Practicing As a Social Work Educator in International Collaboration [1 ed.] 9780872931800, 9780872931770

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PRACTICING AS A SOCIAL WORK EDUCATOR IN INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION

Copyright © 2017, Council on Social Work Education, Inc. Published in the United States by the Council on Social Work Education, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any manner whatsoever without the prior written permission of the publisher. ISBN 978-0-87293-177-0 Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper that meets the American National Standards Institute Z39-48 standard. Council on Social Work Education 1701 Duke Street, Suite 200 Alexandria, VA 22314-3457 www.cswe.org Cover photo credits, clockwise from top: Carol S. Cohen, University of Georgia, Alice K. Butterfield, University of Southern California, Peter Szto

PRACTICING AS A SOCIAL WORK EDUCATOR IN INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION E dit e d b y ALICE K. BUTTER FIELD a n d CA ROL S . COH E N

Alexandria, Virginia

DEDICATION We are both grateful for the inspiration and sustained support of our fellow members of the Council on Social Work Education Commission on Global Social Work Education and our Commission Chair, Shirley Gatenio Gabel. We also want to specifically acknowledge Commission members Mary E. Collins, Patricia Lager, Vadim Moldovan, David Strug, and Peter Szto, who joined us in framing promising principles for international collaboration and the conceptualization of this project. Personally speaking, Alice dedicates her contributions to the memory of Mulu Yeneabat, MSW, former student, colleague, mentor, and dearest friend. Mulu’s dedication to the poorest of the poor and his tireless efforts for social work in Ethiopia taught and guided Alice as a social work educator in collaborative international practice. Carol dedicates her contributions to dear colleagues around the world who have inspired and informed this work, and to Joe and Abe, whose love and unflagging encouragement make it possible for her to pursue a career with many journeys and homecomings. 

CONTENTS INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION AS SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE Practicing as a Social Work Educator in International Collaboration Alice K. Butterfield and Carol S. Cohen

1 CHAPTER 1.

Promising Principles for Social Work Educators in International Collaborations Carol S. Cohen with Sections by Alice K. Butterfield, with Mary Elizabeth Collins, Caleb Kim, Lucy Ann Lawrence, Vadim Moldovan, and Peter Szto

11 CHAPTER 2.

INTERNATIONAL PRACTICE BY SOCIAL WORK EDUCATORS International Exchange Social Work Education Reform Through an International University-to-University Partnership: The City University of New York and Free International University of Moldova Vadim Moldovan

49 CHAPTER 3.

The International Faculty Development Trip Program of the Council on Social Work Education Dennis Ritchie, Jody Olsen, and Joanne Corbin

73 CHAPTER 4.

Faculty-Led Short-Term Study Abroad Program in Beijing, China Caleb Kim

95 CHAPTER 5.

Hosting Social Work Visitors in the United States Through International Exchange Alice K. Butterfield, Katarzyna Olcoń, and James Scherrer

115 CHAPTER 6.

142 CHAPTER 7.

Trials and Triumphs of Using Social Media and Electronic Communication: Bridging Distances to Build a Global Social Work Learning Community Dheeshana Jayasundara Technical Assistance, Training, and Capacity Building A Partnership to Develop, Scale Up, and Sustain Para Social Work in Africa Nathan L. Linsk, Sally Mason, Leah Natujwa Omari, and Bernice Lubin

162 CHAPTER 8.

Professional Education: Postuniversity Training Mary Elizabeth Collins

188 CHAPTER 9.

Experiences of Fulbright Specialist Scholars in International Social Work Collaboration Carol S. Cohen and Julie Cooper Altman

210 CHAPTER 10.

Collaborative Research 230 CHAPTER 11.

Peter Szto

Doing Research: Gathering Visual Evidence in China

The Processes and Dilemmas of Doing International Research in India Mahasweta M. Banerjee

255 CHAPTER 12.

Doing Research: Supervising Doctoral Students Mary Elizabeth Collins, Sook Hyun Kim, Sarah Garlington, and Bùi Thị Thanh Tuyền

284 CHAPTER 13.

Integrating Social Work Students Into Short-Term Global Health Interprofessional Education Projects Jody K. Olsen and Anusha Chatterjee

310 CHAPTER 14.

333 INDE X

CHAPTER 1

PR ACTICING A S A SOCIA L WORK EDUCATOR IN IN T ERN ATION A L COL L A BOR ATION A L IC E K . BU T T E R F I E L D and C A ROL S . COH E N

This edited book examines the topic of international work practice by social work educators. The integrating framework and each chapter of the book draws on the extensive experience of its editors and contributors, all affiliated with the Council on Social Work (CSWE) Commission on Global Social Work Education, the Council on External Relations, and the Council on Global Learning, Research, and Practice. The content of each chapter is integrated using six promising principles for collaborative international practice that have been formulated by the book’s planning team. The book offers information and perspectives on a wide range of international social work collaborations, projects, and efforts, including travel and study programs, technical assistance, training and capacity building, and research. Framing the volume is the belief that international collaboration by social work educators is a form of social work practice. Thus, the content illuminates the specific role of social work educators in the United States in international efforts that stem, in part, from a combination of their academic positions and their professional identity as social workers. In addition to successes, the book openly discusses 1

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problems, difficulties, and mistakes experienced through the contributors’ international work in the field. From their experiences, the contributors critically reflect on the six promising principles for guiding successful international practice by social work educators. The idea for this book germinated at the March 2014 meeting of the CSWE Commission on Global Social Work Education. At that meeting, Shirley Gatenio Gabel, chair of the commission, asked members to work in small groups to discuss possible projects that could further activate the work of the commission. A small group consisting of Alice Butterfield, Carol Cohen, Mary Elizabeth Collins, Patricia Lager, Vadim Moldovan, David Strug, and Peter Szto, with support by Andrea Bediako, chose to work on the topic of our role as U.S. social work educators abroad. First, we talked about our experiences in international education and conveyed why we chose to participate in this group. As we identified the wide range of purposes, the many types and great extent of our international involvements, our discussion moved to the lessons we had learned. Much of our learning came from the problems and difficulties we had experienced through our practice as international social work educators. Could we, as members of the global commission, write a book that was transparent in sharing our challenges and failures as well as our successes? Does such a book exist? Looking around the small group, our experience ranged from long- and shortterm Fulbright awards, faculty development programs that involved travel and study, international field education, supervising and training graduate students in international research, technical assistance, training, and capacity building, including the development of new graduate social work programs in developing countries. None of us could think of a published book that captured these various types of international practice by social work educators. None of us knew of a book that put various types of international projects in the background and focused on the practice of collaborative international practice by social work educators. Rather than writing a book that reported on international projects per se, we wanted a book that would put international projects in the background, draw from these 2

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rich experiences, and ultimately offer some guidelines or principles for international practice by social work educators. It seemed extremely important to share these lessons learned in the spirit of conveying our practice knowledge and its underlying foundations to other social work educators undertaking such work. To identify principles that appeared to illuminate and promote effective international social work collaborations, we then engaged in brainstorming, small-group decision making, a review of literature, and a feedback loop with the larger commission. Ultimately, we developed the following promising principles: 1. Attending to culture: Globalization and indigenous social work 2. Focusing on university contexts: International variation in higher education 3. Understanding government, politics, and local initiatives: Framing the program in context 4. Exploring the engagement and partnership process: Owning the work 5. Building sustainability from the start: Developing local leadership 6. Bringing learning home: The international–domestic interface As a part of vetting these principles, we looked for resources for educators on international social work collaboration and practice. The Katherine A. Kendall Institute for International Social Work Education, which is a part of the CSWE’s global initiative provides a wealth of valuable resources for international work (http://www.cswe.org/Centers-Initiatives/Centers/ International-KAKI.aspx). These include course syllabi, a bibliography for international social work, and information on international careers through the work of international nongovernmental organizations. There are also links to study abroad programs and related funding sources as well as modules for teaching international social work. Readers can access 3

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valuable readings, policy documents, and information about the sites of many international social work associations, regional bodies, and the United Nations through the Kendall Institute website.

ORG A NIZ ATION OF T HE BOOK INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION AS SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE OVERVIEW AND PROMISING PRINCIPLES: Chapters 1–2

Once the principles were identified, refined, and vetted, we developed the plan for this book. The book is organized into two major sections: Part 1, Working Collaboratively, begins with this chapter that introduces the book. It shares the germination, rationale, and the processes used in its development by the CSWE Commission on Global Education and thereafter. Chapter 2 focuses on further explication of the rationale and methods used in identifying the Promising Principles. This chapter continues with an extended consideration of each principle, written by past and present commission members Carol S. Cohen, Alice K. Butterfield, Mary Elizabeth Collins, Caleb Kim, Lucy Ann Lawrence, Vadim Moldovan, and Peter Szto. Each discussion of a principle includes a brief review of the literature from social work practice generally and collaborative practice internationally. Following each description is a commentary by Carol Cohen on how the principle is discussed in Chapters 3-14 of this book.

I N T E R NAT I O NA L PR AC T I C E BY S O C I A L WO R K E D U C ATO R S :

Chapters 3–14

Part 2, International Collaborative Practice by Social Work Educators, contains 12 chapters organized into three sections that deal with international exchange; technical assistance, training, and capacity building; and collaborative research, respectively. These chapters all follow a common structure and are linked thematically within each section. At the same time, contributors offer unique and specific examples or cases of their own international work to examine 4

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a particular aspect of international social work collaboration. In this way, we offer readers useful consistency between and among these substantive chapters that illuminate many different kinds of international practice by social work educators. All contributors were asked to reflect critically on some or all of the six promising principles that applied to their international practice.

I N T E R NAT I O NA L E XC H A N G E : Chapte rs 3–7

For faculty, a university-to-university partnership is often a bedrock mechanism for international work. Even so, “Social Work Education Reform Through an International University-to-University Partnership: The City University of New York and Free International University of Moldova” by Vadim Moldovan shows the arduous journey that navigating such partnerships require. He writes transparently about the challenge of sustaining collaborative university-to-university partnerships beyond the getting acquainted stage and a typical low-impact start-up project. Based on his extensive experience in facilitating such partnerships between the City University of New York and two universities in the Republic of Moldova, Moldovan reflects critically on four of the promising principles and offers recommendations for practice through collaborative university-to-university partnerships. Chapter 4, is titled “The International Faculty Development Trip Program of the Council on Social Work Education,” sponsored by the CSWE Council on Global Learning, Research, and Practice. Dennis Ritchie, Jody Olsen, and Joanne Corbin report on the framework for developing these faculty trips, their importance for social work academics, and potential outcomes for such faculty development programs, including subsequent student programs and faculty research. They explore the engagement process through the CSWE and discuss the way the experience influences faculty participants in attending to culture and bringing learning home. Chapter 5, “Faculty-Led Short-term Study Abroad Program in Beijing, China” by Caleb Kim, provides an in-depth look at a 2-week study abroad program offered by Loyola University in Chicago and its Beijing campus. 5

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The chapter reviews diverse types of international study programs and offers an inside view of the program development process and the collaboration with the Beijing campus. Kim shows the importance of including a service-learning component in short-term programs and reports on MSW student learning experiences from the classroom and field. The next chapter is titled “Hosting Visitors in the United States through International Exchange” by Alice K. Butterfield, Katarzyna Olcoń, and James Scherrer. It examines the challenges and successes of reverse exchange programs that bring midcareer professionals and doctoral students from overseas to the United States for short-term visits. Although formal exchange programs are common practice through a variety of organizations that specialize in delegate tours and exchange visits, very little has been written about this form of international collaborative practice. The chapter examines two long-term partnerships, a single-country travel and study project of doctoral students from Ethiopia, and more than 20 years of multiple country practitioner and faculty exchanges through the International Social Work Exchange Partnership. Dheeshana Jayasundara’s Chapter 7 is the last chapter on the topic of international exchange, titled “Trials and Triumphs of Using Social Media and Electronic Communication: Bridging Distances to Build a Global Social Work Learning Community.” This chapter discusses three methods of communication using technology to connect students in the United States to India. Based on the premise that many students do not have the resources to go abroad, Jayasundara argues that technology can provide students with an excellent experience with an international agency. Facebook and Adobe Connect allow students in North Dakota to communicate with students in India.

T E C H N I C A L A S S I S TA N C E , T R A I N I N G , A N D C A PAC I T Y B U I L DI N G : Chapte rs 8–10

This section of the book addresses the practice of social work educators through three types of arrangements, technical assistance, training, and capacity building. These three strategies are core methods of international practice used by social work educators. This set of three 6

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chapters includes a discussion of one or more of these activities integrated into diverse collaborations with a range of purposes. A Partnership to Develop, Scale Up and Sustain Para Social Work in Africa,” Chapter 8 by Nathan L. Linsk, Sally Mason, Leah Natujwa Omari, and Bernice Lubin, offers a detailed look at the process and outcomes of a large-scale training program in single or multiple locations abroad. It highlights the Tanzanian Para Social Worker Training Program focused on vulnerable HIV-infected children, with reference to related programs in Ethiopia, Nigeria, and Zambia. To lead to ongoing employment in the social welfare sector, the program is implemented in collaboration with government ministries, schools of social work, and professional social work organizations. Challenges include institutionalizing and scaling up the program, issues in certification and continuing engagement of workers, and determining outcomes over the long term. Chapter 9, “Professional Education: Postuniversity Training” by Mary Elizabeth Collins examines the design and implementation of postgraduate education programs, typically called professional development programs in the United States. Collins draws on her 10-month experience with a Fulbright Program grant in Vietnam, where she provided numerous lectures, faculty development workshops, and community training sessions delivered through the auspices of a center for social work training at the host university. As is the case in many places where social work is a relatively new profession, training is a common method used professionally to qualify people without a formal social work degree for the social work workforce and is often supported by international and U.S. funders. Collins engages readers in critical training issues as she reflects on difficulties in building sustainability through the train-the-trainer model, among other implementation and process-related challenges. In “Experiences of Fulbright Specialist Scholars in International Social Work Collaboration,” Carol S. Cohen and Julie Cooper Altman in Chapter 10 share their study of short-term international collaborations in social work. They draw from their own experience with the Fulbright Specialist Program and provide a broader perspective through findings from compilations, reports and interviews with other Fulbright Specialist 7

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grantees. This chapter offers insights into the contexts, implementation, ongoing collaborations, and professional identities developed through short-term, invited and focused in-country visits, and post-visit work with international partners.

C O L L A B O R AT I V E R E S E A RC H : Chapters 11–14

This section of the book features four chapters on collaborative research. In “Doing Research: Gathering Visual Evidence in China,” Peter Szto draws on 15 years of taking students to China to study social change through intensive cross-cultural engagement. Szto’s Chapter 11 features the use of photography as a tool of social research. Students learn documentary techniques and the visualizing process to develop image-based research for social work. In particular, the focus is on gathering visual evidence to develop culturally sensitive social work interventions and insights. From the perspective of a native-born Indian woman living in the United States, Mahasweta Banerjee offers “The Processes and Dilemmas of Doing International Research in India.” Chapter 12 shares critical insights into the process of doing research, including differences in culture, research protocols, and in the understanding of issues of confidentiality, boundaries, and informed consent. The chapter addresses what the research process means for native-born Indians who are living in the United States and for U.S.-born researchers who are investigating in India. Banerjee looks at basic issues facing social work educators carrying out research in developing countries, including researchers’ identity and safety, access to research participants, and financial reimbursement for in-country research. In Chapter 13, the social work educator remains in the United States while doctoral students are doing research abroad. “Doing Research: Supervising Doctoral Students” by Mary Elizabeth Collins, Sook Hyun Kim, Sarah Garlington, and Bùi Th Thanh Tuy n looks at collaborative research from the perspective of guiding, training, and supervising students conducting doctoral research in countries outside their country of origin. Although the 8

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motivation for doctoral research in an international location may vary, such efforts raise issues of supervision, ethical conduct of research, scholarly independence, and cultural sensitivity. Collins and her co-contributors present two examples of U.S. students doing research in Korea and Sweden as well as the experience of an international doctoral student from Vietnam. The last chapter in this section, Chapter 14, “Integrating Social Work Students into Short-Term Global Health Interprofessional Education Projects” by Jody K. Olsen and Anusha Chatterjee informs readers of interdisciplinary research and the role of social work. This chapter examines common themes in 18 short-term, research-related interprofessional global health projects involving six professional schools, including 72 students at the University of Maryland. Social work involvement is discussed in Malawi, Rwanda, Kenya, Ghana, Hong Kong, Brazil, and Israel. The chapter outlines critical roles of social work students and faculty in global health teams.

CONCLUSION This book focuses on broad principles to consider in undertaking international collaboration. It features the unique first-person accounts of social work educators who have participated in and developed a wide range of collaborative international programs and projects. However, this volume does not include all the possible ways social work educators collaborate internationally nor all possible perspectives on this work. Notwithstanding, it does draw on the diverse perspectives and high level of expertise of a range of social work educators who have in turn drawn on the relevant literature and resources that guide their international work. There are many different structures, mechanisms, and purposes of international collaboration in the world of social work academia and extensive diversity in experiences. Various areas of the world and differences in the nature of social work practice provide critical cultural 9

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and contextual factors. Additionally, in individual collaborations, specifics of the funding source, the reason for the collaboration, and the length of time are also relevant. Through this edited volume, we hope to capture some of this variation, reflect on the core lessons learned, and contribute to further conceptualization of the principles that guide international practice by social work educators.

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CHAPTER 2 PROMISING PRINCIPLES FOR SOCIA L WORK EDUCATORS IN IN T ERN ATION A L COL L A BOR ATIONS C A ROL S . COH E N, with SE C T ION S by A L IC E K . BU T T E R F I E L D, M A RY E L I Z A BE T H C OL L I N S , C A L E B K I M , L U C Y A N N L AW R E N C E , VA D I M M O L D OVA N , a n d PET ER SZTO

This chapter introduces and elaborates on six promising principles for international collaboration. It includes the rationale and process used to identify promising principles for social work educators engaged in international collaborations as well as an examination of the role of principles in the social work profession. Each of the six principles is discussed in detail, followed by a summary of how they are addressed in later chapters of this book. These principles were developed by an expert panel of members of the Council on Social Work Education’s Global Commission on Social Work Education and are used as an organizing frame in the Chapters 3-14 in Part 2 of this book. This book is based on the belief that social workers who enter academia continue to develop their professional identity, values, and skills throughout their careers. As adult learners, social workers experience a process of transformational learning (Mezirow, 2000), beginning with their initial entry through community encounters and education, and continuing as they absorb experiences and interact with the lives of clients. Over the course of their professional life, social workers consider what is known, what is new, and critically reflect on their 11

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assumptions and beliefs. With this process of reinterpretation, understanding, and engagement comes mastery and the ongoing ability to incorporate new learning and enhance professional capacities. Among the most salient social work themes in contemporary global practice are human rights and intersectionality. These perspectives support educators’ evolving challenges to overcome a legacy of imperialistic views and importation of largely Western beliefs and models of social work on a global level (Gray & Fook, 2004). Widely used outside the United States, educators in the United States are slowly adopting a human rights perspective and its key components of human dignity and justice on an individual, group, and community level (Zelenev, 2016). As shown in the “Global Agenda for Social Work and Social Development” (International Association of Schools of Social Work [IASSW], International Council on Social Welfare, & International Federation of Social Workers [IFSW], 2012; Jones & Truell, 2012) and “Sustainable Development Goals” of the United Nations (Sachs, 2012; United Nations, 2016), the protection and elevation of human rights are integral to work toward social justice in an increasingly interconnected and complex world. Through applying concepts of intersectionality, social work educators will bring critical understanding of multiple identities and contexts and their interaction to the micro, mezzo, and macro levels of practice and policy (Anthias, 2012; Winker & Degele, 2011). This is especially important as educators encounter new and confounding situations. International social workers must find ways to see this complexity and differential impact on each local actor while concurrently recognizing that there is much they do not see or understand. A starting point for international collaboration is a high level of self-awareness and recognition of one’s own intersecting identities and how these may appear and come into play in building international relationships. Social workers who become university-level educators and scholars must continually integrate emerging knowledge and perspectives as part of their journey of refining who they are, what they know, and what they do. Given this frame of reference, international collaboration by social work educators is seen as a form of social work practice 12

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and, as such, is guided by principles informed by overarching professional values, contexts, and practice. Recognizing this, the Global Commission on Social Work Education decided to consider ways to contribute to the effectiveness of professionally informed partnerships. Through a deliberative group process, seven of the global commissioners shared critical incidents in their international collaboration and then identified an extensive inventory of key elements that appeared to inform these experiences. From that inventory, our team explored possible clusters of items, identified themes by consensus, and then crafted preliminary principles. After another round of discussion, adjustment, and consultation with additional colleagues on the commission, six principles were affirmed. In the next stage, brief descriptions were drafted, and commission members contributed extended discussions of each principle. This chapter proceeds with a discussion of the six professional principles proposed for social work educators in international collaboration. In each of these sections the contributors discuss the background and implications of a principle, directly followed by commentary on how other contributors of chapters in Part 2 identify and assess the principle’s application in their diverse experiences. It is hoped that combining an explanation of each principle with analysis from the direct experiences of chapter contributors will provide a wider understanding of these promising principles and set the stage for further discussion and testing. These sections are followed by concluding remarks on the nature of principles in social work and their application in international collaboration. Table 2.1 identifies the six principles, with brief descriptions, and Table 2.2 identifies where they are addressed in Chapters 3–14 of this book.

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TA B L E 2 . 1 . T H E SI X PROM ISI NG PR I NC I PLE S FOR PR AC T IC I NG A S A SO C I A L WOR K EDUCATOR I N I N T ER NAT IONA L COL L A BOR AT ION

P R INCIP L E Principle 1: Attending to Culture: Globalization and Indigenous Social Work

ABSTRACT Cultural competence in international social work collaboration is an imperative and a challenge. Effective cooperation necessitates an empathic understanding of people in the dialectic environment of indigenous cultural systems and globalization. Attending to culture internationally implies a functional understanding of cultural complexities, the humility that promotes such understanding and sensitivity, and the knowledge and commitment to reflect and partner locally and globally.

Highlighted in Chapters 3, 4, 5, 9, 11, 12, 13, & 14 Principle 2: Focusing on University Contexts: International Variation in Higher Education

Social work faculty engaging in international collaboration should recognize and tailor their collaboration in light of the diversity of university contexts at multiple levels, including their scope of authority and sanction; governmental and civil society relationships; organizational structure; roles of faculty, administrators, and students; university and program unit missions; accrediting and funding bodies; and so on. This is underpinned by the understanding that effective practice is supported by thoughtful assessment and use of organizational environments, as well as consideration of overall policy and political contexts in developing, implementing, and evaluating professional collaboration.

Highlighted in Chapters 3, 6, 7, 9, & 10 Principle 3: Understanding Government, Politics, and Local Initiatives: Framing the Program in Context

Social work faculty engaging in international collaboration may be working within a wide range of governmental political systems, from those based on democratic and participatory electoral processes to those that are more hierarchical and controlled as well as several variations within the continuum. Understanding of the political context at the national level and within the local area is necessary because this context has implications for the nature of the collaborative partnerships, the possibilities for engagement, and the operation of the social work profession as an independent force for change.

Highlighted in Chapters 3, 5, 8, 9, & 12

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ABSTRACT

Principle 4: Exploring the Engagement and Partnership Process: Owning the Work

A hallmark of effective social work practice is the principle of empowerment—the desire to share power based on mutual respect and common interests. Engaging in social work activities with international partners is best pursued within a framework of shared accountability, effort, and ownership of process and outcomes.

Highlighted in Chapters 4, 5, 8, 10, 11, & 13 Principle 5: Building Sustainability from the Start: Developing Local Leadership

Social work faculty engaging in international collaboration should address sustainability as defined by the collaborators throughout each stage of the project, including during preparation, assessment, intervention, evaluation, and followup. Planning and activities directed toward post intervention sustainability, community development, and project evolution is integral to social work interventions at all levels of practice, beginning at the earliest stages possible.

Highlighted in Chapters 3, 7, 8, & 9 Principle 6: Bringing Learning Home: The International-Domestic Interface

The impact of international collaboration is not only seen in the work overseas, but can have significant, positive effects in social work educators’ home institutions. Social work faculty should consider how these effects can be maximized through scholarly and community dissemination, incorporating international learning in the curriculum, and mentoring and supporting colleagues engaging in or interested in international partnerships.

Highlighted in Chapters 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, & 12

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TA B L E 2 . 2 . THE SIX PROM ISI NG PR I NCI PLE S ADDR E SSED I N PART 2 ( Chapters 3–14)

CH A P T ER & TIT L E

Principle 1: Attending to Culture: Globalization and Indigenous Social Work

Chapter 3. Social Work Education Reform through an International University-to-University Partnership: The City University of New York and Free International University of Moldova

X

Chapter 4. The International Faculty Development Trip Program of the Council on Social Work Education

X

Chapter 5. Faculty-Led Short-Term Study Abroad Program in Beijing, China

X

Principle 2: Focusing on University Contexts: Variation in Higher Education Across the Globe

X

Chapter 6. Hosting Visitors in the United States Through International Exchange

X

Chapter 7. Trials and Triumphs of Using Social Media and Electronic Communication: Bridging Distances to Build a Global Social Work Learning Community

X

Chapter 8. A Partnership to Develop, Scale Up, and Sustain Para Social Work in Africa Chapter 9. Professional Education: Postuniversity Training

X

Chapter 10. Experiences of Fulbright Specialist Scholars in International Social Work Collaboration

X

Chapter 11. Doing Research: Gathering Visual Evidence in China

X

Chapter 12. The Processes and Dilemmas of Doing International Research in India

X

Chapter 13. Doing Research: Supervising Doctoral Students

X

Chapter 14. Integrating Social Work Students Into Short-Term Global Health Interprofessional Education Projects

X

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Principle 3: Understanding Government, Politics, and Local Initiatives: Framing the Program

Principle 4: Exploring the Engagement Process and Partnership: Owning of the Work

X

Principle 5: Building Sustainability from the Start: Developing Local Leadership

X

X X

Principle 6: Bringing Learning Home: The InternationalDomestic Interface

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X X

X X

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PRINCIPL E 1. AT T ENDING TO CULT URE GLOBALIZATION AND INDIGENOUS SOCIAL WORK

Cultural competence in international social work collaboration is an imperative and a challenge. Effective cooperation necessitates an empathic understanding of people in the dialectic environment of indigenous cultural systems and globalization. Attending to culture internationally implies a functional understanding of cultural complexities, the humility that promotes such understanding and sensitivity, and the knowledge and commitment to reflect and partner locally and globally.

D E S C R I P T I O N O F PR I N C I PL E 1 BY VA DI M M O L D OVA N

International social work has been described as dealing with a threepronged dilemma of universalism, indigenization, and imperialism (Gray, 2005). These three trends correspond to the social work paradigm, local cultures, and the Western (American) culture. Attending to culture on the part of an American social worker who practices internationally demands the ability to manage the conflicts between values of a local culture and those of the global social work paradigm (Merrill & Frost, 2011), all the while addressing the dominance of Western culture in globalization. By virtue of crossing the boundary into another cultural system, an educator abroad is neither a neutral observer nor a marginal participant, but a system change agent. The principles of social justice and human rights, as the universal social work values (Gray & Fook, 2004), are expressed in the 2014 Global Definition of International Social Work by IFSW & IASSW (2014). As representative of empowerment, they are infused with social conflict. An effective global social work practitioner is distinguished by the ability to operate in an environment of social tension and contestation. Previous colonial powers are currently challenged by the presence of millions of culturally different former colonials on their own soil. For example, newly independent states that emerged after the breakdown of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia in the early 1990s have convulsed in genocidal conflicts that continue to flare up to this day, as illustrated by the 18

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current unrest in eastern Ukraine. Indigenization of international social work therefore is shaped by dialectic tensions inside and around the host country. To make matters even more complex, ongoing ethnic and religious conflicts throughout the world are set against the ever growing influence of globalization, commonly defined as the process of integration of views, products, ideas, and other aspects of culture (Al-Rodhan, & Stoudmann, 2006), which is greatly influenced by American economic and cultural systems. The culture wars of today, whether Shiites versus Sunnis in Iraq or Ukrainians versus Russians in Ukraine, are set against the backdrop of the hegemonic global American culture. The challenge of the conflictual foreign environment is compounded by social work values such as diversity being potentially antagonistic to certain local cultural norms and the value of social justice conflicting with exploitative practices of economic globalization. Another potential source of conflict is institutional resistance to social work from other professions that currently dominate social services in many countries. Such resistance is often unarticulated and unacknowledged, and represents a serious challenge to international collaboration. Attending to culture requires an understanding of competing indigenous and globalizing forces, awareness of potential intrusiveness of international social work, and the ability to practice the dialectic social work in the environment of conflict (Dybicz & Pyles, 2011). Probably the greatest contribution an American educator can make to contemporary global social work is the century-old American social work tradition of empowerment (Simon, 1994) and experience in challenging the hegemonic economic power on behalf of the oppressed.

C O M M E N TA RY O N DI S C U S S I O N O F PR I N C I PL E 1 I N C H A P T E R S 3 –14

Of the 12 chapters in Part 2, eight (3, 4, 5, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14) address this principle, indicating the pervasive need and challenge to attend to culture and the themes of globalization and indigenous social work. In addition to affirming Moldovan’s analysis of the complex roots of difficulties in cross-cultural collaboration, some of the contributors identify strategies for bridging communication. Among them are Ritchie, 19

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Olsen, and Corbin in Chapter 4, suggesting: “Crossing cultures with an open, observant, questioning, and critically reflective stance” which can allow “positive confrontation of previously accepted beliefs, values, and views of policies and service delivery,” and possibly resulting in either “transforming or reinforcing previously held viewpoints” (p. 85). In Chapter 5, Kim highlights the importance of direct engagement by U.S. students with Chinese clients in their communities as part of short-term study abroad programs, providing the opportunity to bring together “local and globally connected social issues and to compare each country’s social work policies and practices” (p. 106). Olsen and Chatterjee in Chapter 14 report on the importance of cultural orientation for participants in an interprofessional experiential learning project, focusing on understanding the area and the people students will encounter on their trip. This includes getting to know their U.S. team members and how their professional cultural differences may affect them, including how they “see and respond to problems, direct and follow each other, express core values, and honor professional symbols” (p. 325). The development of self-awareness is also highlighted by Moldovan in Chapter 3, who warns that “American scholars abroad, even when trying hard to be humble and culturally sensitive, may succumb to imperial hubris and be condescending toward local customs.” Preparation and developing a way to connect with local leaders is important, as Collins reports in Chapter 9 about her struggle to fully understand the meaning of social work in Vietnam, framing this as a critical aspect of attending to culture. Reporting on a shortterm project in which photography is used for visual research, Szto in Chapter 11 offers the caution that contact with local community members must be conducted ethically, including preliminary work to ensure protection of the rights of local people to “avoid any hint of cultural imperialism by honoring indigenous ways” (p. 246). A number of contributors note the value of being bicultural or binational in approaching collaboration in another country as well as the inherent difficulties in cross-cultural communication through translation. Banerjee in Chapter 12 adds rich texture to this dynamic of 20

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cultural communication in which some of her identities, beyond sharing Indian heritage, came into conflict with cultural norms among the people she worked with, whereas other identities, contributed to alternating “insider” and “outsider” status. She reports: “My research participants also responded to me differently, sometimes considering me to be an insider, one of their own; at times in an in-between position; and at other times as an outsider or stranger or different” (p. 274). Recognizing the inherent difficulties, she states, “I am aware of my experiences and learnings but am unclear about what I did not understand” (p. 274).

PRINCIPL E 2. FOCUSING ON UNIV ERSIT Y CON T E X T S INTERNATIONAL VARIATION IN THE ORGANIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION

Social work faculty engaging in international collaboration should recognize and tailor their collaboration in light of the diversity of university contexts at multiple levels, including their scope of authority and sanction; governmental and civil society relationships; organizational structure; roles of faculty, administrators, and students; university and program unit missions; accrediting and funding bodies; and so on. This is underpinned by the understanding that effective practice is supported by thoughtful assessment and use of organizational environments, as well as consideration of overall policy and political contexts in developing, implementing, and evaluating professional collaboration.

D E S C R I P T I O N O F PR I N C I PL E 2 BY C A L E B K I M

When social work faculty engage in international collaboration, it is essential for them to work together through a set of university-wide multiple systems at the home university and at the partner university abroad. Collaborating in light of the diversity of university contexts is called a comprehensive internationalization process because it goes beyond simply adding a separate individual study abroad program, a certain faculty’s 21

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independent international research, recruitment of international students, or international courses scattered across the campus (Hudzik, 2011). Comprehensive internationalization is a complex and multidimensional process requiring the restructuring of university systems and a shift in pedagogical paradigms that affect all aspects of a university. These multiple levels include areas such as the authority and sanctions of governance; government and civil society relationships; the roles of faculty, administrators, and students, organizational structures; policies; program unit missions; curricula; university ethos; student service programs; accrediting and funding bodies; and so on. Effective implementation of comprehensive internationalization affects not only classroom learning experiences but the university’s mission and its commitment to international education. As a consequence, in a truly internationalized university, international education permeates its academic and co-curricular programs. Global learning and international collaboration are central components in such a brand of higher education (Hill & Green, 2008) through the curriculum, faculty development, student services, internships, and community service activities. However, since each university differs in the manner and degree of understanding the various components of international education, social work faculty should assess and tailor their collaboration according to a partner university’s unique context. A one-size-fits-all approach cannot be applied to every university abroad. The first and foremost strategy is to identify a partner university’s mission and the extent to which those goals are infused throughout the university. Some administrators are not aware of the educational implications of internationalization, and many seem to struggle to understand its value (Wächter, 2006). Although administrators might describe their universities as internationalized, it is important to assess the level of infusion of internationalization in an institution’s organizational structures, strategic action plans, student services, pedagogical objectives, and learning outcomes. If universities embrace international education exclusively as a means to recruit international students to increase their revenues, collaboration can be mere rhetoric. 22

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Regarding the curriculum, social work faculty should evaluate whether their planned program fits with the partner’s curriculum and consider whether to explore multidisciplinary collaboration with other program units. Because of differences in national standards, faculty interested in developing international field work placements or service-learning programs should identify regulations and standards of field education required by a partner university and compare them with the Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards of the Council on Social Work Education (2015), as definitions of the social work profession and contents of social work education vary in different countries (Merrill & Frost, 2011). Finally, when social work faculty collaborate with a partner university abroad, they should communicate with university personnel in a culturally competent way. They should respect local cultural values and the indigenous education policy embedded in a university system, share mutually agreed-on benefits of international education, and develop egalitarian and empowering working relationships. Without recognizing every aspect of a partner university and tailoring international collaboration in accordance with the partner university’s unique contexts, social work faculty are likely to create another discrete international program or a sporadic international social work event held in a university abroad.

C O M M E N TA RY O N DI S C U S S I O N O F PR I N C I PL E 2 I N C H A P T E R S 3 –14

Five (3, 6, 7, 9, 10) of the 12 chapters address this principle, providing evidence of how social work educators successfully and sometimes unsuccessfully navigate their home and host university contexts. In Chapter 6, Butterfield, Olcoń, and Scherrer support the focus on university-to-university partnerships, noting that internationally, universities can be ideal points of contact as they often have resources needed to support collaboration. Butterfield et al. note that “understanding the larger social context and its inherent diversity is a forte of university faculty and staff” and that they ideally have the capacity to bring diverse scholars and students together in a way they can “avoid judgments and misunderstandings that could potentially end 23

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these relationships” (p. 131). Moldovan in Chapter 3 also confirms the importance of understanding the nested nature of universities in their national and regional context. He explains that some universities may view U.S. collaboration solely as an income stream. Referencing Roman, 2014, he notes that student attitudes reflect their university context, stating: “Their skepticism, bordering on cynicism, is wellfounded, when governmental assistance to the needy is very low, helpers’ salaries keep them at the poverty level, and the entire political system is undermined by corruption” (p. 65). While describing her trajectory of engagement with a Sri Lankan university in Chapter 7, Jayasundara shares the importance of understanding bureaucratic protocol within the setting as well as the importance placed on direct personal involvement. Cohen and Altman in Chapter 10 report on the Fulbright Specialist Program’s extensive investment in university-to-university partnerships. They note the diverse ways that higher education programs are structured and the importance scholars place on learning about these systems before arrival. Once there, this principle is exemplified by a scholar’s statement: “I was on their turf so I tried to play by their rules . . . but there was a fair exchange.” (p. 220). In Chapter 9 Collins also identifies how diverse university settings influence the collaborative process, pointing out their orientation toward faculty roles. She notes that although she “enjoyed the reverence for teachers, of course” (p. 203), she, as well as some other chapter authors, found the extensive hierarchical role expectations between teachers and students more challenging than anticipated. She reports, “I had entered this experience with a collaborative and collegial orientation to the work. . . But constantly being put in the role of expert interfered with an ability to glean some insight and guidance on what was most needed” (p. 203).

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PRINCIPL E 3. UNDERS TA NDING GOV ERNMEN T, POLITICS, A ND LOCA L INITIATIV ES FRAMING THE PROGRAM IN CONTEXT

Social work faculty engaging in international collaboration may be working within a wide range of governmental political systems, from those based on democratic and participatory electoral processes to those that are more hierarchical and controlled as well as several variations within the continuum. Understanding of the political context at the national level and within the local area is necessary because this context has implications for the nature of the collaborative partnerships, the possibilities for engagement, and the operation of the social work profession as an independent force for change.

DE S C R I P T ION OF PR I NC I PLE 3 BY M A RY E L I Z A BE T H COL L I NS

In the same ways that social work aims to attune itself to various cultural practices, politics also can enhance or constrain opportunities for international collaboration. Comparative analyses of social work within national contexts are a critical activity of international collaboration, and such comparisons recognize the importance of context to social work (Lyngstad, 2012). Many international collaborations have been forged with countries similar to the United States, for example, Western capitalist democracies such as England and Canada. But to be a truly global profession, more recent efforts at collaboration have occurred in a vast array of countries on the continents of Asia, Africa, and South America. In these collaborations, comparative work can be more challenging but offer great insight. Attention to the larger structural issues is inherent in the recently updated Definition of Social Work by the IFSW and IASSW (2014). Engagement with these larger systems requires attention to governmental and political systems. Politics and governmental systems can have a particular impact on international educational collaboration in four ways. First, at a basic level, governments can support higher education systems politically 25

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and financially, including support for certain types of degree programs such as social work. Alternatively, governments can reduce assistance for some systems and programs, and in some cases close them completely. In the United States, for example, federal funding has at times supported social work training in child welfare, and at other times reduced its commitment (Zlotnik, 2003). Elsewhere, in Vietnam, for example, social work training is currently receiving support from the government, but at an earlier point in Vietnam’s history, the government had closed down schools of social work (Durst, 2010). Second, policy practice is a key part of social work in the United States and identified as a required competency of social work education. Yet the mechanisms of engaging in policy practice may be variable depending on the political context. The growth of social work in China, for example, raises several questions on this topic. It remains to be seen whether social work ideology will eventually have an impact on political ideology, or social work will be co-opted in this context (Leung, Yip, Huang, & Wu, 2012). Specifically, some forms of policy advocacy that can occur in democracies may not be allowable elsewhere. Thus, practitioners may have subtler ways to engage in policy work, for example, working within existing governmental systems to achieve greater equity in social resources. Third, various governmental systems are linked with welfare regimes that provide a key context for social work operation. The Europeanbased model of three worlds of welfare capitalism (Esping-Andersen, 1990) has been adapted in recent scholarship to other types of political systems. Aspalter (2011), for example, examined ideal-type welfare regimes that included countries of East Asia, Central Eastern Europe, and Latin America. Some social work educators work specifically in these policy arenas, and social work policy practitioners may be engaged in analyses of welfare systems. Further, all social work practice is influenced by the context of these regimes. Fourth, civil society is a critical actor in the political environment. It is identified to be central to healthy democracies, it can be a major provider of social assistance, and in some settings can be a major force for social change. Civil society has a particular role in promoting 26

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local infrastructure in countries that are making the transition from totalitarian governments or military dictatorships (Hermoso & Luca, 2006). Educational collaborations typically occur at the local level. Hence, understanding the role of civil society within a specific national context can be particularly relevant to an educational collaboration. Particularly for social workers working with community development projects, knowledge about the local institutional context, including political and economic realities, is needed (Ife & Fiske, 2006). In summary, some critical questions face social work educators engaging in international collaborations. What is the governmental role in higher education generally and social work education specifically? To what extent is policy practice considered a part of social work education? How is it defined? What forms does it take? What is the existing social welfare system within the national context? What is the role of civil society in social assistance and in social action? The scholarly literature on these topics is broad and scattered across many publication venues. Hence, concerted attention to the role of political systems in educational collaborations is needed.

C O M M E N TA RY O N DI S C U S S I O N O F PR I N C I PL E 3 I N C H A P T E R S 3 –14

Five (3, 5, 8, 9, 12) of the 12 chapters address this principle. The following four themes appear to emerge from their discussions: the role of cultural guides, the impact of authority, financing, and contradictory messages. Collins in Chapter 9, in reflecting on her work in Vietnam, and Banerjee in Chapter 12 discussing research in India both identify the invaluable role of experienced local colleagues as cultural guides to interpret the political and social realities of day-to-day experience and assist U.S. educators in moving forward. As Banerjee points out, they “opened this door, and officials were willing to be interviewed and give me access” (p. 275). Understanding the scope of governmental authority in international settings is seen as critical. For example, Kim in Chapter 5 identifies the need to understand who makes decisions and where and how they are 27

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made in a host country to assess with whom to intervene and the level of censorship and oversight that can be expected. In Chapter 8, Linsk, Mason, Omari, and Lubin say that in spite of strong engagement and adherence to government guidelines, their project was subject to the “realities of resource limitations, leadership and staff changes, and shifting policies” (p. 178) beyond their control. They point out how the impact of stipends or certificates attached to a program must be clearly spelled out to participants, particularly in environments where resources are scarce. In addition to understanding national and local financing, Moldovan in Chapter 3 identifies the role of policy agendas through outside funders that affect in-country work and the parameters of collaboration. He cautions that programs may be implemented with “only nominal input from local stakeholders,” and that the “uncoordinated multiplicity of international funders with diverse agendas leads to confusion, lack of strategic planning, and fragmented policies” (p. 67). Chapter authors also identified examples of apparent contradictions, which suggest the need for even deeper understanding. Collins reports that although it was required for workshop descriptions to be reviewed by local administrators, there were no attempts to interfere in the content. Banerjee elaborates on this theme, noting that even after repeated requests, she was not provided government-held statistics on the workforce but on the other hand was given access to programs with high and low levels of performance.

PRINCIPL E 4. E X PLORING T HE ENG AGEMEN T A ND PA R T NERSHIP PROCES S OWNING OF THE WORK

A hallmark of effective social work practice is the principle of empowerment—the desire to share power based on mutual respect and common interests. Engaging in social work activities with international partners is best pursued within a framework of shared accountability, effort, and ownership of process and outcomes. 28

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D E S C R I P T I O N O F PR I N C I PL E 4 BY PE T E R S Z TO

Social work at its core is a practice profession, the practice of helping others wherever help is needed. Yet as straightforward as this sounds, helping is a highly complex process in terms of how help is provided, what informs the help, and how help is sustained. The knowledge that informs social workers is largely borrowed from other disciplines, i.e., sociology, psychology, and political science. Moreover, these disciplines did not intend their knowledge to be used by social work, whether in international or domestic contexts. Thus, the practice of social work across cultures and societies raises interesting questions on the proprietorship of our knowledge. Who owns the work? Is ownership of international work inherently a product of collaboration? The transfer of knowledge is more than access to information, it involves the appropriate communication and contextualization of knowledge to the new environment (Szto, 2007). This principle relates to the process of engagement long considered central to social work practice. Engagement pivots on a professional relationship for the purpose of resolving problems that cannot be resolved independently (Cummins, Sevel, & Pedrick, 2006). The engagement process is necessary to establish shared goals, common understandings, and a commitment to achieve stated goals between client and practitioner (New South Wales Family and Community Services, 2016). Whether focusing on engagement with groups, communities, institutions, or agencies, special working relationships are critical to any resolution of identified problems. Underscoring the importance of human relationships is the National Association of Social Workers’ Code of Ethics, which states that “Social workers engage people as partners in the helping process” (NASW, 2008, p.3). The NASW code assumes that reciprocity and mutual benefit are constitutive of helping. Likewise, the IFSW and IASSW (2014) Global Definition of Social Work echoes the NASW sentiment in observing that “social work engages people and structures to address life challenges and enhance wellbeing.” These attempts to codify engagement and partnership as common ground for the profession are promising. 29

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Social work engagement has unfortunately not always lived up to the preceding rhetoric nor produced favorable results, particularly in international settings. Consciously or unconsciously, Western hegemony in social work has brought charges of cultural imperialism (Gray, 2005), inappropriate knowledge transfer (Kee, 2008) and various forms of professional hubris (Midgley, 1981). This was certainly the case after the Second World War with the proliferation of schools of social work, programs, and faculty exchanges the world over (Midgley, 2001). Although Western developed nations meant well in their intentions to help, the flow of social work resources was primarily one way, going from Western developed nations into non-Western developing countries such as Latin America, Africa, and Asia. Curricula and international practice models tended to reflect Western social work knowledge and values rather than indigenous models (Kendall, 2000), with a general attitude to export Western social work models uncritically onto others. The result was an uneven development between social work in developed economies and those in emerging ones, posing the dilemma on how to advance social work without unduly imposing foreign practices onto local contexts. More recently, an emerging discourse on international social work and engagement advocates praxis based on authentic dialogue, empowerment, and collaboration with indigenous ways (Gray, Coates, & Yellow Bird, 2010). Framing practice activities as two-way interactions is a significant attitude change from the presumption that Western ways are inherently superior and universal. Yet despite this postcolonial posture, the question remains: Who owns the work? Western-trained social workers inevitably carry with them the burden of history overseas where spreading Western practices was akin to imperialism. We now understand that the goal then was not to engage local partners to develop sustainable goals but to exert power and privilege. One plausible alternative to a colonialist and professional imperialist stance is engagement based on indigenous knowledge. For example, Chinese culture offers a unique non-Western attitude of engagement based on everyday interpersonal rapport building or ritual. The Chinese concept li (禮) is an ethical frame that guides ordinary social 30

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interactions such as saying hello, sharing meals, asking for advice, entering a room, and so on. Li is considered communal in the pursuit of social harmony to counteract tendencies to dominate and control others. It seeks to minimize self-gain by advancing the common good and approaches what Hessle (2007) calls transculturality, the way in which someone maintains integrity in the context of a diverse social environment. This is relevant to how social workers exercise their professional use of self across cultural contexts. In the context of engagement, li suggests a multilateral attitude toward ownership of the work.

C O M M E N TA RY O N DI S C U S S I O N O F PR I N C I PL E 4 I N C H A P T E R S 3 –14

Principle 4 is addressed in six (4, 5, 8, 10, 11, 13) of the 12 chapters from a wide range of perspectives, including investment of various groups of actors within collaborations and strategies for enhancing ownership in the face of challenges. As Ritchie, Olsen, and Corbin point out in Chapter 4, an essential step in developing a sense of ownership is to explicitly plan and design international exchanges as mutually beneficial. They identify the challenge in achieving this in faculty development trips because they tend to involve U.S. faculty going to another country. They suggest increased support of international faculty members to travel to the United States as well as developing joint research and other scholarly projects that result in multinational publications. In Chapter 5, Kim looks at ownership from an additional perspective, suggesting the need to broaden university investment to enhance enduring support in faculty members’ international collaborations. Kim stresses the importance of reciprocal responsibility, illustrated through regular communication and shared goals, in advancing the stake of U.S. and host universities in successful partnerships. In Chapter 11 Szto expands the discussion of ownership by looking at the development of trust and shared accountability among students participating in a research study project involving photography in China. The students directly experience these dynamics through sharing their work and accomplishments, and learn them implicitly 31

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through honoring the culture and dignity of the people they photograph. Collins, Kim, Garlington, and Bui in Chapter 13 also looks at the intricacies of ownership through a discussion of how international doctoral students must simultaneously maintain control over their research while acknowledging the contributions of stakeholders. Linsk, Mason, Omari, and Lubin describe the challenges of projects with multiple partners in Chapter 8, and emphasize how “trusting relationships between our partners have enabled us to continue to develop the program in mutually satisfying ways” (p. 180). This dynamic has enabled a complex system of ownership of program elements, requiring a high level of compromise and multilevel oversight. The focus on building strong relationships to support local ownership was also highlighted by Cohen and Altman in Chapter 10, as they discuss the potent impact of relatively brief in-person collaborations through the Fulbright specialist program. They note the importance of catalyzing activities that can lead to ongoing development, underpinned by a common understanding of each partner’s goals and potential contributions and supported by ongoing, long-distance collaboration.

PRINCIPL E 5. BUIL DING SUS TAIN A BILIT Y FROM T HE S TA R T DEVELOPING LOCAL LEADERSHIP

Social work faculty engaging in international collaboration should address sustainability as defined by the collaborators throughout each stage of the project, including during preparation, assessment, intervention, evaluation, and follow-up. Planning and activities directed toward post intervention sustainability, community development, and project evolution is integral to social work interventions at all levels of practice, beginning at the earliest stages possible.

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D E S C R I P T I O N O F PR I N C I PL E 5 BY A L I C E K . B U T T E R F I E L D A N D L U C Y A N N L AW R E N C E

In a seminal article Michael Gunder (2006) challenges planning practitioners and educators. He writes: “Sustainability is a concept that everyone purports to understand intuitively but somehow finds very difficult to operationalize in concrete terms” (p. 211). Markusen (2003) labels sustainability as a fuzzy concept, as one that posits an entity, phenomenon, or process that possesses two or more alternative meanings and thus cannot be identified or applied reliably by different readers or scholars. . . . Researchers may believe they are addressing the same phenomena but may actually be targeting quite different ones. (p. 702) Nothing could be truer for us as social work educators, contemplating the meaning of sustainability to write this expanded definition of Principle 5. There are multiple definitions of sustainability. Nonetheless, scholars in many fields are paying attention to the meaning of sustainability in terms of what the principle or concept means for education, practice, and research in their respective fields. Scholars in management and organizational innovation expected to find only a few operational definitions and were shocked to discover nearly 50 definitions, many of which “could not easily be compared” (Faber, Jorna, and Van Engelen, 2005, p. 2). These definitional issues are so complex that Kiewiet and Vos (2007) use a cognitive mapping approach to develop a tailor-made interpretation of sustainability for a firm of consulting engineers. In research on the long-term sustainability of service learning, Vogel, Seifer, and Gelmon (2010) assess the factors that influenced whether service-learning programs continued from 1995 to 1998 among a cohort of 16 colleges and universities. Factors related to sustainability included a facilitating institutional environment through an institutional culture and supportive high-level administrators; the integration of service learning into the curriculum; stable, long-term community-academic partnerships; and strong leaders. Crabtree’s (2008) review of the theoretical foundations for service learning points out 33

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the reconceptualization of development in terms of sustainability by scholars in the developing world: Intellectuals and activists from “southern” nations increasingly conceptualize development in relation to sustainability and democratization (e.g., the work of Wangari Maathai), biodiversity and indigenous people’s rights (e.g., the work of Vandana Shiva), and gender, race, and (im)migration (e.g., the work of Arundhati Roy). (p. 24) There is a large body of work on sustainability conceptualized as sustainable development, a term coined and first brought into global consciousness in Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future (United Nations, 1987). In this document, sustainable development is defined as “Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (p. 43). In a background paper prepared for the Rio+20 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, Drexhage and Murphy (2010) refer to sustainable development as a “visionary development paradigm. … a convergence between three pillars of economic development, social equity, and environmental protection” (p. 2). This concept of sustainability, also known as sustainable development, is probably the most familiar use of the term for social work educators. New ground is being broken in expanding the environment part of social work’s person-in-environment model to include environmentalism or environmental sustainability, sometimes referred to as the environment-in-person approach. For our purposes, sustainability signifies that international projects, sparked or inaugurated through collaborations with U.S. educators, are supported in their ongoing development by local partners. In turn, these activities continue to develop in light of evolving local circumstances. For example, Fair Trade Learning is a global educational partnership exchange that prioritizes reciprocity in relationships through cooperative, cross-cultural participation in learning, service, and civil society efforts (Hartman, Morris-Paris, & Blache-Cohen, 2012). It emphasizes the goals of economic equity, equal partnership, mutual learning, cooperative and positive social change, transparency, and 34

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sustainability. Practitioners should triangulate a community’s voice by actively seeking the voices of the marginalized and being systematic about the inclusion of broad community perspectives and multiple stakeholders (Hartman et al., 2014). Successful collaborations are grounded in equity and include essential core elements of collaboration and innovation, including mutual respect, trust, relationship formation, and commitment to action. These values are infused through various stages of participation, from engagement to formalization to action and ultimately to sustainability (Butterfield, Tafesse, & Moxley, 2016). In sustaining a partnership, innovation is important. According to Assié-Lumumba (2004), all innovations must be homegrown by domesticating the innovation through locality development by a group representing the specific local context. Pillai and Gupta (2015) offer a scholarly analysis of sustainability and social work as an interactional outcome of ecologic sustainability, intergenerational equity, and human development.

C O M M E N TA RY O N DI S C U S S I O N O F PR I N C I PL E 5 I N C H A P T E R S 3 –14

This principle was discussed in four (3, 7, 8, 9) chapters, which is the smallest number of chapters that discuss a particular promising principle, possibly a reflection of a complex array of contemporary definitions. However, the content of the commentary suggest a strong, if not universal, appreciation of the principle’s importance in international collaboration. As elaborated by Moldovan in Chapter 3: “Sustainability, as the ultimate test of international university-to-university partnerships, requires three main components: long-range strategic planning, contextual institutional integration, and the presence of individuals who are committed to the project on both sides of the relationship.” (p. 67). He notes that human capital and strong relationships, often underpinned by memoranda of understanding, support ongoing work as projects are buffeted by continually shifting policies and funding. 35

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In Chapter 7 Jayasundara similarly frames sustainability as resting on inter-partner relationships supported by formal agreements and identifies the importance of discussing future plans and objectives from the start. She identifies consequences when insufficient attention to building a team approach was invested, contrasted with more successful efforts where strong preparation and regular feedback loops were established. In Chapter 8 Linsk, Mason, Omari, and Lubin encourage U.S. educators to depart from a common international development approach where initial technical support prematurely moves to shifting further responsibility to international partners. They found that the “implementation and fade-out approach” (p. 182) resulted in local programs’ being inundated by increased demands for expansion at the same time they were pressed by competing demands and priorities. Their call for considerable ongoing support by U.S. collaborations in achieving responsible local transition resonates with best practices in micro-, mezzo-, and macro-level interventions in the United States. Collins relates similar experiences in Chapter 9 with time-limited train-the-trainer models that relied on expectations of local actors’ responsibility for all future activity. She notes that the local preference for brief turn-key training and consultation may reflect administrators’ preferences for efficient distribution of limited outside resources and that participants have come to expect this. As a counterpoint, Collins suggests an alternative vision, which includes supervised practice and mentoring following training, requiring an extended relationship and opportunities to “expose more vulnerability in learners” (p. 205) so that areas in need of further development can then be thoughtfully addressed to ensure greater effectiveness.

PRINCIPL E 6. BRINGING L E A RNING HOME THE INTERNATIONAL–DOMESTIC INTERFACE

The impact of international collaboration is not only seen in the work overseas, but can have significant, positive effects in social work educators’ home institutions. Social work faculty should consider how these effects can be maximized through scholarly and community dissemination, incorporating 36

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international learning in the curriculum, and mentoring and supporting colleagues engaging in or interested in international partnerships.

D E S C R I P T I O N O F PR I N C I PL E 6 BY C A RO L S . C O H E N

Returning from an international collaboration is a profound experience for U.S. social work educators. One can say that for social work educators, reentry is a critical moment for “bringing it all back home” (Dylan, 1965). For some, enveloped by familiar comforts, home feels like a retreat from a chaotic experience. To others, home is a disconcerting place, as things they had not noticed before or stopped seeing pop into view. Social work faculty and other academics report a mix of homecoming reactions, marked by learning from international experiences as remembrances reverberate in present contexts (Cohen, Berger, Flynn, & Lyndon-Gee, 2006). This reentry experience produces adjustments in their research, teaching, and service in their programs, contributing to students’ competency and, subsequently, through graduates’ impact on the lives of clients and communities. When international collaboration is part of a social work program’s identity, there may be expanded opportunities in teaching, funding, and research that build on this foundation of experience. If international experience is unusual in their program, faculty members may find themselves feeling alone in their global commitment, or, alternatively, they may be in a position to lead in this area. As they discuss their experience, they may discover that other colleagues share their interest, leading to new collaborations and initiatives. With the inclusion of global content in the Council on Social Work Education’s Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards (2008, 2015) many returning faculty members are being enlisted to assess, propose, and lead in this area of curriculum development, whether this is a new or existing area of attention at their program. After their return, faculty members may also find wider opportunities in collaboration with other U.S. social work educators in other programs and on national and international scales. New publication opportunities, including special issues of existing social work journals that focus on international 37

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dimensions (Bailey & Feit, 2015; Gatenio Gabel & Healy, 2013) and the launch of new journals, including the Journal of Human Rights in Social Work, have broadened ways for faculty to draw inspiration and contribute to expanding the scholarly literature. As Healy (2008) explains, evidence of globalization and the need for an international perspective in social work is clearly present in the United States. However, many social work educators and practitioners do not incorporate this in their practice in field or the classroom. Returning educators can talk about their experiences abroad, but they may make an even more powerful contribution in sharing their expanded perspective of what is all around us at home. Social work educators have opportunities to explore local perspectives with global lenses (Moxley, Johnson, Alvarez, & Gutiérrez, 2005), and help students develop “glocal” understanding through combining global and local perspectives. Whether incorporating diverse perspectives from the local community or bringing international case studies into the classroom, educators can infuse international practice and policy into local contexts and a wide range of interventions (Cohen, 2013). As recognition of migration, globalization, and human rights issues increases, international social work becomes increasingly evident in every community. Social work educators are contributing to incorporating these perspectives in professional study and learning (Abram, Slosar, & Walls, 2005; Healy, 2008; Katiuzhinsky & Okech, 2014; Rosenberg, 2009; Steen & Mann, 2015; Strug, 2015; Tice & Long, 2009). International engagement does not require traveling outside one’s own national borders to cultivate and expand global consciousness in social work, yet the chapters in this book and elsewhere present a compelling rationale for such activity. Social work educators today could easily adapt U.S. Congress member Tip O’Neill’s (1994) phrase “All politics is local,” to “All international is local.” Through processes of reconnection and disorientation following international collaborations, social work educators find their experiences contribute to new ways of seeing their local environments, practice and policies, social and economic conditions, and professional education.

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C O M M E N TA RY O N DI S C U S S I O N O F PR I N C I PL E 6 I N C H A P T E R S 3 –14

Principle 6 was discussed in nine chapters (4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14), the largest number for any of the principles. This may serve as an indication of how strongly social work educators feel about bringing their international experiences back to their home institutions. As multiple authors reported, their schools and universities contributed to making their global experiences possible, and they are often eager to give back and spark others’ interests to engage in further internationalization of their programs and activities. In Chapter 4 Ritchie, Olsen, and Corbin discuss how faculty participants used their experiences to help them understand the complexity of their home environments, with strong implications for human rights and social justice. They began or expanded teaching and research agendas in these areas, launched study groups and faculty exchanges, and presented their experiences through local events, presentations, and publications. As Jayasundara reports in Chapter 7, linking students internationally resulted in their extensive application of global issues in the field and classroom, which encouraged additional faculty to join the effort. Partly as a result of this project, the university was selected as an ACE (American Council on Education) International Laboratory, where social work faculty were key participants in interdisciplinary efforts. Cohen and Altman in Chapter 10 identify advancements in faculty and university internationalization following Fulbright specialist grantees’ return home. For example, one scholar noted: “It made our department and me more relevant in the eyes of the University and the international ways we were headed.” One scholar explained how she and colleagues came to see the need for a more fully integrated approach to international social work in the curriculum rather than including it as separate “global stuff.” Another reflected on how the focus on egalitarian partnering relationships in the Fulbright program led to greater attention to deepening collaborative approaches to social work education back at home.

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A number of contributors discuss their successes and challenges in engaging international students and scholars on U.S. campuses. Butterfield, Olcoń, and Scherrer in Chapter 6 report learning from the social challenges they experienced when hosting groups of visiting scholars and learning what would be useful in similar domestic programs in their institutions. They also stress the importance of making the leap from the academy to facilitate participants’ dissemination of programmatic accomplishments in the wider community. Hearing about challenges and differences their colleagues encounter abroad can engender interest among many, but also some faculty members sense that such work has limited application in U.S. institutions. Banerjee in Chapter 12 notes how bringing learning home goes beyond one’s own institution and that international collaboration can foster national connections and expanded global leadership roles. In Chapter 8 Linsk, Mason, Omari, and Lubin discuss bringing doctoral students to their campus as a result of their involvement and working on expanding scholarly dissemination on both sides of their international partnership. Even when some research goals were not fully realized, team members used their experience to learn what supports would be needed for greater success. In Chapter 13, Collins, Kim, Garlington, and Bui’s view on bringing experiences home is discussed, focusing on doctoral students returning to their home institutions after study in the United States. Following their intensive learning process, they use their international experience as a touchstone throughout their careers. As described in Szto’s Chapter 11, students literally bring things home. They bring back their photographs, the visual evidence of their experience, reflect individually and share them through a range of activities once they return. As Szto states, “Viewing the photographs brings together two worlds” (p. 249), the world where students went and the world they started from. Olsen and Chatterjee in Chapter 14 also look at what students bring home and discuss how international experiences in the field can profoundly influence a person’s future. They note that some of the social work students who are part of the global health programs decide to move further into international 40

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development, and although the majority decides to pursue careers in the United States, they discuss how their perspectives have broadened to see strong elements or international social work in their work at home. S O C I A L WO R K PR I N C I PL E S I N I N T E R NAT I O NA L C O L L A B O R AT I O N

According to Merriam-Webster’s dictionary, the word principle (2016) has three meanings: (1) a moral rule or belief that helps you know what is right and wrong and that influences your actions, (2) a basic truth or theory; an idea that forms the basis of something, and (3) a law or fact of nature that explains how something works or why something happens. The first part of this definition links beliefs with principles and is evident in the way social workers use values to guide practice and address ethical dilemmas. In exploring where these values come from, Friedlander (1958) began his book with the following statement: “The basic values of social work do not spring up like wild flowers by the wayside; they are, instead, rooted in the deep fertile beliefs that nourish civilizations” (p. 1). Although a bit hyperbolic, these words set the stage for understanding how social work values, developed over time, form the foundation for principles that guide practice. The second part of the definition in Webster’s examines the way social work principles are developed from basic truths or theories, leading to something or some action. Again, there is historical resonance in social work. In calling for “the most persistent and intelligent efforts to alleviate poverty,” Addams’s (1910, p. 18) words exemplify a call for principled professional action from a strong moral basis. At midcentury, Biestek (1957) enumerated fundamental social values and accompanying practice principles, suggesting they emerge from basic human needs to guide relationships between clients and worker. These principles, including dignity, acceptance, individualization, capacity for change, and worker self-awareness, are present today in the NASW Code of Ethics (2008). Recently, in the revised Global 41

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Definition of Social Work, these two organizations affirm the following overarching principles: “respect for the inherent worth and dignity of human beings, doing no harm, respect for diversity and upholding human rights and social justice” (IASSW & IFSW, 2014). The third part of the dictionary’s definition suggests that a principle is explanatory and can guide action. According to Lewis (1982), “the practice principle is the most powerful intellectual tool in a profession’s practice” (p. 57). Principles integrate values, ethics, clients’ experience, and practice-based wisdom and research. They are based on what is known and, most meaningfully, thought to be important by the profession. Principles articulate expectations of behavior. They are not rules, which dictate specific action but rather are guides that must be individually and contextually applied. Principles are considered broad and adaptable to changing times and conditions (Cohen, Mulroy, Tull, Bloom, & Karnas, 2007). Even principles, however, do not last forever, and must be continually examined in light of changing times, knowledge, perspectives, and conditions. It is important to note that we have decided to describe the six principles presented in this book as “promising” in recognition that they continue to need testing in light of the experiences of social work educators. Chapters 3–14 represent an exciting beginning in this process, as each of the chapters use from two to four of the principles in their analysis of a particular experience of international engagement. It is hoped that the process of testing these principles through field application and analysis will continue, as social work educators evaluate their utility in framing their international practice and report on their own collaborative experiences.

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REFERENCES Abram, F. Y., Slosar, J. A., & Walls, R. (2005). Reverse mission: A model for international social work education and transformative intra-national practice. International Social Work, 48, 161–176. Addams, J. (1910). Charity and social justice. In Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Corrections (pp 1–18). Fort Wayne, IN: Archer Press. Al-Rodhan, N. R. F., & Stoudmann, G. (2006). Definitions of globalization: A comprehensive overview and a proposed definition. Geneva, Switzerland: Geneva Centre for Security Policy. Anthias, F. (2012). Intersectional what? Social divisions, intersectionality and levels of analysis. Ethnicities, 13(1), 3–19. Aspalter, C. (2011). The development of ideal-typical welfare regime theory. International Social Work, 54, 735–750. Assié-Lumumba, N. T. (2004). Sustaining home-grown innovations in higher education in Sub-Saharan Africa: A critical reflection. Journal of International Cooperation in Education, 7, 71–83. Bailey, D., & Feit, M. D. (2015). Social work in the United States and Cuba: Sharing perspectives, reflections, and experiences. Journal of Human Behavior and the Social Environment, 25, 1–2. Biestek, F. P. (1957). The casework relationship. Chicago, IL: Loyola University Press. Butterfield, A. K., Tafesse, M., & Moxley, D. (2016). Creating sustainable international higher education partnerships: Concept mapping of the processes and outcomes of USAID-funded projects between universities in Ethiopia and the United States. Social Development Issues, 38(2), 47–67. Cohen, C. S. (2013). Module 1: General Social Work Practice: International and Global Perspectives. In: Teaching International Social Work: Online Modules Resources for Global learning: Online Modules. CSWE. Retrieved from Council on Social Work Education website: http://www. cswe.org/Centers-Initiatives/Centers/International-KAKI/Resources/ Teaching-International-Social-Work.aspx 43

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Cohen, C. S., Berger, R., Flynn, K., & Lyndon-Gee, C. (2006, October). Bringing it all back home: Considering the impact of international teaching on teaching at Adelphi. Panel presentation during International Week, Adelphi University, Garden City, NY. Cohen, C. S., Mulroy, E., Tull, T., Bloom, C. C., & Karnas, F., Jr. (2007). Integrating services for older adults in housing settings. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 49, 145–164. Council on Social Work Education. (2008). Educational policy and accreditation standards. Retrieved from http://www.cswe.org/file.aspx?id=13780 Council on Social Work Education. (2015). Educational policy and accreditation standards. Retrieved from http://www.cswe.org/getattachment/ Accreditation/Accreditation-Process/2015-EPAS/2015EPAS_Web_ FINAL.pdf.aspx Crabtree, R. (2008). Theoretical foundations for international service-learning. Michigan Journal of Community Service-Learning 15, 18–36. Cummins, L. K., Sevel, J. A., & Pedrick, L. (2006). Social work skills demonstrated: Beginning direct practice. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon/Longman. Drexhage, J., & Murphy, D. (2010, September). Sustainable development: From Brundtland to Rio 2012. New York, NY: United Nations. Durst, D. (2010). A comparative analysis of social work in Vietnam and Canada: Rebirth and renewal. Journal of Comparative Social Work, 2, 1–12. Dybicz, P., & Pyles, L., (2011). The dialectic method: A critical and postmodern alternative to the scientific method, Advances in Social Work, 12, 301–317. Dylan, B. (1965). Bringing it all back home [CD]. New York, NY: Columbia Records. Esping-Anderson, G. (1990). The three worlds of welfare capitalism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Faber, N., Jorna, R., & Van Engelen, J. (2005). The sustainability of “sustainability”—A study into the conceptual foundations of the notion of “sustainability.” Journal of Environmental Assessment Policy and Management, 7, 1–33. Friedlander, W. A. (Ed.). (1958). Concepts and methods of social work. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 44

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Gatenio Gabel, S., & Healy, L. M. (2013). Introduction to the special issue: Globalization and social work education. Journal of Social Work Education, 48, 627–634. Gray, M. (2005). Dilemmas of international social work: Paradoxical processes in indigenization, universalism and imperialism. International Journal of Social Welfare, 14, 231–238. Gray, M., Coates, J., Yellow Bird, M. (Eds.). (2010). Indigenous social work around the world: Towards culturally relevance education and practice. Burlington, VT: Ashgate. Gray, M., & Fook, J. (2004). The quest for a universal social work: Some issues and implications. Social Work Education, 23, 625–644. Gunder, M. (2006). Sustainability: Planning’s saving grace or road to perdition? Journal of Planning Education and Research, 26, 208–221. Hartman, E., Morris-Paris, C., & Blache-Cohen, B. (2014). Fair trade learning: Ethical standards for international volunteer tourism. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 14(1/2), 108–116. Healy, L. M. (2008). International social work: Professional action in an interdependent world (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Hermoso, J. C. R., & Luca, C. G. (2006). Civil society’s role in promoting local development in countries in transition: A comparative study of the Philippines and Romania. International Social Work, 49, 319–332. Hessle, S. (2007) Globalisation: Implications for international development work, social work and the integration of immigrants in Sweden. In L. Dominelli (Ed.), Revitalising communities in a globalising world (pp. 231–241). Burlington, VT: Ashgate. Hill, B., & Green, M. (2008). A guide to internationalization for chief academic officers. Washington, DC: American Council on Education. Hudzik, J. (2011). Comprehensive internationalization: From concept to action. Washington DC: National Association of Foreign Student Advisers. Ife, J., & Fiske, L. (2006). Human rights and community work: Complementary theories and practices. International Social Work, 49, 297–308.

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International Association of Schools of Social Work, International Council of Social Work, & International Federation of Social Workers. (2012). The global agenda for social work and social development commitment to action. Retrieved from http://cdn.ifsw.org/assets/globalagenda2012.pdf International Federation of Social Workers, & International Association of Schools of Social Work. (2014). Global definition of social work. Retrieved from http://ifsw.org/get-involved/global-definition-of-social-work/ Jones, D. N., & Truell, R. (2012). The global agenda for social work and social development: A place to link together and be effective in a globalized world. International Social Work, 55, 454–472. Katiuzhinsky, A., & Okech, D. (2014). Human rights, cultural practices, and state policies: Implications for global social work practice and policy. International Journal of Social Welfare, 23, 80–88. Kee, L. H. (2008). The development of culturally appropriate social work practice in Sarawak, Malaysia. Burlington, VT: Ashgate. Kendall, K. A. (2000). Social work education: Its origins in Europe. Alexandria, VA: Council on Social Work Education. Kiewiet, D. J., & Vos, J. F. J. (2007). Organisational sustainability: A case for formulating a tailor-made definition. Journal of Environmental Assessment Policy and Management, 9, 1–18. Leung, T. T. F., Yip, N. M., Huang, R., & Wu, Y. (2012). Governmentality and the politicization of social work in China. British Journal of Social Work, 42, 1039–1059. Lewis, H. (1982). The intellectual base of social work practice. New York, NY: Lois and Samuel Silberman Fund. Lyngstad, R. (2012). Contextual social work and internationalizing social work education: Two sides of the same story? Journal of Social Work, 13, 400–418. Markusen, A. (2003). Fuzzy concepts, scanty evidence, policy distance: The case for rigor and policy relevance in critical regional studies. Regional Studies, 37, 701–717. Merrill, M., & Frost, C. (2011). Internationalizing social work education: 46

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Models, methods and meanings. Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad, 21, 189–210. Mezirow, J. (2000). Learning to think like an adult: Core concepts of transformation theory. In J. Mezirow (Ed.), Learning as transformation (pp. 3–33). San Francisco, CA: Josey-Bass. Midgley, J. (1981) Professional imperialism: Social work in the Third World. London, UK: Heinemann. Midgley, J. (2001) Issues in international social work: Resolving critical debates in the profession. Journal of Social Work, 1, 21–35. Moxley, D. P., Johnson, A. K., Alvarez, A. R., & Gutiérrez, L. M. (2005). Appreciating the glocal in community practice: Camphill, Gaviotas and intentional community. Journal of Community Practice, 13(3), 1–7. National Association of Social Workers Code of Ethics. (2008). Code of ethics. Retrieved from http://www.socialworkers.org/pubs/code/code.asp New South Wales Family and Community Services. (2016). Child wellbeing & child protection–NSW Interagency guidelines. Retrieved from http://www. community.nsw.gov.au/kts O’Neill, T. (1994). All politics is local: And other rules of the game. Holbrook, MA: Bob Adams. Pillai, V. K., & Gupta, R. (2015). Sustainability and social work. International Journal of Sustainable Society, 7(2), 140–150. Principle. (2016). In Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary (11th ed.). Retrieved from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/principle Rosenberg, J. (2009). Working in social work: The real world guide to practice settings. New York, NY: Routledge. Sachs, J. (2012). From millennium development goals to sustainable development goals. The Lancet, 379, 2206–2211. Simon, B. L. (1994). The empowerment tradition in American social work: A history. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Steen, J. A., & Mann, M. (2015). Human rights and the social work curriculum: Integrating human rights into skill-based education regarding policy 47

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practice behaviors. Journal of Policy Practice, 14, 275–291. Strug, D. (2015). A faculty development program in Cuba for American social work academics. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 25, 3–13. Szto, P. (2007) Cultural context and social technology transfer: The case of Canton, China. International Journal of Social Welfare, 16, 55–64. Tice, C. J., & Long, D. D. (Eds.). (2009). International social work: Policy and practice. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. United Nations. (1987). Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our common future. New York, NY: Author. Retrieved from http://www.un-documents.net/wced-ocf.htm United Nations. (2015). Sustainable development goals. Retrieved from http:// www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sdgoverview/post-2015-development-agenda.html Vogel, A. L., Seifer, S. D., & Gelmon, S. B. (2010). What influences the longterm sustainability of service learning? Lessons from early adopters. Michigan Journal of Service Learning, 17, 59–76. Wächter, B. (2006). Asia-Europe cooperation in higher education: State of play and challenges. Asia Europe Journal, 4, 317–321. Winker, G. & Degele, N. (2011). Intersectionality as multi-level analysis: Dealing with social inequality. European Journal of Women’s Studies, 18(1), 51–66. Zelenev, S. (2016). Human dignity and social protection: International Council on Social Welfare (ICSW) approach. International Social Work, 59, 562–563. Zlotnik, J. L. (2003). The use of Title IV-E training funds for social work education: A historical perspective. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 7, 5–20.

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CHAPTER 3

SOCIA L WORK EDUCATION REFORM T HROUGH A N IN T ERN ATION A L UNIV ERSIT Y-TO-UNIV ERSIT Y PA RT NERSHIP: T HE CIT Y UNIV ERSIT Y OF NE W YORK A ND FREE IN T ERN ATION A L UNIV ERSIT Y OF MOLDOVA VA D I M M O L D OVA N

International academic collaboration in the field of social work is a complex and often daunting endeavor that is undertaken for the global cause of the social work profession. Guided by this mission, York College of the City University of New York and Free International University of Moldova formed a partnership that resulted in funded research projects, extensive scholarship, and program innovation. The effectiveness and sustainability of the partnership are greatly influenced by institutional, systemic, economic, and cultural factors. The process of adaptation toward the shifting common goals is dynamic, continuous, and replete with profound lessons for both sides of the partnership. The environment of socioeconomic instability in Moldova challenges the American partner to assume the higher level of responsibility in the collaborative relationship. 49

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Developing and sustaining international academic partnerships require persistence, resources, a sense of direction and the ability to navigate the relationship across political, cultural, economic, and institutional boundaries. Negotiating systemic challenges at home and abroad calls for diplomatic skills and nuanced understanding of the systems (Ayoubi & Massoud, 2012). Ultimately, the most fundamental requirement for a productive international collaboration is the ability to sustain it. International partnerships are necessarily driven by basic human curiosity about all things foreign. The enthusiasm for international collaborative ventures is also fed by the prospect of accomplishment on the global scale. Potential rewards, however, are mixed with disappointments that are often traced to differences in partners’ expectations. When unexamined and unarticulated, differences in assumptions about purposes and processes of education represent a major obstacle to effective collaboration (Karlsson, Booth, & Odenrick, 2007). Internationalization of higher education refers to the process of infusing all aspects of education with the global dimension (Knight, 2008). Global crises, such as war and famine; increasing displacement and migration; and global interconnectedness make the internationalized university curriculum essential for understanding the contemporary world. Global competency is increasingly seen as an imperative in preparing students for “shared planetary challenges like international terrorism, regional and global conflicts, and global warming” (Reimers, 2009, p. A29). In social work, the global imperative is manifested through educational policy reforms and curricular innovation. Study abroad programs, global field placements, and international university-to-university partnerships are becoming commonplace. However, rewards are tempered by frustrations caused by political, cultural, and institutional complexities. The world of international academic collaboration is confusing (Knight, 2008) and compels internal transformation by the partnering institutions (Sutton & Obst, 2011). Effective international partnerships require stable funding, with air travel being the largest expense and an abiding personal investment 50

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by key stakeholders that goes beyond a study abroad course or 3-day conference at an exotic locale. A good partnership is a commitment to the lasting potential of the relationship. In this chapter, I relate my experience in being a participant in academic partnerships between York College of the City University of New York (CUNY) and two universities in the Republic of Moldova for the goal of advancing social work education, professionalization, and legitimization in Moldova and other postsocialist countries. It must be acknowledged that the sustainability of this partnership is being helped by my commitment to addressing social problems in my native Moldova through social work education and the experience I have received in my adopted country, the United States. This dichotomy offers opportunities for integration of the American social work paradigm with sociopolitical realities of the foreign land.

SOCIA L WORK IN MOL DOVA It has been said that Moldova is situated at the crossroads of all woes. This small, strategically important region in Eastern Europe was in the path of many east-west and west-east invasions. Moldova as a state peaked at the cusp of 15th and 16th centuries when the Principality of Moldova ruled the large territory from the Black Sea to the Carpathian Mountains and was constantly at war with neighboring Poles, Hungarians, Ottomans, and Tartars. In 1538 Moldova lost its independence and for the next 300 years was a vassal of the Ottoman Empire until the 1812 annexation by the Russian Empire. During the turbulent 20th century, Moldova was independent for a few months at the end of World War I, then occupied by the Kingdom of Romania for 20 years, annexed by the Soviet Union right before World War II, and then again reoccupied by Romanians and Germans for the duration of the war. After World War II, Moldova became one of the 15 Soviet republics until 1991 when the Soviet Union dissolved, and Moldova regained independence (King, 1999). Presently, Moldova is among the postsocialist states, classified by the International Monetary Fund as countries with transition economies, 51

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apparently undergoing transition from the planned, or socialist, to market, or capitalist, economies (Feige, 1994). Twenty-five years after attaining independence, Moldova is the poorest country in Europe, afflicted by recession, banking crises, and dwindling remittances from the large part of its population living abroad (“Gutted,” 2015). With the dismantling of the Soviet welfare state and advance of laissez-faire social care came a sharp increase in poverty and other serious social problems (Alam, Casero, Khan, & Udomsaph, 2008). During the Soviet era, the social protection system in socialist countries was ideologically driven and comprehensive. In the centralized autocratic society of the Soviet Union and its allies, such social problems as unemployment, alcoholism, and delinquency were treated as enemies of the state with systematic efforts to eradicate them. Some of these campaigns were more successful than others; for example, unemployment was very low, yet alcoholism remained persistently problematic (Anderson & Hibbs, 1992). Whereas in the capitalist world, social protection basically amounts to attempts at alleviating the worst of social damage inflicted by the market economy, in a socialist state, social welfare is the official raison d’être. Following the calamitous Stalinist era, an ideological turnaround occurred in the early 1960s, and the Soviet state underwent a profound shift from a militarized economy toward a system more concerned with the social welfare of the citizenry (Bacon & Sandle, 2002). At its peak, the Soviet welfare state provided free medical care, free education, subsidized public housing, almost full employment, and generous work benefits. The state offered extensive public health programs, ubiquitous wellness programs for adults including subsidized medical and recreational resorts, extensive wellness programs for youths including athletic clubs and summer camps, free kindergartens and day care centers, and comfortable retirement for seniors. This comprehensive cradle-to-the-grave system was operated by professional teachers, physicians, policemen, and government workers who were expected to know all inhabitants in their assigned districts. Doctors, teachers, and policemen would make regular and emergency home visits to monitor the welfare of their charges and respond to crises. 52

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Communist party organizations along with trade unions also served as important conduits of social assistance. The demise of the Soviet welfare state, probably the most regrettable collateral damage of the collapse of the Soviet Union, is key to understanding contemporary social challenges in countries with transition economies, including Moldova (World Bank, 2002). In the newly independent and very poor Moldova, the generous soviet welfare system was replaced by an aloof capitalist model of the most frugal kind. The social work profession that emerged from the ruins of socialist welfare faced many challenges (Bulgaru, 2009). With old institutions of social protection either gone or transformed, social workers have to deal with large caseloads of urgent and complex problem situations, all the while lacking proper education, resources, and remuneration. At the same time, the status of the nascent social work profession remains low, especially when compared to the more established teaching, legal, and medical professions. Very few social workers are employed in the school, health, and mental health systems (Moldovan et al., 2007). Popular perception places social workers somewhere between home attendants and low-level governmental clerks. Despite the presence of foreign social workers and extensive international collaboration in higher education, social work in Moldova bears little resemblance to its counterparts in Western Europe and the United States. Twenty-five years after the collapse of the Soviet welfare state, in the environment of political instability and economic privation, the social work profession in Moldova is struggling for resources, identity, a professional foundation, and status.

PRO JECT CA S A M A RE Project Casa Mare (projectcasamare.org) is a nongovernmental organization registered in the Republic of Moldova whose mission is the advancement of social work in Moldova and other postsocialist countries. Casa Mare in the Moldovan traditional household 53

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refers to the largest and most decorated room that is reserved for guests and special occasions. Project Casa Mare is an institutional embodiment and the main achievement of the decade-long relationship between CUNY’s York College and two foreign academic institutions—the State Medical University of Moldova and the Free International University of Moldova (ULIM). The path of collaboration, circuitous with blind alleys and frequent stops, started 10 years ago with the chance meeting of two educators from Moldova and the United States.

E A R LY S TAG E S O F T H E PA RT N E R S H I P

In the early stages of the partnership, a joint study of the Moldovan mental health system by York College and the State Medical University of Moldova developed into an action plan to promote community mental health in Moldova, which was christened Project Casa Mare. As the partnership evolved, Project Casa Mare has broadened its mission to include social work education and professionalization in Moldova. The first 6 years of collaboration involved York College faculty members traveling to Moldova on brief research expeditions funded by CUNY, conducting studies at psychiatric institutions, and returning to the United States to analyze the data and present results at conferences and through publication. However, these studies of psychopathology and cultural attributes at mental hospitals did little to improve lives of the institutionalized mentally ill (Moldovan et al., 2007). Although the CUNY–State Medical University partnership yielded such important outcomes as the First Congress on Community Psychiatry in Moldova in 2009, the interest of both partners began to wear off a year or so later. Sustainability of international projects is always a challenge as partnerships often dissolve because of competing project opportunities with other partners and at other foreign locales. Fortuitously, in 2011, I met a vice rector of another Moldovan university, ULIM, when she was visiting the United States with a delegation of officials from Moldovan universities. Her invitation to 54

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bring CUNY students to ULIM for a joint summer social work program changed the direction of the project toward social work education and professionalization. With the change of course came a chance to develop an effective social work education model for the former socialist countries in Eastern Europe, a region with a dire need for an effective social work profession. Just as exciting was the opportunity to create a model of social work education practically from scratch, according to best practices and international standards, in response to current and future global needs, and toward the reciprocal transformation of Western social work.

T H E PA RT N E R S H I P F O R S O C I A L WO R K E D U C AT I O N I N M O L D OVA

This Project Casa Mare collaborative network includes CUNY’s York College, ULIM, and the American academic consortium, consisting of American educators who have taught in Moldova, taken part in curriculum development, and continue their involvement with Project Casa Mare. We operate under collaborative agreements with two ministries and various nongovernmental organizations in Moldova. Additionally, some relationships, such as those with other European nongovernmental organizations and educators from Poland, Slovakia, and Czech Republic, resulted in a curriculum development project that was supported by the European Association of Schools of Social Work. These relationships are contextualized by international social work associations that provide education standards for curriculum development and take part in Project Casa Mare activities. This collaborative network produced multiple exchange visits, numerous scholarly conference presentations and articles, five international conferences, and two study abroad programs in Moldova with visiting American students and faculty. The crown jewel of the partnership, a master of social work program, was developed and launched as a joint education venture at the ULIM. Project Casa Mare integrates contributions from partner universities and other 55

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institutions into five areas of activities: social work education, academic publications and conferences, social development and civil society projects, collaborative networks, and community outreach (see Figure 3.1). F I G U R E 3 . 1 . PRO J E C T C A S A M A R E : O U T C O M E S O F I N T E G R AT I V E I N T E R N AT I O N A L C O L L A B O R AT I O N

The CUNY-ULIM partnership enjoys participation by social work educators from other American and Moldovan universities who formed a consortium under the umbrella of Project Casa Mare and the affiliated International Center for Advancement of Social Work in Countries With Transition Economies. The consortium includes partners from the State University of Moldova, St. Louis University, Northern Kentucky University, University of Minnesota, and Aurora University. The group developed a curriculum for the MSW program at ULIM that was launched in 2013. The first class of 12 students graduated with a great fanfare in 2015. Along the way, the CUNYULIM team engaged in a number of projects, from a Fulbright-funded 56

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study of social problems in Moldova to international conferences, one of them funded by the U.S. Embassy in Moldova. The 2015 and 2016 international social work conferences organized in Moldova by the consortium included keynote speakers from the International Association of Schools of Social Work; International Federation of Social Workers; European Association of Schools of Social Work; and International Council on Social Welfare; presenters from 17 countries; and the audiences of hundreds students, educators, and practitioners from social work and related fields. The roundtable discussions served as an important forum for international networking and strategic planning. The conference proceedings provided content for the journal that was launched after the 2015 conference, Renastere, the International Journal for Advancement of Social Work in Post-Socialist Countries. Some activities of Project Casa Mare are related to the nascent MSW program at ULIM. For example, the playroom at the children’s ward at the State Psychiatric Hospital in Chișinău was built with funds raised in the wake of social work student internships at the hospital. A study of incarcerated women convicted of being human traffickers came about as a result of another internship program at the Central Prison in Chișinău. The curriculum for the training center at the Ministry of Labour, Social Protection and Family was also developed on the foundation of the MSW program. Other activities, such as the seminar on Moldovan identity and the conference on social work and social entrepreneurship in 2016 took place as a result of an ever increasing network of contacts that operationalize the CUNY-ULIM partnership. Collaborative ventures are triggered by encounters at international conferences, online introductions, and reading about others’ work in professional and popular publications. Still other projects develop from our travels in Moldova and from our acquaintance with many systemic problems. For example, the Vocational Rehabilitation Center for the Mentally Ill came about as a result of the prior projects at the psychiatric hospitals in Moldova.

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The collaborative network with the CUNY-ULIM partnership at its center is a dynamic entity that is constantly reshaped by global and local situational opportunities and obstacles. The Project Casa Mare projects are born of the relationships that are formed to address local and global social work needs. Figure 3.2 represents the partnership’s 2016 Action Plan that indicates areas of social production with participating internal and external partners. F I G U R E 3 . 2 : PRO J E C T C A S A M A R E 2 016 AC T I O N P L A N W I T H I N T E R N A L A N D E X T E R N A L PA R T N E R S

N O T E . N G O S = N O N G OV E R N M E N TA L O R G A N I Z AT I O N S .

F U N DI N G PRO J E C T C A S A M A R E

Presently, Project Casa Mare operations are carried out by the paid full-time staff of five who produce conferences, engage in research, participate in international conferences, and work on several social entrepreneurship projects. Early expeditions to Moldova were funded 58

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by small Professional Staff Congress and CUNY research grants that William Divale of York College and I received for several years that allowed us to travel to Moldova to conduct research in the mental health system in collaboration with the local team of psychiatrists and doctoral students. Additional funding came from the Fulbright Scholar award I received in 2014, a grant from the U.S. Embassy in Moldova, and steady financial support from a private American foundation that has been supporting Project Casa Mare for 6 years. The members of the American academic consortium traveled to Moldova with funding from their universities. During the past year, Project Casa Mare staff tried very hard to obtain other grants through various competitive funding opportunities, mostly from the European Union and its member countries. We developed a dozen proposals that were submitted by the agency alone or jointly with other Moldovan and European NGOs. These proposals were thought through and articulated well. They offered opportunities for innovation and accomplishment in such areas as civil society reform, child welfare, psychosocial rehabilitation, and social work education. To date, we have not been awarded a single European Union grant. It took a while to realize that these highly competitive grants, large and small, are chased after by thousands of local NGOs (Registru de Stat al Organizatiilor Necomerciale, 2015) that employ tens of thousands of Moldovans who depend on these grants for their very survival. Most of foreign funding reaching Moldova is generally channeled to well-established and well-connected governmental and nongovernmental organizations with a solid record or prior awards, which makes the scramble for the remaining euros even more frantic. This chasing of handouts from the West compares poorly with the well-ordered, integrated, and comprehensive system of social care during the Soviet era. The present system is fragmented, erratic, always short on money, and long on uncertainty beyond the expiration of the current grant. It is also plain to see how the desperate competition for limited foreign funds leads to corruption and ineffectiveness of social services in Moldova. The bulk of agency money is spent on payroll. The modest amount 59

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obtained from American funding sources goes a long way in Moldova and is sufficient to hire the full-time local staff of five (one coordinator and four associates) on very decent salaries by Moldovan standards. The coordinator is one of the first graduates of our MSW Social Expert program at ULIM and has been working for Project Casa Mare for more than 3 years. The associates are evening students enrolled in the MSW program. All five are trilingual (Moldovan, Russian, and English), fast, resourceful, and comfortable in the high-pace multitasking environment of the organization. The staff is battle-tested because they have organized several successful international conferences, conducted complex research projects, developed social enterprises, and written many grant applications. Their intelligence, passion, and versatility are the greatest assets of the partnership. The 7-hour workday starts with them assembling at the Project Casa Mare office at ULIM and calling me on the phone in New York. It is usually 10:00 a.m. in Moldova and 3:00 a.m. in New York. I connect with them through group and individual chats on Facebook that allow us to work in an ongoing written conversation with each other. Although I prefer the face-to-face contact that occurs during my trips to Moldova every few months, the online communication has one major advantage: Everything that is discussed remains on record. Beyond this ongoing dialogue, we work jointly and individually on grant applications, curriculum revisions, and preparation for the conferences, development of research methodologies, and all other activities involved in Project Casa Mare’s extensive agenda. The agency’s Moldova staff are incessantly networking with local NGOs, colleagues at ULIM, international partners, students, media outlets, and so on. Thanks to online technology, the partnership can be sustained because of each partner’s virtual proximity.

SUCCESSES AND CHALLENGES

Although some positive results have been attained, the overarching goal of the partnership to bring about a social work reform through education, professionalization, and legitimation in Moldova remains elusive. 60

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The complex system of social protection in Moldova is subject to local and global influences as it operates in a variety of overlapping geopolitical contexts, including international, European, national, and regional. Social care is mostly uncoordinated and administered through thousands of indigenous and foreign NGOs and governmental agencies.

T H E N O M E N C L AT U R E O F S O C I A L WO R K

The ordeal involving the nomenclature of social work is emblematic of challenges facing international academic partnerships. The Project Casa Mare team positioned the MSW program at ULIM as the premier source of a professional cadre by training students for effective social work practice at the policy level and grooming them for leadership in the social service field. Calling them social workers was natural for the American partners. However, the term social worker (lucrator social) was defined legislatively in Moldova by Parliament of RM v. Law nr.547 (2003) as a person providing home care for the elderly, and social assistant (assistent social) as a person responsible for assisting individuals and families in difficult situations. Neither social workers nor social assistants in Moldova are trained and operate according to the international education and professional social work standards. Social assistants generally hold academic degrees in psychology, education, and law. Social work is viewed more as a function rather than as a profession, and practitioners correspondingly lack specialized education, status, and adequate remuneration. Recognizing the inadequacy of the social work nomenclature in Moldova, the Project Casa Mare team introduced a new classification—social expert (expert social) to correspond to the higher level of professionalization. A social expert is conceptualized as a trained professional, who has been prepared for direct practice and leadership according to international social work education standards. Social experts are conceptualized as trained professionals prepared for direct practice and leadership roles according to international social work education standards. This nomenclatural innovation is facing an uphill battle in the Moldovan legislature, where the title of social expert will have to be approved through legislation in 61

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the parliament and implemented by the Ministry of Labor, Social Protection, and Family. Administrators of social work programs at other universities in Moldova express only tepid interest in this project and are generally resistant to the new title. The lack of cooperation between social work programs can be explained by the absence of functioning social work and social work education associations in Moldova, with informal contacts being the only means of communication. Moreover, university social work programs are sustained in part by European education grants such as Erasmus Mundus, and are wary of letting sister institutions close to their funded projects. At the same time, international social work associations expressed concern over the term social expert as an alternative to the internationally recognized social work nomenclature. This can be understood as an expression of the dual mission of global social work, that is, developing a common international base of values, knowledge, and practice on the one hand, and respecting local circumstances and imperatives on the other. This tension within the profession, along with many other dialectic contradictions, has to be continuously addressed through dialogue and eventual synthesis.

I N T E R NAT I O NA L E X PA N S I O N O F T H E PA RT N E R S H I P

The complex task of social work reform in Moldova requires a systemic approach through education, legitimization, and professionalization that includes such activities as upgrading the dormant social work association, developing appropriate internships and work placement opportunities, and ensuring continuing enrollment of motivated social work students. Other imperatives involve expanding the scope of international collaboration beyond the Moldova and U.S. partnership to include other countries of the postsocialist world. This goal was greatly advanced through the 2015 social work conference in Chișinău that featured 25 presenters, mostly from Ukraine, Romania, Poland, Georgia, Lithuania, and Moldova. The 2016 Social Work Conference in Chișinău was a much larger gathering with social workers from 14 62

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countries with transition economies who formed a network for the purpose of collaborative projects, social production, and education reform. Effecting systemic changes is a highly complex and difficult undertaking. Nevertheless, the potential benefits of international partnerships in facilitating much-needed social work education reform in the vast postsocialist world are well worth the effort. Every accomplishment and each setback offer opportunities to reflect, learn, and adapt to the changing political landscapes, social needs, and available resources.

CRITICA L REFL ECTION A ND DISCUS SION OF T HE PROMISING PRINCIPL ES AT T E N DI N G TO C U LT U R E : G L O BA L I Z AT I O N A N D I N DI G E N O U S S O C I A L WO R K

Culture is an evasive concept because of its complex, dialectic, and partially submerged nature (Weaver, 1986). Broadly defined as paradigm, it encompasses the entire constellation of values, beliefs, and customs that distinguish groups of people. Culture is collective tradition, common historical precedent, and shared current circumstance. An American scholar visiting the country that recently emerged from centuries of political subjugation into economic privation is probably not aware of many important aspects of the local culture, especially when it is secretive, wary of foreigners, and subtly resistant to intrusion from abroad. When acculturation is infeasible and cultural sensitivity is insufficient, best hopes for a productive partnership lie in the ability to operate in spite of divergent values and paradigmatic conflicts. The imported education principles and practices cannot be prescriptive but need to emerge from the dialectic collaborative processes. The local participation in partnerships at all levels cannot be underemphasized or taken for granted. The commonalities and differences in values, principles, and practices are both necessary ingredients of a productive partnership. One of the most important lessons learned from the CUNY-ULIM relationship 63

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is about the role of conflict in international academic collaborations. Paradigmatic clashes between two educational systems coming into contact often occur below the level of cognition. In this particular partnership, cultural antagonisms are generally unspoken yet often manifested in misunderstandings, confusion, and ineffectiveness. The underlying assumption that American scholars abroad bring enlightenment to remote foreign lands has the potential to negatively affect the collaborative relationship before it even starts. Although American contacts and funding are highly desirable to administrators and faculty at foreign universities, they nevertheless resent the intrusion and the role of a lesser partner. At the same time, American scholars abroad, even when trying hard to be humble and culturally sensitive, may succumb to imperial hubris and be condescending toward local customs. Under these circumstances, collaborative projects meet formidable obstacles that seem technical but in fact are attributable to resentment and cultural divide. Moldova is a close-knit society with extensive informal networks based on kinship, godparenting, place of birth, political affiliation and certain social norms that are unfamiliar to outsiders and impede collaboration. Linguistic differences remain a challenge even though English is well established as the language of international academic discourse, and there are many fluent English speakers on the Moldovan side of the partnership. However, because of different sociocultural contexts, such concepts as empowerment, social justice, and professionalism, so basic to the Western social work paradigm, are hard to adopt as modus operandi for social workers in Moldova. The notion of group empowerment has been eroded by the multitude of individual struggles for survival in the environment of political and economic instability. Social justice, overused through sloganeering during the Soviet period, does not resonate as a social value. Professionalism is tainted by the popular perception of professionals as bureaucrats who are mainly concerned with rules and regulations. Ultimately, for indigenous stakeholders to buy into the partnership depends on the partnership’s built-in mechanisms for intercultural dialogue, mutual education, and attending to the local tradition. 64

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F O C U S I N G O N U N I V E R S I T Y C O N T E X T S : I N T E R NAT I O NA L VA R I AT I O N I N H I G H E R E D U C AT I O N

The paradigm of social work education in the United States represents a complex system that is driven by demand for a competent cadre of professionals who can address persistent social problems. Although the system is geared toward the American social predicament and shaped by American institutions, social work education in the United States is increasingly concerned with international dimensions of the profession (Estes, n.d.). This development offers the prospect of increasing the international relevance of American social work and the need for the American social work cadre to be prepared for practice in the global environment. From abroad, social work in the Unites States looks quite impressive, considering the profusion of social workers in all fields of human endeavor. On the contrary, in postsocialist countries such as Moldova, what passes for social work is a fledgling trade that is very low on the scale of status and remuneration. The quality of education often corresponds to the expectation that students will graduate into the world of scarce resources and insurmountable obstacles to change. Their skepticism, bordering on cynicism, is well-founded, when governmental assistance to the needy is very low, helpers’ salaries keep them at the poverty level, and the entire political system is undermined by corruption (Roman, 2014). The lack of economic resources causes Moldovan universities to cut corners by hiring as few instructors as possible, saddling them with unmanageable workloads, and paying incredibly low salaries. Tuition costs are quite low by international standards, yet given the country’s poverty level, the affordability of education is still challenging for most students. Consequently, the quality of education suffers, as the expectations of teachers’ and students’ performances are lowered to the level of education’s being more symbolic than transformative. Such practices as students making additional payments to instructors and buying papers and academic degrees is fairly widespread in Moldova’s educational institutions (Valentino, 2007). Unfortunately, these aberrations occur in a country where teachers are experienced and knowledgeable, students are multilingual and motivated, and the tradition of excellence in higher education is alive and well. Alas, poverty corrupts, as 65

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Moldova’s economic predicament compels bad behaviors in the interests of economic survival. Needless to say, these practices are concealed from American partners and emerge only in the course of sustained relationships. They do, however, represent a serious obstacle to elevating social work education in Moldova to the level of international standards. The politico-economic context of an asymmetric relationship between the United States and a vulnerable small country like Moldova amplifies the importance of the partnership’s reward system. The partners enter collaborative relationships with different expectations of potential rewards. Rarely does a project outside the home university turf bring financial rewards to an American partner, as the expectations are usually confined to opportunities for travel, work in the foreign environment, and scholarship production. However, for Moldovan partners, international partnerships represent an important source of income. Bringing the funding to educators and students in Moldova through international collaborative projects is indeed one of the purposes of the CUNY-ULIM partnership.

U N D E R S TA N DI N G G OV E R N M E N T, P O L I T I C S , A N D L O C A L I N I T I AT I V E S : F R A M I N G T H E PRO G R A M I N C O N T E X T

Moldova is short on natural and economic resources. The main source of income is remittances coming from the third of the population working abroad. The country’s attempts to export its agricultural produce are consistently subverted by geopolitical challenges, such as competition from European Union member states and regular embargos by the Russian Federation. Moreover, the low geopolitical clout of Moldova not only places the country at the mercy of much larger political forces but also impedes its ability to cope with the impact of changing geopolitical trends. The diversity of the political spectrum in Moldova reflects the contradictory influences of the European Union and Russian Federation with the resulting political stalemate and internal institutional paralysis. The prime ministers and ministers change almost seasonally with the accompanying high turnover of the ministerial cadre. The parliament is deadlocked in mutual recriminations and subterfuge. Corruption is rampant. 66

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Beyond the political turmoil, the system of social provision is affected by policy agendas generated outside the country. The funding by large donor organizations such as the United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund, World Health Organization, and European Commission determine internal policies and practices with only nominal input from local stakeholders. Invariably, cohesion, sustainability, effectiveness, and integrity of the projects funded from abroad are at issue. The uncoordinated multiplicity of international funders with diverse agendas leads to confusion, lack of strategic planning, and fragmented polices. The complexity of internal politics and the country’s geopolitical environment represent a serious challenge to effectiveness and sustainability of university-to-university partnerships in Moldova. At the same time, it is important to recognize that thanks to the powerful American brand, an American educator in Moldova is probably more influential than his or her counterparts from most other countries. In fact, the United States is a major player in Moldova’s sociopolitical dramas. The social work educators from several universities in the United States who took part in the development of the Project Casa Mare social work curriculum and traveled to Moldova to teach have left a lasting impact on students and colleagues at ULIM.

B U I L DI N G S U S TA I NA B I L I T Y F RO M T H E S TA RT: D E V E L O PI N G L O C A L L E A D E R S H I P

Sustainability, as the ultimate test of international university-to-university partnerships, requires three main components: long-range strategic planning, contextual institutional integration, and the presence of individuals who are committed to the project on both sides of the relationship. Long-range planning, however, is a problem in the environment of shifting political winds, funding streams, and stakeholders’ motivation. It is very hard to look beyond the single-project horizon and stay the course with a long-range plan. For that reason, planning needs to be flexible enough to account for inevitable political, institutional, and personal change. The partnerships that do not evolve are doomed to stagnation and demise. The 67

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process of growth depends on the expanding network linking the partnership to other universities, governmental and nongovernmental organizations in both countries, and international social work associations and similar enterprises in other countries. Above all, human capital is the most essential component of a sustained relationship involving the individuals who are dedicated to the mission of the partnership. Involvement of the educators participating in the international academic consortium needs to continue. Another source of sustainability is the steady influx of students at the MSW program, which is challenging because of competition from other university programs and persistent emigration of talented young people. Nevertheless, student preparation for leadership roles as social experts is the partnership’s priority, and we already see our students being hired by the Ministry of Labor on the strength of the prospect of their becoming social experts. They are expected to continue involvement in Project Casa Mare activities after graduation.

R E C O M M E N D AT I O N S F O R I N T E R N AT I O N A L S O C I A L WO R K PR AC T I C E

Productivity and sustainability are the two most important measures of international academic relationships. Ultimately, the partnership is judged by its lasting impact on people and the social environment. The impact of academic partnerships should not be limited to dialogue but expressed in tangible accomplishments that involve partners, stakeholders, and communities on both sides of the relationship. These outcomes, shaped as conferences, MSW curricula, research projects, and so on, should be driven by the clearly expressed and mutually understood purpose of the partnership. The mission of global social work education can be defined and interpreted in different ways, but it is essentially determined by core social work values. The asymmetrical international partnerships must be driven by altruistic motivations on the American side that should be bringing various resources into the relationship, expecting only the joy of collective accomplishment in exchange. 68

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International partnerships require a well-examined, culturally informed, and empathetic attitude toward the host culture. Although earning the partner’s trust is necessary for a productive relationship, foreigners are always regarded with caution and even suspicion. An American partner’s condescending attitude, even when subconscious, will adversely affect the prospects for good collaboration. Conversely, foreign partners will always welcome genuine interest in their language, culture, and history. Foreign experience should be highly appreciated as an extraordinary opportunity to directly learn about another culture. Constructive dialogue and effective production are contagious as they spread to other collaborations. The vast network of individuals and institutions that surround the partnership is essential to its effectiveness. Opportunistically, almost all prospects for useful relationships should be explored at least initially. Most of the connections will not yield specific and immediate results, but each partnership-related contact is informative and potentially useful. Although social injustice is rampant throughout the world, social work educators and practitioners too often turn a blind eye to exploitation and inequality. Foreign environments raise the stakes on the imperative for opposing social injustice. In postsocialist countries, the concept of social justice often feels like an empty slogan and a relic of the Soviet era. Nevertheless, the partners must collectively rediscover the meaning and applicability of social justice to the contemporary local and global social predicament that is central to all endeavors of the partnership. Finally, the recommendations concerning competence would include the considerations for social work professionalization, its unique knowledge base, and proficiency in mezzo- and macro-level social work skills. The American partner should not fail to meet the expectation of possessing greater knowledge, ability, and resources. Along with this responsibility is the opportunity to attain professional results that are much harder to achieve in the more established and conservative institutional environments in the United States.

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CONCLUSION International university-to-university partnerships are cornerstones of the global social work enterprise. They demand high levels of knowledge, commitment, and resources, and most important, abiding interest in sustaining the collaborative relationship. Patience is also necessary when professional rewards only come eventually with well-established local and international connections, cultural familiarity, and deliberate progress toward mutual goals. Political and economic power places the greater share of responsibility on the American side of the partnership, which entails bringing financial resources into the relationship along with the values, knowledge, and skills of Western social work. The CUNY-ULIM partnership is nourished by the opportunity to experiment and innovate toward better global social work education models. The central idea among our diverse undertakings is that social change in postsocialist countries such as Moldova can only be accomplished through the competent social work cadre. Project Casa Mare is committed to preparing such a cadre and facilitating its introduction into the international institutional environment.

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REFERENCES Alam, A., Casero, P.A., Khan, F., & Udomsaph, C. (2008). Unleashing prosperity: Productivity growth in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union. Washington, DC: World Bank. Retrieved from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/ECAEXT/Resources/publications/UnleashingProsperity.pdf Anderson, S. C., & Hibbs, V. K. (1992). Alcoholism in the Soviet Union. International Social Work, 35, 441–453. Ayoubi, R. M., & Massoud, H. (2012). Is it because of partners or partnerships? An investigation into the main obstacles of developing international partnerships in four UK universities. International Journal of Educational Management, 26, 338–353. Bacon, E., & Sandle, M. (Eds.). (2002). Brezhnev reconsidered. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire, England: Palgrave Macmillan. Bulgaru, M. (2009). Assitenta Socială, fundamente teoretice şi practice. Chișinău, Moldova: CEP USM. Estes, R. J. (n.d.). United States–based conceptualization of international social work education. Retrieved from http://www.cswe.org/CMSPages/ GetFile.aspx?guid=459d3db5-d4b8-413d-9ed0-a7633e306e8c Feige, E. L. (1994).The transition to a market economy in Russia: Property rights, mass privatization and stabilization. In G. S. Alexander & G. Skąpska, (Eds.). A fourth way? Privatization, property, and the emergence of new market economics (pp. 57–78). New York, NY: Routledge. Gutted: A banking scandal is set to bankrupt Europe’s poorest country. (2015, August 1). The Economist. Retrieved from http://www.economist. com/news/finance-and-economics/21660165-banking-scandal-set-bankrupt-europes-poorest-country-gutted Karlsson, J., Booth, S., & Odenrick, P. (2007). Academics’ strategies and obstacles in achieving collaboration between universities and SMEs. Tertiary Education and Management, 13(3), 187–201. King, C. (1999). The Moldovans: Romania, Russia, and the politics of culture. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press.

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Knight, J. (2008). Higher education in turmoil: The changing world of internationalization. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense Publications. Moldovan, V., Divale, W., Nacu, A., Socroviscuiuc, A., Sterpu, V., Fauras, V., & Cardona-Divale, M. V. (2007). A struggle to survive: Services for the chronically mentally ill in Moldova. International Journal of Mental Health, 36(4), 46–56. Parliament of RM v. Law nr.547 (2003). Registru de Stat al Organizatiilor Necomerciale. (2015). [State Registry of Nongovernmental Organizations]. Retrieved from: http://rson.justice. md/organizations Reimers, F. (2009, January 30). “Global competency” is imperative for global success. Chronicle of Higher Education, 55(21), A29. Retrieved from: http://chronicle.com/article/Global-Competency-Is/9742 Roman, A. (2014). The multishade paradox of public corruption: The Moldovan case of dirty hands and collective action. Crime Law and Social Change Journal, 62, 65–80. Sutton, S. B., & Obst, D. (2011). The changing landscape of international partnerships. In S. Sutton & D. Obst (Eds.), Developing strategic international partnerships: Models for initiating and sustaining innovative institutional linkages (pp. xiii–xxiii). New York, NY: Institute of International Education. Valentino, V. (2007). Managing corruption in higher education in Moldova (Master’s thesis). Harvard University, Cambridge, MA. Retrieved from: http://www.erisee.org/downloads/2013/2/Managing%20corruption%20 in%20hogher%20education%202007%20ENG.pdf World Bank. (2002). Transition. The first ten years: Analysis and lessons for Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/ECAEXT/ Resources/complete.pdf Weaver, G. R. (1986). Understanding and coping with cross-cultural adjustment stress. In R. M. Paige (Ed.), Cross-cultural orientation. New conceptualizations and applications (pp. 111–146) Lanham, MD: University Press of America.

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CHAPTER 4

T HE IN T ERN ATION A L FACULT Y DE V ELOPMEN T T RIP PROGR A M OF T HE COUNCIL ON SOCIA L WORK EDUCATION D E N N I S R I T C H I E , J O DY O L S E N , a n d J OA N N E C O R B I N

This chapter examines the development of an international faculty development trip program sponsored by the Council on Social Work Education. Initial trips to Cuba and Costa Rica focused on the contextspecific nature and practice of social work. Logistics of planning, financing, and implementing such trips are addressed. Feedback from trip participants emphasize the importance of experiential learning and connections with social work practitioners and faculty members in the host country. The chapter discusses three principles pertinent to faculty development trips. Recommendations include specific responsibilities and tasks for trip leaders and faculty participants, and the development of a measurable evaluation tool. This chapter examines a unique program sponsored by the Council on Social Work Education (CSWE) relating to international social work and collaboration in academia. The CSWE Council on Global Learning and Practice (CGLP) created and oversees the international faculty development trip (IFDT) program for CSWE members who 73

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want to expand their interest and knowledge related to global social work education and practice. We present our experience in leading the first set of these trips to Cuba and Costa Rica. The chapter begins with a brief literature review related to social work faculty development trips, followed by the purposes and anticipated outcomes of the IFDT program. Next, we provide an overview of social work education and practice in Cuba and Costa Rica, and describe IFDTs in the two countries. We address three of the six principles pertinent to the CSWE-sponsored IFDT program: attending to culture, exploring the engagement process, and bringing learning home. Recommendations include specific responsibilities and tasks for trip leaders and faculty participants, and the development of a measurable evaluation tool.

IFDT S Short-term international trips to promote social work faculty development provide participants with knowledge and skills to cross cultures effectively, practice social work in multicultural and diverse environments, and globally contextualize social work education and practice. O’Dell (2008) and Strug (2015) are the only social work faculty members to publish analyses of faculty development trips. Strug’s CSWE-sponsored trips to Cuba are described later in this chapter. O’Dell describes a week-long faculty development trip to London. The trip’s benefits, the enhanced inclusion of multiculturalism and the history of international social work, are integrated into an Introduction to Social Work course. She describes gaining understanding of British culture as well as exposing faculty to differing outlooks on teaching practices. The literature indicates that the positive outcomes reported for social work faculty are similar to benefits of short-term study abroad programs reported for social work students (Greenfield, Davis, & Fedor, 2012; Mapp, 2012). Student outcomes generally focus on an increased understanding of the context for social work practice and growth in cultural competence (Boyle, Nackerud, & Kilpatrick, 1999; Gammonley, Smith Rotabi & Gamble, 2007). Short-term 74

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programs are an asset in enhancing the formation of social work values among student participants. Awareness of new ways of thinking, critical reflection on one’s own and societal values and beliefs, heightened respect for other cultures, and deepened understanding of human rights, social justice, and professional identity are outcomes related to short-term international programs (Gilen & Young, 2009; Lindsey, 2005; Ritchie & Guzman Stein, 2014). In addition to increased personal and professional understanding of the connection between social welfare and social work practice, students learn about the country’s specific culture, history, economic conditions, and individual daily life experiences (Jaoko, 2010; Poole & Davis, 2006). Two studies that employ quantitative measures, the Multicultural Awareness/Knowledge/Skills Survey and the CrossCultural Adaptability Inventory, found that students who participated in study abroad experiences increased their positive attitudes and perceptions regarding diverse cultures and their adaptability, communication skills, and sensitivity when interacting in diverse cultural contexts (Fairchild, Pillai, & Noble, 2006; Williams, 2005). Mapp (2012) found that shorter-term student international experiences offer benefits similar to longer-term immersion programs.

CS W E-SPONSORED IFDT S TO CUBA A ND COS TA RICA The IFDT program is an international travel and study collaborative program run by and for social work educators. The program was initiated in 2012 and initially focused on developing and implementing IFDTs in countries of the Global South to provide participants with an international social work experience and exposure to contexts very different from those of the United States. Based on these trips, the CGLP has developed guidelines for trips that meet the program’s purposes and outcomes, that define faculty leader roles and responsibilities, recommend trip activities, and specify participant eligibility criteria. Figure 4.1 outlines the purposes of IFDTs and desired outcomes as articulated by the CGLP (CSWE, 2015).

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FIGURE 4.1. CSWE-INTERNATIONAL FACULTY DEVELOPMENT TRIP PROGRAM PURPOSES AND PLANNED OUTCOMES

PURPOSES

Meet with

· host country counterparts to visit educational institutions and review curricula and programs. · representatives of social work and other related incountry agencies relevant to social work interests. · individuals and groups advocating for human rights and social justice. · government-related organizations that set policies and practices relevant to social work.

Experience through field visits, meetings, lectures, and interviews

· how history, politics, conflicts, regional relationships, and geographic, ethnic and development diversity influence the social service environment and service delivery systems. · the cultural, historical, linguistic, and artistic vibrancy of the country and how it relates to availability and delivery of social services. · how alternate conceptualizations and responses to social problems arise from culturally specific interpretations of needs, human rights, and responsibilities.

Explore and follow-up

· with host country faculty on future opportunities to work together. · with academic and nonacademic contacts for future research, faculty and student exchanges, study abroad, and conference participation.

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PLANNED OUTCOMES · developing firsthand knowledge of country and social work issues that can be woven into academic work by participants and colleagues · developing better understanding of the United States and its relationship to issues core to social work by seeing through host country lens · exploring opportunities for subsequent exchanges such as internships, service-learning projects, research, and study abroad · following up with colleagues at home and CSWE committees and programs to share the trip’s impact, including benefits and insights gained · exploring opportunities for collaborative research with host country colleagues and other trip participants · furthering commitment to global social work and roles and responsibilities Note. Adapted from Guidelines for Faculty Development Trips and Safety and Security Reminders, Council on Social Work Education (2015), available at http://www.cswe.org/Centers-Initiatives/Centers/International-KAKI/News/ Guidelines-for-Faculty-Development-Trips-and-Safet.aspx

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The inaugural IFDTs were to Cuba in 2012, 2013, and 2014, and Costa Rica in 2014 and 2015. They form a solid foundation to continue building the program and adding trips to other countries. These two countries were selected in part because they are geographically close to the United States and relatively safe and inexpensive countries to visit. They offer very different social work education experiences and were led by CSWE members who have years of experience leading groups to these countries and who also expressed interest in leading IFDTs. Cuba and Costa Rica are different not only from the United States but from each other. Both represent the Central American and Caribbean Region of the Americas, Latin America, and the Global South. These societies and cultures are more collective, cooperative, and community oriented compared to those in the United States, which is recognized for its strong individualistic and competitive ethos. Unlike Cuba and its commitment to communism, Costa Rica is among the oldest, most stable democracies in the region. Both countries are known for their universal high-quality health and education systems and their relatively high position on the United Nations Human Development Index. Meeting people’s health, education, and social service needs are seen as human rights and as the government’s responsibility. Whereas Cuba is often criticized by the U.S. government and some international human rights organizations as seriously violating some civil and political rights, its policies, and services emphasize economic, social, cultural, and collective rights. Costa Rica is a unique and favorable setting for examining the interrelatedness of human rights and sustainable human development. The country has a long history of supporting the advancement of civil and political, economic, social, and cultural human rights and collective or solidarity rights across all system levels. The United Nations conventions and covenants inform its policies, programs, and services. Both countries offer critical perspectives on U.S. policies that negatively affect their countries’ social and economic development, including the U.S. government’s imposed restrictions and sanctions against Cuba and the effect of the U.S.backed Central American Free Trade Agreement on Costa Rica.

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DE V ELOPMEN T OF SOCIA L WORK EDUCATION A ND PR ACTICE IN CUBA A ND COS TA RICA PARALLELS AND DIFFERENCES

Social work’s beginnings in Cuba and Costa Rica date from the first half of the 20th century. Its development has reflected each country’s sociopolitical-economic history and context. Strug (2015) describes the development of social work education and practice in Cuba and is the source of the description that follows. In 1943 social work was instituted as an academic field of study at the University of Havana (UH). Initially, the government promoted social work in response to social problems prior to reforms. The 1959 revolution established a socialist economy and government based on egalitarian and equity principles that assumed full responsibility for meeting the health, education, and social service needs of its population. This included free health care and education, low-cost housing, and food security. UH was closed following the revolution and soon reopened but without the social work program. The reasoning was that social work was no longer needed because socialism would eliminate social problems, and any remaining issues could be addressed by grassroots organizations. Then, in 1978 the Ministry of Health instituted a technical-level training program for social workers in health care, and this has remained a dominant domain of social work practice in Cuba. In 1998 UH established a bachelor’s program in sociology with a social work concentration. Within 2 years, social work became a national priority and an integral part of the government’s attempt to mitigate the social effects of the continuing economic crisis that began in the 1990s following the fall of the Soviet Union. As the economic climate worsened during the early 1990s, the Cuban government focused greater attention on the needs of vulnerable populations as a means of promoting equity and justice. In 2000 President Fidel Castro established a social work paraprofessional training program to prepare youths, and a small percentage advanced to earn a bachelor’s degree. However, the Cuban government ordered the training program closed in 2011 and tasked the Ministry of Work and Social Security with overseeing all social work services except for 79

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those in the health and education sectors. Consequently, professional social work in Cuba has not evolved to graduate-level education, and professional preparation has been limited to the technical or paraprofessional level. Cuban social work is currently in a transitional state with an uncertain future as Cuban society faces the new challenges of an opening society and economy. Costa Rica abolished its army in 1949 and redistributed military expenses to combat poverty, promote well-being, and invest in universal health care and education. The social work profession began in 1942 when the University of Costa Rica (UCR) created the School of Social Work. The 1960s and early 1970s reflect a broader movement throughout Latin America to commit to an indigenous Latin American social work model. Its founding has resulted in years of commitment to the poorest and most vulnerable population groups through the services of social security, child welfare, and public health national systems, which required professional personnel to deliver needed programs and services (University of Costa Rica, 2015). The mission of the UCR School of Social Work is to provide students with a solid academic foundation that enables them to comprehend and intervene into multiple expressions of social inequalities. It emphasizes critical theory focused on the structural elements of society that result in poverty, inequity, discrimination, and oppression. In this context, social work is about social, economic, and political development, the advancement of human rights, the improvement of life conditions of working populations in situations of poverty and social exclusion, and community, and macro practice (University of Costa Rica, 2015). UCR offers three social work degrees: the BSW, the licenciatura in social work, and the MSW. The UCR School of Social Work attracts students and faculty from throughout the Central American, Caribbean, and South American region, as well as from the United States and Canada (University of Costa Rica, 2015).

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DESCRIPTION OF THE IFDTS IN CUBA AND COSTA RICA This section presents a brief synopsis and discusses the initiation and funding, planning, and implementation phases of five IFDTs to Cuba and Costa Rica. We address the time frame, leadership, management and logistical arrangements, participants, and agenda and activities for each IFDT. All were week-long trips in the month of June and sponsored by the CGLP. They were funded by participants themselves, and neither the CSWE nor the faculty leaders profited financially. Participant fees paid for all trip expenses, which kept costs relatively low to increase program access for diverse faculty throughout the United States. All participants were CSWE members and represented administrators and faculty across all ranks, from BSW and MSW programs in small and large, private, and public institutions. David Strug, professor emeritus of social work at Yeshiva University, was the founding faculty leader for the IFDT program. He developed and led all three trips to Cuba. Dennis Ritchie, professor of social work at George Mason University, was the CSWE faculty leader for the Costa Rica trips. He developed and implemented these trips collaboratively with his colleague from UCR, Laura Guzman Stein, professor emerita of social work and women’s studies and former director of the School of Social Work and the Interdisciplinary Center for Women’s Studies Research. Both faculty leaders were knowledgeable of their host country’s cultural, linguistic, and social work contexts. The CSWE assumed responsibility for some tasks for both programs, including advertising the trips through its communications network and conducting a posttrip participant survey. The Cuba and Costa Rica faculty development trips were quite different. The U.S. trade embargo with Cuba made trip planning difficult as communication was limited and travel restricted. The U.S. treasury department licensed only a few travel agencies for visiting academics including for the IFDTs. Even so, the embargo made it difficult for the licensed agency to make arrangements. The CSWE program had to be advertised as “research related” to be allowed in Cuba (Strug, 2015, p. 6). Trip goals encouraged U.S. faculty to learn about social work and health care systems in Cuba and discuss potential 81

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collaborative research. The Costa Rica trip placed less emphasis on the research aspect, purposefully focusing on the travel seminar’s theme, Sustainable Human Development and Human Rights, to assist participants in developing the capacity to incorporate this content into their teaching, research, and home institution’s curricula. This fit well with the interests of the CSWE Commission on Global Social Work Education and its Committee on Human Rights to provide human rights education for U.S. social work faculty. Unlike the Cuba trips, the Costa Rica trips were not contracted to a travel agency but were administered through the CSWE. All incountry program planning and development as well as arrangements for hotels, travel, food, guest lectures, and field trips were handled by the trip co-leaders. They developed the flyer and trip information. Prior to each trip, faculty leaders sent a welcome e-mail to all participants that included a predeparture reading assignment, a request for participant travel itineraries and dietary or mobility restrictions, airport arrival and immigration tips, in-country emergency contact phone numbers, hotel information, suggested clothing and items to bring, and information on laptops, cell phones, and cash and credit cards. Participants also received a tentative daily plan and itinerary. The agendas in both countries were similar and packed with activities. Each trip combined lectures, readings, and dialogue with field visits to local and national governmental and nongovernmental organizations related to health and social work. Activities provided cross-cultural experiences to show how the host country culture, history, politics, economics, and international relationships influence social policies and service delivery. In-country interactions furthered understanding and sensitivity on how the United States is viewed and how it affects people in the host country. Participants met with faculty, social work and health and human service practitioners, administrators, researchers, national ministry officials, national social work leaders, and journal editors.

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SUMM A RY OF SUCCES SES A ND POSITIV E OU TCOMES Participants in trips to Cuba and Costa Rica completed CSWEgenerated qualitative evaluations that asked about their overall experiences including the benefits of the trip, connections made with colleagues, plans for following up, and recommendations for future trips. Participants unequivocally reported strong positive experiences. They described the trips as transformative, as an oncein-a-lifetime experience that affected their personal and professional development. Participants said they learned about the history, culture, health and human services, and government programs and policies of the country they visited. Most discussed the benefits of the trip to their teaching or research goals and indicated that they planned to integrate the overall experience into their academic work and practice. Some commented that the experience gave them insights into work with Latino and other communities of color. Many participants reported they planned to share their experiences with colleagues back home, and others hoped to develop study abroad programs in Central America or other types of international educational experiences. Faculty members on these trips met with host country professionals and service providers, and visited agencies and organizations that were essential to understanding social work practice and the social service delivery system within the particular national and cultural context. Agency visits provided a glimpse of jobs, responsibilities, and the challenges of being a social worker and were important for hearing about the social service implications of international development. Faculty members also increased their understanding of global social work. For example, participants learned that Cuban scholars conceptualized social work and social work education through sociology. Participants saw this directly as the emphasis focused on preventive health care and education across the life cycle. Participants identified misinformation about Cuba by learning more about the political, economic, and social history of Cuba’s relationships with the United States and Russia. Participants of the Costa Rica trip increased their understanding of the country’s 83

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commitment to human rights and how it shaped public and social policies, programs and services, and social work education. They pointed to the value of learning more about the country’s relationship with the United States and how certain U.S. policies have a negative impact on life in Costa Rica and the region. Participants reported making many new professional contacts that contribute to their global activities at home and abroad. These included new relationships with other trip participants and faculty leaders. Potential follow-up activities include curriculum and course development at home, manuscript preparation for professional journals, collaborative professional conference presentations, inviting host country colleagues to home institutions, arranging to return to host institutions, and appointing scholars to each country’s editorial boards. Other ideas included developing field practicums, service learning, and short- or long-term study abroad experiences in the host country, and creating collaborative co-teaching activities using the Internet or through short-term visits. Participants planned to keep in touch and collaborate electronically and face-to-face with host country colleagues. All respondents acknowledged and praised the knowledge, skill, and sensitivity of the trip leaders and their host country partners. Leader qualities that were important for creating a successful trip experience included knowledge of the culture and language as well as access to, familiarity with, and respect for the country’s social work community.

CRITICA L REFL ECTION A ND DISCUS SION OF T HE PROMISING PRINCIPL ES Three principles for collaborative international practice by social work educators are the most pertinent to the CSWE-sponsored IFDT program. This section discusses attending to culture, exploring the engagement and partnership process, and bringing learning home in relation to the challenges and learning from the IFDT program.

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AT T E N DI N G TO C U LT U R E : G L O BA L I Z AT I O N A N D I N DI G E N O U S S O C I A L WO R K

Understanding culture, one’s own and that of others with their related traditions, systems, and behaviors, is a core element for social workers crossing cultures and integrating personally and professionally into environments other than their own. Gaining cross-cultural knowledge pertains to understanding one’s self as much as understanding others. Crossing cultures and developing cultural competence is a process of openness, critical reflection, and communication. The participants’ process of learning about the individuals, communities, and nations where they are guests gives them new insight into how they see their own values, traditions, and behaviors. Faculty trips should encourage opportunities for observation and critical reflection for this to happen. As one participant noted, “Leave egos at the airport and soak up the experience.” Another said, “Walk in their shoes and experience life through their eyes.” The Cuba and Costa Rica trips offered examples of participant observation and subsequent self-reflection in evaluation comments. One faculty participant’s belief that the advancement of human rights in Costa Rica was less than that of the United States was challenged by direct observation. Another expressed surprise at the country’s exceptionally high literacy rate and high-quality universal health care system. Costa Rica also offered opportunities for faculty to explore their own thinking about how democracy is represented in a more collective society as compared to the individualism in the United States. What is the impact on vulnerable populations within each system? How does this confront the system in the United States that we tend to take for granted, and what are the implications for social work education in the United States? Crossing cultures with an open, observant, questioning, and critically reflective stance can lead to positive confrontation of previously accepted beliefs, values, and views of policies and service delivery, and this can result in either transforming or reinforcing previously held viewpoints. The Cuba trips offered opportunities for deeper understanding of themes such as socialism and communism, rights to having economic 85

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and social needs met, universal health care, and collectivism as well as the responses to these themes. Participants were able to meet Cubans in formal and informal settings and gain a fuller understanding of their daily experiences. One participant commented that the information countered the rhetoric about Cuba presented in the United States and brought balance to the way Cuba is viewed and portrayed. Others noted that the collective values represented were not easily transferable to democracies that tend toward more individualistic value systems but should be studied for their similar social work values that promote social equality and social justice (Strug, 2015). Participants in the Costa Rica trips experienced and learned about a more collectivist democratic society and witnessed ways collectivist macro-system characteristics filter down throughout national policies, programs, and services to the micro-system level and how this affects social work education and practice. The U.S. system could then be viewed through a different lens and perspective, challenging deeply ingrained assumptions. Cuba and Costa Rica have developed their own indigenous models of social work, public policies, programs, and services that are very different from those of the United States. Thus, each country offered ample opportunity to experience a society and culture very different from that of the United States. Trip leaders were informal culture and language translators. The participants relied on their areas of knowledge and expected guidance and direction from them in learning about how sociology and social justice are integral to social work in Cuba and how a holistic conception of human rights, social and economic justice, and environmental issues are integral to social work in Costa Rica. This added richness to daily observations and discussions about culture and tradition as well as to understanding differences in the conceptualization of social work education and practice. In essence, the faculty leader serves as a cross-cultural guide and interpreter between participants from the United States and host country colleagues. Being bicultural is a great asset for faculty assuming this leadership role. If leaders from the United States are not bicultural, the trip should be co-led with a faculty member from the host country.

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E X PLOR I NG T H E E NGAGE M E N T A N D PA RT N ER SH I P PRO C E S S: OW N I N G T H E WO R K

Shared process and accountability is required to plan and conduct trips and to sustain post trip outcomes at home and with host institutions. The Cuba and Costa Rica programs illustrate the complexities of partnership and ownership. During each of the CGLP meetings over the past 5 years, trip ownership and partnerships have been raised and framed in the context of the responsibilities of the CSWE, trip leaders, participants, and host institutions. The CGLP is responsible for ensuring that the trips meet the guidelines developed and approved by the CGLP (CSWE, 2015). The trip leader and participants, all of whom must be CSWE members, have expectations and responsibilities based on these guidelines. However, neither the CGLP nor CSWE have resources to contribute to the faculty trips or legal authority if the trip does not meet the guideline expectations. Thus, ownership is shared among the trip leader, participants, the CGLP, and CSWE in the sense that all are members of CSWE and adhere to the values and purpose of membership. With this membership, all have a common expectation of educational outcomes that further international social work education. Discussions of the CGLP have suggested financial support and a stronger staff role in developing and sustaining the IFDT model, with the assumption that the CSWE would take the lead in terms of ownership, engagement, and accountability. Apart from this idea, the trips continue as shared governance and a partnership based on CSWEapproved guidelines and goodwill among all CSWE members leading and participating in faculty trips. Individual participants can initiate steps during the trip toward building partnerships for follow-up research and student program development. For example, the guidelines suggest that CSWE members and host country faculty together should walk through appropriate protocols for internationally based research. Joint internal review board approvals, social work research and technical terms, customs, values, and traditions affecting subject participation are only a few protocols noted as examples. The faculty trip is a critical first step in establishing interests and possibilities, but collaborative research planning and ownership are 87

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an essential follow-up for sustainability. Developing and leading student trips are goals of some participating faculty. The CSWE guidelines also address a shared ownership of this sustainable aspiration, including building connections with partners, collaboratively mapping program goals and requirements, establishing shared interest and investment, and fitting programs into appropriate expectations and opportunities for the sending and the receiving institutions (CSWE, 2015). One anticipated outcome from these trips is a follow-up faculty or student visit by a representative of the host institution, and this expectation should be addressed in planning discussions. When an exchange is not possible, the partnership should identify ways to achieve real collaboration and benefits for both sides, which might include co-teaching and Skype classroom exchanges, joint research, financial or material in-kind support for international host institutions and community-based organizations, and intercountry student collaboration. For sustainable follow-up, both sides of the exchange need to specify the understanding that the exchange is equally beneficial for the sending and hosting institutions alike. One of the most salient challenges related to the IFDTs, or any kind of exchange program, is how to make it a truly two-way exchange. Faculty exchanges tend to involve faculty from the United States going to the host country and not faculty from the host country coming to the United States. As social work educators, it is crucial to scrutinize all relationships for power differentials. There are several ways that this imbalance can be addressed. U.S. social work programs could pool resources to invite and finance visiting scholars from abroad. The visiting scholars could give guest lectures, provide workshops, or consult with schools and faculty and participate in major professional conferences such as the CSWE Annual Program Meeting. Potential collaborative projects in research, teaching, and curriculum development could also be explored. Instructional technology can bring together social work professors and students from different countries for co-teaching and learning opportunities. Faculty from two or more countries can develop collaborative research and scholarship projects, followed by publication in their respective countries and internationally.

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B R I N G I N G L E A R N I N G H O M E : T H E I N T E R NAT I O NA L– D O M E S T I C I N T E R FAC E

Social work faculty look for international educational opportunities to help them understand relationships of complex local environments with broad global human rights and social justice issues, such as migration, immigration, vulnerable children, and gender violence, which are issues whose boundary between global and local is becoming indistinct. International social work is now practiced at home. Communities throughout the United States are diverse, home to recent immigrants, and facing local manifestations of global issues. Reframing global education and the global–local relationship, including complex local environments and differences within broad global themes, is part of professional dialogue and social work scholarship and teaching. This academic dialogue supports faculty interest in experiencing non-U.S. vulnerable population perspectives to help frame teaching and research. In addition, faculty members’ own experiences encourage them to create subsequent similar opportunities for students. IFDT participants use the knowledge gained and contacts made to develop teaching and research agendas at home, to begin student and faculty exchange programs, and to disseminate their learning to students and faculty colleagues through a variety of media including publications, conference presentations, and curricular development.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IN T ERN ATION A L SOCIA L WORK PR ACTICE Overall, the CSWE’s CGLP-sponsored IFDTs to Cuba and Costa Rica have been successful, which in turn encourages CSWE members to organize and participate in future trips. The Cuba and Costa Rica trips are also guides for future trip leaders and participants. The CGLP guidelines, including the IFDT program purposes and planned outcomes, are important for planning future trips that expand “faculty knowledge and capacity regarding global and international issues” (CSWE 2015, p. 1). We recommend for these guidelines to be 89

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a foundation for future faculty trips and that subsequent feedback be used to further clarify and enhance their value to the IFDT program. The guidelines and recommendations are divided into sections for faculty leaders, faculty participants, and outcome measures. Faculty leaders’ roles and responsibilities for organizing logistics and safety and security procedures fall into four broad areas: receiving CGLP approval, managing pretravel logistics, identifying and confirming in-country program details, and planning group activities, schedules, in-country experiences, and posttrip follow-up. As previous IFDTs illustrate, future leaders should work closely with in-country partners. These partners help shape appropriate logistics and content; identify potential issues to be managed; make appropriate academic, nongovernmental and governmental appointments; and provide a platform for future follow-up and sustainability, as outcomes and goals guide the conversations. In turn, these conversations help faculty participants ensure that their own individual goals match those of the group and of what is possible. The leader also addresses logistical issues in pretravel communication to help faculty participants prepare for and manage themselves during travel. For example, in the Cuba and Costa Rica trips, participants were given information on how to access credit cards, cash, Wi-Fi, and use of cell phones. The information for participants provided ahead of time about hotels, travel, meetings, excursions, tipping, and so on ensures that participants can anticipate their personal dress, food, travel, and health accommodations. In addition, leaders might carefully select background reading focused on the outcomes and tailored to specific events to prepare faculty for active participation with a common foundation of knowledge. This gives them more comfort in knowing what they will be observing and discussing, and provides a head start into their own learning about the new context and culture they will be entering. Participant safety and security is an important concern for the leader, and experience from past IFDTs has informed the guidelines for future trip leaders. In-country partner organizations can point out specific safety concerns that will likely include information 90

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about accommodations and travel safety and about the nearest hospitals, clinics, and the location of the U.S. Embassy. The guidelines suggest including participant emergency forms in communication packets and form samples in the guidelines. The leader’s responsibility also includes registering with the American embassy before the group arrives, an important precaution in case of an emergency. In past IFDTs the leader made sure all participants had international travel insurance that included access to emergency evacuation flights purchased from a predetermined external vendor and paid for by the participants. We recommend further research by the CSWE into sustainable vendor selection to minimize case-by-case situations. We also suggest the institutionalization of a formal waiver for participants that outlines the limits of CSWE responsibility. The guidelines also outline faculty participant responsibilities. Their own success is tied to identifying their individual expectations, goals, and desired outcomes and then reviewing them against the overall group goals and schedules. Success is also tied to adequate preparation, reading, and thinking through what they need to have with them during the trip. The leader and participants must work together as a team to create a successful experience for everyone. Participants need to support the role and responsibilities of the IFDT leader and be responsible for and respectful to all members of the travel team. As the Cuba and Costa Rica trips illustrate, individual and group trip goals are refined and clarified through regular debriefing sessions while in-country. These discussions add to each person’s ability to identify and consolidate the daily barrage of experiences, surprises, and opportunities. They also enable faculty members to learn more about each other’s perspectives and how their diverse views augment individual trip goals and accomplishments. Trip success is determined by individual group members and their ability to sustain flexibility, humor, patience, and their tolerance for ambiguity. No matter how well planned, trips do not go as scheduled, particularly in countries with fewer resources. Challenges to expectations occurred in Cuba and in Costa Rica. Hotels are not as imagined, buses don’t show up on time, appointments are cancelled, heavy 91

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rains wash out roads, counterparts misunderstand, faculty members are asked to make presentations without any notice, participants get sick and have to drop out, or a security situation deteriorates. As group members understand and support each other, as modeled by the group leader, goals are met and future opportunities are created. Currently, IFDT individual and group success is measured through leader comments and narrative evaluations of participants when returning home. The trip leader prepares a report for the CGLP that includes the comments from the participants. These narrative evaluations are valuable but not useful for long-term outcome assessment. These narrative data could be used to develop a quantitative assessment to collect data more uniformly on areas such as enhanced classroom teaching, changes in the U.S. social work curriculum, and collaborative research and scholarship activities. A more rigorous evaluation strategy would enable leaders and outside evaluators to reconnect with group members to see how their own goals have been met since returning and reporting any continuing linkages, research, or activities based on the trip. As part of a broader strategic plan, an additional evaluation tool is recommended that would assess the experiences and outcomes of faculty and host country participants and facilitators. Institutionalized within the CSWE structure, such a tool could be administered at the end of the trip and after a period of time to assess longer term impact and sustainability. At this point, the IFDT program is dependent on informal faculty comments and receives no comments from host countries for its program planning and review.

CONCLUSION This chapter discusses the IFDT model for social work educators interested in expanding knowledge about global social work education and practice with examples drawn from trips to Cuba and Costa Rica. Social work faculty members look for international educational opportunities to help them understand relationships of complex local environments with broad global human rights and social justice issues. Relevant guiding principles include attending to culture, 92

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exploring the engagement process, and bringing learning home, with specific examples of how the IFDT model contributes to each of these guiding principles. Drawing on the CGLP guidelines for such faculty trips, the chapter also makes recommendations for future trips including identifying specific responsibilities and tasks for trip leaders and faculty participants and developing a measurable evaluation tool.

REFERENCES Boyle, D., Nackerud, L., & Kilpatrick, A. (1999). The road less traveled: Cross-cultural, international experiential learning. International Social Work, 42, 201–214. doi:10.1177/002087289904200208 Council on Social Work Education. (2015). Guidelines for faculty development trips and safety and security reminders. Retrieved from http://www.cswe. org/Centers-Initiatives/Centers/International-KAKI/News/Guidelinesfor-Faculty-Development-Trips-and-Safet.aspx Fairchild, S., Pillai, V., & Noble, C. (2006). The impact of a social work study abroad program in Australia on multicultural learning. International Social Work, 49, 390–401. doi:10.1177/0020872806063413 Gammonley, D., Smith Rotabi, K., & Gamble, D. (2007). Enhancing global understanding with study abroad: Ethically grounded approaches to international learning. Journal of Teaching in Social Work, 27(3/4), 115–135. doi:10.1300/J067v27n03_08 Gilen, B., & Young, T. (2009). Educational benefits of international experiential learning in an MSW program. International Social Work, 52, 36–47. Greenfield, E., Davis, R., & Fedor, J. (2012). The effect of international social work education: Study abroad versus on-campus courses. Journal of Social Work Education, 48, 739–761. doi:10.5175/JSWE.2012.201100147 Jaoko, J. (2010). Study abroad: Enhanced learning experiences in cultural diversity. College Quarterly, 13(4), 3–11. Retrieved from http://collegequarterly.ca/2010-vol13-num04-fall/jaoko.html Lindsey, E. (2005). Study abroad and values development in social work. Journal of Social Work Education, 41, 229–249. doi:10.5175/JSWE.2005.200303110 93

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Mapp, S. (2012). Effect of short-term study abroad programs on students’ cultural adaptability. Journal of Social Work Education, 48, 727–737. doi:10.5175/JSWE.2012.201100103 O’Dell, K. (2008). Brief note: An international faculty development experience. International Social Work, 51, 247–252. doi:10.1177/0020872807085862 Poole, D., & Davis, T. (2006). Concept mapping to measure outcomes in study abroad programs. Social Work Education, 25, 61–77. Ritchie, D. J., & Guzman Stein, L. (2014). Educating U.S. university students to promote human rights: A study abroad field-based intensive seminar in Costa Rica. In K. R. Libal, S. M. Berthold, R. L. Thomas, & L. M. Healy (Eds.). Advancing human rights in social work education (pp. 331–352). Alexandria, VA: CSWE Press. Strug, D. (2015). A faculty development program in Cuba for American social work academics. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 25, 3–13. doi:10.1080/10911359.2014.953420 University of Costa Rica. (2015). Escuela de trabajo social [School of social work]. Retrieved from http://www.ts.ucr.ac.cr/ Williams, T. (2005). Exploring the impact of study abroad on students’ intercultural communication skills: Adaptability and sensitivity. Journal of Studies in International Education, 9, 356–371. doi: 10.1177/1028315305277681

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CHAPTER 5

FACULT Y-LED SHORT-T ERM S T UDY A BROA D PROGR A M IN BEIJING, CHIN A CALEB KIM

This chapter describes the program development process, benefits, and challenges of a faculty-led short-term study abroad program at Loyola University Chicago’s overseas campus in Beijing, China. A study abroad program in an overseas campus owned by the home university is beneficial because it increases not only student opportunities for study abroad but also the sustainability of programs through collaboration between the home university and its overseas campus. Incorporating service-learning activities is beneficial for social work students because they experience direct engagement with foreign clients, which in turn enriches cultural competence and humility. The study abroad program in China encounters challenges because of China’s sociopolitical-cultural environment. This chapter describes these issues and challenges, reflects on three principles for collaborative international practice, and offers recommendations for social work educators seeking to develop faculty-led short-term study abroad programs. International education has become important, and many universities are offering a variety of study abroad programs by collaborating 95

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with partner universities abroad or by establishing overseas campuses. Loyola University Chicago has more than a half-century history of offering study abroad programs through three overseas campuses: John Felice Rome Center in Italy, the Beijing Center in China, and the Vietnam Center in Ho Chi Minh City. Loyola School of Social Work began its study abroad programs two decades ago and has developed diverse international programs such as Internet-based synchronous classes with Lithuania, faculty-led short-term study abroad in overseas campuses, faculty and student exchanges, and international field practicum in foreign countries. As a faculty member, I designed and led a study abroad program to Loyola’s Beijing campus for 2 weeks during the summers of 2013 and 2014. The purpose was to increase students’ global perspectives and cultural competence by exploring the Chinese culture, engaging with service-learning activities, and participating at an international seminar with social work students and faculty at Peking University. This chapter describes my experiences, including program development from planning to implementation, collaboration with the overseas campus, and evaluation and outcomes based on student reflections. In addition, the chapter includes reflection on three promising principles and recommendations for collaborative international social work practice in study abroad programs.

SCOPE OF IN T ERN ATION A L SOCIA L WORK EDUCATION International education has emerged as a significant educational component because of globalization, technological development, and internationally connected social and economic problems. The number of American college students studying abroad has increased from 130,000 students to about 300,000 students during the past 2 decades (“Open Doors,” 2014). Some universities have established overseas campuses to increase the accessibility of study abroad programs and to recruit foreign students. American universities are the largest developers of overseas campuses with 52 universities operating 82 overseas campuses in 37 countries. Following the United Arab 96

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Emirates, China is the second largest host country, with 29 overseas campuses, including 15 American campuses (Cross-Border Education Research Team, 2016). As social and economic problems are more and more globally connected, competence on international social work practice is needed. The Council on Social Work Education (CSWE) requires a global perspective for guiding social work practice, including a global interconnection in human rights, recognition of global influences in social policy, and the engagement of practice in a global context as essential standards of social work education and competences (CSWE, 2015). However, despite this increased attention to international education and the requirement of the CSWE Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards, only limited numbers of social work schools offer study abroad programs, international field practicum, or collaboration with universities abroad. According to Panos, Pettys, Cox, and Jones-Hart (2004) 21%, or 94 programs, of all CSWE-accredited BSW and MSW programs (n=446) offer at least one credit-bearing international field practicum in one or more of 55 different countries, but many are ad hoc programs rather than ongoing placements. Although a total of 665 students were placed for field education in foreign countries during 5 years, most schools placed only one student. Another study reports that only 23% of responding social work schools (n=85) collaborated with foreign countries in terms of faculty visits, student exchanges, research projects, and exchange of computers, books, and other materials (Cornelius & Greif, 2005). The limited number of social work schools offering international programs illustrates that many social work program administrators have not built the capacity or resources for international social work, even though they recognize the need. To build the capacity, social work educators need to assess their school’s resources and then incrementally adopt one or more programs from international engagement models, described in the next section, in accordance with their school’s readiness and unique environment (Alon & Van Fleet, 2008).

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F I V E M O D E L S O F I N T E R NAT I O NA L E D U C AT I O N PRO G R A M S

According to Coyne, McLaughlin, and Cantoni (2007), there are five models of international programs universities can adopt. They begin with the recruitment of international students and move incrementally to reciprocal student exchange, faculty exchange for research collaboration and teaching, study abroad programs in a partner university or an overseas campus, and joint degree programs in conjunction with a partner university abroad. Each model requires an increased level of systematic collaboration within a home university and between a home and partner university abroad. The benefits and challenges of each international program are described next. Recruiting international students is a traditional model. Recruiting international social work students brings diversity and cross-cultural insights into classrooms. However, attracting international students is becoming more difficult because of expensive tuition and growing competition among American universities. The second model, a reciprocal student exchange program, exchanges students between two universities. This model fosters long-term collaboration between the two universities and provides social work students with culturally immersed experiences, especially in a non-English-speaking country. However, this model may be hindered if each university’s academic calendar is in conflict, or the tuition of partner universities is imbalanced. Faculty exchange programs encourage relationships between two universities through research, teaching opportunities, international conferences and seminars, and so on. Faculty may teach an online course via electronic delivery platforms such as Blackboard or Sakai if both universities have the capacity of using such technology. Reciprocal exchange programs may lay the groundwork for creating a faculty-led study abroad program or a joint degree program. However, such programs may be difficult if two schools do not have a compatible research agenda or if non-English-speaking faculty members are not able to teach in American universities. It is critical for both universities to agree on the criteria and expectations of faculty exchanges in teaching courses and setting research agendas.

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Study abroad is the most popular model because it can be offered at either the home university’s overseas campus or at a partner university abroad for a short (1 week to several weeks) or long term (one semester to an academic year). Study abroad programs can be enriched with service-learning activities or social work field practicums. The joint degree program is the most complicated model because it requires a full legal, financial, and administrative commitment from all constituents such as senior administrators in both universities, accreditation bodies, and governments. Due diligence is needed to verify that the prospective partner university is aligned with the home university’s vision, agenda, and standard of quality education by evaluating potential benefits, rewards, and risks of collaboration (Alon & Van Fleet, 2008).

FAC U LT Y-L E D S H O RT-T E R M S T U DY A B ROA D

Although study abroad is viewed as the primary model for international engagement in most universities, only about 10% of American students across all majors participate (Gutierrez, Auerbach, & Bhandari, 2009; Obst, Bhandari, & Witherell, 2007). Among students who participate, 87% are undergraduates and 80% are Caucasian. Annually, African American, Hispanic, and Asian American students each represent from 4% to 7% of U.S. students who study abroad (Bhandari & Chow, 2008). Social work educators who are developing a study abroad program should consider how to accommodate the needs of graduate students and to recruit an ethnically diverse student body. The most critical barriers are the expense and conflict between academic schedules. Social work graduate students may not be able to spend a substantial period of their time abroad because long-term study abroad may delay their graduation, deepen their debt, or create difficulties in their job and family life. Hence, short-term study abroad programs can be an alternative (Craigen & Sparkman, 2014; Farrugia, Bhandari, & Chow, 2012). In addition, short-term study abroad can be beneficial because faculty members have control over the program content and can accommodate their university’s academic policy and accreditation standards. However, faculty-led short-term study abroad programs can be extemporaneous and precarious if they 99

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are designed and implemented without systematic collaboration with the home university’s multilevel units and personnel. If sustainability is the goal, faculty members who develop short-term study abroad program should build capacity at their home university while continuously collaborating with a partner university abroad. As described in the promising principles in Chapter 2, building capacity at the home university requires a comprehensive internationalization process that restructures the university’s organizational systems, integrates international education as an essential component of the academic curriculum, and collaborates with diverse units and personnel at multiple levels in a home university.

BRIEF HIS TORY OF SOCIA L WORK EDUCATION A ND T HE PROFES SION IN CHIN A The People’s Republic of China is located in eastern Asia on the western shore of the Pacific Ocean with a population of more than 1.37 billion including 56 ethnic groups, such as Han (91.59% of the total population), Mongolian, Manchu, and Uyghur. China’s history begins with the semimythological Xia dynasty of the Yellow River basin (c. 2800 BCE). Since that time China has expanded, fractured, and unified until the Republic of China overthrew the last dynasty of Qing in 1911. The Communist Party established the People’s Republic of China in 1949. Since the economic reforms and opening-up policy in 1978, China has become one of the world’s fastest-growing countries and has recently been recognized as the world’s second-largest economy by its total gross domestic product. Despite its rapid economic growth, China has about 100 million people living below the national poverty line out of 1.37 billion (World Bank, 2015). Since 1981 higher education has offered bachelors, masters, and doctorate degrees. The number of college students enrolled in a degree program has risen from 1 million in 1997 to 5 million in 2011, and the number of higher education institutions in China has more than doubled in the past decade from 1,022 to 2,263 (“A Work in Progress,” 2011; “Education in China,” 2014). In 2014, China was the fifth leading host country of American students studying abroad (“Open Doors,” 2014). 10 0

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Social work in China originated in charitable enterprises, but its educational auspices began in the sociology department of Yenching University in 1922 (Yuen-Tsang & Wang, 2002). However, social work education was eliminated in 1949 because of the belief that there would be no social problems or illness in a socialist country, and the Communist Party considered social work a bourgeois pseudoscience that could be replaced with materialism (Fang, 2013). After socioeconomic-political reforms during the 1980s, China encountered various social problems such as poverty, unemployment, and urban migration. To address these, China revived undergraduate social work education in 2006 and began to allow master’s degree programs in 2009. China has about 270 undergraduate social work programs and 72 graduate programs (Katherine A. Kendall Institute, 2016). The Chinese government established goals to educate 2 million social workers by 2015 and 3 million by 2020. In the social work profession, almost half a million civil service workers are working in local civil affairs offices, whereas millions engage in social service delivery in health, education, criminal justice, and community service. However, most people in these positions lack formal training in social work, do not identify professionally as social workers, and are not perceived as professionals compared to those in related social science disciplines (Li, Han, & Huang, 2012). Most people in civil affairs officers are trained through on-the-job programs or in 2- or 3-year specialized training colleges. Only limited numbers of social workers are educated in 4-year undergraduate or graduate social work programs (Fang, 2013). Another challenge for social work education in China is geographical. Most social work programs are located in major urban areas, and the educational curriculum and materials are geared to resolve social issues for urban populations. This makes it difficult for students in rural areas to access social work education and become professional social workers in their own communities. Because of these challenges, Chinese social work educators have expressed a strong desire to collaborate with American social work schools.

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FACULT Y-L ED SHOR T-T ERM S T UDY A BROA D PROGR A M AT LOYOL A SCHOOL OF SOCIA L WORK Loyola University Chicago offers four types of study abroad programs: overseas campus programs at three campuses in Italy, China, and Vietnam; global partner programs with partner universities and organizations; semester or year-long student exchange programs; and faculty-led short-term study abroad programs. In terms of faculty-led short-term study abroad programs, Loyola’s Office for International Programs calls for a proposal and helps the selected faculty develop a unique study abroad program. Annually, about a dozen faculty-led short-term study abroad programs are offered to Loyola students during the winter break, spring break, and summer session.

I N I T I AT I O N PH A S E

The Loyola School of Social Work has developed its own study abroad programs because most programs described here are geared to undergraduates and are not fully integrated with social work’s required curriculum for earning credits. Collaborating with Loyola University Chicago’s overseas campuses, the Loyola School of Social Work has offered customized faculty-led short-term study abroad programs since early 2000. Each academic year, the school’s International Committee encourages faculty who are interested in leading a study abroad program to submit a proposal. The application requires information on goals and objectives, relationship with existing BSW or MSW curriculum, budgets, tentative itinerary, and program syllabus. If a program is selected, the faculty member agrees to lead the program for 2 consecutive years. The Loyola School of Social Work annually offers six faculty-led short-term study abroad programs, and about 40 BSW and MSW students participate annually. In 2012 the International Committee selected my proposal for Exploring Cultures and Social Service Programs in China, and I led this program for 2 weeks during the summers of 2013 and 2014. The goals were to learn the socioeconomic-political-cultural aspects 10 2

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of social work policy and practice, social and mental health issues along with the social service delivery system, and cultural humility by engaging in community-based service activities. This program was a 3-credit course and cross-listed with a BSW and MSW foundation course titled Ethnicity, Race and Culture: Diversity in Human Experience.

PL A N N I N G PH A S E

I planned a day-to-day program in collaboration with the staff at Loyola’s Beijing Campus. Continuing communication with the overseas staff was important in this phase because the more the staff understands the purpose and curriculum of the study abroad program, the more effectively they can provide support. I developed academic and extracurricular components in accordance with the overall goals of exploring diverse cultures and social service programs in China. I felt that the academic curriculum should be balanced between academic rigor and hands-on experience. Consequently, the curriculum included classroom lectures, site visits, discussions, a community-based service opportunity, and international seminars with Chinese social work students and faculty. I selected appropriate lecturers, social work agencies, and cultural site visits from profiles and lists provided by the staff at the Beijing campus. Planning the extracurricular activities included a consideration of types of transportation, the geographical proximity of each site visit, travel times, access to educational facilities in the overseas campus, and budgets. Although visiting many cultural sites is appealing, this strategy does not necessarily provide an optimal cultural experience in a short-term study abroad program. In choosing social work agencies for service learning, I considered well-established, trusted, and community-based agencies that could help students understand Chinese indigenous social work practices. Planning was finalized in collaboration with the school’s academic advisers because they should be aware of how the study abroad program would fulfill graduation requirements.

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During the planning phase, it was important to develop trustworthy interpersonal relationships and to understand the cultural values of the partnering country. For example, in collaborating with Chinese personnel, social work educators need to understand the traditional Chinese fashion of guanxi, which literally means the interconnections between people. However, the concept of guanxi goes beyond the literal meaning because it encompasses the ideas of reciprocity and intimate mutual collaboration, basic principles of human relationship in the Chinese culture (Alon & Van Fleet, 2008). If a Chinese person perceives a lack of guanxi in collaborating with a counterpart, he or she might consider terminating the relationship, including ongoing business deals. One of the most significant barriers to student participation in study abroad is its cost. The budget for this program included room and board, entrance fees, and local transportation, tuition, traveler’s health insurance, visa fee, round-trip airfare, and personal expenses. The school charged a program fee of $1,800, and 10 students were needed to register to ensure viability. The total cost was more than $6,000 per student. Loyola offered limited financial aid or scholarships for studying abroad, so students were encouraged to raise their own funds through financial resources such as federally funded Benjamin Gilman International Scholarships, the David L. Boren Scholarships, and Loyola University Chicago’s financial aid. I promoted the program and recruited students through new student orientation, information sessions, the school’s website, academic advising, student organizations, classroom visits, and printed flyers.

I M PL E M E N TAT I O N PH A S E

After students were selected through an application and interview process, the implementation phase began with a series of preparatory classes. In conjunction with the Loyola Office for International Programs, participating students learned about the program outline and itinerary, academic expectations, the culture of the host country, travel safety and emergency responses, and ethical behavior. This was 10 4

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an important strategy because it provided students with an opportunity to know each other and to share each other’s expectations and motivations for participating. On arrival at the Beijing airport, a Loyola staff member from the Beijing campus and volunteer Chinese college students met the Loyola students. The volunteer students served as interpreters and guides during the entire program. Linking local college students with study abroad students is a valuable strategy because it facilitates interaction between students and promotes cross-cultural learning experiences for both parties. During the morning sessions, Chinese professors and guest speakers gave eight lectures on topics such as history, cultural values, social issues, and the social work delivery system. Learning about Chinese society helps students understand the rationale behind Chinse social welfare policies and social work practice. During the afternoon sessions and on the weekends, students visited five cultural and historic sites and social work agencies in Beijing. While visiting an orphanage and community service center for migrants, students engaged in service activities for a whole day in each agency. In an orphanage visit, for example, pairs of students were assigned to each residential building where some taught an English class or tutored orphans while others took care of severely disabled infants or made educational materials for young children. To enhance their learning process, I asked students to keep individual journals and to share excerpts with others during three 90-minute group discussions. During the group discussions, I also assisted students who encountered culture shock or had emotional reactions because of site visits, poor sanitation in local areas, and homesickness.

O U TC O M E S

Evaluating whether the study abroad program has achieved its planned purposes requires assessing the participating student’s learning outcomes and the overall program, including logistics and campus facilities. Student’s learning outcomes are evaluated by how actively they participated in each curriculum component and how effectively they integrated their learning into their reflection papers. Overall 10 5

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satisfaction with the program was measured by a questionnaire created by a Loyola overseas campus. Most students highly valued the study abroad program, commenting that it was an “eye opening,” “once in a lifetime,” “life-altering,” and “transformative” experience for personal and professional growth. The study abroad experience strengthened their commitment to human rights and social justice, social work identity, and globalized social issues. For example, most students reflected that visiting an orphanage for disabled children increased their commitment to abandoned children’s human rights and gender equality because they directly observed how female discrimination and the cultural stigma attached to disability affected orphans. This experience led some students to express professional interest in international adoption, which they had not previously considered as their social work career. After visiting a mental health clinic and learning that substance abusers were treated as criminals and even sent to labor camps for extended periods of 1 to 3 years, one student said “China is a destination of my social work career because I want to serve them in a more professional and just way.” Exposure to a different culture not only gave students global perspectives but also insights into their own cultural awareness and humility. One student reflected, “My experiences of a different culture, though it was limited, guided me how to lay a road to search for cultural diversity and global interconnection.”

CRITICA L REFL ECTION A ND DISCUS SION OF T HE PROMISING PRINCIPL ES AT T E N DI N G TO C U LT U R E : G L O BA L I Z AT I O N A N D I N DI G E N O U S S O C I A L WO R K

An excursion to or observation of social service agencies may not be sufficient for students to recognize the indigenous social work practices in China. However, by engaging with vulnerable Chinese clients, students were able to experience local and globally connected social issues and compare each country’s social work policies and practices. For example, 10 6

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when visiting an orphanage, Loyola students actively engaged with 70 orphans who were abandoned because of their disability, female gender, parent’s unmarried status, or poverty. Although understanding that helping at-risk children is one of the significant social work practices, students recognized that child welfare services to disabled orphans differed according to each country’s sociocultural-political context. Unlike the child welfare services in the United States, students realized that a massive orphanage remains an important child welfare service in China. Additionally, students learned that domestic adoption in China is very rare because of the widespread reluctance to adopt a non-blood-related child, female child, or a disabled child in the context of traditional values that emphasize a family’s blood inheritance with male children and the stigma attached to disability. Although the one-child policy was discontinued in December 31, 2015, previously the one-child policy further prohibited domestic adoption. As a result, Chinese child welfare workers seem to prefer international adoption over domestic adoption as being in the best interests of female or disabled orphans. With the understanding of Chinese traditional values and the current one-child policy embedded in child welfare services, students not only understood why the majority of Chinese adoptees are females in American families but also gained a deepened empathy toward adopted Chinese children because they were doubly victimized by their biological parents and their birth country. Students realized there were similarities and differences in social work practices between the United States and China when they served urban migrant laborers and their children at a community service center. Because of their lack of Beijing hukou (residence registration), urban migrant laborers are a highly vulnerable population because they are not eligible for any type of social, medical, and educational services. The students recognized that the living conditions of most migrants and their psychosocial and legal problems were similar to those faced by undocumented immigrants face in the United States. Most migrant laborers were afraid of deportation to their rural hometowns, were worried about their children’s school registration, and were frustrated by restricted access to health care. Despite migrants’ multifaceted problems, civil affairs officers in local governments 107

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disregarded these laborers’ needs because they were considered to be illegal residents. The community center and a few international nongovernmental organizations were the only service providers for these migrant laborers. Staff in the community service center were grassroots community organizers and volunteers from developed Western countries. Although these people were not professionally trained social workers according to American criteria, the students were impressed with their passion and commitment. This experience strengthened the students’ commitment to social work values and the profession’s mission to serve the oppressed and the disadvantaged. The students acknowledged that the United States and China shared community-based services during the inception of the social work profession. Similar to a settlement house such as Hull House in Chicago during the early 1900s, the community service center they visited offered food, shelter, day care, after-school, and sanitation services when new migrant laborers arrived in a city. However, no behavioral or mental health services were provided to migrant families and children; mental health care seemed to get the least amount of interest when compared to the provision of basic material goods. Students recognized that advocacy might be a useful social work practice for oppressed migrants and their children, but this practice has not yet developed in China because of the government’s social control and China’s limited human rights on freedom of speech. After service-learning activities, most students said that serving local clients in collaboration with a Chinese social worker was the most beneficial learning experience because it helped them observe indigenous social work practices and strengthen their interest in global social work profession. Accordingly, study abroad programs should offer students an opportunity to engage actively in service learning by collaborating with indigenous social workers to strengthen cross-cultural understanding.

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U N D E R S TA N DI N G G OV E R N M E N T, P O L I T I C S , A N D L O C A L I N I T I AT I V E S : F R A M I N G T H E PRO G R A M I N C O N T E X T

When designing and leading a study abroad program, social work educators should understand the host country’s legal and political systems. Some countries, such as communist countries, are more bureaucratic in the decision-making process and censor all the activities of a study abroad program. For example, when I planned to visit a mental health clinic in Beijing, I experienced its bureaucratic administrative system and the political power of the local government officer that went beyond the authority of a mental clinic director. After my request to visit the mental health clinic, the Loyola staff at the Beijing campus contacted the director and arranged the site visit. Initially, the director showed interest in the site visit and approved the Loyola staff’s request. However, the director could not confirm his approval because a local government officer did not permit foreigners to visit the clinic. According to the Loyola staff, the local government officer might see it as an embarrassment to expose his community’s social problems to foreign visitors. In addition, the local officer did not seem to understand why social work students wanted to visit the clinic because, to his knowledge, social workers were not considered to be mental health professionals in China. The Loyola staff recommended that I send an official request letter directly to the local government officer and explain that the purposes of the visit was for educational learning in the hope of future collaboration with the mental health clinic. Through many communications among the mental health director, the local officer, staff at the Beijing campus, and myself, the local officer finally allowed us to visit. However, he restricted our tour of the clinic and limited our visit to meeting the clinic’s administrative personnel. In planning a study abroad program in China, another legal and political situation that social work educators should consider is the government’s censorship and limited freedom of speech. The Chinese government censors and monitors Internet communication and blocks many Americanbased websites and social networking services, such as Google, Facebook, and Twitter. Some students complained about the limited Internet access and felt uncomfortable about their insecure privacy.

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E X PL O R I N G T H E E N G AG E M E N T A N D PA RT N E R S H I P PRO C E S S : OW N I N G T H E WO R K

Considering the five models of international programs described earlier in this chapter, short-term study abroad programs may be the easiest to institutionalize in a school’s educational curriculum. It tends to be sustainable if budgets and faculty who can lead the program are available. However, rather than being owned by a larger unit such as a department or school, most study abroad programs are under the auspices of individual faculty members who initiate a program. If study abroad programs are under the jurisdiction of individual faculty members, and managed in their own arena, sustainability of the program is at risk when original faculty retire, leave the school, or are no longer interested in the program (Amey, 2010). If international education is an important component of a school’s educational curricula, social work educators should collaborate and institutionalize the study abroad program into the school’s system rather than relegating it to the purview of individual faculty. In terms of ownership, Loyola’s study abroad program is owned by all social work faculty because the school’s International Committee accounts for the program via its selection, monitoring, and evaluation process. Loyola School of Social Work and its Beijing overseas campus are regularly communicating and sharing accountability for sustaining the study abroad program and achieving the desired outcomes. Because of this collective accountability, shared efforts, and ownership of its process and outcomes, the Beijing overseas campus reduced the program fees when faculty leaders were not able to recruit enough students to break even financially. Stopgap and emergency measures such as this are important in helping a program continue. However, to build a sustainable and comprehensive international program, over the long run a school needs to develop strategic planning. Johnson (2004) provides a model for assessment and a strategic planning tool for schools of social work seeking to sustain current international efforts and move forward incrementally in developing an across-the-board approach to internationalizing the curriculum. The developmental stages of internationalizing the curriculum is additive and a continuous process because each stage of internationalization is built on the achievement of the previous stage. The more a school moves forward to a higher stage of internationalization, the more ownership that the 110

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school and not an individual faculty member has and the more capable it is to sustain the international program.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR S T UDY A BROA D PROGR A MS IN SOCIA L WORK Faculty-led short-term study abroad programs bring great benefits to students in exploring academic knowledge and professional identity, building cultural humility, strengthening their social work identity, and providing a global perspective on diverse social problems. However, the majority of social work students are not able to participate in study abroad programs because of the cost, academic schedule conflicts, and family responsibilities. Social work educators should consider expanding study abroad programs by diversifying the locations and duration of the programs, such as short-term programs during winter or spring break, combining study abroad with a field practice course, and providing financial assistance or scholarships. If an individual social work program does not have enough resources or the capacity to lead study abroad programs, several social work schools could organize a consortium for collaborating in study abroad. At the same time, social work educators should embrace an international social work curriculum in their school’s strategies and mission through an internationalizing process. Internationalizing the university or the school and its curriculum is a systematic process requiring a paradigm shift and transformation of the institution’s mission, goals, and policy as well as collaborations with diverse academic programs and student service teams in the university. Thus, it is important for social work educators to recognize how an institution’s senior administrators perceive international education, which academic departments have offered study abroad programs, and how to collaborate with student service teams as well as across academic programs and among institutional departments. Developing a successful study abroad program means mounting a high-quality and trustworthy relationship with partner universities from the early initiation stage. High-quality relationships are reinforced when 111

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both universities agree on the program’s goals, objectives, costs, expectations, and relationship boundaries. A lack of such an agreement significantly increases the risk of relationship deterioration or termination. When communicating with Chinese personnel in particular, it is important to develop culturally competent communication because most Asian cultures value interpersonal relationships more than straightforward business deals. Finally, leading a study abroad program is not just for faculty members who have extensive personal or professional connections abroad and are familiar with the culture of a host country. Even though social work educators may not be familiar with all aspects of a host country, they can gain such knowledge by designing, collaborating, and leading the program. As a Chinese proverb states: Seeing once is better than hearing a hundred times. All social work educators should seriously consider developing and implementing a study abroad program in their social work programs. A significant tenet for leading study abroad programs is not necessarily one’s familiarity with the host country but the faculty members’ own cultural humility and academic desire to teach international social work to students.

CONCLUSION This chapter describes the benefits and challenges of a faculty-led shortterm study abroad program at Loyola’s Beijing campus. The overall benefits of study abroad are personal and professional growth in cultural competence and awareness of global social issues, development of personal and interpersonal communication skills, and enhanced career identity as a globally focused social worker. Those who lead and participate in such programs benefit by developing critical thinking, including the ability to apply academic knowledge to an understanding of real-world situations. Components of community-based service-learning activities, even though they are for a short period, not only deepen students’ global perspectives of foreign affairs and socioeconomic development issues but also enlarge their global responsibility to the poor and the oppressed.

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REFERENCES A work in progress. (2011, March 17). The Economist. Retrieved from http://www.economist.com/node/18359954 Alon, I., & Van Fleet, J. (2008, May/June). The China challenge. BizED, 36–41. Amey, M. (2010). Administrative perspectives on international partnerships. New Directions for Higher Education, 150, 57–67. Bhandari, R., & Chow, P. (2008). Open doors 2008: Report on international educational exchange. New York, NY: Institute of International Education. Cornelius, L. J., & Greif, G. L. (2005). Schools of social work and the nature of their foreign collaborations. International Social Work, 48, 823–833. Council on Social Work Education. (2015). Educational policy and accreditation standards. Alexandria, VA: Council on Social Work Education. Coyne, J. S., McLaughlin, E., & Cantoni, L. (2007). Building an international health management graduate curriculum: Analyzing faculty survey results. Journal of Health Administration Education, 24, 151–174. Craigen, L., & Sparkman, N. (2014). The value and importance of international service learning programs: A model for human service education. Journal of Human Services, 34, 126–130. Cross-Border Education Research Team. (2016). Branch campus listing. Retrieved from http://www.globalhighered.org/?page_id=34 Education in China. (2014). Retrieved from http://english.gov.cn/archive/ china_abc/2014/09/02/content_281474985266262.htm Fang, Y. (2013). China’s social work education in the face of change. Chinese Education and Society, 46(6), 28–34. Farrugia, C., Bhandari, R., & Chow, P. (2012). Open doors 2012: Report on international educational exchange. New York, NY: Institute of International Education.

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Gutierrez, R., Auerbach, J., & Bhandari, R. (2009). Meeting America’s global education challenge: Expanding study abroad capacity at U.S. colleges and universities. New York, NY: Institute of International Education. Retrieved from: http://www.iie.org/~/media/Files/Corporate/Membership/ StudyAbroad_WhitePaper6.pdf?la=en Johnson, A. K. (2004). Increasing internationalization in social work programs: Healy’s continuum as a strategic planning guide. International Social Work, 47, 7–23. Katherine A. Kendall Institute for International Social Work Education. (2016). China collaborative: 2012 CSWE China collaborative application. Retrieved from: http://www.cswe.org/Centers-Initiatives/Centers/ International-KAKI/News/China-Collaborative-(1).aspx Li, Y., Han, W., & Huang, C. (2012). Development of social work education in China: Background, current status and prospects. Journal of Social Work Education, 48, 635–653. Obst, D., Bhandari, R., & Witherell, S. (2007). Meeting America’s global education challenge: Current trends in U.S. study abroad & the impact of strategic diversity initiatives. New York, NY: Institute of International Education. Retrieved from http://www.iie.org/~/media/Files/Corporate/ Membership/StudyAbroad_WhitePaper1.pdf?la=en Open doors. (2014). International students in the United States and study abroad by American students are at all-time high. Retrieved from Institute of International Education website: http://www.iie.org/Who-We-Are/News-and-Events/ Press-Center/Press-Releases/2014/2014-11-17-Open-Doors-Data. Panos, P., Pettys, G., Cox, S., & Jones-Hart, E. (2004). Full survey of international field practicum placements of accredited schools of social work. Journal of Social Work Education, 40, 467–478. World Bank. (2015). Overview. Retrieved from http://www.worldbank.org/ en/country/china/overview Yuen-Tsang, W. K. A., & Wang, S. B. (2002). Tensions confronting the development of social work education in China: Challenges and opportunities. International Social Work, 45, 375–388.

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CHAPTER 6

HOS TING SOCIA L WORK VISITORS IN T HE UNIT ED S TAT ES T HROUGH IN T ERN ATION A L E XCH A NGE A L I C E K . B U T T E R F I E L D , K ATA R Z Y N A O L C O Ń , a n d JA M E S SCHER R ER

U.S. universities often host international visitors who come to the United States as either part of an official international partnership or through their own travel and study programs. However, very little has been written about international exchanges that host groups of visitors from abroad in the United States. This chapter seeks to address this gap by examining partnerships that have brought social worker students, practitioners, and faculty from several countries to the United States for exchange visits. It details two long-term partnerships that include a single-country travel and study project of doctoral students from Ethiopia, and a multiple-country project of practitioner and faculty exchanges over 20 years through the International Social Work Exchange Partnership. Among several lessons learned are reciprocal learning and mutuality, relationship building, and awareness of group dynamics. Critical reflection includes the principles of focusing on university contexts and bringing learning home. Recommendations for international collaboration by social work educators are offered. 115

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Many organizations specialize in delegate tours and exchange visits for midcareer professionals. The American Library Association (2015) lists 32 organizations and foundations that develop or support international exchanges. The Fulbright Scholar Program, which awards fellowships for faculty and students as resident scholars and junior researchers in the United States, is administered by the Council for International Exchange of Scholars, which also offers other international exchange and internship programs (http://www.cies.org). Some, such as the Asia Foundation, are country or region specific (http://asiafoundation.org/). The nonprofit FHI 360’s International Visitor Leadership Program works with U.S. embassies to individually craft 2- to 3-week exchange programs to the United States for 500 current or emerging leaders from interdisciplinary fields (http://www. fhi360.org/projects/international-visitor-leadership-program-ivlp). Higher Education for Development, funded by the U.S. Agency for International Development, has provided funds for university-to-university partnerships, many of which feature international exchanges (http://archive.hedprogram.org). In terms of social work practice, international exchange is the centerpiece of two long-standing organizations, the Council of International Programs USA (http://www. cipusa.org/; Holmström, 2015), and its worldwide alumni organization, the Council of International Fellowship (http://www.cifinternational.com/; Merola, 2015). In addition to these sponsored programs, hosting international guests, whether singly or in groups, is part and parcel of social work education in U.S. colleges and universities. International visitors frequently come to the United States to learn about social work, sometimes as part of an international partnership and at other times through an independent travel and study program. Universities abroad send representatives to lay the groundwork for future collaboration by making connections, sharing common interests, and developing relationships that result in a memorandum of understanding. According to Cornelius and Greif (2005), of the 23% of social work programs in the United States that had collaborative relationships with at least one program outside the country, 65% were visited by foreign faculty and 54% were visited by students. Although common in practice, the knowledge base is limited 116

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in documenting the international exchange experiences of social work educators and practitioners participating in exchange visits in the United States. For example, in describing a social work exchange of U.S. professors to Ghana, Bettmann and Prospero (2014) only mention without any additional comment that nine Ghanaian professors visited the United States to conduct workshops on domestic violence, spirituality and social work, and women’s health. Although we carried out an extensive literature search for journals and book chapters published in the United States and abroad, we found only one research-based book published in Germany and a handful of articles on short-term U.S. international exchanges that host groups of visitors from abroad. Because there is some mention of exchange visits in international social work collaboration, we use that literature to frame our work. Next, we report on our experience through two long-term partnerships that include a month-long faculty and doctoral student travel and study project from Ethiopia through the Social Work Education in Ethiopia Partnership and 20 years of practitioner and faculty exchange through the International Social Work Exchange Partnership (ISWEP).

IN T ERN ATION A L SOCIA L WORK E XCH A NGE A ND COL L A BOR ATION International collaboration in social work has been discussed extensively (e.g. Cornelius & Greif, 2005; Razack, 2002). The internationalization of social work practice, research, and education brings with it opportunities for social workers to build multicultural partnerships and share innovative models and practice. Shared learning through international collaboration can reveal that “social issues have roots in common ideology and in the global economic structuring of our societies” (Caragata & Sanchez, 2002, p. 223). Other reasons for international exchange include experiential learning in continuing education (Traub-Werner, 2000), motivation for cultural learning (Cronin, 2015; Mirsky & Barasch, 1998) and the development of critical consciousness (Cordero & Rodriguez, 2009; Sewpaul, 2003). 117

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Reciprocity can be strengthened by an overarching motivation for cultural learning, preparatory work separately with each group, using cultural mediators who are sensitive and can respond to both cultures, and finding a setting that is conducive to effective group processes. Strong relationships between members, personal and professional, were essential in an academic exchange that included structured and unstructured social activities such as enjoying meals together, exploring local sites of interest, and enjoying outdoor pastimes (Bettmann & Prospero, 2014). Mathiesen and Lager (2007) offer a model for developing student exchanges that includes feedback loops, orientation to the host country, clear expectations and roles, and relationship building. Constant communication, whether electronic or in person, between the program coordinators and participants, and answering the “who, what, when, where and why questions” (p. 282) are important elements of feedback. These questions set the stage for preparation and orientation, establish roles for all parties involved, and strengthen personal and professional relationships. Mirsky and Barasch (1998) warn that “cultural immersion can be a threatening experience when it is not properly structured and mediated” (p. 27). International collaboration comes with barriers and challenges, including the power imbalance inherent in North–South collaborations (Razack, 2000) and the resulting challenge of an authentic two-way transfer of ideas (Mirsky & Barasch, 1998). Concerns about reciprocity point to U.S. influence and funding that often contribute to a one-way transfer of ideas and practice methods (Midgley, 1990). Rather, international social work should be based on mutual concerns and exchanges between social workers from different countries. Unilateralism can exist only if both parties accept that only one of them has expertise to share. Extraordinary situations have occurred, such as in the case of social workers successfully repatriating social group work from the United States to post– World War II Germany (Kalcher, 2015). Among them was Louis Lowy, a Jewish refugee who returned to Germany, retrained a generation of social group workers, and was known for his work in conceptualizing the democratic model of social work with groups (Gardella, 2011). Excluding such unique situations, the danger of exporting Western values and worldviews is a major concern: 118

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If western schools of social work are to effectively establish developmental relationships with their African counter-parts, such relationships must be devoid of Eurocentric judgments based solely upon the perceived correctness of an Occidental world view. Rather, such relationships must be built upon mutual respect and indigenous relevancy and be forged in the crucible of “oneness in diversity.” (Asamoah & Beverly, 1988, p. 91) The danger of social work imperialism implies the lack of understanding that Western methods may not be applicable and appropriate. Well-intentioned social workers who come from Western countries may be participating in what Razack (2002) refers to as “benevolent imperialism” (p. 253) by imposing Western models and theories on less economically developed countries. In reflecting on cross-national social work collaborations involving countries of unequal economic status, Antrobus challenges the use of the word partnership: “The term ‘partnership’ implies a relation among equals, and in a relationship between North and South that is not what you have. I’m willing to talk about North–South relations” (as cited in Kreitzer & Wilson, 2010).

SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION IN ETHIOPIA PARTNERSHIP In the 1960s Ethiopia’s undergraduate social work program at Haile Selassie I University was one of only a handful of university-based programs on the continent of Africa. The School of Social Work was a leader in social work education (Sedler, 1968) and the beginning home of the Association for Schools of Social Work in Africa (“Social Work Education in a Changing Africa,” 1966; United Nations Economic and Social Council, 1966). When the totalitarian regime of Mengistu Haile Mariam came to power in 1974, the school was closed and replaced by the Department of Applied Sociology, which offered a revolutionary development model at the renamed Addis Ababa University. Social work was viewed as counterproductive, an unnecessary bourgeois approach that would undermine the authority of the state (Kebede, 2014). The Mengistu regime, however, was not prepared for the initial famine of 1973–1974 or the historic famine of 1983–1985. Both brought 119

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worldwide attention and massive amounts of international aid for relief. Donors preferred to distribute help through nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) rather than through the government. International NGOs, mostly based in Europe and the United States, and the Ethiopian staff they hired and trained filled the gap by playing the role of social work professionals. The local NGO sector continued to grow and mature as channels for community-based development. According to Clark (2000), The sheer size and critical nature of NGO relief operations created a momentum that carried forward when some involved saw the need for a shift to long-term development priorities and a more balanced relationship between local counterparts and the international NGOs. (p. 5) Although Mengistu’s regime collapsed in 1991, formal social work education did not reemerge until 2004. After a 30-year absence, Addis Ababa University in collaboration with the University of Illinois at Chicago, opened the country’s first master’s program in social work. The MSW curriculum was guided by the Global Standards for the Education and Training of the Social Work Profession (International Association of Schools of Social Work, 2004). The generalist practice curriculum prepared students to address problems specific to Ethiopia, particularly poverty reduction, child welfare, and community practice (Butterfield, Tasse, & Linsk, 2009). A challenge was the lack of social work educators to teach in the MSW program. There were only two Ethiopian social work professors, Seyoum Gebreselassie and Andargachew Tesfaye, who received their doctorates at the University of Michigan in the 1970s and were close to retirement. As a temporary solution, our team of U.S. and Ethiopian collaborators created the Social Work Education in Ethiopia Partnership (http://www.aboutsweep.org), which engaged social work educators, mostly from the United States, to teach in the Ethiopian MSW program (Adamek, 2011). However, to make the MSW program sustainable and to ensure that social work is taught by experts in Ethiopian context and culture, a PhD program was started immediately after the first class of MSW students graduated in 2006 12 0

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(Butterfield, 2007). International professors will continue to teach in the doctoral program until there is a sufficient number of associate professors among the school’s doctorate faculty. Although not without challenges, 30 students have obtained a doctorate in social work and social development, and another 18 are completing their degrees. According to Wassie Kebede (2011), the first person to receive a social work doctorate in Ethiopia, there were numerous challenges to reestablishing social work education in Ethiopia, including the shortage of instructors and resources and the difficulty of Western professors to contextualize their teaching to Ethiopia. Students were confronted continually with the task of assessing the feasibility and relevance of U.S., European, and Australian theories and evidence-based models. Most doctoral students lacked prior practice experience in social work, with the majority having a master’s degree in another discipline. Moreover, given the recent rebirth of social work education, there were limited academic networking opportunities in Ethiopia (Kebede, 2011). Thus, in the hope of creating more exposure to social work, mentorship, and academic support for their research, the fourth cohort of doctoral students proposed the idea of a program to travel and study in the United States. Our team of collaborators recognized the additional benefit of such an exchange for both countries’ social work programs, which would expose U.S. students and faculty to the Ethiopian experience.

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The dean of the school of social work and eleven doctoral students who held lecturer positions at universities throughout Ethiopia were hosted in the United States for 1 month. Students were supported by Addis Ababa University, which provided funds for their international travel, and per diem costs were taken care of by the Swedish International Development Agency. The U.S. team, in collaboration with the dean and students, received a $4,000 grant from the International Association of Schools of Social Work (Butterfield, 121

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2014). Our team obtained in-kind donations such as room and board and funding through Dominican University as well as student rates for the Council on Social Work Education’s Annual Program Meeting in Washington, DC. To ensure that the project was based on reciprocal learning and mutuality, participants lectured at the University of Illinois at Chicago, Dominican University, and St. Augustine College. Topics included values and ethics, peace building in postconflict societies, mental health, aging, and family and child well-being in Ethiopia. The dean from Addis Ababa University gave a keynote speech at a celebration of global social work (Kebede, 2014). In Chicago, the visitors participated in panel presentations on community and youth violence, global perspectives on social justice, and community activism. Opportunities for reciprocal learning took place through site visits to 15 social work and community organizations. Members of several organizations recognized the importance of learning about the perspectives of the visitors. We collected questions from the agencies, and the Ethiopian students provided observations and written recommendations, which were sent back to the agencies. Finally, the participants kept notebooks of their thoughts, and wrote reflection papers on their return to Ethiopia. The project relied on informal and formal relationship-building activities. As project leaders, we invited our visitors to our homes for social gatherings. Thanksgiving celebrations, including a Thanksgiving parade and traditional dinner with everyone joining hands and sharing a personal expression of gratitude, were cultural highlights of the visit. Other bonding activities included an Ethiopian coffee ceremony and sharing and dancing to Ethiopian and U.S. music. On many occasions, gifts were exchanged as symbols of appreciation and hope for future collaboration. Our guests visited Chicago museums, participated in a walking tour of the city, and went to movies and music festivals as a group. Formal efforts to promote networking and relationship building included a welcome reception hosted by Dominican University, a lunch for the Ethiopian and the U.S. doctoral students at the University of Illinois at Chicago, and individual meetings 12 2

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with faculty. A video documentary, created by the News Center at the University of Illinois, was posted on YouTube along with a text version in the campus newspaper (Boynés, 2012a, 2012b). A 3-day debriefing retreat with faculty consultation on dissertation research took place at the home of one of the U.S. professors, who also served homemade meals. The retreat strengthened personal relationships by providing everyone with the opportunity to reflect on the exchange. The visit ended with the whole group standing in a circle and singing a song written by the professor, who also accompanied on guitar. The Ethiopian travel and study project was a complex undertaking that required a lot of planning. As we were busy preparing and conducting site visits and guest lectures and taking care of transportation and room and board, some issues went unnoticed. Despite our efforts to foster mutuality and build relationships, there were major conflicts among the doctoral students. Starting at the forming stage and continuing all the way through the group’s performing stage, conflict among some group members and the U.S. and Ethiopian team leaders posed a significant threat to the success of the project. From this experience, we learned that group process and structure are as equally important as group content. Because group members were in the same doctoral cohort and expressed the desire to plan and experience the exchange visit together, we assumed that the group was a coherent team. Consequently, we did not attend to group processes and develop activities to solidify the forming stage in strengthening interpersonal relationships, group goals, and norms. Because most of the group’s forming took place in Ethiopia, the U.S. team had limited insight into what took place there, and that may have contributed to later group conflict. On arrival in the United States, the visitors were immersed immediately in planned activities starting with the Council on Social Work Education conference in Washington, DC, and a busy schedule in Chicago. Preexisting tensions and misunderstandings among the Ethiopian students were unknown to the U.S. team and were consequently never addressed even as new ones arose. Thus, although the U.S. and Ethiopian team leaders had kept in constant communication by phone and e-mail for pretrip planning, a cohesive group culture had not formed. In part, conflict revolved around 12 3

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the differences in the sources of financial support offered to students (sponsored predominantly by the Ethiopian university) as opposed to the dean (sponsored the U.S. universities). Conflict also arose over some members’ plans to leave the group to visit family before returning to Ethiopia, with one student planning not to return home at all. Scherrer, Olcoń, Butterfield, & Kebede (2015) provide a full account of the group conflict and its resolution with recommendations for group development in an international travel and study program.

IS W EP The Illinois Chapter of the National Association of Social Workers established the ISWEP to develop social work exchanges between members and social service programs in Chicago’s international sister cities (Borland & Hockensmith, 2004). The purpose of these exchanges has been to collaborate to develop better methods of social work with clients and communities. To achieve the goal of improving social work practice in different environments and in each individual’s work, social workers from each country met with, lived with, and observed social workers from the host country. Thus, they saw their colleagues in action with clients, and they spent most of their time with their assigned mentors. Two weeks was the minimal time required for the visiting social workers, including time for both groups to compare their experiences and contexts and to look for similarities and differences in the application of social work practice. From these discussions, visiting and hosting social workers discovered new ways of working with clients and communities, which they then applied in their own work by adapting what they learned to their cultural and environmental contexts (ISWEP, 2015). The first exchange occurred in 1996, when 12 social workers traveled to Hamburg, Germany, for 2 weeks to study, compare, and contrast German social development and welfare practice with social work theory and practice in the United States. The following year, 12 social workers from Hamburg were invited to Chicago for 2 weeks, and a three-way collaboration between the National Association 124

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of Social Workers, Illinois Chapter, a professional organization; Loyola University, an academic organization; and Chicago Sister Cities International, a civic volunteer organization, was established. Members of the ISWEP decided to follow the German model, which presented significant challenges because the German government had paid all housing, meals, and travel expenses of the U.S. delegates once they arrived, leaving the delegates to pay only their round-trip airfare. There was no American equivalent to the German government’s payment, so ISWEP members approached Loyola University to cover housing and Chicago Sister Cities International to cover some of the transportation costs. Meals and other transportation were covered by donations provided by ISWEP members and local agencies. This cash and in-kind combination covered the housing, meals, and transportation costs of the delegates during the exchanges in the United States. In 1999 the ISWEP added Birmingham, England, another sister city, to the exchange. Other cities, such as Durban, South Africa; Mexico City; and Casablanca, were added later (see Table 6.1). The exchanges included visits to social service agencies, workshops on intercultural dialogue, relationship building and networking, and immersion in the host culture. Each exchange focused on a theme including the cultural and theoretical basis of social development, cultural diversity and violence, and the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights. Borland and Hockensmith (2004) discussed the powerful group experiences that occurred among participants while staying together and interacting for 2 weeks. Members of the ISWEP collected quantitative and qualitative data on participant reactions and assessment. The evaluations contained as many as 50 questions, depending on the number of sites the delegates visited. Table 6.2 shows the quantitative data based on a 5-point Likert scale, which should be considered in light of the program’s goal to achieve a score of 4.0 or better. Scores below 3.5 were considered a cause for concern on how the exchange was functioning. Two exchanges took place in 2015, one in Chicago with Casablanca and one in Hamburg. The low scores in this year reflected several major issues and warnings to those planning such exchange programs. 12 5

TABLE 6.1. COLLABORATIVE EXCHANGES, WITH TOPICS, 1996–2015 YEAR

V I SI TOR TO HO S T

1996

Chicago to Hamburg

1997

Hamburg to Chicago

1998

Chicago to Hamburg

1999

Hamburg and Birmingham to Chicago

2000

Hamburg and Chicago to Birmingham

2001

Chicago and Birmingham to Hamburg

2001

Durban to Chicago

2002

Hamburg and Chicago to Durban

2002

Hamburg and Birmingham to Chicago

2003

Durban and Hamburg to Chicago

2003

Chicago and Birmingham to Hamburg

2004

Chicago to Durban

2004

Hamburg and Chicago to Birmingham

2005

Hamburg, Birmingham, and Durban to Chicago

2006

Chicago to Durban

2006

Chicago, Birmingham, St. Petersburg, Prague to Hamburg

2007

Durban and Casablanca to Chicago

2007

Mexico City to Chicago

2007

Hamburg and Chicago to Birmingham

2008

Hamburg and Birmingham to Chicago

2009

Chicago and Birmingham to Hamburg

2010

Hamburg and Chicago to Birmingham

2011

Hamburg and Birmingham to Chicago

2012

Chicago and Birmingham to Hamburg

2013

Hamburg and Chicago to Birmingham

2014

Hamburg and Birmingham to Chicago

2015

Chicago and Birmingham to Hamburg

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TOPIC Culture & Theory of Social Development & Welfare in Germany and USA Social Work With Youths Prevention in Family Education, Domestic Violence, Youth Services Social Issues Impacting Youth Services Services to Youths Social Work as a Human Rights Profession Social Services for Youths and Adults Social Services for Youths and Adults Social Services for Youths and Adults Share Knowledge and Experiences in Social Work With Child/Family, Youths, Aged Services to Delinquent Youths, Training & Support of Foster Parents, School Social Work, Court Mediation Services, Community Organizing Social Service Administration and Evaluation Foster Care, Regeneration and Diversity, Mental Health and Substance Abuse, Juvenile Justice, Client Involvement, and Evaluation Diversity and Cultural Competency Medical Social Work and Youth Services Social Services to Immigrants, Cultural Diversity, Parental Support Child Welfare, Medical Social Work, Community Development, School Social Work Engaging Youths in Communities Designing Service Outcomes Social Integration of Marginalized Youths and Adults, Social Inclusion Protecting Children and Improving Children’s Social Care Effective Delivery of Health and Well-Being to Children and Adults Impact of Globalization on Local Communities and Social Services Best Practices in Child Protection, School Social Work, Challenges in Implementing the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child Managing Risk in a Person-Centered Way Building Safe Communities for Youths, Adults and Families Cities as Refugees, Trends & Challenges, Radicalization—Challenges for Social Work 12 7

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TABLE 6.2 . I NTER NATIONAL SOCIAL WOR K EXCHANGE PARTNER SHIP EVALUATION DATA 20 05–2015 2005

2007

2011

2014

2015

Balancing content

3.39

4.43

3.96

4.03

2.52

Cultural differences

4.24

4.10

4.40

4.47

2.63

Advance preparation

3.72

4.39

3.38

3.61

2.40

Host organization

3.83

4.36

4.42

4.21

3.57

Program quality

4.24

4.5

4.39

4.21

2.91

Application to practice

4.30

3.96

4.52

4.28

3.48

Note: Based on a 5-point Likert scale, with 5 being the most desirable score.

Of the six delegates from Casablanca in Chicago, two had a good knowledge of English, one had passable knowledge, and three had very little. No materials were translated into Arabic or French and one of the delegates served as a translator to the non-English speakers. It was difficult for the hosts to fully assess whether everyone understood what was being presented, and only the English speakers completed evaluations. Second, because Morocco does not have a school of social work, those engaged in social welfare were trained in areas such as banking, medicine, and university recruitment. Third, one of the delegation members who did not speak English was a government employee, and the other delegates were uneasy with him in their midst. The exchange with U.S. delegates in Hamburg had only one delegate who completed the evaluation, possibly because it was not sent out until some weeks after all delegates returned home. Borland and Hockensmith (2004) discuss important features of practitioner exchanges, including balancing content, cultural differences, 12 8

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group dynamics, in-kind funding, and a recruitment plan. From the U.S. perspective, balancing content has been a challenge with some successes and some failures. In part, this could be because since 2008 the exchanges were shortened to 1 week, and the mentoring portion of the program was abandoned, foreclosing the opportunity for each delegate to work intensively with a host country mentor during his or her stay. The shortened time frame appeared to result in a show-and-tell approach, where personal responses and cultural differences are not explored in depth. Instead, delegates are shown two, sometimes three programs in a day, and there is not time for any discussion of what they experience with each other or their hosts until about 10:00 p.m. Delegates reported that they felt overwhelmed and unable to process what they had seen, which deprives an exchange of one of its major benefits. Except for the exchanges in 2015, the delegates have been positive about learning cultural differences and how those differences affect the provision of social services. A wide majority of delegates report that their experiences have given them a new context for thinking about and applying social work practice in their home countries. The scores from answers to the evaluation questions regarding application to practice indicate that they believe they can adapt what they have learned to their own practice of social work. It appears that planning around recruitment has been diminishing in recent years. The 2015 delegates from Casablanca had very little, if any, preparation for their visit. They were here only for a week, half of them for the first time, and it was apparent that they had a great deal of difficulty in absorbing the cultural nuances of U.S. service delivery. The other years also show difficulties in preparation, except for 2007, and this pattern has continued. Over the years, delegates commonly report that they met only once and did not know they were coming until a couple of weeks prior to the exchange trip. They did not clearly understand the goals of the exchange nor what they would be experiencing.

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R E C I PRO C A L L E A R N I N G A N D R E L AT I O N S H I P B U I L DI N G

Reciprocal learning and relationship building can be determined from written evaluations and from reports to sponsoring bodies that note the changes delegates made in their practice. An important distinction is that U.S. social workers focus on individual practice, whereas social workers from all the other countries in the exchanges focus on policies and broad practices. Consequently, Chicago social workers reported on individual changes they made in their direct social work practice, whereas Hamburg, Birmingham, and Durban social workers reported procedural and policy changes. In 1998, the Youth Authority of Hamburg began developing policies on open adoption, which the delegates had learned about in the United States. The delegates from Hamburg presented a paper in London on their progress in putting this policy change into practice. The Hamburg delegates also developed policies on special needs adoptions and reunification with birth parents as a result of manuals, papers, and policies they collected while in the United States. In the same year, two delegates from Chicago wrote an article comparing the social policies of Germany with those of the United States (Morrison & Wolf, 1998), which was reprinted 35 times in various German journals for study and for finding ways to improve social policy. In 2000 a Birmingham delegate made changes in the Juvenile Offender Program based on observation of the Cook County Juvenile Detention Center. Some changes involved reconsidering the juvenile court as a place of last resort rather than a first resort. In 2001 U.S. social workers began using the German concept of harm reduction in their work with people living in poverty. The concept has spread to the U.S. Veterans Administration where it is a centerpiece of case management with veterans suffering from a wide range of mental health issues and alcohol and substance abuse. In 2003 Durban incorporated a U.S. agency’s model of foster care into social services for the province of KwaZulu Natal. This was the beginning of foster care in that city and the province. In 2005 Hamburg introduced changes in child protection based on delegates’ interaction with Birmingham and U.S. delegates, and the Birmingham City Council began using social workers as mediators in divorce cases, beginning a process to replace using 13 0

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only lawyers as mediators. They also started a program to work with youths in conflict with the law. In 2015 University of Birmingham and Hamburg University of Applied Sciences began exploring tri-partnership agreements with Dominican University to foster student and faculty exchanges. Hamburg University administrators began examining the possibility of recruiting refugees who showed the potential to become social workers to work in their cultural and ethnic groups to enable assimilation into German society. Throughout the 20 years the exchange has been active, U.S. social workers have presented workshops and lectures and provided consultation to bring the concept of international social work to the everyday experience of practicing social workers in Illinois. In all evaluations, delegates comment on the new relationships they have built and continue over the years.

CRITICA L REFL ECTION A ND DISCUS SION OF T HE PROMISING PRINCIPL ES F O C U S I N G O N U N I V E R S I T Y C O N T E X T S : I N T E R NAT I O NA L VA R I AT I O N I N H I G H E R E D U C AT I O N

Universities, with their focus on education and research, are ideal institutions for fostering international social work collaborations. Their administrators and staff are able to invite foreign scholars, students, and social work practitioners to their country and interact with their guests. Universities, students, alumni, and faculty are embedded in the cultural, social, and political structures of the countries they are serving. Understanding the larger social context and its inherent diversity is a forte of university faculty and staff, and this expertise helps facilitate a dialogue among and between international collaborators and avoid judgments and misunderstandings that could potentially end these relationships. The strength of universities lies in their ability to forge general principles into local contexts and social influences. Thus social work 131

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principles of social justice, service, the dignity and worth of the person, human relationships, competence, and integrity, although universal, look very different in various social contexts. The people in universities have the ability to ensure that these principles are adjusted to the particular social environment in which they are practiced. This means that the specificity of cultural and social contexts is applied to the principles in ways that enhance social work practice no matter where it is employed. Universities play an essential role in making this happen and thus are essential elements in international exchange (Scherrer & Morrison, 2015). The travel and study project and ISWEP based their exchanges on the university context of the United States, whereas the ISWEP’s partners in Germany, England, and South Africa relied on government involvement and did not use universities in any significant way until 2014. The differences in the way universities approached social work in the ISWEP exchanges focused primarily on the development of specific social work skills for students and on concretely demonstrating a beginning mastery of these skills. Universities in Germany and England focused more on traditional education whereby theory and practice is taught but skills in practicing social work are not emphasized. Recently, Hamburg participants expressed a need to involve the Hamburg University of Applied Sciences in the exchanges. They reasoned that the exchanges would benefit the university in developing social workers qualified to deal with the refugee crisis in place of the government’s plan of importing 500 social workers from other parts of Germany to help handle the workload. Universities can build sustainability in exchanges because they have great resources, including the personnel to organize and implement the intensive work that international exchange requires. The travel and study project and ISWEP exchanges have taken a minimum of 1 year to plan and required the coordination of a large group of people. Although it is extremely helpful to have the support of government agencies and officials, as in Birmingham and Hamburg, such support can often depend on the vagaries of elected officials. Universities also have the capacity for developing future leaders in social work, as was the goal 13 2

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of starting a doctoral program in social work in Ethiopia to build local leadership rather than rely on foreign educators. The 11 doctoral students who participated in the travel and study project were positioned to become leaders of social work education in Ethiopia. Starting with the idea of the project arising from the doctoral students, the program was planned not only to help the group as a whole understand social work in the United States but also to help each student network with practitioners and faculty with expertise in the student’s area of dissertation research. It was hoped they could use this network in their research and their leadership in their home universities.

B R I N G I N G L E A R N I N G H O M E : T H E I N T E R NAT I O NA L– D O M E S T I C I N T E R FAC E

Although international social work collaborations often solely focus on the impact of the work overseas, benefits for the U.S. partners should not be minimized. International projects such as the ones described here have significant effects in home institutions. For the U.S. partners, these projects have provided an arena for cross-cultural social work learning and relationship building. They have created an opportunity for faculty, students, and agency workers to become more aware of beliefs and assumptions inherent in the U.S. approach to social work. For example, the surprise expressed by the Ethiopians about the prevalence of micro-level case management and counseling provided an opportunity for the Americans to reflect on the individualistic ideology underlying many social work interventions in the United States. The Ethiopians explained that given the collectivistic nature of their society as well as limited human and financial resources, social work in Ethiopia is mostly group and community based. This was seen as a striking difference between the two contexts, yet one that provided a room for discussion of how social work practices reflect mainstream cultural values of a given country. Similar discoveries were made on many of the ISWEP projects. The participants in the Travel and Study Project and the ISWEP recognized that social challenges, although differing in magnitude 13 3

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and urgency or recognition, are present globally. Attempts to address these social challenges vary depending on available resources, cultural practices, social understandings, and historical experiences. This implies that rather than one approach, there may be a series of effective ways to manage social challenges, and these strategies need to take into account the requirements of the local environment, which was, and is, the focus of the travel and study project and the ISWEP. The process of the exchanges involves understanding how social workers in one context address challenges and the social environment that influences their responses. This process requires visitors and hosts to provide their perspective on the challenges that is influenced by their own social environment. They then examine each other’s perspectives to determine whether such a viewpoint would work in their own social environment. Finally, after examining the similarities and differences between the two perspectives, they develop a new response in their social and environmental context that contains elements of both. It is not enough for these new responses to occur on the individual practitioner level, but they must also be disseminated to the larger social work body for the benefits experienced by, and refinement of, the new responses. To accomplish this, the ISWEP recently entered into agreements with Chicago Sister Cities International and Dominican University. The agreement with Chicago Sister Cities International provides an interface with political and corporate leaders in host cities who have come to realize the importance of social services in the health of their communities and have the resources to implement the new responses that are developed from the exchanges. The agreement with Dominican University provides the opportunity and resources to spread the results of the exchanges to the larger social work and educational community. It also fits well with Dominican University’s goal to develop globally positioned students who have an increased awareness and knowledge of the impact of global events and practices on local concerns. This content can be included in social work courses in the United States so that students graduate knowing and being able to apply creative and effective responses to social challenges. 13 4

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RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IN T ERN ATION A L SOCIA L WORK PR ACTICE The importance of preparation for an international exchange cannot be overemphasized. Delegates should have time to familiarize themselves with the cultural practices of the host country and have a beginning understanding of how those practices affect social service provision. Project coordinators should host meetings with students over a minimum of 2 months prior to departure and preferably in a semester-long class or continuing education format. Participants should study the place they are going to visit, contact relevant people in the country of interest, and examine policy and practice issues the country is struggling with. If groups are traveling, there must be ongoing contacts between the leader of the group and the host country. Group development processes should be openly examined and discussed. Those traveling to the host country must have a contact person they can communicate with in the host country, preferably a mentor who will be actively involved with them once they arrive. Exchanges should last a minimum of 2 weeks to give enough time for visitors to absorb the wealth of information from tours of social service agencies, lectures, and workshops. Exchange visitors may not be able to fully understand the meaning of what they have learned unless they have time to reflect on it and discuss it all with each other. This time needs to be incorporated into the schedule, otherwise benefits of the exchange may be lost. Ample time should be provided for visitors to discuss among themselves and with their hosts their impressions, responses, and suggestions as a result of their experiences. During the exchange, visitors should have an immersive experience in which they accompany a person assigned to them in the course of their work of providing social services or teaching in the university and working with students. This should last at least 3 days to ensure the visitor gets a good picture of the services offered and the cultural context in which they are offered. It is important to structure a balance between work time and free time. This balance allows visitors the time to integrate what they have 13 5

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learned into what they know and to use the resulting synthesis to bring to discussions with their host. Because the success of international partnerships and projects depends heavily on the functioning and effectiveness of the groups involved, it is essential to understand and prepare for group stages of development that international groups will undergo. Frequent group discussions and reflections should be planned into the group’s schedule. In addition, the schedule should include a provision for a postexchange contact wherein visitors and hosts would be able to discuss further thoughts on their experiences and how they have applied what they have learned in their practices. Such contacts would then reinforce relationships between the exchange participants and provide opportunities for sharing experiences and deepening understandings on both sides. This type of postexchange interaction could also be carried out in online meetings or by other electronic means. Universities should be an essential part of the exchange. As noted in the preceding discussion, they bring resources and personnel to the exchange that enhance the quality of the experience and provide sustainability. Universities can also provide evaluations of each exchange that can be used to enhance effectiveness by providing feedback and suggestions to the organizers. Universities have the ability to spread the knowledge gained from the exchanges so that the benefits are communicated to the wider social work community. Finally, universities can be a source of consistency over time. Because of their stability, they can provide protection from political vagaries that can have negative impacts on the continuance of exchanges. Finally, to foster mutuality and reciprocity, visitors and hosts should make presentations to the larger community on the results of the exchange. Such presentations not only awaken the community to the importance of understanding international issues but also may lead to further synergies that result in innovative practices that have a direct impact on the community’s ability to meet its challenges. Part of the planning should involve preparation of a mini conference that includes direct interaction between the visitors and the social service providers of the host country. 13 6

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CONCLUSION International exchange and collaboration have gained popularity in the practice of global social work by social work educators. Although the practice of hosting groups of international visitors is quite common, the literature offers little to guide team leaders through the process of planning, implementing, and evaluating short-term international visits to the United States. This chapter describes and reflects on two long-term partnerships that have hosted groups of social work practitioners and faculty in the United States. Access to resources, stability, and the capability of bridging cultural differences give universities a base to organize and host international visitors. Essential components of the hosting experience include detailed and innovative planning, reciprocal learning and mutuality, attention to group dynamics, and relationship building. Faculty at universities that host international visitors have the responsibility to ensure that students, faculty, local agencies, and community organizations have opportunities to learn from their guests. This can be done through formal and informal activities and events, including guest lectures, panels, community meetings, video documentaries, cultural and leisure activities, and individual dialogue and group discussion. The successes and challenges of hosting international visitors can be improved by the development of more rigorous evaluation methods. Standard methods of evaluation should involve hosts and visitors in pretrip planning to short-term immediate outcomes and a longer term follow-up of the exchange.

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experiential educational groups to the United States: An analysis of group development in an international travel and study program. Social Work Education, 34, 1–13. doi:10.1080/02615479.2015.1103725 Sedler, R. F. (1968). Social welfare in a developing country: The Ethiopian experience: Part III—The role of social work education. International Social Work, 11, 36–44. Sewpaul, V. (2003). Reframing epistemologies and practice through international exchanges: Global and local discourses in the development of critical consciousness. In L. Dominelli & W. T. Bernard (Eds.), Broadening horizons: international exchanges in social work. (pp. 297–332). Burlington, VT: Ashgate. Social work education in a changing Africa: Seminar for social work educators, Alexandria, UAR, 14 August–3 September 1965. (1966). International Social Work, 9, 25–29. Traub-Werner, B. (2000). Continuing education across boundaries: exploring the international exchange of social work knowledge and practices. Professional Development, 3(3), 5–8. United Nations Economic and Social Council. (1966). Report of seminar for social work educators in Africa. Retrieved from http://repository.uneca.org/bitstream/handle/10855/10267/Bib-50950_Rev%201.pdf?sequence=3

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T RIA L S A ND T RIUMPHS OF USING SOCIA L MEDIA A ND ELECT RONIC COMMUNICATION : B R I D G I N G DI S TA N C E S TO B U I L D A G L O BA L S O C I A L WO R K LEAR NING COMMUNITY

D H E E S H A NA J AYA S U N DA RA

Current models of international social welfare education, for the most part, offer international service delivery experiences through cross-cultural study abroad programs or through theoretical discussions of practice models. Many students do not have the resources to go abroad yet need practice experience. This chapter discusses the use of three methods of international student communication using technology: connecting with an international agency through the use of media and technology and learning about the agency through assisting it, student experiences with communication with international students through Facebook, and concentrated discussions and comparisons of social work curriculum content using Adobe Connect. This chapter captures the trials and triumphs in launching technologybased global social work communication. The importance of teaching global perspectives in social work cannot be emphasized enough. In a rapidly changing world, there is a high demand for human service professionals to help culturally diverse 142

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communities that span geographic and cultural borders. In today’s world of globalization, social workers cannot carry out practice in isolation from the larger social context of the world (Hokenstad, 2003). Local social workers serve many immigrant populations from diverse backgrounds with diverse needs, and many natural and manmade crisis situations have required local social workers to address problems in and outside the United States. Today the immigrant population in the United States is about 13%, with 9.5 million children of these immigrant families living in poverty (Zong & Batalova, 2015). Not only do these populations have unique needs and require special cultural competencies, often they come from countries with different welfare systems. Many social workers are not adequately prepared to address global problems in the United States or abroad. For example, many social workers are trained to conduct clinical interventions when often these are not appropriate to address human service needs at an international level. Nonetheless, social workers can learn much from the global context of problems and intervention methods. This is especially important because social workers are increasingly required to practice locally with international issues, such as resettlement and case management work with refugee populations. Even if local social workers do not travel abroad to practice, the increased interdependence of the world necessitates the need to introduce international concepts and global competencies. This chapter discusses the experiences from three methods of international student communication using technology in two different courses. These methods include connecting with an international agency through the use of media and technology and learning about the agency through assisting it, student experiences with communication with international students through Facebook, and concentrated discussions and comparisons of social work curriculum content using Adobe Connect. This chapter can assist international social work educators and practitioners as it captures the trials and triumphs involved in launching technology-based global social work communication.

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E-LEARNING METHODS IN INTERNATIONAL SOCIAL WORK Widely used social work models in the United States are merely a subgroup of possible models of intervention available to address social problems in the world (Estes, 2008). For the most part, current models of social welfare education offer experience in international service delivery through cross-cultural study abroad programs and field placements (Asamoah, 2003). Although these programs provide students with invaluable experience, many students do not have the necessary resources of time and money to participate in study abroad programs (Plummer & Nyang’au, 2009). Other types of international courses discuss theoretical dimensions of service practice models abroad but never provide an experiential application. In short, many students do not have the resources to go abroad yet need the practical experience or the direct cultural exposure that firsthand involvement and collaboration bring about. To bridge this gap, technology can be an effective and resourceful tool for international communication. Although opportunities to enhance learning through the use of multimedia are vast, the use of technology as a means for collaboration-based international e-learning has not yet reached its full potential. Estes’s (2008) report on the conceptualization of international social work education states that sharing international social work knowledge and practice experiences can be facilitated via telecommunication technology and that technology provides an effective method of exchange of ideas and practices. He proposes that “as the world grows smaller, the exchange of best practices and programs can become a more normal occurrence” (p 16). Cross-border collaborations and communications through e-learning activities are pedagogical approaches that go beyond simple instructorcontrolled sharing of information to knowledge construction through sharing information among global peers beyond the classroom (Bozalek & Matthews, 2009). International e-learning collaboration has the potential to provide students with “the opportunity to broaden their cultural horizons” (Wehbi, 2009, p. 48), as it can expose the students directly to diverse cultures. It can help them learn about different ways that problems manifest themselves and how these problems 14 4

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are creatively and uniquely addressed (Johnson, 1999). It also can provide them with an opportunity to pose questions and inspire them to exchange information and compare similarities and differences (Larsen & Hole, 2015). Students may be given opportunities to conduct small-scale projects designed by outside agencies, thus, directly exposing students to diverse practice environments. Such models also serve as effective modes of cross-border collaboration in university climates where budget constraints might otherwise prevent students and faculty from traveling abroad (Hokenstad, 2003). In the United States, technology is used in many different ways in academic programs from simple e-mail exchanges to electronic mailing lists to more advanced technological usage through Web management and e-learning systems, such as Blackboard learning systems (Healy, 2001). Synchronous live e-learning technologies such as Adobe Connect are also available. The Council in Social Work Education (CSWE) tracks accredited social work programs in the United States, and its website features 46 programs that offer online distance education to students in the United States. Some of these programs might extend to service members and their families based on or near military installations abroad, but few distance programs are open internationally. Social work programs such as those at the University of New England and the University of Utah are notable exceptions. This technology can easily be transferred to distance learning for international social work, as even universities in the poorest developing countries offer students some access to computers and the Internet for educational purposes. Additionally, as illustrated by the critical role played by Facebook in the 2011 Tunisian Revolution, younger generations across the globe are comfortable using social media methods (Marzouki, SkandraniMarzouki, Be´jaoui, Hammoudi, & Bellaj, 2012). Consequently, the creative opportunities for cross-border e-learning via technological tools are immense. Although these opportunities have not yet been pursued to their full potential, a few scholars and programs in international social work have pursued them in a very creative manner with great success. Johnson (1999), for example, used e-mail as a means of successfully promoting collaboration between 14 5

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U.S. social work students and Romanian students and their grassroots organizations. By linking students through an e-pen-pal method, students learned about social problems in each other’s country as well as the nature of their human services. Carter-Anand and Clarke (2009) successfully facilitated a trial electronic e-mail exchange project in which information was shared about cultural backgrounds and the impacts of inequality. Using videoconferencing technology to supervise international field placements is another successful creative e-learning effort (Panos, 2005). Plummer and Nyang’au (2009) discuss how they used e-mail to develop successful relationships between a university faculty member and a nongovernmental organization in Kenya, which also provided U.S. students with the exposure to child rights issues in Kenya and an opportunity to raise funds for the agency. They emphasize the importance of reciprocal e-monitoring; that is, both parties should benefit from the interaction, and both should be committed and learn from one another. This concept of reciprocity is crucial. Although technology is a tool to facilitate international collaboration, it is important to understand that it is an exchange between two parties or systems that creates a mutually beneficial union. The collaboration has to be carried out respectfully. It is most positive when the exchange is viewed as a twoway process in which various resources are exchanged between the parties. For an effective collaborative exchange, characteristics involve comprehensive planning, well-defined communication channels, common visions, shared risks of resources and reputation, and mutual authority over matters relevant to the collaboration … they must also remain flexible, dynamic, and ready to change in response to its environment. (Healy, 2003, p. 16) It is also important to identify with realistic expectations shared objectives that complement the needs of each party (Plummer & Nyang’au, 2009). Especially when working with developing countries, caution needs to be exercised so that Western models of practice are not imposed, thus avoiding misunderstandings and mistrust (Dominelli 14 6

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& Bernard, 2003; Midgley, 2001). Social work by design is contextual in addressing the needs of a country. It is important to carry out preliminary planning and coordination in a respectful manner to avoid appearing as colonizers imposing Western values and ideas (Carrilio & Mathiesen, 2006).

SOCIA L WORK IN INDIA , SRI L A NK A , A ND NEPA L Sri Lanka, Nepal, and India are categorized as lower middle to lower income among countries or developing nations by the World Bank based on per capita income (World Bank, 2016). For more than 100 years before India and Sri Lanka gained independence in late 1940s, they were British colonies. All three countries face high levels of poverty and population growth, and are marked by long-lasting civil wars occurring at different times and in different forms. Despite this, all three countries have rich histories of culture, traditions, and practices that are coupled with significant within-group diversity. The primary religions of the three countries are Hinduism and Buddhism, with multiple variations, especially in India. Similarly, differences exist related to spoken languages, with India alone having more than 100 main languages. However, because of colonial British influence, higher education in all three countries is conducted primarily in English, providing an opportunity for global communication among students. In Nepal and Sri Lanka social work is in its infancy as an established profession, whereas India has reputable social work education programs and organizations. In all three countries, social work began with missionary leadership, followed by influence or guidance from Western universities (Chandraratna, 2008; Nikku, 2014; Shera, 2003), and to this day, social work struggles to gain legitimacy as a professional field, separate from charity work and other social science fields such as sociology. Social work is practiced predominantly in macro and mezzo systems that emphasize community action, advocacy, or social development. In most cases, there is a minimal emphasis on micro or clinical practice. Such a focus would require resources far beyond the current capacity. Fieldwork and completion of a research 147

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project are given high importance as part of the education curricula. Social work practice is still gaining title protection and licensure in all three countries, and most human service work is conducted by people other than social workers. Generally in Nepal and Sri Lanka, human service workers are addressed as social workers. In all three countries, but particularly in Sri Lanka and Nepal, social work struggles to gain visibility in nonprofit human services.

T HE PRO JECT This section describes student communication activities that took place at the University of North Dakota (UND) with social work programs and nongovernmental organizations in Sri Lanka, Nepal, and India. All three partnering countries are situated in the South Asian region and were chosen mostly because of my experience and familiarity with South Asian countries as well as my extensive knowledge of and connections in the region. These countries provide good learning opportunities for comparing and contrasting social work issues and solutions. Collaborative activities started in the fall of 2011 and continued through fall 2014. In addition to these collaborations, the chapter discusses the creation of a global student Facebook page. Activities took place in multiple phases over the course of 3 years. As the instructor for the courses, I come from a strong background of service learning. Prior to starting international collaborations, I collaborated successfully in class projects in which students carried out preidentified projects with a local social work agency and an out-of-state immigrant-serving agency. Additionally, UND has oncampus and distance-learning MSW programs. As a means of enhancing student communications in and between the programs, a Facebook page was created by the MSW program coordinator for distance education. Students in a distance education course spoke highly of its learning potential. A few students expressed interest in learning more about international social work and their desire to communicate via multimedia with students abroad. At the same time, I was in communication about enhancing global student communications 14 8

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with Bala Raju Nikku of the Nepal School of Social Work (NSSW). He stated that a global student Facebook page for students would be an ideal mechanism to promote student discussions. During this same time, I was appointed to the Council on External Relations, a council under the CSWE Commission on Global Social Work Education. Creating a Facebook page was discussed as a potential project for the council. These events led me to create an elective course titled International Social Welfare, which used multimedia methods as a means of connecting and enhancing global communication among students. I received an instructional development grant, which funded innovative teaching projects in the summer, from the Office of Instructional Development at UND. The target for collaboration was Sri Lanka because I am from Sri Lanka and very familiar with the culture, and I saw this connection as vitally important in developing a new collaborative exchange. Collaboration with students in Sri Lanka provides students with wellrounded exposure to factors that often plague developing countries as well as finding connections regarding social issues. Many years of civil war in Sri Lanka left many internally displaced populations suffering from human rights violations. The massive tsunami in 2004 and other disasters have compelled human development groups to engage in extensive disaster reconstruction efforts. The country’s strengths include well-established microfinance centers and a regional microfinance center with a strong female middle-class presence. Although the country ranks low in economic growth, universal health care and free education contribute to positive social indicators, such as low maternal mortality and infant mortality and high literacy rates for men and women that are comparable to those in developed countries. Thus, students would receive well-rounded exposure to many factors that plague developing countries but would also be able to identify parallels regarding social issues such as natural disasters and health care that also affect the United States. This would help them realize how solutions and contextual priorities can vary widely. At the curriculum development phase, three main activities were created. The first was a cross-border collaboration project that involved 14 9

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communicating with local social work students in Sri Lanka to exchange information on how social welfare is addressed academically in each country. This was a group project and each group selected a leader. The students were asked to create a report of their experience including discussing what they learned from the communication and the difficulties they faced with the collaboration. This assignment was weighted at 15% of their grade. The second activity involved groups of students working with preidentified agencies in Sri Lanka on projects chosen by an agency. The scope of work, activities, information, and guidance were determined by the agency contact person and by me as the instructor. Students were also expected to identify a group leader for communication in this assignment and submit a group report on the agency sponsor, including the group’s task, student learning, and the barriers they encountered. The assignment accounted for 45% of their grade. Finally, the development of a global student Facebook page and a communication assignment was also created as a student group project. This task required managing and updating the student Facebook page during the semester. Groups were expected to send invitations to local and international universities to promote the page and post discussions pertaining to diversity and international social work. The Facebook page was designed to be part of the CSWE Katherine A. Kendall Institute for International Social Work. Because of the time it took to launch the Facebook page, it was not a part of the elective until the second year the course was offered. Creating the page involved getting permission from institutions and developing guidelines for usage. I worked very closely with the coordinator at the Kendall Institute to get the project off the ground. Because the students would have managing rights to the Facebook page during the semester, a separate Gmail account was created. Students were expected to submit an individual report of their communication that described what they did, what they learned, the barriers they encountered, and future recommendations. This assignment was 30% of the grade. I prepared for the course by going to Sri Lanka to meet with potential agencies and universities. I identified several agencies and the academic social work programs in May 2011 and sent requests for 15 0

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appointments. I met with four agencies and went on field tours of their work. We discussed the nature of the course work and how to proceed in a manner beneficial for all. All four agencies requested memos of understanding before proceeding, but despite the initial interest, only one agency responded—the Consortium of Humanitarian Agencies, which requested student help in writing two grants for a major international donor. During my visit, I contacted three major universities to connect UND students to schools that address social welfare issues. I faced several problems. The universities were on strike, and many faculty members were not available. Departmental boundaries made it difficult to identify the most appropriate person to contact. In the end, the National Institute of Social Development (NISD), the primary institute working in social work and granting degrees, was contacted. The institute director was very supportive, provided the program curriculum, and was very eager to initiate student collaboration. However, on returning to the United States, communication with Sri Lanka proved difficult via e-mail because people did not respond in a timely manner.

I M PL E M E N TAT I O N A N D S T RU G G L E S FAC E D

In the implementation phase the creative group activity project proceeded as scheduled. The contact person at the previously mentioned agency provided tremendous support and gave students prompt guidance and resources. Although the students were able to finish the project, writing a fundable grant proposal was beyond their capability, particularly given the time frame and their limited country-specific knowledge and grant-writing skills. Additionally, the contact person left the agency during the end of the semester, which made further collaboration with the agency difficult. Communication with students in Sri Lanka also proved to be a challenge. The director of NISD in Sri Lanka sent an e-mail to students, but they did not respond. Fortunately, in Nepal I was in touch with social work professors directly and made a request for Nepali students to communicate with UND students. The Nepali students were very eager to participate, and e-mail communication between the students was successful. 151

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Unfortunately, Nepali student communications started toward the end of the semester and because of lags in time sending and receiving e-mail, communication was limited to very few exchanges. Although the course’s collaborative activities did not go as planned in the first semester, these activities were continued with great success in some projects in subsequent semesters. For example, student collaboration continued the following semester in an online evening research class. One of my former MSW students went to India for a year and volunteered to teach and conduct field research with students in India. Hearing about the projects, she learned that the students in India were interested in identifying similarities and differences in curricula between the two countries. The UND students in the research class welcomed the idea, and this led to the initiation of a 2-hour synchronous online communication using Adobe Connect. The students in both classes were able to go into online labs and discuss the topics and practical empirical activities in their research classes. These discussions were conducted through video chatting and the chat pod in Adobe Connect. These efforts proved effective, because students from both countries reported it as an extremely helpful activity. To identify an agency willing to participate in the project, I sought assistance from the Kendall Institute and from a Nepali colleague in the following semester. Through networking, I found Ageing Nepal, a well-established agency with a history of collaboration with international universities. After describing past challenges in conducting this project, the agency staff and I developed feasible projects that benefited the agency and enhanced student learning, and could be completed during a semester. Memos of understanding were drafted to identify each organization’s role. Project activities were carried out successfully over two semesters, and the partnership with Ageing Nepal continues. Because of this activity, a UND student requested an international field placement in India. I visited Nepal in 2014, solidified the arrangements with Ageing Nepal, and spent a day with the instructors at the NSSW. Along with the MSW program director at UND, I provided two training sessions for students 15 2

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and university faculty. The U.S. student started field placement in the fall of 2015 and taught an undergraduate course at the NSSW as part of her field placement. This led to the formation of a study abroad student tour to Nepal in 2016. These partnerships also led to a publishing collaboration with a staff member at the agency and a university colleague. Additional agencies were later identified, and I was invited to serve on a local agency board in Nepal. In implementing the global student Facebook page, students were assigned to groups and were asked to identify a region of the world, contact students and universities there, and request their participation through Facebook. Student groups created a standard letter to send out and conducted a Web-based search to identify universities. They also asked the coordinator at the Kendall Institute and me to identify contacts. Because each student did not have an official university e-mail account, the student response rate was very poor. The bigger problem was poor responses from the international community when UND students attempted to communicate directly through the Facebook page. The students wanted to ask questions about social work issues in different countries and the delivery of social work services, but initially they were unsuccessful. They did not have university e-mail addresses, so they decided to use their personal access to Facebook, where the international students posted Web links and video links. Therefore, UND students were asked to read the posts and describe what they learned. The UND student in field placement in Nepal and I co-created an activity that allows students to exchange information about each country’s culture and the role of social work via Facebook page posts and messages, and this has proved effective. Additionally, members of the Council on Global Social Issues (formerly called Council on External Relations) are in the process of discussing how we can expand this effort so that more students and programs globally can effectively participate.

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CRITICA L REFL ECTION A ND DISCUS SION OF T HE PROMISING PRINCIPL ES FOCUSING ON UNIVERSITY CONTEXT: INTERNATIONAL VARIATION IN HIGHER EDUCATION

Understanding the context of university leadership is important for successful partnerships. In accordance with South Asian culture, where a hierarchy of administration is respected, I first met with the director of NISD to discuss initiating student communication collaborations. I was provided with an opportunity to meet with students and potential faculty who could help. However, I fell ill and was unable to meet with students as scheduled, which was a major setback as it was perceived as a lack of serious commitment on my part by Sri Lankan faculty and students. Consequently, the project coordination fell into the hands of the director of NISD in Sri Lanka, whose high-level administrative position made it impossible for him to coordinate the project in the active manner necessary. However, I continued my collaborations with NISD faculty and the new director, and I went back to Sri Lanka in 2014 to meet with several faculty members, which led to assisting them with resources. It is my hope that these efforts will lead to mutually beneficial academic activities in the future. The Nepal School of Social Work was more successful because the lead instructor of the school was also the founder of the school and had a history of past successes with international collaborations. Additionally, he had already shown interest in initiating student communication and was actively looking for international partnerships in part, because of the state of the social work profession in Nepal, which is struggling to gain legitimacy with the government. Collaborations with international social work programs are perceived very positively. The desire for a partnership like this from the NSSW led to a quick turnaround time in initiation efforts. The students were also willing participants. However, technology was a barrier to quick response. Technology was a challenge when working with students in India as well. To overcome time lags in e-mails, the instructor connected 15 4

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students from India with live video and chat messaging through Adobe Connect. The success of this effort was in large part because of the significant coordination efforts of the former UND MSW student living in India. She was familiar with and had access to UND technology. Facebook communication in this instance is most effective if it is conducted with an international academic partner who requires a similar assignment. Thus, focusing on university contexts is an important guiding principal when pursuing university partnerships.

BUILDING SUSTAINABILITY FROM THE START: DEVELOPING LOCAL LEADERSHIP

One of the most important lessons learned was how important it is to invest a large amount of time and effort in developing relationships. Sustainability plans must be discussed from the beginning. Sufficient time was not spent building the trust necessary to conduct collaborative international activities that are not face-to-face, and initial projects in Sri Lanka did not fully achieve their goals for several reasons. Beyond the initial discussions, a clear plan on how to proceed was lacking. I was also not able to sufficiently explain the mutual benefits of the projects to some agency partners in a manner that would induce them to be willing to start a formal partnership. Consequently, several partnerships ended before they were launched. With the agency partnership in Sri Lanka that did materialize, the activities were too ambitious, lacked realistic goals, and neither party benefited. Furthermore, this agency’s project was carried out through one employee with no succession plan in place. Consequently, once the employee left, communication with the agency was lost. In contrast, when I collaborated with Ageing Nepal, introductions came through mutually trusted parties, and this provided a good foundation. From the beginning, the agency leaders and I engaged in open discussion about what was feasible. These discussions included the development of clear time frames, the training of students, realistic scopes of work, agency needs, the levels of cultural competence of students, technology capabilities, the level of involvement needed by 15 5

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the agency to guide students, availability of staff time, points of contact, methods of communication, duration of the partnership, roles played by each party, benefits to each party, and potential barriers. We also created regular feedback loops from the agency to students and instructor to continually assess the work. Mutually agreed-on memos of understanding were drafted prior to starting and were reassessed as needed, which led to a sustainable partnership that benefitted both parties, illustrating the importance of the guiding principal of building sustainability from the start. Once communication took place for two semesters, I traveled to Nepal along with a colleague who serves in an administrative capacity, and this helped solidify the UND Social Work department’s commitment to international efforts. This resulted in our first international field placement outside North America and planning our first international study tour to Nepal. Because of these efforts, interest spread to students and other faculty. We have started an annual day-trip tour to Winnipeg, Canada, to visit the Human Rights Museum. We have arranged to visit the University of Manitoba to exchange ideas, and we are finalizing a faculty and student exchange partnership with a university in Sweden.

B R I N G I N G L E A R N I N G H O M E : T H E I N T E R NAT I O NA LD O M E S T I C I N T E R FAC E

The service orientation of the projects provided students with the opportunity to work with a foreign agency and learn about that agency, how it operates, and how it uses media and technology. This not only helped the agencies abroad, but also UND students were able to learn firsthand how social issues were addressed in a foreign country. The growing success of these individual efforts pursued by one faculty member led to other faculty starting to pursue similar efforts. Larger discussions and plans for the internationalization of the UND Social Work department and the receipt of institutional support ensued. These efforts resulted in strong support at the departmental and university levels. The current department chair has a strong commitment to international social work education; she encourages other faculty to 15 6

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engage is such activities. Close communication with the international student office also proved to be effective in solidifying these efforts. Recently, UND was selected to participate in the American Council on Education’s Internationalization Laboratory. This led to the creation of a cross-disciplinary leadership team at UND to identify and analyze its internationalization efforts as a means of developing a strategic plan for international engagement. I was selected to be part of this group, in part because of the strategic alignment of my individual and program efforts with those of university-wide internationalization efforts. Piggybacking on this larger effort, I and two other faculty members spearheaded the previously mentioned Swedish faculty and student exchange program with the University of Malmö in Sweden. We were able to obtain strong commitment and support from the UND provost’s office and the North Dakota chancellor’s office to initiate this effort. The purpose of this program is to exchange ideas and obtain a deeper knowledge of social work programs from a global perspective through a 14-day student and faculty exchange between the two institutions. In the fall of 2016 our first two field students from the UND social work program started their field placements in Sweden as part of this MOU arrangement. Thus, successful past collaborations that pay heed to university contexts, have the opportunity to lead a program from an institutional tolerance of international social work efforts to a more intentional commitment (Johnson, 2004). This clearly emphasizes the principal of bringing learning home, and that international-domestic interfaces can benefit all parties involved.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IN T ERN ATION A L SOCIA L WORK PR ACTICE It is clear that careful planning involving effective communication is essential for projects such as these. Although these partnerships have the potential to benefit both parties involved, work cannot be initiated naively. One needs an understanding of the access to technology and the technological capacities of partner countries. One must also set 157

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realistic goals and activities and fully understand the capacities of students. Without this, projects can potentially damage future relationships and can create negative experiences for students, agencies, and universities. When initiating communication between U.S. and international students, one should identify instructors abroad who are also strongly committed to these initiatives. This can greatly increase the timeliness of responses among students so they fit within semester time constraints. A successful partnership has the potential to grow and the flexibility to adapt to future needs. Finally, as with any successful exchange, communication must be conducted respectfully. Participation in projects and activities like these can increase awareness and knowledge of international issues thus bolstering the cultural competence of the students involved. When one of the students learned that the group project she worked on with Ageing Nepal was used in a local conference, she described it as one of her proudest academic moments and that it was an opportunity for her to be able to learn and to give back. Other students talked about higher order learning through the project and how being exposed to different cultural norms and different approaches to solutions expanded their ways of thinking and problem solving. Learning to navigate through language differences, technological barriers, and cultural expectations was also valued highly by some students. The exchange of information led students from both countries to learn about differences in social work programs. Reading Facebook posts gave students an inside perspective on social problems and solutions that they don’t usually get from media coverage in the United States. These efforts led students to compare and contrast social problems and solutions. Partnerships that sometimes start with one faculty member’s initiative have the potential to grow in mutually beneficial ways. Along the way, they can receive institutional and administrative support that can significantly contribute to long-term sustainability of these projects. In this experience, I experimented with a variety of distance-learning modalities and met with varying success. Trial-and-error learning through mistakes and reassessment can be extremely valuable. Ultimately, finding a way for these projects to be mutually beneficial appears to 15 8

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be an essential ingredient for success. In the end, despite the varying distance-learning modalities used to communicate, it was important to remember that ultimately this was partnership. An emphasis on mutuality helps these efforts and relationships to grow.

CONCLUSION Those of us in the human service professions can learn much from the global context of problems and interventions. Current models of international social welfare education have limitations. Innovative communication methods through the use of media and technology provide global theoretical applications and valuable service experience. Technology can be an essential tool to facilitate instruction globally. In the 21st century, multimedia and technology advances have brought the world much closer. Almost all universities provide avenues for students to engage via modern technological tools. Done correctly, it can be an inexpensive and far-reaching mechanism to start global communication. Audiences can be far wider than those more concentrated in study abroad programs. In addition, such efforts can lead to other direct collaborative experiences such as study abroad, internships, and faculty exchanges.

REFERENCES Asamoah, Y. (2003). International collaboration in social work education: Overview. In L. M. Healy, Y Asamoah, & M. C. Hokenstad (Eds.), Models of international collaborations in social work education (pp. 1–14). Alexandria, VA: Council on Social Work Education. Bozalek, V., & Matthews, L. (2009). E-learning: A cross-institutional forum for sharing socio cultural influences on personal and professional identity. International Social Work, 52, 235–246. Carrilio, T., & Mathiesen, S. (2006). Developing a cross border, multidisciplinary educational collaboration. Social Work Education, 25, 633–644. Carter-Anand, J., & Clarke, K. (2009). Crossing borders through cyberspace: A 15 9

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discussion of a social work education electronic exchange pilot project across the Atlantic. Social Work Education, 28, 583–597. Chandraratna, D. (2008). Social work education and practice: A Sri Lankan perspective. Colombo, Sri Lanka: Vijitha Yapa. Dominelli, L., & Bernard, W. T. (2003). Broadening horizons: International exchanges in social work. Aldershot, England: Ashgate. Estes, R. J. (2008). United States–based conceptualization of international social work education. Alexandria, VA: Council on Social Work Education. Healy, L. M. (2001). International social work: Professional action in an interdependent world. NY: Oxford University Press. Healy, L. M. (2003). A theory of international collaborations: Lessons for social work education. In. L. M. Healy, Y. Asamoah, & M. C. Hokenstad (Eds.), Models of international collaborations in social work education, (pp. 15–22). Alexandria, VA: Council on Social Work Education. Hokenstad, M. C. (2003). Global interdependence and international exchange: Lessons for the future. In L. M. Healy, Y. Asamoah, & M. C. Hokenstad (Eds.), Models of international collaboration in social work education (pp. 133–142). Alexandria, VA: Council on Social Work Education. Johnson, A. K. (1999). Globalization from below: Using the Internet to internationalize social work education. Journal of Social Work Education, 35, 377–393. Johnson, A. K. (2004). Increasing internationalization in social work programs: Healy’s continuum as a strategic planning guide. International Social Work, 47, 7–23. Larsen, A. K., & Hole, G. O. (2015). Study abroad from home: VIRCLASS and SW-VIR Camp prompting international (ex)change in social work in Europe. In E. Kruse (Ed.), Internationaler Austausch in der Sozialen Arbeit: Entwicklungen - Erfahrungen - Erträge [International exchange in social work: developments—experiences—benefits] (pp. 169–185). Wiesbaden, Germany: Springer. Marzouki, Y., Skandrani-Marzouki, I., Be´jaoui, M., Hammoudi, H., & Bellaj, T. (2012). The contribution of Facebook to the 2011 Tunisian Revolution: A cyber psychological insight. Cyber Psychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 15(5), 237–244. 16 0

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Midgley, J. (2001). Issues in international social work: resolving critical debates in the profession. Journal of Social Work, 1, 21–35. Nikku, B. R. (2014). Social work education in South Asia: Diverse, dynamic and disjointed. In C. Noble, H. Strauss, & B. Littlechild (Eds.), Global social work: Crossing boundaries, blurring boundaries (pp. 97–112). Sydney, Australia: Sydney University Press. Panos, P. (2005). A model for using videoconferencing technology to support international social work field practicum students. International Social Work, 48, 834–841. Plummer, C. A., & Nyang’au, T. O. (2009). Reciprocal e-mentoring: Accessible international exchanges. International Social Work, 52, 811–822. Shera, W. (2003). Building a social development approach to social work education: The University of Toronto-Sri Lanka School of Social Work project. In L. M. Healy, Y. Asamoah, & M. C. Hokenstad (Eds.), Models of international collaboration in social work education (pp. 101–110). Alexandria, VA: Council on Social Work Education. Wehbi, S. (2009). Deconstructing motivations: Challenging international social work placements. International Social Work, 52, 48–59. World Bank. (2016). World Bank country and lending groups: Country classification. Retrieved from https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/ articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups Zong, J., & Batalova, J. (2015). Frequently requested statistics on immigrants and immigration in the United States. Retrieved from http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/frequently-requested-statisticsimmigrants-immigration-unites-states-4

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CHAPTER 8

A PA RT NERSHIP TO DE V ELOP, SCA L E UP, A ND SUS TAIN PA R A SOCIA L WORK IN A FRICA N AT H A N L . L I N S K , S A L LY M A S O N , L E A H N AT U J WA OMAR I, and BER N ICE LUBI N

In many African countries social welfare systems are underdeveloped or are strained by the increasing needs of vulnerable children. Children are vulnerable because of a range of factors, including disabilities, extreme child labor, abuse, and war and armed conflict. Vulnerability is not a state but a continuum that varies from country to country, within countries, and over the course of a child’s life with many possible points of prevention and intervention to reduce vulnerability (Tovo, Prywes, Kielland, Gibbons, & Saito, 2005). Paraprofessionals have been cited as an important next step for capacity building in a variety of countries developing their social welfare workforce especially at the local and village levels (Bess, López, & Tomaszewski, 2011; Davis, McCaffrey, & Conticini, 2012). Paraprofessionals are key This project was made possible with funding from the U.S. President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief, CDC/Tanzania, and USAID/Tanzania. Activities are carried out through a partnership managed by the American International Health Alliance’s HIV/AIDS Twinning Center, which is funded by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration. We appreciate the contributions of Zena Mabeyo, Theresa Kaijage, Sally Chalamila, Donna Petras, Amana Talala Mbise, Furaha Dimitrios Caloupis, Sandra Wexler, Christine Curci, Sandhya Joshi, Abebe Abate, and the Intrahealth Capacity Human Resource Project.

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players in the social service workforce for a number of reasons. Given that paraprofessionals generally come directly from the community they serve, they bring unique knowledge of the community structure, resources, and culture (Davis et al., 2012; Linsk et al., 2010; Walter & Petr, 2006). In addition, almost all countries lack an adequate supply of social service workers, which may include professional social workers, social welfare officers, and workers from related fields. This is particularly the case in emerging social service systems in the developing world, such as in the African context. Although paraprofessionals may be seen as supplementing the existing social service system, attention to qualifications, education, supervision, and reporting issues are critical given that paraprofessionals do not have credentials for independent practice. In addition, they may serve vulnerable groups under different titles such as community workers, outreach workers, extension workers, case assistants, case managers, and so on (Linsk et al., 2010), and criteria for these positions are often not documented, officially endorsed, or monitored. With the goals of identifying those in need, providing psychosocial support, and facilitating linkage to resources, paraprofessionals may be trained volunteers or organizational staff based in the community. African countries are increasingly developing and expanding schools of social work and related fields. Schools often adopt the standards of and participate in the International Association of Schools of Social Work (2015), which promotes the development of social work education throughout the world, develops standards to enhance quality of social work education, encourages international exchange, provides forums for sharing social work research and scholarship, and promotes human rights and social development through policy and advocacy activities (para. 1). Schools may use the standards to inform curriculum. Although bachelor’s- and master’s-level social work programs are increasingly the focus, schools also often provide certificate, ordinary and advanced 16 3

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diplomas, and continuing education programs including paraprofessional training certified by schools of social work. The past decade has seen an increasing focus on workforce development around the globe in the health and social service sectors. The social service workforce requires strengthening because of increasing needs for resources and services, coupled with demographic changes including the impending retirement of key professionals who have been major providers or decision makers. The social service workforce is defined as “an inclusive term describing the broad variety of different workers—paid and unpaid, governmental and non-governmental—that contribute to the care, support, promotion of rights and empowerment of vulnerable populations served by the social service system” (Bunkers, Bess, Collins, McCaffery, & Mendenhall, 2014, p. 1). The U.S. President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR, 2011) identified health systems strengthening as a priority programmatic and policy objective in the second 5-year cycle. Although social workers are included in the target goals for health workers, the social service system including social workers and related providers has garnered an independent focus as well. North–South bilateral partnerships are a common mechanism to strengthen health and social services in low-resource countries. Schools of social work and related programs may enter into partnerships with existing social work education programs from other countries, focusing on degree development, faculty development, teaching methods, and joint research efforts. Partnerships may be formalized through memorandums of understandings or more informally based on faculty relationships and connections. Through PEPFAR support, the American International Health Alliance’s Twinning Center program has paired schools of social work in the United States with schools of social work in Ethiopia, Nigeria, and Tanzania, among others. This chapter describes such a partnership, the Social Work Partnership for Orphans and Vulnerable Children in Tanzania, a joint effort of the Institute of Social Work (ISW) in Tanzania and the Jane Addams College of Social Work and the Midwest AIDS Training and Education Center at the University of Illinois at Chicago 16 4

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(hereafter referred to as JACSW/MATEC). The goals of the partnership include supporting the development of paraprofessional training and services while strengthening institutional infrastructure and capacity. By working closely with the established government social welfare system, the partnership seeks to increase the potential for country-made solutions and sustainability.

CON T E X T UA L DE V ELOPMEN T OF T HE TA NZ A NIA N SOCIA L WORK PA R T NERSHIP Tanzania resembles much of the developing world. More than 44% of the population of Tanzania is younger than 15 (World Population Review, 2016). More than 70% of the overall population lives in rural areas (Index Mundi, 2014), and a large proportion of the population experiences poor health and malnutrition-related conditions. Tanzania is a diverse nation with more than 120 officially recognized ethnic groups and cultures. Kiswahili is the national language spoken by 96% of the population, whereas those with at least secondary education speak English, and Arabic predominates in Zanzibar. Estimates indicate the population is almost 50% Muslim and 50% Christian on the mainland, and Zanzibar is 98% Muslim (U.S. Department of State, 2012). Care and support of vulnerable children is compounded because of poverty or when one or both parents die from HIV. Community social support systems are often insufficient to meet the demands. In Tanzania, the term most vulnerable children (MVC) is preferred to orphans and vulnerable children, which is regarded as labeling the child in a pejorative way. MVCs receive services through community volunteers who mainly work with nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and faithbased organizations in partnership with the government. However, the amount of training and support for these volunteers is quite variable. Despite government efforts to improve the legal framework for the protection of the rights of children, children are still vulnerable to violence, exploitation, neglect, and abuse. As this situation has become apparent, Tanzania has begun to improve its child protection systems, and 16 5

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the government has strengthened its District Child Protection System through the Department of Social Welfare (DSW) of the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare (MoHSW) in collaboration with UNICEF. The Law of the Child Act No. 21 of 20 November 2009 has been implemented by developing rules and regulations that are essential for the law’s application. Tanzania has a decentralized social welfare structure within MoHSW. Most public social welfare services are provided at district and local levels, with central government coordination supplemented by nongovernmental organization programs. These services mainly focus on individual and family levels, group and community levels, and more recently at the level of organizations. The government scheme of service indicates the social worker employed as a social welfare officer is called on when something in the area of basic social functioning threatens the life and development of a person as a social human being (Njimba, 2011). The MoHSW works closely with the Institute of Social Work (ISW), an academic institution to strengthen the social welfare workforce in Tanzania. The ISW was established in the early 1970s as the first government social welfare training institute in Tanzania, which in fact marks the beginning of formal social work in the country. ISW is nationally accredited to provide certificates, diplomas, and the bachelor’s and master’s degrees in social work, industrial relations, and human resources management as well as related postgraduate diplomas. ISW produces between 200 and 500 graduates per year in the field of social work. The Tanzania Social Work Association, established in 1982, seeks to stimulate, foster, and promote the growth of the social work profession in Tanzania, sharing knowledge and experience from various regions and encouraging participation in social policy. Increasing demand for social work professionals in Tanzania and the increase in postsecondary educational institutions prompted additional schools to offer or develop social work education in various locales. As requests to the Social Work Partnership for Orphans and Vulnerable Children in Tanzania to assist additional schools accrued, we agreed to assist these schools to develop programs meeting national and international standards. In 2012 the partnership 16 6

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launched the Tanzania Emerging Schools of Social Work Education Project to encourage universities and colleges to share information and harmonize and standardize their curricula to meet international criteria. The project has offered technical assistance and enhanced faculty development opportunities. Because potential faculty often lack social work backgrounds, workshops have helped them learn about social work functions and provide opportunities to advance their education to BSW and MSW levels. Bachelor degree curricula have been harmonized, and several schools, including the ISW, have developed MSW programs with help from the partnership (Linsk, Pittman, Rollin, Ngondi, & Mvungi, 2012). Deploying paraprofessionals may address the shortage of trained human resources in the health and social services sectors, particularly at lower levels where certified and trained social welfare officers are lacking. In Tanzania vacancy rates for professional social welfare positions range from 50% to 60%, and half of all workers leave their jobs within 5 years looking for higher pay or opportunities for promotion (United Republic of Tanzania, 2012). Paraprofessional training had been conducted on a limited basis in particular regions to promote equitable access to basic human rights and services and to improve service delivery to enhance the well-being of children and their families. The joint ISW and JACSW/MATEC partnership has been a vehicle to expand the development, implementation, and training of paraprofessionals to support MVCs and their families, as described next.

SOCIA L WORK T WINNING PA R T NERSHIP FOR ORPH A NS A ND V UL NER A BL E CHIL DREN IN TA NZ A NIA This joint partnership went through a number of phases to identify the needs for paraprofessional training, develop institutional relationships and curriculum and training structures, pilot the program, and proceed with wide-scale implementation. In addition, the project included monitoring and evaluation elements as well as efforts to spin off related programs and sustain the program over time. 167

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INITIATION PHASE (2006)

This partnership emerged from long-standing professional relationships adapted to the educational and service needs of the social welfare system in Tanzania. Theresa Kaijage and Nathan Linsk met originally at a Council on Social Work Education conference in New York in 2000, where they began to share a joint interest in social work services for people living with HIV. Kaijage expressed interest in how to adapt interventions to Tanzania, where she was on the faculty at ISW and was the founder of WAMATA (Walio Katika Mapambano na AIDS Tanzania—People in the Fight Against AIDS in Tanzania), the first AIDS service organization in the country. Kaijage closely followed Linsk’s participation in the Social Work Education in Ethiopia Partnership, an interinstitutional project that assisted with establishing graduate social work education in Ethiopia (Johnson Butterfield, Tasse, & Linsk, 2009), and invited him to come to Tanzania and use the model to help develop social work academic programs. The genesis of this partnership was this informal relationship but was augmented when representatives from the American International Health Alliance approached Linsk in 2006 to establish a partnership to work with existing social welfare institutions, including ISW, to enhance social welfare and educational programs. The alliance’s twinning model was used to help develop the principles and processes for the partnership, which was formalized through development of a work plan and updated annually. Tanzanian and U.S. partners developed and signed a memorandum of understanding specifying the ongoing collaboration among the institutions. Both institutions (ISW and JACSW/MATEC) have subgrants incorporating legal and operational arrangements. The project goal was to strengthen the institutional capacity of ISW to equip social workers and others with the knowledge and skills necessary to ensure delivery of comprehensive social services to children, especially those affected by HIV/AIDS in all districts of the country. Initial objectives were to improve the institutional capacity of ISW to deliver preservice social work education and to develop the capacity 16 8

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of social workers and para social workers to provide quality services to most vulnerable children through in-service training. As the project evolved, a third objective, to support the development of an infrastructure for para social workers who assist MVCs and their families in the community context, was added. The partnership team included faculty from ISW and JACSW/ MATEC. ISW leadership included a project director (currently Leah Omari), a coordinator, and a number of faculty members who helped develop the curriculum and training methods. JACSW/MATEC leadership included a principal investigator and project director, originally Nathan Linsk and now Sally Mason. Linsk presently serves as co-investigator and co-project director. Both partners involved students in support roles as research assistants and coordinators or to assist with data entry and analysis. In addition, a number of consultants with expertise in international social work have been integral to the project’s success, including Bernice “Bonnie” Lubin, Theresa Kaijage, and Zena Mabeyo who was the initial project director at ISW. They have been involved in curriculum conceptualization, training of trainers, and project implementation and evaluation.

PL A N N I N G PH A S E (2 0 0 6 –2 0 0 7)

Correll (2006) reviewed social welfare needs in Tanzania and made a number of recommendations including a twinning partnership to help develop ISW as the governmental social work training institution and a short-term training program for paraprofessionals. The report concluded that such a partnership could link community-based education with an internationally recognized social work program to enhance existing structures and address local needs through a well-trained and supervised workforce. The report concluded that the existing process, in which community members were responsible for assisting vulnerable children and people with HIV, was inadequate because the people involved lacked training in important skills such as child development and care, principles of psychosocial support, linking clients to health care services, and service coordination. The partnership has 16 9

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consistently been informed by needs expressed simultaneously from local, national, and international entities. An initial in-country visit in the fall of 2006 included a rapid assessment by the ISW faculty about training needs as well as needs for development of degree programs. This visit included important meetings with staff from the central office and a field office of DSW, which became a third partner in the collaboration and has been included in all planning and programs throughout to ensure collaboration with the government sector. The assistant commissioner overseeing child and family services specified the need for specific training for all in-service district social workers in issues related to MVCs, evaluation, reporting, and systems development (Mabeyo & Linsk, 2008). The planning phase began with curriculum development, which was a collaborative process between partners in both countries. By the end of the first U.S.-based visit, the partners made plans for initial training of social welfare officers, a symposium on best practices, a faculty development workshop, field instructor training, an agreement to provide assistance in developing bachelor’s- and master’s-level degree programs, and curriculum development for training paraprofessionals. Two important decisions were made during the planning process that affected the twinning partnership in all its subsequent iterations. The first was ensuring that the country context in terms of culture, training approaches, and community issues were incorporated into the schedule and systems of the training. Second, the team was committed to designing curricular material that accurately and comprehensively reflected the current knowledge of the field. A significant outcome of the planning visit was to develop a topical training outline for social welfare officers, which included human development, grief and loss, trauma, HIV/AIDS, counseling skills, case management, documentation, and legal and ethical issues. Tanzania faculty agreed to develop each of these topics with an assigned JACSW mentor. These modules became the basis for the community-based para social work curriculum. We developed a 10-day training program for community-level volunteers, who were 170

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dubbed para social workers to enable them to understand the needs required by MVCs at ward and village levels, and deliver services based on professional practice standards. The program provided the participants with opportunities to advance their education as well as acquire specific skills to help MVCs. In addition, these training sessions helped local authorities implement various laws and policies with regard to the care and support of vulnerable groups. This para social work training model included coordination, supervision, monitoring, and mobilizing resources that are necessary for the improvement of conditions of children and their families. In piloting the program, the partnership was designed to create a Tanzanian model training program that, ultimately, could and would be completely operated and staffed by trained Tanzanian faculty and trainers. From its inception, the Tanzanian social work faculty of the ISW and the JACSW/MATEC leadership were equal partners in the design and development of the curriculum and all other aspects of the training process. In this initial phase the training was closely facilitated by both partners. We launched a training of the trainer program shortly thereafter, which included a 10-day workshop and an opportunity for trainers to participate with faculty facilitators as a trainer preceptorship. Trainers were then assigned to train with greater autonomy, although always supervised by faculty facilitators. The program has maintained a core of 100 trainers who receive periodic update training and are overseen by faculty facilitators from ISW. The curriculum and implementation model are detailed in Linsk et al. (2010), Omari, Linsk, and Mason (in press, and the American International Health Alliance (2012). The overall program takes place over a 1-year period. Over time, the structure developed into a 9-day Introduction to Para Social Work (Para Social Work I) training session for locally based para social workers and their supervisors. Supervisors of para social workers receive an additional 4 days of training. The teams of para social workers and supervisors then return to their local areas for a 6-month field practicum, followed by a final workshop titled Practice Skills to Intervene With Most Vulnerable 171

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Children and Families in Special Circumstances (Para Social Work II) including an additional 5 days for para social workers and 8 hours for supervisors.

I M PL E M E N TAT I O N PH A S E (2 0 0 8 –PR E S E N T)

The partnership was founded on existing structures in Tanzania, which provided a natural road map for the project’s development. The ministry had organized the professional workforce into a vertically integrated system of care, including regional, district, and local levels of decision making and service oversight. Community-level involvement was assured through grassroots committees including Most Vulnerable Children Committees and Community Mobilization AIDS Committees. These community-based structures provide the source for recruits and continue to anchor the trainees in the system of care while providing linkage to the professional system. Ongoing training involved Tanzanian partners taking overall responsibility for training implementation, whereas the American partners functioned as advisers, providing little or no direct input into the training program. In this phase, both partners worked behind the scenes of the training programs but in tandem to critique and develop the curriculum contextually in the face of new data and new knowledge and greater understanding of results. The program was undergirded by several concepts. First, the model focused on case management rather than specific direct service delivery. Each para social worker was to assess needs, develop a service plan, refer the client to appropriate services or provide direct services, and follow-up on an as-needed basis. This was quite different from the approach of existing service programs where specific core services, such as food, school supplies, and so on, were delivered. Rather, the para social workers were taught to develop and broker services based on client needs. Second, the program was based on ongoing collaboration within the existing social welfare structure. Each para social worker was assigned to a corresponding social welfare officer, and they were encouraged to collaborate and consult as needed, whether 172

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or not the officer was the para social worker’s direct supervisor. Third, the program included an ongoing system for supervision, follow-up, and quality management. Primarily, this meant that supervisors were trained in the model as well as supervision approaches, and during implementation the para social workers and the supervisors were to report on and document the process on an ongoing basis. In terms of expansion and scaling up, the initial target of training for the project was 120 participants, but this was expanded to more than 300 by the end of the first year, with additional funding promised. However, as the program continued, the U.S. Agency for International Development set a target number of 5,000 para social workers to be trained, with an overall aim of having at least one para social worker per ward or village or more than 10,000 para social workers in all. A working meeting conference to review the program took place in March 2008 after the program had been implemented for about 18 months. The outcomes included support for further development of the model overall, enhanced marketing and communications, a career path with incentives, continued training updates for para social workers and supervisors, and support for trainers. In addition, plans were made for development of a formal certification system and to emphasize the importance of community- and family-based care rather than institutional care in an orphan home. Following this review meeting, the Intrahealth Capacity Human Resource Project, an international NGO previously involved in a variety of health-related programs, became a new partner with primary roles of recruitment and whose contributions included engaging local communities and providing operational support for training. ISW and JACSW/MATEC continued to participate in all trainings, oversaw the trainers as well as developed new ones, and maintained, refined, and developed curricula. Both partners participated in monitoring and evaluation activities. The scale-up model had the following elements. Working with all partners, specific regions of the country were selected as the focus each year. Partners conducted awareness training in each area for key stakeholders about the purpose and functions of the program. Training events often included about 60 participants for four districts 173

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at a time, so each event could include 240 participants (180 para social workers and 60 supervisors). A 4-year period was allocated for this scaling up. After the first year, four community agencies receiving funding from the U.S. Agency for International Development in Tanzania had para social work training incorporated into their scopes of work. These organizations, called Pamoja Tuwale (Together We Care) were each assigned specific geographic areas for their work. To create a career ladder, selected para social workers are invited to complete an expanded course to become social welfare assistants, spanning 9 months of course and field work. This course emphasizes social work processes with vulnerable populations including children, people affected by HIV, people with disabilities, and older adults as well as supervisory skills for supporting para social workers and other community workers. These workers are to be hired by the MoHSW as social welfare assistants at the ward or village level, and their responsibilities include supervision of para social workers in their geographic area. Although para social workers help fill a social service gap at the local level, they do not meet criteria in terms of hours of training for government employment, so training for the Social Welfare Assistant Certificate was developed by the ISW in collaboration with the MoHSW. Approved by Tanzania’s Civil Service Commission in 2009, the social welfare assistant was a new social service role for social welfare at the ward level and is regarded as a career ladder for selected para social workers. The Social Welfare Assistant Certificate program was instituted in October 2012 and has graduated more than 140 students to date. A number of approaches were used to develop ongoing support for participants. The para social workers organized and registered their own association, the Para Social Worker Network of Tanzania, which is a forum for advocacy, resources, and networking, and has been key when additional training is made available to the workers through ISW. Continued update training occurs annually, providing para social workers with the opportunity to reconnect with trainers and ISW faculty while obtaining current or enhanced knowledge for service provision. Additional support includes funding for staff time in Tanzania, exchanges in country and in the United States, 174

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and in-country activities including all aspects of para social work. The U.S. Agency for International Development has also funded scholarships for promising para social workers and their supervisors to attend the year-long social welfare certificate program conducted by the ISW. In Tanzania the MoHSW’s DSW has been the main government partner with some engagement also with the Ministry of Education and Civil Service, and the Ministry of Community Development.

PRO JECT E VA LUATION The project used a number of quantitative and qualitative approaches for monitoring and evaluating the training. At each training, participants completed pre- and postassessments of their knowledge and practice patterns (Linsk et al., 2010). Para social workers were asked to complete monthly reports of services provided, which were shared with supervisors. In addition, field visits were conducted following the first training in selected districts that tracked para social work practices. Since the program’s inception 2,632 people in Tanzania have completed Para Social Work I training, a 6-month fieldwork practicum, and the Para Social Work II training, thus qualifying as para social workers. In addition, 2,050 are in training or have completed Para Social Work I training. We have also trained 743 supervisors and 103 trainers. Of Tanzania’s 30 regions we have conducted training in 11 regions with the highest prevalence areas for HIV and child vulnerability, ranging geographically from large metropolitan areas to smaller districts, as well as modified training in Zanzibar. Field visits during the 6-month fieldwork practicum yielded information on the para social workers’ activities. The most common services provided were psychosocial support and educational assistance, including advocating for children’s school attendance and assistance with school fees. Other services focused on shelter, health resources, nutrition, and legal protection.

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A DA P TAT I O N A N D E X PA N S I O N I N E T H I O PI A , N I G E R I A , AND ZA MBIA

The Tanzania para social work approach has been adapted to varying degrees in at least three other countries. In 2008 we established the Triangle Partnership, bringing together ISW with Ethiopia’s Addis Ababa University Graduate School of Social Work and JACSW/ MATEC for mutual strengthening activities. A key portion was the adaptation of the Tanzanian para social work program in Ethiopia. After an in-depth needs assessment, the program was refined to focus on people living with HIV. In Ethiopia the participants were known as psychosocial care workers (PSCWs), in part to distinguish them from other emerging professional groups in the country. This project was active for 3 years, during which time 83 MSW students were trained as trainers, and 420 PSCWs were trained by the MSW trainers in addition to PSCW supervisors who were primarily from NGOs around the country. The project was also replicated and adapted in Nigeria, working closely with two schools, the Federal School of Social Work in Emene, Enugu State, and the Social Work Department at the University of Nigeria in Nsukka. This adaptation involved faculty participation through visits to the Tanzania program followed by curriculum development meetings, which occurred over a 1-month period. This process was facilitated by senior faculty from Tanzania and the JACSW/MATEC faculty and staff involved in previous East Africa programs. A pilot rollout was initiated to test the revised curriculum and train the mentors and trainers. The resulting program built on elements of the previous programs that were adapted to Nigerian culture, resources, and the characteristics of its national HIV epidemic. Another offshoot para social work program was established in 2013 in Zambia, which worked closely with the Social Work Association of Zambia and the School of Social Work at the University of Zambia.

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CRITICA L REFL ECTION A ND DISCUS SION OF T HE PROMISING PRINCIPL ES Although the project has been successful overall, a number of challenges and issues emerged over time, including keeping the content relevant to the country and the cultural context at the community level, for example, attitudes toward authority such as the police, gender issues, family violence, and issues of child discipline and sexual attitudes. Although the Tanzania partners often requested input from the U.S. partners on such issues as child development, trauma, death, and loss, it was challenging to relate this content in language and in concepts that crossed cultural boundaries. In addition, translating languages posed challenges. Although Tanzanian trainees are expected to be fluent in Kiswahili, for many it is not their first language. Consequently, written and oral communication needed clarity and often translating. Even more challenging is meeting the need for ongoing translation of the curriculum material, especially when translated from English to Kiswahili, a language that uses the same terms for several concepts. As an example, social work terms such as attachment and caregiver could not be directly translated or understood without considerable elaboration. We have arranged the remaining discussion within the framework of four of the book’s overarching principles.

UNDERSTANDING GOVERNMENT, POLITICS, AND LOCAL INITIATIVES: FRAMING THE PROGRAM IN CONTEXT

The MoHSW through its DSW was involved in every stage of the program. Exchanges included visits to the ministry’s national, district, and regional offices, and the department staff was asked for recommendations for training and program development. Department personnel wrote significant sections of the curriculum and provided a trainer at the pilot training and at many of the subsequent training sessions as well. Two U.S.-based exchange visits involved the commissioners 177

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of social welfare and focused on learning about U.S. models, understanding the twinning partnership concept, presenting at national meetings, and helping develop the social welfare assistant program in particular. Officials at the DSW also provided input regarding documentation and recording using national recording frameworks and were frequently invited to opening and closing ceremonies as guests of honor. All this occurred to obtain ongoing acceptance and support and to help institutionalize the program at the national level. In spite of these positive efforts on all sides, ongoing support and participation were subject to the realities of resource limitations, leadership and staff changes, and shifting policies. Leadership changes within the MoHSW included several retirements, and the first commissioner involved in the program died during the second year of the program, followed by a transition period with no permanent positions. Their replacements were enthusiastic and engaged, but they had many other priorities to attend to, so the program did not always take center stage. Although the department eagerly promoted the scheme of services for social welfare assistants as advanced paraprofessionals eligible for employment in government, once the program was launched, hiring has been slow in part because of the decentralization of the hiring authority as well as involvement of other government agencies such as civil service. The relationship between the DSW and the ISW had many other components, and in fact the ISW was officially designated as the primary DSW training institute. However, the two entities have different focuses—one on service delivery and the other on education. Another issue has been navigating the roles of local versus district and national governments. Tanzania has been in the process of devolution whereby the local government is assuming greater roles in a number of areas including social welfare. To this extent, funding, staffing, and training decisions are made at local ward, village, and municipal levels. The country also includes district and regional administrations, so many actors are involved in addressing child protection, family, and community issues. To address this, we recruited local and district officials as participants, speakers, advisers, and trainers and provided 178

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awareness training before beginning programming in any district. As the long-term impact of the program depends on local participation and support, this was an important component of making the partnership a success. Program start-up was accelerated given that government funders mandated that this program be designed for “ just-in-time” implementation to enable the para social workers to get into the field as quickly as possible. This meant a highly concentrated training schedule was necessary to launch the para social workers with supervision as well as the need for ongoing monitoring and support. There was strong pressure from PEPFAR funders not only to begin the program quickly but also to expand almost instantaneously. The result was great excitement about the program, but the need to revise and update the curriculum has been constant as well as issues about the ideal length and format of training. A balance was necessary between providing needed support and ensuring that motivation for training and field work was sincere. Too often it appeared that participants’ motivation was merely to obtain a certificate to add another item to their curriculum vitae, or worse yet, to come to training to obtain the modest per diem provided for accommodations, meals, and transport. Clearly the per diem and materials were quite important to participants, and government guidelines were followed in this regard, but issues of payment emerged consistently during training. Such monetary support needs to be as clear as possible from the start. Even though delivering locally based social services was the purpose of the program, we recognized that participants also come to training with hopes for future employment and education, and that these expectations increase as the workers develop expertise. The need for a career ladder for paraprofessionals in social services has been a key issue in designing and implementing training and service programs (Linsk, 2014).

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EXPLORING THE ENGAGEMENT AND PARTNERSHIP PROCESS: OWNING THE WORK

The Tanzania social work twinning partnership continues as an ongoing program that includes multiple partners. This collaborative approach across several institutions has had many successes but also experienced challenges in funding issues, donor priorities, and issues about who owns the work and the data that emerges from the work as well. Funding for this project was from the U.S. government’s PEPFAR program, which operates in 5-year cycles, each with its own priorities and focuses. During the initial period when this project was launched, a substantial amount was set aside was to enhance services for children and families, especially those affected by HIV. The project was funded under this umbrella, but the amount of focus on HIV issues per se has varied. Initially a rapid response was indicated, but in the second PEPFAR cycle, more focus was on systems development, and at that time the project expanded from direct service and related training to association development and development of educational programs. The consequences for the project were fortuitous in that additional components emerged to help establish degree programs and professional networks on system levels. However, although the focus on community-based training by schools of social work remained a major priority, the para social work program now had to take its place among other ongoing projects, and the ISW had to take its place alongside other educational programs. Given that this occurred at the same time the project began to move from a bilateral partnership to one where the Tanzanian partners assumed more leadership and the U.S. partners became more consultative, the dynamics of these changes remain somewhat complex. Future projects need to take account of ongoing policy and funding priority changes and plan for shifting priorities from the start. The trusting relationships between our partners have enabled us to continue to develop the program in mutually satisfying ways. Although each of the educational institutions had its own priorities, PEPFAR priorities also played a changing role, which was made more complex as multiple U.S. government agencies were involved 18 0

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in-country. In addition, a number of government agencies in Tanzania were involved including the DSW as an ongoing partner. However, the Ministry of Education and Civil Service also had roles in accreditation and hiring issues for social welfare assistants, and the Ministry of Community Development played a key role in coordinating with local government. During the program, policy stances also changed and influenced service delivery. As reported earlier, the new comprehensive Law of the Child Act No. 21 of 20 November 2009 was implemented as well as a Costed Plan for Services to children and families, and national HIV plans among others. Hence, the partners had to answer to many bosses who all shaped the program in various ways, particularly its ongoing institutionalization and sustainability. In terms of who owned the products of the program, compromises were needed. As a PEPFAR program, all products are available to all according to its policy. However, the curricula also had to be approved in-country to varying extents by various accreditation agencies. The schools of social work also assumed ownership or at least authorship of the materials with their own institutional review processes, and the American International Health Alliance, which had the grant for funding the project, ultimately had to manage any related ownership issues. U.S. government agencies also had requirements for nonresearch review that needed to be adhered to before any publications or presentations. The evaluation plan called for multiple assessments and reporting. In general, data instruments were developed by the group, implemented during and after training by the ISW with MATEC help, and MATEC developed analysis plans and did most of the data analysis with the objective of turning it over to local partners. Obtaining consistent and complete data has been a challenge, particularly in ensuring the data had no identifying information. This was addressed through technical assistance and regular communication; however, the fact that the program developed and changed over time has made consistent recording difficult.

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BUILDING SUSTAINABILITY FROM THE START: DEVELOPING LOCAL LEADERSHIP

The usual international development approach is to provide technical support to develop a program and then try to shift responsibility to local partners. However, this implementation and fade-out approach has several flaws. As we observed in this project, the more success the program had, the more demand occurred for more activity and input, which diluted project funding and time and effort. What is more, local in-country partners likely have other pressing demands and priorities such as teaching, accreditation, and individual needs for funding. Therefore, local partners may need considerable support to take advantage of new funding opportunities, networking with donors, and more direct funding that may lead to sustainability. To address these issues, a sustainability approach was developed that tried to engage both partners in equal ways from the outset. This joint partnership model was employed throughout the project, focusing on building in-country capacity to manage and lead the project. Increasingly, in-country leadership took management and decision-making roles in the project; however, there was a need for ongoing engagement throughout the course of the project at all time periods for partners in the United States and in Africa. This was made more complex by the shifting funding resources and priorities previously discussed. Efforts to build the sustainability of the project focused on clarity about sustainability development from the beginning. The annual work plan focused on building in sustainability, evaluation, and technology transfer and was revised each year as needed. In addition, there were frank discussions about transparency about budget resources and challenges. The design of the project called for recruiting and training volunteers as para social workers who would be supervised by the social welfare assistants who received additional education. DSW committed to participate in the education of the social welfare assistants and then employ them at the local level. The hopeful outcome of this plan was that the program would thus be self-sustaining and built into the budgets of DSW and ISW. This has partially occurred on a limited basis 18 2

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because of decentralized hiring practices. As a result, the program is still dependent in part on external funding, but this type of hybrid sustainability is a step beyond what often occurs in shorter term project implementation.

BR I NGI NG LEAR NI NG HOME: THE I NTER NATIONAL– DOMESTIC I NTER FACE

Exchanges, in-country and in the United States, were initially at the core of the partnership. They provided opportunities to work together intensively and develop relationships that sustained the work while partners were apart. Exchanges allowed African colleagues to observe social services and participate short term in social work education in the United States. African team members often visited classes as participants or guest lecturers. In-country exchanges immersed the U.S. team in the context of culture, social work education, and practice, which strengthened our ability to support our African colleagues in adapting Western practices and theories to their country. Through connections made in the social work education programs in Tanzania and Ethiopia, several people came to pursue doctoral studies in the United States. They brought their experience to the classrooms, giving students the opportunity to hear and think about work in low-resource countries. Additionally, some of the African students taught social work courses or provided guest lectures bringing their unique perspective. The U.S. team members were dispersed across several schools, thus expanding the potential for bringing learning to American social work students as team members returned from exchanges in Africa and shared experiences. Scholarly dissemination has been an ongoing endeavor. African colleagues have increasingly expressed an interest in conference presentations and scholarly writing. Most of these endeavors have occurred jointly, with someone from either side of the partnership offering to take the lead and others in supporting roles, and our intention has always been to build capacity in this area. Increasingly, African colleagues express an interest in writing and publishing; however, their 18 3

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multiple commitments and the reduced number of exchanges to work together effectively have made this objective challenging. Additionally, as we aim to produce data-driven manuscripts, we have struggled with having the resources in-country for data collection and sharing with the U.S. team for analysis.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR INTERNATIONAL SOCIAL WORK Because para social work is rooted at the community level, it models community participation within a professional context. Para social work that is integrated into existing cultural, governmental, and educational resources may provide a way to meet the needs of vulnerable populations especially where professional staff is not available. However, para social workers when given adequate education, supervision, and support bring unique strengths and assets to work with clients based on their own perspective and experience. We offer the following recommendations for implementing this kind of program in a joint academic and social welfare context. First, to establish continuity and sustainability, program development needs to be institutionally and governmentally anchored rather than relying on relationships with individual actors who may be excellent faculty champions but who may not be available over time. In short, we need to anticipate changes in leadership and design our programs accordingly. Second, although programs may be adapted from other sources, training platforms and curricula need to be retailored based on local capacity, expertise, and experience. As programs are piloted, they will need to be further refined based on initial evaluation results. Third, local partners will need initial and continuing modeling, encouragement, and support, especially as they take on responsibility for ongoing program implementation. Fourth, continued collaboration and evaluation will further programs such as the community-based para social work model within an educationally appropriate social welfare system. Finally, programs require a sustainability plan that includes replacement training, supervision, and encouraging further education and career development. 18 4

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CONCLUSION Developing, implementing, and scaling up a paraprofessional social work education program in the African context requires vision, collaboration, and sustainable resources. Although key stakeholders may initially buy into or even play key roles in conceptualizing the program, these commitments certainly may waiver over time from changes in leadership, policies, or priorities. Forming partnerships with developing schools of social work offers an opportunity to share ideas, participate in mutual learning, and evaluate effectiveness. However, the relationships between multiple players are complex and need nurturing, clear communication, and support throughout. This chapter has shown how a promising practice—para social work—has been successfully developed and implemented and sustained over several years. Our hope is that the program can be incorporated into emerging social service systems not only as a way to fill gaps in staffing but also as an ongoing link among communities, social welfare institutions, and a country’s MVCs and their families.

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REFERENCES American International Health Alliance. (2012). Para social worker training program manual & curricula. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from http:// www.aiha.com/tanzania-para-social-work-training-program-curriculum/ Bess, A., López, L., & Tomaszewski, E. (2011). Investing in those who care for children: Social welfare workforce strengthening conference report. Washington, DC: U.S. Agency for International Development. Bunkers, K., Bess, A., Collins, A., McCaffery, J. & Mendenhall, M. (2014). The composition of the social service workforce in HIV/AIDS-affected contexts. Washington, DC: Capacity Plus/Intrahealth International. Correll, L. (2006). Family Health International trip report. Unpublished manuscript. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Davis, R., McCaffrey, J., & Conticini, A. (2012). Strengthening child protection systems in Sub-Saharan Africa: A working paper. Washington, DC: Inter-Agency Group on Child Protection Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa. Government of Tanzania. (2009). Law of the Child Act No. 21 of 20 November 2009. http://www.ilo.org/aids/legislation/WCMS_151287/lang--en/index.htm Index Mundi. (2014). Tanzania—rural population. Retrieved from http://www. indexmundi.com/facts/tanzania/rural-population International Association of Schools of Social Work. (2015). About IASSW: Overview. Retrieved from http://www.iassw-aiets.org/about-iassw Johnson Butterfield, A. K., Tasse, A., & Linsk, N. (2009). The Social Work Education in Ethiopia Partnership. In C. E. Stout (Ed.), The new humanitarians: Inspiration, innovations, and blueprints for visionaries (Vol. 2, pp. 57–83). Westport, CT: Praeger. Linsk, N. L (2014). Strengthening families through para-professionals in the social serviceworkforce.Retrievedfromhttp://www.socialserviceworkforce.org/resources/ strengthening-families-through-para-professionals-social-service-workforce Linsk, N. L., Mabeyo, Z., Omari, L., Petras, D., Lubin, B., Abate, A., & Mason, S. (2010). Para-social work to address most vulnerable children in sub-Sahara Africa: A case example in Tanzania. Children and Youth Services Review, 32, 990–997. 18 6

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Linsk, N. L., Pittman, S., Rollin, J. Ngondi, N., & Mvungi, A. (2012) Creating an emerging social work education consortium: Tanzanian example. Panel Presentation at Annual Program Meeting of Council on Social Work Education, Washington, DC. November 10, 2012. Mabeyo, Z. M., & Linsk, N. L. (2008, May). The social work HIV/AIDS partnership for orphans and vulnerable children in Tanzania. Workshop conducted at the meeting of HIV/AIDS 2008: A Social Work Response, Washington, DC. Njimba, C. (2011). History of social work in Tanzania. Unpublished manuscript. Institute of Social Work, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Omari, L., Linsk, N. L., & Mason, S. (in press). Strengthening Tanzania’s social welfare workforce: Training para social workers to provide ongoing support services to vulnerable children and families. In M. Gray (Ed.), The handbook of social work and social development in Africa. New York, NY: Routledge. Tovo, M., Prywes, M., Kielland, A., Gibbons, C., & Saito, J. (2005). Toolkit for programming assistance to orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) in Sub-Saharan Africa (Social Safety Nets Primer Notes No. 17). Washington, DC: World Bank United Republic of Tanzania. (2012). Assessment of the social welfare workforce in Tanzania. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: Ministry of Health and Social Welfare, Department of Social Welfare. U.S. Department of State. (2012). Tanzania 2012 international religious freedom report. Retrieved from http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/208416.pdf U.S. President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief. (2011). About PEPFAR. Retrieved from http://www.pepfar.gov/about/index.htm Walter, U. M., & Petr, C. G. (2006). Lessons from the research on paraprofessionals for attendant care in children’s mental health. Community Mental Health Journal, 42, 459–475. doi:10.1007/sl0597-006-9051 World Population Review. (2016). Tanzania population 2016. Retrieved from http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/tanzania-population

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CHAPTER 9

PROFES SION A L EDUCATION POSTUNIVERSITY TRAINING

M A RY E L I Z A BE T H C OL L I N S

This chapter examines the design and implementation of postgraduate education programs (often called professional development programs in the United States). Examples from a Fulbright experience in Vietnam are provided. The profession of social work is at an earlier developmental stage in Vietnam in comparison to the United States. There is currently substantial interest and activity to further the development of a social work workforce. Some of this involves professional education and qualification in the university setting. Other activities may involve training of the existing workforce, particularly those who are already doing critical work in the field but may not have had opportunities for university-based professional education. During my 10-month fellowship I delivered three 1-day training workshops and one half-day workshop. This chapter provides a description of these efforts, reflections on the role of professional development activities globally, and lessons for other international social work educators. The observations and insights reported here are based on my experience in Vietnam during a 10-month fellowship through the Core Fulbright U.S. Scholar Program. During this time I was engaged as a visiting professor in a department of social work at a Vietnamese 18 8

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university. In this role I attended meetings of the social work department, co-taught a social work course for undergraduate students, and provided numerous lectures, faculty development workshops, and community training sessions. In the Fulbright application process, information regarding social work lecturing fellowships in Vietnam indicated the need for a primary interest in faculty development. My background reading and preparation led me to understand that social work was a developing profession in Vietnam and that the government had committed to increasing the number of social workers to meet the recognized social needs of the country. This is discussed further in the literature review. For some countries, the Fulbright program requires or recommends that the fellowship applicant have a letter of invitation from the host setting. In other countries, including Vietnam, the program does not require, or prefer, this groundwork. Rather administrators want to place the Fulbright lecturers in settings where they see a match. Thus, in my application I requested either of the two major universities in the urban centers of Hanoi or Ho Chi Minh City. I do not know the exact internal workings of making the selection, but my materials were shared with the relevant university administrators (Department of Social Work, University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vietnam National University in Ho Chi Minh City), and I was selected. In this chapter I describe the part of this experience that focused on professional development training.

T HE LIT ER AT URE ON PROFES SION A L DE V ELOPMEN T Ongoing professional development is a critical component of the social work profession. In the United States, the National Association of Social Workers (NASW, 2015) “views professional development as an essential activity for ensuring quality social work services” (p. 1). This is described by the NASW as a self-directed process through which individual social workers assume responsibility for their own professional knowledge base. As a matter of professional ethics, social workers are required “to keep informed of current research, theory, 18 9

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and techniques that guide social work practice to better serve clients and constituents” (NASW, 2015, p. 1). The NASW (2002) has detailed standards for continuing professional education. Professional development takes many forms, one of which is “formally organized learning events,” described by NASW standards as involving interaction with a teacher for the purpose of accomplishing specific learning objectives. Courses, workshops, practice-oriented seminars, staff development, and training activities offered by accredited programs of social work education, NASW chapters, and other providers of continuing education are examples of events (p. 4). Continuing education courses are typically required for licensure, although the specific requirements vary in different states. Many U.S. social work programs offer some form of professional development for those working in the field who have already received their social work degrees. Yet, despite the importance of professional development and its widespread acceptance in many countries, the knowledge base is limited. Furthermore, there is virtually no coherent international body of knowledge on this topic. One North American professional journal is devoted to continuing education: Professional Development: The International Journal of Continuing Social Work Education. Review of journal contents suggests that not all articles are strictly focused on continuing education, although they generally have implications for continuing education. Furthermore, most of the articles are U.S. focused with some contributions from Canada and Mexico. For example, Carter, Leslie, and Angell (2011) describe program development at the University of Windsor that centers on integration of disability studies into social work education. This journal has also published results of surveys of continuing education programs (Cochran & Landuyt, 2010, 2011), which is a helpful effort to understand the field of continuing education. These studies report results of a survey of members of the Continuing Education Network, a committee of the Council on Social Work Education. Members are from the United States and Canada. Results identified characteristics of continuing education programs, 19 0

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their administrative infrastructures, the number and topics of workshops offered, and other descriptors of the programs. This information is helpful for establishing a baseline understanding of continuing education as a field. No effort has yet been made to expand data collection to other countries. The journal Social Work Education is published in the United Kingdom but aims for an international scope. This journal “presents a forum for international debate on important issues and provides an opportunity for the expression of new ideas and proposals on the structure and content of social care and social work education, training and development” (Social Work Education, n.d.). Reviewing contents of the journal suggests a primarily British and Western European focus, with some articles from other regions. Some of the articles are examples of professional development events in individual countries and the lessons learned. For example, Weyers and Herbst (2011) report on a training study in Namibia; Beddoe (2011) reports on continuing education in New Zealand focused on research-informed practice; and Sullivan, Forrester, and Al-Makhamreh (2010) describe the evaluation of a social work training workshop in Jordan. Often missing from these disparate accounts is the idea of continuing education itself (rather than the content) and the extent to which it requires adaptation in different contexts. As with most aspects of globally focused education, professional education in many ways may be distinct in different settings. One helpful study in relation to this inquiry examines the professionalism of social work, more generally, across a range of international settings. Weiss-Gal and Welbourne (2008) compare the professional features of social work across 10 countries: Chile, Germany, Hungary, India, Mexico, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom, and the United States. Situating their study within the literature on professions, they identify two traditions for examining professions: the attribute approach (Does the profession have the requisite attributes of a profession?) and the power approach (Does the profession have control over the work it does?). One of the attributes of a profession is related to the type of education required; professions require distinct, specialized, and lengthy education to master needed knowledge and skills for practice. 191

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In each of the 10 countries studied, social work has created a distinct educational system, but there is variation regarding the requirements of a BSW versus MSW and the duration of bachelor’s-level training. The authors do not discuss continuing professional education, however. In other comparisons related to professional organizations and ethical standards, they note that enforceable licensing regulations, restrictions on the use of the social work title, sanctions for ethical violation, and control over training and entrance into the profession varied across the countries (Weiss-Gal & Welbourne, 2008). Another comparative study examined differences and similarities in social work curricula and regulatory and ethical requirements in Canada, England, and South Africa (Spolander, Pullen-Sansfaçon, Brown, & Engelbrecht, 2011). The authors found that although the social work programs examined were all members of the International Federation of Social Workers, there were many differences in training and regulation of the professions across the three countries. They conclude that even though documents regarding international standards, accepted definitions, and value bases for the profession provide a foundation for social work education globally (International Association of Schools of Social Work & International Federation of Social Workers, 2012), social work education and practice exists within the specific context related to laws, culture, values, and organizations. In summary, continuing education programs, beyond university degree programs, are an important and recognized part of professional training in social work. There is very limited information regarding the international character of these programs. Global content appears scattered throughout several journals focused on social work education and training. As in other aspects of social work education, we can expect differential approaches in various international contexts. The experience described in this chapter adds to our understanding of professional development in a global context.

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VIE T N A M A ND SOCIA L WORK I had no personal or professional relationships in Vietnam prior to my Fulbright experience. To broaden my own perspective and increase my knowledge and skill related to diverse populations, I deliberately sought an experience in a non-Western setting. I was limited by my lack of a second language and found most of my options were in Asia or Africa (as opposed to Latin America). I also sought a country in which social work was a key field of interest for the Fulbright program. After considerable investigation, Vietnam became my top choice. In preparing my project proposal, I did research about social work in Vietnam as well as policies and approaches to child welfare (my substantive area). Once I was awarded the fellowship, I did extensive reading regarding larger historical, cultural, and societal issues. I also began language lessons before I left the United States, and I continued my language study throughout my stay in Vietnam. Although social work is widespread across all continents, in many countries, including Vietnam, the process of establishing the profession of social work is fairly recent and “still unfolding” (Taylor, Stevens, & Lan, 2009, p. 30). Hugman, Lan, and Hong (2007) and Taylor, Stevens, and Lan (2009) provide some excellent background material about the status of the social work profession in Vietnam, its importance, strengths, and challenges. For example, Hugman et al. describe recent processes of industrialization, modernization, and creation of a market economy that have brought several social benefits, such as poverty reduction, to Vietnam. In 1986 Vietnam restructured its economy, moving from a centrally planned economy to one that has at least some characteristics of a market economy. Over the past two decades it has had one of the bestperforming economies in the world (although more recently, it is slowing). Economic growth has improved the well-being of many. UNICEF (2011) reported data that identified a poverty rate of 15% in 2008, down from 58% in 1993. But progress has been uneven; more than half the ethnic minority population lives in poverty. Vietnam had reached lowermiddle-income status in 2010 and made substantial progress toward achieving the United Nations’ Millennium Development Goals at the 19 3

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national level by the deadline year of 2015. Vietnam fully achieved three goals: eradicating extreme poverty and hunger; achieving universal primary education; and promoting gender equality. Progress was made on other goals such as reducing infant mortality, improving maternal health, combatting HIV/AIDS and other diseases, ensuring environmental sustainability, and developing global partnerships for development (Socialist Republic of Viet Nam, 2015). Similar to experiences in other countries, rapid industrialization led to new social problems that are recognized as major concerns in Vietnamese social policy and categorized as requiring social protection of some groups (e.g., children, disabled, older people) and combating what are referred to as social evils (trafficking, HIV/AIDS, drug misuse, prostitution, and crime). As part of the response to these social problems, there has been increased attention to social work as a professional activity. The traditional forms of assistance provided by family and community have become severely strained. Professional social work is needed to support and supplement these informal networks of aid. Some reports of social work history in Vietnam begin only with the more recent attention of the government to supporting social work so that it might address social evils (Hugman, Lan, & Hong, 2007, p. 197), but in fact social work began in Vietnam much earlier. Oanh (2002) and Durst (2010) provide additional detail about this earlier history of social work, which included institutional care models (e.g., orphanages and care homes for elderly and people with disabilities) established by Catholic missionaries as part of the French colonial influence. During the years that the country was divided, social work and social welfare institutions developed rapidly in the south but not in the north. After reunification and establishment of the Communist society, the schools of social work in the south were closed. With the modernization of the economy, however, and resulting social changes, the need for social work has been apparent. According to Nguyen (2002), “Vietnam is confronted with the whole range of problems connected with modernization, and they are developing faster than expected” (p. 88). These problems include rural and urban poverty, rural-urban migration leading to problems of street 19 4

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children, exploitation of women in prostitution, national and international trafficking of women, substance and drug abuse, HIV/ AIDS, and child neglect and abuse. International nongovernmental associations, such as UNICEF, have been instrumental in identifying the lack of social workers as a major gap in providing social protection measures for the most vulnerable children. Consequently, in the early 1990s a few university-based educational programs began to open. In the south, the Women’s Studies Department of Open University in Ho Chi Minh City was the first to provide 2-year diploma training in social work in 1992 and later a 4-year degree with a practice component in 2001 (Durst, 2010). Nguyen Thi Oanh (known as Madame Oanh) was a major leader of later social work developments; she was instrumental in the development of the social work program at Open University and created World Social Work Day in Vietnam (November 1997). Her writing (Oanh, 2002) discusses some of the key features of Vietnamese social work. It is important to note that the Vietnamese term for social work is a general term that includes all good and charitable works anyone can do. Oanh (2002) also writes that there is no contradiction between social work values and the socialist orientation of Vietnam. Rather, what is lacking are strategies to implement the shared goals. Open University established a robust relationship with social work education programs in the United States beginning in the 1990s, hosting a number of social work educators to collaborate with its classroom and field faculty (Forgey, Cohen, & Chazin, 2003) In 2010 the Vietnamese government officially classified social work as a profession and allocated some money to develop a national program to train thousands of social workers and develop a network of services. All this activity has led to substantial efforts to develop a social work workforce. There are now about 30–40 BSW programs in the country and at least one MSW program, which is in Hanoi. Additionally, the Vietnamese Association of Social Work was formed and sanctioned in 2011.

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T HE PROFES SION A L DE V ELOPMEN T PRO JECT INITIATION PHASE

The Vietnam Fulbright program identified social work as an area of interest and also identified the need for faculty development activities rather than teaching students, for example. Thus, my program proposal included a relevant aim to “provide consultation regarding educational infrastructure related to curriculum (development, implementation, evaluation) and faculty development.” It took me awhile to understand that most of the faculty did not have degrees in social work and they had varying degrees of understanding of social work and commitment to social work education. In and outside the university, social work is often confused with volunteer work. I expected some adjustment to my project aims after arriving in Vietnam and engaging in discussion with my hosts. A critical adjustment was that rather than consultation, I was put in the role of expert giving a series of workshops. I found when I arrived that the Department of Social Work at my host university had a Center for Counseling and Social Work Practices. One of the major activities of the center was to offer short-term training courses mostly for people working in the field. Therefore, the workshops I designed were delivered through the auspices of this university-affiliated center for social work training, largely equivalent to professional development programs aimed at postbachelor’s-level training on distinct topics and skills. One early indication of the challenge was the suggestion that I teach a workshop on parenting skills. I was very reluctant to do this knowing that parenting is highly related to culture and that I had been in the country about 1 week. I did suggest this might be offered with a co-presenter who was Vietnamese. This was not acceptable to the hosts, and eventually we settled on a series of workshops in which I was the sole presenter and that I felt comfortable delivering.

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PL A N N I N G PH A S E

In general, I sought to be responsive to my host university and continually tried to meet its needs as long as I had at least moderate knowledge of the topics they wanted me to address. I was committed to the principle that they knew best what was needed for the development of the social work workforce. In the early stages of the fellowship experience I visited several youth-serving organizations to learn about the services available to young people, the operations of the programs, and particular issues facing youths and the agencies that serve them. I specifically inquired about the training topics that would be of greatest use to program staff. Eventually, three topics were determined for the professional development workshops: group work (2 days), program evaluation (1 day), and teaching social policy for social workers (a half day). Each of these required a written description (following a prescribed format) including learning objectives, which was submitted to the university administration for approval. The Center for Counseling and Social Work Practices arranged for marketing the event, registration of participants, refreshments, and certificates of completion.

I M PL E M E N TAT I O N PH A S E

Although I attempted to establish prerequisites for participation in the workshops (e.g., working in social service settings, interest in establishing groups or evaluating programs), they were not enforced. There was great demand for any kind of professional learning opportunities from international experts. Moreover, the administrators of the training center wanted as many participants as possible (there was a fee for participating that was paid to the training center). Thus, in reality, I had no control over registration requirements, and the audience was a diverse group in terms of experience. Many did not work in youth settings, most were not in positions that required program evaluation nor were they educators, and some were college students in social work with no experience beyond volunteering. 197

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The modality of delivery involved a range of standard training activities that included handouts and some use of PowerPoint slides to provide informational content. Most of the written materials (handouts and slides) were translated into Vietnamese and distributed to participants. There was an extensive use of exercises, small-group discussions, and role playing. I was repeatedly told that ice-breakers and games were an expected part of training activities. Graciously, the interpreters of the workshops handled these parts of the training. They knew the types of activities that would be well-received by the audience, and indeed this was a critical and successful part of the training. Microphones are commonly used in presentations in Vietnam, even in fairly small settings such as classrooms and seminars. This kept me tethered to the front of the room (not optimal for circulating among participants), and the sound quality was uneven. The participants were accustomed to the setting, heat, and noise, and I adapted, so although these issues might have greatly disrupted a training program in the United States, they did not appear to interfere with the training session in Vietnam. Language translation was necessary, so the delivery was in English with a Vietnamese-speaking translator. The audience appeared accustomed to translation, and many participants had some knowledge of the English language. By the time of the first workshop I had been in the country for almost 4 months and had given presentations to faculty, lectured in classrooms, and made presentations in other university settings. I had also attended talks given by other speakers (both Vietnamese and guests from other countries). It was very common to witness substantial distractions among the audience members. Talking among participants was typical. Use of phones for texting and making and receiving calls was also frequent. There were no efforts to hide these behaviors. I was initially stunned by this but witnessed it so frequently in many settings and for all kinds of speakers that I eventually recognized it to be normative and not about me or my presentation. I thought, perhaps, that this behavior was an adaptation of having sat through countless, long, repetitive, didactic, political speeches. In the professional development workshops there was some of this behavior, but it 19 8

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was less than other settings, I believe because of the frequent use of small-group activities.

OUTCOMES

The center conducted standard paper-and-pencil evaluations at the end of the training sessions that mostly centered on satisfaction with the training. These were shared with me and were mostly positive. My own observation was that the training sessions were successful in terms of satisfaction based on the observed enthusiasm of the participants. There was no effort by the center or myself to measure changes in knowledge, attitude, or skill development. At least part of the purpose of offering these training sessions was to enhance the visibility and prestige of the center, the department of social work, and the university by having a visiting international expert. Additionally, my observations of this experience led to several reflections regarding outcomes of these types of professional development opportunities in the Vietnam context, which include processes of participation, the group orientation, and potential for workforce development. Processes of participation. For the most part, I enjoyed the participants in each of the training workshops. Although I never became fully accustomed to the distracted attention of participants, I recognized it was not about me as a presenter or the material I was presenting. The participants were highly enthusiastic during ice-breakers and games. They wanted a lot of this. They were equally enthusiastic in small-group exercises and reporting group discussions. Reporting from small groups was typically very extensive; it was not concise. Even after I was experienced with this and gave instruction to encourage concision (“Share one strategy the group came up with”), group reporters appeared to enjoy holding the microphone and provided detailed and lengthy descriptions of their group activity. Particularly with translation, this process took a long time. Mostly, I found participants friendly and appreciative. They wanted to talk with me during break, and some invited me to join them for lunch. 19 9

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The conclusion of each training session was always met with a considerable amount of picture taking and good-byes. Group orientation. In an earlier publication (Collins & Mclaughlin, 2014), we described in some detail the delivery of the group work training and observations about the meaning of group work in this setting. In many ways, a group orientation is a very good fit in Vietnamese society. Aspects of social solidarity were visible in multiple ways (for example, highly enthusiastic group participants). But it was also reported to me on several occasions that there is a lack of trust within groups. Because training is a group experience, one can presume that a lack of trust may compromise the process and effectiveness of the program. Individuals may be reluctant to be candid, to take risks in asking questions or practicing a skill, or to demonstrate what they do not know. This clearly can impede learning and may partially explain the extensive reporting phenomena (i.e., holding the microphone allows the speaker to control the conversation). Additional observations related to trust are discussed in a later section. Potential for workforce development. Finally, I offer some observations about the potential for these types of professional development opportunities to contribute to the development of a robust workforce. I frequently invoked the phrase “less is more” when discussing these workshops with my hosts and other interested parties. I was pressed to do week-long trainings on some of these topics, but I resisted this, partly because of my observation that there was a need for more practice in skill development. It did not seem useful to just be delivering workshops. Workforce development requires concerted attention to collaborations among the government, universities, and the practice field. This more holistic approach seemed to be lacking in the professional development activities described in this chapter.

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CRITICA L REFL ECTION A ND DISCUS SION OF T HE PROMISING PRINCIPL ES Many of the minor challenges were fun and within the normal context of adapting to a different setting. For example, although initially disconcerting to have members of an audience (especially students) talk through a presentation, I became adept at not letting this bother me. I enjoyed trying to figure out the meaning of this behavior. Another ongoing challenge was the physical environment of presenting in rooms that were hot, noisy (circulating fans and open windows that let in sounds of traffic, construction, and other noises), poor sound quality, heavy desks that were difficult to maneuver into small groups, and occasional loss of electricity (no more fans or PowerPoint). The success was not letting these things deter a good training workshop. Some of the challenges had more importance. I describe these next in the context of the promising principles guiding this book and reflect further on the successes and mistakes of the experience.

ATTENDING TO CULTURE: GLOBALIZATION AND INDIGENOUS SOCIAL WORK

Throughout the experience, and afterward, I continued to struggle to understand the meaning of social work in Vietnam. Part of my confusion was because of the absence of a universal definition among the Vietnamese. Clearly, for many people social work meant volunteer work. Once I recognized this I was able to emphasize that in the United States social work is considered a profession that requires considerable training. Social work also partially competed with other institutionalized forms of helping through the Communist government. Sanctioned women’s organizations, for example, had a role in helping families and communities in various ways. Because one of the workshops was focused on group work specifically, there were several lessons learned related to the meaning of group work in Vietnam (Collins & Mclaughlin, 2014). In many ways, group methods are a good cultural fit for Vietnam, as I observed extensive 2 01

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socialization and social solidarity. But certain types of group interventions appear to be a better fit than others. During the training I introduced and explained various types of groups known to social work practice (e.g., task groups, support groups). After completing the delivery of both training sessions, one of the translators asked if I would deliver the training to a different audience in a setting where she worked. She continually referred to the training as being about teamwork, connoting a task-orientation group. This led to the recognition of the miscommunication or the lack of shared meaning about group work. The training was designed for a broader range of types of groups, but at least in the case of this translator it seemed to mean only task groups. Given that she was one of the translators, it also raised the issue of how the content of delivery was being communicated to the participants. Incidentally, given the governmental system, I was already aware that political advocacy groups were not allowable in the context. Although political advocacy groups may be common in the United States and other democracies, and consequently, a potential mechanism of assisting vulnerable populations, this clearly would not have been useful to the Vietnamese audience. Therefore, I only briefly referred to such groups as a common component in the United States to some types of group work.

FOCUSING ON UNIVERSITY CONTEXTS: INTERNATIONAL VARIATION IN HIGHER EDUCATION

At the start of this experience I did not have a very good understanding of the variation in quality in higher education around the world. I only gradually came to understand that many of the goals of higher education in Vietnam were more aspirational than reflective of current practice. Many of the policies and practices I take for granted in the United States (qualifications for faculty positions, faculty search processes, shared governance, curriculum design and monitoring), seen as essential for attaining and maintaining quality education, were not in place or implemented. Although it did not appear that I was directly affected as an outsider, issues of gender inequality in higher education were also observed.

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Reverence for teachers and a hierarchical style of teaching are associated with an Asian model of education. I enjoyed the reverence for teachers, of course, and noted several occasions when teachers, including myself, were honored. The hierarchical approach to teaching was more challenging. I had entered this experience with a collaborative and collegial orientation to the work. I was prepared to learn from Vietnamese colleagues regarding their current practices and learning needs. I explicitly stated this in early meetings. But constantly being put in the role of expert interfered with an ability to glean some insight and guidance on what was most needed. It became clear, however, that outsider status is highly valued. Unfortunately, the Vietnamese universities are not comparable regarding international standards of higher education. Consequently, advanced credentials (MSW, PhD) conferred by Vietnamese institutions do not carry connotations of expertise. The educational system of the United States (and other industrialized nations) is admired, degrees from those institutions are respected, and experts from other countries are assumed to have a high level of competence. Closer to Vietnam, degrees from Australia, Japan, and the Philippines seemed to carry value as well. On balance, I considered the experience mostly a success. I maintained a good relationship with the university, the Department of Social Work, and the center. My hosts considered the training sessions a success. They were able to showcase an international social work educator, which lent prestige to these entities.

UNDERSTANDING GOVERNMENT, POLITICS, AND LOCAL INITIATIVES: FRAMING THE PROGRAM IN CONTEXT

This was my first experience living in a Communist society, so I did not fully know what to expect. Understanding the realities of this environment was a critical part of my learning throughout my fellowship experience. It had little to no impact on my freedom to teach. My presence at the university was, of course, approved by governmental authorities, and the proposed work plan (including the description of 203

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the training workshops) was reviewed by the university administration. There was, however, no review of the content I was delivering and no interference in any manner. I do assume that if I taught content critical of the government or used training sessions to foster political organizing, that would have been a problem. But those types of activities are generally not appropriate from visiting scholars in any political context. I had several cultural guides who provided me with information about Vietnamese society and its politics. One example that particularly affects the delivery of training workshops was related to the sense of trust among group members. I heard from many people that there is a lack of trust when engaging in most types of publicly oriented group activities (in the workplace, schools, and neighborhood settings). This is related to the political context in which Communist party members have privileged positions in society. As it was explained to me by my cultural guides, people are observed in all social settings. If participants in the training sessions had spoken or acted in ways not condoned by the political culture, there could be repercussions. As an outsider, I did not know which participants might have been wellconnected to the Communist Party, and thus had power, but other members among the participants likely did know. Clearly these kind of dynamics can influence the group culture of training activities and in some cases can limit the ability to learn (e.g., unwilling to take a risk). We have these same challenges in the United States, although typically less explicitly related to political context.

BUILDING SUSTAINABILITY FROM THE START: DEVELOPING LOCAL LEADERSHIP

My efforts to employ a capacity-building, train-the-trainer model were not successful. The emphasis was clearly on one-shot, expert-driven trainings. The research literature on training is clear that this is not the best method for development of skills that can be transferred into the practice setting (Collins, Amodeo, & Clay, 2007). My hypothesis is that this preference for one-shot training is related to culture 204

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and politics, as discussed previously. Other more in-depth training methods known to have greater effectiveness (e.g., training of trainers, supervised practice, mentoring), require closer contact and relationship and, consequently, have the potential to expose more vulnerability in learners. When outsiders such as myself are involved, reliance on one-shot activities appears more comfortable to participants. I was not prepared for the challenges of negotiating the role of expert. I have already discussed how I entered with expectations of greater collaboration but was relegated to role of expert. Furthermore, although I desired to provide training that was of use to my hosts, I was also clear about some limits—areas in which I am not an expert. Most of these were clinically oriented topics regarding therapy. People seemed quizzical when I would decline speaking about some topics. Whereas I consider this ethically appropriate, it might have caused some confusion about whether I was an expert because of an assumption that I was an expert about everything.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IN T ERN ATION A L SOCIA L WORK PR ACTICE In their study of the social work profession in 10 countries Weiss-Gal and Welbourne (2008) noted that the path of professional development in social work in a country is shaped by three complex variables: (i) the level of internal professional power and the cohesiveness of social work in working to achieve certain defined professional aims (an accepted code of ethics, strong professional associations). (ii) The external influence that the professional is able to bring to bear to achieve other aims (state licensing and restriction of title, remuneration, state sanctions for breaches of the code of ethics, control over education and entrance to the profession). (iii) The political, economic and social context within which it is operating (professional prestige, scope for asserting professional knowledge, and expertise at a policy level). (p. 289) 205

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Reflecting on these variables aids in understanding the profession of social work in a specific national context, such as Vietnam. The recent reestablishment of social work as a profession (and to some extent its history in the country) affected others’ understanding of my efforts in ways I was not immediately aware of. Thus, one recommendation is for educators to be aware of the standing and attributes of social work in a specific country. Culture, politics, and other societal factors interact in unanticipated ways. I have spoken about the issues I encountered related to trust. In some ways, as an outside expert, I was trusted more than Vietnamese educators. The more typical notion of international work is that outsiders are not as trusted as insiders. Recently I found a report in the research literature that reflected a similar experience. The issues regarding the applicability of Western modes of education and training in developing countries are not specific to social work. McAllister, Brown, and Nagarajan (n.d.) report using an action research approach in a capacity-building program aimed at Vietnam’s first speech therapists becoming skilled clinical supervisors. The authors identify issues of trust, and in their study, they found that the Australian supervisors were seen as trusted to have the knowledge, skill, and capacity to motivate. Vietnamese supervisors were less trusted because the students know that the Vietnamese supervisors were new in the field. Moreover, the Vietnamese clinical supervisors did not want to have their own lack of knowledge exposed in their interactions with students. This description resonates well with my own experience. I do wish that I would have had access to this description related to training prior to going to Vietnam. But, in general, it illustrates the importance of sharing our knowledge in the scholarly literature to prepare others who follow and thus help move the work forward. One obvious recommendation is for the need for more sustained relationships in international settings. Long-term institutionalized partnerships provide more opportunities to build trust. But many international opportunities are of shorter duration. For individual faculty, a semester or two is often the limit. In these cases, modest goals for success are appropriate. In my experience, some ideas were shared on 206

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both sides. New ideas about the range of social work activities were introduced to Vietnam. Perhaps some workers in the field (whether credentialed as social workers or not) were given some validation for the work they do. And maybe my mere presence as an international scholar built some credibility for the social work program that will enhance its ongoing efforts to develop social work education.

CONCLUSION Professional social work requires continuing education to maintain currency with developing knowledge to offer high-quality services. As with other components of social work education, the knowledge base regarding professional development remains largely in the United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western countries. As social work becomes more global, varying approaches to professional development will likely arise. Context is always critical. Although there is scholarly work about social work in Asian societies and social work in the developing world, available information is limited about social work in communist societies. Politics and culture interacted in some interesting ways that had an impact on the professional education experiences described in this chapter. Further examples regarding professional development in other national contexts are needed to better understand this part of social work education.

REFERENCES Beddoe, L. (2011). Investing in the future: Social workers talk about research. British Journal of Social Work, 4, 557–575. Carter, I., Leslie, D., & Angell, B. (2011). Promoting accessibility and adding value to social work education. Professional Development: The International Journal of Continuing Social Work Education, 14, 35–44. Cochran, G., & Landuyt, N. (2010). A survey of continuing education programs conducted by Professional Development: The International Journal of Continuing 207

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Social Work Education. Professional Development: The International Journal of Continuing Social Work Education, 13, 55–72. Cochran, G., & Landuyt, N. (2011). The second annual survey of continuing education programs conducted by Professional Development: The International Journal of Continuing Social Work Education. Professional Development: The International Journal of Continuing Social Work Education, 14, 23–34. Collins, M. E., Amodeo, M., & Clay, C. M. (2007). Review of the literature on child welfare training: Theory, practice, and research. Boston, MA: Boston University. Retrieved from http://www.bu.edu/ssw/files/pdf/BUSSW_CSReport21.pdf Collins, M. E., & McLaughlin, D. (2014). Potential for adolescent-focused group work in the Vietnam context. Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies, 9, 341–344. doi:10.1080/17450128.2014.940414 Durst, D. (2010). A comparative analysis of social work in Vietnam and Canada: Rebirth and renewal. Journal of Comparative Social Work, 2, 1–12. Forgey, M. A., Cohen, C. S., & Chazin, R. (2003). Surviving translation: Teaching the essentials of foundation social work practice in Vietnam. Journal of Teaching in Social Work, 23 (1/2), 147–166. Hugman, R., Lan, N. T. T., & Hong, N. T. (2007). Developing social work in Vietnam. International Social Work, 50, 197–211. International Association of Schools of Social Work & International Federation of Social Workers. (2012). Global standards. Retrieved from http://ifsw.org/ policies/global-standards/ McAllister, L., Brown, L., & Nagarajan, S. (n.d.). Capacity building for clinical supervision in allied health in Vietnam. Retrieved from http://acen.edu. au/2014Conference/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/Capacity-Building-forClinical-Supervision-in-Allied-Health-in-Vietnam.pdf National Association of Social Workers. (2002). NASW standards for continuing professional education. Retrieved from http://www.naswdc.org/practice/ standards/cont_professional_ed.asp National Association of Social Workers. (2015). Practice & professional development. Retrieved from http://www.naswdc.org/pdev/default.asp

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Oanh, N. T. (2002). Historical development and characteristics of social work in today’s Vietnam. International Journal of Social Welfare, 11, 84–91. Social Work Education. (n.d.). Aims and scope. Retrieved from Taylor & Francis Online website: http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journal Information?show=aimsScope&journalCode=cswe20 Socialist Republic of Viet Nam. (September 2015). Country report: 15 years achieving the Viet Nam Millennial Development Goals 2015. United Nations Development Program. Retrieved from http://www.vn.undp.org/content/ vietnam/en/home/library/mdg/country-report-mdg-2015.html Spolander, G., Pullen-Sansfaçon, A., Brown, M., & Engelbrecht, L. (2011). Social work education in Canada, England and South Africa: A critical examination of curriculums and programmes. International Social Work, 54, 817–832. Sullivan, M. P., Forrester, D., & Al-Makhamreh, S. (2010). Transnational collaboration: Evaluation of a social work training workshop in Jordan. International Social Work, 53, 217–232. Taylor, R., Stevens, I., & Lan, N. T. T. (2009) Introducing vocational qualifications in care to the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Social Work Education, 28, 29–41. UNICEF. (2011). Vietnam overview. Retrieved from http://www.unicef.org/ vietnam/overview_20385.html Weiss-Gal, I., & Welbourne, P. (2008). The professionalization of social work: A cross-national exploration. International Journal of Social Welfare, 17, 281–290. Weyers, M. D., & Herbst, A. (2011). Changing the habits of Namibian community social workers: An experiment in training. Social Work PractitionerResearcher, 23, 271–291.

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C H A P T E R 10 E X PERIENCES OF FULBRIGH T SPECIA LIS T SCHOL A RS IN IN T ERN ATION A L SOCIA L WORK COL L A BOR ATION C A R O L S . C O H E N a n d J U L I E C O O P E R A LT M A N

This chapter is based on a study of the short-term Fulbright Specialist Program experiences of social work educators. It explores the process, benefits, and challenges of international social work collaboration from these and similar time-limited partnerships. The Fulbright Specialist Program is designed to advance mutual understanding, establish long-term cooperation, and create opportunities for institutional linkages. It focuses on building educational capacity and fostering ongoing relationships with institutions outside the United States through visits of 2 to 6 weeks. The purpose of this study was to understand the dimensions and diversity of international collaborations in social work education through collecting data on the scope, activities, and reflections of former Fulbright Specialists in social work. Analyses reveal the multiple ways participants expand their cross-cultural consciousness, communication, and capacity for collaboration as a result of their experience and how on return this influenced their home institutions in compelling ways. We acknowledge the contribution and support of Dana Mariani, graduate assistant at the Adelphi University School of Social Work, for her valuable work in organizing data; Carmel Geraghty, Program Officer, Fulbright Specialist Program, for her advice and encouragement; and to the Fulbright Specialist Scholars in social work who graciously sent us their reports and shared their experiences in interviews.

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Fulbright Scholars have described their experience with the Specialist Program as “walking the walk of global education” and “renewing [their] professional fires beyond anything [they] expected,” evoking the intensity of this collaborative experience. We share professional and personal connections with the Program, as we are both Specialist Grantees. Carol received her Specialist Grant in 2012 in collaboration with Hong Kong Polytechnic University, and Julie received hers in 2010 with the Department of Social Work, Psychology, and Pedagogy at Siberian State University in Novokuznetsk, Russia. Our experiences are the foundation of our desire to highlight this form of international collaboration in social work. These partnerships motivated us to further understand the contributions, challenges, and opportunities of short-term international partnerships and led us to undertake a mixed-methods study to explore the experiences of Fulbright Specialist Grantees in social work. Discussion of this Program and study findings is relevant to social work educators who consider joining Fulbright as well as colleagues exploring other types of short-term international partnerships. Although the Fulbright Program is unique in its funding, auspice, and structure, the experiences of Specialist Grantees can illuminate the contexts, collaborations, and professional identities developed through short-term international partnerships. This chapter begins with a literature review that includes an overview of Fulbright and the Specialist Program, followed by a discussion of the related professional literature. Next, we provide a description of our study methods and a presentation of quantitative and qualitative findings. We look at how these findings intersect with three of the promising principles for U.S. social work educators: focusing on university contexts, exploring the engagement process, and bringing learning home. We conclude with recommendations for enriching the experience of social work educators who engage in international collaboration.

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T HE FUL BRIGH T COMMIS SION A ND T HE FUL BRIGH T SPECIA LIS T GR A N T Many Americans have heard of Fulbright, but few understand or appreciate the breadth and depth of this expansive array of programs. The Fulbright Program was established in 1946, is housed in the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs of the U.S. Department of State, and administered by the Council for International Exchange of Scholars (CIES, 2016a). Designed to advance mutual understanding, establish long-term cooperation, and create opportunities for institutional linkages, Fulbright awards are granted to U.S. and nonU.S.-based students, faculty, and nonacademic leaders from a range of professions, disciplines, and methodologies. The organizational framework, ongoing funding, and mission provide a unique identity and standing in the field of international knowledge and capacity building (CIES, 2016b). The Fulbright Specialist Program focuses on building educational capacity and fostering ongoing relationships with institutions outside the United States through visits of 2 to 6 weeks. This program is flexible, with a range of options for short-term collaborations. It operates in all world regions and is collaborative in its focus on reciprocal exchange between Scholars and hosts. CIES reports that 400 Specialists annually collaborate in more than 130 countries. Program goals include encouraging new activities that go beyond traditional lecturing and research, increasing the participation of leading U.S. Scholars in Fulbright exchanges, and promoting more Fulbright collaborations between U.S. institutions and academic institutions outside the United States (CIES, 2016c). Social work is one of 24 eligible disciplines in the Fulbright Program. The preliminary step toward a Specialist Grant is application to join the Fulbright Specialist roster. Once approved for the roster, potential Grantees have 5 years to receive up to two (three on rare occasions) Specialist Grants, either through applying for Fulbright’s posted opportunities or through direct contacts with international institutions to develop proposals for collaborations. Non-U.S. institutions 212

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must either apply for an open call for roster-approved Scholars for particular projects or apply for and arrange a specific Specialist’s visit. Presently, about 40 potential Grantees in social worker are on the roster, approved to engage in Fulbright collaborations in the coming years (S. Ali, 16 February 2016, CIES). The number of social work educators and researchers awaiting an assignment indicates an ongoing future for this type of international partnership.

FULBRIGHT SCHOLARS IN SOCIAL WORK

Despite the significant number of social workers who have been awarded Fulbright Specialist Grants, little has been gathered systematically about them or about the work they have performed as part of their experiences. In searching for published literature about the benefits of shortterm international faculty experiences, collaboration, or exchanges in social work, a limited number of related articles were found. Two articles reported on some aspect of a social work Fulbright exchange (Csikai, 2008; Lewis, 2011), but both were based on longterm Scholar Awards and not the short-term Specialist Awards that are the primary focus of this chapter. Three of the chapters in this book also include reflections on U.S.-based Grantees in social work who received long-term Fulbright awards (Chapters 3, 9, and 12). Interestingly, in a wide search without disciplinary limits of all academic literature with “Fulbright” as the key word, more than 31,224 results were found, with the vast majority related to the author’s affiliation and most by non-U.S.-based authors. Beyond publications that specifically refer to Fulbright, there is a growing body of literature concerning experiences in establishing social work student field experiences in international settings, either as short-term student exchanges or longer term field placements (Barlow et al., 2010; Bogo & Maeda, 1990; Nuttman-Shwartz & Berger, 2012). In addition, some articles report on the outcomes of specific cross-national educational projects in China (Robinson & Perkins, 2009) or the Global South (Kreitzer & Wilson, 2010; Lombe, Newransky, Crea, & Stout, 2013; Ritchie & Eby, 2007). 213

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Still others concern international research collaborations on specific topics such as adolescent resilience (Ungar, Lee, Callaghan, & Boothroyd, 2005) or international efforts in disaster relief (Des Marais, Bhadra, & Dyer, 2012). The bulk of published articles on cross-national social work experiences or education are related to globalization, internationalization, and the possibilities in global social work and the preparation of social work students to work in international settings. Only a handful of articles directly informed the work of this chapter and its focus on the benefits of short-term faculty experiences of international collaboration and experience. These include an excellent look at the experience of social work partnerships and experiential learning of U.S. faculty in Ghana (Bettmann & Prospero, 2014; Boateng & Thompson, 2013) and one in Tanzania (Williams & Nickols, 2011), and two comprehensive reviews of social work faculty work between a California University and a Mexican practice community (Carrilio & Mathiesen, 2006; Mathiesen, Carrilio, Rasmussen, & Engstrom, 2004). Only one article squarely focused on the specific benefits faculty gain vis-à-vis short-term experiences, although not Fulbright, international collaboration (Furman, 2007). The Fulbright Program’s varied portfolio of activities provides a wide range of options for international engagement, including opportunities for recent graduates and experienced experts from around the world. We are pleased to have conducted the first study on Fulbright Specialists in social work and present study methods, findings, analysis, and recommendations in this chapter.

FUL BRIGH T SPECIA LIS T S T UDY PURPOSE AND METHODS

The purpose of this study is to understand the dimensions and diversity of international collaborations in social work education through collecting data about the scope, activities, and reflections of former Fulbright Specialists in social work. Before undertaking this research, 214

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we consulted with CIES’s director of the Fulbright Specialist Program. Although the program could not provide access to Grantee reports or formal sponsorship of our study, the director indicated her support and interest, noting that she was unaware of any similar research. Following the development of our design and before data collection, we applied and received approval for our human subject protections from the institutional review board of Adelphi University in Garden City, NY. The study used three data collection strategies, including two that relied on data mining through the review of extant materials (Epstein, 2015) and one that employed interviews to gather heretofore unavailable narratives of respondents’ experiences. The first strategy was a content analysis of the publicly available listing of Fulbright Specialist Grantees at http://www.cies.org/fulbright-scholar-list-archive. In February 2016 this resource identified former Fulbright Specialist Scholars, arranged by grant year, starting in 2001 through the first months of 2014. The listing includes each Grantee’s name, discipline, home institution, academic rank, host institution, and dates of grant or visit. We isolated all Specialists identified as having a grant in social work and then searched for current e-mail addresses for these Grantees. Of the 84 names on our master list, we found 68 viable e-mail addresses. As part of our effort to collect final reports and arrange interviews, 68 Scholars were sent e-mails asking them to participate by sending their reports by return e-mail attachment to the principal investigator. Thirteen Scholars responded. Nine provided their final Fulbright reports. Eleven agreed to be interviewed. The reports were reviewed as artifacts related to Scholars’ preparation, experience during the visit, and impact of the visit on the international host institution and the Scholars’ home institution. The same e-mail solicitation was used for phone interviews, lasting on average 60 minutes, and conducted between October and December of 2015 using an interview guide. The guide focused primarily on Grantees’ recollections of their visits as well as their thoughts on the dynamics of international collaboration in social work education. Although interviews were not recorded, extensive notes were taken during the sessions, including verbatim comments. In the e-mail solicitation and verbal informed consent 215

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document, we introduced ourselves as Specialist Grantees and clearly stated that although we could not guarantee anonymity, we would strive to protect their identity by holding the original reports as securely as possible and not reporting any information we thought would compromise their privacy. We use personal pronouns interchangeably and omit references to locations in reporting Scholar’s reports for this reason. Interviews concluded with a review of key statements and our commitment to share a study report with participating Grantees. We independently conducted open coding of all interviews using grounded theory protocol (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). We then iteratively compared analytic codes, developed emerging themes, reconciled coding norms, and identified key areas for analysis. To the extent feasible, we used the three data collection methods to triangulate findings and to help in understanding the multiple dimensions of the Fulbright Specialist experience.

FUL BRIGH T SPECIA LIS T S T UDY FINDINGS

We begin this section by reporting quantitative findings from the public domain list of Fulbright Specialists and then discuss qualitative findings from interviews and Grantee-provided final reports.

S C O PE O F S PE C I A L I S T C O L L A B O R AT I O N S

According to our analysis, 108 Fulbright Specialist grants were awarded in social work between 2001 and early 2014. A total of 84 individual Scholars received grants during this period. Among them, 18 Scholars were awarded two grants, and three received three grants. Awards were made to Scholars in 29 states, with the highest number of Grantees in New York (21), Massachusetts (10), Michigan (8), Illinois (7), California (6), Maryland (6), Washington (5), and North Carolina (5). The universities with the largest number of Specialist grants in social work were University of Washington with five, and 216

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Adelphi University, Fordham University, University of Maryland each with four grants. Areas outside the United States with the largest number of Specialist collaborations were Israel (12), Russia (7), Hong Kong (5, 7 when combined with 2 grants to China), India (6), Australia (5), and Latvia (5). Although they were a relatively small sample of the potential respondents, the 13 Specialists who contributed reports or were interviewed mirrored the distribution described in the previous paragraph. They received Fulbright grants from 2002 through 2013, collaborating with universities primarily in Europe and Asia. Respondents were affiliated with 12 different universities spread throughout the United States.

AC T I V I T I E S A N D O U TC O M E S

Faculty participated in expected activities such as curriculum development, teaching, providing materials the host institution could use, and building the host institution’s capacity for research. We also found they engaged in additional activities, including modeling of professor– student relationships and developing methods of increasing the prestige of social work as a profession in their host universities or societies. When returning to their home institutions, Fulbright Specialists reported taking on substantial work in laying the foundation for new avenues of continued collaboration with their international partners. A partner in one of the host institutions said that his participation left “a satiation of hunger for understanding the U.S. system.” Fulbright Specialists report gaining personally and professionally during their short-term international exchange experience. Research participants increased their cultural humility, emotional resilience, perceptual acuity, critical thinking skills, and perspective consciousness. They gained an appreciation for discussions that went beyond entrenchment of political lines and developed real, intimate friendships. Indeed, one participant responded that the experience “renewed her faith in the power of relationship.” One participant gained an increased sensitivity for looking through the eyes of others. Another found a meaningful increase in his capacity to delay making assumptions, stating, “I find 217

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that I am more generous with judgment, making less quick or knee-jerk reactions to things.” Among the knowledge, skills, and capacities the Fulbright Specialists brought back to their home institutions were an enhanced capacity for internationalizing the curriculum; an appreciation for diverse communications styles; universal use of empathy; skills of inclusion, enhanced understanding of the importance of historical, political, and cultural contexts; and a greater capacity for ongoing consultative relationships. Several participants mentioned their assumption of leadership in international student exchanges and other international protocols at their universities on their return.

DI M E N S I O N S O F S O C I A L WO R K PR AC T I C E

Although reflecting on the preparation, implementation, and aftermath of their Specialist grant, one of the Scholars said, “I saw how important it was to understand the context of things.” This statement is emblematic of social workers’ understanding of the person-in-environment framework and indicative of the pervasive use of social work knowledge and skills Specialists used in their international collaborations. One of the Scholars noted that she acquired the unique mind-set required for the collaboration at an early stage, stating, “The application was the first inkling that this is an important piece of work.… It’s not going for three weeks somewhere. … You are part of a much bigger whole.” Respondents shared a wide range of preparation strategies, unified by a commitment to understanding the environment they were entering. Some “read as much as possible,” including publications by members of the host community. Many immersed themselves in learning the history of their destination, and others attempted to learn the local language, predicting that “some language would give me a sense of genuine encounter.” It would be reasonable to connect one Grantee’s statement, “preparing for it made me a more effective colleague,” with social work’s ethical directive for assessment, self-awareness, and planning before being able to “meet clients where they are.” 218

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Parallels with best practices in social work emerged as we looked at Specialists’ experience in the midst of their visit. A number of respondents reflected on how they thrived in environments that focused on macro and mezzo levels of social work practice in contrast to the micro-focus that often takes prominence in the United States. As one respondent indicated, “We get so siloed here in the U.S.…it [my Fulbright experience] was so refreshing, absolutely refreshing!” This Grantee and others reported returning home with a renewed commitment to expanded perspectives and strategies. Establishing mutuality was a common concern of Grantees, which needed ongoing attention. As one respondent noted, “Nearly all my interactions were stimulating and enjoyable…but I always tried not to put on any ‘airs.’” The designation as a Fulbright Scholar brought opportunities as well as sometimes appearing to create distance, especially early in the visit. Using a social work lens, it appeared that joining with hosts and communities on a “common human level” was considered important by many Scholars. Specific strategies mentioned by respondents included extending opportunities for meetings with students and attempting to approach others from a partnership perspective. The need for continual self-awareness and learning throughout the encounter was also shared, with one Grantee noting that the “back story of things can lead you to another direction all together.” As the Specialists reported, engagement was often challenging, noting the need for well-honed social work skills such as “active listening” and “working with conflict.” At the same time, elements of delight and adventure ran through many Specialists’ reports and interviews, as they mentioned reveling in their professional and personal encounters. These feelings were buttressed by the social work educators’ professional capacity to be “present” in the midst of demanding situations and expectations. For many, this sense of excitement and renewal brought on by their conscious attempts to achieve openness accompanied them home, where many identified a sense of “reseeing” the familiar and absorbing what was previously ignored. These observations are analogous to the social work skills in perception identified by Middleman and Wood (1990) 2 decades ago as “seeing the old as 219

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if it was new,” offering the chance to make the familiar strange, and “planned emptiness” through which professionals cultivate an area in their mind for the unknown to allow for surprises and novel understanding (p. 34).

CRITICA L REFL ECTION A ND DISCUS SION OF T HE PROMISING PRINCIPL ES  We found a remarkable level of synchronicity between the experiences of the Fulbright Specialists and the six promising principles discussed in the chapters in this book. We have chosen to focus on three of the principles and have incorporated extended statements by Fulbright Scholars to illustrate the integration of these conceptual frames and practices in their collaborations.

F O C U S I N G O N U N I V E R S I T Y C O N T E X T S : I N T E R NAT I O NA L VA R I AT I O N I N H I G H E R E D U C AT I O N

The Fulbright Specialist Program relies on universities outside the United States to develop formal relationships with U.S. Grantees by inviting them to focus on significant educational issues in their program, community concerns, and scholarly development. As described by a Specialist, “I was on their turf so I tried to play by their rules . . . but there was fair exchange.” Thus, Specialists are in a unique position to learn about how the host’s institution operates, compare and contrast their modes with experiences internationally, and use this understanding in building significant partnerships that take this diversity into consideration. One of our study respondents reports this dynamic as follows: I realized my responsibility, especially with a Fulbright supported Grant, to build bridges that open greater understanding among peoples. With a great deal of investment in conversations that moved ahead the ideas of collaboration, I 220

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am of the belief that small steps will begin to forge relationships that currently are bridged by political boundaries. If this happens to any degree, I will have accomplished much more than I ever anticipated. Other Scholars also tuned in to differences in the host setting and wider social and policy context, and consciously used this understanding to achieve project objectives. For example, one Grantee stated, “The first morning I woke up to unfamiliar bird song.” He connected this moment with a commitment to avoiding automatic thinking through telling himself: “Remember, you’re in a different place.” This process of staying open to the realities of the present, evident in the phrase “remembering to remember the differences” is compelling advice in building relationships and addressing divergent and common interests. Specialists reported a variety of preparatory activities before their arrival at the host university. We can relate to the motivation for international collaboration and the accompanying worry of the following respondent: I don’t believe the U.S. has all the answers, so I wanted to see who was doing what around the world…I didn’t want to get there and sound like an idiot or like the ugly American who only knows America and not what goes on around the world. This Grantee and many others launched ambitious programs of preparation for their visits and mindfulness while there, ensuring at least a beginning understanding of the host university’s environment as well as likely challenges and opportunities in that context.

E X PL O R I N G T H E E N G AG E M E N T A N D PA RT N E R S H I P PRO C E S S : OW N I N G T H E WO R K

The relatively brief time of a Fulbright Specialist visit intensifies the demand to engage local partners in owning the products and processes of the collaborative work. Ironically, the short time available 2 21

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could result in a telling model, supplanting true partnership with providing resources and information without local decision-making and reciprocal learning about potentially useful ideas and opportunities. One Specialist, who summarized the following statement with the remark, “I was the spark and not the engine,” illustrates the intentional nature of building partnership and local ownership: One of the activities was to gather professors in the area with a common interest together for an afternoon of networking. Someone from every institution came—it was the first time it ever happened—they were excited and a little cautious, but it seemed like an action that could build into something far more important. I was good at using [the] power [of the Fulbright] as the spark, and helping people develop it in an ongoing way. It was really up to me to make the most use of the encounters I had there—and it was up to them to understand their own self-interest and how they could use this opportunity for themselves. Local ownership for ongoing progress does not preclude a reciprocal relationship between hosts and Specialists, as explained by another Grantee: Not only did I gain tremendously myself, I felt I gave to my international colleagues and host institution an equal amount. What I gained was emotional resilience, perceptual acuity, a more highly developed critical consciousness and an enhanced capacity for cross-cultural, contextually rich, comparative work. What I gave was support and assistance that helped my colleagues better value the work of their department, relate to their burgeoning professional identity as social workers, and understand the theoretical components underlying their curriculum. At the end of the grant, we together affirmed that the project’s goals were met, that the work had been useful and well received and that their goal of enhancing both the quality and relative standing of the department of social work within the University was achieved. A statement by a third respondent rounds out this section, building on the “spark” and “partner” frames of understanding for supporting local ownership by contributing a view of Grantees as catalysts 222

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for change: “My Fulbright Specialist experience inspired new avenues for collaboration, scholarship, research, and the potential to more fully serve communities. My presence served as a catalyzing factor in advancing education and practice in social work.”

B R I N G I N G L E A R N I N G H O M E : T H E I N T E R NAT I O NA LD O M E S T I C I N T E R FAC E

Many Fulbright Specialist Scholars report that their international visits made a substantial impact on their institutions and their own scholarly trajectories once they returned home. For example, one Scholar reported: “It made our department and me more relevant in the eyes of the University and the international ways we were headed.” In addition to increasing departmental status, some Grantees were appointed to high-level university committees based on their expanded understanding of global problems. In contributing to social work curriculum development, many returning Scholars play increasingly active roles, using new perspectives in interpreting the global dimensions of social work education and competencies (Council on Social Work Education, 2015). In classrooms many returning Scholars report how their teaching has shifted since their Fulbright experience as indicated in this comment: “I don’t teach global stuff, but now it enters into all the courses I teach.” Another Specialist echoed this sentiment, and said: No matter what I teach there is always an example outside of the US. This is walking the walk of global education—students everywhere need to understand there are other ways to view the world—people do things better, differently, and we can benefit from knowing that. Scholars also found that the Fulbright Specialist experience had an effect on their local community collaborations, as illustrated in this insightful statement: “Conversations [back in the United States] with directors of social service agencies demonstrated that our problems are universal, the funds to address them are never enough, and 223

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dedicated people continue to work at them against incredible odds.” The international experience appears to have generated Scholars’ insights and led to reconceptualization of educational dynamics back home. As one Scholar said, “I realized I could be an imperialist in the classroom and that I have to look for ways to help students be learners in new and different ways than I saw before.” The following comment from another Grantee expands on this theme of relationship building: I have more empathy and skills in issue[s] of inclusion as a result. While I had always had obvious worries regarding communication when in another country, I had never thought about those same concerns here in the U.S. …truth is, communication is such a difficult thing always—that even here, what you say is not always what is heard or received. …There are also aspects of cultural sensitivity that I carry out all the time. For example, the experience of being in a minority status category, how to know whether you are included or not— these Fulbright experiences really flooded my awareness here and I am grateful for this learning. As these rich comments suggest, the relatively brief duration of the Fulbright Specialist grant appears to have profound effects on Scholars when they return. Perhaps this is in part because of Grantees’ prior interests in international social work and engagement as well as other factors. The extent to which the Fulbright experience led them to expand their consciousness, communication, and collaborative strategies on their return is compelling.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IN T ERN ATION A L SOCIA L WORK PR ACTICE Our study of the experience of Fulbright Specialist Scholars in social work has yielded an overview of the program’s scope, range of activities, and strong connections with promising principles to inform international collaboration. In addition, we have three recommendations: 2 24

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expand recruitment of social work educators, understand authority themes in building relationships, and enhance intercultural competence in the profession. Of more than 4,000 Specialist grants awarded in 24 eligible disciplines between 2001 and early 2014, 108 grants specifically in social work were awarded to 84 individual Scholars. Given the accomplishments and potential for future international partnerships, we suggest broadening recruitment activities of social work educators to consider, apply, and participate in the Specialist Program. We are encouraged to find that our most recent review of the Scholar Grantee Roster at http://www.cies.org/fulbright-scholars, listed an additional 20 grants in social work, to 19 Scholars. Publicizing and advising applicants about Fulbright’s varied programs primarily take place on a cross-disciplinary, local university level. Although an additional, discipline-focused approach, social work organizations such as the Council on Social Work Education and the International Association of Schools of Social Work can take more active roles in disseminating Fulbright Program information and encouraging social work participation of individual faculty members and potential host institutions. It is fair to predict that expanding the participation of social work educators in the Fulbright Specialist Program would also result in an increase in research and publications that focus on this type of collaboration. Authority and power issues are always present in collaborations and must be acknowledged. The related professional literature and our experience suggest that these dynamics are extended and perhaps magnified in international partnerships, where they were highlighted by the Fulbright Specialists in this study. As social work educators, denying, ignoring, or abusing power differentials are serious professional breeches. We are ethically bound to understand the attributed and actual power we bring to international contexts and acknowledge the impact this may have on building relationships. As a well-regarded initiative sponsored by the U.S. State Department, the Fulbright Program is somewhat unique. Specialist Scholars, as well 225

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as other Fulbright Grantees, are granted special status and are often conferred with a good deal of authority by international hosts and partners. In addition, secure financial support from Fulbright and the hosts’ commitment to pay for lodging and expenses during the visit distinguish the Specialist Program with solid funding relative to many international collaborations. Based on these factors, the attribution of power to the Grantee may motivate international partners to build effective collaborations. On the other hand, they may also have a chilling effect on engagement when hosts feel compelled to comply with a Grantee’s directives. In this case, the exchange can take on the air of a state visit rather than a team-building experience of lasting value. The findings of our study of Fulbright Specialists’ experiences are also in line with the ever increasing demand for intercultural competence in the profession. Such competence has perhaps never been as valued as a requisite skill for all social workers as it is today. Deardorff (2004) defines intercultural competence as “the ability to communicate effectively and appropriately in intercultural situations based on one’s intercultural knowledge, skills, and attitudes” (pp. 183–184). Components of intercultural competence include the capacity to understand another’s worldviews; an increase in one’s capacity for cultural self-awareness, self-assessment, and skills in listening and observing; a general openness toward people from other cultures; and an ability to adapt to varying intercultural communication and learning styles. Intercultural competence as demonstrated by the Fulbright experiences also includes the capacity for tolerating and dealing with ambiguity, deep knowledge of one’s own and another’s culture, respect and empathy for other cultures, understanding the value of cultural diversity, and understanding the role and impact of culture and the impact of underlying situations. Finally, as we stressed earlier as one of the benefits of a Fulbright grant, intercultural competence also means valuing social and historical contexts, curiosity and discovery, and an ethnorelative view (Deardorff, 2004). It is clear from our findings that gaining these competencies is one of the benefits of social work faculty’s international engagement. 226

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CONCLUSION Senator J. William Fulbright wrote, “Educational exchange can turn nations into people, contributing as no other form of communication can to the humanizing of international relations” (Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, n.d., para. 13). In ways both big and small, this chapter illuminates how Fulbright Specialists have helped social work academics indeed do this. What were once unknown distant destinations are now known as the homes of Olga and Mischa and Siu Wai and Yuxin. We understand our international colleagues as people, value them as friends, know them within their specific cultural contexts, and work with them as human partners in relationships moving forward.

REFERENCES Barlow, C. A., Schwartz, K., Kreitzer, L., Lacroix, M., Macdonald, L., Lichtmannegger, S., &. Meunier, D. (2010). Perspectives of international partners on the development and implementation of a Canada-EU social work field education exchange. Canadian Social Work Review/Revue canadienne de service social, 27, 5–25. Bettmann, J. E., & Prospero, M. (2014). A social partnership between Ghanaian and US academic institutions. International Social Work, 57, 605–617. Boateng, A., & Thompson, A. M. (2013). Study abroad Ghana: An international experiential learning. Journal of Social Work Education, 49, 701–715. Bogo, M., & Maeda, K. K. (1990). Collaboration in adaptation of knowledge for social work education for practice: A Canada/Japan experience. International Social Work, 33, 27–40. Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs. (n.d.). Senator Fulbright on international exchange. Retrieved from http://eca.state.gov/fulbright/ about-fulbright/history/j-william-fulbright/j-william-fulbright-quotes Carrilio, T., & Mathiesen, S. (2006). Developing a cross border, multidisciplinary educational collaboration. Social Work Education, 25, 633–644. 227

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Corbin, J. M., & Strauss, A. (2008). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE. Council for International Exchange of Scholars. (2016a). About CIES. Retrieved from http://www.cies.org/about-us/about-cies Council for International Exchange of Scholars. (2016b). Fulbright Scholar Program: Programs for: U.S. scholars, visiting scholars, U.S. institutions. Retrieved from http://www.cies.org/programs Council for International Exchange of Scholars. (2016c).Fulbright Scholar Program: Program information. Retrieved from http://www.cies.org/ programs-us-scholars-specialist/program-information Council on Social Work Education. (2015). Educational policy and accreditation standards. Retrieved from http://www.cswe.org/getattachment/ Accreditation/Accreditation-Process/2015-EPAS/2015EPAS_Web_ FINAL.pdf.aspx Csikai, E. L. (2008). Opportunities for international social work in end-of-life and palliative care: A Fulbright experience. Journal of Social Work in End-ofLife & Palliative Care, 4(3), 173–188. Deardorff, D. K. (2004). The identification and assessment of intercultural competence as a student outcome of internationalization at institutions of higher education in the U.S. Unpublished dissertation, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC. Des Marais, E. A., Bhadra, S., & Dyer, A. R. (2012). In the wake of Japan’s triple disaster: Rebuilding capacity through international collaboration. Advances in Social Work, 13, 340–357. Epstein, I. (2015). Building a bridge or digging a pipeline? Clinical data mining in evidence-informed knowledge building. Research on Social Work Practice, 25, 499–506. Furman, R. (2007). Faculty self-reflection and study abroad: An expressive approach to autoethnography. Reflections: Narratives of Professional Helping, 13(4), 18–29. Kreitzer, L., & Wilson, M. (2010). Shifting perspectives on international alliances in social work: Lessons from Ghana and Nicaragua. International Social Work, 53, 701–719. 228

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Lewis, E. A. (2011). Cultural differences and neo-colonialism in social work: Negotiating exchanges between Ghana and the United States. Reflections: Narratives of Professional Helping, 17(3), 31–37. Lombe, M., Newransky, C., Crea, T., & Stout, A. (2013). From rhetoric to reality: Planning and conducting collaborations for international research in the Global South. Social Work, 58, 31–40. Mathiesen, S., Carrilio, T., Rasmussen, L., & Engstrom, D. (2004). At the border: Beginning dialogue and partnership between a California university and a Mexican practice community. Professional Development: The International Journal of Continuing Social Work Education, 7, 42–52. Middleman, R. R., & Wood, G. G. (1990). Skills for direct practice in social work. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Nuttman-Shwartz, O., & Berger, R. (2012). Field education in international social work: Where we are and where we should go. International Social Work, 55, 225–243. Ritchie, D. J., & Eby, K. K. (2007). Transcending boundaries: An international, interdisciplinary community partnership to address domestic violence. Journal of Community Practice, 15(1/2), 121–145. Robinson, J., & Perkins, D. D. (2009). Social development needs assessment in China: Lessons from an international collaborative field school in Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. China Journal of Social Work, 2, 34–51. Ungar, M., Lee, A. W., Callaghan, T., & Boothroyd, R. A. (2005). An international collaboration to study resilience in adolescents across cultures. Journal of Social Work Research and Evaluation, 6, 5–23. Williams, N. R., & Nickols, S. Y. (2011). Traversing the bumpy road of learning: Exploring faculty and student experiences in an international service-learning program in Tanzania. Reflections: Narratives of Professional Helping, 17(1), 76–95.

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DOING RESE A RCH : GAT HERING VISUA L E VIDENCE IN CHIN A PET ER SZTO

Contemporary China is a kaleidoscope of past and present. Things ancient and things modern coexist in unique and uncanny ways. The focus of this chapter is on doing research in China using photography as a tool for gathering visual evidence. China offers social work students a unique opportunity to study in vivo how the social environment affects human behavior and how photography can document it. I have been bringing social work students to China since 1996 to study social change. By travelling to China, students can see and document for themselves an ancient society undergoing rapid social change. China claims 4,000 years of continuous existence as a civilization, the longest in human history. This claim means several millennia of China providing for the well-being of its citizens. The precise age of Chinese civilization is elusive because of the limits of archeological evidence, historical analysis, and material artifacts, although 4,000 years is widely recognized among sinologists. China’s age-old social welfare system sustained millions of Chinese to survive the vicissitudes of life. A common notion of China is that it is still an intact ancient civilization today. Despite contrary evidence of a postmodern and affluent society, this 230

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image is grounded in stereotypes and xenophobia. As one of the world’s fastest growing economies and moving well beyond its ancestral roots, modern China is more nuanced. What is more likely in contemporary China are continuous yet distinct juxtapositions of the past, present, and future. China’s rapid pace and scope of change offers a fascinating opportunity to do research from a social work perspective. My scholarly interest in doing research in China began with a family visit there in 1982. I had mixed emotions as an American-born Chinese visiting the ancestral homeland of my parents. The United States had recently reestablished diplomatic relations with the Chinese Communists in 1979, and my father was eager to take his family back to his birthplace. China was still recovering from the social upheaval of the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), a 10-year period of traumatic chaos sanctioned by Chairman Mao Tse-tung. Mao wanted to purge Chinese society of lingering bourgeois elements to create a purer Communist state. To rid the country of capitalist elements and those clinging to the old order, millions of Chinese were persecuted. When we arrived in 1982, I saw an otherworldly society of traffic-filled bicycles, state-designed buildings, everyone clothed in Mao-style attire, and a ubiquitous military presence. This unfamiliar Communist world instilled a lasting impression on me of a Chinese society unaffected by time and contact with the outside world. My interpretation of China’s visual world stirred within me an insatiable desire to observe and photograph. I wanted to photograph everything and anything on our short visit. Although I was an outsider looking in, I wanted to see things from a Chinese perspective. Maybe being an American-born Chinese would help. Since that first visit in 1982, I have travelled to China more than 25 times and taken thousands of photographs. As I reflect on these early days, I realize I was doing research and using photography as a tool to gather visual evidence. It was not my intention, but I was doing research anyway. Early on, I questioned the validity of photography in social research. Was photography only an art form, or did it have scientific value? How reliable and credible were my photographs as visual evidence, and was the camera objective in capturing reality? How did cultural bias influence taking pictures as well as viewing the visual evidence afterward? These questions were timely because China was poised to experience 2 31

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dramatic social change after the death of Mao in 1976. Reengagement with the outside world brought profound change in terms of access to competing mobile phones, televisions, and cars. In a short 30 years, from 1980 to 2010, China evolved from a developing, or as sometimes called, a third-world country, into the world’s second largest economy behind the United States. This chapter focuses on the lessons I learned from doing research in China using photography as a tool of social research. I took what I learned and designed a travel research course to share my knowledge with social work students. The goal of the travel course is to collect visual evidence to tell the story of social change in China. Since 1995 I have taken a dozen different groups to China. The travel course allows the students to experience firsthand the dramatic changes in Chinese society. It also allows Chinese culture to challenge the students’ often unexamined American cultural values. Like my father, I get excited about bringing others to China. I enjoy having others see things for themselves and developing their own point of view. For 2 weeks, the students and I visit major urban centers: Hong Kong, Guangzhou, Beijing, Macao, Guilin, and Shanghai, with the itinerary changing from year to year depending on resources, interests, and schedule. Each city offers a unique local culture, history, geography, regional character, and opportunities for research. The goal is to expose students to different aspects of everyday social life and to photograph it.

T HE PRIVIL EGE OF SEEING WIT H PHO TOGR A PH Y A problem I face in China is learning how to discriminate with my camera. My tendency is to photograph everything in sight because China is such a kaleidoscope of possible images. Unfortunately, the lack of selective focus leads to an incoherent story with no apparent rhyme or reason to my pictures. This impulse to capture any and all events is hard to control. Fortunately, my impulsive photography is recognized in the literature on social photography. Cultural critic Susan Sontag (1977) 232

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calls this human penchant for looking as habitual voyeurs of the first order. She claims that we cannot stop but to look and to gaze. Whether we possess a camera or not, this human desire to look is irresistible and goes against the power of curiosity. Photography transforms a moment into a lasting gaze. Sontag makes me feel better already. Roland Barthes (1980) describes photography’s uncanny ability to remember as an emotional effect. Photographs possess a visceral quality that forever links the viewer with the viewed. Consider the emotional value photo albums have on preserving memories, such as the popularity of social media’s #ThrowbackThursday where people post their old photos. Photographs are so commonplace and cherished because they represent more than just visual memories. They are who we are. Whether celebrating a wedding, birthday, graduation, or family vacation, we like to savor these events by keeping images of them forever. In a collection of penetrating essays, Errol Morris (2011) probes below and above the surface of photographs to excavate multiple layers of meaning. Morris believes that it takes concerted looking, gazing, and reflection to understand what the camera sees. The camera basically permits the photographer to make conscientious observations about the social world, or in other words, to do research by gathering visual evidence. Visual discrimination unavoidably involves the role that culture plays on our hermeneutics—how we take and view photography. Wagner (2007) understood the so-called cultural interpretation of photography in observing that “issues of methodology and epistemology are lodged at the heart of many forms of inquiry, but they are rarely examined as such outside philosophy or the natural and social sciences” (p. 23). Selecting the right tools to answer the research question is basic for sound research. One must select the appropriate tool to yield the best answer. The most common tool of choice in social research has been the survey, which quantifies by reducing social phenomena to numbers to make inferences about how variables relate to one another. The preference for quantitative analysis is understandable given how much knowledge has been generated by this approach. Less common is the use of photography as a tool of social research. Photography is typically considered a fine art, an instrument for commercial purposes or a hobby, rather than a rigorous analytical method in its own right (Collier 233

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& Collier, 1986; Wagner, 2004). Jennifer Tucker (2005) explains that photography’s full acceptance as a scientific instrument was hindered by questions of who produces, displays, and takes the photographs. She argues that the scientific community did not readily embrace photography as a means to objectively document social phenomenon. On the contrary, scientists greeted photography with deep suspicion and skepticism as a reliable and valid form of credible visual evidence (Szto, 2008a). Although few doubted photography’s ability to render reality with amazingly high precision, they still questioned the interpretive relationship between image and its view. Did the photographic image evoke trust and authenticity? Tucker (2005) explains that soon after the simultaneous discovery of photography in 1839 by Henry Fox Talbot in England and Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre and Joseph-Nicéphore Niépce in France, it gained immediate and widespread popular appeal. Intuitively, just plain folk took to photography to document their surrounding social world, including portraiture, landscapes, architecture, and faraway lands (Newhall, 1978). However, social researchers still viewed photography with apprehension and deep skepticism as credible scientific evidence. The only scientific disciplines to embrace photography as a legitimate research tool were anthropology and sociology (Prosser, 1998). People in these two social science disciplines implicitly understood how photography as method could overcome cultural bias rather than introducing it. In today’s world of social research, photography remains a reluctant yet emerging method of choice. It receives scant attention, if at all, in the major social work research textbooks and journals. Although it does not have the same status as quantitative methods, photography is gaining awareness and acceptance as a valid methodology. For example, photovoice is a method that uses photography to empower research subjects to record what they see as a form of personal expression. The act of taking pictures gives voice to their everyday experiences, percptions and impressions of their world. Photovoice was developed by Caroline C. Wang (1999) when she was a doctoral student at the University of Michigan, and has become perhaps the most widely recognized use of photography in social work. However, the earliest proponent of photography in social work was Boise State University 234

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professor, the late Dan Huff (1998). Huff acknowledged social photographers Jacob Riis (1849–1914), Lewis Hine (1874–1940), and the Farm Security Administration investigative team (1935–1944) as skillful photographers who documented and exposed rural poverty in America. Their groundbreaking work helped establish photography as a documentary tool. More recently, I examined the validity and reliability of photographic images to study social problems and observed that in the history of photography, photographs as credible visual evidence were used for persuasion and propaganda (Szto, 2008a). Russell and Diaz (2012) demonstrate the value of using visual images to humanize research findings. They use photography as a design innovation to capture the lived experiences of lesbian women. Their goal was to make the visual relationship between subject and viewer explicit to invoke compassion and empathy, producing powerful images of lesbian humanity that words alone cannot convey. Another example of innovative investigative social photography is the work of Jean Correll Munn (2012). In 2005 Munn designed a travel course, based on the Council on Social Work Education’s curriculum standards for international social work, to the Czech Republic. Her students used photography to study social problems, and she published their findings in the Journal of Social Work Education (Munn, 2012). All in all, these examples represent the small but steady emergence of photography as a tool of social research in the social work literature. According to Hoffa (2007), travel courses and student and faculty exchanges began with Emo of Friesland. In 1190 Emo ventured from his native Holland to study at Oxford University in England. Much has indeed changed since the 12th century. According to Hoffa, the proliferation of international programs began to increase significantly in the 1920s with the advent of commercial air travel. International efforts initially focused on relief and social development. The dissemination of social work knowledge also gained value, along with the challenge of how American culture might have an impact on sharing knowledge. By the late 1980s, distinct viewpoints had formed between those not worried about possible colonizing effects and those concerned that colonializing would happen through the curriculum (Dominelli, 2003; Healy, 235

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2008). Today, hundreds of international opportunities exist on college and university campuses all across America.

G AT HERING VISUA L E VIDENCE IN CHIN A My experience doing research internationally began with a 2006 visual study project that used observational analysis on China’s floating population, a term that refers to the mass internal migration of peasants from rural to urban areas (Solinger, 1999). The research involved 2 weeks of intense fieldwork in the southern coastal city of Guangzhou. My observational research was framed by the following questions: What does the floating population look like? Where do they stay during the day? What do they do to survive every day? China’s floating population and social work share a unique relationship; to understand one requires understanding the other. Their relationship involves the reemergence of social work in response to social problems. Over several millennia China’s Confucian-based dynastic system ruled Chinese society. During this expanse of time, China existed in relative isolation from the outside world and considered itself the center of the universe with all the necessary resources internal to its borders. European foreigners intruded into China’s space beginning in the 13th century bringing with them strange practices. Social work was among the foreign ideas that American missionaries introduced in the early 20th century (Szto, 2001, 2013). The Chinese embraced social work as a social welfare novelty until 1949 when Mao Tse-tung established the People’s Republic of China. Mao viewed foreign ideas and practices, such as social work, as a vestige of Western bourgeois privilege and eradicated it from China. Social work was perceived as foreign imperialism and was banned in 1951. China’s Communist leaders argued that social work was not necessary because under socialism the government solves all social problems. Mao implemented the iron rice bowl policy whereby government provided cradle-to-grave resources such as employment, housing, food, health care, and so on (Leung & Xu, 2015). By the late 1970s China’s leaders realized the iron rice bowl policy was neither working nor sustainable. China lagged behind Western societies, and this motivated Premier Deng Xiaoping to propose socialism 236

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with Chinese characteristics. This involved creation of Special Economic Zones to spur productivity via foreign investment and private sector entrepreneurship. The plan worked writ large by yielding enormous profits, albeit with significant unintended consequences of income inequality, homelessness, dislocation, prostitution, gambling, and drug abuse (Pan, 2002). The reemergence of social problems challenged the central government to sustain economic gains while addressing these new problems. The government initially ignored the problems as an inconvenience for the sake of progress. Unfortunately, the problems persisted, including the emergence of the floating population resulting from the mass internal migration of peasants from rural to urban areas. The migration is as large as 250 million to 300 million people (Nielsen, Smyth, & Zhang, 2004). By the late 1980s, the government reversed course and turned to reintroducing social work to solve the problems. China now has more than 200 undergraduate and graduate social work programs, and the Ministry of Civil Affairs proposes training two million social workers by 2020 (Szto, 2013). A question for researchers today is how to do research in China and avoid cultural imperialism. According to Midgely (1981) and Nagpaul (1972), cultural imperialism refers to an unequal balance that privileges guest over host and is something to avoid. For my social work students, the National Association of Social Workers’ Code of Ethics is an important foundation when in China. For example, how do local laws and cultural norms affect doing research with photography? I remind my students that whether they like it or not, they are cultural ambassadors of the university, the profession, and the United States. This maxim is vital for critical self-reflection and for developing a sensitivity toward how others perceive their behavior. Minimizing cultural and professional imperialism is important. Toward this end, heightened sensitivity involving the social environment on individual subjects is important for taking good pictures with humility and respect. Sensitive seeing is a camera skill that is expected to improve with practice. Students are taught to control their impulse to photograph anything and everything and to exercise a discriminating eye. China is so visually stimulating that students 2 37

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are reminded to be visually reflective and discerning, to be vigilantly mindful of context and cultural differences at all times. That is my approach for doing research in China and an attitude I convey to my students. The following questions are discussed in the seminars and echoed in China: How can I best represent my country, university, profession, and individuality to my Chinese hosts? How can I respect the humanity of my subjects when I photograph them? In what way is the particular event that I am photographing related to the big picture of social change in China?

DOING RESE A RCH IN CHIN A THE TRAVEL COURSE

International research has inherent risks and benefits. In my view, the benefits outweigh the risks to social work students regarding professional growth and enrichment. Risks include culture shock, jet lag, fatigue, misplaced luggage, or getting lost. Although these are all real possibilities, they are neither absolute nor life threatening. For sure, experiencing risks is what makes travel attractive. In fact, the whole purpose of cross-cultural engagement is to see life beyond one’s prior cultural experiences. I therefore plan the travel course with two goals in mind: student safety and an environment for students to achieve their research goals. Safety is important, and all possible precautions are made. However, students are warned that life is beyond my control, and things might happen, such as inclement weather, flight delays, lost luggage, and so on. The syllabus is adjusted each year to accommodate student special interests, airline schedules and rates, local conditions, and overall costs. Topics covered in the syllabus are Chinese history and culture, currency exchange rates, basic camera handling, documentary photography, what to pack, personal behavior and professional ethics, safety issues, and doing social research in China. The focus of student recruitment is to get the right mix of students who are genuinely motivated and mature. I host several information meetings prior to registration. Interested students are interviewed and 238

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if selected make a $200 deposit. They register for the spring course in the fall semester. I ask the following questions in the interview: How do you handle interpersonal conflicts? How do you deal with people and behaviors different from yours? What is your favorite Chinese dish? Why do you like it? Are you a risk taker? If so, elaborate. These questions are not a litmus test, and answers do not automatically disqualify a student. The purpose is to screen potential behavioral problems that might arise while in China. Students who are mature can more readily adapt to unexpected situations and make prudent choices. The on-campus seminars serve as another venue to screen behaviors. Group bonding is essential for a successful travel course. The first few seminars provide time for students to interact and form interpersonal bonds. If someone feels uncomfortable with any other potential members of the trip, they are encouraged to recognize and resolve these feelings. If a scenario arises in which students feel they do not fit, they are encouraged to drop out as soon as possible for the benefit of everyone. Students are also told that the instructor has the sole discretion to deny or discontinue travel if someone poses a behavioral risk. If a student is dismissed after the airline tickets are purchased, the student must adhere to airline policies regarding a refund. The goal is to recruit 8 to 10 social work students. The travel course has three assignments: a five- to eight-page paper on a social change topic, a 20-image social change portfolio, and a 10-page reflection paper based on their portfolio. Students select a social change topic based on their interest. The five- to eight-page paper is designed to explore an area of social change for their fieldwork and portfolio. Previous topics have been intergenerational family life, architecture, the elderly in public places, and children. I tell the students to take as many pictures as possible. It is easier to delete pictures afterward rather than miss taking an image that one will regret not having later. The full schedule includes downtime for students to edit and organize their photographs. A class iPad is available to download and edit images while in China. The final assignment is a 10-page reflection paper based on the student’s 20-images. Photographs speak for themselves, but they also reflect the thoughts and feelings of the photographer. The purpose of this assignment is to create a dialogue 2 39

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between text and image regarding what the student was thinking and feeling when he or she took each image. What was the student trying to capture? What were the circumstances surrounding each photograph? Why did the student take this image? Travel logistics involves managing all the details such as passport information, visas, round-trip airfare, lodging, scheduling field visits, managing the budget, and arranging meals and the daily itinerary. All the details have become somewhat second nature for me with each subsequent travel course. One important detail is organizing all the receipts for reconciling the budget with university accounting. I tell students before we leave for China that they have not really left until their seat belts are buckled and the plane has lifted off the ground. Experience has taught me that students do unexpected things like cancel at the last minute. Be that as it may, I purchase our roundtrip tickets sometime in February for a late May, pre–Memorial Day departure. We leave then because the airfare rates are lower before the summer travel season begins. Students return to Omaha in early June after 2 weeks of fieldwork in China. The May-June weather in China is also comfortable enough for travel.

T H E S PR I N G S E M I NA R S

The travel course is offered during the spring semester, during which we meet biweekly in 90-minute on-campus seminars that are designed to prepare students for 2 weeks of fieldwork in China at the end of the spring semester. The purpose of the seminars is to prepare students for their research time in China. The seminars include discussions on social change, basic camera handling, documentary photographic design, and travel logistics. Choosing a social change topic is perhaps one of the most difficult tasks for students because they have not travelled to China and know very little about social life there. Therefore, it is important to develop a historical-cultural perspective as a frame of reference. The goal is to understand social change in terms of a Chinese cultural context so that when students are in China, they will have an informed perspective. Just seeing McDonald’s and Starbucks 24 0

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almost everywhere, for example, has little meaning unless one understands the role of Western market forces in China. Two key questions are explored in the seminars to develop a cross-cultural framework. How different is what you see in China from images you had before you arrived? Although social life in China might be too different for you to fully understand, can you see below the veneer of modern life and see remnants of traditional Chinese culture, for example, street tai chi, intergenerational family life, hutong architecture, and so on? For me, travel deepens how I understand the social world. It challenges the assumptions I have of other people, how they live, and how other societies take care of one another. I believe it is healthy as a social worker to see the world from different perspectives. Life in China is so different from life in Nebraska that only travel there can offer a true and authentic cross-cultural experience. Travel also enables international research through direct cultural engagement. Photography too can mediate differences through critical observation and reflection. To photograph as unobtrusively as possible, students learn to develop a posture of looking responsively to the human situation (Berger, 1972; Wagner, 1979). I tell the students the more sensitive they are to person-in-environment issues, the better the image. This reflective stance promotes the photographer’s interest in why people behave the way they do without being judgmental. To promote a reflective attitude, students write their everyday encounters in a journal. What did they see? Where did they go? How did they feel about the images they took? Keeping a journal helps the photographer record and reflect on his or her emotions and perceptions while taking pictures. For me, keeping a journal is important during fieldwork because it deepens my understanding of things I saw and experienced. The seminars provide basic instruction on doing photography in China. I go over the technical aspects of photography such as exposure, depth of field, aperture settings, ISO ratings, camera bodies, focal lengths, and digital photography. We also explore what it means to have a documentary vision and developing a personal visual style. Style is complex and unfolds over time with experience and practice. Students have assignments to explore habits of seeing and ways of 241

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looking. Students with all skill levels in photography, from novice to advanced photographers, are accepted. The only requirement is students must use a digital camera, whether borrowed, rented, or owned. Digital photography is preferred because of its convenience.

F I E L DWO R K I N C H I NA

What happens in China? Students spend 2 weeks in China doing fieldwork focused on using photography to document social change. This involves taking an observational stance and employing the camera to record what one observes. Each day is unique with the daily itinerary indicating visits to particular cities, historic sites, social work programs, and leisure time. The schedule is full and organized around photography to take advantage of every minute in China. Even though the schedule is planned before we depart, flexibility is necessary to accommodate local weather, traffic conditions, and the unexpected. For example, on one occasion the host of a social work program unexpectedly canceled a campus visit leaving us with free time to do other unplanned things, like shopping. During the seminars students are forewarned of the reality that something unplanned will happen beyond the control of the instructor. The unpredictable nature of travel and fieldwork is perhaps what makes it attractive if not exciting. The unplanned is mentioned here as part of fieldwork but discussed in detail later in relation to the promising principles of international research. The schedule caters to the students’ social change topics. Despite the fact that these topics are diverse and idiosyncratic, the schedule accommodates them by allowing visits to as many public and well-known places as possible such as the Great Wall, the Bund in Shanghai, or public parks. All formal activities are done as a group, that is, meals, shopping, and museums, for example. On these outings students look for scenes related to their social change topic. As they gain confidence and familiarity with China, they gradually take risks and venture out on their own. I find it fascinating when assessing their pictures afterward that even though we experienced the same situations, their images 242

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often capture totally different perspectives. The students do not use a shooting script when they photograph; rather, they respond to situations before them with the camera. They are encouraged to photograph as much as possible, not necessarily to capture the magic moment but more so because events are fleeting and it is better to document what one can. To access everyday social life, we walk as much as possible. Walking allows the students to see more and thus take more pictures. As much as possible, students download their digital images onto laptops for viewing and editing. Sharing images and critique of them is planned, but as a practical matter, the rigors of travel makes this difficult to enforce on a regular basis. Some days are longer than others, and fatigue more often than not takes precedence over sharing. Formal debriefing best occurs over meals and in spontaneous conversations on the subway, buses, or taxis. Students keep a journal while in China to help produce their 20-image portfolio that is due a month after they return to Omaha. Writing in a journal every day not only records their thoughts and feelings, but it helps students to critically reflect and explore their perceptions. For example, why did they take the pictures they took? What obstacles did they encounter in taking a particular photograph?

OU TCOMES One measure on how well the students learned to use photography to study social change in China is their own observations. Three different student reflections representing different travel years are presented here as an evaluative outcome of the travel research course. In the following student reflection written in 2005, the student’s heightened awareness reflects an observation about others but also her thoughts on being observed. Her reflective comments represent sensitivity encouraged in the seminars regarding a social worker’s ethical responsibility to respect human dignity. Upon arriving in China, we found ourselves noticing the vast differences of the colorful culture of China in comparison to 24 3

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what we had experienced as Americans—the smells of foreign food and city life, sounds of construction and traffic, and people and cars busily moving in various directions. The languages, the signs, the stores, and the foods were all new. The Chinese were experiencing our presence in this way as well. From our first day in Guangzhou, the people in the streets … often curiously watched us, looking at our hair, skin, and eyes and then casually returning to their business. A student in 2007 writes about her self-awareness and privilege as a Western foreigner in China. It is an astute observation for a social worker doing research in China. Her observation is critical about her privilege, which leads to caution and carefulness. This is a healthy position to have as a guest in another country and for taking pictures. It is a reflective pose that respects power and privilege. The question of naming things is also helpful for photography. It is good to ask why things are the way they are. In some ways traveling to China made me feel ashamed to be an American. I saw again and again how privileged our citizens are, even while we are half way around the world. I had expected to feel completely isolated in China, and that I would not be able to understand any signs or directions. However, no signs were translated into French or German, and tourists from those countries would be completely isolated. I learned that English is the language used for international business, and I wonder who decided that. A student in 2013 writes about her self-awareness and privilege as a Western foreigner in China. The photograph gains significance with the student’s commentary about wealth and poverty. The photograph, shown in Figure 11.1, is a good example of documenting social change in China. In a whimsically visual way it captures Western capitalism in communist China. At first glance the figure of Ronald McDonald looms large and slightly imposing. The yellow and red colors steer [sic] the viewer’s eye towards the clown statute standing in the left 24 4

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foreground. The student framed the image to convey dominance and influence. Upon closer examination, a woman can be seen sitting slightly behind Ronald McDonald. She appears poor and fragile below. FIGURE 1. PHOTO OF RONALD MCDONALD BESIDE STREET VENDOR

N O T E . RO N A L D M C D O N A L D I N Q U I L I N , G UA N G X I , C H I N A , J U N E 2 01 3 . P H O T O C O U R T E S Y O F S . W E AT H E R LY.

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CRITICA L REFL ECTION A ND DISCUS SION OF T HE PROMISING PRINCIPL ES Doing research in China does not happen in a vacuum. Multiple factors affect the research process, some good and some bad. This section looks at three promising principles to assess past successes and mistakes. The principles intend to organize future international research based on the travel course discussed here. AT T E N DI N G TO C U LT U R E : G L O BA L I Z AT I O N A N D I N DI G E N O U S S O C I A L WO R K

Social workers doing research in an international setting must attend to their own attitude and approach to culture. Inattention to a social worker’s values and knowledge and those of the host culture can lead to tension and conflict. Attending to culture is a principle that seeks to avoid unnecessary cultural clash that impedes doing research. The on-campus seminars are designed to attune students to the dynamics of culture in a research context. Knowledge about Chinese values, customs, and how foreigners are perceived is important for image-based research. Despite hearing that students might possibly and unintentionally offend their Chinese hosts, it was impossible to control or avert offensive behaviors. A benign example is using chopsticks at meals to mimic playing the drums. Bad. This is considered very rude and highly embarrassing for me. A more serious example happened when crossing the border into China. A student ignored signage that prohibited photography and started taking pictures while in the customs inspection area. Security guards quickly confronted her and demanded that she immediately delete all the photographs. I had already crossed over and so stood helpless while watching the confrontation. It was a lesson on paying attention to and obeying local laws. A goal of the student photographer is to avoid any hint of cultural imperialism by honoring indigenous ways. This includes adhering to ethical guidelines to avoid exploitation of vulnerable subjects. As a precaution, students review institutional review board guidelines to inform their photography. The guidelines are useful regarding observation-based 24 6

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fieldwork. However, review board approval is not formally sought because students assume a journalistic role in taking pictures.

E X PL O R I N G T H E E N G AG E M E N T A N D PA RT N E R S H I P PRO C E S S : OW N I N G T H E WO R K

Students are typically anxious about international travel. Some have never flown or gone overseas, and others have flown more often. The anxiety is natural given that most of them will do research in China for the first time. The first three to four days are the most challenging because of jet lag, fatigue, and adjusting to the culture. A key concern is wondering how students will address their subject matter effectively. Staying together as a group helps diffuse the anxiety, and my presence provides a role model for them as well. Students learn that the principle of engagement involves the effective application of empowerment, the desire to share power based on mutual respect and common interests. The principle seeks to establish trust, shared accountability, and ownership of process and outcomes. Whether the field of practice is domestic or international, the principle is foundational for sharing ownership of the work. Documentary work involves blending in and becoming invisible so that the subject behaves as if the photographer were not there. The focal length of the lens will affect the distance between photographer and subject, and in general, a tighter crop makes for better viewing. Effective engagement, however, does not always depend on equipment or documentary skill. On all my trips, the majority of my students have been white, blonde, and female. In the Chinese imagination, these students are idealized and represent images portrayed by Hollywood and American television. Ironically, the students stand out, attract attention, and become the subject of Chinese cameras! This unexpected role reversal offers a level of engagement that is natural, spontaneous, and an opportunity for mutual picture taking. It is also a lighthearted interaction with plenty of smiles that provide nonverbal affirmation. From this experience the students gain confidence to interact with the Chinese, and unintentionally it mitigates any anxiety. 247

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A goal of documentary photography is to respect cultural differences and human dignity. In image-based research, an unobtrusive stance is pursued through observational sensitivity. In most situations students do not share their images with the subjects because of language or the situation does not warrant it. For example, a picture is taken from a moving bus, or a telephoto lens is used because the subject is far away. The aim of the students’ journal is to capture thoughts and feelings about their images to use later when writing their reflective narratives. The students own all their own photographic work. Not every year but most years we have a reunion picture party and share favorite images with one another. Students have submitted best works on flash drives for archival purposes. Twenty images are also submitted for their portfolio assignment on social change. These portfolios are archived and used to recruit future students. Past students have shared their work at the Council on Social Work Education Annual Program Meeting in Philadelphia (2008) and Dallas (2013). The audiences provided a public forum, primarily social work educators, for students to explain their work. The question of who owns the students’ photography is framed here as a matter of their educational value. What do the students learn from their own picture taking on social change and how might they share that learning with others? The biggest challenge in my view is finding the appropriate venue to showcase the students’ work. An exhibition offers advantages in terms of a public event that gathers people together. However, such an event would require significant organizational effort, human resources, and be limited by location. Another more promising option is a website because it offers more flexibility to update images with an international audience.

B R I N G I N G L E A R N I N G H O M E : T H E I N T E R NAT I O NA LD O M E S T I C I N T E R FAC E

The advantage of photography is its ability to bridge evidence gathered internationally with a domestic audience. For example, family and friends are curious about what students saw and experienced in China. Photographs make it possible to experience China vicariously. 24 8

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Viewing the photographs brings together two worlds: the world students traveled to and the world they traveled from. In addition, the 20-image portfolios on social change and the 10-page reflection assignment are an invaluable source of information for the home audience. Some of the images are used in my classroom teaching to illustrate various concepts and ideas. The visual evidence of social life, particularly because they are digital, enliven PowerPoint presentations and help explain international social work. .

Nearly every year, after each trip, the students share their experiences at a fall symposium on photography and social change. Students describe things they have seen, places they visited, and how the experiences influenced them as social work students. In my view, these symposiums have been mixed. The lag time between when they returned from China in early June and the symposiums in late September or early October zaps much of the excitement and energy out of the students. Scheduling is another variable that has precluded attendance, and so for the past few trips, the fall symposiums were suspended. Another forum to disseminate learning has been publication; for example, in 2008 a case study of a prototype version of the travel course was published (Szto, 2008b). Anecdotally, students informed me that some of them used their China travel experience in practicum seminars to illustrate professional growth. This indirect complement underscores the influence international travel can have on students and their willingness to share with others.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IN T ERN ATION A L SOCIA L WORK PR ACTICE The future for international social work practice is promising if the principles discussed in this work are appropriately applied. In support of these principles, I offer the following recommendations. The first involves innovation related to image-based research. Social work has historically operated in a global context. For example, in the late 19th century, social work knowledge was transferred from England to the United States and subsequently exported to China in the 1920s. 24 9

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This history is not static but rather dynamic, as social work educators continue to transfer knowledge to advance professional practice and social development worldwide. However, one does not have to go overseas to practice international social work (Healy, 2008; Kendall, 1978). Refugee resettlement services, helping undocumented individuals, or providing social services for migrants are examples of domestic social workers engaged in international issues. Indeed, today’s global context demands social work practitioners to be attuned to cultural differences and equipped to respond innovatively. New ways of seeing and knowing serendipitously are essential to solving the problems of tomorrow. It is, therefore, incumbent on social work educators to equip the next generation of practitioners with the requisite tools of innovation. Implicit in this recommendation is the assumption that old ways are old because they are no longer effective. Innovation is the only way forward. The second recommendation flows from the first, which is to expand the use of photography as a tool of international social research. As demonstrated here, a travel course to China that uses photography to study social change produces valid and robust data. The most recent travel course was held spring/summer 2016 and incorporated elements identified above. The Grace Abbott School of Social Work at the University of Nebraska at Omaha signed a collaborative agreement with China’s Ministry of Civil Affairs and the China Social Workers Association in 2013 to provide specialized social work training. A pilot training was held in August 2015 that incorporated student photographs illustrating social problems in China. The participants were impressed with the irrefutable and persuasive power of the visual evidence. A second training session occurred in July/August 2016 that included student photography from the May/June 2016 travel course. To prepare their materials, students met and shared their latest photography with social work faculty and students at East China Normal University, Shanghai, in early June 2016. The meeting was unique by providing an opportunity to field test students’ most recent images. Part of the collaboration with the Ministry of Civil Affairs is to make the training syllabi, visual evidence, and pedagogical insights, gained from the planning and implementation, available through a website.

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The third recommendation is to pursue historically informed epistemological self-consciousness regarding race and ethnicity. What does this mean? When Anglo-American missionaries introduced social work into China in the 1920s, they did so with good intentions. Despite their best efforts, they were expelled in 1949 because to the Chinese they represented Western racial superiority and foreign imperialism. China today is seeking to develop an indigenous-framed social work practice independent of foreign control. My recommendation is to respect China’s pursuit of social work by being wary of unchecked White privilege. Self-awareness grounded in a sense of history will avoid mistakes of the past. White people cannot do this alone because it is a blind spot in their perceptual identity. One realistic and possible alternative is to work with Chinese Americans who have the advantage of biculturalism and can serve as cultural guides to navigate and mediate cultural differences.

CONCLUSION This chapter examined a research-based travel course to China to study social change. Social work students learn to use photography as a tool of social research. Benefits from the travel course suggest embracing and expanding photography as a documentary method for doing international research. The use of photography demonstrated that documenting what one sees is important to expose and to affect social change. The 2 weeks of fieldwork in China also gave students the opportunity to experience doing research in an international setting and to show others what they witnessed through visual data. Reflecting on their experiences in China also provided them with an opportunity to evaluate the impact of culture on doing documentary photography in a setting different from their own. More important, the travel course supports the three promising principles for future international social research. This is important in places such as China where innovation and invention are important rather than relying on methods ill-suited to China’s cultural context. Photography is not a panacea for seeing social change more clearly, nevertheless, it is facilitative in cases as in China where language 2 51

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is a barrier. Finally, China remains positioned for further exploration on how visual evidence and visualization, vis-à-vis documentary photography, can inform social work practice and knowledge. The Chinese language is already pictographic, and Confucian social harmony undergirds interpersonal relationships, which are cultural features that align well with photography. This cultural inclination toward the visual is a factor to consider on how strategic photography might be in other countries and contexts. In conclusion, how the Chinese view the person in environment and the role of social work to solve social problems suggests a promising future for gathering more visual evidence to study social change.

REFERENCES Barthes, R. (1980). Camera lucida: Reflections on photography (R. Howard, Trans.). New York: NY: Hill & Wang. Berger, J. (1972). Ways of seeing. London, England: British Broadcasting Corp. Collier, J., & Collier, M. (1986). Visual anthropology: Photography as a research method. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press. Dominelli, L. (2003) Anti-oppressive social work theory and practice. New York, NY: Palgrave MacMillan. Healy, L. M. (2008). International social work: Professional action in an interdependent world. (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Hoffa, W. W. (2007). A history of U.S. study abroad: Beginnings to 1965 (Vol. 1). Carlisle, PA: Frontiers Journal & Forum on Education Abroad. Huff, D. (1998). Every picture tells a story. Social Work, 43, 576–584. Kendall, K. (1978). The IASSW 1928–1978: A journey of remembrance. In K. Kendall (Ed.), Reflections on social work education (pp. 170–191). New York, NY: International Association of Schools of Social Work. Leung, J,.& Xu, Y. (2015) China’s social welfare. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. Midgely, J. (1981). Professional imperialism: Social work in the third world. London, England: Heineman Educational Books. 252

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Morris, E. (2011). Believing is seeing: Observations on the mysteries of photography. New York, NY: Penguin Press. Munn, J. (2012). Viewing the world: Qualitative inquiry in international settings. Journal of Social Work Education, 48, 167–177. doi:10.5175/ JSWE.2012.200900132 Nagpaul, H. (1972). The diffusion of American social work education to India: Problems and issues. International Social Work, 15, 3–17. Newhall, B. (1978). The history of photography: From 1839 to the present day. Revised and enlarged edition. New York, NY: Museum of Modern Art. Nielsen, I., Smyth, R., & Zhang, M. (2004). Unemployment within China’s floating population: Empirical evidence from Jiangsu survey data. Chinese Economy, 39(4), 41–56. Pan, P. (2002, August 4). Poisoned back into poverty: As China embraces capitalism, hazards to workers rise. Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2002/08/04/ poisoned-back-into-poverty/765743a4-66fc-4370-899f-b761963f946a/ Prosser, J. (1998). Image-based research: A sourcebook for qualitative researchers. New York, NY: Routledge Falmer. Russell, A. C., & Diaz, N. (2012). Photography in social work research: Using visual image to humanize findings. Qualitative Social Work, 12, 433–453. Solinger, D. J. (1999). China’s floating population: Implications for state and society. In M. Goldman & R. MacFarquhar (Eds.), The paradox of China’s post-Mao reforms. (pp. 220–240). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Sontag, S. (1977). On photography. London, England: Penguin. Szto, P. (2001). The accommodation of insanity in Canton, China: 1854– 1936 (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania. Szto, P. (2008a). Documentary photography in American social welfare history: 1897–1943. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 35, 91–110. Szto, P. (2008b). Ethnic-relations in East-West perspective: A case study in restorative justice. In K. Van Wormer (Ed.), Restorative justice across the East 253

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and West (pp. 145–162). Hong Kong, Administrative Region, China: Case Verde. Szto, P. (2013). History of social work in China. Retrieved from http:// www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195389678/obo9780195389678-0198.xml Tucker, J. (2005). Nature exposed: Photography as eyewitness in Victorian science. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. Wagner, J. (2004). Constructing credible images: Documentary studies, social research, and visual studies. American Behavioral Scientist, 47, 1477–1506. Wagner, J. (2007) Observing culture and social life: Documentary photography, fieldwork, and social research. In G. C. Stanczak (Ed.), Visual research methods: Image, society, and representation, (pp. 23–59). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Wagner, J. (Ed.). (1979). Images of information. Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE. Wang, C. (1999). Photovoice: A participatory action research strategy applied to women’s health. Journal of Women’s Health, 8, 185–192. Zhang, L. (2001). Strangers in the city: Reconfigurations of space, power, and social networks within China’s floating population. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

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T HE PROCES SES A ND DILEMM A S OF DOING IN T ERN ATION A L RESE A RCH IN INDIA M A H A S W E TA M . B A N E R J E E

Opportunities for international social work research and the number of international social work research publications have increased since the 1990s. However, few of these publications describe the actual processes and dilemmas of doing research in international settings. Consequently, little is known about how the research ethics and protocols of the Global North interact with the culture and research ethics of the Global South. Furthermore, there is no discussion about how a social work researcher’s identity might influence the research processes in international research. To fill this gap, after reviewing the literature, I share my experiences of doing long-term research in India with the Fulbright Program. I discuss cultural and ethical differences with regard to research processes such as informed consent, privacy, confidentiality, boundaries, and financial incentives as well as my dilemmas related to identity and safety. I describe how the research design was modified, including the data collection strategy and specific questions. I recommend that social work educators more fully document their research processes to help develop a comprehensive knowledge base for international social work research.

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Opportunities for international social work research have increased as global travel and communication have become easier. Also, the percentage of international social work research publications has increased from 1995 to 2004 (Jung & Tripodi, 2007). International social work research increases awareness of global issues, allows cross-cultural comparisons, and often addresses issues in the host country. However, very few publications describe the actual processes of doing research in international settings. As Czymoniewicz-Klippel, Brijnath, and Crockett (2010) state, “Researchers often distill the messiness, and unpredictability … to clean, comprehensible conclusions that reveal nothing of the processes” (p. 339). To contribute to an accurate depiction and discussion of findings through international research, and to facilitate the research process for those considering such research, it is important for researchers to report the processes and dilemmas encountered in doing research in international settings. One of the most comprehensive social work publications on the processes of international research is by Lombe, Newransky, Crea, and Stout (2013). The authors discuss collaboration formation, research plan development, funding and budget considerations, ethical concerns regarding human relationships, data collection, data analysis and interpretation, and dissemination of findings. Although their contribution is noteworthy, it excludes issues such as researcher’s identity, insider and outsider status, travel, and safety concerns that influence the research process. In the following sections I discuss the cultural differences, research ethics, and related research concerns pertaining to international research. I begin with a literature review that focuses on international research in the Global South, particularly India. Next, I provide a brief background of India, mention the first social work educational institution in India, describe its code of ethics to guide research, and identify ethical dilemmas that arise in adapting Western research ethics to the Indian culture. Finally, I present and discuss my Fulbright research experiences in West Bengal, an eastern state in India. I discuss more fully the cultural and ethical differences that emerge with regard to informed consent, privacy, confidentiality, boundaries, financial incentive, identity, insider and outsider status, safety, and travel. Before concluding, I touch on 256

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three promising principles guiding this book: attending to culture; understanding government, politics, and local initiatives; and bringing learning home. I recommend that social work researchers more fully document their research processes to help develop a comprehensive knowledge base for international social work research.

LIT ER AT URE RE VIE W My initial search for literature on the process of conducting social work research in international contexts yielded little useful information. However, broadening the search to other disciplines and to the Global South, particularly India, yielded more results. Reviewing certain articles cited in some of these publications provided additional information. The overarching theme with the revised search strategy was that cultural differences between researchers and participants can affect all phases of a study (Tripodi & Lalayants, 2013). A subtheme was that, without modification, research ethics of the Global North cannot always be applied to the Global South (Kunnath, 2013; Riessman, 2005; Skelton, 2009). Both themes were true regardless of the research method—quantitative, qualitative, or mixed.

C U LT U R A L DI F F E R E N C E S

Although social work scholars may not specifically focus on international research, they acknowledge that gaining cross-cultural awareness and competence is an ongoing process. Social work researchers can begin the process by reviewing the literature concerning historical, economic, familial, traditional, and cultural factors pertaining to the country and groups to be studied (Tripodi & Lalayants, 2013). Researchers need to avoid biases of ethnocentrism and recognize there are variations within cultures as well as among cultures (Bosch, 2012). Culturally competent research requires self-awareness, cultural humility, understanding of the intersectionality of privilege and disadvantage, and recognition of linguistic differences (National Association of Social Workers, 2015). 2 57

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Social work researchers need to acquire contextual knowledge from collaborators and local residents as part of research partnerships (Sanders-Phillips, Pretorius, & Reddy, 2009). Lombe et al. (2013) discuss the importance of seeking cultural and contextual knowledge from collaborators and local residents. They stress that international research must be based on and respond to community needs; acknowledge and build on community assets and strengths; adapt research design, methods, and procedures to community contexts; and demonstrate mutual respect between partners. They offer several recommendations, such as setting up a community advisory board and soliciting community input at each stage of the research process, training local people to administer surveys, translating instruments into several local languages, and using same-sex bilingual interviewers whenever possible. Longhurst (2009) reports probability sampling can be difficult, necessitating nonprobability sampling. Despite planning, a large number of people may attend focus groups, and it is culturally inappropriate to turn them away (Pryce, Niederkorn, Goins, & Reiland, 2011). Further cultural differences include work habits, workload, sensitivity to deadlines, time differences, reciprocity, gift giving, hospitality, and social manners (Skelton, 2009). Aspects of research design, including measurement and sampling, pose problems for international researchers in India. For example, Schensul, Natasi, and Verma (2006) had to modify their research design and introduce ayurvedic (indigenous) healers, as they were more trusted than allopathic (Western medicine) doctors by Indian men. In another instance, despite translating the structured interview schedule and using a local speaker to conduct interviews, the pilot test showed that respondents found it difficult to respond to scales of 1 to 7. Thus, scales were reduced to 1 to 3 (1=dissatisfied, 2=neutral, 3=satisfied), which severely limited the variation in the data (Biswas-Diener & Diener, 2001). Ghosh, Chowdhury, Solomon, and Ali (2015) report translating a hospital anxiety and depression scale and administering it to 100 HIV-infected sex workers. One item, “butterflies in the stomach” had to be changed to a colloquial expression in the local language to express the same sense of somatized anxiety. Results indicated that the inability to remain calm was experienced as depression 258

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rather than anxiety, whereas functional impairments induced anxiety rather than depression. Other researchers report using purposive sampling, interviewing in the local languages, obtaining oral consent, and collaborating with local stakeholders to get access to samples (Karandikar & Gezinski, 2013; Sinha, 2014).

R E S E A RC H E T H I C S A N D R E L AT E D I N T E R NAT I O NA L R E S E A RC H I S S U E S

Ethical practices are very important to consider in planning, designing, and implementing international research. Researchers discuss the inherent risks with ethical universalism or with applying universal moral principles that have been constructed in the cultural context of the researcher from the Global North and exported without modification to the Global South. Ethical universalism implies that all humans are fundamentally the same in being rational and self-interested, whereas in the Global South, people differ in what they consider to be rational and what is in their own and collective self-interest. What appears to be ethical research in an individualistic culture of the Global North may not be so in a collectivist culture of the Global South (Kunnath, 2013; Riessman, 2005), and some research questions may breach the ethical or moral sensibilities of those being asked in the Global South (Skelton, 2009). Written informed consent is especially problematic in some cultures with a history of colonization or where literacy rates are low and poverty is high (Banerjee & Canda, 2012). Informed consent must be clearly explained as some cultures may perceive the process as offensive if not explained in a manner that clarifies concern for human welfare as opposed to control (Freier et al., 2005). With regard to signed informed consent, Riessman (2005) reports that her experienced social work translator-assistant in India informed her, “We don’t do that here” (p. 487), but she insisted on it to abide by institutional review board (IRB) norms. Many participants signed the form but were reluctant to attach their names. They were not suspicious of the interview or its tape recording, but they were about the form because 259

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of colonial history. Some respondents wanted their own names to be used and not disguised. However, recent social work research in India as well as in Ghana shows that oral consent as opposed to written informed consent has been used for participation based on preapproval from IRBs (Lombe et al., 2013; Sinha, 2014). Nonetheless, Czymoniewicz-Klippel et al. (2010) question the value of individual consent in collectivist cultures, particularly in studies with children and older adults. They report that often Cambodian children were more educated than their parents, and the children explained the informed consent form to their parents, but the parents did not care about informed consent. Furthermore, the categories of gatekeeper and vulnerable populations are unstable and complex. In India, for example, older adults with dementia have many adults regularly taking care of them, so it is unclear who ought to give the formal informed consent—the caregiver, the daughter, or a visiting sibling. Privacy during interviews is a necessary condition for confidentiality in the Global North. However, in other countries it may be viewed as rude and suspicious because of a different sense of privacy, and it is often difficult to obtain or create because of limited space, overcrowding, and cultural norms (Reamer & Nimmagadda, 2015; Sullivan & Cottone, 2010). Riessman (2005) reports that in one instance, all family members participated in what was designed to be an in-depth individual interview. Privacy and confidentiality violations occurred when she served as a participant observer in an infertility clinic, where because of space and resource limitations, women did not have access to a private room for treatment. However, women undergoing the procedures did not object to the process. The doctor wanted to be ethical but was helpless, and yet by Western standards the process was an ethical violation of privacy and confidentiality. To compensate for time spent, it is customary to provide a monetary incentive for participants in funded research in the Global North, but monetary incentives are discouraged in the Global South. For example, Lombe et al. (2013) provided participants with two bars of laundry detergent, and Riessman (2005) donated money for services to agencies that gave her access to participants. Also, it is important to 260

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examine critically who are the beneficiaries of international research. Although most researchers guard against harm to participants, unless a prior needs assessment has been conducted and then evaluated (Pryce et al., 2011), it is hard to know how much the findings of research benefit participants as opposed to advancing the careers of researchers (Freier, et al., 2005). Sharing findings with the host country is one way to give back for the benefit of participants (Karandikar & Gezinski, 2013). Some researchers (Dowling, 2009; Riessman, 2005) criticize IRB protocols of the Global North for being primarily guided by the need to protect the institution and funding agency rather than participants. They argue that IRB protocols do not adequately address concerns for international researchers’ identity and safety. A researcher’s identity may be based on socially constructed differences such as gender, race, ethnicity, nationality, class, religion, sexuality, language, cultural practices, or on any combination of these differences. Yet, researchers’ identities are not fixed or immutable; their identities are multiple and overlapping (Henry, 2003; Kunnath, 2013; Skelton, 2009). Also, researchers may experience changes in their own identities and perspectives as a result of doing research in another country. Thus, categories such as insider or outsider, native or nonnative, similar or different are inadequate to describe researchers’ presence in the field. Assuming new identities, while bracketing some others, is an integral part of a researcher’s field presence. One becomes an insider or an outsider depending on the quality of a relationship with people, and among other things, the sharing of ideologies. However, efforts to hide one’s identity and research standpoint might not always succeed (Kunnath, 2013). In postcolonial settings the stereotypical construction of international researchers as all knowing, powerful, and potentially dangerous is still very pervasive, and researchers need to spend a great deal of energy and work to counter this presumption (Czymoniewicz-Klippel et al., 2010; Pryce et al., 2011; Skelton, 2009). For instance, Riessman (2005), a sociologist, reports that after she was introduced in a culturally respectful manner by her Indian assistant as Dr. Catherine, some 2 61

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respondents had conflicting expectations and assumptions about her medical expertise. The researcher’s identity has an impact on the research process and product, and might interfere with research objectivity and neutrality. Henry (2003) reports the parallel processes of multiple identity between herself and her women participants, and discusses the difficulties that ethnicity, nationality, age, and marital status posed for her as a first-generation South Asian researcher in India. Her Indian women respondents also live at the intersections of many identities and experiences (patriarchal, familial, communal, social, moral, and religious) and do not easily fit into assigned categories and roles. Kunnath (2013) reports it is ethically impossible to remain neutral when research participants are exploited by a domineering caste and class group in India. In other words, researchers’ perceived, expressed, or evident identity, power, and privilege can influence research processes. Safety issues are common but seldom documented in the literature. Czymoniewicz-Klippel et al. (2010) report that in Papua New Guinea, the problem of violence, especially gender-based violence, is pervasive and tacitly accepted, and women researchers fear violence and risk bodily harm. Kunnath (2013), a male ethnographer in India, was concerned about his personal safety because of his research partnership with Dalits (low caste) who were oppressed by high-caste landowners. International researchers often rely on translators and interpreters for data collection. Translation is appropriate when cultural and linguistic differences are not great. In contrast, interpretation takes place when cultural and linguistic differences are wide, and the researcher needs help in understanding the cultural context and meaning of what is being reported by respondents (Banerjee & Canda, 2012). Interpreters and translators are often recruited from the local community (Pryce et al., 2011), but their social class or educational level may set them apart from many in the community. The role of these third parties has to be handled very carefully, and selection and training are extremely difficult but important (Freed, 1988).

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In the United States international research is funded by federal agencies such as the National Institutes of Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Science Foundation, and the Agency for International Development; by foundations such as Ford, Soros, and Bill and Melinda Gates (Zlotnik, 2013), and by some universities. International research always involves major funding decisions on travel costs and accommodations in addition to research-related expenses, and currency differences and fluctuations require attention prior to beginning a project (Lombe et al., 2013). Funding relationships with international collaborators are rarely equal. The research agenda is often defined by those who control the funding, and local partners generally provide in-kind support (Schensul et al., 2006).

INDIA BACKGROUND AND SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

If I were to use only two terms that apply to India, they would be diversity and inequality. India is diverse in every conceivable way— geography, politics, economics, social, and cultural. India is a socialist secular democratic republic with multiple political parties. It has a population of more than 1.2 billion people living in 29 states and seven union territories. Among the 22 recognized languages, Hindi is the official language. English continues to be used for official purposes, as India was a British colony for nearly 200 years and gained independence in 1947. A majority of Indians are Hindu (81%), followed by Muslim (13%), Christian, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, and other religions (“National Portal of India,” 2016). Inequality is very high and evident in India. Since the early 1990s when India liberalized its economy, Indian economic growth has been unprecedented. The middle class expanded, and poverty declined from 45% in 1994 to 22% in 2012, yet poverty persists with approximately 400 million living in poverty (World Bank, 2015). This is partly because labor-intensive job growth has been minimal, requiring approximately 91% of the Indian labor force to work in the informal sector (International Labor Organization, 2014). Basic goods such as 263

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housing, education, health care, drinking water, sanitation, electricity, and transportation are unevenly distributed among urban and rural people. Thus, in the midst of plenty for a few, many poor people lack access to services needed for survival. Gender disparity is extremely high with a ratio of 940 females per 1,000 males, and gender together with caste, class, and literacy create a uniquely oppressive situation for women (Drèze & Sen, 2013). India’s Human Development Index of .609 is lowered to .435 when adjusted for gender, caste, and tribal inequalities (United Nations Development Programme, 2014).

S O C I A L WO R K E D U C AT I O N

There are two types of social work in India: voluntary and professional. The freedom movements against British rule and religious groups propelled many toward voluntary social work. Even today, although they do not have a professional degree, many people claim to be social workers. Professional social work education was first introduced in 1936 at the Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS) in Mumbai. The curriculum was highly influenced by the Chicago and Columbia schools of social work in the United States (Banerjee, 2010; Mathew & Lobo, n.d.). There are several schools of social work, some more established and recognized than others. Professional social workers in India do not share a unified code of ethics (Reamer, 2015). However, the TISS (1997) has a social work code of ethics with a section on ethical research. It considers research participants as “co-partners” with whom research objectives must be shared through activities such as obtaining “informed and voluntary consent, respect(ing) knowledge and attitude about life situation, and share(ing)/interpret(ing) findings with them” (p. 289). The TISS code of ethics includes directives to do no harm, protect confidentiality, provide information and services as and when necessary during data collection, and share findings for the benefit of participants by revising policies and programs. Reamer and Nimmagadda (2015) criticize the content of two available codes of ethics in India, one by the TISS and the other by the Bombay Association of Trained Social Workers. These codes do not 264

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reflect indigenous values despite India’s ancient thinking about ethics, embedded in the Vedas, one of the oldest knowledge texts. Key ethical concepts such as privacy, boundaries, and informed consent can vary in India as there are significant intracultural differences related to regions, religions, castes, and socioeconomic backgrounds. Other cultural differences include status hierarchy, where social workers are “commonly placed on the proverbial pedestal” and viewed as a “savior” (Reamer & Nimmagadda, 2015, p. 7). Relatedly, gratitude toward those who help and interdependence, two central Indian values, interfere with professional relationships. Reamer (2015) reports lack of literacy is very high in India, which accounts for more than one third of the world’s nonliterate adults. Thus, signed informed consent can be highly demeaning and reinstate status hierarchy. Pryce et al. (2011) also report that the multiple languages and customs within and across states pose challenges to researchers. Other concerns include participants’ realities in terms of distance and lack of transportation to attend interviews. In focus groups, gender issues are a concern because females do not contribute to discussions when male presence is high. With regard to research collaboration, Schensul et al. (2006) report that Indian universities are hierarchically structured with clear distinctions between senior and junior faculty, faculty and staff (those without a PhD), and male and female faculty and staff. At the same time undue credit is given to U.S. faculty and research staff members for conceptual and methodological expertise. Together, this leads to silencing junior faculty members and devaluing input based on the lower educational status of Indian speakers. Schensul et al. note that U.S. researchers had to be trained to listen to staff input on their project. Although all key personnel on the Indian team were bilingual or multilingual and fluent in English, there were sufficient differences between Indian and U.S. English to create miscommunication and misunderstandings. Facilitating factors were personal relationships among key collaborators, including sharing meals at home and outside the home; participating in family events such as weddings, religious festivals, and temple visits; and spending leisure time together.

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M Y FUL BRIGH T RESE A RCH E X PERIENCES IN W ES T BENG A L , INDIA I have conducted three research projects since the mid-1990s in West Bengal, an eastern state in India. Two of these projects were short term (Banerjee, 1997, 1998a, 1998b), and one was long term (Banerjee, 2015; 2016a). I have chosen to do research in West Bengal as opposed to any other state in India because I am originally from that state and speak Bengali, the local language. I also speak colloquial Hindi and have used it for data collection, but I do not feel confident in speaking high-quality Hindi used in Hindi-speaking states. For me, it is important to speak and understand the language of my respondents, as otherwise I will not get the nuanced meanings especially in qualitative research. At the same time, I have been away from India for close to 30 years and have lost my earlier language fluency despite annual visits to India. Because India has changed significantly as a result of globalization over the years, I need assistance to become acclimated to the new and changed India. For each of these projects, I collaborated with local nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) for access to participants and had prior IRB permission. The first two projects included internal travel funding, whereas the last project was a Fulbright research award. Fulbright covers travel and a stipend for food, rental and local expenses, and initially the plan was to use this maintenance allowance to provide financial incentives to participants. Because the Fulbright award was the most recent and most extensive research I have done in India, I will now focus primarily on its processes and dilemmas. For my Fulbright project, the overarching research question was as follows. What capabilities—abilities, skills, resources and opportunities at personal, interpersonal, and structural levels—allow economically disadvantaged people to work and earn a living? It had a mixed-methods research design, guided by Sen’s (1999) and Nussbaum’s (2001) capability approach. Prior to writing the formal proposal, I had visited India to talk to scholars and NGO staff about my question. With peer assistance, I had key research concepts translated into the local 266

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language. After the Fulbright proposal was approved, I left for India to collect data over almost a year. First I contacted the Fulbright office in India and my affiliate social work school and NGO in Kolkata (formerly Calcutta). The Fulbright office staff connected me with the Indian Fulbright faculty alumni association, and one Fulbrighter remained as a key informant throughout the project and continues to be a friend even today. The social work school and the NGO staff helped identify government departments and NGOs that gave me access to respondents. As my research progressed, I had to adapt to local conditions and introduce some changes to my research design. Originally the plan was to train and hire local students or staff for data collection. As I was doing my pilot research, I learned from a respectable source that hired staff do not always go to remote villages to collect data from individual householders, rather they talk to community leaders and fill out household surveys. At first, I did not know how much to believe this because surveys are regularly conducted in India. However, after I heard the same issue from two separate and reliable sources, I changed my data collection strategy. I chose to collect all data by myself by traveling to remote villages in distant districts. In doing so, I relearned that giving a financial incentive to individual respondents was not culturally appropriate because research participation is considered as a contribution to public good. Although it was not required, I donated a lump sum for service delivery to NGOs that gave me access to respondents. Originally, the plan was to use purposive sampling with an eye toward maximum variation. Because a Human Development Index (HDI) classification of the 18 districts in the state was available, I also used stratified sampling and chose 11 of 18 districts in the sample: 3 had high HDIs, and 4 each had medium and low HDI indicators. Initially, I did not have a fixed sample size, but over the 9 months of data collection, I interviewed more than 1,100 people through focus groups and individual interviews. However, after removing respondents from the pilot and unusable data, the final sample size was 783 respondents (658 income-poor individuals, and 125 service providers). Among incomepoor respondents, 92 individuals were interviewed face-to-face, with 2 67

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26 in-depth interviews and 66 survey interviews. The remaining 566 individuals were interviewed through 29 focus group sessions with a median size of 15 participants. At times, many more respondents attended focus groups, and I could not turn them away as they were voluntarily choosing to participate without any monetary incentive. Consequently, the mixed-methods research design was compromised as relatively few surveys were conducted. Because of a large and diverse sample, I chose not to conduct more surveys when no further new information came from individual or focus group interviews. Based on my prior research experiences, I had IRB permission to obtain oral consent, but there were several unanticipated layers to getting informed oral consent. To get access to respondents, first I had to get oral consent from top officials in government departments, NGOs, and for-profit agencies, many of whom were interviewed. They then referred me to the next level of hierarchy. So, I obtained oral consent from every staff person I spoke with at various levels of the hierarchy and interviewed some either before or after getting access to respondents. Last, I sought oral consent from respondents. Initially, I was troubled by the fact that despite giving access to respondents, staff at various levels often sat in during my interviews, whether at their office or in the community. Because of their educational levels, initially I had expected them to know that interviews were to be held in a private place for confidentiality. However, I realized that I could not object as I knew privacy, confidentiality, and boundaries have a different connotation in India. Over time, I got used to interviewing in the presence of others. Some sat in to learn about their clients’ realities or to hone in their interviewing techniques or to assist my understanding. With regard to my research question pertaining to work, income, and well-being, it took quite a while at times to get to the real story, as income is a personal and sensitive issue. For example, a young Muslim mother of four children did not tell me about her financial woes until the interview was almost over. After listening to her story, I asked why she did not share this earlier. She responded, “What is the point of talking about family poverty when talking about poverty sometimes makes things worse?” Until now I have not been able to fully 268

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understand her statement. Does it imply she did not trust me at first, or was she tired of answering questions about poverty when nothing had improved as a result of her answers? Was it her pride that kept her from revealing her poverty, or was she superstitious? Perhaps it was a combination of all. After a few urban and rural visits and interviews where poverty was clearly visible, I considered it ethically inappropriate to ask all my questions about monthly income, expenses, savings, and loans. For example, one woman said, “Some days I earn 20 rupees, other days I earn 100 rupees, and some days I don’t earn anything.” With that statement, she implied, “Now you figure out my income.” Many women in focus groups said, “Life is very hard. I regularly borrow to survive.” When such statements were made, I did not delve into details of personal expenses, savings, and loans because I believed it was insensitive and inappropriate to do so in a group setting. Because my research focused on work and income, and generally people work during daytime hours, I needed to schedule several interviews in the evenings or over the weekend. One such focus group in a distant village took place after my respondents had finished their dinner after a whole day’s work. Because of space limitations, we all sat on a road where an improvised light was lit, and we talked. I was completely unprepared for such an interview setting. Although I would sit on the floor with respondents for interviews, sitting on a dirt road at an unknown place at night to conduct a focus group interview must have pushed my limits because without thinking, I accepted the handmade stringed cot offered to me for sitting. As the focus group progressed, and I began to feel more comfortable, I felt very bad for sitting on the proverbial pedestal while my respondents sat on the dirt road. For this and other interviews with indigenous people, I needed translators because I did not speak indigenous languages. At other times, focus groups were held inside a room and outside, sometimes under a shady tree, or at a space adjacent to respondents’ homes. Another surprise was that several of my service provider respondents took several phone calls during a planned interview. Although highly disruptive, and disrespectful by Western standards, over time I realized 269

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it was a very normal part of the present Indian culture. Some even had more than one cell phone ringing with calls to which they had to respond. Sometimes more than one official or staff member sat in for an individual interview to give a complete picture. On rare occasions, I had to reschedule on the day of the interview. There was only one person who didn’t arrive for an interview, but that person had made arrangements in advance for me to get access to respondents in the community. Later, the person e-mailed a request for me to return for an interview, and I complied despite the distance and arduous journey. Another issue with rural visits was that because of the lack of electricity in some distant locations, I could not rely on my digital recorder to tape interviews. In the city, sudden electricity outages occur, and initially I was not always able to charge my digital recorder. I learned to keep two tape recorders, one with a battery and another with electricity, and a notepad at all times. I took handwritten notes and digital pictures to remember visits. I always asked for permission before taking pictures, and people were eager to be photographed. They enjoyed seeing their digital photo and laughed and talked about it as they looked at it. As data were collected primarily in respondents’ natural environments, it required a lot of travel. Sometimes I rented a car with a driver, at other times I used public transportation such as trains, long-distance buses, van rickshaws used for carting goods and people in rural areas, and once I had to take a motorcycle ride. Travel was difficult, strenuous, and often scary. I recall thinking to myself on many occasions, “I hope I am alive and return home safe tonight!” Rental car drivers had a tendency to drive extremely fast over bumpy roads and often broke traffic regulations. One of my travel notes for a rural visit reads, “8:30 a.m. to 6:00 p.m., with 3 hours travel time, and one hour wait at railway station for return train.” Even after arriving at a location, sometimes I walked for a mile or so on a dirt road to get to my destination. After these visits, I fully understood why hired staff would not travel to certain locations to collect data. Many visits required local accommodations, and the safest plan was to stay at places recommended by key informants and gatekeepers who enabled access to respondents. Once, I stayed in an NGO office built 2 70

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out of mud and straw, and shared a room with two respondents. Many such visits did not have flushable toilets or tap water. For government site visits, I made reservations in advance to stay in government guest houses, which were nicer, but I had a shocking experience at one place. On the second day, I was told at the end of a full day of data collection that I did not have a room and needed to find accommodations. Eventually, government staff found a place elsewhere, but it was unsafe. I did not sleep the whole night, completed my data collection the next day, and chose to return a day early. On returning to the city, I was running 102 degree temperature. My Fulbright key informant advised me to report the incident to a high-level government official. I learned that the government official refusing night accommodations had two sexual assault charges against him. I began to trust my instincts even more. Overall, people were willing to talk, and I was in no hurry to move on to a next interview. This sense of ease and time helped in building rapport, gaining trust, and getting all the information I needed and more. Many respondents wanted to feed me. However, I had stomach flu at an early stage of data collection and stopped eating with participants, except for tea and my favorite safe snack—puffed rice and fresh coconut. I always paid for my stay, food, and travel to concerned agencies or providers, and always carried bottled water to stay safe and hydrated. Prior to returning to the United States, I did some preliminary data analysis and shared my findings at three venues. All were organized by the Fulbright office. One was for all participating service providers, and two were for schools of social work. Some agreed with my findings, and others asked more detailed questions. It was a very fulfilling experience.

CRITICA L REFL ECTION A ND DISCUS SION OF T HE PROMISING PRINCIPL ES From the preceding account, it becomes evident that I was able to manage certain aspects of my Fulbright research experience more smoothly than others. Here I apply three of the six promising principles guiding 2 71

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this book to analyze my successes and mistakes: attending to culture; understanding government, politics, and local initiatives; and bringing learning home. AT T E N DI N G TO C U LT U R E : G L O BA L I Z AT I O N A N D I N DI G E N O U S S O C I A L WO R K

Despite being originally from India and the state of West Bengal, I think my primary advantage in doing research in India was my connections, and my secondary advantage was my social work practice experience. Being away from my U.S. campus made it possible to give uninterrupted attention to research. Initially, the people I knew and the reputation I had mattered a lot in getting access and building trust in doing research. I learned that people inquired about my background before I met them. For example, the Fulbright office director in Kolkata knew that his mother was my teacher in middle school. I had worked at the school of social work, which was my affiliate in Kolkata, and many of my colleagues were still there and helped with getting access to NGOs. Further, I had worked with one NGO during two of my prior research projects. Word must have spread about these connections. Consequently, collaborating and obtaining access to agencies and people as well as building rapport and interviewing were the easiest parts of my research. More difficult was handling my identity: a divorced woman who had raised her daughter by herself while working as a social work faculty member in the United States. The Fulbright award implied that I was a U.S. citizen and a nonresident Indian (NRI), meaning that I had given up my Indian citizenship. Because of the very high cultural value placed on the institution of marriage in India, my marital status made me a stranger, an outsider, and different. The NRI status was a mixed bag. Some local partners took pride in the fact that an Indian woman was a U.S. faculty member, others envied it, and still others looked down on it. These two categories of marital and NRI status together got me into difficulties at times. For example, a few male service provider respondents assumed I had progressive views on political, economic, and 2 72

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gender relations, and tested me out by offering alcohol and cigarettes, by taking my reserved rural accommodation away at the last minute, and by asking about my night life. These are all inappropriate gestures with an Indian professional woman with whom these people had no prior connection. I always maintained professional boundaries, only disclosed necessary information, and except for the shock of lack of accommodations at night, handled situations appropriately. Deeply disturbed by the experience of not having housing at night and at some of these inappropriate behaviors, I talked to selected people about these experiences and reflected on them as well. I realized that I had been far too removed from the realities of Indian gender relations. Despite progress, these male social service leaders still viewed women in traditional and stereotypical ways. Thus, a single woman crossing borders to collect data alone in unknown places might have led them to believe that I was footloose and fancy-free, easily available for sex with men. Consequently, I took my identity and personal safety more seriously and took steps to protect myself by paying someone to accompany me during rural visits. In contrast, none of my income-poor respondents questioned my identity. It could be argued that this was because of my power, privilege, and status differential. I was aware of my privileges and disadvantages and tried hard to build bridges through my relationship-building skills, empathy, appearance, and language. I always wore a simple saree, tied my hair back, put a bindi (red dot) on my forehead, and wore appropriate jewelry to look like any other Indian woman. I spoke the local language fluently. Yet, because of my lengthy stay away from India, at first I was hesitant to interview in Bengali. Thus, I spent time doing the pilot study to develop comfort in the language for interviews and discarded all the data in my formal analysis. By the time I started formal interviews (2 months after arrival), I was more comfortable speaking in Bengali. Once I was introduced in a rural area by a high level government official as “Didi (older sister) from far away America.” I did not appreciate this introduction, as the voice inflection in saying “far away” appeared to amplify the existing differences between my respondents and me. I was nervous about how the interviews would go. I was pleasantly surprised 2 73

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when despite the introduction, many women complained to me about service issues, possibly because they knew that I was not representing the government or NGOs. On a few other occasions, I knew that the word was out that I am from far-away America, as a few rural respondents used a couple of English words, and a few other respondents expressed a desire to come to America or asked about my life in America. Also, because women respondents perceived me to be working, they were more willing to discuss their own paid work, a hidden topic particularly among the middle income group (Banerjee, 2016a). Many single women shared stories of marital conflict and financial struggle. In one instance at the end of a lengthy focus group interview, women respondents said they did not tell me about their work making biri (cigarettes made with local tobacco) as they knew it is unhealthy. I answered, “What else have you not told me?” and we all laughed. On reflection, it seems that being honest about my identity as a single woman who lives in America may not have been such a distance-invoking, outsider-status-creating issue as I had feared. At times, I was both an insider and an outsider. At other times I was neither insider nor outsider but in an in-between place. At times I connected, and at other times I was disconnected from respondents. My research participants also responded to me differently, sometimes considering me to be an insider, one of their own; at times in an in-between position; and at other times as an outsider or stranger or different. My perceived identity opened and closed doors. At times respondents might have answered more truthfully, and at other times they might have disregarded my questions. I have wondered whether their knowledge about my living in America had sparked an (im)possible dream to visit the United States. Still, I do not know how my identity might have been a barrier and might have led to an incomplete understanding of my respondents’ capabilities for work, income, and well-being. I am aware of my experiences and learnings but am unclear about what I did not understand. It is possible that as a social work researcher I wanted to understand it all, to do a good job, and be sincerely adept at cross-cultural communication. But the reality is that there are some things that at the time, and even later with reflection and pondering, I cannot really understand. 2 74

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U N D E R S TA N DI N G G OV E R N M E N T, P O L I T I C S , A N D L O C A L I N I T I AT I V E S : F R A M I N G T H E PRO G R A M I N C O N T E X T

In a long-term research project, it is impossible to be blind to the political culture of a place. When I carried out my data collection, the state of West Bengal had been governed by a Marxist communist party for more than 30 years. Although the state had brought about some policy changes that benefit poor people, poverty was still very high. The state was opening up to industrialization and foreign investment as a result of the central government’s response to structural adjustment policies. This resulted in farmers’ land loss in certain areas, and the state was in turmoil. Because I had never worked with the communist government, I needed entry to understand the government’s policies for work and income. My Fulbright key informant opened this door, and officials were willing to be interviewed and give me access to income-generating projects and people. However, I could never get any firm figures about work and income from interviews with government service providers. Each respondent informed me that the next person would provide the numbers for me, but it did not happen. I was given access to government projects that operated very well and very badly, a fact that enormously surprised me. I could not understand how or why the government chose to operate in some locations and not others. Either there was a lot of hide-and-seek about its program operations, or I failed to understand the government’s ways of working because of my outsider status. Because of multiparty politics in India, a majority of my income-poor respondents’ political party affiliation affected their access to services at times (Banerjee, 2016b). A key memory of political maneuvering is when I went to a rural district to interview weavers and on arrival was informed that there were no weavers. I was again surprised and upset because of the distance I had traveled for the interviews, and I called my gatekeeper to inquire, but her response was unclear. However, because I knew there were weavers in that area, I went around the man who was supposed to give me access and started to walk by myself to talk to local people. Within a few minutes, I was able to locate weavers. It was then that I understood that my respondents were communist party affiliates, whereas the person accompanying me to the site was affiliated with another political party 2 75

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and because of political rivalry would not introduce me to oppositional party members. Later, when I visited the other political party site, many respondents complained about lack of access to self-help group programs operated widely by the government. At the same time, government official interviews at the site indicated that the self-help group program was operating widely and successfully. I understood that the political party affiliation of my gatekeepers would open or close doors for me as well as for my respondents in terms of access to services. I learned that the communist government was very powerful and was perceived as using brutal force to silence people. Political differences sparked violence without much prior notice, and the city or state would shut down completely because of a bandh (strike), and I needed to be prepared for it. At one time, I went to collect data in a rural area, and after reaching the town, a bandh was announced, requiring the entire state to come to a total stop. At first I was very disappointed at the waste of time this meant for my research. However, at that place my gatekeepers were affiliated with the communist government, and I was taken by motorcycle to distant areas for data collection.

B R I N G I N G L E A R N I N G H O M E : T H E I N T E R NAT I O NA LD O M E S T I C I N T E R FAC E

Although doing research in India was challenging, and I have primarily discussed my challenges, it was also very satisfying as it opened up a wide and new India to me. I need to disclose that I stayed with my mother while I was in the city. Consequently, I had the comforts I was used to when I was not interviewing, listening to audio recordings, translating, transcribing, and planning the next steps of my work. Nonetheless, after almost 11 months of research in India, I very much looked forward to returning to my own home in America. With regard to bringing learning home related to doing research in India, at first I wanted to share my experiences with colleagues and students because it was so different from doing research in the United States. The initial feedback was disappointing because what I heard was, “Well, it is interesting, but not relevant to the U.S.” Nonetheless, I did start writing 2 76

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about aspects of my research experiences, and presenting my findings at national and international conferences. This helped me to connect with the Council on Social Work Education’s Global Council on Research, Learning, and Practice, where I found more understanding because the members were engaged in international research. However, I had to wait until this book to write about my experiences of doing research in India. These experiences have influenced aspects of my teaching and interactions with students and faculty here. I primarily teach research methods courses and a study abroad in India course. In the research courses, I have introduced some of the differences in doing research in international settings and have tried to develop students’ cultural sensitivity toward people and circumstances that are different from their own experiences. Students enjoy the session in which I present my research experiences in India with a PowerPoint presentation because pictures of the research processes make the presentation real. For the Study Abroad in India course, my exposure to varied social service agencies and the globalized new India helped me to identify new agencies and visits for my students. Furthermore, based on learning from my study respondents’ experiences with work, income, and poverty, I tell my students and colleagues not to bargain with street vendors when they buy goods as the sellers’ daily income depends on the profit margin they can keep from selling their goods. Some faculty and students dislike this standpoint because to them shopping in India and in other countries of the Global South means the fun of bargaining. During the manuscript peer-review process in journals, I have had to answer a lot of questions and comments made by reviewers as some of the data collection processes were so different, particularly the focus group size. Some reviewer comments suggest that the only way to conduct research is exactly the way it is done in the United States. In such instances, I have taken on the role of educating reviewers by providing detailed answers explaining the realities of research on the ground, by correcting their inaccurate perceptions, and substantiating these factors with reference citations on the response sheet. Fortunately, these explanations have been accepted. With regard to recommending strategies for research in India, as my identity-related experiences show, even an Indian-born social work 2 77

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researcher who lives in America can face challenges while researching in India. For U.S.-born researchers race and ethnicity and nationality differences cannot be easily transformed. Along with that, status and power differentials need to be managed. It is best to look for and build on commonalities instead of emphasizing differences. Researchers can use their age, gender, marital status, parenthood, health concerns, and life experiences, among others to create a common ground. Nonetheless, their managed identity can get complicated in research teams where the U.S. researcher may be perceived as an outsider, but assistants, translators, or interpreters can be viewed as insiders. Yet as my experiences show, at times the outsider status can be a strength because the researcher is considered as external to and separate from the internal sociopolitical and economic-cultural relations of participants. However, as Skelton (2009) notes, insiders are generally considered as more empathetic, trusted, or reliable than outsiders. Insiders may be given more intimate information that requires good linguistic and cultural understanding. Outsiders might be given more detail and explanation as participants want to make them fully understand the cultural context rather than presume that the researcher already knows their stories and experiences. Over time, outsider researchers can become insiders, but it is not something that researchers can claim. Based on my relatively few interviews with indigenous people when I needed my translator to become my interpreter, I believe translation combined with interpretation is not a satisfying research experience. In these situations, I felt that I did not fully understand their life realities. Consequently, I do not foresee myself doing research where I am not fluent in the language and culture of the people. I do not recommend doing research that requires accurate and in-depth understanding of participants’ realities with assistance from interpreters because nuances get lost in translation and interpretation. Also it is hard to filter the subjectivities of third parties from the participants’ realities. However, one way to get around this issue is to collaborate with trusted social work researchers of Indian origin in the United States or in India. Another option, although not often available to social work researchers, is to spend extensive time in another country and immerse oneself in the culture of the country before writing, as anthropologists do.

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RECOMMENDATIONS A ND CONCLUSION As the amount of international social work research increases, there will be more attention to substantive and methodological issues of doing research in international contexts. This chapter shows that culture and language as well as research ethics are different in the Global South, particularly in India. Consequently, international researchers in India need to learn, understand, and adapt to the cultural norms and ethics of the country. Minimally, there must be respect for respondents and their customs, and attention must be paid to the researcher’s identity and personal safety. India is not a very safe place for female international researchers, native or nonnative. Future international social work research publications need to describe these experiences to increase peer reviewers’ understanding of changes and adaptations to research designs that are warranted on the ground. As a result, I imagine that eventually social work educators practicing as international researchers might be able to determine which differences are more pertinent in different countries and in research methods. International social work research is challenging and rewarding. It is a feasible process when conducted with an understanding of the context and carried out with sensitivity, patience, openness, and humility. It is important because it has the potential to enhance life chances and reduce inequalities, and enable U.S. researchers to become aware of cultural similarities and differences. I have shared my experiences of doing research in India and discussed cultural and ethical differences with regard to informed consent, privacy, confidentiality, boundaries, and financial incentives as well as identity, safety, and travel. I hope the chapter gives experienced researchers a sense of déjà vu and novice researchers ideas about what to expect and prepare for in doing international research.

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REFERENCES Banerjee, M. (1997). Frozen feta cheese lasagna with crushed hot pepper. Reflections: Narratives of Professional Helping, 3(4), 44–54. Banerjee, M. (1998a). Micro-enterprise development: A response to poverty. Journal of Community Practice, 5, 63–83. Banerjee, M. (1998b). Strengths in a slum: A paradox? Journal of Applied Social Sciences, 22, 45–58. Banerjee, M. (2010). Professor Armaity Desai: Interpreting social work in a developing country. In A. Lieberman (Ed.), Women in social work who are changing the world (pp. 182–197). Chicago, IL: Lyceum. Banerjee, M. (2015). Applying Sen’s capability approach to understand work and income among poor people in India. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 42(3), 87–112. Banerjee, M. (2016a). Gender differences in capabilities for work among poor: Challenges and opportunities. Affilia: Journal of Women and Social Work, 31, 1–14. doi:10.1177/0886109915572847 Banerjee, M. M. (2016b). “We routinely borrow to survive”: Exploring the financial capability of income-poor people in India. Social Work. doi: 10.1093/sw/sww045 Banerjee, M., & Canda, E. (2012). Module 7: Culturally competent international social work research. In Teaching International Social Work: Online Modules. Retrieved from http://www.cswe.org/Centers-Initiatives/Centers/ International-KAKI/Resources/Teaching-International-Social-Work.aspx Biswas-Diener, R., & Diener, E. (2001). Making the best of a bad situation: Satisfaction in the slums of Calcutta. Social Indicators Research, 55, 329–352. Bosch, L. (2012). Cultural efficacy in communication and practice in global context. In L. M. Healy & R. J. Link (Eds.), Handbook of international social work (pp. 123–127). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Czymoniewicz-Klippel, M. T., Brijnath, B., & Crockett, B. (2010). Ethics and the promotion of inclusiveness within qualitative research: Case examples from Asia and the Pacific. Qualitative Inquiry, 16, 332–341. 280

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Dowling, R. (2009). Ethical issues in research. In R. Kitchin and N. Thrift (Eds.), International encyclopedia of human geography (pp. 595–600). Oxford, UK: Elsevier. Drèze, J., & Sen, A. (2013). An uncertain glory: India and its contradictions. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Freed, A. O. (1988). Interviewing through an interpreter. Social Work, 33, 315–319. Freier, M. C., McBride, D., Hopkins, G., Babikian, T., Richardson, L, & Helm, H. (2005). The process of research in international settings: From risk assessment to program development and intervention. Journal of Urban Health, 82(Suppl., 4), iv9–iv15. Ghosh, T., Chowdhury, A., Solomon, P., & Ali, S. (2015). Depression and anxiety among HIV-positive sex workers in Kolkata, India: Testing and modifying the hospital anxiety and depression scale. International Social Work, 58, 211–222. Henry, M. G. (2003). “Where are you really from?”: Representation, identity and power in the fieldwork experiences of a South Asian diasporic. Qualitative Research, 3, 229–242. International Labor Organization. (2014). India: Decent work country programme 2013–17. Retrieved from http://www.ilo.org/public/english/bureau/ program/dwcp/download/india.pdf Jung, S. J., & Tripodi, T. (2007). Trends in international social work research. International Social Work, 50, 691–698. Karandikar, S., & Gezinski, L. B. (2013). Intimate partner violence and HIV risks among female sex workers of Mumbai, India. Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Diversity in Social Work, 22, 112–128. Kunnath, G. J. (2013). Anthropology’s ethical dilemmas: Reflections from the Maoist fields of India. Current Anthropology, 54, 740–747. Lombe, M., Newransky, C., Crea, T., & Stout, A. (2013). From rhetoric to reality: Planning and conducting collaborations for international research in the Global South. Social Work, 58, 31–40.

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Longhurst, R. (2009). Interviews: In-depth, semi-structured. In R. Kitchin and N. Thrift (Eds.), International encyclopedia of human geography (pp. 580–584). Oxford, England: Elsevier. Mathew, G., & Lobo, M. (n.d.). Three decades of enabling: An appreciation. In G. R. Banerjee, Papers on social work: An Indian perspective (TISS Series No. 23, pp. v–xiii). Bombay, India: Tata Institute of Social Sciences. National Association of Social Workers. (2015). NASW standards and indicators for cultural competence in social work practice: Draft for public comment, May 6, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.socialworkers.org/practice/ NASWStandards/culturalCompetence/Contents%20for%20Draft%20 CC%20Standards%20and%20Indicators%2015-3.pdf National Portal of India. (2016). India at a glance. Particulars. Retrieved from https://india.gov.in/india-glance/profile Nussbaum, M. (2001). Women and human development: The capabilities approach. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Pryce, J., Niederkorn, A., Goins, M., & Reiland, M. (2011). The development of a youth mentoring program in the south of India. International Social Work, 54, 51–65. Reamer, F. G. (2015, April). Eye on ethics: Cultural diversity in social work ethics. Social Work Today. http://www.socialworktoday.com/news/eoe_040115. shtml# Reamer, F. G., & Nimmagadda, J. (2015). Social work ethics in India: A call for development of indigenized ethical standards. International Social Work, 1–14. doi:10.1177/0020872814559563 Riessman, C. K. (2005). Exporting ethics: A narrative about narrative research in South India. Health, 9, 473–490. Sanders-Phillips, K., Pretorius, L., & Reddy, P. (2009). Building international research partnerships to develop HIV programs for women of color in the context of social inequalities and human rights. Social Work in Public Health, 24, 60–75. Schensul, S. L., Natasi, B. K., & Verma, R. K. (2006). Community-based research in India: A case example of international and transdisciplinary collaboration. American Journal of Community Psychology, 38, 95–111. doi:10.1007/ s10464-006-9066-z 282

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Sen, A. (1999). Development as freedom. New York, NY: Anchor Books. Sinha, S. (2014). “Flying” female sex workers perceptions of HIV risk and NGOs sexual health outreach projects: A case study of HIV prevention in Kolkata, India. Affilia: Journal of Women and Social Work, 29, 206–223. Skelton, T. (2009). Cross-cultural research. In R. Kitchin & N. Thrift (Eds.), International encyclopedia of human geography (pp. 398–403). Oxford, England: Elsevier. Sullivan, C., & Cottone, R. R. (2010). Emergent characteristics of effective cross-cultural research: A review of the literature. Journal of Counseling and Development, 88, 357–362. Tata Institute of Social Sciences. (1997). Declaration of ethics for professional social workers. Mumbai, India: Author. Tripodi, T., & Lalayants, M. (2013). Research: Overview. In C. Franklin (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social work, (pp. 1–23) New York, . NY: NASW Press and Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199975839.013.605 United Nations Development Programme. (2014). Human Development Reports. India. Human Development Indicators. http://hdr.undp.org/en/ countries/profiles/IND World Bank. (2015). India Country Snapshot. Retrieved from http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/971731467998752846/pdf/100115-WPPUBLIC-Box393225B-India-country-snapshot.pdf Zlotnik, J. (2013). Research: History of research. In C. Franklin (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social work (pp. 1–13). New York, NY: NASW and Oxford University Press. Retrieved from http://socialwork.oxfordre.com/ view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199975839.013.606

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DOING RESE A RCH : SUPERVISING DOCTOR A L S T UDEN T S M A RY E L I Z A BE T H C OL L I N S , S O OK H Y U N K I M , SA R A H GA R L I NGTON, and BÙ I T H T H A N H T UY N

This chapter examines some of the critical issues of supervising and mentoring PhD students in international settings. In these instances, social work educators are not conducting the research themselves but are providing guidance and training to a doctoral student. This can raise issues related to supervision, ethical conduct of research, scholarly independence, and cultural sensitivity to the international setting. Students are often eager to engage in research in a different country, and motivations for doctoral research in an international setting are highly variable. This chapter provides three examples of experiences supervising doctoral student research. The first example, is a U.S. doctoral student collecting data in a different country. The second is a U.S. doctoral student engaging in international collaboration to inform her dissertation and conduct a comparative analysis. The third is a student from another country coming to the United States for doctoral education. These examples are considered successes. However, some cautions are identified to increase prospects for success for the many PhD students engaged in international research.

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There are many reasons for conducting dissertation research in another country. Students in the United States may have a particular interest or affinity for another country because they were born there, had lived there, or had some other experience. Others may have a more specific scholarly interest relevant to a different country or region, or their research agenda may be particularly well suited to a different part of the globe. Additionally, numerous international students are interested in studying in the United States because of the generally high quality of the educational experience compared to that in their home countries. Over the past few decades the world has become increasingly interconnected and interdependent in many areas. This globalization has affected institutions of higher education generally as well as social work education in the United States, which has attracted greater numbers of students and scholars from around the world (Mittal & Wieling, 2006). International students constitute an increasing percentage of those receiving doctoral degrees in social work (Anastas & Keurbis, 2009). Globalization has also brought diversity to doctoral education worldwide as a way to conduct research, produce and distribute knowledge, and so on. Doctoral study is an intermediate step in the process of becoming a credible researcher and serves as a stepping-stone into a research career (Lepp, Remmik, Karm, & Leijen, 2013). The purpose of doctoral education has been defined as the formation of future scholars (Golde, 2006). Such disciplinary stewardship includes generation of knowledge through research, conservation of the history and core ideas of the discipline, and ongoing transformation of the discipline through effective communication with colleagues, other disciplines, and the public (Anastas & Kuerbis, 2009). One of the greatest obstacles to students’ completion of doctoral programs is reportedly the lack of knowledge of how to plan, implement, and write about a large-scale independent project. Furthermore, doctoral students, including international students and those who conduct research in international settings, are more likely to encounter obstacles than the students who conduct research in domestic settings (Liechty, Schull, & Liao, 2009). Also, analyzing a large amount of data from the international field could easily discourage 285

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students from completing in a timely manner. In addition to these obstacles, relational factors, such as social and academic support from academic advisers, were reported as important in students’ attrition or completion of their dissertations (Johnson, 2002).

DOCTOR A L RESE A RCH Globalization has become a central phenomenon for all society, including graduate education and particularly doctoral education, and has brought some common trends to doctoral education worldwide. These include changes in the contexts and sites where research is conducted and where research training is delivered; changes in how knowledge is produced, organized, distributed, and used; and changes in the demographic makeup of those who are pursuing knowledge (Nerad, 2010; Nerad & Evans, 2014). These trends have led to increasing diversity in the backgrounds, research production, and career aspirations of doctoral students and generated increased attention to the desirability of developing a globally defined set of expected outcomes for doctoral learning. There is wide variation in higher education globally, including the structure, purposes, and context. For a variety of reasons, U.S. higher education is in great demand. In global rankings, U.S. universities hold 8 of the top 10 spots, according to U.S. News and World Report (“Best global universities rankings” 2015). A report by the Institute of International Education (2015) stated that the United States is the top destination country for international students, with 74% of prospective international students naming the United States as their top choice. More than three quarters (77%) of prospective students worldwide perceive the United States as having a high-quality higher education system, and, more than three quarters (78%) feel the United States has a wide range of schools and programs to suit a variety of different students. Although more than two thirds (68%) of prospective students worldwide feel that the United States welcomes international students, cost was cited as the primary obstacle to overseas study, with 62% of prospective students worldwide perceiving tuition 286

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in the United States to be expensive. Concerns about obtaining a visa to study in the United States varied by country. There is less information about doctoral study in social work for international students. The Council on Social Work Education (2013) Annual Survey of Social Work Education identified 68 social work doctoral programs in the United States, enrolling 1,835 full-time and 710 part-time doctoral students. Of these doctoral students, 10.5% of incoming students were from outside the United States (Council on Social Work Education, 2013). The Group for the Advancement of Doctoral Education in Social Work (GADE) is made up of directors of more than 80 doctoral social work programs in the United States and Canada, and has concerned itself with the quality of its member doctoral programs through networking, information sharing, and advocacy (Harrington, Petr, Black, & Cunningham-Williams, 2014). The purpose of the PhD in social work is to prepare students to be scholars who function as stewards of the discipline, thus, “PhD-trained social work scholars improve the art and science of social work by generating, disseminating, and conserving the knowledge that informs and transforms professional practice” (GADE, 2013, pp. 1–2). However, GADE’s quality guidelines for PhD programs in social work do not clearly describe the purpose of the social work dissertation, nor do they include minimum standards to provide some level of consistency across programs (Maynard, Vaughn, Sarteschi, & Berglund, 2014). The guidelines also do not specify anything about PhD dissertations conducted in international settings as well as international students who are in U.S. doctoral social work programs. Only two short sentences appear relevant to international students: “The PhD program ensures that international students have adequate English language proficiency upon admission” and “the program actively recruits diverse student cohorts” (GADE, 2013, p. 5).

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SOU T H KORE A , S W EDEN, A ND VIE T N A M SOCIAL WORK AND RESEARCH

Two examples describe U.S. students conducting research in South Korea and Sweden. The third example describes the experience of an international student from Vietnam coming to the United States for doctoral study. We briefly describe the role of social work in these countries.

S O U T H KO R E A

The first social work education program in South Korea was initiated in 1947 at Ewha Womans University, which offered classes in casework (Hong & Han, 2009). Despite the establishment of social work programs in several universities since the late 1940s, social work was not recognized as a legitimate profession in South Korea until the 1980s when the country experienced increasing rates of income inequality and poverty because of rapid industrialization and urbanization (Chi, 1987). Social work has since grown rapidly. In recent years, demands for social work professionals have grown in South Korea because of a range of diverse issues, such as an influx of workers from other countries, women who are immigrants by marriage, children of mixed race, and people who have relocated from North Korea (Han & Lim, 2014; Hong, Kim, Lee, & Ha, 2011; Hong & Han, 2013). There are 556 graduate and 482 undergraduate programs in social work, and 505 vocational schools that offer a specialized program in social work (Korea Association of Social Workers, 2012). Web-based cyber colleges have been expanding, and now 57 cyber colleges offer social work education. All these programs produced about 111,000 licensed social workers in 2013 (Han & Lim, 2014). Because a large number of social work scholars in South Korea were trained in the United States, social work education and curricula tend to model American social work, and course content does not always consider the South Korean context (Choi, Choi, & Kim, 2009; Han & Lim, 2014). In addition, social work education has not adequately prepared students to meet the 288

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challenges of globalization, multiculturalism, and cultural competence of the social work profession (Hong et al., 2011; Hong & Han, 2013).

SW EDEN

Social work as a profession has a long history in Sweden, with education programs beginning as early as 1910, followed by the founding of the Department of Social Work at Stockholm University in 1921 as the Institute for Social, Political, and Municipal Education and Research (Meeuwisse & Swärd, 2008; Soydan, 2010; Sundell, Soydan, Tengvald, & Anttila, 2010). With the development and growth of the welfare state through the 1940s, more social work programs were established and served increasing numbers of students. In the mid-1960s, social work education was categorized as higher education, thereby standardizing program content across universities, and in 1977 social work was designated a research discipline (Soydan, 2010; Sundell et al., 2010). The majority of social workers are employed in the areas of children’s services, health care, and state benefits and unemployment (Dellgran & Höjer, 2005). Although social work practice and education in Sweden are structured in ways similar to the United States, the particular development of welfare policy in Sweden has affected the role of social workers in communities (Meeuwisse & Swärd, 2008). Social workers are primarily tied to local community government and serve as case managers to implement various social welfare programs designated by national policy. Currently, social work education in Sweden is focused on meeting the needs of local communities and providing generalized programming that can be applied internationally as well (Dellgran & Höjer, 2005). As with many other countries, increased migration in recent decades means that social work programs must address changing needs of Swedish communities and an influx of social work students coming from other countries.

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V I E T NA M

In Vietnam the history of social work is complex. It originally began under the influence of French colonial forces. Although social welfare and social work developed rapidly, they were later regarded as “tools of the invading forces” (Nguyen, 2002, p. 87). Thus, after the reunification of North and South Vietnam in 1975, schools of social work were closed. The recent history of social work is related to the improved socioeconomic conditions in Vietnam. Rapid industrialization brought poverty reduction but also social problems that have had substantial influence on family and community life. In the south, the women’s studies department of Open University in Ho Chi Minh City was the first to provide 2-year diploma training in social work in 1992, and later a 4-year degree with a practice component in 2001 (Durst, 2010). Additionally, UNICEF identified the lack of social workers in Vietnam as a major gap in providing social protection measures for the most vulnerable children. In 2010 the Vietnam government officially classified social work as a profession and allocated some money to develop a national program to train thousands of social workers and develop a network of services. There are now about 30 to 40 BSW programs in the country, and at least one MSW program. In 2011 the Vietnamese Association of Social Workers was also established (http://socialwork.vn).

T HE DIS SER TATION PRO JECT S Three examples are provided in this section. The first two examples are PhD. students who conducted some dissertation research in a different country and who were supervised by Mary Elizabeth Collins. Project 1, by Sook Hyun Kim, involved data collection in South Korea. Project 2, by Sarah Garlington, involved collaboration with Swedish researchers. Project 3 is provided by Bùi Th Thanh Tuy n, currently a PhD student studying in the United States. Each of these examples is described in the author’s own words. Then, as a group, we reflect on the core principles. 290

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PRO J E C T 1 : S O U T H KO R E A

Sook Hyun Kim investigated empowerment-oriented youth programs in South Korea that are designed to serve youth refugees from North Korea. The study investigated youth programming and the concept of empowerment in three community-based organizations in South Korea. Because of North Korea’s current economic and political difficulties, a substantial number of North Korean youth refugees are arriving in South Korea via China. They have difficulties integrating into their new environment, and their struggles include educational issues, social stigmatization, and cultural differences. Kim describes her experience with international dissertation research in the following. One of the most important elements of successfully completing a doctoral dissertation is for a student to work on a topic that he or she is excited about. The topic of my doctoral dissertation was one that I was passionate about, which assisted me in maintaining a high level of motivation to pursue my research. I had a desire to research this topic and to work with a refugee youth population before entering my PhD program. However, when I shared my research topic with some social work faculty members at other institutions, often I was told that I might have difficulty in finding a faculty member who could advise my research because the topic I chose was so regional and specific. I was discouraged initially, however, my passion for this topic drove me to pursue the research. Luckily, my doctoral adviser has a great interest in international social work and encouraged me to pursue it. Before getting to work on PhD research with my own topic, she provided me with many opportunities to study international children’s rights issues, write articles, and present at national and international conferences. Exposing myself to diverse international issues and getting such hands-on experience helped me greatly in designing and implementing my dissertation research. Thus, matching the faculty adviser with a student’s area of interest and research topic is critical. I delved into literature about the topic, but most of the literature was from sources that 2 91

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were not peer-reviewed empirical studies. One of the major problems was that there was not enough empirical literature, since the issue of refugees from North Korea is a fairly recent phenomenon in South Korea. Although this was a challenge, at the same time, it became a source of excitement because I could contribute and have an impact on this new field. Conducting research abroad may require greater resources and time commitment. I was able to support my research with funding from a religious-based organization for two years. In addition, I was able to reduce spending by staying with my family during my time in South Korea. Obtaining access to the research field can be critical, particularly when the research is conducted abroad. It requires negotiating with people in the field before conducting fieldwork. I made a trip to South Korea one year before conducting research to find the most appropriate sites for my research. After this pre-entry study, I developed a relationship with one of the directors in a community-based organization that serves North Korean youth refugees through e-mails and telephone calls. When it came time for me to select the best sites for my research, the director provided me with helpful insights in selecting sites based on her 15 years of experience. Early negotiation and engagement with key persons to gain access is an essential element in conducting research abroad. One of the benefits to building and maintaining a good relationship with a key person is the possibility of receiving helpful information and resources for the research. The director provided me with many opportunities to observe and participate in various activities and programs, arranged meetings with people who had knowledge and experience in this field, and offered adequate material related to the topic. This relationship was valuable in conducting the work. I would like to emphasize how important it is to make efforts to retain and ensure good relationships with people at the research site. Right after the completion of field research, I sent a formal 292

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thank-you note via e-mail to all participants, and I still maintain a good relationship with them. However, at the same time, the researcher should be careful in utilizing a personal relationship with any single participant because it might influence the level of objectivity in the research. This was also pointed out by my adviser during supervision. I made one trip and stayed two months for data collection. During these two months, I visited three field sites one to two times per week. Familiarity with the participants’ culture, values, and language was very advantageous in obtaining relevant information. However, when conducting a survey for North Korean refugee youths, I found a major error in my survey instrument because I didn’t consider their unique cultural and societal factors when designing and developing the instrument. Although South and North Korean people have shared history and ancestry, the 60 years of separation between the two nations has produced different cultures. The survey was a small component of data collection, but I should have considered these cultural differences when developing the instrument. At the data analysis stage, I faced big challenges in processing the high volume of qualitative data generated by the field research. I felt so overwhelmed with the data—even to the extent that it prohibited me from moving forward. My adviser encouraged me to complete data analysis by giving me directions on how to divide and organize big data into small, manageable fragments. In addition, my adviser set up weekly meetings to check if I completed the portion that I was expected to finish. This method was very helpful in pushing me forward and keeping me on track. The dissertation was completed and defended in April 2011. The dissertation experience helped me in two ways. First, I was able to acquire skills in research, critical thinking, and communication so as to become a credible scholar in the research community. I learned to research independently and work with others. Second, I was able to gain a bigger 293

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perspective. Conducting research on an international issue and in an international collaboration enabled me to look at both domestic and global perspectives. A worthwhile question to ask is whether the findings of research conducted in an international setting are applicable to other countries such as the United States. For example, are the results of the research only applicable to the community-based organizations in South Korea? For me, the answer to this question is “no.” Currently, I am working on research about the strengths and coping strategies of refugees. I selected unaccompanied refugee minors who live in the state of New York and I am working in partnership with community-based organizations. PRO J E C T 2 : S W E D E N

Sarah Garlington conducted a study examining the role of religion in social welfare. To do so, she conducted a community case study in the United States. Part of this dissertation also involved comparison with several European cities. Garlington spent a semester in Sweden with a research team engaged in the Welfare and Religion in European Perspective project. The project’s research focused on asking questions about welfare state categorizations in conjunction with the participation of a majority church in eight European countries. Garlington was able to use this experience to inform the design of her study and draw conclusions based on comparisons with the European experience. She describes her experience conducting international dissertation research here. My interest in the intersection of welfare policy and religion developed from my professional background and international travel. In crafting my dissertation project, I wanted to conduct research comparing welfare and religion cross-nationally. The international focus seemed necessary to address the nuances of this content area. To understand the dynamics of religion and welfare in one national context requires comparing and contrasting with other contexts as well. When consulting with my adviser about the possibilities for international research, we discussed the challenges of funding and 294

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logistics such as time and language for data collection in multiple countries. We discussed the possible types of data to be collected and what methods would be required. I considered just focusing on the U.S. and saving international work for future research, but my adviser introduced me to an ongoing project comparing welfare and religion in European countries. In planning my project, I made contact with the researchers in Uppsala, Sweden, about their past and ongoing work. To begin structuring a U.S. case study using their model, I read the research reports for the cross-national case studies they had already conducted. Partly my relationship with the researchers in Uppsala was based on an already established relationship between Uppsala and another faculty mentor at my home institution. While her engagement with their project was limited, her reputation and links to key consultants for the Uppsala research facilitated their response to my inquiries. I traveled to Uppsala for a week to meet with the researchers and discuss adapting their methodology for my case. We agreed that I would return to Uppsala as a visiting scholar for a longer period time to further engage with their work. I applied unsuccessfully for the Fulbright Student Program but successfully for a Swedish Women’s Education Association grant to support a 6-month stay in Uppsala. I have made a total of three trips to Uppsala for consultation about adapting methodologies and to present my research. Two trips were brief and for the purpose of meetings and presentations, and one trip was 6 months in length as a visiting scholar. While the researchers I worked with were very excited to share their work and to collaborate, I certainly encountered challenges. Funding was extremely limited, and my role as a visiting scholar was very ambiguous. My primary task of adapting their case study methodology to my U.S. case received sufficient attention, but their case studies had received significant financial support that mine did not. While I was in Uppsala, I had the opportunity to engage with 295

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many experts linked to the research center and attend several international research meetings. My third trip to Uppsala was to present preliminary findings from my dissertation at an international conference. During this trip, I also discussed future research collaborations that will serve as the foundation for new research projects. By using the research methodology of an international research team, I was able to focus on a doable dissertation project in the U.S. while also including an international dimension to my research. Almost all areas of research can be enriched by having an international dimension. Unless a student has existing ties to a community outside the United States, primary data collection can be very challenging. However, in the absence of such ties, students can still find ways to link to ongoing research or use secondary data for their dissertation project. Thinking creatively about gathering international data also helps increase opportunities for necessary financial support. Perhaps the biggest benefit of the international component of my research has been the networking I have been able to do to facilitate future research collaborations on an international scale. The most challenging aspect has been funds not only to support my dissertation research but also to manage expectations for collaboration with international colleagues who have access to significantly more research funds than I. Overall, I highly recommend students incorporate an international dimension, even if on a small scale, to their dissertation research.

PRO J E C T 3 : A N I N T E R NAT I O NA L PH D S T U D E N T I N T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S

Bùi Th Thanh Tuy n is from Vietnam, received her MSW from Washington University, and is currently in her second year of a PhD program at University of Illinois–Champaign. Soon after she returned to Vietnam after receiving her MSW, she was hired to teach social work in a university. Mary Elizabeth Collins and Tuy n 296

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met during Collins’s 10-month Fulbright-funded sabbatical in Ho Chi Minh City. Tuy n was a marvelous cultural guide and expressed interest in studying for a PhD in the United States. Collins asked her to reflect on her experience for this chapter, which she provides in the following. Tuy n is not yet at the dissertation stage but speaks about her motivation for a research-oriented career and her efforts to engage in doctoral study. Many reasons motivated me to apply for a PhD in social work. This decision derived from my role as a lecturer in a Vietnamese university. As a faculty member at one of the leading social work schools in Vietnam, I wanted to provide the most relevant knowledge regarding social work practice to the students pursuing social work majors. To do so, I have to relentlessly study and improve my knowledge of the field. Further doctoral education is the ultimate way for me to achieve this lifelong goal. One of the current weaknesses of our social work education in Vietnam is that many universities provide social work training but they do not have enough qualified lecturers. Most of the lecturers do not have an MSW. Even fewer have a PhD. Additionally, I love research and have many research ideas but cannot pursue these ideas without doctoral training. Pursuing a doctoral degree in social work will provide me an opportunity to become fully equipped and grounded with necessary knowledge and skills to carry out research. This will also help me achieve my purpose of providing social work students with the best knowledge regarding social work practice. Furthermore, I used to be a practitioner before taking the social work lecturer position. I know hundreds of social work practitioners who have 10 to 20 years of experience, but this critical practice-knowledge is not written and published. Documenting best practices is a researcher’s job. Hence, I think with research knowledge and skills of a PhD holder I can help document valuable experience of senior Vietnamese practitioners to assist novice practitioners. This will also allow me to share knowledge of social work in Vietnam with the global community. I met an international scholar and he told 297

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me that people around the world are blind about what is happening in social sciences throughout Vietnam. There is little in the international scholarly literature about Vietnam. With this idea in mind, I want to be a PhD research contributor so that I have the opportunity to learn to write academic papers for the advancement of social work knowledge in Vietnam and to add to the global body of knowledge. I chose to study in the United States instead of other countries because the United States has the best social work programs in the world. There are no PhD programs in my country. If I choose to study in my country, I would have to change to another major such as sociology, psychology, or anthropology. I have a passion for social work, and I don’t want to change the direction of my life. I chose only universities in the U.S. Midwest because I studied for my MSW at a university in this area, and I really like the people and the environment there. After making my decision to apply for a PhD, I did research on the best social work programs in the United States. I found ranking lists from the website of the U.S. News and World Report ranking of graduate schools, and then I went to the website of each university in the top 20 list. I made a table to compare among the universities based on these criteria: ranking position, number of professors, tuition, scholarships/ assistantships, application fees, deadlines, Graduate Record Examinations requirements, and competition. I had 16 universities on my list and decided to apply to four. I looked carefully at the application requirements of each university and then prepared all the necessary documents as well as contacting professors to ask them to write recommendation letters for me. Among four universities that I applied, one university required me to take the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) again. However, the other three universities did not require TOEFL scores because I had already obtained a master’s degree in the United States. I did not have time to take the TOEFL, so I wrote to this institution to delay my application until the following year. I received admission from two 298

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universities out of three, and I cancelled my application to the university that required my TOEFL scores. Making the decision on which university to attend was a hard decision for me. I contacted my advisers for advice. To prepare for my leaving, I informed the dean of my university in Vietnam right after I received official admission from University of Illinois. Simultaneously, I searched the university website for information about housing. I contacted some Vietnamese students in the United States who introduced me to the Vietnamese Students Club at University of Illinois and they helped me to find a room. Knowing that I have a place to go, I made a list of things to bring with me for the trip. I collected this stuff day by day until my departure day. At the same time, I prepared to train staff and faculty who would take on my position and my tasks. However, most universities in Vietnam are very busy in June and July because they have to provide the National Entry Exam for all the students who enroll in college. I had to work until the end of July and had about 10 days to pack my luggage before leaving. I arrived two weeks before the start of the semester in fall 2014. On the second day, I learned to take buses to school and grocery shopping. I went to the Office for International Student Services to get information about living in Champaign. They gave me many useful reference materials and also organized a special orientation for international students. I attended all the sessions. There are many things that I have learned during the first semester in the United States even though I used to study in another state before. I learned an important difference between Asian culture and American culture. Asian people will offer help to newcomers whether the newcomers need it or not. Americans are very supportive, but they only offer help when you ask for it. Thus you have to ask for help first. To help me quickly adapt to the new environment, I made friends, engaged in the social work PhD students’ group and talked to professors. 299

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The School of Social Work assigned me to work as a part-time research assistant for a faculty member. The faculty member I worked with was, and continues to be, very supportive. I worked on quantitative and qualitative data analysis. She also instructed me on writing parts of her research article as a coauthor and sent it to be published in a social work journal. Moreover, my supervisor also allowed me to work as a teaching assistant for courses that she taught. That helped me learn and improve my teaching skills for the future. In addition, all faculty members at the School of Social Work were very supportive. Even though they were not my direct adviser or supervisor, I came to feel that I could come to talk to or ask for help when needed. So far, I am very pleased with what happened to me. Some challenges that I faced were small, and I found ways to improve them. The first challenge was my accent. I felt uncomfortable with my accent because it sounds much different from the spoken English of my American friends. I was afraid of speaking in front of many people during the first few weeks. I think I improved it gradually by joining an Englishspeaking club for foreign students run by a local church. After almost two semesters, I feel better when talking in a big group now. The second challenge was using technology. Most of the courses required students to combine face-to-face and online learning. I was not familiar with Blackboard before and had some difficulties in using it during the first few weeks. After completing my PhD, I want to find a job in an institution where I can do both teaching and research. I want to go back to my home country, but my concern comes from my experience after receiving my master’s degree. I am not sure that I have adequate equipment to do research as I wish when living there. The library of the university where I worked previously did not have access to an online worldwide database. I could not review previous studies. I also like working for international organizations, where I can design programs that have an impact on lives of thousands people in need. I feel so happy and proud to be a PhD student of a social work 300

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program because the social work profession has its own values that other professions do not have. Even though international students are a minority, they bring diversified culture to the program. Being an international student makes me understand more about diversity and cultural differences, which are important issues in social work practice. Moreover, being an international student brings me unique experiences that I cannot tell in a few words. I have become stronger and more independent. I have to make decisions and deal with daily issues by myself. I learn many good things, which without real experiences I would never learn.

CRITICA L REFL ECTION A ND DISCUS SION OF T HE PROMISING PRINCIPL ES In general, all these experiences can be considered successes. In the cases of the students reporting on their dissertation research, their studies have been successfully completed, and they now have academic positions and have continued to develop their interest and scholarship in international social work education. Furthermore, Tuy n was successfully able to enroll in PhD study in the United States and is developing the research skills to prepare her for dissertation research. But these successes do not mean there are not potential concerns. We now offer further critical reflection and discussion of some of the principles.

AT T E N DI N G TO C U LT U R E : G L O BA L I Z AT I O N A N D I N DI G E N O U S S O C I A L WO R K

Both of the dissertation examples required attention to culture within the scope of the dissertations. Kim is Korean and shared the culture of the country and city where she conducted her dissertation research. A critical finding of the work, however, was that the concept of empowerment—so well known to U.S.-based work—was not a good cultural fit with social work practice in the agencies where she studied. 3 01

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Empowerment was originally developed in the U.S. and was strategically built around the notion of strengthening the clients (Kim, McLeod & Shantzis, 1992). It has not been long since the empowerment concept was first incorporated into social work practice in South Korea. The empowerment approach is rarely discussed in social work classes and is primarily taught as a concept or theory rather than practice (Hong & Han, 2013). Clients’ participation in the decision-making process is one type of an empowerment approach. However, social work practitioners in South Korea typically employ the top-down approach and decision making is held in the hands of service providers rather than clients (Hong & Han, 2013). In addition to practitioners’ unfamiliarity with the concepts of empowerment and clients’ participation in decision making, as Kim previously mentioned, these concepts are also very new to North Korean refugee youths. If this research had taken account of cultural factors more attentively, it may have produced more robust findings. Thus, people from the target population or research sites should participate in the early stages of designing and developing the research instrument and in the interpretation of data and results. Garlington entered the European research project with a purposefully comparative lens. The European research project was comparative itself within Europe and thus explicitly recognized different cultural as well as sociological and political traditions. Because this was an explicit focus of the study, there were no surprises related to cultural knowledge. For Tuy n, her experience reflects just a portion of the vast challenges international students face in adapting to a culture that is different from that of their home country. At least part of her successful transition to doctoral study in the United States stems from her earlier successful experience in completing an MSW program. Thus, coming to the United States to study for the PhD was not as culturally jarring as the earlier experience might have been. Additionally, through Collins’s collegial relationship with her in Vietnam, and ongoing mentoring during her transition to U.S. doctoral study, Tuy n has received guidance regarding such issues as the feasibility of various research ideas and the steps involved in turning research ideas into an 302

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appropriate topic for a dissertation. She will, of course, get thorough guidance in her doctoral program, but multiple mentors from various sources are often a strength for developing scholars.

E X PLOR I NG T H E ENGAGE M EN T A N D PA RT N ER SH I P PRO C E S S: OW N I NG T H E WOR K

There can be some potential issues in regard to who owns the work in international research and collaboration. As dissertation research, the student needs to own the specific product to complete the dissertation. The student cannot be engaged in any complicated arrangements about ownership of the research, and this should be clearly discussed in planning the project and fully specified in the dissertation proposal. The faculty supervisor and other members of the dissertation committee should assess this at the proposal stage for the protection of the student. Ownership concerns should not mean that people at the site where the research is conducted cannot learn from the work. As appropriate, the student should make arrangements to summarize and present the research to appropriate stakeholders, either in person or in writing. This part of the research process also should be emphasized with doctoral students. Dissemination of the research is key; in social work the practice community as well as the research community are audiences for dissemination.

B R I N G I N G L E A R N I N G H O M E : T H E I N T E R N AT IO N A L D OM E S T IC I N T E R FAC E

This principle may be most applicable to international doctoral student research. By definition, doctoral students are learners. The dissertation process is a learning process, and the dissertation defense is an examination of the student’s research product. Therefore, students engaging in international research for doctoral study have a particular opportunity to bring what they learn back home and to use that learning throughout the 303

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course of their career. Additionally, this early experience in international research may set the stage for ongoing collaboration for many years ahead. Kim and Garlington both spoke about the continuing relationship with their colleagues in other countries. International students studying in the United States may aim to continue their career in the United States or return to their home country and bring their knowledge with them. Tuy n’s example demonstrates the experience of the international doctoral student who plans to return to her home country. From the perspective of a social work educator, this provides a great opportunity to support the development of social work in many places across the globe. Tuy n provides an excellent example of a doctoral student who is fully knowledgeable about how social work is practiced in her home country and is well connected to the practice world and the university system in her country. What is most needed from the U.S. higher education system is training in skills, particularly in research, that can be used back home. As I (Collins) stated in my recommendation letter for Tuy n’s doctoral application, she has the opportunity to be the social work leader in her country.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IN T ERN ATION A L SOCIA L WORK PR ACTICE Faculty supervision of doctoral students is key. In general, advisers have a significant role in doctoral students’ attrition or completion of their dissertation (Cree, 2012; Gordon, 2003; Johnson, 2002; Liechty et al., 2009). This may be even more relevant for those proposing international research or who are international students. As the faculty adviser to Sook and Sarah, I (Collins) was initially reluctant to agree to both students’ plans for international dissertation research. Normally I discourage doctoral students from conducting research in another country. It requires substantial initiative and self-motivation on the students’ part. Typically, it has risks that may affect the ability to complete the research, and therefore the dissertation does not get finished. Primarily, I convey to students that dissertations need to be focused and 304

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manageable and that they need to get finished. A dissertation study is not the time to aim for the perfect, more interesting study or the one that has the most impact. A good dissertation sets the stage for the student’s full career. At a later point in time when the student is more established, then he or she could have a more ambitious research agenda with an international focus. But, despite my hesitation, I can be convinced to allow a student to have an international component. In both the cases described here, the students were able to develop feasible research proposals after they had already initiated contact with the sites. Resources are often a major barrier, of course. Kim and Garlington secured grants to support their work. Additionally, Kim was able to stay with family in Korea. As is also the case with domestically focused dissertations, the proposal stage is critical to determine the feasibility of the study and its likely completion. This is particularly important for dissertations that involve data collection in another country. Students must have a detailed data collection plan and have already secured cooperation from the site to receive study approval. Furthermore, Garlington offered the suggestion that many dissertations can have an international component through the use of secondary data analysis. This is a reasonable suggestion for many doctoral students interested in increasing their international knowledge and capacity but who lack the resources or contacts to conduct primary data collection. I am not the supervisor of Tuy n’s doctoral study; she is not a student at my university. But given our time working together in Vietnam I was able to provide practical and detailed guidance about searching for, applying, and making the transition into a doctoral program in the United States. Of course, many students want to study in the United States, and I have supervised some international students at my university. I was particularly confident of Tuy n’s ability to succeed in U.S. doctoral education given her vast practice experience, her work in a university setting, her successful completion of an MSW in the United States, and her excellent personal attributes related to initiative, perseverance, and collegiality. Each of these students had focus, drive, determination, and good prior social work training. Additionally, all these students were open 305

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to feedback, advice, and specific cautions. Each of them expressed a sustained interest in international work. They also reflected attributes of humility, cultural and otherwise, that made them able to engage in work in settings that were not like those at home. Without these qualities, their experiences may not have been successful. Thus, knowing the doctoral students well and their capability to carry out their projects is part of the strategy for successful advising. In addition to faculty advisers, institutions and departments can also offer resources to support doctoral students in their dissertations. According to the Council on Graduate Schools, financial support is related to higher completion rates and a shorter time to degree completion (as cited in Liechty et al., 2009). Although funding is an important factor that has an impact on students’ dissertation completion, only 39 percent of doctoral social work students reported assistantships, fellowships, or a dissertation grant as a primary source of support during their doctoral program (Anastas & Kuerbis, 2009). In particular, international students and students who conduct research on international issues are having more difficulties in receiving funding for their research. To facilitate the timely completion of quality doctoral dissertations, it is helpful for institutions of higher education to provide diverse funding opportunities, such as research or teaching assistantships, fellowships, dissertation grants, or other various types of scholarships. Most social work educators have experience with international students and are aware of at least some of the cultural challenges they face in adapting to doctoral study in the United States. Social work educators likely vary in their level of experience and understanding of this cultural transition for their students. Additionally, administrators of social work programs, and the universities in which they are housed, may have varying capacities in their ability to meet the needs of international doctoral students. For the most part, this is an area in which many of us social work educators can continue to grow.

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CONCLUSION Doctoral education is a component of social work education that is particularly relevant in a globalizing world. By educating the future leaders of the profession, opportunities for international experience in doctoral education very directly create important and ongoing networks to support the development of social work across the globe. Additionally, international experiences in training doctoral students serve to enhance the education of U.S.-based BSW and MSW students who benefit from the global lens of their educators. Moreover, supporting doctoral students from the developing world, who may have limited access to social work graduate programs, can also serve a social justice function by increasing equitable access to knowledge and opportunity.

REFERENCES Anastas, J. W., & Kuerbis, A. N. (2009). Doctoral education in social work: What we know and what we need to know. Social Work, 54, 71–81. Best global universities rankings. (2015). U.S. News and World Report. Retrieved from http://www.usnews.com/education/best-global-universities/rankings Chi, Y. C. (1987). Social development and capacity building: A case example of a social welfare center in Korea. International Social Work, 30, 139–149. Choi, J. S., Choi, S., & Kim, Y. (2009). Improving scientific inquiry for social work in South Korea. Research on Social Work Practice, 19, 464–471. Council on Social Work Education. (2013). 2013 statistics on social work education in the United States. Retrieved from http://www.cswe.org/CMSPages/ GetFile.aspx?guid=19672b43-fab2-42b0-8a91-8ed7771e95d5 Cree, V. E. (2012). “I’d like to call you my mother.” Reflections on supervising international PhD students in social work. Social Work Education, 31, 451–464. Dellgran, P., & Höjer, S. (2005). Privatisation as professionalisation? Attitudes, motives and achievements among Swedish social workers. European Journal of Social Work, 8, 39–62. Durst, D. (2010). A comparative analysis of social work in Vietnam and Canada: Rebirth and renewal. Journal of Comparative Social Work, 2, 1–12. 307

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Golde, C. M. (2006). Preparing stewards of the discipline. In C. M. Golde & G. E. Walker (Eds.). Envisioning the future of doctoral education: Preparing stewards of the discipline (pp. 3–20). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Gordon, P. J. (2003). Advising to avoid or to cope with dissertation hang-ups. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 2, 181–187. Group for the Advancement of Doctoral Education in Social Work. (2013). Guidelines for quality in social work doctoral programs. Retrieved from http://www.gadephd. org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=6RvhDyHRxQA%3d&tabid=84&portalid=0 Han, I. Y., & Lim, J. W. (2014). The current status and future challenges of social work education in South Korea. In C. Nobel, H. Strauss, & I. Littlechild (Eds.), Global social work: Crossing borders, blurring boundaries (pp. 155–168). Sydney, Australia: Sydney University Press. Harrington, D., Petr, C. G., Black, B. M., Cunningham-Williams, R. M., & Bentley, K. J. (2014). Quality guidelines for social work PhD programs. Research on Social Work Practice, 24, 281–286. Hong, J. S., & Han, I. Y. (2009). Cultural competency and social work education in “multicultural” South Korea. In C. Nobel, M. Henrickson, & I. Y. Han (Eds.), Social work education: Voices from the Asia Pacific (pp. 99–124). Sydney, Australia: Sydney University Press. Hong, J. S., & Han, I. Y. (2013). Call for incorporating cultural competency in South Korean social work education. In C. Nobel, M. Henrickson, & I. Y. Han (Eds.). Social work education: Voices from the Asia Pacific (pp. 3–28). Sydney, Australia: Sydney University Press. Hong, J. S., Kim, Y. S., Lee, N. Y., & Ha, J. W. (2011). Understanding social welfare in South Korea. In S. B. C. L. Fututo (Ed.). Social welfare in East Asia and the Pacific (pp. 41–66). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Institute of International Education. (2015). What international students think about US higher education: Attitudes and perceptions of prospective students from around the world. NY: Author. Johnson, W. B. (2002). The intentional mentor: Strategies and guidelines for the practices of mentoring. Professional Psychology Research and Practice, 33, 88–96. Kim, S., McLeod, J. H., & Shantzis, C. (1992). Cultural competence for evaluators: Working with Asian American communities: Some practical considerations. 308

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In M. Orlandi (Ed.). Cultural competence for evaluators: A guide for alcohol and other drug abuse prevention practitioners working with ethnic-racial communities (pp. 203– 260). Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Korea Association of Social Workers. (2012). Korean social work statistical yearbook. Seoul, South Korea: Ministry of Health and Welfare. Lepp, L., Remmik, M., Karm, M., & Leijen, A. (2013). Supervisors’ conceptions of doctoral studies. Trames, 17, 401–415. Liechty, J. M., Schull, C. P., & Liao, M. (2009). Facilitating dissertation completion and success among doctoral students in social work. Journal of Social Work Education, 45, 481–497. Maynard, B. R., Vaughn, M., Sarteschi, C. M., & Berglund, A. H. (2014). Social work dissertation research: Contributing to scholarly discourse or the file drawer? British Journal of Social Work, 44, 1045–1062. Meeuwisse, A. & Swärd, H. (2008). Social work programmes in the social democratic welfare regime. International Journal of Social Welfare, 18, 365–374. Mittal, M., & Wieling, E. (2006). Training experiences of international doctoral students in marriage and family therapy. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 32, 369–383. Nerad, M. (2010). Globalization and the internationalization of graduate education: A macro and micro view. Canadian Journal of Higher Education, 40, 1–12. Nerad, M., & Evans, B. (Eds.). (2014). Globalization and its impacts on the quality of PhD education: Forces and forms in doctoral education worldwide. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense Publishers. Nguyen, T. O. (2002). Historical development and characteristics of social work in today’s Vietnam. International Journal of Social Welfare, 11, 84–91. Soydan, H. (2010). From vocational to knowledge-based education: An account of Swedish social work education. Social Work Education, 20, 111–121. Sundell, K., Soydan, H., Tengvald, K., & Anttila, S. (2010). From opinion-based to evidence-based social work: The Swedish case. Research on Social Work Practice, 20, 714–722.

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IN T EGR ATING SOCIA L WORK S T UDEN T S IN TO SHORT-T ERM GLOBA L HE A LT H IN T ERPROFES SION A L EDUCATION PRO JECT S J O DY K . O L S E N a n d A N U S H A C H AT T E R J E E

Global health, by necessity, is a collaborative field. Unfortunately, many global health professionals struggle to bridge the gap between knowing that collaboration is necessary and building collaborative teams that include social workers. Faculty and students from the University of Maryland, Baltimore School of Social Work, located on a health science campus in Baltimore City, are integrated into a Global Health Interprofessional Grant program. The program brings together faculty and students from dentistry, law, medicine, nursing, pharmacy, and social work for short-term research-related global health projects. Based on the delivery of more than 25 short-term projects, this chapter discusses the global health program, its collaborative team model, and social work roles in collaborative global health teams. It reports project experiences and their impact on social work students and faculty, and how these experiences affect student work and learning in Baltimore. Global health, by necessity, is a collaborative field (Rowthorn & Olsen, 2014), and those in the social work profession can and 310

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should be equal collaborators. Making this a reality begins in departments of social work before students begin their professional careers. This chapter focuses on models for integrating social work students into interprofessional global health experiential learning and has four main themes. First, it offers two related models for social work faculty to integrate themselves into planning, developing, and executing interprofessional global health projects as well as models for social work students to be effective team members while developing skills for a future in global health either internationally or domestically. Second, the chapter identifies strategies for social work faculty to facilitate better experiential learning wherever relevant. It draws on the lessons learned from the Global Health Interprofessional Grant program at the University of Maryland, Baltimore (UMB) to identify these strategies and discusses implications for social work education and practice in this field. Third, it also provides a reflection on the role of culture across populations and within interprofessional teams, and the importance of including cultural dimensions in interprofessional global health projects. Finally, the chapter emphasizes the international-domestic interface, that learning from one setting can influence the work in the other. The UMB grant program offers examples of the bridge between the two, even when not anticipated. The chapter is divided into the following sections. The first part covers the literature of global health as an interprofessional collaboration among disciplines, the importance of interprofessional training before global health teams begin their professional work, and the way social work education fits into this global health training model. The second part covers the background to and description of two related models and social work faculty and student roles within each, lessons learned from implementing these related models at UMB, critical reflections about culture and the international-domestic interface, and recommendations for international social work practice.

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GLOBA L HE A LT H : SCOPE, IN T ERPROFES SION A L T R AINING, A ND ROL E OF SOCIA L WORK PROFES SION A L S Health has emerged as a key priority on the global agenda, as the number of actors in the field expands and diversifies (Ollila, 2005). Educational institutions, private foundations, nongovernmental organizations, and national governments are showing increased commitment by investing their domain knowledge, skills, and resources toward addressing disparities in health access and outcomes (Crump, Sugarman, & Working Group on Ethics Guidelines for Global Health Training, 2010; Kanter, 2008). Although there have been improvements worldwide in certain health indicators over the past century, persistent as well as new health-related problems affect large populations worldwide (Seymour & Barrow, 2014). A disproportionate share of those affected live in the poorest countries of the world. Rising socioeconomic disparities between and within countries, inequitable access to proper health care, and the double burden of noncommunicable as well as infectious diseases imply that the battle against these issues is going to be a long and complex one (Bygbjerg, 2012). These conditions have driven global health practitioners and policy actors worldwide to advocate for the need to leverage the skills of professionals from diverse disciplines and fields (Baytor & Cabrera, 2014; Seymour & Barrow, 2014; Wilson et al., 2014). To understand the role that social work practitioners and educators can play in this dynamic, interprofessional field, it is important to elaborate on the emergence of global health, its scope, its relation with social work, and the training requirements for future professionals. The scope and primary objective of global health consist of improving access to health care for all and promoting health equity (Koplan et al., 2009). This objective recognizes that inequities in access to health care are often driven by multilayered socioeconomic and systemic issues. To effectively address these health inequities, there is a built-in need to address the deeper structural inequities in society. Another core 312

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component of global health is its highly interdisciplinary nature with its membership extending beyond the health sciences (Jogerst et al., 2015). Scholars have stressed the inadequacies in setting priorities by the developed countries of the Global North and in the use of largescale vertical health programs as solutions to global health problems (Cáceres & Mendoza, 2012; Macfarlane, Jacobs, & Kaaya, 2008). To counter this, global health experts from across the world have stressed the need to adapt global health priorities and reduce such a top-down approach. Advocating for policy-level changes, increased engagement of civil society organizations in setting global health agendas, and setting health agendas from the bottom up through community engagement and mobilization have been increasingly recognized as the future of global health (Ager, Yu, & Hermosilla, 2011; Ollila, 2005).

EDUCATION FOR FU T URE IN T ERPROFES SION A L GLOBA L HE A LT H OPPOR T UNITIES Global health is inherently interdisciplinary or interprofessional (Brown, Cueto, & Fee, 2005; Crump et al., 2010). Pooling resources, knowledge, and experiences from diverse disciplines to address health challenges is at its core. All societies have a stake in addressing global health concerns. Recognition of the interprofessional nature of global health highlights the need to train future professionals to learn, become involved, and practice in the field (Drain et al., 2007). Educational institutions have sought to achieve this training through integrating global health content in curricula, providing field experience opportunities beyond national borders, and providing opportunities to work in teams with members of other disciplines toward goals that are mutually beneficial and reciprocal for the trainees and the host countries (Crump et al., 2010). Experiential learning focused on building interprofessional communication skills and working on an interprofessional team has been viewed as an effective method for preparing students for a future in global health (Baytor & Cabrera, 2014). In their study among health care professionals who were part of interprofessional teams, Sargeant, Loney, and Murphy (2008) 313

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found that the ability to effectively work as part of an interprofessional team requires specific cognitive, technical, and affective competence. Working in close contact does not ensure effective teamwork. Some of the essential components of teamwork include understanding and respecting team members’ roles, recognizing that teams require work, knowing how to share patient care, and effective communication. A successful interprofessional experience needs to prepare future professionals to learn these key skills and competencies. Much of social work’s core values and principles are consistent with the field of global health. Understanding the fit between the two fields may assist in identifying the ways social work educators and practitioners can effectively participate in global health. Those involved in global health and social work recognize the centrality of social justice. Global health professionals recognize the core inequalities and social justice issues that are at the root of many of the major global health challenges. Social workers, with their training in social policy, community organization, or individual clinical practice, have the necessary knowledge and skills to get involved in the larger global health forum. Both disciplines focus on working with and on behalf of some of the most vulnerable populations of the world. Global health prioritizes population-based preventive efforts. Social workers can be an excellent resource not only to contribute to preventive efforts but also to communicate the needs and priorities of underprivileged communities to larger global health forums. Civil society organizations play a key role in shaping and being shaped by both disciplines. There is an increased participation of civil society organizations in global health (Ollila, 2005). The presence of social workers in civil society organizations across the world as advocates for social change places them at a vital position to become effective players in global health. For example, The HIV/AIDS pandemic has laid bare issues of child health and social support vulnerabilities in countries without child support services. Social work education can prepare the profession for social work leadership in shaping systems and services for children affected by loss because of these health crises in their indigenous families and communities. Many of these children 314

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themselves have significant health issues and need integrated health and social support. Finally, social work and global health are enriched by interprofessional participation. Social workers regularly collaborate with practitioners from various disciplines to try to find solutions to complex, multilayered social problems. For HIV/AIDS to have status as a chronic rather than a terminal disease, significant social support is required to augment medical treatment. Developing these integrated systems illustrates why interprofessional collaboration is essential. Learning to collaborate and work with interprofessional teams catering to culturally diverse populations is an essential part of social work, making social workers invaluable team members on global health issues (Pecukonis, 2015). Providing experiential opportunities to future social work professionals helps prepare them for a future in interprofessional, intercultural practice locally and globally.

BEGINNINGS OF T HE IN T ERPROFES SION A L GR A N T PROGR A MS The UMB School of Social Work sits on a graduate professional campus in downtown Baltimore that contains six professional schools: dentistry, law, medicine, nursing, pharmacy, and social work. As on many health science campuses, UMB recognized the growing need for interprofessional experience to prepare global health professionals. A campus-wide Global Health Resource Center, later renamed Center for Global Education Initiatives (CGEI), was set up in 2005, funded by the National Institutes of Health’s Fogarty International Center, for providing individual student grants. At its founding, the School of Social Work was not a participating school. In 2010 the funding ended and was replaced with university funding from the university president’s office, providing the CGEI with the opportunity to develop an interprofessional student education global health program. The following sections describe how social work faculty and students became an integral component of these global health experiences as active participants and program design leaders. 315

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PH A S E I : I N T E R PRO F E S S I O NA L PRO J E C T I N M A L AW I (2 010 –2 01 3)

Through the CGEI, the university instituted an interprofessional experiential learning program, a campus-wide, single 6-week project in Malawi (Rowthorn & Olsen, in press). This was the first time the School of Social Work became formally involved in UMB global health projects. A social work faculty member and the social work dean ensured that social work students and faculty would be active participants and program organizers. Once the project was established, social work faculty member Jody Olsen participated in all four Malawi projects (one each year), bringing the social work perspective to the projects’ planning, implementation, and assessment. Each annual project in Malawi had a different global health theme selected by the CGEI based on on-the-ground need and logistical support. These were health care for orphans and vulnerable children, health care for children with fevers, maternal health, and assessing community health needs. Olsen designed the fourth project and actively participated in discussing the role of social work students for each of the global health themes. Social work faculty also identified learning objectives for the social work students. Each project included students from all six schools and was designed to provide an opportunity for all students to conduct research on a specific global health issue (Schonfield et al., 2012). Students moved beyond clinical professional skills toward working together to understand the interrelated factors that encompass global and public health concerns. The social work students were fully integrated team members for each project. As part of the maternal mortality project in 2012, for example, all students rotated through each project task, including design, data collection, analysis, and subsequent reports and recommendations using the Safe Motherhood Needs Assessment methodology (World Health Organization, 2001). This included individual interviews with antenatal patients and health center staff as well as a review of medical delivery charts and clinic supplies and equipment. Social work students played all roles including pairing with a dental student to conduct individual antenatal interviews at one site and then pairing with a pharmacy student in reviewing 316

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delivery charts at a different site. Each evening, all students discussed their work together, compared notes, and prepared for the next day’s visits. Students exchanged leadership roles throughout each project, with social work students taking their turns leading all the disciplines. Faculty members also took turns facilitating the student activities, drawing on their own technical skills. The social work faculty member prepared the evening debrief framework used throughout the programs and also oriented students and faculty to basic group support skills. She discussed informally with students, regardless of discipline, the cultural, traditional, and community influences on the observed health issue and provided related background material for their own research when writing the interprofessional paper. Faculty members across all schools facilitated four predeparture orientation sessions to prepare students. The sessions included a focus on understanding culture, the history of Malawi, and an outline of the particular project. The social work faculty member prepared the cultural understanding session and helped guide discussions about group dynamics and interprofessional group and individual responsibilities, and added content on social influences affecting health issues. Additionally, each student presented a short overview of his or her profession and its role in global health. This prepared students to envision their role in the team as well as identify the strengths, skills, and approaches of other team members. Faculty and students alike were surprised with some aspects of each other’s description of their profession’s contributions to global health, and subsequent discussions aided working together in Malawi. For example, students were surprised by social work advocacy and community development roles in international settings and by the profession’s commitments to social justice and human rights. Student conversations emphasized these core social work themes and their importance in global health areas. The four Malawi projects were not formally evaluated, but all 29 participating students, including 5 from social work, submitted reflective journals and participated in post-project debriefing sessions. These documents reflect a high level of student satisfaction and interprofessional learning, illustrated in the following: 317

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[Dental student] No physiological system in the body is isolated—everything interplays. While on this program I learned that pharmacy encompasses more than just drugs-supply chain changes and distribution. Law encompasses human rights and right to healthcare. Social work looks beyond the immediate issue and takes into account circumstances that exist beyond the focal problem. Nurses think about patients first and interact closely with them. Medicine focuses on treatment of pathology. Everyone has a different background— professionally and personally—and so collaboration creates an amalgam of ideologies that comes closer to understanding the macro issue. (Schonfield et al., 2012, p. 45) [Social work student] Although social services are typically underfunded and overlooked in a developing country like Malawi, our ability to understand and acknowledge the many limitations that the health care staff and incoming patients deal with on a daily basis further outlines the importance of interdisciplinary interactions in health care settings. (Schonfield et al., 2012, p. 46) After each project, student teams presented their findings and impressions to the UMB president, to the campus as a whole as part of the ongoing global health forums, and to many in-school and crossschool student groups. A social work student was part of each presentation, increasing the visibility of social work’s roles in interprofessional global health. Each project was accepted for a poster session at the annual Consortium for Universities in Global Health conference where participating students, including social work students, gave presentations. The Malawi program model was discontinued in 2013 as it became increasingly difficult for faculty to volunteer each year for a project in which they didn’t have a long-term research interest. Nonetheless, this dissemination of findings and the experience itself have been important in ensuring ongoing university funding as well as visibility of social work students in global health. In summary, faculty from all schools, including social work, were involved in selecting students, planning each project, providing field 318

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supervision, and participating in dissemination of findings when appropriate. Social work students were full members of interprofessional teams, taking the lead when appropriate. They analyzed each project from a social work perspective, reflecting and communicating their learning to the team.

PH A S E I I : M U LT I PL E WO R L DW I D E I N DI V I D UA L FAC U LT Y O RG A N I Z E D I N T E R PRO F E S S I O NA L G R A N T S

In 2013, the last year of the Malawi project, the CGEI redesigned the program to create a greater number of small, individual faculty-planned and implemented interprofessional global health projects. Under this program, individual faculty members apply for grants, and once their projects are selected, students apply to participate in any of the advertised faculty projects. Each grant is $5,000, and the student grants cover transportation. The projects are now designed and led by individual faculty members who have research interest in their proposed topics and knowledge of the project’s country site. The projects must be interprofessional and include at least two participating students representing at least two, and often more, different schools on campus. Faculty and student applications are peer reviewed by the CGEI faculty (CGEI, 2015a). To emphasize the collaboration so successful in the earlier Malawi program, the CGEI established three project requirements: global health content, interprofessional team, and sustainability. The projects represent a wide range of research-related global health topics, are interprofessional, and have a limited enough scope to match the short time frame. In the program’s first 2 years, this program has supported 27 faculty members, including five social work faculty, and 78 students on the same annual budget as that of the previous single project model in Malawi. All six schools have participated, for a total of 25 projects in 12 countries (Rowthorn & Olsen, in press). An emerging unanticipated benefit is the global-local links generated by participating faculty. For example, one project now links Haifa University, Israel, with the UMB School of Social Work, and another links law and social work faculty 319

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at Chancellor College, University of Malawi in Zomba, with counterpart schools at UMB. Social work students were also important to HIV care projects in Rwanda and Brazil, a physical therapy project in Malawi, and an end-of-life project in Hong Kong, in part because each involved patient, family, and community support systems. Table 14.1 lists the key principles for global health teamwork. FIGURE 14.1. KEY PRINCIPLES FOR GLOBAL HEALTH TEAMWORK

1. Respect each other professionally and personally while working and living together. 2. Show trust, patience, humor, and humility toward each other and toward in-country colleagues. 3. Know that poor group dynamics can overshadow bestdesigned project. 4. Building and sustaining teams parallel building technical project components. 5. Provide social interaction before traveling overseas, separate from required didactic requirements. 6. Recognize that stress of travel, being in a completely different environmental context, being with new people of different professions, and working on unfamiliar projects create intense group dynamics Note: Adapted from “Measuring the Cross-Cultural Adaptability of a Graduate Student Team From a Global Immersion Experience,” by L. B. Glickman, J. Olsen, and V. Rowthorn (2015); manuscript submitted for publication.

The new project model has benefits not possible in the earlier model. First, more students and faculty on campus can participate, particularly benefiting the School of Social Work, which has provided 35% of all student participants, the most of any school. Social work faculty have led four interprofessional groups. Second, participating faculty 320

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members from all schools, including social work, are more engaged in mentoring participating students because of their familiarity with the research topic and the country where the project is taking place. Third, the faculty and students have presented their experience and work in numerous venues, many on campus, thus highlighting the diversity of countries, projects, and students. The School of Social Work has encouraged student participation by offering 3-hour independent study credits the semester after the project. This includes a journal and reflective and academic papers related to the international experience and follow-up locally based internships the semester following the summer project. The social work student adviser, Olsen, has read all the social work student materials as they share their experience and its impact on subsequent student internships. Faculty leaders from all schools have favorably commented about social work students among the student teams. A nursing faculty member with a project in Rwanda reported that the social work student became the informal social worker to the team as well as providing the social work perspective for the project itself. Later, this was verified in the reflection paper submitted by the student. [Social Work Student] Through this work I in many ways became the team’s social worker. In playing that role, I began to see how social work is practiced internationally, and, since returning to the United States I have begun to compare and contrast the work that I was involved with in Rwanda with my experiences of social work practice in the United States. I seek to reflect on the values, skills, and practice of social work as it is both here and in Rwanda. (Greensfelder, 2014, p. 3) Drawing from faculty identified experiences, the CGEI has prepared an outline for pre-immersion, immersion, and post-immersion interprofessional activities, developed as a collaborative led by a faculty member from the school of social work, the CGEI, and faculty from physical theory, law, and dentistry. The other disciplines looked toward social work particularly for the cultural, contextual, and teamwork components. The topics illustrate the relevancy of social work to the broader global health academic community. 3 21

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S T RENGT HS, L ES SONS, A ND CH A L L ENGES An important lesson in the shift from the Malawi model to the decentralized faculty-driven model is that project sustainability requires direct, individual, ongoing faculty investment and leadership in the particular grant activities and prior knowledge of the country being visited. This requirement is now built into the individual faculty grant application. For example, the interprofessional project to Haifa, Israel, was awarded to a School of Social Work faculty member who had taught at the university earlier in her career and had maintained close ties. To ensure the interprofessional focus of the grant, the faculty member integrated faculty and students from law and nursing into the social justice theme. The faculty member from nursing who took students to Hong Kong related the project to her already significant work in end-of-life care in Hong Kong and added social work and medicine perspectives to the project. That faculty member from nursing and a social work student are now continuing joint research based on the global health project. Social work students can continue to be integrated into global health projects led by faculty from other health disciplines. In terms of challenges, the program continues to evolve as university financial support fluctuates, international ongoing university research projects change, new faculty bring different perspectives, and necessary logistical structures and training are codified with experience. The program has remained flexible enough to meet these changing external circumstances. For example, one project led by a social work faculty member changed location from Nigeria to Ghana a month before departure because of Nigerian unrest. This outcome was made possible because the second faculty member, from the medical school, was Ghanaian by birth and had physician privileges at a Ghanaian hospital. It is important to note that a relatively small sum of money is a sufficient incentive for faculty to create and students to participate in interprofessional global health projects. The grant of about $5,000 for faculty and the offer of transportation-only support for students is enough to maintain a competitive grant program. Faculty and students are creative in efficient use of resources while meeting safety and security guidelines. 322

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Faculty members have indicated that leading interprofessional teams has influenced their approaches to subsequent local and global teaching and research by considering other discipline perspectives in their work and by their willingness to reach across schools to collaborate with other faculty (Rowthorn & Olsen, in press). For example, the social work faculty member leading a project to the Philippines became a campus-wide interprofessional education student project organizer. Social work students have commented in their presentations, papers, and journals that their experiences helped them reframe their view of health care at home and abroad, and their interest in working across professions. Olsen has followed up with several social work students who have sought and found professional opportunities in international social work based at least in part on their project experiences, for example, at Catholic Relief Services, Lutheran Immigration Services, International Rescue Committee, and the Peace Corps. Because many in university leadership positions were unfamiliar with working in countries being proposed, particularly in Africa and the Middle East, they expressed nervousness about sponsoring students in these settings. Safety and security checklists, orientations, individual meetings, and insurance reviews are examples of core components of program development and implementation initiated through the CGEI. The projects so far have not been incident free, but the systems in place to manage safety and security situations have given some peace of mind to responsible university officials (CGEI, 2015b). As with all participating schools, the School of Social Work has drawn on these procedures and systems for non-interprofessional grants for international projects, and faculty have described greater comfort in international experiential trips. This program has encouraged health science faculty, particularly those involved in university-sponsored ongoing and long-term governmentor foundation-funded research programs, to consider hosting a shortterm interprofessional faculty and student team. This has given social work students opportunities to participate in health related-research projects funded by the U.S. Agency for International Development 323

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or the National Institutes of Health that would have otherwise been unavailable to them. For example, all the Malawi and Rwanda projects were possible because of established infrastructures for multiyear research grants from the National Institutes of Health and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. School of Social Work faculty and staff facilitated student participation in the interprofessional project in several ways. Most important, the school offered an independent study option, but it also encouraged structures that meet federal student loan guidelines to help pay costs not covered by the grant and encouraged presentations and subsequent conference presentations on topics drawn from the experiences. Building a new university program is not easy, particularly an interprofessional global health program with six schools on a health science campus. Making social work integral adds additional challenges. Lessons drawn from Olsen’s experience in leading this program include the assessment that interprofessional orientation and training is critical to the type of team building that can withstand professional and personal challenges while on another continent. Teams cannot be expected to just happen, and social work brings effective learning models to the preparation and the experience itself. Overall, social work faculty members need to have a sense of project ownership and ask students to help design as well as implement the projects and involve in-country partners throughout the project.

CRITICA L REFL ECTION A ND DISCUS SION OF T HE PROMISING PRINCIPL ES AT T E N DI N G TO C U LT U R E : G L O BA L I Z AT I O N A N D I N DI G E N O U S S O C I A L WO R K

Interprofessional experiential learning begins with cultural understanding. And, as one pharmacy faculty member noted in a grant presentation, “the rest follows.” First, cultural beliefs and practices shape global health concerns and outcomes. This is particularly obvious in issues such as maternal mortality, communicable diseases, HIV, food 3 24

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insecurity, and trauma-related health issues. In the Malawi maternal health project, for example, the social work student focused the team on understanding the relationship between the role of traditional community birth attendants and women’s reluctance to use government health centers. That cultural tradition needed to be factored into team recommendations to reduce maternal mortality. Team members themselves represent different professional cultures (Pecukonis, 2014). These professional cultural differences affect how team members see and respond to problems, direct and follow each other, express core values, and honor professional symbols. For example, frequent differences among team members surfaced over social justice, human rights, and health care delivery. Social work and law students are more likely to frame health care observations through this lens, whereas others focus their observations on details of the health delivery itself. During discussions, faculty facilitators primarily asked questions of group members such as, “Why did you see it this particular way? Or how does the law student’s perspective affect how you see the medical situation?” The goal was in reinforcing the contribution each perspective makes to understanding what was often a complex situation. Predeparture orientation is critical to in-country project success and student learning, and cultural elements are as important, if not more so, than the technical aspects of the project itself. Many materials are available for cross-cultural activities during orientation, but they are most effective when the student and faculty team is experiencing the activities together. The CGEI orientation includes direct and indirect communication styles, highlighting norms in the United States and the host country. The orientation also has team members discuss their own communication styles and how they can help each other while in-country meet each other’s communication priorities, particularly outside the project environment. Individual and professional differences in communication styles emerge and are discussed. Social work, medicine, and law students often offer interesting challenges to understanding each other’s communication styles. Students joked with each other about medical and law students being specific-detail driven and social work students observing and commenting on family and community interactions. 325

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Guided student reflection and discussions following experiences are also good tools to appreciate culture in its greater complexity. Two social work students who were part of the palliative care project in Hong Kong used their reflection papers to better understand endof-life Chinese traditions and behaviors and how they affect family, medical, and community palliative care. They then related it to their Baltimore-based palliative care internships, highlighting culturally related behaviors and decisions not before observed. Both students commented that they better understood their own professional cultural biases that were not evident to them before their work in Hong Kong. In another example, the interprofessional team that went to Malawi in 2011 reflected on the observed collectivist culture in Malawi and the impact on health. The sense of community and collectivism found in the Malawian culture, particularly in the four villages visited, left an impact on the team … Communities appear to view themselves collectively. … To the team, it seems that Malawian families define themselves more broadly than in many US households, and that they see the community as an integral part of their daily lives. (Duke et al., 2011, p. 38)

B R I N G I N G L E A R N I N G H O M E : T H E I N T E R NAT I O NA L– D O M E S T I C I N T E R FAC E

Increasingly, the term global includes work at home and abroad. Thus, students can apply what they learned in international settings to professional work in U.S. communities. Many of the social work students participating in these global health interprofessional grants will continue their professional careers in the United States. Even so, their professional work is increasingly likely to include recent immigrants, refugees, and first-generation Americans as the population changes. An international experience while in school strengthens social work skills for working with diverse populations here at home. As mentioned earlier, the independent credit for social work student participation in the grant program is given the semester following the 326

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experience to help the student integrate the summer experience with that of the fall semester’s locally based field or internship. For example, one student reviewed HIV clinic social support in Brazil compared to that of a clinic in Baltimore. The CGEI at UMB works with faculty grantees to identify local partnerships for the international participating organizations when possible. These examples include the emerging partnership between the School of Social Work at UMB and Haifa University in Israel, which has now included two joint social work student projects in West Haifa and one in West Baltimore. All three bore the theme “Social Justice and Health: Are They Related in My Community?” and included a Photovoice methodology whereby both groups of students took, described, and posted photos on a joint Blackboard discussion board created for this purpose. Thus, students had opportunities to share community-based photos, comments, and themes with each other before working together in Haifa and then in West Baltimore. Both groups of students presented their Photovoice project to the UMB campus. A follow-up to the Malawi law program grant now includes an emerging partnership between a new social work program at Chancellor University in Malawi and the School of Social Work. This came about through the inclusion of a social work faculty member in the interprofessional law school grant. An emerging global-local opportunity is a project that challenges the essence of the experience itself by linking the global health grant program with a separate UMB interprofessional faculty fellows program working in West Baltimore. The CGEI has planned a half-day workshop to bring these faculty fellows together with representative faculty from the global health interprofessional program to discuss together their respective experiences and to identify similarities and differences between experiences of students in Baltimore and those in specific international settings. Olsen is leading the global component, and the UMB president’s community liaison officer, a graduate of the UMB School of Social Work, is helping with organizing the local component. Social work faculty is active in both groups.

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RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IN T ERN ATION A L SOCIA L WORK PR ACTICE The experiences presented in this chapter suggest that social workers should see themselves as active members of interprofessional global health teams, particularly in international health work. Social workers offer knowledge and skills imbedded in the health and human rights elements core to global health, advocacy for framing health issues within human rights components, and the knowledge and skills that bring global health teams together into action-oriented and productive groups for change. This can happen, however, only if the social work education curriculum includes opportunities to prepare students for the challenges of this work. Social work curricula should include more global health models and information on the roles that social workers can play. An important model to bring into social work policy courses is the World Health Organization’s social determinants of health model (Commission on Social Determinants of Health, 2008), as it frames many components of social work policy within a broad health structure. It is interprofessional in its approach, is core to public health education, and can be used for students who want to see how their clinical and macro training relate to health and health care delivery. Social work faculty should look for opportunities to build links with health science schools and departments on their campuses to find ways to integrate global health curricula and experiential learning. Other health disciplines do not necessarily articulate social work roles in their student health teams. Social work faculty can and should take opportunities to begin conversations with health science colleagues about potential social work student roles on these teams.

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CONCLUSION This chapter focuses on social work education opportunities in global health interprofessional team experiential learning. Because global health is a collaborative field, there are increasing opportunities for social work educators and students to play integral roles on these teams. However, for social workers to be able to know what expertise they offer uniquely in interprofessional global health teams, as students they need to have classroom and internship experience with such teams and to examine what their own professional skills contributed to the project outcomes. The interprofessional global health grant program is one model for integrating social work faculty and students into broader campus global education opportunities. This model takes advantage of resources in other schools and disciplines and already-in-place, country-specific, university-supported health centers. In doing so, it offers opportunities for social work faculty and students to learn as part of an interprofessional team when social work department resources are limited. Social work can and should be integral to health delivery globally, and preparation can be embedded in social work education.

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global public health: In pursuit of a comprehensive perspective. Global Public Health, 7(Suppl., 1), S29–S45. Center for Global Education Initiatives. (2015a). For faculty. Retrieved from http://www.umaryland.edu/global/for-faculty/ Center for Global Education Initiatives. (2015b). International travel resources. Retrieved from http://www.umaryland.edu/global/international-travel-resources/ Commission on Social Determinants of Health. (2008). Closing the gap in a generation: Health equity through action on the social determinants of health. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. Crump, J. A., & Sugarman, J., & Working Group on Ethics Guidelines for Global Health Training. (2010). Ethics and best practice guidelines for training experiences in global health. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 83, 1178–1182. Drain, P. K., Primack, A., Hunt, D. D., Fawzi, W. W., Holmes, K. K., & Gardner, P. (2007). Global health in medical education: A call for more training and opportunities. Academic Medicine, 82, 226–230. Duke, E., Hannon, J., Hodge, J., Larenas, A., Mac Gabhann, L., Mazhari, S. (2011). Interdisciplinary global health project: Chikhwawa District, Malawi. Unpublished manuscript, University of Maryland, Baltimore. Glickman, L. B., Olsen, J., & Rowthorn, V. (2015). Measuring the cross-cultural adaptability of a graduate student team from a global immersion experience. Manuscript submitted for publication. Global education initiatives: Global experiences. (2015). Retrieved from Center for Global Education Initiatives website: http://www.umaryland.edu/global/ global-experiences/ Greensfelder, A. (2014). Global health independent study: Reflection paper. Unpublished manuscript, University of Maryland, Baltimore. Jogerst, K., Callender, B., Adams, V., Evert, J., Fields, E., Hall, T., … Wilson, L. L. (2015). Identifying interprofessional global health competencies for 21st-century health professionals. Annals of Global Health 81, 239–247. Kanter, S. L. (2008). Global health is more important in a smaller world. Academic Medicine 83, 115–116. 330

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Koplan, J. P., Bond, T. C., Merson, M. H., Reddy, K. S., Rodriguez, M. H., Sewankambo, N. K., Wasserheit, J. N. (2009). Towards a common definition of global health. Lancet, 373, 1993–1995. Macfarlane, S., Jacobs, M. and Kaaya, E. 2008. In the name of global health: Trends in academic institutions. Journal of Public Health Policy, 29, 383–401. Ollila, E. (2005). Global health priorities—priorities of the wealthy? Global Health, 1(6), 1–5. Pecukonis, E. (2014). Interprofessional education: A theoretical orientation incorporating profession-centrism and social identity theory. Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 42(Suppl., 2), 60–64. Rowthorn, V., & Olsen, J. (2014). All together now: Developing a team skills competency domain for global health education. Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 42, 550–563. Rowthorn, V., & Olsen, J. (in press). Putting the pieces together: Creating and implementing an interprofessional global health grant program. Healthcare: The Journal of Delivery Science and Innovation. Sargeant, J., Loney, E., & Murphy, G. (2008). Effective interprofessional teams: “Contact is not enough” to build a team. Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions, 28, 228–234. Schonfield, Z., Wang, N., LaRiccia, A., Nagel, J., Britz, S., Lohr, K., … Smith, D. (2012). Maternal morbidity and mortality in Chikhwawa District, Malawi: An interprofessional assessment. Unpublished manuscript, University of Maryland, Baltimore. Seymour, B., & Barrow, J. (2014). A historical and undergraduate context to inform interprofessional education for global health. Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 42(Suppl., 2), 9–16. Wilson, L., Callender, B., Hall, T. L., Jogerst, K., & Torres, H. (2014). Identifying global health competencies to prepare 21st century global health professionals: Report from the Global Health Competency Subcommittee of the Consortium of Universities for Global Health. Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 42(Suppl., 2), 26–595. World Health Organization. (2001). Safe motherhood needs assessment. Geneva, Switzerland. 3 31

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Figures and tables are indicated by “ f ” and “t” following page numbers. A Acceptance, 41, 178, 234 Addams, J., 41 Addis Adaba University, 119–120, 176 Adelphi University, 215, 217 Adobe Connect, 142–143, 145, 152, 155. See also Social media and electronic communication, use of Adolescent resilience, research on, 214 Africa. See specific countries partnership program in. See Tanzanian Para Social Worker Training Program Ageing Nepal, 152, 155–156, 158 Alcoholism, 52, 130 Ali, S., 258 Al-Makhamreh, S., 191 Altman, Julie Cooper, 7, 24, 32, 39, 210, 211 American Council on Education (ACE) Internationalization Laboratory, 39, 157 American International Health Alliance, 168, 171, 181 Twinning Center, 164 American Library Association, 116 Angell, B., 190 Anthropology, 234 Asia Foundation, 116 333

P R A C T ICING A S A S OCI A L W OR K E DUC AT OR IN IN T E R N AT ION A L COL L A BOR AT ION

Aspalter, C., 26 Assié-Lumumba, N. T., 35 Aurora University, 56 B Banerjee, Mahasweta, 8, 20–21, 27, 28, 40, 255 Barasch, M., 118 Barthes, Roland, 233 Beddoe, L., 191 Bediako, Andrea, 2 Beijing, short-term study abroad in, 5–6, 95–114 budgetary issues, 104 critical reflection and promising principles, 106–111 engagement and partnership process (Principle 4), 31, 110–111 Exploring Cultures and Social Service Programs in China (2013 & 2014 program), 102–103 globalization and indigenous social work (Principle 1), 20, 106– 108 government’s censorship and limited freedom of speech, 109 history of social work education and profession in China, 100– 101 implementation phase, 104–105 initiation phase, 102 Office for International Programs, 102 outcomes, 105–106 planning phase, 103–104 political context of (Principle 3), 27–28, 109 purpose of, 96 recommendations for, 111–112 service-learning component, 6, 20, 95 Benjamin Gilman International Scholarships, 104 Best practices, 36, 55, 134, 170, 219, 297 Bettmann, J. E., 117 Bicultural heritage as advantage, 20, 251 Biestek, F. P., 41 Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, 324 Birmingham, England, in ISWEP, 125, 130, 132 Juvenile Offender Program, 130 334

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youth mentors program, 131 Blackboard learning systems, 145, 300, 327 Borland, K., 125, 128–129 Brijnath, B., 256 Bringing learning home. See International–domestic interface Brown, L., 206 Butterfield, Alice, 1, 2, 6, 11, 23, 33, 40, 115, 124 C California University faculty working in Mexican practice community, 214 Cambodia, consent forms used for research in, 260 Canada, in international comparison of professional social work, 192 Capacity building, 6–7, 100, 132, 184, 204. See also Technical assistance Capacity for change, 41 Carter, I., 190 Carter-Anand, J., 146 Casablanca, Morocco, in ISWEP, 125, 128, 129 Castro, Fidel, 79 Catholic Relief Services, 323 Center for Global Education Initiatives (CGEI, University of Maryland, Baltimore), 315–327 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 263 Central American Free Trade Agreement, 78 Chancellor College, University of Malawi in Zomba, 320, 327 Chatterjee, Anusha, 9, 20, 40, 310 Chicago, International Social Work Exchange Partnership. See International Social Work Exchange Partnership (ISWEP) Chicago Sister Cities International, 125, 134 Chile, in international comparison of professional social work, 191– 192 China Chinese Americans’ biculturalism as advantage in, 20, 251 Confucian social history in, 236, 252 cross-national educational projects in, 213 Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), 231 culture of, 30–31, 230 335

P R A C T ICING A S A S OCI A L W OR K E DUC AT OR IN IN T E R N AT ION A L COL L A BOR AT ION



economic revolution in, 232, 237 floating population of rural to urban migrants in, 236–237 Fulbright Specialist Grants in social work and, 217 as host country for U.S. study abroad, 97 iron rice bowl policy, 236–237 Ministry of Civil Affairs, 237, 250 reintroduction of social work (1980s), 237 research involving visual evidence in, 8, 230–259. See also Visual evidence used in developing culturally sensitive social work interventions in China short-term study abroad program in. See Beijing, short-term study abroad in social welfare system of, 230–231 social work ideology in, 26, 236–237 Special Economic Zones, 237 China Social Workers Association, 250 Chowdhury, A., 258 CIES (Council for International Exchange of Scholars), 116, 212 City University of New York (CUNY), in partnership with Free International University of Moldova, 5, 49–72. See also Project Casa Mare Civil society organizations, 26–27, 314 Clark, J., 120 Clarke, K., 146 Cohen, Carol S., 1, 2, 4, 7, 11, 24, 32, 37, 39, 210, 211 Collaboration, 35. See also Fulbright Specialist Scholars; Universityto-university partnership; specific programs, countries, and study trips barriers and challenges to, 118 China. See Beijing, short-term study abroad in; Visual evidence used in developing culturally sensitive social work interventions in China doctoral programs. See Supervising doctoral students India. See Research process in India interdisciplinary. See Health interprofessional education projects Moldovan universities in partnership with CUNY, 63. See also Project Casa Mare shared learning through, 117, 146–147 336

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social media, use of. See Social media and electronic communication, use of Tanzania. See Tanzanian Para Social Worker Training Program Vietnam. See Vietnam, postuniversity training program in Collaborative research. See Research process Collectivism vs. individualism, 259, 260 Collins, Mary Elizabeth, 2, 4, 7, 8–9, 11, 20, 24, 25–27, 28, 32, 36, 40, 188, 284, 290, 296, 302–305 Colonialism, 18–19, 30. See also Cultural imperialism consent issues for research and, 259–260 Commitment to action, 35 Communism, 55, 78, 100–101, 109, 194, 244 China, 231, 236. See also China Cuba, 85. See also Cuba India, 275–276 Vietnam, 201, 203–204, 207. See also Vietnam, postuniversity training program in Community involvement, 12, 35, 38, 103, 108, 120, 122, 133, 136, 163, 166, 170–172, 178–179, 258, 313 Confidentiality. See Privacy issues for research Conflict in international academic collaborations, 64 Consent issues for research, 259–260, 265, 268 Consortium for Universities in Global Health conference, 318 Continuing education courses, 190–192. See also Vietnam, postuniversity training program in Cook County Juvenile Detention Center, 130 Corbin, Joanne, 5, 20, 31, 39, 73 Cornelius, L. J., 116 Correll, L., 169 Corruption, 24, 59, 65–67 Costa Rica CSWE international faculty development trip program in, 73, 75–82. See also International faculty development trip (IFDT) program relationship with United States, learning about, 83–84 social work education in, 80 Sustainable Human Development and Human Rights as theme of short-term program in, 82 3 37

P R A C T ICING A S A S OCI A L W OR K E DUC AT OR IN IN T E R N AT ION A L COL L A BOR AT ION

Costs of programs dissertation completion funding, 306 federal funding, 26 funding sources for international research, 263 grant for interprofessional health project, 322 Moldovan university costs, 65 overseas students coming to U.S. universities, 286–287 study abroad by U.S. students, 104, 111, 238 visiting scholars, 125 Council for International Exchange of Scholars (CIES), 116, 212 Council of International Fellowship, 116 Council of International Programs USA, 116 Council on Graduate Schools, 306 Council on Social Work Education (CSWE) accredited social work programs, 145 Annual Program Meeting, 88 Annual Program Meeting (Dallas 2013), 248 Annual Program Meeting (Philadelphia 2008), 248 Annual Survey of Social Work Education, 287 Commission on Global Social Work Education, 1, 2, 4, 11, 13, 149 Continuing Education Network, 190 Council on Global Learning, Research, and Practice (CGLP), 1, 5, 73, 75, 81, 87, 277 Council on Global Social Issues (formerly called Council on External Relations), 149, 153 Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards, 23, 37, 97 Fulbright Program information dissemination by, 225 international faculty development trip program, 73–94. See also International faculty development trip (IFDT) program Kendall Institute for International Social Work Education. See Katherine A. Kendall Institute for International Social Work Education Crabtree, R., 33–34 Crea, T., 256 Critical consciousness, development of, 117 Crockett, B., 256 Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory, 75 338

INDE X

CSWE. See Council on Social Work Education Cuba CSWE international faculty development trip program in, 73, 75–82. See also International faculty development trip (IFDT) program economy in, 79 Ministry of Health, 79 Ministry of Work and Social Security, 79–80 relationship with United States, learning about, 83–84 social work education and profession in, 78–80 sociology in, 83 U.S. sanctions against, 78, 81 Cultural imperialism, 30, 64, 69, 119 Chinese culture and, 237–238, 244, 251 colonialism and, 18–19 cultural bias of researchers, 257 Fulbright Scholars seeking to avoid, 219, 224, 225–226 interprofessional experiential learning of U.S. team members, 20 researchers perceived as powerful and potentially dangerous, 261 in social media or electronic communications, 146–147 U.S. researchers in India and, 265 Western social workers in China and, 20, 236, 237, 246–247 Cultural norms, 258 in Asian model of education, 203 conflicts with, 21 privacy and, 260 Cultural orientation for participants in international social work practice, 226. See also Cultural imperialism in China travel course at U.S. university, 241. See also Visual evidence interprofessional experiential learning of U.S. team members, 20 Culture, 3, 19 avoiding cultural conflict that impedes research, 246. See also Cultural imperialism definition of, 63 transculturality, 31 Culture wars, 19, 64 Czech Republic, travel course to, 235 3 39

P R A C T ICING A S A S OCI A L W OR K E DUC AT OR IN IN T E R N AT ION A L COL L A BOR AT ION

Czymoniewicz-Klippel, M. T., 256, 260, 262 D Daguerre, Louis-Jacques-Mandé, 234 David L. Boren Scholarships, 104 Deardorff, D. K., 226 Definition of International Social Work. See Global Definition of Social Work Democracy, representation of, 85 Democratization, 34 Deng Xiaoping, 236 Diaz, N., 235 Dignity, 12, 32, 41–42, 132, 243, 248 Disaster relief, research on, 214 Distance learning. See Social media and electronic communication, use of Divale, William, 59 Diversity, 19, 41, 125 Doctoral students, supervision of. See Supervising doctoral students Dominican University, 134 Drexhage, J., 34 Durban, South Africa, in ISWEP, 125, 130 Durst, D., 194 E East China Normal University, Shanghai, 250 Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards of the Council on Social Work Education, 23 E-learning. See Social media and electronic communication, use of E-mail accounts. See Social media and electronic communication, use of Emo of Friesland, 235 Empathy, 18, 69, 107, 218, 224, 226, 235, 273, 278 Empowerment, 19, 23, 30, 64, 247, 291, 302 Engagement and partnership process (Principle 4), 3, 15t, 22, 28–32 Beijing, short-term study abroad in, 31, 110–111 faculty development trip program, 31, 87–88 Fulbright Specialist Program, 32, 214, 221–223 340

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supervising doctoral students, 32, 303 Tanzanian Para Social Worker Training Program, 32, 180–181 visual evidence used in developing culturally sensitive social work interventions in China, 31–32, 247–248 Environmentalism, 34 Environment-in-person approach, 34 E-pen-pal method, 146 Equity, 26, 34–35, 79, 312 Erasmus Mundus, 62 Estes, R. J., 144 Ethics Bombay Association of Trained Social Workers, code of ethics on social work research, 264–265 Code of Ethics (NASW), 29, 41, 237 Li (Chinese ethical frame), 30–31 in research process, 20, 259–263 Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS), code of ethics on social work research, 264–265 Ethiopia famine in, 119–120 HIV-positive children, program focused on, 7 poverty reduction, child welfare, and community practice in, 120 social work doctoral program. See Social Work Education in Ethiopia Partnership Tanzanian Para Social Worker Training Program adaptation and expansion in, 176 Ethnic conflict, 18–19 Ethnocentrism, 261 European Commission, 67 Exchange programs of visiting scholars. See Visiting scholars Experiential learning, 20, 117, 313, 315 F Facebook, 142–143, 145, 150, 153, 155, 158. See also Social media and electronic communication, use of Faculty development trip program. See International faculty development trip (IFDT) program Faculty-led short-term study abroad. See Beijing, short-term study 3 41

P R A C T ICING A S A S OCI A L W OR K E DUC AT OR IN IN T E R N AT ION A L COL L A BOR AT ION

abroad in Fair Trade Learning, 34–35 Farm Security Administration investigative team (1935–1944), 235 Federal funding of social work training, 26 FHI 360’s International Visitor Leadership Program, 116 First Congress on Community Psychiatry in Moldova (2009), 54 Fordham University, 217 Forrester, D., 191 Foundations providing funding for international research, 263 Free International University of Moldova (ULIM), in partnership with City University of New York, 5, 49–72. See also Project Casa Mare Friedlander, W. A., 41 Fulbright, J. William, 227 Fulbright awards, 59, 212. See also Fulbright Specialist Scholars Core Fulbright U.S. Scholar Program, 188–189 Fulbright Scholar Program, 116 India, research process in, 266–271. See also Research process in India Moldova-CUNY university-to-university program. See University-to-university partnership Vietnam Fulbright program. See Vietnam, postuniversity training program in Fulbright Specialist Scholars, 7–8, 32, 39, 210–234 activities and outcomes, 217–218 Adelphi University institutional review board, 215 benefits of program for participants, 226 critical reflection and promising principles, 220–224 description of Specialist Program, 212–213 dimensions of social work practice, 218–220 engagement and partnership process (Principle 4), 32, 221–223 findings, 216 international–domestic interface (Principle 6), 39, 223–224 purpose and methods, 214–216 recommendations, 224–226 scope of collaborations, 216–217 social work awards, 213–214 university-to-university partnership, 24 3 42

INDE X



variations in higher education (Principle 2), 24, 220–221

G Garlington, Sarah, 8–9, 32, 40, 284, 290, 294–296, 302, 304–305 Gebreselassie, Seyoum, 120 Gelmon, S. B., 33 Gender issues. See Women Genocide, 18–19 Germany exchange of social workers with United States, 124 in international comparison of professional social work, 191–192 post-World War II, repatriation of social group workers to, 118 Ghana change of location for interprofessional health project from Nigeria to, 322 experiential learning of U.S. faculty in, 214 interdisciplinary research in global health projects, 9 oral vs. written consent to research in, 260 social work exchange of U.S. professors to, 117 Ghosh, T., 258 Global Agenda for Social Work and Social Development (IASSW & IFSW), 12 Global Commission on Social Work Education. See Council on Social Work Education (CSWE) Global Definition of Social Work (IFSW & IASSW), 18, 25, 29, 41–42 Global field placements, 50 Global health. See Health interprofessional education projects Globalization and indigenous social work (Principle 1), 3, 14t, 18– 21. See also Cultural imperialism Beijing, short-term study abroad in, 20, 106–108 faculty development trip program, 20, 85–86 health interprofessional education projects, 20, 324–326 international faculty development trip (IFDT) program, 85–86 Project Casa Mare (Moldovan universities in partnership with CUNY), 20, 63–64 research process in India, 20–21, 272–274 supervising doctoral students, 20, 301–307 343

P R A C T ICING A S A S OCI A L W OR K E DUC AT OR IN IN T E R N AT ION A L COL L A BOR AT ION



Vietnam, postuniversity training in, 201–202 visual evidence used in developing culturally sensitive social work interventions in China, 20, 246–247 Greif, G. L., 116 Group conflict, 124 Group for the Advancement of Doctoral Education in Social Work (GADE), 287 Guangzhou (China), 236, 244 Gunder, Michael, 33 Gupta, R., 35 Guzman Stein, Laura, 81 H Haifa University, 320, 322, 327 Haile Selassie I University, 119 Hamburg, Germany, in ISWEP, 124–125, 128, 130, 132 Health interprofessional education projects, 310–331 Center for Global Education Initiatives (CGEI, University of Maryland, Baltimore), 315–321 civil society organizations’ role, 314 Consortium for Universities in Global Health conference, 318 critical reflection and promising principles, 324–327 dental component, 318 education for future interprofessional global health opportunities, 313–315 Global Health Interprofessional Grant program (University of Maryland, Baltimore), 310–311 globalization and indigenous social work (Principle 1), 20, 324– 326 international–domestic interface (Principle 6), 40–41, 326–327 key principles, 320f Malawi interprofessional grant programs (phase I), 316–319 multiple global faculty organized interprofessional grant programs (phase II), 319–321 recommendations for, 328 role of social work professionals, 312–313, 318, 321 Safe Motherhood Needs Assessment methodology, 316 scope and objectives of, 312 344

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strengths, lessons, and challenges, 322–324 Healy, L. M., 38 Henry, M. G., 262 Herbst, A., 191 Hessle, S., 31 Higher Education for Development, 116 Hine, Lewis, 235 HIV-related services hospital anxiety and depression scale administered to HIVinfected sex workers, language issues for, 258–259 social support for chronic disease, 315 social work education for leadership, 314–315 in Tanzania and other African countries, 7, 162, 168–169, 174, 176–177, 180. See also Tanzanian Para Social Worker Training Program Hockensmith, J. M., 125, 128–129 Hoffa, W. W., 235 Home, learning from abroad used at. See International–domestic interface Hong, N. T., 193 Hong Kong Fulbright Specialist Grants in social work, 217 interdisciplinary research in global health projects, 9 Hong Kong Polytechnic University, 211 Huff, Dan, 235 Hugman, R., 193 Human capital, 35, 68 Human rights, 12, 18, 38, 39, 42 Human Rights Museum (Canada), 156 Humility, 18, 20, 95, 106, 111–112, 217, 238, 257, 320 Hungary, in international comparison of professional social work, 191–192 I IASSW. See International Association of Schools of Social Work IFDT program. See International faculty development trip (IFDT) program IFSW. See International Federation of Social Workers 345

P R A C T ICING A S A S OCI A L W OR K E DUC AT OR IN IN T E R N AT ION A L COL L A BOR AT ION

Illinois Chapter of the National Association of Social Workers, 124 Immigrant population in United States, 143 Immigrants. See Migration Imperialism benevolent imperialism, 119 cultural imperialism. See Cultural imperialism Implementation and fade-out approach, 36 India colonial history of, 147 diversity of, 263 Fulbright Specialist Grants in social work and, 217 history of social work profession in, 147–148 Human Development Index for, 264, 267 illiteracy in, 265 inequality in, 263–264 in international comparison of professional social work, 191–192 local officials in, 27 multi-language culture, 263, 265 oral vs. written consent to research in, 259–260 religions of, 147 research process in, 8, 255–288. See also Research process in India social media and electronic communication in. See Social media and electronic communication, use of social work education in, 264–265 voluntary social work in, 264 women’s social status in, 264, 265, 273 Indigenization, 18, 19 Indigenous social work. See Globalization and indigenous social work Individualism, 85 vs. collectivism, 259, 260 Individualization, 41 Informal culture translators, 86 Informed consent, 259–260, 265 Innovation, 35, 235, 250 Institutional review board (IRB) norms, 215, 259, 261, 266, 268 Integrative process of culture, 19, 310–331 346

INDE X

Interdisciplinary research in global health projects, 9 International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW), 41–42 African schools participating in, 163 Fulbright Program information dissemination by, 225 Global Agenda for Social Work and Social Development, 12 Global Standards for the Education and Training of the Social Work Profession, 120 at International Conference on Advancement of Social Work in Countries With Transition Economies (2015), 57, 62 at International Conference on Advancement of Social Work in Countries With Transition Economies (2016), 62–63 International Center for Advancement of Social Work in Countries With Transition Economies, 56 International Conference on Advancement of Social Work in Countries With Transition Economies (2015), 57, 62 (2016), 62–63 International–domestic interface (Principle 6), 3, 15t, 36–41 faculty development trip program, 39, 89 Fulbright Specialist Program, 39, 223–224. See also Fulbright Specialist Scholars health interprofessional education projects, 40–41, 326–327 research process in India, 40, 276–278 social media and electronic communication, use of, 39, 156–157 supervising doctoral students, 40, 303–304 Tanzanian Para Social Worker Training Program, 40, 183–184 visiting scholars program, 40, 133–134 visual evidence used in developing culturally sensitive social work interventions in China, 40, 248–249 International exchange. See Short-term programs International faculty development trip (IFDT) program, 5, 73–94 challenges, 91–92 collaborative research planning and ownership, 88 critical reflection and promising principles, 84–89 description of program in Cuba and Costa Rica, 81–82 development of social work education and practice in Cuba and Costa Rica, 79–80 3 47

P R A C T ICING A S A S OCI A L W OR K E DUC AT OR IN IN T E R N AT ION A L COL L A BOR AT ION

engagement and partnership process (Principle 4), 31, 87–88 evaluation tool, 92 faculty participant responsibilities, 91 globalization and indigenous social work (Principle 1), 20, 85–86 informal culture translators and, 86 international–domestic interface (Principle 6), 39, 89 leader qualities, 84 literature review relevant to, 74–75 overview, 73–74 planned outcomes, 77t purposes of, 76t recommendations for, 89–92 successes and positive outcomes, 83–84, 89, 91–92 trips to Cuba and Costa Rica, 73, 75–78 true two-way exchange, 88 International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW), 41–42 comparative study of member countries, 192 Global Agenda for Social Work and Social Development, 12 at International Conference on Advancement of Social Work in Countries With Transition Economies (2015), 57, 62 at International Conference on Advancement of Social Work in Countries With Transition Economies (2016), 62–63 Internationalization definition of, 50 effect of implementation of, 22, 111–112 importance in social work programs, 39 International Journal for Advancement of Social Work in Countries with Transition Economies, 57 International Rescue Committee, 323 International Social Work Exchange Partnership (ISWEP), 6, 115, 117, 124–125 evaluation data, 128t preparation for, 129 topics of study, 126–127t Internet. See Social media and electronic communication, use of Intrahealth Capacity Human Resource Project, 173 IRB. See Institutional review board Israel 348

INDE X

Fulbright Specialist Grants in social work, 217 interdisciplinary research in global health projects, 9 ISWEP. See International Social Work Exchange Partnership J Jane Addams College of Social Work, 164 Jayasundara, Dheeshana, 6, 24, 36, 39, 142 Johnson, A. K., 110, 145 Jones-Hart, E., 97 Jordan, social work training workshop in, 191–192 Journal of Human Rights in Social Work, 38 Journal on Social Work Education, 235 K Kaijage, Theresa, 168, 169 Katherine A. Kendall Institute for International Social Work Education, 3–4, 150, 152, 153 Kebede, Wassie, 121, 124 Kenyan nongovernmental agency, 146 Kiewiet, D. J., 33 Kim, Caleb, 4, 5–6, 11, 20, 21–22, 27–28, 31, 32, 40, 95 Kim, Sook Hyun, 8–9, 284, 290, 291–294, 301–302, 304–305 Kunnath, G. J., 262 L Lager, Patricia, 2, 118 Lan, N. T. T., 193 Language and communication issues culturally competent research and, 257, 259 India’s multi-language culture, 263, 265, 266 reliance on translators and interpreters, 262 Tanzanian Para Social Worker Training Program, 177 Vietnam postuniversity training program, 198 Lawrence, Lucy Ann, 4, 11, 33 Leslie, D., 190 Lewis, H., 42 Li (Chinese ethical frame), 30–31 Linsk, Nathan L., 7, 28, 32, 36, 40, 162, 168, 169, 171 349

P R A C T ICING A S A S OCI A L W OR K E DUC AT OR IN IN T E R N AT ION A L COL L A BOR AT ION

Local leadership. See Sustainability and local leadership development (Principle 5) Lombe, M., 256, 258, 260 Loney, E., 313–314 Longhurst, R., 258 Lowy, Louis, 118 Loyola University Chicago’s overseas campuses, 95–96, 102. See also Beijing, short-term study abroad in Loyola Office for International Programs, 104 Lubin, Bernice, 7, 28, 32, 36, 40, 162, 169 Lutheran Immigration Services, 323 M Maathai, Wangari, 34 Mabeyo, Zena, 169 Malawi, interdisciplinary global health projects in, 9, 316–320 Mao Tse-tung, 231–232, 236 Mapp, S., 75 Markusen, A., 33 Mason, Sally, 7, 28, 32, 36, 40, 162, 169, 171 Mathiesen, S. G., 118 McAllister, L., 206 Mengistu Haile Mariam, 119–120 Mentoring, 36–37, 121, 124, 129, 162, 176, 321 Mexico California University faculty working in Mexican practice community, 214 in international comparison of professional social work, 191–192 Mexico City, in ISWEP, 125 Middleman, R. R., 219–220 Midgely, J., 237 Midwest AIDS Training and Education Center at University of Illinois at Chicago (JACSW/MATEC), 164, 169, 181 Migration, 38, 250 China, floating population of rural to urban migrants in, 236– 237 immigrant population in United States, 143 Millennium Development Goals, 193 350

INDE X

Mirsky, J., 118 Moldova Central Prison in Chișinău, 57 culture of, 64 economy of, 52, 66 First Congress on Community Psychiatry in (2009), 54 history of, 51 Ministry of Labour, Social Protection and Family, 57, 62, 68 political context of (Principle 3), 66–67 Project Casa Mare in, 5, 53–63. See also Project Casa Mare (Moldovan universities in partnership with CUNY) remittances as income to, 66–67 social justice in, 64 social workers vs. social assistants in, 61 social work faculty in, 65–66 social work in, 51–53, 65 social work reform in, 62–63 Soviet Union and, 51–52, 59 U.S. educators’ role in, 67 Vocational Rehabilitation Center for the Mentally Ill, 57 Moldovan, Vadim, 2, 4, 5, 11, 19, 20, 24, 28, 35, 49, 59 Morris, Errol, 233 Multicultural Awareness/Knowledge/Skills Survey, 75 Munn, Jean Correll, 235 Murphy, D., 34 Murphy, G., 313–314 Mutuality, 219 N Nagarajan, S., 206 Nagpaul, H., 237 Namibia training study, 191 Natasi, B. K., 258 National Association of Social Workers, 124–125, 189–190 Code of Ethics, 29, 41, 237 National Institutes of Health, 263, 324 Fogarty International Center, 315 National Science Foundation, 263 3 51

P R A C T ICING A S A S OCI A L W OR K E DUC AT OR IN IN T E R N AT ION A L COL L A BOR AT ION

National standards, differences in, 23 Nepal. See also Social media and electronic communication, use of Ageing Nepal, 152, 155–156, 162 history of social work profession in, 147–148 religions of, 147 Nepal School of Social Work (NSSW), 149, 152–154 Newransky, C., 256 New Zealand continuing education, 191–192 Nguyen, T. O., 194 Niépce, Joseph-Nicéphore, 234 Nigeria change of location for interprofessional health project to Ghana, 322 HIV-positive children, program focused on, 7, 176 Tanzanian Para Social Worker Training Program adaptation and expansion in, 176 Nikku, Bala Raju, 149 Nimmagadda, J., 264 Northern Kentucky University, 56 Nussbaum, M., 266 Nyang’au, T. O., 146 O Oanh, Nguyen Thi, 194, 195 O’Dell, K., 74 Olcoń, Katarzyna, 6, 23, 40, 115, 124 Olsen, Jody K., 5, 9, 20, 31, 39, 40, 73, 310, 316, 323, 324, 327 Omari, Leah Natujwa, 7, 28, 32, 36, 40, 162, 171 O’Neill, Tip, 38 Open University, Women’s Studies Department (Ho Chi Minh City), 195, 290 Ottoman Empire, 51 Ownership, 15t, 28–32, 303. See also Engagement and partnership process (Principle 4) Oxford University, 235 P Panos, P., 97 352

INDE X

Paraprofessional development. See Tanzanian Para Social Worker Training Program Parliament of RM v. Law nr.547 (2003), 61 Partnership process. See Engagement and partnership process (Principle 4) university-to-university. See University-to-university partnership U.S.-based partnership with government agency. See Tanzanian Para Social Worker Training Program Peace Corps, 323 Peking University, 96 PEPFAR. See U.S. President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief Person-in-environment model, 34 Pettys, G., 97 Philippines, interprofessional education project in, 323 Photography as documentation tool. See Visual evidence used in developing culturally sensitive social work interventions in China Photovoice, 234–235 Pillai, V. K., 35 Plummer, C. A., 146 Political context (Principle 3), 3, 14t, 25–28 Beijing, short-term study abroad in, 27–28, 109 Moldovan universities in partnership with CUNY, 28, 66–67 research process in India, 27, 275–276 Tanzanian Para Social Worker Training Program, 28, 177–178 Vietnam, postuniversity training in, 27, 203–204 Postuniversity training, 7, 188–189. See also Vietnam, postuniversity training program in international comparison, 191–192, 205–206 Principles for social work educators in international collaborations, 4, 11–48 definition of principle, 41 development process, 13 engagement and partnership process, 3, 15t, 22, 28–32. See also Engagement and partnership process globalization and indigenous social work (Principle 1), 3, 14t, 18–21. See also Globalization and indigenous social work international–domestic interface (Principle 6), 3, 15t, 36–41. See 353

P R A C T ICING A S A S OCI A L W OR K E DUC AT OR IN IN T E R N AT ION A L COL L A BOR AT ION

also International–domestic interface political context (Principle 3), 3, 14t, 25–28. See also Political context purpose of principles, 42 sustainability and building local leadership (Principle 5), 3, 15t, 32–36. See also Sustainability and local leadership development table of principles addressed by chapter, 13, 14–15t, 16–17t variation in higher education (Principle 2), 3, 14t, 21–24. See also Variation in higher education Privacy issues for research, 260, 265, 268 Professional Development: The International Journal of Continuing Social Work Education, 190 Professionalization, 69–70 Project Casa Mare (Moldovan universities in partnership with CUNY), 5, 53–63 Action Plan (2016), 58, 58f American academic consortium for, 55 asymmetric relationship, effect of, 66 early stages of, 54–55 exchange visits and international conferences as part of, 55 funding associated with, 58–59, 66 globalization and indigenous social work (Principle 1), 20, 63–64 goals of, 70 master of social work program as part of, 55–56 nomenclature of social work and, 61–62 operational organization of, 59–60 outcomes, determination of, 68–69 political context of (Principle 3), 28, 66–67 recommendations for, 68–70 social work professionalization and, 69–70 social work reform and, 62–63 student recruitment issues for, 68 successes and challenges of, 60–61 sustainability and local leadership development (Principle 5), 35, 67–68 U.S. educators’ role in, 67 variations in higher education (Principle 2), 24, 65–66 354

INDE X

Propaganda use of photography, 235 Prospero, M., 117 Pryce, J., 265 Psychosocial care workers (PSCWs), 176 R Razack, N., 119 Reamer, F. G, 264, 265 Reciprocity, 29, 31, 118, 130–131, 136, 146, 212, 258 Relationship formation, 35, 224 Religion’s role in social welfare, dissertation on, 294–296 Research process, 8–9. See also Research process in India compensation to participants, 260–261 consent issues, 259–260, 265 doctoral research in countries outside student’s country of origin, 8–9 ethical concerns, 259–263 funding sources for international research, 263 information sharing with host country, 261 inherent risks and benefits in international research, 238 interdisciplinary. See Health interprofessional education projects literature review of international social work research, 256–268 multi-language culture as challenge, 263, 265, 266 photography used in social research, 232–236. See also Visual evidence used in developing culturally sensitive social work interventions in China privacy issues, 260, 265, 268 supervising doctoral students, 284–313. See also Supervising doctoral students visual evidence, gathering and using. See Visual evidence used in developing culturally sensitive social work interventions in China Research process in India, 8, 255–288 advice to students for Study Abroad in India course, 277 Bombay Association of Trained Social Workers, code of ethics on social work research, 264–265 consent issues, 259–260, 268 critical reflection and promising principles, 271–278 355

P R A C T ICING A S A S OCI A L W OR K E DUC AT OR IN IN T E R N AT ION A L COL L A BOR AT ION



Fulbright research experiences in West Bengal, 266–271 gender issues for woman researcher, 272–273, 279 globalization and indigenous social work (Principle 1), 20–21, 272–274 hierarchical structure of Indian universities, 265 international-domestic interface (Principle 6), 40, 276–278 journal peer-review process and, 277 outsider identity of researcher, 21, 272–274, 278 photography used in presentation of research to students, 277 political context (Principle 3), 27, 275–276 privacy issues, 268 recommendations for, 279 rural settings, issues associated with, 270 Self-Help Group program and political context of research, 276 Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS), code of ethics on social work research, 264–265 transportation and accommodation problems, 270–271 Respect, 35, 42, 119, 237–238, 243, 248, 279, 320 Riessman, C. K., 259, 260, 261 Riis, Jacob, 235 Rio+20 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, 34 Ritchie, Dennis, 5, 19–20, 31, 39, 73, 81 Roman, A., 24 Romanian students, use of e-mail to connect with U.S. social work students, 145–146 Roy, Arundhati, 34 Russell, A. C., 235 Rwanda, interdisciplinary health projects in, 9, 320, 321 S Safety issues interdisciplinary health projects for students to travel to Africa and Middle East, 323 when traveling, 238 for women researchers, 262, 279 St. Louis University, 56 Sargeant, J., 313–314 356

INDE X

Schensul, S. L., 258, 265 Scherrer, James, 6, 23, 40, 115, 124 Seifer, S. D., 33 Self-awareness, 20, 41, 237, 244, 251, 257 Sen, A., 266 Service-learning component in short-term study abroad, 6, 95. See also Beijing, short-term study abroad in Shiva, Vandana, 34 Short-term programs Beijing, short-term study abroad in, 5–6, 95–114. See also Beijing, short-term study abroad in benefits of, 74–75 CSWE programs in Cuba and Costa Rica, 5, 73–94. See also International faculty development trip (IFDT) program Fulbright Specialist Program, 210–234. See also Fulbright Specialist Scholars global health interprofessional education projects, 310–331. See also Health interprofessional education projects visiting scholars, 6, 115–141. See also Visiting scholars Siberian State University, 211 Skelton, T., 278 Social conflict and tension, 18–19 Socialism, 79, 101, 195, 236 Social justice, 12, 18–19, 39, 42, 64, 69, 132, 327 Social media and electronic communication, use of, 6, 142–165 critical reflection and promising principles, 154–157 e-learning methods, 144–147 implementation phase and challenges, 24, 151–153, 154–155 in India, Sri Lanka, and Nepal, 147–148 international–domestic interface (Principle 6), 39, 156–157 recommendations for, 157–163 sustainability and building local leadership (Principle 5), 36, 155–156 University of North Dakota (UND) student communication activities with programs in Sri Llanka, Nepal, and India, 148–151 variations in higher education (Principle 2), 24, 154–155 Social Work Education (journal), 191 3 57

P R A C T ICING A S A S OCI A L W OR K E DUC AT OR IN IN T E R N AT ION A L COL L A BOR AT ION

Social Work Education in Ethiopia Partnership (doctoral student travel and study project), 6, 117, 119–121, 168 building partnership through international exchange, 121–124 history of, 124–125 international–domestic interface (Principle 6) and, 133 need to provide programs for creation of social work educators, 120–121 Social workers, definition of, 61 Social Work Partnership for Orphans and Vulnerable Children in Tanzania, 164 Sociology, 83, 234 Solomon, P., 258 Sontag, Susan, 232–233 South Africa, in international comparison of professional social work, 191–192 South Korea, U.S. students conducting doctoral research in, 9, 288– 289, 291–294, 301–302 Soviet rule of Moldova, 51–52, 59 Spain, in international comparison of professional social work, 191–192 Sri Lanka civil war in, 149 colonial history of, 147 Consortium of Humanitarian Agencies, 151 history of social work profession in, 147–148 National Institute of Social Development (NISD), 151, 154 religions of, 147 social media and electronic communication in. See Social media and electronic communication, use of university in, 24 State Medical University of Moldova, in partnership with CUNY, 53–63. See also Project Casa Mare State University of Moldova, 56 Stevens, I., 193 Stockholm University’s Institute for Social, Political, and Municipal Education and Research, 289 Stout, A., 256 Strug, David, 2, 74, 79, 81 358

INDE X

Study abroad programs, 50, 96–97. See also Beijing, short-term study abroad in faculty-led, 99–100 models of, 98–99 recommendations for, 111–112 Sullivan, M. P., 191 Supervising doctoral students, 36, 284–313 attributes of students for successful outcomes, 305–306 challenges to doctoral students completing their degrees, 285– 286, 304–305 conducting dissertation research in another country, 285 critical reflection and promising principles, 301–308 data collection plan and proposal phase, 305 dissertation projects, 290–301 engagement and partnership process (Principle 4), 32, 303 GADE’s quality guidelines for PhD programs in social work, 287 globalization and indigenous social work (Principle 1), 20, 301– 307 international–domestic interface (Principle 6), 40, 303–304 international students in U.S. schools of social work, 285, 296– 300, 304 purpose of doctoral education, 285, 287 recommendations for, 304–306 South Korea, U.S. students conducting doctoral research in, 288–289 Sweden, U.S. students conducting doctoral research in, 289 trends of globalization, 286 U.S. universities as top destination for international students, 286 Vietnam, U.S. students conducting doctoral research in, 290 Sustainability and local leadership development (Principle 5), 3, 15t, 32–36 building of, 3, 15t contact with, 20 definitions of sustainability, 32–33 formal agreements supporting, 36 Moldovan universities in partnership with CUNY, 35, 67–68 project planning and, 36 359

P R A C T ICING A S A S OCI A L W OR K E DUC AT OR IN IN T E R N AT ION A L COL L A BOR AT ION



requirements of, 35 of service learning, 33–34 social media and electronic communication, use of, 36, 155–156 Tanzanian Para Social Worker Training Program, 36, 182–183, 184–185 Vietnam, postuniversity training in, 36, 204–205 Sustainable Development Goals, 12 Sweden faculty and student exchange partnership with University of North Dakota, 156 in international comparison of professional social work, 191–192 U.S. students doing research in, 9, 289, 294–296, 302 Szto, Peter, 2, 4, 8, 11, 20, 29, 31, 40, 230 T Talbot, Henry Fox, 234 Tanzania, international collaboration of social work faculty in, 214 Tanzanian Para Social Worker Training Program, 7, 162–187 adaptation and expansion in Ethiopia, Nigeria, and Zambia, 176–177, 184–185 career ladder for paraprofessionals, need for, 180 Civil Service Commission, 174 community-level involvement, 170–171 contextual development of, 165–167 critical reflection and promising principles, 177–178 curriculum development, 170–171 Department of Social Welfare, role of, 162 engagement and partnership process (Principle 4), 32, 180–181 faculty development as objective of, 162 implementation phase (2008–present), 172–175 initiation phase (2006), 168–169 Institute of Social Work (ISW) in Tanzania and, 164–165, 168– 169 international–domestic interface (Principle 6), 40, 183–184 Introduction to Para Social Work (Para Social Work I) training session, 171 Jane Addams College of Social Work and, 164–165 just-in-time implementation, 179 360

INDE X



language and communication issues, 177 Law of the Child Act No. 21 of 20 November 2009 and, 166 local versus district and national governments, 178, 184–185 Midwest AIDS Training and Education Center at University of Illinois at Chicago (JACSW/MATEC) and, 164–165, 176, 181 Ministry of Health and Social Welfare (MoHSW), 166, 174– 175, 178 Most Vulnerable Children Committees and Community Mobilization AIDS Committees, 172 outcomes, 173–174 Pamoja Tuwale (Together We Care), 174 Para Social Worker Network of Tanzania (PASONET), 174 planning phase (2006–2007), 169–172 political context (Principle 3), 28, 177–178 Practice Skills to Intervene With Most Vulnerable Children and Families in Special Circumstances (Para Social Work II) workshop, 171–172, 175 project evaluation, 175–176 recommendations for, 184–185 scale-up model, 173–174 Social Welfare Assistant Certificate program, 174 sustainability and local leadership development (Principle 5), 36, 182–183, 184–185 train-the-trainer program, 171 twinning partnership for orphans and vulnerable children, 167– 175, 180 U.S. partners changing to more consultative role, 180 U.S.-based exchange visits, 178 Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS, Mumbai), 264 Taylor, R., 193 Technical assistance, 6–7, 36. See also Fulbright Specialist Scholars; Tanzanian Para Social Worker Training Program; Vietnam, postuniversity training program in Technology, use of. See Social media and electronic communication, use of Tesfaye, Andargachew, 120 Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), 298–299 3 61

P R A C T ICING A S A S OCI A L W OR K E DUC AT OR IN IN T E R N AT ION A L COL L A BOR AT ION

Train-the-trainer models, 36, 171, 204 Transculturality, 31 Transformational learning, 11 Translation. See Language and communication issues Transparency, 182 Travel courses in China, 235, 238–240. See also Visual evidence used in developing culturally sensitive social work interventions in China history of, 235–236 social work doctoral program. See Social Work Education in Ethiopia Partnership (doctoral student travel and study project) Trust, 31, 35, 69, 200, 204, 234, 247 for global health teamwork, 320 of research participants in India, 269, 271, 279 social media, use of, 155 Vietnamese programs and outside experts, 206 Tucker, Jennifer, 234 Turn-key training, 36 Tuyền, Bùi Thị Thanh, 8–9, 32, 40, 284, 290, 296–305 U Ukraine, 19 ULIM. See Free International University of Moldova UNICEF, 166, 195, 290 Unilateralism, 118 United Arab Emirates, as host country for U.S. study abroad, 96–97 United Kingdom, in international comparison of professional social work, 191–192, 207 United Nations Declaration of Human Rights, 125 Human Development Index, 78 International Children’s Emergency Fund, 67 Millennium Development Goals, 193 Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future, 34 Rio+20 United Nations Conference on Sustainable 362

INDE X

Development, 34 United States, in international comparison of professional social work, 191–192, 201, 207. See also Cultural imperialism Universalism, 18, 259 University of Costa Rica, 80 University of Havana, 79 University of Illinois at Chicago, 120. See also Midwest AIDS Training and Education Center at University of Illinois at Chicago (JACSW/MATEC) University of Illinois–Champaign, 296, 299 University of Malmö, 157 University of Manitoba, 156 University of Maryland, 217 University of Maryland, Baltimore Center for Global Education Initiatives (CGEI), 315–327 links with Chancellor College, University of Malawi in Zomba, 319–321 School of Social Work, 310, 315, 327 University of Minnesota, 56 University of Nebraska at Omaha, Grace Abbott School of Social Work, 250. See also Visual evidence used in developing culturally sensitive social work interventions in China University of New England, 145 University of Nigeria, 176 University of North Dakota (UND) student communication activities with programs in Sri Llanka, Nepal, and India, 148–157. See also Social media and electronic communication, use of University of Utah, 145 University of Washington, 216 University of Zambia, 176 University-to-university partnership, 5, 49–72. See also Project Casa Mare advice for, 23–24 Fulbright Specialist Program and, 24. See also Fulbright Specialist Scholars growth of programs, 50 nested nature of universities, 24 363

P R A C T ICING A S A S OCI A L W OR K E DUC AT OR IN IN T E R N AT ION A L COL L A BOR AT ION



social work faculties’ collaboration, 23–24 understanding nature of foreign university in its national context, 24 U.S. collaboration viewed as income stream, 24, 58–59 U.S. Agency for International Development, 116, 173, 174, 263, 323 U.S. News and World Report rankings of best global universities, 286, 298 U.S. President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR), 164– 165, 179–181 U.S. State Department, Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, 212, 225 V Variation in higher education (Principle 2), 3, 14t, 21–24 Fulbright Specialist Program, 24, 220–221 Moldovan universities in partnership with CUNY and, 24, 65– 66 social media and electronic communication, use of, 24, 154–155 Vietnam, postuniversity training in, 24, 202–203 visiting scholars programs, 23–24, 131–133 Verma, R. K., 258 Videoconferencing technology. See Social media and electronic communication, use of Vietnam connecting with local officials in, 20. See also Vietnam, postuniversity training program in economy in, 193–194, 290 U.S. students conducting doctoral research in, 288–289 Vietnam, postuniversity training program in, 7, 26, 188, 196–207 critical reflection and promising principles, 201–205 cultural understanding and, 20, 192–195, 203–204 globalization and indigenous social work (Principle 1), 20, 201– 202 group orientation in, 200, 201–202 ice-breakers and games as expected part of training activities in, 198 implementation phase, 197–199 initiation phase, 196 364

INDE X



language challenges for English speakers, 198, 202 literature review on, 189–190 microphones commonly used in presentations, 198 outcomes of training sessions, 199–200 outsider status of trainer and, 203, 205 participation processes, 199–200 planning phase, 197 political advocacy groups not allowable, 202 political context (Principle 3), 27, 28, 203–204 recommendations for, 205–207 reestablishment of social work as profession, 195, 206 social issues related to modernization, 194–195 sustainability and local leadership development (Principle 5), 36, 204–205 variations in higher education (Principle 2), 24, 202–203 workforce development potential, 200 World Social Work Day, 195 Vietnamese Association of Social Workers, 195, 290 Vietnam National University, 189 Violence communist government in West Bengal and, 276 as ISWEP theme for study, 125 safety issues for women researchers, 262 Visegrád Group, 56 Visiting scholars, 6, 40, 115–141. See also Social Work Education in Ethiopia Partnership costs of programs, 125 critical reflection and promising principles, 131–134 duration of exchange, 135 fostering mutuality and reciprocity, 136 international collaboration and exchange, 117–119 international–domestic interface (Principle 6) and, 40, 133–134 recommendations for, 135–136 variations in higher education (Principle 2), 23–24, 131–133 Visual evidence used in developing culturally sensitive social work interventions in China, 8, 230–259 critical reflection and promising principles, 246–249 digital photography, use of, 242 365

P R A C T ICING A S A S OCI A L W OR K E DUC AT OR IN IN T E R N AT ION A L COL L A BOR AT ION



encountering the unexpected, 242 engagement and partnership process (Principle 4), 31–32, 247– 248 fall symposium on photography and social change, 249 fieldwork in China, 242–243 gathering visual evidence, 236–238 globalization and indigenous social work (Principle 1), 20, 246– 247 international–domestic interface (Principle 6), 40, 248–249 journal writing, 243, 248 literature review of photography’s effectiveness as cultural recording, 232–236 outcomes in student reflections, 243–245 Photovoice, 234–235 propaganda use of photography, 235 recommendations for, 249–251 spring seminars, 240–242, 246 student choice of social change topics, 239–240 student recruitment for, 239 travel course, 238–240 ways to showcase student work, 248 Western capitalism captured in street scene, 244–245, 245f white, blonde, and female U.S. students, 247 Vogel, A. L., 33 Vos, J. F. J., 33 Vulnerable populations, social work servicing of, 163–164, 260 W Wagner, J., 233 WAMATA (Walio Katika Mapambanona AIDS Tanzania— People in the Fight Against AIDS in Tanzania), 168 Wang, Caroline C., 234 Weiss-Gal, I., 191, 205 Welbourne, P., 191, 205 Welfare and Religion in European Perspective project, 294, 302 Welfare capitalism, 26 Western culture dominance, 18–19 in China, capturing Western capitalism in street scene, 244–245, 366

INDE X

245f imperial hubris of American scholars abroad, 20, 30, 64, 69, 119, 146–147, 219, 224, 225–226 Weyers, M. D., 191 Women in Indian research, 262 microfinance in Sri Lanka and, 149 privacy of women at infertility clinic, 260 safety issues for women researchers, 262, 273 social status in India, 264, 265, 273 study of women imprisoned for human trafficking, 57 Wood, G. G., 219–220 World Health Organization, 67, 328 World Social Work Day (Vietnam), 195 Y York College, 54 Youth Authority of Hamburg, 130 Youth programs in South Korea designed to serve North Korean refugees, 291–294, 301–302 Z Zambia HIV-positive children, program for, 7 Tanzanian Para Social Worker Training Program, adaptation and expansion in, 176

3 67

PRACTICING AS A SOCIAL WORK EDUCATOR IN INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION E D I T E D

B Y

A L I C E K . B U T T E R F I E L D and C A RO L C O H E N

The editors offer six promising principles to guide successful practice by social work educators in international settings, including research, travel and study programs, technical assistance and training, and interdisciplinary efforts. These principles inform the book’s content, which illuminates the specific role of U.S. social work educators in international efforts that stem, in part, from their academic positions. In addition to successes, the book shares some of the difficulties and lessons learned by the authors during their international work. ABOUT THE EDITORS A L IC E K . BU T T E R F I E L D is professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago,

Jane Addams College of Social Work. She served as visiting professor at the University Eotvos Lorand in Budapest, Hungary, and is involved in the Social Work Education in Ethiopia Partnership (Project SWEEP). Her areas of professional interest include international social work education, asset based community development, higher education partnerships, and family policy. C A RO L S . C O H E N , a Fulbright Scholar who has taught and collaborated

with programs in Australia, Bangladesh, Barbados, China, Europe, India, Israel, Malaysia, Namibia, South Africa, and Vietnam, is associate professor at Adelphi University. She is the founder and coordinator of Global Group Work Project Network and Website. Her primary areas of focus are social work with groups, agency-based practice, and organizational and community practice.