area 3

48

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Plate 5 – Excavation of Trackside Ditches at Site B Area 3

The southern sector of Area 3 included a wide spread of flint gravel surface (177/280) within only a slight hollow. The surface contained a single hobnail and a sheepheaded mount (SF10), possibly used on furniture. On rural sites hob nailed shoes are not thought to come into general use much before the 2nd century, while parallels for the animal-headed mount suggest a date in the late 1st century to 2nd century (Duncan in Masefield 2005). The silt above (176) also contained a cylindrical iron collar (SF5). This deposit sealed much of the metalling whilst other silt patches (279, 241, 215 and 216) were also recorded. The pottery from these silting accumulations above the track suggests a later Roman date, although it is interesting to note that one patch (215) also produced 5 sherds of possible early Saxon pottery.

Track G149 in the strip and map area (south) (Fig. 39) The strip and map area south of Area 3 extended the recorded trackway for a further 100m south-east on the same north-north-west/south-south-east orientation. The track here was defined by patchy gravel spreads (6030) from metalling episodes up to 0.2m in depth and up to almost 10m in width in places, between flanking ditches 6022 of ditch G41 and 6028 of ditch group G240. The holloway was not greatly eroded beyond the settlement area during the Roman period, with metalling 6030 resting upon the natural chalky clay just below the ploughsoil. However, as noted a narrow erosion hollow did extend south from Area 3 (as cut 6024) for around 100m further to the south, before its line was lost. The hollow had gently sloping sides to a depth of up to 0.4m in depth. Its fill was sealed below metalling (6030) in several instances.

A series of ruts were encountered below the metalling within the two excavated slots across the track (cuts 243, 244, 246, 248, 250, 252, 294 and 305 - see Fig 31). These appear to indicate use of the trackway by carts, prior to the early metalling. Notably cut 276 (Fig. 30) appears to be equivalent to the narrower hollow depression within segments 4076 and 4081. This linear depression may also be represented by cut 6024, within the strip and map area to the south of Area 3. In more general terms the nature of the ceramic and non-ceramic finds recovered from the track’s use deposits, including a mix of personal ornament and structural fasteners and fittings, suggests occupation in the vicinity although the quantity recovered does not indicate intensive activity (Duncan in Masefield 2005).

Trackside Activities Adjacent settlement Roman pottery was most concentrated within Areas 1 and 3 within the holloway and its ditches and the pits to the west of the route. Duncan similarly noted (in Masefield 2005) that the distribution of non-ceramic finds was also concentrated on G149 and its flanking ditches, with finds of structural fasteners and furniture fittings suggestive of a building nearby. However, the relative paucity of metalwork recovered from Phase 3 and Phase 4 deposits, in particular personal items, is noteworthy and again 49

Figure 31 – Site B Sections through Trackway G149 Showing G1623 Iron Age Enclosure Ditch Sections

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

50

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE could suggest that the focus of domestic settlement lay to the west, outside of the investigated area.

Two more possible unurned cremations were located adjacent to one another about 10m to the north-west of cremation 909. These cuts (1582 and 1584) were of elongated oval in form, c.0.9mx.24m and 0.88mx0.28m respectively. They were c.0.1m in depth with charcoal rich silty clay fills. However a lack of cremated bone from the surviving fills means that they cannot certainly be interpreted as burials. Neither contained dating evidence. Two other small and very shallow features, scoops 1143 and 1145, were located between cremation 909 and possible cremations 1582 and 1584. It is uncertain whether these were related in any way to burial since only traces of charcoal and no cremated bone were found within their c.0.1m deep fills.

Quarry Pitting Adjacent to Track G149 (Phase 3 to 4b?) (Fig 14 & 30) Some of the pits adjacent to the track are thought to have been related to its construction. This activity was most apparent on the west side of the track in Area 1 and as a well-defined cluster of pits on the east side of the track in Area 3. The c.8m x4.3m oval cluster in Area 3 comprised at least 14 pits and was up to 0.63m in depth (cuts 316, 370, 384, 387, 479, 481, 484, 488, 497, 499, 502, 507, 509 and 511). Of these only three pits (316, 370 and 384) produced pottery comprising a very small assemblage of abraded LIA sherds, including a pedestal urn base from pit 370. Given the lack of domestic debris, their location immediately adjacent to the track and on the same orientation, and their excavation through geological deposits containing chalk and flint gravel (which could have been collected by sieving) the pits are most likely to have been quarries. The slight but consistent dating evidence implies a LIA date for the quarrying. However, such small amounts of pottery could also have accumulated from adjacent soils in the early Roman period when the initial metalling of the trackway is most likely to have taken place.

Group 1709 Evidence for Iron Working of Probable Early Roman Date (Phase 4) (Figs 18, 23 (S Enc 7), 29, 33 & 35) Iron slag was recovered from a number of features across the site, of which the vast majority belonged to the LIA and Roman periods (see specialist report by Barber below). It is clear that most fragments of tap or furnace slag were despotised in low densities within pits containing other domestic debris. However a small cluster of features cutting and adjacent to ditch 1434 of G1700 were utilised solely for the deposition of slag. This group was almost certainly located immediately adjacent to the smelting/smithing activities. Pit 1289 cut ditch 1434 and was oval in form (1.7mx1.33m) with gently sloping sides to a concave base at a depth of 0.24m. Around 50% the fill of the pit comprised slag, over 39,530g, by far the largest amount from any one feature. The slag was recovered from the main greyishbrown clayey silt fill (1290). A thin 0.04m deep layer of silt/ash at the base of the feature (fill 1304) is likely to have been derived from ash washed through the slag to the base of the cut. The pit sides were not burnt so it was unlikely to have been used as either a furnace pit or stokehole. Unfortunately there was no diagnostic pottery associated, however an unusual penannular bracelet

Group 1708 - Late Iron Age/Early Roman Cremations (Phase 4a). (Figs 25 & 32) There was evidence for burials adjacent to the east side of the track within Area 2. A collapsed grog and sand tempered urn within a 0.1m deep and c.0.4m diameter pit 909, was associated with a small quantity of cremated bone in the charcoal rich silty clay fill. Unfortunately there was too little cremated bone for a meaningful analysis of the bone (R.Scaife pers. comm). Two crushed beakers were also found within the cremation and are likely to have been accessory vessels. Overall the group is likely to date to the conquest/early Roman period.

Fig 32 – Site B – Roman Cremations 51

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 33 – Site B Iron Working Features G1709

(SF65) found in association the ironworking slag appears to equate with Cool’s Group VII, a form in use intermittently throughout the Roman period (Duncan in Masefield 2005 citing Cool 1983, 140). It is likely that the slag was re-deposited in the pit as part of periodic cleaning of the furnace/hearth area, and the bracelet was either accidentally incorporated into the slag rich fill or was intentionally included as an offering. Given this information and the probable LIA date of ditch 1434 (which the pit cuts) an early Roman date is perhaps most likely.

0.13m. However, since the somewhat irregular ‘gully’ was solely defined by the concentrated dumping of slag it is possible that the material was simply dumped directly into the soft upper fill of ditch 1434 rather than within its own cut. Four small pits a few metres to the north of 1289 and 1520 (including a pit within evaluation trench 5 - see Fig. 33) contained further concentrations of slag, although again it is unclear whether their primary use was associated with smelting. Despite this abundant evidence for adjacent smelting and smithing no in situ furnaces were found.

This dating is probably confirmed by a further dump of slag within a possible gully or spread (1520) only a few metres to the south-west of pit 1289, which produced early Roman pot sherds. Its clayey silt fill 1521 comprised around 30% slag. The irregular deposit was ‘cut’ into ditch 1434, following its alignment for some 6.55m and had a maximum width 0.9m. The sides were gently sloping to an irregular rounded base at a depth of

Phase 5 – Later Roman (3rd- Late 4th Century AD) (Figs. 26, 27, 29, 34, and 35) Pitting was found in highest density in the westernmost part of Area 3 whilst (in common with the early Roman period) there were virtually no late Roman date features within the slightly higher ground of Area 2. Dumping of late 3rd/4th century Roman refuse was also noted from 52

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Plate 6 – Roman Well Feature 68

Late Roman Wells and Water-holes Group 1698 (Phase 5) (Figs 26, 27, 29, 34, & 35)

within the trackway hollow G149 (see above), indicting both adjacent settlement and poor management or disuse of the track. In Areas 1 and 3 the north-east/south-west and north-west/south-east aligned phase 4b ditches, in use in the 2nd century (represented by ditch G41, G66 and G125/842) were abandoned. In Area 1 this abandonment was further emphasised by ditch 575 and equivalent ditches/leat 910 and 911 (representing at least two phases of use) cutting across the early Roman ditch G842 (i.e. cutting segment 572, see Fig. 34). The late Roman ditch alignment was orientated north-east/south-west at slight variance with the similarly aligned early Roman ditches, again suggesting a minor reorganisation of site layout. Ditch 575 was utilised as an overflow system for a connected late Roman waterhole or sump 885/785 (see G1698 below). The ditch was 1.6m in width with a Vshaped profile to a depth of 0.46m. The light brown clayey silt clay primary fill, similar secondary fill (possibly within a recut) and upper darker clayey silts, produced Roman and specifically late Roman (3rd-4th century) pottery assemblages respectively.

This grouping comprises four late Roman well or waterhole features in the western area of Site B. In Area 3 two waterlogged features (24 and 68) were located within a few metres of one another. Both were square in plan with vertical sides to depths below the water table. These features are interpreted as wells given their vertical sides were unsuited for animal access but water for stock may nevertheless have been drawn and transferred into troughs. Well 24 was a two metre square in plan with vertical sides to a flat base at a depth of 1.7m. The upper fill comprised dark silty clay and produced a large assemblage of 4th century pottery and Roman tile in addition to two Valentinianic coins both dated 364378AD (SF1 and SF2) suggesting disuse by the second half of the 4th century. Early Saxon pottery was also recovered from the uppermost fill. Well 68 was c.1.6m sub-square in form with a depth of c.1.4m (the lowest level was augored). It was filled by a series of increasingly waterlogged clayey silt deposits. Again finds from the feature included sizeable assemblages of 4th century Roman pottery and tile from upper fill as well as generally late Roman pottery from its primary dark grey silting. This well produced waterlogged sediments suitable for pollen and snail shell analysis. These have provided evidence for the composition of the local landscape at this time (see Scaife and Allen below). Given that the upper filling of each of the well produced vessel halves (a Nene Valley ware dish from well 24 and an Oxfordshire Colour Coat flanged

One of the western trackway flanking ditches in Area 1 (G1480 - see below) was perpendicular to the alignment of ditch 575. This may suggest some continued use of the track or at least its line as a boundary, in the late Roman period. Indeed as suggested above the late Roman phase also includes evidence that the latest metalled trackway was still in use in the 3rd and possibly early 4th century with sherds of this date extracted from the metalling in Area 1 (626) and Area 3 (177).

53

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 34 – Site B Detail of Roman Water-hole and ‘Leat’ in Area 1

bowl from well 68) the pottery specialist has suggested that they may have been deliberately placed during ritual ‘closing’ of the wells.

(as 785). These leats became ditch 575 to the west of the water hole. Since the leats sloped down and away (to the west) from the waterhole, they presumably operated as an overflow system when the water hole flooded. Primary silty clays of cut 885 were undated (although a late Roman date seems likely). The far more complete sequence of fills within waterhole recut 785 comprised dark grey silty clay primary fill (1081) overlaid by similar fills containing late Roman pottery including Nene Valley, Oxfordshire and Hadham ware. Interestingly there was a relatively large quantity of shelly wares, probably from the Harrold industry which possibly continued in production into the 5th century. In addition to the bucket mount other finds included items of household fittings (stem of a key SF50 and staple SF86). Duncan (in Masefield 2005) has also noted that associated leat 910b produced the upper stone of a bunshaped rotary quern (SF99) whilst a coin of late 3rd to 4th century date (SF52) also suggests this water system went out of use in the late Roman period.

Large pits 785/885 and 4158 were oval in plan and although their sides were less steep than wells 24 and 68, they were also unsuited for animal access. They are therefore considered to have been used as water holes from which water was drawn (a conclusion supported by a bucket mount find from feature 785 – SF85). Cut 785 represented a recut of an earlier version of the water hole 885 indicating that it had a prolonged period of use (see section Fig. 35). The earlier water-hole was 1.3m deep and although its shape in plan was removed by the later recut 785, it was likely to have been very similar to the 5.19m by 3.8m oval form of the later recut 785 (see Figs 27 and 35). The later water hole phase is broadly datable to the 4th century (see Slowikowski below). Earlier water hole cut 885 was originally linked to a drainage overflow/leat (910a) at its upper level. The leat was recut (as 910b) probably when the water-hole itself was redug 54

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Waterhole 4158 was similarly large with a diameter of c.3.25m and steep sides to a depth of 1.32m (Figs 27 and 35) and was also dated to the 4th century via ceramics (including shelly wares). The earliest fill (4163) comprised waterlogged dark grey clayey silt and was part excavated by hand, with its lowest level augored due to health and safety constraints. The secondary, tertiary and upper fills were similar, although dryer closer to ground level. The fills produced late Roman pottery, bone and Roman tile in relatively low density. A fragment of lava, probably originating from a quern, was also recovered. Interestingly this water hole was also linked by a gully (4164) although in this case the gully also linked a nearby cluster of similarly dated pits.

cultivation or ‘dark earth’ layer (4157) which sealed the western-most late Roman pits and gravel surfaces within Area 3. Interestingly the ‘dark earth’ layer produced the latest coin of the 33 found at this site, an AE4 of Honorius dated to AD 395-402. This coin, along with the similarly dated coin from the upper silts of the trackway (layer 4040) suggests occupation at this location until the very end of the Roman period. The low density of post holes within Areas 1 and 3 support an interpretation that the associated structures were located to the west of the excavation site boundary. Ditch Group 1480 (Late Roman Phase 5 to Late Roman/Saxon Transitional Phase 6) (Fig 26, 29 & 36)

These water-holes/wells certainly held water at most times. Their appearance in this area of the site suggests that water collection, close to the spring line, and adjacent to a droveway, was a priority, potentially both for animal and human consumption. Again this indicates that the late Roman occupation was focussed close to the location, plausibly just west of Area 1 and that these features were conveniently located between that settlement and the droveway.

This broad ditch ran north-west to south-east alongside the west side of track G149 in Area 1 and may allude to continued use of the track in this period. Much of its extent was masked by silt layers and disturbance (modern hedgeline and post-medieval furrows). There were four slots through the ditch (1298, 1447, 1481 and 1514). These contained late Roman and some early Saxon finds. Ditch G1480 truncated two narrower ditches at its apparent north-west terminal end (1552 and 1554). These narrow and shallow gullies continued north-west on the same alignment beyond terminal end (1481). Given that they followed the same alignment it is probable that G1480 replaced the two earlier gullies. Despite a lack of finds from the dark brown silty fills of the earlier gullies it does not seem unreasonable to assume these also dated to the late Roman period, given this continuity of alignment with ditch G1480. Ditch G1480 was much broader than the gullies, typically 1m to 1.5m and was up to 0.88m deep. It was steep sided with a flatish base. Slots 1447 and 1298 contained three fills, 1481 had two observed fills and 1514 only one. These comprised soft silty clays, but were variable with no clear correlation between each section (due to the variable nature of the geology). The ditch yielded remnants of a loom weight (SF208) which due to its fragmentary survival could not be dated with certainty (although it is possibly of pyramidal shape, and therefore of Roman date). Other dateable material was recovered from all four slots including late Roman and probable Saxon pottery from the upper fills of slots 1447 and 1514. The upper silting, at least, may therefore belong to the following Phase 6 (as is also applicable for the uppermost level of well 24).

Late Roman Pitting and Metalling (Phase 5) (Figs 26, 27, 29 & 35) Late Roman pitting was dispersed within Areas 1 and 2 but Area 3 produced a relative concentration of 3rd/4th century Roman pitting. Some of these (intercutting pits 4213, 4216, 4223 and 4234) were sealed by a late Roman gravel/cobble surface (4185) that had sunk into the slumped fills of the underlying pits (hence its survival from later plough damage). The same surfacing episode appears to have been represented by a further area of gravel of 3rd/4th century date (4194) also within a depression. This metalled surface may therefore have formed a wider yard or working area with its two surviving remnants suggesting an originally metalled area of at least 8 by 8 metres. The surface produced fragments of lead, two lead possible caulking weights (SF229 and 230) an Iron hold fast and rove (SF234.1 and 234.3) and a spindle whorl (SF233). This assortment of finds also supports an interpretation of the cobble surface as part of a working yard. Further pits within Area 3 (features 60, 184, 4109, 4130, 4142, 4183, and 4230) were also dated to the Late Roman period. Pit 4166 produced a coin of Constantine II dated AD330-335 from its upper fill whilst pit 4130 produced a coin of the House of Valentinian dated AD364-78, indicating use well into the later 4th century. Pit 60 also produced part of an iron chain (SF71) an iron nail and a loop-headed spike (SF238). It is possible that all of late Roman pits within Area 3 were utilised for rubbish disposal. Other associated features included a short L-shaped stretch of ditch (4195) that produced a coin of Constantine 1 dated AD 307-13. The disuse of this phase of activity was shown by a c.0.2m-0.3m thick

Phase 6 - Late Roman/Early Saxon This phase allocation is an attempt to recognise landscape features whose use may have spanned the latest Roman to earliest Saxon period. The phase also marks a dislocation of site use from the preceding period, as the previously utilised track was no longer maintained. As noted above the upper fills of several probably late Roman features produced early Saxon finds but these are likely to represent the disuse of these features (e.g. the trackway silting layer 430, water hole 785 and ditch G1480). As 55

Figure 35 – Site B Selected Sections through Roman Features

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

56

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE noted above the upper fills of several probably late Roman features produced early Saxon finds but these are likely to represent the disuse of these features (e.g. the trackway silting layer 430, water hole 785 and ditch G1480). However, its is not certain whether the early Saxon finds from several other ditches indicate original use within the ‘sub-Roman’ period and therefore active management of the landscape, or simply that the silting of these was also completed at this time (i.e. the 5th century AD). The phase is divided into sub phases 6a and 6b to take account of the stratigraphic relationships between two ditch groups G262 and G150.

(Duncan in Masefield 2005). However, two small sherds of early Saxon pottery were also recovered. Taken together, and given the shallow nature of the ditch (which means it was likely to have silted over a short period) a very late Roman or sub-Roman date for the cutting of the boundary is probable. The ditch cut through all other linear feature groups with which it was physically related. Both ditch G150 and Phase 6a ditch G262 were traced south-eastwards through the strip and map area for at least 80 metres. Although less parallel and less substantial than the early Roman trackway ditches, these could demark the edges of a late Roman/early Saxon period non-surfaced track with the same general function as previously, but with a slight shift eastwards. If so it may suggest that travellers of the route were now less concerned with continuing the north-west journey beyond Site B, but instead were directed south-westwards in the direction of the present villages of Buckland and Aston Clinton.

Late Roman or Early Saxon Ditch Group 262 (Phase 6a) (Fig 30 & 36) A shallow north/south orientated linear feature G262 (segments 262, 263, 265 in Area 3 and 6002 in the strip and map area to the south) was traced for c.140m from north to south until removed by truncation. The ditch appeared to be crossed by ditch G150 (where numbered 6076) within the southern strip and map area. Despite this phasing these two ditches shared an almost identical line, and are likely to have been similarly dated. Ditch G262 provided no secure dating evidence, however, ditch G150 (see below) produced mixed finds including sherds typical of the early Saxon period. Unlike G150 though, the ditch did not observably curve at its northern end to cross the track G149. Although the feature cut the gravel metalling of G149 its fill was impossible to distinguish from silts overlying the metalling and at this point the ditch line was lost. Since it did not re-emerge on the western side of the track the ditch may have simply drained into the slight trackway hollow in the southern part of Area 3.

As noted above upper trackway silting levels (430 and 589 in Area 1) and 216 (in Area 3) produced both Roman and Saxon sherds. The apparent latest Roman/ Saxon (5th-7th century) dating for the abandonment silts is further emphasised by a posthole (625) containing further mixed late Roman and early Saxon pottery, cut into the track surface in Area 1 and sealed by the latest silts.

Phase 7 – Early Saxon (5th-7th Century AD) This phase comprises a number of Saxon period pits suggestive of settlement. It includes pit 214 in Area 3, which cut curvilinear ditch G150, and therefore demonstrably post dates phase 6. It was considered at evaluation stage that a number of pits within Area 1 dated to the early Saxon period, however a reassessment of evaluation trench 7 (Masefield 2005) demonstrated that many of the ’Saxon’ sherds were probably actually of IA date. Although Saxon activity was less intensive in Area 1 than had been thought, overall the early Saxon activity was surprisingly widespread, with isolated pits or small pit clusters across the higher ground of Area 2 and individual pits within Area 3. The pottery includes both organic and sand tempered wares typical of the period spanning the 5th to 7th century (although as hinted above there were some difficulties with the dating due to the similarity of these to certain IA fabrics). No Saxon sunken floored buildings or halls were identified, and although it is possible that post built structures of the period are masked amongst the mass of post holes within Area 2, there is no particular reason to believe any of those post-date the Roman period.

Curvilinear Ditch Group 150 (Phase 6b) (Figs 26, 27, 30, 35 36 & 39) This narrow ditch is an important element in the site narrative since it represents a severance with the previous boundary organisation. As indicated the feature cut through the abandonment silts of trackway G149, thus reinforcing the inference of disuse suggested by the silting over the track, and demonstrating that this route was by then either abandoned, or if it remained a route, realigned. Within Area 3 the curving ditch ran north-east/ southwest (segments 4112, 4114, 80, 150 and 151) cutting the silted trackway before turning south-eastwards to continue through Area 3 (segments 222 and 202). Its line extended through the strip and map area to the south-east (labelled 6076). The profile varied from a narrow, rounded gully to broad and shallow (from c.0.5m - 1.4m in width and 0.26m - 0.5m in depth). The main fills were consistently silty clays with chalky flecks. Non-ceramic finds from three of the eight excavated segments were consistently of later Roman date, comprising two hob nails, a three-strand cable bracelet of 3rd to 4th century date (SF9) and a coin dated to AD 335-340 (SF218)

Anglo-Saxon Pitting (Area 2) - Pit Groups 1673 and 1676 (Figs 36, 37 & 38) The most significant area of early Saxon pitting was located on the higher ground within Area 2. The group comprised 7 inter-cutting pits (G1673) with a further 57

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 36 – Site B Plan Showing Late Roman to Early Saxon Activity – Phases 6-7

58

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Figure 37 – Site B Saxon Pit Groups G1673/1676

three intercutting pits (G1676 – comprising pits 1334, 1335 and 1336) immediately to the west. The main group comprised two large pits (1067 and 904) and five smaller pits (895, 1061, 1065, 1073 and 1075). A slumping layer 905 that measured c.5m across sealed the whole group.

The early Saxon period (rather than the early-mid IA) dating of these large pits was confirmed by the combination of Saxon sherds with residual Roman finds including a Roman pot sherd, a brick fragment and a Roman coin from pit 1061 dated AD 318-24 (House of Constantine). In addition the layer sealing these pits (905) produced a primary whetstone of Kentish ragstone (SF69), a type of stone widely distributed in Roman Britain by the 3rd century (Cunliffe 1971, 154), but little used after the Roman period (Moore 1978, 72). It is therefore likely that the soil used to in-fill the pits derived from earlier activity and hence contained residual material. Most of the pottery from the group comprised residual IA sherds and early Saxon body sherds including a 5th century sherd and a probable 6th-7th century organic tempered assemblage (Slowikowski, below). Duncan (in Masefield 2005) noted that the tip of a bone pin (SF239), from pit 895 (fill 896), could derive either from a Roman hair pin or a Saxon dress pin.

The lower fills commonly comprised re-deposited natural clayey subsoil indicating that the pits were open for a use period prior to the accumulation of more humic silty upper fills. In addition possible trample lenses and gravel depositions within the larger pits, periodically laid above ‘silts’, suggest entry into the features and consolidation of deposits within them, during use. These factors are compatible with use either as storage or cess/rubbish pits, with the gravely lenses sealing rotting deposits and/or cess. Their tightly clustered nature is suggestive of a restricted plot for their setting and offers the possibility of adjacent habitation.

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Figure 38 – Site B Sections Through Saxon Features in Area 2

The three further pits (G1676) were located to the immediate north-west of G1673. These were irregular oval/sub-circular in plan, the largest, 1335, was c.2 by 2.6m. There were few finds, although fragments of Roman tile would be compatible with the early Saxon date of adjacent G1673. Again lower fills commonly comprised re-deposited natural clayey subsoil, indicating that the pits were open for a period prior to the accumulation of more humic silty upper fills. Two exhibited undercut sides undercut sides and use for storage is suspected.

(within Area 3). Pit 214 was adjacent to the Phase 6b curvilinear ditch G150. The sole fill (213) of this pit contained a small whittle tang knife with curved back (SF8). According to Duncan (in Masefield 2005) the size and shape of this knife is comparable to Anglo-Saxon blade form type A, in use throughout this period (Malim and Hines 1998, 217). Pit 1498 in Area 2 also produced a fragment of a probable annular loom weight (SF98) from its tertiary fill (1499). The strip and map areas produced no certain evidence for Saxon pitting or other occupation indications.

Early Saxon Dispersed Pits (Phase 7) - Pit Group 1702 (Figs 36 & 38)

Undated Enclosure 6012 (Post Phase 4b – Probably Late Roman Plus Phases 5-7) (Figs 36 & 39)

Several other widely dispersed pits produced early Saxon (or possible early Saxon) pottery and bone and other finds in sufficient density to suggest adjacent settlement. Six pits in Area 1 (377, 587, 625, 1086, 1158 and 1595) were initially considered to be potentially early Saxon but are not reliably dated. However, pottery in two (1158 and 1595) may alternatively be IA (with Roman) whilst three others (377, 587 and 1086) may be no later than late Roman (Slowikowski below). Those pits with more certainly identified Saxon pottery were 625 (within Area 1), 554, 556 and 1498 (within Area 2) and 167, 214, 320

A small enclosure was noted on the south-western edge of the southern strip and map area. The enclosure was defined by a narrow and shallow gully describing an irregular oval, c.35m north-south by over 20m southeast/north west. Its ditch (6012) cut through the fill of Roman trackside ditches 6022 and 6024 and the trackmetalling. It therefore post-dated the tracks’ Roman use. A large steep sided pit 6004 (c.5m diameter) situated immediately inside the southern corner, was probably used as a water hole. This may suggest use as a small 60

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 39 – Site B Detail of Post-Roman Enclosure (Showing Bronze Age Cremations)

stock enclosure. Dating evidence comprised a single fragment of Roman tile, which when combined with the stratigraphy may suggest a latest Roman or Saxon date. The enclosure also predates the (late Saxon/medieval) ridge and furrow field system whose furrows cut it.

fields in the medieval and post-medieval period (with principally post-medieval finds recovered from furrow fills). Furrows were generally 8 metres apart across the excavation site (the pattern and distribution of the furlongs is shown on Fig. 40). The site was later drained by a series of post-medieval chalk filled (‘French’) drains and later (in the 19th century) by horseshoe shaped tile drains laid a metre deep.

Phase 8 – Medieval and Later (Fig 40) Following the early Saxon period the area was abandoned for habitation. The land was utilised as open

61

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 40 – Site B Plan Showing Medieval and Later Activity

62

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

V Lower Icknield Way Site B to Tring Hill Site D

artefacts from the adjacent spoil heaps to indicate particular archaeological interest.

This route section (Fig. 2) is constructed within cutting. The topsoil stripping was undertaken utilising a combination of 360-degree excavators and bulldozers. The latter method was used intensively from the south-eastern extent of the Lower Icknield Way Site B as far as the Wendover Arm of the Grand Union Canal (prior to its diversion). Geology in this section to the north-west of the Chiltern scarp slope comprised a low-lying clay layer capping the chalk. The strip cultivation system is indicated by some of the field names here, including Stamp Well Furlong, Rooks Nest Furlong, Bottom Furlong and Drayton Pale Furlong (all noted on maps of 1844, BCMAS 1994). Trial trenching within the area confirmed the existence of the ploughtruncated bases of furrows.

A wide linear depression or lynchet (9430) was encountered orientated north-south across the easement upslope, further to the south-east cut into the Middle Chalk scarp slope (see Fig 41). It was located at almost the steepest part of the slope and ran diagonally across the line of the easement, slightly oblique to the contour. The feature was recorded in section but in plan only at its basal level, since earth-moving plant had removed its upper level. It was c.20m wide as it entered the south edge of the easement but had reduced to about 14m where it ran into the northern baulk (some 40m to the north). The western recorded section extended for c.30m obliquely from north-west to south-east across the feature. The feature was up to 2.5m deep but was asymmetrical in form, the upslope edge being considerably deeper than the lower edge. Indeed, it resembled a large negative lynchet perhaps further eroded by use as a routeway. There were no artefacts recovered from the section, nor were any apparent in adjacent spoil heaps.

The quality sub-soil exposure within the easement section between Site B and the canal was inevitably poor. However, it was possible to identify the presence of ridge and furrow (as was noted from previous evaluation) and a linear feature. It is acknowledged that small discrete features could have been missed, however the lack of such cut features within the schemes drainage ditches, combined with a paucity of finds and the negative results within the 2000 season evaluation trenches, suggest a lack of significant archaeological remains.

VI

Tring Hill Site D (Figs 41-48)

Site D was situated on arable land on Tring Hill at the junction of the Lower and Middle Chalk of the northern escarpment of the Chilterns within the parish of Drayton Beauchamp. The north facing hillcrest rose to c.155m AOD within the easement. Site D (including the Balfour Beatty site compound to the immediate northeast of the road line) was designated as a ‘strip and map’ exercise (see Fig. 41). The site compound was found to be devoid of significant archaeological features, however the area to be affected by road construction was upgraded to an excavation by Bucks County Council County Archaeology Service, following the unexpected discovery of a dispersed Saxon cemetery. Figure 42 provides a general overview of all archaeological features within Site D and Figure 43 provides further detail of the phasing.

The LIA to Roman trackway (traced through Site B) was visible in patches for a further 100 metres before its line was lost. The only other feature of note was a 0.6m wide and 0.3m deep V-shaped ditch line that ran across the easement on a northeast/ southwest alignment. A single fragment of later medieval or post medieval peg tile was recovered from the brownish grey silty clay fill. The ditch follows the general alignment of the adjacent medieval moated site at Drayton Beauchamp and could therefore represent an associated boundary. However, the post medieval landscape also follows this alignment. A circular gilded horse harness mount of 12th –14th century date, found within the topsoil nearby, is of high status and may have derived from the moated site.

Phase 1b - Late Bronze Age/Early- Iron Age. 29 pot sherds dated from c.800-600BC represent the earliest activity. The majority of this material was found residually within later contexts. Several abraded sherds were found in features (post holes 5061, 5077 and 5199) with no accompanying later material, but the small number of sherds and their wear could indicate that these too were later features. The assemblage does nevertheless indicate a phase of activity within a probably farmed landscape. It should be noted that plough truncation of the archaeology on the hillside (see below) may have led to the loss of early and shallow archaeological features.

A higher degree of confidence is attributable to watching brief results to the south-east of the canal where topsoil stripping was largely achieved with the use of a 360-degree excavator. Previous fieldwalking proved fruitless in this area, whilst geophysical survey identified patterning typical of a former strip field or cultivation boundary (BCMAS 1994, Oxford Archaeotechnics 1993). No archaeological features were identified in the area of the diversion cut for the canal (to the south east of its previous line). From this low-lying location, within a field known as Middle Hatchway Furlong (1844), the ground level rises steadily, through a field known as Stamp Well (1844) ascending the north facing Tring Hill. Two features cut into chalk were investigated within this segment comprising a post medieval furrow and a small undated pit or post-hole. No further features were observed in adjacent areas and there were no

Phase 2a/2b – Early/Middle Iron Age. Two residual sherds may testify to a low level of activity within the c.600BC-c.100BC period.

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PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 41 – Plan of the Bypass Route Showing Site D, Trial Trenches and Archaeological Finds

Plate 7 – View NW of the Road Strip and Aylesbury Vale from Tring Hill 64

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 42 – Site D Overview Showing all Archaeological Features Overlaid on A41 Bypass Route

2). The southernmost side of the eastern enclosure was part defined by a 7.5m length of north-east/ south-west orientated ditch (5091). Only the lower 0.09m of mid brown clay silt fill had survived plough erosion, although the south-west end of the ditch was probably at its original terminal since it almost connected ditch 5175/5252 leaving a gateway sized gap between. Gateways are usually found in the corners of fields so that stock can be funnelled to them, and this seems a plausible here. Erosion was more severe as the ditch progressed downslope, so much so that its north-eastern extent had been lost altogether.

Phase 3- Late Iron Age 1. (Figs 43 & 44) Enclosures 1 and 2 The first major phase of archaeological activity recorded on the site dates from the LIA. A shallow (c.0.2m in depth) truncated ditch (5175) was located on the western side of the excavated area. Its 1.1m wide north-east/ south-west aligned arm was 12m in length before entering the eastern limit of the excavation. It turned a right angle south-east and was traced for a further 26m before partial removal via plough truncation. The linear cut continued its line, after a 12m gap, as ditch 5252. The sole fill comprised mid brown clayey silt with frequent chalk inclusions and produced ceramics of LIA date. Ditch 5175/5252 appears to have formed part of two sides of an enclosure or plot (‘Enclosure 1’) mainly located to the west. Its approximately north-south aligned arm formed its eastern side and also the western side of a further partially ditched enclosure to the east (Enclosure

The same pattern of erosion was found for the parallel northern ditch (5018) of plot Enclosure 2 which was visible for 25m before its north-eastern end was lost to truncation. The ditch was 0.6m in width and up to 0.15m in depth at its well-defined south-western terminal and was filled by chalk rich silty clay containing LIA ceramics. It was clearly associated with Enclosure 1 65

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE given the shared alignment (with ditch 5175) and gateway sized gap between the northern corner of Enclosure 1 and the south-west terminal (ditch 5018) of Enclosure 2. The eastern side of Enclosure 2 was probably originally defined by ditch 5218, a 0.1m deep truncated ditch remnant filled by chalk rich silt. It was apparently recut by a later 1.4m wide version (5053) containing a similar fill (but with lower chalk content). The recut was similarly orientated north-west/ south-east before returning south-eastwards as ditch 5220 (which also cut the earlier ditch 5218). Ditch 5053 was traced for 20m on its north-west/ south-east line, its north-west end having been shortened by plough truncation that had also removed its corner connection point with ditch 5018 (thus forming the north-east corner of the enclosure). The 5220 segment was traced for a further 5m, returning north-eastwards before entering the north-west edge of the excavation area. Both phases of the ditch produced sufficient LIA ceramics to be suggestive of nearby settlement.

Dispersed Post-holes A number of post-holes were excavated across Site D. These were largely confined to the higher ground on either side of ditch 5175 (the division between the two enclosed plots). Most failed to produce any dateable material, however six post-holes (5167, 5137, 5111, 5109, 5061 and 5077) produced LIA pottery. Therefore it appears likely that the majority date from this phase. In most cases the function and form of the associated structures is unknown although single post-holes could represent such functions as tethering posts whilst others may have been paired as ‘drying racks’ for example. Further small structures may also be present, especially as the truncated ground surface suggests many may have been lost. However, despite a clear grouping on the highest ground around the 155m OD contour, there are no other obvious structures such as roundhouses represented. Two four-post structures are more certain. Site D Structure 1 (Fig. 43)

It is clear that the southern side of Enclosure 2 was part defined by ditch 5091and was respected in its alignment by ditch 5220. All four sides of Enclosure 2 were at least partially represented and if these segments are extended on plan to complete their original lengths (prior to erosion) the following dimensions would apply for of the enclosed plot or field: southern side 48m, western side 35m; northern side 34m, and eastern side 23.5m. The shorter eastern alignment with its return north-east may suggest that a c.10m wide trackway entered the enclosure form the north-east. If so the return (5220) part defined the northern edge of a track (see Fig. 43). The southern side of the track would align with the probable original north-eastern continuation of ditch 5091 as the southern side of Enclosure 2. Since drainage would be unnecessary on the crest of a chalk hill the most likely function of the ditches of Enclosures 1 and 2 was to provide banks on which to lay hedges to define the enclosures. A use (at least partly) as stock corals is likely. It is quite possible that occupation was also located within the enclosures, hence the domestic debris within the ditches and small clusters of post-holes and pits (see below).

This c.2m square structure was defined by four large circular post-holes 5165, 5167, 5169 and 5171 and was located on the crest of Tring Hill just to the west of enclosure ditch 5175. All of the cuts were steep sided with flat bases at depths between 0.2m and 0.37m and were of very similar diameters between 0.58m and 0.63m. The fills were also very similar mid brown clayey silts with frequent chalk charcoal flecking. An absence of the post-pipes suggests the posts may have been pulled. Nevertheless the timbers used were presumably relatively substantial, and this combined with placement on the high point of Tring Hill suggests that the structure would have been highly visible. Although an interpretation as a granary is most likely, it is possible a raised platform here could have been used for other functions such as a lookout platform or for ritual purposes. The pottery from one post-hole (5167) suggests a LIA date. Site D Structure 2 (Fig. 43) Site D Structure 2 was a little smaller and comprised circular post-holes 5149, 5151, 5155 and 5157. Again the diameters of the features were almost identical from 0.3m to 0.35m. The cuts exhibited steep sides and flat bases with depths between 0.04m and 0.2m suggesting horizontal truncation from ploughing. The fills were also similar mid brown clayey silts with frequent chalk inclusions and charcoal flecks. None of the post-holes contained pottery although the proximity of datable LIA features suggests the structure is likely to have been associated.

Late Iron Age Pitting at the North-East Boundary of Enclosure 2 Twelve shallow pits of uncertain function were found associated with the eastern ditch of Enclosure 2 (pits 5201, 5207, 5238, 5232, 5214, 5230, 5228, 5222, 5236 and possibly 5234, 5226 and 5224). These varied between 0.14m and 0.4m in depth and contained very similar chalky silt fills, and small assemblages of LIA pottery. Several (pits 5051, 5201, 5207, 5222, 5228, 5230 and 5230) were trunacted by ditch 5128, and despite the similarity of the LIA ceramics, comprise a phase pre-dating the laying out of the later recut of this side of Enclosure 2. The function of the pits is unknown, although their location against a boundary may suggest domestic rubbish disposal.

LIA Occupation Despite the absence of residential dwellings, the LIA phases at Tring Hill Site D produced 464 sherds of pottery (86% of the total site assemblage) and a moderate sized bone assemblage, also typical of occupation (Slowikowski below; Sibun below). In fact the LIA 66

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 43 – Site D Showing Phases of Activity

features and finds represent the sole period with clear evidence for within the bypass route on Tring Hill.

Phase 4b undiagnostic.

Early

Roman

/

Roman sherds were recovered residually within early Saxon grave fills. Analysis of the pottery identified 14 certainly early Roman sherds and 21 other ‘Roman’ sherds. An absence of diagnostic late Roman pottery suggests that the assemblage is largely of early Roman (c.43AD-250AD) date. Such low levels are typical of manuring on arable land and suggest the nearby LIA settlement had been abandoned. An absence of Roman or later agricultural ditches is probably a reflection of the well-drained soils and retention of the earlier divisions.

Roman

A low level of Roman activity was identified, with only three features, considered to belong to the phase. These comprised two post holes (5109 and 5197) and possibly a pit (5051) although single the sherd of pottery from this feature may be intrusive. In addition a small number of 67

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 44 – Site D Selected Sections through Iron Age Features

Phase 7 – The Early Saxon Period Strip and map and subsequent formal excavation unexpectedly identified a series of inhumations cut into the chalk bedrock. This demonstrated use of the hilltop around the 155m contour as a cemetery in the early Saxon period. Eighteen graves were positively identified (see Figs 42 and 43 and details of individual graves as Figs 45-47). Human bone was found to survive moderately well, although many of the burials were in a plough or animal/root disturbed condition. Plough truncation of graves was particularly severe on the dip slope of the hillcrest. Ten inhumations were buried in the supine position (laid out, body extended, lying on the back) four were in a crouched position, with one partially rolled onto its side. A further feature was little more than a bone scatter in a very shallow hollow which may have been a grave very badly disturbed by plough truncation. Five robbed out, or possibly never used graves, were also uncovered. The individual graves, with the exception of Burials 1 and 6 were unusually widely spaced, although interestingly the spacing between appeared to be relatively even. However, it is impossible to ascertain how many graves had been completely destroyed by ploughing. Molluscan evidence from the graves suggests that the location was open grassland when the cemetery was in use (Allen below). The burials are described individually as follows: Burial 1 – Grave Cut 5000 (Fig. 45)

Plate 8 – Anglo-Saxon Burial 2

This south-north orientated grave located on the hillcrest, 13m from the western edge of the road strip, was the first to be identified. The rectangular cut (1.93m x 1.0m and 0.3 in depth) contained a complete articulated adult male skeleton (5002) in the supine position, with hands resting on the pelvis. The head was to the south end of the grave. The grave cut was only just long enough to accommodate

the burial, although the head was bowed forward slightly to fit into the southern end. An iron knife (SF100) had been placed on the left hip area and an iron object (SF 147) was positioned on the right hip. There were no other objects within the grave. The backfill (5001) comprised clay silt with flint and chalk fragments.

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Figure 45 – Burials 1-3 and 5-7 69

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Burial 2 – Grave Cut 5006 (Fig. 45)

Burial 6 – Grave Cut 5017 (Fig. 45)

This south-north orientated grave was located 12m to the east of Burial 1. The cut was sub-rectangular in form (1.76m x 0.86m and 0.25m in depth) with steeply cut sides and a flat base. The grave’s ends were slightly rounded and consequently the form was less rigidly rectangular than grave cut 5000. The remains of an adult male (5005) was buried couched lying on the left side, with the right knee pulled up higher than the left. The head was to the south end of the grave. There were no grave goods and no other finds within the clay silt with frequent chalk fragments and occasional charcoal backfill (5004).

South-north orientated Burial 6 was only a metre east of Burial 1. The truncated grave (1.5m plus x 1.0m) base sloped at circa 30 degrees to a broadly flat, although slightly uneven base. The remains of a female individual (5016), lying in the supine position were in relatively poor condition. Given that the adjacent burial was a male adult it is possible that a couple are represented. The depth of the grave had been reduced by later ploughing activity, which had also removed the skull and some foot bones. However, despite the poor condition a burial position similar to that in 5014 could be ascertained, with the right arm placed across the chest. An iron knife (SF135) was found under the pelvis, perhaps suggesting that it had been worn on a belt. This burial cut the western terminal end of LIA ditch 5018 and the absence of the individual’s head at this intersection was initially thought to show that the ditch had cut the grave. This was clearly not the case, but rather that the shallowness of the grave at the head (south) end had meant that the head was vulnerable to ploughing (which may have cut deeper into the soft fill of the ditch). The backfill (5015) comprised mid-brown silt with frequent chalk nodules and flecks.

Burial 3 - Grave Cut 5009 (Fig. 45) Also south-north orientated this grave was located 30m north of Burial 1 and represented the north-east extent of the surviving burials. The grave was heavily truncated at its northern end. A surviving length of 1.25m, a width of 0.7m and a depth of 0.23m were recorded. The grave contained very fragmentary remains of a juvenile (5008), apparently buried in the supine position. These remains consisted of little more than skull fragments (at the southern end of the grave) and a few pieces of longbone, but enough to suggest the child’s burial position. An iron knife (SF139) was found in the pelvis region. The backfill (5007) comprised clay silt with frequent chalk fragments.

Burial 7 - Grave Cut 5027 (Fig. 45) South-north orientated Burial 7 was located some 30m to the north of Burial 1, as one of the northern outliers of the cemetery. This small oval grave (0.88m x 0.49m and 0.22m deep) had vertical sides and a flat base. It had been dug with some care and contained the remains of a juvenile (5020) in the supine position with the head at the south end. There was some suggestion that the skeleton had been deliberately laid out with its head slightly propped up on the southern edge of the grave (as with Burial 1) perhaps so the individual ‘looked’ north. An iron knife (SF.138) was located alongside the remains of the left arm. Backfill (5019) comprised clayey silt with frequent chalk inclusions.

Burial 4 – Grave Cut 5011 (Fig. 45) This possibly robbed south-north grave was located approximately 23m south of Burial 1 and 2.5m east of the western excavation edge. The steep sided, flat-bottomed oval cut (1.4m x 1.2m and 0.22m deep) exhibited a step on its eastern side. The clay silt with frequent chalk fill (5012) contained the disturbed and fragmentary remains of a juvenile (5010). No grave goods were recovered, possibly due to a robbing episode.

Burial 8 – Grave Cut 5021 (Fig. 46) Burial 5 – Grave Cut 5014 (Fig. 45) Burial 8 was located 34m to the south-east of and downslope from Burial 1. The sub-oval cut (2.22m x 1.11m and 0.3m deep) had steep sides and a flat base and contained a supine ?female skeleton (5022) with arms by its side and the head facing eastwards. The left leg was semi-flexed and the hip joint on that leg appeared to have been dislocated. The spinal column also appeared to be irregularly shaped. An iron knife, a carved antler disc and a bronze clasp or fastening (SF’s 127-129) were found. The former two were located beneath the damaged leg, the latter beside the ribcage. Backfill (5023) comprised clayey silt with frequent chalk inclusions.

South-north Burial 5 was located 15.5m south of Burial 1 immediately adjacent to the western excavation edge. The somewhat irregular oval cut (1.25m x 0.83m and 0.35m deep) exhibited steeply cut sides to a flat base upon which the near complete skeletal remains of a juvenile (5013) were recovered. The child was buried supine with the head at the south end, left arm at the side of the body and right arm flexed with the hand across the chest. Two beads (SF141 and 142) and a small bronze implement (SF 140) were found adjacent to the neck and may have been worn as part of a necklace. A pot (SF143) was located at the right elbow and with the other grave goods may indicate a relatively high status for this individual. The backfill (5012) comprised clay silt with frequent chalk inclusions.

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PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Burial 10 - Grave Cut 5030 (Fig. 46) South-north orientated Burial 10 was located 32m east of Burial 1. This (2.17m by 1.15m and 0.1m deep) grave was heavily truncated by ploughing and also partially by a small square cut (5029) in its south-eastern area. The partial remains comprised elements of the lower legs and feet of an adult (5038) but these were too fragmentary to suggest burial position or even whether the remaining fragments were in situ. No grave goods were recovered although it is possible that the grave had been robbed. Backfill 5031 comprised clayey silt with very frequent chalk fragments and occasional charcoal flecks. Burial 11 – Grave Cut 5032 (Fig 46) South-north aligned Burial 11 was 5m south of Burial 1, 12m east of the western excavation edge. The subrectangular cut (1.66m x 0.86m and 0.3m deep) had rounded corners, near vertical sides to its flat base. A complete semi-crouched adult male skeleton (5033) was buried in an unusual position with left leg bent and his left hand placed on that knee, right leg almost straight and his right hand under the chin (in a similar pose to Rodin’s ‘The Thinker’). The head was located at the south end of the grave, facing west. An iron spear head (SF131) was found to the east of the skeleton at shoulder height suggesting the entire spear had been laid beside and parallel to the body. An iron ring and ring brooch (SF134 and SF133) were located at his left hand and below his right elbow respectively whilst an iron knife (SF132) was placed above his hip. Backfill 5034 comprised clayey silt with frequent chalk inclusions.

Plate 9 – Anglo-Saxon Child Burial 7

Burial 9 - Grave Cut 5026 (Fig. 46)

Burial 12 - Grave Cut 5036 (Fig 46)

West-east orientated Burial 9 was located 15m to the north of Burial 1. The sub-oval grave (1.82m by 0.74m and 0.3m deep) was steep sided with a flat base and contained an adult male (5025) in a crouched position on his left side, with his left hand placed under its chin and the right at the waist. The head was at the west end of the grave, looking north. No grave goods were found. The variation in grave alignment and body position from the norm and lack of grave goods may have implications for relative status. Backfill (5024) comprised clay silt with frequent large chalk fragments and flecks. Since the grave was undated and the crouched body position is found in prehistoric graves, an AMS radiocarbon date (from a femur) was obtained by Queen’s University Belfast. The result of Cal AD 545-651 (2-standard deviations; UB-6318 AMS) is fully in accordance with the finds dated burials of the early Saxon cemetery (at 1 standard deviation the range is Cal AD 567-635, an even closer fit with the cemetery finds).

Broadly south-north orientated Burial 12 was 32m south of Burial 1 and 4m east of the western excavation edge. The vertical sided grave was cut with a great deal of care to form a perfectly square sided rectangle with a flat base (1.96m by 1.0m and 0.2m deep). The grave contained the skeleton of an adult female (5039) laid out supine, with her head at the south, right arm by her side and left arm flexed with her hand to her waist. A gilded bronze saucer brooch was placed at each shoulder (SF’s 101 and 102), probably pinned to the clothing and originally suspending a bead necklace between. The surviving 24 beads (SF’s 105-128) were found within the disturbed rib cage area and comprised a combination of glass and amber, possibly originally in three strands. Two bronze implements attached to a copper alloy twisted wire (SF104) had been placed at the right hip, possibly tucked into a belt. An iron finger ring (SF 105) was located on the ribcage, suggesting placement on the body during the burial or within the clothing. Backfill 5037 comprised clayey silt with frequent chalk inclusions. It may be significant that this apparently high status burial was the southernmost of the confirmed graves. Burials 5, 8 and 11 were also close to the crest and, interestingly, they are the arguably the next richest in terms of grave goods. 71

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Figure 46 – Burials 8-13

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Plate 10 – Richly Furnished Female Burial 12, Child Burial 5 with Pot and detail of Knife on Pelvis of male Burial 1.

Plate 11 – Detail of Saucer Brooches and Beads – Burial 12

73

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE English Heritage applied for a high precision radiocarbon date using femur material to input into a national database of dates for saucer brooch burials. The national data retrieved will enable recalibration resulting in very close dating of the individuals/ grave goods concerned. At the present time a radiocarbon date of 1517+/- 19 years BP has been obtained (UB-4975 Queen’s University Belfast). However recalibration will need to be conducted before a precise calendar date can be achieved.

(1.25m by 0.75m and 0.17m deep) was sub rectangular with rounded ends and near vertical sides. The cut contained a complete juvenile skeleton of a child (5048). Although supine, its burial position is of interest as the head and torso had been bent round deliberately so that the body was looking north. A single large amber bead or small pendant (SF137) appeared to have been worn around the neck and was found below the skull. No other grave goods were found. The backfill (5047) comprised clay silt with frequent charcoal flecks and chalk fragments/ flecks.

Burial 13 – Grave Cut 5041 (Fig. 46) Burial 17 –Grave Cut 5050 (Fig. 43) Broadly south-north orientated Burial 13 was situated 22m to the north-east of Burial 1. The steep sided grave was of rectangular form (2.02m x 0.99m and 0.38m deep) and contained a relatively complete adult female individual (5042). She had been placed almost supine, although slightly rolled to face east, with her head at the south end of the grave. A small silver pin (SF130) was found at the back of her neck, suggesting it was either a hairpin or fastened onto her clothing in the neck area. Backfill 5040 comprised chalk block rubble within a clay silt matrix.

North-west/ south-east orientated Burial 17 was located 14m to the north-north-east of Burial 1. The sub-oval cut (1.7m x 1.1m and 0.2m deep) had gently sloping and contained the remains of a robbed or badly disturbed grave. Human bone fragments were collected within the chalk rich clay silt fill (5035) and probably betray this feature as a former burial. No grave goods were present. Burial 18 - Grave Cut 5057 (Fig. 47) This south-west/ north-east orientated grave was located 24m to the north-east of Burial 1. It was similarly placed, in terms of its apparent respect for LIA enclosure ditch 5018, to Burials 1, 2, 6 and 10, at just over two metres to the north of the earlier ditch line. The (1.83m x 0.9m and 0.25m deep) contained a crouched adult ?male burial (5056) laid on his left side, facing north with the left hand under his chin. Although badly damaged in the ground the skeleton was largely intact. The backfill (5055) comprised clay silt with frequent chalk fragments and flecks. No grave goods were present.

Burial 14 - Grave Cut 5043 (Fig. 47) South-north aligned Burial 14 was the most northerly of the cemetery located some 27m north of Burial 1. The vertical sided sub-oval grave (1.84m x 0.88m and 0.35m deep) was truncated at the southern end by a modern intrusion and was considerably damaged by horizontal plough truncation. The skeleton of an adult ?female (5202) within was laid out supine with her knees raised. The head was partially truncated by the modern intrusion although the remainder of the skeleton survived in relatively good condition. There were no grave goods found associated. The backfill (5303) comprised clay silt with frequent chalk fragments and flecks.

Possible Burials 19, 20 and 21 (Fig. 43) Cut features 5085, 5089 and 5173 were also potentially graves. Of these 5173 (possible Burial 21) is perhaps the most convincing. The 1.90m x 0.8m dimensions are typical, as is the shallow 0.2m depth and relatively flat base. The fill (5072) was however bone free. Cut 5085 (Burial 19) was also possibly a grave despite its location almost 20m to the south of the most southerly certain grave (grave cut 5023 - Burial 8). The 1.6m x 0.5m oval north-south orientated feature was steep sided with a slightly concave base at a depth of 0.27m. East-west orientated cut 5089 (possible Burial 20) was located immediately south of and parallel with LIA ditch 5091, five metres to the east of rich Burial 12. The cut was a little small (1.3m x0.5m and 0.2m deep) for an adult. The lack of skeletal material within these three features raises the question of whether they had been dug as graves but never utilised, or whether they represented graves that had been robbed. The other alternative is of course that they were not graves at all and had a different function.

Burial 15 – Grave Cut 5046 (Fig. 47) South-north orientated Burial 15 was 23m to the north of Burial 1. The parallel-sided grave cut had rounded ends and was generous in size though shallow (2.4m x 1.15m and 0.23m deep) and contained a well-preserved adult male (?). The supine skeleton (5045) was buried with his head at the south end of the grave with his left arm bent across his waist, his left hand on his pelvis and his right arm at his side. An iron knife (SF 136) was buried with the body at the waist, possibly having been tucked into a belt. The backfill (5044) comprised clayey silt with frequent chalk fragments and flecks. Burial 16 - Grave Cut 5049 (Fig. 47) South-east/ north-west orientated Burial 16 was located 17.5m to the north-west of Burial 1. This small grave

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Figure 47 – Burials 1416 and 18

75

Figure 48 – Site D Plan and section of Medieval Windmill Base

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

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Phase 8 - The Medieval Period. (Figs 43 & 48) A large cross-shaped feature, 5246 was also located on the hill crest. The cut was vertical sided and contained decayed remnants of wooden structural timbers at the end of each arm (Fig. 48). The foundation measured 6.5m for both its north-west/south-east and north-east/south-west axes, with each projection 2.5m long and 1.5 to 2m wide and was over 0.9m deep. The cut is interpreted as the foundation trench for the trestle of a post-mill. It is unlikely that this windmill was situated upon a mound given the survival of the foundation. Such foundation trenches were cut to house the cross trees of a trestle, upon which quarter bars or raking struts (bracing the central mill post) would have been jointed. The mill post had clearly been removed for re-use, as was usually the case (Watts 2002, 108). However, traces of decayed wood potentially from dislodged structural elements were identified within the backfill (5240 and 5241). Pottery from the backfill of the cross trenches has been dated to c.1250-1400 and probably dates the mill or at least its final use. Indeed the earliest post-mill recorded in Bucks, at Dinton, is dated to around 1180 (Pevsner and Williamson 1960, 83). A large shallow and flat-bottomed (0.25m deep) depression 5246 was located just to the north. It seems likely that this was a threshing floor associated with the windmill. No other medieval features were identified.

VII Tring Roundabout and Slip Roads Works associated with the scheme affecting Tring roundabout were monitored in 2002. Unsurprisingly the roundabout site had been heavily disturbed during its construction such that no archaeology would have survived. The alterations to form the new double roundabout required further land take to accommodate the links to the existing A41 and the B4635 road to Tring (Figs 2 and 41). These areas were monitored intermittently and with the exception of a possible small quarry pit in the stripped area on the south-west side of the roundabout, were devoid of archaeological features. It is notable that there was no surviving evidence for Roman Akeman Street within the exposed areas.

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Chapter 3

Finds and Environmental Analysis The type descriptions, pertaining to all the sites are provided as Appendix 1 at the back of this report. Because of the lack of a consistent countywide ceramic type series for Buckinghamshire, coding is according to the type series in use in Bedfordshire. No detailed descriptions were given where these have been previously published. The appended text includes details of the Aston Clinton assemblage that are summarised in the more general discussion provided below. The pottery from each site is discussed separately below.

I The Pottery from the Aston Clinton Bypass A.M.Slowikowski 2005 Introduction and Methodology A total of 7244 dateable sherds were recovered from the three sites. The assemblage comprised 42 sherds of probable MBA pottery, 833 sherds assigned to the LBA, 289 LBA/EIA sherds, 1,120 EIA sherds, 421 E-MIA sherds, 2244 LIA sherds, 2157 sherds of Roman pottery, 128 Anglo-Saxon sherds and only 10 sherds of medieval and post-medieval date. In addition 179 sherds were undatable. Pottery from grouped and phased contexts has been examined in detail. The pottery was recorded by fabric and form, and quantified by vessel count, sherd count and weight. The vessel count was arrived at by bringing together sherds from the same vessel within the same context, whether they joined physically or not. Matches between sherds from different contexts were noted, with a distinction made between sherds, which joined physically and those that were non-joining. Ungrouped contexts and pottery from soil samples were recorded by fabric and sherd count.

The Site A Pottery Introduction The assemblage from Site A totals 256 vessels, made up of 558 sherds, weighing 6.214kg. It is a poor assemblage with the majority of features producing only a handful of badly abraded, undiagnostic sherds. These are summarised in tables 2-6. Significant assemblages are discussed further below.

Phase 1a Late Bronze Age and Phase 1b Late Bronze Age/Earliest Iron Age

All quantitative statements in the pottery report are based on the sherd count unless otherwise stated. Tables summarising the assemblages by group and quantify the pottery by vessel count: sherd count: weight are provided within the analysis report (Masefield 2005) and within the site archive. Summary tables of pottery by phase, fabric and form are provided below. Pottery assemblages are further discussed within their relevant context groups. Ungrouped contexts have been recorded and remain in the archive but are not reported further. Where relevant, however, they have been used to amplify the type descriptions.

Most of the pottery from Site A can be dated to this phase. There were few good assemblages, although one pit, 8271 contained a remarkable deposit of five vessels (Fig. 49 nos 1-5) in its secondary fill, (8305); none are complete. The assemblage comprises two concertina bowls, a large decorated round shouldered jar, a small plain jar and the rim of a flared-rim vessel. The two concertina bowls, at least, may have been deposited originally as complete vessels. These vessels are of particular interest, as these types are rarely found outside the south of England, more precisely, outside of Surrey (Hastings 1966, Fig.12.50; Harding 1974, 154-5). Only one other comparable assemblage has been found in the county, from Bancroft, Milton Keynes (Knight 1994, 381-98). The Bancroft pottery was not laid down as a single deposit as the Site A assemblage; it was found in structural pits and postholes belonging to a particularly large roundhouse. Despite its large size, the house was interpreted as a domestic dwelling, albeit one with high status (Zeepvat 1994, 40). The assemblages from both Bancroft and Site A contained the same range of forms but in a different fabric; the Bancroft pots are in a shelly fabric. The coarse sandy fabrics of the vessels in pit 8271, especially the concertina bowls, are so alike that it is likely they were made by the same potter, at the same time, and possibly for the same purpose. The method of manufacture, luting together strips of clay to overlap at the carination, is the same at Bancroft. There, it was suggested that these

Examples from grouped contexts have been illustrated. Illustrations (Figs 49-57) are arranged by site, with fabric types arranged in roughly chronological order, in the same order as in the pottery type descriptions. All pottery has been drawn, with the section hatched where hand-made manufacture can be positively identified. Where the method of manufacture is uncertain, the sections are blacked in. The pie diagram at the base of each drawing gives a general indication of the proportion of the vessel that survives. Miscellaneous pottery, usually small unidentifiable sherds, is omitted from the tables. Sherds from the same vessel but from different contexts are noted with an individual crosscontext number (preceded by ‘cc’) and further discussed with the relevant group. Where only a single unit of quantification is tabulated, this indicates that the pottery was recovered from a soil sample from a grouped context and has been recorded by sherd count only.

78

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE vessels might have been copying metal vessels. The vessels from Bancroft could have been of local manufacture; the fabric corresponds to the local geology. Long distance trade, however, was not ruled out (Knight 1994, 384). Without detailed fabric analysis it is not possible to say whether, on Site A, it was the pottery itself that travelled from Surrey or the design and the skill to make it. Whichever is the case, objects of such rarity, with such distant connections, suggest an owner of high status, as well as a well developed system of trade and exchange, at least among those of high status.

Appendix 1 for fabric descriptions). The exception to this is the coarse fabric of the vessels in pit 8271, which was rare on either site. Examples occurred on Site A in pits 8203 and 8205 and on Site B, G1623, in ditch 409; all are undiagnostic body sherds and mixed with other sherds of comparable date. Forms are largely indefinable, although some carinated bowls or jars were recognised from the surviving carination, as well as the rounded vessels and concertina bowls, described above. Rim sherds are all small and rounded, possibly either upright or slightly everted.

The pit assemblage differed from Bancroft in one respect: it had no vessels with large round indentations, or ‘dimples’, in the body. However, one such vessel (Fig. 49 no. 8) was found on the site, in a fragmentary condition, in the later gully 8203 (fill 8202). These ‘dimples’ cannot be exactly paralleled outside the Bancroft assemblage, although the closest parallels may be the pottery from Allen’s Pit, Oxon (Bradford 1982, 42-4). The gully (8203) contained a heavily abraded collection of undiagnostic sherds, and only one other sherd could be allocated a form: a jar with an applied cordon at the neck.

Figure 49, no.7 is a rim in a very coarse flint fabric F01A, characteristic of the LBA/earliest IA. It is a neckless vessel, either an open bowl form or wide upright straight sided jar with finger pinching just below the rim. There are two holes, 5mm in diameter, drilled post-firing just below the rim. This is possibly a repair. It is unlikely to be for securing a lid as the two holes are close together, rather than on opposing sides. Examples of holes drilled post-firing for a variety of purposes are known in prehistoric pottery. They are most common in LIA vessels but repairs have been recognised in EIA and even earlier prehistoric vessels (Cleal 1988, 139).

A single carinated vessel, almost complete but shattered, was found in pit 8236 (fill 8235) (Fig 49 no. 6). This was one of the pits or large post-holes positioned centrally within the possible fenced compound G5. Like the pottery from pit 8271, this may also have had a ritual significance. No other pottery was found with it.

Decoration is generally sparse, and with the exception of the decorated vessel from pit 8271 only one decorated body sherd was found, in 8251, a post-hole of structure 6. It has a row of finger nail incisions.

Context 8206 produced, among the abraded body sherds, a single lug handle, in a sandy fabric, as did ditch fill 8114. These handled jars occur most frequently, but not exclusively, in early and MIA contexts, and it may be that these are the latest context on the site. The rest of the pottery, however, is consistent with the bulk of the pottery on the site.

Site A also produced a vessel (Fig. 49 no. 1) with two holes drilled deliberately through the wall. The coarse flint tempered fabric would not have been easy to drill without cracking therefore a repair function is unlikely. The vessel was deposited in a pit 8228; no other pottery was found with it, suggesting that it had some significance to the people who buried it. Similar holes on BA pottery, drilled below the rim, have been noted by Evans at Walton, Aylesbury (Evans 1989, 156). Here it was seen as evidence of an affinity with East Anglian assemblages, where they are common, rather than those of the Upper Thames, where they are rare. The presence of perforations on a single BA sherd from Aston Clinton, however, is not necessarily indicative of the same affinity. The breaking or deliberate spoiling of pottery is a common occurrence as part of rituals associated with death or other rites of passage (Wait 1985) and it may be that this was the case here.

Phase 4b-8 – Roman and later

Chronology, Function and Status

A small quantity of Roman and later pottery was found associated with the Roman road and later alluviation. This is summarised in table 5.

The site appears to date broadly from the same period, the LBA/earliest IA. Pit 8271 may be one of the earliest features on the site. The earliest date for the comparable assemblage from Bancroft may be as early as the 9th century BC based on the premise that the concertina bowls were copying metal prototypes of the final Ewart Park phase of the LBA (Knight 1994, 389). However, the lack of a precise chronology for the pottery of this period

Phase 2 Early- Middle Iron Age A single footring base in a fine micaceous fabric, F35, from the penannular gully of Structure 1, 8116 (fill 8095) may be from a vessel of the Chinnor-Wandlebury tradition. These finewares were defined by Cunliffe (1991, 75; 564 fig. A:11) and dated to the EIA, 600300BC. Not enough survives to be certain of its identification, but Aston-Clinton is within the distribution of this regional grouping.

Fabric, Forms and Decoration Despite the poor assemblage, fabrics appear, nevertheless, to be consistent with those from Site B (see 79

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 49 – Site A Pottery nos 1-8

within this region, coupled with regional variability, may suggest a later date would not be out of place.

from the occupation site was suggested (Gwilt 1997, 154). This area, like Site A, comprised mainly pitting with what were described as ritual deposits. However, the interpretation of the two- and four-post structures as possible excarnation platforms may indicate the purpose of this area, and the reason for its positioning well away from any settlement.

There is very little evidence of use, although at least 10 sherds are sooted internally and clean externally. Only one sherd, from post-hole 8094 in Structure 1 had signs of external sooting, and one sherd, from an unphased pit 8174, has a thin white internal residue. Three vessels had holes drilled into them post-firing; all are in different fabrics. Diameters of holes varied as did their position on the pot. The rim in fabric F01A (Fig. 49 no. 7) is discussed above. Two vessels in fabrics F28 and AC06, have holes in their bases, measuring 7mm and 10mm, respectively. The former also has concentric circles scratched around the hole, both internally and externally, possibly made during the drilling process.

With the exception of the two ritual deposits, the other ceramics show no signs of special treatment. Many of the contexts contain less than ten sherds, and sometimes only a single small sherd. Although Hill (1995) has suggested that ritual deposition of single sherds may have occurred, there is nothing about these to indicate a greater than normal significance. They are mainly body sherds and generally abraded, so it is assumed that they are domestic rubbish originating from the unknown settlement whose occupants also carried out the ritual depositions.

The assemblage from pit 8271 is clearly of high status and may be the result of ritual deposition in the pit. No concentrations of domestic or settlement activity were found nearby and it is likely that this deposit was placed in an area away from the main area of occupation. The poor condition of the rest of the pottery from this sitesupports this. Such a situation pertained at Wakerley, Northants, where a separate area of ritual activity away

The occurrence of broadly the same fabrics on both sites A and B suggests that the pottery was being obtained from the same sources. The activities occurring on the two sites were different, with Site B being domestic habitation, and Site A of special ritual importance.

80

8265 8247 8227 8248

Primary fill pit 8263 Secondary fill pit 8263 Pit/poss ph 8228 Structural ph 8249 of Str 6

Cxt Description

1:3:13 1:1:4 1:1:31 1:1:1

LBA

81

8118 Ph 8118 fence around compound 8135 Ph 8136 fence around compound 8149 Ph 8150 fence around compound 8283 Ph 8284 paired with 8286 fence around compound

5

5

5

5

Gully 8230 of str 2 Structural ph 8103 of Str 3 Structural ph 8074 of Str 4 Gully 8066

8229 8104 8073 8065

2 3 4 5

1

1

1

8093 Structural ph 8094 of Str 1 8095 Penannular gully 8116 around Str 1 8085 Pit/ph 8086 poss windbreak 8087 Pit/ph 8088 poss windbreak 8089 Pit/ph 8090 poss windbreak

1 1

Description

Cxt

G

1:1:8

3:3:16

1:1:2

1:1:3

3:3:10

2:2:4 7:8:11

5:5:35

4:4:4

F28 AC02 3:4:11 13:15:6

2:2:17

1:1:5

2:2:9

4:4:10

AC06

F16

1:2:8

F16B

F01C

F01A

F01B

LBA/EIA

LBA/EIA

LBA

Table 2. Site A - Phase 1a. Pottery quantified by vessel:sherd:weight

6

9 9

G

Site A: Pottery by structure group

2:2:3

F18

1:1:

2:2:14

F30 F32

AC01

1:1:1

2:7:32

1:1:1

F35 2:2:6 3:5:28

1:1:

1:1:

F

F09

LIA

LIA

R

R03A

RB

RB

B07 E02 P43

Med/PM

Med/PM

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

8266 Upper fill pit 8263

8248 8250 8079 8083 8305

8049 8053 8204 8202

8219 8215 8206 8208 8223 8061

9

6 6 8 8 10

82

10 10 11 11

11 11 11 11 11

Later gully 8220 Structural gully 8216 Pit 8207 Upper fill pit 8210 Ditch 8224 Pit 8062

Structural ph 8249 of Str 6 Structural ph 8251 of Str 6 Structural ph 8080 of Str 8 Structural ph 8082 of Str 8 Secondary fill pit 8271 ritual deposit Pit 8050 Pit 8054 Earlier gully 8205 Later gully 8203

Post-hole 8152 Post hole 8232 Post hole 8324 Ph 8262

8151 8231 8326 8262

5 5 5 10

5

5

5

5

5

5

8285 Ph 8286 fence around compound 8287 Ph 8288 fence around compound 8291 Ph 8292 fence around compound 8301 Ph 8302 fence around compound 8274 Ph 8275 fence around compound 8272 Ph 8273 fence around compound 8235 Pit/ph 8236 ritual deposit

5

Description

Cxt

G

1:1:1

1:10:3

LBA

1:1:13

1:2:6

1:4:6 2:2:3 4:6:119 1:6:6 2:2:5 4:4:7

1:1:1 1:5:1 6:6:27 11:11:7

2:2:6 1:1:2 2:2:4

7:7:40

5:5:12

2:2:3

1:1:3

3:3:14

1:7:27

1:1:6

3:3:6

1:2:19 4:4:10 7:7:56 6:6:29

4:230: 4285

1:1:7 1:5:37

1:1:2

2:2:12

1:1:8

1:1:4

1:1:1 1:1:13

LBA/EIA

1:1:2

4:4:32

1:1:4 1:1:2 3:3:22 1:1:12

1:4:26 4:4:20

1:1:5

2:2:15

1:1:9

1:58:1

1:2:95

1:1:3

2:4:83

2:3:17 8:11:83

1:1:8

1:1:10 1:1:1

2:2:2

LIA

RB

Med/PM

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Description

1:1:8

1:1:1 2:2:12

4:4:10 1:1:2

8363 Pit 8262

1:2:12

1:1:1

1:1:2

LBA

8258 Lower fill 8257

Pit 8064 Post-hole 8144 Post-hole 8146 Pit 8148 Pit in drainage ditch section 8173 Pit 8174 in drainage ditch section 8243 Post hole 8244 8256 Upper fill 8257

8063 8143 8145 8147 8168

Cxt

83

Description

8218 Pit 8207

Cxt

F01A

LBA F01B

F01C

13

G

Description

LBA/EIA

2:2:3

8013 Quarry 8002

1:1:1 1:1:

1:4: 1:2:

F28 AC02 AC06 F16 F16B F18 F30 F32 AC01 F35 1:1:9 7:7:2 1:1:

3:3:8

F01A F01B F01C

LBA

8011 Quarry 8004

8410 Road surface 8006 Quarry 8006

8114 Roadside Ditch 8114 8112 Roadside ditch 8113

Cxt

1:3:41

1:2:3

F

F

1:1:12

F28 AC02 AC06 F16 F16B F18 F30 F32 AC01 F35 1:1:7

Table 4. Site A - Phase 2b. Pottery quantified by vessel:sherd:weight

12

G

LBA/EIA

LBA/EIA

2:2:14

Table 3. Site A - Phase 1b. Pottery quantified by vessel:sherd:weight

G

F09

LIA

F09

LIA

R

R

1:1:13

2:2:4

R03A

RB

E02

Med/PM

P43

P43

Med/PM

Med/PM

RB

E02

B07

R03A B07

RB

LIA

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

8500 Alluvial layer 8201 Furrow

1:1:6

84

Description

8201 Furrow

8400 Quarry [8017]

Pit 1 Pit Pit 2 Pit 8125 Pit 8126

Cxt

F01A

LBA F01B

F01C 1:1:10

F28

AC02 AC06

1:1:

F16

F16B 1:1:12

LBA/EIA

1:1:3

Table 6. Site A - Unphased contexts. Pottery quantified by vessel:sherd:weight

G

Table 5. Site A - Phase 6b-8. Pottery quantified by vessel:sherd:weight

14

8035 Quarry 8036 8108 Quarry [8109]

1:1:3 6:6:3

1:2:1

8015 Quarry 8000

8026 Quarry 8027

3:3:7

8014 Quarry 8001

F18

1:1:

F30

F32 AC01 1:1:20

1:1:

1:1:

1:2:

3:3:8

F35

F

6:6:19

1:1:2

F09

LIA

1:1:7

R

R03A B07

RB

1:4:10

1:1:13

E02

Med/PM

1:1:2

1:1:2

P43

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

The Site B Pottery - Discussion

Fine flint tempered wares (F01B) have been dated to the LBA/earliest IA elsewhere in the region (Slowikowski 2005) and the same chronology is followed here. Among the Saxon pottery from Walton, a few flint-tempered sherds were recovered but there was no certainty that these were Saxon, and it is more likely that they were residual prehistoric sherds (Farley 1976, 191). The MIA assemblage at Coldharbour Farm, Aylesbury, showed a marked absence of flint-tempered pottery (Farley 1990, 99) while at Ivinghoe Beacon, one of the major LBA/early IA sites in the region, it was one of the commonest fabric types (Waugh 1968).

Note on the Group Discussion The group discussion deals only with the grouped contexts and has been integrated with the structural text. These contexts produced 2673 vessels, which were made up of 4608 sherds weighing in total 64.601kg. Ungrouped contexts produced 1579 sherds. The Dating of the Pottery The dating of the phases is defined as much by the pottery found within them as by their stratigraphy. For the IA, this pottery dating follows Knight’s definitions for pottery in the Midlands (Knight 2002) and Cunliffe’s regional definitions (Cunliffe 1991).

Few groups were certainly allocated to the MIA, phase 2b, although there are likely to have been a number of other features and structures, which, even if they were first constructed in the EIA, did not go out of use until this phase. Although elsewhere it has been shown that there were distinct fabric differences between the early and middle IA (Slowikowski 2005), here it seems that the same common fabrics were used throughout, presumably because they were sourced locally. The same lack of chronological distinction in the fabrics has been noted at other IA sites in Buckinghamshire, for example Bancroft (Knight 1994, 383).

The date of the earliest pottery is not clearly defined. A C14 date of Cal 1430-1270 BC has been obtained for the cremation in Group G1699, placing it within the MBA, phase 1 (pre phase 1a). The pottery from this group is varied but the most complete vessel is in a coarse shelly fabric F16C (no. 9). Shelly fabrics are more common at this date, in north Buckinghamshire. An example is the MBA cremation urn from Pennyland, Milton Keynes (Knight 1993). There are, in addition, five sherds of coarse flint-tempered fabric F01A in group G1699. In other contexts on the site, this fabric has been dated to the LBA.

Forms are more susceptible to chronological change, and the variation of form throughout the IA has been described by Cunliffe (1991) and Knight (2002), and summarised as follows. The LBA/earlier IA is defined by a high proportion of carinated vessels, furrowed bowls and round shouldered vessels, with finger nail or finger tip impressed decoration, comparable to ‘decorated’ assemblages as described by Barrett (1980). The E-MIA is defined by a wider variety of vessel forms, in particular the presence of ovoid vessels, and vessels of open and cylindrical type and scored decoration; elements of these may continue into the LIA. From about 75BC, 'Belgic' style wheel-thrown pottery is seen, but native, hand-made styles continue along side. The LIA is defined by wheelthrown vessels in the ‘Belgic’ tradition, as described by Thompson (1982), or hand-made copies of these types.

Coarse flint fabrics appear to have been in use from the MBA to the EIA (Gibson 2002, 108). BA pottery assemblages are not common in the region although a number of sites have recently been excavated which have produced pottery comparable to Aston Clinton. The cremation cemetery site at Loughton, Milton Keynes, although somewhat to the north of Aston Clinton, produced a globular urn in a coarse flint-gritted fabric (Machling 2003, 95). This was, however, identified as of Deverel-Rimbury tradition, more commonly occurring in shelly fabrics in the northern part of the county. Recent excavations at Walton, Aylesbury, have produced a large assemblage of predominantly flint-tempered pottery (Evans 1989, 152). Although the assemblage was very fragmentary, the 324 rims could be dated to the MBA on form and decoration, and placed within the DeverelRimbury tradition. The site also had an EBA component, absent from Aston Clinton. At Aston Clinton, however, where forms could be determined, the coarse flinttempered fabric occurs in vessels of LBA form, exemplified by Fig. 50 nos 11-19, and it is by these vessels that phase 1a has been dated. They closely resemble, both in fabric and form, the LBA jars and bowls from the Reading Business Park (Bradley and Hall 1992, 79). Although comparable in fabric to the MBA Deverel-Rimbury pottery from Walton and Loughton, the absence of decoration and the presence of bowls place them within Barrett’s definition of ‘plain ware’ assemblages of Post Deverel-Rimbury tradition (Barrett 1980).

The pottery at the other end of the timescale is no more clearly defined. Saxon pottery can be notoriously difficult to distinguish from IA sherds, especially when dealing with plain body sherds in a reduced, quartz sandtempered fabric, the same problem encountered by Allen and Dalwood (1997, 15). The condition of the pottery, the other finds from the context, and the stratigraphic evidence, has all been used to determine the date of the pottery. Where there is some doubt about the attribution of the pottery, this is noted in the relevant group discussion. It is, however, not surprising that residuality is a constant feature on such a long-lived site. No stamped Saxon pottery was found on the site, and the high proportion of organic tempered pottery suggests a general date in the 7th century, for the bulk of the assemblage (see description of type A01). However, diagnostically early vessels do occur, for example those 85

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE with facetted carination. A single example occurred in pit 895, in group G1673. Myres has dated these to the midlate 5th century but he is basing this on continental parallels. Nothing dateable to the middle Saxon period was found and it seems that activity, at least on Site B, had ceased by about the end of the 7th century.

imported pottery suggests a desire for display. Imported pottery is rare and even the samian makes up only 2.4% of the Roman assemblage. In the late Roman period, there is a smaller range of standard wares. The variation in fabric types is much less than in preceeding centuries, indicating a monopoly of the market by certain factories, such as the Oxfordshire industries. Shelly wares R13 make up a small percentage of the late Roman assemblage; Harrold was definitely not selling well here in Buckinghamshire. The same basic domestic functions were being served by the pink grogged wares R09A, and the market appears to be largely mutually exclusive, with few shelly wares being traded into south Buckinghamshire and few pink grogged wares were being traded into Bedfordshire.

Most of the Saxon pottery on Site B was found mixed with late Roman ceramics, and formed only a small proportion of the total assemblage of the groups allocated to phases 5-7. Two of the Phase 7 pit groups, G1673 and G1702, contain the highest proportions of Saxon pottery, 37.76% and 14.58% respectively by sherd. By weight the proportion is even greater, 51.86% and 26.39% respectively, indicating the relatively large size of the Saxon sherds. Both these groups also contained a high percentage of organic tempered wares, G1673 having 56.76% by sherd and 59.51% by weight, while G1702 has 89% by sherd and 77.57 by weight. This high proportion of organic-tempered wares suggests a date for the filling of these pits sometime in the 7th century when the use of organic tempered pottery was at its peak. By contrast the third Saxon pit group, G1676, has a relatively small percentage of Saxon pottery, 15.38% by sherd and 13.5% by weight, none of which is organic tempered. It may be that group G1676 is earlier in date than the other two groups allocated to Phase 7, although this must be treated with caution because of the low numbers of sherds from this admittedly small pit group.

Native wares are still used for functional purposes such as cooking and storage, and it is the native wares that are often modified through the drilling of holes. Whether because the fabrics are softer and therefore easier to drill, or because greater care was lavished on the Roman pottery or because the native wares had some other ritual or cultural significance, cannot be surmised. The holes may have either functional or ritual purposes. The unusually large collection of pottery with drilled holes from the ditch terminal (1490) in group G407 suggests a clearly significant deposit, rather then random infilling with domestic rubbish. There is evidence for other possible rituals having taken place in the EIA on Site B in the form of special food consumption, if not actual feasting, and then the subsequent deposition of the vessels used. Although a variety of fabric types was found in EIA pit group G1638, most of the vessels are in a fine sandy fabric F28 and all have the same visual appearance. They are consistently reduced to a dark brown colour with a red margin and although the margin is only visible in the break, this consistency suggests they may have been fired at the same time. All are well burnished on the exterior surfaces. An unusually large number contained internal residues: four of them are white and eleven are black, with no signs of external burning. The vessels were not whole, neither did the sherds make up complete vessels. No other assemblage with similar characteristics was recognised on the site. This suggests that the vessels were used at the same time, and possibly made for a specific purpose. The pits have been interpreted as storage pits, an important function within the agricultural cycle. It is interesting to note that there are at least three instances of sherds from the same vessel scattered throughout the pits in this group. The pits were certainly filled in at the same time. Hill has described the ritual association of pottery with storage pits in Wessex (Hill 1995, 109), and a similar event may have occurred here. The pottery may have been part of a closing ritual such as a feast, with the contents of the vessels resulting in an internal residue. The vessels were then deliberately broken but only part of the assemblage buried throughout the pit group. The rest may well have been scattered elsewhere.

Of the ditch groups that spanned the late Roman/early Saxon transition, groups G150 and G1480 contained Saxon pottery in their latest phases. Again, the quantities were small and there is some debate over the identification of that from G1480, but there was no organic pottery among the assemblages so a date prior to the start of the 7th century can be suggested. Groups allocated to late Roman phase 5, which also contained Saxon pottery, are the water hole G1698 and the final phase of the track G149. The Saxon pottery made up a small percentage of the total assemblages within these groups, 0.74% and 1.62% respectively. A single sherd of organic-tempered pottery was found only in group G149. Status, Function and Use of the Pottery Although none of the Roman pottery came from where it was used i.e. there was no evidence of any structures on the site, the quantity and its good survival implies a substantial occupation site nearby. This is supported by the presence of ceramic building material, which would not have been moved far from the original buildings. The presence of flue tiles, tegulae and imbrices suggest a substantial dwelling with a tiled roof and hypocaust. The presence of Romanised pottery, both in fabrics and forms, suggests that by the 2nd century the occupants were aspiring to a Roman way of life. Mortaria, although relatively small in number, indicate the adoption of Roman cooking methods, and table wares and fine

86

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Figure 50 – Site B Pottery: F16C (no 10); FO1A (nos 11-19): FO1B (nos 20-21); FO1C (no. 22)

87

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Site B Pottery Phasing Phase 1a Late Bronze Age Fabric F01A F01B F01B F16 F31

Common name/description Coarse flint Fine flint Fine flint Shelly Sand and mica

Form Jar Jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s

Vessels 4 1 1 1 1

Sherds 113 4 1 1 1

Wt (g) 6587 32 3 14 16

Table 7. Site B - Phase 1a. Pottery summary by fabric and form

A single pit (1151) has been allocated positively to Phase 1a. This pit contained the sherds of four vessels (Fig. 50 nos 11-14), all broken but still with large fragments surviving. None was complete, but all survived to approximately 50%, although in pieces. It is suggested that contexts with predominantly flint-tempered pottery are the earliest on the site. The form and fabric of these vessels suggest a LBA date, although see also the discussion on dating of these wares above. The fine flinttempered bowl (Fig. 50 no. 21) appears to be contemporary with the coarse flint. It is, however, fine and thin walled, and, like the coarse jars, not complete. The function of these vessels and the reason for their deposition in this pit is likely to have been of ritual significance. Too much of the pottery survives for it to be regarded as ‘domestic rubbish’. Recognition of these types of structured deposit has become more frequent, and they are often explained by reference to feasting rituals as forms of display (McOmish 1996, 74-5). There is no sign of sooting or burning on the vessels and, if associated with feasting, the coarse jars were used for the storage or preparation, and the fine vessel for the serving of food, rather than it’s cooking. This pit is likely to have been on the edges of settlement as no further evidence of domestic activity or settlement was recovered. In the LBA, settlements and their margins become the focus of ritual activity, associated with fertility (Pollard 2002, 29). This may have been the case here. The rest of the pottery in the pit intruded from the IA pit that cut it. The sherds are certainly fragmentary enough. The small fragments of daub may also have come from here.

All are in the coarse flint fabric F01A but only the last two have recognisable forms. There is no concentration in any one feature and only pit 363 contains solely unsooted sherds. The assemblage from here is, however, very small. There were two instances of sherds belonging to the same vessel but from different contexts. Figure 50 no.17 comprises sherds from 467 and 468, both layers within the same small pit 466. Figure 50 no.18, however, comprises two sherds from pit 469 and one from pit 466, suggesting that at least these two pits are contemporary and, even if not in use at the same time, were finally filled in at the same time and/or from the same source. Cremation Group 1699 Of the four cremations, three contained pottery (see Masefield 2005, table 3). One of these, 6031, contained two small body sherds in flint fabric F01A, but as this feature was badly truncated it cannot be certain whether the cremation was urned. Cremation 6073 also contained fragmentary pottery, but included two sherds of a flinttempered vessel (Fig. 52 no.41), which may have been part of the burial. The third cremation, 6046, contained a substantial but still incomplete jar in a coarse shelly fabric F16C (Fig. 50 no.40). Shelly fabrics were not common on the site, at any period, although they were consistently found in small quantities. They were probably brought into the region from further north. It is not clear whether this vessel was deposited whole, or incomplete and broken, as excavated. Whichever it was, the vessel clearly had some significance to be buried with the cremation. The C14 date for this burial is in the MBA, making it the earliest pottery assemblage on the site (although the initial phasing based on fabric is retained here). The vessel is not complete and its full profile is uncertain. The rounded jar form, however, is more readily paralleled in the IA. It may be significant that this is the only substantial vessel in coarse shelly F16C fabric found on the site; all others are single body sherds, found in later contexts. A similar fabric type was found at Walton and dated there to the MBA (Evans 1989, 152). As with the other burials in the group, there are sherds of coarse flint-tempered pottery present, a fabric type which was current in the middle and late BA and EIA (see Appendix 1 for a discussion of ceramic dates). The sherds are unfortunately undiagnostic.

Phase 1b Late Bronze Age/Earliest Iron Age Pit Group 1707 This group comprises six pits (G1707 pits 147, 365, 466, 469, 528 and 560) and three cremations (G1699 cremations 6031, 6046 and 6073) that contained pottery (table 8). Like the preceding phase, the pottery is predominantly flint-tempered, but the forms are smaller vessels with distinct carinations and fragments of rim suggesting the presence of bowls. Some of the vessels are relatively thin walled and shallow (eg Fig. 50 nos 17-18). Six of the vessels are sooted externally, having possibly been used for cooking. Four have internal black residues or sooting, with a clean exterior, and two, a bowl and a carinated jar, have sooted exteriors and black residues. 88

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Fabric F01A F01A F01A F01A F01B F01B F04 F16C F18

Common name/description Coarse flint Coarse flint Coarse flint Coarse flint Fine flint Fine flint Organic Coarse shelly Fine sand and shell

Form Bowl Jar Cordoned jar Undiagnostic b/s Bowl Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Jar Undiagnostic b/s

Vessels 5 4 2 60 1 10 1 1 1

Sherds 10 10 9 74 1 13 1 17 3

Wt (g) 145 111 94 684 1 75 5 59 40

Table 8. Site B - Phase 1b. Pottery summary by fabric and form

A single fragment of fired clay/daub was found in cremation 6046. A number of pits and post-holes concentrated to the south of these cremations contained daub fragments but no pottery.

enclosure ditch G1623, even though the same range of fabric types occurred. Hill discusses the significance of deposits of decorated pottery as structured deposits (1995). In this case the significance may lie in the difference of activity that was being carried out in the vicinity, with stock holding in one area (G1623), where the plain pottery was found, and domestic activity (G1667 see below) adjacent to the L-shaped ditch, where the decorated pottery occurred. Unlike the decorated vessels, there appears to be little difference in the occurrence of sooted sherds, and they are found in both G1623 and G855/789. There is a high proportion of internal sooting or burnt residue, 7 in total, to only one externally sooted vessel. A single sherd was found with both external and internal sooting. It is likely that these sherds originated in the domestic area of G1667 although they may not necessarily have been used for preparing and cooking food. The internal residues are likely to be the result of burning some unrecognised substance within the pot.

Possible Roundhouse and D-shaped Enclosure Group 1679 Four of the eight post holes allocated to this structure contained pottery, as did two of the post-holes belonging to the D-shaped enclosure, and 462, the possible linking post-hole between the possible house and enclosure (post-holes 460, 462, 464, 917, 922 and 988 – see Masefield 2005, table 19). This small assemblage of largely undiagnostic sherds can be dated to the LBA/EIA by the presence of carinated vessels with finger tipping and fingernail decoration on the carinations. Twenty five sherds from a single F28 vessel were recovered from post hole 922, but these are very small and badly crushed, weighing at most 4g each. The vessel appears to be the lower part of a jar with an internal black residue inside the base. It may have been used as post-packing. No pottery was recovered from the post-holes forming the internal partition or drying rack.

Ditch Group 1550 Two slots were cut through this ditch and pottery was recovered from one of these slots 1317. There appears to be a preponderance of sand and flint tempered type F32, of probable EIA date. The only decorated pieces are fragments of possibly four carinated bowls in fine micaceous fabric F35, with incised decoration with white inlay, of Chinnor-Wandlebury style (Fig. 52 nos 44-47). Similar incised decoration was also found in the Lshaped ditch G855/789. This type of decoration does not occur elsewhere on the site. A tiny fragment of miscellaneous oxidised pottery was recovered from a soil sample from 1315, a tree hollow that G1550 apparently cut. The fragment might be LIA/early Roman, but such a tiny sherd could be intrusive.

Phase 2a Early Iron Age Enclosure Ditch group 1623 and Related LShaped Ditch Group 855/789 The pottery generally dates to the EIA (tables 9 and 10 for phase summary and see Masefield 2005, table 20 for details of groups), although a few fragments of LIA pottery are intrusive, probably from the re-cutting, which occurred at this time (G1700 and G445). The pottery is fragmentary with few substantial vessels. Among these are jars in fabric F31 (Fig. 51 no. 36) with 14 sherds and small bead rim jar in fabric F35 with 31 tiny fragments (unillust). Both decorated and plain vessels were found. The decoration is characteristic of the EIA, with finger tipping on the rim (Fig. 51 no.28), slashed shoulders (Fig. 52 no. 56) and incised decoration (Fig. 52 no. 49). Vertical combing or brushing occurs on one vessel in sandy fabric F28 (no. 24). This decorative motif was prevalent in the MIA and continued in use into the LIA in some parts of the Midlands (Elsden 1993, 5).

Structure Group 1667 – Hut Circle The pottery from G1667 was all recovered from structural post-holes. The assemblage is fragmentary and sherds are generally small, the largest weighing only 12g. There was no sign of decoration and no forms could be determined. The possible relationship with the assemblage from G1623 and G885/789 is discussed above.

All the decorated fragments were found in the fills of the L-shaped ditch G855/789. There were none in the 89

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Fig. 51 Site B Pottery: F28 (nos 23-25); F31 (no 36-40)

Four-Post Structure Groups 1649 (Str 1), 1668 (Str 2) 1669 (Str 3), 1670 (Str 4), 1671 (Str 5) and 1672 (Str 6) Six four-post structures were identified. All but G1670 (Structure 4) produced pottery from their post-holes. This pottery was tabulated together (see Masefield 2005, table 17). The EIA pottery is small and fragmentary, all weighing less than 10g. The sherds are too undiagnostic to determine forms and all are undecorated.

Possible Roundhouse Group 1677 A small assemblage of pottery was recovered from posthole 1001 but the shreds are relatively large. There are no distinctly carinated forms, but rather jars with rounded shoulders (Fig. 50 no. 10, Fig. 51 no.30). None are decorated. The pottery might date towards the end of the EIA, but the assemblage is largely undiagnostic. The other post-holes certainly allocated to this structure contained no pottery, and only post-hole (1008), of uncertain allocation, had two small sherds within it. 90

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Fig 52 Site B Pottery: F35 (nos 41-49); F16 (nos 50-52): F32 (nos 53-58) and F37 (no 59)

91

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE These latter sherds may not be a deliberate deposition, but the assemblage in post-hole 1001 is unlikely to be accidental; one jar is made up of four sherds (Fig. 51 no. 30). The sherds may have been used as packing for a loose post or they may have had greater ritual significance; this is, after all, the only post-hole with such an assemblage within this structure.

base, both in sandy F28 fabric. Another possible ompholos base was found in pit 1467. Because they are so fragmentary, these sherds could as easily come from ‘dimpled’ jars as found on Site A. Pit 1309 contains a characteristically EIA assemblage, with carinated vessels, one of which is decorated with fingernail incisions on the carination (Fig. 51 no.26). There is also a fragment of a lug handle (Fig. 51 no.35). Decoration is not common but occurs in the form of incised lines or grooves both horizontal and diagonal (Fig. 51 nos 27, 34, Fig. 52 no. 55), chevrons (no 33) or finger tipping or fingernail incisions on the carination (Fig. 51 nos. 25-26). There is no decoration on the vessels from pit 1327 but at least three vessels are well burnished. Burnishing also occurs on vessels from pit 1450 and pit 1463.

Possible Compound/Structure Group 1678 This is a fragmentary assemblage, comprising body sherds only. The fabrics suggest an EIA date but a single example of possible scoring on a small sherd in sandy fabric F28 may indicate a date in the MIA. Several phases of building have been suggested and this sherd may be dated to the last phase of use of what is likely to have been a long-lived structure. The sherd itself is small, weighing 5g only, and the identification of scoring is tentative.

Sherds belonging to the same vessel were recovered from a number of pits, suggesting that, even if they were not dug at the same time, they were at least filled in at the same time, and possibly from the same source. The widest spread of sherds is in pits 1450, 1463, 1501 and 1504, where sherds from a single shelly F16 vessel (cc4) occurred (Fig. 52 no. 51). Sherds from another shelly vessel (cc5; unillustrated) were also found in pits 1450 and 1463. It cannot be certain whether the pottery was derived from final infilling with general detritus, or whether there was some deliberate dispersal of these sherds in some form of ‘closing ritual’ after the pits were no longer in use. It must be borne in mind that the intercutting of the pits may have had an effect on the distribution of sherds. There were also sherds from the same vessel from the two layers of pit 1463, but it is most likely that, although archaeologically distinguishable, these fills were laid down at the same time, or from the same source.

One sherd from 943 and three from 1125 originally belonged to the same vessel (cc2). Both are pits/post holes from an internal feature within the compound/structure. The presence of the pottery indicates either that the post holes were both cut and used at the same time, or that they went out of use at the same time, notwithstanding when they were cut. The sherds are not as large as those from G1677, and therefore would not have served as packing material. Two small fragments of miscellaneous fired clay were found in 943. Two Possible Fence line Groups 1681 and 1674 Two possible fence lines were identified, both with pottery from their post-holes. The pottery can be dated broadly by fabric to the EIA, although the assemblages are small, fragmentary and comprise only undiagnostic body sherds. A single fragment of daub was found in post-hole 763 of G1681.

There are five instances of internal white and one black residue in pit 1327, and five instances of internal black residues in pit 1504. All are either in fabric F28 or F31. None of these sherds are sooted externally, so were not used directly on a hearth. The white residue may be water scale.

Pit Group 1638 The pottery from pit group G1638 can be dated to the EIA, based both on fabric and form. The assemblages varied from small, largely undiagnostic sherds (pits 1470, 1472, 1476, 1507, 1509, and 1510) to larger, more complete vessels (from pits 1327 and 1463).

Daub was recovered from pit 1327 and a fragment of a slab or hand-made brick from 1504. Together with the tiny fragment of Nene Valley colour coat found in the same pit, the slab may indicate some disturbance in the fills of this pit.

Pit 1327 contained a large assemblage with at least five jars with flaring rims, four in sandy fabric F28 and one in fabric F31. These did not occur in any of the other pits in the group. The most common forms are carinated vessels (eg Fig. 52 no. 51), and these occurred in all pits where forms could be recognised. A jar with a rounded shoulder was found in pit 1501, in the same sandy fabric F28 as the carinated vessels. Despite the small assemblage in pit 1386, a furrowed bowl was identified and an ompholos

Pit group 826 and Isolated Features The assemblage from this group is smaller and more fragmentary than that from G1638, although it has been suggested that the functions of the two pit groups was the same. All the vessels are represented by single sherds.

92

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Fabric AC02 F01A F01A F01A F01B F01B F01B F01C F01C F04 F06A F06B F06C F09 F16 F16 F16C F18 F18 F20 F28 F28 F28 F28 F28 F31 F31 F31 F31 F32 F32 F35 F35 F35 F37 R25

Common name/description Coarse mixed inclusions Coarse flint Coarse flint Coarse flint Fine flint Fine flint Fine flint Flint and sand Flint and sand Organic Fine grog-tempered Medium grog-tempered Coarse grog-tempered Sand and grog Shelly Shelly Coarse shelly Fine sand and shell Fine sand and shell Limestone Fine sand Fine sand Fine sand Fine sand Fine sand Sand and mica Sand and mica Sand and mica Sand and mica Sand and flint Sand and flint Micaceous Micaceous Micaceous Calcareous with iron-ore Eggshell

Form Undiagnostic b/s bowl jar Undiagnostic b/s Carinated vessel jar Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Cordoned jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s bowl Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s bowl Carinated jar Carinated vessel jar Undiagnostic b/s Carinated jar Carinated vessel jar Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s bowl jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s beaker

Vessels 1 1 4 46 1 1 18 1 4 1 1 5 2 1 1 5 9 1 1 1 1 2 2 12 71 1 1 3 19 13 40 2 10 34 1 1

Sherds 1 2 64 56 1 2 18 1 4 1 2 5 5 1 1 13 12 1 1 6 6 16 2 19 118 4 2 23 37 19 104 5 50 49 1 19

Wt (g) 7 23 905 612 6 11 61 9 50 11 20 32 151 9 128 322 174 24 5 92 40 205 14 518 1000 131 27 355 393 458 1194 47 318 365 65 20

Vessels 0 4 1 9 1 2 1 1 1 4 4 9 3

Sherds 7 4 1 9 1 56 1 2 7 4 13 16 4

Wt (g) 427 61 9 113 3 2798 23 18 109 47 139 212 76

Table 9. Site B - Phase 2a. Pottery summary by fabric and form Fabric F01A F01A F01C F01C F09A F16 F16C F18 F28 F28 F31 F31 F35

Common name/description Coarse flint Coarse flint Flint and sand Flint and sand Sand and grog with mica Shelly Coarse shelly Fine sand and shell Fine sand Fine sand Sand and mica Sand and mica Micaceous

Form jar Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s jar jar Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s

Table 10. Site B - Phase 2a/2b. Pottery summary by fabric and form (0 in the ‘Vessels’ column indicates a vessel with sherds from more than one context, where the vessel count has been recorded in a context from a different phase)

was recorded. Otherwise, the small rim fragments, where they survive, appear to be upright and flattened on top. Decoration occurs in the form of an applied thumbed horizontal strip on a shelly F16 vessel (Fig. 52 no. 52); a finger tipped rim (Fig. 52 no. 49) and one instance of vertical scoring or brushing on the body of a shelly F16 jar (Fig. 52 no. 50). The absence of carinated vessels and the presence of possible scoring suggest a date in the MIA for the disuse of the pit, if not its original cutting

Phase 2b Middle Iron Age Pit Group 1705 This bell-shaped storage pit (1154) contained pottery in several of its layers. There was an absence of clearly identifiable carinated vessels, which might otherwise have dated this pit to the EIA. However a jar with a flaring rim as those found in pit 1327 in pit group 1638, 93

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Fabric F06B F06B F06B F06C F09 F09 F09 F09A F09A F09A F16C F22 F28 F31 F31 F32 F35 F35 F35 F37

Common name/description Medium grog-tempered Medium grog-tempered Medium grog-tempered Coarse grog-tempered Sand and grog Sand and grog Sand and grog Sand and grog with mica Sand and grog with mica Sand and grog with mica Coarse shelly Grog and organic Fine sand Sand and mica Sand and mica Sand and flint Micaceous Micaceous Micaceous Calcareous with iron-ore

Form Jar Cordoned jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Jar Cordoned jar Undiagnostic b/s Jar Ovoid jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Bowl Jar Undiagnostic b/s Bowl

Vessels 1 1 5 13 2 1 1 5 1 17 1 1 3 1 2 1 2 4 16 1

Sherds 1 1 5 18 2 3 1 7 1 19 2 1 3 1 2 1 2 136 22 3

Wt (g) 24 50 50 461 98 111 7 232 5 271 89 23 44 102 35 10 45 226 280 81

Table 11. Site B - Phase 2b. Pottery summary by fabric and form

and use. The grog-tempered F09A sherd is small and probably intrusive.

Phase 3 Late Iron Age; Phase 4a Late Iron Age/Early Roman; Phase 4b Early Roman

Pit Group 1706

Ditch Group 1700 (Ph 3)

There is a clear distinction in the date of the pottery in the upper and lower fills of this pit. The pottery in the lower two layers, the gravel tips and the silty fills, comprised small sherds of LBA and EIA pottey, probably residual, and large quantities of pottery in fine micaceous fabric F35. Occasionally, organic matter is clearly visible as an addition to this fabric. Scoring occurs on one vessel (Fig. 52 no. 42), typical of the MIA. There is one example of a bowl in fabric F37 with sherds from the lower two fills (Fig. 52 no. 59; cc15). The fabric is very distinctive, and rarely occurs on the site. It has been recognised on a few other middle and late pre‘Belgic’ sites in Bedfordshire (Slowikowski in prep). It may have been brought in from further east, but it is not certain that this type originated there. The final filling of the pit occurred in the LIA, when ‘Belgic’ tradition grogtempered pottery was prevalent.

Pottery from the recutting of this ditch points to it still being in use in the LIA. Residual pre-‘Belgic’ pottery was found in a fragmentary state. The LIA ‘Belgic’ grogtempered pottery was also fragmentary, although a number of more complete vessels survived. Among them is a bowl in shelly fabric F07. Sherds from other shelly vessels were also found but these did not form a large proportion of the assemblage. Shelly pottery is likely to have come from further east and north, in the Beds/Northants area, where kilns are known to have been working in the Conquest period (Slowikowski 2000, 73). In addition a ripple-shouldered bowl of Thompson’s type D2-4 (Thompson 1982, 331 no.3) in grog-tempered fabric F06B (Fig. 53 no. 64) and a jar in grog and sand tempered fabric F09A were found. No pottery was recorded from fills 859 and 860. The pottery is generally plain, with only cordons and combing as decoration. A sherd in IA sandy fabric F28 has vertical combing, a decorative motif that continued in use into the LIA on hand-made pottery, alongside the wheel-thrown ‘Belgic’ vessels. Horizontal combing is seen on a sherd of grog-tempered F06B pottery, but otherwise, the only decoration is external burnishing. External sooting was recorded on two vessels, and two additional vessels had internal black residues, suggesting that at least these vessels might have been used in a domestic context. There are four bowls in this ditch, more than is the norm for other pottery of the same date on the site. Other contexts have produced single examples only.

The small fragments of fired clay found in the upper fill (828) may also belong to the LIA. No fragments were found in the lower fills. Possible Compound/Structure Group 1680 A small quantity of pottery was recovered from the postholes of this possible structure. Although fragmentary, with primarily undiagnostisc sherds, the fabrics indicate a MIA, or possibly even an EIA date.

94

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Fig 53

Site B Pottery: F06B (nos 60-67); F06 (no 68)

The cbm from this group comprises a single fragment of daub and eight small fragments of miscellaneous fired clay deriving from soil samples. The fired clay is in a fine powdery sandy fabric, and may originate from the same piece.

contained only IA pottery: 1571 produced a single sherd of F32, and 1606 produced only fragmentary sherds of LIA date. The latest pottery came from segments 875, 1489 and 1494, of which segments 875 and 1489 contained substantial sherds. Segment 875 contained pottery and upper in both its primary fills and among this assemblage were everted rim jars (no. 83), cordoned jars and lid-seated jars in grog-tempered fabrics, as well as three sherds of early Roman pottery, including a strap handle from a flagon in fine pink fabric type R18A and a sherd from a fine, thin-walled burnished beaker in fabric type R30. The primary fill (877) contained a single sherd

Ditch Group 407 (Phase 3 – 4a) Segment 401 contained only EIA pottery in its primary fill (403) although the sherds are tiny and could easily be residual. The secondary fill (402) contained LIA pottery and some residual EIA sherds. Two other segments 95

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE of LIA grog-tempered pottery. Segment 1490 contained a small amount of pottery in its lowest fill 1491. The upper fill 1490 contained a larger assemblage, with more substantial sherds. Identifiable forms are primarily jars in grog-tempered fabrics F06, and beakers in the Romanised greyware fabrics R06 and micaceous fabric R30.

addition to the same LIA fabrics, also contained three sherds of Roman grey ware, suggesting that this may have been the latest of these pits. A number of forms could be identified in this assemblage including roll rimmed storage jars with incised wavy line decoration, burnished cordoned jars, platters and lid-seated jars, all indicative of a date around the time of, or soon after, the Roman conquest. Thirteen fragments of miscellaneous fired clay were found, all in the same fine white sandy fabric, possibly deriving from one piece, and one orange sandy fragment. In addition, a flat fragment from a possible slab was also found, although not enough survived to measure dimensions.

This ditch group contains an unusually large number of vessels with holes drilled post-firing. There are seven in total, all of them jars, six occurring in segment 1489. The position of the holes varies: three have holes bored in their necks; four have holes in the base. The number of holes also varies: the holes drilled in the necks appear to be single holes, 5mm in diameter (eg Fig. 55 no. 84); the holes in the bases are usually more than one in number and range in size from 5mm to 10 mm. One base has two holes, one fully, the other only partially, drilled (Fig. 56 no.100). It appears that drilling took place from both sides and was not aligned properly. There are several reasons why vessels may have been modified by drilling holes into them. Repairs may be necessary if broken pottery cannot be replaced easily: lead repairs are common on samian pottery even though there are none on this site. Holes may also be required to secure lids: a complete vessel with just such holes in the neck was recovered from Stagsden, north Bedfordshire (Slowikowski 2000, 47, no.71).

Ditch Group 445/1622 (Late Iron Age/Transitional Ph 3 and 4a) The pottery assemblage is substantial, and ranges in date from the EIA to the Roman period, with the bulk of it dated to the LIA. The possible terminal of the ditch 236 produced four single sherds of LIA ‘Belgic’ pottery, a small assemblage suggesting that this terminal was not regarded as important enough for the deposition of significant objects. The rest of the pottery is spread through the ditch, and, although none are complete, some have substantial numbers of sherds (Fig. 53 nos. 65, 67, Fig. 73 no. 74). As with ditch group 407, very few vessels show evidence of use either in the form of sooting or wear. Only five instances of external sooting were recorded, one of which was a cordoned jar in grog and sand fabric type F09A with sooting over a spall, resulting from high heat. One jar in grog-tempered fabric type F06C had a pitted interior. Unlike ditch group 407, only one hole was recognised, measuring 10mm and drilled in the base of a grog-tempered vessel (Fig. 53 no.67).

Holes drilled in bases are particularly common in LIA/early Roman pottery. They may occur singly drilled through the centre of the base, or in larger numbers, grouped around a central hole. One jar in grog and sand fabric F09A has at least four such holes drilled in the base, each 10mm in diameter. There are instances where holes have been drilled for ritual purposes, although these can be difficult to identify. The single hole in the base of a LIA jar from Stagsden, north Beds, was probably deliberately made and the pot deposited in a ritual context (see discussion of group 1703 below) (Slowikowski 2000, 85). Equally the holes in the vessels from Ursula Taylor School Clapham, Bedford, may have had a ritual significance as the almost complete vessels were deposited in the terminal of a ditch (Dawson 1988, 10). At Aston Clinton, however, the purpose of the holes probably varies as they are so widely differing in their positions, numbers and sizes. None are sooted and only one vessel with a hole in the neck has internal pitting, suggesting that at least one vessel was used for the storage of acidic liquids. They are likely to have had a functional purpose, such as repair or modification of a vessel for sieving or straining, and then been deposited in the ditch with other domestic debris.

Forms are predominantly jars although a lid (no.65), a bowl with slashed rim (Fig. 73 no.70) and a neckless jar with rectangular rim (Fig. 54 no.73) were found, all in shelly fabric type F07. Roman pottery was only found in 1432. A transitional date may be ascribed to it, sometime in the late 1st or early 2nd century. It was found together with substantial vessels in LIA fabric types (see Masefield 2005 - table 26). This native pottery was clearly still in use well into the Roman period. The samian, although fragmentary and small, is Flavian or Trajanic in date. Although small in number, the forms of the Roman vessels are primarily tablewares: cups, dishes and flagons. There is a sherd of terra nigra type R26 with a fragment of an illiterate stamp in the base. A small quantity of cbm was recovered. The four fragments identified as possible slabs do not join, neither are they large enough to determine whether they come from a single object or from four different objects.

This nevertheless does not explain the disproportionate number of these holed vessels in this particular segment of the ditch. A number of pits were dug in this area along the line of the ditch, and filled with domestic rubbish. Those with recorded pottery are 1168, 1170 and 1172. The first two contained very fragmentary pottery in grog-tempered fabric F06B, shelly fabric F07 and sand and grog fabric F09, all dating to the LIA. Pit 1172, in

Ditch Group 1551 (Ph 3+) This ditch group contained residual pottery in a variety of fabrics (Masefield 2005 table 35) but primarily contained 96

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Fig. 54 Site B Pottery: F07 (nos 69-73); F05 (no 70); F09 (nos 75-77)

pottery of LIA date. Sherds of early Roman R30, a fine micaceous fabric type, were recovered from section 1333. At least six beakers were found, decorated with rouletting or burnished zig-zags. Although two of these vessels are made up of five and seventeen sherds respectively, the rest are mainly single body sherds. These beakers are very thin walled and fine, and therefore easily broken into many small fragments. Three grog and sand F09A vessels with post-firing holes drilled into their bases, were found in the same section of ditch. One has a single central hole, a second has at least one hole and possibly more and the third has at least four holes. All the holes measure 10mm in diameter. One was recovered from the primary fill and the others from the secondary fill.

As with the terminal of group 445, only a small amount of pottery was recovered from 1604; most are single sherds from different vessels. The cbm assemblage is small but the sherds are substantial: thirteen fragments make up a single slab measuring 32mm in thickness. Ditch group 195 (LIA/Transitional Ph 3 and 4a) See G173/221 The pottery from this ditch is largely LIA in date with a single tiny Roman grey ware sherd recovered from soil samples. Residual pottery is also present. A substantial part of a ‘Belgic’-type jar with rippled shoulders, in a 97

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE coarse grog-tempered fabric type F06C, was found in 144. It had clearly been discarded soon after breakage. The sump 4138 contained LIA pottery, identifiable as ‘Belgic’ cordoned jars, in grog and sand fabric type F09A. Small fragments of miscellaneous cbm were recovered from this ditch.

The small fragments of cbm are largely unidentifiable, although the daub fragment has wattle impressions measuring approximately 20mm in diameter. Ditch Group 41 (Ph 3/4a to 4b) This group produced a mixed assemblage of LIA and Roman pottery, with the LIA ‘Belgic’ fabrics predominating.

Enclosure Ditch Group 173/221 (LIA/Transitional Ph 3 and 4a) See G870 and G195

The major recut 196 and ditch terminal 284 represent the latest phase. The terminal produced only four sherds but the fill of the recut produced a large assemblage of pottery. The LIA pottery still predominates with lid seated, cordoned or necked jars most common but also storage jars and a possible lid. There are at least three vessels (Fig. 54 nos.69, 72; Fig. 55 no.82), with substantial parts of their profiles and several sherds; no.69 has 53 sherds. The pots were therefore deposited soon after breakage and are likely to be contemporary with the use of the Roman pottery. At least four vessels show signs of having been used, in the form of external or internal sooting. Two of these have holes drilled postfiring. Two opposing holes in the neck of the lid seated jar (no.72) are probably for securing a lid, while the six holes bored in the base of the lid seated jar (no.69) have an unknown purpose but may be for sieving or straining the contents. Roman pottery shows a significant presence with a wider variety of fabric types. The presence of beakers, flagons (eg Fig. 56 no.95) and, especially, the mortarium indicates aspiration to a Romanised lifestyle.

A relatively small assemblage was recovered from the ditch group 173/221. The bulk of it is LIA in date, with the exception of some earlier residual sherds, and a single fragment from an early Roman white ware vessel. The Roman sherd is so small that it could be intrusive. The majority of sherds are single examples from different vessels, the most substantial being seven sherds from a grog and sand fabric type F09A jar (Fig. 55 no.78). Two vessels have small holes, 5mm in diameter, drilled through their necks, possibly to secure lids. The cbm assemblage is also small with two fragments of slabs and a fragment from a miscellaneous flat tile which is likely to be Roman. Ditch Group 1710 Possible Terminal (Ph 3) Vessels from this ditch terminal are few in number but nevertheless substantial in their survival (see Masefield 2005 - table 34). This is possibly a structured deposit within the ditch terminal (see also discussion for groups 407 and 1703). Such deposition is frequently found in the fills of ditch terminals, presumably as significant boundary contexts (Hill 1995, 83). At least four vessels were deposited each with between six and twelve sherds (Fig. 53 nos.61-62, 66; Fig 54 no. 76). They are three cordoned jars and one pedestal urn. The pedestal urn (no.66) has a small hole drilled in the centre of the base. It has been drilled from both the interior and the exterior, but the internal drilling has missed the centre.

The fill of the ditch cut 282 was reinterpreted at analysis as having two phases, but the pottery could not be subdivided. The early Roman date ascribed to it was based on the presence of five albeit small sherds of Roman pottery (see Masefield 2005 - table 39). Mixed in with this pottery were fourteen sherds of LIA pottery. Although the LIA pottery may represent an earlier phase of the ditch, it could also be contemporary with the early Roman vessels, as it has been suggested above (see discussion of groups 445/1622 above) that this native pottery continued in use alongside the new Roman wares well into the Roman period.

In addition there were four slabs, made up of 34 fragments. All were rectangular in shape and knife trimmed on the edges, between 20mm and 30mm in thickness. They are heavily tempered either with organic matter or grog.

The primary weathering fill (77) in segment 57 contained only LIA pottery. Although few in number, all the vessels comprise more than one sherd, with one vessel made up of eight sherds. Deposit (64), which overlay it, also contained vessels in fabric F09A, but in addition Roman pottery in the form of three sherds from 2nd century types. Fill (63) contained a similar assemblage. Small quantities of late Roman pottery were found in the top fill (116), possibly the result of slumpage.

Enclosure Ditch Group 870 (LIA/Transitional Ph 3 and 4a) Although related to groups 173/221 and 195, the pottery assemblage is very different. There is only one sherd of LIA fabric type F09A with the rest of the assemblage, admittedly small, being residual and EIA in date, with two very small Roman sherds in the secondary fill (890). This appears to be the pattern within the ditches of this sub-rectangular enclose; large quantities of sometimes substantial LIA ‘Belgic’ pottery, presumably the bulk of the pottery consumed, and a bare sprinkling, almost a token gesture, of small early Roman sherds.

There is a single slab in (175) made up of six fragments; its thickness measures 30mm. All other fragments are from individual objects. They are rectangular and their thicknesses could be measured to between 23mm and 35mm, with most falling within the 25-30mm range.

98

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Fig 55

Site B Pottery: F09A (nos 78-94)

99

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Ditch Group 66 and Pit Group 1703 (ph 3/4a and 4b)

Possible Fence Line Group 1682 (Ph 3/4a) A single jar in fabric F32 was found in one of the postholes of this fence line (Fig. 52 no. 58). The large size of the sherds suggests that they may have been used as post packing or as a deliberate deposit within this one posthole. With four non-joining sherds, the reconstruction of this vessel is somewhat doubtful, but if correct, is reminiscent of Saxon urns rather than IA vessels. The fabric, however, is more certainly an IA fabric (see fabric descriptions in Appendix 1). Thirteen small fragments of daub were also recovered from this same post-hole and one tiny fragment from post-hole 1213.

The ditch fills excavated in 2001, (118) and (55), contained LIA pottery only, although all of it is relatively small and fragmentary. No vessels are made up of more than one sherd. Two base fragments have at least one post-firing hole drilled in each. Five fragments from a single rectangular slab were recovered from fill (55). The thickness is uneven and varies from 30-40mm. Two distinct phases were identified when this ditch was excavated in 2002. The earlier version, 4128 contained LIA ‘Belgic’ pottery in sizeable fragments (Figs 53-55 nos.63, 77, 80). The later version [4126/4206/4192], although it also contained the same pottery, also had the addition of Roman sherds. The later assemblage was much more fragmentary, with no vessels comprising more than one sherd. A variety of fired clay and cbm was recovered from the later phase, all of it, like the pottery, very fragmentary.

Ditch Group 125/842 (Ph 4b) The pottery within this ditch group can be dated to the early Roman period. The LIA ‘Belgic’ component is small and fragmentary. The bulk of the Roman assemblage is also fragmentary although there are some notable exceptions. A substantial part of a possible flagon is made up of thirteen sherds, and there are five sherds of a shelly jar and eight sherds of a bag-shaped beaker, as well as a fragment of rim and part of the body of a mortarium. A small quantity of cbm was also found, including orange sandy tegulae fragments, indicating a substantial structure nearby.

Pit group 1703 comprised a single pit 4146. This pit contained in its primary fill (4148) both native ‘Belgic’ wares and fully Romanised pottery, including Oxford and Nene Valley colour coated wares. The Roman sherds, however, were primarily recovered from soil samples and are small, belonging to single vessels; they may have originated in the upper layer.

Ditch Group 240 (Ph 4b)

In the base of the pit was a complete grog-tempered jar (Fig. 53 no.60) made up of twenty sherds and weighing 1756g. Although no different in fabric or form from the rest of the assemblage, in its completeness this was clearly a significant vessel. The pot had once been used to contain acidic liquids evidenced from the pitted interior and there are five holes, each 10mm in diameter, drilled neatly into the base. It had been placed deliberately in the bottom of the pit, in an upright position. The pitting and the holes are the results of its use prior to deposition; they are not associated directly with the deposition. However, it may be that this pot was deliberately chosen because of the holes in the base. At Stagsden, north Beds, two separate ‘ritual’ deposits containing pottery were recognised (Slowikowski 2000, 85). One was a burial of a neonate together with a foal and a complete half of a pot with a hole drilled in the base and the other was a single complete storage jar buried on its side in a pit. The burial of deliberately broken or ‘spoilt’ pottery, in this case a pot with holes in the base, is not rare in the IA and Roman period. It is thought to be associated with rites of passage or transition, or rituals associated with birth or death (Wait 1985, 241ff). They are often found in significant locations such as storage pits, wells and ditch terminals (see discussion for group 1710). Pit 4146 was deliberately placed at the intersection of two ditches, which might constitute a significant context.

A relatively small ceramic assemblage was recovered from this ditch group, most of it small and fragmentary. The one exception is a cordoned jar in a fine grey ware. Although the fabric is a fully Romanised type, the cordoned form appears to be harking back to ‘Belgic’ forms. Although generally of early Roman date, the assemblage from segments 205 and 4096 contained three sherds of pink grogged R09A, a type that appears to be most common in the late Roman period (see type descriptions). However, manufacture began in the late 2nd century, so these sherds may be contemporary with the rest of this assemblage. A small fragment of miscellaneous fired clay was recovered from 1575. Track Way Group 149 (Ph 3 to 4b/5) Track G149 in Area 1 Within the third segment, pottery was only recovered from silt layer (865) and this was a small and very fragmentary assemblage. The latest pottery is three sherds of LIA ‘Belgic’ grog and sand type F09. The fourth segment produced a large assemblage of pottery, which was nevertheless fragmentary. The primary gravel (1516) contained no pottery but pottery was recovered from the gravel surface (626) that overlay it. This small collection contained late Roman sherds

100

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Fabric F01A F01A F01C F04 F06B F06B F06B F06B F07 F07 F07 F07 F09 F09 F09 F09A F09A F09A F16 F16B F16C F18 F28 F28 F31 F31 F32 F35 F35 R30 R30

Common name/description Coarse flint Coarse flint Flint and sand Organic Medium grog-tempered Medium grog-tempered Medium grog-tempered Medium grog-tempered Shelly Shelly Shelly Shelly Sand and grog Sand and grog Sand and grog Sand and grog with mica Sand and grog with mica Sand and grog with mica Shelly Fine shelly Coarse shelly Fine sand and shell Fine sand Fine sand Sand and mica Sand and mica Sand and flint Micaceous Micaceous Fine micaceous Fine micaceous

Form jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s jar Cordoned jar Pedestal urn Undiagnostic b/s bowl jar Lid seated jar Undiagnostic b/s bowl cordoned Undiagnostic b/s jar Cordoned jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s bowl Undiagnostic b/s beaker Undiagnostic b/s

Vessels 1 5 1 1 1 7 1 10 1 1 1 2 1 3 8 1 2 19 1 1 2 8 1 7 1 5 2 1 2 6 1

Sherds 2 5 1 1 5 28 6 10 1 28 4 2 1 8 9 8 2 22 1 2 2 8 1 9 1 5 2 2 5 28 1

Wt (g) 55 41 13 11 122 646 231 124 146 319 93 19 13 208 170 108 67 437 12 63 12 55 9 67 12 44 17 27 28 96 2

Vessels 8 7 1 3 2 8 1 1 53 11 2 3 22 1 2 2 2 1 12 16 6 54 4 1 2 11 1 1 2 8 1 1 1 1

Sherds 10 7 5 6 2 15 1 1 99 20 21 15 102 1 8 2 2 2 12 66 26 60 4 6 2 11 1 4 2 12 1 1 1 1

Wt (g) 64 40 23 92 8 251 33 72 1050 585 432 613 1343 17 168 170 23 33 102 1935 289 727 33 93 17 81 12 339 50 64 5 14 1 8

Table 12. Site B - Phase 3. Pottery summary by fabric and form Fabric F01A F01B F05 F06A F06A F06B F06B F06B F06B F06C F06C F06C F06C F07 F07 F07 F08 F09 F09 F09A F09A F09A F18 F20 F28 F28 F31 F32 F32 F35 R01B R01B R03 R04B

Common name/description Coarse flint Fine flint Grog and shell Fine grog-tempered Fine grog-tempered Medium grog-tempered Medium grog-tempered Medium grog-tempered Medium grog-tempered Coarse grog-tempered Coarse grog-tempered Coarse grog-tempered Coarse grog-tempered Shelly Shelly Shelly Shell and grog Sand and grog Sand and grog Sand and grog with mica Sand and grog with mica Sand and grog with mica Fine sand and shell Limestone Fine sand Fine sand Sand and mica Sand and flint Sand and flint Micaceous Southern Gaulish samian Southern Gaulish samian White ware Gallo-Belgic white ware

Form Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s jar jar Undiagnostic b/s jar Cordoned jar lid Undiagnostic b/s jar Cordoned jar Storage jar Undiagnostic b/s bowl Lid seated jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Cordoned jar Undiagnostic b/s jar Cordoned jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s jar jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s cup dish Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s

101

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE R06B R06C R06D R06F R06F R11A R18A R26 R30

Coarse grey ware Fine grey ware Micaceous grey ware Grey ware with grog and sand Grey ware with grog and sand Oxford white ware Pink gritty - Verulamium region Terra Nigra Fine micaceous

Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s flagon Undiagnostic b/s beaker

3 4 2 1 1 1 2 1 3

3 14 6 4 1 1 9 1 3

12 169 22 85 16 4 58 5 26

Vessels 1 1 1 7 11 1 1 6 2 1 1 27 6 1 1 3 1 128 1 1 1 1 2 1 4 4 1 1 1 1 8 1 1 7 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 5 1 1 2 4 1

Sherds 1 2 20 13 11 1 4 7 59 1 2 61 16 8 1 4 1 153 1 1 1 11 2 1 9 4 1 1 1 1 9 1 1 9 2 1 3 1 2 2 1 4 1 2 6 2 1 2 7 1

Wt (g) 12 260 1756 422 167 33 136 131 1366 19 157 995 318 135 41 112 15 1468 4 1 5 217 12 16 45 11 4 2 25 9 84 25 13 84 9 3 12 12 11 3 74 36 26 11 40 4 4 8 132 4

Table 13. Site B - Phase 3/4a. Pottery summary by fabric and form Fabric F01A F05 F06B F06B F06B F06C F06C F06C F07 F07 F09 F09A F09A F09A F09A F09A F09A F09A F32 MISC R R03A R03A R03B R05A R05B R05D R05D R06 R06B R06C R06D R07B R09A R10D R11 R11 R11B R11B R11D R11E R11F R11G R13 R18A R18B R30 R30 R35 R38

Common name/description Coarse flint Grog and shell Medium grog-tempered Medium grog-tempered Medium grog-tempered Coarse grog-tempered Coarse grog-tempered Coarse grog-tempered Shelly Shelly Sand and grog Sand and grog with mica Sand and grog with mica Sand and grog with mica Sand and grog with mica Sand and grog with mica Sand and grog with mica Sand and grog with mica Sand and flint Miscellaneous Unrecognised Roman Fine white ware - Verulamium region Fine white ware - Verulamium region Gritty white ware Orange sandy Fine orange sandy White-slipped orange sandy White-slipped orange sandy Miscellaneous grey ware Coarse grey ware Fine grey ware Micaceous grey ware Sandy black ware Soft pink grogged Buff micaceous Late orange oxidised Late orange oxidised Oxford gritted white ware Oxford gritted white ware Oxford colour coat Oxford white mortaria Oxford red mortaria Oxford white-slipped orange Shelly Pink gritty - Verulamium region Pink fine Fine micaceous Fine micaceous Roman grog Red slipped

Form Undiagnostic b/s Storage jar jar Cordoned jar Undiagnostic b/s jar Storage jar Undiagnostic b/s Lid seated jar Undiagnostic b/s jar jar cordoned jar everted rim jar lid seated jar Narrow-necked jar lid Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s flagon Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s beaker Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s everted rim jar jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Indented beaker Undiagnostic b/s Ring-necked flagon Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s mortarium mortarium mortarium Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s beaker Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s

Table 14. Site B - Phase 3/4a/4b. Pottery summary by fabric and form (excluding G149)

102

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Track G149 in Area 3

including Oxford colour coat type R11D and soft pink grog type R09A. The silt layer (623), which lay over this gravel, also contained small sherds of late Roman date. Pit/post hole (625) cut (623) and contained late Roman ceramics including a fragment of flue tile, and a single small sherd of Saxon organic-tempered pottery type A01 (see G1702). Silt layer (430) lay over this pit and contained the bulk of the assemblage from this segment. The assemblage is large in quantity, 320 sherds, and some of the pottery is large and unabraded; the average sherd weight is 10g. However, the assemblage was very fragmentary, with all the sherds coming from separate vessels. The bulk of it is late Roman in date. The forms are varied but are still predominantly tablewares, and include flagons, dishes, flanged bowls, everted rim jars and at least one storage jar. The latest sherds, however, are three undiagnostic Saxon sherds, in different fabrics.

Three episodes of metalling were interleaved with layers of silt. The primary silt (4107) contained no ceramics but the upper silts (4080, 4041 and 4040) contained late Roman pottery and roof tile fragments, including tegulae and imbrices. Segment 4076 produced a small quantity of pottery, among which are fragmentary late Roman sherds of Oxford type R11D and Nene Valley type R12B colour coat and soft pink grog type R09A. Segment 4081 produced even less pottery, with only four tiny IA sherds in the lowest silt layer (4078) and a single sherd of late Roman soft pink grog type R09A. Surface (177) produced a small assemblage of largely undiagnostic grey wares, but also a single sherd of Oxford colour coat type R11D. Although small, this sherd suggests a late Roman date for the deposition of this assemblage. The pottery from the various silts above this surface is largely late Roman in date although there are sherds of Saxon pottery in layer (215).

Subsidiary Gravel Metalled path G1323 Although no pottery was recovered from the gravelled path G1323, four fragments of Roman tile, including two tegulae, were recovered. Track G149 in Area 2

The ruts contained no pottery but linear cut 276 contained pottery only in its upper fill. This pottery was fragmentary, small and mixed in date although the latest sherds are of late Roman date.

No pottery was found in the two excavated segments of the track in Area 2. Fabric A A18 A18 A19 A23 A26 C48 F01A F01C F06B F06B F06C F09 F09 F09A F28 F35 MOD R R01A R01A R01A R01A R01B R05D R06B R06B R06B R06B R06B R06C R06C R06C R06C R06C

Common name/description Unrecognised Saxon Fine sand Fine sand Sand and organic Sandstone Mica, sand and organic Coarse flint Flint and sand Medium grog-tempered Medium grog-tempered Coarse grog-tempered Sand and grog Sand and grog Sand and grog with mica Fine sand Micaceous Modern Unrecognised Roman Central Gaulish samian Central Gaulish samian Central Gaulish samian Central Gaulish samian Southern Gaulish samian White-slipped orange sandy Coarse grey ware Coarse grey ware Coarse grey ware Coarse grey ware Coarse grey ware Fine grey ware Fine grey ware Fine grey ware Fine grey ware Fine grey ware

Form Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Cordoned jar Undiagnostic b/s Storage jar bowl Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s bowl cup dish Undiagnostic b/s dish Undiagnostic b/s Plain rim dish flagon jar everted rim jar Undiagnostic b/s bowl Flanged bowl Plain rim dish jar Everted rim jar

103

Vessels 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 2 9 11 1 1 7 5 1 3 1 12 1 2 2 3 3 1 2 2 4 1 37 2 5 2 14 4

Sherds 2 1 1 1 1 4 3 1 2 9 11 1 1 7 5 1 4 1 12 1 3 2 3 3 1 2 2 5 1 37 2 5 2 14 4

Wt (g) 44 17 8 40 6 36 21 6 15 58 42 37 46 76 37 11 11 3 73 14 12 12 6 24 3 37 34 40 8 463 54 109 30 243 37

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE R06C R06D R06D R06D R06G R06G R06H R06H R06H R06I R06I R07B R07B R07B R07B R09A R09A R09A R10A R10B R10B R10B R10D R11 R11 R11 R11 R11 R11A R11C R11D R11D R11D R11D R11D R11D R11D R11E R11G R11G R12B R12B R12B R12B R13 R13 R13 R18A R18B R33 R35 R38 R38 R38

Fine grey ware Micaceous grey ware Micaceous grey ware Micaceous grey ware Silty grey ware Silty grey ware White-slipped grey ware White-slipped grey ware White-slipped grey ware Black-slipped grey ware Black-slipped grey ware Sandy black ware Sandy black ware Sandy black ware Sandy black ware Soft pink grogged Soft pink grogged Soft pink grogged Buff gritty Fine buff Fine buff Fine buff Buff micaceous Late orange oxidised Late orange oxidised Late orange oxidised Late orange oxidised Late orange oxidised Oxford white ware Oxford parchment ware Oxford colour coat Oxford colour coat Oxford colour coat Oxford colour coat Oxford colour coat Oxford colour coat Oxford colour coat Oxford white mortaria Oxford white-slipped orange Oxford white-slipped orange Nene valley colour coat Nene valley colour coat Nene valley colour coat Nene valley colour coat Shelly Shelly Shelly Pink gritty - Verulamium region Pink fine Verulamium region mortaria Roman grog Red slipped Red slipped Red slipped

Undiagnostic b/s jar Everted rim jar Undiagnostic b/s Everted rim jar Undiagnostic b/s Flanged bowl Everted rim jar Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s bowl Flanged bowl Plain rim dish Undiagnostic b/s jar Storage jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s bowl jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s beaker bowl dish jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s jar beaker Flanged bowl bowl Flanged bowl jar mortarium Undiagnostic b/s mortarium jar mortarium beaker bottle Flanged bowl Undiagnostic b/s jar Everted rim jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s mortarium Undiagnostic b/s beaker bowl flagon

112 1 1 7 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 19 6 1 73 3 1 2 12 9 1 3 1 5 46 1 1 1 2 9 3 2 6 43 3 1 4 4 1 1 3 2 3 26 8 1 1 14 4 5 1

117 1 1 7 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 19 11 1 75 4 2 2 12 9 1 3 1 5 49 1 1 1 2 10 3 2 6 47 3 1 7 10 1 1 3 4 6 26 9 1 4 16 4 5 1

1019 4 8 51 8 6 27 51 14 14 11 28 8 19 167 158 55 1108 110 22 27 31 64 3 25 19 76 245 10 2 2 4 81 49 18 103 416 104 9 206 92 2 7 13 43 106 250 32 4 89 160 25 92 5

Table 15. Site B - Phase 3/4a/4b/5. Group G149 Pottery summary by fabric and form

Track G149 in Area B Strip and Map Area (South)

nine, albeit small, sherds of a single possible jar from 316.

No pottery is recorded from this area.

Cremation Group 1708 (Phase 4a)

Quarry Pitting Adjacent to Track G149 (Ph 3 to 4b)

Parts of three vessels were found in cremation 909. The best surviving vessel, a grog and sand tempered fabric F09A jar (Fig. 55 no.90), may have been the cremation urn, but so little of the cremated bone survived and the vessel itself was badly crushed, that it cannot be certain. The small part of another vessel (Fig. 55 no.89) in the

The cluster of pits in Area 3 contained a small quantity of LIA ‘Belgic’ grog-tempered type F06 pottery, among which was a fragment of a pedestal urn from 370 and 104

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE same fabric was also recovered, together with an orange sandy fabric R05A beaker (Fig. 56 no.96), which are likely to have been accessory vessels.

aspiration to status. It is not certain how long the grogtempered wares were in use, but it appears from this cremation group that, at least by the 2nd century, they still had some cultural significance even if they may not have been in daily use.

Despite two of the vessels being in a native grogtempered fabric, the presence of the Roman beaker suggests a desire to acquire and display Roman objects, which may have been symbols of high status or the

Iron Working Group 1709 (Ph 4) No pottery was recovered from features allocated to this group.

Fabric Common name/description F06B Medium grog-tempered F09 Sand and grog

Form Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s

Vessels 2 1

Sherds 3 1

Wt (g) 32 55

Vessels 1 1 1 1

Sherds 16 10 3 8

Wt (g) 353 80 7 97

Vessels 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 4 15 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 3 1 8 1 10 8 1 3 1 1 5 1 1 1 3 1

Sherds 4 2 2 1 1 2 1 5 15 2 1 13 1 4 1 1 5 1 1 4 4 8 1 1 3 1 11 9 10 10 1 3 1 1 6 1 1 5 5 2

Wt (g) 68 7 8 7 21 26 5 33 150 13 1 112 22 5 1 8 26 11 2 31 39 22 12 3 4 39 121 159 79 65 5 8 16 44 45 7 143 54 64 21

Table 16. Phase 4. Pottery summary by fabric and form (general) Fabric F09A F09A F18 R05A

Common name/description Sand and grog with mica Sand and grog with mica Fine sand and shell Orange snady

Form jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s beaker

Table 17 Site B - Phase 4a summary by fabric and form Fabric F01A F01A F01B F06B F06B F06C F09 F09A F09A F28 F31 R R01A R01A R01A R03A R03A R03C R03C R05A R05B R05C R05C R05D R05D R06B R06B R06C R06C R06G R06H R07B R07C R09A R09A R11D R11E R13 R13 R18A

Common name/description Coarse flint Coarse flint Fine flint Medium grog-tempered Medium grog-tempered Coarse grog-tempered Sand and grog Sand and grog with mica Sand and grog with mica Fine sand Sand and mica Unrecognised Roman Central Gaulish samian Central Gaulish samian Central Gaulish samian Fine white ware - Verulamium region Fine white ware - Verulamium region Smooth white ware Smooth white ware Orange snady Fine orange sandy Orange micaceous Orange micaceous White-slipped orange sandy White-slipped orange sandy Coarse grey ware Coarse grey ware Fine grey ware Fine grey ware Silty grey ware White-slipped grey ware Sandy black ware Gritty black ware Soft pink grogged Soft pink grogged Oxford colour coat Oxford white mortaria Shelly Shelly Pink gritty - Verulamium region

Form jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s dish mortarium Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s beaker Undiagnostic b/s flagon Undiagnostic b/s bowl Undiagnostic b/s Cordoned jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s bowl Undiagnostic b/s jar jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s mortarium jar Undiagnostic b/s flagon

Table 18. Site B - Phase 4b. Pottery summary by fabric and form 105

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Phase 5 Later Roman (3rd-late 4th Century)

water holes (see Masefield 2005; table 60). This included flue tiles, brick/floor tiles, tegulae and imbrices, indicating the presence of a possible villa, or at least a substantial structure with a clay-tiled roof and a hypocaust heating system. The building may even have had a mosaic floor as a single piece of tessera was found. Layer (4160) produced an unusual roof tile. It is flat, approximately 10mm thick and has one edge surviving, with a small pre-firing hole bored 10mm from the edge (Fig.56 no. 101). The fabric is soft pink grog tempered R09A, generally a pottery fabric, although roof tiles are known to have been made (Marney 1989, 67). Roman roof tiles are more commonly tegulae and imbrices, but this is more in the style of the later peg tiles, where the tiles were attached to the roof with wooden pegs or nails.

Wells and Water Holes Group 1698 Two features, identified as wells, 24 and 68, contained a relatively large assemblage of pottery, which was, nevertheless, largely fragmentary. Two vessel halves were placed in the fills of these two wells: a plain rim dish in Nene Valley colour coat R12B in well 24 and a flanged bowl in Oxfordshire colour coat R11D. Complete or near complete vessels are often found in the final filling layers of wells, where they have been deliberately placed as ritual ‘closing’ deposits. These dishes may have been placed in such a way in the fills of these two wells. They are the most complete vessels in the assemblages; the rest are fragmentary sherds belonging to a wide variety of types. The wells are close to each other and it may be significant that they both had half bowls placed within them. Most of the pottery dates to the 4th century, with some residual IA sherds. The topmost fill of well 24, however, also contains some Saxon pottery (Fig. 56 no.110), suggesting that this may have been the later of the two wells to be finally filled in. This is the only feature in this group to contain Saxon pottery and the pottery might, indeed, have just accumulated in a dip formed by the settling of the fills.

Late Roman Pitting Ungrouped. Ditch Group 1480 (Ph 5-6) Four slots were cut through the ditch, three of which contained a relatively large assemblage of pottery. The assemblage is mixed in date, with a number of quite large residual sherds, mainly dating to the LIA. Among them are a shelly F07 jar (Fig. 54 no.71) and seven sherds forming the large part of a foot ring base from a grog and sand F09 vessel. The pottery is very fragmentary with few vessels with more than one sherd. The most substantial vessels are 4th century in date: an Oxford colour coat R11D bowl, made up of six sherds weighing 196g, which is nevertheless well worn on both the interior and exterior, and twelve sherds from a grog tempered R09A vessel weighing 192g. This latter vessel had sherds scattered throughout the layers in slot 1298, suggesting filling within a short space of time. The latest pottery is Saxon in date. The vessels occur in two fabric types: a fine micaceous A26 and a sand and sparsely flint gritted A27, both of which have similarities to the IA fabrics F35 and F32. Two jars were identified, one with flaring rim (Fig. 56 no.108) and the other with a fingertipped rim (Fig. 56 no.109). These are made up of more than one sherd and are unabraded. They are unlikely to be residual, but their similarity to IA fabrics and forms make their identification and dating uncertain.

Waterhole 785 recut and largely removed 885. Small sherds of pottery were recovered from soil samples from 885, and, although broadly un-dateable, no clearly 4th century material was found among them. The fills of 785, however, contained pottery of 4th century date, including Nene Valley R12B and Oxfordshire R11D colour coats, oxidised Hadham R22A and a relatively large quantity of shelly R13 pottery. The shelly wares have been shown to continue in use, at least in the region of their manufacture, well into the 4th and possibly 5th centuries (Slowikowski 1994, 11). Water hole 4158 also contained a large but fragmentary assemblage of 4th century pottery. No substantial vessels were found and both forms and fabrics varied. A small quantity of shelly ware was found; one bowl was identified as a vessel unknown in the Harrold repertoire. Harrold is the kiln site most likely to be the source of shelly pottery in the region, especially in the late Roman period, but this bowl suggests other production sites were current, not necessarily within the immediate region.

The building material is equally mixed and fragmentary, with pieces of a LIA slab, Roman brick and roof tile, as well as daub, which could be any date.

Building material was spread throughout the wells and Fabric A23 A26 A27 F06C F07 F09A R R01A R01A R01A

Common name/description Sandstone Mica, sand and organic Sand and flint Coarse grog-tempered Shelly Sand and grog with mica Unrecognised Roman Central Gaulish samian Central Gaulish samian Central Gaulish samian

Form Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Jar Bowl Dish Undiagnostic b/s

106

Vessels 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1

Sherds 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1

Wt (g) 4 6 6 31 17 7 14 23 3 2

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE R03A R03B R05A R06B R06B R06B R06B R06B R06C R06C R06C R06C R06D R06D R06D R06D R06G R06H R07B R07F R09A R09A R09A R09A R10B R10B R11 R11B R11C R11D R11D R11D R11D R11D R11D R11D R11E R11F R11G R11G R11G R12B R12B R12B R12B R13 R13 R13 R13 R13 R13 R18A R18B R19 R22A R35 R35 R36 R38 R38 R38

Fine white ware - Verulamium region Gritty white ware Orange sandy Coarse grey ware Coarse grey ware Coarse grey ware Coarse grey ware Coarse grey ware Fine grey ware Fine grey ware Fine grey ware Fine grey ware Micaceous grey ware Micaceous grey ware Micaceous grey ware Micaceous grey ware Silty grey ware White-slipped grey ware Sandy black ware Silty black ware Soft pink grogged Soft pink grogged Soft pink grogged Soft pink grogged Fine buff Fine buff Late orange oxidised Oxford gritted white ware Oxford parchment ware Oxford colour coat Oxford colour coat Oxford colour coat Oxford colour coat Oxford colour coat Oxford colour coat Oxford colour coat Oxford white mortaria Oxford red mortaria Oxford white-slipped orange Oxford white-slipped orange Oxford white-slipped orange Nene valley colour coat Nene valley colour coat Nene valley colour coat Nene valley colour coat Shelly Shelly Shelly Shelly Shelly Shelly Pink gritty - Verulamium region Pink fine Miscellaneous amphora Hadham oxidised Roman grog Roman grog Orange gritty Red slipped Red slipped Red slipped

Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Bowl Flanged bowl Plain rim dish Everted rim jar Undiagnostic b/s bowl jar Everted rim jar Undiagnostic b/s Plain rim dish jar Everted rim jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Poppyhead beaker Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s jar Storage jar Unrecognised form Undiagnostic b/s flagon Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s beaker bowl Flanged bowl jar jug mortarium Undiagnostic b/s mortarium mortarium bowl mortarium Undiagnostic b/s beaker Indented beaker Plain rim dish Undiagnostic b/s bowl Developed lid seated jar Everted rim jar Rectangular rim jar Storage jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Flanged bowl amphora jar Storage jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s bowl dish Undiagnostic b/s

2 2 1 3 3 1 3 23 1 10 5 62 1 2 1 26 2 1 9 3 1 2 1 66 1 7 18 1 1 1 6 2 3 1 1 23 4 2 1 6 1 7 3 1 3 1 1 2 1 1 40 4 1 1 1 1 9 1 2 2 5

2 2 1 3 3 1 3 23 1 15 5 65 1 2 1 27 2 1 10 3 1 2 1 71 1 8 19 1 1 1 7 3 3 3 1 24 7 2 2 9 1 7 3 1 3 1 1 2 1 1 40 4 1 1 1 1 10 3 2 2 5

4 10 2 109 99 22 32 373 16 313 128 598 18 28 5 224 10 8 228 13 10 191 82 1408 7 42 117 8 3 58 50 234 29 22 3 120 227 13 57 386 11 14 11 39 18 27 21 17 15 49 482 35 13 45 7 54 103 29 27 27 67

Vessels 1 1 1 4 1

Sherds 5 3 1 4 1

Wt (g) 100 33 115 46 4

Table 19. Site B - Phase 5. Pottery summary by fabric and form Fabric A26 A26 A27 A27 F01A

Common name/description Mica, sand and organic Mica, sand and organic Sand and flint Sand and flint Coarse flint

Form jar Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s

107

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE F05 F07 F07 F09 F09 F09A F09A F18 F28 F32 F35 R R01A R03A R03A R05A R06 R06B R06B R06C R06C R06G R06H R07A R07B R07B R09A R09A R11D R11D R11D R12B R13 R18A R18B

Grog and shell Shelly Shelly Sand and grog Sand and grog Sand and grog with mica Sand and grog with mica Fine sand and shell Fine sand Sand and flint Micaceous Unrecognised Roman Central Gaulish samian Fine white ware - Verulamium region Fine white ware - Verulamium region Orange sandy Miscellaneous grey ware Coarse grey ware Coarse grey ware Fine grey ware Fine grey ware Silty grey ware White-slipped grey ware Black burnished 1 Sandy black ware Sandy black ware Soft pink grogged Soft pink grogged Oxford colour coat Oxford colour coat Oxford colour coat Nene valley colour coat Shelly Pink gritty - Verulamium region Pink fine

Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s dish jar Undiagnostic b/s bowl jar Flanged bowl Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s bowl Flanged bowl Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s

1 1 1 1 6 1 5 1 5 1 1 1 3 1 3 1 1 1 6 1 10 14 1 1 1 4 1 5 1 1 2 1 5 1 2

3 4 1 7 6 1 5 1 5 2 1 1 3 1 4 1 1 1 6 1 10 14 1 1 1 4 1 16 6 1 2 1 5 1 2

43 52 2 300 29 21 32 2 43 67 6 3 18 11 22 16 3 10 45 7 65 63 8 8 7 16 3 256 196 6 9 15 22 3 28

Table 20. Site B - Phase 5/6. Pottery summary by fabric and form

Ditch Group 150 (Ph 6b)

largely late Roman, with the latest sherds dating to the Saxon period. These are very small and fragmentary: two sherds weighing 9g in micaceous sand and organic fabric A26. The fragmentary nature of the assemblage meant that forms were barely identifiable; however among these are a flanged bowl, two rouletted beakers and a single mortarium fragment.

A relatively small and very fragmentary assemblage was recovered from ditch G150; all the vessels comprised single sherds. The date of the pottery is mixed but is

The building material assemblage is equally fragmentary. A single intrusive post-medieval peg tile fragment was found possibly in the top of layer (152).

Phase 6 Late Roman/Early Saxon Ditch Group 262 (Ph 6a) No ceramic finds were recovered from this ditch.

Fabric A26 F06B F09 F09A F18 R06B R06C R06D R07B R07B R09A R11 R11 R11D R11D R11G R12B

Common name/description Mica, sand and organic Medium grog-tempered Sand and grog Sand and grog with mica Fine sand and shell Coarse grey ware Fine grey ware Micaceous grey ware Sandy black ware Sandy black ware Soft pink grogged Late orange oxidised Late orange oxidised Oxford colour coat Oxford colour coat Oxford white-slipped orange Nene valley colour coat

Form Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Flanged bowl Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s bowl Undiagnostic b/s mortarium beaker

108

Vessels 2 2 1 5 2 3 4 1 1 1 9 1 3 1 2 1 2

Sherds 2 2 1 5 2 3 4 1 1 1 9 1 3 1 2 1 2

Wt (g) 9 7 11 34 14 11 48 2 16 2 218 24 10 15 2 49 4

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE R12B R13 R13 R30

Nene valley colour coat Shelly Shelly Fine micaceous

Undiagnostic b/s Everted rim jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s

Table 21. Site B - Phase 6b. Pottery summary by fabric and form

Fig 56

Site B Pottery: Roman (nos 95-100); Saxon (nos 102-111)

109

1 1 1 2

1 1 1 2

13 9 5 15

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Phase 7 Early Saxon (5th-7th Century)

Pit Group 1676

Pit Group 1673

The three pits in this group (1334, 1335 and 1336) all produced varying quantities of pottery and building material (see Masefield 2005; tables 66-68). The only building material found was two fragments of brick in pit 1335, from which also came a mixed early and LIA assemblage. A small sherd in grog and sand tempered fabric F09A has a single post-firing hole bored through it, a common form of evidence for the reuse and/or repair of particularly ‘Belgic’ grog tempered pottery in the LIA period.

The large circular pit 1067 produced a single sandy sherd, which was recorded as an IA fabric F28, although it may be Saxon in date. Of the smaller pits in this group, 1065 had no pottery and 1061, 1073 and 1075 produced small quantities, all of it dated to the Saxon period, with the exception of a single late 4th century sherd of Hadham ware. Larger assemblages were recovered from pits 895 and 904. Pit 895 contained Saxon pottery, including two tiny sherds in a sand tempered fabric with sparse flint. The Saxon (A27) and IA (F32) versions of this fabric are not easily distinguished. Because of the absence of any pottery other than Saxon, the sherds in this fabric in pit 895 have been allocated the Saxon fabric code. The sherds are largely undiagnostic body sherds, although one jar with facetted carination was found. Examples of these jars are recorded from Mucking, Essex; Abingdon, Berks; Barrington, Cambs, and have been dated to the early-mid 5th century (Myres 1977, 19).

Forms were rarely recognisable although a single tiny fragment of an upright flat-topped rim was recovered from pit 1336, and recorded as a jar in IA fabric F32. One other identifiable form is a shelly F07 storage jar with herringbone design incised into the shoulder, from 1334. This pit produced further LIA pottery, among which is a sherd of imported Gallo-Belgic white ware, and an assemblage of also presumably residual EIA sherds. These last, however, are small, weighing on average 7.8g, and, if the phasing of this pit group is correct, may also be Saxon.

Pottery in pit 904 is more of a problem in terms of its date. Four fills were recorded in this pit, and it contained the largest pottery assemblage of the group, derived from three of the fills (see Masefield 2005; tables 67-68). The primary fill (1097) contained a single sherd, probably IA. The secondary fill (906) contained a single Saxon jar rim (Fig. 56 no.103); the rest of the pottery from this fill, 20 sherds, is IA. There is no particular difference in size or abrasion between the IA sherds in this fill and the Saxon sherd. The Saxon sherd is the largest, but at only 15g it is not a substantial vessel. The tertiary fill (1078) contained no pottery, but the fourth fill (1077) contained a mixed assemblage of IA and Saxon pottery, among which is a substantial but not complete jar in Saxon organic fabric A01 (Fig 56 no.105). However, pit 895 cuts pit 904, and if 904 was originally IA, then the two sherds recorded as A27 in pit 895 might in fact be residual IA sherds.

Pit Group 1702 A mixed assemblage of pottery was recovered from these dispersed pits. Although allocated to phase 7, not all contained Saxon pottery. The pits with clearly identifiable Saxon pottery are 625, 554, 556, 1498, 167, 214 and 320. The last two pits, both in Area 3, contain sherds from the same vessel, a Saxon jar in fabric A19 (Fig. 56 no.103; cc16); six sherds from 214 and two from 320. Pits with late Roman sherds, which could nevertheless have been used, or filled, in the Saxon period, are 377, 587 and 1086 in Area 1. Very few late Roman sherds were found in the pits of Areas 2 and 3. Pit 1595 also contained EIA sherds but these are very undiagnostic and could be Saxon in date. Pits 1158, 1595, 353 and 968 contained very fragmentary assemblages that could be dated either to the IA or the Saxon period. There is nothing diagnostic about the pottery; all are plain body sherds, with the exception of a micaceous F35 sherd, from 1159, with incised chevron decoration on both interior and exterior surfaces, in an EIA style (Fig. 52 no.57). Pit 1595 also contains two Roman greyware sherds, so the IA pottery from here is likely to be residual.

The group was sealed by layer (905), which contained within it an assemblage of mainly Saxon pottery (see Masefield 2005; table 68), including two body sherds from a possible ovoid jar dating to the 7th century. Similar vessels have been found at the cemetery sites of, for example, Chamberlain’s Barn, Beds (Hyslop 1963) and Melbourne, Cambs (Slowikowski in prep.). This jar has a thick black internal residue, a feature commonly noticed on Saxon pottery. Three other Saxon vessels in this assemblage had similar internal residues. Among the rest of the assemblage were two sherds of 4th century Roman pottery, and a number of ‘Belgic’ and earlier IA sherds.

Undated Enclosure 6012 (post Ph 4b) A single fragment of Roman tile was found.

110

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Fabric A01 A01 A16 A16 A18 A19 A19 A23 A26 A26 A27 A27 AC03 AC03 F01A F01B F01B F04 F06C F07 F09 F09A F09A F16 F16C F16C F18 F18 F20 F28 F28 F28 F28 F28 F28 F31 F31 F31 F31 F32 F32 F35 R R01A R04B R05D R06B R06C R06C R07B R07B R09A R09A R11 R11D R11D R11E R11G R13 R13 R22A R38

Common name/description Organic Organic Coarse sand Coarse sand Fine sand Sand and organic Sand and organic Sandstone Mica, sand and organic Mica, sand and organic Sand and flint Sand and flint Aston Clinton fabric (possibly Saxon) Aston Clinton fabric (possibly Saxon) Coarse flint Fine flint Fine flint Organic Coarse grog-tempered Shelly Sand and grog Sand and grog with mica Sand and grog with mica Shelly Coarse shelly Coarse shelly Fine sand and shell Fine sand and shell Limestone Fine sand Fine sand Fine sand Fine sand Fine sand Fine sand Sand and mica Sand and mica Sand and mica Sand and mica Sand and flint Sand and flint Micaceous Unrecognised Roman Central Gaulish samian Gallo-Belgic white ware White-slipped orange sandy Coarse grey ware Fine grey ware Fine grey ware Sandy black ware Sandy black ware Soft pink grogged Soft pink grogged Late orange oxidised Oxford colour coat Oxford colour coat Oxford white mortaria Oxford white-slipped orange Shelly Shelly Hadham oxidised Red slipped

Form jar Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s jar jar Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s Cordoned jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Storage jar Undiagnostic b/s Cordoned jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s bowl Carinated jar jar Cordoned jar Flanged jar Undiagnostic b/s bowl Carinated vessel jar Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s mortarium Undiagnostic b/s bowl Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s Flanged bowl Undiagnostic b/s mortarium mortarium jar Undiagnostic b/s Undiagnostic b/s beaker

Table 22. Site B - Phase 7. Pottery summary by fabric and form

111

Vessels 6 12 1 6 1 1 1 1 1 9 1 6 1 4 18 1 6 1 1 1 1 1 15 6 1 6 1 3 1 1 1 2 1 1 34 1 2 1 2 2 23 6 3 1 1 1 5 1 6 1 1 1 7 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1

Sherds 18 19 1 6 1 8 1 2 2 11 1 6 2 4 22 3 6 1 1 1 1 1 15 6 1 6 3 3 1 1 7 2 1 1 37 1 3 1 3 2 25 9 3 3 1 1 6 1 7 1 1 1 7 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1

Wt (g) 388 200 4 51 2 240 6 150 30 171 2 27 20 23 177 35 72 6 4 29 7 7 156 59 7 99 41 34 19 4 92 10 35 57 424 5 73 6 15 6 254 83 32 46 5 4 55 11 59 13 20 14 231 2 15 7 8 66 32 1 9 35

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE probably Flavian, and a scrap of uncertain form, Central Gaulish, Hadrianic or Antonine (Silt patch over track way (279)

The Site B Samian Ware - Felicity C. Wild With the exception of three tiny scraps of South Gaulish decorated ware, weighing one gram in all, from Site D, the samian ware was all from Site B. It consisted of 44 sherds, probably from 38 vessels, ten in South Gaulish fabric and 28 in Central Gaulish fabric, of which one was probably in the fabric of Les Martres-de-Veyre. Identifiable forms were as follows: • •

The layer of dark grey silt (430) overlying the track way contained sherds from eight vessels ranging in date from the first century to the late second. One, form 18R, was South Gaulish and probably Flavian, the others were all Central Gaulish. Forms included 33 (two examples, one possibly from Les Martres-de-Veyre), 18/31 or 31 (Two examples) and 37 in the style of Do(v)eccus (no 2 above), c. AD 165-200.

South Gaulish: 29 or 37, 27 (2), 15/17, 18, 15/17 or 18, 18R? (2) Central Gaulish: 37 (2), 27, 33 (2), 18/31 (5), 18/31 or 31 (2), 18/31R or 31R (2), 18/31, 31 or R variant (2), 38 or 44, 79, 45 (2), cup, dish

Late Roman Wells and Water Holes Group 1698 (Phase 5): Form 37, Central Gaulish, with Cinnamus's ovolo (no 3 above), c. AD 150-175, and another scrap of Hadrianic or Antonine date. (Upper fill of Late Roman well (24))

It is notable that plate or dish forms (15/17, 18, 31 etc.) outnumber cups (27, 33) by more than three to one. There were no potter's stamps. There were three decorated sherds:

Form 18/31 or 31, Central Gaulish. Hadrianic or Antonine. (Tertiary fill of the Late Roman water hole (785))

1. Small scrap of form 29 or 37, South Gaulish, showing scroll decoration typical of the Neronian or Flavian period. (Lower fill of Pit 423, ungrouped)

Ditch Group 1480 (Late Roman Phase 5 to Late Roman/Saxon Transitional Phase 6):

2. Form 37, Central Gaulish, in the style of Do(v)eccus, showing his large-beaded panel border and a double medallion containing Rogers's figure type R3117 (Rogers 1999, pl. 41, 18). c. AD 165-200. (Silt (430) over late Iron Age/early Roman Track way Group 149, Phase 34b/5)

The samian ware from this group is clearly residual in context. The secondary and tertiary fillings of slot 1447 produced form 15/17, South Gaulish, Neronian or Flavian and form 18/31, Central Gaulish, Hadrianic-early Antonine respectively and the fill of 1514 a probably Antonine scrap of Central Gaulish form 18/31 or 31.

3. Form 37, Central Gaulish, showing part of an ovolo, probably Rogers 1974, B223, used by Cinnamus. c. AD 150-175. (Upper filling of Late Roman well (24), Phase 5)

Early Saxon pits (Phase 7): Pit 625 produced three fragments of form 45, Central Gaulish, c. AD 170-200, again residual in context.

Ditch Group 445 (Phase 3/4a):

The Site D Pottery

Forms 27 and 18R(?), both South Gaulish and of first century date. (Fill of (1432))

Introduction Early Roman Ditch Group 125 (Phase 4b): The assemblage from Site D totals 108 vessels, made up of 427 sherds, weighing 3351kg. The assemblage is summarised in Tables 23-24, and significant assemblages are discussed further below.

Scrap of uncertain form, Central Gaulish. Hadrianic or Antonine. (Secondary fill of early Roman ditch (527); Form 18/31R or 31R, Central Gaulish. Antonine. (Secondary fill of early Roman ditch (793).

Phase 3 Late Iron Age

Early Roman Ditch Group 240 (Phase 4b):

Late Iron Age/Early Roman track way Group 149 (Phases 3-4b/5):

The assemblage from Site D ranges in date from the EMIA to the medieval period. There appears to be little contamination from either earlier or later activity on the site. The only pottery recovered from early phase boundary ditch 5018, however, is an undiagnostic vessel of reduced sandy ware, which, although recorded as miscellaneous medieval, may be Roman.

Form 18, South Gaulish. First century, probably Flavian. (Gravel surface (177); Form 18 or 15/17, South Gaulish,

The earlier of the two LIA phases appears to be the period of greatest activity on the site. Three post-holes

Form 45, Central Gaulish. Four small scraps showing hole for lion-head spout. c. AD 170-200. (Fill of (1292), recutting early Roman ditch).

112

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE and a pit in this phase, however, contain only pre‘Belgic’ pottery and may indicate an earlier phase (table 23). Most of the sherds are small and fragmentary so may be residual in LIA features, but the post hole 5077 contains eleven, albeit small, sherds from one coarse flint tempered vessel, possibly LBA–EIA in date.

None of the ‘Belgic’ pottery is sooted externally, suggesting it was not used as cooking vessels, although the forms and decoration indicates this may have been its main purpose. Elsewhere, these jars are primarily kitchen equipment (Thompson 1982, 275). A single jar from (5174) was pitted internally, possibly the result of acidic contents. One residual base sherd from a grog tempered F06B vessel, recovered from the fill of grave 5032, had at least two holes, with a diameter of 5mm each, drilled into it post firing. No other signs of use were evident. A crushed vessel from the evaluation had a pierced base for use as a strainer. A crushed vessel from the evaluation had a pierced base for use as a strainer.

The bulk of the LIA component of the earlier LIA phase comprises grog tempered ‘Belgic’ pottery in a range of fineness, with or without varying amounts of sand. A single lid seated jar in shelly fabric F07 came from (2174) the fill of boundary ditch 5175. Grog tempered forms are mainly everted rim jars, Thompson’s type C71, cordoned jars, Thompson’s type B3, and butt beakers, Thompson’s type G5-2 (Thompson 1982). One storage jar with a roll rim was recognised. Of the jars, 41% have combed decoration on the bodies, a motif particularly common in Hertfordshire (Thompson 1982, 274). The combing is only on the shoulder, and the upper bands are close together with very narrow spacing, gradually getting wider as the combing extends over the vessel (Fig. 57 no.112). Below the shoulder, the surface is roughened, as though with a stiff bristle brush, possibly to give a good grip. A single jar had combed arcs on the shoulder (Fig. 57 no. 115). Pit 5238 contained a particularly good assemblage of ‘Belgic’ pottery. Most of the vessels are made up of more than five sherds, although few are complete. Figure 57 no. 112 is an almost complete jar with combed decoration.

Phases 4-5 – Roman There is very little evidence of Roman activity on the site. A single post-hole contains only Roman pottery and the latest pottery in ditch 5175 (fill (2174) is early Roman in date. This suggests that, although the ditch was cut and in use in the LIA, it did not go fully out of use until the early Roman period. These two features appear to be the only evidence on the site of Roman activity, with the exception of the residual Roman pottery in the fills of the Saxon graves (table 24). The sparseness of this evidence suggests this activity was peripheral to the area. Phase 4: Pottery from the Graves With the exception of the Saxon pottery from Grave 5014, all the pottery from the fills of the graves is dated to the IA or Roman periods (table 24). The assemblage is small and fragmentary although there is one single base in nineteen fragments, in a coarse grog fabric F06C, from grave 5050. There is other evidence of IA and Roman activity on this site, and the pottery of this date in the grave fills, including the base, is likely to be residual.

Pottery from the later LIA phase of boundary ditches is broadly contemporary with the LIA features of the earlier, confirming the suggestion that these ditches were cut and re-cut while the earlier phase’s ditches were still in existence. It is likely that they went out of use at the same time.

Fig. 57 Site D Pottery: Late Iron Age (nos 112-115); Saxon (no. 116) 113

Boundary ditch 5220

5221 2

114

1:11:31

F01A

1:1:2

1:7:12

F01B

1:1:2

F16

LBA-EIA

1:1:7

F28

1:6:23

1:1:23

1:11:77

1:1:3

1:6:21

1:1:2

F06A

1:60:933

1:1:27

2:74:610

1:1:18

F06C

9

73:126:81 1:2:145

2:15:99

1:33:193

1:1:12

7:38:264

1:1:4

1:1:4

2:2:9

1:1:10

1:6:86

F06B

LIA

Table 23. Site D pottery from ditches, pits and post holes phases 1, 2, 3 and 6 (vessels:sherds:weight)

Windmill base 5246

Boundary ditch 5216

5217 2

Post-hole 5197

pit 5238

5238 1

5245 6

Pit 5214

5215 1

5196 3

Pit 5051

5052 1

Boundary ditch 5018

Post-hole 5167

5166 1

5018 1

Post-hole 5137

5136 1

Boundary ditch 5175

Post-hole 5111

5110 1

5174 1

Post-hole 5199

5198 1?

Boundary ditch 5053

Pit 5228

5229 1

5054 2

Post-hole 5077

5076 1

Description

Post-hole 5061

Phase

5060 1

Cxt

2:5:61

F07

1:10:19

1:1:7

R05A

1:2:4

R05B

1:1:11

R05C

RB

1:1:2

R06B

2:5:74

1:5:94

C

5:5:64

C09

Med

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Cxt

Grave

5004 5005 5009 5010 5011 5015 5023 5024 5020 5034#

5006 5006 5009 5011 5011 5017 5021 5026 5027 5032

5035 5014

5050 5014

LBA-EIA F01A

F01B

LIA F06B 3:3:12 3:15:90 2:4:52 1:1:13

F06C

F07

RB F08

F09

1:1:13 3:3:48

R

AS

R01

A

A26

1:1:9 1:1:11 1:1:2

3:4:4 1:1:1 2:2:2

1:1:1

1:1:3 2:2:5

1:3:1

30:36:23 2:2:21 1 1:19:112 1:1:2

1:10:208 1:4:54

Table 24. Site D - Pottery from graves

A single Saxon accessory vessel was recovered from Grave 5014 (Fig. 58 no.116). The vessel was in poor condition and appeared to be poorly fired. Little of the fabric could be discerned, although it is likely to be quartz sand tempered. The form is a small simple upright rimmed, straight-sided bowl. The base is flat with a slightly rounded base angle. Although these plain vessels with straight upright rims cannot be closely dated, Myres suggests a date in the 6th-early 7th centuries, comparing them closely to continental examples (Myres 1977, 8). The pot was found next to the right elbow of a child’s skeleton. The pot may have been buried as a container for unrecognised contents rather than as an object in itself, although nothing was found inside the vessel. It is the only ceramic vessel buried as grave goods. The four sherds of A26 found in the same grave are abraded and may be misidentified IA pottery. The rest of the pottery from this grave is residual.

Phase 6: Medieval Windmill Base)

(Pottery

Illust No. 1

Catalogue of Illustrated Pottery (all sites) The catalogue is arranged by figure and illustration number, then fabric and description of vessel (crosscontext number in brackets), followed by number of sherds:weight (g) for each feature/context from which the sherds come, followed by the phase of that context.

Fabric Description F01A

68

2

F28

68

3

AC02

68

4

AC02

68

5

AC02

68

6

AC02

68

7

AC02

68

8

F32

the

The pottery from the windmill base 5246 comprises sherds from five vessels of Brill/Boarstall type, fabric C09, and two vessels in a reduced sandy fabric C (table 23). Bowls with internal light yellow glaze, speckled green with copper were found together with sherds from a baluster jug with red slip decoration. These have been recovered from excavations at the pottery production site at Temple Farm, Brill (Ivens 1982, 151) and may be dated to the first half of the 14th century.

Site A Fig No. 68

from

Sherds: F no weight (g) 1:31 8228

Vessel with fingernail pinching just below rim and two holes drilled post firing Body sherd from jar with two round ‘dimples’ 1:40 pushed Globular jar with flaring neck; probably the same vessel as no.4 Globular jar with chevron grooves on shoulder; 28:1189 probably the same vessel as no.3 Concertina bowl with ompholos base finer than 131:1704 the body; worn patches on interior, consistently worn exterior Concertina bowl with ompholos base finer than 63:1309 the body Jar with shoulder paddled or smoothed with a 8:83 flat tool Carinated bowl 58:139

Table 25 Catalogue of Site A illustrated pottery

115

Context Phase 8227

1b

8203

8202

1b

8203

8202

1b

8271

8305

1b

8271

8305

1b

8271

8305

1b

8271

8305

1b

8236

8235

1b

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Site B Fig No. 69 69 69

Illust No 9 10 11

Fabric Description

69

12

F01A

69

13

F01A

69 69 69 69 69

14 15 16 17 18

F01A F01A F01A F01A F01A

69

19

F01A

69 69

20 21

F01B F01B

69

22

F01C

70

23

F28

70

24

F28

70

25

F28

70

26

F28

70

27

F28

70 70 70 70 70

28 29 30 31 32

F28 F28 F28 F28 F28

70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 71 71

33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42

F28 F28 F28 F31 F31 F31 F31 F31 F35 F35

71

43

F35

71

44

F35

71

45

F35

71

46

F35

71

47

F35

71

48

F35

71 71

49 50

F35 F16

71

51

F16

71

52

F16

F16C F16 F01A

Sherds: Weight (g) Globular jar 17:59 Jar with inturned rim 1:128 Jar with cracked and dented surface; 19:698 large flint up to 10mm Jar with clear fingering on interior (cc 57:3477 10) 6:370 Jar with re-oxidised breaks and 1:57 cracked and dented surface (cc 9) 27:1458 Jar with clear fingering on interior 10:954 Flat-topped jar 6:100 Jar rim 1:11 Bowl with particularly thick body 2:82 Rounded bowl (cc 3) 1:17 2:22 Rounded bowl with particularly thin 1:9 walls (cc 1) 1:5 Jar with rim and base missing 4:122 Bowl with thin walls and mica in the 4:32 fabric Jar rim, with finger indented flat top; 1:9 black internal residue Carinated jar (cc 6) 3:39 1:39 Jar with vertical combing/brushing on 1:86 body Carinated jar with finger tipping on 12:127 carination; thick black internal residue Carinated jar with fingernail 7:92 impressions on carination Jar with burnished exterior and 2:25 horizontal incised line Jar rim with finger-tipping 2:45 Jar with smoothed external surface 2:77 Jar with rounded shoulder 4:135 Lower part of jar 4:60 Globular bowl with patchy sooting on 6:40 the interior and over breaks Body sherd with incised chevrons 4:43 Body sherd with diagonal grooves 1:14 Lug handle 1:57 Jar – complete profile 14:286 Jar with thick black internal residue 8:46 Jar with highly burnished ext 5:62 Jar rim 6:30 Small jar/bowl with burnished exterior 1:41 Jar rim 1:45 Jar with vertical scoring and black 3:69 internal residue Jar with incised decoration on 4:115 shoulder and base angle; white 3:30 internal residue (cc 14) Bowl with incised zig-zags with white 2:23 inlay; Chinnor Wandlebury tradition Bowl with incised zig-zags with white 4:44 inlay; Chinnor Wandlebury tradition Bowl with incised zig-zags with white 1:3 inlay; Chinnor Wandlebury tradition Bowl with incised zig-zags with white 2:7 inlay; Chinnor Wandlebury tradition Bowl with incised decoration with white 1:2 inlay; Chinnor Wandlebury tradition Body sherd with incised decoration 1:4 Jar with vertical grooves/combing on 55:2781 body; sooted on exterior and interior Jar with sparse shell, hard fired, well 2:129 smoothed surfaces; incised chevron 2:73 decoration or scoring (cc 4) 1:24 1:9 Body sherd with thumbed applied strip; 1:17

116

F no

Context G no

Phase

6046 1001 1151

6047 1002 1153

1699 1677 1704

1b 2a 1a

1151 1154 1154 1151 1151 147 1467 6073 466 469 466 466

1704 1705 1705 1704 1704 1707 1638 1699 1707 1707 1707 1707 1679 1704

1a 2a/2b 2a/2b 1a 1a 1b 2a 1b 1b 1b 1b 1b

1151

1153 1199 1199 1153 1153 148 1469 6075 467 470 468 467 475 1153

1154

1198

1705

2a/2b

1463 1463 789

1465 1464 791

1638 1638 855

2a 2a 2a

1504

1505

1638

2a

1309

1390

1702

7

1463

1464

1638

2a

789 1450 1001 1501 594

791 1451 1002 1502 595

855 1638 1677 1638 1623

2a 2a 2a 2a 2a

1504 1504 1309 789 1504 1154 1154 1154 594 827

1505 1505 1390 791 1505 1199 1199 1199 595 830

1638 1638 1702 855 1638 1705 1705 1705 1623 1706

2a 2a 7 2a 2a 2a/2b 2a/2b 2a/2b 2a 2b

827 827

829 830

1706 1706

2b 2b

1317

1318

1550

2a

1317

1318

1550

2a

1317

1318

1550

2a

1317

1318

1550

2a

1317

1318

1550

2a

789 1154

790 1155

855 1705

2a 2a/2b

1501 1504 1463 1450 1154

1502 1505 1464 1451 1155

1638 1638 1638 1638 1705

2a 2a 2a 2a 2a/2b

1a

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Fig No.

Illust No

Fabric Description

71 71 71 71 71

53 54 55 56 57

F32 F32 F32 F32 F32

71

58

F32

71

59

F37

72

60

F06B

72 72 72 72

61 62 63 64

F06B F06B F06B F06B

72 72

65 66

F06B F06B

72

67

F06B

72

68

F06C

73

69

F07

73 73

70 71

F07 F07

73

72

F07

73 73 73

73 74 75

F07 F05 F09

73 73

76 77

F09 F09A

74 74 74 74 74

78 79 80 81 82

F09A F09A F09A F09A F09A

74

83

F06C

74 74

84 85

F09A F09A

74 74

86 87

F09A F09A

74

88

F09A

74

89

F09A

74

90

F09A

Sherds: Weight (g)

sooted exterior Jar with upright rim Rim with burnished exterior Body sherd with thin incised lines Body sherd with slashed shoulder Body sherd with incised zig-zag on interior and interior Jar with incised decoration and fingernail slashing on shoulder (sherds do not join and may come from different vessels) Bowl with sooted exterior (cc 15) Jar buried ritually; pitted interior with 5 holes (dia 10mm) bored neatly in base from the exterior; hand made Cordoned jar Jar with everted rim and pitted interior Cordoned jar Ripple shouldered vessel with sooted exterior; hand made Hand-made lid Pedestal base with post-firing hole (dia.3mm) in centre of base, drilled from exterior and interior (interior drilling has missed the centre!) Base with worn footring; hole (dia 10mm) drilled from exterior worn footring Ripple shouldered jar with pitted interior; hole (dia 5mm) drilled postfiring in neck from exterior Jar with slight lid seating; 6 holes (dia 10mm) in base drilled from exterior; sooting on interior and exterior but exterior of base is clean Jar with slashed rim Jar with slashed rim; sooted exterior (cc 12) Lid seated jar with 2 opposing holes (dia 5mm) in neck possibly to take a lid; sooted exterior Jar with rectangular rim Small jar Cornoned jar with 2 holes (dia 5mm) in neck Cordoned jar Jar with horizontal combing/brushing on shoulder and roughened surface below combing; fabric variant with added calcareous inclusions Neckless jar with burnished exterior Jar with slight lid seating Cordoned jar Lid seated jar Jar with everted rim and horizontal grooves on body Jar with burnishing on the neck and sooted on exterior from shoulder down Jar with small hole (dia 5mm) in neck; Jar with incised and combed arc decoration Jar with bi fid rim; burnished exterior Cordoned jar with burnished lattice between cordons on shoulder; possibly same vessel as no.88 Lower part of jar with footring base, possibly same vessel as no.87 Lower part of jar with combed decoration Jar with combed lattice design on body

117

F no

Context G no

Phase

1:88 1:5 1:5 3:43 1:12

1317 1463 1458 789 1158

1318 1464 1459 791 1159

1550 1638 1638 855 1702

2a 2a 2a 2a 7

4:339

1227

1227

1682

3/4a

2:29 1:52 20:1756

827 827 4146

830 828 4148

1706 1706 1703

2b 2b 3/4a/4b

12:256 8:185 6:306 4:140

4101 4101 4128 1434

4102 4102 4129 1435

1710 1710 66 1700

3 3 3/4a/4b 3

1:72 6:231

615 4101

617 4102

445 1710

3/4a 3

9:51

615

616

445

3/4a

1:69

171

172

173

3/4a

53:1122

196

175

41

3/4a/4b

1:7 2:21 2:31 6:244

1432 1447 1447 196

1433 1448 1449 175

445 1480 1480 41

3/4a 5/6 5/6 3/4a/4b

1:132 5:23 3:111

1432 615 827

1433 616 828

445 445 1706

3/4a 3/4a 2b

6:197 2:157

4101 4128

4103 4129

1710 66

3 3/4a/4b

7:56 1:16 8:222 1:41 8:135

165 1432 4128 196 196

166 1433 4129 175 175

173 445 66 41 41

3/4a 3/4a 3/4a/4b 3/4a/4b 3/4a/4b

5:1000

875

876

407

3/4a

2:62 3:175

1489 827

1490 828

407 1706

3/4a 2b

3:32 17:174

196 1432

175 1433

41 445

3/4a/4b 3/4a

10:80

909

908

1708

4a

16:353

909

908

1708

4a

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Fig No. 74

Illust No 91

Fabric Description

74

92

74

93

74

94

75 75 75

95 96 97

75

98

75

99

75

100

75

101

75

102

75 75 75

103 104 105

75

106

Sherds: Weight (g) F09A Base with spiral groove where pot has 1:93 been cut from wheel F09A Base with at least 4 holes (dia 10mm) 3:39 in base; concentric grooves on base where pot has been cut from wheel; horizontal grooves/brushing on body F09A Jar with possibly 4 holes (dia 10mm) in 13:630 base bored from exterior F09A Jar with burnished upper part; at least 25:672 1 hole drilled from interior; tooling or wiping on interior R03A Neck from ring neck flagon 11:217 R05A Beaker; rouletted lower part only 8:97 R11D Base of beaker with small hole 1:58 (dia3mm) bored pre-firing from exterior near base angle R11 Body sherd with stamped stars and 1:19 wheels R11G Bowl with red painted decoration over 2:57 white slip, over a red fabric; poorly finished: brush marks and finger marks visible in the exterior slip R06D Body sherd with 1 small hole (dia 3:8 5mm) drilled post-firing and next to it another same size partially drilled from exterior R09A Flat tile(?) 1 edge survives (10mm 1:82 thick) small pre-firing hole bored 10mm from edge A01 Jar with small, pierced lug; band of 3:36 sooting on interior just inside rim, clean below A01 Jar rim 1:15 A01 Jar rim 1:5 A01 Body of jar with patchy internal black 4:135 residue A18 Jar rim 1:17

75

107

A19

Lower part of jar

75

108

A26

75

109

A27

75

110

A27

75

111

AC03

Jar; fabric virtually indistinguishable from F35 Jar with finger-tipped rim; sparse but large fragments of flint up to 10mm Jar rim with knife trimmed interior of rim Jar with cordon on neck – unknown type

F no

Context G no

Phase

1333

1331

1551

3

1333

1331

1551

3

1489

1490

407

3/4a

1489

1490

407

3/4a

196 909 785

175 908 884

41 1708 1698

3/4a/4b 4a 5

430

430

149

68

67

1698

3/4a/4b/ 5 5

1489

1490

407

3/4a

4158

4160

1698

5

1498

1499

1702

7

904 904 904

906 1077 1077

1673 1673 1673

7 7 7

215

215

149

6:186 2:54 5:100

214 320 1514

213 321 1515

1702 1702 1480

3/4a/4b/ 5 7 7 5/6

1:115

1514

1515

1480

5/6

1:6

24

25

1698

5

2:20

1158

1159

1702

7

Table 26. Catalogue of Site B illustrated pottery

Site D Fig no Illust no Fabric 76

112

F06C

76 76

113 114

F06C F07

76 76

115 116

F06C A

Description

Sherds: weight (g) Jar with horizontal combing closely spaced on shoulder 69:50 then wider spaced towards base Jar with slashed shoulder 1:25 Lid-seated jar with fingernail decorated rim; sooted 3:36 exterior Jar with combed arcs on body 60:933 Complete bowl; conserved 10:208

Table 27. Catalogue of Site D illustrated pottery

118

Context 5238 5009 2174 5054 SK1

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Fired clay slabs

II The Ceramic Building Material and Fired Clay

Among the ceramic building material there are at least 175 fragments of flat, brick-like slabs. The fabrics of these objects are mainly variants of grog or organic types, with organic fabrics being the most common. A number have been recorded as ‘mud bricks’. These objects, with one exception, occur primarily in LIA or early Roman contexts. This agrees with the known occurrence of these slabs on other sites of comparable date. The exception is a single fragment from EIA G1638, but it is a tiny fragment and may be misidentified daub.

A Slowikowski 2005 Introduction The ceramic building material and fired clay (cbm) comprises mass-manufactured brick and tile as well as a variety of fired clay material. This latter category comprises fired clay slabs, sometimes called ‘hand-made ‘belgic’ bricks’ in the literature; daub, mainly identified through the presence of wattle impressions, and possible bricotage. Each type of cbm is described within Appendix 2 whilst assemblages related to the group descriptions are summarised above in the pottery report. The presence of other unidentified fragments of fired clay has been recorded, but this material is not discussed further. The cbm has been recorded by context and form, and wherever possible, by fabric. Quantification was by fragment count, but a note was made where fragments join to form a single object. With the absence of a standard ceramic type series for Buckinghamshire, the fabric codes are based on the Bedfordshire Ceramic Type Series (CTS).

These slabs are common on LIA and early Roman sites elsewhere in the region, for example Baldock and King Harry Lane, Hertfordshire (Stead and Rigby 1986, 1878), the pottery manufacturing site at Stagsden, Bedfordshire (Gentil and Slowikowski 2000, 88), and, closer to Aston Clinton, Walton Court in Aylesbury (Farley, Nash and White 1981, 72) and Bierton (Allen 1986, 16). They vary between 20-40mm in thickness although there is one example of 50mm, and most commonly fall within the 25-30mm range. No complete dimensions survive but the existing corners suggest they are either rectangular or square in shape. Edges are often trimmed and occasionally whole surfaces are trimmed/shaved. One surface is invariably smoothed, the other left rough. Their function is unknown although they have variously been called ‘Belgic’ bricks, kiln furniture, pit-liners or bakestones. They probably serve no one purpose and are most likely to have served as all or some of these on one site or another. They are unlikely to be kiln furniture as no pottery kilns were found on the site. A number of the fragments, but by no means all, show signs of having been burnt so they may have been used as structural components of bead ovens or flat surfaces near hearths. They may equally have been used as bakestones for the baking of flat breads, a far simpler way of baking bread than in a purpose built oven (Brears 1984). At least one slab has a surface that has melted and ‘bubbled’ in patches, indicating exposure to high heat.

Brick and Tile A range of mass produced Roman building material was recovered. It was mainly roof tile fragments, 82.23%, comprising 87 tegulae and 25 imbrices. Tegulae were identified mainly from surviving flanges. Fabrics are mainly type 1, variants of orange sandy fabric, with over 95% falling into this category. Thicknesses, where measured ranged between 10mm and 27mm, although there was often wide variation within the same fragment. A single piece of a possible tesssera was found, reshaped from a roof tile fragment. 38 Brick/floor tiles make up just over 13% of the building materials assemblage. All are fragmentary and no dimensions could be measured. Flue tiles were the least common form with 13 fragments, making up less than 5% of the assemblage. A number of flat tiles with no other features surviving have been recorded with the tegulae but could be fragments of un-keyed flue tiles, particularly those at the thinner end of the range. Flue tiles occurred either in fabric type 1A, orange sandy, or type 2, sandy grey cored. Keying was in the form of shallow combing, in random swirls. In addition 124 other flat tiles and 325 miscellaneous small fragments were found.

Daub A small quantity of daub was recovered, about 82 fragments. All are tiny lumps at least two of which have wattle impressions. Where these impressions may be measured they have diameters of 10mm, 20mm or 30mm. Surfaces survived rarely. Daub occurs in all phases, but only in phases 3 and 4a does it occur in quantities that may suggest they originated in structures. Even then, they occur in the fills of ditches rather than as part of structures.

Large fragments of building material do not get moved far from their place of original use and there was a large enough scatter of this material on the site to suggest a reasonably substantial structure in the vicinity. The presence of the single tessera fragment and the flue tiles, although not in large numbers, indicates a building with a hypercaust and therefore of some high status, possibly a villa.

Bricotage Nine undiagnostic lumps of a fine, highly micaceous fabric have been tentatively identified as ‘bricotage’ or vessels used in the production and transport of salt. They are distinguished from the micaceous fired clay by their white or grey colour, their softness and powdery texture. 119

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE The same fabric, however, has been recorded as daub where wattle impressions could be identified suggesting that the pieces recorded as possible ‘bricotage’ may be daub without any impressions.

III

Nails were the most numerous type of fastener recovered, with remains of 56 examples identified. Over a third of the nail assemblage comprised remains of shanks, which could not be allocated to a specific form. The remaining assemblage was allocated on the basis of head form to one of five categories. The most common form, 35 examples, possessed flat heads usually of square or rectangular plan. The nail shanks tended to be incomplete, the longest measuring 95mm but the majority ranging around 65mm in length. This general-purpose nail cannot be typologically dated, examples spanning the IA to post-medieval periods. A single nail possessing a flat, rectangular sectioned, tapering stem and a triangular head with marked shoulders, equating to Manning’s type 2, is a Roman form (1985, 135). These nails tend to be of greater length, and this example at 130mm is no exception. Nails with small T-shaped heads no wider than the stem, the arms of the T generally robust, also appear to be a Roman form (Manning Type 3). Only one example of this type was identified. Nails with L-shaped heads no wider than the stem, such as the single example from the track way (context 430), can be found in both Roman and medieval assemblages. As in the case of type 2 nails, nails with L-shaped heads could be driven right into the wood, almost concealing the head. On the final form of nail present, represented by a single example from the track way (context 430), the shank expands and is then flattened to form the head. Although never numerous, this nail type tends to be found within medieval and later assemblages.

Non-Ceramic Finds

The Site B Non Ceramic Finds HB Duncan and P Guest (coins) (2004) Introduction A total of 219 artefacts were recovered from the excavations, of which 177 derived from stratified deposits. Of the stratified assemblage, 99 artefacts were recovered from contexts that have been allocated Group and Phase numbers. The following catalogue is organised by functional category and within each category, divided into ‘broad terms’. Only the best or most representative of each ‘broad term’ has been selected for inclusion in the published catalogue, although the general discussion, which precedes the catalogue entries, refers to the full assemblage. Illustrated finds have an asterisk preceding the catalogue number. The provenance of each catalogued object is indicated after the description in the following format: Small find number SF213;

Context (Feature number) 4040 (Track 4055);

type

and

Group number

Phase

Group 149;

Phase 5

Table 28 – Non ceramic description format

The function of three roughly shaped objects of lead, all from context 4185, is uncertain. Two are roughly conical in form (SF229 and SF230), both having tapering perforations through their centre. The third object (SF228), although incomplete, appears to have been of quadrilateral shape, with at least one perforation. Similar roughly shaped and perforated lead objects were found at Dalton Parlours, Yorks. where they were identified as caulking (Mould 1990, 97 and fig. 75 nos. 5 and 6) and a similar function is suggested here.

Building Fastenings and Fittings (Fig 58) Loop-headed spikes and double-spiked loops are common finds on Roman period sites. Both these objects performed a similar function, providing a loop that could be attached to timber or masonry (Manning 1985, 129). The two loop-headed spikes identified differed in size, SF238 being a much smaller example, whereas SF83, with a length exceeding 70mm, is of a size more normally encountered. The double-spiked loop (SF19) had out-turned arms suggesting it was driven through a piece of wood of about 40mm in thickness. Staples or joiner’s dogs were used to join timbers and can vary considerably in size. Two types were identified, a single U-shaped example (SF73) and three rectangular staples (cf SF82). The rectangular staples all possessed a back that was longer than the arms.

Door furniture is poorly represented within the assemblage. Two possible hinges are represented; SF213 may be part of a looped hinge while a robust perforated strap (SF90) may possibly be either part of a second looped hinge or part of the strap from a drop hinge. Locking mechanisms were likewise sparse. Two possible keys have been identified. SF50 is the stem from a padlock key, the lower stem and bit having broken off. SF77 is possibly the bit from an L-shaped lift key. Lshaped lift keys were found throughout the Roman period and have from two to four teeth on the bit (Wardle 1990, 146).

The head of a possible holdfast and an associated rove were found within a cobbled work surface (4185). Holdfasts were used to join two pieces of wood where a nail was thought to give an insufficiently firm join (Manning 1985, 132).

120

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE L. 37mm; w. 37mm; the 5.5mm. SF77; 380 (cut 379); ungrouped; Phase 4b

*Loop headed spike. Iron. Rectangular shank end bent round to form loop in same plane. Very corroded. L.29.4mm; w. 15.4mm. SF238; 36 (Pit 60); ungrouped; Phase 5 *Loop headed spike. Iron. Spiked loop formed from rectangular sectioned bar bent into loop at one end and tapering to point at other, point damaged. L.70.5mm. SF83; 582 (Pit 581); ungrouped; Phase 4a *Double-spiked loop. Iron. Arms out-turned, tip of one arm incomplete. Ht. 77mm. SF19; Unstratified. Staple. Iron. U-shaped staple of rectangular cross-section, tips damaged. L.57.2mm. SF73; 58 (Ditch 57); Group 41; Phase 4a/4b Staple. Iron. Rectangular staple with back longer than arms, short arms taper, points missing. L.79mm; ht 25mm. SF82; 582 (Pit 581); ungrouped; Phase 4a *Hold fast (?).Iron. Incomplete, large flat disc shaped head and portion of rectangular sectioned shank, probably part of a hold fast. Found associated with a rove and a Tshaped nail. L. 30.3mm; SF234.1; 4185 (Layer); ungrouped; Phase 5 *Rove. Iron. Rectangular plate with central rectangular perforation. L. 35.7mm; w. 33.6mm; th. 6.2mm. SF234.3; 4185 (Layer); ungrouped; Phase 5 Nail. Iron. Flat, square head, tapering rectangular sectioned shank, lower shank and tip missing (Manning type 1B). L. 85.2mm. 1291 (Ditch 1292); Group 240; Phase 4b Nail. Iron. Triangular shaped head of rectangular section, tapering rectangular sectioned shank, near complete (Manning type 2). L.130mm. 430 (Track silt); Group 149; Phase 5 Nail. Iron. (Manning type 3) T-shaped head and rectangular sectioned shank, lower portion of shank missing. L. 43mm. SF234.2; 4185 (Layer); ungrouped; Phase 5 Nail. Iron. L-shaped nail (Manning type 4). Shank of rectangular section, incomplete and in two pieces. L.39.3mm. 62 (Pit 60); ungrouped; Phase 5 *Caulking(?). Lead. Conical in shape with raised flange at base. Damaged on one side. Central, tapering circular perforation. Roughly oval base. Diam. 17.2mm; ht.13mm; wt. 14.3g. SF230; 4185 (Layer); ungrouped; Phase 5 Caulking(?). Lead. Roughly conical in shape, with irregular, off-centre perforation (tapering triangular in shape). Flat base of roughly oval form. L. 17.4mm; w. 14.3mm; 9.1mm; wt. 11.7g. SF229; 4185 (Layer); ungrouped; Phase 5 Caulking (?). Lead. Incomplete, originally quadrilateral in side view and sub-rectangular in section. Split lengthwise, with remains of a possible irregular perforation. L. 37.5mm; w. 12mm; ht. 13.6mm; wt. 28.3g. SF228; 4185 (Layer); ungrouped; Phase 5 Hinge. Iron. Hinge fragment, possibly from looped hinge. Rectangular strap, one end thickened with central perforation, opposing end broken, with about half a circular perforation surviving along the break. The strap is currently curved. L. c. 88mm; w. 31.6mm; th. 7mm. SF213; 4040 (Track 4055); Group 149; Phase 5 Key. Iron. Stem from padlock key. Rectangular strip of iron tapering towards one end which is folded over to form loop. Opposite end broken. L.89m; w.16.5mm; th.4mm. SF50; 589 (Waterhole 785); Group 1698; Phase 5 Key. Iron. Bit from L-shaped lift key(?). Remains of squared sheet, base slightly convex in plan, with three slots partially cutting the sheet, forming 4 teeth. The tip of the teeth have been bent over. Stem of key not surviving.

Household A wide range of metal vessels and cooking pots was used in Roman Britain but these rarely, with the exception of hoards, survive in tact. As with many vessel finds, those from the excavations survive as small rim fragments, and suggested forms are not offered with certainty. The rim form of SF62 bears similarities to a bowl rim from mid to late 2nd century deposits at Castleford (Cool 1998, fig. 36 no. 478). The second vessel fragment appears to be from a carinated vessel. Its fragmentary survival precludes certainty as to its complete form. A single sherd of translucent blue-green glass was recovered from context 589. Post-depositional damage has removed both surfaces precluding identification of the original form. Blue-green is the most common colour used to produce glass vessels in the 1st to 3rd centuries, but also occurs quite frequently in the 4th century (Price and Cottam 1998, 15). This colour was also in the manufacture of window glass. That repairs to ceramic vessels were carried out is evidenced by two lead plugs with a recess for seating around the perimeter. The largest of these (SF222) retains the remains of the repaired vessel in situ. Two iron bucket handle mounts attest the presence of wooden buckets. One handle mount has the loop formed by bending a thin projection round and welding it to the main strap. On the second, more complete, mount the loop was formed by piercing the top of the strap. This example still retained part of the bucket handle in situ. Two narrow perforated strips of iron (SF89 and SF76) probably served as box fittings, possibly the remains of looped hinges or binding. Small copper alloy tacks or studs, possessing short shanks and wide heads, are also likely to have been used on furniture. The three examples are plain, two having a domed head (SF42 and SF25) and the third a flat head (SF56). These are common finds on Roman sites (cf Chelmsford (Crummy 1983, fig. 120); Gadebridge (Neal and Butcher 1974, fig 57); Gorhambury (Wardle 1990, fig. 129) but are also frequently encountered in medieval and post-medieval deposits. A single possible copper alloy nail with convex head (SF58) can be paralleled from Colchester, where it was thought to be an upholstery nail (Crummy 1983, 115, cat. no. 3082, fig. 118). The sheep headed-mount (SF10) may have been intended to decorate furniture, as suggested for a jackal-headed mount from late 1st century deposits at Castleford (Cool 1998, fig. 40 no. 655). Although the ram is frequently encountered on terminals, for example on patera, and depicted in both terracotta and metalwork figurines, it is unusual to find the female counterpart. The goat or ram is often depicted with the Roman god Mercury, and is an 121

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Fig. 58 Site B Non Ceramic Finds: Sheet 1 grey pot in situ. L.51.4mm; w. 39mm; ht. 16mm. SF222; 4117 (Ditch 4116); Group 173; Phase 3/4a *Bucket mount. Iron. Looped terminal formed from narrowed iron sheet folded in same plane as sheet, short section of rectangular sectioned sheet, possibly retaining one perforation before break. L. 51.9mm. SF85; 589 (Waterhole 785); Group 1698; Phase 5 *Bucket mount. Iron. Strap of rectangular section splayed out at terminal and retaining two squared, and one larger rectangular perforation. The largest perforation retains the remains of a bucket handle, comprising a terminal of narrow tapering rectangular section which is threaded through the mount perforation and bent into an S-shape, the opposing end of the handle is flattened and expanded before the break. L. 66mm; max w.31mm. SF93; Unstratified *Furniture mount/hinge(?). Iron. Narrow riveted strip (3 joining pieces), plain squared end (opposing end broken),

emblem of fertility and prosperity (Green 1994, 321). Whether the sheep has similar associations is unclear. *Cast vessel (bowl?). Copper alloy. Rim edge bent out and down, wall broken off below rim. Too little of rim survives to determine diameter. Damaged. Th. Rim 5.6m; body 2.6mm. SF62; Unstratified. *Cast vessel fragment. Copper Alloy. Carinated or ribbed(?) fragment, only one complete 'rib' with groove above and below survives. Diameter and form cannot be determined. Ht 13mm; wall the 2.5mm; rim th 6mm. SF24; Unstratified. Vessel(?). Glass. Blue-green translucent glass sherd, original surfaces do not survive. Maybe vessel (e.g. bottle) or window glass. 589 (Waterhole 785); Group 1698; Phase 5 *Vessel repair. Lead. Oval in plan with recess for seating creating a 'waisted' rectangular cross-section. Remains of 122

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE 3 rivet holes, 2 rivets in situ. Tapering slightly towards broken end. L. 136mm; w. 13mm. SF89; 1291 (Ditch 1292); Group 240; Phase 4b Furniture mount/hinge(?). Iron. Narrow riveted strip, ends bent downwards, with rivet through middle of strip. In three pieces. Est L. 68mm; est w. 12mm. SF76; 206 (Ditch 205); Group 240; Phase 4b Tack. Copper alloy. Small, oval, flat headed tack and remains of short tapering shank. Tack head 11.3mm; ht 6.5mm. SF56; Unstratified Tack. Copper alloy. Small, circular, domed tack and remains of square sectioned shank. L. 4.5mm; diam 13.5mm. SF42; Unstratified Nail. Copper alloy. Head of convex headed nail. Partial stub of shank survives. In poor condition. Possible upholstery nail. Head L. 9.4mm; w. 8mm; ht. 9.5mm. SF58; Unstratified. *Furniture mount(?). Copper alloy. Cast, hollow, animal headed mount, in shape of sheep’s head. Ears, subtriangular in shape, pointing forward, short blunt snout with open mouth. Sinuous parallel grooves, denoting the fleece(?), decorate the sides and converge at the top of the head. Circular in cross-section. Diam of opening 20mm. SF10; 177 (Track surface); Group 149; Phase 3

(SF209) although of pyramidal form, is smaller and possesses rounded edges. Both these loom weights were found within the fill of post-hole 748, SF209 survived in a much more fragmentary condition when compared to SF68. A third possible pyramidal loom weight may be represented by SF208, this however only survived as part of rounded edge and base. The second form of loom weight present is ring-shaped (SF98). Ring or ‘doughnut’ shaped loom weights belong to the Anglo-Saxon period. Three types have been identified; annular, intermediate and bun-shaped (Dunning et al 1959, 23-4). The annular form, defined as having a central hole as wide as, or wider than, the surrounding clay ring, is thought to date to the 5th and 6th centuries and was made in a ring form. The intermediate and bun shaped types, dating from the 7th to the 9th centuries, have a smaller central hole, which was formed by piercing a clay disc. SF98 survives in a fragmentary condition with no external surfaces, and only a portion of the central hole, surviving. Despite this it does not appear that the central hole was formed by piercing, suggesting that SF98 may belong to the earlier, annular variety of loom weights.

Craft and Industry Textile Working (Fig 59)

Non-Ferrous Metalworking

Spinning is represented by three spindle whorls. IA and Roman whorls can be distinguished from their later counterparts by the diameter of the spindle hole. Whorls of this period have small spindle holes, 4-8mm diameter, whereas on later whorls the diameter ranges from 911mm (Rogers 1997, 1731). The earliest example from Site B is a bi-conical, ceramic whorl, the fabric type dated to the LBA/EIA (SF67). Clay spindle whorls occur on most IA sites, although in limited quantities and the forms do not appear to be particularly diagnostic of date (Williams 1993, 119). The remaining two whorls are both of lead, one of disc shape (SF96) and the second biconical (SF233). The material combined with the spindle hole diameter indicate a Roman date for these whorls.

Evidence for non-ferrous metalworking was limited (see report on ferrous metalworking in this volume). Cold working is indicated by a single strip of copper alloy with cut marks along one edge (SF20), suggesting it was trimmed off a larger piece. A short section of a tapering bar of lead (SF216), with burnt material adhering to one surface, may be molten waste. Due to the low melting point of lead such waste may be the result of accidental fire as opposed to deliberate melting and casting. Four fragments of lead scrap and broken sheets were also recovered (table 31 below). These may represent either scrap fragments discarded during the installation of lead fittings or result from decay of buildings with lead fittings. That occasional lead working may have been carried out is suggested by the lead plugs used to repair ceramic vessels, and the possible caulking. None of the evidence however, points to more than ‘ad hoc’ activity.

A single bone ‘point’ (SF70) was recovered from the secondary fill of pit 1154 associated with early/middle IA pottery. Similar objects, although not with such a bevelled point, are frequently encountered in IA deposits (cf Danebury (Cunliffe and Poole 1991, figs. 7.32-7.33); Dragonby (Taylor and May 1996, fig.14.4). These have been interpreted as ‘gouges’ or pin beaters used in weaving. The evident wear and areas of polish on the point of this tool may support such a suggestion, but the identification remains uncertain.

*Spindle whorl. Ceramic. About half of a ceramic (fabric type F01C - flint and quartz) spindle whorl of biconical form. Diam. 41mm; diam. perforation 6.9mm; current height 28.8. SF67; 1250 (Post hole 1249); ungrouped; Phase 1b/2a *Spindle whorl. Lead. Disc shaped with flat faces, rectangular in section. Spindle hole diameter 6mm. Diam. 19.3mm; th. 7.2mm; wt.17.1g. SF96: Unstratified *Spindle whorl. Lead. Cast, biconical spindle whorl with two flat faces. Spindle hole diameter 5.8mm. Ht. 14.8mm; diam.21.8mm; wt. 30.5g. SF233; 4185 (Layer); ungrouped; Phase 5 *Point. Bone. Long bone split longitudinally, one end worked to form a short tapered point. Surfaces near point smoothed, and slight polish on tip of point. Opposing end damaged. L. 150mm. SF70; 1199 (Pit 1154); Group 1705; Phase 2a/2b

Remains of five loom weights were recovered. At least three basic forms are present. The first form represented is triangular (SF241) and dates to the later IA. The example here, although incomplete, is on the large size, with a weight exceeding 1186g. The second form, pyramidal, is of Roman date. The more complete example (SF68) has sharp edges, suggesting it was finished against a flat surface. The second loom weight 123

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Fig. 59 Site B Non-Ceramic Finds: Sheet 2 4101); Group 1710; Phase 3 *Loom weight. Ceramic. About two-thirds of a pyramidal loom weight retaining portion of rectangular shaped base, top and perforation. Edges with sharp arises. Ht. c.136mm; l. 119.3mm; w (current) 97.3mm. SF68; 748

Loom weight. Ceramic. Incomplete remains of a large triangular loom weight comprising the apex of the triangle with central perforation, and part of one side wall retaining diagonal perforation. Surviving height 130mm; thickness 101.5mm; weight 1186g. SF241: 4102 (Ditch terminal 124

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE *Knife. Iron. Whittle tang set mid-line, back slightly curved and dropping to missing point. Blade edge straight, but slightly convex from use. L. 75mm; grt.w. blade 15mm. SF8; 213 (Pit 214); Group 1702; Phase 7 *Shears. Iron. One complete blade, length 95mm, back straight and then tapering down to point. Arm of shears at right angles to blade plane, beginning to widen before break. Total L. 165mm. SF13; 424 (Pit 423); ungrouped; Phase 4a *Hone. Kentish Ragstone. Primary hone of subrectangular in shape and rectangular in section, one end missing and one surface partially laminated. Surfaces smoothed, and long edges dished. L. 145mm; w. 53mm; th. 22mm. SF69; 905 (Layer); Group1673; Phase 7 Hone. Millstone Grit. Secondary hone, portions of two smoothed surfaces and one smoothed edge. Lower surface flat, upper convex, edge dished suggesting use as a secondary hone. Upper surface and edge smoother than lower surface. In two joining pieces. Th. 91.8mm; l.119mm; w. 74.9mm. SF200; 234 (Ditch 233); Group 240; Phase 4b. Hone. Quartzite. Secondary hone (?) formed from a cobble with one very smoothed straight edge. Currently fire cracked and sooted, three joining pieces. SF237; 4102 (Ditch terminal 4101); Group 1710; Phase 3

(Post hole 749); ungrouped; phase 4a/4b/5 *Loom weight. Ceramic. Fragmentary remains (19 sherds) of a pyramidal loom weight retaining about two-thirds of one face including perforation. Edges rounded. Ht. (est.) 140mm. SF209; 748 (Post hole 749); ungrouped; phase 4a/4b/5 Loom weight. Ceramic. Part of base and curving edge of a loom weight (pyramidal?). Ht. c. 45mm; SF 208; 1448 (Ditch 1447); Group 1480; Phase 5/6 *Loom weight. Ceramic. Fragment only of an annular(?) loom weight, retaining surface of inner hole, external surfaces do not survive. Est. diameter central hole 30mm; current th. 35.4mm. SF98; 1499 (Pit 1498); Group 1702; Phase 7 Off-cut. Copper alloy. Rectangular strip of copper alloy, cut irregularly down one length. On end bent. Straightened L. 95mm; w. 5.8mm; th 1.3m. SF20; Unstratified Waste. Lead. Waste or miscast? Roughly quadrilateral in side view, plano-convex in section. Lower flat surface has sooted material adhering. L. 37mm; w. 17mm; th.10mm; wt 24.7g. SF216; 4041 (Track 4055); Group 149; Phase 5

Knives, Shears and Sharpeners (Fig 60) Relatively few cutting implements were recovered. Of the two whittle tang knives found, SF4 appears to be a Roman form. Although incomplete this knife shares characteristics with Manning’s type 13, defined as having a broad blade, the back, which may be slightly arched, continuing the line of the tang and the blade edge straight or slightly convex (1985, 115). This is a general purpose knife and is thought to have been in use throughout the Roman period.

Currency P Guest Thirty-three coins were recovered during the excavations at Aston Clinton, including 31 late-Roman bronze coins and 2 IA issues (table 27). Generally the coins were rather worn, although in most cases the soil conditions had caused considerable corrosion and decay. One of the IA coins is an interesting example of a ‘silver’ unit of Cunobelin struck north of the Thames (SF63). Unusually, the letters CVNO are reversed on the uppermost of the two lines of text shown on the obverse, while the last letters of the name on the lower line are almost certainly garbled. This, combined with the fact that the coin is almost heavily debased (only a faint silvery sheen remains), suggests that the coin is perhaps a contemporary copy. Only two other examples of this type are known (in the British Museum and the Hunterian Museum collections), and all three coins were apparently struck from the same pair of dies. It is almost certain that this coin was used and lost during the IA (there is very little evidence to suggest that IA coins continued to circulate in this part of Britain after the Roman invasion of AD 43) and deposited in context 903.

The second knife is of much smaller dimensions and has a slightly curved back (SF8). This is thought to date to the Anglo-Saxon period, and would appear to be a type A knife form (Malim and Hines 1998, 217). There are few significant chronological indicators within the main types of Anglo-Saxon blade forms, and the curved back remains in use throughout the period. Shears are represented by a single blade and arm (SF13). The dimensions indicate that the shears fall into Manning’s type 2, medium shears (1985, 34). This size of shears would have been used for shearing sheep and cutting cloth. Both primary and secondary hones were present. Primary hones were quarried and traded, whereas secondary hones are pieces of masonry or other stone that happened to have honing properties (Moore 1978, 65). Although SF69 is incomplete, its rectangular shape suggests it was a primary hone. The larger, squared block of millstone grit (SF200) appears to be re-used masonry. Both hones have smoothed surfaces with dishing evident. A third possible secondary hone, SF 237, comprises a water worn cobble with one smoothed edge.

The 31 Roman bronze coins were all struck during the late third and fourth centuries (Issue Periods XIII to XXI), although four could not be identified to an individual emperor or issue period. The sequence of these coins is shown on table 30 where it is apparent that coin loss was restricted to the later centuries of the Roman period. The excavations at Aston Clinton produced particular concentrations of late-third century radiates (and their imitations), issues from the 330s, and the period 364-378. Although the assemblage did not include a single first or second century Roman coin, archaeological work has shown that the site was occupied

*Knife. Iron. Tang ending in slight knob, the back is slightly arched, continuing line of tang, blade incomplete. L. 109mm, blade w. 29mm. SF4; 127 (Pit 126); ungrouped; Phase 4a

125

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE continuously from the IA through the Roman period. This pattern of uneven coin-loss was probably caused by a combination of factors: few (if any) coins in use on the site in the early Roman period, and the greater quantities of coins in circulation (and therefore available to be lost) during the later third and fourth centuries. In fact, many Romano-British rural sites produce coin assemblages in which later coins predominate, although it also worth noting that fourth century coins are relatively scarce from Verulamium and many of the villas surrounding the town (Reece 1995).

and Buckinghamshire region (King 1986, 69-76). King (1986, 71) suggests that production may have started early in the first century AD and implies that their use continued throughout the Roman period. Other authorities believe that production might have ceased by the mid-2nd century (Buckley and Major 1983, 76). Of the two querns found, only one came from a stratified deposit containing a mix of LIA and Roman ceramics, the later including 4th century fabric types. Remains of four lava querns were also found. These were either of Mayen origin or from Volvic in the Auvergne region of France (King 1986, 94). Importation of lava querns into this region commences in c.50AD continuing into the seventeenth, with an apparent hiatus in the pagan Saxon period, importation recommencing in the eighth century (King 1986, 95). Three distinct forms, Roman, Saxon and later medieval have been defined based upon overall shape, angle of grinding surface, presence of tooling, and a lipped outer edge or a lipped hopper (King 1986, 95-99). All four instances of lava recovered were in a fragmentary, abraded and crumbly condition. Survival of any diagnostic features was rare, no handle holes or hoppers were evident, nor could the angle of the grinding surface be discerned. One fragment (SF201) had the face dressed with furrows, a trait frequently encountered on querns of Roman date.

The latest coins from Aston Clinton are two Theodosian bronzes struck between 388 and 402 (SF211 and SF225). These were among the last issues to enter Roman Britain, although the appearance of Theodosian coinage in early Anglo-Saxon graves shows that, while functioning as ornanments or charms, they could have been available to be lost long after end of the Roman period (White 1988, 98-101; Curnow 1985).

Transportation This category includes objects used in transporting goods and people and associated objects used to equip and encourage animals to travel. No finds of IA, Roman or Saxon periods were recovered. A single shoeing nail dated to the later medieval period on the basis of head form (Goodall 1980, 183) was found in silt overlying the metalled track. This may have been introduced by medieval agricultural activity.

A single fragment of coarse, quartz conglomerate, possibly from the Forest of Dean, Gloucestershire, was found within the silt layer (430) over lying track 149/177. This fragment retains only a small portion of a worn grinding surface, but appears to have formed part of a flat rotary quern. Although this stone source was not identified in King’s regional survey (1986), Roman period sites in neighbouring Bedfordshire have yielded a number of examples (e.g. Mill Farm and Eastcotts, Bedford and Sandy, mid-Bedfordshire).

Shoeing nail. Iron. The shank expands from all sides up to the flat top of the head, clenched tip, tip damaged. L. 24.2mm. 430 (Track silt); group 149; intrusive to Phase 5

Agriculture and Subsistence (Fig 60) No tools associated with agriculture or horticulture were recovered. A single object associated with animal husbandry has been tentatively identified (SF92). This comprises a U-shaped bar, the ends of the bar are narrowed and turned up and over to form loops in the same plane as the bar. This may be part of a shackle; the size suggesting it was used to hobble animals. The absence of chain links or loops precludes certainty as to type, but the size of the bar suggests it may belong to Manning’s type 7 shackles (1985, 84 and fig. 23 no. 7). On these shackles one eye held a round, oval or triangular loop and the opposing eye a long, narrow loop bent into a shallow V-shape. The shackle was closed by passing the V-loop through the opposing loop and securing it with a chain or padlock (Manning 1985, 84).

Three small fragments of sarcen stone display worn surfaces and may have formed parts of querns. In all three cases the stone has been subject to high temperatures suggesting re-use as hearth stones. One fragment (SF240) from context 1199, found in association with MIA ceramics, retained one worn concave face. The concavity of the surface suggests this may be the remains of a saddle quern. The second example, context 1048, was found in association with EIA ceramics, while the third fragment (context 346) was not found associated with any datable finds. *Animal shackle? Rectangular sectioned bar curved to form a U-shape, the ends of the bar are narrowed and turned up and over to form loops in the same plane as the bar. The eyes are incomplete. L. 67mm; Brdth. 60mm; w. 6.8mm; th. 8.4mm. SF92; 1291 (Ditch 1292); Group 240; Phase 4b *Quern. Hertfordshire Puddingstone. About half of a bunshaped upper stone of a rotary quern. About half of a narrow funnel shaped feeder survives. The grinding surface is worn and flat. Est diam. 240mm. SF99; 786 (Leat 910b); Group 1698; Phase 5

The remains of seven definite and three possible quern fragments evidence that the processing of grain was being undertaken. Four stone types were present. Two querns were made of Hertfordshire Puddingstone, and are of the characteristic bun-shaped form. These have a distribution concentrated on Norfolk, Suffolk and Essex (Rudge 1968), but are not uncommon in the Bedfordshire 126

U/S

U/S

U/S

U/S

1220

55

57

59

60

U/S

41

53

U/S

37

786

U/S

35

52

U/S

34

U/S

U/S

33

47

U/S

31

U/S

U/S

30

U/S

U/S

29

46

U/S

27

45

25

U/S

2

26

25

Conte xt

1

SF

127

-

-

-

-

-

-

1698

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1698

1698

Group

Posthole 1219

-

-

-

Leat 910b

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Pit 24

Pit 24

Feature

5

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

5

5

5

Phase

Radiate

AE4

Radiate

Radiate

Barb. radiate

AE3

Radiate

AE4

AE3

Barb. radiate

AE3

Barb. radiate

AE3

Barb. radiate

AE3

AE3

Barb. radiate

AE3

Barb. radiate

AE3

AE3

Denom

th

293-96

Late rd-4 C

268-70

268-70

270-300

270-74 Late rd th 3 -4 C

330-40

270-300 Late rd th 3 -4 C

364-78

270-300

364-67

270-300

364-78

364-78

270-300

270-300 Late rd th 3 -4 C

350-53

367-75

Date

ALLECTUS

Illegible

VICTORINUS

VICTORINUS

Illegible

Illegible

TETRICUS I

VRBS ROMA

Illegible

Illegible

Valens

As Tetricus I

Valentinian I

Illegible

Valens House of Valentinian

Illegible

Illegible

Illegible

Magnentius

Valens

Obverse

VIRTVS AVG

Illegible

Illegible

as Pietas?

Illegible

Illegible

Illegible

wolf & twins

Illegible

Illegible

as Pax? GLORIA ROMANORVM

Illegible SECVRITAS REIPVBLICAE

Illegible

Illegible SECVRITAS REIPVBLICAE

Illegible

//Q[..]

//[…..]

//[…..]

OF/III//CON ST

//[…..]

//[…..]

//T[...]

Illegible

//[R]TERTIA

VICTORIAE DDNN AVG ET CAE(S)

Mint mark

Reverse SECVRITAS REIPVBLICAE

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Arles

-

-

-

-

-

-

Trier

Rome

Mint

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

CK: 482/3

-

-

-

-

-

-

CK: 57-61

CK: 713

Reference

9mm diam.

13mm diam. silver wash on obverse silver wash on obverse

silver wash on both sides

16mm diam.

11mm diam.

18mm diam.

16mm diam.

19mm diam.

15mm diam.

8mm diam.

Remarks

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

4113

4131

218

220

128

Pit 4166

Layer 4157

Gully 4195

Ditch 4130

Gully 4112

Track 4055

Track 4055

Track 4055

-

-

Pit 1061

Ditch 902

Feature

-

-

-

-

150

149

149

149

-

-

1673

445

Group

-

-

-

-

6b

5

5

5

-

-

7

3

Phase

Denom

AE3

AE4

AE2

AE3

AE3

AE4

AE4

Barb. radiate

AE3 copy

AE unit

AE2

AR unit

Table 29. Catalogue of the coins from Site B

4167

4040

212

227

4040

211

4196

4040

210

4157

U/S

95

225

U/S

94

223

1062

903

63

66

Conte xt

SF

330-35

395-402

307-13

364-78

335-40

347-48

388-402

270-300

353-60

318-24 Late Iron Age?

Late 1 C st BC-early 1 C AD

st

Date

VICTORIA AVGG[G] GLORIA EXERCITVS (2 stds)

Constantine II Caesar

VICTORIAE DD AVGG QNN GLORIA EXERCITVS (1 std) GLORIA ROMANORVM SOLI INVICTO COMITI

VICTORIA AVGG[G]

Illegible

Horse and rider? As FEL TEMP REPARATION (falling horseman)

horse r., rider's arm raised behind BEATA TRANQVILLITAS

Reverse

Honorius

Constantine I

Illegible House of Constantine House of Valentinian

Illegible House of Theodosius

Illegible

Horse?

Obverse CVNO (reversed); ?'inside rectangles, above & below star House of Constantine

//TRS*

//(?)TR

//[…..]

//[…..]

//TRS

//[…..]

//[…..]

//[…..]

//[…..]

Mint mark

Trier

Trier?

-

-

Trier

-

-

-

-

Mint

HK: 68

CK: 174

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Hobbs 1862

Reference

1.12g

0.90g

Remarks

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Issue Period

No of coins

I - XII

Date Up to AD 41-260

0

0

XIII

260-275

3

111.1

XIV

275-296

8

296.3

XV

296-318

1

37.0

XVI

318-330

1

37.0 148.1

XVII

330-348

4

XVIII

348-364

2

74.1

XIX

364-378

6

222.2

2

74.1

27

1000

XX

378-388

XXI

388-402

Total (late Roman)

they are also encountered with great frequency in medieval contexts (c.f. Egan and Pritchard 1991, 18495). At least one intrusive find, a late medieval shoeing nail (see above), was also recovered from context 430 and therefore attribution of this mount to the Roman period is not certain.

‰ of coins

U-shaped bindings, such as SF38, served to fix edges on composite objects, such as copper alloy, wood and leather. When found within Roman deposits, these items are interpreted as scabbard, helmet or shield bindings (c.f. Bishop 1998, figs 20-21). Due to the fact that SF38 was recovered from an unstratified deposit certainty as to this identification is not possible.

0

*Button and loop fastener. Copper alloy. Class Vc plain disc headed with triangular shaped loop attached to centre of disc. L. 30.2mm; diam. Disc 16.8mm. SF64; Unstratified *Stud. Copper alloy. Cast domed rosette stud, stub of integral square-sectioned shank survives. Diam. 21.8mm; ht. 5.4mm. SF48; 430 (Track silt); Group 149; Phase 5 *Binding. Copper alloy. Length of thin sheet rolled into tube, retaining a transverse rivet hole near one broken end. Slightly flattened. Possibly scabbard binding? L. 55mm; w. 4.5 mm. SF38; Unstratified

4

Table 30. Roman coins from Site B arranged according to Issue Periods NB Issue Period XIV includes all barbarous radiates.

Quern. Lava. Three joining pieces of a thin, flat rotary quern. One smoothed surface retains incised grooves suggesting a dressed grinding surface. Edges and feeder do not survive. Th.26.1mm. SF 201; 782 (Post hole 781); ungrouped; unphased Quern. Coarse quartz conglomerate. Small portion of worn grinding surface and external face survive. Diameter not determinable. Thickness 50.5mm. SF203; 430 (Track silt); Group 149; Phase 5 Quern(?). Sarcen(?). Burnt fragment of sarcen stone, one sooted surface is smoothed and concave. Possibly remains of a saddle quern? Th. 47mm. SF240; 1199 (Pit 1154); Group 1705; Phase 2a/2b

Costume and Personal Adornment (Fig 61) Four copper alloy brooches were recovered. Three (SF14, SF22 and 7) are of one piece construction. The incomplete survival of SF22 precludes certainty as to identification, but the form of bow and in particular the framed catch plate strongly suggests that this is of the Nauheim type. This brooch type is poorly dated within this country. Feugère (1985, 223-6) suggests that the earliest of the Nauheim type lie at the very end of the 2nd c. BC, passing out of use no later than c.25BC.

Military (Fig 60) A ‘button and loop’ fastener (SF64) was recovered from an unstratified deposit. The function of button and loop fasteners has been a matter of debate for a considerable period. There is a general consensus that these fasteners served to hold together two pieces of fabric or leather, but it is unclear if the items being fastened formed parts of cloaks, harness or sword belts (Wild 1970, 145-6). The distribution of recovered fasteners has a strong bias toward military sites, which has led to the suggestion that they were items of military equipment (Wild 1970, 146). This example conforms to Wild’s Class Vc fasteners, having a flat disc head with a triangular outlined shank which is centrally attached to the rear face of the disc. Dated parallels indicate a 2nd century date for this form.

SF14 is one of the so-called Nauheim derivatives, defined by a one-piece construction, a four coil spring with internal chord and solid catch plate. Olivier forwarded several well-defined classes within this overall group, and SF14 belongs to the Simple Wire bow form (1988, 36-7; 1996, 235). This form has an asymmetrically curved profile with an in-turned head and a catch plate that is integral with the bow profile. Although a few are from LIA pre-Conquest contexts, the majority occur during the mid-1st century AD, its use persisting to the turn of the century and perhaps beyond (Olivier 1996, 237). SF7 is an example of a Simple Gaulish brooch (Olivier 1988, 39-40). The lower bow on this brooch has a reversed curve profile, suggesting it belongs to a small group of brooches (fewer than thirty) distributed across south and east England, but avoiding Sussex and East Anglia (Olivier 1988, 42). These brooches are thought to be of Continental form, but whether they were imported or were of local manufacture copied from Continental

A second object with possible military associations comprises a domed rosette stud with integral shank (SF48). This was found within the silt layer (430) over lying track 149/177. Although rosette studs are known from Roman deposits, for example on baldrics and apron fittings (Crummy 1983, fig.151; Bishop and Coulston, 1993, fig. 91; Waugh and Goodburn, 1972 fig. 37 no.98), 129

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Fig.60

Non-Ceramic Finds: Sheet 3

130

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Fig. 61 Site B Non-Ceramic Finds: Sheet 4

examples is uncertain (Olivier 1988, 42). Although some brooches of this small group could have derived from post-Conquest contexts, none have been positively identified as having done so and several are associated with pre-Conquest contexts dated to within the first half of the 1st century AD (Olivier 1988, 44).

The final brooch, SF28, is of two-piece construction and belongs to the Colchester Derivative class of brooch. The spring on this class of brooch is secured by passing the external chord and the axial bar through a lug with two perforations behind the head. The plain bow on this example indicates it belongs to Form BB (Crummy 1983, 131

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE *Brooch. Copper alloy. Simple Gaulish, curved plain bow with reverse curve profile, triangular catch plate with triangular(?) perforation, side wings don't survive, forward hook to secure external chord, six turns, remains of pin in situ. Heavily encrusted and in poor condition. L.48.4mm. SF7; 197 (Pit 228); ungrouped; unphased *Brooch. Copper alloy. Colchester derivative form BB brooch complete. Plain bow, hemisperical side wings with raised ridge either side of bow, solid catch plate. L.41mm. SF28; Unstratified *Bracelet. Copper alloy. Three strand cable bracelet in seven fragments, ends not surviving. Circular in crosssection, diam. 3.2mm. SF18; Unstratified Bracelet. Copper alloy. Small fragment of a three-strand cable bracelet. In poor condition. L. 18mm. SF9; 230 (Ditch 150); Group 150; Phase 6b *Bracelet. Copper alloy. Penannular bracelet, incomplete. Plain narrow band of rounded rectangular section, hoop expanding slightly to form blunt end, opposing end missing. Size suggests this was a child’s bracelet. Brdth. 45mm; w.2.4mm; 1.8mm. SF23; 430 (Track silt); Group 149; Phase 5 *Bracelet. Copper alloy. Penannular bracelet with two grooves at blunt terminals. Rounded rectangular section. W. 3mm; th. 2.2mm; brdth. bracelet 58mm. SF65; 1290 (Pit 1289); Group 1709; Phase 4 Bracelet. Copper alloy. Small fragment of a ribbon-strip bracelet, plano-convex in section, with two, worn transverse grooves. L.28mm; w. 3mm; th. 1.6mm. SF36; Unstratified. *Bracelet. Copper alloy. Incomplete fragment of a battlement bracelet. Bracelet formed from narrow strip of sheet, with cut out battlements. L. (straightened) 60mm; w. 2.6mm; th. 1mm. SF215; 4077 (Track 4081); Group 149; Phase 5 *Hair pin. Copper alloy. Hair pin with flattened knob head and cordon below, rounded rectangular shank. Lower shank and tip missing. L.36.8mm. SF6; 175 (Ditch 196); Group 41; Phase 3/4a/4b Dress pin(?). Bone. Pointed tip and lower shank of pin(?). Circular cross-section tapering to point, opposing end broken. L. 18mm; diam. 3.4mm. SF239; 896 (Pit 895); Group 1673; Phase 7

12). This brooch type is most common in post-Conquest contexts, remaining in use throughout the Flavian period (Olivier 1988, 46). Bracelets are predominantly a late Roman phenomenon, although some forms were in use intermittently throughout the Roman period. Four different types were identified. Cable bracelets are represented by SF18 and SF9, both of three-strand construction. No terminals survive on these examples, but parallels from Colchester and Lankhills indicate that terminals were frequently hooked or occasionally sleeved or capped (Crummy 1983, fig. 41; Clarke 1979, 302-03). Two similar examples were found at Bancroft, Bucks., one attributed to the late 2nd century (Hylton 1994, 307), although others are known from 4th century contexts (Crummy 1983, 38 cat. no. 1628). SF23 is a single strand bracelet, hoop expanding only slightly to the blunt penannular terminal. Although incomplete, the size of this bracelet suggests it was worn by a child. A second single strand bracelet, SF65, has a pair of grooves on either terminal and may equate with Cool’s Group VII bracelets, a form that was in use intermittently through the Roman period (1983, 140). A small fragment of ribbon-strip bracelet (SF36) retained traces of two worn transverse grooves. The placement of these grooves suggests that this bracelet may have had panelled decoration. SF215 is an example of a battlement bracelet, one of the commonest of the late 3rd and 4th century light ‘bangle’ types in use in Roman Britain (Cool 1983, 152). The single copper alloy hair pin (SF6), has a flattened spherical head with groove and cordon decoration below. This conforms to Crummy’s type 5 (1983, 30) and Cool’s type 6 (1991, 151-72) hair pins, a type thought to belong in the 2nd century. A second pin, this time of bone, may be represented by SF239. Only the tip and short section of a rounded shank survives and therefore identification is not certain. Associated pottery suggests a Saxon date for this context and therefore, if the identification is correct, it may have formed part of a dress pin as opposed to hair pin.

Objects of Wide Ranging Uses Iron chains can be used in a wide variety of activities, from domestic uses such as the suspension of cooking vessels, to the harnessing and tethering of animals. A single oval chain link of iron was found within fill 36 of pit 60. Copper alloy chains were used for suspension of scale pans but also may have served as jewellery, for example suspending amulets or pendants, or perhaps worn in conjunction with a brooch. SF15 is a fragment of a chain comprising two and a half links each made from triple strand wire. Cast copper alloy rings, such as SF44 and SF97, may have served a variety of uses including suspension loops on belts and belt fittings, finger rings and harness. A ring from Colchester, of similar size and cross-section to SF44, has a suggested use as a disc attachment from a late Roman military belt fitting (Crummy 1983, 139, fig. 162). As both rings are from unstratified deposits, there can be no certainty as to dating.

Nine hobnails were identified. The pattern of recovery, usually one or two in a context, combined with the fact that none were complete, suggests loss through wear, as opposed to intentional deposition. Four examples were found in layers overlying track 149/177, while the fills of ditches 150, 188 and the terminal of 4098 yielded a further five nails. *Brooch. Copper alloy. Nauheim(?) brooch fragment, filiform bow of triangular in section, narrowing to form coils (missing), opposing end narrowed and flattened to form framed catch plate, catch plate incomplete. L.60mm; w.3mm; th. 1.7mm. SF22; 430 (Track silt); group 149; Phase 5 *Brooch. Copper alloy. Simple wire bow form. Internal chord, originally four turn spring (spring incomplete), pin missing. Plain wire bow, solid trapezoidal catch plate. L. 48mm. SF14; 424 (Pit 423); ungrouped; unphased

132

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Quantit y

Iron

Strip fragment

1

Iron

Strip fragment

1

Iron

Lump

1

Iron

Strip fragment

1

Iron

Perforated strips

2

Feature

Group

36

Pit 60

-

5

64

Ditch 57

41

3/4a/4b

116

Ditch 196

41

3/4a/4b

116

Ditch 196

41

430

Track silt

149

3/4a/4b 3/4a/4b/ 5

582

Pit 581

-

4a

Iron

Sheet fragment

1

589

Water hole 785

1698

5

Iron

Strip fragment

1

589

Water hole 785

1698

5

Iron

Sheet fragment

1

837

Pit 836

-

-

Iron

Strip fragment

1

837

Pit 836

-

-

Iron

Perforated sheet

1

1291

Ditch 1292

240

4b

Iron

Perforated strip

1

4143

Pit 4142

-

-

Lead

Strip fragment

1

4157

Layer

-

-

Lead

Strip fragment

1

4185

Layer

-

5

Lead

Sheet fragment

1

4185

Layer

-

5

Strip fragment

1

4196

Gully Ditch 4101

-

-

Lead Copper alloy

Strip fragment (white metal plated)

1

1710

3

Shale

Lathe-turned (vessel?)

1

434

Phase

Description

Context

Material

terminal 18

Table 31: Presence of fragmentary objects by context Chain. Iron. Oval chain link, rounded in section, broken. L.32mm; brdth 14.6mm; diam link 3.5mm. SF71; 36 (Pit 60); ungrouped; Phase 5 Chain. Copper alloy. Corroded remains of two and a half triple strand wire links, longest 7mm, in poor condition. SF15; 432 (Pit 431); ungrouped; unphased Ring. Copper alloy. About a quarter of a small cast ring of lozenge cross-section. Diam. c.18-20mm; w. 3.5mm; th. 3mm. SF44; Unstratified. Ring. Copper alloy. About a quarter of a cast ring of Dshaped cross-section. Plain. Ext diam. 40mm; w. 4.2mm; th 3.5mm. SF97; Unstratified

Uncertain or Unidentified Objects In almost every assemblage there is a percentage of finds whose survival is so fragmentary, usually taking the form of strips, sheets and small rods, that identification of the parent object is impossible. Quantities by context and material are summarised in Table 29, but as these fragments do not contribute to establishing the nature of occupation they are not included in the catalogue. Full descriptions are contained in the archive. One object of iron (SF21) is of uncertain function.

A Horse Harness Mount Adjacent to the Medieval Moated Site at Drayton Beauchamp

*Uncertain function. Iron. Curving rod of squared section, one end tapering, opposing end flattened and rolled over with end folded back. Purpose uncertain, possibly part of snaffle bit link (cf Manning 1985, cat. No. H11a) or handle? L. 55m; rod 6.2mm by 6.2mm. SF21; 430 (Track silt); Group 149; Phase 5

A gilded copper alloy circular harness mount with integral loop at right angles to main body was found in topsoil adjacent to the medieval moated site at Drayton Beauchamp. The mount is circular, diameter 36.8mm. The faces of the pendant are very worn and although retaining patches of gilding do not show any signs of other decoration. Horse harnesses appear to have been decorated with pendants of copper alloy from the 12th century to the end of the 14th century. The circular shape and apparent absence of engraving suggest this could date to the earlier part of harness decoration, perhaps 12th – mid 13th century. Thereafter heraldry and enamelling are commonly encountered on harness pendants.

Discussion of Site B Non-Ceramic Artefacts by Phase and Group The discussion of non-ceramic artefacts by phase and group undertaken by Holly Duncan in 2005 (see Masefield 2005) has been subsumed into the description and discussion text of this report.

133

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Dover, from graves dating between AD 650-700 (Evison 1987, 60 and text fig.11/A12 and A16), and from Burial SG82 at Water Lane, Melbourn, Cambs, where the burial assemblage has a suggested date early in the 7th century (Duncan, Duhig and Phillips, 2003, 122). Grave 55280, from the small inhumation cemetery at Westbury-byShenley, Bucks., was accompanied by a necklet comprising a gold and garnet pendant, silver rings, three monochrome glass beads and one bead and three pendants of shell (Mills 1995, 320). The gold and garnet pendant has a suggested date in the second half of the 7th century (Mills 1995,343 cat. No.1). These parallels suggest a date in the 7th century for the introduction of shell beads and pendants.

Tring Hill Site D – Non–Ceramic Finds HB Duncan and J Hines 2004 Introduction The following survey of the grave goods focuses initially upon identification and classification of the finds evidence and subsequently discusses the grave goods assemblages in relation to chronology and gender groups. Presence of artefact types in each grave is listed in the grave catalogue. The artefacts are grouped into four main categories – personal adornment and costume, tools and personal equipment, vessels and weaponry. Figure 62 shows artefacts from the graves other than burial 12 shown on Figure 63.

The copper alloy slip-knot ring (SF144) was of the double knot variety, with the ends crossed over and terminals wrapped round the loop. Knotted slip-knot rings in silver became popular in the 7th century and continued in use possibly into the early 8th (Geake 1997, 49). Versions of these rings in copper alloy, however, have been found in earlier, 6th century, contexts, for example at Edix Hill (Barrington A), Cambs. (Malim and Hines 1998, 212) and in grave 2 at Dinton, Bucks (Hunn, Lawson and Farley 1994, 98-106). Copper alloy slip-knot rings continue in use into at least the mid-7th century as evidenced by finds from Final Phase cemeteries (e.g. burial SG69 at Melbourn (Duncan, Duhig and Phillips, 2003 burial SG72).

Personal Adornment and Costume Necklaces and Festoons Three burials, numbers 5, 12 and 16, were accompanied by some form of necklace. The components of each ‘necklace’ are discussed by burial number below, and summarised in table 32. Burial 5 The necklet accompanying infant Burial 5 comprised a lead alloy bead (SF141), a shell pendant (SF142) and a copper alloy slip-knot ring (SF144). The lead alloy bead is of sub-triangular or tear-drop shape, with a perforation made from one side. Metal beads found accompanying Anglo-Saxon burials are generally of gold, silver or copper alloy and are usually of a composite construction. Occasional finds of beads of other materials, such as fossils, coral, jet, and fishbone are known (Geake 1997, 47), but this lead bead appears to be a unique find. As in the case of fossil or amber beads, perhaps this bead was thought to have amuletic properties.

Burial 12 The necklace accompanying mature adult female Burial 12 comprised 11 glass and 13 amber beads and one finger ring. The glass beads were catalogued following Guido’s corpus (1999). Three shapes were present, biconical (seven), melon (one) and small bun-shaped (three). The bi-conical beads ranged in height from 11.7mm to 15mm with only one example, classified as a tall bi-conical, measuring 17.9mm in height. The single lobed melon bead had a height of 10.2mm, while the small bun-shaped beads ranged in height from 5.7mm to 6.6mm.

The single pendant of shell (SF142) has been cut and smoothed into a triangular shape. The species of shell could not be identified, but it appears unlikely to be cowrie. Parallels for shell pendants can be found at

Only two beads were of monochrome glass. The single lobed melon bead (Guido’s type viii) is of translucent blue glass and possesses five lobes (SF105). This type

Burial no. Age

Elements Glass beads Monochrome Monochrome Polychrome Polychrome Polychrome Polychrome Polychrome Polychrome Polychrome

Shape

Ground

Melon Bi-conical Bi-conical Bi-conical Bi-conical Bi-conical Bi-conical Tall bi-conical Small bun-

Blue Blue Blue Blue Blue Blue Blue Terracotta Terracotta

5 12 Infant Mature 1-5 Adult - Female

Sex Motif

Red spots Eyed White spots Red bands Red bands & spots Random yellow lines White/yellow crossed trails

134

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2

16 Infant 6-11 -

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE shaped Small bun- Terracotta shaped Amber beads Barrel Wedge Disc Lead alloy Tear drop Shell pendant Triangular Slip-knot ring (CA) Double knot Finger ring (FE) Spiralled bezel Polychrome

White/yellow crossed trails & dots

1 10 3 1 1 1 1 1

Table 32: Necklace components by burial number.

occurs from the later 5th century and continues through the 6th and possibly into the 7th centuries (Guido 1999, 52-3). The second monochrome bead is also of blue glass (SF113), in this instance opaque, and is a bi-conical shape conforming to Guido’s type vii (1999, 52). Although similar beads are known from late Roman deposits, these tend to be smaller than their post-Roman counterparts. This is a long-lived type, but the majority of examples of similar size belong to contexts of the 6th or later centuries (Guido 1999, 52).

Although many amber bead collections consist of irregular shapes, the majority of the 13 beads from Burial 12 exhibit a degree of shaping (SF107; SF111-112; SF114-120; SF122-123; SF126). The cross-sections of the beads vary, but when viewed from the side ten beads have a roughly barrel shape while three are more wedge shaped. The weights of these beads also fall within a similar range (between 0.4g to 0.8g) and appear to be paired, with only one bead (SF122), weighing only 0.2g, falling outside this range.

Blue grounds also feature strongly in the polychrome bead assemblage where they are most frequently combined with terracotta decoration. Single examples of blue ground with red spots (SF110), blue ground with red-centred white eyes (SF109), and blue ground with white spots (SF108) were encountered, conforming to Guido’s types xii to xiv respectively. Parallels appear to centre on the 6th to 7th centuries and it is noteworthy that continental parallels for these types are few (Guido 1999, 54). The remaining two blue bi-conical beads fall into Guido’s type xv, miscellaneous decorated blue beads. Both examples have terracotta decoration, one with three bands, encircling the top, bottom and girth (SF106), and the second with a band at the top and bottom and dots round the girth (SF145). Neither of these beads can be closely paralleled, although two blue globular beads with two terracotta bands were found with saucer brooches dating to the mid-6th century at Wasperton, Warks. (Guido 1999, 275).

Strings of amber beads are a type fossil of the 6th century (Evison 1987, 57-60 & text fig 11). This suggests that Burial 12 may fall within the 6th to the very early 7th century and this is consistent with the dates suggested by the accompanying glass beads. The wire finger ring with spiralled bezel (SF103) is characteristic of a 6th-7th century date (MacGregor and Bolick 1993, 169). The position of this ring, found on the chest amongst the beads, suggests that it was suspended from the necklace or festoon. This practice of incorporating a ring into a necklace can be paralleled from a Phase 3 (575-625) grave at Dover (Evison 1987, grave F), Chamberlain’s Barn (Hyslop 1963, 199, fig 13), Burwell, Suffolk (Lethbidge 1931, 67-70, fig. 36.3) and grave 10 at Dinton, Bucks. (Hunn, Lawson and Farley 1994, 136). The Tring finger ring is unusual, being of iron wire as opposed to the more usually encountered silver or copper alloy. Although instances of iron spiralled bezel rings are rare, Geake notes an example from Caister-on-Sea (1997, 170).

The remaining four polychrome beads all have a terracotta ground. There is a single example of a tall biconical bead with random opaque yellow lines, some forming irregular crossed trails (SF146). This was never a popular variety, and Guido notes that most examples belong to the late 6th or 7th century (1999, 63). The size of the final three beads (SF121, SF125 and SF124) is much smaller than the foregoing examples, diameters ranging from 8.1mm to 9mm and heights not exceeding 6.6mm. They share the decorative motif of white or yellow crossed trails, in only one case having the additional feature of dots between the trails (SF124). These beads fall within Guido’s type xiv. This type is widespread on the continent and is thought to have come into England via Kent and the Thames estuary in the 6th to 7th centuries (1999, 63).

Only Burial 12 can be said to be accompanied by a ‘festoon’ of beads, totalling 24 in number. The position of recovery of 22 beads was recorded (2 were recovered from the fill of the burial), and to a degree it is possible to reconstruct the string, although taphonomic processes need to be taken into account. With the single exception of a melon bead found between the upper legs, all the beads were recovered from the chest area. A plot of the beads in relation to the paired saucer brooches, one positioned on each shoulder, suggests that there were at least two strings of beads. The first, and shorter, string comprised only amber beads and ran in a fairly straight line between the brooches. It is possible the finger ring was suspended from this string. The remaining beads hung lower on the chest and their positioning hints at two 135

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Fig. 62 Grave Goods from Burials 1, 3, 5 to 8, 11, 13, 15 & 16

136

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Fig. 63 Grave Goods from Burial 12

137

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE strings, although this may be due to post-depositional processes. These strings comprised a mixture of amber and glass beads, the majority polychrome, but there did not appear to be a clear pattern in the sequence of alternating materials. It is probable that the blue melon bead recovered from between the burials legs was originally part of the bead string, but the possibility that it was worn suspended from a girdle, perhaps in a purse, cannot be discounted. The quantities of amber beads and the preponderance of polychrome, as opposed to the small monochrome beads commonly encountered in Final Phase burials (Geake 1997, 12), indicates this necklace dates to the sixth century. The presence of a spiralled bezel finger ring, the majority of which are thought to date to the mid-6th to mid-7th centuries (Hyslop 1963, 199), suggests that the necklace may date to the second half of the 6th century.

England, especially the Upper Thames basin, and of nominally Anglian areas in the southern Midlands from Cambridgeshire across to the Warwickshire Avon Valley. In this area and the Upper Thames region there are several instances of the imitation of some feature or other of the Kentish disc brooches on the cast saucer brooches (Boyle et al. 1995, 77–80), although rarely as clearly as with the skeuomorphic copying of the Class 3 brooches. The brooch pair from Tring Hill joins a pair of brooches from Stretton-on-Fosse (Warks.), grave 13, and single known brooch from Marton (Warks.) in the Avon Valley, together with a pair recorded as having been found ‘near Oxford’ in the Upper Thames region. A further specimen with no recorded provenance is in the British Museum (Dickinson 1976, 86–7, pls. 15–16; Inker in prep.). The cast saucer brooches consistently show certain differences in design from the Kentish disc brooches. The roundel at the centre of the saucer brooch face is always much smaller in diameter than the equivalent setting on the disc brooches, although this does not make the reliefdecorated ring with the paired profile heads and keystones much broader; the saucer brooches also typically have a broad plain rim to the outer edge. The form of the animal heads on the saucer brooches is both consistent and different from the Kentish designs, being a recognizably Anglian version of a Style I ‘helmeted head’ (Kendrick 1938, 73–81), featuring a curl, originally found on the profile head’s adjacent jaws, moved to the end of the nape. The keystone motifs are narrower and sharper than on the Kentish brooches, sometimes triangular rather than trapezoid. In light of these differences, it may be unnecessary to look for a Kentish prototype for the bundles of lines between the backs of the heads also consistently found on the saucer brooches. As Dickinson notes, however (loc. cit.), the unique Class 3.4 keystone garnet disc brooch from Faversham in Kent (Avent 1975, pl. 28, No. 100) may fit this place.

Burial 16 The single amber bead from infant Burial 16 (SF137) is much larger, 4.1g, and of differing shape (disc) than the beads accompanying Burial 12. It was noted above that strings of amber beads are a type fossil of the 6th century, but occurrences of only one or two amber beads in a grave are more common in the 7th century (Geake 1997, 47). This could suggest that Burial 16 may be of 7th century date. Meaney (1981,67) has suggested that amber is typically found in children’s graves in the Final Phase/Conversion Period and this grave would appear to conform to this pattern. It should also be noted that occurrences of single amber beads, with no accompanying necklace ornaments, might have had an amuletic, as opposed to decorative, function (Geake 1997, 112; Meaney 1981, 10 and 14). Brooches - J Hines The pair of cast saucer brooches (SF101 and SF102) from mature adult female Burial 12 is of a familiar, although not common, type. Their design is modelled closely upon a particular type of Kentish keystone garnet disc brooch. Between the mid-6th century and the mid7th, a feature of Kentish women’s dress was the use of round brooches decorated with inset glass or garnets. These have been surveyed and discussed by Richard Avent (1975). Class 3 keystone garnet disc brooches are distinguished by having three trapezoidal (keystoneshaped) insets around a central, circular setting, usually composite, and pairs of profile heads in Salin’s Style I, back-to-back, within the fields between the keystones. This is the prototype for these cast saucer brooches. The majority of Class 3 keystone garnet disc brooches have smaller glass or garnet settings between the back-to-back heads as well, but a few examples in Avent’s sub-groups Classes 3.3–3.5 have further stylized animal ornament in this area instead (Avent 1975, I, 30–33; II, pls. 15–29, esp. 25–29, Corpus Nos. 95–103).

The dating of these Kentish keystone garnet disc brooches has been the subject of a high level of analysis and discussion since Avent published his corpus. Avent placed the Class 3 brooches in the last quarter of the 6th and the early 7th centuries, following the introduction of Classes 1 and 2 in that order. Significantly, though, he was prepared to allow three Class 3.5 keystone garnet disc brooches, lacking the smaller subsidiary glass or garnet settings, to be as early as any Class 2 brooches (1975, 56–64, esp. p. 62). Following his detailed and comprehensive study of the Kentish square-headed brooches, David Leigh challenged this sequence, particularly by moving Class 1 to after Class 3 rather than before Class 2 (Leigh 1980; 1984; cf. Evison 1987, 42). The issue has recently been reconsidered by Birte Brugmann, firstly on the basis of her analysis and publication of the cemetery at Mill Hill, Deal (Kent), and subsequently in a more general chronological scheme developed from that (Parfitt and Brugmann 1997, 39–41 and 93–109; Brugmann 1999). Here she corroborates Avent’s relative chronology, and dates the Class 3 keystone garnet disc brooches firmly to her phase V: a

In contrast to the Kentish disc brooch, the cast saucer brooch is characteristic of the Saxon areas of southern 138

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE phase that she has not yet put an absolute date-range to, but which in relative-chronological terms clearly follows her phase IV, which can be dated AD 560/70–580/90.

of AD 625 and later (Evison 1987, 220-1, 229, 236, 249 and 175-6). The estimated age of Burial 5 from Tring Hill is thought to range from one to five years of age.

The derivative cast saucer brooches cannot therefore be dated, on present knowledge, earlier than about the last decade of the 6th century. How far they may have remained in production into the 7th century we can only guess at. The Stretton-on-Fosse brooch pair comprises the most skilfully executed specimens, and were associated in the grave with a collection of nineteen amber and one large faceted quartz crystal beads — not an assemblage one would normally expect any way into the 7th century. Like the Stretton-on-Fosse brooches, the examples from near Oxford and Marton imitate the composite design of the central roundel and have the keystones outlined, suggesting the cell walls holding the insets on the Kentish models. On the Oxfordshire brooches these panels are also decorated with incised motifs. The Tring Hill pair is plainer and coarser, and may well therefore be the latest in the relativechronological sequence of these saucer brooches. However the small number of brooches involved does not suggest that this is a sequence of any great timedepth, and one may justifiably propose a date of c. AD 600 for the type as a whole, circa here probably implying no more than + 10 years. The collection of glass and amber beads in Tring Hill grave (5036) is entirely consistent with this dating, and indeed does not in itself suggest a date any later than that for Stretton-on-Fosse grave 13.

The second pin, from young adult female Burial 13, possesses a discoid head, which is slightly recessed from a round-sectioned shaft, and a suspension loop at back of head plate (SF130). The head plate may originally have had a 'garnet' setting glued on one face. The shank is plain and tapering, with a total length of 45.5mm. Despite this pin occurring on its own, it does appear to belong to Ross’ composite-linked pins (LXIV.i.e), parallels occurring from grave 10 at Winnall II (Meaney and Hawkes 1970, 24: fig 9.10.1) and from grave 1 at Kemble (Glos.) (Wilkinson 1988, 200, fig 12.1 and 13.1). As a type Ross dates these to the second and third quarters of the 7th century (1991, 388). Both pins were recovered from under the chin of Burial 5 and Burial 13. Ross concludes that pins located under the chin may have fastened a head scarf or head covering (1991, 402). Although the pin accompanying Burial 13 may have originally formed part of a pair, there is no evidence to suggest the presence of a second pin or links within the grave and the position of recovery argues for a different use in this instance. Remains of mineralised cord (?) were found within the suspension loop of this pin. Finger Ring Two iron spiral-twisted bezel finger rings, characteristically 6th or 7th century in date, were identified. One formed part of the necklace accompanying female Burial 12 (see above), while the second example was found worn on the left hand of Burial 11 (SF134). Where sex of the deceased can be determined finger rings are usually found with female burials, the majority worn on the left hand (MacGregor and Bolick 1993, 169; Geake 1997, 57). In this instance however, both the skeletal and finds evidence, in particular a spear head (see below), indicate the ring was worn by a mature adult male. Rings with spiral-twisted bezel

Pins Single instances of pins occurred in Burial 5 and Burial 13. The pin accompanying infant Burial 5 has a flat spatulate head with central perforation, through which a copper alloy slip-knot is threaded (SF140). The top of the head has three V-shaped notches, the central notch deepest. Five small notches decorate each side of the head. Although sharing some characteristics of Ross’ spangle-headed type (VIII.ii), in particular compare the notched treatment of the head on the pin from Brighthampton, Oxon (Ross 1991, 171 and fig 5.8d), the pin from Burial 5 differs in being much shorter (51mm as compared to lengths exceeding 130mm) and having a plain, tapering shank. This pin is more akin to Ross’ short-spatulate-headed type (XVI.ii), characterised by a hole punched through a flat head-plate, an average length of 48mm and a plain tapering shaft (1991, 196). The main period of use of Ross’ type XVI pins spans the second and third quarters of the 6th century, perhaps continuing into the fourth quarter (Ross 1991, 386). It is noteworthy that this burial also contained a shell pendant, generally thought to date to the 7th century. Geake notes that it is rare to find single pins with children under 12, with only four other graves known, all from Buckland, Dover (1997, 67). One grave from Buckland (grave 20) was an exceptionally richly furnished burial dated to Evison’s phase 1 (475-525), while the remaining graves (grave numbers 43, 78 and 140) were assigned to phases

Buckles Two iron buckles were identified, one each from adult male Burials 1 and 11. Both buckles were found in the waist area and were in close proximity to accompanying knives. The buckle found with Burial 1 (SF147) was small, with a length of 10mm and a width of 16mm, and D-shaped with a looped over tongue. Only remnants of a folded iron buckle plate survive. This buckle could accommodate a strap no greater than 10mm in width. The buckle accompanying Burial 11 was larger (20mm in length and 30mm in width), of oval shape with looped over tongue (SF133). No evidence for a buckle plate survived. In this instance the buckle could accommodate a strap width of about 18mm. 139

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Burial 1 6 8 11 3 7 15

Sex Male Female Female Male

Female?

Age Young Adult Mature Adult Young Adult Mature Adult Infant (1-5) Infant (1-5) Prime/Mature Adult

SFno Härke Blade length 100 1 135 1 127 132 1 139 1 138 136

(?1) -

Blade back form Type A Type B Type B Type B Type C Type C -

Position Waist Waist Mid-way left femur Waist Left forearm(?) disturbed burial Left forearm Waist

Table 33: Occurrences of knives in burials

Small buckles are thought to have been used to fasten a knife sheath to a belt (Evison 1987, 90) and this appears to be the case here. Small D-shaped buckles with rectangular folded sheet plates, possibly like the example from Burial 1, appear to be more common in the very late 6th and 7th centuries (Evison 1987, 89; Ager 1989, 221).

only four knives could be definitely assigned to Härke’s groups, plus a possible fifth, all appear to fall within his group 1. Toiletry Set A single toiletry set, comprising an ear scoop (length 97mm) and pick (length 129mm) threaded onto a slipknot ring, was found accompanying adult female Burial 12 (SF104). This set was recovered from the waist area, and therefore may have been suspended from a girdle. The implements are well executed with round sectioned stems which have a punched oval perforation between 10-13mm below the terminal. Toilet equipment has been found in both Migration Period and Final Phase cemeteries, although not with any great frequency. Most commonly they are found with female burials at the waist, although examples incorporated into a necklace are known, for example grave 32 at Dover (Evison 1987, 118). More local parallels for the inclusion of toilet sets in graves include a set from grave 11 at Dinton, Bucks., comprising an ear scoop and two picks on a slip knot ring, found by the right side of the neck (Hunn, Lawson and Farley 1994, 115) and grave 55315 from Westburyby-Shenley (Mills 1995, 320). The elongated, circular sectioned terminal with flat top on the Tring toilet set is somewhat unusual, the closest parallel for this form being the ear scoop from grave 32, phase 3 (575-625) at Dover (Evison 1987, fig. 19 no 32.3).

Personal Equipment and Tools Knives Single instances of knives accompanying inhumations occurred in seven burials, two with adult males (Burials 1, and 11), three with adult females (Burials 6, 8 and 15) and two with children (Burials 3 and 7). In four out of the five instances, knives accompanying adult burials were placed in the vicinity of the waist, with only one instance (female Burial 8) of a knife being found mid-way along the left femur. This knife was found overlying an antler disc (see amulets below), and may perhaps have been contained within a purse or bag suspended from a girdle. In both instances of knives accompanying child burials the knives were placed next to the left forearm. Half of the knife assemblage had suffered varying degrees of damage, most frequently in the form of tip and edge damage, but occasionally damage to the blade backs. It has been possible, in six out of seven cases, to assign the knives to one of three traditional types; type A curved-backed; type B straight-backed and type C with a step towards the point (see Table 92).

Amulets Two possible amulets, one of antler and the other shell, were found accompanying young adult female Burial 8. The prophylactic powers that antler was held to possess are well established (e.g. Greep 1994, 82-83). The perforated antler disc from Burial 8 (SF128) was sawn from the crown of a shed antler, and retains its denticulated edge. The Tring disc bears striking similarities to Greep’s type 2 antler roundel pendants of Roman date, comprising the crown of an antler, sawn from the main beam, with a perforated central field, but otherwise unworked (1994, 81). Perforated antler burrs have also been found accompanying Migration period cremations at Spong Hill, where they were identified as possible spindle whorls (Hills 1977, 30 and fig 136). Discoid antler amulets are also known from Anglo-Saxon inhumation burials, these however, frequently feature

Hines notes that few chronologically sensitive traits have been determined for the various knife types, but Type C knives appear to be particularly characteristic of the 7th century, perhaps superseding Type B knives in that period (Malim and Hines 1998, 217). Although the assemblage is small, and therefore any conclusions drawn are tentative, the preponderance of Type B and Type C knives in comparison to Type A may suggest that these burials span the second half of the sixth into the early 7th centuries. Although the majority of blades were incomplete (mainly damage to tips), blade length in most cases could be classified according to Härke’s (1989) three groups (1: 45-99mm, 2: 100-129mm, 3: 130175mm). Härke’s study of knives from 5th to 7th century English burials indicate frequencies in the size groups 13 were about 70%, 25% and 5% respectively. Although 140

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE incised ring-and-dot ornament and the irregular burr, if it survives at all, is usually abraded flat, leaving no more than a ragged edge (MacGregor 1985, 107-08). The example from Burial 8 was found mid-way along the left femur, in close association with a knife. This suggests that it may have been suspended from a girdle or perhaps have been placed within a bag.

Weaponry Only one burial, mature adult male Burial 11, was accompanied by a spear head (SF131). This had a small leaf-shaped blade (52mm length) and an open (burred) socket (68mm length). The grave goods assemblage also included an iron buckle and knife, and unusually, a spiralled bezel finger ring on the left hand. The spear was placed to the right of the burial at approximately shoulder height, with the head pointing to head of grave.

The shell found accompanying Burial 8 (SF148) had been worked, the edges cut and smoothed, thereby removing most of the diagnostic features. Although the species of shell could not be identified with certainty, the whelk family was thought to be likely (M Maltby pers comm.). Cowrie shell, generally only found with female burials, has been found with several burials (Geake 1997, 62-3) and is thought to confer fertility (Meaney and Hawkes 1979, 32; Meaney 1981, 123-7). A single parallel for a whelk being included within a burial assemblage occurs at Castledyke, South Humberside. It is possible that the whelk shell may be a substitute for a cowrie, although Geake notes that it does not share the same rare imported status (1997, 99).

Small leaf-shaped spearheads, blades longer than the sockets, are classed as Type C1. Swanton places this form in the 5th and 6th centuries, dying out towards the mid-6th century (1974, 8) but Dickinson argues that the overwhelming majority date to the 7th century (1976, 297-8; Geake 1997, 68). Graves 15 and 20 at the cemetery at Dinton, Bucks., were accompanied by type C1 spear heads, the cemetery thought to span the later 5th to mid-6th century (Hunn, Lawson and Farley, 116,124, 142). Further a field, a type C1 spear head was found accompanying burial SG74 at Melbourn, Cambs., a cemetery thought to have been in use for about 100 years, from c.AD575 to c.AD675 (Duncan, Duhig and Phillips 2003).

Vessels A wooden vessel, a cup or bowl, accompanying female adult Burial 8 is attested by the presence of a copper alloy rim mount (SF129) found adjacent to the left upper arm. This mount consists of a rectangular strip with rounded ends, folded over the vessel rim and held in place by two copper alloy rivets, placed 8m apart, near the mouth of the mount. The mount, which retains mineralised wood, is curved towards the mouth indicating curvature and thickening of the vessel at this point, and suggests a vessel thickness of 3mm. Parallels for the inclusion of wooden vessels within burial assemblages can be found in Migration period graves 66 and 69 at Barrington A (Edix Hill) (Malim and Hines 1998, 225), and Final Phase burials at Melbourn (Wilson 1956, 31-2, graves 3, 6 and 9; Duncan, Duhig and Phillips 2003, burial SG56), Holywell Row (Lethbridge 1931, graves 23, 29, 31, 37, 39 and 93), and Shudy Camps (Lethbridge 1936, grave 39) (Cambs.). Geake concluded that the deposition of wooden vessels appears to have continued throughout the period of furnished burials (1997, 92).

Overview A total of 18 inhumations were found. Skeletal analysis indicated three males, eight females, four children, one adult (unsexed) and two unknown (fragmentary remains only). Of these burials, eleven or 61% were accompanied by grave goods. Grave Goods Chronology As with so many Anglo-Saxon cemeteries, precise dating of most of the burials is not possible. This is particularly true of burials that lack chronologically sensitive artefacts, for example the four burials that were accompanied solely by knives (Burials 3, 6, 7 and 15). Although Burial 8 contains a greater range of grave goods, the antler roundel and worked shell are not closely dated and the inclusion of wooden vessels (represented by vessel rim mount SF129) appears to have continued throughout the period of furnished burials.

A single ceramic bowl was found next to the bent right arm of child Burial 5 (see Slowikowski above). The inclusion of ceramic vessels within a burial assemblage is a tradition continuing from the 6th century into the later 7th century (Geake 1997, 90). Geake noted that ceramic vessels as grave goods do not appear to follow the rules which governed the inclusion of other vessel types, i.e. they were fairly common, found with both sexes and all ages and were not generally associated with graves of high wealth.

There are however a few of the burials that can be more closely dated. Burial 12, with its paired cast saucer brooches and festoon of amber and predominantly polychrome beads, indicates a date in the very late 6th to early 7th century for this burial. Likewise the small Dshaped buckle with rectangular folded buckle plate accompanying Burial 1 is most commonly encountered in late 6th and 7th century contexts (Evison 1987, 89, Ager 1989, 221). A slightly later date might be suggested for infant Burial 5. Here, the presence of a pin dating to the second to possibly fourth quarter of the 6th century, was found in association with a short necklace with shell pendant, generally thought to date to the 7th century. 141

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Burial 16, with its single large amber bead, may be of similar date, occurrences of only one or two amber beads in a grave being more common in the 7th century. One of the latest dated artefacts, a pin of Ross’ type LXIV, accompanied Burial 13. As a type Ross dates these pins to the second and third quarters of the 7th century (1991, 388).

7th to early 8th centuries substantial female assemblages are encountered accompanying child burials (1997, 1289). Whether this change was on-going in the earlier 7th century is as yet unclear (Geake 1997, 128). Child Burial 5 contained a short necklace, comprising a lead bead, copper alloy slip-knot ring and shell pendant, a dress pin and a ceramic vessel, suggestive of a female child. The remaining child burials were sparsely furnished containing a single knife (Burials 3 and 7) or in the instance of Burial 16, a single amber bead.

The dating of male Burial 11, accompanied by a spear, buckle and, unusually, a finger ring, is more problematic. While Swanton (1974, 8) has assigned a 5th to mid-6th century date to the floruit of type C spear heads, it has been argued that the majority of examples date to the 7th century (Dickinson 1976, 297-8; Geake 1997, 68). The presence of spiral-twisted bezel finger ring, the majority of which are thought to date to the mid-6th to mid-7th centuries (Hyslop 1963, 199), argues for date of at least mid-6th century. It is possible Burial 11 is one of the earlier burials at Tring Hill, perhaps of mid-6th century, but it could equally well belong to the 7th century.

Summary The full extent of the Tring cemetery is not known and the relatively small size of the sampled population makes it inadvisable to draw firm conclusions about the cemetery as a whole. Keeping these caveats in mind, there does not appear to be any consistent arrangement to the burial locations, nor is there any apparent segregation between males and females. The infant burials tend to be situated on the edges of the burial area, but this ostensible pattern may be a result of bias in the area available for investigation.

Gender Groups Females

The assemblage of grave goods accompanying Burial 12 suggests that this part of the cemetery was in use in the very late 6th century, and possibly, given the uncertainty regarding the date of the spear head accompanying Burial 11, slightly before. The latest datable burial, Burial 13, indicates a continued use into the second or third quarters of the 7th century.

Of the eight females, five burials were accompanied by finds. One of the three unaccompanied burials had suffered disturbance and plough truncation and therefore the presence of grave goods cannot be ruled out. Mature adult Burial 12 was accompanied by the largest grave goods assemblage comprising a pair of saucer shoulder brooches with at least two strings of amber, polychrome and monochrome glass beads and a single iron finger ring strung between them, and a toilet set positioned at the waist. Young adult Burial 8, although less richly furnished, was accompanied by an antler roundel and worked shell, both possibly amuletic, a knife, and a wooden vessel. The remaining furnished burials had a single item each, Burials 6 and 15, both mature adults, accompanied by a knife and Burial 13, a young adult, by a silver pin.

Grave Goods Catalogue Burial 1 SK5002; Young adult male Iron. Buckle Tiny D-shaped buckle, looped over pin and small portion plate in situ, all heavily concreted. Buckle length 10m; width 16mm. SF147 Iron. Knife. Whittle tang knife with curved back (type A). Edge worn, tip slightly damaged. Total length 120mm; blade length 77mm. SF100 Burial 3 SK5008; Infant (1-5 years) Iron. Knife. Whittle tang knife, damaged. Back damaged in two places but appears to have been straight before angling to tip, type C. Blade edge very worn. In poor condition. Length 114m; estimated blade length 75mm. SF139 Burial 5 SK5013; Infant (1-5 years) Lead. Bead. Bead of lead, tear drop shape in plan, subrectangular in section. Found in association with shell pendant SF142. Length 12.2mm; width 9.5mm; thickness 7mm. SF141 Shell. Pendant. Shell cut and smoothed into triangular shape, wedge-shaped in section. The apex (and thickest point) of the triangle is perforated through the width of the pendant. Obverse face of the pendant has green staining. Found with lead bead under chin of SK5013. Length 18.8mm; width 13.6mm; thickness 5.7mm. SF142 Copper alloy. Ring. Distorted remains of a slip-knot ring of double knot variety. The ring has broken in two. Circular sectioned wire, diameter 1.2mm. Ring distorted, currently between 11-12mm long and 8mm wide. SF144

Males Of the three male burials, two were accompanied by grave goods. Burial 1 had a knife and a small, D-shaped buckle with buckle plate. A single weaponry burial, containing a spear but with no evidence of a shield, was encountered (Burial 11). This grave also included a knife, buckle and, curiously, an iron spiralled-bezel finger ring worn on the left hand. This was the only instance of an item more commonly found with a female occurring with a male burial. Children All of the child burials were accompanied by finds. Geake has noted that as a rule comprehensive assemblages of 5th and 6th century jewellery are not found with children under the age of 12, but by the later 142

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE have been opaque white glass. Diameter 17.4mm; height 14mm. SF108 Bead. Glass. Bi-conical opaque blue bead with 3 bands of terracotta colour (top, bottom & centre). Diameter 15.3mm; height 15mm. SF106 Bead. Glass. Bi-conical blue bead with terracotta band on top and bottom of bead with three terracotta dots around 'girth' of bead. Diameter 15.6mm; height 14mm. SF145 Bead. Glass. Tall bi-conical terracotta bead with opaque yellow crossed waves - poorly executed and partially eroded out. Diameter 16mm; height 17.9mm. SF146 Bead. Glass. Small disc bead of opaque terracotta ground with opaque white crossed waves (no dots). In two pieces. Diameter 9mm; height 6.6mm. SF121 Bead. Glass. Small disc bead of opaque terracotta ground with opaque white (?) crossed waves (no dots). In poor condition, surface partially eroded. Diameter 8.1mm; height 5.7mm. SF125 Bead. Glass. Small disc bead of opaque terracotta ground with opaque yellow crosses waves with yellow dots (poorly executed in one instance). Diameter. 8.6mm; height 6.3mm. SF124 Bead. Amber. Wedge-shaped section, sub-rectangular in plan (3 straight sides and one curving). Longitudinally perforated. Length10.7mm; width 11.2mm; thickness 8.3mm. SF107 Bead. Amber. Somewhat barrel shaped in plan and wedge-shaped in section, perforated. Length 1.3mm; width 12.2mm; thickness 10mm. SF111 Bead. Amber bead, irregular wedge-shape in plan and section, perforated. Length 10.7mm; width 10mm; thickness 9.5mm. SF112 Bead. Amber. Irregular wedge-shaped in section, almost barrel shaped in plan. Perforated. Length 10.8m; width 12.4m; thickness 9mm. SF114 Bead. Amber. Thick barrel shape, rectangular in section. Perforated. Length 10.5mm; width 10.9mm; thickness 0.8mm. SF115 Bead. Amber. Wedge-shaped in plan, rectangular in section. Perforated. Length 8.5mm; width 8mm; thickness 7.8mm. SF116 Bead. Amber. Barrel shaped in plan, plano-convex in section; perforated. Length 10.4mm;width 9.6mm; thickness 6.8mm. SF117 Bead. Amber. Barrel shaped in plan, plano-convex in section, perforated. Length 10.2mm; width 10mm; thickness 6.3mm. SF118 Bead. Amber. Irregular wedge-shaped almost approaching barrel in plan, perforated. Length 10.7mm; width 10.2mm; thickness 8.2mm. SF119 Bead. Amber. Barrel shaped in plan, rectangular in section, perforated. Length 10.8mm; width10.2mm; thickness 5.8mm. SF120 Bead. Amber. Wedge-shaped in section and roughly barrel shaped in plan. Perforated. Length 8mm; width 7.9mm; thickness 5.7mm. SF122 Bead. Amber. Sub-triangular (almost barrel shaped) in plan, rectangular in section, perforated. Length 12.4m; width 11mm; thickness 8mm. SF123 Bead. Amber. Wedge-shaped in section, sub-rectangular in plan, perforated. Length 9.8m; width 10.5mm; thickness 9mm. SF126 Finger ring. Iron. Oval annular ring of wire of rounded cross-section. Remnants of spiralled bezel with ends wrapped round ring survive. In poor condition. Wire diameter 1.5mm; ring 25m by 20mm. SF103 Brooch. Copper alloy. Cast gilded saucer brooch with iron hinged pin in situ. Standard central boss with a ring plus

Copper alloy. Pin. Dress pin with flat spatulate head with V-shaped notch cut into middle of the top of the head, with one smaller notch on either side. The sides of the head have five small notches each along the length. A copper alloy slip-knot (double knot) is threaded through the central perforation. The shank is plain and tapering. Pin length 51mm; shank diameter 2mm. SF140 Ceramic. Bowl. Straight-sided bowl of coarse sandy fabric Burial 6 SK5016; Mature adult female Iron. Knife. Whittle tang knife, short straight back tapering gently to tip (type B), blade edge very worn. Length 120mm; blade length 74mm. SF135 From the grave fill: iron strip fragment (SF150); Roman window glass fragment. Burial 7 SK5020; Infant (1-5 years) Iron. Knife. Whittle tang knife, incomplete. Back straight before stepped to tip – type C - tip missing. Blade edge damaged. Total Length 92mm; blade length currently 49mm. SF138 Burial 8 SK5022; Young adult female Antler. Amulet. Cut base of shed antler, saw mark visible on cut surface, with central perforation (6mm diameter). Length 49mm; width.40mm; thickness 6.3mm. SF128 Shell. Amulet(?). Part of a shell with cut and smoothed edges. Incomplete (on end broken); oval in shape and concave in section. Possibly whelk. Length 35mm; width 34mm; thickness 1.3mm. SF148 Iron. Knife. Whittle tang knife, back damaged but appears straight (type B), tip missing. Blade edge worn but straight. Length 108mm. SF127 Copper alloy. Vessel. Rim mount from wooden vessel. Rectangular strip with rounded ends, folded over rim and held in place by two copper alloy rivets, placed 8m apart, near the mouth of the mount. Mineralised wood in situ. The mount has a curve towards the mouth indicating curvature and thickening of vessel. Length 30mm; width 8mm; thickness of wood 2-3mm. SF129 Burial 11SK5033 Mature adult male Iron. Buckle. Oval buckle, heavily concreted. Buckle pin looped round frame. Frame possibly rounded in section. Length 20; width 30mm. SF133 Iron. Knife. Whittle tang knife, back straight before gentle taper to tip (type B). Length 124mm. SF132 Iron. Spear head. Spear head, small leaf shaped blade (52mm length) and open (burred) socked (68mm length). No rivet hole apparent. Swanton type C1. Length 120mm. SF131 Iron. Finger ring. Spiralled wire finger ring of circular sectioned iron wire (1.4 diameter), incomplete. Ends of wire hooked over and formed into spiral (10mm diameter) in same plan as wire band. Estimated external diameter 25mm. Found in situ on left hand. SF134 Burial 12 SK5039; Mature adult female Bead. Glass. Translucent blue melon bead with 5 gadroons, Guido type viii. Diameter. 13.2mm; height 10.2mm. SF105 Bead. Glass. Bi-conical blue bead. Diameter 16.5mm; height 11.7mm. SF113 Bead. Glass. Bi-conical opaque blue bead with red spots (spots poorly executed). Diameter 15mm; height 12.1mm. SF110 Bead. Glass. Bi-conical opaque blue bead with three red centred white eyes. Diameter 17.2mm; height 11.9mm. SF109 Bead. Glass. Dark blue opaque bi-conical bead with 14 spots, 7 on each hemisphere of bead; spots appear to

143

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE outer double ring border. Motif single field with 3 axes, imitating Kentish keystone garnet disc brooches. Three plain triangular wedges dividing 3 zones comprising 3 panels each. The centre panel a 'column' of basket work dividing two triangular panels (mirror images) of Anglian version of a Style I 'helmeted head'. Diameter 64mm. SF101 Brooch. Copper alloy. Cast gilded saucer brooch with iron hinged pin in situ. Standard central boss with a ring plus outer double ring border. Motif single field with 3 axes, imitating Kentish keystone garnet disc brooches. Three plain triangular wedges dividing 3 zones comprising 3 panels each. The centre panel a 'column' of basket work dividing two triangular panels (mirror images) of Anglian version of a Style I 'helmeted head'. Diameter 64mm. SF102 Toiletry set. Copper alloy. Slip knot (double knot) ring on which is threaded an ear scoop and pick. The implements have rounded sectioned stems which have a punched oval perforation between 10-13mm below the head terminal. The shanks taper to either a scoop or point (pick). Length of pick 129mm; length of scoop 97mm; ring oval in shape, 33mm by 39mm. SF104 Burial 13 SK5042 Young adult female Dress pin. Silver. Dress pin, discoid head slightly recessed from round sectioned shaft, suspension loop at back of head plate. Head plate may originally have had a 'garnet' setting glued on one face. Plain tapering shank. Length 45.5mm; diameter shank 1.3mm; head 4.2mm. SF130 Burial 15 SK5045 Prime/mature female(?) Knife. Iron. Fragment of blade only, triangular in section. Back profile appears to curve before break (possibly Type A?). Blade edge worn and damaged. Length 76mm. SF136 Burial 16 SK5048 Infant (6-11 years) Bead. Amber. Disc-shaped, perforation triangular in plan, shape resulting from wear. Diameter 23.5mm, thickness 12mm. SF137

IV The Metallurgical (Including Related Debris)

hand collection during excavation as well as the environmental residues, the latter usually providing the smaller sized pieces of both ore and waste material. All of the slag and related materials have been identified as far as possible to type and fully listed on metallurgical record sheets, which are housed with the archive. Samples of each different slag type have also been retained together with more diagnostic pieces. The remainder of the material was discarded after recording. The aim of the current report is to characterize the nature of the assemblage in an attempt to identify the nature of metalworking at the site through time. The assemblage from the site is from contexts of a number of different periods. The proportion of metalworking waste by each chronological period is given below in Table 34. Table 34 shows that approximately half of the metalworking waste from the site was recovered from contexts that were not independently dated. Most of these produced only small quantities of material and are not considered further here. However, at least three produced much larger assemblages: that from pit 1289 (fill 1290) produced the largest single assemblage from the site and these are tentatively dated by association and are considered further below. A number of different types of slag are present though all appear to relate to iron-working. Although four small scraps of copper alloy ‘waste’ are present these appear to relate to heavily burnt objects rather than bronze working. The iron slag falls into one of three categories: that relating to smelting, that relating to smithing and undiagnostic pieces which could belong to either process. However, many of the latter can be allocated to process depending on the more diagnostic types of slag in the same context (unless it is shown that an individual context has waste from both processes). Tap slag from iron smelting appears to dominate the diagnostic assemblage though a number of forge bottoms and small quantities of hammerscale (the latter all from the environmental residues) prove the existence of smithing at the site. A number of pieces of furnace/hearth lining with adhering slag are also present. Some of these, from both LIA and Roman contexts, appear to have traces of a sandy ‘refractory’ lining.

Remains

Luke Barber 2004 The excavations recovered some 1,353 pieces of metalworking waste (slag and furnace/hearth lining fragments), weighing a little over 90kg, from 55 individually numbered contexts. In addition 73 pieces of roasted ore, weighing 2,271g, from nine separate contexts were recovered. The material is derived from Period Late Bronze Age/ early Iron Age Late Iron Age Late Iron Age/ early Roman Early Roman Late Roman Anglo-Saxon Undated (likely to be Early Ro)

Metalworking Waste (No./Weight) 21/263g 269/3,862g 114/3,932g 139/15,805g 105/17,476g 5/75g 700/49,123g

Ore (No./ Weight) 35/342g 17/627g + 1/1g 20/1,301g

Table 34: Metalworking waste and ore by period.

144

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Late Iron Age/ Early Roman Iron Working

The roasted ore from the site is of two different types. Type 1a is a dull brown to purple fine-grained clay ironstone while Type 1b is a dull brown to purple medium grained ferrugenous sandstone. Although both could represent ‘bog ore’ from the Bulbourne valley (Morris and Wainwright 1995, 72) the latter may be derived from ferruginous sands or box-stones which are known to occur in the Lower Cretaceous rocks (such as the Wealden and Lower Greensand series) which occur in patches in the Aylesbury area (Sherlock 1947, 18).

Only three contexts containing slag have been grouped into this transitional period based on the ceramics though it is suspected that most of it is more likely to be of early Roman date. This is certainly the case for the largest assemblage: Fill 30, from pit 26 (NB. fill 27 from the same pit has been dated to the early Roman period). This context produced 23 pieces (2,024g) of smithing slag, including two forge bottoms, 4g of hammerscale and 81 pieces (1,058g) of undiagnostic slag (including 322g of fuel ash slag). The two forge bottoms measure 75 and 80mm in diameter by 32mm thick. A further forge bottom, measuring 95-125mm in diameter and 50mm thick, was recovered from cut 785 (Fill 786) (RM note 785 was dated to the late Roman period in analysis). It is interesting to note that no definite smelting slag was noted in the few contexts of this date.

The Possible Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age Iron Working Table 34 shows that only very low quantities of iron slag were recovered from contexts of this period. The assemblage is composed virtually exclusively of ‘undiagnostic’ types although two pieces of tap slag, weighing 238g and 50g, were recovered from pit 940 (fill 941). Although all the slag from contexts of this period is confined to a small area, from Pit 560 in the west to Pit 940 in the east, and is away from the main area of later metalworking it is quite possible that the slag is intrusive into these early contexts. If iron-working was going on at this early date it was only on a very small scale.

Early Roman Iron Working This assemblage is considerably larger (by weight) to those of the earlier periods and contains both smelting and smithing slag. Most contexts produced only small quantities of slag though two large groups were present. The largest assemblage is from 1st century AD Group 1622 ditch 1432 (fill 1433) 14,684g of slag and 594g of roasted ore. Both Type 1a (234g) and 1b (360g) ore is represented. The slag is dominated by smelting waste: 10,650g of tap slag are present. This includes two tap slag ‘pours’ (solidified ‘cascades’ of tap slag linking the furnace tapping arch to the slag pit). These suggest slag pits measuring 90 x 120 by 50mm deep and 130 x 140 by 70mm deep. The remaining slag is ‘undiagnostic’ of process but is likely to be from smelting given the total absence of any definite smithing waste. The assemblage from pit 26, fill 27 is interesting in that it by contrast is dominated by smithing slag with no definite smelting waste. This is in line with Fill 30 from the same pit (see above) suggesting the presence of smithing very close by. The assemblage contains just over 1kg of definite smithing slag, including two forge bottoms (measuring 75 and 90mm in diameter) and 1g of hammerscale. An additional 6g of ‘undiagnostic’ fuel ash slag was also present.

Late Iron Age Iron Working The LIA assemblage although larger, is still small, but contains roasted ore, smelting (tap) slag and smithing (forge bottoms and hammerscale) suggesting the definite presence of iron-working at the site in this period. The majority of the slag from this period was recovered from Ditches 409 and 442. Two fills of Ditch 409 (G1700) produced slag. The lower, Fill 410, contained a single forge bottom measuring 75mm in diameter and weighing 302g, and gives clear evidence of LIA smithing. The upper fill, 408, produced 372g of crushed Type 1a ore together with just over 1kg of tap slag and 288g of refractory clay lining with adhering slag. The remaining 635g of slag was ‘undiagnostic’ of process. The similarity of the assemblage from this upper fill to that from Pit 1289, which cut the ditch (see below) suggests some of this assemblage may be intrusive RomanoBritish material.

Undated (Probable Early Roman) Iron Working

Ditch 442 also contained slag in two of its fills though in far lesser quantities: Fill 443 produced 20g of ‘undiagnostic’ slag while fill 524 produced a further 400g of ‘undiagnostic’ slag but also 208g of smithing slag. Remaining assemblages of this date are very small and widely spaced though it is worth noting the presence of hammerscale in pit 836 (fill 837). Taken together there is clear evidence of smithing at the site during the LIA. Although it is also considered likely that some smelting was also occurring the evidence for this is only from contexts that ‘could’ have received intrusive material from Roman iron-working activity.

A few of these assemblages can be roughly dated based on their associations with other nearby features or single finds. Of most interest is the material from pit 1289 (fill 1290), which was cut into the fill of a LIA ditch and contained a bracelet of probable early Roman date. This contained the largest slag assemblage from a single feature on the site: 340 pieces weighing just over 39.5kg. In addition 17 pieces of roasted ore (weighing 1,285g), including ore fines from the environmental sample, were recovered. This group is interesting in that it is one of the few on the site that apparently contains only smelting waste: it is dominated by tap slag (18.8kg) and there is no diagnostic smithing slag (including hammerscale) 145

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE present. A single tap slag ‘pour’ is present suggesting a 70mm distance between the furnace tapping arch/hole and the base of the slag pit. The assemblage also contains pieces of refractory clay furnace lining as well as ‘undiagnostic’ iron slag almost certainly associated with smelting. Both types of roasted ore are represented: Type 1a – 11 pieces weighing just over 1kg, Type 1b – 4 pieces weighing 264g showing both types were used simultaneously.

are dated to the LIA/early Roman and early Roman periods respectively though an early Roman date is suspected for the pit as a whole (see above). This suggestion is further confirmed by some of the sherds of ceramic vessel from fills 27 and 30 possibly belonging to the same vessel. The vessels appear to be round and shallow, with wide-mouths, simple rims and are made in a fine powdery fired clay with no visible tempering agent except the occasional imprint of organic material. A couple of sherds have patches of vitrification on their external surfaces. The external surfaces of the vessels are reduced to a light grey while the internal surfaces are oxidised pale orange. A further sherd was recovered from another early Roman context (175). These vessels do not appear to be crucibles for copper alloy working (Sarah Paynter pers. comm.) and their exact function remains uncertain. Their association with smithing slag offers no explanation of these vessels and no residues are present on their interiors (one was tested using XRF). As such, although they bear some similarity to parting vessels (for separating silver from gold) (Bayley, Dungworth and Paynter 2001), or indeed small-scale salt evaporation/drying vessels (Colchester Archaeological Group 1990), their precise function must remain uncertain at present.

Close to pit 1289 were two slag-filled post-holes, which are almost certainly associated, and therefore also probably early Roman in date: Post-holes 1311 and 1313 (fills 1312 and 1314 respectively). Post-hole 1311 contained 88 pieces of slag weighing just over 1.2kg while post-hole 1313 contained 180 pieces weighing a little over 4.5kg. As with pit 1289 both these assemblages are dominated by tap slag and contain no definite material related to smithing. Both contain pieces of refractory clay lining. The quantity of slag in these three features strongly suggests iron smelting was occurring during the Roman period very close to these features. Late Roman Iron Working Both smelting and smithing slag are again present in the late Roman period though the largest group (ditch 150/151, fill 152: 14,533g) has a mix of slag from both processes suggesting the possibility of some residuality. The assemblage from this context contained 6,431g of tap slag and 70g of Type 1a roasted ore. In addition 462g of definite smithing slag were located, including two forge bottoms of similar proportions to those noted already. The remainder of the slag consisted of ‘undiagnostic’ types (7,640g) most of which probably relate to smelting. Further forging slag was located in pit 60 to the west (fill 36: 98g of smithing; 269g of ‘undiagnostic' slag). A scatter of slag was also located in association with the trackway. Although a number of these contexts contain the occasional piece of AngloSaxon pottery from later use of the track (ie 430) it is certain the slag relates to Romano-British iron-working with the waste perhaps being used to patch the track surface.

Additional Note on the Evaluation Assemblage by RM Evaluation trench 6 encountered the Area 2 metalworking zone adjacent to ditch groups 1700 and 1622 in Area 2 in 2000. A small pit 604 to the north (context 603) produced 3 fragments of tap slag. The G1700 ditch recorded as segment 606 in the evaluation produced a 1.16kg forge bottom (context 607) and 4 pieces of tap slag, 4 of furnace slag and a fragment of roasting ore. Transitional/early Roman ditch G1622 was recorded as segment 611 whose fill 612 produced another piece of tap slag and 7 fragments of furnace slag, whilst fill 613 produced a lump of tap slag and 7 pieces of furnace slag. The total assemblage from trench 6 weighed 2.5kg (not tabulated). Conclusions

Possible Anglo-Saxon Iron Working

The assemblage of slag has demonstrated that the site was involved in the production of iron at different times. Although there is slight indication of iron-working in the LBA/EIA it is only by the time of the LIA that ironworking can confidently be proven at the site. This certainly consisted of smithing activities and may have included smelting too. Although smelting slag was recovered from contexts of this date it is possible it was intrusive from more extensive Roman deposits immediately adjacent. LIA/Belgic iron-working, including both smelting and smithing is known of in the locality, particularly in the Bulbourne valley (Thompson and Holland 1976; Morris and Wainwright 1995), and its presence at the current site, though rare, is not unexpected.

Only four probable Anglo-Saxon contexts contained slag/ore. This assemblage is very small and undiagnostic of process. Although post-hole 1227 (58g) and pits 895 (1g Type 1b ore) and 904 (1g) are in an area away from the main concentrations of earlier working it is considered probable all the material is residual. Ceramic Vessels A small number (eight sherds) of crude hand-made thickwalled vessels were also located during the excavation. Seven of these sherds are from pit 26: fill 27 – 3 sherds weighing 78g, fill 30 – 4 sherds weighing 140g). The fills

146

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Iron-working appears to have dramatically increased during the early Roman period, probably an acceleration that had already begun in the Belgic period. By now both smelting and smithing were definitely taking place. Although this was on a moderate scale it could be placed within a domestic or semi-industrial setting, with the work probably representing a relatively small, albeit important, aspect of the site’s economy. By the late Roman period both smelting and smithing were apparently being carried out on a similar scale though the problem of residuality in this late period makes comparing/contrasting the early and late Roman periods difficult. A similarly long-lived period of iron production is suggested for sites in the Bulbourne valley at the Cow Roast site (Morris and Wainwright 1995, 68) and the Roman buildings at Northchurch Boxmoor and Hemel Hempstead (Neal 1976, 52).

were selected to give an appropriate representation. This strategy was in accord with standard English Heritage policy for recovery of such material (English Heritage 2002) and advice was given by Dr. Dominique de Moulins (English Heritage). Samples of 40 litres volume (where possible) were taken from the principal contexts and especially those exhibiting obvious charred remains and molluscs. In the case of an important Romano-British boundary ditch G41, (context 117), sequential/contiguous samples were taken through the fills of this feature from the excavated profile. This was undertaken primarily for recovery of mollusca which might establish environmental change although the samples also produced useful assemblages of charred plant remains. Because of the very substantial number and volume of samples taken, molluscan and macro-botanical remains were processed on-site. Initially, smaller samples of 10-12 litres were processed to determine whether ecofactual material was present. If this was the case the whole sample was then processed. The archaeobotanical remains and molluscs were extracted using flotation (Siraf tank) with the flot collected in nested sieves down to 0.5mm, which were subsequently air-dried. The residues were kept and examined for nonfloating remains and scanned for other archaeological material. Examination of the environmental elements and identification of the plant remains was carried out using a Wild M3c low power binocular microscope with magnifications of x6 to x40. Material obtained from the flotation comprised largely charcoal, charred cereal remains, cereal chaff, weed seeds and terrestrial molluscs. Identification was assisted by comparison with reference collections of modern seeds (Cambridge McDonald Institute and Palaeopol, Isle of Wight) and descriptions given in Jacomet (1987), van der Veen (1992) and Hillman unpublished notes). Taxonomy follows that of Stace (1991) and Jacomet (1987).

V The Charred Plant Remains Dr. Rob Scaife 2004 Introduction The archaeological excavations along the route of the Aston Clinton by-pass revealed a complex of features including ditches, pits and other occupation features dating from the LBA/EIA and LIA, the Romano-British and Anglo-Saxon periods. The character of the features suggested that there was good potential for preservation of environmental remains and for studying the agrarian and environmental history of the site through preservation of charred plant remains and analysis of the preserved land mollusca. Consequently, an extensive sampling strategy was adopted and a total of 116 samples taken from all of the most important contexts (these being well dated contexts with most potential to contribute to the project aims) were processed and examined for environmental remains. Environmental material recovered from ditch, gully and pit features included charcoal, charred cereal remains, cereal chaff, weed seeds, land mollusca from a range of contexts spanning the archaeological periods noted above. Charred remains of a variety of cereal crops and occasionally pulses and associated weeds of cultivation were present. Dating of archaeobotanical remains to the different periods has been based on artefact typology.

Data obtained from examination of the samples are presented in tabulated form (tables 35-41). In some case quantities of grain or chaff were too great to count and are described as such. Chaff remains are given as (gb.) glume bases and (sf.) spikelet forks. Other chaff remains include lemma and palea, internodes and awn fragments. Flot and residues were subsequently supplied to Dr. M. Allen for analysis of the molluscan remains (see below).

Method

Charred Plant Remains

Specifications and a strategy for environmental sampling were devised prior to the full excavation of the archaeological sites. A preliminary evaluation was carried out including assessments of material present and potential for recovery of charred plant remains and other ecofacts including mollusca (Scaife 2001 Unpubl. Assessment report). Periods/contexts for which there were only a small number of samples present were subsequently sorted in full. For periods where a substantial number of samples existed, specific contexts

The presence of a substantial number of potentially preserving contexts including pits, ditches and gullies suggested that it would be possible to provide a range of cereal remains and possibly other crop types, to allow a study of the changing agronomy from the LBA, IA, Romano-British and the Saxon periods. This proved to be the case with a number of features containing well preserved cereal grain and cereal chaff in varying quantity. Unfortunately, however, such remains were extremely sparse from the earliest contexts present, the

147

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

CONTEXT SAMPLE FEATURE CROP PLANTS Triticum spelta type (c) Triticum aestivum type (c) Triticum sp. (c) Hordeum sp. Secale cereale (c) Avena/ Bromus (c) Grain indet. whole (c) Grain indet. frags. (c) Triticum spelta L. (gb) Triticum dioccum (gb) Triticum indet. (gb) Triticum sp. (sf) Culm Nodes Lemma/Palea WEED SEEDS Brassica sp. (small) Vicia/ Lathyrus (small) Vicia/ Lathyrus (large) Rumex sp. (small) Galium aparine Corylus avellana nut frag.

6048 502 Crem 6046.

1152 89 Pit 1151

148 32 Pit 147

467 57 Pit 446

468 58 Pit 466

4

16 1 6

1 2 2 1

Pit 1556

72 13 Pit 71

807 63 Pit 826

892 68 D.846

42 3

1 1

5

1557

4

16 28 4

7 18 5 2 3 1

1 4 1 1

1 14 1 1 4

1

1 37 >66

1 1

1

1 2

1

3 1 5

2

1

1

Table 35: The LBA/EIA and undifferentiated IA plant macrofossils

LBA and the latest, Saxon features. These have yielded only small numbers of grain fragments. IA and RomanoBritish contexts produced substantially greater numbers of charred plant remains. The remains recovered are described as follows.

cereale (oat) in samples 502 (6048) and 32 (148). This paucity of seed remains suggests that the sporadic occurrences of grain recovered are, in general waste material scattered across the sites (background noise) during these early periods. Seeds of Avena/Bromus are present in this sample as are other weed seeds that are associated with waste and disturbed ground and agriculture.

The Middle to Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age (table 35).

Remains of woodland, shrub and possible hedgerow taxa are few in all samples examined. Sample 57 (fill 467) contained an individual record of Corylus avellana (hazel nut.).

Of the late-Prehistoric contexts containing charred plant remains, one cremation 6046 (fill 6048) has been attributed to the M-LBA (1440-1290 cal BC; Beta 189877), one to the LBA and three to the LBA/EIA. Overall, these samples were rather impoverished with only and pit context 467) and post-hole/pit sample (context 468) containing any real numbers of seeds/grain. In the former, of the identifiable grain was a single Secale cereale. In the LBA (pit 1151 fill 1152) there were few remains with only a single grain of Triticum aestivo-compactum recovered. As might be expected for the EIA, Triticum spelta type (spelt/emmer) was most abundant (fills 467, 468, 807). In context 807, unidentifiable grain is also present which is most probably also of this type. Fortuitously, glume bases are present from a number of these contexts (467, 468, 1557) confirming that we are dealing with spelt wheat (T. spelta L.) rather than emmer wheat (T. dicoccum Schubl.). A single glume base of Triticum dicoccum (emmer) was found in LBA context 1152. The presence of T. spelta (spelt wheat) in the contexts attributed to the LBA or EIA is of note being an early record for this crop type that became prominent during the IA and Roman periods. In addition, and also of interest, are two grains of Secale

The Late Iron Age (tables 36 and 37) Within the IA, the LIA is well represented with some 12 samples producing charred remains from a range of contexts within ditches (features 145, 165; 409; 887; 785; 1297) and pits (61, 226; 433; and 836). However, whilst the contexts contain, in some cases substantial quantities of grain, there are few with any significant quantities of chaff remaining from crop processing activities. Of the latter, contexts 143, (pit 61), 843 (pit 836) and 817 (pit 836) are of specific note containing cereals, chaff and weed seeds. The chaff remains are dominated by the glumes of spelt wheat (T. spelta L.) and consequently, the many unidentifiable grain and fragments are also likely to be from this taxon. Other pit and ditch contexts similarly produced primarily spelt wheat with smaller numbers of chaff (spikelet forks and glumes bases) remains. In addition to the spelt and undifferentiated Triticum, there are only small quantities of Triticum aestivum type 148

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE (bread/club wheat), which is present (contexts 843; pit 836, 166; ditch 165). The only other crop types present are possible Secale cereale in pit 826 (context 837; pit 826) and Hordeum (vulgare) which are also present in contexts, pit 61(136); ditches 409 (408); (828) and 836 (843). Non cereal crops include single occurrences of Pisum sativum (cultivated pea) in contexts 843 and 837 and Vicia faba L. in pit 826 (837).

sporadic occurrences. It is clear, therefore, that these are the remains of crop processing activities removing contaminant seeds that were disposed of in these features. Both of these samples/contexts include substantial numbers of Vicia and/or Lathyrus (wild peas and vetches), which would have been a major (climbing) weed of this crop. In addition there are also typical segetals including Polygonum spp. (black bind-weed) and in the case of context 843, Medicago/Trifolium, Rumex (docks) and Poaceae (grasses), that is, weeds that may have come from pastoral habitat as well as from the arable, disturbed ground.

Good assemblages of weed seeds are present in those contexts noted above for their chaff remains (contexts 136, 837, 843) whereas other contexts having only CONTEXT SAMPLE FEATURE PHASE CROP PLANTS Triticum spelta type (c) Triticum cf. Spelta Triticum aestivum type (c) Triticum sp. Secale cereale (c) Hordeum sp. (c) Avena/ Bromus (c) Bromus secalinus Grain indet. whole (c) Grain indet. frags. (c)) Triticum spelta L. (gb) Triticum diooccum Scubl. (sf) Triticum sp. (sf) WEED SEEDS Galium aparine Poacea

145 22 Ditch 144 LIA

166 30 Ditch 165 LIA

408 41 Ditch 409 LIA

828 64 Pit 827

2

16 2

4

LIA

888 67 Ditch 887 LIA

1081 84 Ditch 785 LIA

1295 93 Ditch 1297 LIA/ ER

1

4

18

1 2 1

2 2 1 1 49

1

1 2

3

4

3

6 1 2 3 1

Table 36: The LIA ditch plant macrofossils CONTEXT SAMPLE FEATURE PHASE CROP PLANTS Triticum spelta type (c) Triticum cf. Spelta Triticum aestivum type (c) Triticum sp. (c) cf. Triticum (c) Hordeum sp. (c) cf. Hordeum (c) cf Secale cereale (c) Avena/ Bromus (c) Bromus secalinus Grain indet. whole (c) Grain indet. frags. (c) Triticum spelta L. (gb) Triticum sp. (gb) Triticum spelta L. (sf) Triticum dioccum Schubl. (sf) Triticum sp. (sf) Culm Node Awn fragments Pisum stivum Vicia faba L. WEED SEEDS Ranunculus a/r/b Chenopodiaceae

136 25 Pit 61 LIA

227 34 Pit 226 LIA

435 51 Pit 433 LIA

837 62 Pit 826 LIA

843 87 Pit 836 LIA

148 5

1

15 2

51

83 56 2

149 43 1 1 3

18 18 6 286

1

8 2 1

37 2 6

5 93 12

1 1 38 5 63 158 66 63

7 7

3 1

20 1

9 2 1 2 3

149

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Cf. Arabisopsis Capsella bursa pastoris Vicia/Lathyrus (small) Vicia/ Lathyrus (large) Trifolium sp. Melilotus/Medicago Caryophyllaceae idet. Apiaceae indet. cf. Viola Rumex sp. (small) Polygonum sp. Polygonum aciculare Polygonum lapathifolium type Polygonum convolvulus Corylus avellana L. Plantago major Galium aparine Asteraceae indet. Poaceae Unidentified

20 2 90 30

6 3

24 43 2 1

22 80 4

1 2 1 1

11 3 2 2 3 1 11 31 14

17

1 1 1 1

4

1 2

4

3

1 1

30 5

Table 37: The LIA pit context macrofossils

The Early Roman (tables 38-39)

chaff remains present, that these may also be attributed to spelt wheat. Detailed molluscan data has also been obtained from this sequence, which has provided information on the local environment of this period (see Allen below).

Material of this age come from a range of contexts that includes samples from pits 26 (27), 61 (56), 257 (259), 423 (424), gully fill (1085) and ditch fill 1054. The fills of Romano-British field boundary G41 (context 117) were also examined sequentially.

Other early Roman grain crops include occasional and small numbers of Triticum aestivo-compactum (bread/club wheat in pits 61, 257 and ditch 1054), Avena/Bromus type (oat and Rye Brome) and Hordeum vulgare (barley) which occur as occasional grain and chaff remains. The only other cultigens other than cereals recovered from the early Roman phase is a single cultivated pea (Pisum sativum) from pit 423 (context 424).

The cereal remains: A number contexts/samples, contain substantial quantities of charred grain and in one case, chaff remains (glume bases), that is, from Area 1 ditch 1053 (context 1054). Triticum spelta type grain (i.e. emmer and spelt) is the most important taxon and has been recovered from pits 61 (56), 257 (259), and 375 (376), ditch (1054), and 117 (see below) and a gully (1085). Chaff (glume bases and spikelet forks) in a number of contexts and especially abundant in ditch contexts (1054) and G41 boundary ditch (fills 117/115), demonstrate that the T. spelta type grain is indeed spelt wheat (T. spelta L.) rather than emmer (T. dicoccum Schubl.). It is also probable that much of the poorly preserved and unidentifiable grain recovered from contexts 259, 376, 1054 and 117 may also be attributed to spelt wheat (T. spelta L.).

The weed seeds: In contrast to the other periods and samples examined here, there are greater numbers of weed seeds from this period. These are generally associated with those levels that contain most cereal grain and especially chaff remains. It is thus, most probable, that these weed taxa are associated with the cereal crops, that is, being weeds of disturbed and arable ground (segetals). Most abundant are Fabaceae including Vicia (vetches) and/or Lathyrus (wild peas) in context 117 (0.40.5m), Rumex spp. (docks), Polygonum spp. (black bindweed), Poaceae (wild grasses) which are important in ditch contexts 1054 and 117 and Galium cf. aparine (cleavers) within boundary ditch G41 context 117. Since there is a range of grain and chaff as well as the weed seeds noted above, these were probably waste or spoiled crops dumped in this ditch. Being charred this also implies that they were burnt on a fire and subsequently disposed of.

The sequence of samples (table 39) taken through the ditch profile (upper contexts 117 and lower context 175) have also produced further evidence for the importance of Triticum spelta (spelt) (especially between 0.2 and 0.5m) again confirmed by identification of chaff remains (glume bases and spikelet forks). There appear to be greater numbers of these remains in the upper context 117 than the primary fills, context 175. It is unfortunate that there are also substantial numbers of unidentifiable charred grain present. It seems likely, on the basis of the

150

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE CONTEXT SAMPLE FEATURE

27 3 Pit 26

56 23 Pit 61

259 37 Pit 257 ER

376 40 Pit 375 ?ER

381 44 Cut 379 ER

PHASE CROP PLANTS Triticum spelta Triticum cf. Spelta Triticum aestivum type (c) Triticum sp. (c) cf. Triticum (c) Hordeum sp. (c) cf Secale cereale (c) Avena/ Bromus (c) Bromus secalinus Grain indet. whole (c) Grain indet. frags. (c) Triticum spelta L. (gb) Triticum cf. Spelta (gb) Triticum dioccum (Schubl.) (gb) Triticum aestivum (gb) Triticum sp. (gb) Triticum spelta L. (sf) Triticum sp. (sf) Pisum stivum WEED SEEDS Ranunculus a/r/b Chenopodiaceae Capsella bursa pastoris Vicia/Lathyrus (small) Vicia/ Lathyrus (large) Epilobium sp. Rumex sp. (small) Polygonum sp. Polygonum aciculare Polygonum convolvulus Polygonum lapathifolium type Corylus avellana L. Poaceae Unidentified

ER

ER 3

4

11

9 5

2

1

3

3

4 2

2

424 46 Pit 423 ER

FEATURE (Boundary Ditch) CROP PLANTS Triticum spelta type (c) Triticum cf. Spelta (c) Triticum aestivum type (c) Triticum sp. (c) Hordeum sp. (c) Cf Hordeum (c) Avena/ Bromus (c) Grain indet. whole (c) Triticum spelta L. (gb) Triticum sp. (gb) Triticum spelta L. (sf) Triticum sp. (sf) Straw Culm Node Awn frags. WEED SEEDS Arabidopsis Chenopodiaceae Trifolium Medicago/Trifolium Vicia/Lathyrus (small)

1085 100 Gully

ER?

ER

23 13 2

4

27 Many 41 35 1 2 26

8

3 1

1 1 1 14 Many 1

4 15

2

29 Many 8

6

1 4 10 4

4

2

33

1 1

1 1 2 2

4

7 7

3 1

1 1

10

1 1

1

3

4

3

1

1 1

4

1 1

2

1 5

1 2

4

2 41 4

5

Table 38: The early Roman context plant macrofossils CONTEXT SAMPLE DEPTH (metres)

1054 79 Ditch1053

117 49 0.1-0.2

117 49 0.20.3

117 49 0.30.4

117 49 0.40.5

175 49 0.50.6

175 49 0.60.7

20

13 25 1

38 26

7

1

2

1

23 1 1

3

1 21 1 3 1 1

49 4 2

45 16 5

5 73 18 7 3 13

2 1

4

1 1

1 2

4 4

4

12

1 4

151

3 2 1 38

3

2

1

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE 2

Vicia/ Lathyrus (large) Epilobium sp. Rumex sp. (small) Polygonum sp. Polygonum aciculare Polygonum convolvulus Corylus avellana L Galium aparine Asteraceae. Poaceae Unidentified Crataegus/Prunus spine Arrhenatharum tuberosum

6

5 1 5

2 6 2 1

1

1 2

1 1

45

1

10

1 16

29 1 33 2

13 2 1

3 6

1

1

Table 39: The early Roman: Boundary ditch sequence (117/175) Plant Macrofossils

Late Roman (table 40) The weed seeds: It is interesting that the context containing the abundant chaff remains (pit 68; context 95) contained few seeds. This suggests that the cleaned ears of grain (spelt) only, were being processed on-site. In contrast, context 136 (pit 60) contained a relatively diverse weed flora containing substantial numbers of seeds of Poaceae (wild grasses), Arabidopsis (thale cress), large and small Vicia and/or Lathyrus, Rumex (docks) and Galium aparine (cleavers). There are also lesser numbers of other taxa including for example, Capsella bursa-pastoris (shepherds purse), Caryophyllaceae (pink family), Plantago major (greater plantain) and Polygonum spp. (knotweeds). It is not clear why there should be such a number and diversity of weeds present when they are generally poorly represented in other cereal yielding contexts. Clearly, however, the assemblage is from the arable, cropping environment with the weeds being typical of disturbed, arable ground. It can be postulated that this was poor grain that was disposed of along with its associated weed contaminants. This would also explain the quantities of severely burnt grain, which is also present. Apart from this single sample, other contexts contain very few seeds that are also attributable to arable habitats. Corylus avellana L. (hazel) nuts are present in pit 68 (contexts 67 and 94). These may have been from food or from shrub wood collected for domestic fires.

A total of ten samples of late Roman age come largely from contexts within wells 24 (25 and 35) and 68 (94 and 95), pit 57 (63), gully 37 (38) and ditch 885 (1083) have provided material of this date. The cereal remains: Of these contexts, three contained substantial quantities of cereal grain from wells 24 and 68 and gully 37. In one case, very substantial numbers of glume bases (pit 68; context 95; sample 18). In other contexts, smaller numbers of grain and chaff remains were also present. As with contexts from preceding periods, Triticum spelta type grain is most important (wells 24, 68 and gully 37). Pit 68 (context 94) also contains substantial numbers of unidentifiable grain and the best assemblage of weed seeds recovered. Glume bases, spikelet forks and other chaff debris are present especially in pit 68 (95) which demonstrate that spelt wheat rather than emmer is predominant. In context 95, quantities of spelt glumes were so abundant only an estimation of >5000 individuals was made. This clearly represents crop processing chaff debris that was burned and disposed of in this feature. Other cereal crops include small quantities of grain of Hordeum vulgare (barley) from pit 68 (context 136) and possibly Avena (oat) or Rye Brome from pits 24 and 68. Pisum sativum L. (pea) and Vicia faba L. (horse/Celtic bean) are present in gully 37 (context 38). CONTEXT

25

35

38

63

67

79

83

94

95

SAMPLE FEATURE

2 Well 24 LR

6 Well 24 LR

7 Gully 37 LR

11 Pit 57 LR

16 Pit 68 LR

15 Ph.7 8 LR

884 Wh. 785 LR

17 Pit 68 LR

18 Pit 68

1

10 5

6 2

3 2

9 2 2

1 1 1

85 91

PHASE CROP PLANTS Triticum spelta type (c) Triticum cf. Spelta Triticum aestivum type (c) cf. Triticum (c) cf. Secale cereale Hordeum sp. (c) cf. Hordeum (c) Avena/ Bromus (c) Bromus secalinus Grain indet. whole (c) Grain indet. frags. (c) Triticum spelta L. (gb)

1 8

LR

108 3 86 WH 885 LR

129

10

2 4 >5000

10

1 1 1 1 1 4

18 8

1 1 18

1 11

4

27 3

152

18

7

4 1 184

1

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Triticum dioccum (Schubl.) (gb) Triticum aestivum Triticum sp. (gb) Triticum spelta L. (sf) Triticum dicoccum Schubl. (sf) Triticum sp. (sf) Lemma/Palea Straw Culm Node Intemode fragments Vicia faba L. Cf. Pisum sativum WEED SEEDS Ranunculus a/r/b Brassica sp. (small) Brassica sp. (large) Arabidopsis Capsella bursa-pastoris Trifolium Vicia/Lathyrus (small) Vicia/ Lathyrus (large) Apiaceae indet. Rumex sp. (small) Polygonum sp. Polygonum aciculare Corylus avellana L Plantago lanceolata Galium aparine Poaceae Unidentified

3 3 1

1 3

3 21 1

4

1 4 5 2

12 1 10 1

1 2 1 2

1 1

1

3 1 1

1 4

3 1 1

1

1

2 1 1

5

1 1

3

1 2

1

3 4 2

2

6 1 3

1

Crataegus/Prunus thorn Arrhenatherum tuberosum

1

Table 40: The late Roman context plant macrofossils

The Saxon Period (table 41) 167 (context 168). Spelt, although not totally unknown from the Saxon period (Murphy 1985; Scaife 1995) is rare for this period and thus, the possibility of reworking of earlier, IA and Romano-British material should be considered because this taxon as seen above is diagnostic of these earlier periods. There are similarly few weed seeds from this period with only occasional ruderals present (Brassica, Rumex and Polygonum aviculare).

This is the most recent period represented. Unfortunately, results were poor with very few seed remains present in the 5 contexts examined. Where cereal grain is present, these are sporadic occurrences of T. spelta and cf. T. spelta (spelt), T. aestivum type (bread/club wheat) and unidentifiable grain. For the former, there is also a glume base identified as spelt in (alternatively late Roman) pit Context SAMPLE FEATURE PHASE CROP PLANTS Triticum spelta type (c) Triticum cf. Spelta (c) Triticum aestivum type (c) Triticum sp. (c) Grain indet. whole (c) Grain indet. frags (c) Triticum spelta L. (gb) WEED SEEDS Brassica (large) Rumex sp. (small) Polygonum aciculare Unidentified Fungal sclerotia

168 26 Pit 167 SAX

179 29 Pit 167 SAX

430 107 Layer LR/SAX

896 71 Pit 895 SAX

906 78 Pit 904 SAX

1 1

1

3 1

4

1 1 4 9 3 1 1 1 1 1 1

Table 41 The Saxon period plant macrofossils

153

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Sites B and D. The Grave Fills

6048) and LBA/EIA pit 144 although, however, there is an increasing number of records for it occurrence prior to what was once thought to be a Roman introduction.

Bulk samples were taken from all of the Saxon and LBA/EIA grave fills (contexts in the range 5000 and 6000) and processed for environmental material. Recovered ecofacts included bone, mollusca, charred plant remains (seeds) and charcoal.

The IA and Romano-British periods: For the purposes of discussion, the IA and Romano-British periods can be grouped together since the agrarian characteristics are broadly similar with the predominance here of spelt wheat (Triticum spelta L.) in both periods. This grain type includes both Triticum spelta L. (spelt wheat) and T. dicoccum Schubl. (emmer wheat) which are generally not identifiable to species from their grain alone due to their overlapping morphology (Renfrew 1984; Jacomet 1987; van der Veen 1992). Although Jacomet (1987) distinguishes, in some cases on 'pear' shaped grains of T. dicoccum, this was not evident here. Identification to genus is, however, possible from chaff (glumes and spikelet forks) and fortunately chaff including glume bases and spikelet forks were present in many of the samples examined. This was especially evident in LIA and early Roman samples from contexts 843 and 817 for the former and 95, 117, 1054 for the latter. Context 95 (late Roman) comprised almost solely chaff debris clearly, therefore, the product of crop processing on the site. These chaff remains suggest a predominance of spelt throughout the IA and Roman periods as the staple crop with little change through time. It is interesting, however, to note that emmer (T. dicoccum spikelet forks) is tentatively identified from one LIA context and reflects the continuance of emmer wheat as a crop, although there is also the strong possibility that it formed a weed of the main spelt crop.

The Site B 6000 cremation contexts: Charcoal was clearly more abundant in these contexts, presumably because these were cremation burials. However, with the exception of cremation fill 6048 (described above) the charcoal fragments are small (2 - 5mm) and comminuted and not be identifiable. These contexts also produced minimal traces of mollusca and small bone fragments and no observable cereal or weed seed remains. The Site D 5000 contexts: Overall, it can be said that the Saxon grave fills produced very little material when compared with the other archaeological contexts examined from the Aston Clinton By-pass sites. These produced almost no charcoal, which might have been of use for dating and identification for determining woodland character and utilisation. Two badly degraded cereal grains (in 5034 and 5937) are unidentifiable. A single cereal grain in context (5037) was identified as Triticum aestivum type (free threshing bread and club wheat). Plant Macrofossils Discussion A range of crop types has been identified at Aston Clinton from a variety of context types. Ditches tended to produce most charred plant remains due to these features being natural collectors of waste and also places for disposing of domestic refuse. The interpretation of charred cereal grain assemblages must consider the taphonomy of the assemblages which must be construed as largely resulting from the accidental or deliberate burning of cereal grain, chaff and weed seeds or any one of these elements, and the disposal of this burnt, waste material in contexts where suitable preservation may taken place.

Such importance of spelt is typical and highly characteristic of the IA and Roman periods and is evidenced from many sites studied back to the pioneer work of Helbaek (1952) and Jessen and Helbaek (1944) in southern England. Since this seminal work there has been increasing evidence for the marked expansion of spelt wheat from the IA period and its great importance in the Romano-British period evidenced particularly in southern England (Helbaek 1952; Murphy 1981; Jones 1981, 1984; Scaife 1995), in London (Straker 1984) and in eastern England (for example Murphy 1985; Scaife 1994). The reasons for this dramatic change in crop husbandry and predilection for spelt are not clear but, however, there have been a number of suggestions that include;

Although the archaeology of Aston Clinton spans a range of periods back to the MBA, it is only from the more extensive IA and Romano-British periods that useful information has been obtained from the study of charred crop remains and associated weed seeds. The broad agrarian history suggested by these remains is discussed.

(i.) changes in taste preferences for flower made from this wheat (ii.) the wheat has a winter hardiness (Bender 1975) and a change to Autumn sowing (Jones 1981 and discussed in detail by van der Veen 1992) would have been favourable.

The LBA: Unfortunately, remains from this period were extremely sparse (see above) and thus, important changes, which took place during the IA, cannot be satisfactorily viewed at this site. The presence of spelt wheat in pit 466 (context 468) is unusual since this is apparently of BA/EIA date, being an early record for this crop which expanded in importance markedly during the IA period. This similarly applies to Secale cereale (oat) in the MBA cremation 6046 (1440-1290 cal BC - context

(iii.) this crop may be more suited to a cooler wetter climate have been variously considered (Fowler 1981).

154

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Whatever the cause for the change in agronomy, there was a clear preference for spelt wheat during these periods, which is evidenced at Aston Clinton. Jones (1981) suggests it may have been widely used in making porridge. Use in brewing has also been postulated because of sprouted ears that have frequently been recovered (Reynolds 1974). Spelt wheat may also to have been harvested and transported as whole ears of grain and subsequently stored and processed at the point of consumption (Jones 1981). Thus, the presence of spelt need not infer the local growth on or near the site of its processing although the substantial numbers of chaff remains recovered in some contexts here, shows the local importance and processing of this crop.

faba L.) and cultivated pea (Pisum sativum L.) were also found in the IA and Romano-British contexts. Both are characteristic of these periods with an increasing number of records being found in recent years. Although the latter (cultivated pea) are not uncommon they are rarely found in quantity. Here, they are present in the early Roman (pit 423; context 424) and late Roman (gully 37; context 38 and pit 60; context 136). Vicia faba L. (horse bean; Celtic bean) have been recovered from the IA (pit 826; context 817) and Roman contexts (gully 37; context 38). Importance of the latter as a major food crop from the later prehistoric period is now generally recognised (Zohary and Hopf 1994) and it is concluded that, along with well known arable cultigens such as emmer and particularly spelt wheat, these pulses were important cultivated crops, especially during the IA and Roman periods. The Classical writings of Pliny, suggest that Celtic bean (Vicia faba L.) was being cultivated for flour used in making a type of bread and/or porridge (Renfrew 1983). However, the pods may also be used green as a valuable animal feed rich in protein and hence the name ‘horse bean’ (Zohary and Hopf 1994).

Undoubtedly, spelt is more liable to be preserved since it has brittle rachis i.e. it is a non-free threshing wheat that therefore requires 'parching' (roasting) to release of the grain from the hull. Thus, recovery of such charred remains is most likely to have resulted from accidents occurring during this process. In such contexts where both spelt grain and chaff are present, this is particularly plausible (that is, in contexts 95, 117, 817, 843, 1054). In some contexts, however, there is a distinct absence of such chaff debris with the grain and it is likely that burning took place after crop processing activities including threshing and winnowing (e.g. contexts 94, 259, 828). This similarly accounts for few, or even absence of seeds in these contexts. It is likely that in these cases chaff may have been disposed of in other areas. In most cases the predominance of grain over the numbers of weed seeds implies that the crop had been largely cleaned, although some weed contaminants apparently remained with the crop whilst being parched. In the early Roman contexts 259 and 1054, the substantial, numbers of indeterminable grain is most probably spelt which was accidentally burnt during the parching process. However, in the case of context 1054, the presence of much chaff may also imply that the grain was of poor quality. Such arguments are, of course, circumstantial since preservation of such material through charring is the result of accidental or deliberate burning for whatever eccentricities of human behavior existed. The relatively small quantities of chaff in relation to the grain in context 259 is somewhat enigmatic since much larger quantities might be expected if the grain was spoiled during parching. It is possible that other accidental causes may have resulted in charring subsequent to major crop processing. Here, this importance of spelt remained throughout the Roman period and, unlike other sites in southern Britain, there appears to be no change to free threshing bread/club wheat (T. aestivo-compactum) as first described by Helbaek (1952) during this period. This differs from other regional sites such as Bierton, near Aylesbury (Jones in Allen 1986) and further afield at Barton Court, Oxfordshire (Jones 1986) where bread/club wheat is important during the IA.

The Saxon Period: It is unfortunate that the Saxon contexts failed to produce more charred plant remains from which change from Roman agrarian styles to Saxon could be studied. Of note, however, are a small number of grains of spelt. If these charred remains have stratigraphical integrity, the presence of spelt in such later contexts is rare. Such cases, have however been recorded from the early Saxon period in Gloucester (Green 1981) and West Stow, Suffolk (Murphy 1985) and Thanet, Kent (Scaife 1985). The presence of bread/club wheat (Triticum aestivo-compactum) in pit 895 is more typical of the period (Green 1981) and has been recovered from nearby Saxon and Medieval sites at Walton, Aylesbury (Monk pp.171-173 in Farley 1976). Plant Macrofossils Conclusions The site provides some 1500 years of arable activity is provided from one local region and in an area for which there has been previously few data. However, most of the sites and contexts examined span the IA and RomanoBritish periods and diagnostically, there is strong evidence that the main crop type established during the IA and maintained into the late Roman period was spelt wheat (Triticum spelta L.). This may have been grown in nearby areas although there is the possibility that it may have been transported from some distance. However, the presence of chaff remains in some contexts attests to onsite processing of this grain including parching, threshing and winnowing. Other crops which have been identified in far fewer numbers but presumably also cultivated include small quantities of emmer wheat (T. dicoccum), barley (Hordeum), rye (Secale cereale) and oat (Avena). Non-grain, cultivate crops include cultivated pea (Pisum sativum) from Roman contexts and Horse/Celtic bean (Vicia faba L) from both IA and Roman features. Although these occur only occasionally, they are less

Other crops: Other crops are typically rarer and apart from the cereal crops discussed above, Celtic bean (Vicia 155

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Aims

likely to have been charred than emmer/spelt that required parching in ovens and were probably important food/crop constituents.

Patchy shell preservation does not allow the detailed palaeo-environmental land-use and landscape interpretations presented elsewhere in, for instance the chalklands of Wessex. However, the broad level of palaeo-environmental enquiry required on this site does not require that high level of specific interpretation. In the later prehistoric and Roman periods the landscape of the Chilterns is believed to be essentially cleared of woodland and one of broadly open environments; open grassland, pasture and arable etc. (see Evans 1972; Allen 1991; Allen and Clark 1991). Differentiating between the habitats on the basis of snail assemblages requires good shell numbers and sample sequences with continual and progressive time-depth. Although the restricted land snail assemblages do not allow this detailed palaeoenvironmental interpretation of differentiating arable from short-grazed pasture, here they can characterise the general nature of the landscape (i.e. farmed, un farmed, open woodland) and determine the presence and significance of flooding or groundwater conditions.

Overall, the assemblages of charred remains recovered from Aston Clinton are typical of material from other sites of these periods in England especially reflecting the predilection for spelt as the principal wheat crop during the IA and Roman period.

VI Land and Freshwater Mollusca; the Landscape Evidence Dr MJ Allen The nature of the area, situated on the junction of chalk geology with the Gault and Upper Greensand, gives rise to complex pattern of soils; mainly of non-calcareous soils such as stagnogleyic peleo-argillic brown earths and typical argillic brown earths But with a range of calcareous soils of more restricted distribution at the foot of the escarpment, which include typical calcareous pelosols, gleyic brown calcareous earths with grey and brown rendzinas on the chalk slopes (Jarvis et al. 1984). As a consequence this has lead to patchy and local survival of snail shells largely in the more calcareous deposits. Within this project shells were only recovered in anything like suitable numbers for analysis in two locations. The first was Site B, where although the topography and geology was patchy, in Area 3 heavier clays (gleyic brown calcareous earths) dominated, and preservation was facilitated by circumneutral soils and fills, and largely anaerobic or semiwaterlogged conditions. Only in Site D, on the thin brown and grey rendzina soils of the high Chilterns at Tring Hill was further shell preservation recorded. A single sample from a third site (Site A), Woodlands Roundabout, produced shells largely as a result of the anaerobic conditions in the wet roadside ditch.

The main aims were, therefore, to attempt to:• • •

characterise the general landscape, and evaluate the presence and significance of flooding examine changes in land-use through time examine detailed development of landscape and land-use practices

From this some comment can be made about the LBA/IA to Saxon economy and environmental context. An attempt to examine the presence or absence of evidence for vegetation regeneration, indicating local abandonment, might provide information about the possible continuity or discontinuity of settlement. These are similar aims to those addressed of the IA and Romano-British sites at Stagsden, Beds (Allen 2000), Harston Mill, Cambs (Allen 2002a), and West Fen Road, Ely, Cambs (Allen 2003).

Despite the limited and highly localised preservation of shells the general absence of pollen has raised the importance of the information from the snail assemblages in providing the primary basis for determining the nature of the local environment during the sites’ occupation and use. Although shell preservation was neither uniform, nor especially good, bulk samples taken by the excavators as spot samples from a range of features allow some interpretation. Indications of changes through time are acquired through the examination of samples from several phases that contain shells. Interpretations, however, belong to discrete local geographies. Detailed histories of local landscape changes and the effects of human communities and land-use can only be gained from sequences of contiguous samples through ditch or other sediment sequences with good shell preservation covering longer time periods (e.g. ditch 196).

Methods A programme of wash-over bulk flotation produced a number of samples with land snails in both the flots (0.5mm) and material sorted from the residues (5.6mm and 4mm). This method of recovery did not enable the retrieval of either the smaller, or the less robust, species that are usually retained in the 1mm and 0.5mm fractions (Evans 1972). Nevertheless, the exceptionally sparse recovery of any shells or shell fragments, in the coarse residues indicates that the majority of the assemblage on this site was present in the flots and little significant loss is likely. Samples with shells were provided by Dr Scaife, and those which were both securely phased and which contained enough shells to allow some comment to made. Scanning and assessment of 47 samples enabled 27 to be 156

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE selected for analysis. The results from Site B are represented in table 42, and those from Tring Hill (Site D) and Woodland Roundabout (Site A) and are presented in table 43 where nomenclature follows Kerney (1999), and classification of species groups is after Evans (1984).

the prehistoric woodland had been long cleared by this time. The LBA/EIA activity occurred in a pre-existing and established open dry landscape. (RM note: the MBA date for cremation 6046 was obtained after this specialist report was complied).

A total of 27 samples from three sites and totalling 4,514 snail identifications (excluding the 1,591 burrowing and thus palaeo-ecologically insignificant species Cecilioides acicula) provide the basis of this report. Analysis was primarily from Site B (Area 3) from which 21 samples (3,638 snails) were analysed.

Site B Early Iron Age Snail Shell Evidence Only three samples were obtained from the early and later IA phases. Two were pit fills from which the molluscan assemblages may not wholly be representative of the local environment. The assemblages may be mixed and thus reflect the microenvironment of the pit itself, and the origin and material discarded into the pit, which may not be representative of the environment or ecology in which the pit is located (Thomas 1977; Shackley 1976).

Samples with suitable shell numbers were mainly from EIA to late Romano-British contexts, so examination is restricted to defining and characterising the landscape and any changes within this limited time period. Nevertheless two samples were analysed from LBA/EIA contexts.

Information from the EIA is provided by only two samples; one from enclosure (G1623) ditch 4087 and a second from pit 71 (interpreted as a well/waterhole). The enclosure ditch was rich in shells (955); the assemblage is mixed and includes both a terrestrial and an aquatic component. The large number (90) of the amphibious species Lymnaea truncatula tends to indicate that the ditch held water for at least part of the year. The rich and mixed assemblage probably represents species living in the ditch and those from the immediately adjacent land. The majority of the shade-loving species are those that live in long grass (Carychium tridentatum), but others might represent vegetation colonising the ditch. The open country elements (Vallonia sp.) suggest an open short grassland or arable landscape, but the presence of a number of marsh (Vertigo angustior) and those of more mesic conditions (Zonitoides nitidus, Vallonia pulchella) indicates damp wetland in the vicinity. In contrast Trichia striolata, a synanthopic or garden species (Evans 1972, 201) is in keeping with slightly overgrown locations within the occupation.

Site A, Woodlands Roundabout Snail Shell Evidence One sample was analysed from the Romano-British+ roadside ditch, as shells were obviously present. Nearly 40% of the assemblage is aquatic suggesting the ditch held water. The aquatic assemblage is dominated by the amphibious species Lymnaea truncatula, but other species are typical of wet swampy and reed dominated ditches. The presence of the stenotopic marsh-loving species, Vertigo moulinsiana, which is commonly associated with Carex or Glyceria maxima on whose stems it lives (Butot and Neuteboom 1958; Bishop 1974; both quoted by Evans et al. 1992, 68), indicates fen environments locally, probably in the ditch. Although the presence of Succinea putris and Vallonia pulchella suggest some mesic environments, the aquatic and marsh-loving species are in direct contrast to the remaining assemblage of open grassland (Vallonia excentrica, Vallonia costata, Pupilla muscorum) which indicate a drier roadside environment. It is difficult to define precisely which elements of the assemblage belong to each of these two ecologies. As such further interpretation of the nature of the open grassland cannot be presented with great confidence. Nevertheless we can suggest longish unkempt grassland next to a muddy roadside ditch holding shallow water and reeds.

The molluscan assemblage from the primary fill of pit 71, a 1.2m deep feature, is dominated by the open country species Vallonia costata, with the catholic species Trichia hispida and Cochlicopa lubrica. The only significant shade-loving species Oxychilus cellarius may represent the local rock rubble habitat (Evans and Jones 1973) created by the loose chalk pea grit and chalk stones of the primary fill chalk as well as the shady microenvironment of the pit itself.

Site B Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age Snail Shell Evidence

The assemblage, therefore, although of mixed ecological groups, represents an open environment, probably with the shade-loving elements in part inhabiting the feature itself, but which could also reflect the shade provided by longer (un trampled) grassland. We can postulate the existence of lightly grazed grass away from the foci of settlement activity existed.

One sample from pit 466 was examined in an attempt to elucidate the local landscape and land-use of the earliest phases. With only 10 shells (table 42), however, little can be said. The second context examined was cremation burial 6046; not an ideal context for the interpretation of palaeo-molluscan assemblages. Nevertheless, the assemblage was small, and predominantly open country species, like that from pit 466. The paucity of shadeloving and majority of open country species indicates that

This feature was provisionally interpreted as a well or waterhole. The lack of aquatic species does not necessarily preclude this as, if no source community 157

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE exists, then colonisation by aquatic species will not occur (cf. Thomas 1985). However, a known source and the presence of aquatic species in other features makes it less likely that this feature held water or contained even a damp, very mesic, microenvironment. In short we can conclude that, in this case, the assemblage from the basal fill is not consistent with the feature having been a waterhole or well.

1986), but here probably represents trampled grassland and bare soil (Evans 1972, 157; Chappell 1971) as a result of increased human or animal activity. Despite the very dry grassland surrounding the ditch, relatively high numbers of the aquatic, albeit amphibious, species Lymnaea truncatula in the basal fills indicates the presence of some water. It lives mostly out of water and here probably indicates either roadside trickles (Kerney 1999, 51), or wetter conditions that prevail at some distance near the river from which it may have been swept by seasonal overbank flooding events. We may envisage a dry grassland with shallow ephemeral puddles and trickles of water in the trackside ditch in the wetter months. Overall, therefore we can see a managed landscape of well-established open trampled grassland with possible hints of arable close to the enclosures.

Site B Late Iron Age Snail Shell Evidence Situated about 30m from pit 71, the single sample from the secondary fill of pit 61 is also dominated by open country species, but the assemblage composition is strikingly different. The assemblage has a restricted taxonomic range and Vallonia excentrica and Trichia hispida form 80% of the assemblage which is more typical of very dry grazed or trampled grassland (cf. Chappell et al. 1971) or even arable contexts. The presence of the amphibious species Lymnaea truncatula, although only one specimen, is of interest. Its presence either represents the human exploitation of riverside resources such as water, reeds or mud that were discard in the pit, or the presence of damp mesic grassland (meadow) prone to seasonal flooding.

Site B Early Roman Snail Shell Evidence Two spot samples from trackside ditch 57 were examined together with a sequence of contiguous samples taken by the excavators through trackside ditch 282a and its recut 196. Samples from the sequence were taken at 10cm intervals, but unfortunately no account was taken of context or feature boundaries (contra Evans 1972, 41-2). As a consequence samples which cross context, or more significantly feature, boundaries contain specimens from more than one ecological assemblage which may be separated by a significant period of time. Although the data from assemblages sampling more than one feature are included in table 42, the assemblages are not considered to be ecologically useful.

If these two IA assemblages are representative of the early and later IA local landscape respectively, then important and significant changes in the local land-use and landscape can be seen; the implications of which are discussed further below. Site B Later Iron Age/Early Roman Snail Shell Evidence

Assemblages from the secondary and main fills of ditch 57 were rich and diverse with high shell numbers (table 42). Although predominately open country species are present indicating open grassland, the preponderance and range of shade-loving and catholic species indicate the prevalence of more shady conditions locally. In particular Ena obscura, which is only found in this feature, enjoys leaf litter in scrub and hedgerows, and the presence of shade-loving species Aegopinella nitidula, Oxychilus cellarius tend to confirm this. Whether scrubby vegetation was confined to the ditch, or the ditch was hedged, cannot be ascertained. We can, however, suggest that the wider landscape was not scrubby as the more open country assemblages from trackside ditch 196 show. The presence of the very rare, sinistral Vertignid, Vertigo angustior, is of particular significance. It is a rare marshland species, and has only been found in few locations in Britain (Kerney 1999, 101). It is restricted to moist places that do not flood, nor dry out, and strongly suggests that damp, mesic short grassland existed locally. Of further interest is the presence of a small freshwater or amphibious element. The presence of L. truncatula has been noted in previous phases, but here two specimens of Anisus leucostoma also occur. This is an amphibious species common in meadows and floodplains (Robinson 1988), and suggests the presence of wetter winter environment in this local lowland, as has been hinted at for previous periods.

Spot samples from the main or secondary fills of enclosure ditches 144, 165, and 876 and the primary fill of track side ditch 282a were dominated by open country taxa, and seems to represent either an immature, or specialised fauna, with a restricted taxonomic range. The enclosure ditches 144 and 165 produced similar assemblages but this was tempered by the high proportion of the burrowing species Cecilioides acicula, which may indicate the presence of intrusive elements. Although some caution, therefore, must be displayed in interpreting these assemblages, the dominance of Vallonia costata and the xerophile Helicella itala with Trichia hispida, suggest very open dry short-grazed grassland or even arable habitats locally. Very few shadeloving or even other catholic elements are present. Although no freshwater or amphibious species are present, the occurrence of Vallonia pulchella, tends to suggest some damp habitats either in the ditch itself or as a result of winter groundwater flooding. Samples from the primary fills of trackside ditch 282a also displayed restricted taxonomic range, and like enclosure ditch 165 were dominated by Vallonia costata. This open country species can be considered a pioneering species colonising poorly vegetated habitats (Ellis 1985; 158

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Site B Ditch 196

we can be relatively confident that the grave backfills were almost entirely derived from these shallow soils and not from older or deeper deposits.

The sequence of samples through the upper surviving fill of track side ditch 282 and its recut 196 show remarkable uniformity and lack of change through the duration of its infilling. Excepting one sample, shell numbers are high, and the assemblages are dominated by Vallonia costata, Vallonia excentrica/pulchella and Trichia hispida typical of open short dry grassland. Although the lack of shadeloving and rupestral species confirms the open nature of the local environment, the presence nevertheless, albeit of a single species of another rare Vertiginid, this time Vertigo moulinsiana suggest damp wetlands in the vicinity. The fact this species is common adjacent to bodies of water, often living on sedges and grasses, suggest that these habitats prevail in the vicinity, if not precisely at the location of the track side ditch. The archaeological evidence seems to suggest that the ditch infilled over centuries (at most) rather than millennia, and we cannot detect any significant changes over this timescale in the local landscape from the molluscan evidence.

Significantly, in contrast to Site B, mollusc assemblages from Tring Hill Site D were exclusively terrestrial; unsurprisingly from its topographical location. The assemblages were also predominantly open country species. The dominance of the Vallonia spp., Pupilla muscorum and Helicella itala suggest very open dry, short, and probably grazed, long established grassland. There is little evidence for shrubs and shady habitats let alone for any local woodland. Together these assemblages indicate long established and maintained Downland, set aside for grazing and settlement. Discussion: the Changing Landscape and LandUse Despite the somewhat stocastic nature of the shell preservation and of the group of samples, the land snail analysis does allow some basic statements to be presented about the nature of the local environment, of possible land-use and of any significant or major changes within these over the EIA to Saxon time frame.

Site B Late Roman Snail Shell Evidence An assemblage from curvilinear ditch 151 was relatively low in shell numbers with a superabundance of one species, Trichia hispida. Although this species can occur in high percentages, the low numbers of other taxa (only 5), suggest strong recovery bias. Those species that are present are not untypical of the other assemblages.

Pre-Iron Age Landscape Although there is little data from the pre-IA phases we can be sure that any prehistoric woodland, if it existed (cf. Allen 1997, 278), was largely cleared during the BA or earlier periods. The landscape around Aston Clinton inherited in the LBA was one largely cleared of woodland locally, probably for pasture and settlement. Although excavations recovered little evidence of the MBA or earlier activity, the environmental data suggest that it existed.

The assemblage from the upper fill of well 68 is likely to represent largely the local landscape rather than any micro-environments of the well itself. Nevertheless more shade-loving species comprise a significant (33%) component of the assemblage, proportionally being nearly twice as abundant as in any other from this site. The shade-loving element, which largely comprises Aegopinella nitidula and Oxychilus cellarius, may indicate leaf litter that had accumulated in the top of the largely infilled well feature. These apart, the overall assemblage tends to indicate the typical open landscape seen in previous phases. The presence, however, of relatively large numbers of Candidula spp., which is a medieval introduction (Kerney 1966), probably indicates mixing and intrusive elements in this context limiting the level of interpretation we may offer.

The General Nature of the Iron Age and Roman Landscape As might be expected (cf. Evans 1972, Allen 1991; Allen and Clark 1991), the area was felled of trees and survived as a generally open grassy landscape from at least the EIA. There is, however, evidence of moist, damp grassland as evidenced by the presence of marsh-loving species, and of amphibious species. Meadowland, with high groundwater, but not extensive flooding is indicated. The deeper features, ditches and pits, on Site B may have been prone to holding water particularly over the winter months. In contrast Site D showed evidence of wellestablished short-turfed Downland grass, with little evidence of local scrub or trees.

Site D, Tring Hill Snail Shell Evidence A series of four samples was examined from Tring Hill (Site D), (table 39). Unfortunately the only contexts available for study were grave fills. These are far from ideal contexts as the origin and taphonomy of the molluscan assemblages is not clear (cf. Shackley 1976; Thomas 1977). Nevertheless, these contexts were considered important as they provide the only early Saxon environmental information. As the cemetery was situated on slopes of Tring Hill, which support thin shallow humic rendzina soils of the Icknield Association,

Evidence of Flooding Riverine Resources

and

Exploitation

of

Although there is evidence of some ‘wetland’ conditions on Site B, this combination of species does not seem to indicate extensive nor common winter flooding from local water courses. Although true marshland, and sedges 159

Vol (Litres) MOLLUSCA Pomatias elegans (Müller) Carychium minimum (Müller) Carychium tridentatum (Risso) Carychium spp. Succinea putris (Linnaeus) Oxyloma pfeifferi (Rossmässler) Cochlicopa lubrica (Müller) Cochlicpa lubicella (Porro) Cochlicopa spp. Vertigo antivertigo (Draparnaud) Vertigo pygmaea (Draparnaud) Vertigo moulinsiana (Dupuy) Vertigo angustior (Jeffreys) Vertigo spp. Pupilla muscorum (Linnaeus) Vallonia costata (Müller) Vallonia pulchella (Müller) Vallonia cf. Pulchella (Müller) Vallonia pulchella/excentrica Vallonia excentrica (Sterki) Vallonia spp. Ena obscura (Müller) Punctum pygmaeum (Draparnaud) Discus rotundatus (Müller) Vitrina pellucida (Müller) Vitrea crystallina (Müller) Nesovitrea hammonis (Ström) Aegopinellapura (Alder) Aegopinella nitidula (Draparnaud) Oxychilus cellarius (Müller) Zonitoides nitudus (Müller) Limacidae Cecilioides acicula (Müller) Cochlodina laminata (Montagu) Clausilia bidentata (Ström)

Feature Context Sample Depth

Site Phase Feature type

+ 1 1 1 1 1 16 1

1 -

1 39 1 -

4 -

2

160

203 -

20 4 -

-

+ 5 17 8 87 9 -

10

Site B, area 3 LBA/EIA EIA Pit Cre Pit m 466 6046 71 468 6048 74 58 502 14 LIA Pit

19 5 1 1 10

5 11 23

13 86 37 32 1 20 7 1 3 64 113 36 99 9 23

1 1 -

1 5

+ 1 15 14 125 -

10

2 47 -

2 3

1 6 7 -

10

1 191 -

4

3 1 2 2 102 10 10 1

10

165 166 30

LIA/ER Ditch Ditch

4087 61 144 4088b 135 145 125 24 22

Ditch

2 288 -

2 -

2 2 12 2 -

875 876 65

Ditch

1 3 -

-

1 1 26 5 -

10

282a 281 38

Ditch

Ditch

4 -

+ 1

1 16 8 1 -

1 14 -

4

1 5 21 8 18 1 -

1 2 -

3

2 5 1 3 22 24 -

33 -

1 1

1 4 2 1 8 35 4 47 -

28 -

-

2 3 1 1 15 3 2 -

2 61 -

8

+ 2 1 1 3 2 1 2 9 54 72 -

7 28 -

1 1 5

+ 1 4 1 1 24 50 -

1 1 23 -

4

1 3 2 2 5 17 65 -

196/282 recut 196 281a 175/281 175 175 117/75 117 116/7 116 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 70-80 60-70 50-60 40-50 30-40 20- 10-20 0-10 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

ER Ditch

2 2 8 -

1 5

4 3 1 1 82 10 10 -

10

57 64 12

Ditch

3 24 -

4

+ 1 4 7 2 6 76 7 44 2 4

10

63 11

4 -

-

5 2 4 -

10

151 152 27

LR Ditch

19 1 42 1

20

1 4 2 16 4 9 -

10

68 67 16

Well

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

2 6 +

11 33

3 -

1 4 10

8 189

10 1 41 1 -

Site B, area 3 LBA/EIA EIA Pit Cre Pit m 466 6046 71 468 6048 74 58 502 14

Table-42.Mollusca-Site-B-(Area3)

Vol (Litres) Candidula gigaxii (L. Pfeiffer) Candidula spp. Helicella itala (Linnaeus) Trichia striolata (C. Pfeiffer) Trichia hispida (Linnaeus) Cepaea nemoralis (Linnaeus) Cepaea hortensis (Müller) Cepaea/Arianta spp. FRESH/BRACKISH WATER Anisus leucostoma (Millet) Lymnaea truncatula (Müller) Taxa TOTAL

Feature Context Sample Depth

Site Phase Feature type LIA Pit

90 25 955

11 1 25 209 + 1 11 246

10 9 73 1 7 53

10 5 27 11 246

10 49 61 -

165 166 30

LIA/ER Ditch Ditch

4087 61 144 4088b 135 145 125 24 22

Ditch

1 7 37

+ 14 -

875 876 65

Ditch

7 58

10 5 19 -

282a 281 38

Ditch

Ditch

2 7 64

12 12 119

7 11 129

13 14 173

5 9 53

9 13 255

196/282 recut 196 281a 175/281 175 175 117/75 117 49 49 49 49 49 49 70-80 60-70 50-60 40-50 30-40 2030 5 5 5 5 5 5 8 8 6 8 3 13 1 2 27 39 55 45 18 76 1 -

ER Ditch

2 13 143

5 9 37 2 12 146

5 3 40 -

10 24 127 +

63 11

10 2 38 -

151 152 27

LR Ditch

2 1 2 10 15 15 6 216 315 65

10 12 24 55 3

57 116/7 116 64 49 49 12 10-20 0-10

Ditch

1 15 133

10 9 5 4 34 2 1

68 67 16

Well

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

161

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Changes and Landscape Development

and reeds may have existed, and have been exploited, they were not immediately local to Area 3 Site B. The general damp conditions seem to be a result of the poorly drained geologies and potentially high groundwater table.

Whether the occurrence of possible local tilled fields in the LIA/early Roman phase represents changes in the local economy, or shifting patterns of maintained landuse practices cannot be immediately discerned. It is perhaps not coincidental that there seem to be overall changes in the wider environment at this time. There seems to be evidence of damper meadows than in the EIA. This is not due to overbank river floods, but to higher ground water tables. We can speculate that higher groundwater may be the result of more intensive use of the land around the settlement; i.e. on the Chiltern slopes and the interfluves. Pasture, arable and woodland clearance increase rainwater runoff which is transferred to the lower lying areas rather than being retained within soils on the slopes.

Land-use Grassland was probably lightly grazed around the EIA settlement at the sampling point (pit 71), indicating a lack of intensive occupation activity (trampling) and intensively grazed pasture. We can suggest, therefore, that the sampled pit was located away from the foci of activity or on the edge of settlement activity. The LIA/early Roman phase indicates either more intensively grazed grassland giving rise to a short grass sward, or arable habitats. This need not represent intensification of activity as it could reflect changing locations of arable and pasture. However, there is a hint that some of the ditches may possibly have been hedged.

Evidence of Continuity and Intensification Overall there seems to be maintenance of open pasture from the EIA to late Roman phases, which we can take as general continuity of farming and land-use. Tentative arguments of intensification in land-use are, however, postulated from the presence of possible tilled fields, and of possible hedged ditches in the later IA/early Roman phase. Combined with the evidence of higher groundwater resulting from farming activity on the higher slopes within the catchment at this time, all points to either expansion in the farmed areas or intensification of use from the LIA/early Roman phase. It does not indicate, however, significant changes of land-use.

The suggestion of hedged ditches and therefore hedged fields in the IA is not common, but it has been suggested from land snails evidence for Romano-British fields at Alington Avenue outside Dorchester, Dorset (Allen 2002b). Overall this evidence is in keeping with typical farmstead settlements.

Site Phase Feature type Feature Context Sample MOLLUSCA Pomatias elegans (Müller) Carychium tridentatum (Risso) Carychium spp. Succinea putris (Linneaus) Cochlicopa lubrica (Müller) Cochlicopa lubricella (Porro) Cochlicopa spp. Vertigo pygmaea (Draparnaud) Vertigo moulinsiana (Dupuy) Vertigo spp. Abida secale (Draparnaud) Pupilla muscorum (Linnaeus) Vallonia costata (Müller) Vallonia pulchella/excentrica Vallonia excentrica (Sterki) Ena obscura (Müller) Punctum pygmaeum (Draparnaud) Vitrina pellucida (Müller) Nesovitrea hammonis (Ström) Aegopinella nitidula (Draparnaud) Oxychilus cellarius (Müller) Cecilioides acicula (Müller) Candidula gigaxii (L. Pfeiffer)

Site A Rom Ditch 8115 8114 3

Site D E. Sax Grave 5032 5034 504

Grave 5000 5001 506

Grave 5027 5019 507

Grave 5017 5015 509

Grave 5104 5012 510

6 1 2 2 2 4 8 2 27 2

1 4 6 7 4 1 51 109 48 1 6

2 5 7 4 37 21 19 2

6 9 43 18 24 2

+ 2 1 2 2 23 28 20 2

+ 1 3 14 23 21 2

1

3 1

-

1 1 -

-

-

-

1 76 1

108 -

1 120 1

173 -

71 1

162

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Site Helicella itala (Linnaeus) Trichia hispida (Linnaeus) Cepaea/Arianta spp.

Site A 43 -

Site D 31 11 -

5 9 -

29 3 -

9 8 -

16 5 +

FRSH/BRACKISH SPECIES Bithynia tentaculata (Linnaeus) Lymnaea truncatula (Müller) Planorbis planorbis (Linnaeus) Planorbis carinatus (Müller) Anisus leucostoma (Millet) Anisus vortex (Linnaeus) Taxa TOTAL

1 36 3 2 14 2 16 158

14 286

9 111

12 138

10 97

9 86

Table 43 Mollusca from Site A and Site D

Dr R Scaife 2005

follows that of Moore and Webb (1978) modified according to Bennett et al. (1994) for pollen types and Stace (1992) for plant descriptions. These procedures were carried out in the Palaeoecology Laboratory of the Department of Geography, University of Southampton.

Introduction

The Pollen Data

The Romano-British well/water-hole (feature 68; context 94b) contained fine-grained grey-brown organic silts, which appear to have remained waterlogged and unoxidised due to a high ground water table. These were the only sediments found which had potential for obtaining preserved sub-fossil pollen and spores and thus, for establishing the character of the local vegetation. The taphonomy of pollen recovered from the fills of wells is, however, complex (Dimbleby 1985; Scaife 1999) and one further aim was to examine the character of the pollen assemblages in the sediment fills and provide new data from one of the few such features which have been studied. In-spite of the often complex taphonomy of pollen and sediments in well contexts, some useful data has been obtained from analysis of this short sequence of humic sediments. Unusually, wellpreserved and abundant pollen was recovered from sediments within this well in-spite of the calcareous nature of the local bedrock and soils. This is attributed to the fact that the well has remained water-logged at its base and the sediments not being oxidised. Pollen Method

Seven samples at 2cm intervals were examined spanning the 13cm thick basal humic sediment. These all contained well-preserved sub-fossil pollen and spores with a total of 43 taxa recorded. The most noticeable characteristic of the pollen assemblage is the almost total absence of tree and shrub pollen with only sporadic occurrences of Pinus (Pine) and Quercus (Oak). Herbs by comparison are markedly important comprising a range of taxa that are characteristic of arable, pastoral and disturbed ground habitats. Poaceae are dominant throughout the profile (to 80%). Also important are Polygonum aviculare type (to 27%), Centaurea scabiosa type, C. nigra type (knapweed; to 25%) and Lactucoideae (dandelion types; to 18%). In addition there is a range of other taxa, which occur sporadically and overall, form a diverse pollen assemblage. These include for example, Cereal pollen, Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain), Plantago major type (greater plantain), Asteraceae (daisy family) types and Sanguisorba minor (salad burnet) and Polygala, the latter that are diagnostic of calcareous habitats. The only wetland taxon recorded is Cyperaceae (sedges; to 8%). There are few spores with occasional Pteridium aquilinum (bracken) and individual occurrences of monolete (Dryopteris type) forms and liverworts.

VII Pollen Analysis of the Fills of Site B Romano-British Well 68.

A total of seven pollen samples were examined at 2cm intervals throughout the humic silts at the base of the well profile. This material was obtained and sampled in the field using a gouge corer to penetrate the overlying compacted sediment. Standard techniques were used on samples of 1.5ml volume (Moore and Webb 1978; Moore et al. 1992). Pollen was identified and counted using an Olympus biological research microscope fitted with Leitz optics. The pollen sum counted for each level was variable depending on the state of preservation and the absolute pollen frequencies present. A pollen diagram has been constructed and plotted using Tilia and Tilia Graph with percentages calculated as a percentage of the total pollen identified and counted. Taxonomy in general

Pollen Discussion Contrary to views often expressed, pollen and spores can be preserved in areas of calcareous lithology (chalk and limestone) in soils (Dimbleby and Evan 1974) and sediments. Such preservation, however, relies on certain conditions of burial of soils under field monuments or rarely where sediments have remained waterlogged. Such conditions are rarely encountered in such calcareous regions where free drainage is normal. The latter requires continuously waterlogged sediment that has also not been 163

Table 44 Pollen Diagram: Romano-British Well 68

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

164

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE subject to drying out (and oxidation) and without the constant through flow of oxygenated waters. These conditions seem to have pertained in this Roman feature. The base of the well contained a thin 15cm thick, fine grained humic sediment which probably accumulated whilst the well was in use or during the period immediately after its abandonment but prior to its filling with coarser debris. Some degree of pollen stratification/variation suggests that the sediments accumulated over a period of time and were not subject to mixing (by the water bucket!).

tree-less, pastoral landscape. Birch, oak, hazel and alder which have high pollen productivity and remained in the landscape after late-prehistoric clearance of lime might be expected in greater quantity even in this well context if they were growing in proximity to the site. Thurnham Roman villa well (Scaife forthcoming) is an exceptional case where tree pollen (ash) is dominant representing local growth over the well. There are few pollen data from this region because of the alkalinity of lithology and soils and general lack of suitable conditions for preservation. However, Farley et al. 1984 have examined a MIA humic alluvial horizon at Woodham, Buckinghamshire. This has been radiocarbon dated to 330 +/-80 bc (HAR 2741) and as with the Roman contexts described here, show a general openness of the landscape with pollen similarly dominated by Poaceae with other herb taxa (especially Lactucoideae) attributed to farming habitats. At this site, however, cereal pollen was not found which contrasts with Aston Clinton and furthermore, there are greater numbers of trees and shrubs including birch, pine, alder, lime/linden, oak and especially and hazel. Coles (1986) working on an IA site demonstrated that by this period the landscape was predominantly open with some scrub and that the local economy comprised mixed agriculture with animal husbandry of possibly greater importance.

There have been few pollen studies undertaken with which to compare the data obtained from this well. Exceptions are the studies of Roman wells by Barber (1976) at Portchester Castle, Hants., Pomeroy Wood, Honiton, Devon (Scaife 1999), Farmoor, Oxfordshire (Lambrick and Robinson 1979), Thurnham, Kent. (Scaife forthcoming) and small watering holes Peterborough, Cambs. (Scaife 1994). Certainly, there have been few pollen studies of such features. However, in spite of the taphonomic problems associated with these features, the above studies have demonstrated that useful palaeohabitat information can be obtained, especially as part of an interdisciplinary study carried out in conjunction with insect remains and plant macrofossils. The pollen and spores contained in the sediments of wells probably come from a variety of sources which include windblown and/or insect components as well as pollen from secondary sources which might include human and animal faeces, offal and domestic waste. All of the latter may contain considerable quantities of pollen that can strongly bias pollen assemblages if such material was dumped in the well. Such secondary components may complicate the interpretation of the pollen assemblages since this may have masked ‘naturally’ derived pollen from which interpretations of the local environment can be made. The taphonomy of pollen recovered from the fills of wells is complex and pollen assemblages are also most likely to represent vegetation in extremely close proximity to the site. This is especially the case for such a constricted well compared with features also described as wells which are water-holes (e.g. Scaife 1994, 1995).

Additional regional pollen data is required to determine whether there were more areas of woodland remaining during the IA, which were cleared during the LIA and Roman periods in response to increasing agricultural intensification. These pollen data obtained from the well are in total accord with Dr. M.J. Allen’s description of the Aston Clinton habitat and land use change based on snail evidence with preponderance of grassland (including areas of short turf downland character) and of more poorly drained conditions (see Allen above). Cereal pollen is present throughout the well sediments with higher percentages between 6 and 8cm. From the substantial quantities of charred grain and chaff debris of spelt wheat, recovered from this site (see plant macrofossils section above), it is clear that cereals may have been grown locally but were certainly being processed and used on-site. It has been suggested that typical crops such as spelt wheat (Triticum spelta L.) may, however, have been grown on other farms, transported and stored for consumption elsewhere (Jones 1981). This involved crop processing at the consumer site and with the threshing and winnowing which may have liberated cereal (and associated arable weed) pollen trapped in the ears of grain (Robinson and Hubbard 1979). This has been suggested as a common source of arable pollen in various types of archaeological contexts including wells (Lambrick and Robinson 1979) and pertinent here.

The most apparent feature of the pollen sequence here is the almost total absence of trees and shrubs and the dominance of herbs of pastoral, arable and waste ground habitats. This dominance of herbs, however, compares with the other studies carried out on wells, (Barber 1976; Lambrick and Robinson 1979; Scaife 1999) with notable presence of cereal pollen and associated weeds of human disturbance and agriculture (segetals/ruderals). Grasses (Poaceae) and other taxa of pastoral habitat are in evidence (clover, ribwort plantain, scabious, knapweed, dandelion types, buttercups) are also present. Salad burnet (Sanguisorba minor) and milkwort (Polgala) are somewhat rare pollen occurrences and derive from calcareous, short grassland/ pasture. Although the pollen catchment of well contexts are restricted, it would appear therefore, that the environment here was an open and

The consistent presence of sedges (Cyperaceae) is unusual for such a well and it is possible the pollen may

165

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE come from growth in wetter areas around the well head or from any more extensive fen habitats in the region.

diaphysis of a left humerus belonging to an infant, measuring approximately 67.2mm in length. This length would suggest that the infant is likely to have been between 0 and 6 months of age (Saunders et.al: 1993, 269)

Pollen Conclusions Fortuitously, pollen was found in the waterlogged sediments at the base of well feature (68). The pollen assemblages suggest that the environment was open agricultural land with pastoral and arable habitats. Representation of the latter may, however, be from pollen liberated in crop processing and/or domestic waste that was disposed of in the well. This analysis is one of very few studies of well and water-hole features which have been undertaken and is also of interest coming from a region of calcareous lithology. The pollen data accord well with results obtained from analysis of the mollusca at this site.

Human Skeletal Remains from Tring Hill Site D Introduction

L.Sibun 2004

The excavations at Aston Clinton recovered the articulated skeletal remains of sixteen individuals. A further two graves contained only very small fragments of bone. Given the small number of individuals recovered the analysis was limited to estimations of age, sex, stature as well as the identification of pathological lesions on the skeleton. For the same reason, detailed statistical calculations have not been carried out on the population but instead, results are shown and discussed at an individual level.

Site A Woodlands Roundabout

Demography

Two specimens of human skeletal material were recovered. The first was located within posthole 8079 and was identified as a fragment of shaft from the distal end of a right femur. The bone appeared to be in a good state of preservation with little surface abrasion. The linear aspera, usually prominent on a human femur appears to have been worn away and the smooth and shiny surface of the shaft suggests that it had been deliberately polished to some extent. The proximal end of the fragment has suffered a recent break but the distal end appears to have been broken prior to deposition. A very small (approximately 4.1mm) and shallow surface cut is present at the distal end on the lateral side of the shaft. The evidence for polishing and the cut mark on the bone do suggest that this specimen deserved some extra attention. However, if this fragment had been lying on the ground it may be coincidence that the fragment chosen for working was of human origin.

The basic parameters of a demographic investigation are age and sex. Age estimations were carried out using Bass (1987), Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994), Gustafson and Koch (in Hillson 1996), Lovejoy et.al. (1985), Miles (1962) and Suchey-Brooks (in Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994). Multifactorial age-at-death assessments provide the most accurate results (Lovejoy, 1985) and estimates of age will be made using a combination of all methods. The problems with assigning specific age-at-death assessments to adults are widely known (Saunders, 1992) and as a result of the assessments of known aged material in recent years (i.e. Spitalfields) the accuracy of current methods are being questioned. For this reason the adult age categories employed (young, prime, mature) make no reference to chronological age, but instead refer to the biological manifestations of age in the skeletons. A skeleton with severe attrition, or an ‘old’ looking auricular surface or pubic symphysis appears biologically old regardless of chronological age, and will therefore be assigned to the mature adult category. Sub-adult age-atdeath estimations can be made with a greater degree of accuracy, and narrower age categories can be employed.

VIII

Human Skeletal Material

Fragments of human skull were found upturned at the base of BA pit 8263. The frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital bones were all present. All the criteria present displayed male traits. There was a no wear evident on the teeth but the maxilla was incomplete and sockets for the third molars were absent. All sutures were open. The size of cranium suggests an adult individual and the additional evidence would point to a young adult or possibly a juvenile.

The age categories employed for both adults and juveniles are summarised below: Age Category Foetus Neonate Infant 1 Infant 2 Juvenile Young Adult Prime Adult Mature Adult

The Human Skeletal Material from Site B Lower Icknield Way A single specimen identified as human was recovered from early Romano-British pit 380. This was the

Years Before birth Birth - 11 months 1–5 6 – 11 12 – 17

Table 45 – Human age categories

166

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Sex estimations for adult individuals were made by visual observations of the pelvis and skull with reference to Bass (1987) and Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994). Metrical data relating to sexing the skeleton was also recorded and utilised when necessary to help clarify ambiguous results. The adult skeletons have been classified as male (M), probable male (M?), female (F), probable female (F?), or unknown sex (?). Individuals were assigned to the M?, F? or ? categories where incompleteness, poor preservation or ambiguous results prohibited definitive assignments to either sex.

5056 (18) 5202 (14)

Mature adult Mature adult

F? F?

Table 46 - Demographic analysis of the Anglo-Saxon Individuals at Site D

The population is divided into twelve adults and four infants. Of the adult individuals, three were identified as male, four as definite female, four as probable female and one unknown sex. With the exception of individual 5045, identified as being of prime to mature age, the adults appear to have died either young or mature. Three of the four infants died under the age of five years and one between 6 and 11 years of age.

Metrical Data Metrical data was recorded where available. Stature estimations were calculated with reference to stature tables after Trotter and Gleser (1958).

Stature It was possible to calculate stature for seven individuals. The results appear in the table below.

Pathology

Context

All pathological lesions and abnormal bone morphology were examined and described using modern clinical terminology, following recommendations made by Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994). Due to the small size of the population pathology is studied at an individual level.

5002 (burial 1) 5005 (burial 2) 5022 (burial 8) 5025 (burial 9) 5033 (burial 11) 5039 (burial 12) 5042 (burial 13)

Results

Sex M F? F M M F F

Stature Feet 5’8” 5’3” 5’3” 5’6” 5’5” 5’2” 5’4”

Longbone used cm 173 162 162 170 167 159 164

Tibia Femur Femur + tibia Femur Femur + tibia Femur Radius

Preservation varied across the site but the majority of adult skeletons were over 75% complete and recovered in good condition. The completeness of the skeletons seems to have been largely determined by the presence or absence of post-mortem damage rather than the state of preservation. At least two graves appear to have been cut by subsequent features (5016, 5202) and the two found to contain only small fragments of bone (5010, 5035) might have been robbed. The infant skeletons were less well preserved but dentition and longbone fragments were recovered in all cases.

The results show a stature range of 5’5” (167cm) to 5’8” (173cm) for males for and 5’2” (159cm) to 5’4” (164cm) for females. Although the total number of individuals is small, the stature range fits well within the height range from an Anglo-Saxon population recovered from St. Anne’s Road, Eastbourne, Sussex with a male height range of 160cm-190cm and female range of 153cm to 164cm (Greatorex, in prep.)

Demography

Pathology

The table below outlines the results of the demographic analysis.

Nine of the adult individuals displayed pathological lesions on the skeleton (5002, 5005, 5025, 5033, 5039, 5042, 5045, 5056, 5202). These are discussed in detail below.

Context Number 5002 (burial 1) 5005 (2) 5008 (3) 5010 (4) 5013 (5) 5016 (6) 5020 (7) 5022 (8) 5025 (9) 5033 (11) 5035 (17) 5038 (10) 5039 (12) 5042 (13) 5045 (15) 5048 (16)

Age Category

Sex

Young adult Young adult Infant 1 ? Infant 1 Mature adult Infant 1 Young adult Young adult Mature adult ? Young adult Mature adult Young adult Prime/mature adult Infant 2

M F? ? F F M M ? ? F F F? -

Table 47 – Stature of Anglo-Saxon individuals at Site D

Dental Pathology Ante-mortem tooth loss had affected six individuals (5002, 5005, 5033, 5039, 5056, 5202). All individuals affected had lost at least three teeth and molars were most frequently affected. Individual 5056 had lost all mandibular dentition. One possible reason for antemortem tooth loss is dental caries and six individuals had carious lesions on one or more teeth (5005, 5025, 5039, 5042, 5045, 5056). In accordance with the patterns for ante-mortem tooth loss, the posterior teeth were more commonly affected and the maxillary first molar was the most affected. Individual 5056 also displayed signs of an 167

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Congenital Abnormality

abscess affecting the right anterior maxilla. Dental calculus was noted on a number of individuals but was not recorded in detail.

The only congenital abnormality seen in this material was the asymmetrical sacralisation of the fifth lumbar vertebrae in skeleton 5002. This condition is not uncommon. Whilst it can arise as a result of traumatic injury there is no evidence of this and the fifth lumbar is dramatically altered, taking on the appearance of a sacral vertebra and suggesting a congenital cause. The osteophytosis evident in the lower spine of the individual (discussed above) may be due to abnormal wear and tear resulting from this abnormality.

Joint Disease Osteoarthritis was noted in three individuals (5033, 5039, 5202). Mature female skeleton 5039 displayed mild osteophyte formation and porosity in the cervical vertebrae. Skeleton 5202 displayed more extensive changes. This mature female was suffering from osteoarthritis in the lower lumbar vertebrae with less severe changes in the thoracic vertebrae. The hip joints were also affected with extensive porosity and marginal exostoses of both left and right femoral heads. Both innominate bones show corresponding acetabular changes. The left scapula also displays mild osteophytic growth around the genoid margin. The lower spine (L5 to T10) of mature male 5033 showed signs of osteoarthritis and Schmorl’s nodes and cervical vertebrae were affected by degenerative disc disease. All these changes could be attributed to age, affecting mature individuals.

Grave Fill An attempt was made to establish whether or not the small quantities of human skeletal material recovered as grave fill belonged to the individual within the grave or whether additional skeletons were present. Most skeletal material could be attributed to the individual within the grave but evidence of at least one additional skeleton was found in the grave of male 5025. The additional material included a first, and second cervical vertebrae, a loose maxillary premolar and a fragment of innominate from a mature female.

Joint disease is also evident in individuals (5002 and 5033). Whilst male 5002 displayed osteophytosis in the lower spine (L4 to T10), in both males 5002 and 5033 the distal articulation of the right radius and ulna was also affected by joint disease. In skeleton 5002, there is evidence of new bone formation on the distal ulna with dense new bone growth around the head of the ulna. The ulna notch on the distal radius is unaffected but mild osteophytes are present around the lower articular surface of the distal radius. The changes in skeleton 5033 appear to be identical but have reached a more advanced stage. There is extensive marginal lipping around the ulna head and on the distal surface, with eburnation visible in both surfaces. Unfortunately the carpals weren’t available for comparison but the eburnation on the distal ulna suggests that articulation was taking place. The ulnar notch on the distal radius is enlarged with both porosity and eburnation evident. For both individuals this condition suggests abnormal wear and tear to this joint through repetitive use.

Human Skeletal Remains Discussion The presence of an additional mature female recovered from the grave fill suggests the population totalled a minimum number of seventeen individuals. This small population comprised thirteen adults and four infants and the majority of the adults (nine) were identified as female or probable female. Six adults died at a young age, one at prime to mature age, but six reached a skeletally mature age. It is perhaps surprising that the same number of adults died young as mature but this could simply be due to the small size of the population available for analysis. As well as age at death, the health of the population is reflected in the pathological lesions evident. Nine out of the twelve articulated adult skeletons displayed pathological lesions. The relatively high occurrence of dental disease (likely to result from either poor dental hygiene or a diet more likely to result in tooth decay) and the presence of osteoarthritis (commonly found in mature skeletons and suggestive of an active lifestyle) can be used as an indication of the general health and lifestyle of the population. However, there is also evidence for individual problems such as the joint disease evident in skeletons 5002 and 5033, which may be an indication that they were carrying out a particular activity, and the infected cranium of female 5005.

Infectious disease Only one individual displayed signs of infection in the skeleton. This was skeleton 5005 showing signs of osteomyelitis in the cranium. The occipital bone is affected and internally displays lytic foci around the internal occipital protuberance, three of which have perforated the outer table and measure between 4.5 and 11.2mm in diameter. This appears to be very similar to the condition described by Ortner and Putschar (1981, 120), that is osteomyelitis secondary to chronic ear infection spreading through the venous sinuses or meninges.

The population from Aston Clinton is unfortunately too small for meaningful interpretation of the analysis results. However, as they stand, the data provide interesting and useful comparative material for future research.

168

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE undertaken using methods outlined by Von Den Driesch (1976). Each fragment was then studied for signs of butchery, burning, gnawing and pathology.

IX The Animal Bone from the Aston Clinton Bypass L Sibun - 2004

In addition to the full analysis, 1132 securely dated fragments from Site B were identified to taxa only. The aim of this was to assist with the identification of changes in the relative proportions of species over time.

Introduction The excavations and watching brief at sites A, B and D produced a total of 4713 fragments of animal bone, weighing 86,490g. This material was collected from 257 separate contexts, the majority of which could be dated and fell into one of the following chronological categories • • • • • •

The Assemblage The final, securely dated assemblage comprises 3157 fragments. The preservation of the bone was generally good but the assemblage was found to be fragmentary, with few complete bones surviving. It is unlikely that the fragmentation results from trampling or weathering as there is very little evidence for surface abrasion. This suggests that the bone was deposited soon after use, but the limited evidence for carnivorous gnawing indicates that some of the bone material at least was accessible. Some fragmentation can be expected as a result of taphonomic processes, but although the quantity of specimens displaying butchery marks is small (see tables below), it is possible that some of the fragmentation results from extensive bone processing.

Late Bronze Age/ early Iron Age (LBA/EIA) Early Iron Age (EIA) Late Iron Age (LIA) Early Romano-British (ERB) Late Romano-British (LRB) Saxon (SAX)

The analysis concentrated on those contexts that could be securely dated. The resulting assemblage consisted of 139 fragments from Site A, 2963 from the excavations at Site B, three from the strip and map and 63 fragments from Site D. Full analysis was undertaken on the entire LBA/EIA and Saxon assemblages due to their small size, as well as selected key contexts from the IA and Romano-British periods. Sites A, B and D have been considered separately below.

The fragmentary nature of the assemblage has unfortunately limited the availability of ageing, sexing and metrical data. As a result, calculations have produced small totals for MNE and MNI and this should be borne in mind when considering the interpretation based upon them.

Methods

Site A – Woodlands Roundabout

Full analysis was carried out on the fragments from Sites A, B and D. This analysis included identification of fragments to species and the skeletal element represented. The resulting data produced NISP (Number of Identified Specimen) and MNE (Minimum Number of Elements) counts. The NISP totals include all skeletal elements such as skull fragments, ribs and vertebrae but any conjoining fragments have been counted as one. To assist with the MNE calculations and in an attempt to avoid the distortion caused by differing fragmentation rates, the specimens were recorded according to the part and proportion of the bone present. The MNI (Minimum Number of Individuals) was calculated from the most common element according to the MNE, by taking sides into consideration. No attempt was made to differentiate between sheep and goat or horse and donkey. Undiagnostic fragments categorised as cattle size or sheep size, have been included in the percentages of identifiable bone.

A total of 139 securely dated fragments were recovered from Site A. All specimens were studied in full and 133 of these were identifiable. The majority of the assemblage was recovered from LBA/EIA pits and postholes but ditches, a ring gully and quarry pit also produced bone. NISP 139

Butchery 1 0.7%

Gnawing 5 3.6%

Table 48. Percentages of butchered, gnawed and burnt bone fragments (Site A).

The following taxa were identified: cattle (Bos taurus); sheep/goat (Ovicaprid); pig (Sus scrofa); horse (Equidae). Species Cattle Sheep/goat Pig Horse TOTAL

Epiphyseal fusion was recorded and subsequently interpreted using data provided by Silver (1969). Dental wear was recorded using Grant’s system (1982). Dental eruption was calculated using data from Silver (1969), and Levine (1982). Schmid (1972) was used to sex pig canines. Where measurements were possible these were

LBA/EIA 84(2) 38(3) 8(1) 3(1) 133

Table 49. Quantification of Site A assemblage

169

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE (Data are presented in terms of NISP with MNI in brackets)

indicated in the table is low, a number of loose teeth were present. A large number of small, unidentifiable longbone fragments were also recorded. A single longbone fragment displays shallow knife cuts to the shaft.

The table above indicates that the majority of the bone assemblage was identified as cattle, twice as many as sheep. Only a few fragments represent pig and horse.

Cranial, mandibular and longbone fragments from the lower limbs represent sheep. The eight specimens identified as pig were longbone fragments from upper and lower limbs as well as teeth and a vertebral fragment. There was no evidence for butchery on any of the sheep or pig specimens.

Cattle, Sheep/Goat (sheep from here forward) and Pig The table below shows the relative percentages of the three main domestic species by phase in terms of NISP with MNI in brackets.

Ageing Data Species Cattle Sheep/Goat Pig

LBA/EIA 65(2) 29(3) 6(1)

The dental evidence available for ageing the main species in Site A is extremely limited. It was only possible to age a single cattle mandible for cattle, sheep and pig. The cattle mandible was from an individual more than 2 years of age. The sheep and pig mandibles came from individuals over 18 months.

Table 50. Percentages of main food species in each period (Site A) (Based on NISP)

Although the totals involved are small, the NISP figures demonstrate the dominance of cattle in the assemblage at the expense of sheep and pig. The MNI figures, however, would indicate that sheep at least were more significant than the NISP figures suggest.

Epiphyseal Fusion The ageing data from epiphyseal fusion has been calculated. However, due to the limited data available only results for cattle has been tabulated below (table 52).

These results compare well to those from the LBA/EIA assemblage from Site B (below). However, a difference can be seen between these results and those from a MBA site at Walton (Sadler, 1989) where, in terms of NISP, the site produced 40% cattle and sheep with pig forming the remaining 20%. However, like Aston Clinton, the MNI numbers show that sheep are under-represented by NISP figures alone.

7-18 Months

2-3 Years

Body Part Data The MNE for the main domestic species through time has been calculated for a selection of elements. The results have been tabulated below. Mandible Scapula Humerus Radius Ulna Pelvis Femur Tibia Calcaneum Metapodial Phalanx I

Cattle 1 5 3

Sheep 2 1 4

3 2 1 4 2

3.5 –4 Years

Pig

1 2

Fused

Unfused

Total

Scapula p. radius d. humerus Phalanx 1 Total

2

1

3

2 2 6

0 0 1

2 2 7

86

d. tibia d. metapodia Total

1 1 2

0 1 1

1 2 3

66

1

0

1

1

0

1

p.ulna p. humerus p. femur d.femur d. radius p. tibia Calcaneum Total

Table 52 – Cattle aging data (Site A)

The data are severely limited so general observations only can be made. The figures would suggest that the majority of cattle were reaching at least 18 months of age but that a larger proportion was culled before the age of 3 years. It is probable that animals killed at this age would have been used primarily for meat and hides. There is insufficient data to determine weather or not a proportion of older animals was being kept for milk production.

4

1

Table 51. Body part data from the LBA/EIA (Site A)

The data is insufficient to provide evidence for any patterns but it is clear for cattle that all parts of the skeleton (the extremities and main meat joints) are present, suggesting that animals were killed and eaten close to the site. Whilst the number of mandibles

The data available for sheep and pig is even more limited but where it is available, it indicates the presence of

170

% Fused

100

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE mature animals for both species. This is in accordance with the dental evidence.

From available evidence, it is clear that a small number of the cattle population were either dying or being slaughtered young (before 18 months). A greater proportion was being slaughtered between two and three years of age, which would represent the prime age for meat and hides. There is too little evidence for sheep and pig to allow the population dynamics to be examined but it’s probable that, like other sites of the period, they would have provided both meat and wool. Although sheep outnumber cattle in terms of MNI, cattle would have provided more meat by weight.

Measurements Cattle A single element was available for withers height estimation, a cattle metatarsal providing an estimate of 106.2cm. A metacarpal provided a Bp measurement of 51.0mm and a metatarsal provided a Bp measurement of 38.6mm. No measurements were available for other species.

Animal Bone from Site B (Lower Icknield Way)

Horse

L Sibun - 2004

The three horse specimens consisted of two phalanges and a maxillary premolar. The MNI is one. Whilst no measurements were available, the tooth provided an age estimate of an animal approximately 8 years old.

A total of 2963 securely dated specimens were studied from Site B. These comprised 1831 studied in full, of which 1567 were identifiable, and 1132 identified to taxa only. Whilst the bone from the LBA/EIA was recovered from pits and post-holes, during the IA, Romano-British and Anglo-Saxon periods the majority appears to have been deposited in pits and ditches.

Contextual Analysis A brief attempt was made to examine the data with regards to context and to see if there were any patterns evident but this does not appear to be the case. There is no evidence that different species or parts of the skeleton are found in particular areas or types of context. Had it existed, this evidence could have been used to suggest specialised processing or deposition areas. The exceptions are both contexts in which the human remains were found, 8079 and 8263. In both cases the human skeletal material was the only bone present.

Evidence for butchery, pathology and burning was noted on those specimens analysed in detail. The results of this are tabulated below. NISP 1831

Unfortunately, the small size of the assemblage means that its value is limited but some general observations can be made. The LBA/EIA and EIA assemblage seems to be typical of others from this period with cattle and sheep dominating the assemblage, and pig and other species present in smaller quantities. The lack of butchery evidence probably results from the small sample size as well as the fragmentation of the bone that has occurred, either naturally or as a result of human bone processing. Despite this lack of evidence, the presence of elements representing butchery and meat waste suggests that animals were slaughtered and butchered close to the site.

LBA/EIA 68 25 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 98

EIA 138 233 8 5 3 0 0 0 3 390

Gnawing 36 2.0%

Burnt 19 1%

Table 53. Percentages of butchered, gnawed and burnt bone fragments (Site B).

Site A Animal Bone Discussion

Cattle Sheep/goat Pig Horse Dog Cat Deer Chicken Vole TOTAL

Butchery 28 1.5%

LIA 428 224 32 17 1 1 1 1 1 706

The following taxa were identified: cattle (Bos taurus); sheep/goat (Ovicaprid); pig (Sus scrofa); horse (Equidae); red deer (Cervus elaphus); dog (Canis familiaris); cat (Felis domesticus), chicken (Gallus gallus) and vole (Microtinae). The complete Site B assemblage has been quantified in the table 54 below. Table 54 indicates, the largest assemblages were recovered from the LIA and Romano-British deposits. The LBA/EIA and Saxon periods are less well represented. The table below (table 55) shows the NISP for the assemblage analysed in detail as well as the MNI calculated for each species.

ERB 348 171 30 15 3 0 0 0 0 567

LRB 554 239 28 21 2 1 4 0 0 849

Table 54: Quantification of assemblage by phase (Site B) 171

SAXON 57 19 5 6 0 0 0 1 1 85

TOTAL 1593 911 106 66 9 2 5 2 5 2699

(data are presented in terms of NISP)

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Cattle Sheep/goat Pig Horse Dog Cat Deer Chicken Vole TOTAL

LBA/EIA 68(1) 25(2) 3(1) 2(1) 0 0 0 0 0 98

EIA 55(2) 132(3) 5(1) 1 3(1) 0 0 0 0 195

LIA 217(4) 82(3) 7(1) 5(1) 0 0 0 0 0 311

ERB 227(3) 50(1) 11(2) 8(1) 2(1) 0 0 0 0 298

LRB 355(4) 178(3) 22(2) 16(2) 0 1(1) 3(1) 0 0 575

SAXON 57(2) 19(3) 5(1) 6(1) 0 0 0 1(1) 1(1) 85

TOTAL 979 486 53 38 5 1 3 1 1 1567

Table 55. Quantification of assemblage studied in detail by phase (Site B) (data presented in terms of NISP with MNI in brackets)

Cattle and sheep predominate in all phases of occupation with pig and horse present, but less abundant. Dog, cat, deer, chicken and vole are not present in all phases and only the MNI figures suggest a larger proportion of sheep. represented by a few fragments. Noodle (1976, 270) reports similar results. At Aston Clinton the BA and Saxon periods show little difference between them, but the relative proportions of the species Cattle, Sheep/Goat (sheep from here forward) is very different in terms of NISP when compared to and Pig Walton. However, if the MNI figures, although small, The table below shows the relative percentages of the can be considered a true reflection of the assemblage, three main domestic species by phase in terms of NISP then the results from Aston Clinton do conform to this with MNI in brackets. The percentages and MNI figures pattern. have been calculated for the assemblage studied in detail. As they stand, these results are comparable with those The NISP numbers would suggest that there were two to from the EIA site at Bierton (G.Jones 1986, 32). Sheep three times as many cattle as sheep in all periods but the outnumber cattle both in terms of NISP and MNI. The EIA and the ERB. In the later period the number of cattle only difference is that pigs comprise a larger proportion increases to almost 5 times as many as sheep. This of the assemblage at Bierton. situation is reversed in the EIA with sheep the more abundant, outnumbering cattle by more than 2:1. The King (1978) in his comparative study of bone MNI figures suggest slightly different results, with sheep assemblages from RB Sites found that there was a outnumbering cattle in the LBA/EIA, EIA and Saxon noticeable trend for a decrease in the numbers of sheep periods. Cattle are however more numerous in LIA relative to cattle and pig by LRB times. He noted that through to the LRB periods. The number of pig is more Romanised deposits such as roadside settlements consistently small (6% or less) in all periods. tended to be less in favour of sheep than native sites, which continue with IA patterns (King 1978, 211). The The data from other sites in the area provide slightly RB data from Aston Clinton would seem to display the different results, with cattle and sheep present in more preference for cattle but shows little change with time. equal numbers, for example IA Woodham in Aylesbury (Westley 1984, 31), MBA and Saxon Walton, also in Body Part Data Aylesbury (Sadler: 1989, 179) and a further Saxon site in Walton (Noodle 1976, 270). At Walton (Sadler 1989) in The MNE for the main domestic species has been terms of NISP the MBA produced 40% cattle and sheep calculated for a selection of elements in all chronological with pig forming the remaining 20%. In the Saxon period categories. All results are shown below but, due to the there was a slight increase in sheep (increased to 46%) at limited data available the numbers in some periods are the equal expense of both cattle and pig. In both periods very small. The data shown indicate the MNE.

Cattle Sheep/Goat Pig

LBA/EIA 71(1) 26(2) 3(1)

EIA 29(2) 69(3) 2(1)

LIA 71(4) 27(3) 2(1)

ERB 79(3) 17(1) 4(2)

LRB 64(4) 32(3) 4(2)

Table 56. Percentages of main food species by period (Site B) (based on NISP)

172

SAXON 70(2) 23(3) 6(1)

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE

Mandible Scapula Humerus Radius Ulna Pelvis Femur Tibia Calcaneum Metapodial Phalanx I

Cattle 1 1 1

Sheep 1 1 1 2

Tibia Calcaneum Metapodial Phalanx I

Pig 1 1

2

Mandible Scapula Humerus Radius Ulna Pelvis Femur Tibia Calcaneum Metapodial Phalanx I

Cattle 1 1

Sheep 5 4 3 3

1 3 1

1 2

1

3 1

Pig 1

Cattle 9 5 3 7

Sheep 4 1 1

1 2 4

1 3 3

3 2

2 1

Cattle 2 3 3 1

Sheep 1 2 2 1

Pig 1 1

Cattle 10 5 7 4 2 1 4

1 1 2 1 2 1

Pig 1 1

1 2 2

Where the data is available, the limited evidence for cattle butchery affects mature animals. No butchery evidence was noted in the LBA/EIA periods but this is probably due to the limited number of specimens available for study. In the IA and RB periods there is evidence for cuts to horn-cores and mandibles, suggesting skinning and the primary stages of butchery, as well as split vertebrae and cuts and chops to longbones, ribs and innominate bones conducive with splitting and jointing the carcass. A definite increase in the relative quantity of specimens displaying butchery evidence was noted in the LRB period, although the total number involved is still small.

1

Pig 2 1 3

Sheep 1 1

There are no distinct patterns visible in the sheep assemblage either over time or with regards to the body parts represented and both the skeletal extremities and main meat joint are present in small numbers. Butchery evidence is limited to a single chopped metatarsal from the ERB period.

1

Table 60. Early Romano-British animal BPD (Site B)

Mandible Scapula Humerus Radius Ulna Pelvis Femur

Sheep 4 1 2

The best evidence comes from the LIA and RB periods where elements likely to result from meat waste as well as butchery waste are present. This suggests that the animals were both killed and eaten close to the site. Although there is insufficient data from the other periods to permit significant comment, there is no evidence to suggest that they would demonstrate any significant difference to this pattern.

2 5 1 6 2

Cattle 4 4

Cattle

Table 59 – LIA animal BPD (Site B)

Mandible Scapula Humerus Radius Ulna Pelvis Femur Tibia Calcaneum Metapodial Phalanx I

1

Table 62. Saxon animal BPD (Site B)

Table 58 – EIA animal BPD (Site B)

Mandible Scapula Humerus Radius Ulna Pelvis Femur Tibia Calcaneum Metapodial Phalanx I

3 1 3

Table 61. Late Romano-British animal BPD (Site B)

Table 57. LBA/EIA animal BPD (Site B)

Mandible Scapula Humerus Radius Ulna Pelvis Femur Tibia Calcaneum Metapodial Phalanx I

3 6 9 1

Sheep 3 3 3 2

Pig 3

1 3

1

Pig There is very little body part data available for pig in any period due to the small numbers of specimens available for study. Both the skeletal extremities and main meat joints are represented but none of the specimens displayed butchery evidence.

2 3

173

PREHISTORIC AND LATER SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE FROM CHILTERN SCARP TO AYLESBURY VALE Ageing Data

demonstrates the presence of older animals in the LIA and RB periods.

Dental eruption and wear was recorded for the main domesticate species. It was only possible to provide an approximate age for nine cattle, fifteen sheep and four pig mandibles but the results are summarised here.

Epiphyseal Fusion The ageing data from epiphyseal fusion has been calculated. However, due to the limited data available only results for cattle in the LIA, ERB and LRB periods have been tabulated below (tables 65-67). The quantities involved are very small and as a result, the reliability of any interpretations based upon the data must be questioned. For this reason some general observations have been made without significant interpretations of the results.

The limited data for cattle does not permit any meaningful interpretation of results (table 63) but it does demonstrate that older animals are represented in all but the Saxon period. At Bierton (Jones 1986, 35) 55% of cattle were dentally mature. The evidence from the fifteen sheep mandibles (table 64) demonstrates the slight dominance of mature individuals in the assemblage as a whole. The limited data available for pig only Age (yrs)