Post-Orientalism and Contemporary American Novels [1 ed.] 1527507092, 9781527507098

Citation preview

Post-Orientalism and Contemporary American Novels

Post-Orientalism and Contemporary American Novels By

Mousa Abu Haserah

Post-Orientalism and Contemporary American Novels By Mousa Abu Haserah This book first published 2023 Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2023 by Mousa Abu Haserah All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-5275-0709-2 ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-0709-8

For my departed father Zuhair, peace and love upon his soul, and my mother Maha, my constant source of inspiration.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface ..................................................................................................... viii Introduction ................................................................................................ 1 The Departure of Orientalism Chapter 1 .................................................................................................. 32 Mornings in Jenin: The Dawn of Post-Orientalism Chapter 2 .................................................................................................. 68 The Reluctant Fundamentalist Chapter 3 ................................................................................................ 110 Falling Man Chapter 4 ................................................................................................ 133 Riyah Al-Janna [The Wind of Paradise] Conclusion ............................................................................................. 174 Bibliography ........................................................................................... 180 Index ....................................................................................................... 190

PREFACE

My interest in Orientalism and post-colonial studies began with my master’s degree at the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, where I found I grew more and more curious about the topic in general. During my master’s program, I took a course on theory and methodology with an American exchange lecturer which got me interested in the relationship between the (Middle) East and the (American) West. At the start of the discussion, I noted that “some representations of the East in Western thought are true,” which made the class laugh because of its blunt approach to the topic. My lecturer discussed the statement with me and gave a different explanation of Orientalism: “When the West refers to the so-called Orient, these depictions are not true representations. Rather, they were made by the West about the so-called Orient.” Then we took a closer look at the three definitions of Orientalism mentioned in Edward Said’s Orientalism. At that time, I was a young researcher and student, and I had difficulties acknowledging his definitions. Not being able to fully accept the matter, I told myself that I must investigate more because some of these representations might be true, and since I am from that region called the Middle East, I had the desire to put into words what I was thinking about. As a result, I decided to focus on the Near Islamic East. My interest in the relationship between East and West began to increase more and more, and I began reading and researching in this field. At the end of the master’s program, I wrote a master’s thesis entitled: “The American Century Revisited. Representation of Victimization through Anglo-American Novels.” After completing my master’s degree, I still found myself wanting to know more, to research more, and to write more on the topic that grew so close to me. I started investigating, reading the contributions to this field and thinking of ways to expand them. After an initial reading phase, I thought that Orientalism must be pushed to its new stage/phase, which fits with its current nature: a phase I call PostOrientalism, and which embodies the twenty-first century. What motivated me to write an entire book on the topic was my will to put into words the thoughts I had about the topic, and this was aided by me deep curiosity about the relationship between East and West, especially in regards to the tragic events of September 11, 2001. Consequently, I decided to understand the aspects of this clash by studying contemporary American novels within a Middle Eastern context, getting to know the intellectual formation of the

Post-Orientalism and Contemporary American Novels

ix

characters of the novels, researching their interests and psychological characteristics and aspects, and of course, the gradual and sudden change that occurred in them. By going deeper into the topic and research, I found a crucial, serious, and interesting literary subject that I touched upon throughout this book: the concept of Islamic religious fundamentalism in the Eastern intellectual formation. The fundamentalism that comes from the Near Islamic East (Middle East), namely the Arabic countries, I argue, is authentic and has its roots in clear and explicit religious rules, including religious hate speech based on different doctrines, whereas fundamentalism that comes from the near Islamic East, namely the non-Arabic speaking countries such as Afghanistan or Pakistan, are hesitant and reluctant and seem to be copied from the Arab or Middle Eastern version. Thus, I found a common point between both fundamentalisms emanating from the East, which is hate and aggression of the Other based on religious assumptions. What further inspired me to write this book is the encouragement I received at the university, from professors, faculty members, but also friends I made while studying. I also felt, in one way or another, that I should write it because I originally come from the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. I lived through the changes that took place in the region at the beginning of the twenty-first century, including the 9/11 attacks and the invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq, and I found myself instinctively inspired to write this contribution to the academic field. The process of scientific research and writing was enjoyable to me, not least because I had access to an enormous amount of literature provided by the university. Because I can read Arabic, I was also able to read novels, papers, magazines, and internet articles in Arabic which most of my fellow students had no direct access to. I was able to collect and evaluate information from the Arab speaking world, a process I enjoyed a lot while writing my book. This book deals with Post-Orientalism as a literary phenomenon related to politics, armies, escalations, ruin and destruction, and postcolonial ideology. It also deals with Orientalism as a moving body that moved and passed through many stages, reaching the twenty-first century and moving into the stage of Post-Orientalism. Last but not least, I would like to express my sincere thanks and gratitude to Prof. Dr. Oliver Scheiding for his support, standing by my side, and his patience during the many stages of writing this book.

INTRODUCTION THE DEPARTURE OF ORIENTALISM

It was not a street anymore but a world, a time and space of falling ash and near night. He was walking north through rubble and mud and there were people running past holding towels to their faces or jackets over their heads. They had handkerchiefs pressed to their mouths. They had shoes in their hands, a woman with a shoe in each hand, running past him. They ran and fell, some of them, confused and ungainly, with debris coming down around them, and there were people taking shelter under cars. (DeLillo 2011, 3)

At the present time, the Islamic nation, whether it is Arabic speaking, as in the Middle East and Arab countries, or non-Arabic speaking, as in Pakistan and Afghanistan, is experiencing profound and deep changes that are shaping the present and the future. These changes are a result of the events and problems that afflicted the Middle East region with political, regional, and social repercussions, the latest of which is the crisis in Afghanistan and the fall of the Afghan state one again into the hands of the Taliban regime. American intervention in the Middle East, especially in the Islamic countries, has destabilized security, which has led to the formation of Arab– American alliances to secure safety and peace. Currently, we find many Arab rulers who are nothing but puppets in the hands of the American state. Pictures of Afghans clinging to the wheels of American planes have been seen by people around the world, especially since those pictures spread like wildfire. In The New York Times, Gall, Santora, and Khapalwak depict the scene: “Thousands of Afghans flooded the tarmac on Monday morning, at one point swarming around a departing U.S. military plane as it taxied down the runway. Images of people clinging to a hulking U.S. military transport, even as it left the ground, quickly circulated around the world” (2021, 1). The pictures of the man clinging to the wheels of the plane, who later fell to the ground to his death, are no different to the pictures of the falling man from the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center, who chose to jump out of the window to avoid a death by fire. In effect, both people had a taste of the foreign policy of their countries, and the fall of the American man from the building in this terrible

2

Introduction

spectacle changed the political landscape and the new history of the U.S. And since then, diverse terms have emerged, such as the post-9/11 era, 9/11 literature, and the U.S. before and after 9/11. On September 11, 2001, the world was confronted with the trauma, magnitude, and progressive aftermaths and mutations of actions and reactions that have changed the world. Since then, a new global world order has emerged, led by the U.S. Almost overnight, the U.S. enforced and maintained its interests across the globe and particularly in the Middle East where it is now the chief player and mover. Hegemony politics 1 has become a dogma for the U.S. Conversely, multi-amplified conflicts, and perpetual local and international disputes alter and render the Orient quite a blurred land and with this, the discourse of Orientalism has changed, too. During the 21st century, the traditional denotative and connotative implications that the Orient had been associated with were replaced. Now, the New East oscillates between conflicts that foreground the role played by the U.S. 2 New, urgent factors enter the scene: the political dominance exercised by both England and France 3 has suddenly shifted to the U.S., the emergence of the growing and increasing power of the media (as a means of influencing governmental policy), the ascension of fanatic Islamic factions, and the interwoven involvements that the U.S. exercises on a global scale. As a consequence, the New East was depicted as an American everyday topic. Arab–American literature enhances our understanding of Arab– American points of view. Through its presentation, it adds several important perspectives, the most important of which is the intellectual formation of Arabs in the U.S. Dealing with Arab–American societal structures is not just a matter of the moment, but rather many writers and critics have discussed it. Moreover, it has a history that extends from the 20th century onwards. It does not solely deal with political issues, as I will show in the following chapters, but the political level offers a strong starting point to sketch out 1

The concept of political hegemony emerged again during the era of U.S. President Donald Trump. According to Reuters (2018), at a rally in Southaven, Mississippi, Trump said: “We protect Saudi Arabia. Would you say they’re rich? And I love the King, King Salman. But I said ‘King—we’re protecting you, you might not be there for two weeks without us, you have to pay for your military.’” 2 When I mention the term “the New East,” I mean the Orient, i.e., Islamic lands that are located in the Near East. The term is associated with Edward Said’s division of the Orient into the Islamic lands located in the Near East and the biblical lands located in the Far East. In the era we now live in, these Islamic lands experience a new way of life. 3 In this regard, ní Fhlathuin (2008) states: “The history of British imperialism during the nineteenth century describes a process of expansion and consolidation, its success all the more remarkable for its unpromising beginnings.”

The Departure of Orientalism

3

post-Oriental discourse. In fact, Edward Said’s (1935–2003) and Avram Noam Chomsky’s (b. 1928) discourses underline authentic emphases and genuine concerns about the American hegemonic and imperialistic ambitions in the region. Said and Chomsky represent pioneering scholars who disclose and tackle the American dogma toward the Orient. But their perceptions and treatments differ from each other in a number of perspectives: Said is conservative and euphemistic in probing into the American global involvements, whereas Chomsky is more open and dysphemistic. Furthermore, while Said’s approach is narrative, Chomsky’s approach is critical. For example, comparing the scale of destruction happening in Lebanon in the 1980s, Said is careful in choosing his words. For instance, he refers to the American policies in the Lebanese case as “willful and disingenuous as well as lamentable,” because of their assistance to “engender another cycle of violence and counter-violence [in Lebanon]” (qtd. in Kennedy 2006, 60). He describes the situation rather than criticizing it. He writes: I think that most Arabs and Muslims feel that the United States hasn’t really been paying much attention to their desires, but has been pursuing its policies for its own sake, without much in the way of explanation or attempts to somehow justify them. And above all, pursuing these policies not according to many of the principles that the United States proclaims are its own: democracy, self-determination, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly and its commitment to international law. It is very hard, for example, to justify the thirty-four-year-old occupation of the West Bank and Gaza—140 Israeli settlements and roughly 400,000 settlers brought with the support and financing of the United States—and say this is part of the U.S. adherence to international law and U.N. resolutions. So all of this is a record that keeps building up in an area in which—and here we come now to the really sad part—the rulers have been supported by the United States against the wishes of the people. And there is a general sense in which the United States is flouting its own principles in order to maintain such governments and regimes in power and really have very little to do with the large number of people who are dominated by these regimes. (Said and Barsamian 2003, 105–6)

Said can appear reluctant, uncertain, and shy. However, his approach paves the way for his disapproval of the issue by narrating historical incidents and contextualizing the aftermaths. In the previous extract, he “think[s]”— rather than believes—that the majority of Arabs and Muslims “feel that the United States hasn’t really been paying much attention to their desires.” Said’s words tell us that most Arabs and Muslims bear grudges, hate, and

4

Introduction

aggression toward the U.S. 4 At the same time, he is indirect and polite when it comes to discussing political public issues concerning the U.S. One example of this is his perception of the Israeli–Arab conflict. When asked whether or not “there have been changes in the nature of resistance in the occupied territories,” his response was: “certainly the level of Israeli reprisals and punishments and repressions has been fairly high all through” (322). Said’s disagreement is depictive. He refers to the danger of the Israelis’ settlements and that they create an inconvenient atmosphere. Turning elsewhere, let us take the Oslo agreement. Said depicts the final agreement as “an American show” (Kennedy 2000, 61). He assures that “the Oslo agreement of 1993 should be favorable to Israel and immensely prejudicial to the Palestinians” (61). In contrast, Chomsky does not hold back in directing and pointing to the atrocious nature of the American administration. The Chomskyan approach diagnoses, names, and points at the misdeeds and wrongs of the American policy. Moreover, the Chomskyan discourse bears loud and harsh cries on American domestic and foreign affairs. This discourse tackles American politics as an imperialistic project burgeoning from postcolonial situations: [b]ut in specific reaction to Bush administration policies, more imminent concerns have been voiced, sometimes in ways that have few if any precedents. Cautious voices in scholarly journals have questioned the very ‘viability […] of the United States political system’ unless it can face threats to survival posed by current policies. Some have turned to Nazi analogues in discussing Bush’s Justice Department; others have compared administration policies to those of fascist Japan. The measures currently being used to control the population have also aroused bitter memories. (Chomsky 2007, 209)

Chomsky’s critique of the U.S. is striking. In almost all of his works, one notes how he condemns the U.S. political system. In his attempt to find an official definition of the word “terror,” upon which the U.S. has launched its ongoing campaign, Chomsky shortens the issue to a few words when he writes: “the U.S. is a leading terrorist state” (Chomsky 2004b, 189). He is aware that the American attitude in the region is corrupted and cannot be easily reformed:

4

This is asserted also by Michael Schmid. For more information, see Schmid, Michael. Did Desert Shield Lead to Desert Hate? A Case Study of Anti-Americanism in Saudi Arabia. Hamburg: Anchor Academic Pub, 2013. 10–20.

The Departure of Orientalism

5

[t]he U.S. carried out intervention everywhere—in Southeast Asia, in the Middle East and in places where it had no such dominance. So the U.S. had to have an extremely intimidating posture to make sure that nobody got in the way. That required what was called a ‘nuclear umbrella’—powerful strategic weapons to intimidate everybody, so that conventional forces could be an instrument of political power. In fact, almost the entire military system—its military aspect, not its economic aspect—was geared for intervention. (Chomsky et al. 2011, 95)

From the viewpoint of these two scholars there emerges an understanding of U.S. practices and inferences as hegemonic policies. Thus, the Chomskyan and Saidian approaches unmask some political aspects of the American postcolonial enterprise. They contextualize the American dogma in the world in general and in the New East in particular within the military interferences, outlawed individual actions, and economic hegemonic ambitions. Said and Chomsky interpret globalization as partially American in nature and spirit; here, globalization and postcolonialism coincide. In contrast to this, there is another camp which defends, maintains, and secures the American identity, both politically and religiously. A good representative of it is Samuel P. Huntington and James F. Hoge Jr. In The Clash of Civilization? (2010), they defend and celebrate the West, and especially American domination and hegemony over the globe: The West is now at an extraordinary peak of power in relation to other civilizations. Its superpower opponent has disappeared from the map… the very phrase ‘the world community’ has become the euphemistic noun (replacing ‘the free world’) to give global legitimacy to actions reflecting the interests of the United States and other Western powers… the West in effect is using international institutions, military power and economic resources to run the world in ways that will maintain Western predominance, protect Western interests and promote Western political and economic values. (20)

Huntington encourages the West to use and abuse such a “clash” in the Orient to serve the West’s interests. But Huntington was not aware that during this time, such exploitation and treatment might cause aggression among the “West” or even among the Other. Six years earlier, the story was different. His Who Are We? The Challenges to American’s National Identity (2004) bears different criticisms to the New East: September 11 dramatically symbolized the end of the twentieth century of ideology and ideological conflict, and the beginning of a new era in which people define themselves primarily in terms of culture and religion. The

6

Introduction real and potential enemies of the United States now are religiously driven militant Islam and entirely nonideological Chinese nationalism. For Americans the religious component of their identity takes on new relevance in this environment. (340)

According to Huntington, the “clash” between the U.S. and the New East is religiously oriented, or to put it as he does, Islam against Christianity; a binary that Huntington insinuates. 5 Even in the American media, the voices against Islam and Muslims are blaring. During an appearance on Real Time with Bill Maher, philosopher, neuroscientist, and anti-theist figurehead Sam Harris said that Islam is “the mother lode of bad ideas” (Zakaria 2014, 1). And the host of the program, Bill Maher, welcomed this statement and agreed with it before exploding in front of the audience and saying that Islam is “the only religion that acts like the Mafia, that will fucking kill you if you say the wrong thing, draw the wrong picture or write the wrong book” (2). Maher’s anger is to some extent understandable. In the previous five decades, Islam lost much of its glamor and beauty among other religions, and it has gradually emerged as a religion of violence in Western thought; a religion which calls for aggression and killing the Other. Fareed Zakaria, the host of GPS on CNN, corrected Maher. And I agree with Zakaria’s explanation that Maher “is right about the viciousness but wrong to link it to ‘Islam’—instead of ‘some Muslims’” (2). In other words, for Huntington and other intellectuals, the conflict in the 21st century is Christianity versus Islam. Post-Orientalism, as a literary genre, centers around this dichotomy. I, however, wish to expand on this narrow dichotomy by taking into account the Arab and Arab–American perspective, instead of concentrating on purely Western perceptions of the Middle East, and how the Orient responded and continues to respond to America and its presence in the Middle East. At first glance, many authors mainly deal with the perpetual clash between Islam and Christianity by presenting characters who are rejected even in their own societies. In his novel The Wind of Paradise, Turki al-Hamad gives the readers a text that is, in fact, a distorted text about Islam and its principles that refuse killing unjustly, and the following holy verse emphasizes this: “whoever kills a soul unless for a soul or for corruption [done] in the land—it is as if he had slain mankind entirely” (Quran, Surah Al-Ma’idah [Verse 5:32]; cf. ch. 5).

5

He states this several times in the book that: “When Osama Bin Laden attacked America and killed several thousand people […] he pointed to American’s identity as a Christian nation” (357–8).

The Departure of Orientalism

7

This study positions itself in Middle Eastern American literature. 6 It incorporates points raised in Said’s Orientalism (1978) and defines PostOrientalism as a 21st-century literary phenomenon that has much to do with politics, military, and postcolonial ideology. In fact, Post-Orientalism (as an umbrella term) responds to profound current mutations in the world order that have been accumulating since the end of WWII. 7 These mutations can be ascribed to postcolonial settings that are present on a global scene. But before probing both these issues and the current phase of Post-Orientalism, let us delve into the main stages the Orient has undergone.

High Orientalism This stage corresponds with the heyday of the Orient, which I consider ranges from about the 18th century until the end of the 19th century. The Orient was at its peak during this period and the Orientalists were outstanding people, consisting of scholars of diverse scientific and literary disciplines. Moreover, during that period of time, the Orient was a source of inspiration for the West. 8 But “Orientalism” as a term has earned its complexity due to the fact that “the Orient was not (and is not) a free subject of thought or action” (Said 1978, 3). From this starting point, the term receives attention and awareness. Historically and culturally, Orientalism

6

Middle Eastern American literature has recently garnered increased interest in American Studies. The tragic attacks of September 11 have contributed and influenced this kind of literature in positive and negative ways. Consequently, the status of Middle Eastern Americans and their literature has changed. Various texts have been recently published, such as Hamid’s The Reluctant Fundamentalist (2008), DeLillo’s Falling Man (2011), Updike’s Terrorist (2007), Messud’s The Emperor’s Children (2007), Spiegelman’s In the Shadow of No Towers (2004), Eggers’ A Hologram for the King (2012), and Paul’s Sarah/Sara (2010). 7 It is important to mention here that I am dealing with Post-Orientalism as a moving body, not as a period of time. This moving body has its origins and roots in the previous two centuries. These form a group of different discourses of the PostOrientalism body. 8 Various writers were influenced by the Orient and its inspiration. The Romantic Movement on the both sides of the Atlantic turned to the East as part of a virgin land where innocence, purity, and beauty are still in communion with both nature and man. Edger Allen Poe was one of these poets who experienced these attractions. In his poem Israfel, Poe reveals how the Quran affected him when he refers to Israfel as “the angel Israfel, whose heartstrings are lute, and who has the sweetest voice of all God’s creatures—Koran” [Poe’s note] (Poe 2003, 1511).

8

Introduction

has passed through various problematic issues. 9 Even the usage of the term in various dictionaries is enigmatic. One comes across an entry where the term “tends to be associated with a rather offensive stereotype of the people and their customs as inscrutable and exotic” (Stevenson 2010, 1253). Cuddon (1991) refers to the concept of the Orient as an insider and the Occident as an outsider; the former is being looked at by the latter. Accordingly, Cuddon (1991) writes that the term has been: ‘invented’ by Europe and the West. As far as literature is concerned it refers to the discourse by the West about the East, which comprises a vast corpus of texts—literary, sociological, scientific, historical, linguistics/philosophical, political, anthropological and topographical—which has been accumulating since the Renaissance and particularly since the 18th c. and to which there is no counterpart in the East about the West […] It also refers to the attitude of the West toward the East; to the Occident (the outsiders) looking in/out/at the Orient—in fact ‘watching’ the East and endeavoring to explain and interpret it. (661)

These definitions allow us to ponder the problems and difficulties Orientalism faces. They demonstrate a Western attitude toward the Orient, and how the latter is represented and referred to by the former. In Orientalism (1978), Said attaches three core meanings and areas to the term “Orientalism.” It is “a way of coming to terms with the Orient that is based on the Orient’s special place in European Western experience. The Orient is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the place of Europe’s greatest and richest and oldest colonies, the source of its civilizations and languages, its cultural contestant, and one of its deepest and most recurring images of the Other” (1). 10 Here, I think Said is referring to the 18th and 19th centuries 9

The use of the term is problematic in the sense that it “suffers from an overly general application” (Burgett and Hendler 2007, 175). In addition, “Said’s work deals primarily with scholarship on the Arab world and Middle East, but much of his argument can be (and has been) applied to the other regions of what he has been defined as the ‘Orient’” (Breckenridge and Veer 1993, 3). 10 The concept of the Other or Otherness is significant; it is tackled in literature and politics. The importance of this concept lies in its broader impact and usage “in phenomenology and psychoanalysis, where the self as a subject presupposes the existence of a non-self or Other. And in existentialism, the Other assumes an antagonistic relationship with the self” (Hall et al. 2010, 677). In Orientalism (1978), Said emphasizes that “certain cultural forms predominate over others, just as certain ideas are more influential than others” (7), which represents the circumstances of ascension and rising within the interrelationships between the Self and the Other. Furthermore, he asserts that “the Westerner [is put] in a series of possible relationships with the Orient without ever losing to him the relative upper hand” (7,

The Departure of Orientalism

9

rather than the 21st century. Or, to put it in other words, the term is oscillating and vibrating between unstable and conflicting concepts Said sets out to discuss. Thus, one can side with Burgett and Hendler in pointing out that Said “is unclear whether Orientalism is the ideology of colonialism or is rooted in the very psyche of European thought. If it is the latter, then Said’s use of the term is an ‘Orientalism-in-reverse,’ in which the ‘West’ has an inherently flawed understanding of the rest of the world” (2007, 175). In this phase, the Orient offers a kind of inspiration in numerous disciplines: science, arts, architecture, design, music, and theater; it has a good resonance (cf. MacKenzie 1995, 43). The positive presence reflects a stable Orient whose optimistic characteristics are on the surface; it emerges from the source of knowledge the Orient enjoys. However, Orientalists living in the Orient during that period were mostly intellectuals and scholars. The images they depicted and transmitted were clearly positive. For instance, “W.J. Müller (1812–45) reveled in the bazaars and street scenes of Cairo, which he viewed as pictures out of Rembrandt” (Durham 2004, 54). 11 Müller portrays the Orient as a landscape in which one finds peace and rest. Throughout his writing, one can see how similar the Orient and the Occident are. He links the images of the Orient in “Cairo” to the images of Rembrandt. The body of the Orient as well as the perception of it are highly positive, optimistic, and promising. Orientalists are an integral part of the Orient’s identity and culture. It is this form of the Orient that inspired many English scholars and writers. The conceits and allusions to Arabic and Islamic people, incidents, names, etc., became popular in English literature from John Milton, S.T. Coleridge, and Shelley, to name just a few. Such poets turn to the Orient for imaginative stimulus and to contextualize the present with the past; they employ it as a paradigm and metaphor for innocence, beauty, tranquility, purity, and peace—a set of essential meanings that begin to scatter and fade during Middle Orientalism. For instance, one notes how such a phase (i.e., High Orientalism) is represented, afflicted, and reflected in the literary

see also Edward W. Said, Culture and Imperialism 1994, 353). The Other will be used to express a mutual definition. When I discuss the New East, the Other is the United States, and when I deal with the United States, then the Other is the New East. 11 Rembrandt van Rijn (1606–69) was an influential and significant Dutch painter whose paintings inspire both the Dutch and the European artistic traditions. He is considered one of most effective painters of the 17th century. For more information, see Durham, John I. The Biblical Rembrandt: Human Painter in a Landscape of Faith. Macon: Mercer University Press, 2004.

10

Introduction

work. For example, see the following excerpt of The Wind of Paradise, a novel that I am going to deal with at length in Chapter 5: The good smell of Musk was reeking from every little part of both his body and his friend’s body. It was clear that the airline’s employee had surrendered to the beautiful smell of the Orient, and her nostrils widened clearly to capture that scent coming from this strange man, wrapped with the charm of One Thousand and One Nights that had captivated her soul when she read it for the first time, feeling the heat and excitement sweeping her body and going in depths. How much she used to hear and read about the Orient and its fascination. And today, here it is! Embodied and standing in front of her. (al-Hamad 2007, 31)

The events of the previous quotation take place in one of the planes that will be hijacked and subsequently blown up in one of the towers of the World Trade Center. The author, al-Hamad, places the East and the West in opposition to each other through the characters of the Oriental kidnapper, who is adorned with the Oriental Arab perfume and musk, and the hijacked Westerners, whose lives will end. Also, the author portrays High Orientalism, through the previous quotation and in the words of the air hostess, as an Oriental man who personifies the East with its characteristics through his Arab appearance and the scent of musk.

Middle Orientalism At the very end of 19th century, the Orient gradually started to acquire other images and undergo mutations. These are associated with the political changes that occurred during that time, mainly the fall of the Ottoman Empire and the succession of both World Wars. Yet the question whether the Orient, especially the New East and Arab states, were led by the Other in the early 20th century is no longer vague. After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, there has been an enormous desire to distribute Arab countries among European imperialists. Here, it is worth mentioning how the Orient is treated by Great Britain and the U.S. While the former dominated the Orient for economic purposes, the latter extended these purposes to political, cultural, and hegemonic ones. While the former held the reins after WWI, the latter held them after WWII. Hence, while the British colonies take the form “of direct colonialism for the nineteenth and first half of the twentieth centuries,” the U.S. “was not in a position to establish colonies in continental Asia” (Eperjesi 2005, 19). However, after WWII, the United States “has not only been the state of the world’s dominant social formation,” Bartholomew argues, “but has been filling in for global capitalism’s absent global state” (2006, 22). This piecemeal

The Departure of Orientalism

11

political and imperialistic atmosphere renders the Orient negative rather than positive, dim rather than shining. The assault on the Orient annihilates its charm and beauty. It modifies its status and reconceptualizes the Occident’s contemplation and consideration toward the Orient. This criticism marks a shift where the “knowledge of the Orient, and within the umbrella of Western hegemony over the Orient during the period from the end of eighteenth century, emerged [as] a complex Orient suitable for study in the academy” (Said 1978, 7). The mutations the Orient undergoes may be conceptualized as two main points. First, the fact that “Orientalism makes sense at all depends more on the West than on the Orient, and this sense is directly indebted to various Western techniques of representation that make the Orient visible, clear, ‘there’ in discourse about it” (22). In other words, due to the hegemony of the West over the Orient—and criticism is only one form of this—the West has the tools and power to “represent” the Orient according to its “techniques.” Laura Nader elaborates this: “the problem of Orientalism should not be posed as a problem of representation; rather, it is a particular system of representation” (Iskander and Rustom 2010, 78). The Orient becomes an affixation in accordance with the West’s culture. Second, the Orient’s mutations may be conceptualized by the complicated nature of the body of principles and ethnicity the Orient displays; these include “beliefs, values, and religion,” and the concept of kinship “which is said to be more important for East Asians than for North Americans or Western Europeans” (Jaszczolt 2002, 331). While High Orientalism mirrors stunning images of the Orient, Middle Orientalism is vividly intricate. It personifies a shifting level between the two periods of Orientalism. In this sphere, the term dramatically obtains its conceptualization from politics and its ideological interdisciplinary fields, rather than from literature and its intellectual fields of interests. In other words, the Orient becomes a case study suitable for investigation and settlements in Middle Orientalism. In this regard, different groups emerged accordingly: groups representing and signifying the Orient as a positive body, foregrounding the optimistic features of the Orient. And the other groups refer to the Orient as a backward body, which should only be seen and judged according to its most negative qualities. These were important sources of knowledge to the West. It is at this point, I argue, that the Saidian framework on Orientalism and its applications, Middle Orientalism, find their domains and meanings. Therefore, we should apply some scrutiny here and question Said’s overall framework on Orientalism. Let us begin by observing that:

12

Introduction Orientalism contains at least the following connotations: First, it refers to a mode of thinking based on the difference in ontology and epistemology between the Orient and the Occident. The Orient and Occident are in separate hemispheres on Earth, opposing each other in many respects due to their striking differences, politically, economically, and even linguistically. Second, it refers to a way of dominance of the powerful West over the weak East and its oppression of the latter. On the basis of such an unequal relationship, ‘Orientalism’ has become a kind of ‘Oriental myth’ invented and appreciated by Westerners who have little actual knowledge of the Orient and the Third World, but have some prejudice against and curiosity about the latter. (Ning 1997, 57–67; original emphasis)

In the Saidian framework, Middle Orientalism represents a readymade “discourse.” This discourse typifies fixed and exhausted implications, denotations, and connotations written by the Westerners about the Easterners. This discourse cannot be altered or revised. Said writes that “without examining Orientalism as a discourse one cannot possibly understand the enormously systematic discipline by which European culture was able to manage—and even produce—the Orient politically, sociologically, militarily, ideologically, scientifically, and imaginatively during the postEnlightenment period” (Said 1978, 3). Said is well aware that the shift and change occurring in Orientalism is politically based rather than literary based; the aesthetic denotations become political rather than literary. The changing of great political powers in the early 20th century has contributed to such complicity. In fact, “from the beginning of the nineteenth century until the end of World War II, France and Britain dominated the Orient and Orientalism; since World War II America has dominated the Orient, and approaches it as France and Britain once did” (4). Step by step, the U.S. emerged as a hegemonic and imperialistic superpower. In other words, the U.S. was neither a great power in the early 20th century, nor was it a model of democracy that one follows, and nor did it “form part of the great power system until its entry into the war against Germany” (Lowe 1994, 22). Actually, the “triumph of the United States as the last superpower suggests that a new set of forces will structure the world, and they were already beginning to be apparent in the 1960s and 1970s” (Said 1994, 341). Observing the international scene of postcolonialism settings from a distance (the U.S. is geographically remote and separate from the European and Asian continents), the U.S. regards its huge states, population, trade, and resources as its unique strengths that should be maintained and protected. This same imperialistic hegemony has eventually led to the emergence of the U.S. as a grand strategic state. If we apply this explanation to Post-Orientalism, we find the same American dogma. Postcolonialist American ideological attitudes are rather similar to their Post-Orientalist

The Departure of Orientalism

13

counterparts. 12 All this in turn contributes to the emergence of a new discourse and an entirely different image concerning the Orient; here, we witness the inevitable appearance of Post-Orientalism, to which we now turn.

The Advent of Post-Orientalism Three years later, when the olive trees were shedding their silver-green color, a bomb exploded in the near distance. ‘Damn Zionists! What the hell do they want from us?’ Basima screamed toward the rising smoke, her husband’s fears as much as hers now. Basima’s anxiety knotted in her chest, in her heart, and made her head spin, legs weaken, until she fell amid her rosebushes, clutching her right shoulder. She was still alive when Dalia ran to her, just in time to hear her last words: ‘Binti, binti.’ My daughter, my daughter. (Abulhawa 2010, 21)

Consequently, the Orient gradually lost its appeal and glamor. It deviated from being inspirational, pure, and innocent to being soiled, contaminated, and delinquent. The dominant figures in the New East fields were the politicians and their institutions, agendas, and objectives, and their corresponding military institutions; the politicians took the place and position of literary and academic scholars when High Orientalism emerged. This kind of domination is a(n) (American) Post-Orientalist one. In The New American Imperialism: Bush’s War on Terror and Blood for Oil (2005), Fouskas and Gokay unveil that: [s]ince September 20, 2002, the U.S. government has abandoned its former multilateral approach to global governance and officially adopted an imperial posture known as the so-called Bush doctrine, which is based on militarist and imperial values with theocratic overtones. (3)

Due to the political imperial American dogma toward the region, the Orient becomes the point where the West (represented by the U.S.) appears to be the active superior power and the Orient the inactive inferior one. What 12

The U.S. plays the role of the global traffic police and intervenes in any conflict or problem in the world. In addition, you find that everyone waits to hear the American political and regional stance. In terms of literature, we find the attitudes of American hegemony in the Post-Orientalist American ideology embodied through its reactions to events and situations. For instance, when Changez describes his emotions and feelings toward the invasion of Afghanistan, he uses terms such as “your countrymen” indicating the Americans; he says: “the beginning of its invasion by your countrymen caused me to tremble with fury” (Hamid 2008, 114).

14

Introduction

lurks behind the curtain is the sordid and atrocious present and future. Hence, the affinities and interlocked relationships between Post-Orientalism and postcolonialism cannot be overlooked. While postcolonialism is characterized by the binaries of colonized versus colonialized, dominated versus dominating, and nationalistic versus non-nationalistic parameters of various ethnic, racial, and ideological perspectives, Post-Orientalism pertinently displays similar binaries. Therefore, within the American doctrine of Post-Orientalism lurk some postcolonial strategies and manners. Here, one can even note a salient fact: within both of these approaches, geography (in its traditional dimension) gradually begins to fade and vanish to make way for approaches that accede the boundaries of land and sea. Thus, the concept of hegemony, although it still denotes the same meanings, receives novel exercises and methods; what might be called “remote domination” becomes possible through distant military interferences and diplomatic engagements on the part of the U.S. In this respect, the U.S. is a paradigm for this. The novels form “a body of writing that attempts to shift the dominant ways in which the relations between Western and non-Western people and their worlds are viewed” (Young 2003, 2). This is a call to “[look] from the other side of the photograph, experiencing how differently things look when you live in Baghdad or Benin rather than Berlin or Boston, and understanding why” (2). But one sees from the other side a perception that “[the] third world is the postcolonial world” (16). Dominating the Other is a Western phenomenon. 13 This domination over the rest has not only widened the gap between the Orient and the Occident, but also created a kind of a complicated tension that is full of hatred and belligerence. 14 This is attributed to the “[c]olonial and imperial rule [which is] legitimized by anthropological theories” (2). With the legitimization of colonialism and 13 We may be reminded of the Western approach and attitude toward Africa. The institution of slavery is an example that should be mentioned here. Africans who have been brought to another continent have been used and abused by various means and methods. The slaves’ duties in the 18th century were just to participate in the prosperity, growth and renaissance of the white man. For instance, “[i]n 1860 lumbering employed sixteen thousand workers, most of them slaves who cut trees, hauled them to sawmills, and fashioned them into useful lumber” (Boyer et al. 2004, 366). Another vital example is that “[b]y the end of World War I Europe had colonized 85 percent of the earth” (Said 1978, 123). 14 In postcolonial studies, the world is divided into two parts: the West and the rest. “This division between the rest and the West was made fairly absolute in the 19th century by the expansion of the European empires, as a result of which nine-tenths of the entire land surface of the globe was controlled by European, or Europeanderived, powers” (Young 2003, 2).

The Departure of Orientalism

15

imperialism, the “peoples of the colonized world” (2) were likewise legitimized and controlled. The rest are depicted and represented to be “inferior, childlike, or feminine, incapable of looking after themselves” (2). Thus, postcolonialism and Post-Orientalism share some ideological similarities. According to Frantz Fannon, the relationship between the superior and the inferior in Western culture is complex and problematic (cf. 2009). This is because the Self–Other dialectic is a major issue in postcolonial theory, for it highlights the systematic discourse of domination of the Other. Bhabha’s ideology concludes that the supremacy of the Western culture is built on the postcolonized behavior. As a result, in Black Skin, White Masks (2008), Frantz Fanon affirms that “[t]he Negro enslaved by his inferiority, the white man enslaved by his superiority alike behave in accordance with a neurotic orientation” (43). In addition, Europe now waits rather than acts—it reacts rather than actively gets involved in the Orient; it waits and responds to what the U.S. does. And this shift in European attitudes toward the Orient, and how it steps aside and gives way to the U.S., is one of the main tenets of PostOrientalism. The blatantly political Occidental–Oriental literary worlds mirror the current zeitgeist. The present attention the Orient receives takes two parallel domains, namely politics and literature; literature in the 19th century led to politics, but politics in the late 20th century led to literature. Are there any works and studies on the beauty, charm, landscape, and symbols the East once stood for? Can one find nostalgia for innocence and the East’s values? Post-Orientalism records this change and stands as a true term for the phase the Orient now exhibits. Thus, the term alone can be seen as a moving body; a subject to change by politics. And this is exactly where this study differs from Saidian Orientalism. Indeed, to still employ and continue to treat it as a fixed body is an approach that is neither possible nor attainable. Thus, Post-Orientalism includes multidimensional threads and responses to the complex nature of camps and countries, involving religious and cultural matters. It tackles the complex and uneasy relationship of the Orient and the Occident within two main ruling events: the tragic attacks of September 11, 2001, and the Afghanistan and Iraq wars. This study considers the characteristics of the New East in depth by addressing four literary novels: Mornings in Jenin (2010) by Susan Abulhawa, The Reluctant Fundamentalist (2008) by Mohsin Hamid, Falling Man (2011) by Don DeLillo, and The Wind of Paradise (2007) by Turki al-Hamad. Furthermore, this study deals with the New East from a literary point of view, taking into account the region’s changing political environment, to reflect the fact that politics cannot be separated from literature. Moreover, this study shows how Orientalism is a moving body by

16

Introduction

noting the gradual changes in it through an up-close study of literary texts. This study also presents a detailed picture of religious fundamentalism in the New East, its origin, and how it has developed in literary texts. In addition, this study divides the Islamic East into two sides: the New Near East, represented by the Islamic Arabic-speaking countries such as Jordan, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and Syria, and the New Far East, represented by the Islamic non-Arabic speaking countries such as Afghanistan and Pakistan. Both sides are Islamic, but the former is Arabic and the latter is non-Arabic. This study also reveals an important matter regarding religious fundamentalism in literature—i.e., Islamic non-Arabic speaking countries such as Pakistan and Afghanistan are reluctant in their fundamentalism, while in Arab countries there is an authentic fundamentalism stemming from faith and following the Islamic doctrine of Al Wala’ Wal Bara’ (cf. Chapter 5). These aspects embody inaugurating landmarks that reliably reveal the changing spirit and their unfixed nature. It is a contemporary approach that handles the Occident–Orient physical and nonphysical encounter as a one-sided relation characterized as being essentially political. Post-Orientalism refers to the modern relationship between the Occident represented by the U.S. and the Orient represented by Arab and Muslim ethnicities referred to as the New East. It captures, on the one hand, the transformations and mutations that the term “Orient” has undergone throughout the 20th century, and on the other hand the American role played in it. Conversely, and due to the overtly political and even military engagements and interferences, the term also deals with the relationship as fundamental political–literary discourse. It means any separation is impossible, and anyone ignoring the power of political discourse and its roles misinterprets and misrepresents the issue. Post-Orientalism is an existing situation between the U.S. and the core of the New East. First, in a given novel like Mornings in Jenin, the U.S. is represented as a hovering politico-military shadow. Second, a great deal of agony and suffering occurs because of this presence. This includes semibattlefields or no man’s lands where injures and casualties occur. Moreover, in such a novel, the U.S. interferences lurk quite directly behind the curtain, as it were, and consequently render the American presence quite apparent. The New East, with its religious, political, and cultural problems, contributes in drawing its present means. People in the New East are divided among themselves both politically and religiously. In terms of religion, sectarianism has strongly appeared after the war in Iraq. In terms of politics, a lack of free democratic secular political parties creates a void that cannot be bridged. The absence of such parties and knowledge expectedly leads to

The Departure of Orientalism

17

the dominance of dictatorship, firm regimes, and the emergence of fanatic Islamic groups. The instances of firm regimes are numerous: Gaddafi’s regime, Mubarak’s regime, and Zayn Al-Abidin’s regime that dominated and led their countries for decades. These governments treated their nations as “herds” that follow their leader’s desired directions. Hence, many people living under these regimes were not allowed to expand their knowledge, or to gain better knowledge about the political situation. They were, in other words, absent. This is why, for instance, that after the fall of Mubarak’s regime in Egypt or even Gaddafi’s regime in Libya, people of these countries were unable to manage things. The lack of knowledge, wisdom, and above all statecraft are what underlie the chaos in these countries. This helped some radical Islamic groups such as the Islamic State to emerge as powerful parties in the political arena. 15 The New East hence embodies political, religious, and ideological conflicts.

The American Hegemony in the Post-Orientalist Milieu I knew from my experience as a Pakistani—of alternating periods of American aid and sanctions— that finance was a primary means by which the American empire exercised its power. (Hamid 2007, 177)

The Occident conceives, interprets, and even judges the Orient according to the attitudes and consequences of the American (political) involvements and interferences in Oriental issues and countries. At the same time, the Orient witnesses changes arising from American policy as well. It seems that the Arab Gulf countries are allies and friends to the U.S. but other countries such as Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, and old Libya are not. Therefore, a new approach has been adopted for dealing with and handling the Orient. This postcolonial approach shows the main mutations from exploration to exploitation, elaboration to condemnation, and praise to confiscation. Bartholomew rightly argues that for more than 50 years: the United Sates could be counted as the pace-maker for progress on this cosmopolitan path. With the war in Iraq, it has not only abandoned this role, it has also given up its role as guarantor of international rights. And 15 Especially in Syria, the Islamic State (IS) threatens the U.S. to a level that a military air force intervention by the U.S. occurred. The IS dominates the people in Syria and Iraq by its power. This power may be divided into two parts: the power of its military, and the concept of forcing people to follow the IS’s radical approach by coercion or by telling these people that the IS principles emerge from Sharia law. For more information, see Steve Holland, “U.S. Considering Taking Flight against Islamic State into Syria” (2014).

18

Introduction its violation of international law sets a disastrous precedent for the superpowers of the future. (2006, 46)

Moreover, at this stage, a new parameter enters the scene: the visible American military presence in the New East that overshadows the region. From 1991 onwards, the physical presence of the American Army in the New East becomes a recurrent phenomenon. The Post-Orientalist era witnesses the imperialistic (military) presence of the U.S. as wars in Afghanistan and the recent conquest of Iraq 16 have demonstrated. This military-politico-ideological sense of war has tremendous consequences; first, it adds another dimension to the Post-Orientalist settings: geography, which no longer holds or separates countries. Second, and more significantly, the boundary between “us” and “them,” “we” and “they,” simply vanishes; politics shape geography. This is why in the novels discussed in this study, stories and their implications go well beyond geographical borders and limits. The novels record and politically narrate the plights and conflicts and their aftermaths on the Other, whether the Other are the U.S. or New East. In The Reluctant Fundamentalist, for example, one notes how politics is reflected to Americans in New York City. Changez reveals this in the novel, as he points out to his American counterpart that American flags sweep the city of New York after the collapse of the World Trade Center (cf. Hamid 2008, 90). These flags embody the Unity of the Other. As for PostOrientalism, this means that the term currently does not reflect the deeper meaning beyond the simple dichotomy outlined above. Consequently, I extend the term to include additional layers of analysis to allow a more thorough understanding of Arab–American discourse in literature. Having fallen out of the hands of scholars of archeology, anthropology, sociology, and literature, the Orient finds itself in the hands of politicians. In turn, the politicians draw the curtain quite close on the secrets and chants of the Orient, leaving it to be a subject of oil, wars, and disputes. Thus, the American political propaganda takes its pretexts and attitudes as a kind of U.S. foreign policy discourse from promoting freedom and democracy. Former U.S. President Bush’s speech to the National Endowment for Democracy reveals this: 16

The invasion of Iraq in 2003 is referred to as a “conquest” by various intellectuals and writers. According to Tariq Ali: “[t]he conquest of Iraq marks a new phase in the country’s history and an ominous opening for the twenty-first century” (2004, 172). Noam Chomsky continues the theme. He has made it clear that “[a]fter the conquest of Iraq, evidence soon surfaced that Iraqi prisoners were being subjected to similar treatment: gagged, bound, hooded, beaten ‘in the manner of Afghans and other captives held at Guantánamo Bay in Cuba—treatment in itself questionable under international law,’ to put it mildly” (Chomsky 2004a, 26–7).

The Departure of Orientalism

19

[a]s long as the Middle East remains a place where freedom does not flourish, it will remain a place of stagnation, resentment, and violence ready for export. And with the spread of weapons that can bring catastrophic harm to our country and to our friends, it would be reckless to accept the status quo. (Bush 2014, 8)

His words bear some vital messages: first, the importance of freedom as a symbol of modernity, novelty, and uniqueness; and, second, the danger that weapons of mass destruction (WMD) can present to the U.S. Nevertheless, these WMD have not been found in Iraq. 17 Third, the president, whose tone and style resemble those of an emperor, underestimates and scorns the region as being inferior, degraded, a wasteland in which progress and prosperity have departed; a Post-Orientalist image that has been popularized. There is the truism of the ascension of the U.S. as an empire. Therefore, the drastic dominant American shadow is based on, and enhanced and enlarged through, different methods and approaches: political means, military deployments and interferences, and increasingly media propaganda. Disseminating their own images of the Orient and propagandizing their own stereotypes about it, the U.S. administration manages to alter the public’s psyche. Currently, an ordinary American probably only understands the American policies, military interferences, and wicked diplomatic involvements according to readymade claims and judgments provided by political and media machines. Hence, media propaganda, political means, and the American military interferences impact Post-Orientalism and announce its recent emergence. 18

Media: “The Manufacture of Consent” A week after the massacre at Sabra and Shatila, Newsweek magazine determined that the most important story of the previous seven days had been the death of Princess Grace. The following week, the cover story was ‘Israel in Torment.’ Israel, a victim. (Abulhawa 2010, 230; original emphasis) 17 See Goldstein, Lyle. Preventive Attack and Weapons of Mass Destruction: A Comparative Historical Analysis. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2006. 172–5. 18 Post-Orientalism emerges in a strong and clear stage at the beginning of the 21st century, and the events of September 11 were the strong spark that ignited this. It can be said that this stage appeared after U.S. President George W. Bush declared the war on terror through his famous speech and after the invasions of Iraq and Afghanistan. It is worth noting that the harbingers of the Post-Orientalism stage began after the fall of the Soviet Union.

20

Introduction

The mass media address a targeted audience by predetermined policies and agendas not necessarily in favor of, or in demand by, audiences. However, the manner and attitude of representation from mass media attacks are direct, deviant, exaggerative, or elusive. They handle a given piece of information according to specific ideological assumptions that they follow and try to disseminate; the technical term is “media deregulation” (McQuail and Siune 1986, 1). In our current time, these “media deregulation[s]” are misused and dominated by the decision makers. Nabi and Oliver (2009) categorize the influential aspects the media put on audiences. These aspects and parameters are by no means unified. 19 Taking “mass media and powerful propaganda,” Nabi and Oliver refer to propaganda as “being a successful shaper of public opinion in a uniform and widespread manner.” They add: “the mass media were believed to be very powerful, as illustrated by the use of the mixed metaphors of the media being hypodermic needles and their messages being magic bullets” (2009, 20) The media are the motivator of the audiences’ minds and they are also the convertor that directs the audience from one path to another. The main desired objective media set forth to accomplish is to create a unified public opinion. In turn, such an opinion serves as a guiding tool the audiences accept, defend, and follow. To put it in Perse’s words, the “[p]ublic opinion is an important concept that ties together research on news, media coverage of political affairs, political cognitions, and political activity” (2001, 129). Media messages then are covered by many factors that influence the process of addressing the audiences. These are: on the one hand, the audiences themselves (including their perspectives, beliefs, orientations, and backgrounds); and on the other hand, the media propaganda (including their techniques, means, strategies, and approaches). Thus, the media are the motivator, converter, and shaper of the public’s minds. The mass media in the U.S. is no exception. 20 Among the scholars interested in this issue is Chomsky. He traces the role of modern media in American society back to the early 20th century. Taking WWI as an example, 19

“The audience[s] [are] influenced by media messages: (1) mass media and powerful propaganda, (2) limited effects and complex sets of factors, (3) social context, (4) individual differences in selection and use, and (5) multiple meaning from personal interpretations” (Nabi and Oliver 2009, 20). 20 In his book Media Control (2002), Chomsky emphasizes the role of the media in leading and motivating people, describing that people move as a result of media pressure for one cause at the expense of the other. Let’s take some of his words: “People can believe that when we use force against Iraq and Kuwait it’s because we really observe the principle that illegal occupation and human rights abuses should be met by force” (53).

The Departure of Orientalism

21

Chomsky argues that the American administration had to find a way to legalize its participation in the war and this took the form of: the first modern government propaganda operation. That was under the Woodrow Wilson administration. Woodrow Wilson was elected President in 1916 on the platform ‘Peace Without Victory.’ That was right in the middle of World War I. The population was extremely pacifistic and saw no reason to become involved in a European war. The Wilson administration was actually committed to war and had to do something about it. They established a government propaganda commission, called the Creel Commission, which succeeded, within six months, in turning a pacifist population into a hysterical, war-mongering population which wanted to destroy everything German, tear the Germans limb from limb, go to war and save the world. (2002, 11–2)

Chomsky considers the media as a leading social force, a power that stands between the decision makers and their supporters. Leading the audiences to certain interests and objectives has become an American political approach. An updated case in the 21st century is the fabricated claim on the Iraq war. The invasion of Iraq was based on American propaganda of WMD. The U.S. claimed that the Iraqi regime lead by Saddam Hussein possessed WMD that might cause threat and danger to the U.S. After the invasion of Iraq, “the military forces” were unable “to discover the weapons of mass destruction that allegedly justified the invasion” (13). The American administration “shifted from ‘absolute certainty’ that Iraq possessed WMD on a scale that required immediate military action to the assertion that American accusations had been ‘justified by weapons’” (13). Tariq Ali joins the debate and questions rhetorically the reason behind the Iraq war when he asks: “[d]id anybody apart from outright apologists seriously believe that the aim of the occupation was democracy? Surely it is well known that oil and democracy do not mix” (2004, 209). Furthermore, Chomsky presents an authentic thread on American media engagements. Building on Lippmann (1925), he regards the multitudes as a “herd” led by the media. And what the American media do, according to Chomsky, is “to tame the bewildered herd” (Chomsky 2002, 16). The taming of the herd would eventually create a kind of disguised public opinion, which takes the exhausted form of “the art of democracy: the manufacture of consent” (18). The phrase “the manufacture of consent” denotes salient perceptions. American public opinion is not only artificial and fake, but also largely persuasive, malleable, and exploitative. Public opinion is dwarfed by the media and the content presented by the media is manufactured and brings the targeted “consent.” Lippmann, “who was the dean of American journalists” (14) for Chomsky, wrote various essays and

22

Introduction

articles, and composed theories to accompany them. Chomsky refers to his work as “A Progressive Theory of Liberal Democratic Thought” (15). The audiences are divided into two groups: the small group, “the specialized class,” and the huge group, “the bewildered herd” (16). The specialized class multitudes “are the people who analyze, execute, make decisions, and run things in the political, economic, and ideological systems. That is a small percentage of the population” (16) This group is not that important for the government, because it does not form a direct danger to the government. But the latter group is more important, because it includes the majority of the people. Lippmann indicates their significance and role in democracy as being “‘spectators,’ not participants in action” (17). Being spectators fits the Americans’ political approach. However, a call to action seemed inescapable. Therefore, the solution for such a problem was “to tame the bewildered herd” and not let them “range and trample and destroy things” (18). As a result of divisions between the two classes, “the public relations industry” (22) has become more complicated. The U.S. had to do something. The solution was to “pioneer” this public industry; “[i]ts commitment was ‘to control the public mind,’ as its leaders put it” (22). In other words, the U.S. strategy to commit any war can be summed up in two points: first, it controls the public’s minds, including the bewildered herd, by employing the concept of “promoting democracy abroad” (22) and second, it dominates the mass media and creates a propaganda apparatus that serves its vision, to lead its nation to be satisfied by declaring wars: [t]here are a vast number of people who are uninformed and heavily propagandized, but fundamentally decent. The propaganda that inundates them is effective when unchallenged, but much of it only goes skin deep. If they can be brought to raise questions and apply their decent instincts and basic intelligence, many people quickly escape the confines of the doctrinal system and are willing to do something to help others who are really suffering and oppressed. This is naturally less true of the bettereducated and ‘more sophisticated’ (that is, more effectively indoctrinated) groups who are both the agents, and often the most deluded victims of the propaganda system. (Chomsky 2004a, 359)

Through this, the media finds its way into Post-Orientalist literature. In any given novel, readers encounter a nation-against-nation narrative, lurking conflicts whose atmospheres and scenes present all the facets of PostOrientalism. And in so doing, such a novel departs from the traditional and ordinary narrative that deals with everyday people and their individual lives. The names of characters, events, and even places are symbolic and connotative of the densely political flavor and problematic issues of the

The Departure of Orientalism

23

genre. Hence, politics penetrate the internal structure of the novel: the plot is mainly about a conflict or a struggle reflecting ideologically problematic issues, such as political, cultural, or ethnic ones which characters are unable to communicate or admit to each other. The obvious presence of the binary of the Self and the Other, and its postcolonial meanings, and humanitarian crises, dilemmas, and agonies, happiness and prosperity, never enter the scene. In The Reluctant Fundamentalist, Changez is led and dominated by the media and its tools. The first time he observes the attack in New York City is through television. He also knows about the American troops who went to Afghanistan, through television. These media manipulations have alarmingly influenced him to the point he depicts his feeling: “I had been avoiding the evening news” (Hamid 2008, 113). Not only does the media dominate its audiences, but it also controls their lives, their attitudes, and their conceptualizations. Characters in the novel such as Changez are in despair; they cannot resist the “spoon feeding.” American enterprise in postcolonial settings consists of these two inseparable fields. In their attempts at dealing with, responding to, and covering the status quo of Post-Orientalism, American media concentrate on politics and the military. The former politicizes Post-Orientalist characteristics, and the latter turns them into a battlefield arena in which wars and tensions replace peace and quietness. These two domains are mutually inclusive and defined. It seems quite normal that they both go hand in hand, for the U.S. is a superpower empire to which politics and the military constitute two sides of one coin: hegemony.

The American Political Machine I reflected that I had always resented the manner in which America conducted itself in the world; your country’s constant interference in the affairs of others was insufferable. Vietnam, Korea, the straits of Taiwan, the Middle East, and now Afghanistan: in each of the major conflicts and standoffs that ringed my mother continent of Asia, America played a central role. (Hamid 2007, 177)

During the second half of the 20th century, American politics penetrated almost all world affairs. Starting in mid-WWI, throughout the Cold War to the collapse of the Soviet Union, and again surging after the tragic attacks of 9/11; the American political machine knew no halt, border, or limit. This machine employed various methods and approaches to serve its policies and interests. Among these is the concept of “promoting democracy abroad,” an urgent necessity in the American political modern doctrine (Chomsky 2002,

24

Introduction

102). This concept found fertile soil and flourished during President George W. Bush’s “administration’s prosecution of both the war on terrorism and its overall grand strategy” (102). In this regard, it is worth mentioning that “the United States has used the war on terrorism as an opportunity to create a number of bases, training facilities, and political and military partnerships with military-backed governments from Algeria to Indonesia and Colombia” (Gurtov and Ness 2005, 24). With the growing conflicts in the world, especially in the Middle East, this “urgent necessity” has become “a primary goal of U.S. foreign policy ever since Woodrow Wilson” (102). Nevertheless, this “goal” appears to be a pretext for the U.S. administration to guide nations and commit wars, as the war in Iraq testifies. Indeed, American foreign policy toward the Arab countries oscillates and changes from time to time. The main distinctive aspect in this regard is the Israeli–Arabic conflict and the unbalanced bias the U.S. shows against the Arab world. Unsurprisingly, it becomes overtly dominant and dominating in Western policy toward the region. Europe tries to be involved in solving and putting an end to conflicts that sweep the region. Nevertheless, Europe finds itself partially handicapped by the huge shadow of American foreign policy. And this feature is pertinent in the Post-Orientalist literature. In The Reluctant Fundamentalist, one can see how the massive American political machine overshadows the New East with hegemonic powers (cf. Chapter 3). On the international level, however, this discourse alters the relationship between the U.S. and Europe: the U.S. has led Europe into its own war against terror, pushed Europeans to be engaged with the Orient on the behalf of the Americans, and endangered Europeans in combative conflicts.

Military Discourse Ahmad’s expression stiffens. ‘The [American] Army would send me to fight my brothers.’ ‘Or to fight for you brothers, it could be. Not all Iraqis are insurgents, you know. Most aren’t. They just want to get on with business. Civilization started there. They had an up-and-coming little country, until Sad-dam.’ (Updike 2007, 38)

The American political discourse is highly military. With it, the language of diplomacy, settlement, and wisdom vanishes. This approach has, within 13 years, engaged in three global wars. Moreover, such discourse becomes the medium and means, making the bridge between the Other and the U.S. corrosive. Tariq Ali captures this notion with a great deal of precision when

The Departure of Orientalism

25

he writes that “what is new is not the American Empire, but its solitary existence. It is the first time in world history that a single Empire has become hegemonic” (2004, 172). And this phenomenon foregrounds some drastic consequences. On the one hand, Oriental people conceive and deal with Occidental people as soldiers/occupiers threatening and endangering their lives, ideologies, countries, and future. On the other hand, however, the people of the Occident (and in this case mainly the Americans) view the Other as an imminent threat that must be eliminated soon. Indeed, the military point of view captures the modern Occident–Orient confrontation. In consequence, the military discourse establishes a semi-postcolonial situation of occupiers and occupied, oppressors and oppressed, or “colonizer and colonized” (Ashcroft et al. 1998b, 29). Like the Roman Empire before it, the U.S. puts heavy emphasis on expansion. The U.S. “has been corrupted,” we are alarmingly informed, “by its great military power” (Preble 2009, 2). The geographical separation means nothing in this context. But the moral and ideological consequences of these bloody confrontations are massive and lifelong. The U.S. craves to safeguard, secure, and maintain its interests in that region; or rather, as Chomsky argues, “the United States is seeking to protect its interest in Near East oil by supporting the status quo and opposing political or economic progress” (2007, 202). This behavior is a postcolonial act. It is intricate due to the geographical distance, culture, language, politics, and economy. Nevertheless, the American administration is conscious of the fact that involving American troops in any conflict in the New East is problematic. Such interference creates a perfect atmosphere for aggression. In fact, its consequences are felt by Americans everywhere in the world. 21 Furthermore, this discourse and its media propaganda have affected the mutual representations and identifications of both the Orient and Occident. The Iraq War in 2003 is one of the main consequences of the tragic attacks of September 11, 2001. We can take it as a peculiar case study and a text for the American military discourse. The conquest of Iraq typifies the drama of combative discourse. Accusations that, e.g., weapons of mass destruction were being manufactured were not true but were rather based on “fabrication, wishful thinking and lies—and as subsequent investigations showed, it was dramatically wrong” (Taylor 2013, 1). Tariq Ali, in a Chomskyan manner and attitude, indicates that: 21 American organizations and institutions are threatened every day by attacks. American embassies are the target of terrorists everywhere in the New East. A recent example is the killing of the American ambassador, Christopher Stevens, and three other Americans in Libya. For more information, read also the CNN Wire Staff’s report, “U.S. Vows to Hunt down Perpetrators of Benghazi Attack” (2014).

26

Introduction [a]s a born-again Christian fundamentalist, Bush obviously was aware of the wickedness of ancient Babylon (an Old Testament favorite) and the associated rhymes. Possibly he was also aware that its ruins were located in Mesopotamia, which was now Iraq, but did he know much else? Had anyone enlightened him on Baghdad and its history? Did he know why U.S. occupiers were being referred to as the ‘new Mongols’? (2004, 26)

Tariq Ali’s Bush in Babylon: The Recolonisation of Iraq (2004) deliberately suggests direct e imperialistic motives. The title consists of two proper nouns; the first is the name of the President of the United States of America, while the second is the name of the most well-known Iraqi city whose name is found in ancient books, the Bible, the Quran, and modern sources. Babylon is iconic and typifies the capital of Mesopotamia, which witnessed many occupiers through the long span of its history. Hence, Ali is no doubt thinking and alluding to the historical connotative status of Babylon against the recent and relatively new emerging imperialistic power incarnated in the name of Bush himself. Bush in Babylon implies that Iraq will again fall due to a foreign invasion. Consequently, Ali completes Chomsky’s notion of American democracy by emphasizing the hidden purposes behind such a democracy. The economic interests in Iraq are the direct reason for the war. Moreover, the issue becomes a strategic goal for the American administration, as Gurtov and Ness comment: “[i]t is one thing for Washington to help overthrow a government that does not serve its interests, and quite another to apply hegemonic power directly” (2005, 18). The Iraqi administration shows—at least—a kind of aggression, whether it is verbal or nonverbal against the U.S. and its friends, which shapes a kind of threat to the American administration. Politicians and decision makers have not paid attention to “over eight million people [who] marched on the streets of five continents against a war that had not yet begun” (Ali 2004, 144). The Iraq War embodies and unveils the imperialistic interferences of the American military machine in the New East. The Iraq War (and to a lesser extent the war in Afghanistan, too) radically influences the Post-Orientalist discourse. It affects the relationship between the Orient and the Occident in a number of ways. First of all, it permits direct military contact to take place over a long time. And with this, there are many plights and dilemmas: the atrocities, cruelty, and scandals of troops, whether in Afghanistan or Iraq, as the Abu Ghraib scandal typifies. 22 22

“In January 2004, an Army military policeman serving in Abu Ghraib prison left a disk containing photographs of prisoner abuse on the bed of a military investigator. The photographs were of naked Iraqi prisoners being sexually humiliated by other military policemen in the whistle-blower’s unit” (Esposito, Salvatore A. Abu Ghraib

The Departure of Orientalism

27

Second, the aftermath of the war on both sides is shocking; the war has brought everlasting consequences in terms of casualties, damage, and distortion. Third, since the media have reported on the names of various cities, villages, and other places in the countries where combat happens, once tranquil and peaceful places are now destroyed. The names of places have become mundane, everyday pieces of news. Thus, the new connotations these places bear have become sordid, unpleasant, and terrifying, while the traditional names and their significance (as acquired during High Orientalism) are no longer there. In addition, public opinion in the U.S. begins to view the Orient politically, because it reads mainly the military and political reports, analysis, and criticisms. Finally, because the military act is the very embodiment of a real and decisive political determination and resolution, the war emblemizes the new icon of Post-Orientalism, namely that the Orient has been politicized by the Occident. Consequently, one may say that the Orient enters an unbalanced phase of change and transformation. I don’t think that anyone can say certainty what the political map in the Orient will look like in the next few years, however sure they think they are.

Post-Orientalist Literary Discourse If classical Oriental discourse occupied a place in Occidental elite literary circles, Post-Orientalism brings political elitism. This political aspect emerges as the most prominent characteristic feature of Post-Orientalist literary discourse. I suggest such a term because novels reflect and even authentically record happenings that spring from the political; they closely emulate atmospheres of struggle, suffering, agony, and upheavals that take place within their milieu. Novels are politically oriented and attempt to handle the issues as eyewitnesses. Novelists thematize political conflicts, uneasiness, and disputes. Unlike other types of novel, this genre does not probe into normal relationships of characters or investigate social issues and matters; rather, the essential posture it takes is that of examining the enigmatic and corrupted international relationship between the Orient and the Occident, and the sordid aftermaths. These novels tend to reflect on a social group, as in Mornings in Jenin and Falling Man, or individuals, as in The Reluctant Fundamentalist and The Wind of Paradise. This social group represents one party and therefore acts on behalf of that party. Consequently, a given novel exhibits what can be called mutually exclusive and mutually defined presentations. Injured human beings, orphaned children, deserted women, lonely men, and after The Scandal a Firsthand Account of the 344th Combat Support Hospital, 2005–2006. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers, 2012, 1).

28

Introduction

devastated cities flourish in these novels. Themes of uncertainty, wretchedness, injustice, failure, despair, and victimization thrive in this type of genre. Mornings in Jenin, Falling Man, The Reluctant Fundamentalist, and The Wind of Paradise explore these tokens. The novelists try their best to describe these conditions through plots, characterizations, anecdotes, incidents, people, and places. However, the characteristic features of a given novel still employ literary conventions in terms of setting, characterization, point of view, etc. Yet, these points illuminate groups of enigmatic upheavals and dilemmas that are representative personae of one group. Through them, the novelist’s ideological voice issues and disputes topics. They carry out these objectives through each detail: plot, names of places and personae, dates of incidents, particular settings, and metaphorical and rhetorical devices. The setting of The Wind of Paradise celebrates the responses to the New East characteristics in New York, and the setting of The Reluctant Fundamentalist celebrates other responses to the New America in the New East. Furthermore, Post-Orientalist literary discourse carries a new genre, so that the novels and literary texts reflect and afflict a new literary style that mirrors the political, religious, and sometimes social reality of Eastern societies through Eastern Muslim and non-Muslim characters living in the West or through the Other. In this kind of literature, authors of mainly Eastern descent sometimes break their silence through the characters they deal with in their novels, to tell us about their communities’ facts or their ideological religious beliefs. In the 21st century, political and religious discourses have become more prominent in literary texts. Accordingly, we find that literary texts, whether in a novel or a play, are sometimes politicized and often directed, and often reflect the experiences of the novelists who wrote these texts. Let us take the following quotation from Ayad Akhtar’s play Disgraced (2013) to make the topic more tangible: AMIR: My point is that what a few artists are doing, however wonderful, does not reflect the Muslim psyche. ISAAC: Muslim psyche? AMIR: Islam comes from the desert. From a group of tough-minded, tough-living people. Who saw life as something hard and relentless. Something to be suffered… JORY: Huh… ISAAC: Not the only people to have suffered in a desert for centuries, Amir. Don’t know what it says about the Jewish psyche, if that’s the word we’re going to use. AMIR: Desert pain. I can work with that. Jews reacted to the situation differently. They turned it over, and over, and over… I mean, look at the Talmud. They’re looking at things from a hundred different angles, trying to negotiate with it, make it easier, more livable…

The Departure of Orientalism

29

JORY: Find new ways to complain about it… (46)

Through the character of Amir, Akhtar tries to draw a picture of the Islamic intellectual formation from his point of view and his understanding. Through this proposition, he tries to reflect his experience and information about this society. And Amir as a character is not the first one to attack the psychological state of the society’s members and the strict and resolute customs and traditions. In the narration of al-Hamad, we find, for example, that Sheikh Muayyed states: “the land is like the honor and he who sells his land is like he who sells his honor” (al-Hamad 2007, 133). This literary style, which focuses on the harshness of thinking, and the difficulties and complexities of life, reflects the psychological and societal status of those societies, and the intellectual and mental formation, as if both authors are trying to tell the reader that growing up in a closed society—whose governing powers see everything in it—is difficult, and will produce intellectually complex and completely incomprehensible characters. With an imperial hegemonic attitude in one hand and a superpower military machine in the other, the U.S. has confiscated the whole region. Ben Conisbee Baer rightly indicates that: “today Orientalism has new significance because the war on terror relies on constructing terrorists. CNN and the newspapers show us narrative instantiations. The invasion of Iraq depended on constructing a modern state as a terrorist state, a rogue state, in order to advance U.S. geopolicy” (qtd. in Iskander and Rustom 2010, 54). Post-Orientalist novels mirror these burgeoning conditions. This convergence, to put it boldly, between literary figures and the politics of the term is quite natural since the situation cannot be described otherwise. The PostOrientalist political milieu then pierces into the world of Post-Orientalist novels. In his book Culture and Imperialism (1994), Said states: Just as none of us is outside or beyond geography, none of us is completely free from the struggle over geography. That struggle is complex and interesting because it is not only about soldiers and cannons but also about ideas, about forms, about images and imaginings. (6)

The Structure of the Study The introduction establishes and probes into the terminology and subject matter of the study, and maintains its main scope, arguments, and themes. It sheds light on the stages of Orientalism and rereads the American roles played within Post-Orientalist discourse. Chapter 1 deals with Mornings in Jenin as an authentic document that corresponds to the political enigmatic issues that occurred in the 20th century in the Middle East. It tackles the

30

Introduction

Palestinian–Israeli conflict and the American role in it, as it is represented in the literary work. It shows how the conflicts in that time contribute to shaping the New East in the 21st century. It also demonstrates how these implications influence the current political situation. Chapter 2 is devoted to tracing Post-Orientalist aspects. It deals with The Reluctant Fundamentalist and represents the situation after the 9/11 attacks. It addresses the life of Muslims characters in the U.S. and their relationships with Americans. It reveals how these characters are influenced by the dramatic changes of the Post-Orientalist era. Moreover, it represents the relationship between Muslims and the Others, and it presents the conceptualization of the Muslims after the 9/11 attacks. Chapter 3 deals with Falling Man. The events of this novel revolve around American society after the tragic events of 9/11, telling the story of how the characters deal and coexist with complex and difficult political and social conditions. Through the novel, we learn about the perception of American personalities about the Orient and Islam, and about American societal intellectual formation on religious fanaticism, extremism, and Salafism. The characters in the novel, especially Nina, believe that those who carried out the 9/11 attacks are backward people who live in the past, and the novel tries to link such characteristics and qualities to the East itself. In addition, the novel tells the story of the Islamic militants in Hamburg in the Al-Quds Mosque, how the takfiri Salafi jihadist ideological formation formed for them, and the motivation for them to carry out such terrorist operations. Chapter 4 deals with The Wind of Paradise. The events of this novel revolve around Arab and non-Arab characters who came from the East to destroy America. What distinguishes the novel is that it delves into the intellectual and doctrinal formation of these characters, and answers the question of why these characters find their happiness and joy in death. It also examines how death has become a symbol and a link to the paradise that God promised the believers. In fact, the novel is a very important source that documents the thought process and how it created the intellectual formation of the perpetrators of the events of September 11. This novel answers and clarifies the features of the “closed world,” the Eastern style of thinking, how these characters think, and how they view aspects of life. The novel also emphasizes that the Orient was once a beautiful place, and a source of inspiration and knowledge for the West. Al-Hamad describes how the World Trade Center was blown up, how the operation took place, and how the perpetrators reacted. The novel attempts to answer many questions, including the most important of which is why the Eastern Muslim, whether

The Departure of Orientalism

31

Arab or not, endlessly sees America as the enemy? In addition, why would they want to destroy it? What is the relationship of an infidel to a believer?

CHAPTER 1 MORNINGS IN JENIN: THE DAWN OF POST-ORIENTALISM

What each of these literatures has in common beyond their special and distinctive regional characteristics is that they emerged in their present form out of the experience of colonialization and asserted themselves by foregrounding the tension with the imperial power, and by emphasizing their differences from the assumptions of the imperial cent[er]. It is this which makes them distinctively post-colonial. (Ashcroft et al. 1989, 2)

“Literature ‘Does’ Politics”: The Politics of the Novel The tremendous political and cultural changes, which appeared in the late 20th and early 21st century, overshadow literature and its authors. The zeitgeist colors many literary works (especially those which deal with the Middle East and its problematic relations and connections with the West) with political and ideological perspectives. Many writers and novelists who have been involved in these particular political circumstances have embodied such changes and mutations in their works. “The political dimension of literature,” Jacques Rancière writes, “has been usually explained through social science and political interpretation” (2004, 23). This has led literary work to a new phase that cannot be separated from politics. At the current time, literature and politics seem to emulate one another for the main events, and developments around the globe fluctuate between political issues, events, conflicts, and aggressions. Therefore, a given political situation such as the Arab–Israeli conflict, the Iraq War, or even the complex relationship between the Orient and the Occident is represented differently in literary works, while the political aspect remains paramount. Novels simulate current political situations and gradually reflect and afflict the historical, political, and ideological attitudes of their authors. Mornings in Jenin probes the present situation of a Post-Oriental site through a Palestinian family whose political situation in the 20th and 21st centuries is beyond solution and remedy. Thus, literature comes to observe a given story from a political perspective only. The novel is by no

Mornings in Jenin: The Dawn of Post-Orientalism

33

means social, or deals with normal human interactions and anecdotes. On the contrary, it is politically oriented. Commenting on the politics of literature, Rancière rightly indicates that it “means that literature ‘does’ politics as literature—that there is a specific link between politics as a definite way of doing and literature as a definite practice of writing” (2004, 10). He argues that literature “does politics” in the sense that it provides areas or arenas in which the binary of “we” versus “them” is established and founded, and, by doing so, it establishes and advocates certain forms and patterns of ideology. In addition, the image and implication of the Other in such works tends to be highly distorted; the Other either lurks quietly in the dark, behind the curtain as it were, or is contextualized within an aggressive and hostile setting; the Other cannot speak for itself nor is it capable of being understood. Literary figures voice and emphasize these tensions, changes, and exchanges that occur within different fields and regions of contact zones. For them, literature provides, to put it in Gyan Prakash’s words, visions and perspectives: [i]t is now widely recognized, instituted enduring hierarchies of subjects and knowledges—the colonizer and the colonized, the Occidental and the Oriental, the civilized and the primitive, the scientific and the superstitious, the developed and the underdeveloped. The scholarship in different disciplines has made us all too aware that such dichotomies reduced complex differences and interactions to the binary (self/other) logic of colonial power. But if the colonial rulers enacted their authority by constituting the ‘native’ as their inverse image, then surely the ‘native’ exercised a pressure on the identification of the colonizer. (1995, 3)

Thus, literature provides and creates direct contact zones between the colonizer and the colonized (cf. Ashcroft et al. 1998b, 118). Literature also foregrounds various hegemonic and ideological practices and their results. In this regard, Rancière’s point is echoed. He puts it in a simple manner that the “politics of literature thus means that literature as literature is involved in this partition of the visible and the sayable, in this intertwining of being, doing and saying that frames a polemical common world” (Rancière 2004, 10). But still, both hegemony and ideology (taken from Antonio Gramsci and Marx, respectively) form an indispensable element in Post-Oriental settings. Whether hegemony is viewed as it “depends on the consent and agreement of the individual” as Gramsci puts it, or ideology as “false consciousness” that involves “an element of manipulation, deception, even coercion,” both impose an impact and consequence on the characters and events in the novel that cannot be overlooked (Morton 2003, 65).

34

Chapter 1

Among the tensions and uneasiness found in postcolonial settings are the direct consequences of hegemony—born of hybridization of the Other in the zones that have experienced and offered physical, ideological conflicts. Or to put it in other words, hegemony is the midwife that helps give birth to hybridity. For hegemony “is power achieved through a combination of coercion and consent,” as Antonio Gramsci understands it (Loomba 2005, 29). Consequently, hybridity comes as a result of certain political situations. According to Ashcroft et al., “hybridity refers to the creation of new transcultural forms within the contact zone produced by colonization,” and it exhibits and “takes many forms: linguistic, cultural, political, [and] racial” (1998b, 118). It emerges from the mixture of various cultural and social groups; the integrated groups exhibit hybridized people. The contact zone has become the country in which different groups in terms of race, gender, ethnicity, language, and religion from different regions try to integrate themselves within the new country or resettle within it—an attempt to cope or deal with the unprecedented situations of encountering and experiencing the aftermath and consequences of postcolonial impacts. Yet, the term “contact zone” offers some ambiguity and doubt. No scholar specialized in colonialism and postcolonialism defines it. 23 But I would like to offer a classification: the contact zone could be either physical (like the direct connections and relationships among different ethnic groups) or nonphysical (like indirect connections among the same), or both simultaneously. This leads to the kind of hegemonic practices and approaches imposed on the Other determined as a specific type of the contact zone. Due to its ability to bring and establish both kinds of the contact zone, literature then really “does politics.” Moreover, the contact zone, with its hegemonic influences, produces the inevitable hybridization. In Conceptualizing Cultural Hybridization (2012), Philipp W. Stockhammer argues that the comprehension of hybridity shall not be restricted and exclusive to Homi Bhabha’s conceptualization of the term (cf. 1–10). Stockhammer argues for a global conception and usage of the term. He states that the purpose of such a proposal is “to generate a multidisciplinary view of hybridity that paves the way for a wider application of this crucial concept” (1). However, he acknowledges the usage of the term: “[hybridity] is often treated as a specifically postcolonial phenomenon” (1). But he tends to agree with the claim that both terms “hybridity and hybridization are used to characterize phenomena which are easily detected as somehow ‘borderline’ but not so easily explained” (1). Stockhammer calls for admitting “purity” 23

See, for example, Fanon (2008); Loomba (2005); Carey and Festa (2009); Go (2013); and Prabhu (2007).

Mornings in Jenin: The Dawn of Post-Orientalism

35

as an opposition to hybridity, stating that: “if we speak of hybridity, we must accept the existence of purity” (2). I agree with Stockhammer, and Yousef, a major character in Mornings in Jenin, is an example that I will elaborate on in detail in the following sections. Yousef exemplifies a pure character who resists any act of hybridization. Yousef fights against the Israeli occupation of his country, and he participates in the Karameh battle (March 21, 1968). In comparison to his hybrid siblings, Amal and Ismael, his struggle embodies a pure act that is in line with Stockhammer’s claim. In other words, Yousef does not accept any attempt to change his values, ethics, and principles. Being a soldier fighting for his country is just one example of how he constantly keeps maintaining his identity and beliefs. In order to emphasize the term “purity,” Stockhammer adds: “[I]f nothing can be designated as pure, everything is hybrid and hybridity becomes a redundant term which might then be used in a metaphorical way for simulating discussions, but not as a conceptual tool” (2). Therefore, Stockhammer calls for the following: our understanding of hybridity shall not only be limited in the scope of postcolonial studies, but it shall also take wider forms, namely: the construction and the perception of hybridity—and purity as its opposite—by different individuals or groups who have built structures and ideologies upon those two notions in order to maintain or enforce asymmetric power relations; secondly, hybridity as a metaphor for a scientific approach that aims at analyzing and deconstructing asymmetric power relations that result from assumptions of cultural purity; thirdly, hybridity as the basis of a methodological approach for the analysis of transcultural encounters. (Stockhammer 2012, 2)

Susan Abulhawa and the Hybridization of Literature Hybridization occurs naturally and changes a person calmly and quietly. Susan Abulhawa is an Arab-American writer who focuses on historical and political circumstances in the Middle East. One cannot detach her familial problems from the political conditions in the Middle East, because her family suffers through the Arab–Israeli conflict. In fact, Abulhawa was born in Kuwait in 1970 to parents who fled from the war of 1967 and became refugees there (Yaqoob 2015, 1). She had a harsh childhood: she had to emigrate from one country to another, and she had to grow up apart from her parents in the U.S. Her uncle eventually took her to the U.S., where she grew up and received her education and university degree. These personal and familial circumstances and conditions optimize processes of both hegemony and hybridization that Abulhawa experiences.

36

Chapter 1

In the U.S., Abulhawa passes through various circumstances that form both her life and her personality. Representing or identifying herself in American society seems to be a huge problem for her. Her pure Arabic name (Abulhawa) shapes her personality and identity and follows her wherever she goes. Nevertheless, she states that she did not enjoy the fact that she is an Arab. Actually, she “did not want to be Arab,” and sometimes she “was ashamed and embarrassed and hated [her] stupid last name that no one could pronounce” (Yaqoob 2015, 2). Nevertheless, a kind of acute inner conflict resulted from her hybrid identity and gradually became apparent. When “Susan Abulhawa [is] sent to Jenin, Palestine, [in 2002] as an international observer—a trip that [has] forever changed her life,” she is recalling the past and those old days that form a part of her identity (Badih 2015, 1). In a sense, this trip awakened in her the urge to return to and stand beside her country of origin. Although her life is marked by instability and fear, she is not pessimistic. Instead, her background has pushed her to be an active political writer “opposing Israeli settlements on Palestinian territory” (Yaqoob 2015, 1). This makes Abulhawa a representative writer of the Palestinian Arab party. She becomes an activist and engages in various talks, demonstrations, and conferences. Inserted between two different worlds, the Occident and the Orient, she finds herself obliged to be involved in them both. Mornings in Jenin is Abulhawa’s first novel. An alternative title for the novel could be Mornings in Palestine. The novel, written in 2006 and then published in 2010, brought prominent themes to the debate. 24 There seem to have been many obstacles while she worked on getting her novel published. For Abulhawa, Jenin has become an icon, or—to be more accurate—Jenin has become the banner of the whole country and region. In Mornings in Jenin, she voices and articulates not only her own concerns and preoccupations, but also those of her Palestinian countrymen. She unveils the mask, as it were, from the appearances and events, and shows the real political dilemmas and new transformations that the Oriental people and areas encounter. In Mornings in Jenin, Abulhawa tries to depict the characters’ milieu, describing it, exploring its significance, and outlining its consequences. Due to her intimate and long engagement with both hegemony and hybridization, the novel distinctively and revealingly concentrates on these two postcolonial elements. These elements present themselves through the characters’ generations, with each character and each generation experiencing these elements differently. 24

Joseph describes the novel as “the first mainstream novel in English to explore life in post-1948 Palestine” (2010, 1).

Mornings in Jenin: The Dawn of Post-Orientalism

37

Hybridization in the Novel Mornings in Jenin exemplifies a cornerstone of hybridization and an indispensable element that signals the Post-Oriental era. Hybridization can be observed in the form, content, language, and threads that the novel cultivates. Abulhawa hybridizes her American-English novel; the novel teems with more than 100 Arabic words, which add interesting perspectives to the debate. A non-Arabic reader of the text, for example, will have difficulties figuring out what these words mean. Additionally, why are these Arabic words used? Two possible explanations are that either the reader will be provoked by the constant mentions of Arabic words that have to be translated into English, or the reader may find it curious and interesting that an American novel is covered and colored by an Arabic shadow which is a part of the author’s identity. In this regard, the question as to whether or not these words were written with a specific intention in mind is quite important, because it helps us to comprehend the nature of the novel itself. Integrating an English text with a foreign language is not a new matter in literature; however, in Abulhawa’s case these words convey a message for the reader. This message can be understood when we raise the following questions: Why would an American writer use the Arabic word Aroosa [a bride] in an American novel? Why would this writer use a word such as Babel Amoud instead of Damascus Gate? Or who would care about the informal Arabic word Aywa [yes]? The writer could have used English words instead. However, she prefers to use Arabic words. Her use of the Arabic language in the novel has—in my opinion as a native Arabic speaker—three functions: firstly, it adds a lost Palestinian voice to the novel. What confirms this claim is the usage of special (informal) Arabic words that would only be used by Palestinians. For instance, Dal’Ouna, Maalesh, Sitti, and Mulukhiya are Arabic words that would be exclusively used by Palestinians. Moreover, the author confirms this when she recounts the reaction of Amal upon hearing Fatima’s voice: “I opened my eyes to light and an unfamiliar female voice speaking in Palestinian Arabic” (Abulhawa 2010, 118). Now, it is clear that Abulhawa and I share a mutual understanding in terms of the Arabic language; that there is standard Arabic and there is also “Palestinian Arabic.” In fact, the novel is written in Palestinian Arabic. Secondly, her use of Arabic language provides a certain attractiveness and uniqueness, for the novel hovers between two languages and cultures; and in this very sense, this hovering refers to the hybridity. The language of the novel is hybrid. Thirdly, the

38

Chapter 1

employment of Arabic could be seen as an attempt to revive a disappearing Oriental dialect. As we will observe in this chapter, Mornings in Jenin presents a fading glamor, departing history, and transforming present of an Oriental sample. Through its hybrid characters and political incidents, the novel records and traces the dramatic changes that Post-Orientalism gradually faces and reveals. The novel by no means celebrates the place and its people. The first word of the title, “Mornings,” which denotes and connotes optimistic and shining implications, is doomed and darkened by misunderstandings, plights, various kinds of conflicts, hegemonic situations, and the threat of the loss of identity that the characters drastically experience. While the word “Jenin” adds more salt to the wound of the suffering laid out in the novel, for it hints at the atrocities that the town has seen. Therefore, the title could allude to the real and current situations that a sample of the Orient encounters. On the other hand—and here is the point that needs to be emphasized—the novel pushes us in this way to deal with politics. That is, Abulhawa politicizes the novel: it is politically oriented but also written literature. She mingles politics with literature in the novel, basically tackling political conflicts and incidents that affect and alter the Orient, leading it to enter what I depict and name as the Post-Oriental era. In other words, Mornings in Jenin emulates the Post-Oriental settings and milieu, which are highly political, ideological, and problematic. But the Post-Oriental world undergoes a further development, too: hybridization. This hybridization not only refers to the postcolonial settings the Orient now has, but it also indicates the alarming fact that Oriental people are imposed upon by, and exposed to, various kinds of both hegemony and hybridization. Hence, the kind of Orient that emerges from the novel is almost exactly that which the Orient now shows: unstable, confiscated, gloomy, and lost. It seems that not only people are hybridized, but their land is as well: In May 1948, the British left Palestine and Jewish refugees who had been pouring in proclaimed themselves a Jewish state, changing the name of the land from Palestine to Israel. But Ein Hod was adjacent to three villages that formed an unconquered triangle inside the new state, so the fate of Ein Hod’s people was joined with that of some twenty thousand other Palestinians who still clung to their homes. They repulsed attacks and called for a truce, wanting only to live on their land as they always had. For they had endured many masters—Romans, Byzantines, Crusaders, Ottomans, British—and nationalism was inconsequential. Attachment to God, land, and family was the core of their being and that is what they defended and sought to keep. (Abulhawa 2010, 27)

Mornings in Jenin: The Dawn of Post-Orientalism

39

Abulhawa shows the reader that Israel was forcibly created in the territory of Palestine, by expelling its indigenous population. After Britain announced the termination of its Mandate for Palestine and the withdrawal of the last British troops, it paved the way for Jewish groups who were superior to the Palestinians in terms of their weaponry and military organization, in order to start displacing the Palestinians by force of arms. No sooner had the British Army evacuated from Palestine than the Jews declared the Establishment of the State of Israel on May 14, 1948. Furthermore, in order to establish their state, the Jews committed a number of massacres, which have been recently discovered. 25 By focusing on the resistance of the population of Ein Hod, Abulhawa emphasizes the Palestinian resistance against establishing the Jewish state on their land, and that state would become the future occupying entity that is rejected by the Arabs—especially the Palestinians. Also, its establishment in the Arab world has led to instability in the region from 1948 up until now, and has become a reason for the existence of Palestinian and Arab organizations aiming to free Palestine and repatriate refugees to it. In addition, some of these organizations found that by creating Israel in the Arab world, it justified the militarization of the region. Over time, non-Palestinian Islamic organizations emerged, claiming that the liberation of Palestine is one of their most important goals, even though their fight did not start in Palestine by resisting the Israeli occupation, but instead in Afghanistan with the aim of al-Qaeda defeating the Soviet Union there. The Orient that Abulhawa depicts in the novel emulates the one outside. Thus, the only past and dream-like images of the Orient are given at the very beginning of the novel: IN A DISTANT TIME, before history marched over the hills and shattered present and future, before wind grabbed the land at one corner and shook it of its name and character, before Amal was born, a small village east of Haifa lived quietly on figs and olives, open frontiers and sunshine. (Abulhawa 2010, 3)

Abulhawa provides a comprehensive picture of a Palestinian village east of Haifa and the residents who live quietly within it. They were feeling a sense of peacefulness, and nothing disturbed or threatened them. The residents had, as on every day, a morning prayer before sunlight. The light started to spread its warmth over them, waking them up, and leaving no one asleep except the children of the village. The beautiful picture of Ein Hod is completed when we read about the town’s inhabitants on their way to pick 25

For further information, see Benvenisti, Eyal, Gans, Chaim, and Hanafi, Sari. Israel and the Palestinian Refugees. Heidelberg: Springer, 2007.

40

Chapter 1

olives from trees in the west of the village. The people looked happy and calm when walking to those trees. On their way, the people were also listening to the sound of water in the streams. Abu Hasan and his two children were at the front of the villagers who were heading to harvest the olives. Perhaps Abulhawa—giving the reader an insight into the country’s nature and beauty that was complemented by the existence of Abu Hasan and other residents of the village—is paving the way for us to later link this beautiful picture with one that was tarnished by the settlers’ attacks on the friendly indigenous people. Besides, the inhabitants were completely unaware of what the British Mandate was plotting against the Palestinian land and its residents who welcomed the Jews; those who had been systematically persecuted and killed during WWII. The voice of nostalgia cannot be overlooked here. The novelist illustrates a picture, a landscape, in which the classic Orient emerges; but it emerges only “before history,” that is, before the advent of politics and its problems. It is no more than nostalgia, and it is against this nostalgic sense that the novel presents itself. Abulhawa portrays the new Post-Oriental milieu and its characteristics by politicizing tales and incidents of several different generations over the course of the novel. She illustrates developments and circumstances that a given generation witnesses, and it is these generations who will be observed and analyzed in the following section.

Mornings in Jenin and Images of the Palestinian Narrative The character of Hasan is presented to the reader as a man who was looking to make his family happy. For example, the novelist portrays Hasan as a loving husband who rapidly bought “gifts” for his wife Dalia after getting his first salary as a school guard. He was trying to bring joy into Dalia’s life and to break the impasse of her life that occurred as a result of her grief (i.e., the kidnapping of her infant son by Israeli soldiers). Also, the novelist wants to show the readers that Dalia is not her own person, but rather a wife and a mother who has a great responsibility, especially after she gave birth to her daughter, Amal. Dalia spent years wearing “a cloak of bereavement for Ismael, sheathing herself in black grief that reached to her wrists and ankles” (Abulhawa 2010, 51). Hasan also built “an adobe box” housing his family members (50). Abulhawa emphasizes that “the United Nations funded” the construction of this adobe box, drawing attention to the occupation of Palestine and highlighting the relevance of this to the individuals in the novel. The recognition of Israel as an independent state is depicted as detrimental to the Palestinians who were displaced inside and outside of Palestine by the establishment of the Jewish State. In addition, the author

Mornings in Jenin: The Dawn of Post-Orientalism

41

shows Hasan in a humane and realistic manner when he apologized for not accepting a teaching job in the school, preferring to only work as a guard in order to keep the door open for others who hold scientific degrees and “have official credentials to teach.” Later on, when Amal “was born into the heat of July 1955” (50), Dalia replaced her “tired black scarf for the vibrant new white one made of real silk” that bestowed whoever wears it with a touch of vitality; something that Dalia truly needed at the time. The novelist succeeds in treating Dalia and her daughter as works of art, introducing Amal as naturally charming with nomadic black hair. Abulhawa introduces Huda, a character who had a prominent role in awakening compassion in the heart of Amal. They shared a deep friendship, and it was rare to see Amal or Huda alone in the camp— they were inseparable. When Amal entered school, she remained stubborn and uncertain. She considered her father to be her role model and was swayed only by his influence. She got close to him with her attractive looks that were able to reach deep inside him and settle in his soul, revealing an underlying notion of incest. The novelist also tells us about the mother of Amal. Dalia, who had endured a tough life in the past, was unable to restrain her wild daughter, and can barely withstand Amal’s strong desire to unnerve her. However, Dalia faced Amal’s wildness and cantankerousness with kindness, motherhood, and tenderness. We see that while Amal was asleep, her mother came to her, stroked her hair, and kissed her (cf. 52). At the age of eight, Amal always sought to help her mother and attempted to copy her wherever she could. When they were both delivering a baby, Dalia instructed her daughter to be serious. Amal says: “I was eight years old when Mama first let me help her deliver a baby” (55). Dalia wanted to see herself in the behavior of her daughter as she taught her wudu and salat. 26 Also, Amal imitated her mother’s behavior and motions accurately. When Dalia said to her daughter “Don’t be weak,” this clearly indicates how protective and caring the Palestinian woman is, and how she raises her daughter and makes her ready to face the future. The character of Dalia combines strength with weakness, tenderness, and understanding in regard to her daughter’s conduct. This can be seen clearly when Dalia allowed Amal and Huda to sleep on the flat rooftop. Amal states: “That evening she let me and Huda, my best friend, sleep on the flat rooftop” (56). Additionally, Amal looked similar to her mother, as the novelist presents her in both a state of balance and a state of isolation, but Amal did not forget 26 Wudu means “ablution before prayer” and salat means “prayer” (see Abulhawa 2010, 329–32).

42

Chapter 1

that her mother stroked her hair tenderly and kissed her—the kiss perched in her mind. Then, the novelist takes the reader back to Dalia’s childhood. Dalia was curious, as she sneaked up on people during her early childhood in a Jenin refugee camp. The result of her curiosity was that her brother hit her in order to make her stop sneaking around. The novelist—through a narrative description of her characters—gives the reader an insight into the Palestinian education system. She also tells us about cultural and societal rules, i.e., what the girl should and should not do, in order to highlight the mother’s role in the family. Consequently, sneaking up on others or observing them is something that is viewed as reprehensible by the Palestinian family. As such, the characters in the novel make it clear that the older brother had the right to hit his sister if she misbehaved. Amal states: “My brother hit me hard. Everyone who witnessed the cause of my hysterical screaming agreed that Yousef had done the right thing. Except Mama” (56). Nevertheless, Dalia is portrayed as a tender mother of mercy who refused to give her eldest son, Yousef, power over his sister and warned him not to hit her again. In addition to the scene depicting the Palestinian family, there is another instance in which the girl is not allowed to emerge victorious over her brother. Amal rejoiced when her mother chastised Yousef. Yet, Dalia asked Amal to stop crying and blamed her; this method was firm but effective. Amal is portrayed as having a good memory, and this is exemplified by her account of a night during April. During the month of flowers, as it is known in Palestine, she “wet [her] clothes” (57) when she was five years old, and she woke up before dawn in a panic to fix what had happened. As she came out of the bathroom having sorted out her predicament, she found her father waiting for her at the bathroom door. Her father noticed the trouble that Amal had got into, but he did not treat her harshly. Instead, he helped her to wear “a clean pajama,” after which she was “levitated off the ground in his enormous arms” (57). He carried her and they sat together on the small terrace. Here, the father started reading old Arab poetry to his daughter, with a wonderful voice and a fascinating rhythm. However, Amal understood nothing, and soon she dozed off in her father’s arms. The relationship between Amal and her father—as presented by the author—is one that is very close. Also, the innocent dialogue started when Amal asked her father: “Baba, who do you love more, me or Yousef?” and when she insisted on knowing the answer, he told her that he loved them both the same. Later on, when he hinted at loving her a little more than her

Mornings in Jenin: The Dawn of Post-Orientalism

43

brother, he filled Amal’s heart with the pure zest of satisfaction. The novelist also shows us the extent of the daughter’s attachment to her father, by describing and emphasizing how Amal was sitting with him in the morning. They watched the sunrise together, filling everything with warmth and light. In addition, the reader gains knowledge of Palestinian life by being introduced to Amal’s father, who is an educated and cultured man. Amal states her father’s opinion when recounting what he had said to her: “The land and everything on it can be taken away, but no one can take away your knowledge or the degrees you earn” (60). The words of Amal’s father indicate the high value the Palestinians place in science and knowledge. Only through learning can one find a good job and live a decent life. Indeed, as we will see later, the Palestinian people are among the most educated, and they have contributed to education in many schools and universities throughout the Arab world, especially the Gulf states. Over and above this, the author wants to emphasize the beautiful and sacred bond between a father and his children, especially his daughter(s). Amal’s feelings echo those of her father’s, and he was the one who introduced her to poetry and knowledge, instilling in her many sincere feelings she views as a gift from her father that no one could take away from her. Subsequently, these feelings later became her only comfort in Pennsylvania, U.S.—where the poems of Gibran Khalil Gibran and the loud voice of her father remained vivid memories. Abulhawa places the reader within the atmosphere of the war of 1967, which occupied many Arab lands in Egypt, Syria, and Jordan. The author also shows us the degree of solidarity of the Palestinian person with his Egyptian brother, whose country came under Israeli bombing on June 5, 1967. Besides, she lets the reader imagine the state of mortal dread caused by the war, especially among the Palestinians who had experienced the war in 1948 and were already aware of the horrors that the war could leave in the Middle East. Yousef is the eldest son of Hasan, and he was five years old when he witnessed the extent of the tragedies left by the war of 1948. He expressed his feelings about the outbreak of the war of 1967—when he was a student at Bethlehem University—with a great sense of fear when he says: “War […] It makes my blood run cold” (95). In addition, the author describes the behavior of the students of Bethlehem University as being impulsive and agitated, and that they kept saying “Allaho Akbar” [God is great], which is one of the most frequent phrases spoken by Muslims across the world. The usage of Allaho Akbar has a significant, yet different, meaning in all of the novels I am dealing with in this study. For example, we see that the use of Allaho Akbar at this stage is intended to strengthen and boost morale. In this context, the call of

44

Chapter 1

Allaho Akbar calms the soul and reminds people that there is a God, who will not leave them alone. Perhaps the author is saying that those who suffer can call for the help and support of God. In addition, Allaho Akbar is normally used by Muslims as a chant to draw Allah’s attention to them. The use of Allaho Akbar in Mornings in Jenin is totally different from its use in The Wind of Paradise. For example, we see that the major figure in the latter, Muhammed, screams “Allaho Akbar!” to announce that his hijacked flight is about to hit the World Trade Center. The Allaho Akbar in this novel is associated with violence and hatred, whereas in Mornings in Jenin, it has a peaceful meaning, directing attention to the injustices suffered by those who are being victimized by the Other. The author, through the character of the student Yousef, presents the psychological state of people when they learn about the outbreak of war between the Arabs and Israel in 1967. She describes to the reader that people took to the streets, and how Yousef struggled to make his way to the house in which he rented a room. Furthermore, Abulhawa gives a human face to people in Bethlehem through the figure of Haje Um Naseem. Yousef lived in one of the rooms in her house, and she used to always call him “Wiliedi” (96), which means “my son.” She constantly offered him food, trying to provide a home for him while his family was in Jenin. However, Haje Um Naseem feared that Yousef would leave Bethlehem as the war erupted on all Arab fronts, including the Jordanian front with Israel. So, the author reflects on the love that Haje Um Naseem feels toward Yousef when she tried to prevent him from traveling, but her efforts were unsuccessful. Before Yousef went to his car to leave, he kissed the top of Haje Um Naseem’s head on her hijab before heading to Jenin, where his family resided. In 1967, Yousef was arrested and taken to prison. The novel does not describe how Yousef is transferred to prison. The reader is, however, informed how he was arrested while returning to Jenin “to find Fatima” (100), the girl of his dreams he initially planned to marry. He had to find a way past the Israeli soldiers, and he got arrested by them when he failed to avoid them. The scene then abruptly changes to Yousef inside the prison: “Here in this dank place, I live on the love of Fatima and the memories of our future … My body is stunned by the dialects of torture … I cannot see, for my eyes are swollen shut” (101). In spite of the suffering endured by Yousef when he was in prison, and his belief that death was approaching him, he was clinging to life and looking for a glimmer of hope. Yousef mentions that “my body is stunned by the dialects of torture. I have passed the threshold of pain into numbness. I cannot see, for my eyes are swollen shut. […] I think I will die” (101). He

Mornings in Jenin: The Dawn of Post-Orientalism

45

found a ray of hope that enabled him not to surrender by remembering his wife, Fatima. Also, Abulhawa provides a sad but beautiful human picture, represented by Yousef’s description of his beloved, whom he remembers walking with an urn balanced on her head. In addition, the author shows us the extent to which Yousef was suffering in prison, as the soldiers started to feel the pulse in the arteries of his neck and splash cold water over him to wake him up. Although he lived in extreme physical and psychological pain, he kept remembering his beloved Fatima. But the soldiers ruthlessly forbade Yousef to bring back memories and constantly tried to take his mind off her. In the midst of the events, Yousef saw an Israeli soldier who looked like his brother Ismael, whom Yousef believed to be dead. Later, Yousef found out that this Israeli soldier was indeed his brother. When Yousef was sent back to the camp in Jenin, the author stresses the unchanged character of his mother, despite the difficulties of her life, her hatred of the soldiers, and their ill-treatment of the camp’s residents. Furthermore, Abulhawa tells us about Yousef’s sister, Amal, and how she was cowering in one of the room’s corners. As soon as she saw Yousef, she rushed toward him and hugged him warmly, as if she wanted to hold him for eternity. She also squeezed his body, which was full of bruises from the treatment he had suffered at the hands of the soldiers who held him in prison. Plus, Amal was not the only relative who upset Yousef. He asks about his father, for Yousef did not know whether he was alive or dead. It is only stated that his “father has not been seen since the war” (104). When he thinks about his father, Yousef enters a state in which he realizes that his father is dead. He states: “That father, the man I thought could never die, is dead” (104). After that, Yousef went into a world of hallucination when thinking about what to tell his father (if he was alive); how to tell him that “Ismael is Yahoodi, a Sahyouni 27 who fights for Israel,” filling the camp with terror, killing, and starvation. Perhaps one of the most painful pictures the author portrays is that of Yousef as a man who feels impotent after the Israeli soldiers beat his genitals. Being emasculated in this way is what made him break contact with Fatima, who remained loyal to him while he was in prison and, after his release, outside of it. Additionally, Yousef found himself besieged with tiring feelings; he could not meet his beloved Fatima and did not know what he would do since he saw in his sister’s eyes a desire for him to be a substitute for her father, whose death created a great void in her heart. He felt that he was broken, useless, and unable to do anything, as if the author wants to show us the ferocity of the war and the cruelty of the soldiers who 27 Yahoodi means “Jewish man” and Sahyouni means “Zionist man” (see Abulhawa 2010, 329–32).

46

Chapter 1

treated Yousef inhumanely in prison. In spite of the damaged psychological state Yousef was experiencing, he wanted to rebel against his situation by saying that despite everything he had been through, there was still a fire burning inside him, something strong that had always refused to break—and this was the beginning of his thinking about the struggle against the Israeli occupier. Before Yousef had left the camp, he wrote a letter to Amal telling her that she should leave the camp. Possibly, the author wants to show that Yousef was at a crossroads and that all of the roads were special to him— staying with the rest of his family and friends in the camp, or leaving it for the purpose of resisting the occupation. Abulhawa presents the characters in her novel in a manner that appears to show her as an expert in “Arab sociology.” Moreover, the author’s feelings about the characters are evident as she follows the course of Amal’s life, who left Jenin in the West Bank for the U.S. Besides, it is natural for the author to bring to the forefront the very depths of Amal’s soul, because she herself is Palestinian with an American nationality. As such, the author offers us—through the dialogues or by describing Amal— a glimpse into her own life, feelings, and experiences, conveying to us what Amal felt since she arrived in the U.S. Amal felt that the eyes of the Americans were staring at her, knowing that she was a foreign girl—a feeling that makes her confused and anxious, especially in the context of her arrival in an unfamiliar country. Amal says: “my foreignness showed in my brown skin and accent” (169). In addition, Amal was afraid of the new unknown reality before her, and she feared that the Americans would connect her Arabic name with the terrorist operations that took place in the 1970s. In 1973, Amal moved to the United States of America. He states: “Feelings of inadequacy marked my first months in America. I floundered in that open-ended world, trying to fit in. But my foreignness showed in my brown skin and accent. Statelessness clung to me like bad perfume and the airplane hijackings of the seventies trailed my Arabic surname” (169). At that moment when Amal was thinking about all of this, a girl at Philadelphia Airport approached her, seeing anguish and uncertainty in Amal’s eyes. The girl told Amal not to worry and that everything would be all right: “I’m Lisa Haddad. My Mom is just parking the car. We’re your host family” (169). Later on, Amal gazed at the cityscape of Philadelphia while she was in the car with Lisa and her mother. Everything Amal’s eyes saw was completely new, as if the author wants to show that Amal felt she had entered a different world, which she feared she would not be able to adjust to, since she had moved from a small city in the West Bank to a large, vibrant American city.

Mornings in Jenin: The Dawn of Post-Orientalism

47

Along with that, Amal drew comparisons between the narrow streets of Jenin and the wide, jammed streets of Philadelphia. She also compared the smell of smoke and exhaust fumes in Philadelphia with the smell of white lilies that grew on the walls of Jenin. In spite of the calmness, generosity, and kindness of Lisa’s mother, Angela, Amal felt uncomfortable in her presence. This may be due to Amal’s discomfort that occurred when dealing with strangers whom she had not previously mixed with. Additionally, Amal was surprised by Lisa’s father, whom she knew was living with his girlfriend and came to visit his family from time to time. The author presents Lisa’s father as a dirty man who was deeply irresponsible, and that he spent Angela’s fortune on his pleasures and whims. It all seemed strange and new to Amal, even the house in which she would now live in, as she had never imagined a place like this before. The house was so huge that Amal—who came from a humble abode in Jenin—could not understand how Lisa and her mother lived alone in it. A situation like this would not occur in Jenin, since the Arab women were not permitted to live alone—out of respect for them and to guarantee their safety. Abulhawa lets the reader follow Amal in every step of her new life in this house. The author tells us about the happiness of Amal, who, for the first time in her life, slept in a real bed, not on a mat or a torn mattress. Out of respect for the Arab women and solidarity with them, the author highlights how Lisa and her mother dealt with their new guest, narrating how the mother taught Amal to ride a bike. Consequently, we realize that Amal started a new life, and in spite of the good treatment she received, she was still attached to her past days in Jenin. It is as if the Palestinian people cling to their homeland, yearn for their families, and do not leave Palestine unless they are forced or coerced. Although the past haunted Amal, she was eager to belong to the new society so that her life could go on. Before Amal moved to the student dormitory at the university where she went on to study, she had been treated well by Angela. For example, Amal states: “Angela helped me with the daunting paperwork that had to be understood and completed before I could commence my first year of study at Temple University” (172). Moreover, the author keeps on presenting Amal as a well-balanced, dispassionate character. Although one girl referred to Amal as “the Arab,” pronounced “ay-rab,” or as “the rag head,” Amal kept her cool and ignored the taunts. Through the experiences that Amal went through in the dorm, the author gives us a picture of the virtuous Arab female, who is far from having sex, or even making suggestive gestures and words. This is exemplified in a scene in which Amal is shocked when Elana, a minor character living in the same neighborhood as Amal, asks him: “Have you ever had sex?” (172).

48

Chapter 1

Furthermore, the author introduces us to another American, Kelly Mason, who is a pre-med student that Amal knew from science classes. Kelly boldly confronted Elana and so she then stopped disturbing Amal. Additionally, the author portrays the tiring atmosphere that Amal lived through in her first academic year. At that time, she was friendless, lonely, and isolated, and her English accent represented a psychological impediment in forming relationships with others. She focused much of her attention on studying and riding the bicycle, which she used to roam the streets of Philadelphia. As a result, Amal achieved a perfect score of “4.0 average for both the fall and spring semesters” (173). The author presents Amal as an ambitious Palestinian girl, who tried to control (at least partially) her new reality that she had to go through after the first academic year. Besides, when Amal talked about herself, the author makes the reader feel that Amal is satisfied with her new life at the university, as she no longer faces the threats of war or the Israeli occupation soldiers. Nevertheless, the author presents Amal to us, one year after she began her university studies, as more of a rootless Arab/Western person: I metamorphosed into an unclassified Arab-Western hybrid, unrooted and unknown. I drank alcohol and dated several men—acts that would have earned me repudiation in Jenin. I spun in cultural vicissitude, wandering in and out of the American ethos until I lost my way. I fell in love with Americans and even felt that love reciprocated. I lived the present, keeping the past hidden away. (173)

Amal was no longer the Arab woman who was completely committed to her customs and traditions, so she got lost between her Arab culture and the American one. Amal fell in love and dated many American men. Such relationships are forbidden in the Arab culture in which Amal lived before, carrying heavy punishments if caught. Thus, she now lived in the present, but kept “the past hidden” in her soul. Amal did not reach out to her relatives or contacts, and had compunction when she said to herself while watching her reflection in a store window: “Dalia, Um Yousef, had bequeathed to me the constitution that could not breathe while holding hands with the past” (174). This inner monologue exemplifies how Amal’s thoughts were continuously lingering in the past; an obsession that isolated her from every moment of the present. Amal is presented as a girl who betrayed her family and even herself, not willfully but as a natural consequence of her entering a new life in a different (and in a cultural and religious sense unfathomable) society without being prepared for it. Amal frequently thinks of his past days in Jenin, i.e., how she spent time with Huda when they were young; how they

Mornings in Jenin: The Dawn of Post-Orientalism

49

slept on the flat rooftop; and how their best hope was to return to Ein Hod: the village that to them was like God’s paradise on Earth. Abulhawa conveys to us the passionate feelings of Amal when she compared the “willow trees of Rittenhouse Square” with the fig trees in Jenin, which Amal was craving and longing for (175). Despite all of this, the author wants to develop Amal’s personality in order to present her as a strong girl who, in addition to her studies, worked two jobs: the first was a peer tutor and the second was “under the table” at a store in West Philly, where white people usually did not go, especially after nightfall. Although her housemates warned her that she would be a rape victim or would get robbed in that neighborhood, each Friday Amal rode her bicycle to work in one of the stores there. Despite the hazing of the black men, Amal continued to work there and got used to it. She also liked the residents of that neighborhood, whose women began smiling at Amal after they used to gossip about her on their porches. Plus, what made Amal like the residents of that neighborhood was that she later learned the musical genre of the blues emerged from the enslavement of Africans. Through Amal’s encounters with and judgment of this community, the novel gives the reader a positive picture of African Americans and their culture, in order to correct the stereotypical and racist image of black people. But Amal’s judgment was not absolute, i.e., she did not generalize black people. She considered that they were like the white people—some were good and some were bad. However, a group of thieves entered and one of them pulled a gun on her while she was behind the counter in the store, whose owner had left beforehand. Amal considered the thief’s gun a “toy compared to M-16 assault rifles” that killed a lot of Palestinians (177). Besides, Amal’s description of the thief indicated her rejection of the abhorrent racism, as she did not describe him with any racist words at all, but compared him with the Israeli soldiers in Jenin who were pointing “an M-16 in [her] face [and] at [her] chest,” telling her that they would shoot her if she did not carry out their orders. After Amal gave the black thief and his associates the money that was in the store, she called the shop owner, Bo Bo, and not the police. The following weekend, Bo Bo—with his strong body—pulled a boy into the store and asked Amal: “is this the one?” (177). Amal nodded her head up and down, indicating affirmation. However, the police were not contacted, and Bo Bo forced the thief either to return the stolen money, or to work in the store until every dollar stolen by force of arms had been paid back. In addition, the novel introduces different figures to the reader, and each of them is put in a believable setting. Amal’s character develops over the course of the novel, becoming much more confident. Abulhawa makes

50

Chapter 1

Amal’s accent—which was suspicious to the white people around her—a feature of beauty that allows her to be seen as a pretty girl in the African American world.

“A Gunshot Wound”: The First Generation Milieu But Yousef wouldn’t let go. Wouldn’t open his eyes. His arms, legs, fear, and soiled pants were securely fastened to Hasan—his refuge. Just then Darweesh arrived and Hasan called to him, ‘Brother, carry Dalia. The east wing of the house is still intact.’ Darweesh lifted Dalia, Ismael still at her chest. She was blinking now, absorbing her view of a flawless blue sky— How pretty and clear—until Darweesh carried her inside and all she could see was the plastered ceiling of her home. My Ismael is safe in my arms. And there is Yousef, safe in his father’s. A bad dream, was it? (Abulhawa 2010, 29; original emphasis)

The first generation of immigrants celebrates the charm and the beauty of their life, their tradition, and the natural activities they practice. The first generation in Ein Hod, where the initial events of the story take place, is Abulheja’s family, which is considered one of the largest (3). Abulheja is a Palestinian family who lived before the catastrophe in a village called Ein Hood in the “east of Haifa” (Abulhawa 2010, 3). The family tree as it is depicted in the novel consists of three generations. The first generation lived in peace and happiness where “every November, the harvest week brought renewed vigor to Ein Hod, and Yehya, Abu Hasan, could feel it in his bones” (Abulhawa 2010, 3). The first generation consists of the grandfather, Yahya Muhammad Abulheja, who is married to Basima and had two sons from her who are Darwish Abulheja and Hasan Abulheja. Yehya’s children, for instance, reject the professional cooking skills of their mother, Basima, whereas Darweesh compliments the delicious dishes that are cooked by his mother (6). These peaceful images are exemplary of Abulheja’s early life. This satisfaction reflects and afflicts the positive images of High Orientalism where characters enjoy their ordinary life: Satisfied by the morning’s pace, Yehya performed the thohr salat [the noon prayer] and sat on the blanket where Basima had arranged the lentils and makloobeh 28 with lamb and yogurt sauce […] ‘Lunch!’ she called to Hasan and Darweesh, who had just completed their second salat [prayer] of the day. (5)

28 Makloobeh is a “Palestinian dish with lamb, rice, and eggplant in a cinnamon and cumin spice mixture” (cf. Abulhawa 2010, 329–32).

Mornings in Jenin: The Dawn of Post-Orientalism

51

The novel announces from the very beginning the identity of the first generation of her characters to be Arabian, religious Muslims, who practice their prayers regularly. These characters are villagers living in peace in Ein Hod, Palestine. The novel probes little into the private details of their lives; Yehya, the grandfather and head of the family, smokes his pipe and makes many jokes with his neighbor, Haj Salem: ‘You’re going to hell for lying like that, old man, […]’ ‘Old man? You’re older than me, you geezer,’ Salem would say. ‘Okay. Get out the board so I can prove once again who’s better.’ ‘You’re on, you lyin’, toothless, feeble son of father.’ (5)

Both Darwish Abulheja and Hasan Abulheja embody the second generation of Abulheja’s family. According to the novel, the second generation had to move to a camp near to Jenin because of the catastrophe “in May 1948” (Abulhawa 2010, 27). The novel does not talk about Darwish Abulheja, but rather about Hasan Abulheja, who later gets married to Dalia. Dalia gives birth to three children that make up the third generation of the Abulheja family: Yousef Abulheja, Ismail (later: David) Abulheja, and Amal Abulheja (Abulhawa 2010, xi). The first generation lived in happiness until the catastrophe “in May 1948,” which brought profound suffering and the unlimited sorrow as Dalia states: The next morning, July 24, Israel launched a massive artillery and aerial bombardment of the villages. The associated Press reported the Israel planes and infantry had violated the Palestinian truce by the unprovoked attack, and bombs rained as Dalia ran from shelter to shelter with terror stricken Yousef and a screaming baby Ismael (Abulhawa 28).

The second generation of Abulheja’s family lives in a camp near the Palestinian city of Jenin in the West Bank, where Hasan works as “a janitor” (Abulhawa 2010, 50). The third generation of Abulheja’s family consist of the children of Hasan Abulheja, who marries Dalia to give birth to Yousef Abulheja, Ismail (David) Abulheja, and Amal Abulheja. The very early images of the first generation reflect the simplicity of the first generation and the tranquility and happiness that they enjoy. The salient point emerging here is that this generation is representative of the high days of the Orient, or to be more accurate, it emulates High Orientalism. This generation has not yet faced hegemony or hybridization either. However, these people are about to encounter the forces that will change their lives forever. These forces strike the region through the massive political changes in the area, namely the extension of the British

52

Chapter 1

Mandate for Palestine, and the announcement of the Jewish land, Israel. As a consequence, the peace disappears. 29 The British Mandate intensifies its power over the region after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. Therefore, the novel records political and historical events that the Palestinians experience before, during, and after the British Mandate for Palestine. The novel references the harsh and brutal treatment of Jews in Europe; hence, they were sent to Palestine in the hope of being granted safety and security. This protection was said to be maintained, secured, and protected by the United Nations. The novel cites two kinds of oppression: one toward the Jews who emigrated from Europe to Palestine, and the other toward the Palestinians who now faced the Jews as well as the international conflict beside them. The words of Ari, a Jewish character, make this clear: “I think it’s wrong,” he says in regard to the declaration of the Jewish State (23). Ari continues: “But you don’t know what it was like before,” emphasizing the discrimination of Jews in Europe (23). Ari’s words bring to mind some of the horrible images of discrimination his family suffered in Europe. He even tries to convince Hasan of such victimization and questions him: “Have you ever noticed how empty my mother’s eyes are? She’s dead inside. Father, too” (23). Ari bitterly recounts the pain and agony that he and his family experienced. He attempts to justify the presence of Jews and the international support for the Jewish State in front of Hasan, as he suggests: “I think they’ll let the Arabs stay.” However, these justifications were futile for Hasan, because the Jewish characters did not appreciate what they had received: The same men who had received the offering of food now marched through, pointing guns at the people who had fed them. Hasan, Darweesh, and other men were ordered to dig a mass grave for thirty fresh corpses. The village men were able to identify all but two of them. Hasan somberly wrote the names of his fallen friends and countrymen on the same sleeve of his dishdash [traditional long robe, worn by both men and women] as he hollowed the earth in such shock that he was unable to grieve. (30)

The novel cites people’s historical lives and their political situations, and describes how they have lived. These proceedings have reshaped the lives of thousands of Palestinian families. Among these families is Abulheja’s, which experienced a dramatic change. The change of the family’s circumstances, the coming of various plights, and the destruction of their

29

“[I]n May 1948, the British left Palestine and Jewish refugees who had been pouring in proclaimed themselves a Jewish state, changing the name of the land from Palestine to Israel” (27).

Mornings in Jenin: The Dawn of Post-Orientalism

53

house, their present, and possibly their future is symbolically portrayed by the children’s fear as they begin to tread in a new world. The family goes through four generations and experiences two stages of atrocious hegemony and compulsive hybridization. These stages alter their lives and their relationship to each other. The first stage happens in Palestine, where they experience two political conflicts: the catastrophe of 1948 and the disaster of 1967. 30 The second stage occurs abroad where the family is scattered amidst various countries: Jordan, Lebanon, Kuwait, Tunisia, and the U.S. The consequences of the first stage are dead or disabled characters, orphans or homeless children, and lonely men and women. The second stage shares mutual wounds with the first, adding to them the emergence of hybrid figures. The first generation of Abulheja’s family is represented by Yehya, and both his sons, Hasan and Darweesh, undergo direct oppressive hegemony. Thus, the tranquil and peaceful lives of the first generation are gradually replaced by violence and oppression. The members of this generation experience the initial waves of change that take place within their land. They witness the occupation of their country, the confiscation of their land, and the loss of their future. They pass down their own circumstances, plights, and problems to their children—the second generation. Indeed, from chronological and thematic perspectives, the first generation passes through High Orientalism and then Middle Orientalism. The peaceful images of their lives are reported through the characters and through the author herself. However, the dark side of the story is also reported to the reader. Commenting on the death of Yehya, the novel reveals: No one knew when Yehya died […] Haj Salem was sure that Yehya had gone back to die where he was supposed to die, and when people spoke of Yehya’s passing, they said he had died from the malady of a broken heart. The actual cause of death was a gunshot wound. (47–8)

Metaphorically speaking, this “gunshot wound” records the death of High Orientalism. Peace, harmony, and hope that cover and distinguish Orientalism are eliminated, annihilating the Orient with this “gunshot.” It assassinates both peace and progress. Yehya’s generation witnesses the first waves of atrocious and aggressive hegemony that will transform not only their lives and identity, but also that of their children and the posterity to come. Thus, Yehya’s death exemplifies a point of change in the family’s life and perhaps for all inhabitants of Ein Hod. The other generation, Yehya’s children and 30 For more information, see Sa’di, Ahmad H., and Lila Abu-Lughod. Nakba Palestine, 1948, and the Claims of Memory. Columbia University Press, 2007.

54

Chapter 1

grandchildren, are going to live, experience, and deal with the sudden arrival of Post-Orientalism. The other (hybrid) generations are going to encounter an unprecedented atmosphere. They will experience more forms of hegemony and hybridization through aggression, deprivation, and exile. Hence, the title of the novel, Mornings in Jenin, seems to be an ironic one, and could allude to the isolation, relegation, and loneliness of the coming generations. Indeed, the word “Mornings” in the title celebrates agony, plight, and forceful changes—changes that the Post-Oriental figures and settings are quite unfamiliar with. But within the lives and milieu of these generations, hybridization takes various and different implications and consequences. Hybridization is a group of processes in which a character encounters influences and mutations, on the one hand, and, on the other, how they deal with, accept, and identify with them. In other words, a figure such as Amal finds herself within the political frames and situations of drastic hegemony and highly influential processes of hybridization. She then tries to keep her place and hold her ground within the turbulent circumstances of these mutations of Post-Orientalism. The novel outlines the relationship between Arabs and Jews before the British evacuated Palestine, emphasizing that the relations between the two parties were good and characterized by friendship and harmony. Nevertheless, when the Jews adopted the Zionist ideology and specifically sought the establishment of the Jewish State in Palestine since the beginning of the last century, this made the relations between Jewish immigrants in Palestine and the Palestinians strained and tense. Later on, the Zionist organizations held sovereignty over large areas of Palestine through use of force and aggression against the Palestinians. Britain disarmed the Palestinians and was silent about the Zionists’ armament that they used either to kill Palestinians or to expel them from their ancestral homes. 31 Through the dialogue between a Jew and a Palestinian, Abulhawa makes it clear that the immigration of European Jews and others to Palestine was not aimed at finding shelter or a refuge for those people to protect them from the brutality of the Nazis, but rather it was to arm themselves—in cooperation with the British Mandate—to take over Palestine and seize it. Besides, it is noted that the author does not simply stereotype Jews. She presents the character of Ari who held the Europeans responsible for the crimes committed against the Jews, saying that the Arabs were not responsible for these acts. However, this Jewish voice, the voice of Ari, completely vanished before the noise of the Zionist weapons, which banged 31 See Hughes, Matthew. Britain’s Pacification of Palestine: The British Army, the Colonial State, and the Arab Revolt, 1936–1939. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2019.

Mornings in Jenin: The Dawn of Post-Orientalism

55

loudly and resounded in most parts of Palestine. This led, with the help of Britain and others, to take the decision to divide Palestine into two states: the Jewish State and the Arab State. Moreover, the Zionist organizations ended up seizing large areas of Palestine that were not granted to the Jews by the partition plan adopted by the United Nations in 1947. In other words, the author draws attention to the fact that the armed forces tilted the imbalance of power in Palestine in favor of the Jews, who ran extensive media and information campaigns to promote the establishment of the Jewish State. Hence, the Jewish State in Palestine was established by force in most Palestinian Arab lands in 1948.

The Hybrid Generations The Post-Oriental settings and milieu witness sudden mutations caused by numerous forms of hegemony and hybridization. Thus, the Post-Oriental figures deal with, encounter, and respond to these influential parameters differently. But the metamorphosis, in terms of land and people, takes on various forms and has different consequences. The “hybrid generation” is a term I employ referring to the second generation of Abulheja’s family, mainly to Hasan’s children Amal, Yousef, and Ismael. These three characters undergo different, yet massive, political conflicts in their lives, to the point that their personalities and identities radically change. Amal lives as a refugee in Jenin with her brother Yousef, while Ismael is kidnapped by Israelis. Due to their family’s circumstances and the country’s conditions, hybridization takes on diverse forms in regard to the three figures’ personalities and identities: Amal is a natural hybrid figure; she finds herself inserted into a world without stability and peace. Moreover, she gradually finds that she is bilingual, has an overtly different childhood, mature life, and memories when compared to her other family members. This mixed identity I term “hybrid”. Yousef is an anti-hybrid figure; he resists the processes of both hegemony and hybridization and his life can be seen to represent a rebellion against them. Ismael is a radical hybrid figure, for he is entirely changed and transformed by hegemony until he loses his original identity and belonging altogether. As we will observe, the contact zone plays an essential role in altering the characters’ identity. In other words, the contact zone establishes and creates a direct, tangible arena where post-colonizer and colonized encounter each other. In this regard, the novel puts a heavy emphasis and significance on the roles of the contact zone. In consequence, the contact zone is the criterion that determines how deep a figure is hybridized within

56

Chapter 1

the framework of the novel. The differences depend on their contact zone that exhibits and alters their lives and circumstances.

The Radical Hybrid, Ismael Moshe made his way toward the crowd, coming up behind the Arab woman. Before he reached her, the throbbing crowd jostled the baby from her arms, into that fateful instant. In a flash, Moshe snatched the child, tucked it in his army sack, and kept moving without looking back. He heard the woman yell, ‘Ibni! Ibni!’ and that made him believe that she had seen him take her baby. (37)

Ismael represents a profoundly hybridized Oriental character who has no prospect of surviving. As a little boy, he was kidnaped by Moshe (a Jewish figure) from his mother, Dalia. After the child was brought to his new home, his new “mother”, Jolanta, renamed him David “in memory of my father” (36). His kidnapping symbolizes the theft of his identity, stripping him of his language, religion, culture, and traditions, and dominating his personality. Moshe has kidnapped him to take him to his wife, Jolanta, a Jewish figure who “had been ravaged by Nazis who had forced her to spend her late teens serving the physical appetite of the SS” (36). The “six-month-old Ismael was at [his real mother’s] chest when he was kidnapped. On the next day Ismael was gone” (32). Kidnapping the little boy paves the way to let him grow up in a Jewish family and then to be an Israeli soldier fighting to protect, secure, and maintain a stolen land. 32 In this context, a hybridized figure could receive either a decent or a wicked personality. Therefore, the impact of the contact zone is profound. In Ismael’s case, the physical contact he passes through has transformed him into a new person. He receives a personality that defends falsehood. Interestingly, Abulhawa mentions in the very beginning that Ismael got a physical injury on his face or “a physical remnant” (22) that frightens his mother and his family. This remnant “would mark Ismael’s face forever, and eventually lead him to his truth” (22). Such a narration adds suspense and uniqueness to the text, where events are curiously reported. On the other hand, Moshe and Jolanta adhere to their understanding of hegemony regardless of what happens to the Other. Moshe confirms and asserts this understanding to his wife after kidnapping Ismael: “We will live to see the land between the Mediterranean and the Jordan River with nothing but Jews” (37). Then he adds: “Palestine will be ours. You will see. Together, we will raise a family. We are starting a new life. Go to sleep now. 32

In the novel, Abulhawa points out that Palestine is a stolen country.

Mornings in Jenin: The Dawn of Post-Orientalism

57

Dream of the children we will have” (37). Moshe’s words establish a hegemonic atmosphere in the novel; that is to say, his words reflect the ambitions of the people now inhabiting the country and the region. On the other hand, agitation, anguish, and horror conceal the life of Ismael’s mother. Twenty years later, little Ismael has become a young hybridized Jewish soldier fighting under Israel’s flag against his country of origin. The hybridity that occurs within him is stodgy and massive. He has earned a Jewish identity, name, religion, language, and culture. Fighting under Israel’s flag is symbolic, meaning that this figure has completely changed and there is no chance for him to survive. Such a tremendous influence occurred for two reasons: first, becoming a soldier in the Israeli army was not Ismael’s own desire—Abulhawa states that Israel needed every solider. Second, Ismael was “strong, ready to serve his country. Ready to fight” (94). In this respect, it is important to mention a significant point concerning the narration. Abulhawa highlights that Ismael is “ready to serve his country,” meaning Israel. Ismael’s actual country is Palestine, which means that the author has not only a hybridized character, but also adopted the new identity in her narration. This notion is also confirmed in the novel as Ismael’s name is gradually abandoned and replaced with “David.” Fighting against his people symbolizes fighting against the self and therefore it embodies a struggle to keep his Jewish identity. Compared with his sister, Amal, Ismael undergoes hegemonic practices that radically change his identity. He finds himself among Moshe and Jolanta and grows up among them. In this regard, the child follows their traditions, habits, and ethics. Although Ismael is not Jolanta’s child by birth, he is given her pure love as if he were her own. Here, it is important to assert that Jolanta is a victimized Jewish figure who suffered during and after WWII. Abulhawa reports some of the images showcasing Jolanta’s caring feelings toward Ismael (David): WATCHING DAVID, HIS BROAD shoulders bent over the dinner table, Jolanta could scarcely comprehend how much time had passed since the first day Moshe had brought him to her, a frightened, wounded little bundle. She thought of that beautiful creature, now a man kissing her cheek and saying, ‘I love you, too, Ma!’ He was so small in her arms then; she would hold him to suckle at her dry breasts when no one was around. (93)

Their love and relationship, that of mother and son, pushes Jolanta to refuse and prevent Ismael (David) from joining the army:

58

Chapter 1 She did not want her boy to join the army. But she had no choice, nor did her son. Israel was a tiny haven for Jews in a world that had built death camps for them in other places. Every Jew had a national and moral duty to serve. So in June 1967, when his country went to war, David already had served in the Israeli army for one year. (94)

And when she hears the news of Ismael (David) being injured, she is filled with grief and sorrow: He had been wounded by friendly fire that had burned his right palm. Jolanta’s heart sank when she learned that her son had been injured, and she could find no peace until David returned home. (94)

The images of love are reflected side by side with the images of fear and agony, e.g., when Abulhawa places Ismael and his brother Yousef “in a checkpoint near the village of Bartaa” (104). The duties that are entrusted to Ismael are to check the IDs and permission slips. When Yousef passes the checkpoint, Ismael is on a break “eating [his] watermelon” (105). Ismael does not know that there is somebody at the checkpoint. He is called over by his American Jewish colleague—“whose family had immigrated to Israel”—to come and see the “son-of-a-whore Arab” that looks like him. Initially, Ismael seems to be interested to know who this person is and pays little attention to the soldier’s disrespectful words. In this regard, politeness is totally absent from the scene. In the study of language, politeness is defined “as showing awareness and consideration of another person’s face” (Yule 2010, 135). The American Jewish soldier does not show any kind of politeness, which reflects two points: the environment where he has grown up in the U.S. and his lack of education. Human beings often acquire much from the culture of the place in which they grow up, where the external environment plays an important role in their personal formation. This gives an insight into how the Israeli soldiers were chosen at that period of time. The meeting of Ismael (David) and Yousef is reported using limited thirdperson narration: Their stares bulged with questions—who the fuck are you, Arab?—How did you become a Jew, Ismael?—and in the air hovered a secret David did not want to know. (Abulhawa 2010, 105)

The words of Ismael assert two points: his Jewish identity and his refutation of the Arabic parts of his identity. The thoughts of his brother Yousef reflect loyalty to the Arab Palestinian part, and they assert his refutation of the Jewish identity that Ismael has adopted. However, the meeting of the two brothers ends with a violent scene because Ismael (David) hates his brother. Abulhawa narrates:

Mornings in Jenin: The Dawn of Post-Orientalism

59

David slapped the Arab. He struck him next with the butt of his rifle. He knew not why, but now he could not stop. He kicked the Arab’s groin repeatedly. He did it again and again until that Arab—that face—was unconscious. (105–6)

Indeed, Ismael could be said to represent the Post-Oriental people who have lost their identity and background and are given new ones. Through the processes of abnormal hegemonic acts, namely kidnapping and confiscating both Ismael’s life and will, the kind of hybridity that afflicts him has changed him completely, transforming him into an opposite sort of person fighting his original country of birth. Hybridity here reaches the core of ethnicity. And unlike his brothers and sister (and here lies an important dimension of the paradox of hybridization as a concept), Ismael does not lose affiliation to a country but to his own being. The scar on his face, however, will remain a living sign that points to his childhood and Palestine. Abulhawa provides a sad picture of the war that can take a son away from his family and make people experience a life of the absurd. Here is Ismael—Amal’s brother who was lost due to the war that took place in 1948 and ended triumphantly for the Jewish organizations in Palestine and the establishment of the State of Israel—who was trying to return to the arms of his family, even though he was an Israeli soldier adopted and raised by a Jewish family, and turned from a Muslim Arab to a Jewish conscript in the Israeli army. He also did not hesitate to beat his Arab brother, Yousef, at one of the checkpoints placed by the Israeli army between the Arab cities in the West Bank. These checkpoints were aimed at insulting the citizens in order to get them to abandon Palestinian soil. So, leaving their homeland would help to build Israeli settlements in the West Bank, in which Jewish immigrants from different countries could reside. Besides, the author conducts a realistic and humane dialogue between Amal and Ismael (David). By David trying to explain to Amal that he had been searching for her for a long time, and Amal’s inability to form words at the beginning, alongside the panic she feels about her inability to understand the situation over the phone, the author says everything that can reflect humans’ feelings toward each other. Here is a part of the telephone call: She picked up the telephone receiver, sure it must be Sara calling to tell her she was soon her way. ‘Hi, Sara,’ she said, but by the silence on the other end she quickly realized it was not her daughter. ‘Hello?’ she added. ‘Hello. Is this Amal?’ replied a male voice in accented English. ‘Yes. Who is this?’ ‘I am David Avaram,’ said the voice.

60

Chapter 1 She did not recognize the name, but by the surname, Amal suspected this stranger was Israeli. […] A memory rushed up in Amal’s mind from a buried past. ‘He’s a Yahoodi they call David.’ Could it be? Her hands began to shake and nearly dropped the phone. ‘I think you might know me as Ismael,’ he said, but Amal could form no words for the storm of a past rising in her mind. ‘I am sorry to call like this. It’s just that… I have been looking for you for a long time. And I… now, I mean, I will…’ (258–9)

The author takes a dismissive attitude toward the war in 1948 and the injustices resulting from it. It is represented tragically and dramatically by this Palestinian family as an example of the outcomes of the bloody war. Furthermore, Abulhawa wants to provide us with a family-based picture that contains both a convergence and discrepancy of the characters’ feelings in order to make the reader detest the war. This is seen when the author tries to return the reader to the past when she talks about Yousef, who was beaten and tortured by his brother Ismael (David) at one of the army’s checkpoints. Keeping all of this in mind, Amal told her daughter Sara that she wanted to meet David, despite Sara’s doubts about whether the meeting would be meaningful.

“Never Let Them Know They Hurt You”: Purity Versus Hybridity in Yousef I am once again surrounded by fire and fleeing souls. By fear coiled around rage. I fire my weapon, but in the moment of the truth, when the test of my courage looks me in the eyes, I cannot take the life of another. I am afraid of violating life. Afraid of losing mine. So I walk with the others, my arms high in surrender. One of the Jewish soldiers pulls my face, searching it with amazement. I am puzzled then by the disbelief in his eyes. But now I understand it was recognition. (100–1)

Yousef’s recollection offers an insight into the highly complicated, enigmatic tension of hybridization that occurs between the borders of the dichotomy of “We” versus “You.” He experiences physical and nonphysical trauma within the contact zone. He is exposed to traumas at home in the refugee camps and abroad where he faces exile. Abulhawa probes the personal conditions, circumstances, and psychological state of a character who tries to act and react to the sweeping influences imposed on him by the Other. She portrays Yousef’s moments of resolution, fear, and doubt when he encounters the consequences of the contact zone—the physical and

Mornings in Jenin: The Dawn of Post-Orientalism

61

nonphysical. The more we read the novel, the more we notice that Yousef resists any transformation in his personality or his principles. His motivation of keeping his identity emerges from his deep love of his country. Such a pure relationship to Palestine is attributed to different reasons: the circumstances he has passed through, the knowledge he has received from his parents, and his education. In this regard, Yousef is the only character who reports what happened to his father, Hasan: “Father has not been seen since the war” (104). The death of Hasan has had a massive effect on Yousef’s personality. Yousef experiences the consequences of “the physical contact” between the colonizer and the colonized. Yousef—as a character— exemplifies a genuine icon of a High-Oriental figure. Or, to put it in other words, he embodies an emerging trend found in the Post-Oriental setting: rebellion. Yousef’s actions and deeds foreground his patriotic ideologies and the pride in his principles. His deep love for his wife, Fatima, is an additional reason for his loyalty. His job as a teacher enhances his selfconfidence and gradually creates uniqueness and strength in his personality. As a prisoner in 1967, Yousef reports some of the horrible treatment he experienced: My body is stunned by the dialects of torture. I have passed the threshold of pain into numbness. I cannot see, for my eyes are swollen shut. I lie here, bound to myself with rope, and I think something or everything is broken. I think I will die. I think of Fatima, my love, and I can smell the jasmine in her hair. (101)

Living in these complicated circumstances has not made him leave the country. He seems to accept the abnormal conditions he faces, but at the same time, tries to push himself forward. Yousef loves Jenin and everything in it. For him, Jenin has become an integral part of his existence. For it, he endures both torture and humiliation; in camps, he sees these unbearable situations: Within six months, Yousef had endured torture and random beatings that had marked nearly every part of his body. He had been forced to strip before women and his students, had been made to kiss the feet of a soldier who had threatened to beat a small boy if Yousef did not kneel. (108)

Thus, Yousef becomes a good representation of a Post-Oriental figure experiencing a wide range of suffering, hegemonic acts, and hybridizing processes:

62

Chapter 1 Toughness found fertile soil in the hearts of Palestinians, and the grains of resistance embedded in their skin. Endurance evolved as a hallmark of refugee society. (108)

While giving a lecture at the University of Bethlehem, a student bursts into his classroom and shouts “The Jews are bombing Egypt! There is war!” (95). This experience shakes him to the core. So much so, that Yousef has joined the fedayeen 33 in the battle of Karameh to become a hero (121). Amal narrates some of the images of that battle: My brother Yousef was there, battling with incensed audacity in a manto-man compact that spread throughout Karameh… By noon, that day, Karameh was destroyed, but lightly armed bands of fighters held their ground and Israel recoiled, abandoning vehicles and tanks in a hasty retreat. (121)

From a chronological perspective, Amal was still in Jenin, during the battle of Karameh. She takes pride in her brother Yousef being a fighter against Israel. The rebellion of Yousef symbolizes resistance to hegemony. It exemplifies that Yousef prefers to keep holding on to his Palestinian character. Here, it is important to mention that the novel deals with the conquest of Palestine as a hegemonic act that confiscates the land and the identity of its inhabitants. In exile, Yousef experiences the impacts of the nonphysical contact zone, too. He begins to reorient his actions and life. When the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) leaves Lebanon in the 1980s and no other country but Tunisia welcomes members of the organization, Yousef goes to Tunisia with the PLO to assure his faith and devotion to his country. His love for his country has pushed him to stay with the resistance, even abroad. His most painful experience is the death of his wife, Fatima. Yousef finds out about the death of his wife through the Arab press: “I saw the photo in the Arab Press and first recognized the woman’s pale blue dress. Fatima’s favorite dishdashe, 34 worn thin in nearly two decades of use” (226; emphasis added). Yousef’s wife dies while she is pregnant. The little boy inside her is also killed. Such violence and oppression toward Yousef’s family strengthens his resolve to finish what he has started. Here are his words commenting on the death of his wife:

33

On “the resistance fighters,” see Abulhawa’s glossary (329–32). A dishdashe is a “traditional long robe, worn by both men and women.” See Abulhawa’s glossary (330). 34

Mornings in Jenin: The Dawn of Post-Orientalism

63

My beautiful wife. Mother of my Falasteen 35 and another from my loins; I’ll never know its name… I kiss her thigh and look upon our second child growing inside her. I can say I love her, but those careless, overused words would demean the immensity of what I feel. (240)

Abulhawa does not describe much about Yousef’s children. The only information the reader is presented with is the terrible death of his children. After the deaths of his wife and children, Yousef becomes indignant. He seeks revenge, or to put it in his words: “I seek vengeance, nothing more. Nothing less. And I shall have it. And you shall see no mercy” (241). Yousef’s words represent a relatable anger toward the Other.

“Who Was I, Indeed”: The Hybrid Amal I looked down at Aisha. She was sleeping. Her face was calm. Seraphic. Her sweet little rosy lips were slightly parted almost in a smile. I did not understand. My tears landed on her face, streaking the filth on her cheek. Her abdomen was a gaping hole cradling a small piece of shrapnel. The whole world squeezed itself into my heartbeat as I took the bloodied metal in my hand. So small and light, how could it have cut her open like that? How could it have taken a life with such ease? I rose to my feet still holding my dead baby cousin and the scrap of mental. (70)

Amal represents the main character in Mornings in Jenin. She is the main and omniscient narrator of the novel. This allows her to enter each character’s inner and outer lives, comment on them, and bring about some further notions, weaving the novel’s storylines together. What she does not mention herself is recounted by others, as in the following extract in which Muna states a Post-Oriental feature: My father was a professor who lectured the truth about King Abdullah’s dirty dealings with Golda Meir. The Arab leaders betrayed us just like the British. Sold us up the river. Sons of bitches. I’d kill every one of them if I could, from the Hashemites to the House of Saud. (147)

Lack of both trust and confidence in leaders widens the gap between the characters and the government in Post-Oriental settings. Amal and her companions find themselves alone in facing their lives and conditions. 35

There is no translation of the word “Falasteen” in Abulhawa’s glossary. Of course, one may argue that this is basically a proper name and a translation is not needed. However, I think that Abulhawa has chosen this name meticulously as it means “Palestine.” Killing Falasteen—in my opinion—implies killing the whole country.

64

Chapter 1

Like Yousef before her, Amal experiences both kinds of the contact zone and the hegemonic processes of hybridization, but there is a pivotal difference: Amal’s hybridization; that is, the processes imposed on her personality, life, and identity typify a specific Post-Oriental condition. While her siblings respond to hybridization quite radically, Amal tries to compromise in dealing with it. Therefore, throughout her life, she sometimes becomes a hovering figure— trying to amend or bring the two worlds (that of her childhood and that of her adult life) into a kind of equilibrium that allows her mind to be at peace. And in this very sense, Amal becomes a representation of a Post-Oriental figure who struggles to assert, confirm, and establish her identity within the turbulent circumstances and atmospheres of postcolonial conditions. Thus, Amal’s behaviors and actions typify a trend in this regard. The way she does this and how she manages to ponder over these worlds are presented in the novel. Amal has been forced to grow up prematurely. She “was born into the heat of July 1955” in “Jenin’s camp” and has experienced death from the very beginning of her life (50). Diverse obstacles have distinguished her life from others. From a chronological perspective, Amal was born after the catastrophe of 1948 and before the disaster of 1967. This means that the period she was born into is crucial. Her presence has made a change in her mother’s life and, as a female figure, Amal has added a spirit of female empowerment to the novel that gives her the sympathy of the reader. After the deaths of her parents, she grew up as an orphan in a refugee camp in Jenin in the West Bank. Here, she has experienced the real meaning of anguish; only “debris of the family” and a lost past: There was nothing left for me in Jenin but scraps of my childhood and the debris of the family lost forever, all of it packed beneath the boots and tank treads of patrolling Israeli soldiers. If I returned, unavoidable marriage awaited me in the traditional culture of Jenin’s refugee camp. My awful scar, my disfigured body, made me dread marriage, which would surely bring a new flavor of rejection and abandonment. (159)

Amal’s preexile embodies hegemonic processes and physical consequences from within the contact zone for a Palestinian girl who lives in these critical situations. The first disaster that she experiences is the death of her cousin, Aisha, who died as a result of an explosive detonating close to them (cf. 68– 9). This tragedy dramatically changes her life and dispels her little hope of a better life. Due to the deaths of her parents, Amal is taken to the orphanage, where she has to stay with the other orphans. The orphanage fundamentally changes her life, too. Growing up alone, this place symbolizes isolation and loneliness. These circumstances put a heavy burden on Amal.

Mornings in Jenin: The Dawn of Post-Orientalism

65

Yet, during this phase, an indispensable opportunity arises for Amal. While she lives in the refugee camp in Jenin, a scholarship “[is] offered [to Amal] by a group of wealthy Arab-Americans for Palestinian refugees” (175). This scholarship, which becomes a reality, is going to transform Amal’s life forever. Commenting on earning this opportunity, Amal narrates: “Who was I, indeed! A pathetic orphan, stateless and poor, living off charity. The American scholarship was a gift I had no right to refuse” (159). Amal’s words demonstrate the effect of the oppression she has experienced. Furthermore, this quote can be regarded as a good definition of the emerging generations of Post-Orientalism: first, there is a great deal of doubt put on the identity as she rhetorically asks, “Who was I, indeed”? Second, she plainly remarks that she is “stateless” (159). Amal really considers her condition as uncertain, harsh, and meaningless. She has neither name, nor country and home. Her existence is severely threatened. This sense of loss fuels Post-Orientalism in which characters are incapable of knowing where they are and what the future holds for them. Such a circumstance forms a heavy burden on the characters of Post-Orientalism. It paves the way for the characteristics of the new era. Amal’s third movement within Post-Oriental settings is in Philadelphia. Here, hybridization continues to affect and influence her. Indeed, travel and exile form an essential element of a Post-Oriental character. Belonging to a place becomes a nonphysical commitment and within this, the contact zone shifts accordingly. Amal hints at these conditions: FEELINGS OF INADEQUACY MARKED my first months in America. I floundered in that open-ended world, trying to fit in. But my foreignness showed in my brown skin and accent. Statelessness clung to me like bad perfume and airplane hijackings of the seventies trailed my Arabic surname. (169)

She begins to insert herself into the world that she previously rejected. Gradually, Amal finds her way in that world: [W]hat I recall most vividly of my first night in the United States was sleeping for the first time in a real bed. Not a mat or a bunk. I stretched my limbs in a large, soft sea of white linen and down soaking up the fatigue from my jet-lagged body. (171)

Nevertheless, the Jenin refugee camp and its tragic memories chase Amal to the U.S. She tellingly reveals that “like the scar beneath my hand, the past [is] still with me” (171). What she remembers in “West Philly, a ‘bad neighborhood’ where white people ordinarily did not go, especially after

66

Chapter 1

dark” (175), is solidly attached to her victimization. Fundamental changes to her personality occur frequently. Adopting a new name, Amy, helps her to easily integrate into the society. However, her foreign accent can still be heard. The new country brings with it a change of geography, culture, ethnicity, and perhaps religion. After the university hired her as a peer tutor, Amal worked in a convenience store in West Philly. It was harsh for her to work in the convenience store because she had to work late nights in a “bad neighborhood” (175). After her stay in the U.S., she returns to Lebanon: “I graduated in June with no plans but to go to Lebanon” (181). There, she meets her partner, Majid, who says: “I will love you and protect you for all my days” (202). With Majid, Amal experiences love for the first time. Expressing his love and admiration for her, Majid reveals that: ‘If anything happens, I promise to live at the hospital. Even Israel will not bomb a hospital,’ he reassured me, and pulled me close. ‘Before you know it we’ll be together raising our baby and maybe expecting another. I love you eternally. What we have made is made forever.’ (212)

But even this romantic and human element finds no sound truth in the milieu of the novel. Majid is killed when “an Israeli bomb leveled the al-Tamaria, and another leveled the adjacent building” (221). Amal has no experience with love or happiness: Majid. My love. The dreams he and I had dreamed circled around this new reality. The children we would have, the places we would go, the home we would build, the laughter we’d share and the songs we’d sing, the life we’d live, the love… oh the love we would love, danced like ring-around-the-rose, around the reality that Majid was killed. Killed. Ashes, ashes, all fall down. (222)

But Amal does not escape death either. Mornings in Jenin reports death as a routine daily event that a Post-Oriental figure unavoidably and inevitably experiences. The irony of Amal’s death is that, although she moves away from Palestine and Arab countries, on her return home she is again confronted with death. But here, death is not an ordinary or normal one; it is the act of killing, assassinating, and murdering. The novel ends with the following horrible image:

Mornings in Jenin: The Dawn of Post-Orientalism

67

AMAL WAS SHOT. Even as she spilled from her own body and her eyes were emptied of her, Amal died without knowing death. She died with the joy of having saved her daughter’s life. With contented thoughts and with love. She died in a whisper, as if death itself was humbled by the unfolding of a wounded heart and did not want to spoil that tenderness by announcing its presence. As if death had sung for her a lullaby. (311)

The deaths of Amal and Majid leave their only daughter, Sara, to survive on her own. The death of Amal is reported again through Abulhawa: “A year after her mother died, Sara was still in Jenin” (319), working “with a French non-governmental organization.” Her visit to Jenin was for two reasons: her nostalgia for Palestine and the job she obtained from the French nongovernmental organization (cf. Abulhawa 318–9). Mornings in Jenin is a typical representation of Post-Oriental settings. The tales of Abulheja’s family symbolically narrate the three stages of Orientalism: High Orientalism, Middle Orientalism, and Post-Orientalism. It traces the relationship between Arabs and Jews, on the one hand, and the relationship between Arabs and Westerners, on the other, reflecting on the mutual pain and agony. Moreover, it probes into the fundamental mutations the characters witness in terms of hegemonic acts put upon them and the hybridizing processes they are exposed to. It concentrates on the American role in such a relationship and how the hegemony of the U.S. overshadows the New East. In doing so, the novel reports different tales that recite historical and political events in the Middle East in the 20th and 21st centuries.

CHAPTER 2 THE RELUCTANT FUNDAMENTALIST

I reflected that I had always resented the manner in which America conducted itself in the world; your country’s constant interference in the affairs of others was insufferable. Vietnam, Korea, the straits of Taiwan, the Middle East, and now Afghanistan: in each of the major conflicts and standoffs that ringed my mother continent of Asia, America played a central role… American aid and sanctions—that finance was a primary means by which the American empire exercised its power. (Hamid 2008, 177)

Mohsin Hamid While I was visiting my mother in Jordan throughout the summer of 2015, she told me: “You are not the person who we know. You talk, behave totally differently. I think Germany has changed you into another person.” Initially, I did not believe my mother’s words, but later when Adela—my brother’s fiancée—came to visit us in Jordan, she expressed the same notion. Living abroad or the notion of travel is important, because it gives people the opportunity to be away from their usual life, circumstances, and norms, and hence they begin to think and see things differently. Traveling has diverse benefits to everyone. In addition to the increased knowledge that one gets during a residency abroad, one begins to gradually comprehend how people in other nations live. Of course, one needs to differentiate between those who travel willingly and those who are forced to leave their country—forms of exile and fleeing from persecution come to mind here. In this regard, the circumstances of people who leave their country willingly are better than those who are forced to leave. We have seen in Chapter 1, for instance, how the U.S. has completely changed Abulhawa—who left her own country— and her way of thinking. Likewise, Mohsin Hamid expands Abulhawa’s points. Speaking about The Reluctant Fundamentalist, a well-known political novel, Mukherjee observes that:

The Reluctant Fundamentalist

69

[The novel] addresses some of cultural globalization’s central issues, like the limits of cosmopolitan space and of the possibilities of the enactment of deep violence within it, transversal romance, and transnational capitalism. (2011, 121)

I agree with Mukherjee’s points on the novel. However, Mukherjee has not considered hybridity as an influential and prominent aspect. Growing up in an educated family, the author of the novel, Hamid, had a migrant/transnational childhood, living in three culturally distinct regions: Pakistan, the U.K., and the U.S. 36 In order to comprehend the novel, it is important to consider the background of the author. This helps to understand whether there are differences or similarities between the novel and the novelist. For instance, the genesis of Hamid embodies a world of two places, two cultures, and hence two beliefs. Hamid’s native influences (those which are related to his youth, language, culture, and identity) spring from Oriental regional and religious origins, namely Pakistan and Islam. Thus, during his early period, Hamid’s culture emerges from a combination of Oriental and Pakistani backgrounds. It is worth noting that his native language uses the Arabic alphabet (and it may be relevant to mention that the name of Mohsin Hamid consists of two Arabic words: Mohsin [benefactor] and Hamid [thankful]), and besides this, Islam has also played a significant role in adding a particular flavor to his cultural identity. These facets contribute to coloring the novel with a historical Islamic shadow that Changez, the protagonist, takes pride in. Hamid holds a pure Arabic name, but he has no real connections with Arabs. But one can argue that Arabic culture is founded in Islam and its practices and rituals. Hence, the religion is part of Pakistani language and culture. Hamid could be viewed as a typical Post-Oriental figure who is trying to find his way through the chaotic circumstances of the new cultural, political, and economic atmosphere of Post-Orientalism and its rapid mutations. Interestingly, he mentions how Changez is accused of being an Arab, although he is not one (cf. Hamid 2008, 133–5). It is interesting because Changez was incorrectly identified as an Arab and hence he was insulted: “Fucking Arab” (134) The Other has judged him so, because of two factors: his appearance and his language. Here, it is important to mention that Hamid picks up on ethnic similarities among Pakistanis and Saudi Arabians. For Hamid, Arabs and Pakistanis have cultural, historical, and social similarities. Hence, they are 36

“[H]e has spent about half of his life [in Lahore] and much of the rest in London, New York, and California” (Mohsinhamid.com, About Mohsin Hamid. N.p., n.d. Web).

70

Chapter 2

treated and represented the same way in literary work by the Other. In this regard, one may even argue that the terms “Islam” and “Arab” are mutually defined and exclusively connected. Focusing on the relationship between Pakistan and Arabs, Pande explains, “Pakistan’s ties with countries in the Middle East have symbolic, economic, and strategic aspects” (2011, 153). Many Pakistanis work in Saudi Arabia; they are cheap workers for the rich Arabs there. “As a supporter of the Palestine cause,” Pande continues, “and in order to burnish its anti-Israel credentials, Pakistan built close military ties with many Arab Muslim countries” (153). So, the relationship between both is authentic and significant. Yet, mature and late identities and cultures emulate Western ideologies and perspectives. This duality of Hamid’s personality is reflected in his works, and at the same time it adds a kind of attractiveness and uniqueness to the literary work he produces. Hamid tries to contextualize two opposite cultures and ideologies and puts them side by side. Being quite different and contrastive as they are in reality and in practice, Hamid targets them and in doing so he shows no hesitation in illustrating how they interact and eventually clash. In this very sense, writers like Hamid are ethnographers “whose cultural location ‘creates’ two audiences and faces two directions” (Ashcroft et al. 1989, 60). Indeed, living in California, London, and New York provides another dimension to his “location,” culture, and personality. It can be argued that Hamid might observe his life as a hovering experience between two significantly different and even clashing cultures, namely the Oriental one and the Occidental one. This produces a body of works which reveal these perspectives and tensions. The memories of his childhood and family heritage and backgrounds, and the impacts of early cultural influences and mature life indulged in Western worlds of education, language, and culture interact alarmingly in his works. For instance, when Changez was on vacation in Pakistan visiting his family, he was reminded by his mother to shave his beard: “‘Do not forget to shave before you go,’ my mother said to me” (Hamid 2008, 146). Such a message reflects how Hamid’s culture and origin are sometimes perceived as unlikeable, and he includes this scene to show how people from his culture try to adapt to, e.g., US American culture. He is a Pakistani writer and what he produces is a reflection of Pakistani culture. Similar to the Palestinian American writer Abulhawa, who focuses on Palestine, Hamid focuses on Pakistan and Lahore. For him, Lahore seems to be an icon that overshadows most of his works. Similarly, al-Hamad, in his novel The Wind of Paradise, diagnoses and focuses on the Saudi Arabian community, since he is a Saudi writer. In other words, we see that the

The Reluctant Fundamentalist

71

products of writing are highly influenced by the identity of the writer and their background. Hamid is the author of three works: Moth Smoke (2000), The Reluctant Fundamentalist (2007), and How to Get Filthy Rich in Rising Asia (2013). While the setting in his first and second novels is Lahore, Pakistan, he prefers not to disclose the setting of the third one. However, Lahore also lurks in the third novel. On this issue, Gordon comments: “it might be Lahore, but across rising Asia, there must be many cities like it” (2013, 2). From this point, it becomes clear that Hamid is engaged in political Oriental issues. He focuses on Pakistan and views it as a cornerstone of the Near Orient. As a political activist and writer, he highlights problematic political issues in the Near East. Hamid’s writings can be read as a kind of soliloquy that finds echoes in his past, present, and future. And especially in The Reluctant Fundamentalist, he probes into the controversial issues of how “the American empire exercised its power” (177). Hamid’s reaction to Occidental systems of power, at first glance, appears typical of the postcolonialist vantage point as he focuses on the topics of education, language, and culture. However, Hamid has also been a direct target of hybridity, which is the offshoot of hegemony and its direct consequence. Cultural mutations, social influences, and linguistic changes imposed on a Post-Oriental figure through direct and indirect connections with Occidental conditions and parameters ultimately lead to further consequences of hegemony. To put it more frankly, hegemony must continue in apparent but various forms and shapes—all of which can be observed as they represent a unifying version of hybridity. In this very sense, hegemony is more than a process, a situation, or a means to an end, but that end acknowledges no limits or borders. Indeed, hegemony triggers potentially infinite processes of hybridity. Being part of the hegemonic system and regime, the person cannot recognize themself as such; while being part of hegemonic processes, the person can recognize this. Changez versus the silent American is a typical example of this. Hybridity, when experienced in the context outlined above, renders any person uncertain and hesitant. They begin to question cultural values and personal beliefs, and eventually they will hold clashing ideologies and attitudes—exactly as Changez does. Thus, in The Reluctant Fundamentalist, these dimensions are clearly present. For instance, in terms of education, Changez was inspired by Princeton as he got the “feeling that [his] life was a film… and everything was possible” (Hamid 2008, 3). In other words, Hamid’s mouthpiece in the novel is Changez, whose personal life and societal conditions resemble those of Hamid’s autobiographical elements.

72

Chapter 2

To observe and analyze these details, the following section provides us with data and tools for doing so.

Nativity Versus Maturity As an Oriental figure, Hamid has been hybridized. Through his residency and education in both the U.K. and the U.S., he has been exposed to various patterns of hegemony, and gradual and perpetual hybridization. These processes are intellectual, psychological, cultural, and even linguistic. The hegemonic Occidental shadow presented in education and its tools, technology and its devices, and culture and its modern trends renders Hamid into a hybridized figure. It seems the novel is Hamid’s autobiography, and he conceptualizes a life of his own, filled with hybrid circumstances and hegemonic influences and paradoxes. He tries to figure out or reflect on how these hegemonic and hybrid parameters are going to dissolve, mingle, or even progress into something new and workable. Thus, through Changez, Hamid relives and reexperiences a dual life: the Oriental one of his Islamic culture and education, and the Occidental one of a Western (American) life. This duality is at the heart of the PostOriental figure who tries to keep his place and identity within the turbulent atmosphere of Post-Orientalism. Thus, Changez’s journey to the U.S. could be interpreted as a kind of an intellectual trip or pilgrimage that brings about so many debatable and unsettled issues concerning culture, education, and identity. Changez’s struggle through this journey therefore embodies Hamid’s own struggle. Despite their different names (Changez and Mohsin), the author and his main character have many similarities; for instance, both of them were born in Lahore, Pakistan and continued to move to the U.S. Similarly, both have graduated from Princeton University. This similarity means that Hamid himself (i.e., his past, present, and future) is represented in the novel through Changez. Similar to Abulhawa, Hamid also highlights political issues in The Reluctant Fundamentalist. These are the War on Terror, the tragic attacks of September 11 and their consequences, and the war in Afghanistan and its influences on the region. Hamid does not mention anything about Palestine or its people, nor anything about the Palestinian–Israeli conflict. However, he treats the U.S. as an empire or a hegemonic power; he shows the country lurking behind the global conflicts and wars. On the other hand and from a chronological perspective, although the events of Abulhawa’s story occur at the same time as the 9/11 attacks, she does not mention anything about them. Hamid shares, however, a mutual vision with Abulhawa concerning the American political system in the region, which is a highly critical one.

The Reluctant Fundamentalist

73

The body of writings of Post-Orientalism is influenced by these matters: the identity of the author and the circumstances of the novel itself. The changing of identity, the acquisition of other languages, questioning (native) cultural values, and adopting Western values characterize the PostOriental character, as the other novels in this study will further show. The novel then reminds us of Out of Place: A Memoir by Edward Said (1999). Said also conceptualizes his life within the parameters of postcolonialism. However, Said is seemingly unaware of how these perspectives have shaped his life, even his identity, whereas Changez acknowledges these perspectives and tries to act accordingly. This sense of being “out of place” fuels the instability of the Post-Oriental subject. Moreover, this phrase symbolizes the subject’s inherent nature, for it hints at the hybrid and hegemonic influences that render the subject as somehow lost, uncertain, and reluctant. These senses of reluctance and hesitation run from Said to Hamid, yet Hamid seems to insert a layer of self-reflection into his fiction that Said lacks in his essays. These tremendous circumstances of traumatic shifts of identity resulted from two main postcolonial phenomena, namely hegemony and hybridity. They exhibit themselves strongly and effectively in Post-Oriental settings and it can even be argued that Post-Orientalism comes into being (as a recent phenomenon) only when postcolonialism has reached its advanced stage (that is, after gaining stability and maturity). Thus, Changez comes under the spell of both the hegemonic consequences of direct and indirect Western intellectuality incarnated in scientific, technological, and various other disciplines, and the hybridity of his (Islamic) culture and his Western education that clash within his own life. In this very sense, The Reluctant Fundamentalist optimizes postcolonial parameters in PostOriental (new) situations and circumstances. It records faithfully how a figure like Changez is torn by these influences. Therefore, hybridity appears as an inescapable condition. It relates to the cultural, intellectual, and personal mutations Changez willingly and unwillingly receives. Hybridity also alters his sense of stability and renders him a person who questions everything, his own culture included. This is why the adjective in the title of the novel, “reluctant,” is very appealing here. Exposed to various and entirely different hegemonic influences, Changez’s identity becomes fragmented and scatters into inharmonious pieces. His journey to the U.S. represents a major turning point in his life. This journey is symbolic; it contextualizes his Oriental identity with that of the Occidental one, and it leads to a struggle to take place in his thoughts. Furthermore, it brings him into intimate, interactive, and communicative contact and context with the West and this increases his Post-Oriental

74

Chapter 2

settings; he reflects on how he can comprehend, and then compromise between, his past and present. The journey then represents the “contact zone” in its fullest and most comprehensible dimension. The contact zone exposes Changez to various patterns of hegemonic influences and forms that alter his personality and life, fundamentally changing his character. But the contact zone seems to be permanent; its impacts and consequences continue to affect Changez even though he returns to his own country. And in this manner, the contact zone goes beyond geography and territories and comes to include the emotional and phenomenological aspects of the colonial subject. Changez represents a Post-Oriental figure who tries to hold his ground during the unprecedented circumstances of Post-Orientalism. He becomes the mouthpiece of those intellectuals who are exposed to sweeping hegemonic and hybrid influences.

The Reluctant Fundamentalist: A Close Reading The Reluctant Fundamentalist is among several works that have engaged in writing about the tragic crises produced by the 9/11 attacks and their aftermath. The literary output of Hamid is a political one that comments on the complex relationship between the Orient and the Occident. With The Reluctant Fundamentalist, some Post-Oriental concepts influenced by postcolonial principles begin to change. Thus, the contact zone in the novel alters the story we know about the relationship between the Orient and the Occident. The contact zone includes direct, intellectual conflicts and even confrontations in which some individuals, not necessarily representative of the conflicting camps, encounter each other. But for the most part, those individuals take their claims and debates from politics. The 9/11 attacks constitute a momentary contact zone, the symbolic implications of which are played out later in the literary work. The new form of the contact zone brings the opposite camps side by side and lets them confront each other. Nevertheless, no positive and mutual understanding occurs. In The Reluctant Fundamentalist, the new form(s) of the contact zone is basically physical and threatening; the 9/11 attacks and the sequential reactions (in terms of the Afghanistan and Iraq wars) are but its forms. With this new contact zone, a new Orient emerges and comes under the various patterns of hegemony. But hegemony takes another form as well. Changez seems to have the idea that the Occidental influences are politicized and at the same time these influences overshadow his thinking. In other words, he is cognitively and psychologically influenced by the West. The novel portrays an intellectual figure who falls prey to the hegemonic acts. Emotionally, hegemonic acts are religious and social; but intellectually, they

The Reluctant Fundamentalist

75

are Western influences: media, education, technology, concepts, and politics. His inner conflicts, resulting from these hegemonic clashes, are typical for an Arab Muslim figure who witnesses the new Orient being painted and established. The title of the novel evokes a contradiction in the psychological makeup of the protagonist, the son of a prestigious and rich Pakistani family. Due to his familial circumstances, Changez was supposed to be more interested in the accumulation of wealth rather than religion and its fundamentals. The character of Changez is lucid right from the beginning of the novel and this is shown through his dialogue with the American visitor, as Changez described how he got to America. He also told the American man that his outstanding grades allowed him to get a visa to leave his country for America. In addition, the author begins to present to us a part of Changez’s personality and how curious he was when he sat with Jim, who looked at his resume as if he was glancing down at a diamond that “he intends neither to buy nor to sell” (Hamid 2008, 8). Besides, the author also introduces us to the Oriental character of Changez, who had a high-pitched voice and was not able to stay calm during his conversation with Jim; the relaxed American character did not aggressively talk back to Changez but gave him a calm smile instead. Furthermore, the personality of the Pakistani protagonist is a reflection of the character of an Oriental man who is provoked even by the least harsh words Changez felt uncomfortable when Jim said to him: “Are you on financial aid?… you must have really needed the money” (8-9) At that moment, Changez felt pride toward his wealthy Pakistani family. He talked about the exploits of his family, saying that his great-grandfather was a lawyer who donated money to help found a school for the Muslims of a Punjab province, and that both his grandfather and his father studied at a university in England. Changez takes great pride in his family and continues talking about the family’s house, which was built on an acre of land in the center of Gulberg, Lahore—one of the most expensive places. In addition, Hamid describes to the reader Changez’s experiences in Greece while spending one of his summer breaks there. The author gives us more details about the personality of Changez when he addressed his American guest saying: “Those pretty girls from the National College of Arts have clearly recaptured your attention. Or you are watching that man, the one with the beard far longer than mine” (25). Through this narrative, the author tells the reader that Changez is not only a bearded figure, but also that his beard is very long—as if Hamid tries to say that Changez is now a religious Pakistani man who has adopted the traditional approach of his country, or that he is masked by his beard. It is widely known that the

76

Chapter 2

prevailing custom in Pakistan is that all men grow beards, and since the beard is originally associated with the identity of the religious Muslims, the author tries to emphasize this idea in the text. Hamid tries to explain the reality of the Muslim by analyzing the personality of Changez through many of his behaviors that in fact do not reflect the personality of the real Muslim, but the author wants to show the readers that they are dealing with a humane figure who has different aspirations and desires. And Changez, when talking with his American guest about the pretty Greek girls, expressed the feelings of a young man who yearned for a relationship with one of them, and it is this legitimate humane relationship within the principles and norms that bring together a young man and a girl, regardless of being a Muslim, Christian, or otherwise. Moreover, when Changez talks about his long beard, he seeks to garner the attention of his American visitor in order to get his reaction or to know his views concerning the bearded Muslims. In doing so, Changez reveals an internal feeling that drives him to escape far from the reality that he lived in his country and still lives in the West. In other words, the beard is not necessarily an indication that the one who has it is a Muslim. Nevertheless, Hamid presents us with a humane picture about the relationship between a man and a woman in Western society, as he compares this relationship with one in a Muslim country, and this situation is described during one of Changez’s trips to a Greek island with an American girl, Erica. She took off her clothes on the beach and bared her breasts to the sun. Changez stared at her, and her appearance made a deep impression on him, as Changez came from an Eastern Islamic society where such behavior is unheard of. Through this scenario, Hamid tells the reader how Changez reacted to this event. The author also presents one of the most beautiful pictures that can be given about the Eastern man, as Changez was not upset when seeing Erica’s breasts. Rather, he was embarrassed and his cheeks went red: “I blushed” (27). When Erica took off her top to expose her breasts to the sun, the reader feels as if the author wants to unify the human sensations concerning the relationship between male and female, when he tells us that Changez was not opposed to Erica’s nudity on the beach; this is something that would not occur in Pakistan or other countries in the East. Thus, instead of showing the reader that Changez is annoyed about this nudity, the author shows him as a shy man watching her lying on the beach under the sun. Therefore, Hamid here provides us with a surprising picture of an Eastern Muslim man who admired his Western girlfriend rather than blaming her or ending their relationship. The above-mentioned behavior of Changez may be attributed to his desire to set himself free from the restrictions of his conservative society, in which relationships are

The Reluctant Fundamentalist

77

completely different from those in Western societies. Plus, when Erica asked Changez to go swimming with her, he never hesitated to go and it was evident how impressed Changez was when he followed her, watching “the muscles of her lower back tense delicately to stabilize her spine” (27). Through this, the author highlights how Changez admired Erica. In addition, Changez tried to get closer to Erica by drawing her attention. Here, he offered his condolences when he learned that her boyfriend Chris had passed away last year. He considered that this might be a good opportunity for him to gain Erica’s trust and to win her as a lover and friend, and this is evidence of Changez’s desire to begin to integrate into Western society. The author tells us this through Changez’s relationship with Erica, which is one that does not even go so far as holding hands, of course: “Nothing physical happened between Erica and me in Greece; we did not so much as hold hands” (33). But it is no secret that Changez was fond of Erica and this is clear when he says: “I was content: I had struck up an acquaintance with a woman with whom I was well and truly smitten” (34). Furthermore, the author clarifies the sensitivity of the sexuallyrepressed Oriental man when Changez says to his American visitor: “That bearded man—who even now, sir, continues from time to time to attract your wary gaze—is himself unable to stop glancing over his shoulder at those girls, fifty yards away from him. Yet they are exposing only the flesh of the neck, the face, and the lower three-quarters of the arm! It is the effect of scarcity; one’s rules of propriety make one thirst for the improper” (29). Thus, Hamid wants to shed light on the characteristics of Oriental society as a conservative community in which customs and traditions prevail. In addition, Hamid provides the reader with a representation of Eastern society that may be inaccurate. On the shores of Lebanon, we find women half-naked despite the fact that Lebanon is an Eastern Islamic country. We also notice the gradual development of people coming from Lebanon such as Ziad in the novel The Wind of Paradise, while Saudi Arabia is considered a close-minded country where you can barely see a woman’s eyes when talking to her. However, the author does not want to strip Changez of his Islamic concepts and origins, especially the concept of the Muslim woman who preserves her pride and dignity as one of the most important aspects of the Islamic faith, so we find that if a woman is harassed in a Muslim country by men, then everyone who hears about the harassment rushes to rescue her and punishes the harassers. So, we see that Hamid presents one of the traditional Oriental pictures of Eastern society when saying: “If a woman is by a man, she has the right to appeal to the brotherly instincts of the mob,

78

Chapter 2

and the mob is known to beat men who annoy their sisters” (25). It is absolutely forbidden for men to harass Eastern women, and the consequences will be very grave for those who try. Hamid again addresses the subject of the beard and emphasizes it as one of the stereotypes and basic images that might be misunderstood in Western society. Perhaps the author tries to say that the beard in Eastern society, especially in the new Orient in the 21st century, is a symbol of militancy and fundamentalism in view of the terrorist attacks against the West. Besides, we have noticed in other novels how each author addresses the subject of the beard. We find, for example, that al-Hamad shows the figures of his novel who want to destroy America to be beardless men who are ready to fight, and that the beard is shaved off to conceal their religious Islamic identity. On the other hand, we see that Darweesh in Mornings in Jenin grows a beard and no one is bothered by it. It is necessary to mention that every novel is linked to a specific time period, and the incidents of Mornings in Jenin take place in the prosperous East at the beginning of the 20th century when the Orient was a source of inspiration and knowledge, while other novels are set in the New East era in the 21st century, in which the Orient is described as a land of ruin and destruction. Furthermore, Changez addresses his American visitor saying: “you seem puzzled by this—and not for the first time. Perhaps you misconstrue the significance of my beard, which, I should in any case make clear, I had not yet kept when I arrived in New York. In truth, many Pakistanis drink” (61). This text carries three messages in the words of Changez to the reader: the first is that the American does not have to be afraid of Changez’s beard, even if it is long, as it is irrelevant to religious fundamentalism. Changez clearly and directly asks his American guest not to misunderstand his long beard. The author takes the hand of the reader to clarify all aspects related to the issue of keeping beards for Muslims. Through a dialogue between Changez and his American visitor, the Pakistani seems to reveal a hidden desire to show his face without a beard, seemingly looking for justifications to get rid of it forever. The second message is about Changez when he does not grow a beard upon his arrival in New York. The author implies that Changez is well aware of the level of verbal and physical harm that may be directed at him if he is suspected of being a fundamentalist or coming from a country where fundamentalism is propagated. Finally, the third message tries to highlight a Western lifestyle to Pakistanis, making his visitor feel reassured, trying to present the Muslim community of Pakistan as a safe and open society. We know this when Changez explicitly says to him: “In truth, many Pakistanis

The Reluctant Fundamentalist

79

drink” (61), indicating that he need not worry about ordering alcohol in Changez’s presence. It is contradictory here, when the Pakistanis keep their beards, following the prophet Muhammed, and that many of them drink alcohol. Perhaps the previous scene reminds us of the Lebanese Ziad in the novel The Wind of Paradise when Muhammed criticizes him for drinking wine, having relationships with women, and shaving his beard—so Ziad grows his beard and stops seeing women, but he does not stop drinking alcohol nor listening to music. As a result, it is clear that both authors, Hamid and al-Hamad, are fully aware that stereotypes about the Orient are still rooted in Western thought, even if they are presented only superficially. It is worth mentioning here that Changez seems naive in giving his three messages to the American visitor, because this is contradictory to his culture. Plus, the author might be trying to say that this meeting in the cafe between Changez and the American man is nothing but a spontaneous occurrence. In addition, Changez does not convince the American visitor of his arguments. Moreover, Changez recounts to the American another incident, when he visited Erica’s family and her father asked him about the situation in Pakistan, saying: “Economy’s falling apart though, no? Corruption, dictatorship, the rich living like princes while everyone else suffers. Solid people, don’t get me wrong. I like Pakistanis. But the elite has raped that place well and good, right? And fundamentalism. You guys have got some serious problems with fundamentalism” (63–4). The author depicts an image of the new Orient where ruin and disaster overwhelm the lives of people, and it is undermined by serious fundamentalist problems, in addition to chronic political issues. It is as if Hamid says that the East is like a sick man who suffers from illnesses and aches, and that it has become a land of ruin and fundamentalism. In this regard, it must be emphasized that both Hamid and al-Hamad emphasize the idea that the problem comes from us ourselves, that is, from the East itself. It should be noted here that Changez feels offended by the words he hears from Erica’s father but his upbringing does not allow him to object to her father’s words. The author tells the reader that Changez’s acceptance of what Erica’s father says, although reluctant, reflects the validity of these comments about the East. In subsequent lines, we see that Changez answers Erica’s father by saying: “Yes, there are challenges, sir, but my family is there, and I can assure you that it is not as bad as that” (63). It is clear that Hamid tells the reader that although Changez is a superficial and naive man when telling stories, he is also smart and chooses his words intelligently when he does not say we have many problems but rather: “there are challenges” (63). However, Changez does not give any examples or provide

80

Chapter 2

any evidence to support his words, and therefore he may appear deceitful. This is because Erica’s father knows exactly what happens in Pakistan and the East in general. This is confirmed when Erica finds out that Changez has lied and so she addresses him: “I hope you’re not still upset about what my dad said” (64), to which he replies, “Of course not, not in the least” (64). Then Erica laughs and says to him: “You’re a terrible liar. You’re touchy about where you come from. It shows on your face” (64) and then, “I think it’s good to be touchy sometimes” (64)—as if the author wants to say two things. The first is that Erica begins to accept and admire the personality of Changez; and the second is that the Eastern man is a sensitive person by nature, and perhaps this is attributed to the fact that he is preoccupied by thinking that he might be condemned even before uttering a single word. Through the figure of Changez, Hamid takes the reader to Manila in the Philippines, where he is sent to work with his company crew. Furthermore, Changez gives details of events that take place here, telling us that the Filipino citizens are poor people, and this becomes apparent when he leaves the airport to go to the hotel and sees people wearing dirty underwear. Interestingly, Changez asks his American visitor: “Have you been to the East, sir?” (73), which the American man seems to confirm. Changez takes this answer as an invitation to keep talking and says: “Since you have been to the East, you do not need me to explain how prodigious are the changes taking place in that part of the globe” (73). Perhaps the author is trying to say that the American guest is aware of the East and its secrets. Moreover, the author tries to find a balance between both groups in which Changez represents the Eastern world (the Orient) and the American represents the Western world (the Occident). Changez asserts that his stay in the Philippines has never dissuaded him from communicating with his family in Pakistan, nor has it kept him from keeping in touch with Erica in New York. Therefore, the author suggests that the most important people for Changez are his family and Erica, although his emotional relationship with them has not been broached. Changez finds himself adoring Erica, but this may be a one-sided love because, as the author indicates, Erica still loves Chris who passed away before she met Changez. Then, Hamid takes the reader to the luxury hotel bedroom where Changez watches TV. Suddenly, he sees breaking news that “one—and then the other—of the twin towers of New York’s World Trade Center collapsed” (83)—as if the author wants to tell the reader that the literary narration has now become a purely political one. Changez tells his American guest how happy he is to see the destruction, as if the author is saying that Changez, who has grown up in the East, has been brought up with the ideology of

The Reluctant Fundamentalist

81

hatred. Besides, the author only mentions that Changez does not know the secret of his happiness and he views the smile on his lips as an “initial reaction” (83) to what has happened. In addition, it is quite clear that when the author tells the reader about Changez’s reaction, it is considered a deliberate narration carrying a message—as if the author is saying there is grudge and hatred among the Eastern Muslims toward the infidel Christians from the West. Nevertheless, the author could have given other details, such as the loud parties of the staff in Manila, instead of talking about Changez’s reaction to watching thousands of innocent people die in this way. It is clear that this narration, which is presented by Changez, has made his American guest feel upset, which we know when Changez says to him: “Your disgust is evident” (83). Hamid and al-Hamad share the same point of view regarding the doctrine of hatred toward the Other. We see that those responsible for the 9/11 attacks, the figures of the novel The Wind of Paradise, prepare themselves and finalize their arrangements to fight the United States of America (cf. Chapter 4). In this regard, it must be mentioned that there is no significant difference between Changez in The Reluctant Fundamentalist, and Ziad or Muhammed in The Wind of Paradise. We see that Changez’s smile—when the Twin Towers collapse— represents the Takbir of Muhammed, Ziad, and Abd al-Rahman. The smile of Changez at that moment is a clear acceptance of what has happened, and if Changez was not in the hotel room that night in Manila, he may—similar to the scene at the end of The Reluctant Fundamentalist—shout “$OOƗKX akbar… $OOƗKXDNEDU!” What supports this idea is that Changez pretends to be unhappy with what has happened in the U.S., telling his colleagues: “I feigned the same shock and anguish I saw on the faces around me” (84). So, the author presents an evil Eastern figure who is filled with hatred toward the West, and it cannot be confirmed what type of ideology Changez adheres to, except that he declares “the symbolism of it all, the fact that someone had so visibly brought America to her knees” (83) makes him pleased. Turning to the topic of fundamentalism, we find that the figures in The Reluctant Fundamentalist are hesitant. In other words, these figures are not authentic fundamentalists, and this may be due to the societal formation of Pakistan, as fundamentalism there has become a reaction to the interventions of the U.S. in the East. As for the fundamentalism mentioned in The Wind of Paradise, it is authentic because the people are convinced of it from their earliest age, and because its source is the doctrine of Al Wala’ Wal Bara’. 37 Moreover, Hamid succeeds in giving us an insightful glimpse into Changez’s knowledge that he is now under suspicion before arriving in New York, when he says explicitly: “I was aware of being under suspicion” 37

Cf. my analysis on The Wind of Paradise in this study (Chapter 4).

82

Chapter 2

(85). So, it is as if the author detaches Changez from all the American characteristics—that is, Changez is not “the product of an American university” (84), but he is now a questionable Pakistani Muslim. Through Changez, Hamid presents to the reader a model close to the Eastern community in Pakistan, when the character describes some of the tasks he undertook for his family using “a fake motor vehicle learner’s permit” (89). Therefore, the author is saying that the lifestyle of the East is simple, but also somehow corrupt and commitment-free, when Hamid mentions many details of Eastern society and, in his own words, says that Changez was raised in a simple Eastern society. Moreover, Hamid goes on to describe how Changez feels remorse when he returns to New York and sees how the flags of the American nation fly all over the city; we understand this through the words of Changez when he says: “They reminded me of my own uncharitable—indeed, inhumane—response to the tragedy, and I felt from them a constant murmur of reproach” (90). And hence, the author shows that Changez is in a state of conflict between the unconscious and the conscious—his subconscious shows an unexplained aggression toward the Western world and the U.S., while his consciousness condemns, denounces, and even rejects what happened. Consequently, we come to the conclusion that we are dealing with an unstable Oriental figure and the author’s description of him is fitting: “reluctant.” Sometimes we find that Changez belongs to Eastern society and is proud of his grandparents and their glories, but at other times he tries to act as if he is a real American (cf. 74). This clearly indicates that the author presents to us a hesitant and reluctant figure who does not know exactly what he wants. The most prominent thing that must be addressed is the role of Changez in Erica’s life after the tragic attacks of September 11, 2001. We find that Changez gladly listens to Erica’s words and even comforts her. Besides, the author succeeds in giving us a literary image when Erica says to Changez: “Most nights I have to take something to help me rest” (92)— so this indicates the depth of her love for Chris. In response, Changez tells her a story about his aunt’s husband, saying: “He died three months later” (92), i.e., after their marriage. Thus, Hamid states that human feelings have nothing to do with East or West, for they are innate and universal and unite humanity. Changez succeeds in grabbing Erica’s attention and sees her staring and laughing with him. She says: “I missed you, it’s good to have you back” (92). What is most striking here is that the author presents Changez as a person who is very keen to carefully choose his deeds and reactions, for fear that his relationship with Erica might be ended: “I was afraid any movement on my part might dislodge our connection” (92–3).

The Reluctant Fundamentalist

83

On the other hand, the author succeeds in presenting wine as a desirable drink in the East and among Muslims, despite its prohibition. We see Changez sitting with his American visitor in the heart of the Islamic East, Lahore, drinking wine. Changez tells his guest how he used to hang out in New York and drink champagne and wine with his girlfriend Erica until they became “pleasantly drunk” (93). In this regard, the following comparison must be noted: while Hamid, in his novel The Reluctant Fundamentalist, presents alcohol as habitual and acceptable lifestyle in the East, al-Hamad, in his novel The Wind of Paradise, uses wine for other purposes. The first of these is to use wine as a tool to conceal the fears of the characters in his novel before carrying out the 9/11 attacks, and they also go to discotheques and drink alcohol in order to keep all the fears away. The second use of wine by al-Hamad is to show that alcohol is forbidden for Muslims, so he describes Muhammed—the main character in his narration— advising Ziad, Abd al-Rahman, and the rest of the group to stop drinking alcohol. So, al-Hamad highlights that a Muslim must not drink alcohol because it is religiously prohibited. As for the third use of wine, al-Hamad presents alcohol as a savior from sadness and anger, similar to cigarettes. The following passage is quoted from the novel The Wind of Paradise, telling us how Sumayya reacts to the news of the death of Muhammed Atta, who was the pilot of one of the planes that hit the North Tower of the World Trade Center: ˱ΎϋϮοϮϣ΃ήϘΗϲϫϭˬ΢ο΍ϭ˷ΫάϠΘΑΎϬΗέΎΠϴγϥΎΧΩΚϔϨΗϲϫϭˬ˯ϭΪϬΑΎϬΗϮϬϗϒθΗήΗΔ˷ϴϤγΕάΧ΃ ϦϣήθϋϱΩΎΤϟ΍ˬ˯ΎΛϼΜϟ΍ϡϮϳϦϣϦϳΰΤϟ΍ΡΎΒμϟ΍ϚϟΫϲϓϙέϮϳϮϴϧϲϓΙΪΣΎϣϞϴλΎϔΗϦϋ ΖΘϔϟΓΩΎΣΔΧήλΎϬϨϋΕέΪλˬΎϬϨϣέϮόηϥϭΪΑϭ΢ϴδϤϟ΍ΩϼϴϣϦϣΪΣ΍ϭϭϦϴϔϟ΃ϡΎόϟˬήΒϤΘΒγ Ϧϋ ϒϗϮΗ Ϊϗ ΎϬΒϠϗ ϥ΄Α ΖδΣ΃ϭ ˬΎϬ˷ϔϜΑ ΔΧήμϟ΍ ϥΎϤΘϛ ΎϬΘϟϭΎΤϣ ϢϏέ ˬΎϬϟϮΣ ϦϴδϟΎΠϟ΍ ϩΎΒΘϧ΍ ϲϫϭˬΎϫΪϳϲϓΰΘϬϳϥΎΠϨϔϟ΍άΧ΃ϭˬΎϬΗέΎΠϴγϥΎΧΪΑ ˷κ˷ϐΗΕΩΎϛϭˬΓϮϘΑϖϔΨϳάΧ΃ϢΛˬϥΎϘϔΨϟ΍ ΖδΣ΃ΎϬϧ·ϞΑ«ϪϓήόΗϢόϧ«ϢϫΪΣ΃ϑήόΗΎϬϧ·«ΔϴϠϤόϟΎΑ΍ϮϣΎϗϦϳάϟ΍ήθϋΔόδΘϟ΍˯ΎϤγ΃΃ήϘΗ Ϫϴϟ·ΖϓήόΗϱάϟ΍ϱήμϤϟ΍ΏΎθϟ΍«ΪϤΤϣ«ϮϫϪϧ·«ΔϴοΎϤϟ΍ϡΎϳϷ΍ϝϼΧΔϔϴϨϋΔϔρΎόΑϩϮΤϧ ˷ Ϫϧ΃ϦϣΕΪϛ΄ΗϰΘΣˬΔΜϟΎΛϭΔϴϧΎΛΓήϣϢγϻ΍Ε΃ήϗΖϧήΘϧϹ΍ϲϓΔηΩέΪϟ΍ϑήϏήΒϋϡΎϋϞΒϗ ϻϲϫϭˬΓϮϘΑΎϬμΘϤΗΕάΧ΃ ΓΪϳΪΟΓέΎΠϴγΖϠόη΃ϭˬ˱ΎΒϧΎΟΓΪϳήΠϟ΍ΖϘϟ΃ϚϟΫϲϓϚηϻϮϫ ΎϬϓϮΟϲϓΎϬΘϘϟ΃ϲϨϴΗέΎϤϟ΍Ϧϣ˱Ύγ΄ϛΖΒϠρϪϠϛΎϫΪδΟΰϬΗΕάΧ΃ΓΪϳΪηΔθϋήΑϢ˷ ϜΤΘϟ΍ϊϴτΘδΗ ϝϭϷήϤΨϟ΍ΏήθΗϲϫϭΎϬΣΎΘΠϳΐϧάϟΎΑΖδΣ΃˯ϭΪϬΑΎϬΑήθΗΕάΧ΃ϯήΧ΃ΖΒϠρϭˬΓΪΣ΍ϭΔόϓΩ ϯϮϗ΃ΔϣΪμϟ΍ΖϧΎϛΪϘϓˬΔϣϭΎϘϤϟ΍ϊτΘδΗϢϟΎϬϨϜϟϭˬΕ΍ϮϨγήθϋϦϣήΜϛ΃άϨϣΎϬϣϼγ·ΪόΑΓήϣ  ΔϨΠϟ΍΢ϳέˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗˬ 277 -276)ϞϤΘΤΗΎϤϣ Sumayya quietly sipped her coffee and blew the smoke of her cigar with an evident pleasure, as she read a topic detailing what happened in New York on that gloomy morning of Tuesday, September 11th, for the year two thousand and one after the birth of Christ. Without feeling it, there was a high-pitched shout from her that drew the attention of those sitting around, despite her attempt to stifle the screaming with her palm, and she felt that her heart had stopped beating then pounding so hard, and she

84

Chapter 2 almost got choked with the smoke of her cigarette, and the cup started shaking in her hand, while she was reading the names of the nineteen people who implemented the attacks… she knows one of them… yes, she knows him… and she even felt a great affection for him in the past days… he is Muhammed… the Egyptian young man whom she met one year ago via “chat rooms” on the Internet. She double and triple read the name, until she made sure that he is, and there is no doubt about that. She throws the newspaper aside, lights a new cigarette and sucks it hard, and she cannot control a tremor that begins to shake her entire body. She orders a glass of martini and drinks it all at once, and then she orders another one and starts drinking it quietly. She feels guilty for drinking wine for the first time after her conversion to Islam for more than ten years ago, but she cannot resist, because the shock was much stronger than she could bear. (al-Hamad 2007, 276–7)

Al-Hamad presents a figure who is supposed to be religious and highly intellectual, which is evident through Sumayya’s reading, but—at the same time—she considers alcohol as a salvation, even though she stopped drinking 10 years ago after her conversion to Islam. It is worth mentioning here that al-Hamad presents Sumayya’s annoyance, anger, and tension about a man whom she knew online, but she does not pay any attention to the thousands of victims who lost their lives in that terrorist act. Therefore, al-Hamad implies that the West has become completely isolated from the East and that every nation cares only for itself—although Sumayya embraced Islam 10 years ago. We consider this as an indication that belonging to the Middle East is often based purely on a religious affiliation, and we note that Sumayya has drunk a martini in order to calm her grief over the death of one person, ignoring the nation to which she belongs. Sumayya also feels as if the waiter who brings the martini to her is like Jesus, and as if the martini is nothing but a sacred drink coming from the holy hands of Christ, containing calmness, serenity, and tranquility. Accordingly, the waiter plays the role of a savior for Sumayya from this terrible situation that she experiences, which means that she is a superficial, unstable person and has neither awareness about the past, nor a clear vision for the present or the future. Hamid presents, in the words of Changez, some of the prevailing behaviors in Eastern society, as in the Arab American community, such as arranged marriage. It is clear when Changez says about his aunt “Her marriage was arranged” (Hamid 2008, 92) that the existing behaviors in Eastern Arab or Islamic communities in the U.S. are nothing but behaviors exported from the East. We find that Erica is pleased with the stories and jokes that Changez tells her, so she says to him: “I love it when you talk about where you come from, you become so alive” (93). Thus, Changez

The Reluctant Fundamentalist

85

succeeds, even temporarily, in drawing Erica’s attention to the place he belongs. Nevertheless, Changez states: “I felt in the strength of her ongoing attachment to Chris the presence of a rival—albeit a dead one—with whom I feared I could never compete” (93). Thus, this reflects the superficiality and naivety of the Eastern personality—as if the author insists that by giving such a narration, the personality of Changez as a reluctant character will be highlighted. Additionally, Changez tells his American guest about private things that he is not supposed to talk about. For instance, Changez tells him how he visited Erica, and when it got late, she asked him to stay next to her, before she unwittingly fell asleep and Changez watched “the gentle rise and fall of her chest as she breathed” (96). After that, Changez “covered her with a sheet and tossed a pillow on the floor” (96) for himself. The author tells us that the Eastern man needs love and tenderness of the female despite the societal and religious restrictions imposed on him, and therefore Changez has a thirst for Erica’s passion and compassion—so Hamid paves the way for Changez to start a relationship that no one knows about. Hamid presents Changez as a person who does not know, and is not able to know, himself, as he tells his American guest how he accompanied Erica to “fundraisers for the victims of the World Trade Center, dinners at the houses of her friends” (97), suggesting that Changez is a hybrid and also integrated into American society. This idea is highlighted by the pride that Changez exhibits when saying: “my Princeton degree and Underwood Samson business card were invariably sufficient to earn me a respectful nod of approval” (97)—this statement completely contradicts what Changez tells his American guest at the beginning of the novel about his grandparents and their glories in Pakistan, as if he does not know exactly which society he belongs to. Thereafter, the author takes the reader back to the beginning of the relationship between Changez and Erica, when Changez tells his American guest that Erica filled him “with [sexual] desire.” However, he says: “it was the shyness and awe that accompany first love” (99)—as if the author is saying that the Eastern Muslim person is innocent and shy and has no extraor premarital affairs. However, Changez remains conservative with Erica, trying not to lose her by any frivolous or reckless behavior, to the extent that he is ready to hear Erica’s intimate stories about Chris. Changez asks her to tell him about Chris and “how they had come to kiss, how they had come to make love […] ‘You really want to know?’ she asked. I replied that I did, and so she told me” (103). In summary, we see that Changez is ready to sign his death certificate, provided that he does not lose his girlfriend whom he loves unconditionally. However, Changez does not find it embarrassing to

86

Chapter 2

tell Erica that he “had had next to nothing in the way of sex” (104), thinking that it may in fact attract the attention of the Western girl. Hamid takes the reader back to the period that follows the events of the 9/11 attacks, when Changez describes his dialogue over the phone with his family in Pakistan. During this phone call, Changez’s mother is “frightened,” his brother is “angry,” and his father is “stoical,” assuring Changez that “this would all pass” (107). Therefore, the author suggests that Changez’s father is knowledgeable about the political conflict between the East and the West, and he is fully aware that things will eventually settle down and improve. Thus, Hamid highlights the role of the father in the Eastern family in steering the matters of the family. However, the author continues describing the psychological state that Changez goes through at this difficult time. Wainwright, Changez’s friend at Underwood Samson, notices anxiety and panic on the latter’s face and asks him: “Are you worried, man?” (107)—as if Hamid is suggesting that the world before 9/11 is not the same post 9/11. Changez, though, tries to hide his fear and anxiety by answering: “No, Pakistan had pledged its support to the United States, the Taliban’s threats of retaliation were meaningless, my family would be just fine” (107). Consequently, Hamid succeeds in presenting Changez as a person who fully understands the changes that take place, and that his main concern is to forbid anyone from spreading rumors about him, in order to keep his job—as if Changez is saying that we, as Pakistanis, stand with America in the face of terrorism, and that revenge against those who are part of this terrorist act is an urgent imperative. Hamid reinforces this notion through Changez saying: “I ignored as best as I could the rumors I overheard at the Pak-Punjab Deli: Pakistani cabdrivers were being beaten to within an inch of their lives” (107). Nevertheless, the author presents Changez as a twitchy character who lives in two different worlds: the first is the Western world or, as I called it above, the world of consciousness, and the other is the Eastern Islamic world, which is the world of unconsciousness in which he grew up. In this respect, the author gives the reader a sense of the life of Changez. In late October, when Changez returns home after midnight, he turns on the television to watch a sitcom and suddenly sees “a newscast with ghostly night-vision images of America troops dropping into Afghanistan for what was described as a daring raid on a Taliban command post” (113). As a result, Changez becomes uncharacteristically outraged; he sits on the chair and drinks three glasses of whiskey to calm himself. Thus, the author provides two contradictions of Changez: the first is that he sympathizes with Afghanistan from national and brotherly perspectives, given that Afghanistan

The Reluctant Fundamentalist

87

is a Muslim neighbor of Pakistan, and the second is about drinking whiskey, which is behavior that is completely incompatible with the previously mentioned sympathy. Nevertheless, Hamid succeeds in unifying the humane feelings of the Pakistani Changez toward his Muslim brothers in Afghanistan. This reaction might be from an Eastern or national perspective, but it cannot be situated in religious motivation, because his reaction completely contradicts Islam, as drinking whiskey is Western behavior, not Eastern Islamic behavior. Moreover, if Changez’s anger was religiously motivated, we would have found him praying for his brothers who are suffering severely from injustice—or at least what he understands it to be at that moment. Changez’s feelings regarding the events may be due to the fact that he gets drunk and no longer separates fact from fiction, because, on the next day, he says to himself: “all these world events were playing out on a stage of no relevance to my personal life” (114). Hamid thus presents Changez as a selfish man who never sees further than his own self-interest, and the author succeeds in denying the religious fundamentalism of Changez when he meets Erica and takes her to his house when she feels anxious and sad. He takes her to his bed and they hug each other, after which Erica refuses to make love with him. However, Changez persuades Erica by saying: “Pretend I am him” (119), referring to Chris, and then he again urges her to do so, repeating: “Pretend I am him” (120). After that, they have sex and “her eyes are shut” (120). The author shows that Erica categorically rejects having a new man in her life after the passing of Chris, and that having sex with Changez that night is an exceptional but beautiful incident. Her affection toward Changez is evident when, on the next day, Erica tells him: “You’re a kind person, it sounds like a stupid thing to say but it’s true” (121). Furthermore, Hamid insists on emphasizing the chastity of Changez that is emanating from his Eastern origin, which is clear when Changez says to his American guest: “I felt at once both satiated and ashamed” (121). In addition, the author tries to strike a chord with all young men living in a gender-segregated society, who hardly ever see women other than their mothers, sisters, and aunts, and they may even be unable to describe their female cousins since it is forbidden for the sexes to mingle. So, unsurprisingly, Changez is fond of Erica, for she represents a beautiful new world that he has not known before, and this is exactly what the author wants to show us. Therefore, Changez intends to develop their relationship, and Hamid tries to show the changes that occur in the psychology or personality of Changez who grew up in a closed society. But now, for the first time he finds himself in a society that shows equality between women

88

Chapter 2

and men, even relating to sexual relations, and protects the rights of each gender in this regard. It is noteworthy that traditionally an Eastern man does not enter into a relationship with a girl who has had previous relationships with other men, and nor does he accept marrying a girl who is not a virgin. However, Changez is eager to have sex with Erica, selling out the aforementioned Eastern beliefs and traditions, and tries to kiss her, as he now lives in an open Western society. He thinks about the frequent occurrence of sexual relations between males and females, as something that is accepted as normal in Western societies. Erica’s surprise at Changez’s attempt to kiss her is possibly due to two reasons: first, she remembers her beloved Chris, and, second, she is in an emotional confrontation with a young Oriental man who is approaching her without any precursor that might lead him to kiss her, and so she might be surprised at his behavior which is prohibited for every Muslim before marriage. So, when Changez tries to kiss her, she shows no interest, and when he finally succeeds in kissing her, her lips are frozen without moving. After this, his sexual desires are aroused, and he tries to satisfy his lust. Therefore, Changez’s request to Erica—to pretend that he is Chris—reflects the superficiality of her love for Chris, and if her relationship with Chris was a real, deep, and loving relationship, she would not allow herself to have sex with a strange young man who she does not know that well. According to Changez, their sexual relationship is one of the most beautiful things that they have experienced in their lifetimes. The author clarifies that the sexual relationship between the Muslim man and Western girl is an experience that anyone could go through regardless of their religious beliefs. At the same time, this experience reflects the weak personalities of both Changez and Erica—as he breaks the religious teachings of Islam in order to satisfy his sexual desires, and as she betrays her beloved by seeing Changez as a stranger whom she wants to introduce to the passion of sex, and how he makes love for the first time in his life. Both Changez, in The Reluctant Fundamentalist, and Ziad, in The Wind of Paradise, share many characteristics. They both have sex in the West, drink alcohol, and go to discos and loud parties—as if both authors are suggesting that the restrictions in Eastern society can lead to many reactions when Eastern people travel to the West. Note that if Changez is compared to Ziad, we find that the latter ends up as a terrorist killer who takes part in the hijacking of one of the planes that was brought down on 9/11, while Hamid is able to present Changez as a perfectly balanced man who is aware of the changes that take place around him.

The Reluctant Fundamentalist

89

Hamid tells the reader about the details and implications of the complex relationship that has emerged after the tragic events of the 9/11 attacks. We clearly see this when the author presents the waiter as “an intimidating chap… the hardness of his weathered face can readily be accounted for” (123). Changez advises his American guest to ignore the features of the waiter, saying something momentous: “his tribe has suffered during offensives conducted by your countrymen” (123)— this is a reference to the American attack on Afghanistan after the 9/11 attacks. Changez wants to inform his American guest of many things. Firstly, he wants to highlight the extent of the injustice and tragedy that takes place in Afghanistan, because of the war which is launched by the U.S. Secondly, Changez points out that the waiter’s behavior is rooted in the conflict his tribe has experienced (cf. 123)—and Changez’s attempt to persuade his American guest by saying “I would ask you to be so kind as to ignore it” (123) confirms this. Thirdly, he also wants to convey the full picture of the current situation in Eastern society during the New East era, and how the East is now a destroyed wasteland—and that the American should expect such a reaction in these circumstances. Nevertheless, the author presents Changez as a defeatist when he admits that he is a “spurned lover” (130) to Erica. Changez also says that his love is one-sided and that what happened is nothing but an accidental one-night stand. In addition, Changez’s sense of being rejected has aroused the resentment of this Eastern man, making him want to do his best to get rid of this unpleasant feeling. This is why Changez considers that “the ongoing task of abstaining from communication was a struggle not unlike that of a man attempting to rid himself of an addiction” (130). Consequently, Hamid gives the reader an example of the absurdity of the Eastern man and how he chases a mirage. Through the previous example, the author tells us that either love has pushed Changez to the brink of insanity where he is not able to help himself, or Changez is a foolish person when it comes to women and passionate issues. A strange, unknown man approaches Changez and utters words that he is unable to understand—“khalapal-khalapala” (133)—before cursing Changez, calling him a “Fucking Arab” (134). By describing this incident, Hamid highlights the following two points: first, the man who approaches Changez represents Western society, or more specifically American society, or perhaps even someone who adopts the American public opinion against the Islamic East. So, Hamid unites the East with all its skin colors, spectra, and segments, and links them to a single identity: the Arab identity that attacked the U.S. This situation, even if it is seemingly insignificant, enrages Changez, and he tells his American guest: “I unlocked

90

Chapter 2

the boot, retrieving the tire iron from where it lay… and I felt at that moment, fully capable wielding it with sufficient violence to shatter the bones of his skull” (134). The second point is that Hamid tells us about the suffering of the Eastern man in America when meeting Americans who feel their superiority over others, just because their skin is White—and the author here raises the alarm, warning of the danger of racism that could be practiced by some white Americans against black, brown, or Asian people, or people who look Eastern. Changez’s reaction to the stranger’s insult implies that there is deep racism governving the behavior of some Americans, and that Changez’s reluctance to use violence against the man who insulted him suggests the extent of his refusal of oppression and persecution. It seems that what Changez does is an overreaction, but it fully reflects the superficial, emotional Eastern character in dealing with these matters. Therefore, Hamid points out that the Eastern personality is hungry for violence and is always ready to enact it if provoked, even though Changez is not an Arab and he has had nothing to do with what has happened. It is clear that Changez always puts himself in the dock, and maybe he is not to blame for this because the changes that hit the region after the 9/11 attacks changed the intellectual makeup of people. Hamid portrays a temporary negative attitude toward Changez, who interferes with his American guest’s personal matters. Changez explains the way the American guest should eat and even chooses the food for him. It is as if the author is carrying one of the following messages to the reader: Hamid is saying that either the Pakistani Changez is in a position of strength as he is in his home country and therefore has the right to plan and lead things, or that Changez takes on the role of the generous Eastern host and so the guest must respect this and adhere to his instructions. The author beautifully informs the reader that Changez’s meeting with his American guest lasts for many hours, in the words of Changez who tells his guest that he should eat dinner, linking that meal to the evening time and indicating that it is late. Besides, Changez orders his American visitor, even indirectly, to eat with his hands, trying to support the hypothesis that says: “millennia of evolution ensure that manipulating our meals with our skin heightens our sense of taste—and our appetite” (140). However, the words of Changez do not convince the American guest, who was previously informed that even if there are no eating utensils in Pakistan, they might provide you with a “fork” (140). Perhaps it is appropriate to mention that the idea of eating food with one’s hands is preferable in the Islamic religion and it is of the Sunnah of Prophet Muhammed—as if the author gives the meeting an Islamic status and identity, even only for a temporary period; the

The Reluctant Fundamentalist

91

period of eating. But the American guest is unable to find an escape from Changez’s orders, so he obeys them just to avoid any problems his refusal may cause; we know this through Changez’s words: “I see you need no further convincing” (140). In addition, Hamid presents the American guest in the East as a worried, tense man who is willing to change his Western behavior to be compatible with the East, even if he needed to be persuaded to do so. Therefore, Changez says to the American guest: “your fingers are tearing the flesh of that kebab with considerable determination” (140), as if Hamid is saying either that the American is prepared to toe the line, or that he finds the Oriental food delicious and starts eating it compulsively. Furthermore, Hamid tells us how Changez travels from the U.S. to Pakistan for the Christmas vacation, saying to himself: “it occurred to me that the house had not changed in my absence. I had changed” (141). So, here, the author notes that Changez is fully aware of the changes that have occurred in him during his years in America—and this is an indication of his integration into American society, and that he has adopted some American standards and become used to them. However, he is completely shocked when he returns to Lahore and finds that everything is different. Plus, Hamid gives some beautiful visualizations of the Old East when Changez says: “My mother twirled a hundred-rupee note around my head to bless my return; later it would be given to charity” (143), which shows the happiness in the house on the occasion of Changez’s return. The author gives two beautiful but contradictory descriptions: the first is of the prosperous High Orientalism by revealing an Oriental custom, and the second is about the possibility of a war, which points to PostOrientalism. Nevertheless, the author draws our attention to some of the political problems that the East itself experiences, namely the Eastern– Eastern conflict; that is, the conflict between India and Pakistan. We see Hamid raise the issue of “the conflict with India” (144), and importantly it is shown that the Eastern figure is weak and does not have any prestige or influence; we know this when Changez says to his American guest: “despite the assistance we had given America in Afghanistan, America would not fight at our side” (144). Moreover, Hamid provides the reader with a model of the humiliation experienced by the Eastern Islamic nation. Although Pakistan has helped the U.S. in the war against its Islamic neighbor Afghanistan, it has been not enough to give Pakistan any support by the U.S., as if Changez tells his guest that Pakistan has been misused. The author also shows Changez as a weak man, who can only deny what happens verbally, nothing more.

92

Chapter 2

In addition, the humiliation which Pakistan experiences is twopronged: the first is when it helped the U.S. to damage its neighboring country, Afghanistan, and the second is that the previous humiliation is not enough to satisfy the U.S., so the latter humiliates Pakistan more and more. The author introduces the figure of Changez who suffers from many psychological and intellectual conflicts, and who applies comparisons between the East and the West to himself, and Hamid succeeds in showing that Changez is inclined toward the East, even temporarily, when he says: Indeed, I would soon be gone, leaving my family and my home behind, and this made me a kind of coward in my own eyes, a traitor. What sort of man abandons his people in such circumstances? And what was I abandoning them for? A well-paying job and a woman whom I longed for but who refused even to see me? I grappled with these questions again and again. (145)

Additionally, Hamid highlights the depth of the struggle that Changez experiences, showing that he goes through a phase of intellectual awakening. Therefore, Hamid succeeds in showing several things: the first is the awareness of Changez, and the second is the belonging of the Eastern person to the world to which they belong. The author also unifies the Eastern feelings again when Changez’s mother says to him: “Do not forget to shave before you go” (146). What Changez’s mother is saying here refers to two things: the first is that Changez has kept his beard during his visit to Pakistan as an expression of belonging to the Eastern society, and the second is that she fears her son would be linked directly or indirectly to the political changes worldwide, especially since the beard, as mentioned earlier, relates to the Islamic identity. What emphasizes this idea is that when Changez returns to the U.S., he has not shaved his “two-week-old beard” (147) and that this is “a form of protest” (148) on his part—as if Changez does not want to forget where he comes from and that he wants to remember the reality he has just “left behind” (148). Thus, Hamid presents the beard as an identifier that is necessary for everyone who belongs to the Islamic East. Besides, Changez tells his American guest that although his beard was not that long in America, he was subjected to “verbal abuse by complete strangers” (148). Even at Changez’s workplace, Wainwright advised him: “Look, man, I don’t know what’s up with the beard, but I don’t think it’s making you Mister Popular around here” (148). Changez responds to him by saying: “They are common where I come from” (148)—as if Changez tries to rebel against a new reality that is imposed on him, trying not to forget that he is an Eastern Pakistani. Perhaps Wainwright’s words to Changez, “You need

The Reluctant Fundamentalist

93

to be careful” (148), have made the latter more resolute in keeping his beard. Consequently, Changez tells his American guest that he kept his beard in America, and one day his boss, Jim, said to him: Listen, kid, some people around here think you’re looking kind of shabby. The beard and all. Quite frankly, I don’t give a shit. Your performance is what counts, as far as I’m concerned, and you’re the best analyst in your class by a long way. (156)

Through this dialogue, Hamid highlights two important things: the first is that what matters most to Jim is the quality of Changez’s work, indicating that Jim is an objective—but a capitalist—man. The second is that Changez has become more attached to his beard as it reminds him that he is Eastern, specifically Pakistani. However, there is an irony, which conveys that both Eastern and Western people are superficial in their points of view: the first group, represented by Americans, has a problem with Changez’s beard, which may have been grown for religious or even fundamentalist reasons, although this is not the case. The second group, represented by Eastern people, believes that Changez keeps his beard as a reminder of his origins and an identifier that he belongs to a poor Eastern Pakistani community where his father and his brother also have beards. The latter group is prevalent, for it is similar to the reverse behavior of when a Western woman goes to the Islamic East and starts wearing modest clothes and perhaps even a hijab. The atmosphere becomes marred by confusion and anxiety when Changez asks his American guest about “a bulge [that] manifests itself through the lightweight fabric” (158) of the guest’s suit, suggesting that he is “equipped” (158). However, Changez then alters the direction of the conversation: “I am certain that in your case it is merely the outline of one of those travel wallets in which the prudent secrete their possessions so that they are less likely to be discovered by thieves” (158). In this sense, Hamid tries to highlight the complex relationship between the Orient and the Occident, as if this relationship is characterized by mistrust, caution, and anxiety. Changez attempts to put his American guest at ease when he says: “I myself employed no such precautions on my trip to Chile” (158), as if the author compares Changez’s trip to Chile with his American guest’s trip to Lahore. Therefore, Changez is neither anxious nor terrified in Chile, because there are no political or international conflicts between the two countries. Furthermore, it is clear that the American guest is worried and cautious because he may be subjected to murder, kidnapping, or whatever, since his country has damaged Afghanistan and even interfered in

94

Chapter 2

Pakistan’s public political opinion, as Changez mentions earlier in the novel. Besides, the author explains the role of the U.S. in the conflict between India and Pakistan as a neutral one, although “American bases [are] already established in Pakistan for the conduct of the Afghanistan campaign” (162). Thus, Changez wants to highlight two things: the first is the extent of the power and dominance of the U.S. in the East and in the world in general, and the second is that his country, Pakistan, is only an outdated Eastern puppet for America, which uses and plays with it at will before throwing it aside. Pakistan plays a fundamental role in the Afghan War as an ally of America, and Hamid succeeds in conveying this idea when Changez blames his American guest by saying: “All America would have to do would be to inform India that an attack on Pakistan would be treated as an attack on any American ally and would be responded to by the overwhelming force of America’s military. Yet your country was signally failing to do this” (162–3). So, the author shows that Changez is a frustrated and upset man who rejects the role of the U.S. in the Indo–Pakistani conflict, as if Changez says to the American people that we, as Pakistanis, stood by your side in your war against our neighboring country, Afghanistan, and so you should help us if we are assaulted by India, but why do you not do so? Additionally, Hamid presents defeated Oriental figures who live in the New Orient phase, in which the East has become a ruined, humiliated wasteland. Changez’s loss is evident through his words when he says: “I was not certain where I belonged—in New York, in Lahore, in both, in neither” (168). Moreover, Hamid shows us the lifestyle of Oriental people during the New Orient phase through the dialogue of Juan-Bautista and Changez. Juan-Bautista lights his cigarette and asks Changez: “Have you heard of the janissaries?” (171), to which Changez answers: “No” (172). Then Juan-Bautista says: “They were Christian boys captured by the Ottomans and trained to be soldiers in a Muslim army, at that time the greatest army in the world. They were ferocious and utterly loyal: they had fought to erase their own civilizations” (172). It is as if the author tells the reader that the Eastern figure in the New Orient phase is occupied and not independent, if they receive a Western education or work for a Western company. This dialogue possibly causes Changez to define himself as a type of janissary, so he says: “I was a modern-day janissary, a servant of the American empire at a time when it was invading a country with a kinship to mine and was perhaps even colluding to ensure that my own country faced the threat of war” (173). Consequently, we see that Hamid’s example is exaggerated because Changez “was eighteen” (172) when he moved to New

The Reluctant Fundamentalist

95

York, while the janissary soldiers were trained from childhood onward. In this regard, a relevant example should be mentioned. Ismael, in Mornings in Jenin, is kidnapped by the Israeli forces and given to a Jewish family who name him David, and then he becomes a combatant in the ranks of the Israeli army, initiating a confrontation with his Palestinian compatriots (cf. Chapter 1). This example about Ismael is the inverse side of the example that Juan-Bautista gives. Furthermore, it should be noted that Changez belongs to the American nation as an American product since he holds a degree from an American university and is an employee at an American company—so his affiliation is normal. However, the conflict within Changez has reached a level that, while in Chile, he wants to quit his job and return to New York due to him feeling that he simply reinforcing the American empire, which he has no desire to do. In response, Jim tells Changez: “In wartime soldiers don’t really fight for their flags” (174). Hamid insists on using exaggerated expressions, which is clear when Jim considers Changez’s work in Chile for his company in the U.S. as a war, as if Changez is a soldier in this war and he has to fight for his country, America. Hamid highlights the hegemonic role of the U.S. in international conflicts, particularly those in the East, and more particularly in the Middle East and Asia, when Changez tells his American guest: I had always resented the manner in which America conducted itself in the world; your country’s constant interference in the affairs of others was insufferable. Vietnam, Korea, the straits of Taiwan, the Middle East, and now Afghanistan: in each of the major conflicts and standoffs that ringed my mother continent of Asia, America played a central role. (177)

Here, the author highlights two specific points: drawing the reader’s attention to the American hegemonic role in the East as intervening in foreign affairs, especially political ones, and portraying a negative attitude toward America. Therefore, Hamid succeeds in conveying this picture to us and changing it through the literary text into a literary political text. This is evident when Changez describes to his American guest the way he was treated when he returned to New York: “I was quarantined and subjected to additional inspection” (178), because he is of a “suspect race” (178). Changez is judged by American security officers as a suspicious person, and so they detain him temporarily because of his appearance which suggests he is a religious person coming from the East, especially since Changez has kept his beard as an identifier to always remind him of where he comes from. Besides the racial profiling, it should also be noted that Hamid gives the reader humane portraits throughout the novel from its beginning to its

96

Chapter 2

end, such as talking about Changez and his beard as a reminder of the place where he comes from, not the place he belongs to. In addition, what adds a political spirit to the text is Changez’s description of all this, saying to his American guest: “I was struck by how traditional your empire appeared” (178). Moreover, Changez describes to the American his feelings of deep sorrow, anguish, and shock while he was on his last days working for Underwood Samson. Changez tells his guest about his inflamed dissatisfaction when he woke up realizing that he was about to leave, saying: “I was hit by the enormity of what I was giving up” (178). Additionally, Hamid underlines the role of the reluctant emotional Eastern person and depicts a traumatic picture of Changez when talking about losing his job, saying that he is “in a state of shock similar to that which one undergoes when one has witnessed one’s knee twist impossibly but has yet to feel any pain” (179–80). It is as if the author is saying that Changez does not know the consequences of the dismissal from his job. Furthermore, Hamid emphasizes the self-esteem and dignity of the Eastern figure who never admits their own mistakes or swallows their pride, through the words of Changez when he says: “my pride compelled me to attempt to appear unaffected by the unexpected sadness within me” (180). Moreover, Hamid describes the strength, equanimity, and objectivity of Western people compared to Eastern people, especially when dealing with crises. This is clear when Jim says to Changez: “You really screwed us, Kid” (181). “I know, I am sorry” (181), Changez replies, to which Jim says: “I’m not a big believer in compassion at the workplace, I didn’t think twice when it came to firing you. In fact, I wish I’d done it a month ago and saved us the headache you’ve given us in Valparaiso” (181). Hamid weighs up the East and the West on a double-pan balance scale. The balance tips in favor of the West over the East, as Changez looks weak with no decision-making capacity, while the voice of Jim—which represents the West—is heard louder. Perhaps the most characteristically corporate American thing in the novel is what Jim tells Changez when firing him: “I like you, Changez, I can see you’re going through a crisis. If you ever need to get something off your chest and you want someone to talk to, call and I’ll buy you a beer” (181). It is as if the author is showing that Jim does not know the harm done to Changez as a result of his dismissal from the company. Additionally, Hamid helps the reader to understand the nature of the complex relationship between the Orient and the Occident in a very beautiful way when Changez tells himself after leaving Jim’s office: “I realized how deep was the suspicion I had engendered in my colleagues over these past few—bearded and resentful—weeks” (181). The author also

The Reluctant Fundamentalist

97

describes Changez’s grief when he says: “I allowed myself to rub my eyes with the back of my hand, for they had been watering slightly” (182). Changez sums up the situation to his American guest in one sentence: “I felt as though a world had ended—which, indeed, it had” (182). Also, the author reaffirms alcohol as being the savior from the crisis, giving a new example to the reader when Changez returns to his house and pours himself a whiskey and sits down. It is as if Hamid is saying that Changez is like Sumayya in The Wind of Paradise, when she drinks martini to forget that she saw the name of Muhammed among the perpetrators of the 9/11 attacks. Hamid focuses the reader’s attention on the importance of the family in the Eastern world, through Changez calling his brother in Pakistan and updating him on the recent changes in his life: “I got fired, and my visa will soon be invalid” (183). Then, Changez’s brother calms him by saying that his family will look after him, despite the difficult circumstances they are passing through. Hamid also underscores the importance of hospitality when Changez refuses to split the bill with his American guest, and even assures him that he “had been raised to favor mutual generosity over mathematical precision in such matters” (183). Besides, Hamid returns again to the issue of the beard before Changez leaves the U.S., but this time presenting a provocative act when he tells his American guest: “Sometimes I would find myself walking the streets, flaunting my beard as a provocation, craving conflict with anyone foolhardy enough to antagonize me” (190). Through the acts of Changez, we clearly understand that he is fully aware of the influence of both his beard and his appearance on American society, as he has full knowledge that he would be insulted “not just from the government, but from the media and supposedly critical journalists as well” (190). Some of the terrorist operations committed by extremist Muslims in the Middle East, Europe, and America have contributed to the militarization of simple people in the world against Islam. Perhaps all of this is due to a lack of awareness of the realities and causes of the Arab–Israeli conflict, which leads to people being cautious of Muslims and condemning them. However, it is well-known that the official, popular Islamic bodies reject and denounce the terrorist acts carried out by Islamic extremists who are outcasts. All over the world, extremism has no religion, and extremist attacks are not only carried out by Arabs or Muslims; they are a terrifying global phenomenon. Moreover, there is no doubt that the judgments which are made—as a result of terrorist operations—are either political, or by Western citizens who do not even look for the reasons that cause these criminals to carry out their shameful terrorist operations. The behavior of Changez is in fact only a reaction to

98

Chapter 2

the oppression he experiences in the American society that he believes is hostile to him. Hamid portrays a picture of the ancient, prosperous High Orient, just for a moment, by providing an Oriental model rooted in the East in the words of Changez: “Observe how often the words brothers and sons appear in their signage; these are family-run establishments, passed gently from generation to generation” (193). Here, the author reminds the reader of one of the most important characteristics of Eastern Islamic society: the stores that children inherit from their fathers. This is an indication of two points: the authenticity of the East and unifying the East into one physical body, so that when any limb of it aches, the whole body responds to it and suffers. Therefore, Hamid places emphasis on the significance of family, clan, uncles, and tribe. The representation of the stores that Changez talks about seems to be similar to the musk that the hostess smelled from the travelers wishing to destroy the U.S. in The Wind of Paradise (cf. Chapter 4). Both of these elements represent what remains of High Orientalism. Moreover, the author reaffirms the naivety of Eastern people regarding emotional matters, through Changez who says to his American guest that, despite his return to Pakistan, he remains “emotionally entwined with Erica” (195). Hamid is saying that the Eastern man is attached to things, people, and places, and grabs hold of them; this simply means that he is emotional and yearns for the passion that he did not originally acquire in his harsh surroundings. Perhaps the reader notes how Changez follows Erica from place to place throughout the entire novel, hoping to earn her love, and he does not accept that she is still in love with another man who passed away last year. Furthermore, his emotional and sexual experience with Erica, studying at Princeton University, and his workplace in New York make Changez long for that life—so he says to his American guest: “From time to time I would chance upon the name of an acquaintance and I would squint intently through such pinholes into the life I had left behind” (198). So, despite Changez’s return to Pakistan, his heart is filled with nostalgia. Besides, the author unites the human feelings with feelings of love, nostalgia, and attachment to things. Hamid also succeeds in highlighting Changez’s overreactions to situations and memories, expressing them with an Oriental characteristic. Nevertheless, the author keeps on reminding the reader that Changez’s meeting with his American guest is marred by anxiety and tension, and this is clear when Changez says to the guest: “What has so startled you? Was it that sound in the distance? I assure you, it was not the report of a pistol” (200). In the novel, the author mixes mistrust, worry, and fear with love and nostalgia.

The Reluctant Fundamentalist

99

Additionally, Hamid explains how Changez changes after he returns to Pakistan. He tells his guest that he got a job as a “university lecturer” (203), and that he promotes among students the idea of breaking Pakistan’s ties with America. He says: “I made my mission on campus to advocate a disengagement from your country by mine” (203). Therefore, the author tells us two things about Changez: the first is that he has an East– West hybrid identity, since he has an American education and employment, thus knowing exactly what kind of country it is, while being a Pakistani of Eastern origin and characteristics. Secondly, Changez tries to rebel against the new reality that he lives in when he says: “It was not difficult to persuade them of the merits of participating in demonstrations for greater independence in Pakistan’s domestic and international affairs” (203). Changez also says: “I became a mentor to many of these men and women: advising them” (204), implying that the Eastern personality, represented by Changez, is accepted in the Pakistani Eastern society, while it is rejected in the American Western society. By the end of the novel, Hamid offers a solution to the East–West conflict when Changez says to his American guest while they are on their way to the hotel: “you should not imagine that we Pakistanis are all potential terrorists, just as we should not imagine that you Americans are all undercover assassins” (208–9). Here, the author is referring to the fallacy of hasty generalization that many people may commit in the West as well as in the East, because of political pressures and the media and its role. So, Hamid is saying that Easterners and Westerners must be fully aware of the aforementioned factors, and he warns of the abuses that may be committed against any of the parties. Nevertheless, the author beautifully manages to unite the East in general and the Islamic East in particular into a single entity, which is the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. This is evident when Changez arrives at the hotel door and says to his American guest: “I hope you will not resist my attempt to shake you by the hand. But why are you reaching into your jacket, sir? I detect a glint of metal. Given that you and I are now bound by a certain shared intimacy, I trust it is from the holder of your business card” (209). Through this strange conversation, the author is saying that the new Changez—who is now against the U.S.—may be at risk of being killed, especially since we know that his hostility toward the country is clear through his comments to his American guest. Possibly, “the unusual mobile phone” that his American guest owns is a spy phone that is connected to satellites, and the American may report their location without Changez’s knowledge (201). In order to elaborate on these issues, I analyze the two

100

Chapter 2

main characters of the novel: the sole monologist (Changez) and the silent American.

The Sole Monologist 38 [E]xcuse me, sir, but may I be of assistance? Ah, I see I have alarmed you. Do not be frightened by my beard: I am a lover of America. I noticed that you were looking for something; more than looking, in fact you seemed to be on a mission, and since I am both a native of this city and a speaker of your language, I thought I might offer you my services. (1)

These lines by Changez are taken from the prologue of the novel. From the very beginning, he identifies himself as a preoccupied bearded man. And by so doing, he establishes or diagnoses the real kind of relationship between him as a representative of a Post-Oriental figure and the American guest as a representative of an Occidental figure. Hamid makes this tense situation a permanent phenomenon. And upon this, tension, uneasiness, and doubt accumulate within the events and details of the novel. But beneath this lie intellectual and cognitive differences and gaps which cannot be bridged between the two characters of the novel. These differences and gaps fuel the fire of misunderstanding that the 9/11 attacks ignited. Thus, at the very beginning, the novel exhibits all sorts of reluctance that both characters experience. But Changez seems more cooperative and friendly than the silent American. Changez expresses his verbal love for the U.S.: “I am a lover of America” indicating that he holds the United States in high regard. Changez highlights his identity right from the initial lines of the novel in two points: He “is a native of this city [Pakistan]” so he is a Pakistani, and he is “a speaker of your language” (1), which is English. These two points enhance his confidence to offer his help to the mysterious visitor. However, Changez does not deny the virtue of America. Princeton University is a symbol of America as a whole: “Princeton made everything possible for me” (16). Changez continues: “But it did not, could not, make me forget such things as how much I enjoy the tea in this, the city of my birth, steeped long enough to acquire a rich, dark color, and made creamy with fresh, full-fat milk” (16– 7; original emphasis). Through Changez’s words, one understands how huge the influence of the motherland is. In the novel, it plays diverse roles: it is a reminder, an identifier, and a representer of one’s origin. It influences

38 I think that Hamid most effectively expresses the conflict I talk about in his introduction.

The Reluctant Fundamentalist

101

and shapes our personality unwittingly. The motherland leaves an impact that one carries throughout their whole life. Among the various issues given by Changez is his connection to Islam. He hints at this matter throughout the novel: “I am not poor; far from it: my great-grandfather, for example, was a barrister with means to endow a school for the Muslims of the Punjab” (10). Such pride reflects the duality of Changez. He accepts the presence and appreciates the past. Actually, Hamid employs Changez to serve a number of purposes and functions in this novel. As far as the point of view of narration is concerned, Changez embodies the first-person point of view: he narrates events by using the firstperson pronoun, “I” referring to himself, “you” referring to the Other, or “we” when referring to his nation, Pakistan, his lost Orient, and his Islamic identity. Let us examine this extract: I spent four and a half years in your country. Where? I worked in New York, and before that attended college in New Jersey. Yes, you are right: it was Princeton! Quite a guess, I must say. (3; original emphasis)

In doing so, Changez reveals and delivers his innermost issues, concerns, and attitudes. In the novel, it happens that the narrator is the sole speaker— the solitary person who never talks. And in this very regard, Changez positions himself in a place where he turns to his revelations and engages in debates that take the form of monologues. The person who Changez talks to never opens his mouth to utter a word or even a sigh. Furthermore, by employing the technique of dramatic monologue, Hamid enters and reveals Changez’s innermost feelings and thoughts. This form of narration sets the narrator free and releases him from traditional limitations of storytelling. Indeed, Changez puts himself between Oriental and specifically Pakistani settings, Occidental settings, and the American figure’s particular circumstances. And in this regard, this character typifies an ordinary PostOriental figure who finds himself exposed or inserted between very different cultures and attitudes. This is why we find Changez not only perpetually questions the other person’s behaviors, decisions, and deeds, but also dramatically shows his own way of thinking and acting. But since he never has a communicative exchange with the silent American, all that he reveals, discusses, and delivers remains intact—a typical Post-Oriental circumstance. Because the American listener does not understand Urdu, the official language of Pakistan, Changez is the only vocal source of knowledge during their meeting. He takes on a role similar to a translator, or at least someone who reports information to the other man. In addition, Changez tends to intrude on the American, i.e., he seems unwelcome and at the same time unhappy in the company of the visitor, which is very apparent from the first

102

Chapter 2

lines of the novel. Actually, such a meeting seems to be an opportunity for Changez who uses it for his own interests: he defends himself and, in his view, the poor Orient. At the same time, he tries to showcase everything good about the Orient. But this character seems to be highly preoccupied with his past, his Eastern culture, and his Western education. He highlights his native heritage, yet he seems dissatisfied with it. This is because it clashes and, consequently, is incompatible with the status quo in which that culture and its ideology are in retreat. Therefore, Changez opens the conversation to the talk about the Islamic part of his country. He takes pride in it. However, he feels preoccupied or, to be more accurate, he feels himself to be inferior to his American visitor. It might be relevant here to mention that he may suffer from what is called an inferiority complex. Such feelings emerge because Changez is a representative of a poor part of the Orient. This part is historically and politically spoiled. He mentions some of the great achievements of Muslims from a historical perspective: For we were not always burdened by debt, dependent on foreign aid and handouts; in the stories we tell of ourselves we were not the crazed and destitute radicals you see on your television channels but rather saints and poets and—yes—conquering kings. We built the Royal Mosque and the Shalimar Gardens in this city, and we built the Lahore Fort with its mighty walls and wide ramp for our battle-elephants. And we did these things when your country was still a collection of thirteen small colonies, gnawing away at the edge of continent. (115–6)

Changez’s words bear crucial messages to his American counterpart. On the one hand, Changez mentions historical facts about the U.S. On the other, he takes pride in Islamic achievements. His words also imply a kind of appreciation, love, and loyalty to his ancestors. In consequence, one can observe some ambivalence in Changez’s personality concerning his past heritage and present (Western) culture and education. Throughout the novel, Changez emphatically warns the American visitor not to believe what comes out of the media and its propaganda, which implies that Changez thinks that Americans are dominated and easily guided by media power. This knowledge of the U.S. reflects the impact of the time Changez spent there. He cannot get rid of his past or his (Islamic) Oriental identity. This is seen through his words as he represents himself and his group using the pronoun “we” and “your” for the Other. But this duality of the past versus the present—or Oriental perspectives and culture versus Occidental ones—plays a part within Changez’s identity and personality. Let us take the following extract:

The Reluctant Fundamentalist

103

I attempted to act and speak, as much as my dignity would permit, more like an American. The Filipinos we worked with seemed to look up to my American colleagues, accepting them almost instinctively as members of the officer class of global business—and I wanted my share of that respect as well. (74)

Examining Changez’s words, one notices that he prefers the American style rather than the Pakistani one. Another example in this regard is the red wine debate, where he was invited to drink a glass of wine but Erica’s mother answered for him instead, claiming that he is old enough to make his own decisions. In that instance, Erica’s father mentions that—from his experience—Pakistanis do not drink alcohol, or at least he does not know any Pakistani who drinks (cf. 61). From this exchange, we learn that Changez represents himself as a person who welcomes openness, even if this is contrary to his religion. Hence, one may argue that Changez bears mature Occidental experiences, and a Western education, culture, and language that cannot allow him to reconcile an Occidental world with PostOriental one. This is because of the differences between the two worlds. This is also where hegemony and its direct consequence come into play: hybridity. These postcolonial circumstances have an impact on Changez and he feels handicapped because he can neither alter them nor take them for granted. When it comes to the issue of the U.S. viewed from abroad, Changez thinks of himself as an American. He even acts as if he were an American, because he would perhaps not receive sufficient appreciation and respect if he represented himself as a Pakistani. Furthermore, he cannot make compromising solutions for such a matter because of the peculiar and unprecedented atmosphere and circumstances of Post-Orientalism. Indeed, this character represents a new Post-Oriental figure who finds himself alone and helpless: But I worried. I felt powerless; I was angry at our weakness, at our vulnerability to intimidation of this sort from our—admittedly much larger—neighbor to the East. Yes, we had nuclear weapons, and yes, our soldiers would not back down, but we were being threatened nonetheless, and there was nothing I could do about it but lie in my bed, unable to sleep. (145)

All this creates a sense of uneasiness and doubt; no direct communication occurs between Changez and the silent American—both of them seem reluctant and this reluctance, I think, is not only reciprocal but also understandable. Both sides have their own concerns and presuppositions about each other. This reluctance is indicative and points to the relationship

104

Chapter 2

between the two opposite figures. And what complicates the matter is the fact that the more Changez involves himself in the talks, the more confused and uncertain he turns out to be. It is worthwhile to mention that Changez even involves himself in the way the other party sits: “Please do not adjust your position on my account! I did not mean to imply that you were so equipped” (158). Such behavior escalates the communication between them and gradually adds an uncomfortable atmosphere between Changez and his counterpart. The monologist tackles the tragic incidents of September 11, 2001, with both sympathy and hostility. This leads to an ambivalence that many Post-Oriental figures exhibit. The treatment of the events and their aftermaths on him have progressed into ongoing consequences. Changez’s reaction to the tragedy is basically ambivalent. This ambivalence develops gradually in the novel. Commenting on the American domination 39 over the world, Changez says: It was right for me to refuse to participate any longer in facilitating this project of domination; the only surprise was that I had required so much time to arrive at my decision. (177)

The duality of Changez is seen through the depiction of his reaction to the 9/11 attacks: I was in my room, packing my things. I turned on the television and saw what at first I took to be a film. But as I continued to watch, I realized it was not fiction but news. I stared as one—and then the other—of the twin towers of New York’s World Trade collapsed. And then I smiled. Yes, despicable as it may sound, my initial reaction was to be remarkably pleased. (83; original emphasis)

The Pakistani Changez is preoccupied by such a domination. In fact, the initial positive reaction of Changez is showcased here, which implies that he grew up with negative images about the U.S. He is glad to see a part of America damaged, but he is unsure and confused where such feelings come from: “So when I tell you I was pleased at the slaughter of thousands of innocents, I do so with a profound sense of perplexity” (83). Changez continues his explanation: “the fact that someone had so visibly brought America to her knees. Ah, I see I am only compounding your displeasure. I understand, of course; it is hateful to hear another person gloat over one’s 39

The American empire overshadows the world. Hamid highlights the central American role in “Vietnam, Korea, the straits of Taiwan, the Middle East, and now Afghanistan” (177).

The Reluctant Fundamentalist

105

country’s misfortune” (83–4). Then he mentions something that painstakingly reveals his ambivalence: But you are at war, you say? Yes, you have a point. I was not at war with America. Far from it: I was the product of an American university; I was earning a lucrative American salary; I was infatuated with an American woman. So why did part of me desire to see America harmed? I did not know, then; I knew merely that my feelings would be unacceptable to my colleagues, and I undertook to hide them as well as I could. When my team gathered in Jim’s room later that evening, I feigned the same shock and anguish I saw on the faces around me. (84)

I think the question here is rhetorical. The monologist falls prey to several impacts, past and present. Changez’s behavior reminds one of few Salafists in Jordan who were blissfully living the moment during the events of September 11. I still remember the words of our history teacher: “I hope that the United States will learn from this lesson.” Such an anger is fueled by the past; a past that is full of anguish and hate.

The Silent American My cultural reference has fallen on deaf ears! You appear distracted, sir; those pretty girls from the National College of Arts have clearly recaptured your attention. Or are you watching that man, the one with a beard far longer than mine, who has stopped to stand beside them? […] while he looks out of place. (25)

The silent American performs a number of roles in the novel. Firstly, he embodies that major part of Americans who question the Post-Oriental culture, education, and ideology. Secondly, by keeping quiet and staying away from communicative and interactive exchanges, Hamid highlights the intellectual gaps between Post-Oriental groups and Occidental ones. This silence then serves as an indication, a marker, of the situation between them. In addition, this silence creates a state of misunderstanding and even mistrust that both groups hold. In this way, not only Changez is reluctant, but the silent American is reluctant as well. Moreover, this figure’s presence in the novel is representative of the real situation that has emerged in recent times between these groups. In each conversation, the presence of the silent American instigates presuppositions, stereotypes, and emotions which are hard to alter and dismiss. He remains silent and calm. To put these dimensions and parameters within a postcolonial setting, the American character acts according to hegemonic manners, attitudes, and behaviors; he is quite

106

Chapter 2

hesitant as to whether or not Changez has been overtly and completely “confiscated” by various forms of hybridization. This American takes pride in his colonial legacy. This can be observed by Changez’s frequent remarks and justifications concerning his own culture, and even his behaviors and appearances: “I see that you have noticed the scar on my forearm, here, where the skin is both darker and smoother than that which surrounds it. […] Allow me, then, to reassure you that the source of my injury was rather prosaic” (53). Another example is the following: “Many Pakistanis drink; alcohol’s illegality in our country has roughly the same effect as marijuana’s in yours” (61). The American visitor is an unwelcome visitor “to the district of Old Anarkali” (2). The circumstances and timing of his arrival are crucial, because they raise various questions. In terms of the circumstances, they are ambiguous; the novel implies that this visitor is an American soldier, which in fact he is. This is revealed by Changez’s description of the American visitor: your hair, short-cropped, and your expansive chest—the chest, I would say, of a man who bench-presses regularly, and maxes out well above twotwenty-five—are typical of a certain type of American; but then again, sportsmen and soldiers of all nationalities tend to look alike. (1–2; original emphasis)

Hamid deliberately chooses a military Occidental subject who meets a PostOriental civilian. This form of contact is typical of the present interaction between both sides. On the other hand, al-Hamad follows the same technique in The Wind of Paradise. His characters are soldiers intending to fight for the sake of Allah against civilian passengers who are flying from one city to another. This could be one of the reasons why the American remains silent in The Reluctant Fundamentalist. In addition, the silent American exhibits another tension between the two groups, namely the military nature of his personality. There is a salient point that should be taken into full consideration, i.e., the military nature of the Occident engaging with Post-Orientalism. Hamid brings no ordinary person into contact with Changez and then the author silences this person. Let us examine the following extract: I observe, sir, that there continues to be something about our waiter that puts you ill at ease. I will admit that he is an intimidating chap, larger even than you are. But the hardness of his weathered face can readily be accounted for: he hails from our mountainous northwest, where life is far from easy. And if you should sense that he has taken a disliking to you, I would ask you to be so kind as to ignore it. (123)

The Reluctant Fundamentalist

107

Or these lines: And with that, sir, the moment has come for us to eat! For your own safety, I would suggest that you avoid this yoghurt and those chopped vegetables. What? No, no, I meant nothing sinister; your stomach might be upset by uncooked foods, that is all. If you insist, I will go so far as to sample each of these plates myself first, to reassure you that there is nothing to fear. (139)

All this is further enhanced by the depiction of the American visitor: he is a silent, hesitant, and conservative figure. His silence overshadows the whole atmosphere of the meeting. It remains unclear why he is silent, but he prefers to be silent and receives suitable answers from Changez. Moreover, his silence may come from uncertainty. He is in a place that is different to his home. Although Changez knows precisely that his guest feels uneasy, he still highlights, emphasizes, and dodges his counterpart. This is noticeable from the previous lines where Changez begins his conversation by highlighting the significance of the American’s “own safety.” However, the American then understands, only a few sentences later, that he does not need to be worried about this. Changez seems to exaggerate. This technique creates and builds a kind of fear in the visitor’s heart. The meeting between the two seems random, but they both act as if they know exactly how to behave and interact accordingly. Nevertheless, communication through their meeting seems almost impossible. They lack trust and understanding, which is apparent when Changez is addressing the silent American, referring to the tea they have drunk together: “It is not as if it has been poisoned” (13; original emphasis). Such a way of addressing the Other reflects different points of view: Changez concentrates on the gestures of his counterpart, which adds a dramatic sense to their meeting. It implies that Changez analyzes these gestures and is very interested to understand them. In addition, it makes the American feel uncomfortable. A few pages later, Changez tries to put his visitor at ease. He asks whether or not his visitor left a love behind (cf. 18). Tackling private issues such as family, love, and work may create a good atmosphere for communication. However, the American’s views are impenetrable. In Changez’s words: “Your shrug is inscrutable” (18). Hamid conceptualizes the silent American’s personality to reflect the Other. Changez, however, concentrates on appearance and stereotypes that mirror misunderstanding, lack of communication, lack of interest, and ignorance, which are the characteristics of Post-Orientalism. The fear of the American visitor is also reported through his reactions and responses:

108

Chapter 2 I assure you: no one will attempt to steal your wallet. For a city of this size, Lahore is remarkably free of that sort of petty crime. Do sit down, I implore you, or you shall force me to stand as well. As it is, I feel rude to remain in this position while my guest is uncomfortable. (69)

Again, Changez knows that the image of the Orient—for the American—is distorted and unclear. Toward the end of the novel, he reaffirms this: “Lahore is, as I have said before, quite safe from the standpoint of petty crime” (192). We notice that he focuses on this “petty crime” and insists on the purity of Lahore. On the other hand, he is an experienced figure. He has spent half of his life in the U.S., while the American visitor is merely a soldier who is on a mission. This means that Changez’s knowledge of the Other is far greater than his visitor’s knowledge of him. Interestingly, Changez openly states that his “guest is uncomfortable,” reinforcing the notion previously mentioned. He even uses the imperative form in this instance. In fact, Changez plays the role of a teacher, an instructor, a guide, and sometimes a defender. He delivers his messages to the other party in a professional manner: “I told her that alcohol was illegal for Muslims” (31). But the silent American might be aware of the roles and “interference” of his country in the world’s “affairs.” Changez perpetually insinuates this situation: “your country’s constant interference in the affairs of others was insufferable” (177). Thus, this silent figure embodies a post-colonizer who has inherited the consequences of colonialization. On the one hand, he comes to a foreign country, but, on the other, he is reluctant to interact and deal with its people; he does not establish any relationship or even hold a normal dialogue with Changez. While Changez does his best to establish a rapport with the American, his efforts are in vain. Changez also keeps his past experiences and culture in mind when dealing with the silent American. In consequence, Hamid illustrates an authentic panoramic image that reflects the status quo of the real relationship between the Post-Oriental figure and his Occidental counterpart: Your tone is curt; I can see that I have offended you, angered you even. But I have not, I suspect, entirely surprised you. Do you deny it? No? And that is of not inconsiderable interest to me, for we have not met before, and yet you seem to know at least something about me. (86; original emphasis)

Changez knows that the American does not really enjoy discussing all the issues that arise during their meeting. Such a narration is interesting in the scope of the relationship between the Orient and the Occident. The presence of the silent American brings out in Changez’s identity the feeling of being

The Reluctant Fundamentalist

109

humiliated. Changez is positioned in something akin to a no man’s land between Occidentalism and Post-Orientalism, and he finds it too difficult and impossible to resolve this issue easily. The mutations of PostOrientalism are beyond remedy. The general atmosphere in the meeting is unstable. Changez has immediately depicted this unexpected foreign person as a “guest.” However, the American has not uttered a single word. In this regard, fear, lack of communication, and lack of trust emerge as factors that color this meeting. Here, one can say that the American visitor is “the passive object” of the meeting, while Changez is “the active object.” The American “guest” is told as much information as Changez is able to convey, be it interesting to the American or not. Through their meeting, we are told that the American visitor has previously asked Changez about what he did against the American interference in the world: “Earlier, Sir, if you recall, you asked me what I did to stop America” (201). But then, Changez changes the subject and moves on to talk about “[t]he threat of war with India” and then “the invasion of Iraq” (202). In fact, Hamid signifies that a gradual change in Changez’s personality occurs over the course of the novel. He identifies himself basically as “a university lecturer, nothing more nor less” (206). Hamid closes the novel with the same suspicion, doubt, and fear he employed to start his narration. And in this way, he offers no solution or even a clue about relieving the tension between the two parties. Hamid could be said to be faithful and objective for he does not present a falsely detailed account of the true situation encountered by the two parties. Hence, he alludes that this is the real situation and it is likely going to progress: I know you have found some of my views offensive; I hope you will not resist my attempt to shake you by the hand. But why are you reaching into your jacket, sir? I detect a glint of metal. Given that you and I are now bound by a certain shared intimacy, I trust it is from the holder of your business cards. (209)

CHAPTER 3 FALLING MAN

He could not find himself in the things he saw and heard. Two men ran by with a stretcher, someone facedown, smoke seeping out of his hair and clothes. He watched them move into the stunned distance. That’s where everything was, all around him, falling away, street signs, people, things he could not name. Then he saw a shirt come down out of the sky. He walked and saw it fall, arms waving like nothing in this life. (DeLillo 2011, 235)

Introduction An Italian by origin, a New Yorker by residence, and American by nationality, Donald (Don) Richard DeLillo (born 1936) may be regarded as a postcolonial/cosmopolitan writer. His works are concerned with global, cosmopolitan, and postcolonial eras. DeLillo observes the strange circumstances of the age he lives in; he puts it in a direct, frank manner when he declares that “If I could put it in a sentence, in fact, my work is about just that: living in dangerous times” (Nance 2012, n.p.). These “dangerous times” are reflected in some of his novels. His works exhibit postmodernism, although he is discontent with that label. When he was asked whether or not he is a postmodern writer, DeLillo replied: I’m the last guy to ask. If I had to classify myself, it would be in the long line of modernists, from James Joyce through William Faulkner and so on. That has always been my model. I think of postmodernism in terms of literature as part of a self-referring kind of art. People attach a label to writers or filmmakers or painters to be able some years in the future to declare that the movement is dead. (Staff and Singer 2016)

Furthermore, DeLillo is engaged with global issues. He is influenced by what has come to be known as “Trauma Theory.” The critic Caruth defines this theory as “an overwhelming experience of sudden and catastrophic

Falling Man

111

events” (1996, 11) that befalls people and cultures in general. She goes even further in concluding that “history can be understood as the history of trauma” (11). Thus, DeLillo puts himself beside other novelists and literary figures who respond to that trauma. Soon, this trauma is transformed into various forms; global terrorism is one of them. It is an integral and prominent part of his writing. Even his work, Cruz comments, “focuses on the Western fetishizing of capitalism and technology and the alienation that results from this fetishizing” (2011, 138). Hence, Cruz continues: “most of his characters are unlikable. His characters search for an escape from their alienated lives, and in this search, they sometimes turn to terrorism as a diversion from their suffocating routines” (138–9). DeLillo originally published Falling Man about six years after the 9/11 attacks. The work emulates some of the issues of the “dangerous times” DeLillo mentions earlier. Yet the novel handles these matters in a manner that is basically sociopolitical and socioreligious, both in tone and technique. Indeed, the novel exhibits the literary characteristics of mediation and narration. It narrates the story of the unsuccessful attempts of a couple, Lianne and Keith, to continue their relationship after 9/11. After years in separation, their attempts collide with the lives of Justin, their child, and Nina, Lianne’s mother who had an affair with Martin, an art dealer with a hidden history in Germany. But the division of the book is interesting and peculiar—it articulates both a physical and intellectual part. The former has three sections, two minor chapters, and a final part that serves as a link with the beginning of the novel. Each part in the story is given the name of a person. It appears as a response to the horror the U.S. experienced during the 9/11 attacks, and the novel addresses these traumatic incidents (Tolan 2010). It also has an intellectual division in which the novel presents two different groups: the American group and the Arab group. What the work tries to stress is the huge gap between the two. And in this very sense, Falling Man can be considered as an important fictional document that reflects, reviews, and ponders the situations encountered by ordinary Americans who try to understand their world after the tragic events. In this way, the novelist contextualizes the events with the daily concerns and social issues of ordinary Americans who, in turn, try to understand both their situation and their plight in a post-9/11 era. On the other hand, however, the Arabs in the novel represent that faction who decree and launch their own war against the Americans. And thus, the novelist alludes to the new era that Post-Orientalism witnesses. But DeLillo does not let any kind of communication or interaction take place, nor even

112

Chapter 3

make an exchange likely to happen; he sets them each in their own closed world.

“A Closed World” DeLillo writes about important cultural and intellectual aftermaths following the events of 9/11. As Osteen has rightly argued, DeLillo “undertakes a dialogue with American cultural institutions and their discourses” in which he dramatizes a “dialectical relationship between, as well as the myriad shapes, meanings, and consequences of, American magic and dread” (2000, 1). Falling Man can be analyzed within the framework of both postcolonial studies and Post-Orientalism. It turns anecdotes from the 9/11 attacks, atrocities, and aggressions into tokens and themes, deriving from them consequences, paths, and conclusions. Here, one should observe that the attacks have affected and influenced the Orient as much as the Occident; these historic incidents play a significant role in altering the face of the world that we know today. Moreover, their aftermaths are still ongoing. Basically, the events divide the world into two camps. Therefore, exploitation, victimization, and misunderstanding, along with hybridization and hegemony, emerge from the two conflicting worlds, namely the Orient and the Occident. What lurks deep inside the novel beneath the silent and uneasy tragic-atmospheric episodes are the blurred Orient and the ignorant Occident. Thus, Falling Man portrays these two groups: the Arab group and American group. Underneath the calm and soft tone of the novel lies ongoing tension that cannot be resolved. Falling Man shows no explosions or blasts but it reports them in a silent way. The dialogues between characters hide behind ideological, cultural, religious, and political issues that the novel sets forth to announce and exhibit. Or to put it another way, the narration tends to resemble a soliloquy rather than an exchange of threads and notions that occur between characters. Thus, the reader encounters a novel of “ideas, less narrative than speculations, unsettling and provocative, with characters who do not so much talk as think aloud, their conversations polished and accomplished” (Dewey 2015, 3). To observe how the narrative technique is employed to reflect and emulate the ideological beliefs of characters, here are some lines taken from the American group: ‘It’s sheer panic. They attack out of panic.’ ‘This much, yes, it may be true. Because they think the world is a disease. This world, this society, ours. A disease that’s spreading,’ he said.

Falling Man

113

‘There are no goals they can hope to achieve. They’re not liberating a people or casting out a dictator. Kill the innocent, only that.’ (DeLillo 2011, 48)

While through the Arab group, the novel promotes a situation that reflects Post-Orientalism: There was a feeling of lost history. They were too long in isolation. This is why they talked about being crowded out by other cultures, other future, the all-enfolding will of capital markets and foreign policies. (80)

This quote is worth noting while pausing here to reflect on the significance of it. First of all, and as observed throughout this study, there is the idea of Post-Orientalism being “lost.” Secondly—and this point plays a part in determining the relationship between the Orient and the Occident—PostOriental figures find themselves overtly occupied and taken by “other cultures.” Of course, this refers to hegemonic acts and practices that these people experience. Thirdly, the Post-Oriental situation is dominated by “foreign policies” coming from foreign politics. On this third point, we can argue that the Orient becomes a discipline of politics in which all its tensions, plights, and issues center around politics. These points are primarily concerned with the two clashing camps and their emerging perpetual consequences. DeLillo writes about these controlling circumstances and he finds them to be crucial as they display themselves tellingly in the present. Thus, between the Arab and the American stands neither common understanding nor purposive dialogue. Americans, meanwhile, seem to be divided in their judgment about the lack of understanding, communication, and even peace between themselves and the Arabs. This is why the title of the novel, Falling Man, could allude to this fact, for it refers to those who fell from the Twin Towers on 9/11 without knowing why; the absence of a definite (or indefinite) article indicates the truism that intellectual and cultural separation dominates the two camps’ relationship; the man who literally fell is an anonymous one, and as we will see in this chapter, he could belong to either camp. Therefore, the two camps enclose themselves in closed worlds. Indeed, the best word to denote this is “heterogeneity.”

Heterogeneity as a Necessity Falling Man is divided into chapters and parts, none of which deals with the Occident and the Orient in unison. In other words, this novel tackles the same acute lack of communication and understanding that we observe in

114

Chapter 3

The Reluctant Fundamentalist and the other novels discussed in this study. Each group lives in its own world and deals with it accordingly; what appears to be dominant is the felt absence of the “Other.” In consequence, the direct and obvious result of this comes in a form of disharmony and mismatching of the two camps—heterogeneity, if you will. Although the Arab camp is to some extent hybridized, this heterogeneity contradicts with hegemony in that it defies any influence and impact of one camp over the other. Or, to put it in other words, it resists hegemony and comes as its natural reaction that takes fatal and drastic forms: violence, denial, victimization, and discontentment. Indeed, the reader meets the Arab students who turn out to be terrorists in Hamburg and then in California, where they carry out their devilish missions; their education, food, clothes, and ways of thinking and planning are all Western. Thus, DeLillo presents them as students who live in a foreign country, illustrating how they react when confronted with hegemony, although they are partially hybridized. Yet, while their education and knowledge are Western, their mentality and attitude are different: They stood in the entranceway watching the cold rain fall, younger man and older, after evening prayer. The wind sent trash skidding along the sidewalk and Hammad cupped his hands to his mouth and exhaled six or seven times, slowly and deliberately, feeling a whisper of warm breath on his palms. A woman on a bike went past, pedaling hard. (77)

These are the first lines in the novel which introduce the Arab group. In these opening lines, it is noted that, firstly, the Post-Oriental figures are introduced to the reader with some ideological content; the Arabs basically consists of two kinds of men: young and old. Secondly, their religion and its doctrine are also introduced. This point is of crucial importance because in Post-Oriental settings, religion takes the lead. Thirdly, this quotation occurs during the night, which may be considered as a bad omen, since darkness is connected with evil and danger. Hammad, a central character of the novel and one of the terrorists who hijacked the planes on 9/11, and his group therefore remain heterogeneous and turn against this hybridization. In fact, the history of Arabs emerges from their challenge toward the Ottoman Empire, through the different colonialisms until the age of oil and after. 40 From a historical perspective, as long as Arabs are an integral part of the Orient, they remain influenced by it. This is seen through their studies and interests. Even their 40

For more information, see Rogan, Eugene. The Arabs: A History. New York: Basic Books, 2009; and McHugo, John. A Concise History of the Arabs. New York: New York Press, 2013.

Falling Man

115

clothes are conservative. Not only Arab Muslims, but also Christian Arabs are influenced by such an issue. The shadow of the Orient is afflicted and reflected through their appearance. Interestingly, Christian Arabs ought to use the word Alarab, which is the translation for the word “God”; however, they use the word Allah instead. This shows that Arabs are diverse despite their similarities and regardless of their beliefs. We can observe this heterogeneity in the novel through its treatment of the subject. DeLillo takes the early hours of the attacks on the Twin Towers in New York City as a starting point and opens the story with Keith being astonished by the distraction; how he comes out of that dust, mud, and ruin to visit his ex-wife Lianne in her apartment. But it seems that he is suffering from shock. No doubt Keith falls prey to the “dangerous time”: He tried to tell himself he was alive but the idea was too obscure to take hold. There were no taxis and little traffic of any kind and then an old panel truck appeared, Electrical Contractor, Long Island City… It wasn’t until he got in the truck and shut the door that he understood where he’d been going all along. (10)

On the other hand, the reader meets the Arabs some 77 pages into the book. They appear quite aggressive and primitive, and live in Hamburg: They were all growing beards. One of them even told his father to grow a beard. Men came to the flat on Marienstrasse, some to visit, others to live, men in and out all the time, growing beards. Hammad sat crouched, eating and listening. The talk was fire and light, the emotion contagious. They were in this country [Germany] to pursue technical educations but in these rooms they spoke about the struggle. Everything here was twisted, hypocrite, the West corrupt of mind and body. (79)

In these lines, DeLillo pictures those Arabs as physically in Europe but spiritually in their homeland. Indeed, the novelist seems at odds in letting the two camps interact with each other. The whole novel separates both camps, presenting each one as isolated and individual. This lack of interaction points to big differences and profound drifts between the two camps. But this absence of a link also directs the attention to the differences in ideology, intellectuality, and mentality. Each camp expresses these aspects entirely different from the other. Thus, each camp has its own version of the Other. In order to illustrate this and see how each camp lives in its own world, the following two

116

Chapter 3

sections probe this heterogeneity and foreground its significance within each camp.

The American Camp Falling Man begins in medias res and in this very sense, it manages to not only capture the reader’s attention and curiosity, but to a greater extent also pictures a turning point in the history of Post-Orientalism, for the tragic attacks of 9/11 dramatically alter the social, cultural, and political settings of the U.S. and major Arab lands. DeLillo deals with “the psychological consequences and traumatic effects of the attacks on a few individuals” (Baelo-Allué, 64). The historical moment DeLillo decides to start his story with puts the two camps in a palpable, perpetual conflict. As Tolan writes: The move into the twenty-first century resulted in a period of anxious reflection on the myriad developments, advancements and challenges of uncharted future. These millennial anxieties were both halted and reinforced by al-Qaeda attacks on the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York on 11 September 2001, subsequently often referred to by the epithet ‘9/11.’ (2010, 230)

On the other hand, however, the moment also brings upheavals to the fore that Post-Orientalism can never overcome. Therefore, the novelist gives the reader the new conditions and status quo of the Orient and the Occident. On the morning of 9/11, Americans wake up to a day that they have never seen before; their world turns to be quite fragile and hard. They experience the trauma of a new era: It was not a street anymore but a world, a time and space of falling ash and near night. He was walking north through rubble and mud and there were people running past holding towels to their faces or jackets over their heads. They had handkerchiefs pressed to their mouths. They had shoes in their hands, a woman with a shoe in each hand, running past him. They ran and fell, some of them, confused and ungainly, with debris coming down around them, and there were people taking shelter under cars. (DeLillo 2011, 7)

In this way, DeLillo puts the reader at the heart of his story in which he “presents the reader with an utterly changed, collapsed, ‘fallen’ dystopian city and establishes a mood of uncanny sadness that permeants the novel” (Randall 2011, 120). While this presents a state of division that cannot be resolved, each camp lives in isolation of intellect and ideology, with a mutual understanding being vividly absent.

Falling Man

117

The American camp consists of five main characters. While Keith, Lianne, and Justin represent ordinary citizens who exhibit “normal” reactions and opinions, Nina and Martin represent Americans who try to understand their own country’s policy and the other camp’s intentions. It is through the dialogue between Nina and Martin that DeLillo manages to probes into the nature of the two camps. But this dialogue reveals some differences between them both; it elucidates the two kinds of ideology that Martin and Nina hold. These differences mirror the different personal and objective opinions the Americans hold in regard to the Other. According to this characterization, Post-Oriental settings and qualities are viewed differently; there is no consensus on what exactly Post-Orientalism means. In contrast, DeLillo’s American characters say: ‘There are no goals they can hope to achieve. They’re not liberating a people or casting out a dictator. Kill the innocent, only that.’ ‘They strike a blow to this country’s dominance. They achieve this, to show how a great power can be vulnerable. A power that interferes, that occupies.’ (DeLillo 2011, 48)

Through the figure of Nina and her dialogue with Martin, DeLillo explains the motives that might have been behind the 9/11 attacks carried out by extremist Arab fundamentalists against the U.S. Therefore, the author describes the main reasons behind the strikes against America from an American point of view. Nina is a New Yorker who now lives in the post9/11 world, and she believes that the ultimate objective of this terrorist attack is just to “Kill the innocent, only that” (48). Consequently, this indicates two things: first, Nina belongs to her own people, and she cannot imagine the death of Americans in such a terrible scene. Second, Nina’s words reflect a superficial and naive view, since the perpetrators did not carry out these attacks to kill innocent people, but rather to get close to Allah because of their religious beliefs. Nevertheless, an explanation of the motives of the perpetrators is found in The Wind of Paradise, where they consider that New York is “the heart of Satan’s empire, the symbol of materialism nowadays, and the pride of Islam enemies” (al-Hamad 2007, 13). Moreover, in Falling Man, Nina emphasizes her idea to Martin when she says: “They achieve this, to show how a great power can be vulnerable. A power that interferes, that occupies” (DeLillo 2011, 48). So, DeLillo provides us with a model for the American character who refuses indignity or to be humiliated, and the author underlines that the most important thing for Nina is to highlight America’s global power and hegemony. In addition, the reader notes through Nina’s words how the American character holds on to pride and dignity, with her

118

Chapter 3

words reflecting a self-understanding of the American personality in terms of the power, dominance, and greatness of the U.S., all while the American people refuse to be dealt with in such a way. Furthermore, the author presents figures who are knowledgeable about American foreign policy when Nina says: “A power that interferes, that occupies” (48). This refers to the complex relationship between the Orient and the Occident. It also indicates that the U.S. is present in the battlefields through the use of the word “occupies,” and that it specifically takes part through the use of the word “interferes.” Additionally, since Nina is an American citizen living in New York, her words reflect her understanding of American foreign policy when she says: “They’re not liberating a people or casting out a dictator”—this is a reference to the American understanding of invasion and war. In other words, war drums beat when there is an intention to liberate people from a tyrant, or to depose a dictator who is in power. Possibly, DeLillo is referring to the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003. The reader can take this invasion as an example, since it occurred— according to America—to liberate the Iraqi people and depose the dictator Saddam Hussein. We find that Nina is obviously grief-stricken over the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center, and she tries to find justifications for this barbaric assault against her country. Consequently, what she does is apply her understanding of the Iraq invasion and war to the events of September 11, 2001. But the talks between Nina and Martin also show how the American camp is divided on the Other. Indeed, these conversations become soliloquys in which each character voices what they believe to be true and right. And we find Martin is more forceful and firmer in his words than Nina. He widens his argument and goes on to indicate facts that are relevant to both camps: One side has the capital, the labor, the technology, the armies, the agencies, the cities, the laws, the police and the prisons. The other side has a few men willing to die. (48)

This develops into a hot topic in which Nina does not share Martin’s views. He tells her: “Forget God. There are matters of history. This is politics and economics. All the things that shape lives, millions of people, dispossessed, their lives, their consciousness” (49). Here, Martin could be alluding to the Arab–Israeli conflict as there are thousands who are “dispossessed” of their land, property, and even identity. Second, he tends to link politics with economics; a point of crucial interest. But Nina believes that it is religion and ignorance which make Arabs behave as such:

Falling Man

119

It’s not the history of Western interference that pulls down these societies. It’s their own history, their mentality. They live in a closed world, of choice, of necessity. They haven’t advanced because they haven’t wanted to or tried to. (49)

The author brings the whole East together in one entity, stating in the words of Martin that the East, from an American point of view, is a source of ruin and destruction to America. Besides, DeLillo unifies the Arab Islamic and non-Arab East into one structure using the pronoun “they,” as Martin divides the world into two sides: the first is the American camp and the second is the Eastern Islamic camp. So, in this way, the author indicates the development and dominance of the Western side over the Eastern one. Martin sums it up by saying that the Eastern side only has “a few men willing to die” (48), regardless of whether the Eastern side is Islamic Arab or Islamic non-Arab. Therefore, through this assertion, the author provides a negative attitude toward the East and Eastern people, regardless of their geographical locations or political positions. From Martin’s point of view, the Easterners are just a few men who want to die, but DeLillo does not explain why these characters want to kill themselves and the Westerners. Such a question is answered by al-Hamad in The Wind of Paradise when he asks: “why do young people die or commit suicide although they feel happy, and why are they looking for happiness through death and among graves. These queries need us to explore brain convolutions since the fault lies there—in the head. When the head is spoiled, everything is corrupt” (al-Hamad 2007, 281). DeLillo presents the East, in the words of Martin, as an evil, extremist world that is home to men who are willing to die with the aim of destroying others, and he disregards the other beautiful spectra of the East. Since we are dealing with a 9/11 novel, it is typical to focus on the world of extremism. In addition, DeLillo highlights that the motives behind such barbaric actions are not religious when he says: “Forget God” (DeLillo 2011, 49), indicating that these characters are not fighting in the name of God or wishing for martyrdom, but for other reasons. Martin explains these causes by saying: “It’s their own history” (49), referring to the conflicts that occurred in the past between East and West, between Muslims and Christians. Moreover, Martin emphasizes that this matter is constant and rooted in the consciousness of the Oriental character when he says: “this is politics and economics. All the things that shape lives, millions of people, dispossessed, their lives, their consciousness” (49). Therefore, the author conveys to the reader, in the words of Martin, that what happened and is happening (i.e., the destruction of the Western nation by these radical Islamic fundamentalists) has nothing to do with the

120

Chapter 3

West’s political interference in the East. Rather, the main reason is the East’s history, its pattern of thought, and its psychological makeup, because—according to the author— “They live in a closed world, of choice, of necessity. They haven’t advanced because they haven’t wanted to or tried to” (49). This is compatible with al-Hamad’s statement, which also stresses the same topic when saying: “the fault lies there—in the head. When the head is spoiled, everything is corrupt” (al-Hamad 2007, 281). We note that al-Hamad presents figures who live in “a closed world.” This is highlighted through schools and teachers such as Teacher Awad and Sheikh Al-Sarawati, people who have built a generation that is ready to kill and destroy the others. The products of these schools were Wail and Waleed, who were participants in the terrorist attacks of 9/11. 41 In this sense, DeLillo says that novel’s characters “live in a closed world” (2011, 49). They really live in it, as we see in The Wind of Paradise: “Even though there are water taps, the father prefers to use the water jug in performing :Xঌnj¶DO-Hamad 2007, 133). This indicates two things: the first is that such behavior reflects that these characters reject any form of development and change. Despite the existence of convenient tools for personal hygiene using cold and warm water, these characters prefer to use obsolete methods. Second, such behavior may be an attempt to follow in the footsteps of ancestors, trying to imitate their old-fashioned lifestyle and behavior. Let us take another example that shows the lifestyle of a closed society. Al-Hamad says, in the words of Sheikh Muayyed: “the land is like the honor, and he who sells his land is like he who sells his honor” (133), even though the issue is only a matter of buying and selling—the seller is paid the purchase price of his land and the buyer then owns it. Sheikh Muayyed is against the idea of selling his land when saying: “What do I do with prestige and money? All my needs are met, Alhamdulillah, I swear I would not have sold my honor when I had been needy, so how do I do that when I am not in need, Alhamdulillah?” (134). Growing up in a closed society that is governed by closed social customs, traditions, and religious rules, such as the dominance of the religious establishment over the society in which the characters in The Wind of Paradise live, DeLillo also describes this society in the words of Martin as a “closed world” (2011, 49) to reflect the extent to which the two novels simulate each other and to show the intellectual formation of these characters. Furthermore, both DeLillo and al-Hamad agree that the Easterners in both novels do not change because they do not want to and therefore they do not even try to accomplish it. Al-Hamad describes the 41

For an in-depth discussion on this point, see Chapter 5.

Falling Man

121

mentality of Sheikh Muayyed as follows: “Sheikh Muayyed is completely hardheaded, just like the hardness of the mountains and their black rocks that surround each side of them, as he is described by those who know him. Even his heart was harder than the rocks themselves, as Misfer says, as it was cut and made from the same rocks” (al-Hamad 2007, 134). Consequently, the authors suggest that the problem lies in the societal formation of these characters, particularly with regard to their upbringing, religion, and society. A relevant example here is that Misfer’s mother pressures him to marry: “the mother is trying to make him marry as soon as possible” (134). However, Misfer is in love with another girl, Maysoun, who is already married. Maysoun is “the most beautiful girl in the village” (135), and al-Hamad says: “the truth is that Misfer is not reluctant to marry or that he hates marriage… But the girl whom he hopes for, has got married in the same year that he left the village for Jeddah” (135). Hence, DeLillo sums up the essence of the problem in a few words: “They live in a closed world, of choice, of necessity. They haven’t advanced because they haven’t wanted to or tried to” (2011, 49). In this regard, Nina really divides the matter into two parts: the West and the East, with an intellectual gap between both that cannot be bridged. Falling Man tries to portray Post-Orientalism in a positive light. A version of Post-Orientalism emerges from the American camp, one that is characterized by problems. It is almost vague, blurred, and underdeveloped, and has lost its Oriental (past and historic) glamor and implications. The Orient that comes out of Martin and Nina’s interactions is that entity, culture, and ideology, within an aggressive and savage world whose inhabitants seek wars and revenge. But Falling Man also shows the American camp victimized by internal and external factors. Reflecting on the tragic events, crowds of people gather to remember: They walked the entire route, north for twenty blocks and then across town and finally down toward Union-Square, a couple of miles in steam heat, with police in riot helmets and flak jackets, small children riding their parent’s shoulders. They walked with five hundred thousand others, a bright swarm of people ranging sidewalk to sidewalk, banners and posters, printed shirts, coffins draped in black, a march against the war, the president, the policies. (175)

The Arab Camp DeLillo provides the reader with Arab characters who have a high level of education and intellect. The author portrays these characteristics by

122

Chapter 3

presenting two figures, Hammad and Amir, who come from the East and reside in the Federal Republic of Germany, more specifically in Marienstrasse, Hamburg, to study and learn. Therefore, DeLillo informs the reader that these characters will have a constructive role in building and developing the society. Also, the author takes us outside of the building, where Hammad listens to the stories of an old man. These stories have a great impact on Hammad, especially when he hears about another man who was “a rifleman in the Shatt al Arab, fifteen years ago” (77). That rifleman, while serving as a “soldier in Saddam’s army” which indicates that he is Iraqi, saw “thousands of shouting boys” in the ranks of the Iranian army (77). Those boys were carrying “Kalashnikovs, too heavy to be carried very far” (77). Consequently, this scene made a deep impression on the soldier, as if he thought he was “breathing white-hot steel” (77). DeLillo presents Hammad as a good listener, and the reader knows this when he pays attention to the smallest details, sitting “crouched, eating and listening” (79) to the rest of the story in which he is told by the old man that these young boys were only “sounding the cry of history, the story of ancient Shia defeat” (78). Thus, the author shows that this is a character who is highly influenced and surrounded by his environment (that is, the extremist religious environment), even though he lives in the West. Moreover, DeLillo tells us that Hammad gets to know Amir, who is also a student. Amir meets Hammad and other people, and talks to them about Islam and the struggle against its enemies: “Islam is the world outside the prayer room as well as the surahs in the Quran. Islam is the struggle against the enemy, near enemy and far, Jews first, for all things unjust and hateful, and then the Americans” (79). So, DeLillo presents the intellectual and dogmatic conceptualization of Amir by stating that Islam is above everything, and that this religion has enemies who must be fought. Also, the intellectual conceptualization of Amir is consistent with two figures mentioned in The Wind of Paradise, Sheikh Al-Sarawati and Teacher Awad, when they teach students in the school and mention in one way or another the Islamic faith and the enemies of Islam. Here are some words of Sheikh Al-Sarawati: Ύϣ΍άϫϥ΃ϭϡϼγϹ΍ϞΟ΃ϦϣΕϮϤϳϭζϴόϳϭΪϟϮ˵ϳϥΎδϧϹ΍ϥ΃ϭˬ˯ΎϤΘϧ΍˷Ϟϛ˷ ϰϠϋϮϤδϳϡϼγϹ΍ϥ· ˯΍Ω΄Ϝϟ΍ΔΒϘόϟ΍ϪϧϷϦϳΪϟ΍΍άϫήϴϣΪΗϥϭΪϳήϳϦϳάϟ΍ˬϦϴϘϓΎϨϤϟ΍ϭϯέΎμϨϟ΍ϭΩϮϬϴϟ΍Ϧϣௌ˯΍Ϊϋ΃φϴϐϳ ϦϴΑϝϼΤϧϻ΍ϭϝϼπϟ΍ϭϖδϔϟ΍ήθϧϭˬΓΎϴΤϟ΍ϦϣௌΩΎόΑ·ϰϟ·ϑΪϬΗϲΘϟ΍ϢϬόϳέΎθϣϖϳήρϲϓ ΢ϳέˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗˬ 144 -143) ϪϠϫ΃ϭϡϼγϹ΍΍ϭΪϴΒϳϰΘΣέ΍ήϗϢϬϟ΃ΪϬϳϦϟϭˬϢϠδϤϟ΍ΏΎΒθϟ΍ ΔϨΠϟ΍

Falling Man

123

Islam stands above all affiliations, and that man is born, lives and dies for Islam, and this is what causes the anger of the enemies of Allah from the Jews, the Christians and the hypocrites. They want to destroy this religion because it is the great obstacle in the way of their schemes that aim to separate Allah from life and disseminate degradation and vice among the Muslim youth. They will not rest until Islam and its people are exterminated. (al-Hamad 2007, 143–4)

Both al-Hamad in The Wind of Paradise and DeLillo in Falling Man touch on religious fundamentalism from a dogmatic Islamic perspective, which is the hatred for the Others and the call to exterminate them. Thus, the reader notices that both authors share a similar view: that for the Islamic fundamentalists, the enemies of Islam are Jews and the Americans, and that there is a call to fight against them. In addition, both authors consider that such hatred is borne of the religious legislation of surahs in the Quran, considering the Americans and Jews as enemies of Allah. Consequently, the extremist Islamic religious fundamentalism that is mentioned in these novels calls to kill both Americans and Jews. While both al-Hamad and DeLillo agree that their extremist Islamic fundamentalist characters consider America and Jews as their enemies, it is noteworthy that in The Reluctant Fundamentalist Hamid shares a similar point of view. But he does not expressly indicate that Jews are the enemies of Islam and Allah. On the other hand, we find that in Mornings in Jenin, Abulhawa believes that Jews are the enemies of the Eastern Islamic Arab nation, especially the Palestinian nation on the grounds that they are the occupiers of Palestine and also have established the State of Israel on the remains of the Palestinian people. Accordingly, the hatred for Jews presented in Abulhawa’s novel is one between the occupier (Israeli) and the occupied (Palestinian), not from an extremist fundamentalist standpoint. Whereas, the hatred that is presented in The Wind of Paradise and Falling Man is from an extremist fundamentalist Islamic perspective, originating from the religious legislation. Abulhawa states that America supports Israel and the Jews in Palestine, therefore it is an aide to them, and so the reader should consider Americans as the enemy. Nevertheless, this hatred for America in Mornings in Jenin is a hatred for the occupying usurper and for the ally of the occupying usurper, from Abulhawa’s point of view. In this regard, it is important to provide another example from The Wind of Paradise that emphasizes hatred for the Americans and Jews. This example is also fully consistent with what Amir tries to teach his companions in Falling Man. The following quotation clarifies the reactions

124

Chapter 3

of the students to Teacher Awad’s lessons, and how these lessons have a profound impact on the students: ΫΎΘγϷ΍αϭέΩϦϜϟϭˬϢϬΘΑϮΟ΃ϲϓΎϬϧϭ˷ΩΩήϳϲΘϟ΍˯ΎϴηϷ΍ϦϣήϴΜϛϰϨόϣϥϮ˴όϳΓάϣϼΘϟ΍ϦϜϳϢϟ ϢϬϠΜϣˬϥΎϣΰϟ΍΍άϫϮϘϓΎϨϣϦϴϴϧΎϤϠόϟ΍ϥ΃ϭˬέ΍ήη΃ϯέΎμϨϟ΍ϭΩϮϬϴϟ΍ϥ΃ϢϬϧΎϫΫ΃ϲϓΖΨγένϮϋ ΔϨΠϟ΍΢ϳέˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗˬ 152)ϝϮγήϟ΍ϡΎϳ΃ϦϴϘϓΎϨϤϟ΍ϦϣϪΘϋΎϤΟϭϝϮϠγϲΑ΃ϞΜϣ The students were not fully conscious of many things that they repeated in their answers, but the lessons of Teacher Awad strengthened in their minds that Jews and Christians are evil, and that secularists are the hypocrites of this time, like Abu Salul and his group of hypocrites in the days of the Prophet Muhammed. (al-Hamad 2007, 152)

The knowledge and lessons that Teacher Awad’s students receive in The Wind of Paradise represent the preliminary and fundamental stage of building a generation on the principles of jihad and fighting against Allah’s enemies who are—as they understand them—represented by America and the Jews. Also, the lessons are at the conceptual stage, meaning that they are theoretical before moving on to the implementation phase. In addition, the lessons that these students receive are similar to those received by Hammad and his companions in Falling Man: “They looked at videos of jihad in other countries and Hammad told them about the boy soldiers running in the mud, the mine jumpers, wearing keys to paradise around their necks. They stared him down, they talked him down. That was a long time ago and those were only boys, they said, not worth the time it would take to be sorry for a single one” (DeLillo 2011, 80). One of the most interesting things is how similar the characters in Falling Man and The Wind of Paradise are. The representation of Hammad in the former is very similar to that of Ziad in the latter, since they are both from the Middle East. However, perhaps al-Hamad is more daring than DeLillo, when he says that Ziad is from Lebanon, possibly referring to Ziad Jarrah who was the hijacker-pilot of United Airlines Flight 93 that was crashed in the 9/11 attacks, since Ziad in the novel has almost the same story as the real attacker of the same name. Moreover, both Hammad and Ziad’s personalities gradually develop through receiving religious advice and lectures. We see that Muhammed advises Ziad not to eat meat except that which has been prepared according to the Islamic method of ritual slaughter (cf. al-Hamad 2007, 57–8). Additionally, Amir advises his companions—including Hammad—not to miss any prayers and that they should reconsider many matters of their religion. Furthermore, while al-Hamad presents Ziad as a degenerate Lebanese man who studies in Germany, DeLillo presents Hammad as a

Falling Man

125

conservative character coming from the East. In addition, Ziad loves a German-born woman of Turkish ancestry, called Aseel. This is very similar to Hammad, who meets and becomes attached to a woman who is “German, Syrian, what else, a little Turkish” (DeLillo 2011, 80). Therefore, it is as if the two novels simulate and interact with each other. The following quotation describes Martin’s beliefs when responding to the 9/11 attacks: It’s not the history of Western interference that pulls down these societies. It’s their own history, their mentality. They live in a closed world of choice, of necessity. They haven’t advanced because they haven’t wanted or tried to. (49)

This extract reflects the core opinion of many Americans about Oriental people. It puts the blame on the Arab’s shoulder and in so doing, the novel exhibits mono-vision of the Arabs. It deals with a group of fanatic and fundamentalist young Arab students who study in Germany and later go to the U.S. One can recognize the stereotype attached to DeLillo’s handling of the Arab portrait. And in this regard, Falling Man is propagandizing PostOriental meanings and ideologies that the Other tries to attach and annex to the Arab. In other words, DeLillo announces the demise of Orientalism. He presents the reader with a group of young characters who seemingly lament their past heritage and history. These young Arabs can no longer bear the present, and so they are willing to do anything just to avoid life and people. And the novelist adds a particular aspect to them: they are young. They live part of their lives outside Arab lands and gain some knowledge of Western advanced learning, but they then turn all this to their devilish plans. In this sense, they are exposed to various practices of hegemony. Yet, they take a bold stance against this hegemony by resisting it. But the striking fact about them is the sheer truism that this group becomes representative of both Arabs and Muslims: Hammad and his gang typify a faction that positions itself as the spokesman of Arabs and Muslims; they represent Post-Oriental groups who have the ability to speak, power to act, and people to use. Indeed, the novelist uses them as a model for the prototypes who are going to steadily appear as the leader of fundamentalist and fanatic Islamic groups in some Arab countries; here, one can think about the leaders of Al-Qaida and its recent version, ISIS. Again, Hammad, Amir, and others demolish the traditional and historic implications, meanings, and images about the Orient and Orientalism. They use the problems of the Middle East as a pretext for carrying out their devilish, bloody plans. First, this was carried out as follows:

126

Chapter 3 The men went to Internet cafes and learned about flight schools in the United States. Nobody knocked down their door in the middle of the night and nobody stopped them in the street to turn their pockets inside out and grope their bodies for weapons. But they knew that Islam was under attack. (82)

After completing their preparations, and deciding to carry out the attacks, Hammad and his gang are ready. Hammad begins the mission: He had his Visa card, his frequent-flyer number. He had the use of the Mitsubishi. He’d lost twenty-two kilos and converted this to pounds, multiplying by 2.2046. The heat on the Gulf Coast was fierce at times and Hammad liked it. They rented a little stucco house on West Laurel Road and Amir turned down an offer of free cable TV. The house was pink. They sat around a table on day one and pledged to accept their duty, which was for each of them, in blood trust, to kill Americans. (165)

As has been noted, the novel focuses mainly on Hammad and in this manner, the story reveals that figures like him are “trapped on the other side of the boundary of American hegemony. Denied access to its privileges, such individuals are left with a ‘feeling of lost history’” (Pass 2013, 186). Therefore, they employ religion to achieve their objectives, for it is the only thing they have left. The novel then is “a condemnation of violent socioreligious conflict, whose modern ethos and causes, it suggests, are embodied in the masculine characters of Hammad, Keith, and Martin” (Veggian 2015, 108). Moreover, the young Arab terrorists give a tangible, stereotypical image on Post-Orientalism. This image is intellectual, mental, ideological, political, and religious. It sweeps the world and has been established bit by bit. Basically, the novel shows a group of young Arabs who feel this sentiment themselves and see their countries being victimized by the Other. Thus, al-Hammad and his gang give their own interpretation and ideology that the Other takes for granted. They are the Other solely because of their violent fundamentalism (Cruz 2011, 146). What is mentioned in DeLillo’s novel cannot be taken only within the setting of the novel, as we find that many points mentioned in the novel are linked in one way or another to the real events. In the minds of the Other Islam is the world outside the prayer room as well as surahs in the Koran. Islam is the struggle against the enemy, near enemy and far, Jews first, for all things unjust and hateful, and then the American. (DeLillo 2011, 79)

Falling Man

127

In this quotation, Islam is no longer a religion of tolerance and peace, but of quarrels, violence, and war. Also, the quotation can be considered an example of how these figures view “Jews” and the “American.” Here, they make the Other an enemy who cannot be tolerated. Furthermore, the words bring the Orient and the Occident into a perpetual conflict whose consequences contribute to the emergence of Post-Orientalism. The pertinent point that runs throughout the novels is that Jews are present in Post-Orientalism. People of the Post-Orientalist era tend to link their miserable circumstances with Jews first and then with the U.S. This duality, the binary collision between the U.S. and Jews, leads the Arab to suspect the true intentions of the U.S. The Arabs the novel deals with are living within their own group. It lacks external connections and communications. Hammad and the others build this group from their ideology and political situation. Thus, when they move to Europe and begin to encounter that world, they want to develop themselves in terms of knowledge, but they are still haunted by their lost present and unknown future. They come to the West: to pursue technological educations but in these rooms they spoke about the struggle. Everything here was twisted, hypocrite, the West corrupt of mind and body, determined to shiver Islam down to bread crumbs for birds… They studied architecture and engineering. They studied urban planning and one of them blamed the Jews for defects in construction. (79)

These lines are written using the technique of contrast in which opposite ideas and concepts are juxtaposed side by side. For instance, he puts education, architecture, and engineering alongside struggle, corruption, and defects. No doubt then this paradox is functional: it is meant to mirror the contradiction and confusion that the young Arabs have and how they are torn between two paths, namely education or distraction. Ultimately, the distraction motive wins in the end, but this results in the destruction of the Other and themselves. Therefore, the Arab group looks at the Other as a unified, monoideological entity that threatens them day and night. In other words, like the Americans, the Arabs deal with the other as a group that does not represent diverse manners and cultures. Moreover, this other cannot be understood or tolerated. In a conversation, Hammad asks a question to which Amir replies: What about the others? Amir said simply there are no others. The others exist only to the degree that they fill the role we have designed for them. This is their function as others. Those who will die have no claim to their lives outside the useful fact of their dying. (170)

128

Chapter 3

Indeed, Arab figures in Falling Man are also “falling” in the sense that they are losing their Oriental identity forever. Thus, the metaphor of the title discloses more than one denotation: for the Arab camp, “falling” means a kind of degradation of morals and loss of historical status. “In an age in which, as 9/11 exposed so clearly,” one critic argues, “lives fly apart both literally and figuratively, these most recent artistic surrogates of DeLillo suggest that words alone just won’t be enough” (Olster 2011, 13). Therefore, the young Arabs express their desires to fight and kill; and at the same time, they get rid of their past Orient. It seems they are at pains with their past. These figures live in a closed world of their own and do not belong to the Oriental glamour and charm. On the contrary, they propagandize Post-Oriental ideology and mentality: Hammad in a certain way thought this was unfair. But the closer he examined himself, the truer the words. He had to fight against the need to be normal. He had to struggle against himself, first, and then against the injustice that haunted their lives. (DeLillo 2011, 83)

The lines above reflect the inner conflict that is at work within the character’s personality. Hammad shows this conflict and it seems he cannot dismiss it. It is a feeling that captures him. Nevertheless, Hammad and the others believe that they there is a holy mission to be undertaken; their house is almost holy: They read the sword verses of the Koran. They were strong-willed, determined to become one mind. Shed everything but the men you are with. Become each other’s running blood. Sometimes there were ten pairs of shoes outside the door of the flat, eleven pairs of shoes. This was the house of the followers, that’s what they called it, dar al-ansar, and that’s what they were, followers of the Prophet. (83)

Therefore, the most vital element that stands behind Hammad and his companions is Islam. They hold Islam as the only religion that is right. But this sense of being religious turns them into monsters: Hammad had begun to understand that death is stronger than life. This is where the landscape consumed him, waterfalls frozen in space, a sky that never ended. It was all Islam, the river and streams. Pick up a stone and hold it in your fist, this is Islam. God’s name on every tongue throughout the countryside. There was no feeling like this ever in his life. He wore a bomb vest and knew he was a man now, finally ready to close the distance to God. (166)

Falling Man

129

It can be argued that DeLillo is trying to find the reasons behind the atrocious acts of the Arab terrorists. He believes religion is that reason because it gives such people the ideological right to kill both themselves and others. In this way, this socio-religious element, whose impacts and power are felt in Post-Orientalism, may be regarded as a pillar in characterizing Post-Orientalism. And this element sets the Arab camp apart from the American one. The Arabs see no “purpose” in the life of the Other: The people he [Hammad] looked at, they need to be ashamed of their attachment to life, walking their dogs. Think of it, dogs scraping at dirt, lawn sprinklers hissing. When he saw a storm bearing in from the gulf he wanted to spread his arms and walk right into it. These people, what they hold so precious we see as empty space. He didn’t think about the purpose of their mission. All he saw was shock and death. There is no purpose, this is the purpose. (171)

Therefore, it may be argued that the Arabs emerge as death seekers; they want to take the lives of their enemies as well as their own. This thread of suicide attackers becomes a stereotype for that fanatical faction of Muslims who are ready to kill themselves while attempting to kill the Other: Now he sits in the barber chair, wearing the striped cape. The barber is a slight man with little to say. The radio plays news, weather, sports and traffic. Hammad does not listen. He is thinking again, looking past the face in the mirror, which is not his, and waiting for the day to come, clear skies, light winds, when there is nothing left to think about. (172)

DeLillo does not describe the last moments before the collision of the airplane with the World Trade Center; he does not give details of the crash. He lets the reader imagine what happens next. In this way, DeLillo dwarfs the action itself when the hijacked airplane hits the World Trade Center. Maybe this is because the novelist is more interested in entering the world and circumstances of the characters who happen to survive that tragic event than depicting the last moments of innocent passengers, employees, and the terrorists; he could be said to have avoided describing violence. Rather, he manages to record and even trace the lives of survivors, just to ponder over how the American camp and its inhabitants view both their experience and those who committed this terrible action; this is a fact that needs more stress and emphasis. Falling Man focuses on the present and aftermath conditions existing between the Occident and the Orient. The novel contextualizes itself within the zeitgeist of these two pillars and avoids being merely a story of a past incident. John N. Duvall also views the novel similarly, writing

130

Chapter 3

that it is a “mediation” on events in which aesthetics and politics mingle (2008, 9). But DeLillo describes the last moments of the terrorists as follows: the vest was blue nylon with crisscross straps. There were canisters of high explosive wired into the belt. There were slabs of plastique high on his chest. This was not the method he and his brothers would one day employ but it was the same vision of heaven and hell, revenge and devastation. (2011, 172)

What captures the attention of the reader is the phrase “revenge and devastation.” Both terms are pertinent to this study. Firstly, Post-Oriental figures (represented by the Arab camp) are motivated to seek both revenge and devastation; and secondly, the two words can work as adjectives and modifiers for Post-Orientalism in the current situation and milieu at the heart of the Orient (take Syria as an example), which is brimming with devastated areas and collapsed cities. The action of these terrorists “is a grand symbolic act directed against the prominence of U.S. state power or more generally Western Civilization” (Olster 2011, 122).

New Establishments Looking back at Edward Said’s perspectives on the Orient, one notices the difference between him and DeLillo’s depictions in Falling Man: on this topic, Said argues that: Orientalism is not only a positive doctrine about the Orient that exists at any one time in the West; it is also an influential academic tradition (when one refers to an academic specialist who is called an Orientalist), as well as an area of concern defined by travelers, commercial enterprises, governments, military expeditions, readers of novels and accounts of exotic adventure, natural historians, and pilgrims to whom the Orient is a specific kind of knowledge about specific places, peoples, and civilizations. For the Orient, idioms became frequent, and these idioms took firm hold in European discourse. Beneath the idioms there was a layer of doctrine about the Orient; this doctrine was fashioned out of the experiences of many Europeans, all of them converging upon such essential aspects of the Orient as the Oriental character, Oriental despotism, Oriental sensuality, and the like. (1997, 222)

DeLillo sets forth to denounce and reject what Said writes about the Orient. This is carried out through the literary and fictional narratives and styles DeLillo employs. He does not believe in Orientalism any more. He thinks that the Oriental world and settings have lost their past and traditional implications for a Western figure in general and for Americans in particular.

Falling Man

131

As the novel illustrates, Europeans and Americans show no interest whatsoever in the Orient. Indeed, the “doctrine” that Said keeps mentioning frequently is changed by Europeans and Americans alike. Therefore, Falling Man tries in many ways to bring about new meanings and the status quo of Post-Orientalism as new establishments. In other words, DeLillo refutes Said’s and Ashcroft’s readings about the stage that Orientalism has reached. The novel does not try in any sense to probe into the nature and aesthetics of the Orient (in terms of its beauty, culture, etc.), or answer why there is a bad relationship between the Orient and the Occident. It is worth mentioning that on a number of occasions Said insinuates the changing and odd characteristics the Orient expresses, but he stops there without giving much attention to it. He writes that “the Orient for Europe was until the nineteenth century a domain with a continuous history of unchallenged Western dominance” (73). And Ashcroft adds the same notion about Orientalism; so, in this way, he may be influenced by Said. Ashcroft et al.’s comment on Orientalism are, like Said’s, out of date: We could hardly find a clearer statement of the multiple imperatives of Orientalism: the desire to know and by knowing to ‘own’ the Earth; the desire to rule in a way that is in keeping with ‘the innate historical condition’ of colonized races; the sense that not to rule through knowledge will lead to rebellion. Knowledge, understanding, pacification, control: all these things [are] seen to be available through geographical knowledge. (1998a, 47)

Then, one can observe that the interest and “desire” to know the Oriental places and features have faded away. The West does not express the will and intention to “rule” the Orient anymore. This is apparent in Falling Man in which each camp is separated and isolated from the Other, and the Occidental figure does not show any interest in resolving conflict with the Other. Post-Orientalism is the corrupt and uneasy condition of this newly born world. Therefore, the plot, characterization, settings, narration, and arrangement of the novel lead in portraying a number of features. It announces the demise of Oriental glamor and importance, replacing it with Post-Orientalism. Here, Post-Oriental figures and conditions exhibit nothing more than desperate, lost people and a no man’s land whose present and future promise are filled with plight and upheaval. Hammad, Amir, and the others represent an evil group which reacts wickedly against its conditions. They are “lone wolves.” DeLillo possibly commits a big mistake in establishing this mono-direction of Post-Oriental groups. These groups are haunted by religion and its dogma. Religion becomes their constitution and

132

Chapter 3

reference, and this leads them to become God’s right hand. But DeLillo is alluding to the fact that such young figures not only have the ability to be representative of Post-Oriental figures, but also can gain support from their own people. They become part of this new Orient. But what is a more pertinent token in the novel is the politicization of Post-Orientalism. The U.S engagements in the Middle East, its support for Israel, and the Palestinian issue are rarely absent from the dialogues the novel presents. The novelist establishes that politics is the main focus now. He emphasizes how the Post-Oriental settings are apparently political in nature. When we turn to the conversations held in either the American camp or Arab camp, one recognizes how they both deal with the issue from a political point of view. In other words, DeLillo indicates the shifting of the focus in the Orient from culture and knowledge to politics and terror. It does not want to understand the Other. DeLillo portrays Americans as being controlled by their government which employs the mass media as an intellectual and propaganda tool. He writes important parts depicting American interference across the whole world. Here, then, the novelist confirms Chomsky’s criticism about the U.S. administration: U.S. hegemony is the realization of history’s purpose […] ‘the imperative of America’s mission as the vanguard of history, transforming the global order and, in doing so, perpetuating its own dominance,’ guided by ‘the imperative of military supremacy, maintained in perpetuity and projected globally. (2004, 43)

In this way, the novel also hints at the public mind as being ruled by hidden hands. Outside the U.S., hegemony is carried out in various ways: political interference, economic influence, diplomatic engagements, and even military coercion. But inside the U.S., this hegemony is carried out by different approaches, i.e., mass media and digital language. Therefore, there is a “commitment” which is meant to deviate the multitudes. This “commitment,” Chomsky argues, “is to control the public mind” (2002, 24). This includes the traditional media, such as television, radio, etc., and also novel, digital means, such as the internet and its derivatives. In Falling Man, DeLillo describes how the Occidental figures view and deal with PostOriental people. The relationship between the two suffers from a number of problems: silence, misunderstanding, and enmity that overshadow the scene. The novel, in this way, can be regarded as a literary and social document that registers and remarks on the real circumstances of the new age.

CHAPTER 4 RIYAH AL-JANNA [THE WIND OF PARADISE]

ϥϼ˷ΜϤϳϦϴϤΨοϦϴϤϨμϛϭ΃ˬΔϣΎγϰόϓ΃ϲΑΎϨϛϥ΍ήϬψϳϲϤϟΎόϟ΍ΓέΎΠΘϟ΍ΰϛήϣΎΟήΑ΍ΪΑΪϴόΑϦϣϭ ϮΑ΃ϲΧ΃˰ΔϋήδΑϞμΗ΍ϭϝϮϤΤϤϟ΍ ϪϔΗΎϫΪϤΤϣΝήΧ΄ϓˬΔϳ˷ΩΎϤϟ΍ΎϬΗέΎπΣϭΓήΒϜΘδϤϟ΍Ύϛήϴϣ΃ ΕϮλϩ˯ΎΟϭˮϢΘϧ΃Ϧϳ΃«ௌ˯Ύηϥ·ΎϬϴϓϦΤϧϭϥ΍ϮΛ«ΔϨΠϟ΍ϦϣΔΑήϘϣϰϠϋϦΤϧ«ωΎϘόϘϟ΍ ˯Ύηϥ·ΔϨΠϟ΍ϲϓϢϜόϣϥϮϜϧϭϖ΋ΎϗΩ«ϦϤΣήϟ΍ΪΒϋΎΑ΃ΎϳϢϛ˯΍έϭϦΤϧ˰ϝϮϘϳΔγΎϤΤϟΎΑϢόϔϣ ΔϨΠϟ΍΢ϳέˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗˬ 17) …ήΒϛ΃ௌ«ήΒϛ΃ௌ˰«ήΒϛ΃ௌ«ήΒϛ΃ௌௌ From afar, The Twin Towers of the World Trade Center began to appear like a snake’s two fangs, or as huge idols representing America’s arrogance and materialistic civilization. Muhammed took out his mobile phone and quickly called, saying: ‘Hey brother, Abu AlQaaqaa! We are close to Paradise, only a few seconds are left for us to be there Inshallah. Where are you?’ And then a highly-enthusiastic voice came out telling: ‘We are behind you, Abu Abdulrahman. Few minutes are remaining and ZHZLOOEHZLWK\RXLQKHDYHQ,QVKDOODK¶$OOƗKXDNEDU«$OOƗKXDNEDU« $OOƗKXDNEDU«$OOƗKXDNEDU«$OOƗKXDNEDU«DO-Hamad 2007, 17)

“Happiness Through Death and Among Graves”: The Dogma of the Other Riyah Al-Janna [The Wind of Paradise] is a novel that narrates the story of a group of impulsive young people who rush toward death, believing that the promised “Paradise” (17) awaits. These are the characters who carry out the tragic attacks of 9/11, bringing down the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center, which they consider a symbol of the U.S.’ hegemony. The author continues the novel, in situations that cannot be said to be fantastical in so far as they are derived from lived experiences, based on principles and doctrines pushed strongly through discussions among the characters. The author, Turki al-Hamad, uses these characters to express the prospects of the directors of this attack and those who carried it out.

134

Chapter 4

There is controversy surrounding this matter from all sides, and one of the central questions remains unanswered. Who was responsible for the 9/11 attacks? But the author—through his narration—firmly convinces the reader that it is the following characters: Mohammad, Ahmad, Abdulaziz, Azmi, Abu Mosab, Ziad, Wail, and his brother Waleed. These characters are fictional, and the reader—in one way or another—is drawn into the discussion about the terrorist acts that the characters commit, as well as their backgrounds and personalities, in an attempt to identify their motives; first, indirect psychological motives, and second, direct motives that play a role in that rush toward death, which is the symbol of martyrdom. The Wind of Paradise is written in Arabic. It deals with the impactful 9/11 attacks in the Post-Oriental era. It opens a direct dialogue with the East, tackling the issue from the other side, i.e., from the perspective of the East instead of the West. Unlike typical 9/11 fiction that mainly deals with the tragic event and its consequences, this novel highlights the attack itself and its roots. In other words, the novel attempts to explain why these Middle Eastern Muslim characters are ready to kill themselves for the sake of Allah; why they are ready to kill and damage the Other at all; and what is happening in the Near Islamic East that leads to conceptualize the intellectual formation. The novel opens a direct investigation into the events. It tells the story from the Orient’s perspective. Al-Hamad is a Saudi writer, but he is also an American product. He received his education in the U.S. and spent 10 years of his life there. Similarly, Susan Abulhawa is an American product, too. Their novels position the two authors as part of the Arab American literature. Although Abulhawa was born in Kuwait and she lived between Jerusalem, Jordan, and Kuwait, she returned to the U.S. and graduated from Pfeiffer University in North Carolina and received her Master’s degree in Neuroscience from the University of South Carolina (cf. Abulhawa 2010, n.p.). Likewise, al-Hamad, who has spent his life in the Middle East and the U.S., has similar roots in the latter. Furthermore, the novel can be seen as dystopian in a Middle Eastern context. It deals with the characteristics of a New East (New Orient) in the Middle East, which is full of Salafi jihadists who are ready to kill and destroy the Other. It describes the East as a place of devastation and destruction. The novel argues that the Orient now has changed to become the New Orient because of two major points: (1) the West’s intervention in the East; and (2) as a result of the Islamic Wahhabi education system (i.e., the increase of religious authority at schools, especially in Saudi Arabia). The education system in the New East is controlled by the Islamic Wahhabi institution, which does not accept the Other and, to some extent, calls for its

Riyah Al-Janna [The Wind of Paradise]

135

killing based on a religious point of view. In other words, such an Islamic institution justifies killing and destroying the Other as long as this Other does not follow its principles as laid out in the Quran, or the Wahabi interpretation of it. It is an ideology that calls for hatred and animosity. MacFarquhar comments on the formation of this Middle East: After Sept. 11, 2001, the push toward reform in the Middle East gained momentum with the recognition in some quarters that stifling political and economic conditions helped spawn extremism. Reform advocates like Mr. Hamad live under threat but have also gained some space to air grievances. (2005, 1)

Being written in Arabic makes the novel attractive and interesting, because it is the first 9/11 novel that is written in this language and consequently for Arabs. Although the text is in Arabic, it is filled with hybridized English words. For example, Mohammad addresses Ziad: “Islam is one package as they say in English, either you take everything from it literally or you leave it all” (al-Hamad 2007, 58). At the same time, al-Hamad mixes his text with many verses from the Quran. Unlike Mornings in Jenin, which is an English novel from an American writer for both English and Arabic audiences, The Wind of Paradise is an Arabic novel from an Arabic writer for a mainly Arab readership. In other words, Abulhawa is an Arab American novelist who hybridizes her English text with Arabic words, whereas al-Hamad is an Arab writer who hybridizes his Arabic novel with English words. What captures the Arab reader’s initial attention is that the novel seemingly calls for radicalism and extremism, but after reading the novel in its entirety, this cannot be said to be true. It does, however, deal with radical Muslim terrorists who attacked America on 9/11. It expounds the dogma of radicalisms, and al-Hamad’s novel has two fundamental messages: the first one is to the West, and the other is to the East. The message al-Hamad carries to the West is that the (slightly stereotypical) view of the Orient prevalent among the West is not an accurate representation of what the Orient has become. The message he carries to the East—and here it must be mentioned that this message is one that is seldom articulated—is a call for a better interpretation of Islam and mainly of the Quran. He is aware that killing the Other is not (and will never be) the solution to end any conflict between the East and the West. He states: “When the head is spoiled, everything is corrupt” (281), indicating that the education system in Arab countries in the Middle East is religiously oriented. In a hotel near Dammam, al-Hamad commented on his novel: “I wrote the latest book just

136

Chapter 4

to say that the problem is not from outside, the problem is from ourselves— if we don’t change ourselves, nothing will change” (MacFarquhar 2005, 1). The Quran is the source of Islamic knowledge for Muslims. Through various conversations in the novel, al-Hamad makes use of verses from the Quran to clarify the conceptualization of the radical Muslim figures. Al-Hamad’s point is that the misconception of Islam (especially of the Quran) has contributed to the formation of an ideology based on hatred in the Orient. The author says that the terrorist attacks of 9/11 happened as a result of such misinterpretation. Al-Hamad also highlights a very common concept in the Arab Islamic world, especially in the Middle East, which is known as the selective approach of Islam. It can be explained in a fairly straightforward manner: if you are a Muslim, you take what is beneficial to you from Islam and leave the rest. 42 When al-Hamad was asked about his novel, he said: ΎϬϴϓϥ΃ϢϬϤϟ΍ϦϜϟϭ«˱Ύπϳ΃ϝΎϴΨϟ΍ϦϣήϴΜϜϟ΍ΎϬϴϓϭˬϖ΋ΎϘΤϟ΍ϦϣήϴΜϜϟ΍ΎϬϴϓ«Δϳ΍ϭέΩήΠϣϩάϫ ϲϨόϳΪϗϊϗ΍ϮϤϟ΍ϭϊ΋ΎϗϮϟ΍ϭ˯ΎϤγϷ΍ξόΑϖΑΎτΗ«Ώ΍ϮΠϟ΍ϦϣϞϴϠϘϟ΍Ϟϗ΃ϭˬϝ΍Άδϟ΍ϦϣήϴΜϜϟ΍ ΍ΫΎϤϟϑήόϧϥ΃ˮϑΪϬϟ΍ϭ«ϝΎϴΨϟ΍ϭΔϘϴϘΤϟ΍ΝΫΎϤΗϲϨόϳΎϣέΪϘΑˬ˯ϲηϱ΃ϲϨόϳϻΪϗϭˬ˯ϲηϞϛ ϦϴΑϭΕϮϤϟ΍ϲϓΓΩΎόδϟ΍ϦϋϥϮΜΤΒϳ΍ΫΎϤϟ«˯΍ΪόγϢϫϭϥϭήΤΘϨϳ΍ΫΎϤϟϞΑ«ΏΎΒθϟ΍ΕϮϤϳ ΎϣΪϨόϓ«α΃ήϟ΍ϲϓ«ϙΎϨϫϦϤϜΗΔϠόϟΎϓ«ΦϤϟ΍ϒϴϓϼΗϲϓΐϘϨϧϥ΃ϰϟ·ΝΎΘΤϳϝ΍ΆγˮέϮΒϘϟ΍ ΔϨΠϟ΍΢ϳέˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗˬ ΏΎΘϜϠϟϲϔϠΨϟ΍˯Ύτϐϟ΍)«ΪγΎϓ˯ϲηϞϜϓˬα΃ήϟ΍Ϊδϔϳ This is just a novel. (…). It has many facts, with much imagination as well (…). But the most prominent thing is that it has plenty of ‘questions,’ and a little less ‚answers.’ (…). Having some matched names, facts and locations may mean everything, or may mean nothing, in so far as it means mixing reality with imagination (…). So what is the aim of that? It is to know why young people die (…) or commit suicide although they feel happy (…), and why they are looking for happiness through death and among graves. (…). These queries need us to explore brain convolutions (…) since the fault lies there—in the head (…). When the head is spoiled, everything is corrupt (…). (al-Hamad 2007, back cover.)

The story begins in the early morning of 9/11 when the planes were hijacked by terrorists. This is what makes the novel distinctive: it tries to unveil the reasons behind the attacks from the perspective of the terrorists by showcasing their lives before and during the attacks. It indicates the composition of the “New Orient.” This Orient has the image of a no man’s land, where people are ready to die to punish and end the identity of the Other. The novel indicates that the U.S. is the reason the Islamic Middle 42

To understand the selected approach of Islam, see Graham, William Albert. Islamic and Comparative Religious Studies: Selected Writings. New York: Ashgate, 2010.

Riyah Al-Janna [The Wind of Paradise]

137

East is constantly under attack and in a state of perpetual damage, and hence the U.S. must be punished accordingly. It is notable that other related novels mostly deal with 9/11 and its aftermath, but The Wind of Paradise provides the reader with a more complete image of what is going on. It recounts the story of the terrorists, their education, and their way of thinking, as well as both the gradual and sudden changes they experience. Moreover, it pays special attention to the characters’ individual development of their personality, which is something that other 9/11 novels have not dealt with. From the very beginning of the novel, al-Hamad gives specific descriptions of what is going on in the planes and how the terrorists hijacked them. For instance: ϮϳΩ΍ήϟ΍ίΎϬΟΎϘϠϏ΃ϥ΃ΪόΑˬΓή΋Ύτϟ΍ΓΩΎϴϗΎϤϠΘγ΍ϭΓή΋Ύτϟ΍ϱ˴ ˴ Ϊ΋ΎϗΩϮϴϗΰϳΰόϟ΍ΪΒϋϭΪϤΤϣϢϜΣ΃ ΎϫέΎδϤϟ ΩϮόΗ ϥ΃ ϞΒϗ ˬΓΰϴΟϭ ΓήΘϔϟ ϲΑήϐϟ΍ ϝΎϤθϟ΍ ϮΤϧ ΎϬϘϳήρ Γή΋Ύτϟ΍ ΕάΧ΃ ΎϬΑ ιΎΨϟ΍ ˷ ΔϳέϮρ΍ήΒϣ· ΐϠϗ «ϙέϮϳϮϴϧ «ΩϮθϨϤϟ΍ ϑΪϬϟ΍ ϩΎΠΗΎΑ ˬϲϗήθϟ΍ ΏϮϨΠϟ΍ ϩΎΠΗΎΑ Ϫϟ ςτΨϤϟ΍ ΔϨΠϟ΍΢ϳέˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗˬ 13)ϡϼγϹ΍˯΍Ϊϋ΃ήΨϓϭˬήμόϟ΍Δϳ˷ΩΎϣΰϣέϭˬϥΎτϴθ ˷ ϟ΍ Both Muhammed and Abdulaziz made sure that the pilots are tightly tied, and then they took command of the plane after turning off their own radio device. The plane took its northwestward route briefly before returning to its planned south-east route towards the intended destination—New York; the heart of Satan’s empire, the symbol of materialism nowadays, and the pride of Islam’s enemies. (13)

Al-Hamad highlights two terrorists (Muhammed and Abdulaziz) from the moment they hijacked the plane, and represents America as an enemy of Islam to them. This representation reflects hatred and violence, which is the terrorists’ doctrine. Such hatred has developed gradually in the Middle East. But why should these planes be hijacked? And what is the motivation of these characters to commit such a terrorist attack? Does Islam really call for hatred, violence, and punishment? Through the novel, one understands that such hatred is derived from religion and based within it. From this point, it seems necessary to briefly explain Wahhabism, Salafism, and Jihadism.

138

Chapter 4

The Doctrine of Hate: Wahhabism Versus Salafism and Jihadism ϡΎϣ·ϦΑ΍ϦδΣϦΑϦϤΣήϟ΍ΪΒϋΦϴθϟ΍ϝϮϘϳϚϟΫϲϓϭˬϦϳΪϟ΍ϝϮλ΃ϦϣΖΑΎΛϞλ΃˯΍ήΒϟ΍ϭ˯ϻϮϟ΍ ௌΓΩΎΒόΑήϣϷ΍ϝϭϷ΍ϥ΍ήϣ΃ϪΗΪϋΎϗϭϡϼγϹ΍ϦϳΩϞλ΃³ΏΎϫϮϟ΍ΪΒϋϦΑΪϤΤϣΦϴθϟ΍ˬΓϮϋΪϟ΍ ˱ϼλ΃ϞόΠΗ΃«´ϪϛήΗϦϣήϴϔϜΗϭˬϪϴϓΓϻ΍ϮϤϟ΍ϭˬϚϟΫϰϠϋξϳήΤΘϟ΍ϭˬϪϟϚϳήηϻϩΪΣϭϰϟΎόΗ ˬϥϮϴϧ΍ήμόϟ΍ϭΔϗΩΎϧΰϟ΍Δ˷ϠηϭϥϮϴϧΎϤϠόϟ΍ϪϟϮϘϳΎϣ΍άϫˮΓήΑΎϋΔϳϮϴϧΩΔγΎϴγΩήΠϣϦϳΪϟ΍ϝϮλ΃Ϧϣ ˷ ˴ϻϼϋϭ͉ϞΟϖΤϟ΍ϝϮϗ΃ήϘΗϢϟ΃˰ϪΑΎμϋ΄ΑϢϜΤΘϟ΍ϝϭΎΤϳϮϫϭϢΛ«ϥϮϘΤΘδϳΎϣௌϦϣϢϬϴϠϋ ˸ ͉ϻ·˶  ˳˯ϲ˸ η˶ϲϓဃ ˷˶ ˴Ϧ ˶ϣβϴ ϥ΃ ˴ ˴Ϡϓ ˴Ϛ˶ϟΫ˴Ϟό˸ ˴ϔϳϦ˸ ϣ˴ ϭ ˶ Ω Ϧ˸ ˶ϣ˯˴ Ύϴ˴ ϟ˶ ϭ˸ ˴ ΃ ˴Ϧϳή˶˶ ϓΎ˴Ϝϟ΍ ˴ϥϮ˵Ϩ ˶ϣ ˸ΆϤ˵ ϟ΍˶ά ˶Ψ͉Θϳ˴ ˴ ˴ϦϴϨ˶ ˶ϣ ˸ΆϤ˵ ϟ΍ϥϭ˵ ΔϨΠϟ΍΢ϳέˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗˬ 174 - 173) ˱ ΓΎ˵ϘΗϢ˸ Ϭ˸ Ϩ ˶ϣ΍Ϯ͊ϘΘ˴ Η Al Wala’ Wal Bara’ ‘loyalty and disavowal’ is a fixed pillar of the religion. Abdulrahman bin Hasan; a disciple of Imam al Da’wah Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, said: ‘The origin and the base of the religion of Islam are two things: believing that there is no God except Allah—He is One without any partner, motivating people to that, showing loyalty to that, and accusing of infidelity those who abandoned that. Do you consider a pillar of religion merely a transient worldly policy? This is what the secularists, the heretics and the modernists say. May God punish them by what they deserve.’ Then he tried to hold his nerve, and said: ‘Haven’t you read the true words of Allah when He said: “Let not believers take disbelievers as allies rather than believers. And whoever [of you] does that has nothing with Allah, except when taking precaution against them in prudence.”’ (173-4)

Wahhabism as a doctrine appeared between 1750 and 1752, with Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab in Najd, Saudi Arabia, as one of the key figures (“Wahabism” 2001, 1). It “had the good fortune to emerge in the Arabian Peninsula” (Algar 2002, 1). Wahhabism calls for a rethinking of Islam from a specific “Sunni” way of thinking. It is “a specific phenomenon,” Algar mentions in his book, adding: “[calls] for recognition as [a] separate school of thought even as a sect of its own” (2). This phenomenon divided Islam and came with new strict obligations trying to guide people toward an intolerant Islam. 43 Wahhabism is based on the Islamic concept of Al Wala’ Wal Bara’ [loyalty and disavowal]. It “stresses the absolute sovereignty of God” (“Wahabism” 2001, 1). It is a movement that does not accept compromises. If one is a Muslim, he/she loves for the sake of Allah. At the same time, he/she hates for the sake of Allah. Muslims who disagree with

43

For more information about Al Wala’ Wal Bara’ [loyalty and disavowal], see Bin Ali, Mohamed. The Roots of Religious Extremism: Understanding the Salafi Doctrine of Al-Wala’ Wal Bara’. London: Imperial College Press, 2016.

Riyah Al-Janna [The Wind of Paradise]

139

the Wahhabis are labeled as Alkafreen [apostates]. From this perspective, their killing is justified, even desirable. 44 During the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire reached its golden age with the conquest of most of Eastern Europe, Spain, Rome, and Malta. Notably, Christians, Jews, and Muslims lived together under specific laws made by the government of this empire. When Wahhabism first appeared as a movement, the Ottoman Empire rejected and repealed it. However, the Balfour declaration in 1917 between the British Mandate and the Ottoman Empire—with the help of the Saudi Arabian government and represented by Hussein ibn Ali; the Sharif and Emir of Mecca—weakened the position of the Ottoman Empire. So, it was a chance to facilitate the Jewish immigration to Palestine and to establish the state of Israel with the help of the British Mandate. After modernization in 1923, this movement came to life again (Bani Al-Marjah 1984, 20–30). However, such modernization and reformation have not substantially influenced the Wahhabis as they continue to: enforce public attendance at prayers, forbid shaving and the smoking of tobacco. Their mosques are plain. By the middle of the 18th century, they dominated the Arabian Peninsula with the political support of the Al Saud, the family that to this day rules through a monarchy. (“Wahabism” 2001, 1)

Another fundamental principle of Wahhabism is Takfirism. In his book Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad, Delong-Bas signifies that “Wahhabi teachings are often referred to as a ‘fanatical discourse’ and Wahhabism itself has been called ‘the most retrograde expression of Islam’ and ‘one of the most xenophobous radical Islamic movements that can be’” (2007, 3). Wahhabism, Jihadism, and Salafism have a lot in common—most importantly, the concept of Al Wala’ Wal Bara’, which signifies loving and hating for the sake of Allah. Al Wala’ Wal Bara’ is to love those who are obedient to Allah and to defend and assist them, but to show anger toward those who oppose Allah, His messenger, His religion, and His followers. Taking the movements in chronological order, we see that Salafism emerged before Wahabism; sometimes Salafism was more popular than Wahhabism, and sometimes Wahhabism was more popular than Salafism. Then, 44 See the conference on Wahhabism at the British University in Egypt by Dr. Yusri Rushdi el-Sayed Jabr al Husni, live broadcast on Azhar TV, November 8, 2012. “In the literature of Islamism, there is usually quite a bit of confusion between Takfirism, Jihadism and Salafism. Takfirism is quite different from all of the aforementioned, however. Takfir (excommunication) is the act of accusing a Muslim of abandoning Islam and becoming an infidel or an apostate (murtadd)” (Ashour 9).

140

Chapter 4

Jihadism emerged, which is part of Salafism but far stricter. While Salafism does not explicitly advocate killing the Other, Jihadism calls for it, following texts that have been interpreted from the Quran. Wahhabism focuses on accepting and obeying the ruler as he is, whatever he does, and however he behaves, even if his actions or opinions are wrongful. This aspect was never accepted by the Salafist and Jihadist movements that emerged later. Given the characters of The Wind of Paradise, we note that the author presents people who have evolved either gradually or suddenly. For example, Wail and Waleed came from Saudi Arabia and were subjected to the Saudi education system, which is based on the Wahhabi school as the novel indicates. They ended up becoming extremist Salafists willing to apply Islamic law as they believe had been revealed 1400 years ago. Later, Wail and Waleed became Jihadists in al-Qaeda who wanted to destroy America and remove it from the face of the Earth. So, Wail and Waleed evolved gradually from Wahhabists to Salafists, then to Salafi Jihadists. But still, the connection between Wahhabism and terrorism is unanswered. Delong-Bas states that “many in the West have struggled to understand the connection between Wahhabi beliefs and the horrendous act of terrorism that caused the death of over three thousand civilians” (2007, 4). Delong-Bas provides an answer: “many have asserted that the militant extremism of Osama bin Laden has its origins in the religious teachings of Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, who is believed to have legitimated jihad against non-Wahhabis and encouraged the forcible spread of the Wahhabi creed” (4). Considering other characters of the novel, we find, for example, that Muhammed came to Germany as a moderate Muslim. After that, he became a committed Muslim in the Salafi Al-Quds Mosque in Hamburg, before finally turning into a Salafi Jihadist willing to destroy America. In the novel, the change in his personality occurred all of a sudden (cf. 52). AlHamad also introduces Ziad to the reader as a man who came from Lebanon; an open-minded country that allows its citizens to do whatever they want without paying attention to the religious restraints. Ziad came to Germany to study where he was influenced by his friend Muhammed, who took Ziad with him to the Al-Quds Mosque in Hamburg. Subsequently, Ziad turned into a committed Salafist Muslim who was mentally unstable and lived his life in a constant struggle. The author sometimes presents him as a young man who hung out with girls and drank alcohol, but also as a committed Muslim who was willing to follow the religion and apply Islamic provisions. At the end of the novel, Ziad turned into a Salafi Jihadist and became a participant in the 9/11 attacks that changed the course of history.

Riyah Al-Janna [The Wind of Paradise]

141

Muhammed: “Terrorism is the Only Way to Straighten Them Out” The Wind of Paradise represents fictional but real characters who plan and implement the tragic 9/11 attacks. Among these characters is Muhammed, who is based on Mohamed Atta, the hijacker-pilot of American Airlines Flight 11. ˵ ϥ΃ΩϭήϤϨϠϟϖΒγΎϤϛ˯ΎϤδϟ΍ϰϟ·ϝϮλϮϟ΍ϥϭΪϳήϳ«ϦϳήΒϜΘδϣϦϣϢϬϟΎϳ³˵ϪδϔϧΙΪΤϳϮϫϭ ήϘγϻ·ϢϬϟβϴϠϓΓήϔϜϟ΍˯ϻΆϫΎϣ΃ˬ˯ΎϤδϟ΍ ˷Ώέϻ·ΎϬϠμϳϻ˯ΎϤδϟΎϓ«ϢϬϟΕΎϬϴϫϦϜϟϭˬϞόϓ ΎϬΘΒϴϫ˷ϞϜΑΎϛήϴϣ΃«ϦϴϤϟΎόϠϟΔϛϮΤο΃ϢϬϠόΠϧϭˬϩάϫϢϬΟ΍ήΑ΃ ˷ϙ˷Ϊ Ϩγ«ΔΒϬΘϠϤϟ΍Ϣ˷ ϨϬΟΔϳΩϭ΃ϭ ϰϨϔϳϢϟϭˬΔϣήϜϋϭΪϟΎΧΖϤϳϢϟ«ϪϠϫ΃ϭϡϼγϹ΍ΎϬϳ˷ΪΤΘϟϡϮϴϟ΍˱ΎϴϟΎϏϦϤΜϟ΍ϊϓΪΗϑϮγΎϬΗϭήΒΟϭ ϥ΃ϦϜϤϳΎϣϢϬϳήϨγ«ΪϳΪΟϦϣΔϳ΍ήϟ΍ΔϠϤΣϦΤϧ«ϢϫΩΎϔΣ΃ϦΤϧ«ϦϳΪϟ΍ΡϼλϭΓΪϴΒϋϮΑ΃ ΔϨΠϟ΍΢ϳέˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗˬ 16) […] ΪϤΤϣΔϟΎγέΔΛέϭϪϠόϔϳ He said to himself: ‘O how arrogant they are! They want to reach heaven, as the Nimrod has done. But no go! Heaven is only reached by the Lord of heaven, and these infidels will get nowhere but in hell and its flaming valleys. We will wreck their towers, and make the whole world mock at them. Today, America—with all its prestige and power—will pay dearly for defying Islam and the Muslims. Khalid and Akrama have not died, Abu Ubaidah and Salahuddin have not perished. We are their grandchildren; we are the new ensigns. We will show them what the successors of Muhammad’s message can do […].’ (al-Hamad 2007, 16)

It seems that Muhammed is incapable of being free from the aggressive thoughts he believes are right, and he does not realize the extent of the damage that can result from the application of his ideas. And how could his rage not find an outlet, when Muhammed is a young man full of hatred and possessed by rage toward the U.S.? For Muhammed, it is the most dangerous country for the religious creed which he acquired from the environment in which he was raised. Muhammed firmly believes that everyone who is not a Muslim is definitely an infidel, and that the Muslim who sincerely cares for his religion must confront the infidels and atheists and stand in the way of their conspiracies, whatever their nationality and even if they are Arabs. Similarly, many members of the terrorist organization ISIS didn’t even flinch when killing their brothers, believing that they had strayed from the right religion; this is what has happened in Syria and Iraq in recent years. Since Muhammed is filled with hatred toward the non-Muslims, it is only natural that he does his utmost to hurt them, and hence his determination to carry out a terrorist act with his companions against the infidel U.S., which defies Islam and the Muslims in his opinion. Muhammed believes that fighting the U.S. is legitimate. He and his companions prepare for blowing

142

Chapter 4

up one of the Twin Towers in New York on 9/11, believing that America has to pay dearly for its stand against Islam and Muslims. In addition, an indication of the depth of his ignorance of Islam is that he and his companions consider Abu Obadiah Amer bin Al-Jarrah, one of the companions of the Prophet Muhammad, and the Muslim Leader Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi as their role models, although history shows that these leaders treated non-Muslims in a good way. In this regard, Abbas states: “when the Muslim general Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi entered the holy city in 1187, he set a precedent of how Jerusalem should be run, with Jews, Christians and Muslims living at peace with each other in the spiritual landscape” (2007, 74). Thus, Muhammed insists that his terrorist act of blowing up one of the Twin Towers on 9/11 will make the U.S. a laughing stock and impair its power and status at a global level. So, the terrorists steer the hijacked plane into the tower in a suicide attack. But Muhammed and his companions are not aware that they have committed a mass suicide that Islam categorically rejects: ϩ΍ΪϳΖΒ˷ϠμΗϭˬϞΠϋϰϠϋΓΩΎϴϘϟ΍ΓήϤϗϰϟ·ϥ΍ϮΧϹ΍ΔϴϘΑϰϋΪΘγ΍ϭˬϕΎϔΗ΍ΎϤΜϴΣϒΗΎϬϟΎΑϰϘϟ΃ϢΛ ΔϳΎϏϲϓΓΎΘϓϯήϳΪϤΤϣϥΎϛˬϦϴΟήΒϟ΍ϦϴΑϭϦϴΑΎ˷Ϩϟ΍ήϴϏϥΎϳήΗϩΎϨϴϋΪόΗϢϟΎϤϴϓˬΩϮϘϤϟ΍ϰϠϋ ΎϣϯήϳΩΎϜϴϟϰΘΣˬΔϴϘϧ˯ΎπϴΑΓήθΑϦϣΎϬΘΤΗΎϣϒθΗΔϘϴϗέΔϟϼϏϱΪΗήΗˬ˯Ύϔμϟ΍ϭϦδΤϟ΍ ˷ ˬΎϫήϬυϞϣΎϛϰτϏϰΘΣϢΤϓϷ΍ΎϫήόηΕήθϧΪϗϭˬΎϬϤ˷ θϳΩΎϜϳΓή ˶τϋΔΤ΋΍έϭˬΓήθΒϟ΍ ˯΍έϭ ˬΎϤϬοΎϴΑϭΎϤϫΩ΍Ϯγ˷ΪΘη΍ϦϴΘδϋΎϧϦϴϨϴόΑϪϴϟ·ΓήυΎϧˬΩϮπϨϤϟ΍ΆϟΆϠϟΎϛϥΎϨγ΃ϦϋΎϫΎϓΓήϏΎϓ ϼϓΔϤϴϘϤϟ΍ϭˬςΨγϼϓΔϴο΍ήϟ΍Ύϧ΃«ΪϤΤϣΎϳϚΗήψΘϧ΍ΎϣϝΎρ³ϪϳΩΎϨΗϲϫϭΎϬϴϋ΍έΫΔΤΗΎϓϭ ˷˶ )ϪϧΫ΃ϲϓ ˷ϥήϳΕϮλϭˬ´Ϛ˷ΒΣΎϧ΃ϭϲ˷ΒΣΖϧ΃«ΕϮϣ΃ϼϓΓΪϟΎΨϟ΍ϭˬϦόρ ͉ ϥ·  ˴Ϧ ˶ϣϯή˴˴ Θη˸ ΍ဃ ϮϫϭΎϬϴϟ·ϪΠΗ΍ϭΓΪθΑΓΩΎϴϘϟ΍ΩϮϘϣϰϠϋΪϤΤϣξΒϘϓ (˴Δ ͉ϨΠ˴ ϟ΍˸ Ϣ˵ Ϭ˴ ϟ ͉ϥ΄˶Α Ϣ˸ Ϭ˴ ϟ΍Ϯ˴ ϣ΃˸ ϭ ˴ Ϣ˸ Ϭ˴ δ˵ϔϧ˴΃  ˴Ϧϴ˶Ϩ ˶ϣ ˸ΆϤ˵ ϟ΍ ϥ΃ΪϬη΃«ௌϝϮγέ˱΍ΪϤΤϣϥ΃ΪϬη΃ϭˬௌϻ·Ϫϟ·ϻϥ΃ΪϬη΃«ήΒϛ΃ௌ«ήΒϛ΃ௌ³΢ϴμϳ ΔϨΠϟ΍΢ϳέˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗˬ 18-17)´ௌϝϮγέ˱΍ΪϤΤϣϥ΃ΪϬη΃ϭˬௌϻ·Ϫϟ·ϻ Then he randomly threw his phone away, and called the rest of the brothers to come to the cockpit hastily. His hands stiffened and froze on the control wheel, while his eyes were seeing nothing but the two fangs; The Twin Towers of the World Trade Center. Between the Twin Towers, Muhammed saw a very pretty, serene girl who was wearing a thin sheer dress and the sweet white skin could be seen from beneath her clothes, and it was almost possible for him to see what was behind the skin. The girl had a lovely scent that Muhammed could almost smell, and she let her dark black hair come down her entire back, opening her mouth and showing her pearly teeth, looking at him with sleepy eyes intensely white and deeply black, opening her arms and calling him: ‘how long I’ve waited for you, Muhammed… I am satisfied without feeling resentful, I am a permanent resident and will not leave, I am immortal and will not die… You are my love and I am your love…,’ and a voice was ringing in his ear: (Indeed, Allah has purchased from the believers their lives and their properties [and in exchange] for that they will have Paradise). Then, Muhammed held the

Riyah Al-Janna [The Wind of Paradise]

143

FRQWURO ZKHHO WLJKW DQG KHDGHG WR WKH JLUO VKRXWLQJ µ$OOƗKX $NEDU« $OOƗKX$NEDU«,EHDUZLWQHVVWKDWWKHUHLVQRJRGWREHZRUVKiped but Allah, and that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah… I bear witness that there is no god to be worshiped but Allah, and that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah.’ (al-Hamad 2007, 17–8)

And shortly before the plane hits one of the towers of the World Trade Center, al-Hamad demonstrates the psychological state which Muhammed was experiencing— he seems imbalanced although he plays the role of the leader of his group. Also, the author introduces Muhammed as a confused leader who is almost out of control and in an unprecedented state of mind. Perhaps calling his “companions” (17) is more like reaching the climax of a play, and the novel highlights that Muhammed and his companions are fully aware that they will commit suicide, which they describe as “attaining martyrdom.” When Muhammed’s hands stiffen on the plane’s control wheel, his mind has reached a level of nihilism of thinking, and maybe, at that moment, he has completely embraced his destiny, believing that the next moment will be entering heaven alive and meeting Al-hoor al-‘iyn (i.e., the maidens of paradise) virgins who are represented by the innocent, charming girl he saw. Muhammed imagines that this girl is calling him with her arms wide open to embrace his body, urging him to approach with heartwarming words which are exactly what Al-hoor al-‘iyn sing to men when they welcome them in heaven. Muhammed rushes with all his might, answering the call of beauty, as he grabs the plane’s control wheel tight KHDGLQJWRZDUGWKHWRZHUVKRXWLQJ³$OOƗKX$NEDU´LJQRULQJWKH+RO\YHUVH of “do not throw [yourselves] with your [own] hands into destruction.” He and his companions perish—with no idea that they have committed a crime which will have a negative impact on the Arab-Islamic nation. ήϴϏϦϤϓˬΩΎϬΠϟ΍ΔϠϓΎϗϰϟ·ϪϣΎϤπϧ΍ΪόΑαΎδΣϹ΍΍άϫΩ΍Ωί΍ϭˬϪϨϳΩϞϤϜ˵ϳϥ΃ϪϴϠϋϥ΄ΑβΤ˵ϳϥΎϛ ΕΎϴϧΎϤϟϷΎΑϖΜϳϻϮϬϓϪδϴϳΎϘϣϢ΋ϼΗϲΘϟ΍ΓΎΘϔϟ΍ΪΠϳϢϟϪϨϜϟϭˬΏΰϋ΃ϮϫϭΕϮϤϳϥ΃ϦδΤΘδϤϟ΍ ϦϣήϴΜϜϟ΍ϪϟΎΘϣΪϗϦϤϳ΃ϭέΩΎϧϦϴϳήμϤϟ΍ϪϴϘϳΪλϲΘΟϭίϥ΃ϢϏέˬΕΎϤϠδϤϟ΍Ϧϣ ˷Ϧϛ˷ ϥ·ϭϰΘΣˬ ϰϠϋ  ˷ϦϛΕΎϳήΧϷ΍ϭ ˬϡϼγϹ΍ϰϟ· ΕϻϮΤΘϤϟ΍ Ϧϣ  ˷Ϧϛ ϦϬπόΑϭ ˬΕϼϴϤΠϟ΍ ΕΎϴϧΎϤϟϷ΍ ΕΎϴΘϔϟ΍ ˷ αΪϘϟ΍ΪΠδϣϲϓϪΗϮΧ·ϭϪ΋ΎϗΪλ΃ϥ·ϞΑΓΪθΑξϓήϳϥΎϛϪϨϜϟϭˬϡϼγϹ΍ϲϓϝϮΧΪϠϟΩ΍ΪόΘγ΍ ΖϧΎϛ˱Ύπϳ΃Γ˷ΪθΑξϓήϳϥΎϛϪϨϜϟϭˬΕΎ˷ϴϘΘϟ΍ΕΎϴΑήόϟ΍ϭΕΎϴϛήΘϟ΍ΕΎϴΘϔϟ΍ξόΑϪϴϠϋ΍Ϯοήϋ ΎϬϗϼΧ΃ϭΎϬΘϤθΣϲϓΎϬϨϣΔΒϳήϗϥϮϜΗϥ΃ΐΠϳϭ΃ˬϪϣ΃ΕΎϔλϞϤΤΗΎϬϨϋΚΤΒϳϲΘϟ΍ΔΟϭΰϟ΍ ΍ϮϧΎϛϭˬΕΎϴϛήΗϭ΃ΕΎϤϠδϣΕΎϴϧΎϤϟ΃ϭ΃ΕΎϴΑήϋϦϣ΍ϮΟϭΰΗϥ΍ϮΧϹ΍ϦϣήϴΜϛΎϬΘΒϴρϭΎϫΎϘΗϭ ˷ ϰϠϋϪΣϭέϊοϭϥ΃ΪόΑΔλΎΧˬ˱ΎΑΰϋ΃Ϫ˷ΑέϞΑΎϘϳϥ΃ίϮΠϳϻϪϧ΄ΑϪϨϳήϛάϣˬΝ΍ϭΰϟ΍ϰϠϋϪϧϮ˷ΜΤϳ ΎϣΪϨϋΖϗϮϟ΍ϦϣΓήΘϔϟΩΎϳίϪϘϳΪλϩήϛϪϧ·ϰΘΣˬξϓήϟ΍Ϊη΃ξϓήϳϥΎϛϪϨϜϟϭˬ˱΍ΪϫΎΠϣϪ˷ϔϛ ˬΝ΍ϭΰϟ΍ϞΒϗϞϴγ΄ΑΩΎϳίΔϗϼϋϦϋ˱Ύϴο΍έϦϜϳϢϟΔϴϛήΘϟ΍Ϟϴγ΃ϪΘϘϳΪλϦϣΝϭΰΗϪϧ΄ΑϩήΒΧ΃ ΪΠϳϢϟϪϨϜϟϭˬΕΎϔμϟ΍ΔϴϘΑΕή˷ϓϮΗ΍Ϋ·˱΍ήϴΜϛϝΎϤΠϟ΍ϪϤ˷ ϬϳϦϜϳϢϟΝ΍ϭΰϟ΍ΪόΑ˱ΎτΨγήΜϛ΃΢Βλ΃ϭ ΔϨΠϟ΍΢ϳέˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗˬ 42)ϦϬΑϑή˵ϋϭ΃ˬϦϬΑϑήόΗϲΗϼϟ΍ΕΎϴΘϔϟ΍˷ϞϛϲϓϪϣ˷ ΃

144

Chapter 4 He felt that he had to ‘complete his faith’ by getting married, and this feeling grew after joining the Jihad convoy. He knew that it is not recommended for him to die as a single man, but he did not find the girl that fits his standards. He did not trust the Germans, even if they are Muslims. Although the wives of his two Egyptian friends introduced him to many beautiful German girls, some of them converted to Islam, others were ready to embrace Islam, but he strongly opposed. Even his friends and brothers in Al-Quds Mosque introduced him to many Turkish and Arab girls, but he strongly refused too. His dream wife he was looking for should have the same qualities as his mother, or she must be close to her in terms of cleverness, morals, love and kindness. Many Muslim Brothers married Arab women, Muslim Germans or Turks. They urged him to get married, reminding him that it is not acceptable to meet his Lord as a single man, especially after risking his life for the sake of Al-Jihad, but he categorically rejected all these attempts. He detested his friend Ziad for a while when the latter told him that he got married to his Turkish girlfriend ‘Aseel’. He was not satisfied about Ziad’s relationship with Aseel before marriage, and his indignation rose after Ziad’s marriage. He did not care much about beautiful appearance if other qualities were guaranteed, but he could not find his mother in all the girls whom he knew or had been introduced to him. (42)

Muhammed’s religious intolerance has reached a higher level than anyone could have imagined. The author demonstrates the nature of this intolerance on the ground, when telling us that Muhammed’s failure to join the Mujahedeen convoy is a shameful deficiency of his religious piety which cannot be accomplished without being at the vanguard of the Muslim Mujahedeen. Muhammed prefers dying as an unmarried man because his impression of German girls is very bad, and this does not fit his emotions or his way of thinking. Furthermore, he does not trust German women even if they have embraced Islam, and therefore he rejects choosing a wife from them. Muhammed seems to be more narrowminded than some of his companions in terms of his perception of women in general, since he is blinded by his intolerance and ignorance, refusing even to marry one of the women who share his ethnicity, or other Muslim-Turkish women. AlHamad provides an insight into the depth of Muhammed’s conviction through the personality of his Muslim mother, and how he sees that all the girls around him lack the same qualities as her. The author emphasizes Muhammed’s personality in relation to his mother who raised him in a bad way, which harmed his demeanor and made him a complicated person who is neither aware of the truth of things, nor does he possess a genuine understanding of Islam and Muslims. When Muhammed talks about the qualities of his mother in terms of decency, piety, kindness, and high morals,

Riyah Al-Janna [The Wind of Paradise]

145

he does not explain these aspects which he considers as an approach for choosing his own wife. Muhammed, who seems like his mind is unstable, does not trust any woman, even if she is a Muslim. The author highlights the selective approach to Islam here, as Muhammed seems to embrace certain aspects while avoiding others. For Muhammed, meeting God as an unmarried man is preferable to marrying a (maybe even devout) Muslim woman whom he is unable to trust. He has not surrendered once to the pressure or influence of his companions who kept reminding him that his religion does not allow him to meet his God as an unmarried man, especially since he has decided to die a martyr. Not only that, but Muhammed hates his friend Ziad because he married a Turkish Muslim girl with whom he had had a premarital relationship. The character of Muhammed is represented as very isolated even when among a group of friends, and here he is more like a person reading a newspaper on a bus or train: there are a lot of people in front of, behind, and beside him, but he does not feel their presence. And by judging the German women, even those who have embraced Islam, Muhammed is like a closeminded person walking between two parallel lines, unable to move left or right, for fear of conducting any religiously prohibited act. Al-Hamad uses the Al-Quds Mosque as the source of what happens to Muhammed, without explaining what the role of this mosque is in preparing individuals for radical religious extremism. Muhammed’s conviction of his mother’s qualities, morals, and kindness maybe follows a holy verse in the Quran: “And your Lord has decreed that you not worship except Him, and to parents, good treatment” (Surah Al-Isra [Verse 17:23]). Muhammed is really attached to his mother, and a son’s attachment to his mother is a good thing if his mother is right. But what we can conclude is that Muhammed’s mother maybe motivated her son to walk on an anomalous path that is not related to Islam at all. The author possibly wants to explain to the reader the general extent of the son’s attachment to his mother, and how her personality affects her son in the way he talks and behaves, either positively or negatively. The text also indicates that the author exhorts mothers to take the utmost care in raising their children from the earliest age, in order not to be mistaken or sinful, or ending their lives tragically like Muhammed. ˯ϻΆϫϞϛϯήϳϮϫϭϖϠΤϟ΍ϲϓϒϴϔρϢϟ΃ϊϣˬΓΪόϤϟ΍ϲϓνΎΒϘϧ΍ϭˬϩέΪλϲϓήΑΎϋΰΧϮΑβΣ΃ ϥΎϋήγϪϨϜϟϭ«ήϜϔϳάΧ΃ˮϢϬΒϧΫΎϣ«ΓΩϭΪόϣϖ΋ΎϗΩΪόΑϥϮΘϴϣϢϬϧ΃ϥϮϤϠόϳϻϦϳάϟ΍ϦϳήϓΎδϤϟ΍ ϥΎτϴθϟ΍ϦϣͿΎΑΫϮόΘϟ΍ϭϲγήϜϟ΍Δϳ΁ϭϦϴΗΫϮόϤϟ΍Γ˯΍ήϗϲϓάΧ΃ϭˬΓΩΩήΘϤϟ΍ϪδϔϧϰϠϋήτϴγΎϣ ˷ ϢϬϧ·ϪϴϠϋϡΪϘϣϮϫϱάϟ΍αΪϘϤϟ΍ϞϤόϟ΍ϦϋϪϴϨΜϟϪΘγϮγϭϭϪΗϻϭΎΤϣϦϋ ϒϜϳϻϱάϟ΍ϢϴΟήϟ΍ ˷ ˷ ϰϟ·ΐ΋΍ήπϟ΍ϥϮόϓΪϳϦϤϣ΍Ϯδϴϟ΃ˬήϴμϤϟ΍βΌΑϭϢϨϬΟϰϟ·ϢϬΣ΍ϭέ΄ΑϞϴΠόΘϟ΍ϭΕϮϤϟ΍ϥϮϘΤΘδϳ ΍ϮϣΪΧϭ΃ˬζϴΠϟ΍ϲϓϥϮϣΪΨϳϢϬϠϛ΍Ϯδϴϟ΃ˮϦϴϤϠδϤϟ΍ϭϡϼγϹ΍ϥϭήϬϘϳϝ΍ϮϣϷ΍ϚϠΘΑϭ ˬ ϢϬΘϣϮϜΣ

146

Chapter 4 ΏέΎΤ  Ϥϟ΍ϭˬ˱΍Ϋ·ϥϮΑέΎΤϣϢϫˮϪϴϠϋϥϮϨϴόϳϞΑˬϪϧϭήϜϨΘδϳϻϭϢϠψϟ΍ϥϭήϳϦϳάϟ΍΍Ϯδϴϟ΃ˮζϴΠϟ΍ϲϓ ϦϣϢϬϧΈϓˬϦϴΑέΎΤϤϟ΍Ϧϣ΍ϮϧϮϜϳϢϟϮϟϰΘΣϭΪϳέϮϟ΍ϰϟ·ΪϳέϮϟ΍Ϧϣ΢Αάϟ΍ϞΑˬϞΘϘϟ΍ϻ·Ϫϟβϴϟ ϢϬϧϮτΑϭϢϬΟϭήϓωΎΒη·ϻ·ΓΎϴΤϟ΍ϩάϫϦϣϢϬϤϬϳϻˬέΎϨϳΪϟ΍ϭϢϫέΪϟ΍ϭϥΎΛϭϷ΍ΓΪΒϋˬϦϳήϓΎϜϟ΍  ΔϨΠϟ΍΢ϳέˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗˬ 39) He felt a passing tingling in his chest, a cramp in the stomach, with a slight pain in his throat as he sees all those travelers who do not know that they will die after a few minutes. What is their fault? he asked himself. But soon he took control of his hesitant self, and started to read the two last suras of the Quran and Ayat Al-Kursi, he also said ‘I seek refuge in Allah from the cursed Satan’— Satan who keeps on trying to dissuade him from the holy duty in which he is called to. He is quite sure that they deserve to die and their lives have to be expedited to arrive in Hell; the worst fate ever. Are they not paying taxes to their government? Are they not conquering Islam and Muslims with this money? Are they not all serving in the military, or have served in the military? Are they not those who see injustice and do not condemn it, but support it instead? Then they are warriors, and the warrior has to be murdered or even be torn limb from limb. And even if they are not warriors, they are infidels who worship idols, dirhams and dinars, and what only matters in their life is to satisfy their vulvas and stomachs. (39)

Here, the author gives an in-depth description of the status of Muhammed, who seems to be experiencing an inner conflict. It seems that his conscience has woken up for a few seconds when he questions himself: Condemned to die, what are these people guilty of? However, the religious influence on Muhammed appears to be much stronger than the awakening of his conscience. He is quick to justify to himself that he is about to do something that will please his God. Muhammed then reads a few verses from the Quran to calm himself. This indicates two things: firstly, Muhammed sees the Quran as a medicine which calms him down, and secondly, he justifies his terrorist deeds based on his radical point of view that he does not confess to. Then Muhammed addresses himself: “They deserve to die and their lives have to be expedited to arrive in Hell” (39). In this way, he seeks more reasons to justify the deaths of the passengers on the plane. He does not find any factual, but only religious motives. The passengers on the plane are ordinary citizens; they have never attacked Islam or Muslims. From this point of view, they do not deserve death. Nevertheless, Muhammed succeeds in mentally converting these ordinary citizens into fighters, giving him the more tangible reason he was looking for in that moment. He blames them for paying compulsory taxes to their government that will be used later to support the military that will kill Muslims.

Riyah Al-Janna [The Wind of Paradise]

147

Muhammed’s monologue classifies and represents the West as having two parts: the first consists of infidels who are not warriors and have never participated in international wars against Muslims, and the second consists of infidels who are warriors and contribute to international wars against Muslims. According to Muhammed, all the passengers on the plane are “infidels” and they must die in both cases, whether they are “warriors” or “not warriors.” Muhammed’s monologue represents a radical SalafiJihadi ideology and the novel gradually introduces these ideological views on their conceptualization toward the Other. Then: ϻ· ϥϮϟΪΘόϳ ϻ ˯ϻΆϬϓ ˬΏΎϫέ· Ϣόϧ ˮΏΎϫέ· «ϪϨϫΫ ϲϓ έϭΪΗ ΏΎϫέϹ΍ ΔϤϠϛϭ ΪϤΤϣ ϢδΘΒϳϭ ˮϦϳΪϟ΍ΕΎϳΎϏϖϴϘΤΘϟΔϋϭήθϣΔϠϴγϭϪϧ΃ϰϠϋΰϳΰόϟ΍ϪΑΎΘϛϲϓΏΎϫέϹ΍ௌήϛάϳϢϟ΃«ΏΎϫέϹΎΑ ˬήϬηΓήϴδϣϰϠϋΐϋήϟΎΑ˷Ϊϳ˵΃ϱάϟ΍ϮϫϭˬΓϮϋΪϟ΍ήθϧϞΟ΃ϦϣΏΎϫέϹ΍ϰϔτμϤϟ΍αέΎϤϳϢϟ΃ ˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗˬ 73) ˮϪΑϻ·ΓϮ˷ϋΪϟ΍ΕήθΘϧ΍Ύϣϱάϟ΍ϮϫϭˬϡϮϴϟ΍˱ΎΑέΎΤϣΏΎϫέϹ΍΢Βλ΃ϒϴϜϓ ΔϨΠϟ΍΢ϳέ Muhammed smiles and the word ‘terrorism’ goes around in his head. Terrorism? Yes, terrorism, it is the only way to straighten them out. Did not God mention terrorism in his Holy book as a rightful way to achieve the goals of religion? Did not the Prophet Muhammed practice terrorism in order to disseminate Islamic Da’wah[45]? And was not he supported by panic spread in his enemies’ hearts? How terrorism is being fought today, which is something that Da’wah did not spread without? (73)

Muhammed’s monologue represents a dominant issue concerning Islam as a religion. For him, there seems to be an urgent need to use terrorism as a method to fight the Other. From this point of view, Muhammed’s representation of his ideology seems to be one of many, because the interpretation of the Quran and the Hadith differ from scholar to scholar. An additional issue is whether or not the Quran can be applied always and everywhere, as well as the critical question of whether or not Islam is spread by the sword (as many critical writers have pointed out 46). The most prominent issue here is that Muhammed announces his malicious will to destroy and kill the Other. The author represents Muhammed as a terrorist figure who is aware of the term “terrorism” and its connotations. For Muhammed, however, this is fulfilling his duty towards God. This represents Muhammed as a naive character who 45

Da’wah, or the act of inviting others to engage with the message of Islam, follows naturally from the Muslim’s obligatory concern for humanity’s success and salvation. “‘Invite (XGҵnj) all to the Way of your Lord with wisdom and kind advice’  LVDFOHDU4XUƗQLFGLUHFWLYHWR0XVOLPV´0XQLU  46 For more information, see Munir, Hassam. “Did Islam Spread by the Sword?” Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research, December 14, 2018, www.yaqeeninstitute.org/hassam-munir/how-islam-spread-throughout-the-world/.

148

Chapter 4

is unstable and whose thoughts focus on killing and destroying the Other. Muhammed’s acts are based solely on religious interpretations and understandings of an Islam taught in the Al-Quds Mosque in Hamburg, Germany.

Wail and Waleed: The Milieu of Perpetual Hatred ϪΘΒϴϘΣ˷ΪϘϔΗϥ΃ΪόΑˬ˱ϼϴϠϗ˯ΎΧήΘγϻ΍˱ϻϭΎΤϣϡΎϣϷ΍ϰϟ·ϪϴϠΟέ˷ΪϣϭˬϪΘΒϗέ˯΍έϭϪϴϔϛϞ΋΍ϭϚΒη ϥ΃ΪόΑΓέ΍ΰϐΑ ϥϭΪϓ΍ϮΘϳ΍ϭάΧ΃Ϧϳάϟ΍αΎϨϟ΍ϦϣϢϜϟ΍΍άϫϞϛνήόΘδϳάΧ΃ϭˬΎϤΑέΔΌϤϟ΍ΓήϤϠϟ ΔϨδϟ΃ϭ ˬέΎΒϛϭ έΎϐλ ˬ˯Ύδϧϭ ϝΎΟέ ˬήϔλϭ ήϤγϭ ΩϮγϭ ξϴΑ αΎϧ΃ ωϼϗϹ΍ ΪϋϮϣ ΏήΘϗ΍ ΔϨΠϟ΍΢ϳέˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗˬ 126)«ϞΑΎΑΝήΑϲϓϢϬϧ΄ϛϭΓΩΪόΘϣ Wail clasped his hands behind his neck and stretched his legs to the front, trying a little bit to relax, after checking his bag for perhaps the hundredth time. He started looking at this many people who were coming in large numbers after the flight time approached. Black, white, brown and yellow people, men and women, young and old individuals, speaking multiple languages as if they were in the Tower of Babel… (126)

The Wind of Paradise depicts characters based on real people in a fictionalized account of the people who organized and implemented the 9/11 attacks. Among these characters, the novel mentions the brothers Wail and Waleed, who are based on Wail and Waleed al-Shehri, the hijackers of the American Airlines Flight 11. 47 The quote above is the initial introduction to Wail and his brother Waleed in the novel. They are in the airport preparing themselves to hijack the airplane and destroy the enemies of God. The brothers are in a state of severe stress and disturbance. The tension mentioned in the previous quotation reflects that the brothers are aware that what they were about to do is unusual. Al-Hamad describes this concern in the words of Wail as: “Time goes by slowly, boredom gnaws the bones” and “This operation is out of the ordinary” (127). In this regard, it is worth mentioning again that the brothers received their school education in Saudi Arabia. The novel shows how the education system in Saudi Arabia is highly influenced by the Wahhabis. Because the beginning of the novel takes the form of a flashback, al-Hamad focuses on Saudi Arabia instead of the U.S. He narrates the story of Wail and Waleed, giving details of the incidents, anecdotes, and actions, and their aftermaths. The connotation of these descriptions is a reference to a new Orient milieu. Wail and Waleed are the result of the Wahhabi system in Saudi Arabia. Since Wahhabism does not accept compromises, the 47 See also Zarembka, Paul. The Hidden History of 9/11. New York: Seven Stories Press, 2008.

Riyah Al-Janna [The Wind of Paradise]

149

emergence of radical figures occurs regularly. Consequently, hatred and violence are features of this. The Orient then is marked by hatred and violence toward the Occident as the former cannot and will not accept the latter. But this hate is no spur of the moment phenomenon. It has its own roots and history. It is a perpetual hatred, because it seems to be continuous and perhaps will not come to an end at all. The two prominent questions here are: (1) why should the Orient hate the Occident? and (2) why is this hatred continuous? To answer these questions and to get a better insight into al-Hamad’s novel, one has to understand the political and education systems in the Orient as they are represented in the novel. From this point of view, the events have to be related to Wahhabism, since the education Wail and Waleed received in Saudi Arabia was purely Wahhabi knowledge. This investigation comes mainly from the novel. It shows both sudden and gradual changes that happen to the characters. Furthermore, the investigation gives a specific and clear vision to understand the novel. Let us begin with the following quotation: άΧ΃ϢΛˬΔϴ΋΍ΪΘΑϻ΍ΔϳήϘϟ΍ΔγέΪϣϲϓαΩΎδϟ΍ϒμϠϟΕΎϴοΎϳήϟ΍ΓΩΎϣΫΎΘγ΃ˬνϮϋΫΎΘγϷ΍ϝΎϗ ˸ Ϣ˵ Θϧ˸ ˴ ΃ϭ΍Ϯ˵ ˸Ϊ˴Ϙϓ˲Ρ ˸ή˴ϗ Ϣ˸ Ϝ˸ δδ ˸ ϥ· ˴ Ϸ΍ ˴ Ϥϳ ˶ ˴Ϧϴ˶Ϩ ˶ϣ ˸Άϣ˵ Ϣ˸ ΘϨ˸ ϛ˵ ϥ· ˶ ˴ϥϮ˸ Ϡ˸ ϋ ˴ ϧ ˴ΰ ˸Τ˴ Η ˴ϻϭ΍Ϯ˵ ˴ ϨϬ˶ Η˴ϻϭ˴ ) ϊηΎΧΕϮμΑϮϠΘϳ ˸ ˷ ˸ ˴Ϛ˶ϠΗϭ˵˴ Ϫ˵ϠΜ ˶ϣ˲Ρ ˸ή˴ϗϡ˴ Ϯ˸ ˴Ϙϟ΍β ˸ ͉ ˴ ˴ ͉ ˴ ˸ ͉ ϭ ͉ ˴ϻဃ ˯ ΍ Ϊ Ϭ η Ϣ Ϝ Ϩ ά Θ ϳ ϭ΍Ϯ˵ Ϩ ϣ ΁ ά ϟ΍ ဃ Ϣ Ϡ ό ϴ˶ ϟ ϭ αΎ Ϩ ϟ΍ Ϧϴ Α Ύ Ϭ ϟ ϭ ΍ ˵ Ϊ ϧϡ˵ Ύ͉ϳ˴Ϸ΍ ˴Ϧϳ ˶ ˶ϣ ˶Ψ ˴ ͉ ϣ˴ ˴ ˶ ˴ ˵ ˸ ˴ ˴ ˴ ˴ ˶ ˴ ˴ ˴ ˴ ˸ ˵ϠΧ˵ Ϊ˸ Ηϥ΃ ͉ ͊ΐ ˶Τ˵ϳ ˸ Ϣ˸ Θ˸Βδ˶ Σ˴ ϡ˸ ΃ ˴Ϧϳή˶˶ ϓΎ˴Ϝϟ΍ ˴ϖΤ˴ Ϥ˴ ϳϭ΍Ϯ˵ ͉ Ϣ˶ Ϡ˸ ˴όϳΎϤ͉ ϟϭ ͉ κ˷ ဃ ˴ Τ˶ Ϥ˴ ϴ˶ϟϭ ˴ Ϩϣ˴ ΁ ˴Ϧϳ˷ά˶ ϟ΍ဃ ˴ ˴Ϧϴ ˶ϤϟΎψϟ΍ ˴ ˴Δ͉ϨΠ˴ ϟ΍΍Ϯ ϦϴϤϠδϤϠϟΪϴϜϳϮϫϭϡϼγϹ΍ήϬυϥ΃άϨϣϭˬϪ˷ϠϛϢϟΎόϟ΍«(˴Ϧϳή˶ Α˶ Ύμ ͉ ϟ΍Ϣ˴ Ϡ˸ ό˴ ϳϭ ˴ Ϣ˸ Ϝ˸ Ϩ ˶ϣ΍ϭ˴ΪϫΎΟ˴  ˴Ϧϳ˷ά˶ ϟ΍ ΔϛϮθϟϥϭΪϳήΗϞϫ«ϡϼγϹ΍ΔϛϮηΕήδϜϧ΍ϻ·ϭϚϟΫϞϜϟϦϴϋ΍ϭϥϮϜϧϥ΃ΐΠϳϭˬϢϫΪοήϣ΂Θϳϭ ˬϲϔϨϟΎΑΔΘϓΎΧΕ΍Ϯλ΃ϪΗ˯ΎΠϓˬΕ΍ήΒϨϟ΍ϲϟΎϋΕϮμΑϚϟΫνϮϋΫΎΘγϷ΍ϝΎϗˮήδϜϨΗϥ΃ϡϼγϹ΍ ϲϔϨϟΎΑΔϤϬϤϫΕήδϓˮϡϼγϹ΍ωΎϴοϢϜϴοήϳϞϫ˰ϰϠϋ΃ΕϮμΑΡΎμϓˬΫΎΘγϷ΍ϚϟΫνήϳϢϠϓ ˶ ϢδΘΑ΍ϭ«ΓήδϳϭΔϨϤϳϞϳΎϤΘΗϲϫϭξϓήϟ΍˷Ϊδ ˷ ˶ ΠΗαϭ΅ήϟ΍ΖϧΎϛΎϤϴϓˬϊϴϤΠϟ΍ϦϴΑέΎϜϨΘγϻ΍ϭ ˷˶ «ΎϨϟϥϭΪϴϜϳϯέΎμϨϟ΍«ΎϨϟϥϭΪϴϜϳΩϮϬϴϟ΍«ΎϨϟΪϴϜϳΏήϐϟ΍˰ϪΜϳΪΣϞλ΍ϭϭˬνϮϋΫΎΘγϷ΍ «ϝϭΰϳϦϟϪϨϜϟϭ«ϡϼγϹ΍ϝ΍ϭίϥϭΪΑϢϬϟϡΎϴϗϻ«ΎϨϟϥϭΪϴϜϳαϭΪϨϬϟ΍ϭαϮΠϤϟ΍ϭϥϮϳΫϮΒϟ΍ ΫΎΘγϷ΍ΏΎμϋ΃ΎϬϴϓΖϧΎϛΖϤμϟ΍ϦϣΓήΘϓΕΩΎγϭ«ϢϬϗϮϠΣϲϓΔϛϮηϰϘΒϴγϭ«ϝϭΰϳϦϟ Ύϣ ˷ϞϜ˷ ϓ ˬ ϢϬϟϮΣ έϭΪϳ ϱάϟ΍ Ύϣ΍Ϯϓήόϳ ϥ΃ ϥϭΩ ΍ϮΘϤλ Ϊϗ Ϟμϔϟ΍ ϲϓ Ώϼτϟ΍ ϥΎϛϭ ˬΓΩϭΪθϣ ˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗˬ 143-142) «ήμΘϨϳϥ΃ΐΠϳ«ήμΘϨϳϥ΃ΐΠϳϡϼγϹ΍ϥ΃ ϮϫϪϧϮϓήόϳ ΔϨΠϟ΍΢ϳέ Teacher Awad, a teacher of mathematics for the sixth grade in the primary school of the village, recited in a humbled voice: ‘So do not weaken and do not grieve, and you will be superior if you are [true] believers. If a wound should touch—there has already touched the [opposing] people a wound similar to it. And these days [of varying conditions] We alternate among the people so that Allah may make evident those who believe and [may] take to Himself from among you martyrs—and Allah does not like the wrong doers. And that Allah may purify the believers [through trials] and destroy the disbelievers. Or do you think that you will enter Paradise while Allah has not yet made evident those of you who fight in His cause and made evident those who are steadfast?’ He said: ‘The whole world,

150

Chapter 4 since Islam came out, has been scheming on the Muslims and conspiring against them. We must be aware of all that. Otherwise, Islam will break.’ Do you want Islam to break? Teacher Awad asked that with a high-pitched voice. When little voices had replied in the negative, this did not satisfy that teacher, he shouted louder: ‘Will it satisfy you if Islam gets lost?’ There was a mumbling that explained their indignation and disapproval, while heads represented rejection as they swayed right and left. Teacher Awad smiled, and continued: “The West are conspiring against us… The Jews are conspiring against us… The Christians are conspiring against us… Buddhists, Magi and Hindus are conspiring against us. They won’t arise without the demise of Islam. But Islam will not go away… It will not go away… It will remain a thorn in their side.’ There was a period of silence in which the teacher was feeling nervous, and the students in the class had been silent without knowing what was happening around them, all they knew that Islam must win… It must win. (142–3; original emphasis)

This quotation shows how a mathematics teacher in a Middle Eastern country is focused on religion rather than on academia. The knowledge that the students receive emerges from Islam and mainly from the Quran. The discourse used by the teacher is one of hatred and violence. He calls for killing and ending the Other as long as this Other is not Muslim. The interpretations of the verses of the Quran are individual readings. However, there are still explanations and clarifications. Among the students sitting in this class were Wail and Waleed. Unlike the education one receives in most Western schools, Wail and Waleed grow up in a community where the source of knowledge is Islam. It is important to point out that certain interpretations of the Quran are based on hatred and violence. When Wail and Waleed were children at school, they could not understand why they were supposed to hate the Other. From the previous quotation, one notes that when the teacher was not satisfied by the answer coming from his students, he raises his voice to both emphasize the importance of his question and to gain a steadfast answer from his students. The education that Wail and Waleed receive at school is unusual knowledge. They do not encounter the world of the outsider. The lifestyle they experience is backward. While other children enrich their minds at school with the education provided to them by their teachers to become future doctors, engineers, or scientists, Wail and Waleed were learning that watching TV or listening to music is prohibited. Such concepts emerge from an education system which is guided by a religious institution mainly consisting of Wahhabis. The idea of a hovering shadow of the West as an enemy is situated in the education the brothers have received. Wail and

Riyah Al-Janna [The Wind of Paradise]

151

Waleed learn the doctrine of Jihad at their government school in Saudi Arabia: Ϣϟ΃³ωϮϤδϣΕϮμΑϝϮϘϳϭˬϢϴΟήϟ΍ϥΎτϴθϟ΍ϦϣͿΎΑάϴόΘδϳϮϫϭϩήΘϓΩνϮϋΫΎΘγϷ΍ϖϠϏ΄ϓ ΫϮϋ΃«ௌΐπϏϦϣͿΎΑΫϮϋ΃ˮΔμΤϟ΍ΔϳΎϬϧϪΑ΍ϮϨϠόϳϲϛ΍άϫϯέΎμϨϟ΍αϮϗΎϧήϴϏ΍ϭΪΠϳ ϲΘϟ΍ϦϳέΎϤΘϟ΍˷ϞΤΑϢϜϴϠϋˬΔϣΩΎϘϟ΍ΔμΤϟ΍ϲϓ³ΝέΎΨϟ΍ϰϟ·ϪΠ˷ΘϳϮϫϭϢΛ«´ௌΐπϏϦϣͿΎΑ ΏήΤϟ΍ϲϓϢϬΗΎϣ΍ήϛϭϥΎΘδϧΎϐϓ΃ϲϓϦϳΪϫΎΠϤϟ΍ϢϜΗϮΧ·ϦϋϢϜΛΪΣ΃ϑϮγϭ«ΚϟΎΜϟ΍ϢδϘϟ΍ήΧ΁ϲϓ ΔϨΠϟ΍΢ϳέˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗˬ 143)´«ΩΎΤϟϹ΍ϭήϔϜϟ΍Ϊο The teacher closed his book, saying: ‘I seek refuge with Allah from the accursed Satan.’ Then he said aloud: ‘Did they not find something else than this Christian bell to state the end of the class? I seek refuge with Allah from the wrath of Allah.’ Then he went out saying to the students: ‘In the next class, you have to do some work in the end of section III. I will tell you about your brothers—Al Mujahedeen in Afghanistan and their knack in the war against infidelity and atheism.’ (143)

Teacher Awad embodies a character whose discourse is full of animosity and antipathy. His attitudes represent a new Oriental character. His speech sparks hatred and violence. It demonstrates resentment toward the West, its religion, and culture. Even the bells of the churches, which are Christian symbols, are unbearable. The usage of such bells in Islamic Arabic schools can be seen as a reference to infidels. Here, the Other is silent. The salient point that emerges is that this group of characters live in a “closed world,” as DeLillo has already depicted them in Falling Man: It’s not the history of Western interference that pulls down these societies. It’s their own history, their mentality. They live in a closed world, of choice, of necessity. They haven’t advanced because they haven’t wanted to or tried to. (DeLillo 2011, 49)

DeLillo does not agree with al-Hamad on the point that the West’s intervention in the East has contributed to the birth of an Orient that exports terrorist to the world. DeLillo takes the issue from a historical point of view blaming the East, because they are living in a “closed world.” Whereas alHamad agrees with DeLillo on his point of living in a “closed world,” the former offers more explanations and interpretations of it. Furthermore, he is convinced that the Orient has now turned into its current form because of the West’s intervention in the East. Al-Hamad’s point is that the Orient exports Salafist Jihadists because of the “closed world” they inhabit, as well as the Wahhabi education system, and later because of the West’s intervention in the East which ignited the fire of battle. In the next lesson, Teacher Awad, the mathematics teacher, brings a well-known Sheikh, Said al-Sarwati, to class. Al-Hamad introduces him

152

Chapter 4

thus: “his pictures appear in the newspapers, and his tapes are sold in the cassette stores. He is Sheikh Said al-Sarwati” (2007, 143). Teacher Awad invites him to give his students “some of his wisdom and knowledge” (143). Sheikh al-Sarwati says: Ύϣ΍άϫϥ΃ϭϡϼγϹ΍ϞΟ΃ϦϣΕϮϤϳϭζϴόϳϭΪϟϮ˵ϳϥΎδϧϹ΍ϥ΃ϭˬ˯ΎϤΘϧ΍˷Ϟϛ˷ ϰϠϋϮϤδϳϡϼγϹ΍ϥ· ˯΍Ω΄Ϝϟ΍ΔΒϘόϟ΍ϪϧϷϦϳΪϟ΍΍άϫήϴϣΪΗϥϭΪϳήϳϦϳάϟ΍ˬϦϴϘϓΎϨϤϟ΍ϭϯέΎμϨϟ΍ϭΩϮϬϴϟ΍Ϧϣௌ˯΍Ϊϋ΃φϴϐϳ Ϧ  ϴΑϝϼΤϧϻ΍ϭϝϼπϟ΍ϭϖδϔϟ΍ήθϧϭˬΓΎϴΤϟ΍ϦϣௌΩΎόΑ·ϰϟ·ϑΪϬΗϲΘϟ΍ϢϬόϳέΎθϣϖϳήρϲϓ ΢ϳέˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗˬ 144-143)ϪϠϫ΃ϭϡϼγϹ΍΍ϭΪϴΒϳϰΘΣέ΍ήϗϢϬϟ΃ΪϬϳϦϟϭˬϢϠδϤϟ΍ΏΎΒθϟ΍ ΔϨΠϟ΍ Islam stands above all affiliations, and that man is born, lives and dies for Islam, and this is what causes the anger of the enemies of Allah from the Jews, the Christians and the hypocrites. They want to destroy this religion because it is the great obstacle in the way of their schemes that aim to separate Allah from life and disseminate degradation and vice among the Muslim youth. They will not rest until Islam and its people are exterminated. (143–4)

The knowledge these students receive is purely religious, especially because Sheikh al-Sarawati is an eminent Islamic scholar. The students grow up to live and die for Islam, a fact that disturbs “the enemies of Allah.” The enemy of Allah is everyone who is not Muslim, and for al-Sarawati this means mainly Christians and Jews. The statements issued by the sheikh suggest enmity to Islam and its people. Al-Sarawati explains to the students that proper commitment to the essentials of Islam is a major obstacle to those who are trying to destabilize and divide the ranks of Muslim youth and make their minds internalize evil principles. This lack of commitment definitely makes it easier for the West to conquer Muslims’ attitudes and get them on the side of the West. For Sheikh al-Sarwati, persuading Muslims of the Western principles that aim to colonize the people on moral, intellectual, and social levels, as well as disregarding the invasion of Muslims’ lands, is something that cannot be accepted by any sane person. Sheikh al-Sarwati continues: ϱάϟ΍ϢϟΎόϟ΍΍άϫήϴϨΘϟΪϳΪΟϦϣϡϼγϹ΍βϤηΩϮόΗϑϮγϥΎΘδϧΎϐϓ΃ϲϓϦϳΪϫΎΠϤϟ΍ΎϨΗϮΧ·ϞΜϤΑϭ ΢ϳέˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗˬ 144) .ϡ ϼγϹ΍ήΠϓύϭΰΑϞΒϗΖϧΎϛϲΘϟ΍ ϚϠΗϦϣβόΗ΃ΔϴϠϫΎΟϰϟ·ΩΎϋ ΔϨΠϟ΍ And through the deeds of our brothers—Al Mujahedeen in Afghanistan, the sun of Islam will rise again to illuminate this world that has returned

Riyah Al-Janna [The Wind of Paradise]

153

to a more miserable Jahiliyah[48] that had occurred before the dawning of Islam. (144)

Al-Sarwati’s point here is that this world—meaning the Islamic world— lives in darkness. This darkness is more dangerous than the time of Jahiliyah. Al-Sarawati warns against the danger of the West to Islam. He considers the conflict between Muslims and non-Muslims as purely religious. According to al-Sarwati, such danger cannot be overcome except “through the deeds of our brothers—Al Mujahedeen in Afghanistan” (144). It is an invitation to Jihad and the killing of non-Muslims. Again, these ideas are issued to sixth-grade students in a government school in the Middle East. Sheikh al-Sarwati continues: ϪϨϣΝήΨΗΖϧΎϛΩΎϬΠϟ΍ϲϓΪϴϬθϟ΍ϥ΄Αϡ΍ΰϋௌΪΒϋΦϴθϟ΍ϥΎΘδϧΎϐϓ΃ϲϓϦϳΪϫΎΠϤϟ΍ΦϴηΎϨΛΪΤϳϭ ϪϧϷϪΘΜΟΦδϔΘΗϻΪϴϬθϟΎϓˬϩΩΎϬθΘγ΍ϦϣϡΎϳ΃ΪόΑϰΘΣˬϚδϤϟ΍ΔΤ΋΍ήΑϥϮϜΗΎϣϪΒη΃ΔϴϛίΔΤ΋΍έ ΢ϳέˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗˬ 145)«ΓήΧϵ΍ϭΎϴϧΪϟ΍ϲϓΔΤ΋΍ήϟ΍ϲ ˷ ϛίΪϴϬθϟΎϓ«ௌΪϨϋϕίήϳϲ ˷ Σ ΔϨΠϟ΍ The Sheikh of the Mujahedeen in Afghanistan, Sheikh Abdullah Azzam, tells us that the martyr Mujahid smelled like something similar to the smell of musk, even days after his martyrdom. The martyr’s body does not decompose because he is alive with Allah. The martyr is sweet-smelling, in this world and the hereafter. (145)

One notes from this quotation that Sheikh al-Sarwati apparently now arrives at the end of his lesson and tries to explain to the students the dignity of the martyrs. There is life after death. Those who die to secure, maintain, and protect the name of Allah are not dead. They will live with Allah. They are very dignified. The most prominent characteristic is the smell of musk emitted by the dead martyrs. Their bodies do not decompose. Al-Sarawati conveys this from Sheikh Abdullah Azzam: ϢϬϧ·«ௌϥϮϫήϜϳϢϬϧ·³ϝϮϘϳϮϫϭαέΪϟ΍ΔϳΎϬϧϲϓΦϴθϟ΍Υ΍ήλϮϫˬϞμϔϟ΍ΔϴϘΑέΎΛ΃ϭˬϩέΎΛ΃ΎϣϦϜϟϭ ΍ΫΎϤϟϢϬϔϳϥ΃Ϟ΋΍ϭϊτΘδϳϢϟ´«ϢϜϧϮϫήϜϳϢϬϧ·«ϡϼγϹ΍ϥϮϫήϜϳϢϬϧ·«ϝϮγήϟ΍ϥϮϫήϜϳ ΔϨΠϟ΍΢ϳέˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗˬ 147)ௌϥϮϫήϜϳ But what provoked him and provoked the rest in the class, is the cry of the Sheikh at the end of the lesson when he said: ‘They hate Allah… They hate the Prophet … They hate Islam… They hate you…’ Wail could not understand why they hate Allah. (147; original emphasis) 48 There is no direct translation of the word Jahiliyah. It indicates the time before Islam, when people worshipped stones in Mecca.

154

Chapter 4

This is an excerpt from a short discussion between Wail and Waleed while they are going home. The cry of Sheikh al-Sarawati has obviously left a tremendous influence on Wail and he asks his brother: why does the West hate Allah? This signifies the hatred of the West toward Muslims based on their religion. The Others are silenced and cannot defend themselves. Wail and Waleed are in the sixth grade; the younger the person is, the easier it is to brainwash them and to have a huge influence on them, too. The words of Sheikh Al-Sarawati have a big impact on Wail’s heart for two reasons: first, Al-Sarawati is trustworthy figure, since Teacher Awad presents him as a virtuous man. The second reason is that Wail is very prepared to believe the words of the Sheikh due to the Islamic environment that surrounds him and what he hears from people. The cry of the Sheikh is a shock to Wail, making him feel the injustice churning in his heart, because the Sheikh assures the students that the Jews, Christians, and hypocrites hate Allah, His Messenger, and Islam alike. Wail is unable to find a reasonable explanation for that hatred. Wail’s lack of life experience and awareness, as a young child, means he cannot tell whether this speech is authentic or not, so he is greatly affected and becomes pained. As seen in the previous quotation, these young people are raised on the principles of Jihad from an early age. They are also called to do so as it will make their faith stronger and more ideal; this is clearly reflected in the words of Teacher Awad when he says to his students: “Allah is with us… With the Mujahedeen … So be with Allah. And Allah will be with you thereafter” (146). In the same context, al-Hamad opens a discussion in the form of a competition among the characters that summarizes and determines their relationship to the West from the point of view of Wahhabis: ˮϢϫήϴϏϭϯέΎμϨϟ΍ϭϦϴϛήθϤϟ΍ϭέΎϔϜϟ΍ϰϠϋϡϼδϟ΍ίϮΠϳϞϫ ΫΎΘγ΍Ύϳϼϛ ΍ΫΎϤϟϭ ϦϴϤϠδϤϟ΍ήϴϏϲϟ΍ϮϧϻϭˬϢϬϨϣ΃ήΒΘϧϭϢϬπϐΒϧϭϢϬϫήϜϧϥ΃Ύϧήϣ΃ௌϥϷ ΪόγΎϳΖϨδΣ΃ ΫΎΘγϷ΍αϭέΩϦϜϟϭˬϢϬΘΑϮΟ΃ϲϓΎϬϧϭ˷ΩΩήϳϲΘϟ΍˯ΎϴηϷ΍ϦϣήϴΜϛϰϨόϣϥϮ˴όϳΓάϣϼΘϟ΍ϦϜϳϢϟ ϢϬϠΜϣˬϥΎϣΰϟ΍΍άϫϮϘϓΎϨϣϦϴϴϧΎϤϠόϟ΍ϥ΃ϭˬέ΍ήη΃ϯέΎμϨϟ΍ϭΩϮϬϴϟ΍ϥ΃ϢϬϧΎϫΫ΃ϲϓΖΨγένϮϋ ϱάϟ΍νϮϋΫΎΘγϸϟΔΒδϨϟΎΑ˱ΎϴϓΎϛϚϟΫϥΎϛϭˬϝϮγήϟ΍ϡΎϳ΃ϦϴϘϓΎϨϤϟ΍ϦϣϪΘϋΎϤΟϭϝϮϠγϲΑ΃ϞΜϣ ΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗˬ 152-151)ΔϘΑΎδϤϟ΍ϩάϫϝϼΧϦϣϩΎϳ·ϢϬϤ˷ ϠϋΎϣ΍ϮψϔΣΪϗϪΗάϣϼΗϥ΃ϰϟ·ϥ΄Ϥρ΍ ΔϨΠϟ΍΢ϳέˬ Is it permissible to say ‘As-Salaam-Alaikum’ to infidels, heathens, Christians and others? No, teacher.

Riyah Al-Janna [The Wind of Paradise]

155

But why? Because Allah commanded us to hate, detest and disown them, and to only be loyal to the Muslims. Very well said, Saad. The students were not fully conscious of many things that they repeated in their answers, but the lessons of Teacher Awad strengthened in their minds that Jews and Christians are evil, and that secularists are the hypocrites of this time, like Abu Salul and his group of hypocrites in the days of the Prophet Muhammed. That was enough for Teacher Awad, who was satisfied that his students memorized what they had learned through this competition. (151–2)

Perhaps one of the most problematic things that preoccupy many Muslims, especially non-educated and naive people, is the issue of preponderance between them and those of other faiths. There is a misperception established in some credulous minds concerning Allah’s words in the Quran, when He addressed the Muslims saying: “You are the best nation produced [as an example] for mankind. You enjoin what is right and forbid what is wrong and believe in Allah. If only the People of the Scripture had believed, it would have been better for them. Among them are believers, but most of them are defiantly disobedient” (Quran Verse 3:110). So, most Muslims believe that they are the greatest thing in all of creation, not because of their nationality and the community they belong to, but because of the deeprooted dogma in their hearts and minds—which comes from some verses of the Quran, such as the above. Some Muslims may be unaware of the following qualities that have been described by God when He said: “Enjoining what is right, forbidding what is wrong […]” (Quran Verse 31:17). The minds of many Muslims have been controlled by the idea that any non-Muslim is necessarily an infidel. Such a belief leads to Muslims’ hostility toward the non-Muslims and is seen as an order from God. But it is noted that this is contrary to the saying of God: “And we made you peoples and tribes that you may know one another. Indeed, the most noble of you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous of you” (Verse 49:13). This verse eliminates every idea that differentiates between people as human beings. In addition, al-Hamad ignores—in the dialogue between the teacher and his students—the content of the verse that says: “For you is your religion, and for me is my religion” (Verse 109:6). The author presents the relationship between Muslims and followers of other religions in the words of the student who answered the teacher, saying: “Allah commanded us to hate, detest and disown them, and to only be loyal to the Muslims” (151). This presentation reflects a naivety of thinking, deepens the disagreements between religions, and makes the notion of Muslims fighting against non-

156

Chapter 4

Muslims a living idea that is difficult to eliminate. The author develops the dialogue among the students and discuss with them the verse: “And if they incline to peace, then incline to it [also] and rely upon Allah. Indeed, it is He who is the Hearing, the Knowing.” (Quran Verse 8:61). The praise of the teacher for the student’s answer is just a very naive verbal behavior that the student does not deserve; it is unacceptable for the teacher to say, and it also has nothing to do with the essence of the Islamic religion. This is a dialogue that reflects the depth of misunderstanding of the Islamic faith, which leads to a misunderstanding among many people in the world, creating hostility between them. By the above-mentioned praise of the teacher, the author establishes in the minds of the student and his peers the idea that people of different faiths are villains who must be confronted decisively by Muslims. The teacher, as a shaper of future generations, should have indicated that wise, rational men are also of different religions and beliefs. Not only that, but the teacher, through his dialogue with the students, aims to underestimate the value and importance of secularists when portraying them as hypocrites, such as those who lived during the time of Prophet Muhammed. To make matters worse, the dialogue makes the teacher happy and reassured that his students have understood each of the points that he has introduced. Thus, the teacher has achieved his goal, which he believes is the right thing. But that goal is a detrimental one to the Islamic faith, and it makes Muslims vulnerable to mockery and hostility by non-Muslim communities. ˷ ϩΰϋϖΑΎγϰϟ·ϡϼγϹ΍ΓΩϮϋϦϴΑϡϮϴ ϟ΍Ϟ΋ΎΤϟ΍ϲϫΎϜϳήϣ΃ˬΎϧϭΪϋϲϫΎϜϳήϣ΃«ϲ΋ΎϨΑ΃ΎϳϢόϧ ϩήϛϮϟϭ«ϥϭήϓΎϜϟ΍ϩήϛϮϟϭϩήϣ΃ϰϠϋΐϟΎϏௌϦϜϟϭˬௌέϮϧ΍ϮΌϔτϳϥ΃ϥϭΪϳήϳˬϪΗΩΎϴγϭ ΔϨΠϟ΍΢ϳέˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗˬ 155)«ϥϭήϓΎϜϟ΍ Yes, my sons… America is our enemy, America is the barrier today between the return of Islam to its former pride and sovereignty. They want to extinguish the light of Allah, but Allah hath full power and control over His affairs; even though the unbelievers may detest [it] […] even though the unbelievers may detest [it]… (al-Hamad 2007, 155)

The teacher tries to characterize the U.S. as an enemy for Muslims, but in fact their real enemy is themselves. He suggests that Muslims are like a herd of livestock led by an invincible and powerful shepherd, and that these livestock do nothing but follow the shepherd. Considering the depth of the intellectual bankruptcy of the teacher, and given his backward thinking about the true political reality in the world, he tries to numb the minds of his students by claiming that the only solution to lift Muslims out of their plight—at all levels—is the sovereignty of religious thought without any

Riyah Al-Janna [The Wind of Paradise]

157

mention of technological developments and keeping pace with the achievements of civilized nations. In addition, without charting a roadmap to regain the Muslims’ dignity and the return of their pride and honor, he focuses on their enemies and concludes that these enemies are responsible for Muslims’ failure and defeat.

Ziad: “The Price of Life is Death” ˬήϳΰϨΨϟ΍ϢΤϟϦϣ΢΋΍ήηϥϮϜΗϥ΃ϲθΧϭˬΩΎϳίϖΒρϲϓϥϮϠϟ΍ΔϳΩέϮϟ΍ϢΤϠϟ΍΢΋΍ήηϰϟ·ήψϧ 57)ήϳΰϨΨϟ΍ϢΤϟϞϛ΃ϦϣϪϳΪϟϊϧΎϣϻˬϰϘϴγϮϤϠϟϊϤΘδϳϭΕΎϴΘϔϟ΍ήηΎόϳϭΓήϤΨϟ΍ΏήθϳϱάϟΎϓ ΔϨΠϟ΍΢ϳέˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗˬ He looked at the steaks in Ziad’s dish, and feared that they would be pork chops. It is logical that a person who drinks alcohol, has illicit affairs with girls and listens to the music, does not mind eating pork. (57)

Among the characters the novel deals with is Ziad, who is based on Ziad Jarrah, the hijacker-pilot of United Airlines Flight 93. 49 The novel represents Ziad as a character who lives and studies in Hamburg, Germany. He comes from a conservative but open family rooted in Lebanon. He meets the Egyptian Mohammed in the mosque, who is not satisfied with Ziad’s attitude and behavior: ϝΎΟήϟ΍ΔϨϳίϰΤϠϟ΍«Ωήϣ΃ϥϮϜϳϥ΃ϪϟϮγέϭͿΎΑϦϣΆϳϢϠδϤϟίϮΠϳϻ«ΩΎϳίΥ΃ΎϳΓήϜϓϰϠϋ ϦϣωϮϧϪϧ·«΍άϫϞϳϮτϟ΍ϙήόηϢΛ«ΔϨδΣΓϮγ΃ϪΘΑΎΤλϭௌϝϮγέϲϓΎϨϟϭˬΔϳϮϬϟ΍ϥ΍ϮϨϋϭ ϭ΃˯ΎδϨϟΎΑϪΒθΘϟ΍ϦϋˬϢ͉ ϠγϭϪϴϠϋௌ ϰϠλˬௌϝϮγέΎϧΎϬϧΪϗϭˬ˱Ύπϳ΃έΎϔϜϟ΍ϭ˯ΎδϨϟΎΑϪΒθΘϟ΍ ΔϨΠϟ΍΢ϳέˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗˬ 61)«έΎϔϜϟ΍ Brother Ziad… it is not permissible for a Muslim who believes in Allah and His Messenger to be beardless… The beard is a man’s noble adornment and his self-identity, and we have to follow Prophet Muhammed and his Companions… as they are our good models. Your long hair… is considered as kind of imitating the women, and Prophet Muhammed discouraged Muslims from imitating women or infidels… (61)

The author provides the reader with a well-sequenced chain of events for each character, including Ziad and Muhammed. In addition, al-Hamad presents the reader with religious young individuals, who are attached to studying. He also paves the way by showing that Ziad and Muhammed are young Muslims interested in knowledge and learning. So, the author 49 See also Zarembka, Paul. The Hidden History of 9/11. New York: Seven Stories Press, 2008.

158

Chapter 4

presents the reader with figures who are supposed to be of a high intellectual and educational level. He also underscores the fact that the most important thing to Muhammed is Ziad’s religious commitment. Al-Hamad narrates: ϚϠΗϦϋή˷Β˶ όΗϦϜΗϢϟΔϴϋΎϤΘΟϻ΍ϪΗΎϴΣϭϩήϬψϣϥ΃ϻ·ˬΔΤο΍Ϯϟ΍ΔϴϨϳΪϟ΍ϪΘγΎϤΣϭΩΎϳίϦ˷ϳΪΗϢϏήϓ Ώήηϭ ΔΒΧΎμϟ΍ΕϼϔΤϟ΍ϭ ΕΎϴΘϔϟ΍ϭ ϦϴΧΪΘϟ΍ϲ˷ΒΤϣϦϣϥΎϛΪϘϓˬϦϳΪϟΎΑ ϖϠόΘϟ΍ϙ΍Ϋϭ ΔγΎϤΤϟ΍ ϦϣϥϮϜΗϻΪϗΕΎϴϛϮϠδϟ΍ϩάϫϞΜϣϭˬϥΎϨΒϟϦϣΩΎϳίϥϮϛϰϟ·ήϣϷ΍΍άϫΪϤΤϣϊΟέ΃έϮϤΨϟ΍ ή˷ϴϐϴϟ˯ΎΟϡϼγϹΎϓˬϲϓΎϜϟ΍έήΒϤϟΎΑϚϟΫβϴϠϓˬήϣϷ΍ϥΎϛΎϤϬϣϦϜϟϭˬϙΎϨϫΔϨΠϬΘδϤϟ΍έϮϣϷ΍ ϦϤΣήϟ΍έϮϧϰϟ·ϥΎτϴθϟ΍ΔϴϠϫΎΟϦϣϭˬέϮϨϟ΍ϰϟ·ΕΎϤϠψϟ΍ϦϣΎϬϠϘϨϴϓˬαϮϔϨϟ΍ή˷ϴϐϳϭˬϢϟΎόϟ΍ ˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗˬ 53)ϦϴϔϗϮϤϟ΍ϦϴΑςγϭϻϭˬϪ˷ϠϛϙήΘϳϭ΃ˬϪ˷ϠϛάΧΆϳϥ΃Ύϣ·ˬΪΣ΍ϭϞϛϡϼγϹΎϓ ΔϨΠϟ΍΢ϳέ Despite Ziad’s religiosity and his obvious god-fearing passion, his appearance and social life did not reflect that zeal or his attachment to religion. He liked smoking, girls, loud parties and drinking alcohol. Muhammed attributed this to the fact that Ziad is from Lebanon, and such behaviors may not be reprehensible there. Whatever it was, there is no adequate justification for that. Islam has come to change the world and souls, moving them from darkness to light, and from Satan’s ignorance to the light of Merciful Allah. Islam is indivisible; either to take it all, or to leave it all—there is no in between. (53)

So, he blames Ziad for not conducting all prayers in the mosque and for living a life full of that which does not satisfy his God—smoking, girls, noisy parties, and drinking alcohol. Furthermore, the author states that the country of origin of the Muslim plays a fundamental role in his attachment to the religion. Ziad is a young Lebanese man who grew up in Lebanon; an open-minded country that permits integration of the sexes, loud parties, and drinking alcohol, while Muhammed hails from an Egyptian closed-minded society. However, Muhammed does not think that Ziad’s upbringing should allow him to behave in the way he does, because Islam, according to Muhammed, comes to change the world. He sees Islam as an indivisible whole—either the Muslim is devout and God-fearing, or he is not called a Muslim. The following lines show how Muhammed speaks with Ziad and how their conversation develops: ϰϟ·΍ήψϧ ˮΔϴϓΎϛΔόϤΠϟ΍Γϼλϥ΃ϦψΗ ϡ΃«ΪΠδϤϟ΍ϲϓΎϨόϣϲ ˷ ϠμΗϻΖϧ΃«ΩΎϳίΥ΃Ύϳ ˰ ϯέΎμϨϟ΍ϦϣΎϨδϟϦΤϧ˰ϪΜϳΪΣΪϤΤϣϞλ΍ϭΎϤϴϓˬΏ΍ϮΟϱ΃ΩΎϳίήϴ˶Τ˶ϳ ϢϟϭˬξόΒϟ΍ΎϤϬπόΑ ϢϠδϣΏΎηΖϧ΃˰ϪϘϳέϊϠΘΒϳϮϫϭϢΛ«ωϮΒγϷ΍ϲϓ˱΍ΪΣ΍ϭ˱ΎϣϮϳέΎϬϘϟ΍ΪΣ΍Ϯϟ΍ΓΩΎΒόΑϲϔΘϜϧϰΘΣ «ϪϠϴϟΩ ϦϣΆϤϟ΍ΐϠϘϓˬϲϠΧ΍Ω ϲϓϚϟΫ ϢϠϋ΃«ϢϬϫϮΟϭ ϲϓϢϫΎϤϴγ˰ϢδΘΒϳϮϫϭ ϢΛ «ΐϴρ ˰ϝϮϘϳϥ΃ϞΒϗϪϣΎϣ΃ΔτϠδϟ΍ϖΒρ ϲϓϥϮΘϳΰϟ΍ΕΎΒϴΒΣϰϟ·ήψϨϳϮϫϭΔϫήΒϟΖϤλϭ«ϦϜϟϭ ΔΌΟήϤϟ΍ϝϮϘΗΎϤϛˬϞϤϋϥϭΩΐϠϘϟΎΑέ΍ήϗϹ΍ΩήΠϣβϴϟϥΎϤϳϹ΍ϭ«ϞϤϋϭϝϮϗϡϼγϹ΍ϦϜϟϭ ΫΎϴόϟ΍ϭϪ˷ϠϛϪϛήΘΗϭ΃ˬϪ˷ϠϛϩάΧ΄ΗΔϳΰϴϠϜϧϹ΍ϲϓϥϮϟϮϘϳΎϤϛˬ´ΞϴϛΎΑϥϭ³ϡϼγϹ΍«ௌϢϬϠΗΎϗ ϲΘϟ΍ΓέΩΎϨϟ΍ΕΎϤδΒϟ΍ϚϠΗϦϣΓΪΣ΍ϮΑΚόΒϳϮϫϭϚϟΫϝΎϗ«ϡϼγϺϟϙήΗϮϫήϴμϘΗϱ΃ϭ«ͿΎΑ

Riyah Al-Janna [The Wind of Paradise]

159

ϥ΃ϞΒϗˬ˱ΎϤδΘΒϣϩ΁έΪϗΪΣ΃ϥϮϜϳϥ΃ϰθΨϳΎϤϧ΄ϛϭϪϟϮΣήψϨϳϮϫϭˬΔϋήδΑΎϫΩΎόΘγ΍ϥ΃ΚΒϟΎϣ ϥ΃ϥϭΪϳήΗϢϜϧ΃ϡ΃«Ϫ˷ϠϛϪϛήΘΗϭ΃Ϫ˷ϠϛϩάΧ΄Ηϥ΃Ύϣ·«ΩΎϳίΥ΃ΎϳΞϴϛΎΑϥϭ«Ϣόϧ˰Ϟλ΍Ϯϳ ϮϠΘϳάΧ΃ϢΛˮϥΎϣΰϟ΍΍άϫϮϘϓΎϨϣϭϥΎϣΰϟ΍ϙ΍ΫϮϘϓΎϨϣϞόϔϳϥΎϛΎϤϛˬ˱ΎπόΑ΍ϮϛήΘΗϭ˱ΎπόΑ΍ϭάΧ΄Η ͉ϻ˶·Ϣ˸ Ϝ˸ Ϩ ˶ϣ ˴Ϛ˶ϟΫ˴Ϟό˸ ˴ϔϳϦ˸ ϣ˴ ˯˵ ΍ ˴ΰΟ˴ ΎϤ˴ ϓξ ˳ ˴όΒ˶Α ˴ϥϭή˵ ˵ϔϜ˴ Ηϭ ˶ Ύ˴ ΘϜ˶ ϟ΍ξ ˶ ˴όΒ˶Α ˴ϥϮ˵Ϩ ˶ϣ ˸Ά˵Θ˴ϓ΃)ϢϴΧέΕϮμΑ˱ϼΗήϣ ˴ Ώ ˸ ˶ ϲϓϱ ˬ 59-58) ( ˴ϥϮ˵ϠϤ˴ ˴όΗΎϤ͉ ϋϞ˳ ϓΎ˶ϐΑဃΎ ˴ Ώ ˷ ϣ˴ ϭ ˶ ˴ ΍˴άό˸ ϟ΍˷Ϊ˶ η˴΃ϰ˶ ˲ ΰ˸ ˶Χ ˴ ˴ϴϧ˸ ͊Ϊϟ΍˶ΓΎ˴ϴΤ˴ ϟ΍ ˴ ϟ· ˴ϥϭ͊Ωή˵˴ ϳ˶Δϣ˴ Ύ˴ϴϘ˶ ϟ΍ϡ˴ Ϯ˸ ˴ϳϭΎ ΔϨΠϟ΍΢ϳέˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗ ‘Brother Ziad, you do not pray with us at the mosque. Do you think that Friday prayer is enough?’ They swapped glances, Ziad did not respond, while Mohammed then continued: ’We are not Christians to be satisfied only by worshiping God one day a week.’ Then he swallowed his saliva and said: ‘You are a good Muslim young man.’ He smiled and told: ‘Their mark is on their faces; I know this in my gut, the heart of a believer is his guide. But…’ He paused as he looked at the olives in the salad plate in front of him, before saying: ‘But Islam is about putting words into deeds. Faith is not just acknowledging without doing anything. As to what Murjites said—May God defeat them—in English: Islam is “one package”, either take it all, or leave it all—Allah forbid!— “Any neglect is like leaving Islam.” He gave one of those rare smiles and quickly regained it, then he looked around as if afraid that someone had seen him smiling, before continuing: ‘Yes, it is “one package”, brother Ziad. Either take it all or leave it all. Or do you want to take some of it and leave the rest, as the hypocrites did and still do?’ Then he began to recite with a soft voice: ‘So do you believe in part of the Scripture and disbelieve in part? Then what is the recompense for those who do that among you except disgrace in worldly life; and on the Day of Resurrection they shall be consigned to the severest of punishment. For Allah is not unmindful of what you do.’ (58–9)

The character of Muhammed is presented as a puritanical man who warns Ziad of committing haram (i.e., forbidden) acts by eating pork slices, being passionate about women, and so on, as if Muhammed is his (legal) guardian. Muhammed appears to want to make himself a role model for Ziad when he says that he only eats fish and deals only with halal shops, or he slays the bird or the cattle himself for fear of buying non-halal meat. Although Ziad talks about how eager he is not to eat pork, Muhammed advises him to stay away even from non-haram livestock meat, in order to be vigilant not to eat what Allah has forbidden. From his point of view, the meat that he eats, even if it is from halal animals, might have been slaughtered in a nonIslamic way. What Muhammed tells Ziad as an introduction quickly shifts to Ziad being asked about other formalities in Islam that should be followed. Muhammed tells him that he has to have a long beard and shorten his long hair, so that he does not imitate women or infidels.

160

Chapter 4

The writer portrays a negative image of Muhammed, who gets involved in Ziad’s personal affairs without his permission. Throughout the dialogue between the two characters, Ziad has a tendency to follow a path like Muhammed’s—based on religiosity and worship. However, although Ziad stays away from alcohol and smoking, he still adores music and beautiful girls. But the Turkish Muslim girl Aseel persuades Ziad to change his lifestyle to become a committed Muslim. ϢϠόϳϮϫϭˬ˱ΎϘϨΧϪϘϨΨϳϢϟ΄ΑβΣ΃ΪϗϭˬϪϴϨϴϋϦϣΝϭήΨϠϟϞοΎϨΗ˱ΎϋϮϣΩΐϟΎϐϳϮϫϭ˱ϼϴϠϗΖϤλ ϝϮϘϳϮϫϭϪδϔϧϚϟΎϤΗϪϨϜϟϭˬΓΩϮϋϼΑήϓΎδϣϮϬϓˬΩϮΟϮϟ΍ϲϓϪϳΪϟϥΎδϧ·ΐΣ΃ϰϠϋΏάϜϳϪϧ΃ ΖΟήΧΔόϣΩϊϨϤϳϥ΃ϊτΘδϳϢϟϭ«˱΍ΪΑ΃ϚϟΫϲδϨΗϻ«ΙΪΣΎϤϬϣ«ϚΒΣ΃«Ϟϴγ΃ΎϳϚΒΣ΃˰ ϚϟΎϨϫ΃«˱΍ήϴΧ΃˱Ύϋ΍ΩϭϲϨϋΩϮΗϚϧ΄ϛ«ϲΒϴΒΣϚΑΎϣ˰ϖϠϘΑϝϮϘΗϞϴγ΃ΖϧΎϛΎϤϴϓˬϪϨϣϢϏήϟΎΑ ΎϬ˷ Ϡϛ«ϚϟάϛΎϧ΃ϭ˰«ςϘϓϚϟΖϘΘη΍«ϚϟΖϘΘη΍«ΓΎϴΤϟ΍Ϧϣΰϋ΃Ύϳ˷ϼϛ«˷ϼϛ˰ˮΎϣΐτΧ βϴϟ΃˰ΪϛΆΗϥ΃ϞΒϗˬΎϬΗϮλϲϓ˱ΎΤο΍ϭϥΎϛϖϠϘΑϚϟΫΖϟΎϗˮϚϟάϛβϴϟ΃«˱ΎόϣϥϮϜϧϭϡϮϳϢϛ ϚϠμΗϥ΃ϮΟέ΃ˬβϣϷΎΑΔϟΎγέϚϟΖϠγέ΃ΪϘϟ«˱ΎΒϳήϗϙ΍έ΃«Ϣόϧ«Ϣόϧ˰ˮϲΒϴΒΣΎϳ Ϛϟάϛ Ϣϟ΃ϥ΄ΑβΤϳϮϫϭϪϧΎϜϣϰϟ·ΩΎϋϭϒΗΎϬϟ΍Ϟϔϗ΃ϭ«ϲΗϼΒϗ«˱ΎΒϳήϗϙ΍έ΃˰«ϲΗϼΒϗ«ΎΒϳήϗ ˬ 120-119) «Ϣϟ΃ϞϛϝϭΰϴγϞϴϠϗΪόΑϭ«ΎϴϧΩΩήΠϣΎϬϨϜϟϭ«ϪΒϠϗϲϓϢϛ΍ήΗΪϗϪ˷ϠϛΎϴϧΪϟ΍ ΔϨΠϟ΍΢ϳέˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗ He went silent preventing his tears from falling down, despite their struggle to be shed. He was in great pain that suffocated him, as he knew that he lied to the one he loved the most. He was going to leave and not come back. Then he pulled himself together saying: ‘I love you Aseel… I love you… No matter what happens… Never forget that.’ A tear had been shed against his will, while Aseel said anxiously: ‘What’s wrong with you, my love? As if you are saying your last goodbye! Is something wrong?’ Ziad said: ‘No… No, my dearest. I miss you… I just miss you.’ ‘So do I. Few days are left and we will be together, isn’t it?’, she said with concern that was obvious from the tone of her voice. She re-emphasized her question: ‘Isn’t it?’ He replied: ‘Yes… Yes. See you soon. I sent you a message yesterday, I hope you will receive it in a short time… Kisses… See you soon… Kisses….’ He got off the phone and returned to his place, feeling a great pain that had accumulated in his heart… but this is life. And after a while, this pain will go away. (119–20)

Through Ziad’s call with Aseel, the author presents him as a character who does not know exactly what he wants. In contrast to their prior conversations, he talks with her about paradise, marriage, and traveling to Beirut, so she is confused because she also no longer knows what Ziad wants, and she begins to view him as an incomprehensible person. AlHamad suggests that the trend toward religion may lead to isolation of the individual, even from his loved ones. Ziad, from Aseel’s point of view, is narrow-minded, puritanical, nervous, and angry. She does not know what has made him go from a moderate Muslim to a devout Muslim in two years,

Riyah Al-Janna [The Wind of Paradise]

161

how his political thought is limited to talking about Israel and America, and how his religious discourse is about the al Da’wah for Islam and the Jihad for Allah’s sake. Consequently, the author describes a Muslim who refuses to keep pace with European civilization. The author provides an example of this when Ziad refuses to accept Aseel’s behavior and begins to treat her in a way a devout Muslim would. He stops her from smoking a cigarette or drinking a glass of wine, and even threatens to discontinue the relationship with her if she does not wear a full hijab—as if Islam is no more than an appearance that Muslims must adhere to and for it to be said that he is a good Muslim. The author does not mention that Islam is replete with many noble values and good deeds. In the novel, Ziad appears to be a hypocritical and volatile person. He stops Aseel from drinking alcohol, even though he has started drinking again, and he does not mind drinking it with her when they are alone. The novel suggests that Aseel is a girl who embraces life and wishes that Ziad would share his life with her in the way she wants. An example of this is when Aseel feels happy on Ziad’s return from Beirut and his beard and mustache are shaved. After that, Aseel sees Ziad as a modern man, but instead he now becomes a different person who believes only in Jihad that leads to paradise. Aseel also wonders why Muhammed and Ziad are interested in aviation and learning how to fly a plane. ˬϥϮΜϬϠϳϰΘΣϥϮμϗήϳΚϴΣΕϼϔΤϟ΍ϭκϗ΍ήϤϟ΍ϰϟ·ϩΎϳ·ϭΐϫάΗΖϧΎϛΪϘϓˬ˱ϻΪΘόϣ˱ΎϤϠδϣϥΎϛ ϱάϟ΍ΩΎϳίΪόϳϢϟϦϴΘϨγάϨϣϪϨϜϟϭ˱΍ήϴΜϛΓήϴΒϟ΍ ˷ΐΤϳϥΎϛϭˬϥϮϴόϟ΍ϢϬϨϣϊϣΪΗϰΘΣϥϮϜΤπϳϭ Ύϛήϴϣ΃Ϧϋϻ·ϪϟΚϳΪΣϻϭˬϡ΍ϭΪϟ΍ϰϠϋ˯ϲηϞϜϟ˱΍ΪϗΎϧˬϡ΍ϭΪϟ΍ϰϠϋ˱΍ήΗϮΘϣ΢Βλ΃ΪϘϟϑήόΗ .ΩΎϬΠϟ΍ϲϤδϳΩΎϳίϥΎϛΎϤϛˬΔΒ΋Ύϐϟ΍ΔπϳήϔϠϟΓΎϴΤϟ΍ΓΩΎϋ·ϭௌϦϳΩϰϟ·ΓΩϮόϟ΍ΓέϭήοϭϞϴ΋΍ήγ·ϭ ϲϓϝϮΤϜϟ΍ΔΤ΋΍έϢθΗΖϧΎϛΎϬϧ΃ϢϏέˬΓήϴΒϟ΍ΏήθϳΪόϳϢϟϭˬκϗ΍ήϤϟ΍ϰϟ·ΎϬόϣΝήΨϳΪόϳϢϟ ˵ ΗϻΔΟέΪϟ˱Ύ˷ϴΒμϋ΢Βλ΃ϭˬϥΎϴΣϷ΍ξόΑϪϤϓ ϭ΃ϢϋΎτϤϟ΍ΪΣ΃ϰϟ·ϥΎΟήΨϳΎϧΎϛΎϣΪϨϋϭϕΎτ ϝΎΤϟ΍ϪΑΖϠλϭϞΑˬΎϴϧΎΒϤθϟ΍ϭ΃άϴΒϨϟ΍Ϧϣα΄ϛϑΎθΗέ΍ϭ΃ϦϴΧΪΘϟ΍ϦϣΎϬόϨϤϳϥΎϛˬΕΎϫΰΘϨϤϟ΍ Ζπϓήϓˬ˱ϼϣΎϛ˱ΎΑΎΠΣΐ˷ΠΤΘΗϢϟϥ·ΎϬόϣΔϗϼόϟ΍ϲϓήϤΘδϳϦϟϪϧ΄ΑΓήϣΕ΍ΫΎϫΩΪϫϪ˷ϧ΃ϰϟ· Ϫ˷ΒΤΗϲϬϓˬϚϟΫήϴϏ  ϊϴτΘδΗϻϲϬϓˬϪΘΤϣΎγϭΎϬϟϒ˷γ˷΄ΗΓήΘϓΪόΑΩΎϋϪϨϜϟϭˬϦϴΣϰϟ·ΎϬϛήΗϭ ϢϏέˬϦϴΧΪΘϟ΍ϭ΃ϝϮΤϜϟ΍ΏήηϦϣΎϬόϨϣϲϓήϤΘγ΍ϪϨϜϟϭˬϪϧϭΪΑΎϬΗΎϴΣϞ˷ϴΨΘΗϥ΃ϊϴτΘδΗϻϭ ΎϬΒΠΤΗϡΪϋϦϣϪοΎόΘϣ΍ϱΪΒϳϥΎϛϭ˱ΎϣΎϤΗΎϤϫΪΣϭϥΎϧϮϜϳΎϣΪϨϋΏήθϟ΍ϰϟ·ΩΎϋϪδϔϧϮϫϪϧ΃ ˱ ΎϤ΋΍ΩΖϧΎϛΎϬϧ΃ϢϏέ ΕϮϔϳϦϜϳϢϟΎϫϮΑ΃ϭˬΎϬϨϳΪΑΔϣΰΘϠϣΔϴϧΎϤϟ΃ΔϴϛήΗΓήγ΃ϦϣϲϬϓˬΔϤθΘΤϣ ˷ ˬΕϭήϴΑϰϟ·ΔϠΣέϦϣΩΎϋΎϣΪϨϋˬ˱ΎΒϳήϘΗϡΎϋϞΒϗ˱΍ήϴΧΕήθΒΘγ΍ΪϗϭΔϴϨϳΪϟ΍ϪοϭήϓϦϣ˱Ύοήϓ ϪΗϻϮΤΗϥ΃ϭˬΩΎϋΪϗΓήϣϝϭϷϪΘϓήϋϱάϟ΍ΩΎϳίϥ΃Ϧϣ˱΍ήϴΧΕήθΒΘγΎϓˬϪϴΑέΎηϭϪΘϴΤϟϖϠΣΪϗϭ ϪΗήΒΘϋ΍ΐϫάϟ΍Ϧϣέ΍ϮγˬΔϳΪϬΑϰΗ΃Ϫϧ΃ΔλΎΧϭˬΖϬΘϧ΍ϥ΃ΖΜΒϟΎϣΓϭΰϧϦϣ˱ΎϋϮϧΖϧΎϛΓήϴΧϷ΍ ϢϏέˬ˱ΎΘϣΰΗϭΔϴΒμϋϭ˱΍ήΗϮΗΩ΍Ωί΍ϞΑˬΪόϳϢϟϢϳΪϘϟ΍ΩΎϳίϥ΃ΖϔθΘϛ΍ΎϬϨϜϟϭΔϴϤγέΔΒτΨϟΔϣΪϘϣ  ΔϨΠϟ΍΢ϳέˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗˬ 121) .Ϣ ϳΪϘϟ΍ήϬψϤϟ΍ΓΩϮϋ He [Ziad] was a moderate Muslim. She used to go with him to the discos and parties where they danced until they gasped, laughed until they had tears. He also loved beer too much. But two years ago, Ziad was no longer the man she knew before. He has become constantly nervous, always

162

Chapter 4 criticizing everything, and talking only about America and Israel and the urgent need to return to the religion of God, and to bring life to the absent duty—as Ziad called the jihad. He stopped going out with her to the discos and drinking beer, although she sometimes smelled alcohol from his mouth. He also became unbearably nervous. When they went out to a restaurant or a park, he stopped her from smoking or drinking a glass of wine or champagne. He had once threatened her that he will not continue the relationship with her if she did not wear a full hijab. She refused and he left her for a while. But then he returned to her and apologized. She forgave him since she could not imagine her life without his presence. He continued preventing her from drinking alcohol or smoking, even though he himself started drinking again when they were all alone. He expressed his displeasure at her for not wearing the hijab, even though she was always modest. She was from a Turkish-German family that was committed to the religion, and her father did not miss any of his religious duties. She saw a glimmer of hope when he returned from a trip to Beirut, his beard and his hair were shaved. She was hopeful that the Ziad whom she met for the first time had returned, and that his recent changes were a whim that was over. Especially that he got her a gold bracelet as a gift, and she considered that as an introduction to an official engagement. But later on, she discovered that the old Ziad did not come back. His tension, stress and bigotry increased, despite the return of his old appearance. (121)

Al-Hamad presents Ziad as a “moderate Muslim,” but this character does not fit such a description because he is only driven by his instincts. The moderate pious man, whether he is a Muslim, a Christian, or a Jew, does not act like Ziad who did whatever pleased him and indulged in dancing, throwing parties, and drinking alcohol when it was available. So, the author implies that all these characteristics of Ziad changed because there was a notable shift in his life. He was no longer the same man that the author described at the beginning of the novel, and his transformation into an extremist indicates that the seeds of his extremism and hatred for nonMuslims were already in him before leaving his own country and moving to Germany. The author describes him as being always nervous, and perhaps this reflects a form of remorse that Ziad experienced when he was a moderate Muslim. In addition, al-Hamad is possibly trying to reflect the depth of regret that Ziad felt because he was moderate at first. Thus, the author rapidly changes the character of Ziad, moving him from indulging in his temptations, to taking refuge in Allah and conducting formal Islamic religious obligations, such as prayers. Ziad stopped going out to discos and drinking beer, and he became increasingly nervous. He also began ordering his girlfriend to wear the hijab, but she turned down his request and so he temporarily left her. However, his feelings of love toward her revived him,

Riyah Al-Janna [The Wind of Paradise]

163

so he went to her and apologized; she accepted his apology and forgave him. As an indication of the instability of Ziad’s personality and his vulnerability to temptations, he went back to his girlfriend and started drinking beer again when they were alone. But he was resentful that she was a non-hijabi, although her Turkish father performed all his religious duties. Nevertheless, Ziad’s girlfriend took good care of him and she was a lover of life, rejecting any kind of religious extremism. She was very pleased when Ziad returned from Beirut with his beard and mustache shaved. In her view, that behavior was an expression of giving up the extremism that was wearing her out. Additionally, she considered the golden bracelet that he gave her as a prelude to their engagement. So, the author implies that Ziad, who later became a terrorist, was neither stable nor educated and that he was also ignorant of the genuine Islam which was supposed to deter him from committing any hostile action. Al-Hamad shows that such people are incredibly unstable, and because of the obvious imbalance in their personalities and perceptions they are psychologically prepared to commit the evil acts that occur later in the novel.

The Remains of Orientalism The Wind of Paradise represents and emphasizes High Orientalism 50. Through his characters and dialogue, al-Hamad presents this prominent stage that has left a tremendous impact on the West. He opens a direct dialogue between the East and the West through the novel’s characters: ϥ΃˱ΎΤο΍ϭϥΎϛϭˬϪϘϴϓέϢδΟϭϪϤδΟϲϓΔΌϳΰΟϞϛϦϣωϮπΘΗϚδϤϟ΍ΐϴρΔΤ΋΍έΖϧΎϛΪϘϟ ϞϜθΑϥΎόδΘΗϖϴϗΪϟ΍ΎϬϔϧ΃ϲΘΤΘϓΖϧΎϛϭˬϩάϫΔϠϴϤΠϟ΍ϕήθϟ΍ΔΤ΋΍ήϟΖϤϠδΘγ΍ΪϗρϮτΨϟ΍ΔϔυϮϣ ϲΘϟ΍ΔϠϴϟϭΔϠϴϟϒϟ΃ϲϟΎϴϟήΤγϪ˷ϔϠϳϱάϟ΍ΐϳήϐϟ΍΍άϫϦϣϡΩΎϘϟ΍ΞϳέϷ΍ϚϟΫΏΎόϴΘγϻ΢ο΍ϭ ϪϗΎϤϋ΃ϲϓΎϫΪδΟϥΎΣΎΘΠΗΓέΎΛϹ΍ϭΓέ΍ήΤϟΎΑήόθΘϓˬΓήϣϝϭϷΎϬΗ΃ήϗϦϴΣΎϬϧΎϴϛϰϠϋΖϟϮΘγ΍ ˬ 31) «ΎϬϣΎϣ΃˱΍˷Ϊδ˶ ΠϣϡϮϴϟ΍ϒϘϳήΤδϟ΍΍άϫϮϫΎϫϭˬϩήΤγϭϕήθϟ΍ϦϋΕ΃ήϗϭΖόϤγϢϛ ΔϨΠϟ΍΢ϳέˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗ The good smell of Musk was reeking from every little part of both his body and his friend’s body. It was clear that the airlines employee had surrendered to the beautiful smell of the Orient, and her nostrils widened clearly to capture that scent coming from this strange man, wrapped with the charm of ‘One Thousand and One Nights’ that had captivated her soul 50 I have defined the term “High Orientalism” in the introduction of this study. This stage corresponds with the heyday of the Orient. This was its peak period and Orientalists were outstanding figures consisting of scholars of diverse scientific and literary disciplines. Moreover, during that period of time, the Orient was a source of inspiration for the West.

Chapter 4

164

when she read it for the first time, feeling the heat and excitement sweeping her body and going in depths. How much she used to hear and read about the Orient and its fascination. And today, here it is! Embodied and standing in front of her. (31)

And on another occasion: ϲϫϭϪϴϟ·ΖΘϔΘϟ΍ˬΎϬϴϧΫ΃ϦϴΑκϴΧήϟ΍ήτόϟ΍Ϧϣ˱ΎΌϴηΖηέϥ΃ΪόΒϓˬ˱ϼόϓϪϘϳΎπΗΔϴΑΎμΘϤϟ΍Ε΃ΪΑ ϚΘΤ΋΍έ«ϙΪϠΑϦϋϥΎϤ˷ ϨϳϚΘΤ΋΍έϭϚϠϜη«ϚϟάϛϚϧ΃΢ο΍ϭˮςγϭϷ΍ϕήθϟ΍ϦϣΖϧ΃˰ϝϮϘΗ ϪϟΕϭέϭ«ϕήθϟ΍Ϟϫ΃ϭϕήθϟ΍ϖθϋ΃Ϣϛ«ϩ΁«Ω΍ίήϬη˯΍ϮΟ΃ϰϟ·ϲΑΩϮόΗ«ϲϨϳϮϬΘδΗ ΖϣΎϬϓΔϠϴϟϭΔϠϴϟϒϟ΃ϭϡΎϴΨϟ΍ΕΎϴϋΎΑέΕ΃ήϗΎϬϧ΃ϒϴϛϭ ˬϕήθϟ΍Ϟϫ΃ϭϕήθϟ΍ϖθόΗΎϬϧ΃ϒϴϛ ϪϤθΘϓˬήΜϛ΃ϪϨϣΏήΘϘΗϲϫΎϤϴϓˬϥΎϣΰϟ΍ϙ΍Ϋϱέ΍ϮΟϦϣΔϳέΎΟΩήΠϣΎϬϧ΃Ϯϟ ˷ΖϨϤΗϭˬ˱ΎΒΣΎϬΑ ΕάΧ΃ϭϪϘϨΨϳΩΎϜϳϱάϟ΍κϴΧήϟ΍ήτόϟ΍ϚϟάΑϦϴΣϞϛϲϓΎϬδϔϧϕήϐΗϢΛˬϦϴϨϴόϟ΍ΔπϤϐϣϲϫϭ ΃ήϘΗϲϫϭΓϮθϨϟ΍ΔϳΩΎΑΖϧΎϛϭˬΐϠϗήϬυϦϋΎϬΘψϔΣϡΎϴΨϟ΍ΕΎϴϋΎΑέϦϣ˱ΎΗΎϴΑ΃ϪόϣΎδϣϰϠϋ΃ήϘΗ Ϧϣ˱΍ήϔϛΪη΃ήϓΎϛϦϋΓέΩΎμϟ΍ΔϳήϔϜϟ΍ΕΎϴΑϷ΍ϩάϬϟ˱ΎϫέΎϛϊϤΘδϳΪϤΤϣϥΎϛΎϤϴϓˬΕΎϴΑϷ΍ϚϠΗ ˷ ΰϬΗϲϫϭˬΏήϐϟ΍ήϣ΃  Ϫϴϟ·ϝ΁Ύϣϰϟ·ϕήθϟ΍ήϣ΃ϲϬΘϨϳϥ΃ϦϣϪΗέ˷άΣϭϪΒϧΎΠΑϲΘϟ΍ϥϮΑΰϴΤϟ΍ Γ˯΍ήΒϟ΍ΚϴΣˬϢϛΪϨϋΓέΎπΤϟ΍«ΓέΎπΤϟ΍ϢϫϭϭϢϛΎϳ·³ϦϣίάϨϣϪϓήόΗΎϬϧ΄ϛϭϪϬΟϭϲϓΎϬΘΑΎΒγ ϞϛϭˬΩϭήΒϟ΍΍άϫϞϜΑϡϮϴϟ΍ΐϗΎόϧΎϨϨϜϟϭˬϦϴϴϠλϷ΍ΩϼΒϟ΍ϩάϫϥΎϜγϰϠϋΎϨϴπϗΪϘϟ«ΔρΎδΒϟ΍ϭ ΐδϜϧϥ΃ΓΪ΋Ύϔϟ΍Ύϣϭ«ΎϨΣ΍ϭέ΃ ΎϨόο΃«ΎϨδϔϧ΃ΎϧΪϘϓΎϨϨϜϟϭˬ˯ϲηϞϛΎϬΑΎϨΒδϛϲΘϟ΍ΔϳΩΎϤϟ΍ϩάϫ ΢ϳέˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗˬ 48-47)΢ϴδϤϟ΍ωϮδϳΎϨΑέϭΎϨμϠΨϣϝΎϗΎϤϛˬΎϨδϔϧ΃ήδΨϧϭϩήγ΄Α˱ΎϤϟΎϋ ΔϨΠϟ΍ The mutton dressed as lamb really started to annoy him. After splashing some cheap perfume between her ears, she turned to him and said: ‘Are you from the Middle East? It is obvious that you are. Your appearance and your smell tell about your country. Your smell is seductive, reminding me of Shahrazad atmosphere. O how I love the East and the Eastern people… And she told him how much she loves the East and the Eastern people, and that she read and fell in love with The Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám and ‘One Thousand and One Nights’. She wished she was a slave in those days. She approached him more, smelling him while her eyes were closed, and drowning herself from time to time with cheap perfume that was nearly going to suffocate him. She started to read verses from The Rubáiyát that she memorized by heart, and there was a look of ecstasy on her face as she read those verses. Muhammed was forced to listen to these faithless verses that were written by a disbeliever who is more infidel than that old bat who is near him. She warned him— by shaking her index finger like she knew him from a long time—that the East may perish and end up like what happened to the West. She said: ‘Do not let the illusion of civilization dominate you. Your civilization is where innocence and simplicity exist. We have exterminated the indigenous people of this country, but today we are being punished with all this coldness, and all this materialism that helped us to gain everything. We have lost ourselves, we have lost our souls. What will it profit a man if he gains the whole world, yet forfeits his soul?, as our Savior and Lord; Jesus Christ has said.’ (47–8)

Riyah Al-Janna [The Wind of Paradise]

165

The author presents the Eastern Muslim Arab man as a neat person who is interested in sweet-smelling perfumes. One also notes that the text refers to this traveler whose behavior reflects Oriental behavior in general. Perhaps the hostess of the plane is very naive, which makes her see the East embodied in this traveler, and it seems that she is fascinated by him. The author beautifully conveys an image of the Eastern Muslim when he says: “Her nostrils widened clearly to capture that scent coming from this strange man” (47). The author makes the book One Thousand and One Nights vivid in the memory of Westerners. The hostess is aware of this book and its sensational contents that embody a prominent image of the East in the minds of Westerners. The author draws attention to the depth of Eastern charm in the hearts of Westerners, as in the case of the hostess who is infatuated by her imagination of the East. However, there is a flaw when the author makes the hostess feel aroused more than being an admirer, as admiration is a stage prior to arousal. In spite of the beautiful images set out in the text, it is not logical that the author embodies the East in the behavior of a person scented with an aromatic perfume—as though he is a mere man devoid of humanity. The writer fails to present positive Oriental models who have an active role in the renaissance of Europe which later surpassed the East. The effect of the beautiful images of the East wears off when the reader becomes aware that it is embodied by a Muslim Arab terrorist who will blow up the hijacked plane and everyone in it. This man believes that he will defeat the U.S., which seeks through the implementation of military operations to extend its authority to the Arab East. The strange manner in which the author depicts the Orient can lead to a great deal of damage to the image of the East in the eyes of the West. The author should have presented more than one model of the Muslim East, so that a true image can be elucidated in the minds of people in the West. The East is not a cradle of terror and renegades, murderers and slaughterers, who eliminate its beauty and charm by their bad deeds, making it an area where people fear to go. Al-Hamad is trying to convey two messages through the previous text: that the splendor of the Orient is still in the minds of Americans, and this is really only what is left of the Orient. According to al-Hamad, the Orient is no longer the Orient that the Westerners know, but instead it has become a country of ruin and destruction. In addition, it is a source of Salafi jihadist terrorists who seek revenge on the West. Furthermore, the text suggests that Muhammed—the Eastern Muslim—despite his thinking about terrorism and executing it, is sometimes a man who cares about his appearance because it can attract others to him— for instance, his use of the perfume with its pungent odor, which attracts

166

Chapter 4

people around him. The hostess of the plane is no exception, as she is attracted to the fragrant smell of musk that is preferred by the Eastern man. The hostess remarks upon the smell of musk as a way to talk to the terrorist traveler, whom she sees as a model of Eastern Muslims and a reflection of people of the Orient as well. Despite being interested to discover that his smell of musk attracts others, the hostess starts to annoy him, since she narrates tales of Scheherazade that either do not interest him, or he does not know this character’s role in the book One Thousand and One Nights. The traveler, who has set a goal of blowing up the plane and everyone in it, is not really interested in the story of Scheherazade, and it does not matter to him whether the hostess loves the East and its people, or if she loves him personally. The author presents the reader with an image of a hostess who is familiar with the culture of the East and its people. She has read The Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám, and she knows some of its verses by heart. The hostess has also read One Thousand and One Nights, and she openly declares that she adores these two above-mentioned masterpieces, wishing she had been a slave in those days. On the plane, she approaches the traveler and smells the musk that he applied on his body, while her eyes were closed. The author presents the Western hostess as doing something that is incompatible with the ethics and behaviors of Eastern girls. Despite the hostess being familiar with Eastern culture and memorizing some verses of The Rubáiyát, Muhammed rejects these verses as being full of blasphemy and, from his point of view, he sees the poet as an infidel. In order to befriend this traveler, the hostess tries to show her concern for the East and its culture, which is characterized by honesty, innocence, and simplicity. The hostess talks about the savage history of white people in the U.S., where she says that the immigrants to America exterminated the Native Americans. She also says that Americans are now being punished by countries they invaded, and they have lost themselves as a result. The hostess tries to show the traveler that she is a believer, when she says in the words of Jesus Christ: “What will it profit a man if he gains the whole world, yet forfeits his soul?” But she does not know that this terrorist traveler does not pay any attention to this saying due to his religious extremism.

The Existence of the Quran in the Novel The Wind of Paradise is colored by Quranic verses. This gives the novel a religious Islamic shadow and a tremendous impact, where the Other is represented according to the doctrine and understanding of the radical

Riyah Al-Janna [The Wind of Paradise]

167

Muslim characters. They are silenced, accused, involved, and victimized accordingly. Although The Wind of Paradise is merely a fiction, al-Hamad opens a direct dialogue between the East and the West. He highlights complex issues such as the East’s continuous hatred toward the West. The author adds many verses from the Quran that contribute to opening the debate. He has transferred the text from a religious orientation to a political one. The author explains the doctrine of the characters throughout the novel by citing verses from the Quran. This technique suggests one of the following: (1) it explains how the characters justify their deeds, (2) it represents Islam as a selective approach in which Muslims take what they see fit and apply it the way they believe to be correct, and (3) it clarifies the doctrine of Salafi jihadism as it is represented in the novel. The following section provides some quotations that al-Hamad mentions in his novel to underline this: ˸ Ϣ˵ Ϭ˴ ϟ ͉ϥ΄Α˶ Ϣ˵ Ϭ˴ ϟ΍Ϯ˴ ϣ΃ ˷˶ ͉ ϥ· ‫˴ م‬ϥϮ˵ϠΘ˵Ϙϳϭ ˸ ϭ ˶ Ϟ˶ ϴΒ˶ γ ˴ ˶ϲϓ ˴ϥϮ˶ϠΗΎ˵Ϙϳ‫˴ى‬Δ͉ϨΠ˴ ϟ΍ ˴ Ϣ˸ Ϭ˴ δ˵ϔϧ˴΃ ˴Ϧϴ˶Ϩ ˶ϣ ˸ΆϤ˵ ϟ΍ ˴Ϧ ˶ϣϯԻ ή˴˴ Θη˸ ΍ဃ ˴ ˴ϥϮ˵ϠΘ˴Ϙϴ˴ϓဃ ˷˶ ˴Ϧ ˶ϣ˶ϩΪ˶ Ϭ˴ ό˶ Αϰϓ ϱ˷ά˶ ϟ΍Ϣ˵ Ϝό˸ ϴ˴Β˶Α ΍ϭή˶˵ θΒ˸ ˴ Θγ˸ Ύ˴ϓ ‫ى‬ဃ ˴ Ի ϭ˸ ˴ ΃Ϧ˸ ϣ˴ ϭ‫ى‬ ˶ Ϲ΍ ˶ ˸ή˵Ϙϟ΍ϭ ˶ ˸ ϭ ˴ ϥ΁ ˴ Ϟ˶ ϴΠϧ ˴ ˶Γ΍έ˴ Ϯ˸ ͉ Θϟ΍˶ϲϓΎ̒ϘΣ˴ ˶Ϫϴ˸ ˴Ϡϋ˱΍Ϊ˸ ϋϭ˴ ΔϨΠϟ΍΢ϳέˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗˬ 29)Ϣϴ ˶ψό˴ ϟ΍ί˵ Ϯ˴˸ ϔϟ΍Ϯ˵˴ ϫ ˴Ϛ˶ϟΫԻ ϭ‫ى‬ ˴ Ϫ˶ Α˶ Ϣ˵ Θό˸ ϳΎΑ˴ Allah hath purchased of the believers their persons and their goods; for theirs (in return) is the garden (of Paradise): they fight in His cause, and slay and are slain: a promise binding on Him in truth, through the Law, the Gospel, and the Quran: and who is more faithful to his covenant than Allah. Then rejoice in the bargain which ye have concluded: that is the achievement supreme. (29)

In this verse from the Quran, Allah is promising everyone who gives his life and his wealth to Allah that he will be in heaven, and this is the prize for everyone who fights in the name of Allah. As Allah says: “they fight in His cause, and slay and are slain” (29). This verse gives a direct order to fight and asks to kill. However, Al-Qurtubi has explained this verse in his book Tafsir al-Qurtubi differently: the object comes as a result of the subject— which means that Allah asks His worshipers to defend themselves against violence, even if it appears cruel, but self-defense is a normal reaction during wartime (cf. 2018, 204). In the Quran, Allah asks his worshipers to be tough against aggressors and to fight for his cause to be blessed with his heaven; this is the highest achievement for a believer. In another verse that is mentioned in the novel: ˸ ˵ά ˶Ψ͉Θ˴Η˴ϻ΍Ϯ˵Ϩϣ˴ ΁ ˴Ϧϳ˷ά˶ ϟ΍ΎϬ˴ ϳ˴΃Ύ˴ϳ ˵Ϫ͉ϧ˶Έ˴ϓϢ˸ ϜϨϣ ˳ ό˸ Α˯˵ Ύ˴ϴϟ˶ ϭ˸ ˴ ΃Ϣ˸ Ϭ˵ πό˸ Α‫ ˴˯ه‬Ύ˴ϴϟ˶ ϭ˸ ˴ ΃ϯԻ έΎ ˷ ˶ Ϣ˵ Ϭ͉ ϟϮ˴˴ Θ˴ϳϦϣ˴ ϭ‫ى‬ ˴ μ ˴ ͉Ϩϟ΍ϭ˴ ˴ ξ ˴ ΩϮϬ˴ ϴϟ΍΍ϭ ͉ ϡ˴ Ϯ˸ ˴Ϙϟ΍ϱ˶ΪϬ˴ ϳ˴ϻဃ ˷˶ Ϣ˸ Ϭ˸ Ϩ ˶ϣ ͉ ϥ·‫ن‬ ΔϨΠϟ΍΢ϳέˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗˬ 162) ˴Ϧϴ ˶ϤϟΎψϟ΍

168

Chapter 4 O you who have believed, do not take the Jews and the Christians as allies. They are [in fact] allies of one another. And whoever is an ally to them among you—then indeed, he is [one] of them. Indeed, Allah guides not the wrongdoing people. (al-Hamad 2007, 162)

Depending on the previous verse, which was mentioned in the novel, Muslims understand that God forbids any form of loyalty to the Jews and Christians. And since the verse is a very important precedent for the perpetrators of the 9/11 operation to rely on, it is important to look at the Surah and an interpretation of the previous verse from the book Interpretation of the Great Qur’an by Ibn Kathir al-Qurashi al-Damishqi. Allah says: “O you who have believed, do not take the Jews and the Christians as allies. They are [in fact] allies of one another. And whoever is an ally to them among you - then indeed, he is [one] of them. Indeed, Allah guides not the wrongdoing people. So you see those in whose hearts is disease hastening into [association with] them, saying, ‘We are afraid a misfortune may strike us. But perhaps Allah will bring conquest or a decision from Him, and they will become, over what they have been concealing within themselves, regretful.’” (Quran, Surah Al-Ma’idah [Verse 5:51-53])

The previous verse is very important because the characters of the novel relied on it in building their relationship with the other characters of the novel. It has also played a significant role in conceptualizing their character. The verse urges not to be loyal to Jews or Christians or to take them as friends or lovers. In order to understand the verse closely, let us take some interpretations from the Arab Muslim scholar Ibn Kathir al-Qurashi alDamishqi who “was born in the city of Busra in the 701 H” (Abdul-Rahman XV), and who is considered one of the most important Muslim scholars in the interpretation of the holy Qur’an and the Prophet’s hadith. The scholar Ibn Kathir al-Qurashi al-Damishqi is the most prominent one, because he is the first reference for all Muslims in the world. He is seen as a reliable reference. “In his book, Al-Mu jam Al-Mukhtas, Al-Hafiz Adh-Dhaliabi wrote that Ibn Kathir was, ‘The Imam, scholar of jurisprudence, skillful scholar of Hadith, renowned Fagih and scholar of Tafsir who wrote several beneficial books’” (Abdul-Rahman XV). Allah prohibits “from having Jews and Christians as friends, as they are the enemies of Islam and its people” (Ibn Kathir al-Qurashi al-Damishqi 2000, 627–8). Thus God himself warns of the consequences of loyalty to Jews or Christians: “He gives a warning threat to those who do this, saying: ‘And if any among you befriends them, then absolutely he is one of them’” (Ibn Kathir al-Qurashi al-Damishqi 2000, 627–8).

Riyah Al-Janna [The Wind of Paradise]

169

Muslims view Jews and Christians as unclean, and we mention the following interpretation: “Omar asked: ‘Is he not pure?’, and Abu Musa said: ‘No, but he is Christian’. Abu Musa then said, ‘So Omar admonished me and poked my thigh (with his finger), saying, ‘Drive him out (from AlMadinah)’” (Ibn Kathir al-Qurashi al-Damishqi 2000, 627–8). For the characters Wael and Walid, this created a sense of isolation. Their view of non-Muslims, specifically Jews and Christians, became one of aggression, hatred, and rejection, based on their teacher Awad and Sheikh Al-Sarwati. These kinds of fundamentalists built a generation ready to kill and destroy the Other. Because of these teachings, the two students, Wael and Walid, were radicalized so much they participated in the terrorist attacks of September 11th. ˸ ˴ ΃ϥΈ ˸ ˴ ΃΃ ˴Ϧϴ˷ϴϣ˷ ˶ Ϸ΍˸ ϭ˴ ΏΎ˴ ˸ ˴ ΃ ˸Ϟ˴Ϙϓ ˴ϙϮ͊ΟΎΣ˴ ϥΈ ˸ ˴ϓ‫ى‬Ϣ˸ ΘϤ˸ Ϡγ ΍ϮϤ˵ Ϡγ ˴ ๡ ˶˶ ϲ ˴ ΘϜ˶ ϟ΍΍Ϯ˵Ηϭ˵΃ ˴Ϧϳ˷ά˶ ˷Ϡ˶ ϟ˵Ϟϗϭ˴ Ϧ˶ ‫ ن‬ό˴ Β͉Η΍Ϧ˶ ϣ˴ ϭ˷ ˶ ˴ϓ ˴ Ϭ˶ ˸Οϭ˴ ˵ΖϤ˸ Ϡγ ˸ ˴Ϛ˸ϴ˴ϠϋΎϤ͉ ϧ˶Έ˴ϓ ΍Ϯ˸ ͉ϟϮ˴˴ Η ϥ· ͉ ϭ‫ن‬ ΢ϳέˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗˬ 164-163) ˶ΩΎ˴Βό˶ ϟΎ˶Α ήϴ ˲ μ ˶ ˴Α ဃ ͉ ΍ϭ˴ΪΘϫ˸ ΍Ϊ˴Ϙϓ ˶ ϭ‫م‬ ˴ ˵ύ˴ϼ˴Βϟ΍ ΔϨΠϟ΍ So if they argue with you, say, ‘I have submitted myself to Allah [in Islam], and [so have] those who follow me.’ And say to those who were given the Scripture and [to] the unlearned, ‘Have you submitted yourselves?’ And if they submit [in Islam], they are rightly guided; but if they turn away—then upon you is only the [duty of] notification. And Allah is seeing of [His] servants. (al-Hamad 2007, 163–4)

This verse is cited by a student who argues with his teacher that Islam never asked to kill unbelievers. The student mentions this verse from Quran as example that everyone is free to believe in what they want. The student continues citing from the Quran: ͉ ˶Α ˸ή˵ϔϜ˴ ϳϦϤ˴ ϓ‫ى‬ϲ ˵ ΎτϟΎ ˷ ˶ ˶ ˶ΑϦ ˶ϣ ˸Ά˵ϳϭ˶ ˸ γ΍˶Ϊ˴Ϙϓ๡Ύ ˶Γϭ˴ ˸ή˵όϟΎ˶Α ˴Ϛδ ͊ ͉Ϧϴ˴Β͉Η˴Ϊϗ‫م‬Ϧϳ˷ ˴ ϤΘ˸ ˶ Ϊ˶ ϟ΍˶ϲϓ˴ϩ΍ή˶˴ ϛ·˴ϻ ˴ ΕϮϏ ˷˶ ϐ˸ ϟ΍ ˴Ϧ ˶ϣ˵Ϊηήϟ΍ ͉ ϭ‫ن‬ ΔϨΠϟ΍΢ϳέˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗˬ 164)Ϣ˲ ϴ˶Ϡϋϊ˲ ϴ ˶Ϥγဃ ˴ ϔ˶ ϧ΍˴ϻϰ˴ Ի Ϙ˸ ΛϮ˵ ϟ΍˸ ˴ ΎϬ˴ ϟϡΎ ˴ μ (2:256) There shall be no compulsion in [acceptance of] the religion. The right course has become clear from the wrong. So whoever disbelieves in Taghut and believes in Allah has grasped the most trustworthy handhold with no break in it. And Allah is Hearing and Knowing. (164)

God exempted Muslims from any responsibility for forcing religion on anyone else. A Muslim’s duty is to deliver God’s message to those who were given the Scripture and to the unlearned, which means Jews and Christians, as they already believe in God, and also to people who have never learned. If they refuse this religion of “Islam,” then there is nothing else for you to do—it is God who knows everyone’s faith.

170

Chapter 4

New Vision ˬϥΪϨϟΔϋ΍Ϋ·ϰϟ·ήϴθϳϮϳΩ΍ήϟ΍ήηΆϣϭˬϮϳΩ΍ήϟ΍ΐϧΎΟϰϟ·βϠΠϳϮϫϭήΗϮΘϟ΍ΔϳΎϏϲϓΔϣΎγ΃ϥΎϛ ϢϬϧϮϴϋϭ ˷ΐϗήΗΔϟΎΣϲϓϊϴϤΠϟ΍ϥΎϛϞΑˬήΒϤΘΒγϦϣήθϋϱΩΎΤϟ΍ϡϮϳϦϣ˯ΎΛϼΜϟ΍ϚϟΫήμϋ ˬΦϴηΪϟΎΧϭˬϒρΎϋΪϤΤϣϭˬϱήϫ΍Ϯψϟ΍ϦϤϳ΃ΔϴϏΎλϥ΍Ϋ΃ϰϟ·΍ϮϟϮΤΗΪϗϭˬϮϳΩ΍ήϟ΍ϰϟ·ΔΒ΋ήθϣ ˷ ϰ  ΘΣϻϭˬΪΣ΃ήϔμϟ΍ΔϋΎδΑϑήόϳϦϜϳϢϟΩϮϋϮϤϟ΍ήΒΨϟ΍ΐϗήΘϳϊϴϤΠϟ΍ϥΎϛΪϘϓˬΚϴϏϥΎϤϴϠγϭ ϥϭήΧϵ΍Ύϣ΃ϚϟΫϦϣήΜϛ΃ϻϭϡϮϴϟ΍ϮϫϡϮϴϟ΍ϥ΃ˬϒρΎϋϭϦϤϳ΃ϭϮϫϪϓήόϳΎϣ˷ϞϜ˷ ϓˬΔϣΎγ΃Φϴθϟ΍ ϭ΃ϪϬϨϛϥϮϤϠόϳϻϢϬϨϜϟϭˬ˱΍ήψΘϨϣ˱ΎΛΪΣϚϟΎϨϫϥ΃ϥϮϤϠόϳ΍ϮϧΎϛΪϘϓˬβϠΠϤϟ΍ϢϬΑφΘϛ΍Ϧϳάϟ΍ ΔϴϠϤόϟ΍˷άϔϧ ϱάϟ΍ϥ΃ΐόθϟ΍ήϳήΤΘϟΔϳέϮΜϟ΍ΔϬΒΠϟ΍ΔϛήΣΖϔθϛϭ³ϰϟ΍ϮΘΗέΎΒΧϷ΍ΖϧΎϛϩΪϋϮϣ «ϡΎότϟ΍ϦϋΏ΍ήοϹ΍ϲϓϦϴϛήΘθϤϟ΍Ϧϣ˱΍ΪΣ΍ϭϥΎϛϭˬϞΒϠΑέϮΑ˵΃ϮϫϝϮΒϨτγ·ϲϓΔϳέΎΤΘϧϻ΍ ϯΪϟϪΘϳΎϏϰϟ·ήΗϮΘϟ΍Ϟλϭϭ ´ΔϴϧΎτϳήΒϟ΍Δϋ΍ΫϹ΍ΔΌϴϫˬϥΪϨϟϦϣϢϜϴΗ΄Η˯ΎΒϧϷ΍ϩάϫ Ζϟ΍ίΎϣ ΔϳΎϏϲϓϒρΎϋϭϦϤϳ΃ϥΎϛΎϤϴϓˬήϫΎυήΗϮΘΑϪϗέΎϔϳϻϱάϟ΍ϪηΎηέβδΤΘΗϩΪϳΕάΧ΃ϭˬΔϣΎγ΃ ϥΎϛϱάϟ΍ήΒΨϟ΍Γ˯΍ήϗϊϳάϤϟ΍ϊτϗˬΓ΄ΠϓϭϲϠϐϳΎϤϬϠΧ΍ΩϥΎϛΎϤϨϴΑˬέΎΒΧϷ΍ϥΎόΑΎΘϳΎϤϫϭ˯ϭΪϬϟ΍ ϥ΃ΓΪΤΘϤϟ΍ΕΎϳϻϮϟ΍ϦϣΓΩέ΍Ϯϟ΍˯ΎΒϧϷ΍ΕΩΎϓ΃«ϥϵ΍ϞΟΎόϟ΍΄ΒϨϟ΍΍άϫΎϧΩέϭ³ϝΎϗϭϪϳΪϳϦϴΑ ΔϨϣΎΜϟ΍ΔϋΎδϟ΍ϡΎϤΗϲϓϲϤϟΎόϟ΍ΓέΎΠΘϟ΍ΰϛήϣϰϨΒϣϦϣϲϟΎϤθϟ΍ΝήΒϟΎΑΖϣΪτλ΍ΏΎϛέΓή΋Ύρ ˬΔϴϛήϴϣϷ΍ΓΪΤΘϤϟ΍ΕΎϳϻϮϠϟϲϗήθϟ΍ϞΣΎδϟ΍ΖϴϗϮΘΑˬϡϮϴϟ΍΍άϫΡΎΒλϦϣΔϘϴϗΩϦϴόΑέ΃ϭβϤΧϭ ˬ´«ΔϠόΘθϣϥ΍ήϴϨϟ΍ϝ΍ΰΗϻϭˬϰϨΒϤϟ΍ϦϣΎϴϠόϟ΍έ΍ϭΩϷ΍ϲϓ˱ϼ΋Ύϫ˱ΎϘϳήΣϡ΍Ϊτλϻ΍ΙΪΣ΃Ϊϗϭ ϞρΎΒϟ΍ϖϫϭϖΤϟ΍˯ΎΟϞϗϭ«ήΒϛ΃ௌ«ήΒϛ΃ௌ³˯΍ϮϬϟ΍ϲϓϪΣϼγϊϓήϳϮϫϭΔϣΎγ΃Υήμϓ ௌ«ήΒϛ΃ௌ«ϩΪΣϭΏ΍ΰΣϷ΍ϡΰϫϭˬϩΪΒϋήμϧϭˬϩΪϋϭϕΪλ«˱ΎϗϮϫίϥΎϛϞρΎΒϟ΍ϥ· ϞϛϲϓήϴΒϜΘϟ΍ΕΎΤϴλϪϴϓΖϟΎόΗϱάϟ΍ΖϗϮϟ΍ϲϓˬͿ˱΍ήϜηνέϷ΍ϰϟ·˱΍ΪΟΎγήΧϭˬ´«ήΒϛ΃ ˷ ˬϲΑϮϨΠϟ΍ΝήΒϟΎΑϯήΧ΃Γή΋ΎρϡΎτΗέ΍Ϧϋ˯ΎΒϧϷ΍Ζϟ΍ϮΗϢΛͿ˱΍ήϜηϦϳΪΟΎγϊϴϤΠϟ΍ήΧϭˬϥΎϜϣ ˷ ΓΩΎόδΑΔϣΎγ΃ήόθϳϢϟΎϬϴϓϦϣϊϴϤΟΕϮϣϭˬΎϴϧΎϔϠϴδϨΑϲϓΔόΑ΍ήϟ΍ρϮϘγϭˬϥϮϏΎΘϨΒϟΎΑϯήΧ΃ϭ ˬΎϫέ΍ΩήϘϋϲϓ´ϰόϓϷ΍α΃έ³ϥϮϛ˷ ΪϳϦϤΣήϟ΍ΩϮϨΟϢϫΎϬϓˬϡϮϴϟ΍ΎϬΑήόηΎϣϞΜϤΑϪΗΎϴΣϲϓ ΩήρΪόΑϪϨϋ ˷ΖϠΨΗϲΘϟ΍Ύϛήϴϣ΃ ϦϣϪδϔϨϟΔϣΎγ΃ϢϘΘϨϳϞΑˬϦϴϤϠδϤϟ΍ϭϡϼγϹ΍ϝϻΫϹϥϮϤϘΘϨϳϭ ˷ έ˱Ύόϓ΍έϪδϔϧΪΟϭˬϪϨϣέϮόηϥϭΪΑϭϥΎΘδϧΎϐϓ΃ϦϣΕΎϴϓϮδϟ΍ Ϊϗϭˬ˱ΎϴϟΎϋϪϗέΎϔϳϻϱάϟ΍ϪηΎη  ΔϨΠϟ΍΢ϳέˬΪϤΤϟ΍ϲϛήΗˬ 274-273)κϗήϳϮϫϭβϠΠϤϟ΍ςγϭϲϓΐμΘϧ΍ Osama was so tense sitting by the radio, and the channel indicator pointed to Radio London on the afternoon of Tuesday, November 11th. Ayman alZawahiri, Muhammed Atef, Khalid Sheikh, and Suleiman Abu Ghaith were in a holding pattern, their eyes were staring at the radio, and they were all ears as well—each one of them was waiting for the promised news. Nobody knew when the zero hour will exactly approach, not even Sheikh Osama—what Ayman and Atef only knew was that ‘today’ was when the event will take place, nothing more. The house was packed with other people who knew that there was an expected event, but they did not know its date or root cause. The news started coming up: ‘The Revolutionary People’s Liberation Movement revealed that the suicide bomber in Istanbul was Ubür Bülbül, and he was one of the participants in the hunger strike… This news continues to be reported from London, the British Broadcasting Corporation.’ Osama’s tension was at its highest, and his hands began to touch his machine gun, which was always with him, with apparent nervousness. Whilst Ayman and Atef were very calm when they were following the news, but they were seething with tension. Suddenly, the announcer stopped reading the news that he was telling and said: ‘We have now received breaking news. According to the news from the United

Riyah Al-Janna [The Wind of Paradise]

171

States, a passenger plane has crashed into North Tower of the World Trade Center at exactly 8:45 am Eastern Standard Time, and the crash has caused a massive fire in the upper floors of the building, and there are still fires…’. 2VDPD VKRXWHG OLIWLQJ KLV ZHDSRQ KLJK LQ WKH DLU µ$OOƗKX ‫ގ‬$NEDU« $OOƗKX ‫ގ‬$NEDU 7UXWK KDV FRPH DQG IDOVHKRRG KDV GHSDUWHG ,QGHHG LV falsehood, [by nature], ever bound to depart… He was true to His promise, and He helped His servant, and He gave might to His soldiers and defeated WKH &RQIHGHUDWHV DORQH« $OOƗKX ‫ގ‬$NEDU« $OOƗKX ‫ގ‬$NEDU«¶ +H IHOO down in prostration on the ground, giving thanks to his God, at a time there ZHUH VKRXWV RI µ7KH 7DNEƯU¶ HYHU\ZKHUH DQG HYHU\RQH SURVtrated themselves on the ground, thanking their God. And then there was news about another plane crashed into the South Tower, another into the Pentagon, and the fourth crashed in Pennsylvania, and all of people on board were killed. Osama had never been happier than he was, witnessing the soldiers of Allah destroying the ‘head of the snake’ in its backyard, taking revenge for humiliating Islam and the Muslims. Osama avenged himself, striking back for what America did when it left him behind after expelling the Soviets from Afghanistan. He subconsciously lifted his shooting gun high in the air, which he was always carrying, and stood in the middle of the house dancing. (al-Hamd 2007, 273–4)

Al-Hamad describes the psychological state of the al-Qaeda leader, Osama bin Laden, presenting him as an anxious man in a wait-and-see situation as he and his companions listened to Radio London, expecting to hear news about the terrorist attack in New York. It seems that the timing of the action was top secret, as bin Laden did not know exactly when it would be carried out, but he knew that an event would take place on September 11. The author allows the reader to bear witness to the times in which bin Laden lived and the moments that preceded the plane crashes. It is inferred from the descriptions of bin Laden and his companions that the author has a lively imagination and the ability for empathy, which are characteristics needed for any writer, poet, or artist. Bin Laden couldn’t have been any more restless than he was when the BBC announcer received breaking news that a passenger plane had hit the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York, causing a massive ongoing fire in the upper floors of the building. Soon afterwards, when the announcer was about to finish telling the news, bin Laden shouted “$OOƗKXҴ$NEDU” while lifting up his weapon and prostrated himself to thank his God for the success of the attack. Then there was news about another plane crashing into the South Tower, another into the Pentagon, and a fourth crashing in Pennsylvania, in which all of the people on board were killed. In the view of bin Laden, the attacks were a victory from God over the country that had humiliated Islam

172

Chapter 4

and Muslims, and abandoned him after expelling the Soviet Union from Afghanistan, as he claimed. An attentive reading of the text leads the reader to form many images of bin Laden; the author presents him as a tense leader who could only repeat words and phrases praising Islam and Muslims, or a leader who was almost out of control after hearing the news that made him stand in the middle of the house and dance. There is no doubt that viewing bin Laden like this is to reduce the stability of his personality and to show his shallow way of thinking, as the author does not provide any political depth of this character, nor show the goals of the attacks. Also, al-Hamad does not address the views which considered the possibility of other parties being behind the attacks. Thus, the author clearly supports the opinion that condemns the al-Qaeda leader and his terrorist ideology. The Wind of Paradise, written by Turki al-Hamad, aims to lay the foundations for a new vision and attempts to give answers related to the hatred of extremist Muslims against the West. It can be considered the first ever novel that provides a direct dialogue between Western Christians and Eastern Muslims, and it also addresses interpretations of the Quran and the education system in the Middle East. Moreover, it indicates that the education system in the Middle East, especially in Saudi Arabia, is religious rather than academic. The dialogue between the East and the West indicates that the relationship between these two camps is perpetual and complex. The novel suggests that the East has become a focus point for ongoing wars and crises, making it lose the beauty which it used to flaunt. In addition, the novel tells us that the East has become a place for preparing suicide bombers who want to kill the Others. So, the New East is not full of musk and incense and One Thousand and One Nights stories, but rather it is a flaming, burning, and complicated region. The author presents us with tense and reluctant people, each of whom is willing to die, rejecting all forms of coexistence with the Other. They represent the Arab Islamic present-day reality that has led to the creation of unbalanced relations, ranging from ethnic, religious, and societal levels to an individual level. The conduct of these individuals is more like indulging in the reality that led to the formation of a destructive religious ideology and caused them to perish as well. They were insensitive to their Arab nation and did not feel any attachment to it, despite it suffering immensely on all levels after the attacks that paved the way for America in particular to make the Middle East a theater of occupation, killing, and destruction. This has caused some Arab countries to regress to preindustrial times. Furthermore, al-Hamad indirectly wants to make the education system in some Arab countries responsible for this.

Riyah Al-Janna [The Wind of Paradise]

173

Ultimately, some Arab countries, such as Iraq, Syria, and Sudan, have broken apart and become easy prey for Western countries that seek only their own interests, even by humiliating the people of the region and looting their wealth. The Wind of Paradise reflects an abhorrent pattern of extremist Islamic thinking, and this is all because of the false religious and social upbringing that prevailed in Saudi Arabia. That pattern—through the work of the Crown Prince—tried to turn Saudi society into a modern society as quickly as possible, aiming to create a new society based on law-making processes, making decisions and asking people to implement them, without any real step to re-educate all members of society from the earliest age. Accordingly, people like Muhammed, Ziad, and other terrorists will continue to reproduce and grow, and may even destroy their own countries in the end. In fact, there will be no significant impact of this novel or any other literary work as long as the Saudi State is unable to change the extremist ideology that controls the minds of its citizens.

CONCLUSION

This study provides an academic contribution to research regarding the complex relationship between the Orient and the Occident in American literature. It begins with an introduction to the research, followed by four chapters. Each chapter presents a literary text (a selected novel) that deals with the topic of the study. The introduction provides a comprehensive overview of the study, defines its goals, and clarifies the concepts and terminologies that are used, as well as theories that are used as a framework. This study also places itself at the heart of Arab-American literature to discuss the situations and conditions of the New East. It deals with the Orient as a moving body that takes on a new meaning. It also takes into account Edward Said’s Orientalism (1978), moving it to a new contemporary stage. Moreover, this study depicts Post-Orientalism, or the New East, as a literary phenomenon in the 21st century that has a great deal to do with politics, militarism, and postcolonial ideology. The study also points out that the ideology of people in the East is nothing but a result of the regimes that have ruled these people during the postcolonial period, as it is, of course, presented in literary work. In fact, Post-Orientalism corresponds (as an umbrella term) to the current profound changes in the world order that have accumulated since the end of WWII. The study clarifies the distinction between the religious fundamentalism found among Eastern Muslim Arabs and Eastern nonMuslim Arabs. According to Edward Said, the Orient is divided into the Near East (the Islamic lands) and the Far East (the biblical lands) (cf. 1978, 4). This study takes a point of departure from the Saidian Orientalism and focuses on the Near East, but it divides this area into two Easts: the Arab Islamic Near East and the non-Arab Islamic Near East. Hence, we find that the West and its people deal with Islam as a religion regardless of the origin of the person who practices it, but this is inaccurate. The Egyptian, Saudi, or Lebanese Arab Muslims are completely different from other Arabs, such as Afghans and Pakistanis. However, according to the novels, Arab Muslims have so much in common, the most important of which are language, conceptualization, and culture. Unfortunately, this matter is not viewed as important by the West. We find that the West deals with Islam and its people as one person or as a single structure; even in the literary text they are referred to by the pronoun “they.” Hence, this study shows the

Post-Orientalism and Contemporary American Novels

175

differences between the Arab Islamic Near East and the non-Arab Islamic Near East as they are represented in the literary work. This study addresses Orientalism as a term that should be put in its proper place. It also presents what I call the New East, or Post-Orientalism, as a moving body that reflects contemporary changes taking place in the region. In addition, this study presents the East as a land of devastation and destruction due to the political, regional, and religious changes that have shaken it. In order to clarify and address all of this, this book discusses and analyzes four novels: Mornings in Jenin by Susan Abulhawa, The Reluctant Fundamentalist by Mohsin Hamid, Falling Man by Don DeLillo, and The Wind of Paradise by Turki al-Hamad. The first chapter tackles Mornings in Jenin, as the novel is set during a stage that I call High Orientalism. We notice how the characters of Abulhawa’s novel live peacefully at the beginning of the 20th century before the establishment of the state of Israel. The author tells the story of a Palestinian family, the Abulheja family, and how radical changes occur in their lives as a result of the establishment of the state of Israel in what has come to be known as El Nakba in 1948. The events of this novel take place in Jenin and its refugee camp, giving the impression that this city has become an icon of the Arab–Israeli conflict. The novel also documents this conflict between Palestinians and Israelis. Mornings in Jenin tells the story of Amal, who moves to Jordan, Kuwait, and then the U.S., where she completes her studies at university, before becoming an American product who struggles to deal with the American present and the Eastern-Arab Palestinian past. This novel also deals with the concept of victimization in contemporary American literature. The second chapter of this study discusses Mornings in Jenin, highlighting that politics cannot be separated from literature and that the two seem to simulate each other. Abulhawa hybridizes the English text of her novel by using Arabic words, even though she is an American author of Arab origin, which makes it necessary for the reader to consult the glossary that is found at the end of her novel. This novel details events from the Palestinian side, as well as simulating the Arab–Israeli conflict from the point of view of the author. The first chapter of Mornings in Jenin discusses the relationships of the three siblings (Yousef, Ismael (“David Avaram”), and Amal) to each other and how these relationships are formed under complex psychological, social, and political circumstances—notably as Ismael, as a child, is kidnapped from his mother’s lap by the Israelis who give him to an Israeli couple, Moshe and Jolanta, with whom the child grows up. Additionally, the novelist succeeds in giving the most profound depiction of humans when

176

Conclusion

she reunites the brothers, Yousef and Ismael, in one scene where the latter (now known as David Avaram, an Israeli soldier) is about to kill his brother, Yousef, at an Israeli checkpoint. Mornings in Jenin focuses on the first phases of Orientalism and how the East went through major changes, especially after the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, the British Mandate of Palestine, and the immigration of Jews to Palestine up to the Middle Eastern stage. This novel takes the reader from High Orientalism to the Orientalism that Said talks about, and then to the New East, because the events in the novel begin before the Palestinian Nakba 1948 and end in 2002. Although the events of September 11, 2001, occur during the time of the novel, Abulhawa does not mention them at all. Such behavior may be due to the fact that the novelist wants to focus on the Palestinian narration, in order not to distract the reader or divert their attention toward any other political issues. Later, the novel ends with the deaths of all members of the Abulheja family, including Amal who is shot dead. The third chapter of this study examines and analyzes the novel The Reluctant Fundamentalist (2008) by Mohsin Hamid, whose characteristics as an author are very similar to the protagonist of his novel, Changez. Both of them were born in Lahore, educated at Princeton University, and work in the U.S. The analysis in the third chapter focuses on the consequences of the 9/11 attacks, as the events in the novel take place in the form of a monologue between Changez and an American visitor in Lahore. This novel is also set within Post-Orientalism, and the third chapter gives a close picture of both the general and specific forms of the New East, as the relationship between the Islamic Eastern camp and the American Western camp is a complex and very tense one. This study presents the American incursion into the East that has only added insult to injury, and contributed to undermining the security and stability of these people, as suggested in the text of the novel. The Reluctant Fundamentalist indicates to what extent it is possible to hybridize Oriental people if they move to the West, stressing that these characters, such as Changez, cannot forget their reality or their country of origin. Changez is influenced by the behavior of American society, yet he cannot abandon his origins and act like an American. Therefore, this chapter deals with the U.S. as either an empire or a hegemonic power. The fourth and fifth chapters of this study deal with two novels that oppose each other, as though the East and the West are two men sitting opposite each other, as depicted in The Reluctant Fundamentalist, but this time to settle old scores. The two novels in question are Falling Man (2011)

Post-Orientalism and Contemporary American Novels

177

by DeLillo and The Wind of Paradise by al-Hamad (2007). The following is an example of this opposition: It’s their own history, their mentality. They live in a closed world, of choice, of necessity. They haven’t advanced because they haven’t wanted to or tried to (DeLillo 2011, 49). They have not changed since then, they are still unjust, arrogant and stray, but Islam is coming as the sun rises in the morning of a new day, or as the morning itself comes after a dark night (al-Hamad 2007, 13).

The Wind of Paradise is about a group of Arab fundamentalist youths who want to destroy America and burn it to the ground. Al-Hamad prepares the events for the reader sequentially. It begins in a number of American airports from which the terrorist operations are unleashed. The Wind of Paradise then dives into the past, and the characters remember how they are equipped and prepared for this goal. This forces the author to explain the conceptualization of these characters and how they ended up like this. It should be further noted in this context that the fundamentalism of the Arab characters, according to what is presented in the literary text, is an authentic fundamentalism stemming from the doctrine of Al Wala’ Wal Bara’. This doctrine means to love those who are obedient to Allah and to defend and assist them, and to show anger toward those who oppose Allah. This is in contrast to the “reluctant fundamentalism” of Eastern and Persian people, like Afghanis and Pakistanis, so we find Eastern and Persian people that do not follow the true principles of Islam. All of this takes place in the context of Post-Orientalism, as the young men come from the New East, which has been transformed into a no man’s land. Al-Hamad describes, in the words of the characters, how hijacking the airplanes is carried out and how these people end up following this doctrine. Therefore, The Wind of Paradise is considered one of the most important documents in American literature that gives clear and real responses about the relationship between the New East and the West. It is also the only novel that describes the conceptualization and doctrinal formation of the perpetrators of the events of 9/11. In addition, this novel gives a detailed (but fictional) description of how the events came to be and how they were implemented. Moreover, The Wind of Paradise explains why the religious fundamentalists feel joyous and happy at the prospect of dying—not only killing themselves but also destroying the Other—and why these people feel extremely satisfied by fighting the Americans, killing the Christian and Jewish infidels as well as themselves. The novel emphasizes the characteristics of the New East as a land of ruin and destruction.

178

Conclusion

However, Falling Man presents many questions and guesses among its characters represented by Nina, Martin, and others about what the causes of this hostility coming from the East are. This book is able to make the two novels, namely The Wind of Paradise and the Falling Man, simulate each other and answer most of these questions. In summary, both al-Hamad and DeLillo agree that the fault lies in people’s perceptions. In DeLillo’s novel, we find that people have not developed because they have no intention to develop or change, which is something that usually comes from within, so a person cannot accept change unless they have the intention to do so. Moreover, Falling Man brings to light the extent of the similarity of each of the characters of the two novels. Hammad in Falling Man is like Ziad in The Wind of Paradise, and Muhammed in Falling Man is also very similar to Muhammed in The Wind of Paradise. In conclusion, the four novels reflect the depth of the East–West conflict, and the authors convey the picture well to the reader. This complex relationship between the Orient and the Occident is reflected in the following example: an airhostess is fascinated by Muhammed, who is one of those who wants to hijack the plane, and is stirred up by the scent of musk he gives off, so she smiles at him, and starts talking about the beauty of the East and the charm of its literature, saying: “You are from the Middle East? It is clear that you are. Your look and your scent indicate that. Your scent charms me, and I am one of those who love the East and its people” (48). However, this traveler is not interested in her, and so he does not pay any attention to her clothes or perfume, but the phrase “our Lord Jesus Christ” (48) provokes him. He wishes that it was a more convenient time to convince her to convert to Islam, because he believes that embracing Islam would make her feel assured and live a decent life. However, Muhammed does not know that this beautiful woman may feel more comfortable and have peace of mind with her own faith than he feels with his Islamic religion, but so are the fanatics who believe they have a monopoly on the truth and that others must follow them. Al-Hamad tries to present a naive picture of Muhammed’s thoughts, by suggesting that this fanatical hijacker focuses on formal matters that may not have a deep link to the Christian religion, such as Muhammed’s focus on the cross “hanging from her neck” (14) that truly provokes him. Muhammed reaches a position where he has conflicting feelings which, on the one hand, makes him feel that he is helpless and powerless to do something he believed was good for his Islamic faith, and on the other hand the fact he will soon be among the terrorists who will hijack the plane.

Post-Orientalism and Contemporary American Novels

179

The Wind of Paradise reflects the conflict between the East and the West in the 21st century as an ideological one, without addressing the political, cultural, social, and other problems that the citizens experience in the Middle East, which may be the main cause of the region’s misery. Note that al-Hamad emphasizes in his novel that “the fault lies there—in the head. When the head is spoiled, everything is corrupt” (281). What is meant here by “the head” is that those who influence Muhammed and his fellow terrorists are fundamentalist zealots whose only concern is destroying anyone who does not accept Islam as a religion, or who has no religion. Thus, the author does not come up with any solutions to the real problems that the citizens suffer from in the Middle East. Rather, he keeps the conflict based on the following equation: a fanatical Muslim faces an infidel, who must be resisted and defeated so that peace and justice can prevail in the world.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

“Mohsinhamid.com.” About Mohsin Hamid. N.p., n.d. Web. 07 Sept. 2015. http://www.mohsinhamid.com/about.html. Web. “Susan Abulhawa.” Aljazeera. Web. 30 Dec. 2014. http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/profile/susanabulhawa.html. Web. Abbas, Tahir. Islamic Political Radicalism. A European Perspective. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2007. Print. Abdul-Rahman, Muhammad. Tasfsir Ibn Kathir Juz’ 20 (Part 20). British Library Catalogue in Publication Data. London, 2009. Printed. Abulhawa, Susan. Mornings in Jenin. New York: Bloomsbury, 2010. Print. Akhtar, Ayad. Disgraced. London: Methuen Drama, 2013. Akerman, Bruce. The Decline and Fall of the American Republic. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2010. Print. Al-Hamad, Turki.ΔϨΠϟ΍΢ϳέ [The Wind of Paradise]. Bayreuth: Dar Alsaqui, 2007. Print. Al-Qurtubi, Tasfir. Tasfir al-Quartubi. Introduction. General Judgements of the Qur’an and Clarification of What it Contains of the Sunnah and Ɩ\DKVof Discrimination. Aisha Bewley: Diwan Press, 2018. Print. Algar, Hamid. Wahabism. A Critical Essay. Oneonta, New York: Islamic Publications International, 2002. Print. Ali, Tariq. Bush in Babylon: The Recolonisation of Iraq. London: Verso, 2004. Print. —. The Obama Syndrome Surrender at Home, War Abroad. London: Verso, 2011. Print. Ashcroft, Bill. Post-Colonial Transformation. London: Routledge, 2001. Print. —. Writing Past Colonialism: On Post-Colonial Futures. London: Continuum, 2001. Print. Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin. Key Concepts in PostColonial Studies. London: Routledge, 1998a. Print. —. The Empire Writes Back. Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures. London: Routledge, 1989b. Print. Ashour, Omar. The De-Radicalization of Jihadists. Transforming Armed Islamist Movements. London and New York: Routledge, 2009. Print.

Post-Orientalism and Contemporary American Novels

181

Badih, Samia. “Palestine on Her Mind.” Newsletter. Gulfnews.com, 04 May 2012. Accessed 06 Jan. 2015. http://gulfnews.com/arts-entertainment/books/palestine-on-her-mind1.1016446. Web. Baelo-Allué. “9/11 and the Psychic Trauma Novel. Don DeLillo’s Falling Man.” ATLANTIS 34.1 (June 2012): 63–79. Print. Bani Al-Marjah, Muwaffaq. The Awakening of the Sick Man Or Sultan Abdul Hamid Ii and the Islamic Caliphate of Muwaffaq. Kuwait: Saqr Al Khaleej Foundation for Printing and Publishing, 1984. Print. Bartholomew, Amy (ed.). Empire’s Law. The American Imperial Project and the “War to Remake the World.” London: Pluto Press, 2006. Print. Bassiouni, M.C. and S.B. Ami. A Guide to Documents on the ArabPalestinian/Israeli Conflict, 1897-2008. Danvers, MA: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2009. Print. Benvenisti, Eyal, Sari Hanafi, and Chaim Gans. Israel and the Palestinian Refugees. Heidelberg: Springer, 2007. Print. Bilton, Alan. An Introduction to Contemporary American Fiction. New York: New York University Press, 2003. Print. Bin Ali, Mohamed. The Roots of Religious Extremism: Understanding the Salafi Doctrine of Al-Wala’ Wal Bara’. London: Imperial College Press, 2016. Print. Blix, Hans. “Iraq War Was a Terrible Mistake and Violation of U.N. Charter.” CNN. Cable News Network, 19 Mar. 2013. Web. Bloom, Harold. Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness. New York: Chelsea House, 2008. Print. Boyer, Paul, Clifford E. Clark, Karen Halttunen, Joseph F. Kett, and Neal Salisbury (eds.). The Enduring Vision: A History of American People 5th ed., Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Print. Breckenridge, Carol A. and Peter Veer (eds.). Orientalism and the Postcolonial Predicament: Perspectives on South Asia. Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania P, 1993. Print. Burgett, Bruce and Glenn Hendler (eds.). Keywords for American Cultural Studies. New York: New York UP, 2007. Print. Bush, George W. “Remarks by President George W. Bush at the 20th Anniversary of the National Endowment for Democracy.” National Endowment for Democracy, 06 Nov. 2003. Accessed 25 Feb. 2014. http://www.ned.org/george-w-bush/remarks-by-presidentgeorge-wbush-at-the-20th-anniversary. Web. Carey, Daniel and Lynn M. Festa. Postcolonial Enlightenment. EighteenthCentury Colonialisms and Postcolonial Theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. Print.

182

Bibliography

Caruth, Cathy. Unclaimed Experience. Trauma, Narrative, and History. Balitmore and London: John Hopkins UP, 1996. Print. Chomsky, Noam and Anthony Arnove. The Essential Chomsky. New York: New Press, 2008. Chomsky, Noam, David Barsamian, and Arthur Naiman. How The World Works. London: Hamish Hamilton, 2011. Print. Chomsky, Noam. Imperial Ambitions. Conversations on the Post-9/11 World. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2005. Print. —. Failed States. The Abuse of Power and the Assault on Democracy. Hamish Hamilton: Penguin Books, 2007. Print. —. Hegemony or Survival: America’s Quest for Global Dominance. London: Penguin, 2004a. Print. —. How the World Works. Hamish Hamilton: Penguin Books, 2011. Print. —. Language and Politics. Oakland, CA: AK Press, 2004b. Print. —. Media Control. The Spectacular Achievements of Propaganda. New York: Seven Stories Press, 2002. Print. CNN Wire Staff, Jomana Karadsheh, Elise Labott, Suzanne Kelly, Barbara Starr, and Nic Robertson. “U.S. Vows to Hunt down Perpetrators of Benghazi Attack.” CNN. Cable News Network, 13 Sept. 2012. Accessed 27 Oct. 2014. http://edition.cnn.com/2012/09/12/world/africa/libya-usambassador-killed/. Web. Covarrubias, Jack and Tom Lansford (eds.). Strategic Interests in The Middle East: Opposition and Support for US Foreign Policy. Aldershot VT: Ashgate, 2007. Print. Cruz, Daniel Shank. “Writing Back, Moving Forward. Falling Man and DeLillo’s Previous Works.” Italian Americana 29.2 (Summer 2011): 138-152. Print. Cuddon, J. A. A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Reference, 1991. Print. —. The Penguin Dictionary Of Literary Terms And Literary Theory. London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1998. Print. DeLillo, Don. Falling Man. Berlin: Cornlesen Verlag, 2011. Print. Delong-Bas, Natana J. Wahabi Islam. From Revival to Global Jihad. London and New York: I.B. Tauris, 2007. Print. Dewey, Joseph. Beyond Grief and Nothing. A Reading of Don DeLillo. The United States: The University of South Carolina Press, 2015. Print. Dueck, Colin. Reluctant Crusaders: Power, Culture, and Change in American Grand Strategy. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 2006. Print. Durham, John I. The Biblical Rembrandt: Human Painter in a Landscape of Faith. Macon: Mercer University Press, 2004. Print.

Post-Orientalism and Contemporary American Novels

183

Duvall, John N. (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Don DeLillo. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2008. Print. Eggers, Dave. A Hologram for the King. San Francisco: McSweeney’s Books, 2012. Print. Endler, Tobias. How to Be a Superpower. The Public Intellectual Debate on the Global Role of the United States after September 11. Opladen: Barbara Budrich Publishers, 2012. Print. Eperjesi, John R. The Imperialist Imaginary: Visions of Asia and the Pacific in American culture. Hanover, N.H: Dartmouth College Press, 2005. Print. Esposito, Salvatore A. Abu Ghraib After The Scandal. A Firsthand Account of the 344th Combat Support Hospital, 2005–2006. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers, 2012. Print. Fanon, Frantz and Constance Farrington. The Wretched of the Earth. New York: Grove Press, 1968. Print. Fanon, Frantz. Black Skin, White Masks. New York Berkeley, Calif: Grove Press Distributed by Publishers Group West, 2008. Print. Fiscus, James W. America’s War in Afghanistan. New York: Rosen Pub. Group, 2004. Print. Fouskas, Vassilis and Bulent Gokay. The New American Imperialism: Bush’s War on Terror and Blood for Oil. Westport, Conn: Praeger Security International, 2005. Print. Gall, Carlotta, Marc Santora and Ruhullah Khapalwak. “Fear Spreads in Kabul as Taliban Take Charge.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 29 Aug. 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/live/2021/08/16/world/taliban-afghanistannews. Go, Julian. Postcolonial Sociology. Bingley, UK: Emerald, 2013. Print. Goldstein, Lyle. Preventive Attack and Weapons of Mass Destruction: A Comparative Historical Analysis. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2006. Print. Gordon, Edmund. “How to Get Filthy Rich in Rising Asia by Mohsin Hamid: Review.” 22 Mar. 2013: 1. The Telegraph. Accessed 7 Sept. 2015. Web. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/bookreviews/9945484/Howto-Get-FilthyRich-in-Rising-Asia-by-Mohsin-Hamid-review.html. Graham, William Albert. Islamic and Comparative Religious Studies: Selected Writings. New York: Ashgate, 2010. Print. Gurtov, Melvin and Peter Ness (eds.). Confronting the Bush Doctrine: Critical Views From the Asia-Pacific. London and New York: Routledge, 2005. Print.

184

Bibliography

Hall, John R., Laura Grindstaff, and Ming-Cheng Lo (eds.). Handbook of Cultural Sociology. New York: Routledge, 2010. Print. Hamid, Mohsin. How to Get Filthy Rich in Rising Asia. New York: Riverhead Books, 2013. Print. —. Moth Smoke. New York: Riverhead Books, 2000. Print. —. The Reluctant Fundamentalist. London: Penguin, 2007. Print. Hantke, Steffen. Conspiracy and Paranoia in Contemporary American Fiction. The Works of Don DeLillo and Joseph McElroy. Berlin: Peter Lang, 1994. Print. Hogan, Patrick Colm. Colonialism and Cultural Identity. Crises of Tradition in the Anglophone Literatures of India, Africa, and the Caribbean. New York: States University Press, 2000. Print. Holland, Steve, “U.S. Considering Taking Flight against Islamic State into Syria.” The Huffington Post. TheHuffingtonpost.com, 22 Aug. 2014. Accessed 27 Oct. 2014. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/08/22/usislamic-statesyria_n_5701415.html. Web. Hornung, Alfred and Martina Kohl (eds.). Arab American Literature and Culture. Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter, 2012. Print. Hubbard, Ben, Robert F. Worth, and Michael R. Gordon. “Power Vacuum in Middle East Lifts Militants.” n.p. Accessed 04 Jan. 2014. http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/05/world/middleeast/power-vacuumin-middleeast-lifts-militants.html?ref=world&_r=1&. Web. Hughes, Matthew. Britain’s Pacification of Palestine: The British Army, the Colonial State, and the Arab Revolt, 1936–1939. Cambridge University Press, 2019. Print. Huntington, Samuel P., and James F. Hoge Jr. The Clash of Civilizations? The Debate. The Council on Foreign Relations, 2010. Print. Huntington, Samuel P. Who Are We? The Challenges to America’s National Identity. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004. Print. Ibn Kathir al-Qurashi al-Damishqi, Abu al-)LঌD¶ ,VPDLO LEQ 8PDU Interpretation of the Holy Qur’an. Beirut, Lebanon: Dar Ibn Hazm for Printing, Publishing and Distribution, 2000. Print. Iskander, Adel and Hakem Rustom (eds.). Edward Said. A Legacy of Emancipation and Representation. Berkeley: U of California P, 2010. Print. Jaszczolt, Katarzyna M. Semantics and Pragmatics: Meaning in Language and Discourse. Harlow: Longman, 2002. Print. Johnson, Nicholas. What Do You Mean and How Do You Know? An Antidote for the Language That Does Our Thinking For Us. Morrisville, N.C: Lulu Press, 2009. Print.

Post-Orientalism and Contemporary American Novels

185

Joseph, Anjali. “At the Heart of a Bitter Struggle.” The Independent. Independent Digital News and Media, 08 Mar. 2010. Web. http://www.independent.co.uk/artsentertainment/books/reviews/mornin gs-in-jenin-by-susan-abulhawa-1917728.html. Web. Kennedy, Hugh. The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East. Aldershot England Burlington, VT: Ashgate/Variorum, 2006. Print. Kennedy, Valerie. Edward Said: A Critical Introduction. Cambridge, UK Malden, Mass: Polity Press Blackwell Publishers, 2000. Print. Lentricchia, Frank (ed.). Introducing Don DeLillo. London: Duke UP, 1991. Print. Loomba, Ania. Colonialism/Postcolonialism. London New York: Routledge, 2005. Print. Lowe, John. The Great Powers, Imperialism, and the German Problem, 1865-1925. London New York: Routledge, 1994. Print. MacFarquhar, Neil. “Saudi Reformers. Seeking Rights, Paying a Price.” The New York Times. Nytimes.com June 9, 2005. Web. Accessed 21 August 2016. MacKenzie, John M. Orientalism: History, Theory, and the Arts. Manchester New York: Manchester UP. St. Martin’s Press, 1995. Print. McHugo, John. A Concise History of The Arabs. New York: New Press, 2013. Print. McQuail, Denis and Karen Siune. New Media Politics: Comparative Perspectives in Western Europe. London, Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1986. Print. Meher, Jagmohan. America’s Afghanistan War: The Success That Failed. Delhi: Kalpaz, 2004. Print. Messud, Claire. The Emperor’s Children. New York: Vintage Books, 2007. Print. Morton, Stephen. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak. London: Routledge, 2003. Print. Mukherjee, Sharmila. “Nine Eleven + Ten in Literature, Popular Culture, and the Classroom.” Modern Language Studies 41.1 (Summer 2011): 120–3. Print. Munir, Hassam. “Did Islam Spread by the Sword?” Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research, December 14, 2018. Web. Accessed 4 March 2019. www.yaqeeninstitute.org/hassam-munir/how-islam-spread-throughoutthe-world/. Musallam, Musallam A. The Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait: Saddam Hussein, His State and International Power Politics. London, New York: British Academic Press, 1996. Print.

186

Bibliography

Nabi, Robin L. and Mary B. Oliver (eds.). The Sage Handbook of Media Processes and Effects. Los Angeles: SAGE, 2009. Print. Nance, Kevin. “Living in Dangerous Times.” Chicago Tribune. Chicagotribune.com, October 12, 2012. Web. Accessed 18 August 2016. https://www.chicagotribune.com/entertainment/books/ct-xpm2012-10-12-ct-prj-1014-don-delillo-20121012-story.html. Web. ní Fhlathuin, Maire. The British Empire in the 19th Century | Máire Ní … Gale. https://www.gale.com/intl/essays/maire-ni-fhlathuin-british-empirenineteenth-century. 19th Century UK Periodicals. Detroit: Gale, 2008. Ning, Wang. “Orientalism versus Occidentalism?” New Literary History 28.1 (Winter 1997): 57–67. Print. Olster, Stacey (ed.). Don DeLillo: Mao II, Underworld, Falling Man. New York: Continuum, 2011. Print. Orbán, Katalin. Ethical Divisions. The Post-Holocaust Narratives of Pynchon, Abish, DeLillo, and Spiegelman. New York: Routledge, 2005. Print. Osteen, Mark. American Magic and Dread. Don DeLillo’s Dialogue with Culture. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000. Print. Pande, Aparna. Explaining Pakistan’s Foreign Policy: Escaping India. Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon New York: Routledge, 2011. Print. Parrish, Timothy (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to American Novelists. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013. Print. Paryz, Marek. The Postcolonial and Imperial Experience in American Transcendentalism. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012. Print. Pass, Phill. The Language of Self. Strategies of Subjectivity in the Novels of Don DeLillo. Berlin: Peter Lang, 2013. Print. Paul, Jacob. Sarah/Sara. Brooklyn, N.Y: Ig Pub, 2010. Print. Pearsall, Judy and Patrick Hanks (eds.). The New Oxford Dictionary of English. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2001. Print. Perse, Elizabeth M. Media Effects and Society. Mahwah, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates, 2001. Print. Poe, Edger Allen. “Israfel”. The Norton Anthology of American Literature. Ed. Nina Baym. 6th edition. B vol. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2003: 1511. Print. Prabhu, Anjali. Hybridity Limits, Transformations, Prospects. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2007. Print. Prakash, Gyan (ed.). After Colonialism: Imperial Histories and Postcolonial Displacements. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1995. Print.

Post-Orientalism and Contemporary American Novels

187

Preble, Christopher A. The Power Problem: How American Military Dominance Makes Us Less Safe, Less Prosperous, And Less Free. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2009. Print. Rabinovich, Itamar and Jehuda Reinharz (eds.). Israel in the Middle East: Documents and Readings on Society, Politics, and Foreign Relations, pre-1948 to the Present. Waltham, Mass. Hanover: Brandeis UP, 2008. Print. Rajan, Gita and Radhika Mohanram (eds.). English Postcoloniality: Literatures From Around the World. London: Greenwood Press, 1996. Print. Rancière, Jacques. “The Politics of Literature.” SubStance, Vol. 33, No. 1, Issue 103: Contemporary Thinker Jacques Rancière (2004), pp. 10-24 Published by: University of Wisconsin Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3685460. Web. Randall, Martin. 9/11 and the Literature of Terror. Edinburg: Edinburg University Press, 2011. Print. Reuters “Trump: I Told Saudi King He Wouldn’t Last without U.S. Support.” Reuters, Thomson Reuters, 3 Oct. 2018, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trump-saudiidUSKCN1MD066. Web. Rinaldi, Nicholas. Between Two Rivers. S.l: HarperCollins e-Books, 2014. Print. Rogan, Eugene L. The Arabs: A History. New York: Basic Books, 2009. Print. Ruppersburg, Hugh and Tim Engles (eds.). Critical Essays on Don DeLillo. New York: G. K. Hall & Co., 2000. Print. Sa’di, Ahmad H., and Lila Abu-Lughod. Nakba Palestine, 1948, and the Claims of Memory. Columbia University Press, 2007 Said, Edward W. and David Barsamian. Culture and Resistance: Conversations with Edward W. Said. Cambridge, Mass: South End Press, 2003. Print. Said, Edward W. Culture and Imperialism. London: Vintage, 1994. Print. —. Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World. London: Vintage, 1997. Print. —. Out of Place. A Memoir. New York: Vintage Books, 1999. Print. —. Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books, 1978. Print. —. Power, Politics and Culture. Interviews with Edward Said. Gauri Viswanathan (ed.) London: Bloomsbury, 2005. Print. Schmid, Michael. Did Desert Shield Lead to Desert Hate? A Case Study of Anti-Americanism in Saudi Arabia. Hamburg: Anchor Academic Pub, 2013. Print.

188

Bibliography

Schneck, Peter and Philip Schweighauser (eds.). Terrorism, Media, and the Ethics of Fiction: Transatlantic Perspectives on Don DeLillo. New York: Continuum, 2010. Print. Spangler, Eve. Understanding Israel/Palestine: Race, Nation, and Human Rights in the Conflict. Rotterdam: Brill Sesen, 2019. Print. Spiegelman, Art. In The Shadow of No Towers. New York: Pantheon Books, 2004. Print. Staff, Beacon and Dale Singer. “Take Five: Don’t Call Don DeLillo’s Fiction ‘postmodern.’” 17 Sept. 2010. Web. 21 Aug. 2016. https://www.stlbeacon.org/#!/content/18046/take_five_dont_call_don_ delillos_fiction_postmodern. Web. Stevenson, Angus. Oxford Dictionary of English. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2010. Print. Stockhammer, Philipp W. Conceptualizing Cultural Hybridization: A Transdisciplinary Approach. Ed. Philipp W. Stockhammer. Heidelberg New York: Springer, 2012. Print. Taylor, Peter. “Iraq War: The Greatest Intelligence Failure in Living Memory.” The Telegraph. Telegraph Media Group, 18 Mar. 2013. Web. 05 Nov. 2013. Web. The Quran. Trans. By Talal Itani, ClearQuran, 2015. Print. Tolan, Fiona. New Directions: Writing Post 1990. Malaysia: York Press, 2010. Print. Updike, John. Terrorist. New York: Ballantine Books, 2007. Print. Veggian, Henry. Understanding Don DeLillo. The United States: The University of South Carolina Press, 2015. Print. “Wahabism. A Deliberate Primitiveness.” The Telegraph. Telegraph Media Group, 5 November, 2001. Web. 04 April 2014. Web. Weisfeld, Abie H. Sabra and Shatila. Bloomington, IN: Authorhouse, 2009. Print Yaqoob, Tahira. “Arab-American Novelist Fights for Justice in Palestine.” Arab-American Novelist Fights for Justice in Palestine | The National. The National, 26 Apr. 2012. Web. 02 Jan. 2015. http://www.thenational.ae/arts-culture/books/arab-americannovelistfights-for-justice-in-palestine. Web. Young, Robert. Postcolonialism. Oxford New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. Print. Yule, George. The Study of Language. Cambridge, UK New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010. Print. Zakaria, Fareed. “Fareed Zakaria: Let’s Be Honest, Islam Has a Problem Right Now.” Washington Post. The Washington Post, 09 Oct. 2014. Web. 05 Nov. 2014.

Post-Orientalism and Contemporary American Novels

189

http://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/fareed-zakaria-islam-has-aproblemright-now-but-heres-why-bill-maher-iswrong/2014/10/09/b6302a14-4fe6-11e4aa5e7153e466a02d_story.html. Web. Zarembka, Paul. The Hidden History of 9/11. New York: Seven Stories Press, 2008. Print.

INDEX

9/11 attacks 30, 72, 74, 81, 83, 86, 89, 90, 97, 100, 104, 111, 112, 117, 124, 125, 134, 141, 148, 176 Activist 36, 71 Afghanistan 1, 15, 16, 18, 23, 26, 39, 68, 72, 74, 86, 87, 89, 91, 92, 94, 95, 151, 153, 171, 172, 183, 185 Al Wala’ Wal Bara’ 16, 138, 139 al-Hamad, Turki 6, 15, 125, 133, 144, 145, 160, 162, 163, 172, 175, 180 Al-Quds Mosque 30, 140, 144, 145, 148 al-Shehri, Wail 120, 140, 148, 149151, 154 al-Shehri, Waleed 140, 148, 149, 150, 151, 154 American Airlines Flight 141, 148 American camp 117, 118, 119, 121, 129, 132 American dogma 3, 5, 13 American empire 17, 68, 71, 94 Arab 1-2, 4, 6, 10, 17-9, 24, 30-2, 35-6, 39, 43-4, 46-8, 55-6, 58-9, 62-7, 70, 75, 85, 89-90, 97, 112120, 125, 128-9, 134-6, 141, 143-4, 165, 169, 173-5, 177 Arab camp 114, 129 Baghdad 14, 26 Bethlehem 43-4, 62 Britain 10, 12, 39, 54, 55 British mandate 40, 51, 52, 54, 139, 176 Bush, Georg W. 4, 13, 18, 19, 24, 26, 180, 181, 183

Childhood 35, 42, 55, 59, 64, 69, 70, 95 Chomsky, Avram Noam 2-5, 20-3, 25-6, 132, 182 Christ 84, 178 Colonialism 5, 9-10, 12, 14-5, 34, 73, 180-81, 184-85 Contact zone 33-4, 55-6, 60, 62, 645, 74 Cosmopolitan 17, 69, 110 Culture 5, 9, 11-2, 15, 25, 29, 37, 43, 48, 49, 56-8, 64, 66, 69-73, 79, 101-3, 105-6, 108, 111, 113, 121, 127, 131-32, 151, 166-67, 174, 182-88 DeLillo, Donald Richard “Don” 1, 15, 110-117 Dogma 2, 3, 5, 13, 133, 135, 155 East 8, 10, 12, 15, 30, 79-88, 92-9, 103, 119-123, 125, 134-5, 137, 152, 164-8, 172-9 Easterner 12, 99, 119, 120 Egypt 16, 17, 43, 62, 84, 144, 1578, 174 Ein Hod 38-9, 49-51, 53 Empire 10, 17, 19, 23-5, 52, 68, 712, 94-6, 114, 117, 137, 139, 176, 180-1, 186 Ethics 53, 57, 166, 188 Ethnicity 11, 34, 59, 66, 144 Europe 8-12, 15, 21, 24, 52, 54, 97, 115, 127, 130-131 Extremism 30, 97, 119, 135, 140, 145, 163, 167 Far East 16, 174 Fundamentalism 16, 78, 97, 81, 87, 123, 126, 174, 177

Post-Orientalism and Contemporary American Novels Germany 12, 68, 111, 115, 122, 125, 140, 148, 157, 163 God 30, 38, 43-44, 49, 115, 118119, 128-9, 132, 138, 143, 1458, 155, 158-9, 162, 168-72 Hegemony 2, 5, 11, 12, 14, 17, 23, 33-36, 8, 51, 53-6, 58, 62, 67, 71-4, 103, 112, 114, 117, 125-6, 132-3 Heterogeneity 113-6 High Orientalism 11, 13, 50, 53, 91, 176 Hybridity 34-5, 57, 59-60, 69, 73, 186 Imperial 13-4, 29, 32, 181 Imperialism 13, 15, 29 Imperialistic 3-4, 11-2, 18, 26 Iraq War 15, 21, 25-6, 32, 74 Iraq, invasion of 21, 29, 109, 118 Islam 6, 28, 30, 69-70, 84, 87-8, 913, 97, 101, 117, 122-3, 126, 138-9, 141-2, 144-8, 150, 152-4, 156, 158, 161, 163, 167, 169174, 177-9 Islamic East 16, 93, 99, 134 Israel 3-4, 19, 24, 30, 32, 35-6, 3840, 43-46, 48-9, 51-2, 55, 60, 62, 64, 66, 72, 95, 118, 123, 132 Jenin 15-6, 27-9, 32, 36, 38, 40, 42, 44-51, 54-5, 61-7, 78, 95, 123, 135, 175 Jewish identity 57-8 Jewish immigrants 54, 59 Jewish State 38-40, 52, 54-5 Jihad 124, 139-141, 144, 151, 1534, 161-2 Jihadism 137-140, 167 Jordan 16, 43-4, 53, 56, 68, 105, 134, 175 Kuwait 35, 53, 134, 175 Lahore 70-2, 75, 83, 91, 93-4, 102, 108, 176 Language 24-5, 34, 37, 56-8, 69, 71, 100-1, 103, 132, 135, 148, 174 Lebanon 3, 17, 53, 62, 66, 77, 124, 140, 157-8

191

Mass media 20, 22, 132 Middle East 1, 2, 5-7, 19, 23-4, 29, 32, 35, 43, 67-8, 70, 84, 95, 97, 124, 126, 132, 134-7, 150, 153, 164, 172-3, 176, 178-9, 182, 184, 187 Middle Orientalism 9-12, 53, 67 Mujahedeen 144, 151, 153-4 Muslims 3, 6, 30, 43-44, 51, 75-6, 78, 81, 83, 97, 101-2, 108, 115, 119, 125, 129, 136, 139, 141-2, 144-7, 152-8, 161, 163, 166-7, 169, 171-2, 174 Mutation 2, 7, 10-11, 16-7, 32, 54-5, 67, 69, 71, 73, 109 Narration 29, 56-8, 80-1, 83, 85, 101, 108-9, 111-2, 131, 176 Near East 16, 25, 71, 174-5, 185 New East 2, 5-6, 10, 13, 15-8, 24-6, 28, 30, 67, 78, 89, 134, 173-7 New York 1, 18, 23, 28, 70, 80, 823, 94-5, 98, 101, 110, 115, 1178, 137, 142, 172, 180-9 No man’s land 16, 109, 131, 136, 177 Nostalgia 15, 40, 67, 98 Occident 8, 9, 11-2, 14-7, 25-7, 32, 33, 36, 70-74, 80, 93, 96, 100-3, 105-6, 108-9, 112-3, 116, 118, 127, 129, 131, 149, 174, 178 Occupied 4, 25, 27, 43, 80, 113, 123 Occupier 25, 46, 123 “One Thousand and One Nights” 10, 164, 165, 166, 173 Orient 2-3, 5-19, 24-7, 30, 32, 36, 38-40, 51, 53, 71, 74-5, 78-80, 93, 96, 102, 108, 113-6, 118, 121, 125, 127, 129-132, 134-6, 149, 151-2, 163-4, 166, 174, 178 Oriental figure 54, 55, 61, 64, 66, 69, 71-2, 74, 82, 94, 100-1, 1034, 113-4, 130-2 Orientalism 1-2, 7-15, 18-9, 22-3, 27, 29, 51, 53, 67, 91, 109, 125, 130-1, 174-6

192 Orientalist 7, 9, 12-3, 17-9, 23-4, 26-30, 127, 130 Other, the 5-6, 8, 10-1, 14-6, 18, 20, 23-5, 28-30, 33-4, 38, 44, 52-4, 56-7, 59-60, 63-4, 67, 70, 72-3, 78, 80-1, 83, 86, 101-2, 104, 108, 111, 114-120, 123, 125-9, 131-7, 140, 147-8, 150-1, 154, 167-9, 173, 177-8 Ottoman Empire 10, 52, 114, 139, 176 Pakistan 1, 16-7, 69-72, 75-6, 7882, 85-87, 90-4, 97-101, 103-4, 106, 174, 177, 186 Palestine 36, 38-40, 42, 47, 51-9, 61-2, 66-7, 70, 123, 139, 176, 181 Postcolonial 4, 5, 7, 12, 14, 17, 23, 25, 34-6, 38, 64, 73, 103, 105, 110, 174 Postcolonialism 5, 12, 14, 15, 34, 73 Post-oriental era 37-8, 134 Post-orientalism 6-7, 12-6, 18-9, 23, 27, 32, 38, 54, 91, 103, 106-7, 109, 111-3, 116-7, 121, 126-7, 129-132, 174, 176, 177 Post-orientalist 12-3, 17-9, 22, 23-4, 26-30, 127 Principles 3, 6, 11, 35, 61, 74, 76, 124, 135, 152 Propaganda 18-22, 25, 132, 182 Prophet Muhammed 79, 91, 124, 147, 155-6, 158 Purity 9, 34-5, 60, 108 Quran 6, 26, 122-3, 135-6, 140, 145-6, 148, 150, 155, 167-8, 170, 172, 188 Radical 17, 26, 55-7, 64, 102, 119, 135, 139, 145-7, 149, 169, 175, 180 Religion 5-6, 11, 16, 34, 56-7, 66, 69, 75, 91, 97, 103, 114, 118, 121, 124, 126, 127, 129, 132, 137-141, 145, 147, 151-2, 154, 156, 158, 164, 170, 174, 179

Index Said, Edward 2-5, 7-9, 14, 19, 29, 73, 130-1, 174, 176 Salafi jihadist 30, 134, 140-1, 166 Salafist 140, 152 September 11, 2001 2, 15, 25, 82, 104, 118, 176 Society, Western 76-8, 88-9, 99 Soviet Union 32, 39, 172 State of Israel 39, 59, 132, 139, 175 Syria 16-7, 43, 125, 130, 141, 173, 184 Technology 72, 75, 111, 118 Terror 4, 13, 24, 29, 45, 51, 72, 132, 166 Terrorism 24, 86, 111, 140-1, 147-8, 166, 168 Terrorist 4, 29-30, 46, 78, 84, 86, 88, 97, 114, 117-8, 126, 129130, 134-7, 141-2, 146, 148, 152, 163, 165-7, 169, 172-3, 177-9 “the bewildered herd” 21, 22 The Wind of Paradise 6, 10, 15, 278, 30, 44, 71, 77, 79, 81, 83, 88, 97-8, 117, 119-120, 122, 123-4, 133, 135, 137, 140-1, 148, 163, 167, 173, 175, 177, 180 United States 3, 5-6, 12, 24-5, 46, 65, 81, 86, 100, 105, 126, 171, 182-3, 188 Values 5, 11, 13, 15, 35, 71, 73, 161 Violence 3, 6, 19, 44, 53, 62, 69, 90, 114, 127, 129, 137, 149-151 War on Terror 13, 24, 29, 72 Weapons of mass destruction 19, 21, 25 West 5, 7-14, 28, 30, 32, 40, 46-7, 49, 51, 59, 64-6, 74, 76, 78, 812, 84, 86, 88, 92, 96, 99, 115, 120-2, 127, 130-1, 134-5, 140-7, 150-4, 163-7, 172, 174, 176-9 Westerner 10, 12, 67, 99, 119, 165-6 World Trade Center 1, 10, 18, 30, 44, 80, 83, 85, 116, 118, 129, 133, 142-3, 171-2

Post-Orientalism and Contemporary American Novels Writer 35-7, 70-1, 110, 134-5, 148, 165,172

WWI 10, 20, 23 WWII 7, 10, 40, 57, 174

193