Positive Psychology Coaching 3030889947, 9783030889944

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Susanne Knowles

Positive Psychology Coaching

Positive Psychology Coaching

Susanne Knowles

Positive Psychology Coaching

Susanne Knowles University of Queensland Brisbane, QLD, Australia

ISBN 978-3-030-88994-4    ISBN 978-3-030-88995-1 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88995-1 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

About the Author

Susanne Knowles is an educational, counselling and organisational psychologist and the Chair and Founder of the Australian Institute of Professional Coaches. With a PhD in Management and three master’s degrees in Education, Psychology and Business Administration, she is focused on assisting individuals achieve their personal and professional goals, motivating teams to peak performance, and supporting organisations to increase employee engagement, retain talent and improve profitability. Susanne has held teaching positions at the University of Queensland Business School, the Queensland University of Technology Business School and Griffith University School of Applied Psychology. In addition she has held senior executive positions in government and private sector organisations and served as a board member on several government, not-for-profit and professional services firms. Her executive coaching experience has been gained from 20 years as a consultant to national and international organisations, focused on facilitating the strategic direction of these firms. Susanne’s PhD thesis, which she completed at the University of Queensland, investigated how organisations develop and embed a coaching culture for competitive advantage and cultural change. Susanne can be contacted at [email protected] or [email protected].

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  1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������     1 Why Coaching?����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������     2 Why Positive Psychology Coaching?������������������������������������������������������     3 The Problem��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������     3 The Solution��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������     4 Structure of This Book����������������������������������������������������������������������������     4 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������     9   2 Traditional Psychology��������������������������������������������������������������������������    11 Theoretical Foundations��������������������������������������������������������������������������    12 Behavioural Theories ��������������������������������������������������������������������������    12 Cognitive Theories ������������������������������������������������������������������������������    14 Developmental Theories����������������������������������������������������������������������    15 Humanistic Theories����������������������������������������������������������������������������    16 Personality Theories����������������������������������������������������������������������������    19 Social Psychology Theories ����������������������������������������������������������������    20 Summary of Contributions������������������������������������������������������������������    21 Application to Coaching��������������������������������������������������������������������������    22 Appendix 1: Summary of Psychodynamic and Educational Underpinnings of Coaching ��������������������������������������������������������������������    23 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    27   3 Positive Psychology��������������������������������������������������������������������������������    31 Theoretical Foundations��������������������������������������������������������������������������    32 Learned Helplessness��������������������������������������������������������������������������    33 Optimism/Pessimism ��������������������������������������������������������������������������    34 Authentic Happiness����������������������������������������������������������������������������    34 Mental Model��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    36 Mindset������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    37 Mindfulness������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    38 Application to Coaching��������������������������������������������������������������������������    39 Philosophy of Positive Psychology Coaching ������������������������������������    39 vii

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Principles of Positive Psychology Coaching ��������������������������������������    40 Mental Model, Mindset, and Mindfulness Techniques������������������������    41 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    42   4 Coaching ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    45 Definition ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    46 Difference Between Coaching and Mentoring������������������������������������    47 Difference Between Coaching and Other Interventions����������������������    48 Coaching as a Profession ������������������������������������������������������������������������    52 Coaching as a Discipline��������������������������������������������������������������������������    52 Theoretical Underpinnings of Coaching��������������������������������������������������    53 Psychological Underpinnings of Coaching������������������������������������������    53 Educational Underpinnings of Coaching ��������������������������������������������    54 Management Underpinnings of Coaching ������������������������������������������    55 Types of Coaching ������������������������������������������������������������������������������    55 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    58   5 Benefits of Coaching������������������������������������������������������������������������������    67 Benefits for Individuals����������������������������������������������������������������������������    68 Benefits for Teams ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������    70 Benefits for Organisations������������������������������������������������������������������������    71 Return on Investment (ROI)����������������������������������������������������������������    71 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    75   6 Coaching Skills ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    79 Theoretical Foundations��������������������������������������������������������������������������    80 Traditional Psychology Contributions ������������������������������������������������    80 Positive Psychology Contributions������������������������������������������������������    84 Application to Coaching��������������������������������������������������������������������������    85 Active Listening����������������������������������������������������������������������������������    85 Reflective Listening ����������������������������������������������������������������������������    85 Open Questions������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    86 Closed Questions ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������    86 Powerful Questions������������������������������������������������������������������������������    87 Summarising����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    88 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    89   7 Coaching Process�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������    91 Theoretical Foundations��������������������������������������������������������������������������    92 Traditional Psychological Contributions���������������������������������������������    92 Positive Psychological Contributions��������������������������������������������������    92 Application to Coaching��������������������������������������������������������������������������    94 Professional Guidelines ����������������������������������������������������������������������    95 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    97

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  8 Coaching Practice����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   101 Theoretical Foundations��������������������������������������������������������������������������   102 Traditional Psychology Contributions ������������������������������������������������   102 Positive Psychology Contributions������������������������������������������������������   103 Application to Coaching��������������������������������������������������������������������������   108 Engaging a New Client������������������������������������������������������������������������   108 Second and Subsequent Coaching Sessions����������������������������������������   113 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   113   9 Coaching for Self-Awareness and Insight��������������������������������������������   117 Theoretical Foundations��������������������������������������������������������������������������   117 Traditional Psychology Contributions ������������������������������������������������   118 Positive Psychology Contributions������������������������������������������������������   120 Application to Coaching��������������������������������������������������������������������������   122 Reflective Practice��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   122 Mindfulness������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   123 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   124 10 Coaching for Learning and Growth����������������������������������������������������   127 Theoretical Foundations��������������������������������������������������������������������������   128 Traditional Psychology Contributions ������������������������������������������������   128 Positive Psychology Contributions������������������������������������������������������   131 Application to Coaching��������������������������������������������������������������������������   132 Self-Directed Learning������������������������������������������������������������������������   133 Disorienting Dilemmas������������������������������������������������������������������������   133 Meaning-Making����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   134 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   135 11 Coaching for Behavioural Change ������������������������������������������������������   139 Theoretical Foundations��������������������������������������������������������������������������   139 Traditional Psychology Contributions ������������������������������������������������   140 Positive Psychology Contributions������������������������������������������������������   144 Application to Coaching��������������������������������������������������������������������������   146 Solution-Focus ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   146 Goal-Setting and Action-Planning ������������������������������������������������������   147 Supporting Self-Efficacy����������������������������������������������������������������������   148 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   149 12 Coaching for Personal Development����������������������������������������������������   153 Theoretical Foundations��������������������������������������������������������������������������   153 Traditional Psychology Contributions ������������������������������������������������   154 Positive Psychology Contributions������������������������������������������������������   160 Application to Coaching��������������������������������������������������������������������������   163 Potential ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   163 Self-Regulation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   163 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   164

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13 Coaching for Professional Development����������������������������������������������   167 Theoretical Foundations��������������������������������������������������������������������������   168 Traditional Research Contributions ����������������������������������������������������   168 Positive Psychology Contributions������������������������������������������������������   172 Application to Coaching��������������������������������������������������������������������������   175 Design and Delivery Principles������������������������������������������������������������   175 Personal Attributes and Skills��������������������������������������������������������������   175 Coaching Applied Post-training����������������������������������������������������������   176 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   176 14 Coaching for Career Development ������������������������������������������������������   181 Theoretical Foundations��������������������������������������������������������������������������   182 Traditional Psychology Contributions ������������������������������������������������   182 Positive Psychology Contributions������������������������������������������������������   187 Application to Coaching��������������������������������������������������������������������������   195 De-identification Strategies������������������������������������������������������������������   196 Assessment and Feedback��������������������������������������������������������������������   196 Career Development Plan��������������������������������������������������������������������   196 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   197 15 Coaching in an Organisational Setting������������������������������������������������   201 Theoretical Foundations��������������������������������������������������������������������������   202 Defining Coaching in the OD Environment����������������������������������������   202 Key Stakeholders ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   204 Role of Human Resources ������������������������������������������������������������������   207 Application to Organisational Coaching��������������������������������������������������   209 ©AIPC Organisational COACHing Model������������������������������������������   209 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   217 16 Coaching for Performance Improvement��������������������������������������������   221 Theoretical Foundations��������������������������������������������������������������������������   221 Traditional Psychology Contributions ������������������������������������������������   222 Positive Psychology Contributions������������������������������������������������������   230 Application to Coaching��������������������������������������������������������������������������   233 Contracting������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   233 Data Collection������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   234 Conducting the Coaching��������������������������������������������������������������������   234 Evaluating the Coaching����������������������������������������������������������������������   235 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   236 17 Coaching for Leadership Development������������������������������������������������   239 Theoretical Foundations��������������������������������������������������������������������������   239 Traditional Psychology Contributions ������������������������������������������������   240 Positive Psychology Contributions������������������������������������������������������   245 Application to Coaching��������������������������������������������������������������������������   250 Formal Scheduled Delivery������������������������������������������������������������������   251 Informal Coaching ������������������������������������������������������������������������������   251 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   253

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18 Coaching for Executive Development��������������������������������������������������   259 Theoretical Foundations��������������������������������������������������������������������������   260 Traditional Psychology Contributions ������������������������������������������������   260 Positive Psychology Contributions������������������������������������������������������   265 Application to Coaching��������������������������������������������������������������������������   271 Intra- and Inter-personal Effectiveness������������������������������������������������   271 Executive Leadership ��������������������������������������������������������������������������   272 Strategic Decision-Making������������������������������������������������������������������   273 Power and Influence����������������������������������������������������������������������������   273 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   274 19 Coaching for Organisational Learning������������������������������������������������   279 Theoretical Foundations��������������������������������������������������������������������������   279 Traditional Psychology Contributions ������������������������������������������������   280 Positive Psychology Contributions������������������������������������������������������   281 Application to Coaching��������������������������������������������������������������������������   283 Role Modelling������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   284 Innovation��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   284 Change Initiatives��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   285 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   285 20 Coaching for Transformational, Cultural Change������������������������������   289 Theoretical Foundations��������������������������������������������������������������������������   290 Traditional Psychology Contributions ������������������������������������������������   290 Positive Psychology Contributions������������������������������������������������������   292 Application to Coaching��������������������������������������������������������������������������   295 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   297 Index����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   301

Chapter 1

Introduction

Coaching of organisational leaders, managers, and employees has grown in popularity over several decades. From its early beginnings in the 1950s as a master-­ apprentice relationship [1], coaching focus shifted in the 1970s when concepts from sports coaching became integrated into Human Resource Development (HRD) [2]. Initially viewed within HRD as a means of correcting poor performance [3], coaching expanded into a facilitative process designed ‘to acquire new skills, to improve existing skills, competence and performance and to enhance … personal effectiveness or personal development or personal growth’ [4]. Over the past two decades, coaching has flourished as a vehicle for professional development of managers and leaders [5]. Executive coaching delivered by external coaches has become commonplace in large organisations, and coaches also work inside organisations as line managers or human resource (HR) professionals [6]. Today, coaching is well-­ accepted among organisations in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Europe [7, 8]. The International Coaching Federation (ICF) reports that in 2019 there were an estimated 71,000 coaching practitioners worldwide including 15,900 line managers and leaders using coaching skills, an increase of 33% on their 2015 survey results. Worldwide revenue from coaching was estimated at US$2.849 billion, a 21% increase over the 2015 estimate [9]. Recently, coaching within organisations has advanced in a new direction. Some innovative organisations are working to embed coaching in the organisation’s culture as ‘a key aspect of how the leaders, managers and staff engage and develop all their people and engage their stakeholders …[to] create increased individual, team and organisational performance and shared value for all stakeholders’ [10]. Scholars have described this new organisational phenomenon in which ‘people coach each other all the time as a natural part of meetings, reviews and one-to-one discussions of all kinds’ [11] as a coaching culture [10, 12]. The growth of coaching internationally has been supported by the establishment of coaching federations including the ICF (founded in 1995) and the European Mentoring and Coaching Council (EMCC) (founded in 2002). Both these

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 S. Knowles, Positive Psychology Coaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88995-1_1

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professional associations seek to advance coaching as a profession through the certification and credentialing of coaches, definition of quality assessment and standards, provision of continuing professional development activities, and oversight of governance and regulatory affairs [13].

Why Coaching? Coaching presents an important topic for discussion for several reasons. First, the rise in coaching prevalence has been attributed, in part, to a breakdown in physical social networks [14] and an increasing desire of individuals, particularly millennials, for personal services to keep them connected with the wider world and assist them transition through volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous (VUCA) environments [15]. Second, the world of work is changing. Employment options such as part-time work, job sharing, contract work, and working from home necessitate a new way of leading and managing employees. Third, the need to recognise and acknowledge diversity and inclusive work practices challenges the traditional management style, requiring respect for all workers, and opportunities for all employees to utilise and be recognised for their strengths and what they can contribute to the team. In consequence to changing employment and work practices, managers are being encouraged to adopt a coaching leadership style. Fourth, individual agency is replacing employment for life. Hence, individuals need to manage their own career and are increasingly choosing the organisations they would like to work for rather than the reverse, based on the alignment of their personal values with organisational values. Fifth, the growth in coaching worldwide can be attributed to the expansion in recent years of professional associations such as the ICF and EMCC. Finally, with the growing awareness of coaching worldwide, there are calls within the academic community for coaching to become a discipline in its own right. However, even though there is a growing body of research evidence to support this call, there are still few readily recognisable theoretical foundations for coaching separate from the disciplines of psychology and education [16–18]. The emergence of coaching as a valid developmental intervention for individuals in community and organisational settings is explored in this book under three main themes: 1. The traditional and positive psychology research evidence for coaching as a dynamic, relational, and social process, and the philosophy and principles of positive psychology which underpin contemporary positive psychology coaching practice. 2. The introduction of a new model of coaching called ©AIPC COACH which is based on the psychological and educational foundations for coaching. This model extends the well-known GROW model of coaching [19] by placing two important steps upfront, and enhancing the final two steps of commitment and accountability.

The Problem

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3. The three fundamental purposes for every coaching session—to stimulate self-­ awareness and insight, learning and growth, leading to behavioural change—plus the eight purposes for which individual coaching is conducted in community or organisational settings based on how coaching is conceptualised, the motivations for coaching, who delivers the coaching, and how the coaching is delivered for personal, professional, career, leadership and executive development, performance improvement, organisational learning, and transformational cultural change.

Why Positive Psychology Coaching? Since the dawn of scientific research into individual behaviour and mental functioning, therapies have focused on individuals who display mental difficulties and how to ameliorate these disorders. It wasn’t until the late 1970s that any attempt was made to investigate wellbeing and happiness in non-clinical populations by developing and testing a ‘happiness’ intervention [20]. In 2000, a new field of research called positive psychology emerged as a valid field for psychological investigation [21]. The positive psychotherapy paradigm is the opposite of the therapeutic model, focusing on how the promotion of happiness and wellbeing can relieve or eliminate feelings of helplessness and depression. Positive psychological research investigates the conditions and processes that promote happiness and contribute to optimal functioning of individuals, groups, and institutions [22]. In a seminal experiment, participants were randomly assigned to one of six experimental conditions including a control group [23]. Results showed that in the most powerful interventions, participants used their signature strengths in a new or novel way, wrote down three positive things every night, and expressed gratitude for people or things in their life each week. Subsequently, other researchers suggested that a lack of positive emotion, meaning in life, engagement, and optimism may be the cause of depression, whereas engaging in daily positive-oriented activities may be the way to increase an individual’s level of happiness and wellbeing [24]. Happiness promotes longevity, random acts of kindness, altruistic behaviour, and contributions to the community [25]. Happiness research is part of contemporary psychological practice which recognises that the benefits of psychology can be applied more broadly into non-clinical populations. These research findings significantly influenced the emergence of positive psychology coaching as a developmental process to increase happiness, positive emotion, and optimism in life and at work.

The Problem In the past, therapeutic psychological interventions have been used to treat individuals with diagnosed mental health issues. These interventions were based on traditional psychology research which was typically focused on investigating deviance,

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abnormality, and human dysfunction—the things that are going wrong in a person’s life—rather than on the factors that promote wellbeing. There was no consideration given in traditional psychology to the majority of the population who were functioning ‘normally’ but, for the most part, living unhappy lives.

The Solution Positive psychological practice was found to be significant in addressing the issues that cause functional, non-clinical populations to become stressed and less effective at home and work. Consequently, concepts from positive psychology research began to be incorporated into emerging coaching research to become the foundational evidence for contemporary coaching practice. The focus of positive psychology coaching is on how to bring joy, happiness, and success into a client’s life by minimising assumptions, beliefs, or barriers that are holding them back from being the person they want to be. Contemporary coaches assist clients identify what’s going right in their life and focus on strengths maximisation. Of course, negative thoughts, feelings, and emotions may be serving the client well if there is risk of physical or mental danger in their environment, and these are not discounted. Clients with major psychological concerns are immediately referred to their local general practitioner, a psychologist or trusted counselling professional to undertake in-­ depth therapy with them to resolve the issue. This book explicates the evidence for coaching from both traditional and positive psychology foundations and addresses the intersection of these approaches with coaching research to inform contemporary coaching practice. It outlines the benefits of coaching for individuals, teams, and organisations, including how to calculate the return on investment (ROI) from delivering a coaching program. Evidence for coaching as a dynamic, relational, and social process is provided from research findings. The triadic nature of coaching in organisations is distinguished from the dyadic relationship between a coach and client in community settings. In addition, this book extends readers’ understanding of how coaching can be used for specific purposes such as to develop increased self-awareness and insight, learning and growth, behavioural change, personal, professional, career, leadership and executive development, performance improvement, organisational learning, and transformational cultural change.

Structure of This Book This book is focused on how individuals are coached in community and organisational settings. Group and team coaching may be referred to in some chapters but are not explored as these types of coaching have additional theoretical bases and research findings, and different yet related practical application methods.

Structure of This Book

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Understandings of how group and team coaching are delivered are explained extensively in other texts. Individuals are the focus of this book because there are so many ways that the happiness they experience in life and work can be improved by coaching. For the purpose of this book, individuals who are coached in community settings and who pay for their own coaching are referred to as clients. Individuals who are coached in organisational settings, when the organisation pays for their coaching, are referred to as coachees1. In all settings, coaching is conducted to develop the individual’s self-awareness and insight to stimulate learning, growth, and behavioural change. Coaching may also be conducted for personal, professional, and career development in either setting. Coaching in organisational settings is typically conducted for performance improvement, leadership and executive development, organisational learning, or transformational cultural change. This chapter has introduced the reader to coaching and, in particular, to positive psychology coaching. It has explained that the reason for the development of a new field of traditional psychology was to undertake research which would benefit non-­ clinical, non-therapeutic populations to lead a happier and more fulfilling life. Traditional psychology research has focused on what is going wrong in a person’s life. Positive psychology attempts to address this imbalance by focusing on what is going right. Chapter 2 details the theoretical research evidence for coaching from traditional behavioural, cognitive, developmental, humanistic, personality, and social psychology perspectives and addresses how the findings are applied to contemporary coaching practice. Psychology is the study of human behaviour and motivation. Traditional psychologists research factors that influence human thinking and behaviour such as perception, cognition, attention, mental processing, intelligence, personality, emotions, and motivation. Chapter 3 explains how research findings from the newly emerged field of positive psychology contribute to contemporary coaching practice. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi and Martin Seligman are the founder and father of the positive psychology movement, and their research has had a monumental influence on how positive psychology coaching is conducted today. In contrast to the goal of traditional psychological research which is to understand human thinking and behaviour in relation to clinical populations, the goal of positive psychological research is to understand how to bring greater happiness, joy, meaning, and fulfilment to the lives of non-clinical populations. Chapter 4 focuses on how coaching is conceptualised, and the motivations for coaching as it is delivered to individuals in community and organisational settings using findings from both traditional and positive psychology research. The differences among coaching and other interventions such as mentoring, counselling, supervision, and training are explained. The theoretical evidence for coaching from the disciplines of psychology and education, as well as from management research,

 As explained in Chap. 15.

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is summarised. Coaching in contemporary practice is goal-oriented and solution-­ focused. Developmental, humanistic, and positive psychology techniques are used to address the client’s needs and promote their mental and emotional wellbeing. Chapter 5 outlines the tangible and intangible benefits of coaching for individuals, teams, and organisations which make coaching such a powerful intervention for personal and professional growth. Tangible benefits are immediately observable such as improvements in behaviour, relationships, or work performance. Intangible benefits are internal to the individual, and these benefits are only obvious when the client expresses learnings as Aha! moments. Some benefits are observed immediately, but others may take longer to display especially if other people are involved. Chapter 6 introduces the skills that coaches use to bring about successful change outcomes in clients. The coaching skills have been derived from the strategies that psychologists and therapists use to build rapid rapport and trusting relationships with clients. Process-oriented coaching skills include active and reflective listening, open and closed questioning, and summarising. However, it is by asking powerful questions which challenge underlying assumptions and beliefs, and reveal biases and judgements, that the client gains increased self-awareness and surfaces deeply hidden insights. Chapter 7 focuses on coaching as a dynamic, relational, and social process which helps clients increase their personal and professional effectiveness. Coaches partner with clients in a trusting, working relationship to help them find solutions to their problems and facilitate behavioural change to achieve their goals. As a developmental intervention, the coaching process helps clients identify the specific problem to be addressed and the opportunities available to them when their situation is resolved. Chapter 8 introduces the ©AIPC COACH model of coaching which assists individual clients identify the critical issue facing them at that time and the opportunities available to them to achieve a positive outcome. The specific goal they wish to achieve and the actions they need to take are clarified, and the client agrees to commit to being responsible and accountable for taking these actions. Coaches use the ©AIPC COACH model of coaching with individual clients in community settings and coachees in organisational settings who seek to transform their life and work. In organisational settings, individual and team coaching may be conducted as part of a comprehensive transformational cultural change process. Chapter 9 introduces the first, fundamental purpose for individual coaching in community and organisational settings—to increase self-awareness and insight. Self-awareness can be revelatory when insights result from Aha! moments that surface from the client’s subconscious during coaching. Reflective practice, in which the coach uses personal sharing to develop rapport and a trusting, working relationship with the client, incorporates relational depth to surface insights leading to personal change. Clients who are more self-aware and insightful are more confident and have greater ability to grow and develop personally and professionally. Chapter 10 introduces the second, fundamental purpose for individual coaching in community and organisational settings—to facilitate the client’s learning and growth. All coaching is an opportunity for learning. Educational research has identified that adults learn through a cycle of experiential learning, reflecting, and

Structure of This Book

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theorising to refine actions. Adult learning principles inform the learning process. Research has identified that coaching is a highly bespoke form of adult development that places the learner at the centre of the learning experience. It is a developmental process grounded in critical self-reflection and personal transformation. Contemporary coaching focuses on the use of reflective practice to raise disorienting dilemmas which provoke breakthroughs in thinking. As clients engage in deep-­ structure learning, they make new meanings which may be transformative. Chapter 11 introduces the third, fundamental purpose for coaching in community and organisational settings—to effect behavioural change. It explores how traditional psychology research identified that behaviour is shaped by reward and punishment, internal cognitions in response to social situations, and social norms that apply in certain circumstances. Developmental psychology found that clients who are ready for change, motivated to change and have self-efficacy, behave in ways which acknowledge that their behaviour is not fixed but can be moulded and reinforced to achieve a better outcome. Positive psychology research focuses on finding solutions rather than dwelling on problems. Coaches use goal-oriented and solution-focused techniques aligned with the client’s core values and beliefs to motivate and support self-efficacy to achieve their behavioural goals. Chapter 12 focuses on coaching for personal development. Traditional personality psychology research identified traits and behaviours that were combined into personality types which could be profiled. Individual psychology informs how individual needs and wants drive client behaviour and interpersonal effectiveness. Positive psychology coaching utilises the client’s strengths to maximise their potential, boost self-esteem, and build resilience. The coach encourages self-regulation of emotions and tensions relating to stressful or conflictual situations. Chapter 13 addresses coaching for professional development. Professional development research investigates how individuals acquire and develop new knowledge and skills to become more effective in their current role, reach their potential, and prepare for future job roles. Content-oriented professional development activities successfully transfer learnings back into the workplace when they are designed according to adult learning principles which incorporate cognitive, affective, and psychomotor dimensions. When coaching is conducted following the professional development activity, it significantly increases the transfer of learning rate. Chapter 14 explores how coaching supports career development over life and career stages. It distinguishes among the various theoretical approaches to a career: boundaryless, protean, intelligent, kaleidoscope, chaos, customised, and portfolio. Career development is the process by which individuals develop their strengths and apply them to their career decision-making or job at work. Positive psychology research investigates individual strengths which improve personal, professional, and psychological health and wellbeing and maximise capabilities and performance at work. Coaching assists individuals in transition overcome career ambiguity, construct a new career identity, and successfully settle into a new career. Chapter 15 addresses how positive psychology coaching is delivered in an organisational setting. It is driven by dual motivations (personal and organisational), conducted across multiple levels, and involves multiple stakeholders. The coaching

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relationship is triadic rather than dyadic. Reporting relationships are to the client and sponsor as well as to the coachee2. The roles played by key stakeholders (coachee, client, and sponsor) are explained, as is the role of HR professionals in arranging the ‘chemistry’ match between coach and coachee. The stages in the ©AIPC Organisational COACHing model are presented: contracting and preparation, assessment and feedback, conducting the coaching session using the ©AIPC COACH model, and evaluating the coaching. Chapter 16 focuses on how coaching is delivered for performance improvement. It examines motivations for employee performance, the work, job and organisational factors that may hinder performance, and ways to reduce barriers causing job dissatisfaction and stress at work. Performance coaching assists reasonably well-­ functioning yet mediocre performing employees reach their potential and become valued team members, retain talented individuals within the succession plan, and bring increased productivity benefits to the organisation. The leader’s role is to create a positive work environment which supports individual strengths and values individual differences and diversity. Concepts of psychological capital, positive organisational behaviour, and positive scholarship have been derived from the positive psychology movement. Chapter 17 addresses how coaching for leadership development has evolved from traditional models of management which relied on reward and punishment techniques and command-and-control practices, to be based on transformational models of leadership. To assist managers develop contemporary leadership practices, Manager as Coach programs are increasingly being conducted to assist them change their traditional management style into a coaching leadership style. Coaching may be delivered either formally by HR professionals or leaders who have trained to become a fully qualified coach, or informally by managers who use coaching skills to conduct coaching, feedback, or corridor conversations with their direct reports. Chapter 18 focuses on coaching at the most senior levels of an organisation for executive development. Coaching at senior levels is usually conducted by executive coaches external to the organisation to improve executive performance, resolve personal issues that may be affecting their ability to achieve business targets, improve intra- and interpersonal effectiveness, and align personal aspirations with organisational expectations. Executive coaching traditionally addresses issues of power, influence, and decision-making. Contemporary coaching practice also addresses the responsibilities of executives and the competencies they require to function effectively in a volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous environment. Chapter 19 explains how the learnings from individual coaching can be harnessed at the collective, systemic level to inform and support organisational learning. Organisational learning enables organisations to adapt and transform in response to, or in anticipation of, change. Early explanations of how organisations

2  In an organisational setting, the client is referred to as the coachee, as the ‘client’ has a different meaning in this setting—see Chap. 15.

References

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learn were based on individual learning principles. Later conceptualisations highlighted systemic ways of thinking and doing that were transformative beyond individual learning and resulted in organisational learning. Collective learning is captured by the enculturation of individual learnings through shared behaviours, rituals, systems, and procedures which become entrenched in the organisation. Chapter 20 introduces coaching as a vehicle for transformational, cultural culture. It reviews research into organisational culture and details ways that coaching, when applied consistently throughout the organisation, can be used to communicate, operationalise, and monitor transformations which change the culture of the entire organisation. Organisational culture informally coordinates and controls behaviours, actions, and decision-making across the organisation. Organisations which invest resources into making coaching a strategic priority during a transformation and cultural change program reap the benefits by transitioning more smoothly and quickly to their desired future.

References 1. Evered, R., & Selman, J. (1989). Coaching and the art of management. Organizational Dynamics, 18(2), 16. 2. McLean, G., et  al. (2005). Development and initial validation of an instrument measuring managerial coaching skill. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 16(2), 157–178. 3. Fournies, F. (1987). Coaching for improved work performance. Van Nostrand. 4. Ellinger, A. D., et al. (2011). Managerial coaching as a workplace learning strategy. In R. Poell & M. Van Woerkom (Eds.), Supporting workplace learning: Towards evidence-based practice (pp. 71–87). Springer. 5. Gormley, H., & Van Nieuwerburgh, C. (2014). Developing coaching cultures: A review of the literature. Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice, 7(2), 90–101. 6. Gray, D., & Goregaokar, H. (2010). Choosing an executive coach: The influence of gender on the coach-coachee matching process. Management Learning, 41(5), 525–544. 7. O’Broin, A., & McDowall, A. (2015). International perspectives on coaching. Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice, 8(1), 1–3. 8. Passmore, J., & Jastrzebska, K. (2011). Building a coaching culture: A development journey for organizational development. Coaching Review, 1(3), 89–101. 9. ICF. (2020). Global coaching study: Executive summary. PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP. 10. Hawkins, P. (2012). Creating a coaching culture. Strategic HR Review, 11(6), 364. 11. Hardingham, A., et al. (2004). The coach’s coach: Personal development for personal developers (Vol. 37). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. 12. Clutterbuck, D., & Megginson, D. (2005). Making coaching work: Creating a coaching culture. Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. 13. Hamlin, R., Ellinger, A. D., & Beattie, R. (2008). The emergent ‘coaching industry’: A wake­up call for HRD professionals. Human Resource Development International, 11(3), 287–305. 14. Naughton, J. (2002). The coaching boom: Is it the long-awaited alternative to the medical model? The Psychotherapy Networker, 26(4), 24–33. 15. Rodriguez, A., & Rodriguez, Y. (2015). Metaphors for today’s leadership: VUCA world, millennial and “cloud leaders”. Journal of Management Development, 34(7), 854–866. 16. Bachkirova, T. (2016). The self of the coach: Conceptualization, issues, and opportunities for practitioner development. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 68(2), 143–156.

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17. Drake, D. (2016). Working with narratives in coaching. In T.  Bachkirova, G.  Spence, & D. Drake (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of coaching (pp. 291–308). Sage. 18. Western, S. (2016). The key discourses of coaching. In T. Bachkirova, G. Spence, & D. Drake (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of coaching (pp. 42–61). Sage. 19. Whitmore, J. (2002). Coaching for performance: GROWing people, performance and purpose (3rd ed.). Nicholas Brealey Publishing. 20. Fordyce, M. (1977). Development of a program to increase personal happiness. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 24, 511–520. 21. Seligman, M., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55(1), 5–14. 22. Gable, S., & Haidt, J. (2005). What (and why) is positive psychology? Review of General Psychology, 9, 103–110. 23. Seligman, M., et al. (2005). Positive psychology progress: Empirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist, 60(5), 410–421. 24. Seligman, M., Rashid, T., & Parks, A. (2006). Positive psychotherapy. American Psychologist, 61, 774–788. 25. Peterson, C., Park, N., & Sweeney, P. (2008). Group well-being: Morale from a positive psychology perspective. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 57, 19–36.

Chapter 2

Traditional Psychology

This chapter details the theoretical research evidence for coaching from traditional behavioural, cognitive, developmental, humanistic, personality, and social psychology, and how the findings are applied to contemporary coaching practice. Psychology is the study of human behaviour and motivation. The word psychology is derived from the Greek word psyche, meaning ‘soul’ or ‘mind’. Psychologists research factors that influence human thinking and behaviour such as perception, cognition, attention, mental processing, intelligence, personality, emotions, and motivation. They attempt to understand the mental processes by which individuals take in information from the external environment, integrate that information with what they already know to make sense of it, and consequently react or respond. This is the process by which people learn, function, and respond to various situations that occur in their lives.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 S. Knowles, Positive Psychology Coaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88995-1_2

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Psychology is both an academic field of study and an applied discipline. As a meta-skillset, it can be applied to various occupations and organisations, for example: • • • • •

Clinical settings, such as medical and hospital facilities Educational settings, such as schools and universities Counselling settings, such as the Family Relations Centres Community settings, such as self-help and life-enhancing groups Organisational settings, such as corporates and institutions

The field and study of psychology began when Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology lab in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879 [1]. Wundt’s research utilised a school of thought known as structuralism which involved describing the structures that compose the mind. This perspective relied heavily on the analysis of sensations and feelings through the use of introspection, a highly subjective process. Wundt believed that properly trained individuals would be able to accurately identify the mental processes that accompany feelings, sensations, and thoughts. In the years that followed, a number of different schools of thought emerged with different explanations of human motivation and behaviour. Each proposed a different way of understanding human behaviour which was considered the dominant approach at that time, contributing in its own way to our current understanding of traditional psychology. Today, psychologists use a range of scientific methods including surveys, experiments, correlational studies, longitudinal studies, and other means, to test, explain, and predict behaviour.

Theoretical Foundations Psychologists research and apply findings from behavioural, cognitive, developmental, humanistic, personality, and social psychology theories into community and organisational practice (Fig. 2.1). These theories have significantly contributed to our understanding of human thought and behaviour. By learning more about these theories, coaches gain a deeper and richer understanding of psychology’s past, present, and future. In this chapter, the influence of traditional psychological fields of research on foundational coaching practice is outlined.

Behavioural Theories Early traditional behavioural theories were influenced by the work of three noted psychologists: Ivan Pavlov [2], John Watson [3], and B.F.  Skinner [4]. Pavlov is renowned for his stimulus-response work with dogs wherein he identified that dogs respond to food by salivating. This he called an unconditioned response. When he paired the presentation of food with a bell ringing, the dogs later salivated just by

Theoretical Foundations

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Fig. 2.1  Traditional psychology fields of research which inform coaching

the bell ringing alone (a conditioned response). This research was extended by Watson to show how people are conditioned to behave or react under certain circumstances. Rather than look to the internal, mental state of people, Watson put the emphasis on their external, observable behaviour and their reactions to certain situations. In his opinion, analysis of behaviours and subsequent reactions was the only objective method to gain insight into the human condition. He believed that he could train healthy infants to become any type of specialist regardless of their talents, abilities, preferences, or race. Watson argued for the nurture side of the nature-­ nurture debate. He proposed two major types of conditioning—classical and operant: • Classical Conditioning is a technique used in behavioural training in which a naturally occurring stimulus is paired with a response. Next, a previously neutral stimulus is paired with the naturally occurring stimulus. Eventually, the previously neutral stimulus comes to evoke the response without the presence of the naturally occurring stimulus. The two elements are then known as the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response. Watson’s Little Albert experiments demonstrated how an infant came to fear a rat and white rabbit when they were conditioned to do so. He therefore concluded that parents can shape a child’s behaviour and development simply by taking control of their stimulus-response associations. • Operant Conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behaviour. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between behaviour and the consequence of that behaviour. For example, we hear a sound—we look towards the source. We touch a hot stove—we only do this once. In the work environment: We go to work every day–we get paid. We do an extraordinary job—we may receive recognition at the next staff meeting, a ticket to the movies, or be allowed to leave work early.

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Skinner [4] is renowned for inventing the operant conditioning chamber also known as the Skinner Box. The box had a lever and a food tray, and a hungry rat would press the lever to get food delivered to the tray. Skinner observed that when a rat was put in the box, it would wander around sniffing and exploring, and would usually press the bar by accident, at which point a food pellet would drop into the tray. After that happened, the rate of bar-pressing would increase dramatically and remain high until the rat was no longer hungry. Skinner was a firm believer in the idea that human freewill was actually an illusion and any human action was the result of the consequences of a certain action. If the consequences were negative, there was a high chance that the action would not be repeated. However, if the consequences were positive, the actions led to the behaviour being repeated. He called this the principle of reinforcement. We use this principle to reward or punish all kinds of behaviours particularly those associated with child rearing. In summary, findings from behavioural theories influence coaching practice by facilitating the coach’s understanding of how behaviour is created in response to natural or constructed events, resulting in responses that become automated and routine over time. They also explain how behaviours that are positively reinforced persist whilst those that are negatively reinforced are not generally repeated. Understanding this, the coach reinforces the client’s positive experiences and assists them find ways to translate their learnings into future positive aspirations.

Cognitive Theories Until the 1950s, behavioural theories were the dominant school of thought in psychology. However between 1950 and 1970, the tide began to shift against behavioural psychology to focus on topics such as attention, memory, and problem-solving. Often referred to as the cognitive revolution, this period generated considerable interest in cognitive research methods and processing models, and resulted in the first use of the term cognitive psychology [5]. Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that studies mental processes including how people think, perceive, remember, and learn. Unlike behavioural psychology which focuses on external, visibly observable behaviours, cognitive psychology is focused on invisible, internal states such as motivation and satisfaction. The purpose of cognitive therapy is to focus on how people acquire, process, and store information. There are numerous practical applications for cognitive research such as ways to improve memory, increase decision-making accuracy, and design educational curricula to enhance learning. The original definition of cognition was subsequently expanded to include all processes, both conscious and imaginary (e.g. hallucinations) by which sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used. From this definition, it is apparent that cognition is involved in everything a human being might possibly do. Hence every psychological phenomenon is a cognitive phenomenon.

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Two main influences served to shape and inspire cognitive psychology as a formal school of thought: the development of new warfare technology during World War II which brought about the need for a greater understanding of human performance (e.g. how to best train soldiers to use new technology), and developments in computer science which led to parallels being drawn between human thought and the computational functionality of computers (the concept of artificial intelligence). By the early 1980s, the cognitive approach had become the dominant research line of inquiry in most psychology research fields. Subsequently, much of the work derived from cognitive psychology has been integrated into various other modern disciplines of psychological study including social, personality, abnormal, developmental, and educational psychology. Within these disciplines, coaches use cognitive psychology to identify beliefs that are holding clients back from what they desire, and reframe these beliefs into positive approaches to achieve behavioural change. An adjunct of cognitive-behaviour therapy is rational emotive behaviour therapy [6] which proposes that emotions are not directly determined by life events but rather by how these events are cognitively evaluated by the individual experiencing the event [7]. Research was based on the premise that emotions are primed by specific beliefs which in turn cause either a rational or irrational emotional response. Irrational beliefs are built on cognitions which do not have logical, pragmatic, or empirical support [8]. They have been empirically linked with several negatively dysfunctional affective outcomes or maladaptive behaviours [9]. On the contrary, rational beliefs have been associated with positive emotional and behavioural outcomes, and empirically linked with positive life outcomes [10, 11]. In a recent study, the rational emotive behaviour therapy model of psychological health has been found to explain 33% of the variance in levels of happiness and 40% of the variance in levels of optimism [12]. In summary, findings from cognitive theories influence coaching practice by facilitating the coach’s understanding of how cognitions influence behaviour especially as a result of intense experiences with an emotive content. Mental models which the client has constructed as a result of past experiences influence their future behaviour in either positive or negative ways depending on the person and situation. The significance of understanding cognitive-behavioural and rational-emotive theories is so that the coach addresses the invisible constructs within the client’s mind— their attention, perception, memories, etc.—by developing deeper rapport with them to uncover the assumptions and beliefs, judgements, and biases that are holding them back from being the person they want to be.

Developmental Theories There are a number of different views about the way in which psychological and physical development proceeds throughout the life span. The main controversy in developmental psychology centres round whether development is continuous or discontinuous. Scientists are still divided in their opinion. Stage theories of

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development rest on the assumption that development is a discontinuous process involving distinct stages which are characterised by qualitative differences in behaviour. This suggests that the development of certain abilities in each stage, such as specific emotions or ways of thinking, has a definite starting and ending point. There are many stage (discontinuous) theories in developmental psychology including the well-known Jean Piaget’s [13] theory of cognitive development which describes how children represent and reason about the world. Whilst some of these theories focus primarily on the healthy development of children, others propose stages that are characterised by a maturity rarely reached before old age. Stage theories can be contrasted with continuous theories which posit that development is an incremental process. Psychologists who support the continuous view of development suggest that growth involves gradual and ongoing changes throughout the life span, with behaviour in early life providing the basis for the development of skills and abilities required for later life. Continuous theories of development propose that, whilst some types of thinking, feeling, or behaving may seem to suddenly appear, there is no exact time at which the ability was developed. Rather, they suggest that it is more likely that these qualities and skills have been developing gradually for some time. In summary, findings from developmental theories influence coaching practice by facilitating the coach’s understanding of the way clients learn. Learning doesn’t have to be slow, as in growth stages that occur in certain periods of a client’s life. In fact, learning can be instantaneous—like a thunderbolt—when the client embraces the supportive coaching environment and trusts it to surface their innermost concerns. The coaching process can trigger Aha! moments of clarity from a quiet space of self-reflection, or in response to gentle yet challenging questioning by the coach.

Humanistic Theories Humanistic psychology theories developed as a reaction to psychoanalysis and behaviourism which dominated psychology in the early years of its development as a discrete discipline. Psychoanalysis was focused on understanding the unconscious motivations that drive behaviour whilst behaviourism studied the conditioning processes that produce observable behaviour. Humanist thinkers felt that both psychoanalysis and behaviourism were too pessimistic, either focusing on the most tragic of emotions or failing to take the role of personal choice into account. Humanistic psychology instead focused on each individual’s potential and stressed the importance of growth and self-actualisation. The fundamental belief of humanistic psychologists is that people are innately good and that mental and social problems are simply the result of deviations from this natural tendency. Whilst Carl Rogers [14– 16] is the acknowledged founder of humanistic psychology, his work was based on the earlier research of Carl Jung [17, 18] and Abraham Maslow [19, 20]. Carl Jung [17] is the founder of analytical psychology which introduced the concepts of individuation and the collective unconscious. He proposed that the introverted and

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extraverted aspects of personality are integrated by the process of individuation whilst still maintaining their relative autonomy. Jung considered individuation to be the central process of human development. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) [21, 22], a popular psychometric assessment instrument, was developed from Jung’s theories. Humanistic psychology was described by Abraham Maslow [23] as the ‘third force’ in psychology, the first and second forces being psychoanalysis and behaviourism, respectively. He proposed a Hierarchy of Needs (Fig. 2.2) with different motivations for behaviour at different levels of the hierarchy which presents a framework for understanding human motivation and striving to be a better person. First, people are motivated to fulfil basic biological needs for food and shelter as well as those of safety, love, and belonging. Once the lower level needs have been met, the primary motivator becomes the need for self-actualisation, or the desire to fulfil one’s higher potential. Humanistic theory argues that everyone strives to reach their potential unless obstacles are placed in their way. These obstacles include anything that takes their focus away from their need for physical and psychological growth. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs remains as valid today as when it was first formulated and applies to every person in every walk of life. Within the home environment, it explains why we all need food on the table and a warm place to sleep at night, secure in the knowledge that we won’t be harmed or our belongings taken away from us. Within an organisational setting, it highlights the responsibility of employers to provide a safe work environment which encourages and enables employees to fulfil their unique potential (self-actualisation). According to Maslow, people at the self-actualising level are comfortable with themselves and aware of their own objective and subjective judgements. They see problems as challenges and situations as requiring solutions, rather than as personal attacks and opportunities to lay blame. They are not susceptible to social pressures, relying on their own experiences to form opinions. They are fair, democratic, and non-discriminating, embracing all cultures, races, and individual styles. Socially compassionate, they possess humility and have only a few close friends. They are

Fig. 2.2  Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

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spontaneous and natural, creative and original, and seek out peak experiences that leave a lasting impression. Carl Rogers’s [24] client-centred approach (also known as person-centred) is a unique way of understanding personality and human relationships. It has found wide application in various domains such as psychotherapy and counselling, group and organisational dynamics. Rogers is known for developing the concept of unconditional positive regard which is based on the premise that a person accepts another as they are no matter what faults or flaws they may have—no judgement, just acceptance of the person’s basic worth. The concept of self is also fundamental to Rogers’ approach. The self is constructed from infancy as the person grows and interacts with their environment. The infant and child evaluate the outcomes of encounters with others, developing their own values, perceptions, and beliefs about self and others. As experiences occur in the life of the individual, they are either (a) symbolised, perceived, and organised into some relation to the self; (b) ignored because there is no perceived relationship to the self; or (c) denied symbolisation or given distorted symbolisation because the experience is inconsistent with the structure of the self. The values they attach to experiences are either their own values that they have developed over time, or the values of others that they have adopted as their own but through their own perceptual filters. Unconditional positive regard is the total acceptance of a person just as they are. They have strengths and weaknesses. They make mistakes. They act positively and at times, negatively. A coach who has unconditional positive regard for a client respects the individual but not their inappropriate behaviour. The coach works with these identified behaviours to help the client change them and behave more appropriately in the future. In the development of the self-concept, Rogers saw conditional and unconditional positive regard as key. Children raised in an environment of unconditional positive regard have the opportunity to fully actualise themselves. Those raised in an environment of conditional positive regard feel worthy only if they match conditions (which Rogers describes as conditions of worth) that have been laid down for them by others. In these instances, conditions put on them by those around them make it necessary for them to forego their genuine, authentic selves to meet with the approval of others. They live lives that are not true to themselves, to who they are on the inside. This incongruent individual, who is always on the defensive and cannot be open to all experiences, is not functioning ideally and may even become dysfunctional. They have to work hard to maintain/protect their self-concept. Because their lives are not authentic, this is a difficult task and they are under constant threat. They deploy defence mechanisms to achieve this. Rogers describes two mechanisms: distortion and denial. Distortion occurs when the individual perceives a threat to their self-concept. They distort the perception until it fits their version of self. This defensive behaviour reduces the consciousness of the threat but not the threat itself. And so, as the threat mounts, the work of protecting the self-concept becomes more difficult, and the individual becomes more defensive and rigid in their self-structure. If the incongruence becomes extreme, this process may lead the individual to a state that would typically be described as neurotic. If the situation worsens, it is possible

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that their defences may cease to function altogether. If this occurs, therapy needs to be conducted. In summary, findings from humanistic theories influence coaching practice by facilitating the coach’s understanding of individual needs and the drivers that motivate clients to behave as they do. A need is sometimes confused with a want, and it’s the coach’s role to make the client aware of this distinction. Clarification is important as it leads to goal-setting in relation to the client’s actual coaching needs. At the highest level, clients seek self-actualisation, and the coach facilitates their forward movement by providing unconditional positive regard for them and the efforts they make to realise their potential.

Personality Theories Personality is comprised of the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours that make a person unique. Almost every day, we describe and assess the personalities of the people around us. Whether we realise it or not, these daily musings on how and why people behave as they do are similar to what personality psychologists do. Some of the best-known theories in psychology are devoted to the subject of personality—how it is formed, and types of personalities. Whilst our informal assessments of personality tend to focus more on individuals, personality psychologists assess human behaviour using constructs of personality that can apply to everyone. Personality research has led to the development of a number of theories that help to explain how and why certain personality traits develop. Whilst there are many different theories of personality, the first step is to understand exactly what is meant by the term ‘personality’. Some of the fundamental characteristics of personality include: • Consistency—There is generally a recognisable order and regularity to behaviours. Essentially, people act in the same way or similar ways in a variety of situations. • Psychological and physiological—Personality is a psychological construct, but research suggests that it is also influenced by biological processes and needs. • Impact behaviours and actions—Personality does not just influence how we move and respond in our environment. It also causes us to act in certain ways. • Multiple expressions—Personality is displayed in more than just individual behaviour. It can also be deduced from expressed thoughts and feelings, and observations of close relationships and interactions in social interactions. There are a number of theories about how personality develops. Different schools of thought in psychology influence many of these theories: • Trait theories view personality as the result of internal characteristics that are genetically based, e.g. height, intelligence, or disposition.

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• Type theories provided the earliest perspectives on personality. These theories suggested that there are a number of traits related to biological influences which can be combined into personality types, e.g. as categorised by the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. • Psychodynamic theories of personality were heavily influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud and emphasise the influence of the unconscious on personality. They include Freud’s psychosexual stage theory [25] and Erik Erikson’s [26] stages of psychosocial development. • Behavioural theories propose that personality is a result of interaction between the individual and the environment. Behaviourists study observable and measurable behaviours, rejecting theories that take internal thoughts and feelings into account. • Humanist theories emphasise the importance of freewill and individual experience in the development of personality. In summary, findings from personality theories influence coaching practice by facilitating the coach’s understanding of how personality is developed over time  from the characteristic patterns of thoughts and behaviours of  clients as they navigate and respond to stimuli in their external environment. Characteristic traits were thought to develop into personality types with predictable responses to certain situations and events. Evoking the notion of freewill, the coach’s role is to bring behavioural flexibility into the client’s life so they realise that their behaviour is not fixed but can be moulded to offer a more appropriate behavioural response to difficult situations.

Social Psychology Theories Social psychology is focused on understanding and explaining behaviour in social situations. Social theories are generally centred on specific social phenomena including group behaviour, pro-social behaviour, social influence, social attraction, and acceptance. According to psychologist Gordon Allport [27], social psychology is a discipline that uses scientific methods to understand and explain how thoughts, feelings, and the behaviour of individuals are influenced by events either real, imagined, or implied by other human beings. Social psychology looks at a wide range of social topics including group behaviour, social perception, non-verbal behaviour, conformity, aggression, and prejudice. It is important to note that social psychology is not just about examining social influences. Social perception and social interaction are also vital to understanding social behaviour. Although concepts such as social loafing and social facilitation were introduced in the late 1800s, it wasn’t until after World War II that research on social psychology began in earnest. The horrors of war led researchers to study the effects of social influence, conformity, and obedience. The social psychology movement continued to grow throughout the twentieth century, inspiring research that has contributed to our current understanding of social experience and behaviour.

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Social psychology is often confused with personality psychology and sociology. What makes social psychology different from personality psychology is that personality psychology focuses on individual traits, characteristics, and thoughts whilst social psychology focuses on situations. Unlike folk wisdom which relies on anecdotal observations and subjective interpretation, social psychology employs scientific methods to empirically study social phenomena. Social psychologists are interested in the impact that the social environment and group interactions have on attitudes and behaviours. Personality psychologists instead focus on situational variables that affect individual behaviour in social environments. Social psychology is also different from sociology in that, whilst there are many similarities between the two, sociology tends to look at social behaviour and influences at a very broad-­ based level. Sociologists are interested in the institutions and culture that influence social psychology. So, whilst psychology and sociology both study similar topics, they are looking at these topics from different perspectives. In summary, findings from social psychology theories influence coaching practice by facilitating the coach’s understanding that learning occurs in social situations. New behaviours may be practised within the coaching environment, but it is not until they are enacted in the client’s regular social settings that they will be either reinforced or rejected. The coach’s role is to provide opportunities for the client to role-play the new behaviours in their most likely social situations within the safety of the coaching space, so they can predict, in part, what the various reactions might be and be prepared to counter the negatives with positive responses.

Summary of Contributions Table 2.1 summarises the key traditional psychological constructs and their applicability to coaching. Appendix 1 summarises the major traditional psychology and educational researchers whose work has underpinned these constructs.

Table 2.1  Summary of traditional psychology constructs underpinning coaching Behavioural •  Visible, observable behaviours • Stimulus-response •  Extrinsic/intrinsic rewards Cognitive •  Mental mindset •  Limiting beliefs •  Reframing perspectives Developmental • Learning •  Growth and development •  Achieving potential

Humanistic • Needs/wants •  Unconditional positive regard • Non-judgemental Personality •  Individual differences •  Personality preferences •  Stress and burnout Social • Self-efficacy •  Social referencing •  Group behaviour

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Application to Coaching The evidence for coaching from traditional psychology research relates to the developmental nature of coaching and the effectiveness of the relational, social, and reflective coaching process. Each branch of traditional psychological theory contributes to our understandings of coaching as it is delivered in practice today. From a coaching perspective, behavioural theories of psychology demonstrate how conditioning can be used to change behaviour as a result of learning new information, ‘trying out’ new behaviours, and reinforcing successful behaviours. Behavioural psychologists are concerned with observing and recording visible behaviours to look for behavioural change. From a coaching perspective, clients are assisted to change their behaviour in ways that will help them solve their own problems and achieve their goals. Actions that the client decides to take as a result of coaching are indicators of their willingness to change. Cognitive theories of psychology allow the coach to understand the client’s internal states such as attention, perception, memory, motivation, problem-solving, decision-­making, thinking, and learning, as well as how they acquire, process, and store information. Cognitive-behavioural therapy, as applied in a modified form to coaching, helps the client restructure their mental representation through cognitive trial-and-error to discover different perspectives and mindsets that support, encourage, or hold-back, the acquisition of their desired goals. Coaches work with clients to identify their limiting beliefs, reframe negative thoughts into positive aspirations, and change their mental models into more optimistic ways of behaving. Rational emotive behavioural theory informs the coach’s understanding of how emotions influence cognition and behaviour. Developmental  theories of psychology explain how people learn, grow, and develop. Research has focused on individuals and groups in educational institutions and organisations which promote individual growth and development. Coaches benefit from this research which has shown that people who believe their ability to be fixed will behave in ways different from those who believe that they have some control over their ability to learn, change, and improve. Adopting a mindset which believes in growing the potential of all clients, coaches are able to help them find optimum solutions to the situations or issues they face. Humanistic theories of psychology inform the coaching relationship and how the coach conducts the coaching practice. The focus is on maximising an individual’s potential, stressing the importance of firstly security, love and belonging, then goal achievement, and ultimately self-actualisation. Applying unconditional positive regard to the coaching relationship, the fundamental belief of coaches with a humanistic mindset is that people are innately good and that mental and social problems are simply the result of deviations from this natural tendency. Personality theories of psychology seek to uncover the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours that make a person unique. Personality research helps to explain how and why personality develops, based on an understanding of individual traits and how these may be aggregated into types of personalities. Knowledge of personality behaviours, motivations, and types helps the coach understand client preferences, tendencies, and possible intentions. There are a

Appendix 1: Summary of Psychodynamic and Educational Underpinnings of Coaching

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number of commercially available personality profiles and assessment instruments that the coach can use to assist clients discover more about themselves. Social theories of psychology have focused on the impact that the social environment and group interactions have on individual attitudes and behaviours. Research findings inform understandings of how individual thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are influenced by group and social events, either real, imagined, or implied by other human beings. Findings help the coach understand the impact on the client of phenomena such as group behaviour, social perception, conformity, aggression, and prejudice, and support client behavioural change actions back in their real world. In summary, when clients identify goals that they have not previously been able to achieve, coaches work with them using behavioural and cognitive techniques within humanistic and social frameworks. • Behavioural coaching proposes that difficulties are caused by repetitive behaviour and behaviour patterns. The coach assists the client identify these unhelpful patterns of behaviour. • Cognitive coaching challenges unhelpful thoughts associated with behaviour and patterns and assists clients substitute more appropriate ways of thinking and interacting with others. Coaches assist clients reframe limiting beliefs into positive, empowering beliefs which help them solve their own problems. During coaching, the coach may use a combination of cognitive-behavioural and rational-­emotive behavioural approaches to inform coaching practice. • During coaching, the coach offers unconditional positive regard, holds the client accountable without judgement, and believes that they have the solutions within. It is the coach’s role to surface these solutions and for the client to test them in the real world—their workplace or family setting—via the use of structured scenarios. • Finally, the coach uses scenario coaching to demonstrate the importance of the social environment in either supporting or thwarting the client’s attempts to change. The aim is always for the client to self-adjust towards goal attainment, using resilience and motivation strategies coupled with emotional intelligence. Clients learn how to look inwards to resolve their issues rather than blaming others for the situation in which they find themselves.

 ppendix 1: Summary of Psychodynamic and Educational A Underpinnings of Coaching Theory and exponents Description Behavioural theories Law of effect [28] Thorndike found that when a stimulus results in a satisfying response, the stimulus is likely to be repeated. Classical conditioning Pavlov’s research on conditioned reflexes influenced the rise of behaviourism in psychology. His experimental methods helped move (stimulus-response) psychology away from introspection and subjective assessments to theory [2] objective measurement of behaviour.

24 Theory and exponents Observation of human behaviours Watson [3] Operant conditioning [4]

Cognitive theories Cognitive based therapy [29, 30]

2  Traditional Psychology Description Watson is often referred to as the father of behaviourism. His focus on observable behaviours and objectivity had a strong influence on psychology. The behavioural perspective dominated the field during the first half of the twentieth century. Skinner discovered that one reinforcement of an arbitrary response is enough to develop a conditioned response. Intermittent reinforcement continues to shape the behaviour. His behaviour modification and intervention techniques are used to change problem behaviours or reinforce new ones.

Cognitive based therapy (CBT) is short-term and focused on helping the client identify limiting beliefs which are holding them back from achieving their goals. Rational emotive behavioural therapy (REBT) is an action-oriented Rational emotive approach to addressing thoughts, emotions, and behaviours that are behavioural therapy unhelpful to the client and can create self-sabotaging routines. [6, 31] Goals which are specific, measurable, time-bound, and relevant are more Goal-setting theory [32–34] likely to be achieved than those which are not. Self-efficacy is a supportive precursor to achieving difficult goals. Goal-oriented coaching uses cognitive reframing to convert negative Goal-oriented, thoughts into positive goals to be achieved. solution-focused Solution-focused coaching aims to accurately identify the problem and coaching [35, 36] quickly conceive of possible solutions to it. It is a collaborative, future-focused approach to return the client into taking control of their life. Developmental theories Education [37] Dewey’s emphasis on progressive education has greatly contributed to the use of experimentation rather than an authoritarian approach to learning. His theory links the mind and body via primary and secondary experiential learning. Piaget was one of the first researchers to suggest that children think Cognitive differently from adults, a concept that was considered revolutionary at development theory the time. He believed that development of the structures of the brain is [13] key to the ability to accomplish tasks. Psychosocial Erik Erikson’s stage theory of psychosocial development helped development [26] generate interest and inspire research on human development through the lifespan including events of childhood, adulthood, and old age, reinforcing the influence of parents, family, social institutions, and a particular culture. Experiential learning Adults learn by a four-stage, experiential process of doing, reflecting, [38] theorising, and refining actions. Kolb described four distinct learning styles, based on the four-stage learning cycle. Adult learning theory Core andragogical principles include the learner’s need to know, [39–41] self-directed learning, prior experiences of the learner, readiness to learn, orientation to learning and problem-solving, and motivation to learn. Transformative theory Critical self-reflection stimulates shifts in thinking which prompt action. Transformative learning changes perspectives to make them more open, of adult learning inclusive, and discriminating. [42–44]

Appendix 1: Summary of Psychodynamic and Educational Underpinnings of Coaching Theory and exponents Motivation [45], self-theory [46], implicit person theory [47], and mindset theory [48] Motivational theories Need hierarchy theory [19, 20]

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Description Variations in students’ engagement, persistence, and achievement can be attributed to whether they view their intelligence (ability) to be fixed or malleable. A positive mental mindset influences what people believe they can do rather than what they cannot do.

Maslow is best known as the founder of humanistic psychology. His Hierarchy of Needs and concepts of self-actualisation and peak experiences remain influential to this day, especially in the field of positive psychology. Human motivation McClelland proposed that every person is primarily motivated by one of theory [49] three drivers: n-ach (achievement), n-affil (affiliation), or n-pow (power). McClelland believed that most people possess and exhibit a combination of these characteristics. Two-factor theory Hertzberg identified two major factors affecting job satisfaction and [50] dissatisfaction which he called hygiene factors (e.g. status, job security, salary, and fringe benefits—which do not contribute to employee satisfaction at work); and motivator factors (e.g. challenging work, recognition, responsibility—which lead to positive satisfaction with work). Theory X & Y [51] McGregor proposed that managers relate and behave in different ways to their employees depending on whether they believe the employee dislikes work and won’t accept responsibility (Theory X) or is self-motivated, likes work, and assumes responsibility for their work (Theory Y). ERG need theory [52] Alderfer proposed a threefold conceptualisation of human needs— existence, relatedness, and growth (E.R.G.)—which, contrary to Maslow’s hierarchy, does not assume satisfaction of lower-order needs before achieving self-actualisation. Expectancy theory There are three components of this theory: valence, the value a person [53] places on achieving a specific outcome (positive or negative); expectancy, a person’s subjective, bipolar probability estimate that their action will, or will not, be followed by an outcome; and instrumentality, the person’s perception of the probability that their performance will lead to a specific outcome if they behave in a certain way. Equity theory [54] Adams proposed that people attempt to maintain fairness by comparing their inputs and outputs with that of others performing the same action. As long as the ratio between their inputs and outputs is equal to that of others, individuals will perceive the situation to be fair. Personality theories Personality theory Jung developed a typology of personality functions or attitudes which [18] was later adapted to construct the Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) [22]. Personality Allport was one of the founding figures of personality psychology. He psychology [55] developed a trait theory of personality that described three broad categories of personality traits. Personality factors Cattell is best known for his use of multivariate analysis and his [56] 16-factor questionnaire which has been widely used in career coaching.

26 Theory and exponents Humanistic theories Analytical psychology [17] Self-psychology [57]

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Jung broke away from Freudian psychology to develop the concepts of individuation, archetypes, and the collective unconscious. Karen Horney was a prominent psychoanalyst best-known for her theories on neurosis, feminism, and self-psychology which includes concepts of self-confidence and personal assets (autonomous convictions, self-reliance, realistic appraisal of and assuming responsibility for self, having strength and capacity for feelings, and establishing good human relationships). Individual psychology Adler’s research investigated areas such as the creative self, lifestyle, [58] family constellation, and social and community interest. His concepts included horizontal interpersonal communication, reasonable cooperation, unconditional respect for the individual as a member of a democratic society, and social equality. Client-centred theory Rogers was one of the most influential psychologists of the twentieth [15, 16] century. He developed the non-directive, client-centred approach to counselling and therapy in non-medical settings, and founded the professional counselling movement. Social theories Sociocultural theory Vygotsky is the founder of sociocultural theory. He researched the [59, 60] relationship between learning and development in general, and special education populations. He studied the interaction of the natural, individual, and social forces leading to mind consciousness and how humans make meaning from their environment. His concepts of the zone of proximal development and guided practice continue to be highly influential in educational settings. Social psychology Kurt Lewin is often referred to as the father of modern social [61–63] psychology. His pioneering theories argued that behaviour is caused by both personal characteristics and the environment. Lewin’s emphasis on scientific methodology and systematic in-depth study of concrete examples had an enormous impact on future research in social psychology. Social pressure Asch’s conformity experiments demonstrated that people will claim that [64–66] something is correct when it obviously is not due to social pressure from peers. Asch also had an important influence on psychologist Stanley Milgram, whose obedience experiments were inspired by Asch’s work. Festinger was an influential social psychologist who is well-known for Social comparison his Social Comparison theory as well as his theory of Cognitive theory [67] Cognitive dissonance Dissonance. Cognitive dissonance occurs when a person simultaneously holds two or more elements of knowledge that are relevant to each other theory [68, 69] but inconsistent. Indecision results. Social Learning theory posits that all learning takes place in a social Psychological modelling [70], social setting, e.g. school, work, or family environment. Learning takes place learning theory [71], by inspection of the situation and observation of models. Bandura is a self-efficacy [72, 73] known for his famous ‘Bobo doll’ experiment in which children were exposed to violent role models whose behaviour they emulated, especially when it was modelled by a same-sex adult. He introduced the concept of self-efficacy to describe the inner belief in oneself that one could perform a task, especially a difficult task, to achieve a specific goal.

References

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Theory and exponents Description Social cognitive Bandura’s work is considered part of the cognitive revolution in theory [74–77] psychology that began in the late 1960s. His theories have had tremendous impact on personality psychology, cognitive psychology, education, and therapy. Dweck’s theory applies to motivation and personality as precursors of goal achievement. Mizokawa and Koyasu investigated social relationships and emotional competence from a social cognitive perspective. Social modelling [78] Zimbardo conducted a famous experiment during the early 1970s known as the Stanford Prison Experiment. He is also widely recognised for his research on shyness, cult behaviour, and heroism.

References 1. Rieber, R. (1980). Wilhelm Wundt and the making of a scientific psychology. Springer US. 2. Pavlov, I. (1927). Conditioned reflexes: An investigation of the physiological activity of the cerebral cortex. Oxford University Press. 3. Watson, J. (Ed.). (1931). Behaviorism (2nd ed.). Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner. 4. Skinner, B. (1938). The behaviour of organisms: An experimental analysis. Appleton-Century. 5. Neisser, U. (1967). Cognitive psychology. Appleton-Century-Crofts. 6. Ellis, A. (1962). Reason and emotion in psychotherapy. L. Stuart. 7. David, D., Lynn, S., & Ellis, A. (2009). Rational and irrational beliefs: Research, theory, and clinical practice. Oxford University Press, Inc. 8. David, D., & Cramer, D. (2009). Rational and irrational beliefs in human feelings and psychophysiology. In D. David, S. Lynn, & A. Ellis (Eds.), Rational and irrational beliefs: Research, theory, and clinical practice. Oxford University Press, Inc. 9. Vîslâ, A., et  al. (2016). Irrational beliefs and psychological distress: A meta-analysis. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 85(1), 8–15. 10. Balkis, M., Duru, E., & Bulus, M. (2012). Analysis of the relation between academic procrastination, academic rational/irrational beliefs, time preferences to study for exams, and academic achievement: A structural model. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 28(3), 825–839. 11. Balkis, M. (2013). Academic procrastination, academic life satisfaction and academic achievement: The mediation role of rational beliefs about studying. Journal of Cognitive and Behavioral Psychotherapies, 13(1), 57–74. 12. Oltean, H., et al. (2019). Rational beliefs, happiness and optimism: An empirical assessment of REBT’s model of psychological health. International Journal of Psychology, 54(4), 495–500. 13. Piaget, J. (1950). The psychology of intelligence. Routledge and Paul. 14. Rogers, C. (1951). Client-centered therapy: Its current practice, implications and theory. Houghton Mifflin. 15. Rogers, C.  R. (1959). A theory of therapy, personality, and interpersonal relationships, as developed in the client-centered framework. In S. Koch (Ed.), Psychology: A study of a science—Vol. 3. Formulations of the person and the social context (pp. 184–256). McGraw-Hill. 16. Rogers, C. (1961). On becoming a person. Houghton Mifflin. 17. Jung, C. (1917). Collected papers on analytical psychology (2nd ed.). Bailliere, Tindall and Cox. 18. Jung, C. (1921). Personality theory. Rascher. 19. Maslow, A. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370–396. 20. Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and personality. Harper and Row. 21. Myers, I. (1962). The Myers-Briggs type indicator manual. Educational Testing Service.

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2 2. Myers, I. (1980). Gifts differing. Consulting Psychologists Press. 23. Maslow, A. (1962). Toward a psychology of being. Van Nostrand. 24. Rogers, C. (1956). Client-centered theory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 3(2), 115–120. 25. Freud, S. (1948). Psychopathology of everyday life. Ernest Benn. 26. Erikson, E. (1959). Identity and the life cycle: Selected papers (Vol. 1). International Universities Press. 27. Allport, G. (1955). Becoming: Basic considerations for a psychology of personality. Yale University Press. 28. Thorndike, E. (1911). Animal intelligence: Experimental studies. Macmillan. 29. Neenan, M. (2008). From cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) to cognitive behaviour coaching (CBC). Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 26(1), 3–15. 30. Beck, A. (1976). Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders. International Universities Press. 31. Ellis, A. (1995). Changing rational-emotive therapy (RET) to rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT). Journal of Rational-Emotive and Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 13(2), 85–89. 32. Locke, E., & Latham, G. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American Psychologist, 57(9), 705–717. 33. Locke, E., & Latham, G. (2013). Goal-setting theory (pp. 313–317). Sage. 34. Locke, E., & Latham, G. (2006). New directions in goal-setting theory. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15(5), 265–268. 35. Grant, A. (2001). Towards a psychology of coaching, in Department of Psychology. Macquarie University. 36. Green, L., Oades, L., & Grant, A. (2006). Cognitive-behavioral, solution-focused life coaching: Enhancing goal striving, well-being, and hope. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 1(3), 142–149. 37. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. Macmillan. 38. Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential learning experience as a source of learning and development. Prentice Hall. 39. Knowles, M. (1975). Self-directed learning: A guide for learners and teachers. Follett Publishing Co. 40. Knowles, M. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy. Cambridge Books. 41. Knowles, M. (1984). Andragogy in action. Jossey-Bass. 42. Mezirow, J. (1995). Transformative theory of adult learning. In M. Welton (Ed.), Defense of the lifeworld. State University of New York Press. 43. Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative dimensions of adult learning. Jossey-Bass. 44. Mezirow, J. (1990). Fostering critical reflection in adulthood: A guide to transformative and emancipatory learning. Jossey-Bass Publishers. 45. Dweck, C. (1986). Motivational processes affecting learning. American Psychologist, 41(10), 1040–1048. 46. Dweck, C. (2000). Self-theories: Their role in motivation, personality, and development. Psychology Press. 47. Dweck, C., Chiu, C., & Hong, Y. (1995). Implicit theories: Elaboration and extension of the model. Psychological Inquiry, 6(4), 322–333. 48. Yeager, D., & Dweck, C. (2012). Mindsets that promote resilience: When students believe that personal characteristics can be developed. Educational Psychologist, 47(4), 302–314. 49. McClelland, D. (1967). The achieving society. Free Press. 50. Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. B. (1959). The motivation to work (Vol. 2). Wiley. 51. McGregor, D. (1960). The human side of enterprise. McGraw-Hill. 52. Alderfer, C. (1969). An empirical test of a new theory of human needs. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 4(2), 142–175. 53. Vroom, V. (1964). Work and motivation. Wiley.

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54. Adams, J. (1963). Towards an understanding of inequity. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 67, 422. 55. Allport, F., & Allport, G. (1921). Personality traits: Their classification and measurement. The Journal of Abnormal Psychology and Social Psychology, 16(1), 6–40. 56. Cattell, R. (1947). Confirmation and clarification of primary personality factors. Psychometrika U6, 12(3), 197–220. 57. Horney, K. (1950). Neurosis and human growth: The struggle toward self-realization. Norton. 58. Adler, A., Ansbacher, H., & Ansbacher, R. (1956). The individual psychology of Alfred Adler: A systematic presentation in selections from his writings. Basic Books. 59. Vygotsky, L. (1934). Thinking and speech. In R. W. Rieber & A. S. Carton (Eds.), The collected works of L. S. Vygotsky, Vol. 1. Problems of general psychology (pp. 39–288). Plenum Press. 60. Vygotskiĭ, L., & Cole, M. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press. 61. Lewin, K. (1935). A dynamic theory of personality: Selected papers. McGraw-Hill. 62. Lewin, K. (1943). Defining the ‘field at a given time’. Psychological Review, 50(3), 292–310. 63. Lewin, K. (1944). Constructs in psychology and psychological ecology. University of Iowa Studies in Child Welfare, 20, 1–29. 64. Asch, S. (2008). Effects of group pressure upon the modification and distortion of judgements. Managerial Psychology, 193–203. 65. Asch, S. (1955). Opinions and social pressure. Scientific American, 193(5), 31–35. 66. Asch, S. (1956). Studies of independence and conformity: A minority of one against a unanimous majority. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 70(9), 1–70. 67. Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7(2), 117–140. 68. Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford University Press. 69. Festinger, L. (1964). Conflict, decision, and dissonance. Stanford University Press. 70. Bandura, A. (1971). Psychological modeling: Conflicting theories. Aldine-Atherton. 71. Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Prentice Hall. 72. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. Freeman. 73. Bandura, A., & Locke, E. (2003). Negative self-efficacy and goal effects revisited. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(1), 87–99. 74. Bandura, A., Davidson, H., & Davidson, J. (2003). Bandura’s social cognitive theory: An introduction. Davidson Films, Inc. 75. Bandura, A. (2006). Toward a psychology of human agency. In Perspectives on psychological science (Vol. 1, pp. 164–180). Sage. 76. Dweck, C., & Leggett, E. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95(2), 256–273. 77. Mizokawa, A., & Koyasu, M. (2015). Digging deeper into the link between socio-cognitive ability and social relationships. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 33(1), 21–23. 78. Zimbardo, P., Goldstein, L., & Utley, G. (1971). The Stanford prison experiment chronolog. NBC-TV.

Chapter 3

Positive Psychology

This chapter explains how research findings from the newly emerged field of positive psychology contribute to contemporary coaching practice. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi and Martin Seligman are the founder and father of the positive psychology movement, and their research has had a monumental influence on how positive psychology coaching is conducted today. In contrast to the goal of traditional psychological research which is to understand human thinking and behaviour in relation to clinical populations, the goal of positive psychological research is to understand how to bring greater happiness, joy, meaning, and fulfilment into the lives of non-clinical populations, which ultimately benefits society as a whole. Positive psychology has been defined as the scientific study of what makes life most worth living [1]. It focuses on the science of three essential elements: positive subjective experience, positive individual traits, and positive institutions. The field of positive psychology is intended to complement, not replace, traditional psychology. It does not seek to deny the importance of studying how things go wrong, but rather to emphasise the importance of determining how things go right. Seligman explains: Research findings from positive psychology are intended to supplement, not remotely to replace, what is known about human suffering, weakness, and disorder. The intent is to have a more complete and balanced scientific understanding of the human experience—the peaks, the valleys, and everything in between. We believe that a complete science and a complete practice of psychology should include an understanding of suffering and happiness as well as their interaction, and validated interventions that both relieve suffering and increase happiness—two separable endeavours. [2]

Positive psychologists study what brings greater happiness and fulfilment in life. They aim to find and nurture genius and talent, and help those people leading normal, everyday lives do even better. Their concern is with wellness rather than

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 S. Knowles, Positive Psychology Coaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88995-1_3

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illness. Hence, positive psychology focuses on what’s going right in a person’s life and building on that to achieve greater happiness. It is concerned with enabling: • Positive experiences that bring joy, love, and inspiration to people’s lives, • Positive states and traits such as gratitude, resilience, compassion, and creativity, and • Positive work environments which apply positive principles within entire organisations and institutions.

Theoretical Foundations In the late 1900s, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi began researching in areas that were outside the fields of traditional psychology, studying happiness and creativity, optimal experience [3], and the evolving self [4]. Most notable is Csikszentmihalyi’s concept of flow [5, 6]. He noticed that artists fell into a particular state of mind whilst they were working, characterised by an intense focus and great concentration on the task at hand to the point of losing track of time for hours on end. As he gathered more descriptions of this phenomenon, he observed six factors that characterise a flow experience: 1. Being present ‘in the moment’, 2. The merging of action and awareness—being fully present in the task at hand, 3. A lack of attention to the self, e.g. food, sleep, 4. A sense of personal control in the situation, 5. A distorted sense of time passing, and 6. Experiencing the activity or situation as intrinsically rewarding. The term positive psychology was coined by Albert Maslow in his 1954 publication Motivation and Personality [7]. After more than four decades, it was revived by Martin Seligman when it became the theme of his Presidential address to the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1998. The focus of traditional psychology at that time was on pathology and illness [8]. Seligman grew frustrated with so much attention being paid to mental illness, abnormal psychology, trauma, suffering, and pain, and relatively little to happiness, wellbeing, exceptionalism, strengths, and flourishing. He believed that not enough emphasis was placed on the strengths and positive characteristics of people, groups, and society [9]. As President of the APA, Seligman welcomed the opportunity to alter the direction of the field from such an influential position. He proposed a new branch of psychology with a focus on what is life-giving rather than life-taking. This alternate focus on positivity and happiness opened a whole new avenue of research and applications well beyond the discipline of traditional psychology. Positive psychology researchers analyse concepts such as states of pleasure, values, virtues, and talents, as well as the ways that they can be promoted across society. Csikszentmihalyi later collaborated with Seligman to write the first introductory text on positive psychology [1].

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Seligman’s seminal works spawned a whole new era in thinking about how cognitions influence behaviour. They address key areas such as: • Authentic happiness [10] which he described using the acronym PERMA which stands for Positive emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, Achievement [11]. • Pessimism versus optimism [12] which is based on the dimensions of permanence, pervasiveness, and personalisation relating to an event. • Learned helplessness [13, 14]—a state in which an individual fails to act because of prior negative experiences—which can be related to situations today such as exam anxiety, or reluctance to apply for promotion after unsuccessful attempts.

Learned Helplessness Seligman developed his theories as an extension of psychological conditioning theory in which a person or an animal has learned to act or behave helplessly—usually after experiencing some inability to avoid an adverse situation—even when it actually has the power to change its unpleasant or even harmful circumstance. Seligman saw a similarity with severely depressed patients and argued that clinical depression and related mental illness result in part from a perceived, rather than actual, absence of control over the outcome of a situation. According to Seligman, helplessness is the state of affairs in which nothing individuals do affects what happens to them. He uses the analogy of a newborn baby to explain the concept. Life begins in utter helplessness (as a newborn baby). The period between infancy and later life is a process of emerging from helplessness into gaining personal control, i.e. having the ability to change things by one’s voluntary actions. What people think about life diminishes or enlarges the control they have over it. Cognitions control actions which determine the future. Coaches work with clients to help them understand that ‘we are what we believe’ and because we choose what we think, we don’t have to choose to be a victim. In Seligman’s renowned learned helplessness experiment, an animal was repeatedly hurt by an adverse stimulus which it could not escape. Eventually the animal stopped trying to avoid the pain and behaved as if it was utterly helpless. Finally, when the opportunity to escape was presented, the learned helplessness prevented it from taking any action. The only coping mechanism the animal used was to be stoic and put up with the discomfort, not expending energy getting distressed about their adverse situation. This and subsequent experiments emphasised the importance of people having some control over their life. Those who believe they have no control choose to stay with the pain and do not try to escape when the opportunity presents itself. They suffer physically, mentally, and emotionally until they become a ‘shadow’ of themselves. Seligman’s theory of learned helplessness [13] can be applied to people in numerous situations. For example, a child who is always told they are ‘no good’ or that everything they do is ‘not good enough’ tends to give up

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on gaining the approval, love, and support they seek. A person ‘imprisoned’ within their own walls of doubt and under-confidence is reluctant to give up this situation which they know, to try to become someone better.

Optimism/Pessimism Related to learned helplessness are the concepts of optimism and pessimism. Individuals who are pessimistic are more prone to developing learned helplessness. Seligman [9] proposed that there are two ways of thinking about events—optimistically or pessimistically. He coined the term explanatory style to describe the manner in which individuals habitually explain to themselves why things happen. In general, pessimists tend to believe that negative events will last a long time, determine everything they do, and are their own fault. Optimists tend to believe that defeat is just a temporary setback and not their fault, its causes are confined to this one case, and these situations are challenges which indicate they need to try harder. There are three crucial dimensions to the explanatory style: permanence, pervasiveness, and personalisation. Coaches ask clients who find themselves in adverse situations to answer these three questions to assess the degree to which they believe they have control over the situation, that is, the degree to which they feel helpless: 1. How long will this situation last? 2. To how many areas of your life does this apply? 3. For what part of this situation are you responsible? Feelings of helplessness are at the heart of the phenomenon of pessimism. However, there are some benefits to being mildly pessimistic since it heightens our sense of reality and endows us with accuracy. But extreme pessimism can be quite debilitating. The fundamental guideline for not using optimism is to ask what the cost of failure is in the particular situation. If the cost is too high, optimism is the wrong strategy. Situations in which individuals have perceived control are associated with optimism [15] which Seligman [9] defined as a personal style that attributes positive events to personal, permanent, and pervasive causes and negative events to external, temporary, and situation-specific circumstances. An optimistic outlook has been identified as one of the characteristics of entrepreneurs [16].

Authentic Happiness The characteristics of a fully functioning individual had already been described by Rogers [17] as: • Openness to experience: Individuals move away from defensiveness and have no need to unconsciously apply strategies to prevent a troubling stimulus from entering their awareness.

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• An existential lifestyle: Individuals increasingly live ‘in the moment’, fully experiencing life in all its wonders and sorrows. This results in living authentically with excitement, daring, adaptability, tolerance, spontaneity, and creativity. • Organismic trust: Individuals trust their own judgement and ability to choose behaviour that is appropriate for each moment. They do not rely on existing social practices and norms but trust their own sense of right and wrong more often. • Freedom of choice: Individuals are not restricted by influences that challenge their internal congruence. They are responsible for choosing their own behaviours from a range of choices that are readily available to them. • Creativity: Individuals feel free to be creative in how they adapt to their circumstances and no longer feel the need to conform. • Reliability: Individuals act constructively whilst maintaining a balance between all their needs. • A rich full life: Individuals experience emotions and feelings more intensely because they are fully open to them, e.g. joy and pain, love and heartbreak, fear and apprehension. Seligman built on these positive constructs when he described authentic happiness. This construct is not just about achieving human happiness. It is about achieving human flourishing which has five core elements (abbreviated to PERMA) [11]: • Positive emotion. Every day, individuals are encouraged to journal three things that went well, and why. • Engagement. Individuals are encouraged to preferentially use their highest strengths to perform the tasks they would normally do. • Relationships. Individuals are recommended to fine-tune the positive elements of each relationship in which they are involved. • Meaning. Individuals are encouraged to find meaning and belonging as they serve ‘something bigger’ than themselves. • Achievement. According to Seligman, determination  counts for more than intelligence. When a client adopts the PERMA principles, they find their life enriched beyond expectation. They achieve optimal development in which they fulfil their potential, lead a full and meaningful life, and become ‘Master of their own Destiny’. Happy and fulfilled clients have a positive attitude, take responsibility for their actions, accept support when needed, and make positive contributions to those around them. They face up to life’s challenges rather than denying them, do not make excuses to justify decisions or actions, and do not externalise blame or quit (give up) on themselves and their ability to solve their problem or reach their goal (Fig. 3.1). This state of optimal development is also referred to as a state of psychological wellness which is more than an absence of mental problems. Rather, it is conceived as the presence of self-acceptance, a sense of purposefulness, mastery, positive relationships with other people, and feelings of continued growth and autonomy [18]. Self-determination theory [19] proposes that psychological wellness is facilitated by the satisfaction of three basic innate psychological needs which foster individual

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Fig. 3.1  Master of your own destiny

growth and wellbeing—the need for autonomy, competence, and mastery. The need for autonomy relates to the individual’s ability to have choice in their actions, feel validated by the experience [20], and be the architect of their own behaviour [21]. The need for competence relates to opportunities to use their strengths and feel effective in doing so [22]. The need for mastery is fuelled by the desire for self-­ actualisation [23]. In summary, concepts from traditional psychological research have been combined with positive psychology findings to inform contemporary coaching practice. Academic research has validated that rational beliefs act as cognitive protective factors against negative psychological experiences like depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress [24, 25]. Findings from current research indicate that rational emotive cognitive behaviour processes are positively associated not only with negative emotions but also with positive psychological experiences and positive mental health states such as happiness and optimism [26, 27]. A summary of the major positive psychology research findings that underpin contemporary coaching is at Table 3.1.

Mental Model More recently, positive psychology researchers have investigated how the concepts of mental model, mindset, and mindfulness impact of an individual’s cognitions of happiness and wellbeing. Clients presenting to coaching often have preconceived beliefs about whether life is good and people are worthy of respect based on past experiences, biases, and judgements. Positive psychology coaching aims to reframe the clients’ mental model of the world from one that is against them into one that is for them—a negative into a positive—and helps them understand how they can take action to create a more positive future. Coaches challenge clients’ underlying assumptions and limiting beliefs to assist them surface truths based on fact not fiction. Self-determination theory [28] proposes that we are in charge of our own thoughts and feelings and, as such, we determine our future. Our personal goals are windows to our wellbeing as well as to our future. Coaches aim to put clients back into control—back into the driver’s seat–focusing on what is going right in their life

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Table 3.1  Summary of positive psychology approaches to coaching Positive psychology theories Self-determination We are in charge of our own thoughts and feelings and, as such, we theory [28, 29] determine our future. Psychological wellness is facilitated by the satisfaction of three basic innate psychological needs—for autonomy, competence, and mastery—which foster individual growth and wellbeing. Flow theory [6] and Csikszentmihalyi is an important contemporary psychologist noted for his research into happiness and creativity. His theory of flow describes optimal experience the state of deep-mind concentration when a person is so involved in an [3] experience or situation that time passes without notice. A successful flow experience results in self-affirmation, increased confidence associated with perceived competence, creativity, and a feeling of lifelong happiness Positive psychology Seligman is considered to be one of the most influential psychologists of [1, 30, 31], authentic the twentieth century and is often described as the father of contemporary positive psychology. He extended the work of happiness [10], and learned helplessness Csikszentmihalyi into the areas of authentic happiness and flourish. His work on learned helplessness is highly applicable to the helping [13, 14] professions. He and colleagues have written on the empirical validation of positive psychology interventions [2], application of positive psychology to coaching [32], and the benefits of a positive mindset to mental health [12] Strengths [8, 33–35] Peterson is a contemporary of Seligman who extended positive psychology research into understanding character strengths and virtues, values-in-action, group wellbeing and morale, psychological capital, and positive organisational scholarship

rather than what is going wrong. To create change, coaches may need to challenge the client’s mental model ‘through inquiry and an outside or etic perspective’ [36] which shifts the client's  thinking, thus allowing them to achieve a different outcome [37].

Mindset In addition to challenging the client’s mental model of the world, the coach may also challenge their mindset which determines the behaviours and attitude they display when confronted with an unfamiliar person or situation. The client may act or react, resulting in either a positive or negative outcome. They may utilise their knowledge, skills, and strengths to find a mutually acceptable solution (choosing ‘happiness’) or retreat into past familiar behaviours which indicate unacceptance or even rejection (choosing ‘defeat’). From a positive psychology coaching perspective, a positive mindset influences what clients believe they can do rather than what they cannot do. It focuses on strengths to promote learning, growth, wellbeing, and happiness. Hence, coaches often work with clients’ strengths and don’t even consider their weaknesses unless they are hindering progress. A positive mental model

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and mindset believes in the absolute ability of every individual to create their future as they would want it to be with encouragement and support from their coach—and a healthy dose of reality!

Mindfulness A practice derived from positive psychology, yet originated as meditative contemplative practice in Asia over 2500 years ago, is that of mindfulness. Mindfulness is the degree to which individuals notice what’s happening around them, pay attention to others and things in their environment, and are fully ‘present’—experiencing life ‘in the moment’—and being grateful for all the positive people, experiences, and events in their life. It has been defined as attention to, and awareness of, the present moment which does not seek to react to or classify experience [38]. The focus is on observation of the individual’s mental state at that time [39]. Mindfulness confirms every person as a unique human being, capable of love and being loved, and respected for who they are. It enhances an individual’s ability to express mindful attitudes and behaviours in everyday life, including acceptance of everyday momentary thoughts, feelings, and perceptions [40]. It prepares individuals for self-­ reflection by fostering emotional detachment to the thoughts and feelings which constantly flow through their mind without self-evaluation [41]. Research shows that mindfulness increases self-reflection and self-regulation, reduces stress, and develops empathy [42]. Training in mindfulness encourages individuals to focus their attention and observe their own behaviours [43]. The mind has a tendency to wander and lose focus, travelling in the past and future to ignore or escape the present [44]. In this process, the mind constructs its own reality that is not necessarily consistent with the actual present situation [45]. Mindfulness practice brings the wandering mind back to the present. It allows individuals to develop non-judgemental and non-biased awareness as they experience and come to accept, the present. Consequently, thoughts and cognitive processes are formed based on the experience itself and not on prior judgements and biases [46]. Practicing mindfulness also alerts the individual to observations and stimuli in their external surroundings [46]. When an individual is not socially mindful, unconscious biases, perceptions, and judgements may form [47]. As a result, they may dehumanise others in their environment or treat them with less respect [48]. Hence, mindfulness practice is important so that individuals develop increased awareness and understanding of others and engage more meaningfully in social situations. The process of mindfulness involves focusing attention on an object or activity (such as breathing or walking), noticing the visual stimuli and physical sensations in the body while also distancing the mind from distracting thoughts and emotions [49]. During this focused-attention process, individuals meta-cognitively observe their psychological experience as well, focusing on the quality of their self-­ awareness instead of on any particular content of which they are aware [50]. Mindfulness practice activates the cognitive functions of attentional vigilance,

Application to Coaching

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attentional reorienting, executive monitoring of working memory, response inhibition, and emotion regulation, into a combined whole [51]. Mindfulness practice has been shown to have a positive effect on wellbeing [38] and long-term quality of life [52]. Beneficial effects of mindfulness practice have also been demonstrated on mental health [53], task-persistence and performance-related stress [54], and proactivity [55]. The Mindful Attention Awareness Scale [38] may be used to measure the relationship between mindfulness and psychological health and functioning. Traits have typically been considered as fixed attributes. However, there is evidence to suggest that mindfulness practice can actually increase trait mindfulness which may account for the therapeutic benefits of mindfulness practice [56]. Mindfulness has been investigated within neurological practice as a way to circumvent automaticity relating to addiction [57]. Cognition manipulation enables the mind to create new neural behaviour pathways because of its malleability and neuroplasticity [58, 59]. Mindfulness training programs have been found to exercise, strengthen, and remediate dysfunctional brain networks which regulate frontostriatal circuits, restoring an adaptive balance between top-down and bottom-up processes [57]. They facilitate cognitive control over drug-related automaticity, attentional bias, and drug cue reactivity while enhancing responsiveness to natural rewards [57]. Contemporary mindfulness training techniques (such as mindful breathing and body scan techniques) have been shown to have therapeutic effects in clinical conditions such as depression, anxiety, and chronic pain [60, 61]. Overall, ‘it is in the strategic integration of positive psychology-based approaches and evidence-­based coaching where the most power and potential lies to ensure that individuals] … can flourish’ [62].

Application to Coaching Positive psychology coaching as we know it today occurs at the intersection of traditional psychology, positive psychology, and coaching. Findings from these three areas of academic research inform contemporary coaching practice. Fundamental to contemporary coaching practice are the principles and philosophy on which positive psychology coaching is based.

Philosophy of Positive Psychology Coaching The philosophy underlying positive psychology underpins all aspects of how coaching is conducted and how coaches interact with clients to achieve the best coaching outcome for them. Coaches encourage clients to become more open to new discoveries about themselves and the possibilities that may be available to them in the future. Above all, coaching practice strives for honesty and flexibility as the coach encourages the client to explore and discover, and  become more  creative. These

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attributes are the prerequisites to learning and growth. In an environment of absolute trust, the coach non-judgementally uses their coaching skills to understand what is being said in relation to the client’s situation and identify their coaching needs. Coaching surfaces subconscious assumptions and beliefs which may need to be challenged if new learnings, behaviours, and actions are to be created. If the client’s behaviour is illegal, immoral, or unethical, the coach will ‘call’ this situation, and won’t proceed with the coaching. If clinical issues are surfaced, such as addiction, the coach will refer the client to the appropriate professional who can help them resolve that issue.

Principles of Positive Psychology Coaching Contemporary coaching practice is based on a combination of the coach’s experience, knowledge, values and beliefs, and positive psychology principles. Based on the seminal research of Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, and other researchers who have contributed to the field of positive psychology [35, 63, 64], a number of principles inform contemporary coaching practice. First, the coach acknowledges the positive worth of the individual but not necessarily their behaviour (which may be the reason for wanting to be coached). Second, positive psychology coaching is based on the premise that clients are doing the best they know how at the time and they just need a coach’s support to do even better. In other words, people are innately good and just trying to meet their needs. However, in doing so, they should not deprive others of meeting their needs. Third, a fundamental tenet of positive psychology coaching is that solutions lie within the client and it is the role of the coach to uncover them. Fourth, there’s no such thing as failure—only feedback that promotes learning. That is, learning is incremental and cycles through a process of Action–Feedback–Learning–Revised Action. Fifth, positive psychology coaching believes that there is a positive intention motivating every behaviour and a context in which every behaviour has value. It is the coach’s role to discover the client’s motivation for behaving as they do in that context and then guide them towards more positive ways of behaving and interacting with others. The coach enacts these principles by: • Facilitating and guiding the client—NOT advising, mentoring, training, or supervising them. Asking, rather than telling the client, what they need to do to help them resolve their situation and achieve their goal. • Motivating, supporting, and encouraging the client—raising them up, rather than pulling them down—not judging or reprimanding them for their behaviour or actions. • Stimulating thought, creativity, and discovery—breaking down limiting beliefs, and encouraging the client to adopt new, empowering perspectives.

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Mental Model, Mindset, and Mindfulness Techniques These three cognitions that clients bring to the coaching process—their mental model, mindset, and degree of mindfulness—are instrumental in influencing the outcomes of contemporary coaching practice. There are two ways in which these concepts are used during the coaching process. The first is when the client is encouraged to align their mental model and mindset with those of a more positive approach to finding happiness in life. The second is when the coach challenges the client’s mental model and mindset so they become more positive, and uses mindfulness techniques to encourage them to become more present and engaged in the change process. Coaches also practice mindfulness during coaching so that they too are fully present with clients and can assist them achieve their coaching goals. To change the client’s mental model of the world, coaches use cognitive reframing or restructuring [65] to help them understand their inner world and how it relates to the external world. Clients learn to untrain their brain by emptying it of preconceived assumptions and beliefs about people and situations so they can develop a more positive attitude towards life. The process of cognitive reframing releases the client’s mental constraints and elevates their brain so they become wiser and more compassionate in relation to self and others. Clients experience behavioural change as their neural pathways re-form into new patterns and routines of behaviour. Once the client’s mental model of the world has been reframed into a more positive attitude and approach to life, the coach addresses their mindset. The client needs to believe in their own ability to take actions to solve their problems and achieve their goals. They need to be ready and willing to make changes in their life. The coach also needs to hold a positive mindset in relation to the client and the success of the coaching session. A positive mindset has been identified as an essential core competency of a coach when working with clients. The ICF defines a coaching mindset as the ability to develop and maintain a mindset that is open, curious, flexible, and client-centred (ICF Core Competencies 2019). Characteristics of a coaching mindset are displayed when the coach: • • • • • • • •

Acknowledges that clients are responsible for their own choices and actions, Engages in ongoing learning and development as a coach, Develops an ongoing reflective practice to enhance their coaching ability, Remains aware of, and open to, the influence of context and culture on themselves and others, Uses self-awareness and intuition to benefit clients, Develops and maintains the ability to self-regulate their emotions, Mentally and emotionally prepares for coaching sessions, and Seeks help from outside sources when necessary.

Coaches practice mindfulness so that they notice, pay attention to, focus and concentrate on, the client’s story. They are fully present ‘in the moment’ without any thought of the past or future. They encourage the client to practise mindfulness too, to increase their self-awareness of who they are and what they stand for, and

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generate insight into how they can move forward to achieve their dreams. Mindfulness enables clients to self-regulate their negative emotions and regain self-­ control. Continued mindfulness leads to resilience—the ability to cope and function no matter what the circumstances. Using these techniques leads to more successful coaching sessions and positive life outcomes. In addition, so that clients remain positive and don’t resort to externalising blame, coaches avoid asking ‘Why?’ questions because using them may provide the opportunity for clients to deny there’s a problem, make an excuse, blame someone else, or justify their position. Rather, coaches ask ‘What’ and ‘How’ questions such as ‘What happened?’ ‘What part did you play in that?’ ‘How do you think you can make things better?’ These questions encourage clients to take responsibility for their actions, and lead them towards taking positive actions to discover their own solutions.

References 1. Seligman, M., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55(1), 5–14. 2. Seligman, M., et al. (2005). Positive psychology progress: Empirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist, 60(5), 410–421. 3. Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Csikszentmihalyi, I. (1988). Optimal experience: Psychological studies of flow in consciousness. Cambridge Press. 4. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1993). The evolving self. Harper Collins Publishers, Inc. 5. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1997). Flow and education. The NAMTA Journal, 22(2), 3–35. 6. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. Harper & Row. 7. Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and personality. Harper and Row. 8. Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. (2003). Positive organizational studies: Lessons from positive psychology. In K. Cameron, J. Dutton, & R. Quinn (Eds.), Positive organizational scholarship (pp. 14–28). Berrett-Koehler. 9. Seligman, M. (1998). Learned optimism. Pocket Books. 10. Seligman, M. (2011). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realise your potential for lasting fulfilment. Nicholas Brealey Publishing. 11. Seligman, M. (2018). PERMA and the building blocks of well-being. The Journal of Positive Psychology 1–3. 12. Seligman, M. (2008). Positive health. Applied Psychology, 57, 3–18. 13. Seligman, M. (1972). Learned helplessness. Annual Review of Medicine, 23(1), 407–412. 14. Seligman, M., & Altenor, A. (1980). Part II: Learned helplessness. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 18(5), 462–473. 15. Horswill, M., & McKenna, F. (1999). The effect of perceived control on risk taking. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 29, 377–391. 16. Hayek, M. (2012). Control beliefs and positive psychological capital: Can nascent entrepreneurs discriminate between what can and cannot be controlled? Journal of Management Research, 12(1), 3–13. 17. Rogers, C. (1961). On becoming a person. Houghton Mifflin. 18. Bhullar, N., Hine, D., & Phillips, W. (2014). Profiles of psychological well-being in a sample of Australian university students. International Journal of Psychology, 49(4), 288–294. 19. Deci, E., & Ryan, R. (2000). The ‘what’ and ‘why’ of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 319–338.

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20. Ryan, R., Bernstein, J., & Brown, K. (2010). Weekends, work, and well-being: Psychological need satisfactions and day of the week effects on mood, vitality, and physical symptoms. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 29, 95–122. 21. Patrick, H., et al. (2007). The role of need fulfillment in relationship functioning and well-­ being: A self-determination theory perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 434–457. 22. Deci, E. (1975). Intrinsic motivation. Springer US. 23. Maslow, A. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370–396. 24. Hyland, P., et al. (2014). Rational beliefs as cognitive protective factors against post-­traumatic stress symptoms. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 32(4), 297–312. 25. David, D. (2015). Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT). In R. Cautin & S. Lilienfeld (Eds.), Encyclopedia of clinical psychology. Wiley Blackwell. 26. Oltean, H., et al. (2019). Rational beliefs, happiness and optimism: An empirical assessment of REBT’s model of psychological health. International Journal of Psychology, 54(4), 495–500. 27. Oltean, H., & David, D. (2018). A meta-analysis of the relationship between rational beliefs and psychological distress. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 74(6), 883–895. 28. Deci, E., & Ryan, R. (1980). Self-determination theory: When mind mediates behaviour. Journal of Mind & Behaviour, 1(1), 33–43. 29. Ryan, R., & Deci, E. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and wellbeing. American Psychologist, 55, 68–78. 30. Seligman, M., et al. (2009). Positive education: Positive psychology and classroom interventions. Oxford Review of Education, 35(3), 293–311. 31. Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Csikszentmihalyi, I. (2006). A life worth living: Contributions to positive psychology. Oxford University Press. 32. Seligman, M. (2007). Coaching and positive psychology. Australian Psychologist, 42(4), 266–267. 33. Peterson, C., et al. (2003). Positive Organizational Scholarship. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler. 34. Peterson, C. (2006). The values in action (via) classification of strengths. Oxford University Press. 35. Peterson, C., Park, N., & Sweeney, P. (2008). Group well-being: Morale from a positive psychology perspective. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 57, 19–36. 36. Offstein, E., et al. (2013). Rebuilding reliability: Strategy and coaching in a high hazard industry. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 26(3), 529–555. 37. Dweck, C. (2012). Mindsets and human nature: Promoting change in the Middle East, the schoolyard, the racial divide, and willpower. American Psychologist, 67(8), 614–622. 38. Brown, K., & Ryan, R. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(4), 822–848. 39. Feize, L., & Faver, C. (2019). Teaching self-awareness: Social work educators’ endeavors and struggles. Social Work Education, 38(2), 159–176. 40. Baer, R., et al. (2006). Using self-report assessment methods to explore facets of mindfulness. Assessment, 13(1), 27–45. 41. Shapiro, S., et al. (2006). Mechanisms of mindfulness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62(3), 373–386. 42. Thomas, J. (2017). Brief mindfulness training in the social work practice classroom. Social Work Education, 36(1), 102–118. 43. Lynn, R. (2010). Mindfulness in social work education. Social Work Education, 29, 289–304. 44. Sheldon, K., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2005). Personal goals and time travel: How are future places visited, and is it worth it? In A. Strathman & J. Joreman (Eds.), Understanding behavior in the context of time: Theory, research, and application (pp. 143–163). Lawrence Erlbaum. 45. Hayes, S., Strosahl, K., & Wilson, K. (1999). Acceptance and commitment therapy: An experiential approach to behavior change. Guilford Press. 46. Brown, K., Ryan, R., & Creswell, J. (2007). Mindfulness: Theoretical foundations and evidence for its salutary effects. Psychological Inquiry, 18(4), 211–237.

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47. Heotis, E. (2018). Cultivating self-awareness: Dual processes in social cognition. Journal for Spiritual & Consciousness Studies, 41(1), 22–28. 48. Prati, F., et al. (2016). Humanizing outgroups through multiple categorization: The roles of individuation and threat. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 42(4), 526–539. 49. Lutz, A., Dunne, J., & Davidson, R. (2007). Meditation and the neuroscience of consciousness: An introduction. In P. Zelazo, M. Moscovitch, & E. Thompson (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of consciousness (pp. 497–549). Cambridge University Press. 50. Lutz, A., et al. (2008). Attention regulation and monitoring in meditation. Trends in Cognitive Science, 12, 163–169. 51. Vago, D., & Silbersweig, D. (2012). Self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-transcendence (S-ART): A framework for understanding the neurobiological mechanisms of mindfulness. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6(296), 1–30. 52. Morgan, L., et  al. (2014). Relationships between amount of post-intervention mindful ness practice and follow-up outcome variables in an acceptance-based behavior therapy for Generalized Anxiety Disorder: The importance of informal practice. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 3(3), 173–178. 53. Gu, J., et  al. (2015). How do mindfulness-based cognitive therapy and mindfulness-based stress reduction improve mental health and wellbeing? A systematic review and meta-analysis of mediation studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 37, 1–12. 54. Feldman, G., et  al. (2014). Mindfulness and rumination as predictors of persistence with a distress tolerance task. Personality & Individual Differences, 56, 154–158. 55. Sutton, A. (2016). Measuring the effects of self-awareness: Construction of the Self-Awareness Outcomes Questionnaire. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 12(4), 645–658. 56. Carmody, J., & Baer, R. (2008). Relationships between mindfulness practice and levels of mindfulness, medical and psychological symptoms and wellbeing in a mindfulness-based stress reduction program. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 31, 23–33. 57. Garland, E., et  al. (2016). Mindfulness training applied to addiction therapy: Insights into the neural mechanisms of positive behavioral change. Neuroscience and Neuroeconomics, 5, 55–63. 58. Fox, K., Nijeboer, S., & Dixon, M. (2014). Is meditation associated with altered brain structure? A systematic review and meta-analysis of morphometric neuroimaging in meditation practitioners. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 43, 48–73. 59. Holzel, B., Carmody, J., & Vangel, M. (2011). Mindfulness practice leads to increases in regional brain gray matter density. Psychiatry Research, 191, 36–43. 60. Goyal, M., Singh, S., & Sibinga, E. (2014). Meditation programs for psychological stress and well-being: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of AMA Internal Medicine, 174(3), 357–368. 61. Chiesa, A., & Serretti, A. (2011). Mindfulness-based interventions for chronic pain: A systematic review of the evidence. Journal of Alternate Complementary Medicine, 17(1), 83–93. 62. Green, S., Leach, C., & Falecki, D. (2021). Approaches to positive education. In M. Kern & M.  Wehmeyer (Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of positive education (pp.  21–48). Springer International Publishing. 63. Avey, J., Wernsing, T., & Luthans, F. (2008). Can positive employees help positive organizational change? Impact of psychological capital and emotions on relevant attitudes and behaviors. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 44(1), 48–70. 64. Avolio, B., & Luthans, F. (2006). The high impact leader. McGraw-Hill. 65. Beck, A. (1975). Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders. International Universities Press.

Chapter 4

Coaching

Using findings from both traditional and positive psychology research, this chapter focuses on how coaching is conceptualised and the motivations for coaching as it is delivered to individuals in community and organisational settings. The differences among coaching and other interventions such as mentoring, counselling, supervision, and training are detailed. The theoretical evidence for coaching from the disciplines of psychology and education, as well as from management research, is summarised. Coaching in contemporary practice is goal-oriented and solution-­ focused. Developmental, humanistic, and positive psychology techniques are used to address the client’s needs and promote their mental and emotional wellbeing. Coaches utilise cognitive behavioural psychology to assist clients reframe their mental model and dispel limiting beliefs. Within educational research, coaching is positioned as a developmental, learning opportunity for clients to develop self-­ efficacy so they become motivated to achieve behavioural change. Clients who believe in their ability to learn, perform, or change as a result of effort, persistence and, at times, assistance, are malleable. Within management, coaching approaches focus on the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and competencies to enhance leadership and executive development, job satisfaction, motivation and work performance, and interpersonal and team relationships. This research evidence supports the emergence of coaching as a profession and contributes to a growing body of knowledge and theory into the development of coaching as a discipline. Coaching originated in the 1700s as a mode of transport and later transitioned into the sporting arena to support performance improvement [1]. Since the late 1900s, entrenched narrow views of coaching and misconceptions of it as ‘weird’, ‘fluffy’, and a ‘fad’ [2] have been overcome as it emerged into an ‘influential management concept’ [3] and an effective way to achieve personal growth and development [4]. In organisations, coaching was first enacted within the Human Resource Management (HRM) function as a developmental learning tool to build skills and capacities for current and future job performance. It also had a holistic purpose to enable employees cope with work and job-related stresses and contextual demands

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 S. Knowles, Positive Psychology Coaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88995-1_4

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of a VUCA environment [5, 6]. Coaching is now one of the fastest growing interventions in the professional development of managers especially in large organisations [7, 8] and a well-accepted business practice in Europe and the United States. Over a third of respondent organisations in a UK survey reported that coaching is delivered in their organisation by line managers or peers (32%) and external coaches (12%) [9, 10].

Definition Within the academic literature, there is no clear definition of coaching. Thirty-seven definitions have been identified based on the various types of coaching, the different purposes and audiences for coaching (individuals or teams), what and for whom it is conducted, what it involves, and the context in which it is applied [11, 12]. These definitions highlight the essential ingredients of dyadic coaching as reflection and self-development, behavioural change, and personal responsibility. Within organisations, motivations extend beyond the achievement of personal and professional goals into skills-based, performance coaching to develop and unlock potential [13]. In work situations, coaching is a custom-tailored experience that provides employees with the time, mental space, support and guidance they need to make sense of the information available to them and explore how to apply it most effectively to their workplace [14]. Within the professional literature, coaching is defined as ‘partnering with clients in a thought-provoking and creative process that inspires them to maximise their personal and professional potential, which is particularly important in today’s uncertain and complex environment. Coaches honour the client as the expert in his or her life and work and believe every client is creative’ (https://coachingfederation. org). This definition represents the ‘purist’ form of coaching in which the coach uses coaching skills to help clients explore their issues or concerns and achieve their goals. Without any prior knowledge of the client or the situation, the coach can conduct ‘content-free’ coaching and achieve amazing outcomes. Generalist issues of concern where the coach can use this ‘purist’ form of coaching include where clients lack direction and are unmotivated to make the changes they need to make but don’t know how. The client may feel that there’s more to life but what is it? They may be unable to formulate realistic goals and achieve them. They may be insecure about their current work or life situation, e.g. how to achieve work/life balance. They may be stressing as a result of communication, relationship, or conflict issues, feel disconnected from work or family, and unappreciated. They may be overworked and suffering from burnout. For all these reasons, clients benefit from having their own personal coach who can help them overcome their difficulties and progress into a more desirable future. A number of developmental approaches stimulate individual growth including coaching, mentoring, training, supervision, and counselling. However, these different approaches may create uncertainty in clients’ minds as to the best approach to

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adopt. The next section addresses these differences among coaching and alternate forms of developmental interventions.

Difference Between Coaching and Mentoring The terms coaching and mentoring are frequently used interchangeably [12, 15– 19]. Both processes deepen an individual’s understanding of themselves and improve their personal and professional effectiveness [4, 20–22]. Mentoring has significantly influenced the emergence of coaching within organisations since it led to early interest in researching the effects of mentoring and coaching executives to boost their performance, position their career prospects, and support the acquisition of better interpersonal skills. Mentoring is a professional relationship which enables an individual to develop a sense of competence and autonomy in their world [23]. It involves an ongoing relationship between a mentee and mentor who is either internal to the organisation or engaged through an external contractual arrangement with the organisation [24, 25]. Mentors are often role models and the mentoring relationship is based on the sharing of knowledge and professional experience. The relationship deepens the mentee’s understanding of their knowledge, skills, and capabilities which enhances their career prospects [26, 27]. The mentor has extensive skills and experience to share with the mentee who is the recipient of their wisdom. Coaching is a developmental process focused on helping individuals find their own solutions to their problems and achieve the goals they have been unable to achieve by themselves. It is a goal-oriented, solution-focused process based on a partnership arrangement between coach and coachee [28]. The equal partnership is a collaborative relationship in which the knowledge and expertise of the coachee is combined with the coaching knowledge and experience of the coach to achieve the desired coaching outcome. In its ‘purist’ form, coaching is content-free, client-led, and has no pre-determined outcomes. Within the work environment, ‘performance’ coaching addresses specific performance-related issues or events that have caused an employee or employer stress. It has an agreed agenda, is content-driven, and has a pre-­determined outcome. Coaching has traditionally been delivered by executive coaches external to the organisation [29] but is increasingly being delivered across all levels of the organisation by HR professionals and line managers formally trained as coaches or in coaching skills. There are key differences between coaching and mentoring. First, mentoring is a relationship that forms between a more experienced mentor and a less experienced mentee to enhance their career development [24]. A power-differential exists between the mentor and mentee. The relationship is hierarchical and sometimes paternalistic rather than an equal partnership [30]. Mentoring is ‘often associated with … broader … career progress’ [31] although, at times, it may also involve exploring more inclusive, interpersonal issues [29]. Mentoring processes are mentor-­ directed and may involve the mentee reading prescribed materials,

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Table 4.1  Difference between mentoring and coaching Difference Mentoring Process Mentor-led Relationship Hierarchical, paternalistic Orientation Broad, long-term career goals Resources Additional may be required

Coaching Coachee-led Equal partnership Short-term problem resolution followed by long-term life and work goals Nil additional required

Fig. 4.1  Power-distance relationship

attending short courses, and receiving feedback following in situ observations [32]. In contrast, coaching is coachee-led and requires no additional resources to be provided or offered by the coach. In essence, coaching is a ‘hands-off’ rather than a ‘hands-on’ process. It builds self-responsibility and self-regulation in the coachee. Mentors are often role models who can coach [15] but coaches do not normally mentor [25]—at least, not at the same time. Table 4.1 summarises these differences. Figure  4.1 emphasises the power-distance relationship which is one of the main variables differentiating mentoring from coaching.

Difference Between Coaching and Other Interventions Coaching also differs from interventions such as training, supervision, and counselling [33]. Training is an instructional process which increases the skills directly related to performance—to assist employees do their jobs better, faster, or more

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efficiently or effectively. The outcomes of training programs are significantly enhanced when the training is paired with, or informed by, coaching. Research has found that only 20% of training outcomes are maintained in the long-term; however, when coaching is conducted immediately following the training to reinforce the new skills back into the workplace, an 80% transfer rate is achieved [34]. These findings have been supported by other studies which confirm that the integration of coaching into training programs significantly improves transfer of learning rates [35, 36]. Supervision is the process whereby a more experienced person observes an employee for the purpose of providing constructive feedback on the work performed. It provides employees with direct feedback to stimulate reflection and improvement [37]. Ideally, feedback is provided at regular intervals via coaching conversations. At times, coaching is confused with counselling. The major difference between the two is that counsellors deliver therapeutic interventions to clinical populations to resolve deep-seated issues resulting from traumatic incidents that occurred in the past or which they are currently experiencing. In contrast, coaching is a non-­ therapeutic intervention with non-clinical populations which focuses on the ‘here-­ and-­now’ and future possibilities. In counselling, therapy addresses issues such as family dysfunction, domestic violence, abuse, and drug and alcohol dependency [38]. The therapeutic process provides safe guidance for individuals through their trauma into a renewed perspective on life. When the issue is resolved, the counsellor provides ongoing assistance and support to the individual and their family to build a better future. Counselling is typically delivered in hospitals, private practice, and community/family relations centres by trained counsellors, psychologists, and psychiatrists with skilled expertise and a deep understanding of the human condition [39]. In summary, coaching, mentoring, training, supervision, and counselling have different foci in terms of clients, context, process, practice, relationship, and delivery [11]. In coaching, mentoring, training, and supervision, temporality is present and future; clients are non-clinical populations; context is work related. In counselling, temporality is past and context is in professional and community practices. Process variables differ according to the focus of the intervention. Issues relate to personal growth, development, and career. The interventions require different skills, qualifications, and experience. Relationships differ from collaborative and facilitative in coaching, expert experienced elder in mentoring, authority in training and supervision, and expert/professional in counselling. Delivery is either individual, team or group, or family-based. These differences among the developmental interventions highlight coaching as an emerging profession in its own right with a discreet set of clients, contexts, processes, practices, relationships, and delivery modes, as summarised in Table 4.2.

Clients Context Normal, non-clinical Work populations who would benefit from immediate feedback Clients Context Normal, non-clinical Work populations— typically junior or talented employees targeted for promotion Clients Context Normal, non-clinical Work populations

Clients Context Normal, non-clinical Work populations

Focus Personal growth and development Future-oriented

Focus Personal growth and development Career progression

Focus Skill development

Focus Performance improvement

Coaching ‘focuses on the present and future goals of coachees … aimed at specific work-­ related developmental outcomes’ [40]

Mentoring ‘a developmental relationship … between a more experienced individual (the mentor) and a less experienced individual (the protégé)’ [41] Training ‘a learning sequence of programmed behaviour; combines skills development, knowledge transfer, development and support of understanding and sustained attitude change’ [42] Supervision ‘activity of overseeing subordinates at work to ensure that the work is performed as required’ [37] Process One-on-one feedback

Process Classroom learning

Process Self-reflection Rapport-building, active listening, and effective questioning Process Conversation and professional practice

Table 4.2  Differences among coaching, mentoring, counselling, training, and supervision

Relationship Expert/ experienced elder; unequal power relationship

Practice Skills and expertise in a particular area

Relationship Authoritative

Practice Relationship Requires a training Authoritative skill set

Practice Requires experience in a particular skill area

Practice Relationship Specific skill sets, Collaborative ethics, knowledge and facilitative base, responsibility to the client

Delivery One-on-­ one or team

Delivery Group

Delivery One-on-­ one

Delivery One-on-­ one, team

50 4 Coaching

Counselling ‘a professional relationship that empowers diverse individuals, families, and groups to accomplish mental health, wellness, education, and career goals’ [43]

Focus Relationship and performance issues brought on by past traumatic events

Clients Clinical populations with mental or emotional trauma affecting their ability to operate in normal settings

Context Hospital, medical, or family relations centre, private practice

Process Therapeutic. Involves rapport-building, active listening, and effective questioning

Practice Professional practice—requires qualification in psychology, psychiatry, or social work

Relationship Expert counsellor, psychologist, or psychiatrist

Delivery One-on-­ one or family

Definition 51

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Coaching as a Profession In 2004, Grant and Cavanagh [44] reviewed 65 years of academic progress relating to coaching and identified challenges for the future. They concluded by calling for coaching to become a profession. As an emerging profession [45–48], coaching is increasingly being adopted by organisations as a developmental, leadership practice [49]. However, with different styles and methods of coaching delivery, it has been difficult to establish guidelines and standards which could apply across all delivery approaches [50]. Moreover, coaching is emerging as a profession at different rates in different countries. For example, in the relatively mature American coaching market where coaching practice is well-established, there were calls for common standards to legitimise its practice as early as 2003 [51]. In contrast, in the emerging Malaysian coaching market, the focus is on quality of delivery, ethical standards, and market penetration to help managers become better leaders, particularly in relation to the younger workforce [2]. With few common guidelines, researchers argued the need for professionals to undertake critical reflection and self-evaluation of their own coaching practice [52]. They entreated new and emerging coaches to gain professional coaching qualifications to ensure their practice was efficacious and addressed ethical, confidential, and legal issues [53]. Drawing on the psychological literatures, researchers concluded that there are two types of coach-training schools focused on delivering either a developmental coaching agenda with skills to address awareness, emotions, and context, or a performance-based agenda with coaching as a clearly defined skill [54]. Meanwhile, industry leaders struggled to identify the difference between coaching as an emerging profession and contemporary HRM practice [12], a debate hindered by the lack of theoretical underpinnings for coaching as a discipline separate from psychology.

Coaching as a Discipline Whilst recognising coaching as an emerging profession, the academic literature also supports calls for coaching to develop as a discipline in its own right [55]. As a new discipline, although drawing on related disciplines, coaching would have its own discrete body of content, theoretical foundations, pattern of relationships, and prescriptive claims [56]. Hence, there is growing interest in critically reviewing the philosophical and theoretical foundations underpinning coaching practice [57, 58] to encourage more nuanced views to counter the traditional ‘taken for granted’ expectations of coaching outcomes [59]. Currently, theories of developmental coaching, narrative coaching, and macro-system coaching are all that are recognised within the coaching domain [58, 60, 61]. The following two sections explain how the emerging discipline of coaching draws on knowledge and theoretical underpinnings from the disciplines of

Theoretical Underpinnings of Coaching

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psychology and education. Psychological conceptualisations inform a coach’s understandings of human behaviour, motivations, drives and needs, beliefs, and mindsets [62, 63]. Theoretical approaches to achieving personal and behavioural change focus on satisfying the basic human needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness [64–66].

Theoretical Underpinnings of Coaching Academic interest in coaching stems from the late 1990s when consultants first delivered executive and workplace coaching to support busy professionals replace a technical skills-base with strategic thinking to become more business-like [51, 67, 68]. The executive coaching process evolved from psychological practice as an individual intervention to support the transfer of learnings back into the workplace and improve managerial effectiveness [69–71]. Attempts to evaluate the effectiveness of executive coaching were thwarted by the disparate criteria on which the executive coaches were selected, and concerns regarding the actual outcomes [67, 72, 73]. As a result, research divided into two directions: the measurement of return on investment (ROI) from coaching [74] and characteristics of effective coaches and the coach-coachee match [75]. Initial research on ROI was conducted in the early 2000s but then languished as the emphasis on meeting individual coaching needs spawned a plethora of research studies based on psychological perspectives of human behaviour and motivations for change.

Psychological Underpinnings of Coaching Within psychology, coaching practice was originally informed by observations of human behaviour and manipulations to condition new responses [76]. Research on motivations for change investigated the psychodynamics of individuals [77] and the impact of psychological variables such as metacognition and mental health on goal attainment [78–84]. Cognitive therapeutic approaches [85] posited that interpersonal difficulties are caused by habits and associated thought patterns which can be rectified by focusing on goal-oriented behaviours [86] so that coachees find their own solutions rather than blaming external forces [87]. Subsequently, solution-­ focused coaching helped build a greater depth of self-understanding and self-­ efficacy [81, 88, 89] by reducing negative affect and supporting goal attainment [90–92]. Coaching was found to be most effective when solution-focused coaching is combined with cognitive and rational-emotive behavioural approaches to produce positive affect and the achievement of goals [85, 93, 94]. Other researchers investigated how coaching impacts personality traits [95–97], self-identity [60, 98], compassion [66], and workplace behaviour [99–103]. Goleman attracted attention when he released his theory on why emotional intelligence matters more than intelligence

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[104]. He identified coaching as one of the four styles associated with effective leaders and a positive contributor to organisational climate [105]. Subsequent associations with like-minded researchers saw coaching acknowledged as an area of research to support leader development and emotionally intelligent workplaces [106, 107]. Coaches use techniques based on developmental, humanistic, and positive psychology to address issues and promote mental and emotional wellbeing [108]. These include coaching with unconditional positive regard [109, 110], reality-­ checking to ensure that coachee needs, drives, and expectations are realistic and attainable [111, 112], and exploration of limiting beliefs that hold the coachee back from becoming authentically happy and achieving flow in their life [113, 114]. Social psychology techniques recognise the importance of the social environment [115] and assist coachees develop self-regulation, goal attainment, and emotional competence [116–121]. An important indicator of success from coaching is the client’s degree of self-efficacy [122]. Self-efficacy is an individual’s ability to gather the motivation and cognitive assets and take the actions necessary to perform a given task. In a work situation, self-efficacy is displayed as an employee’s self-confidence or conviction that they can take the actions needed to successfully execute a specific project within a given context and timeframe. Self-efficacy has been found to be one of the two major factors that influence an individual’s ability to change, the other being importance [123]. Importance is determined by the value an individual places on making the change. Depending on the circumstances, they may experience different levels of importance and self-efficacy. For example, an individual who is overweight may be convinced of the importance of losing weight but have a low level of confidence based on previous failure to lose weight or keep weight off. An individual who is newly diagnosed with hypertension may be confident that they can take a pill to lower blood pressure but are not convinced of the importance of this action. A deficiency in either importance or self-efficacy can lead to unwillingness to commit to change.

Educational Underpinnings of Coaching The evidence for coaching from education and adult learning theories positions it as a pluralist process that surfaces self-awareness, insight, learnings, and behavioural change. Specifically, education provides the evidence for coaching as grounded in the learning process, personal mindsets, motivation, and self-efficacy. In particular, implicit person theory [124, 125] proposes that coachees who believe in their ability to learn, perform, or change as a result of effort, persistence and, at times, assistance, are malleable [126, 127]. Mindset theory [124], applied to an individual’s ability to change and grow [128–130], integrates principles of self-efficacy, social learning theory, and work motivation theory to effect change [62, 122]. Educators and practitioners have been urged to develop a ‘more integrated, systemic, global

Theoretical Underpinnings of Coaching

55

approach to coaching to accommodate the challenges posed by a new global paradigm’ [131]. Combined with principles of adult learning [132–135], these frameworks provide the basis for the development of adult learning strategies in the workplace.

Management Underpinnings of Coaching In addition to the psychological and educational underpinnings, coaching practice has been informed by management literature based on workplace research. Since coaching has typically been the responsibility of the HR function, research was originally set within the HRD, psychology, and related fields [54, 136, 137]. However, the considerable growth in coaching over the past decade, and the identified benefits for individuals, teams, and organisations, has legitimised coaching as a function of line managers as well as HR professionals [138]. Research within the management literature has focused on ways to stimulate employee growth and development based on measurable outcomes [40]. Theoretical approaches have focused on the acquisition of competencies to enhance leadership development [104, 107], job satisfaction [4, 139, 140], motivation and work performance [62, 99, 141–143], and interpersonal and team relationships [144–146]. Management theory contributes to pre-coaching by the development of instruments which profile personality, leadership style, and career aspirations. These instruments are administered by accredited practitioners who may also be HR professionals. Significant management contributions to coaching success relate to goalsetting theories and action-planning techniques. Figure 4.2 represents the significant contributions of education and psychology theories and management research to contemporary coaching practice. The different types of coaching that emerged from these foundations are detailed in the section below.

Types of Coaching The expansion of literature and research into workplace coaching in the last two decades has led to a diversification in the types of coaching offered by external, executive coaches and internal line managers who coach [40]. The types of coaching offered within organisations, whilst often used interchangeably [147], have specific characteristics that best serve the groups which are the target of the coaching. The types of coaching that emerged from executive coaching origins include managerial, leadership, team, and peer coaching [148–150]. Executive coaching is a developmental process based on mutual trust and respect within a partnership relationship between coach and executive [1, 151]. The success of the process lies in the quality of the relationship. Transforming executives from

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4 Coaching Positive Psychology Coaching

Education

Traditional Psychology

· Adult learning theory and principles, self-directed learning

· Cognitive behavioural theory · Rational emotive theory

· Experiential learning

· Developmental theory

· Single, double and triple-loop learning

· Humanistic theory, unconditional positive regard · Social cognitive theory, self-efficacy

· Implicit person theory, change stages · Self-determination theory

Positive Psychology

· Critical self-reflection and reflective practice

· Solution focus · Strengths and potential

· Transformative learning

· Mental model, mindset and mindfulness · Disorienting dilemma · Meaning making Management · Goal-oriented, action-focused · Motivation, job satisfaction and employee engagement · Skills and competencies · Job design and job-embedded learning · Transfer of learning

Fig. 4.2 Coaching incorporates theoretical approaches from education, psychology, and management

good to peak performers [148, 152, 153] relies on one-on-one interactions about work-related issues [29, 75, 154]. Multi-source feedback on strengths and weaknesses provides baseline data against which to measure improvements in personal effectiveness, leadership competency, organisational performance, and change [75, 155]. Executive coaching positively affects the executive’s self-awareness, transformational leadership behaviour, social capital, and career planning [75, 147, 156– 159]. An ulterior motivation for executive coaching has been posited as ‘to discipline values’ [160] and achieve alignment between individual and organisational values and behaviours. Managerial coaching is conducted with middle managers so they can improve the performance of their direct reports by facilitating their learning of work-related skills and abilities [100]. It focuses on the planning, organising, staffing, and controlling functions they need to perform their line management responsibilities effectively [161–165] and the competencies they need to possess to succeed in their role [137, 166–168]. The coaching provides timely feedback so managers can better navigate workplace challenges, formulate work goals, clarify team performance targets and expectations, improve employee job performance, and adjust job/role functions [169, 170]. Managers learn how to provide frequent performance feedback to team members, promote employee engagement, and reduce turnover intention [171, 172]. Prominent in coaching is improving the manager’s ability to achieve organisational objectives [161–165].

Theoretical Underpinnings of Coaching

57

Leadership coaching, the most common form of coaching in organisations today [100, 173], is focused on supporting leaders who inspire and motivate their direct reports to increase employee engagement and assist them cope with change [174– 176]. Leadership coaching impacts the leader’s behaviour and cognitive functioning to translate individual learnings into team learnings. Shared group-level beliefs support the implementation of change efforts [177]. A combination of interventions such as individual coaching and training has been found to be the most effective in delivering change [178–181]. Sustained change is achieved when leadership coaching satisfies the leader’s needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence [182]. Two styles of leadership coaching—guidance and facilitation—have been reported in the literature [183]. The guidance style combines clear expectations of performance requirements with observational learning, behavioural re-alignment, and role modelling to achieve performance mastery. The facilitation style enables adaptive learning from the environment, one-on-one feedback, and the adoption of a transformational leadership style. A focus on coaching new leaders to integrate multiple identities as they settle into their role highlights the latest developments in the field [184]. Team coaching is an emerging developmental process that focuses on both results and relationships [185, 186]. It confirms common goals, identifies issues challenging the team or team members, assists them reflect on their performance and review progress, and coordinates collective resources to accomplish the work of the team [16, 181, 187]. Team coaching improves communication and decision-­ making [188], facilitates problem-solving and conflict management [189], and enables teams to learn how to increase their collective capability and performance through ‘assisted reflection, analysis and motivation for change’ [190]. As team members reflect on their performance, they identify opportunities for systemic change and innovation [191, 192]. Peer coaching supplements other forms of organisational coaching as an effective, informal, relational practice that promotes and supports the achievement of leadership and career aspirations [193]. It is delivered one-on-one by employees informally as opportunities arise to innovate or improve performance, systems, and processes [194]. As ‘a helping relationship that facilitates mutual learning and development to accomplish specific tasks or goals’ [195], peer coaching provides mutual support to achieve individual, immediate, and short-term goals and build leadership capacity [196]. ‘Peer coaching is a low-cost resource. It has high impact. It can be just-in-time. It is easily learned. And it is self-renewing, sustainable’ [197], and an overlooked resource in the development of an employee’s critical thinking, reasoning skills, and effective judgement [198]. Peer coaching has been used effectively in educational settings to support learning and growth [196, 199]. Fundamental to all types of coaching is the desire to achieve behavioural and performance changes to support productivity improvements [200, 201]. Workplace coaching methodologies and systems support a type of learning that, over time, becomes implicit, tacit, and assumed [202].

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Chapter 5

Benefits of Coaching

This chapter outlines the tangible and intangible benefits of coaching for individuals, teams, and organisations which make coaching such a powerful intervention for personal and professional growth. Tangible benefits are immediately observable such as improvements in behaviour, relationships, or work performance. Intangible benefits are internal to the individual, and these benefits are only obvious when the client expresses learnings as Aha! moments. Some benefits are observed immediately, but others may take longer to display especially if other people are involved. Each coaching session addresses goals and actions to which the client must commit to achieve their coaching needs. It is important that the client commits to doing something, no matter how small, which will make an immediate difference in their life. In an organisational setting, ways to measure the return on investment from coaching for individuals, teams, and the organisation itself are presented. Tangible and intangible benefits of coaching are reflective of behavioural changes brought about by participating in the coaching process. People who are focused and goal-driven rarely pause to contemplate the workings of their inner selves. Coaching provides them with the opportunity to step back and ponder the effect of their words, behaviours, and decisions on people around them, especially those with whom they work. This enhanced self- and social-awareness paves the way for the integration of individual needs with family, work, social, and organisational needs. For example, within a work environment, the aim of coaching is to align individual values and aspirations with organisational values and business goals. When all employees are aligned, cultural and transformational change, beneficial to the organisation, will emerge. Tangible benefits of coaching may include physical recognition or reward, such as a merit certificate, gift, or public acclaim. Intangible benefits are those that are not behaviourally visible such as feelings of pride in work done, satisfaction with a completed report, or increased confidence. These intangible benefits only become known when the individual chooses to reveal their presence. Sometimes benefits take longer to manifest because the client is thinking through the coaching

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Fig. 5.1  The benefits of coaching for individuals, teams, and organisations

conversation and making meaning of the insights gained during the session. They may have become more self-aware of their actions and the consequences for themselves and others. They may come to realise that the way in which they have been behaving is not working for them and needs to change. As a result, the client may work with the coach to explore other ways of relating to people at home, at work, and in the community at large. The benefits that accrue to them may be initially intangible until they become represented in real time as discreet, tangible benefits such as evidenced by improved communication and relationships with family and colleagues; increased self-confidence; more effective self-management; higher motivation to work as a result of increased job satisfaction; and stronger organisational commitment. Figure  5.1 depicts the benefits of coaching for individuals, teams, and organisations, which are elaborated in the sections that follow.

Benefits for Individuals At a personal level, individuals who are coached develop greater self-awareness of their situation and what they need. They see things in a different light, just by having the opportunity to speak with someone who listens to them and who cares about

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what happens in their life. One of the biggest benefits that clients report from coaching is that there’s someone who is objective, listening to their story, and not judging them. The coach acts as a sounding-board to help them accept responsibility for the part they have played in co-creating their situation. A second benefit of individual coaching is that coachees learn how to resolve problems by themselves as part of their personal development. They gain feedback on what they are doing right, and reinforcement for the positive aspects of their life. The coach works with a client to help them improve their communication with others and develop better interpersonal relationships. It may be that clients need to become more assertive, and the coach shows them how to do this in a way that will bring about positive effects rather than negative consequences. It may be that the client is experiencing conflict with another person, and the coach works with them to develop better strategies which they can use to resolve situations more amicably. It may be that the client is experiencing great stress, and the coach helps them alter the situation in which they find themselves or change their reaction to the stressor, so they can get on with their life. Third, as a trusting, partnered relationship between a coach and client develops, each coaching session increases the client’s confidence and self-esteem. Some outcomes are immediately visible—such as behavioural or performance change. Others may be less obvious to others but be intrinsically rewarding to the client—such as gaining satisfaction from achieving their set goal or connecting with a desired other. The coach is aware that intangible behavioural changes such as a changed mindset can have a more far-reaching positive effect on the client’s life and workplace than tangible changes because they have reframed or eliminated deep-seated assumptions and beliefs. The visible benefits of individual coaching can be measured by changes in behaviour, performance, goal achievement, or career development. To measure the changes in an organisational setting, baseline data may be collected in relation to key performance indicators (KPIs) of the client’s role, or ‘soft skills’ data such as leadership ability, communication, and relationship skills. Data may be measured pre- and post-coaching using a range of commercially-available assessment instruments such as DiSC, Myer-Briggs Type Indicator, CLS360, Hogan, and Belbin Team Roles. Examples of tangible and intangible benefits that may be derived from individual coaching are included in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1  The benefits of coaching for individuals For the individual

Observable behavioural change Performance improvement Achieving a specified goal Improved job satisfaction Undertaking a developmental opportunity Promotion or securing a new position

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Benefits for Teams Research has found that coaching delivered within teams increases employee engagement, performance, and productivity [1–4], promotes personal growth and development [5], improves communication skills [6, 7], enhances teamwork [8], develops leaders [9–11], and retains talent [12–15]. Coaching within teams is conducted by external coaches or internal coaches such as HR professionals or line managers formally trained as coaches or in coaching skills. Dyadic coaching in the workplace is often focused on ‘performance’ rather than ‘pure’ coaching but may include elements of personal ‘catch-up’ as well. The coaching of individual team members ideally occurs every 4–6 weeks to ensure that each employee is ‘on track’ with their performance requirements and progress. In organisations with a coaching culture, these regular sessions replace the annual performance review. When this happens, performance which needs adjusting can be addressed in a timely manner so that ‘failure’ is avoided and not costly to the business. Line managers may coach team members individually or as a group, for example, when conducting a ‘Work in Progress’ meeting to provide direction to their employees for the coming week. Individual or group coaching is also effective to follow up on a training session, so that the transfer of learning from the training program to the workplace is maximised. In addition to such coaching being delivered by the line manager, coaching of colleagues may occur informally by team members who ‘peer coach’ each other on an ‘as-needed’ basis [16]. This practice spreads the philosophy of support, encouragement, and continuous improvement throughout the team, minimising the ‘burden’ on the line manager to be the only one who is coaching others. Of course, team members need some training in basic coaching skills to deliver peer coaching competently and confidently. The benefits of coaching within teams can be measured by changes in HR statistics such as retention of talented staff, reduced absenteeism, number of customer complaints, pre- and post-surveys that rate items such as job satisfaction and employee engagement, and team performance indicators such as the achievement of business targets. Examples of the benefits of coaching for teams and team members are included in Table 5.2.

Table 5.2  The benefits of coaching for teams and team members For the team and team members

Increased employee engagement Retention of talented staff Better working relationships within the team Less conflict More cooperation and collaboration Achievement of team targets Reduced absenteeism Reduced staff complaints

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Benefits for Organisations The implementation of coaching within organisations is an opportunity to create a more positive and supportive work environment for personal and organisational flourishing [17]. It is also an opportunity to engage in ‘more candour, less denial, richer communication, [and the] conscious development of talent’ [18]. Coaching in organisations has been shown to increase sales and revenue [19–21], productivity [22, 23], competitive advantage [24, 25], and the pace of cultural change [26, 27]. Coaching all team members encourages interdependence which can strengthen relationships and contribute to the long-term sustainability of the organisation [28]. Moreover, as coaching is conducted, teams and team members are encouraged to reflect on their performance and identify opportunities for organisational learning, innovation, and systemic change [29, 30]. It is because of these benefits to organisations that coaching is frequently chosen as a complementary intervention to transformational change initiatives. Examples of the benefits of coaching for organisations are included in Table 5.3. Coaching also results in significant benefits for the executives who are coached. These benefits relate to both interpersonal and professional issues that executives struggle with as they perform in their role. Intangible benefits may include the executive’s ability to inspire and achieve higher levels of individual and team performance, raise job satisfaction levels, become more expert in making strategic decisions, be more open and less defensive, create more effective relationships internally and externally with customers and suppliers, and initiate and lead successful cultural change programs by realigning patterns of individual behaviour and social norms with organisational values. These benefits relate to the daily issues that executives struggle with as they enact their role. An overall summary of the benefits of coaching for individuals, teams, and organisations, and the ways to measure them, is at Table 5.4.

Return on Investment (ROI) Early research on the effectiveness of coaching identified financial improvements for individuals such as increased sales performance and individual earnings. New insurance agents with coaches were found to sell 20% more than those without

Table 5.3  The benefits of coaching for organisations For the organisation

Increase in revenue Increase in sales Increase in new client numbers Decreased employee turnover Decreased customer complaints Increased productivity Improved bottom-line profitability

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Table 5.4  Summary of the benefits of coaching and how to measure them The benefits of coaching Benefits

Individual

Team

Organisation

Observable behavioural change Performance improvement Achieving a specified goal Improved job satisfaction Undertaking a developmental opportunity Promotion or securing a new position Increased employee engagement Retention of talented staff Better working relationships within the team Less conflict More cooperation and collaboration Achievement of team targets Reduced absenteeism Reduced staff complaints Increased revenue Increased sales Decreased employee turnover Decreased customer complaints Increased productivity Improved bottom-­ line profitability

How to measure ‘Hard’ measures (based on KPIs)—tangible numbers where possible Achieving individual KPIs (reported by line manager) Quality standards (inspection) Customer satisfaction (front-facing staff) (survey)

‘Soft’ measures—intangible, converted to measurement numbers where possible Leadership capability (360° assessment) Interpersonal effectiveness (360°, survey) • Communication • Relationships Observable behavioural change (self and ‘other’ report)

Achieving or exceeding team targets (reported by line manager) Reduced staff absenteeism, complaints, conflict (reported by HR)

Staff survey of •  Employee engagement •  Job satisfaction • Teamwork •  Working relationships Team effectiveness, e.g. Belbin Team Roles, Hogan

Employee engagement levels (reported by HR) Retention of talented staff (reported by HR) Profitability (reported by finance)

Cultural change • Cooperation • Collaboration • Support • Sharing • Development

Benefits for Organisations

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coaches and be 13.5% more likely to survive the first year (74% compared with 64% who weren’t coached) [31]. Professional workers with coaches earned between $5,610 and $22,450 more than those who didn’t [32]. Since then, a number of research studies have focused on how coaching contributes to the organisation’s financial performance [33–37]. Given that organisations are concerned with bottom-­ line results, it is not unreasonable that executives want to quantify the benefits of coaching so that financial decision-makers can have some ‘nice … crunchy, quantitative performance data’ to justify the organisation’s expenditure on coaching [38]. Monetary Benefits Measuring the return on investment from coaching originally focused on the monetary benefits, that is, ROI. For example, in an extensive study on the effectiveness of executive coaching, the US Manchester Consulting Group found the average ROI was over 500% [39]. Another study reported the impact of executive coaching on 100 executives from 56 organisations of various sizes; the majority of participants reported an ROI of between $100,000 and $1 million, a conservative estimate being 5.7 times the initial investment [35]. In a third study, whilst the cost of coaching 25 executives was $579,800, the total performance value of the executive coaching programme was estimated at $1,861,158, which represented an ROI of $3.21 for every dollar invested, or $1.21 when the initial cost was deducted (an ROI of 221%) [40]. In a fourth study, MetrixGlobal was engaged to determine the business benefits and ROI of an executive coaching investment involving executives from large (mostly FORTUNE 1000) companies [33]. The executives had participated in either ‘change oriented’ coaching aimed at improving certain behaviours or skills, or ‘growth oriented’ coaching designed to improve overall job performance. The programs lasted from 6 to 12 months. Approximately 60% of the executives were aged 40–49. Half of the participants held positions of vice president or higher and a third earned $200,000 or more per year. They reported: Coaching produced a 529% return on investment and significant intangible benefits to the business. Including the financial benefits from employee retention boosted the overall ROI to 788%. The study provided powerful new insights into how to maximise the business impact from executive coaching.

Since environmental factors like currency fluctuations, political stability, and economic conditions also impact the organisation’s position in the marketplace, in recent years researchers have paid less attention to the macro, organisational outcomes from coaching and focused more on the micro-influences of coaching on performance and productivity. Investing in the organisation’s human capital rather than plant and equipment has been found to result in long-term, ongoing gains for shareholders [41].

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People Benefits The value of executive coaching to the organisation’s human capital can be measured by examining the intra- and inter-personal gains made by executives and other organisational members such as changes in behaviour or improvements in leadership skills. For example, a Workforce Study was conducted within SmithKline Beecham’s US Finance Division and reported a reduction in turnover from 27.5 to 2% when employees were coached; moreover, only 16% of employees expressed intention to leave the organisation after being coached compared with 35% prior to coaching [42]. Another study reported high returns on various indicators including shareholder return, derived from investing in human capital [43]: In December 2001, we … created a live portfolio of companies that spend aggressively on employee development. In its first 25 months …the] portfolio has outperformed the S&P 500 index by 4.6 percentage points (2.2% versus a decline of 2.4% for the index). In January 2003, we expanded our investment strategy by launching two additional live equity portfolios made up of similar development-oriented companies... each of these three portfolios outperformed the S&P 500 by 17% to 35% in 2003.

Monetary and People Benefits A number of both monetary and ‘people’ benefits from coaching have been noted in the literature. For example, the MetrixGlobal study [33] reported improvements in productivity, quality, organisational strength, customer service, and bottom-line profitability. Reductions were reported in customer complaints, conflict, and overall organisational costs. Executives who received coaching were retained by the organisation. In addition, executives noted improvements in teamwork, working relationships with direct reports, immediate supervisor, peers and clients, job satisfaction, and organisational commitment, as detailed in Table 5.5. Some of the most recent research on the benefits of coaching for organisations has been conducted on behalf of the ICF [2, 44]. This research discovered that coaching increased productivity and improved work performance (by 70%), business management (by 61%), time management (by 57%), and team effectiveness (by 51%). Coaching impacted positivity measures such as increased self-confidence (by 80%), better relationships (by 73%), improved communication skills (by 72%), and improved work-life balance (by 67%). The ICF [2] report on Building a Coaching Culture for Increased Employee Engagement identified three key benefits: • Higher employee engagement (60% of employees rated as highly engaged compared with 48% of all other organisations) • Higher revenue growth (63% report being above their industry peer group in 2014 revenue compared with 45% of all other organisations) • Higher engagement levels for high-potentials with access to any of the three coaching modalities.

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Table 5.5  Monetary and ‘people’ benefits of organisational coaching Organisational benefits Improvements Productivity (reported by 53% of executives) Quality (48%) Organisational strength (48%) Customer service (39%) Profitability (22%) Reductions Customer complaints (34%) Conflict (52%) Organisational costs (23%)

People benefits (increase of/in) Retention of talent (32%) Teamwork (67%) Working relationships with direct reports (77%), immediate supervisor (71%), peers (63%), and clients (37%) Job satisfaction (61%) Organisational commitment (44%)

Some researchers have posited that the true value of coaching lies in the stories that are told during the coaching process as clients reflect on their thoughts, actions, and beliefs through coaching conversations [45]. They agree that, even though coaching is an emerging professional field of practice, unfortunately it lacks a clear and agreed sense of outcomes and how they can be measured [38, 46].

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13. Mensah, J. (2015). A “coalesced framework” of talent management and employee performance: For further research and practice. International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management, 64(4), 544–566. 14. Sparrow, P., & Makram, H. (2015). What is the value of talent management? Building value-­ driven processes within a talent management architecture. Human Resource Management Review, 25(3), 249–263. 15. Meyers, M., van Woerkom, M., & Dries, N. (2013). Talent—Innate or acquired? Theoretical considerations and their implications for talent management. Human Resource Management Review, 23(4), 305–321. 16. Parker, P., Hall, D., & Kram, K. (2008). Peer coaching: A relational process for accelerating career learning. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 7(4), 487–503. 17. Ashkanasy, N., Wilderom, C., & Peterson, M. (2011). The handbook of organizational culture and climate (Vol. 2nd). Sage. 18. Sherman, S., & Freas, A. (2004). The wild west of executive coaching. Harvard Business Review, 82(11), 82–90. 19. Phillips, T. (2011). Creating a coaching culture across a global sales force. Strategic HR Review, 10(4), 5–10. 20. Dahling, J., et al. (2016). Does coaching matter? A multilevel model linking managerial coaching skill and frequency to sales goal attainment. Personnel Psychology, 69(4), 863–894. 21. Badrinarayanan, V., et  al. (2015). Professional sales coaching: An integrative review and research agenda. European Journal of Marketing, 49(7/8), 1087–1113. 22. Masi, R., & Cooke, R. (2000). Effects of transformational leadership on subordinate motivation, empowering norms, and organizational productivity. International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 8(1), 16–47. 23. Geber, H. (2010). Coaching for accelerated research productivity in Higher Education. International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring, 8(2). 24. Pousa, C., & Mathieu, A. (2015). Is managerial coaching a source of competitive advantage? Promoting employee self-regulation through coaching. Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice, 8(1), 20–35. 25. Albrecht, S., et al. (2015). Employee engagement, Human Resource Management practices and competitive advantage. Journal of Organizational Effectiveness: People and Performance, 2(1), 7–35. 26. Gillen, J. (2018). How to attract and retain talent. Northeast Pennsylvania Business Journal, 33(10), 23. 27. Bolli, T., & Somogyi, F. (2011). Do competitively acquired funds induce universities to increase productivity? Research Policy, 40(1), 136–147. 28. Rogers, S., & Hargadon, J. (2018). Coaching for performance: The art of coaching distant professionals. Journal of Practical Consulting, 6(1), 108–114. 29. Akella, D. (2010). Learning together: Kolb’s experiential theory and its application. Journal of Management and Organization, 16(1), 100–112. 30. Batista-Foguet, J., et al. (2015). An alternative approach to analyze ipsative data: Revisiting experiential learning theory. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1742. 31. Katz, M. (1998). Mentor on call. Life Association News, 93(12), 128. 32. Fox, A. (1998). Working with the military. HR Magazine, 43(12), 94–105. 33. Anderson, M. (2002). Executive briefing: Case study on the return on investment of executive coaching. MetrixGlobal LLC. 34. Walker-Fraser, A. (2011). Coaching and the link to organizational performance: An HR perspective on how to demonstrate return on investment. Development and Learning in Organizations: An International Journal, 25(4), 8–10. 35. McGovern, J., et al. (2001). Maximizing the impact of executive coaching: Behavioral change, organizational outcomes, and return on investment. Manchester Review, 6(1), 3–11. 36. Lawrence, P., & Whyte, A. (2014). Return on investment in executive coaching: A practical model for measuring ROI in organisations. Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice, 7(1), 4–17.

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37. Atkinson, P. (2012). Return on investment in executive coaching: Effective organisational change. Management Services, 56(1), 20–23. 38. Underhill, B., McAnally, K., & Koriath, J. (2007). Executive coaching for results: The definitive guide to developing organizational leaders. Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc. 39. Bolch, M. (2001). Proactive coaching. Training, 38(5), 58. 40. Phillips, J. (2007). Measuring the ROI of a coaching intervention, part 2. Performance Improvement, 46(10), 10–23. 41. Athanasopoulou, A., & Dopson, S. (2018). A systematic review of executive coaching outcomes: Is it the journey or the destination that matters the most? The Leadership Quarterly, 29(1), 70–88. 42. Moorhead, J., et al. (2002). A study of the workforce in emergency medicine: 1999. Annals of Emergency Medicine, 40(1), 3–15. 43. Bassi, L., & McMurrer, D. (2004). How’s your return on people? Harvard Business Review, 82(3), 18. 44. ICF. (2013). International Coach Federation: Summary findings of organizational coaching study. 45. Anderson, M. (2011). Evaluating the ROI of coaching: Telling a story, not just producing a number. In G. Hernez-Broome, L. Boyce, & A. Kraut (Eds.), Advancing executive coaching: Setting the course for successful leadership coaching (pp. 351–368). Wiley Online Library. 46. de Haan, E., et al. (2013). Executive coaching outcome research: The contribution of common factors such as relationship, personality match, and self-efficacy. Consulting Psychology Journal, 65(1), 40–57.

Chapter 6

Coaching Skills

This chapter introduces the skills that coaches use to bring about successful change outcomes in clients. The coaching skills have been derived from the techniques that psychologists and therapists use to build rapid rapport and trusting relationships with patients. Process-oriented coaching skills include active and reflective listening, powerful questioning, and summarising. The difference between process-­ oriented and content-oriented coaching skills is explained in this chapter. Process-oriented coaching skills facilitate the coach’s understanding of the client’s situation and coaching needs. The coach uses open and closed questioning to elicit details pertinent to the client’s concern and encourages them to think more openly about alternate ways of behaving. But it is by asking powerful questions which challenge underlying assumptions and beliefs, and reveal biases and judgements, that the client gains increased self-awareness and surfaces deeply hidden insights. The coach summarises the client’s situation and needs before using content-oriented coaching skills to assist them goal set and action plan. Coaching skills have been described as intangible in content or technical knowledge, and difficult to assess [1]. Also known as ‘soft skills’ or interpersonal skills, their use is instrumental in the delivery of successful coaching outcomes. Communication, collaboration, and cooperation are all ‘soft skills’ that individuals use every day in their interaction with others. Within a coaching session, the coach uses skills of active and reflective listening, powerful questioning, and summarising to assist the client achieve the goals they desire. The use of coaching skills contributes significantly to the creation of a trusting working relationship with the client in which learning takes place and personal change results. Coaches position themselves as co-learners with the client, seeking resolution based on constructive feedback and collaborative accountability. When coaching conversations are focused on the issue, not the person, they can be actioned in a dispassionate, realistic way.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 S. Knowles, Positive Psychology Coaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88995-1_6

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Theoretical Foundations Coaches use a variety of skills such as listening, questioning, paraphrasing, and critical reflection to build a trusting coach–coachee relationship which enhances responsibility and accountability [2]. Using the coaching skills builds trust and alignment and engages individuals both cognitively and emotionally. Coaching behaviours that ‘ask the right questions and model behaviors [that] employees can replicate are more productive than traditional “tell me” feedback approaches’ [3] because they establish expectations of the client’s active involvement in, and responsibility for, achieving their desired outcomes from the coaching. The skill of the coach is to facilitate rather than prescribe outcomes [4].

Traditional Psychology Contributions Coaching skills have been developed from traditional psychological approaches but are principally based on the work of three major contributors: Milton Erickson [5], Virginia Satir [6], and Carl Rogers [7, 8]. Milton Erickson’s contribution to coaching was his powerful observation skills which allowed him to ‘read’ people—listening to the spoken words but also paying attention to the ‘unspoken’ thoughts and feelings that lay beneath the surface as expressed by the client’s non-verbal behaviour. Virginia Satir’s contribution to coaching was to the language of coaching—the need to listen intently to the client’s story and then replicate their exact words and language pattern to give the coach insight into their preferred learning and communication style. This approach is similar to the Socratic questioning techniques used in cognitive psychology. Coaching using this model facilitates the identification of specific cognitive distortions such as over-generalisations and provides the mechanism for coaches to challenge client’s assumptions about what ‘should’ or ‘must’ be done or happen. Carl Rogers’ contribution to coaching was his positioning of coaching as a process of providing unconditional positive regard for the client, and belief in the absolute worth of the individual and their ability to find their own solutions. Language models provide the framework for developing questions that stimulate creativity and discovery as clients explore their personal subjective experience and formulate specific goals to be achieved from the coaching [9]. Cognitive distortions and ‘irrational’ beliefs that hold them back from achieving their coaching outcomes are identified [10, 11]. Reframing (or cognitive restructuring) is a well-established cognitive therapy technique used in clinical settings [10]. It is a particularly effective linguistic technique that is also used in coaching to change the client’s perception of a situation, experience, or event. Reframing provides an alternative way for the client to view their situation or concern. It aims to decrease negative affect and increase positive motivations to behave differently. Three stages in the reframing process, which can be modified as appropriate during coaching, have been outlined [12]. First, the coach acknowledges the client’s perspective. For example, ‘I hear

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what you say and understand the impact this incident has had on you’. Next, the coach offers a challenge to the client’s current thinking. For example, ‘Could it be that this situation may be viewed in a different way?’ Finally, the coach encourages the client to suggest different explanations for their situation or concern as alternative valid perspectives, with a focus on the positive actions they can take to move them meaningfully forward. ‘What is it that you think you could do differently?’ The outcome leads the client to become more open to alternate views on their situation and new ways of behaving in response to it. Carl Rogers’ [7] client-centred therapy distinguished between directive and non-­ directive counselling and therapeutic skills. Non-directive counselling skills, which are also used in coaching, assume the client’s willingness and ability to undertake behavioural change, and hence require only limited intervention by the coach. They include active and reflective listening, open and closed questioning, paraphrasing, and summarising. The client is an active participant in the coaching process. Non-­ directive approaches are particularly effective when they incorporate the three necessary and sufficient characteristics of therapists (and coaches) for client improvement: congruence, unconditional positive regard, and empathy [13]. In contrast, cognitive behavioural therapeutic techniques are considered directive because of their emphasis on experiential approaches to behavioural change such as modelling and explicit feedback [14]. However, when directive approaches are combined with non-directive approaches, and implemented in collaboration with the client, they become less directive. As coaching does not aim to offer instant, routine solutions but rather to foster learning and change [15], coaches avoid using directive approaches [16]. Instead, they use unconditional positive regard as the basis to work non-judgementally with clients, totally accepting the person as doing the best they know how at the time but not necessarily accepting their behaviour, which is often related to, or the cause of, why the client is seeking coaching. Directive approaches may be incorporated into the coaching on a needs-basis. Over the years, researchers have investigated the application of other research techniques to support coaching practice such as transpersonal [17], gestalt [18, 19], narrative [20], integrative [21–23], solution-focused [24–27], neuro-linguistic programming [28–30], and motivational interviewing [31, 32]. Motivational Interviewing (MI) is a client-centred coaching style aimed at facilitating behavioural change by helping clients explore and overcome their ambivalence for change [33]. The technique has been well-documented as an effective behavioural change intervention in the health industry, especially associated with alcohol and drug abuse [34, 35]. The effectiveness of motivational interviewing in reducing adult obesity, increasing physical activity and improved nutrition, and promoting a more optimistic view on their quality of life has been reported [36]. The discipline of counselling psychology [37] has contributed the skills of active and reflective listening, open-ended and closed questioning, and summarising to coaching, which are discussed in the next sections. Coaches who actively and reflectively listen to clients are better able to understand their situation and summarise their needs.

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Listening Skills Listening is an active process through which individuals gather information to meet their needs for interacting with the environment [38]. It’s a critical skill for coaches to learn and use effectively. The coach listens for what is said, and also for what they intuit is not said from observing the client’s non-verbal language. By using the NLP techniques of matching and mirroring the client’s non-verbal behaviours, the coach develops a deeper level of rapport with the client more quickly. Listening to the client’s exact words allows the coach to identify their preferred communication style—visual, auditory, or kinaesthetic—which they can also match and mirror. There are two types of listening—active listening and reflective listening. Active listening is an interactive process by which the coach gathers information, promotes learning, and encourages behavioural change [15, 39]. As they listen, they develop intuitions about the client’s mental mindset, assumptions, beliefs, biases, and judgements based on the explicit and implicit language they use [40]. Reflective listening is also an essential coaching skill used to demonstrate the coach’s understanding of the client’s situation and needs [41]. As appropriate, the coach asks questions for clarification or to obtain further information. In doing so, they must be careful not to let their personal filters, assumptions, judgements, or biases distort what they hear. Three types of reflective responses used in therapeutic situations have been described [12]: simple, amplified, and double-sided reflections. Only simple reflection is used in coaching situations. At intervals, the coach reflectively summarises the client’s story so they know that the coach understands their concern and what they have done in an attempt to address it. When the coach actively listens to the client and reflects back their story, including any actions that the client may have taken to resolve their situation and with what outcome, the client will either agree with the coach that they have heard correctly or inform them if something is missing. Traditional psychology research then offers open and closed questioning techniques that the coach can use to seek more specific information. Questioning Skills Questioning involves the use of open and closed questioning techniques which may be direct or non-direct. Open questions are non-direct, designed to stimulate discovery and creativity. They are used at the beginning of the coaching session to open up the conversation and start trust-building. They develop the client’s story so the coach understands it completely and can identify their coaching needs. The coach affirms that the client has done the best they knew how at the time, and ascertains the client’s readiness to move forward by embracing different behaviours. Closed questions aim to discover the facts of the situation. They are direct and seek a specific answer, such as facts and figures, which helps the coach build a picture of the client’s situation and needs. The coach ensures that closed questions are asked in an inquiring rather than inquisitorial manner lest they cause offence and possibly provoke hostility in the client.

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Summarising Skills Summarising is a specialised form of reflective listening. It’s an effective way for the coach to communicate interest in a client, build rapport, call attention to salient aspects of the coaching conversation, and shift the focus back ‘on track’ if necessary. The coach listens to gain a complete understanding of all ‘parts’ of the client’s story—the gestalt [42, 43]. Summarising is the skill that succinctly pulls all the ‘parts’ together to represent a particular section of the client’s story as it unfolds. This is important so that the coach doesn’t get overwhelmed with too much information at once. By summarising in ‘parts’, the coach is able to check for understanding and, in doing so, confirm that they are hearing what the client has to say. As the client reports their story, they too become more aware of what lies beneath their concern and can provide additional information if it is important to facilitate the coach’s better understanding. Process Versus Content Coaching Skills These essential process-oriented coaching skills [44] are used in every coaching session at different times to elicit client change. When the coach masters these skills, they engage clients in active learning of new perspectives and ways of behaving, and help them develop self-efficacy and motivation to achieve. In addition, the coach needs the skill of facilitation, the ability to gently guide and direct the client towards a successful coaching outcome, and motivation skills to keep them moving positively forward towards their desired goal. In contrast with the process-oriented coaching skills, content-oriented coaching skills are aligned with a competency-based, performance agenda such as in a corporate or regulatory environment. In occupations or professions where strict adherence to implementation guidelines is required (such as in skilled manufacturing, medicine, law), content-oriented skills of observation, feedback, and correction are necessary. The difference between process- and content-oriented coaching skills was examined in a medical education setting [45]. Researchers discovered that in this workplace, supervisors need process skills in relation to preparation, relationship development, micro-communication skills, reflection, and self-assessment. They also need content skills related to the giving of feedback, goal-setting, and development planning. The researchers noted the inter-connectedness of the process and content-oriented coaching skills and observed that, in prescriptive environments such as medical practice, there are tensions between encouraging self-­ direction, and ensuring progress and competence in the performance of the job role. They also noted difficulties in balancing the use of process versus content skills in the ‘partnership—teaching’ relationship between the coach/supervisor and the medical residents. In summary, in certain situations, effective coaching may involve a combination of process- and content-oriented skills [44]. Content-oriented coaching skills such as the ability to deliver constructive feedback, goal set, and action plan are

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incorporated into the coaching process when content (i.e. knowledge and skill development) is important to the client. Occasions when it is particularly important to include content-oriented coaching skills in the coaching session are when coaching is conducted for professional development, performance improvement, and career progression.

Positive Psychology Contributions The field of positive psychology has added the use of powerful questioning skills to the traditional skill mix of open and closed questioning skills required of coaches. Powerful questions are both direct and non-direct. They are non-direct in that they are open-ended, meaning that there is no right or wrong answer and the client is free to mentally roam around a number of abstract responses. They are direct in that they are designed to stimulate cognitive dissonance and challenge fixed mental frames and beliefs. Powerful Questions Powerful questions are simple, open-ended and come from a place of genuine curiosity. They shift the conversation and take it deeper into potentially unknown, unchartered territory [46]. Neither the coach nor the client knows the answer to a powerful question until it emerges from the client’s subconscious. Powerful questions get right to the heart of the matter, addressing the real issues confronting the client—issues which have been lying under the surface for some time, disabling their true personal and professional effectiveness. They cause the client to think through what has happened and what they have done and, as a result, encourage self-reflection, surface underlying assumptions, and generate creative thinking. Clients come to understand the part they played in creating their situation and take responsibility for their actions. As clients engage in deep structure learning, searching within for the answers or solutions to their problems, they begin to realise that the person they are today is not the person they want to be tomorrow. Having made this realisation, they are usually fully ready to commit to the coaching process and welcome the ways they may evolve as they do things differently. All the while, the coach uses unconditional positive regard to support the client through this process. The coach sits, and waits, and remains silent as necessary, not wanting to interfere with the client’s thoughts. The coach holds their presence ‘in the moment’ and is completely ‘there’ for the client. It is only when the client emerges from the depths of their thoughts and feelings that the coach resumes the appropriate coaching style and continues the coaching session.

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Application to Coaching The essential process-oriented coaching skills used in every coaching session are those of active and reflective listening, powerful questioning, and summarising. These skills are used at different times during the coaching process to elicit different client responses. Coaches who actively and reflectively listen to clients are better able to understand their situation and coaching needs. When the coach masters these skills, they engage clients in learning new perspectives and ways of behaving, and help them develop self-efficacy and motivation to achieve.

Active Listening During coaching, and especially at the beginning of the coaching session, the coach focuses completely on what the client is saying to discover as much information as possible about their circumstances. Noticing the exact words and phrases a client uses, the coach listens for: • Content—information about the client’s story that they are willing to share, • Context—the particulars of the situation in which the story took place as they see it, • Impact—what resulted after what happened, to them and others, as well as implicit metaphors and images that may emerge in addition to explicit expressions, and • Feelings—the emotions that arose in them and others during and after the event.

Reflective Listening Reflective listening is like holding up a mirror to the client’s story. Using the client’s exact, significant words (and especially ‘feeling’ words), reflective listening highlights the four key elements of the communication: the content and context, impact, and feelings. The coach may say: ‘What I’m hearing is….’ or ‘Sounds like you are saying….’ These are effective ways they can reflect back the client’s story, although reflection shouldn’t be over-used in a conversation. Another way is to ask questions to clarify certain points such as: ‘What do you mean when you said…?’ ‘Is this what you mean …?’ If the coach finds themself responding emotionally to what the client has said, they should say so, and ask for more information: ‘I may not understand you correctly, and I find myself taking what you said personally. What I thought you just said is XXX. Is that what you meant?’ As the client’s story unfolds, the coach varies the level of reflection to help them discover their inner truth. Reflections of affect, especially those where the coach uses their insight and asks permission to state something that’s obvious to them but hidden to the client, can be powerful motivators for change. For example, ‘It seems that the

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relationship between you and your partner has broken down and that is distressing you. Is that correct?’ If the coach is right, the emotional intensity of the session deepens. If wrong, or the client is not ready to deal with this insight, they will correct the coach and the conversation continues. However, if the coach’s insight is firm, they may come back to re-test their hypothesis at a later time during the coaching. As the coach listens to the client’s story, they may intuit some negative or limiting beliefs that are holding them back or thwarting their ability to resolve the situation by themselves. They note these down and as appropriate, surface them to the client’s awareness as appropriate. The discrepancies are then ‘on the table’ for discussion either immediately if the client is willing, or later on as the coaching progresses. As the coach listens actively and reflectively, they may ask open and closed questions to gain additional information which helps them understand the client’s story.

Open Questions Open questions are those which clients cannot answer with a ‘yes’, ‘no’, or ‘three times in the last week’ response. Most coaches begin coaching sessions with an open-ended question such as: ‘What’s the most important thing we should be talking about today?’ or ‘What brings you here today?’ or ‘Tell me about what’s been happening since we last met?’ or ‘So, what makes you feel that it might be time for a change?’ Open questions allow the client to tell their own story in their own way. They are useful when the coach needs more information but is not exactly sure what information they need. Examples include: • • • • •

What did you do? What happened then? What else? Do you have any other ideas? How are you feeling right now?

Closed Questions Closed questions are those that seek a specific response for information, for example: ‘How many times a day does this behaviour occur?’ They uncover the facts and support direct communication. Examples of closed questions include: • • • •

When did this occur? Who else was present? How long did the incident last? What is your manager’s name?

In addition to asking open and closed questions to discover more about the client’s situation, the coach uses powerful questioning to challenge any aspects of their story which seem misaligned with their coaching needs or present as possible barriers to successfully achieving their goals.

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Powerful Questions Powerful questioning is used after all the details of the client’s story have been disclosed. By that time, the client is feeling comfortable in the coaching space and a trusting, working relationship has been established. The coach eases into asking a powerful question by first asking permission to do so, for example, ‘Would it be alright if I ask you a question you may not expect?’ or ‘I’d like to ask you a question that may be difficult for you to hear. Is that alright?’ or ‘I’d like to ask you a question from left-field. Is that OK?’ With permission, the coach proceeds and the relationship is not fractured. The coach knows if they have asked a powerful question by the client’s response to it. They may say: ‘That’s a good question. I’ll have to think about that.’ Alternatively, the client may not come up with an answer immediately but may ask to take the question ‘on notice’. No-matter what the response, the coach has stimulated the client to re-think their perspective or review their position which is often sufficient for them to achieve a complete breakthrough. Table 6.1 lists eight simple yet powerful questions that coaches can use again and again with clients until clarity is gained. What makes the right question even more powerful is when the coach probes for deeper understanding. They can take the question to its deepest meaning by asking this simple follow-up question: ‘And what else?’ The question draws more information from the client and deepens their understanding of themselves and their situation. • ‘What do you want? … And what else?’ • ‘What’s holding you back? … And what else?’ • ‘What is it costing you to continue holding back? … And what else?’ The most appropriate times to use open, closed, and powerful questions during the coaching session are outlined in Table 6.2.

Table 6.1  Examples of powerful questions Eight powerful questions 1.  ‘What do you want?’ 2.  ‘What do you need?’ 3.  ‘What’s holding you back?’ 4.  ‘What is it costing you to continue holding back?’ 5.  ‘How will things be in 3, 6, 12 months’ time if you don’t do anything about your current situation now?’ 6.  ‘What does success look like for you?’ 7.  ‘What is the most meaningful action you can take right now?’ 8.  ‘What is the question you hope I won’t ask you?’

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Table 6.2  Questions used in coaching Questions used in coached Start the conversation with Open questions Gain clarity and Closed understanding with questions

Probe deeper for solutions Powerful and feelings with questions

What’s the most important thing we should be talking about today? What exactly is the problem? Who else is involved? What have you done to resolve the situation? How committed are you to resolving this problem? How will you feel when it is resolved? When this problem is resolved (or goal achieved), what will the best possible outcome be? If we could wave a magic wand and create an ideal world, how would you like your life to be in 5 years’ time? What else? What else? What else? How do you feel when you imagine yourself in this picture? When you achieve this ideal future, how will your life be different?

Summarising Summaries are conducted at appropriate times during the coaching conversation and at the end to make sure that the coach completely understands the client’s story and responses to questions. They are especially useful when the client is sharing a great deal of information which would be hard for the coach to reflect back all at once. The structure of the summary is straightforward. It begins with the coach announcing that they are about to summarise, make reference to pertinent aspects of the client’s story, and invite the client to correct anything missed. It finishes with an open-ended question such as ‘Is that correct?’ to check for understanding. If any discrepancy or ambivalence was perceived in the client’s story, the coach includes what they noticed in the summary and asks for an explanation, for example: ‘You said that you wanted to save money for your education yet you have just booked a 9-week around-the-world trip. How does this booking support your desired goal?’ Here’s an example of an effective summary: Let me stop and summarise what we’ve just talked about. You’re not sure that you want to be here today and you really only came because your manager insisted on it. At the same time, you’ve had some nagging thoughts of your own about what’s been happening, including the fact that you’re not keeping up with the job these days and whether you’re in for a demotion. Did I miss anything?

In summary, the degree to which the coach actively listens to the client’s story and reflects back the content, context, impact, and feelings associated with their story is significant in determining the success of the coaching session. The coach uses open and closed questioning to confirm the client’s story and acknowledge the actions they have taken to resolve their situation. But it is by asking powerful questions which cause the client to dig deeper into their subconscious to surface issues

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that are of real concern to them and the reason they have come to coaching, that makes all the difference in how the coaching session unfolds and whether or not it meets their coaching needs. Coaching with intent increases the client’s confidence in their ability to identify possible options, generate solutions, and change their behaviour to move towards their desired goals.

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23. Carey, W., Philippon, D., & Cummings, G. (2011). Coaching models for leadership development: An integrative review. Journal of Leadership Studies, 5(1), 51–69. 24. Grant, A., & O’Connor, S. (2018). Broadening and building solution-focused coaching: Feeling good is not enough. Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice, 11(2), 165–185. 25. Nagel, R. (2008). Coaching with a solutions focus—Focusing on the solution not the problem. Development and Learning in Organizations: An International Journal, 22(4), 11–14. 26. Grant, A., et al. (2012). Development and validation of the solution-focused inventory. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 7(4), 334–348. 27. O’Connell, B., Palmer, S., & Williams, H. (2013). Solution-focused coaching in practice. Taylor and Francis. 28. Zamfir, C.-M. (2015). The NLP model of communication. British and American Studies, 21, 225–228. 29. Grimley, B., et  al. (2013). Theory and practice of NLP coaching: A psychological approach. Sage. 30. Iosif, C. (2010). Using NLP meta, Milton, metaphor models, for improving the activity of the organization. Economia: Seria Management, 13(2), 447–456. 31. Duncan, A., & Friedman, C. (2018). An opportunity for change: Training fellows in motivational interviewing. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 57(10 Suppl). 32. McMaster, F., & Resnicow, K. (2012). Motivational interviewing. In J.  Rippe (Ed.), Encyclopedia of lifestyle medicine & health. Sage. 33. Miller, W., Rollnick, S., & Conforti, K. (2002). Motivational interviewing. Guilford Press. 34. Miller, W., Yahne, C., & Tonigan, S. (2003). Motivational interviewing in drug abuse services: A randomised trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71(4), 754–763. 35. Brown, J., & Miller, W. (1993). Impact of motivational interviewing on participation and outcome in residential alcoholism treatment. Psychology of Addictive Behaviours, 7(4), 211–218. 36. Newnham-Kanas, C., et  al. (2011). The quantitative assessment of motivational interviewing using co-active life coaching skills as an intervention for adults struggling with obesity. International Coaching Psychology Review, 6(2), 211–228. 37. Grant, A. (2001). Towards a psychology of coaching, in Department of Psychology. Macquarie University. 38. Tuuri, K., & Eerola, T. (2012). Formulating a revised taxonomy for modes of listening. Journal of New Music Research, 41(2), 137–152. 39. Ulrich, D. (2008). Coaching for results. Business Strategy Series, 9(3), 104–114. 40. Marshak, R. (2004). Generative conversations: How to use deep listening and transforming talk in coaching and consulting. OD Practitioner, 3, 25–29. 41. Miller, W., & Rollnick, S. (2002). Motivational interviewing: Preparing people for change (2nd ed.). Guilford Press. 42. Perls, F. (1976). The gestalt approach; eye witness to therapy. Bantain Books. 43. Köhler, W. (1959). Gestalt psychology today. American Psychologist, 14, 727–734. 44. Celoria, D., & Hemphill, D. (2014). Coaching from the coaches’ perspective: A process-­ oriented focus. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 3(1), 72–85. 45. Armson, H., et al. (2019). Identifying coaching skills to improve feedback use in postgraduate medical education. Medical Education, 53(5), 477–493. 46. Scott, S. (2002). Fierce conversations: Achieving success in work and in life, one conversation at a time. Piatkus.

Chapter 7

Coaching Process

This chapter focuses on coaching as a dynamic, relational, and social process that helps clients increase their personal and professional effectiveness. Coaches partner with clients in a trusting, working relationship to help them find solutions to their problems and facilitate behavioural change to achieve their goals. As a developmental intervention, the coaching process helps clients identify the specific problem to be addressed and the opportunities available to them when their situation is resolved. Coaches use coaching skills to shift clients’ perspectives, stimulate exploration and discovery, and identify ways they can solve their own problems. Since coaching is applicable to clients in any occupation or business, it is a meta-process that can be applied to any situation in which a client feels the need for improvement or a desire to achieve a specific goal which they have been unable to attain as a result of their own efforts [1]. Professional guidelines ensure that the coaching process is conducted ethically, with competence and integrity, and with total respect for the client and their dignity. Coaching is an ‘asking’ rather than ‘telling’ process, holistic and client-centred, concerned with achieving the client’s goals for a happier and more fulfilling life and more effective functioning at work. ‘Pure’ coaching is client-led, with no pre-­ determined agenda or outcomes. Successful outcomes from coaching can be achieved even when the coach has no knowledge or pre-conceived notions of the client, their situation, or their coaching needs. In contrast, traditional ‘performance’ coaching has pre-determined outcomes and an organisational as well as individual agenda [2]. Positive psychology coaching focuses on what’s going right in a client’s life and work, rather than what’s going wrong, and finding ways to uplift the client’s living to achieve flow [3, 4] and flourish [5].

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Theoretical Foundations Coaching as practiced today in community or organisational settings has its origins within the developmental process of mentoring which was embraced by organisations in the 1980s as a valid means of supporting executives in the performance of their role [6, 7]. As mentoring became more commonplace in organisational settings, attention turned to the micro-skills that successful mentors use to support mentee learning. These skills were identified as active and reflective listening, open and closed questioning, and summarising, and later became the foundational skills for coaching. As previously explained, mentors can coach but coaches do not usually mentor, at least, not in the same session. The reason is primarily due to the different foci involved in these two developmental processes in terms of clients, context, process, practice, relationship, and delivery [8]. The first attempt to capture the steps in performance coaching was made by Sir John Whitmore in 1984.

Traditional Psychological Contributions Coaching was a little known and researched field until the 1980s when Sir John Whitmore developed the famous GROW model of coaching [2]. The initials of the acronym GROW stand for Goal-setting, Reality checking, Options, and Wrap Up. The model provides a useful, practical framework for helping clients clarify performance and business goals, explore options, and act on them. More recently in the academic literature, an evidence-based, individual coaching model was proposed by Stober and Grant [9]. According to this model, the basis for effective coaching is the successful formation of a collaborative relationship within which the coach holds the client accountable for actions that have been jointly determined. The coach works with the client to raise their awareness of the issues, and help them find ways to take responsibility for change. The coach then motivates the client to take actions and be committed to achieving the desired results.

Positive Psychological Contributions Current models of coaching from a positive psychology perspective position coaching not as a linear, lockstep process, but as a dynamic, interactive, relational, and social process that promotes self-improvement [10] and focuses on assisting clients achieve life goals [11]. It is a particularly effective process to stimulate learning and create new meanings and behaviour [12–16]. Coaching unleashes a client’s potential to reach meaningful, important objectives [17] and allows them to build trust in their own values, motives, feelings, and thoughts to develop personally and attain their goals [18].

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The coaching process stimulates recall from clients to identify what they know about their situation and expose what they don’t [13]. The coach aligns the coaching process to the client’s targeted situation and needs [9, 19, 20]. Coaches contribute knowledge of theories, models and guidelines, professional expertise and change methods based on research as well as self-knowledge and wisdom, together with contextual knowledge based on subject matter expertise, to the coaching process [21]. Coaching is one of several relational processes aimed at supporting growth and development [22, 23]. As a non-judgemental, relational process, coaching supports development by holding the client as the expert in their life and field of expertise with all the necessary resources they need to address their challenges [24, 25]. The working relationship is an equal partnership [26] with clear, mutually defined expectations [27]. The relational nature of the interaction allows coaches to provide candid and honest feedback on the client’s performance and behaviour [28]. A meta-analysis of the academic literature has revealed a moderate and consistent correlation between a high-quality coach-client relationship, and cognitive and affective coaching outcomes such as employee wellbeing, self-efficacy, motivation, and work satisfaction [29]. As the coaching relationship deepens, self-awareness increases [30–33] which allows the client to bring ‘tacit understandings to a level of conscious awareness’ [34]. As a social process, coaching is both a product of, and contributor to, the reshaping of the client’s social context by influencing power structures and individual agency [35]. Hence, coaching may be used either as an ‘enabler of conformity or change … [or] as a process of control or resistance’ [36]. Clients learn through social interactions with individuals, groups, and communities in their environment [37]. The act of sharing can have a profound impact on them and their relationships, leading to new perspectives and transformation [38]. The growth of emotional intelligence research highlighted coaching as a social–relational process that occurs either as a dyadic relationship between coach and client or among group or team members as they create ‘interactional richness … [and] a specific opportunity for individual learning and development’ [39]. The assumption underlying the relational aspect of the coaching interaction is that learning occurs in social situations and is critical to growth and development [22, 40]. Moreover, emotional competence is developed through relationships based on mutuality and respect through which the client develops independence and takes control of their own learning [41, 42]. In addition to being an effective process to facilitate personal change, coaching is also a highly effective process for improving employee performance [43, 44]. HR systems that promote relational climates indirectly influence the nature of relationships and understandings of helping behaviour [45]. Positive psychology coaching research has been applied to a number of fields and contexts such as counselling [46, 47], financial planning [48], university education [49], corporate budget-setting [50], and homelessness [51], with results indicating significant decreases in psychological distress (e.g., depression, anxiety) and significant increases in wellbeing (e.g., life satisfaction, self-esteem). An

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understanding of positive psychology has informed leaders’ perception of employees’ ability to cope with and manage change in the workplace, particularly in relation to critical incidents [52].

Application to Coaching Coaches have an obligation to ensure that the coaching process is targeted to address the client’s situation and needs, and is performed in a way that is personally respectful and professionally ethical. The ICF has established a statement of Ethical Principles and Code of Ethics by which their member coaches abide. The statements provide the framework upon which professional coaches are encouraged to base their practice. The principles and values to which member coaches subscribe include confidentiality and the provision of the utmost care and concern for the welfare and success of the client. The Code sets out the rules by which coaches should operate in specific situations and serve as building blocks for the ethical and moral standards of coaches. While each member coach agrees to follow this Code, they are also encouraged to supplement and add to it in order to build a lifelong commitment to conducting an ethical coaching practice. Coaches operating ethically display the following characteristics: • Competence: Being fully qualified as a coach and maintaining high standards of performance in their practice. • Integrity: Professional coaches demonstrate high standards of personal and professional integrity at all times. They present themselves and their ability in an honest and fair manner, being cognizant of their level of expertise as well as aware of their limitations. They know themselves, their values and belief systems, and live their values whilst being aware of the effect of their behaviour on others. They perform coaching to the best of their ability and know when to refer on to others for a different or more intensive personal change intervention. • Professional responsibility: Coaches maintain their professional qualifications and operational standards by keeping up-to-date with developments in their profession. They aspire to conduct themselves in a manner that reflects positively upon the coaching profession, is respectful of different approaches to coaching, and abides by all applicable laws and regulations. • Respect for people’s rights and dignity: Coaches treat all clients with equal dignity and respect, being aware of their right to privacy and confidentiality, and that they need to declare any conflict of interest. They cherish the worth of each client and acknowledge their right to self-determination, autonomy, and choice. Coaches are open to clients regardless of age, gender, race, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language, or socioeconomic status, and do not knowingly participate in or condone unfair discriminatory practices. Since high expectations are set for people in positions of influence within the community, professional coaches have a reputation to maintain. Everyday citizens

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look to people in such positions as role models for good behaviour, getting results, and maintaining the reputation and good standing of the community. How the coach relates to other professionals in their community, as a kindred spirit working in the caring profession, has an effect on the way others view the coach and the services they provide. Relationships that are built on trust, respect, and integrity provide the foundations for supportive, mutually beneficial, and long-term associations. When known as a coach who adheres to ethical and legal standards in all social and business dealings with clients and others in the community, the professional coach sets an example for others to follow. If any dispute arises with a client, professional coaches address the dispute promptly. They arrange a specific meeting with the client to discuss the issue, aiming for clarity of purpose and intention. If the intention is to resolve the situation amicably, the coach will find a way to ensure that both parties ‘win’. However, if the dispute continues and cannot be resolved between coach and client, the coach may need to enlist the services of a mediator who can make an objective assessment of the situation and a determination based on the merits of the case.

Professional Guidelines The following professional practice guidelines are derived from the core competencies of the ICF. Professional coaches adhere to these principles at all times whilst in a coaching relationship with a client. Establishing Trust and Intimacy with the Client: This is the coach’s ability to create a safe, supportive environment which produces ongoing, mutual respect and trust. It is a relationship in which the coach: • • • •

Shows genuine concern for the client’s welfare and future, Continuously demonstrates personal integrity, honesty, and sincerity, Establishes clear agreements and keeps promises, Demonstrates respect for the client’s perceptions, learning style, and personal being, • Provides ongoing support for and champions new behaviours and actions, including those involving risk-taking and fear of failure, and • Asks permission to coach the client in sensitive, new areas. Trust is the basis of any long-term relationship. Without trust, there is no relationship. The client should be able to rely on the coach’s word, meaning and intention. Whilst trust is mostly given or earned, it takes just a small transgression for it to be withdrawn—for the client to say ‘I don’t trust you’ and walk away. From the coach’s perspective, living up to their values is paramount in establishing and maintaining a trusting relationship. This does not mean that the coach must always deliver as and when was agreed, but it does mean that if there is any doubt, the coach will communicate with the client and re-negotiate the terms of engagement. Communication is the key. Being honest and accountable are the other keys. Doing

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what you say you will do, and living the values of honesty and integrity are the hallmarks of an effective, professional coach. Maintaining a coaching ‘presence’: When the coach is fully ‘present’ with the client, they are completely focused on the client, dismissing any of their own thoughts or concerns, and relating only to what the client is saying and how it is being said. Being ‘present’ with the client means that the coach: • • • •

Is focused on the client and their needs, and flexible during the coaching process, Accesses their own intuition and trusts their inner knowing—‘goes with their gut’, Is open to not knowing and takes considered risks, Sees many ways to work with the client and chooses ‘in the moment’ which is most effective, • Uses humour effectively to create lightness and energy, • Confidently shifts perspectives and experiments with new possibilities for their own action, and • Demonstrates confidence in working with strong emotions, self-manages, and is not overpowered or enmeshed by the client’s emotions. Setting ground rules and boundaries: In any relationship, and especially when the coach meets the client for the first time, it is important to inform them of what they can expect from the coaching program. In this way, the client is fully informed and can choose to opt-in or opt-out of the coaching relationship. The success of the coaching process hinges on the coach and client agreeing on the ‘ground rules’ of how the coaching relationship will operate—no surprises. Both parties have input into developing the ground rules which may have to be referred to later if there is conflict, discussions become confused, actions are not taken, or the relationship breaks down. Ground rules can do just that—‘ground’ both the coach and client in the reality of where the coaching first started and hook them back to the original intention to do right by each other. Examples of possible guidelines include: • Being open to new perspectives and experiences which provide opportunities to learn, • Acting with integrity in all coach-client interactions, and • Displaying joint commitment to helping the client achieve their goals. Knowing the boundaries of the coaching relationship is also important. For example, the role of the coach is to do just that—coach. It is not to counsel or provide therapy. If serious issues or concerns surface during the coaching sessions, which they sometimes do, and are getting in the way of the client moving forward, the coach needs to know the boundaries of their capability and remit, and refer the client to their local general practitioner or a trusted, known professional to resolve that issue before returning to coaching. Otherwise the coach will be acting out of integrity and may become part of the problem not the solution. Sometimes clients will attend coaching sessions ‘not fully present’. For example, they may be under the influence of recreational drugs or alcohol. In these conditions, clients find it difficult to focus and act rationally, and are unable to totally commit to the coaching process and make life changes. The role of the coach is to

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‘call’ the situation and say that they do not coach people who are under the influence of non-prescription medication, drugs, or alcohol. The coach suggests that the client makes an appointment to meet with a professional who can treat their condition, and only return to coaching when the issue has been resolved. As coaches enact these principles during the coaching process, they display personal integrity and professional competence which gives clients assurance that they can help them resolve their concerns and develop a better life.

References 1. Peterson, C., & Park, N. (2003). Positive psychology as the even-handed positive psychologist views it. Psychological Inquiry, 14, 141–146. 2. Whitmore, J. (2002). Coaching for performance: GROWing people, performance and purpose (3rd ed.). Nicholas Brealey Publishing. 3. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. Harper & Row. 4. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1997). Flow and education. The NAMTA Journal, 22(2), 3–35. 5. Seligman, M. (2018). PERMA and the building blocks of well-being. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 1–3. 6. Kram, K. (1980). Mentoring processes at work: Developmental relationships in managerial careers, in Graduate School (p. 341). Yale. 7. Kram, K. (1985). Mentoring at work: Developmental relationships in organizational life. Scott Foresman. 8. Bachkirova, T., & Kauffman, C. (2009). The blind men and the elephant: Using criteria of universality and uniqueness in evaluating our attempts to define coaching. Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice, 2(2), 95–105. 9. Stober, D., & Grant, A. (2006). Evidence based coaching handbook: Putting best practices to work for your clients. Wiley. 10. Kersten-van Dijk, E., et al. (2017). Personal informatics, self-insight, and behavior change: A critical review of current literature. Human-Computer Interaction, 32(5/6), 268–296. 11. Megginson, D. (2014). Goal-focused coaching: Theory and practice. Action Learning: Research and Practice, 11(2), 243–245. 12. Wilson, C. (2011). Developing a coaching culture. Industrial and Commercial Training, 43(7), 407–414. 13. Celoria, D., & Hemphill, D. (2014). Coaching from the coaches’ perspective: A process-­ oriented focus. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 3(1), 72–85. 14. de Souza, R., & Brunstein, J. (2018). Critical reflection in the workplace and management competencies: In service of transformation? Australian Journal of Adult Learning, 58(2), 266–291. 15. Chatterjee, A., Pereira, A., & Bates, R. (2018). Impact of individual perception of organizational culture on the learning transfer environment. International Journal of Training & Development, 22(1), 15–33. 16. Nicolaidou, M., Karagiorgi, Y., & Petridou, A. (2018). Professional learning through reflection promoted by feedback and coaching (PROFLEC) in Cyprus. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 21(4), 412–426. 17. Rosinski, P. (2003). Coaching across cultures. The International Journal of Coaching in Organizations, 1(4), 99–106. 18. Grant, A. (2001). Towards a psychology of coaching, in Department of Psychology. Macquarie University. 19. McDermott, I., & Jago, W. (2005). The coaching bible. Piatkus Books.

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2 0. Downey, M. (2003). Effective coaching: Lessons from the coaches’ couch. Texere/Thomson. 21. Drake, D. (2009). Evidence is a verb: A relational approach to knowledge and mastery in coaching. International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring, 7(1). 22. Parker, P., Hall, D., & Kram, K. (2008). Peer coaching: A relational process for accelerating career learning. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 7(4), 487–503. 23. Parker, P., et al. (2015). A relational communication approach to peer coaching. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 51(2), 231–252. 24. Baron, L., & Morin, L. (2009). The coach-coachee relationship in executive coaching: A field study. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 20(1), 85–106. 25. Swift, J., & Parkin, S. (2017). The client as the expert in psychotherapy: What clinicians and researchers can learn about treatment processes and outcomes from psychotherapy clients. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 73(11), 1486–1488. 26. Bozer, G., Sarros, J., & Santora, J. (2013). The role of coachee characteristics in executive coaching for effective sustainability. Journal of Management Development, 32(3), 277–294. 27. Silsbee, D. (2004). The mindful coach: Seven roles for helping people grow. Ivy River Press. 28. Sherman, S., & Freas, A. (2004). The wild west of executive coaching. Harvard Business Review, 82(11), 82–90. 29. Graßmann, C., Schölmerich, F., & Schermuly, C. (2019). The relationship between working alliance and client outcomes in coaching: A meta-analysis. Human Relations, 73(1), 35–58. 30. Lawrence, E., Dunn, M., & Suri, W.-S. (2018). Developing leadership potential in graduate students with assessment, self-awareness, reflection and coaching. The Journal of Management Development, 37(8), 634–651. 31. Orton, T. (2015). Leadership self-awareness development through the amelioration of fear-­ based thoughts: An Eastern perspective (p. 312). Gonzaga University. 32. Axelrod, S. (2012). Self-awareness: At the interface of executive development and psychoanalytic therapy. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 32(4), 340–357. 33. Hadin, K., & Steinwedel, J. (2006). Developing global leaders: Executive coaching targets cross-cultural competencies. In Global business and organizational excellence. Wiley Periodicals Inc. 34. Bond, C., & Seneque, M. (2012). Conceptualizing coaching as an approach to management and organizational development. Journal of Management Development, 32(1), 57–72. 35. Cushion, C., & Partington, M. (2016). A critical analysis of the conceptualisation of ‘coaching philosophy’. Sport, Education and Society, 21(6), 851–867. 36. Shoukry, H., & Cox, E. (2018). Coaching as a social process. Management Learning, 49(4), 413–428. 37. Kurland, H., & Hasson-Gilad, D. (2015). Organizational learning and extra effort: The mediating effect of job satisfaction. Teaching and Teacher Education, 49, 56–67. 38. Glăveanu, V. (2011). Children and creativity: A most (un)likely pair? Thinking Skills and Creativity, 6(2), 122–131. 39. Egan, T., & Hamlin, R. (2014). Coaching, HRD, and relational richness: Putting the pieces together. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 16(2), 242–257. 40. Kram, K. (1996). A relational approach to career development. In H.D.T. Associates (Ed.), The career is dead, long live the career. Jossey-Bass. 41. Moen, F., & Kvalsund, R. (2008). What communications or relational factors characterize the method, skills and techniques of executive coaching? International Journal of Coaching in Organizations, 6(2), 102–127. 42. Kram, K., & Cherniss, C. (2001). Developing emotional competence through relationships at work. In C. Cherniss (Ed.), The emotionally intelligent workplace. Jossey-Bass. 43. Ellinger, A. D., Hamlin, R., & Beattie, R. (2008). Behavioural indicators of ineffective managerial coaching: A cross-national study. Journal of European Industrial Training, 32(4), 240–257. 44. Feldman, D., & Lankau, M. (2005). Executive coaching: A review and agenda for future research. Journal of Management, 31(6), 829–848.

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45. Mossholder, K., Richardson, H., & Settoon, R. (2011). Human resource systems and helping in organizations: A relational perspective. Academy of Management Review, 36(1), 33–52. 46. Harris, A., Thoresen, C., & Lopez, S. (2007). Integrating positive psychology into counseling: Why and (when appropriate) how? Journal of Counseling & Development, 85(1), 3–13. 47. Galassi, J., & Akos, P. (2004). Developmental advocacy: Twenty-first century school counseling. Journal of Counseling & Development, 82(2), 146–157. 48. Asebedo, S., & Seay, M. (2015). From functioning to flourishing: Applying positive psychology to financial planning. Journal of Financial Planning, 28(11), 50–58. 49. Bhullar, N., Hine, D., & Phillips, W. (2014). Profiles of psychological well-being in a sample of Australian university students. International Journal of Psychology, 49(4), 288–294. 50. Venkatesh, R., & Blaskovich, J. (2012). The mediating effect of psychological capital on the budget participation-job performance relationship. Journal of Management Accounting Research, 24(1), 159–175. 51. Dambrun, M., & Dubuy, A. L. (2014). A positive psychology intervention among long-term unemployed people and its effects on psychological distress and well-being. Journal of Employment Counseling, 51(2), 75–88. 52. Butterfield, L., et al. (2010). What helps and hinders workers in managing change. Journal of Employment Counseling, 47(4), 146–156.

Chapter 8

Coaching Practice

This chapter explains the ©AIPC COACH model of coaching which assists individual clients identify the critical issue facing them and the opportunities available to achieve a positive outcome. The specific goal they wish to achieve and the actions they need to take are clarified, and the client agrees to commit to being responsible and accountable for taking these actions. The joint accountability of coach and client is emphasised. Coaches use the ©AIPC COACH model of coaching with individual clients in community settings and coachees in organisational settings who seek to transform their life or work.1 In organisational settings, individual and team coaching may be conducted as part of a comprehensive transformational cultural change process. The chapter explores the importance of the coach-client relationship as coaches use different coaching styles and methods to guide clients towards positive change. The step-by-step strategies to engage a new client and conduct the first and subsequent coaching sessions are detailed. Coaching practice involves the delivery of developmental processes to well-­ functioning individuals who just want to do more or achieve even better in their life or work. There are no major dramas or traumas impacting on the individual at that point in time that may require intensive therapy. They do not have a diagnosed mental health illness. In community settings, coaching is conducted by professionally trained coaches who own their own business. These coaches use ethical coaching practices to coach clients and help them achieve their client-led agenda. External coaches may also work with individuals in organisational settings, often in conjunction with internal coaches or trained HR professionals [1]. Increasingly, line managers are being trained in coaching skills so they can conduct regular coaching sessions with their direct reports to support personal and professional effectiveness.

 The term client will be used in this chapter to refer to both a client and coachee.

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Theoretical Foundations Traditional behavioural psychology research informs coaching as a developmental practice derived from mentoring, using similar micro-skills of active and reflective listening, open and closed questioning, and summarising. Coaching is formally conducted by fully qualified coaches or those trained in coaching skills. Developmental psychology contributes understandings of how individuals create new learnings from self-awareness and insight generated through coaching. Humanistic psychology incorporates total acceptance of the client as an individual of worth. Social psychology research emphasises the importance of practising new learnings in the client’s social environment. Positive psychology research reinforces the importance of the coach-client relationship in contributing to successful coaching outcomes. Coaching aims to stimulate  personal growth and development through powerful questioning. The recipients of coaching are all clients who seek to enrich their life with greater happiness and fulfilment.

Traditional Psychology Contributions Within organisations, coaching practice was originally focused on remediating poor performance, with research findings reported in fields such as education [2, 3], medicine [4], and management [5, 6]. More recent views of coaching emphasise a developmental and empowerment motivation for coaching and link the performance of employees with organisational outcomes [7, 8]. Coaching success depends on a range of factors including client self-efficacy and positive expectations [9], coach’s empathic understanding and the quality of the coaching relationship [10, 11], and the personality match between coach and client [11, 12]. Dyadic coaching is conducted to improve performance, personal development, and/or manage careers [13]. Indeed, some organisations are replacing their annual performance appraisal with frequent coaching sessions to ensure that employees have greater clarity on what is expected in their role, provide immediate feedback to improve their communication and interpersonal skills, and assist them develop new strategies to resolve conflict in the workplace [14]. Coaching is a reflective practice which transforms behaviour by developing the client’s awareness of a need to change [15]. Coaches use various techniques to build self-awareness and assist client learning, and support the practice of new behaviours and skills through role-playing, behavioural modelling, and intensive feedback [16, 17]. Other techniques which  aid reflection include processes such as storytelling  and  journaling, and the use of metaphors and  mind mapping tools. In workplaces, coaching develops individuals and  teams because of the ability of the coaching process to customise individual learnings to organisational needs [18, 19].

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Positive Psychology Contributions As organisations embrace coaching within a leadership development framework, coaching delivered by line managers is becoming an accepted practice within many organisations [20, 21]. Coaching by leaders is viewed as a means of enhancing the performance of all employees as they progress and grow towards peak performance [7]. Feedback on work performance is given in a timely and supportive rather than punitive manner, the underlying belief being that all employees are capable of additional growth and development when they are provided with personalised feedback on their performance. The assumption is that employees want to utilise their strengths and initiative in a way that is meaningful and purposive, and which supports the strategic direction of the organisation [22, 23]. Within the organisational environment, coaching extends from individual application to being conducted at all levels of the organisation [24]. The coaching is delivered by employees specially designated as occupying a coaching role (often HR or Learning and Development (L&D) specialists), or the ‘Manager as Coach’ separate from the execution of their daily duties [25]. Coaching has been recognised as a practice strategy to help individuals develop and improve their capabilities to exceed prior levels of performance and go beyond their organisation’s expectations. Coaching Relationship Coaching is a ‘goal-directed interaction between the coach and the coachee which reflects what leaders do when engaging with their direct reports to improve their performance’ [26]. The exact nature of the coaching relationship has been the subject of intense research since the 1990s when researchers focused on evaluating the impact and effectiveness of executive coaching from either psychodynamic [27, 28], behaviourist [29–31], person-centred [32], cognitive therapeutic [33], or system-­oriented perspectives [34]. Most references to coaching note the formal or informal dyadic nature of the coaching relationship to facilitate individual learning and behavioural change [35, 36]. However, within an organisational setting, coaching is a triadic relationship involving the employee, manager, and organisation for the purpose of providing feedback to achieve workplace goals and outcomes. (See Chap. 15 for more information.) The coach and client play different roles in the coaching relationship which is central to successful outcomes from the coaching experience. The coach’s role is to understand the client’s issues and objectives, help them examine their situation with greater depth and clarity than they could do alone, and assist them discover their own solutions [37]. Coaches assist clients get ready for change, manage their emotions as they go through the changes, and plan ways to achieve the new behaviours as goals to be achieved. Research has identified six core principles that guide the coach’s understanding of the client’s readiness to change. These include the learner’s need to know; their ability to self-direct their learning; prior experiences of the

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learner; readiness to learn; orientation to learning and problem-solving; and motivation to learn [38, 39]. In other words, in coaching, clients are positioned as independent learners with control of, and responsibility for, their own actions. When they are ready and willing to learn, and can relate the relevance of the issue to their life, clients feel valued, supported, and involved in the self-evaluation of their own learning [39]. The client’s role in the coaching process is to engage with the coach openly and honestly to become motivated, disclose  their hopes and fears, and generate new learning [15]. Curiosity, cultivation, and collaboration—three core ethno-relative values and behaviours—promote discovery as clients reflect on and delve beneath the surface of each situation [40]. Clients learn to acknowledge the part they have played in creating their situation and take responsibility for resolving it [41]. They identify the actions they need to take to achieve their goals and revisit the desired goals as necessary [34, 42, 43]. Coaching Styles Coaches use a combination of reflective and probing coaching styles as they encourage the client to think through their situation and determine their own solutions. There are four coaching styles that coaches use to stimulate client learning: facilitation, guiding, directing, and motivating styles. Facilitation style: This coaching style is particularly effective at the beginning of the coaching session. Facilitation requires the coach to ‘park’ their own thoughts and self-talk in order to be fully ‘present’ with the client and listen to what they are saying. The facilitation style uses open-ended questioning, active reflection on the client’s story, and encouragement to motivate the client to continue sharing in the trusting, supportive environment. The coach does not tell the client what to do. Rather they elicit from the client what they know, what they have tried, and details of how they have succeeded or failed, as a way of assessing how best they can help them move forward. After all relevant information is on the table, the coach adopts alternate styles of coaching to direct and focus the conversation towards specific areas of interest or concern. Guiding style: A guiding style ensures that the conversation stays ‘on track’ and/ or returns to a focused objective. It is used only after all the facts are on the table. A guiding style is initially tentative and exploratory, for example, ‘Could it be that you are thinking about …?’ Later on, as clarity is gained, it becomes more forceful: ‘I think we should focus on one aspect of your situation rather than on the entire problem which seems insurmountable at this time. Which aspect would you like to focus on first?’ Throughout this process, the coach continues to check for understanding and acknowledgement. The coach also ascertains the client’s level of skill and willingness to find a solution and then action-plans with them to achieve their goals. At times, especially when the client is ‘stuck’ and seems unable to move forward, it may be necessary for the coach to take control of the conversation and guide it in a certain way. They may ‘call’ what they see happening, or what they have observed.

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For example, the coach may say: ‘It seems to me that you are reluctant to undertake any of these actions. I’m wondering why this is so?’ Directing style: Sometimes the client may need to take specific actions to resolve their situation but they don’t know where to start. This is where the coach may step­in to provide some direction. After first asking permission to offer suggestions and making it quite clear that the client must make the decision regarding what action to take, the coach may suggest that the client investigate a certain option, do some research, talk to certain people, or perform a specific task. These suggestions come from the coach’s experience in working with other clients on similar issues or situations. At this point in the coaching session, the client knows that they need the coach’s support and are willing and grateful to receive it. They decide what to do based on the coach’s suggestions or other thoughts that come to them as they listen. When the client has decided on the particular course of action they will take, the coach may reinforce their decision thus: ‘I’m expecting that you will follow-through on the actions you have committed to take before the next time we meet, and then report back on these at our next session.’ Motivating style: Throughout and particularly towards the end of the coaching session, it is important to motivate the client to think that they can do it. Yes they can! They will usually get excited about doing new things, talking with different people, and exploring new possibilities. It is then very easy for the coach to engage with them on their journey of discovery and self-development. If however, on the other hand, the client doesn’t seem to be motivated or seems resistant to change, it may be necessary for the coach to explore their motivational needs—what turns them on? People are generally motivated by one of three things—the need for achievement, power, or affiliation [44]. Most people have a primary and secondary motivation, for example, Primary = Achievement, Secondary = Power. The coach may make an educated guess about the client’s motivation by listening to the words they use, identifying their strengths, and learning more about their particular area of expertise. For example, a client may be proud of a recently submitted report they wrote with minimal guidance from others. This client’s primary motivation is Achievement, followed by Power. They are not so much concerned with Affiliation. Hence, when working with this client, the coach may appeal to their need to achieve, to accomplish something, to get the task done, so that they can feel an internal sense of pride or receive external acknowledgement, for example, from their boss. Coaching Methods Dyadic coaching can be conducted in four different ways. The most usual way is in-person. However at times, telephone, video, or email coaching may be conducted either as the main or supplementary method of coaching. In-person coaching: Most coaches prefer to coach in-person. This method gives them the most information about the client using all representational modalities— visual, auditory, and kinaesthetic. It is definitely easier to build trust and rapport when coaching sessions are conducted in-person. Issues can be more quickly

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resolved, explanations given, and understandings agreed when people are in close physical proximity. Communication flows more freely and nuances are detected which may not be apparent using other coaching methods such as telephone or email. Any queries can be quickly investigated and if necessary, corrected, when coaching in-person. Other reasons include: • Coaching in-person allows the coach to observe a range of non-verbal responses such as body and eye movement, posture, and balance. • The coach can see, as well as ‘hear’, the silences in the conversation. • They can use a physically separate and confidential space in which to coach to eliminate distractions and interruptions. • Making the effort to travel and meet in-person communicates the value that both the coach and client place on coaching. • It is easier to create an interactive coaching environment when coach and client are in the same physical location. Other forms of coaching may replace in-person coaching once rapport has been established. Virtual coaching: Using video conferencing equipment enables the coach to see, hear, and talk to clients all over the world for little or no cost, especially if the client appreciates the in-person coaching experience. The video view can be turned off if desired to allow just the audio communication, as using the video function uses a lot of processing power and internet bandwidth which may reduce the coach’s internet resource capacity. Unfortunately, video conferencing is not always available in some areas, and delays and intermittent dropouts may be experienced on occasions. Telephone coaching: Video or in-person coaching may not be possible when either the client or coach is in a different physical location (e.g. interstate) or does not have access to the requisite equipment and internet capability. In these instances, telephone coaching is a good substitute. It is also useful when a session needs to be re-scheduled so that the initial momentum does not wane. Coaching via telephone is also useful ‘in-between’ in-person coaching sessions especially when short timeframes must be met or urgent issues which could throw the client ‘off-balance’ need to be quickly  addressed. Progress updates can be reported and tasks ‘ticked off’ ready for the next steps to be taken. Once trust and rapport have been developed between coach and client, telephone coaching can be equally as intense and concentrated as in-person coaching. However, the coach must have excellent listening and rapport building skills to conduct successful telephone coaching. Generally  telephone  coaching sessions are shorter because they are more focused, there are fewer distractions, and less opportunity to ‘socialise’ which may prolong the length of the session. As well, there’s a certain level of urgency when on the telephone to do what needs to be done and close the session. Hence, the session which would usually be conducted over one hour may only last half an hour but achieve everything that was set out to achieve. Moreover, some clients feel more comfortable in their own environment where they don’t have a sense of being observed in the same way as in an in-person coaching session. This could mean they are more open and the session moves more quickly.

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Of course, the same applies to the coach. Some coaches who have developed sensitivities to voice tone and word choice may feel more confident when they are coaching over the telephone. Since there’s no travelling or ‘socialising’ time, telephone coaching allows the coach to work with more clients. It also makes it possible for the coach to work with clients with whom they may not normally be able to work with in-person, for example, clients in remote or overseas locations. It is also less expensive—particularly in terms of the cost to the coach’s time—and these savings can be passed on to clients in the form of lower fees. Telephone coaching is particularly applicable to clients who are coming to the end of their coaching program  and would benefit from a phased closing of the coaching relationship. It goes without saying that telephone coaching makes access to coaching a great deal easier for clients with physical disabilities or mobility problems. Some additional benefits of telephone coaching include: • Coaches can work with clients nationally and internationally, and this can really broaden their client base. • Coaches can be more flexible in the times they coach. Late evenings and early mornings, for example, suit many busy clients who can’t find sufficient time for a coaching session during the day. • Coaches can choose the times of the day to conduct coaching sessions when they are more alert, ‘present’, focused, and energised. Also, the flexibility of telephone coaching means that they have time to undertake other important activities during the day in-between their scheduled coaching appointments. Email coaching: For some people, the written word is the way they think. They like the time to ponder exactly what they want to say and the time to digest what’s been said. They can read and re-read the text to extract greater insight and meaning, then file the email and revisit it later if necessary. The benefits of email coaching include: • Coach and client can work at their own pace—no meetings, no appointments, or close deadlines. • The coach or client is never ‘on the spot’. They can think things through and respond at their leisure. • Unlike telephone coaching, coach and client can keep the coaching emails for future reference. • Coaching emails can be received using flexible technology such as smartphones and iPhones. The contents can be pondered during other daily activities and especially at ‘down’ times such as travelling home on the train, or later at night when all is quiet. Email coaching is not as time or cost-effective as telephone coaching largely because reading and writing is so much slower and less reliable than listening and speaking. It has other shortcomings as well. Coach-client interaction is considerably reduced. Rapport is more difficult to build. Hence, the coach must rely on setting ‘reflective exercises’ for clients to respond to. Such exercises invite them to think

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deeply about themselves and the issues in their work/life. If clients are not open to reflection, email coaching may not work for them. If they would rather write three words than an essay, email coaching is not for them. If they don’t like thinking or talking about themselves, it’s not for them. In these instances, in-person, virtual, and telephone coaching are the more appropriate coaching methods.

Application to Coaching The dyadic ©AIPC COACH model of coaching is used to coach individuals in community and organisational settings. However, before beginning the coaching, it’s important that the client understands what coaching is and is not, and is willing to commit to the coaching process by signing a coaching contract. Hence, the coach meets with the prospective client and starts to form a trusting relationship which is the basis on which all successful coaching outcomes will be achieved, using the guidelines in the next section.

Engaging a New Client Typically, the first contact with a potential client is via phone or email. However, it is important that the coach meets with the prospective client before coaching begins, either in-person or virtually, to establish if there is a ‘chemistry match’ [9, 11, 12] between them so that a trusting relationship can form. Each needs to feel a personal connection with the other. If the coach does not feel this connection, they should say so, and the client may agree. Alternatively, the client may suggest that there’s been a misunderstanding which they want to correct, as a result of which the conversation may take a completely different direction (for the better). Either way, each needs to feel comfortable for the coaching sessions to ‘work’. The first meeting is the opportunity to convert the enquiry into a paying client. The first meeting with the client is designed to establish the coaching relationship. When a prospective client contacts a coach, they either have a ‘burning issue’ to resolve or a significant goal to be achieved. Sometimes they attend with frustration because they haven’t been able to resolve the situation by themselves. The first meeting establishes the basic ‘rules’ by which the coaching sessions will be conducted and sets the scene for how the coaching relationship will develop. Table 8.1 provides guidelines for the coach when meeting with a prospective client for the first time. The next section explains the ©AIPC COACH model of coaching (Fig. 8.1) [45] which is the basis for coaching all individuals whether in community practice or

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Table 8.1  Guidelines for the first meeting with a prospective client Step 1: Establish the coaching relationship • Get to know each other enough so that you can identify a ‘chemistry match’—the feeling of connection, and that you will be able to work together to meet the client’s coaching needs. Step 2: Get clear on roles and expectations •  Explain what coaching is, the purpose of coaching, and the coaching relationship. •  Gain agreement on expectations and responsibilities of both the coach and client. •  Gain agreement on how the coaching sessions will work. Step 3: Understand the client’s situation and needs • Identify areas of concern or problems to be resolved (in brief), so that you know if you are the right person to help the client deal with these issues or concerns and, if so, determine how many coaching sessions you would recommend. Step 4: Agree on and sign the coaching contract • Agree on the coaching program (i.e. how many sessions, cost per session or program, how frequently coaching will occur, what to do if problems occur), sign the contract, and set the date for the first coaching session.

Fig. 8.1  ©AIPC COACH model

organisational settings.2 Using this model, the coach identifies the critical issue or reason why the client has come to be coached, and assists them explore opportunities, identify their desired goal, and take actions to achieve it. They jointly determine the way in which they will hold each other accountable for achieving the desired outcomes from the coaching.

2  There are some preliminary requirements to coaching individuals in organisational settings which are detailed in Chap. 15.

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©AIPC COACH Model of Coaching Before the first coaching session, the coach ensures that both they and the client are fully ‘present’ in the moment. They do this by reducing the possibility of distractions (e.g. turn off mobiles) and ensuring the client’s comfort (e.g. glass of water, bathroom visit). The coach makes sure they are up-to-date with the client’s situation and any actions they have taken since their first meeting. This process should only take a few minutes if no other issues have emerged in the interim. As the coaching session progresses, the coach maintains the order of the coaching steps as per the ©AIPC COACH model of coaching. However, if other issues arise during the coaching, the coach may need to return to a previous step to address these different issues. In any case, the coach makes sure that all the steps in the ©AIPC COACH model of coaching are covered by the end of the coaching session. The steps in the ©AIPC COACH Model are as follows: Step 1 Critical Issue: The first step of the ©AIPC COACH model of coaching involves the identification of the Critical Issue that has brought the client to coaching, which is often a problem to be resolved or a goal to be achieved. This step is designed to assist the client gain clarity on their situation—the content, context, its impact, and their feelings—as well as discover what they have done to resolve the situation. There is no judgement, no right or wrong. The coach simply enquires and listens to the client’s story to understand them and identify their coaching needs. If the coach doesn’t fully delve into the client’s situation, they may end up coaching the ‘presenting’ concern but not the ‘real’ concern, and may have to cycle back to this step later on. An excellent introductory question in this first step is: ‘What’s the most important thing we should be talking about today?’ This non-directive, open-ended question facilitates the client revealing what is upmost on their mind. Sometimes the client has a problem or situation to be resolved. At other times there is a goal to be achieved which the client may have worked on in the past but, for various reasons, been unsuccessful in achieving  by  themself. Hence, they have come to coaching seeking the coach’s  assistance. The coach also uses direct, closed questioning to obtain details regarding the client’s situation and what they need. The coach treats the client with the utmost respect and acknowledges that they have been doing the best they know how at the time. The coach also acknowledges the client as the expert in their life. The client brings knowledge and information about their situation/problem/goal to the coaching session, and the coach uses their training and coaching skills to help the client move forward. The coach facilitates all aspects of the client’s situation to be revealed, using unconditional positive regard and reinforcing the client’s appropriate behaviours whilst suspending all judgement and bias. At appropriate moments in the coaching conversation, the coach summarises what has been said to ensure mutual clarity and understanding. Step 2 Opportunities: This step in the ©AIPC COACH model of coaching is the client’s opportunity to think more broadly about their situation and possible future— to think ‘outside the square’ and imagine their best possible future. Having used facilitative, direct and non-direct communication techniques (i.e. open and closed questioning) to reveal the particulars of the situation/problem/goal, the coach now moves into a guiding style, to help the client become more open to other ways of

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thinking and perceiving their world. Using powerful questioning, the coach encourages the client to fully experience the ideal way they would like their situation to be (i.e. problem solved, goal attained). Using selected neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) techniques, the client is encouraged to fully immerse themself in their desired ideal future scenario, savouring the sight, sounds, feelings, tastes, and smells that surround them. If they could wave a magic wand and create an ideal world for themself right now, with no boundaries or constraints, what aspects of their life would they keep and what would they change? The coach asks: ‘If everything was possible, what would your life be like?’ ‘What kind of work would you be doing?’ ‘What meaning would that bring to your life?’ ‘How would things be different from what they are now?’ Once the client is engrossed in this desired vision, the coach provides motivational encouragements to support  the achievement of this goal. This approach surfaces feelings that submerge the logic of the ‘head’ beneath the overriding feeling of the ‘heart’, thus confirming the vision as the ultimate destination on the client’s journey to self-fulfilment and self-actualisation. After working with the client for a while, the coach may notice some things that the client has not discovered about themself  (e.g. a specific mindset, confusion around a particular issue, limiting beliefs or assumptions). The coach asks for permission to share these insights with the client—tentatively at first—so that they can agree or offer additional information. The coach gently challenges any defensiveness. The client may either agree or disagree with these insights, which may add further clarity to their situation and ideal future. Step 3 Actionable Goals: The third step in the ©AIPC COACH model of coaching is similar to the GROW model in that the client identifies the goals and actions they need to take to achieve their ideal future. The coach assists the client identify goals that will bring about their desired future. The clearer the vision, the more easily goals can be identified. At all times, it is the client who is driving the agenda although, as necessary the coach may use a directing style to bring the client back ‘on track’. The client states their goal as clearly as possible, ‘My goal is …’, and the coach makes sure that it is SMART (specific, measurable, attainable, realistic, time bound) [46]. The client may express several goals, some of which may be subsumed within a main goal. If this is the case, the client prioritises their goals on an Urgency/ Importance matrix using a scale of 1–10. From this analysis, the client determines which goal they would like to work on first and the order of the other goals, and together they start action-planning, one goal at a time. The coach is cognisant of the fact that goal-setting and action-planning can only occur when the client is ready to engage in logical and rational cognitive decision-making. If they are emotional, a short break may help them recover their calm. The skill/will model is important in this step in terms of the client’s self-efficacy. The model is based on the premise that whilst a client may have the will to commit to a certain course of action, they may not necessarily have the skills required to complete the task. They have to either gain the skill themself or ask for assistance from someone who does have the skill. In that case, the conversation turns to whom in their network they can draw upon for support. Alternatively, a client may have the skill to perform a certain action but may not have the will to commit to taking that

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action. They may not desire the end outcome, or think it worth the effort, or consider the barriers to achieving it insurmountable, or simply not care. In the latter case, the client may need to be jolted into the reality of their situation if things don’t change. For example, the coach may say: ‘Do you realise the consequences if you don’t make these changes? You may lose your job, be demoted, or moved to another department?’ If the client is willing to accept these consequences but the coach considers them important because ‘doing nothing’ may threaten life and limb, they may solicit the support of a ‘higher authority’ (e.g. sponsor, direct manager, significant other) to convince the client of the need to change. Clients typically will only make changes when either the ‘pain’ is too great to keep enduring it or the ‘prize’ is too attractive to miss out on. Step 4 Commitment: The fourth step in the ©AIPC COACH model of coaching is the commitment stage. How prepared is the client to commit to completing the actions they decided to take to achieve their desired future? The coach seeks to discover the client’s level of commitment on a scale of 1–10. How high will they commit? If their level is low, the coach addresses any perceived barriers in an attempt to raise their level of commitment to at least an 8. If the client is reluctant to commit, the coach asks them to re-ponder the alternative if there are no changes to their current situation. The coach then uses a motivating style to encourage the client to think positively and aim to reach high to achieve their dream. Alternatively, when motivation is really lacking, the coach may question if the coaching has been focused on the real issue, and start a conversation with the client to confirm a new agenda. Step 5 Hold Accountable: The final step in the ©AIPC COACH model of coaching is determining how the coach and client will hold each other jointly accountable for the client taking the actions they committed to. Whilst the client is responsible for taking the actions, in the collaborative coaching environment there is a joint accountability for achieving the coaching outcomes. The coach establishes the best method of communicating with the client in-between sessions (e.g. email, telephone, virtual). After each coaching session, it is part of the coach’s role to ensure that the accountability measures they have put in place and agreed on, are maintained (i.e. that the client is communicating with them to report on their progress). If not, the coach intervenes to get this process restarted. It is only when the client is not able to perform a certain action (i.e. doesn’t have the knowledge, skill, or resources) that the coach gets directly involved and facilitates this process. Since coaching sessions are more frequent initially, it is relatively easy for the coach to keep track of the client’s progress. However, as coaching sessions become less frequent, the coach needs to make weekly contact via phone or email to keep track of progress. Alternatively, software programmes are available which allow the client to upload their goals and action plan so the coach can monitor the actions they have taken in real time. By keeping track of the client’s progress in-between sessions, the coach is better prepared for the next coaching session especially if there have been challenges along the way that have significantly impacted the client.

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Second and Subsequent Coaching Sessions In the week before their next coaching session, the coach may ‘remind’ the client of their next appointment. This is especially important if the client is feeling overwhelmed by their workload and considering re-scheduling or not meeting at all. The key to a successful coaching program is for the coach to schedule meetings as the need, target, or goal dictates and to be flexible with these arrangements if other pressing matters take priority. The ©AIPC COACH model of coaching is repeated in all the following coaching sessions, with the coach ‘checking-in’ to make sure that there are no urgent or emerging issues which need to be addressed immediately before the next scheduled session commences. As time goes by and the client becomes more self-regulating and self-­responsible, what happens inside the coaching session becomes less important than what happens outside the coaching session in terms of the client’s long-term growth and development. Facilitating steady progress becomes the coach’s main focus to sustain the client’s progress during and after each coaching session. This is achieved when the client integrates new knowledge and skills into their everyday practice. Effective coaches use the principle of spaced practice, i.e. having the client take small actions to achieve some success and then building on that result to reinforce new behaviours over multiple sessions and multiple settings (e.g. home, workplace, social). The client may learn more slowly, but the learning becomes deep structure learning rather than surface learning. The ultimate goal of a successful coaching program is that all clients are working to a pace that satisfies them and those around them, able to make decisions that support their health and happiness, accept the things they cannot change and work around or with them, and take responsibility for their actions without blaming others. There are no excuses, no justification, or quitting when things go wrong—just lessons to be learned. Once the coaching concludes, it is important that the client remain motivated to achieve their goal by experiencing every moment as if it was a new adventure and opportunity to learn, living for now, appreciating what they have, making a difference, being content, and remaining positive.

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26. Sue-Chan, C., Wood, R., & Latham, G. (2012). Effect of a coach’s regulatory focus and an individual’s implicit person theory on individual performance. Journal of Management, 38(3), 809–835. 27. van Buskirk, W., & McGrath, D. (1999). Organizational cultures as holding environments: A psychodynamic look at organizational symbolism. Human Relations, 52(6), 805–832. 28. Ward, G., van de Loo, E., & Have, S. (2014). Psychodynamic group executive coaching: A literature review. International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring, 12(1), 63–78. 29. Hart, W. (2005). Getting culture: Imbuing your organization with coaching behavior. Leadership in Action, 25(4), 7–10. 30. Kim, S., et al. (2013). The impact of managerial coaching behavior on employee work-related reactions. Journal of Business and Psychology, 28(3), 315–330. 31. Ellinger, A. D., & Bostrom, R. (1999). Managerial coaching behaviors in learning organizations. Journal of Management Development, 18(9), 752–771. 32. Cox, E. (2013). Coaching understood: A pragmatic inquiry into the coaching process. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 8(1), 265–270. 33. Mosteo, L., et al. (2016). Understanding cognitive-emotional processing through a coaching process. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 52(1), 64–96. 34. Stober, D., & Grant, A. (2006). Evidence based coaching handbook: Putting best practices to work for your clients. Wiley. 35. Noer, D., Leupold, C., & Valle, M. (2007). An analysis of Saudi Arabian and US managerial coaching behaviours. Journal of Managerial Issues, 19(2), 271–287. 36. Walker-Fraser, A. (2011). Coaching and the link to organizational performance: An HR perspective on how to demonstrate return on investment. Development and Learning in Organizations: An International Journal, 25(4), 8–10. 37. Hicks, R., & McCracken, J. (2010). Three hats of a leader: Coaching, mentoring and teaching. Physician Executive, 36(6), 68. 38. Knowles, M. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy. Cambridge Books. 39. Knowles, M., Holton, E., & Swanson, R. (2015). The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resource development. Routledge. 40. Hadin, K., & Steinwedel, J. (2006). Developing global leaders: Executive coaching targets cross-cultural competencies. In Global business and organizational excellence. Wiley Periodicals Inc. 41. Hall-Ellis, S. (2014). Accept, coach, and inspire: A formula for success. The Bottom Line, 27(3), 103–106. 42. Megginson, D., & Clutterbuck, D. (2009). Further techniques for coaching and mentoring. Routledge. 43. Ives, Y., & Cox, E. (2012). Goal-focused coaching: Theory and practice. Routledge. 44. McClelland, D. (1955). Studies in motivation. Appleton-Century-Crofts. 45. Knowles, S. (2018). Positive psychology coaching. Xlibris. 46. Raia, A. (1965). Goal setting and self-control: An empirical study. Journal of Management Studies, 2(1), 34–53.

Chapter 9

Coaching for Self-Awareness and Insight

This chapter introduces the first, fundamental purpose for individual coaching in community and organisational settings—to increase self-awareness and insight. Self-awareness can be revelatory when insights result from Aha! moments that surface from the client’s subconscious during coaching. Reflective practice, in which the coach uses personal sharing to develop rapport and a trusting, working relationship with the client, incorporates relational depth to surface insights leading to personal change. Throughout, the coach engages the client in active and reflective listening to reveal their story. They also use powerful questioning to challenge any discrepancies or incongruences that appear in the client’s story as opportunities to reveal judgements, biases, and preconceived beliefs that are holding them back from achieving their goals. Clients who are self-aware and insightful are more confident and have greater ability to grow and develop personally and professionally. The chapter addresses the way that coaching for self-awareness and insight is conceptualised, the motivations for developing self-awareness and insight, the individuals who are the recipients of coaching to develop self-awareness and insight, and how coaching for self-awareness and insight is delivered in community and organisational settings by external and internal coaches.

Theoretical Foundations Traditional behavioural psychology research informs the way that individuals gain self-awareness through self-reflection. Developmental psychology contributes understandings of how people learn as a result of reflective practice and experiential learning. Social psychology research emphasises the importance of self-efficacy in the personal change process. Positive psychology research reinforces humanistic coaching techniques to support and motivate clients to make change. The motivation for coaching for self-awareness and insight is for clients to become more open

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to discovery about themselves and how they relate to others. The recipients of coaching for self-awareness and insight are all coaching clients whether in community or organisational settings. Clients may have tried to make the changes they desire by themselves but been unable to achieve a result. Alternatively, in work situations, individuals may have been ‘sent’ to coaching to resolve personal or interactional issues affecting their performance and relationship with colleagues or manager. Coaching for self-awareness and insight is the foundational skill of an effective coach. During every coaching session, the coach aims to generate client self-­awareness and insight.

Traditional Psychology Contributions Traditional psychology research offers findings concerning how coaches can develop self-awareness and insight in clients through self-reflection. When the client experiences an Aha! moment, the change can be transformative. However, unless the client is willing to engage in self-reflection, it is unlikely that personal change will be achieved, as discussed in the sections below. Self-Awareness Early reference to self-awareness was made by George Herbert Mead [1] who differentiated between inward attention (which he called self-awareness) and outward attention (which he called conscious attention). Subsequently, self-awareness theory proposed that the self has two mutually exclusive roles—subjective and objective—and that an individual can only focus on one at a time [2], a claim that has been disputed by other researchers [3]. What is agreed is that self-focus leads to increased consideration of others’ points of view, since focusing on the self necessitates adopting an external perspective which is the prerequisite for perspective-­ taking [4]. Self-awareness was originally viewed as a therapeutic tool to alleviate psychological distress. However, more recently, researchers have focused on self-­ awareness as an important component of self-development in non-clinical populations [5]. Self-awareness has been variously defined as the awareness of one’s own feelings and ability to recognise, manage, and control these feelings [6], an overarching awareness of one’s mental states and environments [7], and ‘a conscious awareness of one’s internal states and interactions with others’ [5]. The practice of self-­ awareness includes observation and management of feelings and thoughts to protect and improve the self [8]. Self-awareness has been conceptualised as ranging from complete bodily experiential self-awareness at one end of a continuum to full external environment awareness at the other, with the ability to take an external perspective and see the self as others do [9]. Individuals with a higher level of objective self-awareness have increased self-knowledge [10] and a stronger sense of identity

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[11], are less influenced by external factors [12], more likely to acknowledge responsibility for their actions [13], and have a greater sense of wellbeing [7]. Individuals vary in their levels of self-awareness [14] which has been conceptualised as consisting of state-like qualities such as self-reflection and mindfulness, and trait-like qualities such as the ability to identify, process, and store self-related information [15]. Researchers have drawn a distinction between situational and dispositional self-awareness [16] where situational self-awareness is a process by which we automatically compare our current actions to our internalised standards to reduce inconsistency [17], and dispositional self-awareness is the trait-like tendency for an individual to reflect on their psychological processes and inner experiences as well as their relationships with others [18]. Dispositional self-awareness is also known as self-attentiveness or self-consciousness. Increased self-awareness has been associated with sustaining the long-term benefits of coaching [19, 20]. According to Morin [10], self-awareness simply means awareness of self—when the individual’s attention is drawn to their bodily sensations and perceptions resulting from physical and mental stimulations from the external environment. Individuals focus on self to different levels at different times to recognise and evaluate thoughts and emotions, and increase self-knowledge [21]. Coaches are encouraged to practice self-awareness so they can better serve their client’s coaching needs [22, 23]. Self-Reflection Self-awareness is informed by self-reflection which is ‘the extent to which an individual pays attention to and evaluates his/her internal states and behaviours’ [5]. It is a deliberate process aimed at reducing personal biases [24]. Self-reflection was originally recognised as a valuable aspect of therapeutic practice but is now widely accepted as an important developmental tool and a precursor to self-awareness [8]. Reflection offers individuals the time and space to step-back and evaluate past feelings, actions, and their consequences, and reconsider prior beliefs and thoughts, to develop insight for future responses [22, 25]. Self-evaluation during self-reflection creates a cycle of growth and development [26] which leads to self-awareness and insight, promoting wellbeing and life satisfaction [7, 27]. Insight Insight is the clarity that individuals gain from self-reflection on their internal states and external, visible behaviours. Insight has been found to be related to cognitive flexibility and the best predictor of dimensions which promote increased psychological wellbeing [7]. Definitions of insight have mainly been derived from cognitive-­ behavioural laboratory research which typically requires cognitive restructuring of an individual’s approach to a problem or its interpretation [28]. Insight is ‘the reorientation of one’s thinking, including breaking of the unwarranted “fixation” and forming of novel, task-related associations among the old nodes of

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concepts or cognitive skills’ [29]. Insight has also been described as occurring ‘when a problem cannot be solved using conventional stepwise methods … [and becomes] the “aha!” experience … [with the realisation] that the solution involves unconventional methods … [that is], that the problem needs restructuring’ [30]. A goal-oriented perspective on insight is that, when the goal cannot be reached by the usual cognitive means, a restructured goal representation is required for solution [31]. That is, an unconscious cognitive process restructures the problem representation into a more adaptive way to solve the problem [32, 33]. Insight has been associated with metacognitive feelings of ease, pleasure, accuracy, and confidence when the problem is solved [34]. Historically, researchers believed that insight into problem-solving is a gradual, incremental process [35, 36]. However, some researchers began to view the insight experience as sudden: ‘like dynamite, the insightful solution explodes on the solver’s cognitive landscape with breathtaking suddenness, but if one looks closely, a long fuse warns of the impending reorganisation’ [37]. This view supports that of Gestalt psychologists who suggested that change may occur as a result of sudden, one-time learning wherein the individual experiences an Aha! moment [38]. Surprise (associated with the disparity between the initial problem representation and the new realised representation) and suddenness (the result of the easy application of the new representation to the problem) have been proposed as the two primary affective elements of an insight experience [39], although Jarman [40] noted that these two elements are also characteristic of creative and novel ideas for problem-­solving that do not involve a restructuring of problem representation. Dual processing is considered necessary to complete a problem-solving task [41, 42]. The first type of processing is intuitive and implicit, based on an unconscious associative learning mechanism that is independent of cognitive control. The second type of processing is effortful and explicit and involves conscious and deliberative thought that heavily depends on cognitive control [43]. Problem-­solving was found to occur more readily and without insight when constraining factors were gradually removed [44], indicating that the initial mental representation of the problem was biased by unnecessary, false, or ill-defined assumptions about the task [32, 45]. This supports the view that ‘there is no particular class of insight problems that necessarily requires a representational change; each problem can be solved without insight if the initial problem representation is adequate and the appropriate heuristics are available’ [46]. Phenomenological research methods have proven useful in the subjective reporting of Aha! experiences [47, 48].

Positive Psychology Contributions Positive psychology research offers findings concerning how coaches can use reflective practice to stimulate self-reflection and develop self-awareness and insight. The degree to which the coach achieves relational depth with the client determines how successful the coaching session will be, as discussed in the sections below.

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Reflective Practice Reflective practice derives its origins from education when it was introduced as a critical, problem-solving mechanism, challenging individuals to think differently to effect change [49, 50]. It entered the HRM field as reflection-in-action (i.e. during the event) and reflection-on-action (i.e. after the event) [24]. Reflective practice has been described as the antithesis of ‘a positivist epistemology of technical-rational knowledge’ [51], enabling individuals to surface tacit understandings and make sense of their experienced situation [51]. As an active and purposeful journey of exploration and discovery, reflective practice engages cognition and emotion to re-interpret experience and create new knowledge from often unanticipated outcomes. Clients’ ‘taken-for-granted’ assumptions are challenged so that they become more receptive to alternative ways of thinking and behaving [52]. Reflective coaching practice impacts a number of variables including the pace of change, pressure of conflicting demands, feelings of isolation, confidence in seeing the change process through, and personal growth [53]. A metaanalysis investigating the effectiveness of individual coaching in an organisational setting found that coaching has significant, positive correlations on individual-level outcome categories ranging from 0.43 (coping) to 0.74 (goal-directed self-regulation), with three intermediate correlations (performance/skills, wellbeing, and work attitudes) [54]. Coaching situates learning in communities of practice [55] and builds capability based on knowledge and collaborative learning initiatives [56]. Relational Depth Reflective practice which incorporates self-reflection to create self-awareness and insight may result in a revelatory experience when the coach-client relationship dives to deeper depths. Relational depth is ‘a feeling of profound contact with the client, in which one simultaneously experiences high and consistent levels of empathy and acceptance towards that Other and relates to them in a highly transparent way’ [57]. Working at relational depth is one of the essential features of an effective intervention using the client-centred approach [58]. As the intervention proceeds, clients learn to accept their dissociated part and create an internal dialogue which integrates their various parts into new configurations of self [59]. Research findings indicate that working at relational depth has a substantial impact on therapeutic outcomes including increased levels of openness and engagement, and heightened levels of client self-worth and efficacy [60]. The relational effect may have as much as 10–30% of an increase in positive impact on therapeutic outcomes [61].

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Application to Coaching Coaching for self-awareness and insight is facilitated by reflective practice and the use of humanistic coaching techniques. At relational depth, the coach uses mindfulness techniques to surface insights and emotions from which the client can learn.

Reflective Practice Coaches may use a number of techniques to assist clients self-reflect on their situation to discover their own solution. These include journaling to provoke revelations, sharing personal experiences as evidence of breakthroughs, and exercises which incorporate kinaesthetic techniques to unlock verbal expression. Reflective practice may be stimulated by the coach asking the client to write a journal which allows them to self-disclose in private, expressing their innermost thoughts and feelings. Discussing their journal reflections with the coach serves to integrate breakthroughs into new everyday behaviours. However, researchers have provided a caution in that unchecked self-reflection may result in a level of unhealthy introspection called ‘rumination’ [7]. Rumination occurs when the client engages in the ‘repetitive focus on symptoms, causes and consequences’ of a distressing situation [62] which may lead to depression [63]. Conversely, healthy self-reflection leads to the reduction of depression and the gaining of insight. The second technique that coaches may use in reflective practice is that of personal sharing. As appropriate, coaches may share stories from their own or others’ personal experience and the resultant learnings with clients. This technique is useful when increased rapport needs to be developed with the client, especially when they are reluctant or mistrustful of the coach and/or the coaching process. Sharing of experiences has an impact on both physical and emotional levels of consciousness. Self-reflection on personal experiences releases tensions that often lead to breakthrough learning. A third technique used in reflective practice is experiential learning. Coaching is largely an auditory experience so, when the coach utilises visual or kinaesthetic techniques to unlock revelations, these may appeal to clients whose preferred mode of communication is through these different representational systems. For example, visual learners may appreciate creating visual images of their situation as it is now and how they would want it to be. Visual art has been utilised extensively by mental health clinicians and social workers to provide the ‘mental space’ for clients to explore aspects of themselves that have been hidden from conscious awareness. It is a powerful technique which assists clients to access their hidden emotions and later express them verbally with the coach. The artistic act allows creative freedom without restraint, attesting to the worth of non-verbal communication in the coaching process.

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A kinaesthetic approach which may appeal to clients reluctant to verbally and emotionally express is to use a Gestalt technique in which clients use materials such as building blocks, miniature people figures, and other physical objects to construct a representation of their current situation. Moving the physical objects around allows clients to reconstruct their life into the way they would like it to be. Manipulating physical props may reveal thoughts and emotions which are initially beyond words but later can be surfaced for discussion with clarity of mind and intention. This technique is particularly effective with clients who have difficulty expressing themselves or who are reluctant to engage verbally with the coach. As clients gain in self-awareness, the coach encourages them to sit awhile and mindfully consider the insights that have surfaced as a result of reflective practice.

Mindfulness Mindfulness is a companion activity to self-reflection. Before commencing reflective practice, the coach urges clients to become mindful so they are fully ‘present’ and ‘in the coaching moment’. This state is the one in which clients will be most receptive to Aha! experiences. Clients can train their brain to be more mindful and develop an increased sense of their inner world by utilising a number of strategies to position them as fully ‘present’—activities which they can practice in their everyday life—such as: • Being ‘present’ in every moment, and appreciating the wonders in life. • Being aware of their thoughts—both positive and negative—and choosing the positive whenever wise to do so. • Noticing, every day in every way, the things that are going right in their life including new things and what they’re feeling—being aware of their emotional state. • Paying attention to the smallest of things that enrich their life and moving them forward—being curious and receptive rather than distracted. • Taking action to move the coaching process forward—even though their immediate actions may not be perfect. • Being authentically ‘present’ without the interference of preoccupations about the past or the future. • Surrounding themselves with positive people who build them up rather than let them down, and nurturing positive relationships with others. • Being grateful for everything and every person in their life who brings them joy and happiness, and showing gratitude every day in even the smallest way. They may ask themselves these three questions: –– What surprised me today? –– What moved me today? –– Who or what inspired me today?

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In summary, self-awareness and insight is facilitated by reflective practice. The coach uses techniques such as journaling, personal sharing, and experiential learning based on the client’s preferred communication system, to stimulate their self-­ awareness and insight. Coaching at relational depth intensifies the client’s experience and leads them to more profound breakthroughs which may be transformative beyond current conceptions of personal change.

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Chapter 10

Coaching for Learning and Growth

This chapter introduces the second, fundamental purpose for individual coaching in community and organisational settings—to facilitate the client’s learning and growth. All coaching is an opportunity for learning. Educational research has identified that adults learn through a cycle of experiential learning, reflecting, and theorising to refine actions. Adult learning principles inform the learning process, that is, adults learn when they are ready to learn, self-motivated and self-directed, the activity builds on their previous experience, and they can integrate new learnings into their knowledge- and skills-base. There are three key elements in the learning process: the environment, the learner’s experience, and the relevance of the instruction. Research has identified that coaching is a highly bespoke form of adult development that places the learner at the centre of the learning experience. It is a developmental process grounded in critical self-reflection and personal transformation. Clients who believe in their ability to learn, perform, or change as a result of effort, persistence, and at times, assistance are malleable [1]. Contemporary coaching focuses on the use of reflective practice to raise disorienting dilemmas which provoke breakthroughs in thinking. As clients engage in deep-structure learning, they make new meanings which may be transformative. Overall, coaching increases self-directed, lifelong learning which transfers into all aspects of their personal and professional life. The chapter outlines the way that coaching for learning and growth is conceptualised, the motivations for learning and growth, the individuals who are the recipients of coaching for learning and growth, and how it is delivered in community and organisational settings by external and internal coaches.

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Theoretical Foundations Educational research has identified a number of theories relating to how individuals learn. They differentiate between pedagogical and andragogical approaches to learning and transformative change. Reflective practice produces change at surface and deep-structure levels. Cognitive psychology research investigates the characteristics, stages, and mental processes associated with learning. Positive psychology research reveals coaching as a dynamic, interactive, relational, and social process that facilities individual learning. The motivation for coaching for learning and growth is for clients to increase their expertise in an interest or work area, transfer personal learnings to applications in their home, work, or social environment, and contribute to the collective learning of others. The recipients of coaching for learning and growth are all clients who want to engage in lifelong learning including (in an organisational environment) leaders who seek opportunities to learn more and gain experience in different roles.

Traditional Psychology Contributions The discipline of psychology offers several theories on adult learning. These include David Kolb’s [2] theory of experiential learning, Argyris and Schon’s [3] theory of single and double-loop learning, Knowles’ [4] theory of andragogy (as opposed to pedagogy) which describes approaches to the teaching of adult learners, and Mezirow’s [5] theory of transformative learning. Cognitive psychology looks at the characteristics, stages, and cognitions relating to expertise, and positive psychology research investigates the significance of relationships in bringing about growth and change [6]. Adult Learning Theories Kolb’s [2] theory of experiential learning proposed that individuals learn via a four-­ step process of doing, reflecting, theorizing, and refining actions, which transforms the outcomes of the experience into new knowledge. Kolb described four distinct learning styles based on this four-stage learning cycle: 1. Concrete Experience—the learner encounters a new experience or a reinterpretation of an existing experience. 2. Reflective Observation—the learner reflects on what they have seen or heard. Of particular importance are any inconsistencies in what was seen or heard. 3. Abstract Conceptualisation—the learner develops a new idea or modifies an existing one. 4. Active Experimentation—the learner applies the new idea or knowledge to their current situation or everyday life.

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Kolb views learning as an integrative process with each stage mutually supportive of, and feeding into, the next. Learners may enter the cycle at any stage and follow it through its sequence. However, integrated learning only occurs when the learner ‘closes the loop’, that is, when they complete every part of the four-step cycle. Hence, no one stage of the cycle is effective as a learning procedure on its own. If the process is interrupted, the learning is not completed and learning does not occur. Various factors such as the social environment, educational experiences, and the basic cognitive structure of the individual influence a person’s preferred learning style. An alternate model of how individuals learn was the deficit model proposed by Argyris’ [7] theory of single- and double-loop learning. Single-loop learning occurs when errors are corrected without questioning and altering the underlying governing values or assumptions. Double-loop learning occurs when errors are corrected after a process of questioning the governing values and assumptions (i.e. reflection) and then taking actions to ameliorate the situation [3]. These traditional pedagogical approaches to learning were not well-received by adult learners and typically proved ineffective in helping adults learn. Hence, in the 1950s and 1960s, more adult-­ centric models of learning were developed that were cohesive, explanatory, and unifying [8]. These new models formulated the principles on which the current foundations of adult learning are based. Knowles’s [4] theory of andragogy explicitly linked coaching and adult learning theory as an experiential process [9, 10]. It identified the core andragogical principles as the learner’s need to know, self-directed learning, prior experiences of the learner, readiness to learn, orientation to learning and problem-solving, and motivation to learn [11, 12].  Hence, in coaching, clients are positioned as independent learners with control of, and responsibility for, their own actions. New learning occurs when the content is relevant to their current situation and builds on their prior knowledge and experience, and when clients are ready and willing to learn and make changes in their life. The coaching relationship is central to successful outcomes from the coaching experience. A second theory of how adults learn was proposed by Mezirow [5] in his theory of transformative learning. Constructivist approaches to learning reformulate meaning as the coach acts as a co-learner and role model for challenging assumptions and meaning perspectives, and examining fundamental value judgements and expectations [9, 10]. Transformative learning theory incorporates concepts of critical self-­ reflection to stimulate shifts in thinking which prompt action [13]. Transformative learning ‘transforms problematic frames of reference to make them more inclusive, discriminating, reflective, open, and emotionally able to change’ [14]. The coach invites clients’ critical self-reflection by focussing on a surfaced dilemma, recognising the resulting discontent, and exploring options for new behaviours, relationships, and actions [9]. By creating significant changes in learners’ fundamental beliefs about themselves, transformative learning produces paradigm shifts which affect the learner’s subsequent thought processes and actions [15]—changes which are generally more profound than the learning outcomes achieved by single- or double-loop learning processes [7, 10].

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Adult Learning Principles Adult learning principles, strategies, and frameworks that promote learning underpin adult learning interventions [2, 11, 16, 17]. Based on his andragogical model of adult learning, Knowles [4, 17] proposed six principles that guide adult learning: • Adults are self-directed human beings. • Adult learning draws from an accumulated collection of life experiences. • An adult’s readiness to learn is closely related to the developmental tasks of their social role. • Adults are more problem-oriented than content-oriented. • Adults learn more when they are internally motivated to do so. • Adults have a ‘need-to-know’ approach to learning. These principles suggest that the adult learner has an innate desire to be an active agent in their  own learning and growth. Learning is self-directed and optimised when the client’s experience is acknowledged and incorporated into the learning process [8]. When the client is viewed as a self-directed learner, the coach becomes more of a facilitator of knowledge and a collaborator with the client in their learning experience [18]. As learning is integrated into the client’s life experience, their coaching needs may change and goals may need to be redefined. Self-directed learning occurs particularly at times of critical life experiences when the usual patterns of routine and behaviour are evaluated using different kinds of consciousness [19]. The more relevant the learning to the client’s life experiences and values, the more likely they are to undertake personal change [12]. The design of adult learning experiences considers three elements key to the learning process: the environment, the learner’s experience, and the relevance of the instruction [20]. If any of these design elements is missing, the learning experience will be sub-optimal. From an environmental perspective, the physical space should be conducive to learning (lighting, acoustics, seating arrangements) as well as psychologically safe (secure, private, confidential) [21].These two conditions allow for a genuine exchange without fear or favour. In addition, the social environment should be inclusive and offer opportunities for respect and belonging, and for all views to be equally expressed. In terms of experience, individuals are a product of their accumulated experiences. Drawing upon these experiences during a learning activity allows clients to integrate new concepts with old constructs to make sense of the new information. Experiences which occur outside of them in the physical environment can have a lasting effect on their values and beliefs if they are profound and disconcerting to their established frames of reference. When clients are open to new experiences and willing to consider the personal implications, their dilemmas may cause learning to occur. Thinking human beings, when presented with new information, automatically question it to verify its authenticity and consider its relevance for their life. If they ‘need-to-know’ this information, they will be more receptive to it and likely to take new learnings on-board.

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Positive Psychology Contributions Research has identified that coaching is a highly bespoke form of adult development that places the learner at the centre of the learning experience [22–25]. Contemporary coaching focuses on enhancing personal self-reflection and self-directed learning to achieve transformative change. In organisations, coaching is also conducted to develop emotional competencies and identify ways that leaders can work more effectively with teams [26]. Learning may be intentional [27] or occur by happenstance [28]. The developmental coaching process unlocks learning opportunities for growth and development, and unleashes potential. The transformation that occurs is ‘explicitly and intentionally created and reflective in approach’ [29] and takes into account the emotional, social, and political context of the learner as well as the possible consequences of the change for the team and organisation. Building on educational theory, coaching is positioned as a developmental process grounded in individual learning, personal mindsets and motivations, and self-­ efficacy. In particular, implicit person theory [30, 31] proposes that clients who believe in their ability to learn, perform, or change as a result of effort, persistence and, at times, assistance are malleable [1, 32]. Mindset theory [30], applied to an individual’s ability to change and grow [33–35] integrates principles of self-­efficacy, social learning theory, and work motivation theory to effect change [36, 37]. Educators and practitioners have been urged to develop a ‘more integrated, systemic, global approach to coaching to accommodate the challenges posed by a new global paradigm’ [38]. Critical Self-Reflection Contemporary coaching practice incorporates critical self-reflection into the self-­ directed learning process. Critical reflection has been defined as ‘active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusion to which it tends’ [39]. Critical reflection involves challenging assumptions, exploring alternatives, and developing reflective scepticism to gain increased self-awareness and personal insight [8]. Untested assumptions are replaced by informed perspectives [40]. Deep-structure learning [3] occurs when surface issues progress from concrete learning (such as the memorisation of facts and figures) to a more complex introspective level (such as when meaning is made of the facts and figures). Individual and unique learning processes create meaning within specific social and cultural contexts [41]. Creating alternate meaning from learning processes may be transformative and life-changing [42]. Personal transformation is the desired outcome of successful coaching for learning and growth. Coaching is a reflective practice which invites individuals to engage in single-­ loop learning to discover what they intuitively know or have learned from

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experience [3]. However, it is the client’s ability to meta-reflect or step back and review that creates double-loop learning which changes their governing values and actions as they relate to future situations or events [7]. Techniques such as appreciative enquiry support clients’ meta-reflection and questioning of their world-view to change perspectives [43]. As clients respond and adapt to their environment, they question and challenge existing assumptions and behavioural patterns, explore possibilities for creativity and innovation, actively construct meaning based on new perspectives, and grow socially and emotionally in independent, fulfilling, and supportive relationships [44, 45]. They envision their best possible future and, together with the coach, identify a plan to change their behaviour and communicate the changes [46]. As a reflective practice, coaching transforms behaviour by developing clients’ awareness of the need to change [47]. Critical self-reflection surfaces troubling thoughts, feelings, and assumptions. The coach challenges those which cannot be validated in everyday reality to increase the client’s self-awareness and change their perspective. Deep-structure learning occurs when assumptions are questioned and replaced by evidence-based information. New knowledge generates insights which, through sense-making, promote the integration of learnings with prior knowledge to generate new meanings to be tested in social and cultural contexts. To aid reflection, the coach may use processes such as storytelling  and reflective journals, as well as metaphors and mind mapping. Personal Transformation Traditional models of learning are based on concrete, simplistic, and unevaluated understanding of knowledge with little personal significance. At the other extreme, transformative learning facilitates progression through to a more abstract, relative, and meaningful understanding of knowledge, which can be personally transforming. Learning is transformative and can lead to personal change and development when the client’s pain threshold has been reached and they require a different outcome. Transformation occurs when firmly held assumptions and beliefs are challenged as a result of a ‘disorienting event’ [14]. The client transitions from an externally driven perspective to an internally motivated desire for more meaningful learning.

Application to Coaching Coaching for learning and growth utilises positive psychology strategies which promote self-directed learning and personal transformative change. Reflecting on their behaviour and experiences, adult learners become more intensely aware of how they relate to the external world, and ways to become more personally and professionally

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effective. During coaching, the coach uses adult learning principles to guide the client towards self-revelation via critical self-reflection and the use of disorienting dilemmas to stimulate personal learning.

Self-Directed Learning As a developmental process and bespoke form of learning, coaching provides the opportunity for individuals to take time-out in a supportive environment to reflect on their thoughts and actions, identify goals for learning and growth, and action plan for the future. The principles of adult learning theory inform coaching in that the coaching process is directed by the client and learnings are built on the client’s prior knowledge and experience. Using the coaching skills, the coach facilitates opportunities for clients to explore scenarios for growth based on problems to be solved or needs to be satiated. When the client is ready to learn and an active participant in the coaching process, they discover new ways of being and doing and are motivated to change. Growth changes are reinforced when practiced in real-time situations within the client’s social environment. Positive psychology coaching facilitates client exploration in a safe space that is physically, psychologically, and emotionally supportive of their needs. Coaches provide the space for clients to cognitively meditate and experientially explore a range of possible scenarios based on their heightened understandings of self and others. Clients will learn when they are ready to learn new behaviours; willing to take risks (and possibly ‘fail’); have the cognitive ability to self-reflect and self-­ review; possess the skills to follow-through on actions, or know how to access the necessary resources; and have a level of maturity to cope with and manage the new behaviours (and possibly new emotions) in their social environments. The social environments in which individuals live and work, and the social connections they make which support or hinder their growth, have been identified as important factors in sustaining their change efforts. Peterson et al. [48] concluded that other people matter because it is within groups that we live, work, and play. Hence, feelings of belonging are vitally important to self-esteem, psychological health, and wellbeing.

Disorienting Dilemmas The second way that coaches stimulate learning and growth is by raising disorienting dilemmas or events to the client’s consciousness [14, 49]. These are created in the client’s mind when the coach challenges discrepancies or incongruences in their story. Powerful questioning surfaces assumptions, biases, and deep-seated beliefs previously hidden to the client. The resulting disturbed state allows the client  to

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restructure their mental model and mindset, and re-orient their thinking and behaviour to create new learnings. Disorienting dilemmas are also surfaced by discussions on experiences which have had a lasting impact on the client’s values and established frames of reference, especially when the new information surfaced is relevant to the client and their ‘need-to-know’.

Meaning-Making The third way that coaches stimulate learning and growth is by facilitating the client’s self-awareness and insight to make new meanings from the revelations surfaced at relational depth. Meaning-making is achieved when the client ascribes personal significance to a particular life event or phenomenon [50]. Personal significance is ascribed to everyday events based on the view that individuals constantly seek to find the meaning expressed in daily activities [51]. Subjective meaningfulness associates the event with experienced feelings that matter to the individual [52]. The meaning-making process plays a significant role in an individual’s psychological wellbeing [53, 54] and decision-making [55]. Individual differences in trait self-awareness have been compared with perceptions of meaningfulness in a decision-making task in a non-clinical population, with researchers concluding that, when given a choice, individuals with higher trait self-awareness are more likely to seek out and find meaning from an event compared with those who have lower trait self-awareness [56]. The first step in meaning-making is ‘scaffolding’, that is, developing an association between what is known about one’s self with what has been revealed in the self-reflection [57]. Techniques from client-centred therapy [58] provide the scaffolding to navigate the divide between the known and unknown. Adopting a client-­ centred mindset, the coach creates an environment in which the client experiences genuineness (openness and self-disclosure), acceptance (being treated with unconditional positive regard), and empathy (being listened to and understood) in order to grow and reach their potential [59]. To nurture a client-centred environment, coaches need to become more in touch with their own mind, body, and spirit—the conditions that develop and promote an individual’s own way of being [6]. Once surfaced, the client’s self-awareness brings acceptance of the need for behavioural change and emotional self-regulation. Reflective practice can be applied to both an individual’s personal and professional development. However, without experience in personal reflection, professional reflection may prove difficult. In summary, coaches utilise adult learning principles to encourage clients to critically self-reflect on their situation and create new, self-directed learnings. They raise disorienting dilemmas or events to the level of the client’s consciousness to surface deep-structure learning. Dilemmas are revealed through powerful questioning which challenges the client’s existing mental model  and mindset  to uncover unhelpful biases and assumptions. Once discovered, these can be revised through coaching into more positive beliefs which allow the client to make new meanings and move positively forward.

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26. Grant, A., & Hartley, M. (2013). Developing the leader as coach: Insights, strategies and tips for embedding coaching skills in the workplace. Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice, 6(2), 1–14. 27. Boyatzis, R. (2019). Coaching with intentional change theory. In S.  English, J.  Manz, & P. Brownell (Eds.), Professional coaching: principles and practice (pp. 221–230). Springer Publishing Company, LLC. 28. Krumboltz, J., Foley, P., & Cotter, E. (2013). Applying the happenstance learning theory to involuntary career transitions. The Career Development Quarterly, 61(1), 15–26. 29. Brockbank, A., & McGill, I. (2012). Facilitating reflective learning: Coaching, mentoring and supervision (2nd ed.). Kogan Page Ltd. 30. Dweck, C. (2012). Mindsets and human nature: Promoting change in the Middle East, the schoolyard, the racial divide, and willpower. American Psychologist, 67(8), 614–622. 31. Dweck, C. (2014). Teachers’ mindsets: “Every student has something to teach me”. Educational Horizons, 93(2), 10–15. 32. Molden, D., & Dweck, C. (2006). Finding “meaning” in psychology: A lay theories approach to self-regulation, social perception, and social development. American Psychologist, 61(3), 192–203. 33. Kam, C., et al. (2014). Do subordinates formulate an impression of their manager’s implicit person theory? Applied Psychology, 63(2), 267–299. 34. Sue-Chan, C., Wood, R., & Latham, G. (2012). Effect of a coach’s regulatory focus and an individual’s implicit person theory on individual performance. Journal of Management, 38(3), 809–835. 35. Heslin, P., & VandeWalle, D. (2011). Performance appraisal procedural justice: The role of a manager’s implicit person theory. Journal of Management, 37(6), 1694–1718. 36. Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191–215. 37. Latham, G., & Pinder, C. (2005). Work motivation theory and research at the dawn of the twenty-first century. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 485–516. 38. Wilson, W. (2013). Coaching with a global mindset. International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching & Mentoring, 11(2), 33–52. 39. Dewey, J. (1993). How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process. Heath. 40. Halx, M. (2010). Re-conceptualizing college and university teaching through the lens of adult education: Regarding undergraduates as adults. Teaching in Higher Education, 15(5), 519–530. 41. Haggis, T. (2002). Exploring the ‘black box’ of process: A comparison of theoretical notions of the ‘adult learner’ with accounts of postgraduate learning experience. Studies in Higher Education, 27(2), 207–220. 42. Entwistle, N., & Peterson, E. (2004). Learning styles and approaches to studying. In C. Spielberger (Ed.), Encyclopedia of applied psychology (pp. 537–542). Academic. 43. Cooperrider, D. (2000). Appreciative inquiry: Rethinking human organization toward a positive theory of change. Stipes Pub. 44. Durlak, J., et al. (2015). Handbook of social and emotional learning: Research and practice. Guilford Publications. 45. Boyatzis, R., Stubbs, E., & Taylor, S. (2002). Learning cognitive and emotional intelligence competencies through graduate management education. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 1(2), 150–162. 46. Stober, D., & Grant, A. (2006). Evidence based coaching handbook: Putting best practices to work for your clients. Wiley. 47. Hiatt, J. (2006). ADKAR: A model for change in business, government and our community: How to implement successful change in our personal lives and professional careers. Prosci Research.

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Chapter 11

Coaching for Behavioural Change

This chapter introduces the third, fundamental purpose for coaching in community and organisational settings—to effect behavioural change. It explores how traditional psychology research identified the ways in which behaviour is shaped by reward and punishment. Goals are the ‘rewards’ that clients work towards, away from the ‘pain’ in their life. Coaching focuses on ‘toward’ goals, that is, moving the client towards a more positive future and away from ‘learned helplessness’ [1]. Behaviour is shaped not only by the internal cognitions of the client but also in response to the social situations in which they find themself, and the social norms that apply in certain circumstances. Developmental psychology revealed that clients who are ready for change, motivated to change, and have self-efficacy behave in ways which acknowledge that their behaviour is not fixed but can be moulded and reinforced to achieve a better outcome [2]. Positive psychology research focuses on finding solutions rather than dwelling on problems. Coaches use goal-oriented and solution-focused techniques aligned with the client’s core values and beliefs to motivate and support self-efficacy to achieve their behavioural goals. The chapter outlines the way that coaching for behavioural change is conceptualised, the motivations for behavioural change, the individuals who are the recipients of coaching to develop different behaviours, and how coaching for behavioural change is delivered in community and organisational settings by external and internal coaches.

Theoretical Foundations Traditional behavioural psychology research informs the mechanics of behavioural change. Individuals change their behaviour when the ‘pain’ is too great to continue to endure or the ‘reward’ too attractive not to strive for it. Cognitive behavioural psychology overlays the importance of the client’s mental model and mindset on

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readiness to change. Social psychology research situates changes within the client’s social environment. Positive psychology research focuses on finding solutions rather than dwelling on problems and offers techniques that coaches can use, and clients can adopt in their everyday lives, to promote happiness, joy, and prosperity. The motivation for behavioural coaching is for clients to become more self-­ efficacious, goal- and action-oriented to plan for behavioural change. The recipients of behavioural coaching are all clients who have been unable to make the changes they desire or require by themselves without external support.

Traditional Psychology Contributions Traditional psychological research offers theories from behavioural, cognitive behavioural, and social cognitive perspectives regarding how individuals may be motivated to change. Coaches motivate individuals to change so they will establish and maintain more productive behaviours and be happy and more satisfied with their life and work, as explained in the next sections. Behavioural Theories Coaching emerged from therapeutic approaches that originally focused on observations of human behaviour and how manipulations of behaviour can condition new responses: stimulus–response (unconditioned or conditioned) [3]; classical and operant conditioning [4]; and reward–punishment reinforcement principles [5]. Traditional behavioural research reinforced the views of early empiricist philosophers who proposed that all behavioural phenomena were due to the gradual and passive association of overt behaviours and resulting feelings of pleasure or pain (hedonism) through contiguity and reinforcement [6]. An organism would exhibit a need such as for food or shelter, and produce a random behaviour in response to this need; if satisfaction was achieved, an association was formed and strengthened over time with repeated exposures. Hence, behavioural theories are predicated on the belief that an individual will move away from a painful situation towards a gainful situation (the reward), driven by a basic need to minimise physical pain and maximise pleasure. They focused on the tried-and-proven way of getting people to change—‘carrot and stick’. This age-old method is still the basis on which most parents bring up their children today. Children get a reward (a smile, a pat on the back, kind words) for doing as they are told. If they are naughty, they get a reprimand. So, from an early age, individuals learn to behave in certain ways as a result of externally applied forces. Over the years, the ‘carrot-and-stick’ method of obtaining compliance has been incorporated into many traditional work processes and systems. Years later, an alternative motivation for change was put forward [7, 8]. Incentive theory proposed that behaviour is elicited in response to environmental factors in

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order to achieve a goal. When a goal is present, the individual attempts to reach that goal, e.g. losing weight, exercising, eating healthily. Incentives may be tangible or intangible. An intangible incentive may involve feeling good about oneself, while a tangible incentive may be the receipt of an award or something that brings public recognition (e.g. photo in the paper). Intangible incentives are also known as intrinsic rewards [9] whilst tangible incentives are known as extrinsic rewards [10]. Sometimes, one type of reward is replaced with the other. This usually happens when an intrinsic reward is replaced by an extrinsic reward. For instance, an employee is promoted to management but loses all touch with their technical area of expertise. As time goes by, they seek further promotions based on financial reward rather than on their technical excellence which was previously rewarded and of which they used to be so proud. The external reward of increased pay now outweighs the internal pride and satisfaction they used to have in their technical skills when people used to come to them on a daily basis for help and support. This situation is known as the over-justification effect. In general, over-justification occurs when the external reward becomes the only reason for continuing to behave in a certain way. There is evidence that the effectiveness of the intrinsic incentive approach to motivation diminishes over time as people adapt to expecting greater extrinsic incentives for higher performance [11]. A third motivation for change was proposed by House [12]. His path-goal theory suggested that expectations based on past experiences direct behaviour toward particular goals. The theory was that individuals are motivated by goal-setting and action-planning [13]. Empirical evidence for the effectiveness of goal-setting and action-planning has been derived from both traditional and positive psychology approaches to coaching as well as from management literature. Traditional psychology research has described goals as the ‘internal representations of desired states or outcomes’ [14] and goal-setting as a powerful way to motivate individuals to change. Focusing on a goal activates the mind to concentrate on what an individual would like to achieve and how they would like things to be different. Goal-setting addresses three key areas of impact—cognition [15], behaviour [16], and affect [17]—which are ‘central to coaching’ [18]. The desired outcome is stored in memory as a cognitive image which drives the client forward and can be compared with the final, actual result. The anticipated pleasure of achieving the goal motivates them to keep trying, incentivising action towards capturing the prize [19]. The desired goal to be achieved from behavioural change may be specific or abstract. Specific goals typically relate to performance tasks, often underpinned by personal capabilities and competence [20]. SMART goals are highly specific and more likely to produce the desired result [13]. However, if they are too difficult to achieve, they may cause stress in the individual which may result in a decline in their performance [21]. Research has suggested that vague, abstract goals may be less demanding and threatening to the individual [22], thus allowing for more flexible, motivational performance improvements. In certain circumstances, learning goals may be more appropriate to facilitate better performance [23], for example, where the individual has insufficient skills to perform the task. Learning goals

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stimulate intrinsic motivation which is associated with improved performance [24]. Learning goals are sometimes called mastery goals [18]. Goals may be time-framed in terms of proximal or distal outcomes [25]. Proximal goals are shorter-term, hinting at urgency of action-planning [26]. Distal goals are often ‘broad’ and ‘fuzzy’, relating to a longer-term vision of the future [27]. Goals may also be categorised as avoidance or approach goals, moving either away from the undesirable situation or towards a more desirable future [18]. At times, goals may be competing for resources or attention which may result in internal conflict as the individual endeavours to meet their needs as well as those of others. Converting competing into complementary goals is the task of the coach [28]. Alternatively motivation may be attributed to higher order intentions such as altruism, selfishness, or mortality. Cognitive Behaviour Theory As a more humanistic approach to therapeutic interventions with clients evolved from behavioural modification techniques in the 1950s, cognitive-behavioural approaches emerged to address both the mental and physical aspects associated with change [29]. These approaches assume that behaviour is directed as a result of the active processing and interpretation of information, and propose that interpersonal difficulties are caused by habits and associated thought patterns which can be rectified by focusing on behavioural techniques which elicit goal-oriented behaviours [13]. Cognitive behaviour theory (CBT) is one of the leading mental health interventions for mental disorders [30]. Cognitive-behavioural coaching (CBC) is based on CBT and delivered by qualified professionals [31] who emphasise the importance of enhancing the emotion–regulation abilities of clients and replacing their non-­ productive behaviours with more appropriate ways of behaving. Patients are treated by exposure to the distressing object or situation which results in desensitisation and relief of anxiety. However, in a coaching situation, clients are not experiencing mental distress. Rather, their confusion often relates to ambiguities, inconsistencies, or inadequacies they experience in the conduct of their everyday life. Consequently, coaching focuses on the thoughts, behaviours, and feelings that are elicited in the client in these confusing situations which may be caused by a value-behaviour inconsistency or by limiting beliefs which send incapacitating information to the brain. Research has shown that individuals may act contrary to their explicit beliefs when strong feelings are involved [30]. In addition to its use in clinical populations, research has shown that CBC is an effective evidence-based approach for facilitating cognitive, behavioural, and affective changes in non-clinical populations [32, 33]. It has been linked to significantly increasing goal striving, wellbeing and hope in individuals [34], and facilitating goal-setting and improvement in organisational settings [35]. CBC addresses irrational and limiting beliefs which restrain the client from taking actions to resolve their situation and leads to a more productive life [36].

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Social Cognitive Theory Social cognitive theory [37] proposes that behavioural change is influenced by cognitive expectations which result in cognitive reconstruction which may be impacted by environmental factors such as culture and norms [38]. Central to social cognitive theory is the concept of self-efficacy [39] which is the individual’s belief in their capacity to organise and execute the actions that are required to manage prospective situations especially when the task is new, novel, or difficult. According to Bandura, an individual’s attitudes, abilities, and cognitive skills comprise what is known as the self-system. This system plays a major role in how individuals perceive situations and how they behave in response to different situations. Self-efficacy plays an essential part in this self-system. The belief in one’s own ability to achieve begins to form in early childhood as children deal with a wide variety of experiences, tasks, and situations. It continues to grow throughout life as they acquire new skills, experiences, and understanding [40]. Bandura found that self-efficacy plays a major role in how individuals think, behave, and feel in relation to goals to be achieved and challenges to be addressed. Those with a strong sense of self-efficacy view challenging problems as tasks to be mastered, develop deeper interest in the activities in which they participate, form a stronger sense of commitment to their interests and activities, and recover quickly from setbacks and disappointments. Individuals with a weak sense of self-efficacy experience the reverse. They avoid challenging tasks, believe that difficult tasks and situations are beyond their capabilities, focus on personal failings and negative outcomes, and quickly lose confidence in their personal abilities. Hence, identifying the degree to which individuals believe in themselves, and believe they can attain their goals, is at the heart of every motivational and reward programme leading to change. If clients don’t believe they can make the changes they will self-sabotage— which is called a ‘self-fulfilling prophecy’. Social cognitive theory and the concept of self-efficacy explain and predict behavioural changes that underpin coaching interventions. According to Bandura [40], there are four major sources of self-efficacy: • Mastery Experiences: Performing a task successfully strengthens an individual’s sense of self-efficacy. However, failing to adequately deal with a task or challenge can undermine and weaken self-efficacy. • Social Modelling: Witnessing people successfully completing a task is another important source of self-efficacy. In particular, observing others similar to themselves making a success of their life by sustained effort increases a client’s belief that they too possess the capabilities to master difficult yet similar activities. • Social Persuasion: Bandura asserted that people could be persuaded to believe they have the skills and capabilities to succeed. Verbal encouragement from others helps individuals overcome self-doubt, allowing them to focus on putting their best effort to the task at hand. • Psychological Responses: Moods, emotional states, physical reactions, and stress levels, play an important role in self-efficacy. They all impact on how an

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individual feels about their ability to perform in a particular situation whether real or perceived (e.g. making a public presentation). By learning how to minimise stress and elevate mood when facing difficult or challenging tasks, individuals can improve their sense of self-efficacy. Social learning theory [39] emphasises the role of observational learning, social experience, and reciprocal determinism in the development of personality. Automatic (unconscious) and controlled (conscious) social cognitive processes influence perceptions during social engagement [41]. Individuals understand their self in relation to others as they interpret the external world through perceptions and judgements which generate mental representations of the social schemata. These representations influence an individual’s perception, orientation, and responsiveness in social situations, and allow them to make sense of their social world. Prochaska and DiClemente’s Transtheoretical Model of Change [42] proposed five stages of readiness towards behavioural change—Pre-contemplation, Contemplation, Preparation, Action, and Maintenance. The model is highly applicable to coaching as it gives the coach an indication of how to work with a client according to their stage of readiness for change. From a coaching perspective, it is important to note that the model is not linear. Individuals engaged in the change process may not progress smoothly across the stages. Life events or barriers to progression may cause them to return to a previous stage or give up. The factors that control the transfer between different stages, and the time necessary for change to occur, include the client’s decisional balance and self-efficacy [43].

Positive Psychology Contributions Advocates of behavioural theories believe in the immense value of being able to observe behaviours which makes it easy to collect data and quantify information when conducting research. Therapeutic techniques such as intensive behavioural interventions, token economies, and discrete trial training programs are all based on theories of behaviour modification. These approaches are often useful to change inappropriate or harmful behaviours in both children and adults. However, critics of behavioural conditioning have argued that it is a one-dimensional approach to behaviour modification, and that behavioural theories do not account for internal influences such as moods, thoughts, and feelings. Nor, they claim, does behavioural conditioning account for other types of learning, especially learning that occurs without the use of reinforcement or punishment. For example, people and animals are able to adapt their behaviour when new information is introduced even if a previous behaviour pattern had been established through reinforcement. In response to these claims, positive psychology research has found that interventions are most effective when they are solution-focused rather than problem-­ oriented [44, 45], and when clients are supported to find their own solutions rather

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than blaming external forces [32]. This combined approach helps build a greater depth of client self-understanding and self-efficacy [44, 46, 47] by reducing negative affect and supporting goal attainment [48–50]. Hence, coaches focus on supporting values-driven behaviours and identifying unhelpful beliefs that limit the client’s ability to change. Each of these approaches is addressed in the following sections. Solution-Focused When problems are to be solved rather than goals to be achieved, positive psychology coaching adopts a solution-focused approach to help clients resolve problems or concerns that are holding them back. The coach helps the client develop self-­ awareness and insight which generates learning and allows the solution to emerge from within. The solution-focused coaching approach promotes discovery and insight, builds a greater depth of self-understanding, reduces negative affect, increases positive affect, and supports resolution of the situation. By focusing on the solution, not the problem, and how they would like things to be, clients uncover what they have intuitively known all along but been unable to achieve by themselves. They find the solution to their problem rather than dwelling on the problem itself, which is where and how they became stuck in the first place. Values and Beliefs All behaviours, thoughts, feelings, and actions are shaped and given direction, purpose, and meaning by the values and goals that individuals hold implicitly or explicitly [18]. Hence, techniques used in coaching focus on identifying the behaviours and cognitions which support the client’s positive and enabling values and beliefs. The client’s values and beliefs have been shaped by early childhood experiences in the home or school environment. Children growing up are taught how to behave appropriately in various situations. As time goes by, and especially in the adolescent years, they are exposed to people behaving differently, in response to their own set of values and beliefs. One of the many tasks of teenagers is to ‘try out’ new ways of behaving to ascertain the values they want to take forward into adulthood. All too often, they encounter values which are the very opposite of those they were taught. They may become confused or enraged, and react in ways totally uncharacteristic of who they used to be. They are finding out who they are going to be in the future. Often causing parental angst, the ‘rule book’ is thrown open to reinterpretation based on their new references and experiences. During coaching, clients gain insight into the behaviours that support their core values and identify any discrepancies that provide opportunities to discover their growth needs [51]. A number of changes may be desired or required in the client’s behaviour, attitude, beliefs, or perspectives which impact their ability to develop

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trusting and collaborative relationships at home and work, resolve their problems, and achieve their goals. Coaching re-aligns their behaviours with core values and beliefs, unravelling the patterns of behaviour in their life which have been unproductive in moving them forward, and identifying ways to reinforce what has been working for them and should continue. But first, the client must identify what it is they value in relation to self, family, work, health, etc. A Values-Sort Card exercise or similar [52] can be useful to assist them determine the focus of their future behaviours. After identifying their say, 5 core values, the coach works with the client to write down the behaviours that support these values and compares these with the client’s current behaviours. Any discrepancies are opportunities for the client to determine more productive ways of living their values and achieving their desired future.

Application to Coaching Drawing on traditional psychology findings, researchers have identified the value of combining cognitive behaviour therapeutic techniques with rational-emotive behavioural interventions to produce clients’ positive affect and the achievement of goals [53]. In addition, positive psychology promotes a solution-focused approach to behavioural change which reveals the behaviours that support the client’s positive values and enabling beliefs [45].

Solution-Focus Solution-focused coaching is a highly powerful motivator for change [54]. If clients are still experiencing ‘pain’, coaches use the initial stage of the coaching process and cognitive-behavioural restructuring to turn the negative problem into a positive goal. Any immediate problem can be reframed as a goal to be achieved via coaching. To do this, the client must be a willing and active participant in the coaching process—ready to openly and honestly discuss what is concerning them and what is important to them. The coach facilitates the client’s recognition of their own self-­ awareness and insights as a result of self-reflection and the resulting learnings, to indicate that they need to do something different. The client engages with the coach to determine a specific goal and actions which will take them closer to embracing a happier and more fulfilling life. The very act of revealing themselves to the coach is often sufficient to bring about internal ‘shifts’ that are so insightful as to propel the client to begin the change process. Any positive movement forward is a good start. The coach’s role is to channel that forward movement into the completion of actions which allow new beginnings to emerge.

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Goal-Setting and Action-Planning Goal-oriented and solution-focused coaching techniques assist the client self-­ regulate their behaviour so they become more personally and interpersonally effective and lead a more purposeful life [54]. Through goal-setting, action-planning, monitoring, and evaluating their attitude and behaviours, clients transition to effect the desired changes. Goal-setting allows clients to specify their own end-point and then work towards it—whether that is personal, career, or work-related. Clients want to know the end-point so they can manage their time and resources to achieve the desired outcome. The goal may be anything from completing a specific task, to making a presentation to their manager, or enrolling in an educational course. The coach works with the client to put in place a plan of action to accomplish their goal. The coach and client then identify the best means of motivating the client so that the goal is achieved in a timely manner. Goal-setting involves identifying where the client is now and where they want to be in the future. The desired end-point may be usefully defined in SMART terms [55] so that the coaching can be measured for success. There are four elements to setting and achieving goals. These include: 1. Focus: Goals narrow attention and direct efforts to goal-relevant activities— away from perceived undesirable and goal-irrelevant actions. 2. Target: Goals can lead to more effort (e.g. if an employee typically produces 4 widgets an hour and has the goal of producing 6, they may work more intensely than they would otherwise do in order to reach the goal). 3. Desirability: An individual becomes more prone to work through setbacks if pursuing a highly desired goal. 4. Determination: Goals can lead an individual to develop cognitive strategies to change their behaviour. Table 11.1 outlines a seven-step process that coaches can use to assist clients goal-set. Table 11.1  Seven steps to goal-setting Goal-setting 1.  Specify the nature of the task/s to be accomplished. What is the goal? 2.  Specify how performance is to be measured. How will you know when you get there? Some baseline data may be required. 3.  Specify the standard or target to aim for. How much of an improvement do you need? Specify exactly the targeted end-point. 4.  Specify the time span involved. How long have you got to complete the task? 5.  If there are multiple goals, clients rate each goal quantitatively and then rank them on an Urgent/Important matrix. 6.  Clients then action plan the items that are easy for them to execute first, so they will experience a feeling of immediate success. 7.  The coach then determines who the client needs to consult with/inform/involve in their change process. Are you capable of making these changes by yourself? If not, from where can you access the necessary resources?

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Action-planning breaks down the goal into small, achievable steps and then identifies the actions to be taken, by whom, over a period of time. Nominating a timeline injects a sense of urgency into resolving the situation. Plans may be short-term (12  months) to achieve immediate personal or business goals, medium-term (2–3 years) or long-term (3–5 years) for vision goals. In a business or work environment, the plan may include the roles and responsibilities, performance indicators, and alternative methods that can be implemented to reach the client’s objectives. Action-planning is a simple way to collect all the information needed by the client to make the best decision about their life, work, and career. Steps in the action-­ planning process include: 1. Identifying the goal. 2. Choosing appropriate actions to achieve the goal. 3. Assigning timelines and priorities. 4. Making it happen, whilst remaining positive and optimistic. Research has concluded that sustained effects of coaching over a specified period are associated with client satisfaction derived from fulfilling their goals and desires [56].

Supporting Self-Efficacy During coaching, the coach notices the client’s degree of self-efficacy, that is, their belief in their ability to change, and their readiness and willingness to change as well as accept responsibility and accountability for their actions. Ultimately, it is the client’s belief in themself that will get them through. Self-efficacy acknowledges what clients cannot change, for example, due to illness, past experiences, or external factors such as a pandemic. Whilst immediate success is beneficial, clients also learn from their ‘failures’ which expand their horizon leading to growth and the adoption of different perspectives. From a positive psychology perspective, clients need to do something about making changes. It is insufficient to indicate that they will try. Trying is an inadequate commitment to change and may never happen. Hence, coaches use the final segment of the coaching process to gain a sufficiently high level of commitment from the client to taking the actions they have decided to take. People experience change in two ways—first in their mind, and then in practice. Hence, performance ability increases as clients preview themselves enacting the new behaviours in their mind, before attempting to practice the new behaviour in the real world. Coaches encourage clients to do something, no matter how small or whether it will be successful, in an attempt to reach their goal. What clients do is good for now, even though it may be ‘imperfect’. Behavioural coaching interventions are predicated on the basis that clients are ready and willing to make changes in their life, and have the capacity and resources to do so. Coaching that is not aligned with the readiness of the individual to change will be less likely to succeed. Also, coaching programs that try to move a person too

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quickly through the stages of change are more likely to create resistance that will impede behavioural change. For example, if a client wants to quit smoking, it is essential to know where they are at in terms of their readiness to cease smoking. A client who is not even thinking about quitting is generally not ready to receive information about specific smoking cessation tools. In this case, focusing the coaching on smoking cessation tools sends the message that the coach is not listening. This may not only damage rapport but could also make the client more resistant to quitting smoking. A more stage-specific intervention with this client would be for the coach to get them to just think about quitting. Once the client gets to the contemplation stage, additional strategies can be used to move them through the remaining stages. Using stage-specific interventions decreases the coach’s frustration by lessening their unrealistic expectation that change will occur with a single intervention. In summary, coaches work with clients to help them identify the behaviours that are congruent with their personal values and beliefs, raise any discrepancy with their current behaviour, and assist them make the changes they need to make to lead a life that is meaningful and on-purpose. As clients develop self-awareness and insight, they learn and grow, and their minds become more open to new possibilities. With the coach, they explore and discover alternate ways to behave to become more effective in their life. Coaches uncover what motivates clients and what causes them conflict and concern. They support self-discovery of their own solutions and assist clients establish goals and take actions for which they are responsible. The coach and client are jointly accountable for achieving the coaching outcomes. A goal-oriented, solution-focused approach to coaching supports the client’s self-­ efficacy and motivation to implement behavioural change.

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Chapter 12

Coaching for Personal Development

This chapter focuses on coaching for personal development. Traditional personality psychology research identified traits and behaviours that were combined into personality types which could be profiled. Individual psychology informs how individual needs and wants drive client behaviour and interpersonal effectiveness. Positive psychology coaching utilises the client’s strengths to maximise their potential, boost self-esteem and build resilience. The coach encourages self-regulation of emotions and tensions relating to stressful or conflictual situations. Individual coaching within the workplace may also address performance-related issues which cause clients stress or anxiety and collaboration and decision-making problems within teams. The outcome is that clients gain in self-confidence, increase their self-­ esteem, and live a more fulfilling, meaningful and purposive life. They develop resilience which enables them to recover from adversity, uncertainty, conflict or negative change events more quickly. A positive self-image, positive attitude and positive behaviours which reflect the client’s inner values may inspire and motivate others to engage in their own personal development. The chapter outlines the way that coaching for personal development is conceptualised, the motivations for personal development, the individuals who are the recipients of coaching for personal development, and how it is delivered in community and organisational settings by external and internal coaches.

Theoretical Foundations Traditional psychology research contributes understandings of personality development to the coaching process. Personality style influences how clients communicate and interact with others. It also influences how clients cope with conflict and manage stress. Individual psychology contributes understandings of individual needs and wants, and the achievement of potential. Clients are motivated to be coached for

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personal development when they wish to become more personally effective and influential at home and work. The recipients of coaching for personal development are all clients who are experiencing dissatisfaction with their life or work and are committed to making changes to improve their current situation. Coaching for personal development may be conducted by external coaches with clients who pay for their own coaching or with valued employees (coachees) internal to an organisation which pays for their coaching. Leadership coaches may work inside organisations as line managers or HR professionals [1]. Some organisations have instigated internal teams of coaches who coach employees on a needs basis or as part of a cultural change program [2, 3].

Traditional Psychology Contributions Traditional individual and personality psychology research has investigated individual differences in terms of what motivates people and how they think and behave. Individuals are motivated by key drivers which may relate to individual personality traits to meet their needs and wants. Assessment instruments have been developed to categorise traits into personality profiles. Individual and Personality Psychology Individual psychology examines how people are psychologically similar or different in their thinking, feeling and behaviour. The study of individual differences originated in the early 1900s. At that time, scientists attempted to identify traits within the general population which then became the study of personality types, styles and attributes. Attempts to measure, explain and predict behaviour and performance resulted in multiple and often conflicting theories about individual psychology. By considering the variations that can occur from one person to another, the full range of human behaviour and emotion can be determined. Researchers began to understand what constitutes acceptable variation from the norm and what constitutes unacceptable behaviour or delays in certain areas which may require remediation or intervention, for example, for criminal behaviour or developmental delays. A related consideration was how much variation there is in values, beliefs and behaviours within an individual over time and situations. Is this variation within a single person more or less than the variation among others in the general population? Are there more similarities within in-group populations (e.g. groupings by gender, culture, age or ethnicity) than within populations external to the group? Personality psychology addressed these questions and more as it investigated how people live and work individually and together. It also addressed the unique ways that people function within specific environments. Personality research interests ranged from the analyses of genetic codes to the study of sexual, social, ethnic and cultural differences. It included questions related to behavioural styles,

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cognitive abilities, interpersonal styles, and emotional reactivity. Two areas of specific interest to researchers were the identification of individual traits that combine into personality types, and how to assess an individual’s personality type. Personality Theories Personality and individual psychology first addressed personal traits that contribute to how individuals experience life and interact with others. Type A and Type B personalities were proposed [4] based on combinations of individual personality traits. The typology suggested that Type A people like an ordered environment and become extremely stressed when things go wrong at home or at work. They are ambitious, rigidly organised, highly status-conscious, sensitive and caring, truthful, impatient, and always trying to help others, take on more than they can handle, want other people to get to the point, and are proactive and obsessed with time management. Type B personalities are more relaxed and generally live at a lower stress level. They typically work steadily, enjoying achievement but not becoming stressed when they have not achieved. When faced with competition, they do not mind losing and either enjoy the game or back down. They may be creative and explore different ideas and concepts. They are often reflective, thinking about their outer and inner worlds. Over time, and with experiences and dilemmas surfaced through coaching, Type A clients may learn to become more relaxed like Type Bs. Also, traditional psychology research showed that individuals may not be on the extremes (i.e. either Type A or Type B) but somewhere in-between. Hence, depending on the degree to which a client is mainly Type A or mainly Type B, different communication and stress management techniques will be more effective in supporting their personal development. Next, researchers investigated how personality traits may be combined into personality types and how individuals might be profiled into different type categories. Starting in the 1920s, behavioural scientists began to investigate why people behave the way they do, for example, why some people crave power while others are content to contribute to the greater good. The advent of World Wars prompted scientists and psychologists to find a way to explain the differences in human behaviour so that people could better relate to each other. One of the earliest forms of personality assessment was developed by Katherine Briggs and Isabel Myers [5, 6]. The Myers-­ Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a self-assessed typology of human behaviour constructed from understandings of the conceptual work of Carl Jung [7, 8]. The MBTI attempted to ‘make normal’ the similarities and differences among human beings by proposing different personality types to explain specific personality differences and how people may cope with these differences in a constructive way. Subsequently, researchers began to investigate proprietary ways in which personality traits could be combined into commercially available, personality profiles. A number of personality assessment instruments were developed which canvassed both self and others’ opinions of an individual’s personality and allowed others to comment on how that individual’s personality affected them. For example, the DISC personality profile is based on a model of how ‘normal’ people behave in

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their environment or within a specific situation [9]. DISC is an acronym for the categorisation of the four primary dimensions of behaviour in this profile: Dominant, Influential, Steady, and Conscientious. The instrument identifies behavioural style by measuring attributes or qualities of an individual and aspects of their personality. The key to understanding the DISC dimensions is to understand the two needs that these researchers believe drive and influence how people behave in relation to one another—the need for affiliation and the need for control. Another popular 360° assessment instrument is the Human Synergistics Life Styles Inventory (LSI) [10]. Over 20  years of research, Lafferty established that there are certain personality styles which are ineffective, some marginal, some adequate and some clearly associated with excellence. The LSI is a self-awareness, self-development tool which enables individuals to identify areas they wish to improve on and take action to become more constructive in their behaviours. A third 360° assessment instrument is the CLS360 which is based on transformational leadership research and measures leadership behaviour [11, 12]. It identifies eight leadership styles which form an ‘interpersonal circumplex’ arranged around two main factors that are represented by two axes (agency and communion). The charismatic or transformational style consists of four main behavioural and cognitive dimensions: charisma, inspiring motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration. These styles correlate highly with work factors such as employee motivation, job satisfaction, and leader effectiveness. A fourth instrument is the Personal Development Test which was developed to assess an individual’s maturity on four scales: self-efficacy, coping skills, assertiveness, and locus of control [13]. Coping skills would now be referred to as resilience [14–16]. Locus of control [17], an individual’s ability to exert internal control rather than be influenced by external forces, has received little attention in recent years. An individual’s degree of social integration is measured on scales of team membership, sympathy, self-esteem and caring [18]. Sympathy, which is related to higher levels of positive social and moral reasoning [19], would now be referred to as empathy [20] or compassion [21, 22]. Caring continues to have meaning within the context of unconditional positive regard [23]. Other skills that contribute to an individual’s personal development include intrapersonal and interpersonal skills relating to their ability to communicate effectively and build trusting relationships. Personality profiling provides a ‘mirror’ for the client to see themself as others see them, not as they think they are seen or want to be seen. When clients know more about themselves and how others view their attitude and behaviour, they may be ready to make changes that will lead them towards their goal of becoming the person they want to be. Their desire for self-actualisation [24] is addressed in coaching for personal development as coaches assist clients move forward to meet this need.

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Needs, Wants and Drives Coaching for personal development starts with coaches working with clients to identify their needs and wants and their individual motivations that drive change. Focusing on individual differences allows the coach to take account of different personalities and situations and understand why people do the things they do, for example, what motivates them or causes them to remain in a situation where they are unhappy. The coaching process guides clients towards greater self-awareness and insight by identifying desires and aspirations and how these may be fulfilled. Individuals have different needs and wants, and it is the coach’s role to help clients identify what these are and the differences between them. A need arises from an internal biological imbalance that occurs when people are deprived of something. A want arises from an individual’s desire to progress towards self-­ actualisation. The coach works with the client to make sure they have or can attain everything they need and then works on moving them forward towards what they really want. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs [24] provides a framework to understand human motivation and why an individual strives to be a better person. A drive is the urge to attain a need or want. Drive theories of motivation [25, 26] propose that individuals are motivated to take certain actions to reduce the internal tension that is caused by unmet needs. Drive theories explain behaviours that have a strong biological component such as hunger or thirst. However, the problem with drive theories is that behaviour is not always motivated purely by physiological needs, for example, people often eat even when they are not hungry. Drive theories suggest that there is no end to an individual’s level of arousal and motivation, that is, drives constantly propel people from one goal to the next provided they have been successful in fulfilling the previous need or want. Drive theory also suggests that drives intensify and behaviours become more directed towards fulfilling needs until they are satiated. For example, if a person is in the desert and parched, their drive to find water would be their greatest concern. If they had enough water, their drive would be to find shelter. A need is usually satisfied before a want but not necessarily. For example, people with an addiction often satisfy a want (e.g. for drugs or alcohol) before a need (e.g. for food or shelter). Primary drives arise from the physiological characteristics of an organism, for example, from the need for food, water and so on. They may also arise in response to external stimuli, for example, to regulate body temperature, avoid pain, etc. A secondary, or acquired, drive is one that is learned in response to social influences (and becomes a want). These wants are generally learned through association with primary drives. For example, the need to earn an income (primary drive) may lead to a drive to accumulate wealth (secondary drive). Primary and secondary drives may cause individuals to seek external validation from those in their immediate environment. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivators also propel individuals to achieve goals either because they personally want or need them or because an external force or person has dangled an attractive reward in their path. Identifying the client’s coaching needs and motivational drives for change are important components of the coaching process.

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Self-Actualisation During coaching, once an individual’s needs and wants are satisfied, they seek ways to develop their potential, that is, the achievement of their global functioning [27]. Self-actualisation implies that a certain level of maturity has been reached in the individual, that is, a level of both independence and interdependence [28]. Independence is an individual’s ability to be self-directed, self-controlled, and free of emotional dependency. Interdependence has been redefined as ‘social integration’ [13], meaning that the individual understands the need to be socially responsible, respects others as equals and subjugates their personal goals in the interest of social goals when necessary. Interpersonal Skills The second major contribution from traditional psychological research relates to findings concerning the interpersonal skills which make clients most personally effective. These include primarily, communication and relationship skills, which allow clients to develop personally enhancing and productive interactions with others in their home and work environments, as discussed below. Communication The acquisition of effective communication skills is essential for clients who lack the ability to have their needs met because of miscommunications with others. Ineffective communication can lead to innuendo, mixed messages and confusion which may generate a completely different response and lead to defensiveness. During coaching, the coach works to assist clients become better listeners and more assertive in their communication. People who communicate effectively take into account three things: the message, which is about the content and structure of the communication; the medium, where spoken is usually more effective than written; and the audience - their age, gender, self-esteem, prior beliefs, etc. As a communication technique, assertiveness is distinguished from aggression and passivity principally by the way people deal with personal boundaries—their own and those of others. Coaches encourage clients to use assertive communication which focuses on the issue not the person, respects the personal boundaries of others and helps them control their emotions. If clients notice themselves becoming aggressive, that is, not respecting others’ boundaries or unable to manage their emotions, the coach reflects these behaviours back to the client so they may better manage these situations. Clients are encouraged to freely express their feelings, thoughts and desires, know their rights and control their anger, and willingly compromise rather than always wanting their own way to prevail. Coaches may use techniques such as broken record, fogging, negative enquiry and I-statements to assist clients become more assertive in their communication.

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Some of the difficulty in communicating accurately may be caused by the stress of the situation and its effect on the sender or receiver. Stressful situations evoke an emotional response—the primal fight or flight, or freeze [29–31]—causing an adrenalin rush which takes some time to dissipate through the body. During this time, the mind may be distracted and disoriented. In this state, the person usually reacts rather than acts. It is only after that initial, irrational period has passed that the client can plan  logical actions to correct the situation and communicate effectively. Relationships In addition to acquiring effective communication skills, individuals who are personally effective establish relationships with others built on trust and rapport. Rapport is the ‘state’ that is developed between people when they are aligned in thought and purpose—a feeling of being ‘in sync’ and ‘on the same page’ with the other person—a feeling that suggests ‘I can trust you’ and implies there is mutual trust and support. People in rapport feel that it will be alright to share their deepest thoughts or concerns with others. No words need be said as there is an ‘understanding’ that goes deeper than the surface words into the deep structure, unconscious cerebral cortex connections. While rapport building comes naturally to some people, to others it is one of the most difficult skills to master. The coach helps clients develop better relationship skills by assisting them observe both verbal and non-verbal communication cues. They encourage clients to use the NLP techniques of matching and mirroring to respond to non-verbal cues, noticing just the smallest shifts in body language. Paying attention to what’s happening in the interaction—‘in the moment’—strengthens the relationship. Through modelling and role play, coaches can demonstrate how to respond appropriately during an interaction to achieve the most positive relationship outcomes. Deep relationships don’t need to be built with all people—just with those whom the client loves and respects. Trust develops when promises are made and kept. This is the end-point that the client wants to achieve in each and every interaction they have with others who matter to them—a trusting relationship based on rapport, meaningful exchanges, and the achievement of anticipated or even better outcomes. Equally important to personal development is the nature of the relationship between coach and client. Rogers [32] identified the core conditions for meaningful change as empathy, genuineness and unconditional positive regard. Happily, if coaches do not possess these qualities, they can be developed. Coaches also need to possess self-awareness, self-reflection and the ability to cope with uncertainty and recognise the limits of their knowledge and skills [33].

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Positive Psychology Contributions Coaching is a process which unlocks an individual’s potential to maximise their performance and life happiness [34, 35]. A fundamental tenet of positive psychology coaching  is that individuals are empowered to maximise their strengths and release their potential, as discussed in the sections below. Strengths Strengths are the abilities individuals develop from consistent, near-perfect performance in a specific task [36]. Patterns of routinised behaviours result from optimal functioning in the pursuit of valued tasks and outcomes [37]. A strengths-based approach to personal development maximises positive personal and interpersonal traits such as character strengths and talents, positive relationships based on friendship and love, and positive environments at home and work [38]. Over time, these characteristics become integrated into the self and translated into everyday behaviours [39]. According to Bandura [40], developing strong self-efficacy beliefs in terms of applying one’s strengths is an important next step after an individual has developed awareness of their personal strengths. Robust strengths self-efficacy beliefs [41] are theorised to motivate an individual to approach situations where they can implement their strengths to influence task performance. To maximise potential, a carefully designed plan to gain control and strategically implement individual strengths across different roles and settings is critical. Research has found that personal strengths are positively correlated with interpersonal and intrapersonal strengths, affective strengths, adaptability, social skills and leadership [42]. Productivity, life choices, self-confidence, academic and career success are positively impacted by strengths development [41, 43]. Moreover, employee work engagement and job satisfaction are enhanced when individuals apply their strengths in their role [44]. However, strengths awareness alone is insufficient to promote change. Five foundations of a strengths-based education have been proposed, namely, assessment and measurement of strengths; individualisation of personal strengths to achieve personal goals; networking with others who recognise and affirm an individual’s strengths; deliberate application of strengths; and intentional development to continue developing and maximising strengths throughout a career [45]. These strengths are plastic (that is, invisible) until displayed in use [46]. The coach’s role is to reinforce client strengths, talents, interests and passions and challenge them to achieve their potential. Interventions that capitalise on existing assets and strengths are highly effective in individual problem-solving. The use of strength-based assessments stimulates client’s strengths awareness and development. Two assessment instruments which may assist professionals provide effective strengths-based services to clients are the Values in Action tool [46] and the Clifton Strengths Finder [47]. These instruments assess an individual’s

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perception of their own strengths and provide a framework to classify these strengths. More recently, the Strengths Self-Efficacy scale (SSES) was developed to provide career counsellors, educators and researchers with an assessment instrument which individuals can use to self-assess their perceived abilities and identify additional strengths they would like or need to acquire [41]. These researchers found that SSES scores were moderately related to self-esteem and life satisfaction and weakly related to social desirability. Earlier, researchers had developed a Coaching Skills Self-Efficacy Scale (CSSES) consisting of 24 items which addressed the skills and competencies a coach should have and the challenges a coach has to deal with during the coaching process, for example: ‘quickly establish a close relationship with another person’ and ‘helping someone to clarify his or her goals’ [48]. Self-Esteem Research has found that individuals who apply strengths in their daily life experience increased satisfaction and happiness and display increased self-esteem [49]. Moreover, they demonstrate a commitment to repeat experienced successes to maintain their self-esteem [50]. Self-esteem is a term used to describe how an individual feels about themself and their self-worth [51, 52]. It is a judgment they make of themself based on others’ perceptions and opinions of them, particularly those of significant others such as parents, teachers and authority figures. Self-esteem is constructed from a combination of beliefs (e.g. ‘I am competent.’ ‘I am worthy.’) and emotions (such as disappointment, distrust, fear and loathing). High self-esteem flows into all areas of a client’s life. Once clients’ needs and wants are met, the coach works to boost their self-esteem and increase their self-efficacy so that the changes will be maintained. It was Maslow [24] who first described the ‘need for esteem’ and divided it into two aspects—the esteem for self (self-love, self-confidence, skill, aptitude) and the need for respect from others (recognition, success, etc.). The latter he believed to be more fragile and easily lost than inner self-esteem. According to Maslow, individuals with no or low self-esteem will be driven to find it and, until attained, will be unable to grow and obtain self-actualisation. Self-esteem has been found to be an influential predictor of outcomes such as academic achievement, exercise behaviour, and psychological wellbeing. It can apply specifically to a particular dimension (e.g. ‘I believe I am an excellent swimmer and I feel proud about that’) or to a global concept (e.g. ‘I believe I am a thoroughly unlovable character and feel bad about everything in my life’). Psychologists regard self-esteem as an enduring personality characteristic although variations can exist. Self-esteem is certainly a factor that coaches focus on during coaching to increase the positive way in which clients regard themselves. Research supports that self-esteem can be varied (increased) through coaching [49, 53]. Individuals with a healthy self-esteem fully trust in their capacity to solve problems, not hesitating after failures and difficulties. They ask others for help when

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they need it. They consider themselves equal in dignity to others rather than inferior or superior while accepting differences in certain talents, personal prestige, or financial standing. They take for granted that they are an interesting and valued person to know, at least to those with whom they have strong personal connections. They admit and accept different internal feelings and drives, either positive or negative, only revealing these drives to others whom they feel are trustworthy. They are sensitive to feelings and needs of others, respect generally accepted social rules and claim no right or desire to prosper at another’s expense. They can work towards finding solutions and voice discontent without belittling themselves or others when challenges arise and can effectively manage their inner critic—the negative internal voice we all have. Within a family situation, parents grow their children’s self-esteem by providing freedom within limits which are clearly and jointly negotiated. They show children unconditional positive regard and have high hopes for their future (Fig.  12.1). Within a coaching environment, these principles are translated into behaviours that the coach adopts to support the development of the client’s self-esteem. The coaching process facilitates free-flowing conversation without judgement or bias, applies limits to the content of the issues discussed (i.e. non-clinical issues only) and contracts a partnership arrangement with the client that has been clearly and jointly negotiated and agreed. The coach supports clients in achieving their highest aspiration. Resilience A third major contribution to contemporary coaching practice from positive psychology research is that of resilience which has been defined as an individual’s positive psychological capacity to recover from adversity, uncertainty, conflict or negative change events [54]. In such circumstances, individuals feel out-of-control, incapable of influencing an end-outcome. Researchers have found that individuals with unrealistic control beliefs are more likely to persist in activities regardless of the realistic or unrealistic nature of the problem they are facing [55]. There may be situations in which such persistence is warranted. However, it is unhelpful when Fig. 12.1  The factors which promote self-esteem

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unrealistic beliefs lead to unrealised expectations which may then result in anger and depression. Individuals who possess self-efficacy, optimism, hope and resilience [56] may not be as susceptible to these debilitating emotions as those who do not. There is empirical evidence that positive emotions enhance resilience in the face of negative events [57] and, as a developmental intervention, focus on positive adaptation to maximise assets and minimise risk factors [58, 59].

Application to Coaching Traditional and positive psychology research contributes to contemporary coaching practice by utilising client’s strengths to maximise their potential, developing intrapersonal effectiveness by addressing their individual needs and wants, boosting self-esteem to promote self-efficacy, and encouraging self-regulation of emotions and tensions relating to stressful or conflictual situations. Coaching needs may be identified by using personality, individual and strengths-based assessment instruments. The ways that coaches utilise this knowledge during coaching is outlined in the sections below.

Potential In a safe, supportive, coaching environment, clients with high self-esteem learn to utilise their strengths and unleash their potential in the present and to prepare for the future. Self-knowledge is the first step in personal development. Uncovering hidden aspects of an individual’s character and highlighting limitations for improvement are the keys to realisation of untapped potential. The coach may use personality profiling assessment instruments to identify individual strengths and limitations which provide a comparison of the individual’s assessment results relative to normative data from relevant populations over time. The coach’s role is to interpret the profile results so the client understands their variations from the general population in relation to personality type, preferences and style. Then, through coaching, clients learn how to maximise their strengths and minimise weaknesses to develop their potential.

Self-Regulation The ability to monitor and self-evaluate thoughts and behaviour are essential components of self-regulation and goal-directed behaviour [60]. Better knowledge and understanding of self has been found to lead to corrective actions which reduce stress and decrease depression [61]. In addition to becoming better communicators

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and developing relationships based on trust, personal development involves developing self-regulation skills so that clients can manage situations that cause them discomfort or stress and could potentially lead to conflict. Stress is typically a reaction to change—from a routine, the expected, from that which is in our control. When individuals are expecting a change, or engineering one, there is less stress than when a change is thrust upon them. When this happens, they often react badly and become stressed. It is the reaction to not being in control of the situation that causes people to become stressed. The coach works with the client to identify the factors that are causing them stress which may be associated with life events, work overload, or interpersonal conflict. Conflict occurs when a person (or a group of people) perceives that another person or group is frustrating, or about to frustrate, an important concern. It involves incompatible differences between parties that culminate in interference or opposition. The differences themselves are not the causes of conflict. Rather, conflict resides in human reactions to such differences. Conflict can have either constructive or destructive effects depending upon how it is managed. Coaches work with clients to identify if their preferred mode of coping with conflict is to avoid a confrontation, deny that there is a problem, or withdraw. Alternatively, they may go into ‘attack’ mode by snapping back a response, becoming angry or verbally abusive or, in the extreme, physically aggressive. None of these reactions serves to resolve the situation. Hence, the coach supports the client to discover the most appropriate way to manage different conflictual situations. In summary, coaching for personal development aims to unleash the client’s potential by maximising their strengths and only addresses their weaknesses when they become barriers to forward movement. Having identified their wants and needs, coaches work with clients to identify the motivational drivers that will result in improved personal outcomes in home and work situations. Finding ways to utilise the client’s strengths increases their self-esteem and supports self-efficacy to make change. At times, skill development in communication and relationship building may be an important component of the coaching process. As the client learns to self-­ regulate their behaviour, thoughts and emotions, they develop resilience and coping skills to function effectively in multiple life and work situations.

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Chapter 13

Coaching for Professional Development

This chapter addresses coaching for professional development. Professional development research investigates how individuals acquire and develop new knowledge and skills to become more effective in their current role and prepare for future job opportunities. Content-oriented professional development activities successfully transfer learnings back into the workplace when they are designed according to adult learning principles which incorporate cognitive, affective and psychomotor dimensions. Four key design elements include: a clear rationale for the content; expert modelling of skills and practices; frequent opportunities for skills practice; and opportunities for collaborative reflection regarding the application of new skills and practices. When coaching is conducted following the professional development activity, it significantly increases the transfer of learning rate. During coaching, individuals identify their professional learning needs based on self- and other assessment and constructive feedback, and craft a Personal Development Plan (PDP) which they can immediately put into action. Another way that the transfer of learnings is increased is by the use of job-embedded and competency-based professional development activities followed by expert supervision. These methods involve multi-source observations and feedback which assist clients apply the learnings from critical self-reflection back into the workplace to improve their performance and professional effectiveness. The chapter outlines the way that coaching for professional development is conceptualised, the motivations for professional development, the individuals who are the recipients of coaching to develop their professional effectiveness, and how coaching for professional development is delivered in community and organisational settings by external and internal coaches.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 S. Knowles, Positive Psychology Coaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88995-1_13

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Theoretical Foundations Traditional psychology and education research has explicated how individuals learn and provided adult learning theories and models to explain how skills are acquired over time and transferred into professional practice. This research highlights the importance of personal attributes and transferrable, generic skills being applied to professional practice. Psychological research informs how individuals progress through stages of learning as they access various levels of conscious and unconscious cognitive activity. Reflective practitioners ponder experiential learning outcomes and ways to transfer them into job-related activities. Positive psychology research outlines the benefits of combining evidence-based approaches to professional development activities with individual coaching to transfer learnings into job-related practices. The motivation for professional coaching is for clients to become more professionally effective, expand knowledge by formal and self-­ education, and gain new skills to enhance current and future roles. The recipients of coaching for professional development are those who want to become more professionally effective, promote, or expand their career options.

Traditional Research Contributions Professional development is the process by which individuals acquire and develop knowledge and skills to become more professionally effective in their current role and better prepared for future work options [1]. Traditional research on professional practice originated from the disciplines of psychology and education. Psychological Research Psychological research regarding professional development has focused on how adults learn, the stages of learning, and the psychodynamics of learning—behavioural, cognitive and affective. Professional development activities are grounded in adult learning theory [2, 3]. Psychological research informs understandings of how individuals progress through stages of learning. Two models are useful to explain how skills are acquired over time. Bloom’s Taxonomy identified three domains of learning—cognitive, affective and psychomotor—each of which is broken down into successive levels of objectives which individuals achieve as they progress through the stages [4]. The Dreyfus model of skill acquisition describes six stages an individual must progress through to achieve mastery, although these researchers note that only a few experts achieve the final stage [5, 6]. During knowledge and skill development, cognitive attention requires individuals to access various levels of conscious and unconscious cognitive activity. Conscious cognition is engaged at each level of learning as individuals participate

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in new learning activities or take corrective/improvement actions based on feedback until mastery is achieved. Cognitive psychology theory identified that automaticity of thinking processes plays an important role in the development of expertise [7]. This is an individual’s ability to act or react based on non-conscious thinking [8]. After conscious engagement in a particular task or activity has achieved mastery, automaticity (or unconscious cognition) takes over in relation to that situation or task, and the mind shifts its conscious attention to other tasks and so on. This iterative process of learning becomes an intuitive combination of theory and practice [9] and a vehicle by which individuals reflect on their the ability to adapt to different situations ‘in the moment’ [7, 10]. Educational Research Professional development research in the educational field focused on how teachers apply new instructional skills to support improved student outcomes. Researchers found that professional development activities are meaningful and encourage positive growth only when teachers relate the new knowledge and skills to their immediate classroom needs and practice [11]. Teachers were found to prefer professional development activities with a reform orientation over traditional workshops or courses as they develop new skills [12]. Skills and Competencies Skill development is either learned within the family of origin or acquired through life and work experiences. Learning progresses through five distinct phases: acquisition, fluency, maintenance, generalisation, and adaption [13]. Learners acquire a new skill through systematic and direct interaction with a stimulus in their environment. With consistent practice, learners develop functional use of the new skill. They sustain the skill by receiving ongoing support and reinforcement, and transfer the skill to new settings where it is adjusted according to contextual factors. Learning progresses through phases as skills are taught and modelled, opportunities provided for guided and independent practice, and feedback given to reinforce successful practice. Coaching activities are similarly developed and shaped to support professional development and the transfer of skills into the workplace. Competencies are the demonstration of skills at a mastery level. The difference between a skill and a competency is the amount of practice the individual has put into the skill to achieve mastery. For example, the skills of effective communication may be demonstrated as a competency by speaking professionally at conferences and other large gatherings. The skill of relationship building may be demonstrated as a competency by having trusted friends and colleagues to whom an individual can turn for support as needed. Interpersonal skills may be demonstrated as a competency by being able to relate to a wide range of people from diverse backgrounds (education, ethnicity, gender). If the client has transferrable skills like

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communication, relationship building and interpersonal skills, it may be simply the knowledge and experience of a certain business or industry that they are missing when applying for a job. There are four stages leading to the development of a competency: unconscious incompetence, conscious incompetence, conscious competence and unconscious competence [14]. The ten most common competencies in job demand in 2016 were found to be: complex problem-solving, critical thinking, creativity, people management, coordinating with others, emotional intelligence, judgement and decision-making, service orientation, negotiation and cognitive flexibility [15]. Transfer of Learning Seminal research by Joyce and Showers [16, 17] reported that 95% of training participants transfer new skills and behaviours into the workplace when they receive on-the-job coaching and feedback. They emphasised that training should be structured as a combination of theoretical grounding coupled with modelling, practice, observation, and reflection on newly acquired and applied skills or strategies. Without this post-program on-the-job element, just 19% of new skills and behaviours are transferred (Table 13.1). Other researchers have found that the transfer rate is higher when the organisation has a positive workplace climate which facilitates the transfer of learning back onto the job [18]. They noted the characteristics of a positive work climate as prompting individuals to use new skills, rewarding new skills implementation and remediating when necessary, and providing social support from peers and leaders via feedback. Design of Traditional Professional Development Activities Professional development in workplace settings has traditionally been delivered by presentations, workshops or training programs. Experts focus on knowledge acquisition rather than in-person practice [19]. Short-term training programs have received negative criticism due to a number of factors. Critics believe that traditional methods of instruction may increase knowledge but lack depth and intensity, Table 13.1  Program elements and transfer rates Program element Presentation/description Presentation + modelling Presentation + modelling + practice Presentation + modelling + practice + feedback Presentation + modelling + practice + feedback + O-T-J coaching

Percentage transfer to workplace (%) 10 13 16 19 95

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being often of just one day’s duration. Hence, the learnings rarely translate into skilled implementation in the workplace [20]. Moreover, such events typically offer limited interaction opportunities to build skills and provide feedback on practice, and do not consider what systemic supports are required for implementation back into the workplace [21]. Little improvement has been recorded in the educational literature as a result of such professional development events [22]. Rather, studies report the importance of continuity [21, 23] and opportunities for one-on-one interaction in professional development activities [24, 25]. Researchers have found that traditional professional development methods such as one-time events do not promote sustained learning [26]. Rather, the content of professional development activities needs to be substantive, intensive and topic-­ driven, and consideration needs to be given to its frequency and duration [27]. Joyce and Showers [16] described four key design elements of effective professional development activities: a clear rationale for the content; expert modelling of skills and practices; frequent opportunities for skills practice; and opportunities for collaborative reflection regarding the application of new skills and practices. In terms of the logistics of conducting professional development activities, five factors have been identified as having a positive impact on implementation of the new knowledge and skills back into the workplace: the length of the professional development activity—the longer the better; attendance by a number of colleagues to create collective learning; a focus on content knowledge coupled with an active, inquiry-­ orientated approach to the experience; and coherence with other reform activities [12]. Other researchers concur that the most effective designs for trainings involve intensive, ongoing exposure to new content with frequent opportunities to apply what is being taught [28, 29]. Job-Embedded Training Researchers then turned their attention to focus on the pragmatic, work-related knowledge and skills required in the performance of a job. They suggested that training programs need to address both the required knowledge and skills, and job-­ embedded practice [29, 30]. Job-embedded professional development is specifically focused on ongoing learning in the workplace. It uses real data observations, conversations, and evaluations to foster application of knowledge and skills to job-­ related practices [30]. Employees are encouraged to reflect, self-identify, plan, and create experiences as part of their daily routine to further their own professional development [31]. They may engage in action research, either alone or with colleagues, to identify a discreet issue or propose a well-defined question about their practice, and then systematically gather, analyse and interpret data to discover an improvement solution. A model of professional development which is frequently used in skills-based occupations is that of competency-based instruction, especially in occupations where outcomes matter such as medicine [32]. Competency-based professional development activities focus on the acquisition of defined occupational

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competencies specific to the field of endeavour. Skills are acquired via observation, feedback, and monitoring of progress. However, instructional and training professional development activities alone have been identified as inadequate to meet the characteristics of high-quality professional development. Coaching has been found to facilitate transfer of learning back into the workplace following attendance at structured professional development events [33, 34], and multiple researchers have suggested that ongoing support in the form of coaching following the activity is required to sustain long-term gains from the event [35–37]. Coaching to Support Delivery Researchers have distinguished between supervisory and side-by-side coaching [38]. Supervisory coaching is associated with job-embedded practice and competency-­based instruction. Supervision occurs when the employee’s performance is observed, recorded, and monitored to ascertain progress and when targeted feedback on strengths and opportunities for improvement is provided. Side-by-side coaching occurs when the supervisor provides immediate feedback specific to accuracy of implementation of the job-related competency [38]. Coaching ensures that strategies learned from the feedback have immediate impact back into the workplace which increases the individual’s confidence to better perform in that environment [39]. The impact of both coaching methods (supervisory and side-by-side) following a professional development training program has been investigated and reported as superior when side-by-side coaching followed the training [40]. Researchers concluded that side-by-side coaching may be a critical professional development component necessary to support implementation of newly learned strategies [37, 41]. Moreover, and consistent with empirical evidence later provided, the impact was considerably improved when a multi-tiered systemic approach was taken to the implementation of the learnings back into the workplace [42]. In a recent study, the role of coaching in facilitating the transfer of knowledge and practice from professional development activities into implementation was found to be significantly enhanced when a multi-tiered support system bridged the gap from knowing-to-­ doing [43]. These researchers used an evidence-based, behavioural coaching approach which they considered critical to understanding, analysing and modifying behaviour during school reform change efforts.

Positive Psychology Contributions Contemporary research places increased emphasis on evidence-based approaches to professional development activities coupled with coaching to achieve improved learning and expected outcomes [44]. Evidence-based approaches include observation and feedback, high-quality training programs and practices which promote

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experiential learning and the provision of coaching post-training to support the transfer of learning back into the workplace. Observation and Feedback Since Borton’s [45] ‘what? so what? now what?’ framework was introduced to guide how individuals think about and critically reflect on their actions, observation and feedback has underpinned the development of client’s self-awareness and change. Multi-source observations and feedback assist them apply the learnings from their reflection to improve their personal effectiveness and performance [46]. In the workplace, employees need to be provided with opportunities to understand, experience and reflect on their performance and ways to innovate. In the educational environment, professional development that is on-site and experiential has been identified as critical to motivating teachers to utilise different practices and change curriculum in a more meaningful way [11, 17, 31, 47]. In the university sector, management education courses such as MBA curricula and executive education programs are encouraged to foster reflection and professional development [48]. High-Quality Design Contemporary professional development activities incorporate elements which support the learner as an active participant in the learning process. High design of professional development activities ensures clear linkages between theory and practice; uses interactive, hands-on approaches to adult learning such as experiential learning; incorporates ongoing and personalised training and mentoring; and provides opportunities for feedback and self-reflection [49]. These principles align with those of sustained, individualised coaching which supports both process- and content-­ oriented learning to deliver the required outcomes [50, 51]. Experiential learning in which the client is actively engaged in their learning facilitates self-reflection which stimulates professional development. Individuals learn to connect their existing knowledge, skills and experience with insights generated by the self-reflection. Individual learning styles impact the level to which individuals become more self-aware [52]. Those with a reflective style of learning develop deeper self-awareness as they self-reflect [53]. Deeper self-awareness is also developed by individuals with high-quality communication skills [54] and high confidence [55]. Individuals who are more self-aware have been found to be more responsible for their learning, more self-motivated, and independent learners. They tend to become lifelong learners who are able to monitor their own learning and performance [56]. Educational researchers have reported on a successful experiential approach to professional development which allowed Spanish teachers opportunities to improve their practice through demonstration, observation, collaboration, fieldwork and reflection [57].

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These research findings can be extrapolated into how professional development activities are best conducted to facilitate continuous learning. Researchers have identified five key strategies which promote continuous learning: a robust reflective practice, external feedback, learning network, field contribution, and experimentation [58]. The establishment of professional learning communities to change practice and maximise learning outcomes has also been recommended [59]. Other researchers have suggested an additional development strategy related to reflection—that of individual self-management training as a part of or following professional development activities, so that attendees can self-monitor their level of implementation and make changes if necessary to achieve their goal [60]. Transfer of Learning Professional development activities typically included cycles of learning, implementation, feedback, and reflection [61]. However, researchers have discovered that professional development based on this cycle alone is insufficient to ensure sustained learning and practice changes [20]. To bridge the gap between attendance at professional development events and implementation in the workplace, coaching has been proposed as the necessary addition to address barriers, improve impact and promote sustained practice [62, 63]. Research findings from several studies have shown positive outcomes from post-training coaching related to increased verbal language development and literacy skills [33, 64], the sharing of teaching experiences and cooperative planning [25] and improvements in teachers’ analytic thinking skills and self-assessment ability [65]. Without coaching applied post-training or instruction, the professional development activity was fragmented and only identified surface issues [66]. In contrast, since coaching is a results-oriented, relationship-­based process focused on facilitating personal responsibility for attaining professional goals [67], when applied consistently and especially systematically post-training, it provides the individualised support teachers need following their initial training to implement the new instructional skills back into their workplace [38, 68]. Coaching was found to be successful in increasing teachers’ intervention implementation frequency in 86% of the 29 studies reviewed in a recent research study [69]. Other researchers have provided empirical support for the importance of providing coaching post-training to improve learner outcomes [69–71]. In recent years, the coaching concept has inspired medical educators who seek to move away from purely competency-based assessment towards more efficient and effective learner approaches to professional growth and performance [72]. Medical residents’ competence was increased through direct observations and feedback, facilitated reflection on actions related to ‘disorienting dilemmas’ surfaced by coaches, and the implementation of targeted professional development plans [46]. When opportunities for learning are available within organisations through both formal coaching sessions and informal coaching moments, organisations are moving towards developing a coaching culture [73].

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Application to Coaching Traditional and contemporary research findings have indicated the importance of designing professional development activities which incorporate both content- and process-oriented, interactive, experiential learning opportunities for participants to gain new knowledge and skills. Demonstration of skills coupled with reflective questioning support attendees’ skill acquisition and implementation especially when valuable feedback is provided in a safe environment. The presenter’s personal attributes and style, together with their effective communication and relationship skills, are critical to the creation of a safe space in which learnings can grow.

Design and Delivery Principles Traditional professional development activities were designed to deliver content (i.e. knowledge) or develop skills. Contemporary professional development activities incorporate process-oriented skills in the delivery as well, to engage the learner in active learning processes such as self-reflection and experiential learning. The emphasis is on how learners learn rather than on how speakers present. The learner is the centre of the professional development activity. Contemporary professional development activities incorporate coaching as an essential component of the learning experience. Essential process factors which relate to the coach’s behaviours and ability to support change in a learning environment include reflective questioning and demonstration [74]. Delivery typically includes feedback following observations of behaviour. The feedback may be delivered in-person; in written form such as email, graphs or charts which display and compare performance; or via video/ audio recordings. Indeed, use of internet technology enables traditional in-person training to be advanced into online environments [75]. The capacity to learn online has had a significant positive influence on teachers’ professional development [76].

Personal Attributes and Skills Also important in the design and delivery of contemporary professional development are the personal attributes and skills of the presenter. Heightened communication and relationship skills applied to professional development activities facilitate interactive and collaborative sharing among attendees, similar to a process-oriented coaching approach. The inclusion of process-oriented activities may require adjustments to the usual program design and delivery practices such as sufficient time to deliver and finesse the participant expertise; an enlarged repertoire of skills and teaching strategies on the part of the presenter; and increased personal comfort of the presenter which allows for self-reflection and revelation [77]. The degree to which a presenter possesses these personal attributes and skills may be assessed as outlined in Table 13.2.

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Table 13.2  Personal attributes and assessment options (adapted from Toohey 2002) Area of consideration Personal insight, self-management and reflective practice Self-directed learning Communication and teamwork

Possible assessment method Self-assessment plus peer review Reflective writing on personal issues in learning diaries and journals Self-selection of elective units for in-depth study Negotiated learning contracts Observation of client interactions with colleagues Assessment of teamwork by supervisor and team members

Coaching Applied Post-training Finally, the outcomes of professional development activities are maximised when coaching is delivered post-training. Coaching may be conducted individually following the training or as just-in-time learning in the workplace environment. The aim is to embed the learning outcomes from the training into attendees’ performance in their role. Just as learning occurs in an interactive, experiential environment, so coaching focuses on the dynamic nature of the change in a relational, social environment. Coaching is a process of experiential learning [52, 78] combined with reflection on a contextual experience in a safe environment [79]. Coaching unlocks individual potential by developing a trusting, collaborative, working relationship between coach and client. Over progressive coaching sessions, the client is provided with opportunities to experience and try out what they have learned in a controlled environment, safe in the knowledge that mistakes may be made and if so, will constitute further opportunities for learning. In summary, professional development activities which are designed and conducted according to adult learning principles and delivered by presenters with heightened communication, relational and interactive skills are maximally effective when coaching is applied post-training. Job-embedded training is supported by observation and feedback so that the client masters the skills at the competency level. Professional development activities based on a cycle of learning, implementation, feedback, and reflection sustain long-term learning and growth.

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Chapter 14

Coaching for Career Development

This chapter explores how coaching supports career development over life and career stages. It distinguishes among the various theoretical approaches to a career: boundaryless, protean, intelligent, kaleidoscope, chaos, customised, and portfolio. Career development is the process by which individuals develop their strengths and apply them to their career decision-making or job at work. Modern conceptualisations of career emphasise four key elements: the need for employability rather than employment for life; flexibility to work from multiple locations; individual agency in owning a career; and the desire to find meaning and purpose in the work that individuals do. Employees want to know why the work they do is important and whether it aligns with their personal values and motivations. They want to know how their skills and capabilities contribute to the organisation’s human capital and capability. They want to know who they will be working with and how their networks and personal connections will contribute to the achievement of organisational objectives. Positive psychology research investigates individual strengths which improve personal, professional and psychological health and wellbeing, and maximise capabilities and performance at work. Coaching assists individuals in transition overcome career ambiguity, construct a new career identity, and successfully settle into a new career. Coaching clients identify their career goals and devise a Career Development Plan (CDP) to achieve them. The chapter outlines the way that coaching for career development is conceptualised, the motivations for career development, the individuals who are the recipients of coaching to develop their career, and how coaching for career development is delivered in community and organisational settings by external and internal coaches.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 S. Knowles, Positive Psychology Coaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88995-1_14

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Theoretical Foundations Traditional developmental psychology provides the foundational research for understandings of life and career stages. Discussions on whether development is continuous or discontinuous over stages have focused research investigations in this area. Cognitive psychology informs an individual’s perceptions of their own worth and ability to steer their career. Individuals who believe that they determine their own future as a result of the choices and decisions they make act with agency to secure a purposeful role which has meaning. Social psychology research situates career choices within organisations or institutions which support career development and progression. Positive psychology research addresses the concept of career identity, career ambiguity and career transition as individuals navigate to meet their emerging career needs. The coaching process assists individuals identify their career goals and devise a CDP to achieve them. The motivation for coaching for career development is for clients to promote within their current organisation or secure employment in another. The recipients of coaching for career development are those who seek a more meaningful and satisfying role at work.

Traditional Psychology Contributions Traditional psychology research provides theories about the nature of life and career stages. A career has been defined as a sequence of positions occupied by a person during the course of a lifetime [1] and more recently as a sequence of employment-­ related positions, roles, activities, and experiences encountered by a person [2]. It is useful to consider each individual as having only one career with many contrasting episodes (jobs) within it. Viewed this way, a career can be characterised as the pattern of work-related experiences that spans the course of an individual’s life, that is, a sequence of positions or steps held within an occupation, in the context of mobility within an organisation or across organisations, but relating to the one unit of analysis—the individual. An individual has common, generic skills that are often apparent and tie seemingly unrelated job events together, helping them make career transitions from one position to another over a period of their lifetime [3]. These ‘career episodes’ join together to form one whole, individual career. Life Stages Early conceptualisations of life stages took a lock-step, linear approach to an individual’s progression through life. The world was more predictable then, and this conceptualisation provided an accurate account of how things were in those times. The Life Stages model was based on ages and stages of life progression [4]: • Entering adult world (22–28) • Thirties transition (29–33)

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Settling down (34–39) Mid-life transition (40–45) Entering middle adulthood (46–50) Fifties transition (51–55) Culmination of middle adulthood (56–60)

Career Stages Researchers also attempted to define career stages as they related to career progression through the workforce. At that time, career development was seen as a lifelong process in which an individual cycled through various stages or positions within the same organisation [1]: 1. Exploration—finding a job (which they usually kept for life). 2. Establishment—becoming an expert in their field, recognised for their ability. 3. Mid-career—possibly promoting with the organisation. 4. Late career—holding onto their job because of their dedication and commitment to the firm. 5. Decline—retiring from their position with a ‘golden handshake’ at age 65. An example of career stages/positions is depicted in Fig. 14.1. Today, career stages are different. They are often characterised by breaks in employment either through voluntary choice (e.g. travel, study) or involuntary

Fig. 14.1  Traditional career stages/positions—a linear trajectory

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causes (e.g. being fired or made redundant). Career progression may now be represented as follows: • • • • • • • •

Early stage (first 3–5 years in the workforce). Mid stage (5–15 years in the workforce). Having a career break. Looking for employment. In education/re-educating. Re-entry (returning to work after a career break, maternity leave, or study). Part-time/full time/contractor/entrepreneur. Mature stage (more than 15 years in the workforce).

As individuals transitions across stages, different activities, relationships, and psychological adjustments have to be made. Career Theories A number of theories about careers emerged in the academic literature from the late 1900s, each with their own special emphasis: • • • • • • •

Boundaryless careers [2]—individual agency Protean career [5]—individual agency and personal meaning Intelligent careers [6] Kaleidoscope career [7] Chaos theory [8] Customised career [9] Portfolio career [10]

A boundaryless career [2] was conceived as the opposite of an organisational career (i.e. having a job for life and progressing in a predictable series of promotions). The focus is on flexibility, mobility and marketability across professional, technical and managerial careers (but not within the less-skilled occupations). The theory proposed that individuals should steer their own career, engaging in networking, continuous learning, and job enrichment in a range of settings—leading to the concept of individual agency and individuals being the designer and creator of their own career. Coupled with these concepts was the notion of boundary-crossing careers which resonates with those individuals who have career goals, expertise and networks that go beyond their current employer. A precondition for a boundaryless career was said to be a boundaryless mindset, that is, a mindset of being open to new possibilities and discovery. These concepts blurred the traditional career-related structures and boundaries within organisations and beyond, and opened the way for organisations to employ different types of employees—temporary, contract and part-time workers. A protean career [5] (named after the Greek sea-god Proteus who could change shape at will) is one that is frequently changing due to changes in the person’s interests, abilities and values, and changes in the work environment. Employees accept

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responsibility for managing their own career. There are no constraints on who they work for, where (in what location), or in what position. Protean careerists are able to function in this way because of changing organisational structures (flatter), increased mobility (availability of national and international travel at an affordable price), and an increasing number of flexible work practices and job structures (e.g. job sharing). Employees who steer their own career are aiming for a better work/life balance and more opportunities for growth and autonomy. Their career is self-­ directed, with the goal of psychological success in relation to their work. Their commitment is to their work and the profession, not to any organisation in which they may work. Key elements of a protean career include: • Values driven—the alignment of personal and organisational values, living and working authentically. • Relationship driven—enjoying the relationships that are forged with people at work and the support that is offered from the manager and colleagues. • Experience driven—opportunities exist to learn and grow and gain more experience [11]. Intelligent careers [6] are an extension of ‘intelligent enterprises’ [12] which focus on the development and deployment of human resources rather than the management of physical assets, to create a knowledge-driven global economy. Whatever organisation they are employed by, individuals engage with and contribute to (or occasionally detract from), that organisation’s core competencies. Intelligent careers involve the development of: • Knowing why (culture), which refers to the extent to which the organisation’s values and culture aligns with the individual’s personal values and motivations. Individuals identify with organisations where there is consistency across personal values and beliefs, and work motivation (e.g. family-friendly, accepting of other non-work commitments). • Knowing how (capabilities), which refers to the skills and knowledge an individual brings to an organisation’s overall knowledge and experience, including both formal and non-formal occupational and non-occupational skills and expertise. • Knowing who (connections), which refers to the set of interpersonal relationships an employee contributes to the firm’s networking activities (e.g. connection links between customer and supplier, professional associates, old school friends) (Fig. 14.2). Kaleidoscope career theory [7] was conceived as an attempt to explain the ‘brain drain’ of women from corporate executive roles. Women in challenging corporate roles are forever juggling the complex interplay between work and non-work demands. The lack of advancement opportunities for women at the most senior levels, plus discrimination (e.g. pay inequity), has caused some to step out into their own business as a way of giving expression to their ability to manage both family and work dimensions. In general, women seek a more satisfying career that provides them with:

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Fig. 14.2  Key components of an intelligent career

• Authenticity—the ability to be true to themselves, • Balance—the ability to satisfactorily manage both work and family situations, and • Challenge—the desire and need to improve themselves personally. Chaos theory [8] views careers as part of a complex, dynamic system in which there is continual interplay of influences between stability and change. Four key constructs are included in this theory. These include: • Complexity: Careers are influenced by others and other factors in our environment (e.g. parents, teachers, labour markets, economy). • Change: This may be minor or major, planned or unplanned. • Chance: No one is able to predict and control what happens. • Construction: Individuals can actively participate in constructing their own life experiences as opportunities present themselves as being attractive or useful to one’s own career progression. A customised career [9] is non-orderly and non-traditional. Individuals who craft such careers do so in response to their own and their families’ needs, values and preferences, rather than according to normative expectations regarding work involvement over their life. There are three core elements to a customised career: • Work time—being able to choose the number of hours worked and when. • Timing—being able to move in and out of work situations as individuals please (e.g. to give birth, stay at home with the kids, and have ‘work episodes’). • The nature of the employment relationship—the individual may become a contractor rather than an employee. Portfolio career theory [10] is based on the belief that careers need to be fluid and varied throughout an individual’s entire working life. This ‘freelance’ career notion was developed as a result of issues affecting women in a corporate environment such as: • Income versus hours of work. • Dual careers and the burden of undertaking primary responsibility for domestic tasks.

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• Fighting the ‘old school’ mindset regarding female competence in senior roles. • Women’s partner’s attitudes to child rearing. Applying this theory in today’s world, the concept relates to both men and women who wish to leave the corporate environment to ‘do their own thing’ or manage work/life balance. Today, a portfolio career is seen as an investment made by an employee who seeks continuous improvement by undertaking a variety of assignments as an expert in a particular field. As a result, the individual becomes their own ‘company’ with internal assets and resources, earning income from many sources. In essence, individuals become entrepreneurs, understanding the implications of organisational transitions while seizing opportunities in the competitive marketplace based on their skills and experience. Many individuals in this category start their own business and may, at least initially, work in one or two jobs until they can earn a living from the business sufficient to support their family.

Positive Psychology Contributions Positive psychology contributes an emphasis on strengths utilisation as a way that clients can move towards happiness and self-actualisation in their life. Career development is the process by which individuals develop their strengths and apply them to their career decision-making or job at work. The focus is on how an individual’s strengths can lead to improvement in personal, professional and psychological health and wellbeing. A strengths-based coaching approach which emphasises the identification and utilisation of strengths within each individual to maximise their capabilities and performance at work has increasingly gained attention within the academic literature [13]. For example, a Career Cycles (CC) career counselling framework has been developed which integrates and builds on elements of positive psychology. It focuses on identifying client strengths, desires and future possibilities and the degree of influence individuals and others have over their career choices [14]. Coaching for career development uses a collaborative, holistic, narrative approach in which clients identify ways they can attract, rather than search for, career and life enrichment possibilities. It emphasises the construction of positive, empowering statements of what clients desire, rather than focusing on barriers and negatives to achieving career goals. Modern Views on Career Modern conceptualisations of career emphasise four key elements: the need for employability rather than employment for life; flexibility to work from multiple locations; individual agency in owning a career; and the essential need of individuals to find meaning and purpose in the work they do. Research has investigated four

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key aspects of how conceptualisations of career have changed to inform what is now called a ‘modern career’ [15]: 1. Time—What has changed over time in relation to careers? 2. Social space—How has the social space in which careers take place changed? 3. Agency—Who is in charge of an individual’s career? 4. Meaning—What does a career mean to an individual employee? Each of these aspects is explained below. Time  The world of work has changed as employers grapple with an ever-­expanding ability to produce, distribute, and market on a global scale. This has impacted how, when and where businesses operate to remain profitable. In turn, the concept of employment for life has changed into an individual’s employability for life, with the need to manage their own career. Social space  Social space is about the relationships between people and organisations. Organisations are less hierarchical than they were previously. They are flatter and managers have a wider span of control often across global regions. The workforce is dispersed, requiring the use of more extensive travel or alternate communication arrangements (e.g. video conferencing, internet-enabled work). Agency  These days employees are expected to own their own careers. An individual is the agent of their own destiny. Employers still provide essential training but more rarely do they support an employee’s desire for further education except when that employee is a talented member of the succession pool. It’s up to employees to integrate their career expectations and objectives, and other life decisions, with those of their employer’s expectations and objectives. Agency theory recommends that individuals develop a set of career competencies (knowing how, knowing why, knowing who) [2] to assist them understand not just the investment they are making in work but also how work is embedded within their personal goals, challenges, relationships, and responsibilities [16]. Meaning  The meaning of going to work has changed. Employment meant earning a living for life and the opportunity for the employee to be trained by the employer and advance in their career within the organisation. As the employment contract has evolved into an employability contract, the psychological contract between employer and employee has shifted and become more prominent in the relationship [3]. The traditional upward trajectory through an organisation, with employment for life in exchange for loyalty and service, has been replaced by a succession of work experiences determined by the employee as they align with their own internal career aspirations. Career choices are now made according to an employee’s core values and employability prospects. In a contemporary work environment, the emphasis is just as much on the employee being satisfied with their job and the organisation in which they work, as it is on the employer continuing to employ them. Self-determination theory [17]

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suggests that employees now expect that advancement opportunities will be made available to those who work hard and that they will have some control over these opportunities [18, 19]. Employees may look externally for another position if development opportunities are not available to them within their current organisation. The younger and older generations especially want flexibility in doing their job. They like to feel that the work they do is meaningful, appreciated, and will lead to some definite organisational (e.g. customer satisfaction) or personal (e.g. sense of achievement, alignment with personal values, promotion)  outcome. 360° assessment feedback is frequently used as part of the career coaching process to assist clients consider various developmental options open to them [20]. Globalisation has caused organisations to look not only at their employment types but also at their employment practices because they want to keep employees engaged and committed to the organisation. Lepak and Snell [21, 22] proposed four different categories of employment in a globalised workforce: knowledge-based, employees with expert knowledge in a particular field; job-based, employees who fill the organisation’s need for productivity in routinised jobs; contractual-based, staff whose work is time-based depending on the position and circumstances; and alliances, with businesses and self-employed individuals who offer products or services which are highly valued by the organisation but too specialised to retain in-­ house. Within each of these categories of employment there are options for full-time, part-time, contract work, job sharing, or working from home. Career Identity Developing one’s identity and finding a place in society is one of the key developmental tasks and goals of adolescents and young adults. Career is a core identity domain, promoted by well-meaning yet persistent questions from parents, teachers and significant others such as ‘What do you want to be when you grow up’, ‘What do you want to do when you graduate?’ and, particularly as an adult when meeting others for the first time, ‘What do you do for a living?’ Everyone is expected to be in paid employment or to have some viable means of supporting their families. When a job is lost, the latter question cannot be answered in a concrete way, with certainty and conviction, and insecurity sets in. There is no doubt that there are certain aspects of identity (e.g. age, height, ethnicity) that cannot be altered from birth. Most other aspects relating to who we are can be altered as a result of major life events such as marriage, the birth of children, onset of serious illness, or by the life and work choices we make (e.g. enlisting in the armed forces and serving in war-torn countries). Identity is a multi-level construct comprised of individual identity, personal identity, social identity, professional identity, and career identity. Individual identity relates to who we conceive ourselves to be. Personal identity is the ‘face’ we show to the world through our relationships with other people. Individuals primarily act to achieve their own goals and desires rather than as a member of a group or category. Social identity refers to the way that an individual acts as a member of a group or organisation [23].

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Professional identity has been defined as a socially constructed internalisation of one’s occupational status and role [24]. It is revealed by how people present themselves in the workplace (e.g. dress, appearance, demeanour). Clothing may be formal or informal. An employee may hang their qualifications on an office wall; however these days, professional identity is increasingly constructed by posting significant information like professional and industry credentials on social media platforms such as LinkedIn (personal branding). With employees in transition, coaches use a number of techniques to assist them bridge the gap and construct a  new career identity. These include de-identifying with their previous organisation, exploring a range of possible selves and adopting a few provisional selves, addressing career ambiguity, and career goal-setting until the client finally transitions to their new career in a new organisation, as explained in the next sections. De-identification From a change perspective, de-identification from the previous organisation needs to occur before a coaching client can truly align with a new organisation. In Bridges’ [25] words, the client has to ‘let go’ before they can start a ‘new beginning’. The coach needs to be cognisant of the fact that, if a new, strong self-identity has not been created during the transition period (i.e. an identification with the individual self), there is a likelihood that if job loss occurs again in the future, the client may need to go through the process of de-identification again if they have automatically identified with the new organisation. Researchers suggest that the stronger the identification with the previous organisation and the more time this identification is in place, the more difficult de-identification will be [26]. The speed of transition to a new position or career is determined by two personal factors (employability and marketability) and two attitudinal factors (the client’s ability to de-identify with their previous organisation and identify with their new organisation) (Fig. 14.3). Multiple Selves When a client is asked to describe who they are, their response will usually reveal a combination of self statements—a personal sense of self, a social sense of self, and a roles-based view of self [27]. For example, the client might respond: ‘I’m 42 years old. I have a loving wife and two beautiful daughters aged 13 and 11. I used to be a senior marketing executive but now I’ve been redunded because another company bought out the business and sacked all the senior team but one’. This statement conveys the essence of who they believe themselves to be personally, in relation to significant others, and to the work situation. The coach works with these various views of self to construct a new individual identity (where necessary) or reconnect with a previous personal identity (where possible) to create a new career identity (based usually on a re-constructed professional identity which becomes their new

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Fig. 14.3  Factors affecting speed to transition

personal brand). The coach works with the client at each identity level so they are no longer the father, husband or executive, but the integration and re-creation of these different selves. Possible and Provisional Selves Ibarra [28] proposed the concepts of possible and provisional selves. Possible selves are the cognitive manifestations of aspirations, hopes, dreams and goals of what someone might become, would like to become and/or fears becoming [29]. They incorporate images, values, emotions, and goals as well as strategies to actualise those selves. Possible selves are not fixed [30]. They are contextualised and embedded in cultural contexts and reflect developmental stages. They serve as important energisers of career behavioural change [31]. Provisional selves are images of alternatives that the client may consider or adopt along the way to achieving their possible self. Periods of transitions are the opportunity to test out provisional selves [28], and this is the territory in which coaches spend most of their time with the client, once a number of possible selves have been explored. Because identity is constructed, the client’s self image is developed through their cognitive frames of who they are now and how they feel about their changed circumstances. Cognitive processes provide frameworks to develop and test possible and provisional selves [28]. To shape their new identity, the coach may use techniques such as asking the client to write narratives of their possible selves [32]. Stories shape and construct the narrators’ personality and reality. Clients get to

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know who they are when they integrate roles, values and skills, and organise the past and future into a pattern that takes the form of a story [33]. As the client continues to narrate their career identity to self and others, seeking self and social validation, formulation of a new career identity can be an adaptive, transformative process. Thereafter, the coach may engage the client in role playing their provisional selves in various work environments [28]. However, the role playing needs to be carefully constructed as it may involve intense emotions and could lead to role shock [34], that is, the realisation of the immediacy of their situation and the possible feelings of helplessness and stress because of this. Career Ambiguity Since individuals acquire work identities through practice, by taking action and engaging in proactive behaviours, they can reposition themselves toward careers well-matched to their talents, interests, value and activities. However, when they experience major change by losing their past identity, they enter a state of identity ambiguity in which nothing is clear and everything seems confused. This is especially true if the individual has identified strongly with their previous organisation—if, in other words, they have allowed themselves to be defined by their organisational association [35]. Because people are different, they have different responses to job loss. Understanding an individual’s internal dynamics allows the coach to ascertain the degree to which that client is likely to ‘bounce back’ or need an extreme measure of support. De-identification before there has been re-identification to a new identity leads to feelings of loss of meaning, ambiguity and uncertainty, and necessarily involves a sense of disequilibrium and pain [36]. There is an almost total lack of clarity as to whether, how and when identification will be rebuilt. Clients will try to recreate their previous state of equilibrium (i.e. organisational identification) as quickly as possible. Hence, they may decide to take on any job as a provisional self, even if it is not their preferred occupation, to maintain their self-esteem and bring their equilibrium back to ‘near normal’ in the transition period. Research has proposed that individuals tend to respond to identity ambiguity in predictable ways depending on two factors: the strength of their identification with the attributes of their previous organisation, and the degree to which they perceive the new organisational context to be prestigious and distinctive and having core values which match their own personal core values [37]. Career Goal-Setting During the transition period, the coach engages in career goal-setting with the client. They start by understanding the client’s higher-order, core, personal values and then explicating lower-order goals and actions that will achieve this end. Grant [38] proposed a hierarchical model to represent how goals and actions align with

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higher-order values. The model can be used in any coaching situation and is especially applicable in career development coaching when individuals are often confused about their situation but not quite sure why and how to resolve it (Fig. 14.4). Goal neglect occurs when an individual focuses their attention and actions on a specific goal at a lower-level, which may have no associated benefit towards the attainment of their higher-order goal [39]. The goal at a lower level becomes the superordinate or dominant value in the cognitive system that drives behaviour at the lower level [40]. For example, a lower-order goal to promote in their current position (e.g. to team leader) may have nothing to do with their desired ultimate career outcome (to become an expert in their technical field). As a result, individuals often feel that they are ‘spinning their wheels’—frustrated and dissatisfied that they are not achieving their higher-order goals. The role of the coach is to re-focus the client’s attention and energy on what is really important to them (their higher-order goal), reconnecting with their original purpose and intent, and revising their goals and actions for internal consistency and congruence to achieve purposeful positive change. Derived from self-determination theory [41], self-concordance refers to the degree to which a goal is aligned with an individual’s intrinsic interests, motivations and values [38]. Successful alignment is obtained when the goal is enduring rather than transitory, their self is aware that the goal serves their interests not another’s, and the goal is aligned with their internal needs and values or can be re-aligned if necessary to meet changing situations [42]. Further, self-concordance proposes alignment between the motivations for goal selection and goal strivings [43]. Integral to this concept is the degree to which the individual perceives that the goals they set for themself are associated with their authentic self, rather than being determined by external forces. Career Decision-Making Traditionally career decision-making research has centred on person-job and person–organisation fit [44]. Person-job fit takes into account the skills and capabilities of the individual and considers whether these match the requirements of the role. Person-organisation fit examines the degree of compatibility between applicants’ Fig. 14.4 Representation of Grant’s 2012 model

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personal values and goals or aspirations and those of the organisation, in an attempt to identify whether the organisation has a culture similar to their own [45]. Nowadays, career decisions take into consideration not only the job- and work-­ related aspects of a potential new position but also the effect on family and relationships, and economic realities [46]. Work and non-work domains intersect and affect each other, especially the relationships between key actors. Individuals look for a sense of belonging, connectedness and inclusion in the new organisation. Employees have been found (overwhelmingly) to choose positions paying lower salaries with better working conditions over positions that were perceived to treat them in a less positive manner. For example, research subjects reacted adversely to accepting a position where a potential employer valued physical appearance over forward thinkers, profits over corporate social responsibility, and long hours over community service [45]. Career decisions are based on the individual’s core values. They also have a relational element, the context being influenced by partners or spouses, parents, friends and others affected by the career decision. Whether these key actors are supporting, affirming, and non-judgmental, affects the emotionality of the situation. Individuals also look for the personal meaning that they hope will result from accepting an offered role in a particular company. These factors combine within the decision-­ making process as the client contemplates their readiness and willingness to accept the new job. The role of the coach is to work with them through all of these elements to help them discover if this job and organisation is the right fit for them. When the environment is perceived as secure and supportive, the client is able to make a career decision with confidence. The degree to which individuals feel in control of their work situation affects how they feel inside and their motivation to engage in a job search. Individuals can be either just coping, in control, or adapting to their new situation. Coping is the dynamic process in which a client struggles to make sense of the world and what has happened to them. It involves both cognitive and behavioural efforts to manage the internal processes and external events that currently challenge their stability and sense of normality. Getting to a state of control provides some reassurance that all is not lost—that they can get back to a ‘normal’ way of life. Once they accept this proposition, they can become motivated to actively participate in restructuring their own life, regulating and directing events in ways that support independence and self-responsibility. Adaptation is the final stage in which clients regain their sense of wellbeing, establish career goals, and develop strategies to achieve success [47]. Career Transition Bridges [25] defined the stages in career transition as consisting of an end, a middle, and a new beginning. He used the analogy of a high-wire gymnast letting go of the safety of a trapeze, hurling himself into mid-air and thankfully catching hold of the trapeze that was swung out to him by another on the other side. Transitions from one

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situation to another are often marked by a significant ‘turning point’ which indicates the start of the transition process (e.g. being fired, being made redundant, getting sick). Transitions are the intervals in-between the periods of stability preceding and following the change. Change events are catalysts for change and indicate the need for a new direction or to do things differently. Changes may be planned (e.g. getting married, having a baby, retiring), unplanned (e.g. being redunded, becoming seriously ill, the premature death of a loved one), or anticipated yet unfulfilled—events that were expected to happen but didn’t (e.g. expecting to get that next promotion but not, the marriage ceremony that was called off at the last minute) [48]. If the change was voluntary and therefore anticipated, the individual may feel elation, relief and success because they have determined their own future [19]. However, if the change was involuntary, the individual may spiral through the emotions of change as adapted from Kubler-Ross’ [49] grief cycle: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance and moving on. These stages may take several months to play out—even years. The emotional processes that people go through cannot be rushed. In fact, to force a premature acceptance of the change often just sends the anger and bargaining underground, resulting in an extended time in depression. At times, an individual may get stuck at a particular stage and never leave it. This may lead to resentment in the workplace and anger at management which may spill over to workmates, creating a potentially volatile work environment. Interventions which can assist individuals cope with these changes include employee assistance programs, psychological services, voluntary early retirement, career planning, and recruitment services. The process of re-establishing a career takes time. It may be months before the individual feels comfortable in the new environment. During the transition period, they may have had to change their behaviour, learn new skills, and/or change their mental mindset and attitude. However, all things considered, if they have ended up in a space that they can live with and, even better, learn from, the transition has been successful.

Application to Coaching Career coaching is focused on identifying the client’s career aspirations and assisting them make their next career move. Coaching for career development consists of a number of steps to assist the client de-identify with their previous notion of self derived from their previous organisational affiliation and identify with their desired future self separate from any organisational affiliation. This process starts with de-­ identification strategies, assessment of existing strengths and interests, establishing career goals and action plans, and devising a CDP to transition from an ‘end’ to a ‘new beginning’.

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De-identification Strategies Strategies that the coach may use to work with a client to assist them de-identify with an organisation involve both behavioural and cognitive strategies focused on re-establishing a state of equilibrium, even during the transition period. This ‘near normal’ period will be their mental and emotional ‘home’ for the period of the transition. If financial security is an issue, the coach discusses how the client can prioritise their spending so that the family manages during the transition period. Gaining any form of work may be helpful even if it is not their desired position or in their desired company. This is especially important since it is easier for the client to gain a new job when they are currently employed. De-identification can be achieved through a number of means such as asking the client to write identity narratives in which they define and affirm who they are as a person and a professional, and the value they bring to a new organisation [24, 32]. Once the client has de-identified with their previous organisation, the coach concentrates on assisting them create a self-identity as an individual and professional, separate from any specific company or position [50].

Assessment and Feedback To start the career development process, baseline data on the client’s personality and possibly leadership style may need to be obtained using a commercially available instrument. This data is best supplemented by multi-rater feedback to ensure its accuracy and applicability to the client’s situation. If the client is unemployed, fellow workers who remain friends may agree to provide feedback. In addition, a skills-based inventory may be used to determine what competencies the client already possesses, and the skills they need to develop in order to progress in their career. Skills-based inventories address values, interests, aptitudes, personality and strengths, as a guide to what career the client would be most suited to. They reveal gaps in the client’s knowledge and skills, and identify transferable skills which can be applied across jobs.

Career Development Plan An effective strategy for a client in transition is to devise a CDP. The Plan consists of a number of elements that, together, reveal where they are now and where they want to be. Following the assessment of their skills and competencies, the client is now able to address the gaps in their development and begin to set career goals in place. Reflection allows them to become aware of their strengths, qualities and ambitions, as well as their weaknesses and limitations. They reflect on their skills

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and competencies so that they know what jobs they are eligible to apply for and if they meet the position requirements. Next, the coach works with the client and helps them envisage their possible self, with a number of provisional selves along the way. Creating a CDP will give the client a better sense of who they are and what they want, allowing them more control over their future. Setting career goals establishes the framework for the CDP. The coach’s role is to help the client identify what they need to do to achieve their career goals. Having clear goals that are challenging and SMART [51] allows clients to take focused actions and measure progress over time. Vocalising their 5-year vision assists clients commit to a desired future. Sub-goals may be identified and action plans put in place to achieve their desired outcomes. The client works on achieving one goal at a time, until their ultimate career goal is achieved. Techniques to prepare clients for future roles, either within the same organisation or in another, include participating in training programs to maintain their skills currency or acquire new skills; enrolling in educational programs to extend their current expertise, or enable them to change direction in accordance with market trends; gaining membership of a professional association in their field of expertise or related fields; keeping up-to-date with organisational movements within the industry; and engaging the services of a career coach to help them make the transition from their current role into a future role. As the client enacts their CDP, the coach congratulates them for taking personal responsibility for their career future. They now know and accept that they have to ‘future-proof’ their career to maintain their livelihood by upgrading their knowledge and skills, learning new knowledge and skills and keeping abreast of industry developments. In summary, coaching for career development is focused on facilitating personal and professional transformative change. Coaching is optimally effective when the client is able to de-identify with their previous organisation, maximise their strengths, target areas for improvement, and create a CDP to ensure that their knowledge and skills are kept up-to-date and they are not falling behind in their area of expertise or the use of the latest technology.

References 1. Super, D. (1957). The psychology of careers. Harper & Row. 2. Arthur, M., & Rousseau, D. (1996). Boundaryless career: A new employment principle for a new organizational era. Oxford University Press. 3. Inkson, K. (2015). Contemporary conceptualizations of career. In P.  Hartung, M.  Savickas, & W. Walsh (Eds.), APA handbook of career intervention, Vol. 1: Foundations (pp. 21–42). American Psychological Association. 4. Levinson, D., et al. (1978). The seasons of a man’s life. Knopf. 5. Hall, D. (2004). The protean career: A quarter-century journey. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 65(1), 1–13. 6. Arthur, M., Claman, P., & DeFillippi, R. (1995). Intelligent enterprise, intelligent careers. Academy of Management Executive, 9(4), 7–20.

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7. Mainiero, L., & Sullivan, S. (2005). Kaleidoscope careers: An alternate explanation for the opt-out revolution. The Academy of Management Executive, 19(1), 106–123. 8. Bright, J., & Pryor, R. (2011). The chaos theory of careers. Journal of Employment Counseling, 48(4), 163–166. 9. Valcour, M. (2007). Customized careers. In Handbook of career studies (pp. 188–210). 10. Petrovski, L. (1999). Portfolio career. Australian Journal of Career Development, 8(1), 9–11. 11. Shen, Y., et  al. (2015). Career success across 11 countries: Implications for interna tional human resource management. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 1–26. 12. Quinn, B., & Warren, K. (1994). Intelligent Enterprise, 31, 275–275. 13. Tsai, C.-L., et  al. (2014). Development and validation of the Strengths Self-Efficacy Scale (SSES). Journal of Career Assessment, 22(2), 221–232. 14. Zikic, J., & Franklin, M. (2010). Enriching careers and lives: Introducing a positive, holistic, and narrative career counseling method that bridges theory and practice. Journal of Employment Counseling, 47(4), 180–189. 15. De Vos, A., et al. (2016). Developing sustainable careers across the lifespan. In European Social Fund Network on Career and AGE (age, generations, experience). Springer International Publishing. 16. McAlpine, L., & Amundsen, C. (2016). Post-PhD career trajectories intentions, decision-­ making and life aspirations. Palgrave Macmillan UK. 17. Deci, E., & Ryan, R. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. Springer US. 18. Deci, E., & Ryan, R. (2012). Self-determination theory. In Handbook of theories of social psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 416–437). 19. Deci, E., & Ryan, R. (2015). Self-determination theory. In International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences (pp. 486–491). 20. Kets de Vries, M., & Korotov, K. (2011). Leadership development. Edward Elgar. 21. Lepak, D., & Snell, S. (1999). The human resource architecture: Toward a theory of human capital allocation and development. The Academy of Management Review, 24(1), 31–48. 22. Lepak, D., & Snell, S. (2002). Examining the human resource architecture: The relationships among human capital, employment, and human resource configurations. Journal of Management, 28(4), 517–543. 23. Yates, J. (2017). A social identity approach to career development: Possible selves and prototypical occupational identities. PhD thesis, University of East London. 24. Ibarra, H., & Barbulescu, R. (2010). Identity as narrative: Prevalence, effectiveness, and consequences of narrative identity work in macro work role transitions. The Academy of Management Review, 35(1), 135–154. 25. Bridges, W. (2009). Managing transitions: Making the most of change. Da Capo Press. 26. Ashforth, B. (2001). Role transitions in organizational life: An identity-based perspective. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 27. Nazar, G., & Van Der Heijden, B. (2012). Career identity and its impact upon self-perceived employability among Chilean male middle-aged managers. Human Resource Development International, 15(2), 141–156. 28. Ibarra, H. (1999). Provisional selves: Experimenting with image and identity in professional adaptation. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(4), 764–791. 29. Markus, H., & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41, 954. 30. Oyserman, D., Johnson, E., & James, L. (2011). Seeing the destination but not the path: Effects of socioeconomic disadvantage on school-focused possible self content and linked behavioral strategies. Self and Identity, 10(4), 474–492. 31. Fugate, M., Kinicki, A., & Ashforth, B. (2004). Employability: A psycho-social construct, its dimensions, and applications. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 65, 14–38. 32. LaPointe, K. (2010). Narrating career, positioning identity: Career identity as a narrative practice. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 77(1), 1–9.

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33. McAdams, D. (1995). What do we know when we know a person? Journal of Personality, 63(3), 365–396. 34. Minkler, M., & Biller, R. (1979). Role shock: A tool for conceptualizing stresses accompanying disruptive role transitions. Human Relations, 32(2), 125–140. 35. Corley, K., & Gioia, D. (2004). Identity ambiguity and change in the wake of a corporate spin-­ off. Administrative Science Quarterly, 49(2), 173–208. 36. Fiol, C. (2002). Capitalizing on paradox: The role of language in transforming organizational identities. Organization Science, 13(6), 653–666. 37. Hakak, L. (2015). Strategies for the resolution of identity ambiguity following situations of subtractive change. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 51(1), 129–144. 38. Grant, A. (2012). An integrated model of goal-focused coaching: An evidence-based framework for teaching and practice. International Coaching Psychology Review, 7(2), 146–165. 39. Duncan, J., et al. (1996). Intelligence and the frontal lobe: The organisation of goal-directed behaviour. Cognitive Psychology, 30(3), 257–303. 40. Carver, C., & Scheier, M. (1998). On the self-regulation of behaviour. Cambridge University Press. 41. Deci, E., & Ryan, R. (1980). Self-determination theory: When mind mediates behaviour. Journal of Mind & Behaviour, 1(1), 33–43. 42. Sheldon, K., & Elliot, A. (1999). Goal striving, need satisfaction and longitudinal well-being: The self-concordance model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(3), 482–497. 43. Sheldon, K., & Elliot, A. (1998). Not all personal goals are personal: Comparing autonomous and controlled reasons for goals as predictors of effort and attainment. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 24(5), 546–557. 44. Lyons, S., Schweitzer, L., & Ng, E. (2015). How have careers changed? An investigation of changing career patterns across four generations. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 30(1), 8–21. 45. Stanforth, N., Londrigan, M.  P., & Hauck, W. (2012). Corporate social responsibility and career decisions. International Journal of Fashion Design, Technology and Education, 5(3), 195–202. 46. Amundson, N., et  al. (2010). Career decisions: From the decider’s perspective. The Career Development Quarterly, 58(4), 336. 47. Frazier, L., Newman, F., & Jaccard, J. (2007). Psychosocial outcomes in later life: A multivariate model. Psychology and Aging, 22(4), 676–689. 48. Goodman, J., Schlossberg, N., & Anderson, M. (2006). Counseling adults in transition: Linking practice with theory. Springer Publishing Co. 49. Kubler-Ross, E. (1973). On death and dying. Tavistock. 50. Kreiner, G., Hollensbe, E., & Sheep, M. (2006). Where is the “me” among the “we”? Identity work and the search for optimal balance. Academy of Management Journal, 49(5), 1031–1057. 51. Raia, A. (1965). Goal setting and self-control: An empirical study. Journal of Management Studies, 2(1), 34–53.

Chapter 15

Coaching in an Organisational Setting

This chapter addresses how positive psychology coaching is delivered in an organisational setting, highlighting the key differences from how individual coaching is delivered in a community setting. Individual coaching in organisations is driven by dual motivations (personal and organisational), involves multiple stakeholders and is conducted across multiple levels. The coaching relationship is triadic rather than dyadic. Reporting relationships are to the client and sponsor, as well as to the coachee. The roles played by key stakeholders (coachee, client and sponsor) are explained, as is the role of HR professionals in arranging the ‘chemistry match’ [1–3] between coach and coachee. HR is responsible for selecting external coaches to a coaching panel based on specific selection criteria. The stages in the ©AIPC Organisational COACHing model are presented: contracting and preparation, assessment and feedback, conducting the coaching session using the ©AIPC COACH model, and evaluating the coaching. Organisational coaching has been found to decrease workplace stress, increase job satisfaction and team morale, and assist employees cope with and manage change. How to measure the success of the coaching using formative and summative methods of evaluation are outlined. Organisational coaching has its origins in the sporting arena. Since the late 1900s, executive coaching has been delivered  as a developmental intervention within business and corporate settings. Organisational coaching originally focused on performance improvement for ‘failing’ employees. Coaching was used as a remediation tool following direct observation of an employee’s poor performance. With the focus on performance, in-depth, personal knowledge of the employee and their situation was frequently lacking in conversations with their manager [4]. Since then, coaching for performance improvement has taken a more positive direction, being to provide timely feedback that the employee can reflect on and identify

Note: In this chapter and those that follow, the individual being coached in an organisational setting is referred to as the ‘coachee’, as explained below.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 S. Knowles, Positive Psychology Coaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88995-1_15

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avenues for behavioural and cognitive change. Coaches work with coachees to reinforce what they are doing well, identify gaps in their knowledge or skills, and develop strategies to bridge the gap. More recently, coaching is becoming a developmental tool to maximise the potential of all employees not just talented individuals.

Theoretical Foundations Theoretical foundations for coaching in an organisational setting are based not only on research findings from psychology and education disciplines but also from management research. Within organisations, Organisation Development (OD) is a field of applied behavioural and social psychology that addresses organisational systems and processes to achieve congruence and support planned change [5]. The aim of OD is to ‘transform people, make them psychologically healthier … Then, through the use of these improved interpersonal skills, people in the organisation would develop more powerful ways to solve problems together, increase their participation, share power and decision making, get things done more effectively and efficiently’ [6]. Originating in the seminal work of Kurt Lewin [7], more recent OD practices are based on a newer, social constructionist perspective which has revived the OD movement with stronger coherent theoretical underpinnings [8–10]. OD interventions assist individuals make meaning of their experiences by using techniques such as dialogue, action research, survey feedback, appreciative enquiry [11] and narrative therapy [12]  to acknowledge reality as socially constructed and socially negotiated. The boundaries between OD and what was then called HRM began to blur when research identified coaching as being at the heart of managerial effectiveness [13] and showed how leaders could better manage stress by being coached with compassion [14]. Subsequently, research interest in the use of coaching in management education and leadership development programs grew [15–17]. Definitions of coaching within OD highlight the differences from coaching within the HRM environment. Key dimensions of difference include the way that coaching is conceptualised, the motivations and purposes for which coaching is conducted, the agenda driving the coaching, the nature of the coaching relationship (dyadic/triadic), and how coaching is delivered and by whom. These differences are explained in the next section.

Defining Coaching in the OD Environment Coaching in an organisational environment is a custom-tailored experience that provides the coachee with the time, mental space, support and guidance they need to make sense of the information available to them and explore how to apply it most effectively to their workplace situation [18]. The differences  between coaching

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within HRM and OD environments are  highlighted by conceptual, motivational, delivery and foci constructs. Motivation in the HRM environment is skills-based. In the OD environment, it is focused on performance and development [19] to unlock individual potential [20, 21]. The agenda is performance-driven, considering and being responsive to the needs of both coachee and organisation [22]. The coach using a range of cognitive and behavioural techniques to achieve mutually defined goals that improve both personal and work-related outcomes and ultimately, the effectiveness of the organisation [23]. The primary motivation for organisational coaching is frequently to enhance the leadership and executive effectiveness of talented individuals who are included in the organisation’s succession plan [15, 24–26]. As an experiential, coachee-centred, action-learning process, coaching builds the leader’s capability to achieve both short and long-term organisational goals by examining real-time challenges that significantly impact their effectiveness. More recently, coaching has also been recognised as a developmental opportunity for team leaders to improve not only their leadership skills but also the performance of their team [27, 28]. The distinctiveness of the coaching process lies in the collaborative partnership between the coach and coachee, aimed at enhancing the coachee’s personal and professional capabilities and performance in their role. A third difference is that coaching in an organisational setting is a triadic relationship involving the employee, manager and organisation for the purpose of providing feedback to achieve workplace goals and outcomes. This situation results in dual accountability and reporting relationships that the coach needs to maintain without infringing privacy or confidentiality boundaries. The client in a community setting becomes the organisational manager (who is sometimes also the sponsor1). The person being coached becomes the coachee to distinguish them from the client (manager or sponsor). Fourth, coaching in an organisational setting extends from individual application to being conducted at all levels of the organisation [29]. The coaching is delivered not only by employees specially designated as occupying a coaching role (usually the HR or L&D specialist) but also by the ‘manager/leader as coach’ separate from the execution of their daily duties [30]. Coaching may also be conducted informally either by the leader in short, ‘laser coaching’ sessions or by peers who are trained in coaching skills and conduct corridor coaching2 on a needs basis. The fifth difference, and one which clearly positions coaching as a valuable developmental intervention, is that it may be conducted as an important component of a larger OD initiative, for example, a one-off program within a particular division or an organisational consulting intervention [31]. Executive coaches are frequently also consultants with management experience and expertise who advise organisations regarding strategy, structure, systems, staffing, skills, style and shared values [32]. A planned change intervention such as  for transformational cultural

 These relationships are explained in the key stakeholders section below.  Discussed in Chap. 17.

1 2

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change may incorporate coaching for enhanced  individual, team and group outcomes  as part of the change program. A necessary, accompanying activity is the training of all organisational leaders in coaching skills, and ideally also of all employees, so that they understand what coaching is, and how and why it is being delivered for their benefit and that of the organisation.

Key Stakeholders Organisational coaching is a process which involves the partnership of coach with three key stakeholders: coachee (the employee, leader or executive), client (the coachee’s manager), and sponsor (who may be the coachee’s manager or another organisational representative). Whether the organisational coaching is delivered by an external or internal coach, it is important that the coach identifies the key stakeholders who have the ability to support or thwart the program. Coaching is most successful when there is a clear link between the individual goals of the coachee and the strategic goals of the organisation [33]. The triadic, developmental intervention among coach, coachee and client aims to deliver the intended outcomes of coaching [34]. In an organisational setting, the coach has two accountabilities—to the individual being coached (the coachee) and to the coachee’s manager as client (who may also be the sponsor). The sponsor is any organisation’s representative who has the authority to approve the coaching program and its funding, under a contract that defines the responsibilities and expectations of both parties. They may be a senior executive, the coachee’s line manager, or a transformational HR professional (Table 15.1). There are also two levels of reporting. The first is to the individual coachee. The second is to the client who may be, or represent, the organisational sponsor. A formal reporting meeting is usually conducted with the client once or twice during a 6-month coaching program. At this time, in addition to a brief overview of the outcomes of the coaching sessions to date (which has been discussed and agreed with the coachee beforehand), the coach may expand verbally on any areas of specific

Table 15.1  Definitions of coachee, client and sponsor Definitions •  Coachee—the individual or team/group being coached. •  Client—the manager of the coachee (who may also be the sponsor). •  Sponsor—the organisational representative who has the authority to approve the coaching program and its funding under an agreement or contract that defines the responsibilities and expectations of each party. The sponsor may be a senior executive, the coachee’s line manager or a transformational HR professional.

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concern without compromising confidentiality. Ideally, these reporting meeting are three-way involving the coachee as well. If the coachee wishes to report more details to their manager, they can do so at any time. Coachee The readiness of the coachee to engage in organisational coaching is crucial to the success of the coaching program. Coachees who embrace the opportunity for improvement or to achieve their goals, and have a high level of commitment to the coaching process, make the most gains from the coaching experience. But what about coachees who are ‘sent to coaching’ by their manager and resist any attempt to change their behaviour or performance? How does the organisational coach manage their resistance? The answer is in the coaching process which allows the coachee to engage in a conversation of their own making no matter what the topic, and at their own pace, so that a trusting relationship can be established with the coach. Only then will the coach be able to broach the subject that is of most concern to them or their manager. Note that this coaching conversation is not a substitute for a remedial or performance management process that may be put in place by HR, leading to likely dismissal. It is a coaching conversation with a mediocre performer who has potential, to discover what is holding them back from achieving the desired outcomes of their role, and what can be put in place to help  them move forward. The coach will encounter coachees of different personalities, values, beliefs, and experiences. If coachees have a history of self-development and taking responsibility for their growth, they are more likely to experience a successful coaching outcome. Developmental readiness is ‘both the ability and the motivation to focus on, make meaning of, and develop new and more complex ways of thinking that position [coachees] to more effectively assume leadership roles’ [35]. Developmental readiness has been found to be a predictor of effective outcomes in leadership development [36]. It includes elements of motivation, self-efficacy, ability to change, willingness to experience discomfort during the change process, and awareness of potential areas for coaching [37]. The readiness-to-change concept builds on the stages of change proposed by Prochaska and DiClemente [38] who developed the pre-contemplation, contemplation, preparation, action and maintenance stages of motivation for change. In addition, coachees may be at different stages in their career progression. Leaders’ career stages no longer necessarily mirror their organisational responsibilities [39]. Organisational coaching may be applied across multiple levels from entry to executive. Consequently, the organisational coach must be flexible in allowing coachees to express their concerns without prior knowledge of who they are, their issue or situation.

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Client Organisational clients will be at varying stages in their readiness-to-support coaching programs depending on the degree to which they understand the meaning of coaching and are prepared to allocate funding and resources, facilitate access to organisational data, and commit to program implementation. Managers who request the introduction of a coaching program may have heard good things about coaching but be unsure of exactly what coaching is and how it can benefit coachees. Organisational coaches would be wise to expect to explain this when they first meet with the client to establish the reason for their requesting a coaching program, the expected outcomes, and their willingness to negotiate time for the coaching to be conducted. The coach should also be alert to the fact that attitudes and motivation levels of not only coachees but also of clients may change during the coaching experience depending on emerging circumstances. Sponsor Sponsors are those executives in the organisation with the designated authority to approve the funding and resources necessary to conduct the coaching program. The sponsor may be a transformational HR professional, senior executive, or Coaching Champion. A Coaching Champion is best positioned within the senior executive team so they can navigate organisational systems and overcome any barriers or constraints to the implementation of coaching programs [40]. Expectations regarding the outcomes of the coaching program, and any special conditions or circumstances surrounding its delivery, should be agreed upfront before commencement. The client and sponsor (if different people) need to be aligned in relation to the contractual obligations. A three-way conversation among coach, coachee and client is essential before coaching begins to communicate and agree these expectations or negotiate any exceptions if necessary. Partnership Principles At its most effective, organisational coaching is a coachee-client–sponsor partnership with the coach in which they agree to work collaboratively to achieve the specified business outcomes and coachee’s learning objectives. The formal contract incorporates agreed-upon ground rules, time frames, goals, and specific measures of success. The partnership works best when all partners abide by pre-negotiated guiding principles which include: a systems perspective, results orientation and business focus; collaboration to build the competence and confidence of the coachee for the mutual benefit of themself and the organisation; and a continual emphasis on the integrity of each member of the partnership and of the coaching process [41].

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Role of Human Resources Within the business and corporate sectors, coaching is often conducted by HR professionals who are trained as internal coaches [42–44]. In addition, Manager as Coach or Leader as Coach programs may be conducted by HR or an external coach to train line managers in coaching skills [40, 45]. Alternatively, an external coach selected from an organisational coaching panel may be engaged to deliver the coaching [3, 22, 26]. HR professionals play a vital role in enabling and supporting the conduct of organisational coaching [46]. In preparation for delivery, HR meets with the coachee to determine their real and felt needs for coaching and identify the most appropriate internal or external coach to meet these needs. The prospective coach is then invited to meet with the coachee and, once engaged, may shadow them to observe their performance and interactions with others. Observations will showcase aspects of the coachee’s behaviour to be discussed in coaching sessions [47]. The coach uses the ©AIPC COACH model to conduct the individual coaching sessions. A traditional HR professional may not know about coaching and understand its value. Hence, they may pose a barrier to an organisation wanting to undertake a coaching program. On the other hand, a transformational HR professional who is passionate about coaching may have been coached and experienced its benefits. Consequently, they may have trained to become a qualified coach so that they fully understand and appreciate the value and benefits that accrue from coaching [48]. If a number of HR professionals within an organisation are trained as coaches, they may form an internal coaching team which supports the development of a coaching culture across the organisation. These trained coaches may be called upon to deliver individual coaching programs at any level, and design coaching skills workshops to be conducted within and across business units. Frontline staff trained in coaching skills may then engage in peer coaching to support each other achieve improved performance outcomes. In a coaching culture organisation, a nominated Coaching Champion, who may be a transformational HR professional or a member of the senior executive team, is responsible for ensuring that all key stakeholders know and understand the value of coaching and how it can be used to uplift all business relationships and transactions both internal and external to the organisation [49]. Program success and longevity often depends on a transformational HR professional’s ability to promote the value of coaching throughout the organisation [50]. Coach–Coachee Match The organisational coach needs to be well-matched to the coachee they will be coaching. A ‘chemistry match’ needs to exist for the coaching to be successful [1– 3]. Matching for age, gender and context are easy; matching for the pace of intellectual rigor is really where coaching becomes a success [51]. Most executives are smart, process information quickly, and impatient with slow analysis that does not

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rapidly get to the bottom line. They value a smart, fast-paced, practically-oriented coach who likes coachees to take action and achieve results. For executives who are more careful and contemplative thinkers, the coach needs to deliver the coaching at a matched pace [31]. Criteria for Selecting an External Coach Organisations typically appoint a panel of external coaches to deliver executive coaching for senior organisational leaders. Research has informed the selection criteria by which external coaches are appointed to these panels. The coach’s academic background in psychology has been positively related to executive coaching effectiveness as evidenced by increased work performance and coachee self-awareness [52]. Personal qualities that executives look for in an executive coach include integrity, empathy, caring, personability, approachability, flexibility, empowerment and trustworthiness [53–55]. In addition, organisations seek executive coaches who can motivate and encourage, challenge and confront, be creative, resourceful, and accountable. Critical moments in coaching precipitate new realisations which may appear implicitly or explicitly as the coaching proceeds [56]. To coach effectively, executive coaches may also need to possess or have access to requisite skills such as communication and relationship building, negotiation, assessment and feedback, organisation, planning, and goal-setting. Coachees at the executive level tend to place importance on the executive coach’s experience, knowledge, qualifications, and certifications as the value-adding features to referrals and testimonials. Coach qualifications typically valued include graduate education in behavioural science, business or psychology. Knowledge of, or experience in, the client’s industry contributes significantly to the executive coach’s credibility and expertise in the eyes of the coachee [22]. Table 15.2 summarises the personal qualities, coaching styles, skills, experience and knowledge, qualifications and certifications, that organisational leaders look for when selecting an executive coach to deliver coaching in their organisation. Table 15.2  Selection criteria for an executive coach What coachees and organisations look for in selecting an executive coach Personal qualities Integrity, empathy, caring, personable, approachable, flexible, empowering, and trustworthy. Coaching style Ability to motivate and encourage, challenge and confront, be creative, resourceful, and accountable. Skills Communication, relationship building, negotiation, assessment and feedback, organisation, planning, and goal-setting. Experience and Experience in, and knowledge of, the client’s industry contributes knowledge significantly to the executive coach’s credibility and expertise in the eyes of the coachee. Qualifications Graduate education in behavioural science, business or psychology. Certifications ICF credentialing to at least the level of Associate Certified Coach (ACC).

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Application to Organisational Coaching The individual coaching process in an organisational setting involves in-person interactions focused on work-related issues, informed by 360° feedback on the coachee’s strengths and weaknesses. During the coaching, coachees self-reflect on how they are perceived by others and gain a deeper understanding of their areas of discontent, emerging opportunities and their strengths related to personal and performance issues and imperatives [57, 58]. The coach unconditionally listens and reflects, guides attention, assists the coachee to envision better outcomes, and supports the adoption of new behaviours and experiences. The coaching process equips coachees with the tools, knowledge and opportunities they need to develop themselves and become more effective [59]. The following section outlines how an individual receives coaching as part of an organisational initiative, for example, to change the organisation’s culture.

©AIPC Organisational COACHing Model The ©AIPC Organisational COACHing Model is a four-stage process that places two important stages in front of the ©AIPC COACH Model (at Stage 3). It consists of four components (Fig. 15.1): Stage 1: Contracting and preparation Stage 2: Assessment and feedback Stage 3: Conducting the coaching Fig. 15.1 ©AIPC Organisational COACHing Model

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Stage 4: Evaluating the coaching Contracting and Preparation The first stage of the ©AIPC Organisational COACHing Model is Contracting and Preparation. Just as in a community environment, and whether the coach is internal or external, the coach meets with the client to discuss the coachee’s needs and that of the organisation. The purpose of this meeting is to ascertain the current situation in relation to the request for coaching and what has been done to address it. The coach gains an understanding of the factors that have led to the need for coaching. This is a particularly important step, especially when the coachee is valued yet experiencing leadership or performance difficulties which are inconsistent with their potential. For example, organisational leaders frequently need support when moving into a new leadership role and many  require assistance managing change projects. The coach then meets with the coachee to ensure that there is a ‘chemistry match’. Once confirmed, a three-way conversation is conducted with their manager (the client) to determine the details of the coaching program. The purpose of this meeting is to ensure that all parties are ‘on the same page’ in terms of their understanding of coaching and what coaching can do for the coachee. This meeting provides the opportunity for the manager to explain to the coachee their concerns and the purpose for the coaching and, if not already communicated, reveal the evidence to support the coaching request. For example, when there is a performance issue, the manager may have documented evidence over a period of time and in different situations to show that the coachee is not performing adequately in accordance with their role (e.g. over budget, behind time on key projects). They may have moved the coachee into a different area of responsibility, without any noticeable improvement in performance. Any other evidence that shows a lack of improvement over time should be shared and discussed with the coachee, who may provide additional or alternate information. The coachee may offer valid reasons why their performance is not reflective of their capabilities, for example, they may not have all the information and resources they need to perform in their role. The coach, coachee and manager then agree on the desired outcomes of the coaching program and how, and by whom, data on these success indicators will be collected and monitored. Once the purpose, goals, and measures of success have been determined, the logistics of conducting the coaching program are agreed. Logistics to be considered include the duration of the coaching program, the frequency of sessions, and the time and place for the coaching to be conducted. Once these logistics are signed off, the coach meets with the coachee to cement the psychological contract between them which will result in the development of a trusting working relationship [60].

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Assessment and Feedback The second stage of the ©AIPC Organisational COACHing Model is Assessment and Feedback. The provision of honest, constructive feedback to the coachee on how others perceive them and their performance is one of the essential elements contributing to the success of a coaching program. Feedback explains the ways in which their behaviours are effective or ineffective, quotes specific examples and allows the coachee to comment on the feedback—all the while maintaining their self-esteem [61]. The purpose of providing feedback is to develop the coachee’s self-knowledge, self-awareness and insight based on both self-report and other-­ report of their strengths and weaknesses. Any discrepancies between self- and other-rater reviews become the basis for a coaching conversation and the motivation for change. The process starts with developing an understanding of where the coachee is now (from baseline data) and then gains agreement on expectations for future performance results and standards. A 360° assessment conducted prior to coaching is recommended so that the coachee can experience a reality-check before the coaching begins. Commercial multi-rater 360° assessment instruments are frequently used to gain an objective measure of the coachee’s capabilities and ensure there are no ‘blind spots’ in the diagnostic process [62]. The multi-rater approach circumvents any self-report bias and ensures the range, breadth, representativeness, and objectivity of the feedback. This kind of assessment provides insight into the coachee’s current and future development needs and identifies discrepancies between known, established and stretch requirements or goals. Together the coach, coachee and client determine the types of assessments that will provide the most appropriate data, as well as how and from whom the data will be collected (e.g., multi-rater 360° assessments, personality inventories, biographical or work histories, interviews, shadowing) [22]. From feedback, coachees obtain information about the similarities and differences between their work and the expected quality or standards in order to generate targets for improved work performance [63]. Coaching success is predicated on accurate feedback that propels the coaching conversation beyond intention to action to improve performance [4]. Profiling There are a wide range of commercially available leadership and personality profiling instruments that coaches may access such as the DISC Leadership Profile, the Leadership Circle Profile, Human Synergistics Circumplex, and the Integrity and Values Leadership Profile. These instruments highlight the coachee’s strengths and weaknesses in relation to leadership ability, communication and relationship skills, and other key variables. The results provide the baseline evidence of how the coachee is functioning right now. If a profile has been completed within the last 12 months, the coach may request a copy of the report to inform the coaching needs.

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If an assessment has not been completed, the coach may request that the manager arrange an assessment through HR as soon as possible so that the results can be debriefed before the first coaching session begins. To administer a profiling instrument, the coach must be accredited in its use so they can give accurate and meaningful feedback to the coachee and highlight the recommendations for development from the report. If the coach is not accredited, they may ask a colleague who is accredited to conduct the administration and feedback the results to the coachee. Often, a member of the organisation’s HR function is accredited in one of the leadership and/or personality profiling instruments. Indeed, some organisations have developed their own 360° feedback instrument. It can be confronting if others see the coachee as different from their self-­ assessment or how they would like to be seen. Coachees who over-rate themself may risk de-railing their career. Those who under-rate themself may be overly self-­ critical and perfectionistic. Alternatively, they may be sceptical of the evidence that others perceive them to be more effective than they see themselves [64]. It is important that, as a result of the coaching, visible differences in behaviour and/or leadership ability, performance, or goal achievement are observed so that the coaching program is considered successful. Baseline Data Informal assessments from others in the organisation contribute a more personal view on the impact of the coachee’s leadership style or personality in an operational role. Informal feedback may be obtained from the coachee’s immediate manager, direct reports, colleagues and possibly also suppliers and customers. Baseline data collection particularly applies to coaching programs where there is a leadership development, performance improvement, or change management purpose for the coaching. To monitor if progress is being made on a month-by-month basis, and to gauge the overall success of the program, the coach needs to collect pre- and post-­ baseline data as an indicator of change. To begin this process, the coach asks the client for a copy of any pertinent information relating to the coachee’s behaviour or the required change, e.g. performance report, job satisfaction survey. In general, there are two types of measures that can be used to record changes in behaviour or the required outcomes from coaching—hard and soft data. Hard data include information relating to KPIs of the coachee’s role. It is sufficient to select just one or two important KPIs that can be easily measured and reported on (e.g. sales performance, number of new customers per quarter, number of staff complaints). Soft data is measured differently based on KPIs in the coachee’s role which relate to leadership ability, communication skills, relationships and other indirect indicators of performance. Soft data information indicates how the coachee performs in their role as self-assessed and perceived by others. It is not easily measured except by survey rating scales which objectify subjective responses. Table 15.3 provides an example of goal-setting based on hard and soft data.

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Table 15.3  Example of goal-setting based on hard and soft data Position: Sales executive Hard KPIs:  KPI 1: Sales revenue, currently $30,000 per month; goal $90,000 per month within 12 months; data to be provided by Finance Department.  KPI 2: Cost of sales, currently 30% of revenue; goal 15% of revenue within 3 months; data to be provided by Finance Department. Soft skills—Goal improvement in:  ‘Soft’ skill 1: Leadership  ‘Soft’ skill 2: Communication  ‘Soft’ skill 3: Change management  ‘Soft’ skill 4: Innovation  ‘Soft’ skill 5: Interpersonal relations Short-term action plan (within 12 months) GOAL

ACTIONS

WHO

WHEN

RESOURCES

1

2

3

One way to measure soft data is on a monthly basis using Likert scales (1–10) completed by, say, eight reviewers close to the coachee who can make a valid assessment of their progress in relation to the survey items. These may be the coachee’s manager, colleagues, or direct reports who agree to provide anonymous responses. The average of their scores is collated and shared with the coachee at the next monthly coaching session so they can compare the other-report average with their own self-report score. Discrepancies between the two scores are discussed and the coachee determines what actions they need to take as a result of this new information. Identifying the Need for Coaching After conducting the leadership and/or personality profiling and collecting the baseline data, the coach is in a position to identify the coachee’s coaching needs. These needs may relate to personal shortcomings in communication or interpersonal relationships, or ability to manage conflict or utilise the diversity of team members. The coachee may want to improve their leadership style, be supported in their career aspirations, and position themself for promotion. Commonly, leaders request to be coached so that they can  become more responsive to the personal needs of their direct reports and improve team and team members’ performance. They may want to

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become more flexible in the work environment or  better manage change events. Preparing their team to become more resilient as external changes impact their internal environment may be an issue for coaching. From an organisational perspective, the coachee may be an exceptional performer whose development needs relate to targeted future positions within the organisation. Beginning the Coaching To work most effectively with the coachee, the coach must first check if there are any immediate barriers or possible obstacles to their progress. These may include any pressing concerns or immediate issues that the coachee wants or needs to work on first so they can clear their mind and focus on the ‘bigger picture’ issues and goals and how to achieve them (e.g. conflict with their manager, insufficient or inadequate resources). Whatever the coachee presents, this is where the coaching begins because this is where the energy to do work resides. Formal coaching sessions have a clear beginning and end and are conducted almost exclusively in ‘coaching mode’ [40]. Conducting the Coaching Program The third stage of the ©AIPC Organisational COACHing Model is Conducting the Coaching Program. In this stage, the ©AIPC COACH Model of individual coaching is used to bring about self-awareness and insight, leading to new learnings, growth, and behavioural change. The coaching is dynamic and interactive, and seeks to maximise the positive transfer of learning to the coachee’s workplace by embedding the learning so that the coachee  and others can see positive results immediately [65]. The coaching may focus on one or more of the following areas for development depending on the purpose for coaching and the coachee’s needs: • • • • •

Performance improvement (Chap. 16) Leadership development (Chap. 17) Executive development (Chap. 18) Organisational learning (Chap. 19) Transformational, cultural change (Chap. 20)

Coachees may only be able to meet monthly over, say, a 6- or 12-month period (the longer the better). Because each coaching session usually lasts for just one hour, the coach and coachee need to establish rapport and a trusting relationship quickly so they can get down to the real work issues and business at hand. The coach needs to care as much about the business of the coachee’s organisation as the coachee does. Effective coaching sessions flow fluidly between strategic business issues and micro-level tactics as well as address any interpersonal and communication difficulties [31]. Hence, organisational coaches need the ability to step back from coaching conversations about the day-to-day business operations and dive into

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personal ‘moment-by-moment’ insights into what the coachee can do differently for improved effectiveness. Evaluating the Coaching Program The final stage of the ©AIPC Organisational COACHing Model is the multi-­ source evaluation of coaching outcomes which is the ‘gold standard’ in organisational coaching evaluation [62]. Not only does the multi-source evaluation overcome the limitations of self-report data, but it also specifically targets those who should be positively impacted by the coaching intervention. Evaluation of the coaching program asks the question: Have the program learnings been transferred into real, visible and sustainable outcomes in the workplace? To answer this question, a number of formative and summative evaluations are conducted during and following the coaching program. Formative evaluation is the coach’s assessment of the coachee’s satisfaction with, and reactions to, the coaching as it is being conducted. It addresses what is working in terms of coaching delivery and what could be improved in future sessions [66]. During the coaching, moment-by-moment as the coach tailors the coaching session to meet the coachee’s development needs, they keep in mind: • Is the agenda coachee-driven, with no predetermined outcomes? • Is the coachee actively participating in the session? • Are they willing to experiment with new strategies and approaches? For many years, the Kirkpatrick model dominated the literature in terms of the evaluation of training outcomes [67]. Applied to coaching, the four levels relate to coaching as follows: Level 1—The coachee is satisfied with the coaching. Level 2—Coachee learnings accrue including self-knowledge, improved  understandings, insights, beliefs, and attitudinal changes. Level 3—The coachee experiences behavioural change, increased personal capability, and/or performance improvement. Level 4—Organisational objectives from the coaching have been achieved. Summative evaluation assesses the outcomes of the coaching program after it has been completed especially as these translate into workplace practice. Kirkpatrick’s formative evaluation framework can be expanded to include [22]: Level 1—The coachee’s perception of the coach’s competence and their satisfaction with the coach–coachee relationship. Level 2—The coachee’s increased self-awareness and level of behavioural flexibility. Level 3—The coaching remains focused on behaviours, and outcomes are incorporated into a pre- and post-coaching 360° feedback process. Level 4—The coaching remains focused on results but also includes the impact on peers, direct reports and other stakeholders as well as measuring ROI.

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In relation to Levels 1 and 2, the coach can self-evaluate by asking themself the following questions [62]: During the coaching session did I… • • • • • •

spend time building rapport? inspire confidence that I could assist you? really understand your role and industry? seem committed to your development? achieve a balance of challenge and support? hold you accountable for your actions?

In relation to Level 3, the 360° multi-rater leadership or personality assessment instrument can be repeated post-coaching but this is not usually done until 12 months post-first administration. In relation to Level 4, an internal 360° multi-rater assessment tool can identify any immediate areas in which the coachee still needs development. The coach should be aware, however, that the results may not be entirely attributable to coachee actions but may be dependent on organisational factors which may be assisting or hindering the situation (e.g. an organisational or team restructure, new change initiative, etc.). The impact of the coaching program on the coachee may be discovered by asking questions like [62]: Did the coaching… • • • • • •

enhance your knowledge of leadership? bring a new awareness of your strengths? generate greater positivity and optimism? provide greater flexibility and innovation? facilitate the empowerment and development of others? promote greater commitment and engagement?

In addition, the coach would hope that the  coaching program has  had a positive  impact on the team that the coachee leads [62]. The coach may  ask of the coachee: Did the coaching… • • • • •

generate a positive climate in your team? clarify the team’s vision and purpose? promote greater role clarity? improve stakeholder management? help motivate team members?

In summary, coaching in an organisational setting incorporates additional considerations in relation to conceptualisation, purpose and motivation, the nature of the coaching relationship and how and by whom coaching is delivered. Organisational factors that may impinge on the coaching program must also be considered, such as organisational leaders’ understanding of coaching and their readiness for change. Using the ©AIPC Organisational COACHing model, coaches identify barriers to coachee progression as well as organisational support-systems that spur them on to new learnings. The outcome is that the developmental needs of coachee and systemic organisational needs are both satisfied, resulting in tangible and intangible benefits for all employees.

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Chapter 16

Coaching for Performance Improvement

This chapter focuses on how coaching is delivered for performance improvement. It examines motivations for employee performance, the work, job and organisational factors that may hinder performance, and ways to reduce barriers causing job dissatisfaction and stress at work. Coaching has become an important developmental activity that represents the value the organisation places on employees. Performance coaching assists reasonably well-functioning yet mediocre performing employees reach their potential and become valued team members, retain talented individuals within the succession plan, and bring increased productivity benefits to the organisation. The leader’s role is to create a positive work environment which supports individual strengths and values individual differences and diversity. Concepts that have been derived from the positive psychology movement are those of psychological capital, a psychological resource created by empowering self-efficacy, hope, optimism and resiliency; positive organisational behaviour, the study and application of positively oriented human resource strengths and psychological capacities; and positive scholarship, the study of that which is positive, flourishing and life giving in organisations. The chapter outlines the way that coaching for performance improvement is conceptualised, the motivations for performance improvement, the individuals who are the recipients of coaching for performance improvement, and how it is delivered at any level in an organisational setting.

Theoretical Foundations Traditional behavioural psychology significantly informs coaching for performance improvement since success depends on the demonstration of positive behavioural change. Cognitive behavioural psychology techniques stimulate the coachee’s need for change as the coach works with them to reframe their perspective and restructure

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their mental model. Self-efficacy is evoked to overcome limiting beliefs about their ability to change. Unless these variables can be modified by coaching, there is little chance of a successful outcome. Management research findings in relation to job satisfaction, stressors at work and organisational factors that promote and inhibit performance at work inform the behavioural change process. Positive psychology research adds the importance of psychological capital, positive work environment, positive organisational behaviour and positive scholarship to the coaching conversation. The motivation for coaching for performance improvement is for coachees to enjoy greater job satisfaction and happiness at work. The recipients of coaching for performance improvement are employees who are underperforming compared with their ability and capable of doing more to achieve their potential.

Traditional Psychology Contributions When coaching was first introduced into organisations, it was used to ‘fix’ performance deficits perceived in employees. It was a short-term intervention based on reward or punishment—improve or be fired! The manager’s style was command and control to ensure compliance and regulate work production. There was often a skills development component to ‘fixing’ a performance deficit as well as an operational component. Stimulus response behavioural theory [1–3] proposed that people are motivated by the prospect of rewards when certain actions are performed. This ‘carrot-­and-stick’ approach in an organisational setting is rarely motivational and can, at times, become punitive. For example, an employee performs their job well and gets a reward (e.g. public acknowledgement, leaves work early, extra time for lunch). They fail to deliver and get a reprimand (e.g. stay back and finish the report). Hence, employees learn to behave in ways that will get the boss’ attention and favour so they can get a reward or avoid punishment. When this ‘motivational technique’ fails to deliver the expected reward (i.e. the employee doesn’t get to leave work early), the system fails since the employee often reverts to mediocre performance as soon as they realise that the reward is not forthcoming. On occasions, their work may significantly deteriorate, and their behaviour become quite negative. Unfortunately, this ‘carrot-and-stick’ approach is still the basis on which many managers operate today. The result is often a stress-filled workplace in which there is little job satisfaction, happiness or motivation to perform. If managers choose to motivate staff by using rewards, they need to pair an extrinsic (external) reward with an intrinsic (internal) reward so that the behaviour is repeated even after the external reward has been withdrawn [4–6]. The behaviour will then be repeated purely because of the intrinsic reward the employee gives themself (e.g. pride in a job well done, job satisfaction). Rewards may be minor, such as going for a cup of coffee or having a break from work for half an hour. Major rewards, which may be saved for end of week, are things like movies tickets or a restaurant voucher. If a social occasion is valued by the employee, pairing the reward with a team event reinforces the behaviour since it signals social acceptance

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and belonging within the team [7]. When employees associate changes in their behaviour with rewards that they have given themself (intrinsic rewards), the manager knows that they have incorporated the new behaviour into their repertoire of behavioural routines. Over the years, traditional psychology has developed a number of motivational theories that inform how well an employee performs at work. Factors which motivate employees to perform to their potential include intrinsic and extrinsic motivators, primary and secondary drivers, individual ability, level of job satisfaction, quality of relationships with the manager and co-workers, and alignment of personal goals with organisational values and direction, as discussed in the following sections. Individual Motivators If an employee becomes stressed or overloaded with work, dissatisfaction can lead to consequences for both the individual and the organisation. The coach works with the coachee to identify the key factors contributing to their job dissatisfaction and identify ways to assist them regain their motivation at work. The coach investigates their intrinsic and extrinsic motivators, primary and secondary work drivers and factors relating to their ability and opportunity to improve their performance in the workplace. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivators The first way that individuals may become more motivated at work is by the use of intrinsic and extrinsic motivators. Intrinsic motivation has been studied by social and educational psychologists since the early 1970s. It refers to the pleasure that is derived within the individual as a result of their interest or enjoyment in the task they are performing rather than from any pressure to perform from external sources. Research has found that intrinsic motivation is associated with high educational achievement and personal enjoyment in the task [8]. Individuals are likely to be intrinsically motivated if they attribute their performance to internal factors over which they have control such as the amount of effort they put in, believe that the results are not determined by luck but rather that they can be effective agents in reaching their goals, and are interested in mastering a topic rather than just rote learning to achieve good results. Extrinsic motivation is the result of pressure being applied from external sources outside the individual. Common positive work-related extrinsic motivators include salary and pay increases. Negative extrinsic motivators include threats, coercion, controlling behaviours, bullying, harassment and punishment. Competition is a negative extrinsic motivator if it encourages employees to win at all costs without the benefit of any intrinsic reward. A crowd cheering on an individual and trophies awarded to the winner are also extrinsic motivators. Social psychological research

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has found that extrinsic rewards, when applied progressively, can lead to over-­ justification and a subsequent reduction in intrinsic motivation [5]. However, self-­ determination theory proposes that extrinsic motivation can be internalised by the individual if the task fits with their values and beliefs and therefore helps to fulfil their basic psychological needs [4]. Table 16.1 summarises these motivational categories and their inclusions. Primary and Secondary Drivers The second way that individuals may become more motivated at work is by appealing to their internal drivers of performance. McClelland proposed a motivation disposition theory which distinguishes three motives that guide human behaviour: the need for achievement, affiliation or power [9]. Individuals develop these internal motivational drivers as a result of childhood experiences [10]. The disposition theory emphasises the strength of a motivational need rather than suggesting the drivers are innate as does self-determination theory [11]. The focus of McClelland’s theory was on the actions that individuals take in their environment to meet their motivational need. For example, the need for achievement—to meet and exceed high standards of excellence—builds on an individual’s need for competence. Hence, an individual with a high strength motivational need for competence would benefit greatly from a challenging work environment that offers opportunities to satisfy their need for achievement. McClelland proposed three motivational dispositions: n-ach, n-pow, and n-affil.  The n-ach person is ‘achievement motivated’ and seeks the attainment of realistic yet challenging goals and advancement in the job. They have a strong need for feedback and a sense of accomplishment. The n-pow person is ‘authority motivated’. This drive produces a need to be influential, effective and make an impact. They have a strong need to lead and for their ideas to prevail. They also feel the need to increase their personal status and prestige. The n-affil person is ‘affiliation motivated’, has a need for friendly relationships, and is motivated towards interaction

Table 16.1  Intrinsic and extrinsic motivators of work performance Intrinsic motivators in the workplace •  Skill variety •  Task identity •  Task significance • Autonomy •  Feedback from job •  Dealing with others •  Motivating potential •  Work involvement/commitment • Achievement • Creativity • Recognition

Extrinsic motivators in the workplace • Pay • Promotion •  The work itself •  Physical conditions •  Management attitudes • Co-workers •  Social status • Security •  Rapid career progress

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with other people. The affiliation driver produces a need to be liked and held in popular regard. These people are team players (Fig. 16.1). These motivations drive employee behaviours on a daily basis. They are influenced by how comfortable the individual feels within themself and their level of self-esteem. If they have a healthy self-esteem, employees are less in need than someone with a low self-esteem. These three motivational needs are found to varying degrees in all people including employees and managers. An individual’s mix of primary and secondary motivational drivers shapes their behavioural response to a manager’s request to improve their performance. Performance Equation A third way that individuals may become more motivated at work is by addressing internal and work-related performance variables. Performance theory states that individual performance is a function of the individual’s ability, motivation and opportunity to succeed in a specific context. This context is influenced by factors such as the quality of the resources available to them and their ability to participate in management decisions [12]. The Performance Equation is P = f (A,M,O) where: • Ability includes both declarative knowledge (what we know about things i.e. facts, principles, goals and self-knowledge) as well as procedural knowledge and skill (how we actually go about things i.e. cognitive, psychomotor, physical, self-­ management and interpersonal skills). • Motivation is the degree to which an employee contributes discretionary effort as opposed to required effort to a task. It’s a combination of choice to perform, level and persistence of effort, and degree of employee engagement at work. If the work output is minimal or low, this is a sure sign that things are not going well and intervention is necessary. Sometimes it’s about the work, sometimes about the people, and sometimes about perceived organisational constraints. Whatever the cause, the employee is looking for connection, meaning and purpose. Being able to express their feelings in a supportive, organisational environment is the first step to taking corrective action. • Opportunity is related to the organisational environment. Ideally, the context allows access to appropriate resourcing, favourable team members, and good upward and downward communication for optimum performance to occur.

Fig. 16.1 McClelland’s motivations that drive behaviour

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Organisational Motivators In addition to these personal motivational factors that drive individual performance, there are external factors which impact an employee’s ability to perform as they would under optimal workplace conditions. These include factors relating to other people, the design of the job, and workplace conditions. People Factors Research has shown that one of the most important factors impacting an employee’s ability to do well in the workplace is their relationship with their manager and team members [13–15]. If these relationships are based on trust, mutual respect, and mutual dependency while allowing opportunities for individual achievement based on unique strengths, knowledge and expertise, employees will feel secure and that they belong in an environment which supports their work efforts. The manager’s role is to convey the divisional goal to their team and either work with the team to divide up the load or allocate tasks according to employee skills and expertise. In doing so, they must be careful to spread the workload evenly and fairly so that it is possible for everyone to be involved and contribute in an important way. Managers are encouraged to value the diversity within their team and make allowance if necessary (e.g. for language difficulties, disability needs) but not to the detriment of other employees. Direct reports who are treated equally and fairly without prejudice, discrimination or favouritism will perform to their best. Once the team tasks have been allocated and the manager is confident that everyone has the information and resources they need to do the job, they should step back and monitor the overall situation  not micro-manage. Skilled and experienced team members who are micro-­ managed feel that they are not trusted and quickly lose confidence in their manager. Working towards a common goal is a highly motivating factor which keeps all employees ‘on track’ and engenders a feeling of ‘mateship’ within the team. If there are hidden agendas, cliques or groups, these may have a disruptive influence on the overall harmony of the team. The manager’s role is to ensure that these cliques/ groups support each other so that everyone feels part of the bigger team. Otherwise a sense of isolation and separation from the team may result in some individuals leaving the team because of these factors. The manager ensures that the team shares its information and resources collectively and specifically to those who need them. Managing the communication flow is essential so that some team members don’t feel ‘left in the dark’ which can cause resentment and bad feelings. Job Design Factors The second factor to consider in terms of its ability to motivate individual performance at work is the way that the job is designed. The Job Characteristics Model [16] provides a framework for the coach to examine how the design features of the

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coachee’s job may be contributing to their performance at work. The model proposes five characteristics that can be adjusted to bring improved performance at work—skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. Employees seek to utilise their skills in the pursuit of performance goals. The task they perform must have meaning and significance in its own right. Team and organisational objectives need to be clear and achievable, and aligned with personal goals. Any misalignment, vagueness or ambiguity can lead to confusion. If there are unrealistic timelines to achieve the task that has been set for them, laziness or disinterest may set in and interfere with performance. Employees often value having the authority to make decisions within their accountability limits in relation to the tasks they perform. If not, continually seeking manager approval could prove demoralising or create a dependency relationship. In addition, employees need access to all the resources they require, in a timely manner, to successfully complete the task. Finally, feedback on task performance needs to be immediate and constructive to guide correction and improvement. Table 16.2 summarises all these features of the Job Characteristics Model. Workplace Constraints A third way that the coach can work with a coachee to bring about improved performance is to look at their perceived and real organisational constraints. Organisations typically have policies and procedures relating to who has access to what level of information and resources. Are they followed? What is the consequence of breaking them? How are they communicated and reported on? Is there a system to let employees know of any changes? Generic communication systems keep employees and other stakeholders informed of developments. Who monitors/manages them? Do these systems work? Particular factors pertaining to the work environment serve to motivate employees to perform at their best. The Motivator-Hygiene theory of job satisfaction [17] concluded that certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction. However these factors, if absent, don’t necessarily lead to job dissatisfaction but rather to no satisfaction. Motivator factors are those influences which cause the employee to do more and make a significant contribution to the organisation. Hygiene factors are Table 16.2  Job characteristics model [16] •  Skill variety—the degree to which the job requires a variety of different activities. •  Task identity—the degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work. •  Task significance—the degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people. •  Autonomy—the degree to which the job provides substantial freedom and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out. •  Feedback—the degree to which the individual obtains direct and clear information about the effectiveness of their performance.

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those elements that must be present in the work environment for the employee to do their job. Without these elements, employees either leave or take over the organisation—chaos reigns. The name ‘hygiene factors’ is used because, like hygiene, their presence will not make an employee healthier but absence can cause (employee) health deterioration (Table 16.3). If any of these factors impact an employee’s ability to deliver optimal performance, they may become unmotivated, dissatisfied, and experience stress. The coach’s role is to help the coachee remove any work-related ‘roadblocks’ to their progress and performance. If the problem persists, or if a number of team members are experiencing the same problem, it may be time for the coach to have a confidential discussion with their manager about how they can improve relationships at work, alter job design factors, or remove organisational barriers that hinder performance. Table  16.4 summaries the signs and possible consequences of job dissatisfaction. Continued job dissatisfaction can lead to stress-related symptoms being displayed at work. In addition to poor job performance, managers may notice a lack of energy, negativity, social isolation and increased work absenteeism in some employees. Burnout is the result of constant stress over a period of time during which the employee feels they have little or no control over their situation and cannot influence the outcome to relieve themself of that pressure. If untreated, it can lead to emotional exhaustion, reduced resistance to physical illnesses, and mental illness

Table 16.3  Motivator and hygiene factors Motivator factors • Achievement • Recognition •  Work itself • Responsibility • Promotion • Growth

Hygiene factors •  Organisation policy and administration • Supervision—technical • Salary • Supervision—personal •  Working conditions

Table 16.4  Signs and consequences of job dissatisfaction Signs of job dissatisfaction • Fatigue • Headaches • Sweating •  Mental health • Turnover • Longevity • Absence • Grievances •  Poor performance • Sabotage •  Not meeting deadlines

Consequences of job dissatisfaction •  Withdrawal behaviours • Lateness • Turnover •  High performers •  Low performance (functional turnover) •  Early retirement •  Absenteeism, which depends on:  –  Motivation to attend, and  –  Ability to attend

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from which they may never completely recover. Family life may suffer as a consequence of poor job performance/attendance/dismissal and consequent financial difficulties. From a personal perspective, the employee may suffer sleeplessness, experience anxiety attacks and increased heart rate, possibly leading to excessive smoking, drinking or depression. In these instances, the coach recommends referral to a medical practitioner. Medical examination may reveal high blood pressure and/ or high cholesterol which could possibly lead to more serious consequences. To restore an employee’s motivation and satisfaction at work, the coach engages with the coachee to identify the stressors they experience at work and what triggers them in the first place. Self-awareness is important so that the employee, as a result of the coaching, is able to behave differently next time in relation to the stressor. It is just as important to identify the positive triggers that will motivate the coachee to perform well. These are the powerful forces that keep individuals striving to do better. Identifying these triggers and being able to manage them maturely makes all the difference to how an employee operates in the workplace and the degree to which they can regain optimal performance. When the factors leading to their under-­ performance have been identified, the coach helps coachees develop strategies to deal with these stressors one at a time, until the desired performance level is regained. Table 16.5 summarises categories of stressors and indicators of stress that may be experienced in the workplace.

Table 16.5  Categories and indicators of stress in the workplace Categories of stressors Intrinsic to job

Role in organisation

Relationships at work Career development

Organisational structure and culture

Indicators of stress •  Poor physical working conditions •  Work overload •  Time pressure •  Physical danger •  Role ambiguity •  Role conflict •  Responsibility for people •  Conflicts regarding organisational/divisional boundaries •  Poor relations with manager, supervisor or colleagues •  Difficulties in delegating responsibilities •  Promoted beyond competence •  Passed over for promotion •  Lack of job security •  Thwarted ambition •  Little or no participation in decision-making •  Restriction on budget, access to information •  Office politics •  Lack of effective consultation

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Positive Psychology Contributions Positive psychology research builds on findings from traditional psychology in relation to the factors that motivate and influence employees at work and contribute to job satisfaction. These studies add understandings of how employees can experience greater happiness and satisfaction at work and increased levels of self-­ confidence, self-esteem and wellbeing when they use their strengths and expertise to self-manage their performance. Key concepts from positive psychology research that inform contemporary coaching practice are those of psychological capital, positive work environment, positive organisational behaviour, and positive scholarship. Performance coaching as we know it today is focused on helping employees who are reasonably well-functioning in their role do even better and achieve their potential. In contrast to the traditional approach which required the coach to ‘fix’ employee deficits, performance coaching from a positive psychology perspective focuses on ways to fully utilise the employee’s strengths and discover what’s going right that they can improve on. It is a developmental process in which the coachee learns more about themself and how they can unleash their potential for their own and the organisation’s benefit. The coach recognises that there are a number of other factors affecting performance in the workplace that the coachee has no control over. Hence, before coaching commences, they meet with the manager to identify the factors that may be preventing the employee from achieving the goals that have been set for them in their role. Coaching is then conducted to improve the coachee’s performance in their role over a specified period of time, usually between a few weeks and 1 year [18, 19]. Coaching for performance improvement often addresses both ‘people’ and ‘task’ issues as they are raised by the coachee or indicated by their manager prior to coaching commencement. Personal issues may also be addressed during the coaching, such as ways to communicate more effectively, improve interpersonal effectiveness, or manage stressful situations. The work-related ‘pain points’ that coachees experience in relation to their performance may involve concerns such as relationship issues with their manager or colleagues which may lead to interpersonal conflict; inadequate requisite knowledge, skills, information or resources to competently perform in their role; overwhelming demands on their time and level of expertise; and pressures relating to lack of information, blurred boundaries or unrealistic workload expectations. The coach’s role is to help coachees resolve the work barriers that are causing them distress and identify any organisational barriers that they may need to raise for discussion with their manager. Positive Work Environment A significant way to increase an employee’s motivation at work is by creating a positive work environment which supports individual strengths and values individual differences and diversity [20]. In a positive work environment, conflict is

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handled constructively. It is acceptable to display emotion since positive emotions may assist organisations ‘avoid stagnation and achieve harmony, energy, and perhaps even prosperity’ [21]. In a positive work environment, the number of positive experiences outweighs the negative experiences. The workplace is psychologically safe, that is, there is a sense of personal security and safeness, colleagues can be trusted, and personal boundaries are not crossed [22]. Employees feel a sense of purpose and belonging and that their work has meaning. As a result, employees are more highly engaged and committed to ‘going the extra mile’. They welcome the opportunity to contribute to the organisation’s vision, mission, values and goals. They feel emotionally connected to something or someone in the organisation. The manager is responsible for shaping the working environment to support job satisfaction and productivity. When contemporary work practices are put into place within teams, employees are motivated to engage in work activities to the best of their ability. Realistically however, because of individual differences and preferences, it is impossible to provide work conditions that suit all employees. The APA has recommended that ‘organisations can become healthy by incorporating health promotion activities, offering employee assistance programs, having flexible benefits and working conditions, treating employees fairly, and offering programs for employee development, health and safety, and the prevention of work stress’ [23]. Psychological Capital Performance in the workplace has been shown by a number of studies to be strongly linked with the concept of psychological capital [13, 24, 25]. Psychological capital is the store of psychological resources that an individual has built up over time to reinforce and maintain their psychological health and wellbeing [26]. It has been defined as ‘an individual’s positive psychological state of development characterised by: (1) having confidence (efficacy) to take on and put in the necessary effort to succeed at challenging tasks; (2) making a positive attribution (optimism) about succeeding now and in the future; (3) persevering towards goals and, when necessary, redirecting paths to goals (hope) in order to succeed; and (4) when beset by problems and adversity, sustaining and bouncing back and even beyond (resilience) to attain success’ [27]. Hence, psychological capital is a multidimensional, abstract construct [28] which is relatively stable over time [29]. Psychological capital has been linked with employee psychological wellbeing [30] which is defined as a relative presence of positive feelings and emotions combined with a relative absence of negative feelings and emotions [26]. It is a subjective experience in which individuals are ‘well’ to the extent that they believe they are, although their feeling of wellbeing may fluctuate over time. The positive relationship between psychological capital and employee wellbeing strongly suggests that organisational interventions geared to developing efficacy, optimism, hope, and resilience may lead to more psychologically healthy employees [26]. Psychological capital has been found to be a key predictor of performance [31, 32], even better than individual factors such as self-efficacy, resilience, optimism,

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and hope [13]. It has been positively related to problem-solving [33], innovative behaviour [34], and task focus [35]. Employees with high psychological capital are more emotionally invested in their work and experience more positive emotions at work [36], exhibit increased authentic and transformational leadership ability [20, 37, 38] and adaptability to organisational change [39], and are more committed to the organisation and remain longer [40, 41]. They express a greater sense of wellbeing, satisfaction and enthusiasm for work, and experience an elevated quality of life [42–46]. Psychological capital has been found to significantly mediate and moderate the effects of emotional labour strategies on job burnout [47]. Collective psychological capital has been found to significantly relate to group performance [48]. Positive Organisational Behaviour The positive psychology movement led to a resurgence of interest in positively-­ oriented micro-organisational behavioural studies with a focus on individual positive strengths and psychological capabilities. It introduced the concept of positive organisational behaviour which has been defined as ‘the study and application of positive oriented human resource strengths and psychological capacities that can be measured, developed, and effectively managed for performance improvement in today’s workplace’ [49]. The focus of positive organisational behaviour is on state-­ like strengths that can be developed, rather than on fixed, trait-like characteristics and virtues [50]. Researchers in this area seek to identify the role of organisational climate and HR practices such as selection, socialisation, and norms in fostering authenticity, continuous self-improvement, and sustained performance [51]. Positive Scholarship Positive scholarship is the overarching term applied to all categorises of research relating to positive psychology [52]. Positive scholarship researchers take an empirical approach to exploring collective and organisational concepts such as social responsibility, positive leadership, positive inclusion, positive relationships, positive change processes, positive emotions, empowerment, and thriving [52, 53]. In positive organisational research, the focus is less on individual traits and subjective states [50] and more on positive institutions and communities at both micro- and macro- organisational levels. Research findings may assist organisations develop a safe, positive work environment which stimulates individual and organisational transformation. Positive organisational researchers recognise the competitive nature of the business environment, often characterised by unrest, conflict, self-serving behaviours, and a ‘winning at all costs’ attitude. Instead, they choose to focus on elements of organisational environment that research has identified as leading to job satisfaction, improved performance, and positive work environments. They recognise that employees today want to be surrounded by managers and colleagues who show

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appreciation, demonstrate collaboration, and foster fulfilling social relationships [54]. Employees seek a compassionate workplace [55] in which aspirational statements complement and align with bottom-line indices. Both hard and soft measures of performance are evaluated as legitimate forms of success. A positive scholarship framework organises findings from current research on positive states, outcomes, and generative mechanisms in individuals, organisations and societies. The framework categorises individual and collective strengths into attributes and processes which generate insight into how strengths enable goodness, generativity, growth, and resilience to promote human flourishing [56].

Application to Coaching Coaches who conduct ‘pure coaching’ are able to coach anyone, anywhere, anytime, to help them achieve their goals. However, in an organisational setting, when a performance issue needs to be resolved, this is called ‘performance coaching’—a situation in which there is a pre-determined agenda and outcomes that meet organisational needs as well as individual needs. The need for individual performance coaching may have been recognised as a result of deficits identified in a performance review [19]. Positive psychology coaching takes a broader, strategic approach to individual performance, dealing not just with performance improvement but also with ways that the coachee can develop personally and professionally in their current role and in preparation for future roles.

Contracting The first step in coaching for performance improvement is to ascertain the appropriateness of coaching to resolve the performance issue. The coach meets with the coachee’s manager to clarify that the coaching program will not be addressing any performance or disciplinary issues that may lead to dismissal. Rather, these serious issues should be referred to the HR function where they can be appropriately addressed. Instead, contemporary coaching for performance improvement is conducted with employees who are not currently performing to their potential. The aim is to assist the coachee lift their performance from ‘middle-of-the-road’ to higher-­ level performer where their skills are fully utilised and their potential fully realised. To develop an understanding of where the coachee is now, the coach gathers evidence of the manager’s concerns in relation to the coachee’s performance based on observations of their work and evaluation against performance expectations. Discussing the evidence for coaching is particularly important when the employee’s performance is inconsistent with expectations given their potential. Valuable employees may need nurturing to retain their talent within the organisation. The manager is pressed to provide evidence that a performance issue exists by asking questions such as the following:

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What exactly is the problem? e.g.: • Key project ran over-time and over-budget. • Investors concerned about loss/reduction in anticipated returns. • May have to go back to the market for additional funding. How do you know there’s a problem? What’s the evidence? e.g.: • Three months behind in project targets and deadlines. • Investor meetings characterised by intense/heated discussions. • Spending overruns of 20%. What’s your assessment of the employee’s coaching needs? e.g.: • How to meet targets and deadlines as per the project plan. • How to respond to investors in a way that alleviates their concerns. • How to manage the project budget to bring it in on target. Once these facts are ‘on the table’, the coach is able to determine if the issue is broader and requires a different form of intervention such as training in a specific skill or access to certain resources.

Data Collection Next, if not already revealed, the coach shares with the coachee the hard and soft baseline data taken from their position description KPIs as well as the average of, say, five soft data items collected from say, eight, multi-rater reviewers supported by summarised rater comments as appropriate. The coachee may provide additional information and share any goals they would like to achieve. As the coaching proceeds, progress towards goal achievement is recorded by the coachee and monitored by the coach. If a dashboard software program is used, the coach will have immediate access to actions taken by the coachee as they occur. Alternatively, the coachee can forward a weekly email to the coach as proof of progress. At least twice during the coaching period, the coach meets with the manager to ascertain their views on how the coaching program is proceeding. The key is to schedule the meetings as the need, target, or goal dictates and to be flexible with these arrangements if other pressing matters take priority.

Conducting the Coaching In an organisational setting, coaching for performance improvement follows the ©AIPC Organisational COACHing model outlined in Chap. 15. Coach, coachee and client (manager) agree on the goals to be achieved from the coaching program, making sure they are SMART [57]. The goals should relate to key areas of the coachee’s responsibility in their role, taken from their position description. If there

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are numerous goals, these are prioritised and action planned over several sessions. Agreement is reached on expectations of performance standards and the indicators by which the client will know that the coaching program has been successful. Before the coaching begins, it should be agreed who is the best person to monitor the coachee’s performance over time. Usually this is the manager’s role but, on occasions, some other person may be the best person to report on progress, for example, an assigned mentor or a supervisor of the new knowledge or skill. The coach should not accept an active supervision role. During the coaching program, coaches may discuss with managers a range of strategies that they can use to motivate their employees to maintain or improve their performance including recognising good performance when it occurs, reviewing performance regularly so that it can improve, and rewarding excellent performance in ways that employees appreciate. Recognition for excellent work may take various forms ranging from a smile or nod of the head, through to a public announcement in front of the whole staff, with a range of reinforcing behaviours in-between such as positive feedback, certificates, mention in the staff newsletter, etc. When recognising and rewarding staff for a job well-done, it is important for the manager to remember that reinforcers are unique to each individual. What works to reinforce the behaviour of a socially-oriented individual will not be effective with an employee motivated by achievement. Rewards must be clearly related to controllable behaviours—things that can be seen, observed, or measured. For example, it is not sufficient for an employee to tell their manager that they have completed the task; they must hand them the final report at the same time. The timing of rewards is very important. Not only should they be linked to a specific task or outcome, but the reward must be presented as soon as possible after the event to be most effective. In this way, the behaviour will tend to be repeated. After a while, once the new behaviour is established, the reward can be presented less frequently—enough times for the employee to continue behaving in this way. Although usually conducted in an organisational setting, in some instances an individual may approach an external coach for assistance. For example, their manager may have let them know that they are considered to be under-performing and their job may be threatened. Hence, they may contact an external coach to help them come to terms with their situation and gain coaching on how to turn the situation around. The coach’s role is to support the coachee return to their former performance so that their manager regains confidence in their ability to perform well in the role, and their livelihood is no longer threatened. In this case, the manager would not be involved in the private coaching arrangement.

Evaluating the Coaching Finally, the coach is encouraged to conduct both formative and summative evaluation of the coaching program to ensure that the coaching remains ‘on track’ and that the desired outcomes are achieved. In the extreme, if trust wanes between the coachee and their manager, this may indicate that the psychological employment

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contract has been broken. The job may no longer hold meaning and purpose for them, and they may no longer be able to commit to performing their best. The coachee may feel under-valued and under-appreciated and unable to subscribe to the organisation’s ideological perspective. The affective component of belonging to a team and being able to count on the team for emotional support and assistance may also have been broken [58]. With these cumulative feelings, the coachee may no longer desire to work in that division or even within that organisation. When this occurs, it’s time for them to look elsewhere for a position that better suits their needs and supports their career aspirations. In summary, coaching for performance improvement involves ascertaining the coachee’s motivation for performing well in their job, taking into consideration organisational factors that support or hinder performance improvement, and applying positive psychological factors that cement the coachee’s intentions to do better at work. The coaching process cycles through stages of contracting with the coachee’s manager, getting clear on performance expectations and standards, and monitoring progress to verify the success of the coaching program. Employees who feel valued and supported will improve their performance and remain longer in the organisation. 

References 1. Pavlov, I. (1927). Conditioned reflexes: An investigation of the physiological activity of the cerebral cortex. Oxford University Press. 2. Watson, J. (Ed.). (1931). Behaviorism (2nd ed.). Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner. 3. Skinner, B. (1938). The behaviour of organisms: An experimental analysis. Appleton-Century. 4. Deci, E., & Ryan, R. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. Springer US. 5. Gov, O. (2015). The complex relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Economics and Business Review, 1(4), 102–125. 6. Techakesari, P. (2011). The harmful consequences of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation and task performance: Investigating the roles of situational task control and trait self-control. Honours Thesis, School of Psychology, The University of Queensland. 7. Bandura, A. (1992). In S. E. Feinman (Ed.), Social referencing and the social construction of reality in infancy (p. 424). Plenum Press. 8. Deci, E. (1975). Intrinsic motivation. Springer US. 9. McClelland, D. (1967). The achieving society. Free Press. 10. Hooff, M., & De Pater, I. (2019). Daily associations between basic psychological need satisfaction and well-being at work: The moderating role of need strength. Journal of Occupational & Organizational Psychology, 92(4), 1027–1035. 11. Deci, E., & Ryan, R. (2000). The ‘what’ and ‘why’ of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 319–338. 12. Campbell, J., et al. (1992). A theory of performance. In N. Schmitt & W. Borman (Eds.), New developments in selection and placement. Jossey-Bass. 13. Luthans, F., et al. (2007). Positive psychological capital: Measurement and relationship with performance and satisfaction. Personnel Psychology, 60(3), 541–572.

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Chapter 17

Coaching for Leadership Development

This chapter addresses how coaching for leadership development has evolved from traditional models of management which relied on reward and punishment techniques and command-and-control practices, to be based on transformational models of leadership. The emergence of emotional intelligence highlighted the importance of self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and social skills in effective leadership practices. Management skills are still required in organisations to plan and budget, organise and staff, control and problem-solve and stabilise the business. However, research has identified that effective leadership practices require managers to also establish direction, align people, motivate and inspire employees, and produce change. To assist managers develop these contemporary leadership practices, coaching has been identified as a valid developmental intervention. Manager as Coach programs are increasingly being introduced into organisations to assist managers change their traditional management style into a coaching leadership style. Coaching may be delivered either formally by HR professionals or leaders who have trained to become a fully qualified coach, or informally by managers and peers who use coaching skills to conduct coaching, feedback or corridor conversations with their direct reports. The chapter outlines the way that coaching for leadership development is conceptualised, the motivations for leadership development, the individuals who are the recipients of coaching for leadership development, and how it is delivered in an organisational setting.

Theoretical Foundations The theoretical basis for leadership development was derived from the findings of psychology, education and management research. Traditional behavioural psychology identified the traits and behaviours of managers and later, the characteristics of

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those who adopted a transformational leadership style. Cognitive behavioural psychology revealed the emotional competencies that managers need to acquire to motivate and inspire their direct reports. Positive psychology research has recognised coaching as a valid developmental approach to transform managers into leaders. Coaching can be conducted formally in scheduled sessions or informally as coaching, feedback, or corridor conversations. The motivation for leadership coaching is for organisational leaders to become more inspiring and motivational, coach their direct reports, model coach-like behaviours, and adopt a coaching leadership style. The recipients of coaching for leadership development are existing managers or leaders who want to become more effective in their role, have been newly appointed to their role, or seek promotion into a senior role. Delivery of leadership coaching may be by internal or external fully qualified coaches, or by HR professionals or line managers trained in coaching skills. Increasingly, team leaders at any level of the organisation may receive leadership development coaching especially if they are talented individuals destined to be included in the organisation’s succession plan. Coaching for leadership development is “about helping leaders to identify and define their specific goals, then organise themselves to find a way to attain them” [1] so that they may become a more effective leader [2–4]. With its focus on work-­ related issues [5], leadership coaching has become the most common form of coaching in organisations today and its prevalence continues to rise [6, 7]. Coaching for leadership development is the formal, in-person, collaborative relationship between a coach and coachee which promotes and supports the leader’s growth and development [8]. When skills enhancement is required, a combination of interventions such as individual coaching and training is most effective [9–12]. Leadership coaching affects cognitive and behavioural change to translate individual learnings into team learning. Shared group-level beliefs support the implementation of change efforts [13]. Sustained change is achieved when the leadership coaching satisfies employee needs for autonomy, relatedness and competence [14]. The coach and coachee collaborate to assess and understand the coachee’s needs in relation to their leadership development tasks. The coach challenges current constraints and explores new possibilities. The coachee is responsible for taking action but both are accountable for getting results [15].

Traditional Psychology Contributions Early theories of management were based on the traits of managers and the behaviours they exhibited in certain situations. Thereafter, researchers investigated manager’s concern for production (task-orientation) as opposed to their concern for employees (people-orientation). Managers with a task focus concentrated on designing tasks and reward structures, driven by the need for power and control, reward or punishment. Under this regime, employees performed but were largely disengaged, unmotivated, and dissatisfied. Later theories of management

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investigated styles which have an equal focus on task and people, conditions of work and how these conditions contribute to a more productive workforce, as explained in the next few sections. Trait Theories Traits research investigated the characteristics and qualities of managers in the performance of their role [16]. The belief was that effective managers share a number of common personality characteristics or traits such as integrity, empathy, assertiveness, good decision-making skills, and likability. While trait theories helped to identify characteristics and qualities that are helpful when managing others, none of them—separately or in combination—was found to guarantee success as a manager. Since traits are the external representations of an individual’s innermost assumptions and beliefs, researchers now know that it’s these mental thoughts and processes which are more important to understand than traits when coaching employees. Behavioural Theories After trait research, attention turned to investigating manager behaviours. What is it that managers do to be successful? How do they behave in relation to their team? Building on the work of Pavlov [17], Watson [18] and Skinner [19], Autocratic-­ Democratic theory [20] proposed three types of managers: • Autocratic managers are those who make decisions without consulting their teams. This style is appropriate when decisions need to be made quickly, when there’s no need for team input and when team agreement isn’t necessary for a successful outcome, as well as in emergency situations that threaten life and limb. • Democratic managers are those who encourage team members to provide input before making a decision although the degree of input can vary from manager to manager. This style is important when team agreement matters but it can be difficult to manage when there are differing perspectives and ideas. • Laissez-faire managers are those who are reluctant decision-makers. They prefer others to make the decisions. This approach works well when the team is highly capable, highly motivated, and doesn’t require close supervision. Reluctant decision-making behaviour can arise because the manager doesn’t accept responsibility for the team, is not held accountable for the team’s outcomes, and is generally lazy or distracted—all of which may result in disastrous consequences. The overall conclusion of behavioural researchers was that none of these three styles could be consistently applied to all work situations. A second body of researchers began investigating groups of behaviours. The Managerial Grid [21] identified two important manager variables—concern for production and concern for people. The model proposed five different management

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styles based on these concerns: country club, team, organisation man, impoverished, and authority-obedience management. Two other management styles were added to the grid later on-opportunistic and paternalistic. These researchers found that the most effective managers were those with behavioural flexibility who could adopt different behavioural styles depending on their concern for production or concern for people. Contingency Theories A third group of researchers investigated managers’ behaviours by noticing their reactions in certain situations—a contingency-based approach to management. The first contingency-based model was called Situational Leadership [22]. It is a classic framework which links manager style with the maturity and skill levels of individual team members. The model suggests that there is no single ‘best’ style and that the most successful managers are those who can adapt their style to the maturity and skill level of the team or team member they are attempting to influence. Maturity is defined as the capacity to set high but attainable goals, willingness and ability to take responsibility for the task, and relevant education and/or experience of the team or team member to complete the task. According to this model, performance also depends on the specifics of the task, job, or function to be accomplished. These researchers characterised manager styles into four different categories based on the degree of Task Behaviour and Relationship Behaviour exhibited to followers: S1: Telling—characterised by one-way communication in which the manager defines the role of the team and team member and provides the what, how, why, when and where to do the task. S2: Selling—the manager determines the direction of the team but uses two-way communication and provides the socio-emotional support which allows the team and team members being influenced to buy into the process. S3: Participating—there’s shared decision-making about how the task is to be accomplished. The manager displays less task behaviour while maintaining high relationship behaviour. S4: Delegating—the manager is still involved in decisions but, because team members are skilled and mature, the process and responsibility are delegated to them to organise the work and get the required results. The manager plays largely a monitoring role. Of these styles, the researchers suggested that no one style is optimal for managers to use all the time since effective managers need to be flexible and adaptable according to the situation. Styles should be varied in response to different situations and to meet changing priorities. The manager’s style should also take into account the differing needs and skills of team members as well as the requirements of the task and workplace. A second contingency-based management approach is path–goal theory [23, 24] which states that a manager’s behaviour is contingent on the satisfaction,

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motivation, and performance of their subordinates. Managers need to engage in different types of behaviour depending on the nature and demands of a particular situation. The manager’s role is to assist employees achieve their own goals as well as provide the direction and support they need to ensure that these goals are compatible with the organisation’s goals. The theory proposes that a manager’s behaviour is acceptable to subordinates when viewed as a source of motivation and one that rewards effective performance. The original path–goal theory identified four types of goal-oriented behaviours: • Directive behaviour, which refers to situations in which the manager lets followers know exactly what is expected of them and tells them exactly how to perform the task. This behaviour has the most positive effect when the follower’s role and task demands are ambiguous and intrinsically satisfying. However, it is not well-­ received by mature and skilled employees because it takes away any ability to use their discretion or autonomy to perform the task. • Achievement-oriented behaviour, which refers to situations where the manager sets challenging goals for followers, expects them to perform at their highest level, and shows confidence in their ability to meet this expectation. This type of manager behaviour is well-received by mature and skilled followers. • Participative behaviour, which involves managers consulting with followers and asking for their suggestions before making a decision. This behaviour is effective when followers are highly and personally involved in the work. They experience a sense of ownership and greater engagement with the outcome of their work efforts. • Supportive behaviour, which is directed towards the satisfaction of followers’ needs and preferences. The manager shows concern for their psychological wellbeing. This behaviour is especially effective in situations in which tasks or relationships are psychologically or physically distressing. These four contingency-based styles are fluid and managers can adopt the most appropriate style depending on the situation and any particular demands provided they have the required behavioural and cognitive flexibility to effect these adaptations. The revised version of path–goal theory suggested that managers engage in behaviours that complement subordinate’s abilities and compensate for their deficiencies. A third contingency-based theory is Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) [25] which proposes that team effectiveness depends on an appropriate match between a manager’s style and the demands of the situation. The proposition is that situational control (the extent to which a manager can determine what their team is going to do) is the primary contingency factor in determining the effectiveness of their behaviour. Management style is measured on a Least Preferred Co-worker (LPC) scale, an instrument for measuring a manager’s orientation in relation to subordinates and others in the workplace. The LPC scale asks a manager to think of all the people with whom they have ever worked and then describe the person with whom they have worked least well using a series of bipolar scales from 1 to 8, such as Friendly– Unfriendly, Supportive–Hostile and Cooperative–Uncooperative. The responses to

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these scales are summed and averaged. A high LPC score suggests that the manager has a ‘human relations orientation’ while a low LPC score indicates a ‘task orientation’. Managers who are relationship-motivated tend to describe their least preferred co-worker in a more positive light and rate them higher on the LPC scale than do their co-workers even though Fiedler theorised that, on average, all co-workers are about equally pleasant or unpleasant. On the other hand, managers who are task-­ motivated tend to rate their least preferred co-worker in a more negative light, assigning them lower LPC scores. Fiedler proposed that there is no such thing as an ideal manager because both low-LPC (task-oriented) and high-LPC (relationship-­ oriented) managers can be effective if their management orientation fits the situation. In summary, contingency-based management theories pay attention to the context in which teams and team members operate. The manager’s behaviour is contingent on the satisfaction, motivation, and performance of their subordinates. Managers’ role modelling of flexible managerial behaviours is critical to team members accepting that their behaviour also needs to change according to the situation. Team effectiveness depends on an appropriate match between the manager’s style and the demands of the situation. Since personality is relatively stable, the contingency-based models of management suggest that improving manager effectiveness may, at times, require changing the situation by ‘job engineering’ or ‘job restructuring’ which may increase or decrease task structure and position power. Training and team development may also be used to improve manager–team member relations. Emergence of Leadership Shortly after the development of contingency-based theories of management, researchers began to investigate the construct of leadership as opposed to management. James MacGregor Burns [26] investigated the differences between these two constructs and claimed that they relate to the characteristics and behaviours of the manager. He introduced the concept of ‘transforming leadership’ in his descriptive research on political leaders. According to Burns, transforming leadership is a process in which managers and followers help each other advance to a higher level of integrity and purpose. The transforming approach creates significant change in the life of employees and organisations as it redesigns perceptions and values, and changes expectations and aspirations. Unlike the traditional management style, the transforming leadership style is not based on a ‘give-and-take’ relationship between manager and follower but on the manager’s personality, traits and ability to make a change through example, as well as their ability to articulate an energising vision and challenging goals. Transforming leaders are idealised in the sense that they are a moral exemplar of working towards the benefit of the team, organisation and/or community. Burns theorised that transforming leadership and traditional management styles were mutually exclusive.

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Transformational Leadership Bass [27] extended the work of Burns by explaining the psychological mechanisms that underlie traditional management and transforming leadership styles. He helped to explain how transforming leadership can be measured as well as how it impacts follower motivation and performance. Transformational leaders offer followers something more than just working for self- or organisational gain. They provide them with an inspiring mission and vision and give them an identity. In return, followers trust, admire and respect them, and are willing to work harder than might be expected. According to Bass, transformational leaders transform and motivate followers through their idealised influence (a.k.a. charisma), intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation, and individual consideration. In addition, they encourage followers to initiate new and unique ways to challenge the status quo and alter the environment to support success. In contrast to Burns, Bass suggested that leaders can display traditional management and transformational leadership styles simultaneously [28, 29]. Kotter [30] succinctly defined the differences between management and leadership. He proposed that management is about the logical, ordered things that people in positions of authority do on a day-to-day basis (the tasks), whereas leadership is about both the ‘head’ and ‘heart’ considerations (the tasks and people). He outlined the responsibilities of managers to include planning and budgeting, organising and staffing, controlling and problem-solving, and stabilising the environment. In contrast, he proposed that leadership responsibilities included the ability to establish direction, align people, motivate and inspire staff, and produce change. Specifics of these responsibilities are included in Table  17.1. Kotter theorised that leadership and management responsibilities are not mutually exclusive, that is, for leaders to be successful they need to be able to perform both sets of responsibilities. In summary, the transformational leadership style incorporates characteristics of both management and leadership theory. In a world of rapid change, the focus of transformational leaders is on managing change so that their organisation can compete in emerging global markets. An inspirational focus is coupled with recognition of the value of treating employees as people, understanding their needs, and appreciating how much more they can contribute to achieving the organisation’s goals when motivated to perform. Employee opinions are valued and sought and, as a result, processes and production changes may be implemented. So, while there is still a need to think managerially, there is also a need to appreciate the value of getting employees on side, and listening and responding to their valuable ideas and suggestions.

Positive Psychology Contributions The expansion of literature and research into workplace coaching since the 1990s coincides with the growth and demand for coaching worldwide in the last two decades [31–33]. This growth has led to a diversification in the types of coaching

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Table 17.1  Differences between management and leadership [30] Management responsibilities Planning and budgeting—establishing detailed steps and timetables for achieving needed results and then allocating the resources necessary to make that happen Organising and staffing—establishing a structure to accomplish plan requirements, staffing that structure, delegating responsibility and authority for carrying out the plan, providing policies and procedures to help guide staff, and creating methods or systems to monitor implementation Controlling and problem-solving— monitoring results vs. planning in some detail, identifying deviations, and then planning and organising to solve these problems Stabilising—producing a degree of predictability and order, and having the potential to consistently produce key results expected by various stakeholders (e.g. for customers, always being on time; for shareholders, being on budget)

Leadership responsibilities Establishing direction—developing a vision of the distant future and strategies to deliver the changes needed Aligning people—communicating the direction by word and deed to those whose cooperation may be required to influence the creation of teams and coalitions that understand the vision and strategies, and accept their validity Motivating and inspiring—energising people to overcome major political, bureaucratic and resource barriers to change by satisfying very basic, but often unfulfilled, human needs Producing change—often to a dramatic degree, and having the potential to produce extremely useful change (e.g. new products that customers want, new approaches to labour relations that help make the organisation more competitive)

offered by external organisational coaches and internal line managers who coach [34]. The types of coaching offered within organisations, while often used interchangeably [35], have specific characteristics that best serve the groups which are the target of the coaching. Fundamental to organisational coaching is the desire to achieve behavioural and performance changes to support productivity improvements [36, 37]. As the benefits of individual coaching started to impact the organisation, decision-makers began to wonder if individual learnings could be captured at the team level and better managed by an internal coaching presence such as managers coaching their direct reports. Coaching for leadership development encourages organisational leaders to draw on their inner knowledge, skills, and strengths to help them become more effective [38–44]. Leaders discover better ways to communicate, problem-solve, make decisions, and build trusting relationships. They develop cognitive agility and emotional intelligence which motivates and drives them towards changed behaviours and improved performance. Limiting beliefs and assumptions are replaced by positive, motivational intentions that result in more optimistic outcomes based on their newly revealed personal insight. Leaders learn how to become more constructive in their

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feedback, resolve conflict more amicably, and promote commitment based on collaborative relationships. Research has examined the impact of coaching on leadership development [38– 44], personality traits [45–47], self-identity [48, 49], compassion [50], and workplace behaviour [6, 51–54]. Psychological variables are also impacted by coaching such as metacognition, mental health, and goal attainment [55–61]. Goleman [62] attracted attention when he released his theory on why emotional intelligence (EQ) matters more than intelligence (IQ). He identified coaching as one of the four styles associated with effective leaders and a positive contributor to organisational climate [63]. Subsequent associations with like-minded researchers saw coaching acknowledged as an area of research to support not only leader development but also the creation of emotionally intelligent workplaces [64, 65]. Coaching to develop managers’ emotional intelligence soon infiltrated leadership training and graduate management education programs [57, 65, 66] and shortly thereafter entered the organisational space [67, 68]. Emotional Intelligence When the emotional intelligence (EQ) construct exploded into leadership literature in 2000 [63] it brought into focus the development opportunity for leaders to examine their behaviour and interaction with others. Emotional intelligence is the ability to manage ourselves and our relationships effectively and consists of four fundamental capabilities: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and social skill. Each capability, in turn, is composed of specific sets of competencies and their corresponding traits. In addition, Goleman proposed that there are six leadership styles each of which is associated with different organisational outcomes. The leader who is emotionally intelligent has mastered the art of utilising each of these styles as they are appropriate given the situation. Leaders who have mastered four or more—the authoritative, democratic, affiliative, and coaching styles—were found to have the best organisational ‘climate’ (which we now call ‘culture’) for achieving business performance. Moreover, he concluded that the most effective leaders switch flexibly between these four leadership styles. Emotionally intelligent leaders are exquisitely sensitive to the impact they have on others and seamlessly adjust their style to get the best results. These are leaders who, for example, can read in the first minutes of conversation that a talented but underperforming employee has been demoralised by an unsympathetic ‘do-it-theway-l-tell-you’ manager and needs to be inspired through a reminder of why their work matters. Or, an emotionally intelligent leader might choose to re-­energise employees by asking them about their dreams and aspirations and find ways to make their jobs more challenging. Or, an initial conversation might signal that a particular employee needs an ultimatum: improve or leave. Few leaders have all six styles in their repertoire and even fewer know when and how to use them. In fact, as

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Goleman and his associates have brought the findings of their research into many organisations, the most common responses have been, ‘But I have only two of those!’ and ‘I can’t use all those styles. It wouldn’t be natural’. Such feelings are understandable and in some cases the solution is relatively simple. The leader can build a team which includes members who have the important styles they lack. What Goleman was proposing revolutionised the way people looked at leadership and leaders. Researchers began to notice and observe personal traits that contributed to how leaders operate in the workplace as well as how they interact socially. The onus was on leaders to become skilled not only in the ‘doing’ part of their job (producing results) but also in the ‘being’ part as well (more self and other aware, and socially skilled). Goleman noted that the basis of self-knowledge is self-­ reflection—the ability to step back and look at yourself (as if through the rearview mirror) and at how others view your attitude and behaviour. He encouraged leaders to self-reflect and utilise the feedback from others to improve their performance and development both as an individual and as a leader. In addition, he encouraged leaders to identify those situations in which they tend to react rather than act. The sign of maturity in a leader is their ability to adapt and adopt different behaviours in response to once-provocative situations. That is how leaders learn. In terms of its effect on organisational culture, Goleman’s team found that all six leadership styles have a measurable effect on organisational ‘climate’. Further, when they looked at the impact of culture on financial results such as return on sales, revenue growth, efficiency, and profitability, they found a direct correlation between a positive leadership style and these measures. Leaders who used styles that positively affected the ‘climate’ had decidedly better financial results than those who did not. That is not to say that organisational ‘climate’ is the only driver of performance. Economic conditions and competitive dynamics matter enormously. But their analysis strongly suggested that ‘climate’ (a.k.a. ‘culture’) accounts for nearly a third of results—and that’s simply too much of an impact to ignore. Goleman and Cherniss [65] compared the predominant leadership styles of the times with those found to be the most effective in promoting a healthy organisational culture and found that coaching is one of the most effective leadership styles. Coaching Leadership Style From a positive psychology coaching perspective, in addition to specific work-­ related outcomes required as a result of coaching for leadership development, the two main personal outcomes desired are that the coachee develops a heightened level of emotional intelligence and a coaching leadership style. Managers are encouraged to adopt a coaching leadership style so that, rather than focusing just on work-related goals and activities, they become more inspirational and motivational with their staff. When managers adopt a coaching leadership style, they become leaders who enable and empower their direct reports to improved work performance and other personally-related outcomes. The result is that employees become more

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highly engaged and enthusiastic about their work, use their initiative, and look for innovative ways of performing in their day-to-day job. Coaches realise that for leaders to get the most out of their employees, patience, tolerance, and a supportive leadership style is required. Staff need opportunities to express their thoughts and feelings and it is the leader’s role to make sure that the team understands these thoughts and feelings. In addition, individuals need to understand the effects that their behaviour and emotions have on others in the team. Leaders who role-model self-managing their behaviours and emotions encourage employees to develop their own emotional intelligence which, in turn, builds productive working relationships and maximises workplace engagement. Employee Engagement Findings from positive psychology research add to our understandings of how employee engagement is increased as a result of leadership development coaching and leaders adopting a coaching leadership style. The research has found that increased employee engagement correlates with key concepts underpinning positive psychology as evidenced when the following conditions are present within the team or organisation: • Positive leaders: Employees feel empowered by working with leaders who value their individual strengths, quickly address negative behaviours that may arise in the team, and create a positive work environment. • Psychological contracts: The psychological employment contract is no longer about having a job for life (i.e. a transaction where effort and loyalty is exchanged for pay and security). It is about the job being important and having meaning—a defined purpose that the employee aligns with and to which they subscribe—an ideological perspective. In addition, employees now expect a relational benefit from work—an affective component that says they can count on their line manager and work colleagues for emotional support and assistance [69]. • Self-determination: Employees now want to have some control over their job, work environment and career progression [70, 71]. They expect that opportunities for advancement will be made available to them or, if not, they may look externally for a position that better meets their development needs. They like to feel that the work they do is appreciated and will lead to some definite personal or organisational outcome (e.g. promotion, customer satisfaction). • Organisational justice: In a litigious society, employees need to know that justice is done (e.g. in recruitment and selection decisions). In addition, they need to see that these three forms of justice have been done: –– Distributive justice: “Who has what?” and “Is that fair?” –– Procedural justice: “Was the process fair?” –– Interactional justice: “Were interpersonal interactions fair?”

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• Cultural diversity: Managers need to be aware of the different cultural dimensions that individuals in a particular cultural community subscribe to, as opposed to those present in the wider community. • Ethical management: Business practices are under increasing scrutiny to ensure that all employees are treated with respect, the employment experience is positive, and there is mutual benefit in employment transactions. Manager as Coach Managers and leaders play an important role in supporting employee growth and development [6, 72–75]. They are increasingly being held responsible for many human resource, career, and developmental practices including acting as mentors, trainers, and coaches to support team members improve their performance and advance in their careers [76–81]. Recognising that not all managers would want or need to become fully qualified coaches, training programs in coaching skills began to emerge in organisational practice to change the way that managers behave and interact with their direct reports. These Manager as Coach or Leader as Coach programs aim to introduce a coaching leadership style into organisations to increase employee engagement and wellbeing at work [75, 82–84]. The impetus for Manager/Leader as Coach training programs can also be attributed to the desire of organisations to develop an internal coaching capability rather than engaging external coaches at considerable expense. Providing internal employee coaching improves performance more quickly and retains talent as organisations grow and leaders spread the benefits of coaching further into the business to achieve business targets [36, 85–88]. Organisations are increasingly being encouraged to stipulate tangible, measurable outcomes from coaching as a business intervention, to clearly display the benefits of enhanced employee growth and development on performance outcomes [34, 89].

Application to Coaching Coaching has been identified as a powerful intervention to support leadership development [42, 90, 91]. It provides immediate feedback to leaders on their performance and assists them learn, grow, and develop in their role. Leaders who have had the experience of being coached may welcome the opportunity to become fully qualified coaches themselves or to be trained in coaching skills through Manager as Coach or Leader as Coach programs delivered by the organisation. Thereafter, they may adopt a coaching leadership style and deliver coaching formally and informally to their direct reports and others in the organisation.

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Formal Scheduled Delivery When coaching for leadership development is delivered by internal or external coaches, it follows the ©AIPC Organisational COACHing model outlined in Chap. 15. The starting point is the collection of baseline data which may be derived from the results of a 360° multi-rater commercial assessment instrument plus feedback from internal multi-rater reviews. The coachee determines which area for development they would like to work on first which is usually the one that is of most interest to them given the 360° feedback or as the result of any special circumstances they may be experiencing such as moving into a new leadership role. A focus on coaching new leaders to integrate multiple identities—line manager, confidante, trainer, supporter, coach—highlights the latest developments in the field [92]. Two styles of leadership coaching—guidance and facilitation—have been reported in the literature [93]. During coaching, the coach’s role is to challenge the leader’s underlying beliefs, assumptions, or actions that are not serving them well and assist them make more appropriate behavioural choices. Opportunities for development are prioritised as topics for coaching conversations. The goals for the coaching program are identified and the coaching commences. Leaders who have not been coached before, or who are reluctant participants in the coaching process, may decide to start slowly and address a small issue first. Once resolved, trust is established, and even a reluctant coachee usually decides to become fully involved in the coaching process thereafter. Each week, the leader records the actions they have taken and may email progress steps to the coach. Actions that the coachee has taken are reviewed at the beginning of each coaching session until all their goals are achieved and the coaching program completed.

Informal Coaching In addition to formal coaching sessions conducted for leadership development by fully qualified coaches, a number of informal coaching approaches assist employees meet their coaching needs. Coaching conversations, feedback conversations, and corridor conversations may be delivered by leaders trained in coaching skills to improve employee performance and engagement at work. Peers may also informally coach others provided they have attended the training. These forms of informal coaching differ in their purpose but follow the same coaching process, as explained in the sections below.

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Coaching Conversations Informal coaching conversations support employee personal and professional growth, and empower coachees to do even better when they direct their energy and resources to achieving a particular goal [6]. Goal-directed activity not only serves to improve employees’ performance but also to increase the overall productivity of the organisation. Coaching conversations can occur at any level of the organisation, for purposes motivated by the coachee, aimed at driving the business forward even more quickly towards the achievement of strategic objectives. Leaders use coaching skills to engage their direct reports in coaching conversations as and when needed, initiated either by themself or the employee. The focus of the coaching conversation is driven by the coachee and can cover a range of topics (except performance, which is called a feedback conversation [see later], or when a formal coaching session needs to be arranged). Coaching conversations take the form of the ©AIPC COACH Model but are conducted over a shorter period of time—even just minutes. The aim of the coaching conversation is to assist and support direct reports by helping them find an immediate solution to a problem or provide direction in terms of, say, a particular resource. After each coaching conversation, the direct report feels that the leader has heard what’s on their mind, asked constructive questions, and helped them discover the solution by themself. Peer-to-peer coaching conversations may also be conducted by those trained in coaching skills. Feedback Conversations Feedback conversations are designed to provide immediate feedback on what an employee is doing well and address the reasons why their performance may not have delivered as expected. This is an opportunity for an open, honest conversation without justification or blame, to uncover what went wrong and, together, decide ways to get the employee’s performance back ‘on track’. A coaching leadership style supports personal endeavour and learning. It encourages the employee to take action to correct their performance and make the error ‘one-time’ learning. The feedback provided allows employees to re-orient, start-over, and move in the right direction. They now have the information they need to guide their new behaviours and performance objectives. When leaders have feedback conversations with their direct reports, the employee’s performance flourishes from the time and attention the leader has invested in them. Peers trained in coaching skills may also provide immediate feedback to colleagues based on evidence from observations or experiential learning activities, or in a supervisory capacity. In a feedback conversation, the leader provides immediate feedback which is specific and descriptive, without necessarily waiting for a scheduled review. The evidence for what needs improvement is conveyed and acknowledged by the employee. The focus is on how things can be changed—to what standard and by when. Feedback is always constructive. A feedback conversation may also have a

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positive agenda. When an employee does exceptional work, this is the trigger for the leader to show recognition for their skills, abilities, attitudes, etc. Like all motivating systems, it is far better to recognise and reward great performance when it occurs (the positive approach) rather than focus on poor performance (the negative approach). Leaders are encouraged to actively seek opportunities to notice and reward good performance on a daily basis with positive feedback. Corridor Conversations Corridor conversations address issues or concerns that occur ‘on the run’ to support employees make quick decisions so they can get on with their work in the most effective and efficient way. The ‘coach’ (leader or peer trained in coaching skills) may answer an employee’s question, provide some immediate feedback on an idea, or check the validity of an approach. These conversations occur naturally, utilise coaching skills, and are generative and supportive of employees whilst leading them towards their own solutions. The employee is energised to take the next step, knows what to do, has a particular course of action confirmed, and is committed to achieving the new or revised outcome. Ten minutes in the corridor (or a meeting room, or on the plant floor, or in the employee lounge) is where the majority of corridor coaching occurs with no scheduled agenda. The corridor conversation is employee-led, and the leader or peer uses their coaching skills to assist the employee move forward. In summary, coaching for leadership development has evolved from early conceptions of management into a way for leaders to develop a coaching leadership style. Leaders who have been coached are particularly amenable to receiving training in coaching skills, or even becoming a fully qualified coach themselves. Using coaching skills, they can better assist their direct reports and others in the organisation achieve performance and developmental goals that move them professionally forward while also supporting an organisational agenda. Leaders and peers trained in coaching skills may conduct informal coaching, feedback, or corridor conversations with others to support their personal and professional learning and growth.

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Chapter 18

Coaching for Executive Development

This chapter focuses on coaching at the most senior levels of an organisation for executive development. Coaching at senior levels is usually conducted by executive coaches external to the organisation to improve executive performance, resolve personal issues affecting their ability to achieve business targets, improve intra- and inter-personal effectiveness, and align personal aspirations with organisational expectations. Executive coaching traditionally addresses issues of power, influence, and decision-making. Contemporary coaching practice also addresses the responsibilities of executives and the competencies they require to function effectively in a volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous environment. Organisations have downsized, removed management layers, increased spans of control, and created cross-functional and virtual teams in efforts to increase shareholder value. Employees have increased in age range, functional backgrounds, nationality, and cultural diversity. Global recruitment has enabled sourcing the most talented executives into senior organisational positions but also presented challenges in terms of inclusion, acceptance, communication, and team functioning. Coping with these challenges adds to the essential aspects of an executive’s role and may impact on their ability to deliver to their potential. The executive coach acts as a co-learner with the executive and a role model for challenging assumptions and meaning perspectives, as well as examining fundamental value judgments and expectations. The chapter outlines the way that coaching for executive development is conceptualised, the motivations for executive development, the individuals who are the recipients of coaching for executive development, and how it is delivered in an organisational setting.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 S. Knowles, Positive Psychology Coaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88995-1_18

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Theoretical Foundations Traditional behavioural psychology research informs how executives have changed their behaviour over the past two decades, replacing a technical skills-base with strategic thinking to become more business-like, and transferring their learnings into leadership effectiveness to achieve business targets. Cognitive behavioural psychology research has informed how psychodynamic concepts such as metacognition, mental health, and compassion may be translated into effective workplace behaviour. Other research has informed understandings of personality traits, individual differences, employee engagement, goal attainment, power and influence, and the various ways that strategic decisions can be made depending on their importance and the degree of employee involvement. Positive psychology research adds the dimensions of strengths utilisation and an expert orientation rather than control by authority or power to exert influence on others. The motivation for coaching for executive development is for executives to become more personally and professionally effective in their role. The recipients of coaching for executive development are individuals at the senior level who want to improve their strategic thinking and decision-making skills and ability to become more professionally influential as a member of the executive team. Members of the senior executive team usually receive executive coaching automatically when they assume a senior role. Executives are responsible for the performance of their division and hence they may need guidance in settling into a new role (e.g. determining priorities, getting to know other members of the senior team, and how best to exert their influence within the team). Senior executives make significant decisions relating to organisational direction, strategy and goals, strategic business targets, organisation positioning, and reputation.

Traditional Psychology Contributions Executive coaching emerged in the 1990s as an intervention specifically focused on changing the behaviour of middle- and senior-level managers [1]. It has been described as ‘a helping relationship formed between a coachee who has managerial authority and responsibility in an organisation and a consultant who uses a wide variety of behavioural techniques and methods to help the coachee achieve a mutually identified set of goals to improve his or her professional performance and personal satisfaction and, consequently, to improve the effectiveness of the coachee’s organisation’ [2]. Organisations originally engaged executive coaches to address toxic leadership behaviours [3] by improving executives’ leadership and work performance, their ability to motivate and inspire direct reports and others in the organisation, communicate effectively upwards and across all levels of the organisation, and build trusting relationships with key stakeholders. Executive coaches were also engaged in an attempt to ensure that business targets were met.

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Research to separate the key factors influencing executive coaching outcomes from those of psychological interventions identified significant factors as the range of techniques available to the coach, perceptions of working relationships, coachee self-efficacy and, most importantly, the coach–coachee relationship [4], findings which have been subsequently supported in large-scale research [5]. The coach’s academic background in psychology has been positively related to executive coaching effectiveness as evidenced by increased work performance and coachee self-­ awareness [6]. Critical moments in coaching precipitate new realisations which may appear implicitly or explicitly as the coaching proceeds [7]. Two key areas that are informed by traditional psychology research and which coaching for executive development typically addresses are ways that the coachee can become more powerful and influential in the workplace, and how they can make better decisions based on available data and strategic thinking. Power in Organisations Traditional psychology research has addressed the concept of how executives gain power and influence within organisations. Researchers have investigated the ways that executives exert power to get things done and the leadership styles that emerge as a result. The most well-known of these frameworks is French and Raven’s [8] five forms of power. These researchers defined three types of positional power—legitimate, reward and coercive—and two sources of personal power-expert and referent (an individual’s personal appeal and charm). Later a third was added—informational power. This typology suggests that the use of personal power is a better alternative to the exertion of command-and-control techniques and proposes that executives work on building their expert power base (the power that comes with being a real expert in the job) because this is the most legitimate source of personal power. Different forms of power affect leadership and workforce success [9], as explained below. Legitimate power is held by an individual who occupies a formal, positional role and has the ability to administer rewards or punishments by virtue of that role. Employees traditionally obey the executive with an authoritative power base solely because of their role, position, or title rather than because of their leadership style, characteristics, or abilities. Reward power resides in executives who have the ability to grant others the things they desire, or to remove or decrease the things they do not desire. This type of power is based on the premise that employees are more prone to do things and do them well when they get something from their efforts. The most popular forms of reward are offering raises, promotions and recognition. Coercive power is based on the use of threats, bullying, and even abuse in the workplace. Often, the coercion includes the threat of being fired or demoted for non-compliance. Expert power is held by individuals with specific expertise or skillsets (e.g. doctors, lawyers, teachers). Their power is based on the fact that they know and can do what others don’t know and can’t do—the ability to provide information,

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knowledge, or expertise. As a consequence of their expert power or knowledge, an executive is able to convince subordinates to trust them. Referent power is attributed to an executive by an employee who has a sense of personal connection with them or wants acceptance or approval by them based on a relationship or association with them. Referent power is commonly held by individuals in political and military positions although celebrities can be attributed this form of power as well. Informational power is based on an executive’s potential to utilise facts and rational arguments to persuade others, manipulate information, or create a power base. An executive can possess each of the six bases of power to varying degrees. Formal power bases (legitimate, reward and coercive) have a potentially greater impact on employees’ immediate behaviour but do not necessarily produce agreement and/or create increased commitment. Informal power bases (expert, referent, and informational) have a greater capacity to affect overall employee satisfaction and performance at work. Executives with formal power bases tend to remain in their positions of authority longer than individuals who rely on informal power bases because informal power bases are more easily eroded. In general, informal power resides in the person, formal power in the position. Politics Organisational politics refers to those activities focused on acquiring, developing, and using power and other resources to obtain preferred outcomes in a situation in which there is uncertainty or disagreement about choices [10, 11]. Such situations typically arise when resources are scarce, decision-making is unstructured, tasks are interdependent, and power is unevenly distributed throughout the organisation. Moreover, there are usually parochial and conflicting perspectives at play. Negative political tactics employed within organisations include strategies such as ingratiation whereby a person uses compliments, favours, or social reciprocity to influence a situation and coalitions where networks are formed with people in powerful positions, to promote a particular cause, or negate another’s stance. Other tactics include the withholding of information, besmirching another’s reputation (e.g. on social media), and casting doubts on an opponent via underhand means (e.g. starting a rumour). Politics may be used in the hiring and firing of staff which is why the recruitment and selection process needs to be transparent. Organisational politics are evident when selected staff are given developmental opportunities, transferred to a lucrative position on secondment, or given a new assignment that will put them in front of senior executives. To deal with organisational politics, executives need to treat all employees with respect, set an example by not engaging in power plays, actively confront game players, and call attention to inappropriate behaviours. In this way, wrongdoings are brought out into the open for discussion and potential harm is reduced. The influence of coalitions and cliques can be eliminated by strategies such as job rotation, transfer, performance management, or dismissal. It is the executive’s responsibility

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to ensure that the work environment is supportive of open conversations, collaborative and cooperative, and free from all forms of discrimination and harassment. Influence In addition to the use of their positional power, executives may gain greater influence in an organisation by using their informal power bases (expert, referent or informational). These methods are generally more subtle and inclusive yet possibly less reliable than using formal power bases, since they often rely on in-person interaction. However, personal interaction can be equally, if not more, effective depending on the issue and the degree to which the dispute has escalated. The best way for executives to exert their informal power bases is by learning and knowing more (becoming an expert), making individual contributions to the executive team that others are not capable of making (having the necessary information or resources), and referring to others who have additional knowledge, access, or ways to support organisational priorities (referent power). Having information pertinent to areas of organisational concern may enable the organisation to take the initiative ahead of competitors in the marketplace. Executives can then support their staff to influence others by: encouraging, valuing, and rewarding individual and team effort and contributions; promoting accountability for work undertaken; communicating their roles, responsibilities and expectations clearly; and showing positive acceptance and support for performance improvements [12, 13]. Decision-Making The second area that coaching for executive development typically addresses to enable executives become more influential is that of strategic decision-making. Decision-making in organisations has been informed by traditional psychology research in terms of both how decisions are made and who makes them. Early Decisional Balance theory [14] proposed that a simple way to make a decision was by investigating the pros and cons of choosing one action over another. These bipolar scales allow the choice of different reference points along the continuum resulting  in different outcomes. An associated way to make a decision, which is still utilised today, was proposed as using a Decision-Tree [15]. This was a popular management tool to support “What if?” scenario planning. Starting with a central question, e.g. ‘Should we recommend the introduction of a new product line into the market?’, the decision-maker answered ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ to the question which sparked the next question, e.g. (if Yes) ‘At what price?’ The same method continued until a final decision was made. This is a rational way to determine an outcome based on all the available facts, since a ‘people’ element is not involved in the decision-­ making process. However, decisions made purely on facts alone may lead to discontent because of the way they are communicated to employees or the pressures they may put on

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employees to execute the decisions. Hence, once decisions are made, communication processes should be implemented to inform key stakeholders of the decision and any resulting actions, particularly those which affect significant employee groups and others both internal and external to the organisation. In this way, support can be engendered for the changes rather than having the decision railed against. Two key decision-making processes which executives typically utilise with their teams and other key stakeholders, consciously or unconsciously, are the Root– Branch typology and Participative Decision-Making frameworks, as explained below. Root–Branch Decisions The Root–Branch typology [16] is a framework used to determine how important a decision is to make and at what level of authority it should be made. It distinguishes root, trunk, branch, and leaf decisions by their level of importance. This determination impacts the level at which the decision is made and the authority the leader at each level of the organisation has to approve it. Root decisions are those made jointly by the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) and senior executives with input from many people. They are the decisions that, if poorly made and implemented, could cause major harm to the organisation and tarnish relations with customers, suppliers, and key stakeholders. These decisions need the approval of the senior executive to proceed. Trunk decisions are important because they may have ramifications for the operation of business processes and systems including how the organisation interacts with customers. These decisions can be made one-level down from the senior executive but, because these are significant decisions, they should be reported on as intended actions before any action is taken. Branch decisions are those that can be made at the lowest level and acted upon. However they need to be reported on, on a regular basis—daily, weekly or monthly. Leaf decisions are those that can be made quickly at the lowest levels. Managers and staff can make the decision and act on it. There is no need to report on the action taken. Participative Decision-Making The second way that executives typically make decisions in organisations is by involving employees in the decision-making process. Depending on the situation, Participative Decision-Making [17] may involve employees across all levels of the organisation. The process is based on consideration of key questions relating to decision quality, commitment, problem information, and decision acceptance as well as the degree to which employees can or would like to be involved in making the decision. A model that illustrates the participative decision-making process is the Normative Decision Model. The Normative Decision Model [18] identifies five different decision-making styles depending on the situation and level of employee involvement. It specifies the level of authority to make decisions and by whom. Strategic decisions are made by the CEO and senior executive team [19]. Other decisions may be made on the shop

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floor because they are more operational in nature. Some other decisions can be put to general employees because management is not attached to the outcome, for example, ‘On what day should our staff awards night be held this year?’ Participative decision-making may even be used in developing, implementing, and reviewing the work of the group and the distribution of responsibilities. Table 18.1 explains the various processes used at each level of decision-making depending on the type of decision to be made and the degree of employee involvement desired. A modern version of a participative decision-making process is included in Table 18.2.

Positive Psychology Contributions Contemporary psychology research has identified executive coaching as one of the most important approaches to executives’ professional development and a distinct methodology for creating purposeful positive change in executive and management populations [20]. Since executives have a major influence on business performance and organisational sustainability, executive coaching is recognised as one of the key developmental interventions by which to build executives’ capabilities [21] and foster managerial flexibility [22]. It may be used to support high-potential executives in the performance of their role by assisting them improve their performance, develop more effective executive behaviours, address organisational issues, support broader organisational initiatives, and enhance business prowess and career [23, 24]. Any Table 18.1  Normative decision model [18] Type of decision Autocratic type 1 (AI) Autocratic type 2 (AII) Consultative type 1 (CI)

Consultative type 2 (CII)

Group-based type 2 (GII)

Explanation The executive makes their own decision using information that is readily available at the time. This type is completely autocratic. The executive collects the required information from employees, and then makes the decision alone. The problem or decision may or may not be informed to employees. Employees’ involvement is just the provision of information. The executive shares the problem with relevant employees individually, seeks their ideas and suggestions, and then makes the decision alone. Employees do not meet each other and the executive’s decision may or may not reflect the employees’ influence. Employees’ involvement is at the level of providing alternatives individually. The executive shares the problem with relevant employees as a group, seeks their ideas and suggestions, and then makes the decision alone. Here the employees meet each other and, through discussions, they understand other alternatives. But still, the executive’s decision may or may not reflect the employees’ influence. So, the employees’ involvement is at the level of helping as a group in the decision-making process. The executive discusses the problem and situation with employees as a group and seeks their ideas and suggestions through brainstorming. The executive accepts any decision the group makes and does not try to force a particular outcome. The decision is accepted by the group as the final one.

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Table 18.2  Steps in a modern, participative decision-making process 1.  General discussion:  •  What is the problem/issue? How significant is it? Has it occurred before?  •  How does it impact on stakeholder groups e.g. customers, suppliers, shareholders?  •  What will happen if we don’t do anything? Will the issue go away? Will it get bigger? What is the cost of doing nothing? 2.  Having decided to do something, gather all relevant information:  •  What outcome do we want? (be specific)  •  What data is currently available on the issue/problem e.g. how, when, why and where did the issue start? How fast has it grown? What is the current impact and on whom?  •  What has been done to try to resolve this issue or address this problem? With what outcome?  •  What other options are available to achieve the desired result?  •  What is the cost of each option? And the impact on stakeholder groups? 3.  Make a decision:  •  Is this a leaf, branch, trunk, or root decision? Act accordingly to report the decision and/ or take action.  •  Given all the relevant information, make a decision.

negative workplace events present opportunities for executives to learn more about themselves and their work [25]. Executive coaches may also be engaged to assist new executives as they transition into their role. Key stakeholders who have the power to influence the delivery of coaching include the executive’s manager, HR professionals, and any other executive development professionals within the organisation [26]. Executive coaching involves a highly confidential partnership between an executive and a coach focussed on resolving intra-personal and inter-personal issues to achieve organisational outcomes [27, 28]. It is a practical, goal-focused form of personal, dyadic learning and development for busy executives—a targeted, purposeful intervention that helps executives maintain positive change in their personal development and leadership behaviour [29, 30]. Through self-awareness and learning, the coachee undergoes behavioural and performance change which contributes to individual and organisational effectiveness [27]. The intention of coaching is not for the coach to take action on behalf of the executive but rather to promote and support their own learning and change over time [31]. In an organisational setting, executive coaching is characterised by high levels of content and contextually sensitive information plus input from a number of key stakeholders all with different motivations and expectations which may directly affect the coaching outcomes [32]. The coaching typically starts with an initial needs analysis, contracting, data gathering, coaching, goal-setting, measuring and reporting results, and transitioning to a more long-term development plan for the executive in relation to their role [26]. During this time, the coaching relationship is established, data gathered (about the coachee and the organisational environment), feedback presented (from observation, assessment, and multisource data), goals set, and periodic coaching sessions conducted. Finally, the coaching program is evaluated to determine progress toward the original, agreed goals [1]. Professional issues that executive coaching typically address are those of strategic leadership [33–35], the development of core executive competencies including strategic decision-­ making [19, 36], and talent management [37–40].

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Strategic Leadership Strategic leadership capability is developed when executives understand the responsibilities of their role and possess the competencies to implement them. The responsibilities of an executive leader include: • Financial viability: to ensure the sustainability of the organisation. • Advanced technology: to utilise technological advances where practical and financially viable to do so. • For-purpose structure: to structure the organisational operations in the best interests of the business. • Strategic partnerships: to develop strategic partnerships and collaborative business ventures with companies where there is mutual benefit. • Transformational change: to implement organisational transformation when it is deemed that cultural change is required to take the organisation forward. Financial viability of the organisation is the first responsibility of executives—to make a profit on behalf of shareholders as well as ensure that the business sustains into the long term. However, financial performance is not the only area that organisations need to focus on for success and sustainability.  Kaplan and Norton [41] turned the spotlight onto four critical predictors of financial success that organisations need to focus on and measure, when they designed the Balanced Scorecard. By nurturing all four areas, organisations are more likely to remain profitable and sustain longer. The four areas are: • Customers: Are customers satisfied with the product? Did we maintain an effective relationship with them? Is our brand strong? • Internal Processes: Are our business processes effective? Are our learning and development strategies generating innovation? Are we contributing positively to our community? • Learning and Growth: Are we developing our human capital? Are we supporting the growth and retention of our information capital? Are we enhancing our organisational capital (culture, leadership, teamwork)? • Financial: Are we providing a competitive return on investment for shareholders? Knowledge of advanced systems is the second responsibility of executives so that they can utilise the latest technology where practically and financially viable to do so. Advances in technology and cloud-based services allow organisations to conduct business globally. Understanding for-purpose structure is the third responsibility of executives who need to organise the business in the best interests of the firm. Different categories of staff have been proposed by Lepak and Snell [42–44] as a typology of alternate employment arrangements to ensure that organisations have the capabilities they need available to them at the right cost and at the right time, depending on the type of expertise they require in a particular category of employee. Developing strategic partnerships is the fourth responsibility of executives. They arrange strategic partnerships and collaborative business ventures with companies where there is mutual benefit, to ensure the organisation remains responsive to competitive conditions and challenges in the external environment. The ability to implement

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Fig. 18.1 Strategic responsibilities of executives

transformational change programs is the fifth responsibility of executives. They need to be able to implement organisational transformation when it is deemed that cultural change is required to take the organisation to the next level (Fig. 18.1). Executive Competencies Organisations view executives as a critical resource and exploit their core competencies for competitive advantage. Executives appreciate the opportunity to learn new knowledge and skills, and experience greater involvement with the organisation when engaged in their own development. In the global economy, significant investment is required for the organisation to derive full competitive benefit from the development of its executives as its key human capital. Executives need to think critically about a range of factors operating in the external market and strategically position the organisation so that it is at the forefront in meeting customer needs as well as remain profitable. They also must ensure that the work employees do is significant and purposive, important and ethical, and brings meaning to their lives. The core competencies that executives need to possess include strategic thinking, critical analytical ability, strategic decision-making, creative and innovative thinking, and ethical and moral judgement (Fig. 18.2).

Fig. 18.2  Core competencies of strategic executives

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Strategic thinking [45, 46] is required to determine the direction and strategy of the organisation. Executives’ ability to monitor and analyse the global market and identify industry trends is critical to the successful positioning of the business. Competitor analysis helps to differentiate the organisation’s competitive market position and create its unique selling proposition relative to other firms. Critical analytical ability is the second competency an executive needs to possess [47]. Increasingly, big data is being collected by global firms and authorities. The ability to interrogate this data and comprehend the trends shaping the business world is critical to maintaining the performance and sustainability of the organisation [36, 48]. There are three types of big data. Executives with the capability to understand and interpret these types of data and how to use this information will have delivered a substantial competitive advantage to their organisation over their competitors (Fig. 18.3).

Fig. 18.3  Three types of data

• Descriptive data analytics is the most basic form, providing a retrospective view of what happened and laying the foundation for turning data into information. It asks the question: ‘What has happened?’ • More advanced uses of big data incorporate predictive data analytics (i.e. advanced forecasts and the ability to model future results). It asks the question: ‘What could happen?’ • Prescriptive data analytics is the top-tier of analytics that leverages machine learning techniques to both interpret data and recommend actions. It asks the question: ‘What should we do?’ Strategic decision-making is the third competency an executive needs to possess [19, 49]. This is the ability to make decisions not just on the current available information but on where the organisation is likely to be in the future (based on prescriptive data analytics). For example, manufacturing and production line processes continue to seek reduced costs and many organisations have moved their operations into developing nation locations. Research and development is typically continued in the developed nation, thus ensuring market leadership while gaining cost efficiencies from offshore operations.

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Creative innovative thinking is the fourth competency that an executive needs to possess [50–52]. Innovation is a core business process that significantly contributes to an organisation’s competitive advantage. Executives must develop and maintain a culture of enquiry, creativity, and fearless innovation as well as nurture curiosity and adventure which underpins an innovative, agile and sustainable organisation. Ethical and moral judgment is the fifth competency an executive needs to possess [53, 54]. Ethical leadership is a business imperative. Without the exercise of ethical and moral judgment, an organisation is at significant risk of imploding. Executives who misrepresent their organisation’s position to the marketplace, fail to reveal information material to shareholders, or acknowledge a situation where wrongdoing has been committed, may be susceptible to allegations of fraud or other legal improprieties that could cause a significant dent in the organisation’s profitability. Talent Management The third area that coaching for executive development addresses is how coaching can be used to identify the future career aspirations of its most talented executives and enhance their short- and long-term prospects within the organisation [55]. Targeted employees typically experience coaching as a rich, holistic developmental process for releasing their potential [56]. Talent management has become one of the main strategies to enhance and grow the human capital of an organisation and secure its competitive advantage [57–60]. One of the most important benefits of coaching for executive development is the retention of valuable staff within the organisation’s succession plan [37, 38, 61–64]. Coaching may also focus on the executive’s intentions to remain within the organisation and how they can become more engaged and committed by developing their skills and abilities to a level sufficient to allow them to promote into other positions or opportunities within the business [65]. Executives who receive coaching appreciate the personal attention that is given to their development and tend to have extended loyalty to the organisation. Executive coaching can also assist coachees to reduce stress, interpersonal conflict, and team dysfunction, and re-focus on the essential elements of organisational success. Talent management has been investigated across a range of industries [66–68], professions [57, 62], generational groups [69], and socio-economic levels [70] as an essential component of the succession planning pipeline [71, 72]. Global talent management has been increasingly explored in the cross-cultural literature [73–76] especially in relation to the management of expatriates [77], the search for global leadership talent [61, 78], organisational success [65, 79], and organisational reputation [80].

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Application to Coaching Coaching for executive development follows the ©AIPC Organisational COACHing model outlined in Chap. 15. There are four main personal and professional reasons for conducting coaching for executive development: intra- and interpersonal effectiveness, to improve the executive’s personal effectiveness in communicating with and relating to, others in the organisation; executive leadership, to encourage the executive to adopt a more effective leadership style; strategic decision-making, to assist the executive improve their strategic decision-making ability; and power and influence, to assist the executive become more powerful and influential in the organisation. Executive coaching is typically delivered in-person although at times, phone or virtual delivery can prove to be the best option especially over large distances or in extreme market conditions.

Intra- and Inter-personal Effectiveness The first way that coaches enhance executive development is by assisting the executive become more effective as a communicator. Communicating effectively is an invaluable skill especially at the executive level when work is so busy and unpredictable. Executives are  intent on doing their best in their authority area and it requires a concerted effort on their part to coordinate the work of their team. If they know what’s happening in all areas of the business they can also avoid duplication, confusion and potential team rivalry. Hence, communicating clearly with other executives as well as with their direct reports is critical to the smooth operation of the business. Many of the most powerful, influential, and successful people throughout history became so because they were such artfully persuasive communicators. Communicating effectively is fundamental to convincing others to develop peak-­ performance and achieve the desired organisational outcomes. Executives who communicate effectively take into consideration the message, medium, and audience. When these three factors are used to customise the communication, they facilitate trusting relationships to be formed. When communication and relationship skills are lacking, this weakness is often identified in coachees by evidence of adverse incidents involving the executive’s direct reports or others in the organisation. Incidents trigger the need for in-depth assessment of the executive’s interpersonal skills. A 360° assessment may be conducted so that the executive coach can debrief the results with the executive and coach them into developing more effective ways of behaviours and interacting in a workplace environment.

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Executive Leadership The second way that coaches enhance executive development is by increasing their executive leadership capability. Executive leadership is about maintaining the organisation’s competitiveness and profitability in a globalised environment, preserving its reputation, operating ethically and responsibly, and developing and retaining talent [34, 35]. Executive leaders must be mobile, flexible, and resilient, and operate at speed in order to capture market opportunities or fend off possible threats. However, executives do not always possess these characteristics. In fact, in the last century, managers were rewarded for being stoic and commanding respect. They viewed employees as a resource to be exploited. They operated primarily within a domestic market and were totally outcome-focused, work flows being determined by the management hierarchy without question. In contrast, executive leadership today operates in a global market in which technology has enabled production in all parts of the world, resulting in a diverse workforce with a greater understanding of their rights and obligations as employees. In addition, there is increased customer awareness of product quality and pricing, bringing more competition to bear on organisations to deliver above and beyond consumer expectations. In a globalised environment, executives must be able to: manage and operate the organisation ethically and responsibly to maintain profitability and sustainability; lead people so they subscribe to the organisation’s vision and mission, and work hard to be an intrinsic part of its success; and be a role model for emotional and social intelligence. Executives’ ability to manage things and lead people is considerably enhanced when they have personal charisma forged on a base of emotional intelligence, coupled with the constructive and productive wielding of power and influence. Executives who are emotionally intelligent possess four fundamental capabilities: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and social skill [81], each of which is composed of a discrete set of competencies. Goleman [81] defined six leadership styles each derived from different components of emotional intelligence. The styles that most positively influence culture are authoritative (setting direction), followed closely by affiliative, democratic and coaching. To coach a non-strategic executive, or develop strategic ability in a newly appointed executive, the coach debriefs a commercially-available assessment instrument to bring to the executive’s attention the areas they need to concentrate on for their future development. Then, by providing examples and practice scenarios, they assist coachees discover their own ways to strategically lead under different circumstances.

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Strategic Decision-Making The third way that coaches enhance executive development is by assisting executives develop their strategic decision-making ability. Strategic decisions are those that affect the financial viability of the organisation and hence its ability to survive and thrive into the long-term [82]. Strategic decisions are made by the CEO and senior executive team on behalf of the Board, acting in the best interests of shareholders and considering all likely scenarios internal to the business as well as in the external, competitive marketplace. Making a decision within an organisation involves gathering and organising information relevant to the issue under consideration, determining which stakeholders to involve in the decision-making process and at what level, and communicating effectively with these stakeholders so they are or feel involved in the final decision. It is then up to the accountable executive to take action and measure performance outcomes to gauge the success of the decision that was made. Executives choose the most appropriate type of decision-making to determine what to do, depending on the situation in which the organisation finds itself and the degree of consultation they wish to engage in—decision balance/decision tree, root–branch–trunk–leaf, or participative/normative decision-making.

Power and Influence The fourth way that coaches enhance executive development is by increasing their power and/or influence within the organisation. At the executive level, power derives from control over a resource, technical skill, or body of knowledge that is critical to the organisation’s functioning. The executive’s role is to remain vigilant to possible threats and opportunities in the external environment and create responsive scenarios for consideration by the senior executive team. At a divisional level, the executive’s power increases to the extent that their division solves problems for other areas of the business. For example, their division may use coping approaches that cannot be duplicated elsewhere in the organisation. It may maintain strong organisational communication links and networks internal and external to the organisation. It may perform tasks that are so essential to organisational success that major disruptions to workflow occur if these tasks are not completed. Hence, the most powerful divisions within an organisation are those which manage the critical contingencies—the sources of uncertainty—in the external environment. The executive may increase their formal power base by promoting into a more senior position or being seconded to a project of importance. Their informal power base may be boosted by gaining knowledge or skills which expand their expertise, associating with colleagues in more powerful positions, or gaining access to informational sources that can provide or deliver business outcomes more quickly or at less cost. To coach an executive who uses a command-and-control style with employees, the coach relies on evidence of the impact of such behaviour in the

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workplace. Evidence may be accrued from staff complaints and, in serious situations, from employee voluntary exits. The coaching session is conducted tentatively at first, presenting the evidence and asking for the executive’s explanation of events. In the extreme, the support of a higher-up executive may need to be secured to bring home the seriousness of the situation and break down any resistance to change. The executive may simply be behaving as they have always done and been rewarded for in the past. However, in a positive work environment, coercive behaviours are unacceptable. In summary, an executive’s effectiveness is facilitated by developing their intraand inter-personal skills so they better communicate with colleagues and establish stronger, professional relationships in the workplace. Professional effectiveness is enhanced when coaching supports executive development and improved strategic decision-making ability. Embracing an expert powerbase gives an executive the credibility they need to influence others to accept their point of view. The upsurge of coaching for executive development is aligned with the emergence of transformational and systematic change in corporate settings.

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37. Sparrow, P., & Makram, H. (2015). What is the value of talent management? Building value-­ driven processes within a talent management architecture. Human Resource Management Review, 25(3), 249–263. 38. Swailes, S., Downs, Y., & Orr, K. (2014). Conceptualising inclusive talent management: Potential, possibilities and practicalities. Human Resource Development International, 17(5), 529–544. 39. Cappelli, P., & Keller, J. (2014). Talent management: Conceptual approaches and practical challenges. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 1(1), 305–331. 40. Dries, N. (2013). The psychology of talent management: A review and research agenda. Human Resource Management Review, 23(4), 272–285. 41. Kaplan, R., & Norton, D. (1996). The balanced scorecard: Translating strategy into action. Harvard Business School Press. 42. Lepak, D., & Snell, S. (1999). The human resource architecture: Toward a theory of human capital allocation and development. The Academy of Management Review, 24(1), 31–48. 43. Lepak, D., & Snell, S. (2007). Employment subsystems and the HR architecture. In The Oxford handbook of human resource management. Oxford University Press. 44. Lepak, D., & Snell, S. (2002). Examining the human resource architecture: The relationships among human capital, employment, and human resource configurations. Journal of Management, 28(4), 517–543. 45. Chevallier, A. (2016). Strategic thinking in complex problem solving. Oxford University Press. 46. Randolph, S. (2013). Strategic thinking. Workplace Health & Safety, 61(1), 52–52. 47. Akinci, C., & Sadler-Smith, E. (2013). Assessing individual differences in experiential (intuitive) and rational (analytical) cognitive styles. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 21(2), 211–221. 48. Corea, F. (2016). Big data analytics: A management perspective. Springer International Publishing. 49. Galavan, R., Huff, A., & Sund, K. (2016). Uncertainty and strategic decision making. New horizons in managerial and organizational cognition. Emerald Group Publishing Limited. 50. Adair, J. E. (2007). The art of creative thinking: How to be innovative and develop great ideas. Kogan Page. 51. Jager, C. D. (2013). Developing creative and innovative thinking and problem-solving skills in a financial services organisation. SA Journal of Human Resource Management, 11(1), 124–133. 52. Martins, J., & Friedman, L. (2015). Competency in innovation, creative and innovative thinking: Challenges within the Health Management course curriculum. The Journal of Health Administration Education, 32(3), 257–269. 53. Steinbauer, R., et al. (2014). Ethical leadership and followers’ moral judgment: The role of followers’ perceived accountability and self-leadership. Journal of Business Ethics, 120, 381–392. 54. Haines, R., Street, M., & Haines, D. (2008). The influence of perceived importance of an ethical issue on moral judgment, moral obligation, and moral intent. Journal of Business Ethics, 81(2), 387–399. 55. Church, A., et al. (2015). How are top companies designing and managing their high-potential programs? A follow-up talent management benchmark study. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 67(1), 17–47. 56. Anderson, D., & Anderson, M. (2005). Coaching that counts: Harnessing the power of leadership coaching to deliver strategic value. Elsevier/Butterworth-Heinemann. 57. Babío, N., & Rodríguez, R. (2010). Talent management in professional services firms: A HR issue? International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 18(4), 392–411. 58. Collings, D., & Mellahi, K. (2009). Strategic talent management: A review and research agenda. Human Resource Management Review, 19(4), 304–313.

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80. Salih, A., & Alnaji, L. (2014). The impact of talent management in enhancing organizational reputation: An empirical study on the Jordanian telecommunications companies. Journal of Applied Business Research, 30(2), 409. 81. Goleman, D. (2000). Leadership that gets results. Harvard Business Review, 78(2), 78–90. 82. Mitchell, J. (2011). Erratic strategic decisions: When and why managers are inconsistent in strategic decision making. Strategic Management Journal, 32(7), 683–704.

Chapter 19

Coaching for Organisational Learning

This chapter explains how the learnings from individual coaching can be harnessed at the collective, systemic level to inform and support organisational learning. Organisational learning enables organisations to adapt and transform in response to, or in anticipation of, change. Early explanations of how organisations learn were based on individual learning principles. Later conceptualisations highlighted systemic ways of thinking and doing that were transformative beyond individual learning and resulted in organisational learning. As individuals learn, they enact new behaviours which others intuit, interpret, integrate, and institutionalise at the organisational level. New knowledge is acquired or created, distributed and integrated among organisational members based on individual learnings. Collective learning is captured by the enculturation of individual learnings through shared behaviours, rituals, systems and procedures which become entrenched in the organisation. Organisational learning can also occur as the result of exploratory and exploitative innovation in the workplace. The chapter outlines the way that coaching for organisational learning is conceptualised, the motivations for organisational learning, the individuals who are the recipients of coaching for organisational learning, and how it is delivered in an organisational setting.

Theoretical Foundations Traditional behavioural psychology research supports the enacting of new behaviours surfaced through coaching. Cognitive behavioural psychology evokes individual cognitions which transfer new learnings into new or revised organisational procedures, policies and processes via feed-forward cycles. Social psychology research reveals that individuals socialise new behaviours and cause the assimilation of new learnings across group and organisational levels. Positive psychology

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research has found that changes in mental models result in the transfer of individual learnings into the collective conscious. The motivation for coaching for organisational learning is to harness collective learning to develop human capital and improve policies and procedures, business process and systems, thereby gaining competitive advantage for the organisation. The recipients of coaching for organisational learnings are executives who want to capture and maximise the outcomes of collective learnings in their area of responsibility. Coaching for organisational learning is typically delivered by external executive coaches.

Traditional Psychology Contributions Interest in organisational learning was stimulated by Peter Senge [1] in his seminal book: The Fifth Discipline: The Art & Practice of the Learning Organisation. Based on the belief that the top-heavy, hierarchical prevailing system of management had destroyed people, Senge sought to re-balance organisations by harnessing the collective genius within them to establish an integrated system of generative learning. Within such a system, leaders adopt new roles as designers, teachers and stewards who create a tension between the organisation’s vision and the current reality, develop a shared vision based on communication and support, blend intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and balance inquiry and advocacy to test mental models which identify espoused values as opposed to values-in-use [2]. In a learning organisation, employees are responsible for their own learning, leaders are responsible for continually expanding the capabilities of their direct reports by breaking the traditional authoritarian command and control hierarchy to merge thinking and acting at all levels [3], and the organisation is responsible for recognising the emotional, social and political context in which learning takes place [4]. Early explanations of how organisations learn were based on individual learning principles which underpin the coaching process [2, 5]. In a workplace setting, the coach invites the coachee to critically reflect and identify a disorienting dilemma and then addresses the resulting discontent to evoke learning [6]. Coaching practice delivered across all organisational levels transforms individual learnings into transformative, behavioural change. Organisational learning enables organisations to adapt and transform in response to, or in anticipation of, change [7–9]. It is a process ‘whereby individual learning is shared at an organisational level … [to achieve] organisational goals’ [10]. The process acquires or creates, distributes and integrates knowledge among organisational members based on individual learnings [11, 12]. The intentional use of learning processes such as coaching builds the organisation’s capability to integrate and apply knowledge to create new markets and niches, sustain its competitive advantage, and achieve organisational success [13–15]. Later conceptualisations of coaching highlighted systemic ways of thinking and doing that were transformative beyond individual learning and resulted in organisational change. Researchers came to understand that, at the collective level, learning takes place through individuals whose actions are based on shared models of values

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and expected behaviours, transmitting and integrating them into practices [2]. They also discovered that collective learning is the result of developing socially constructed cultural elements such as rituals and stories. Commonly held values and beliefs create negotiated roles and norms as by-products of the enculturation and socialisation process [16]. When organisational learning is ‘beyond language’ and ‘recursive’ [17], triple-­ loop learning results from addressing underlying assumptions, beliefs, social norms, and ‘taken-for-granted’ expectations [18, 19]. Triple-loop learning is the continual reflection on the learning process, the contexts within which learning occurs, and the assumptions and values motivating the learning and influencing its outcomes [20]. This ‘higher-order’ learning extends Argyris and Schön’s singleand double-loop learning by uncovering underlying purposes and principles [19]. This extension beyond double-loop learning resembles Bateson’s [17] original levels of learning whereby ‘members question and challenge the assumptions about the existence of the organisation’ [21]. Building a learning organisation is an attempt to influence and integrate collective learning into the fabric and culture of the organisation [22]. Influential individuals or groups at any level within the organisation, who are dedicated to building new organisational capabilities such as coaching, can instigate organisational learning [23]. The processes involved in the transfer of individual to collective learning have been identified as intuiting, interpreting, integrating, and institutionalising [24]. Organisational learning is mediated by psychological and social processes which combine individual cognition and behaviours with the development of organisational procedures, policies and processes. Collective learning occurs when feed-forward cycles assimilate new learning across individual, group and organisational levels and feedback cycles are based on the use of existing knowledge [24]. Feed-forward processes include sharing through visioning and the use of metaphors to articulate commonalities or highlight contradictions which can be resolved through analogy. Collective learning becomes entrenched in the organisation through shared behaviours, rituals, systems and procedures. Learning also occurs when organisational members gather, interpret, and apply information from external sources to promote continuous, proactive, and efficient adaptation to changing needs and conditions [25]. Collective learning may occur deliberately via continuous learning at the systemic level [26] or suddenly as the result of major change through crisis or a threat to survival [27, 28].

Positive Psychology Contributions There is broad agreement in the academic literature that coaching is an intervention that can help people achieve their goals and improve performance [29, 30]. Further, there is clear evidence that coaching cultures promote organisational learning, adaptability to change and encourage collaborative learning [31]. When organisational leaders develop and apply coaching competencies, positive psychology

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research has found that the benefits to individuals, teams and organisations include increased motivation, happiness and job satisfaction, improved team communication, cooperation, knowledge-sharing and performance, all of which result in reduced staff turnover across the whole organisation [32–34]. Organisational learning is reinforced through embedding ‘communities of practice’ into regular operational reviews which impact on organisational policies and procedures [35, 36]. Coaching enables transformation by either controlling (e.g. directing, navigating, or caretaking) or shaping (by coaching, interpreting, or nurturing) behaviours depending on whether the change is intended, partially intended, or unintended [37]. Coaching practice, applied consistently throughout the organisation, achieves system-wide behavioural and cultural change [38–40], and provides the basis for collective learning to occur [41, 42]. Coaching can also significantly influence organisational learning at the cultural level of shared models and assumptions. As a reflective, goal-oriented approach to achieving professional outcomes, collaborative learning is valued by both the coachee and the organisation [43]. Mechanisms that translate individual into organisational learning and connect across organisational levels have been proposed as enacting new behaviours through the coaching process and embedding collective learning into all levels of the organisation [10]. The first mechanism—‘enacting new behaviours’—involves the learning of new ideas and actions, understanding the value of procedures yet being open to other perspectives, and the collective copying of shared new learning. The second mechanism—‘the coaching approach’—is concerned with understanding the effectiveness of coaching as a learning process, expressly sharing new mental models about a coaching style of leadership, utilising coaching techniques, and displaying coaching behaviours. The third mechanism—‘embedding collective learning’— occurs when leaders understand the coaching process, prioritise new ways of interacting and behaving based on a coaching leadership style, and sustain implementation of the revised cultural norms. It is at this stage that coaching enables transformation by shaping intentions and nurturing behaviours to achieve the intended cultural change. Innovation Organisational learning can also occur as the result of innovation in the workplace. Innovation practices inspire employees to create and implement novel or improved ideas for organisational products, services, and technologies. There are two types of innovation—exploratory and exploitive. Exploratory innovation refers to the generation of novel ideas, strategies and solutions through the use of open behaviours exhibited most often by transformational leaders [44]. The foundation of exploratory innovation is characterised by search, discovery, experimentation, and risk taking [45, 46]. The focus is on generating new ideas, products, and strategies which build on and extend existing ideas. Exploratory innovation utilises a transformational leadership style which encourages flexibility, opportunism, and adaptability. Exploitative innovation occurs when innovative thinking adjusts, revises, or

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reframes the product or service already being offered within the marketplace [47]. Different types of leadership styles and behaviours are required at different stages of the innovation process. Innovation goes beyond the creation of ‘good ideas’. It necessarily involves the successful implementation of these ‘good ideas’. There are three stages in the innovation process—idea generation, evaluation and implementation. In the idea generation process, the executive encourages and promotes a safe environment for team members to voice novel ideas and original thinking, and provides them with the resources to do so effectively. Research has found that executives who engage in unconventional behaviours, often associated with a transformational leadership style, are seen as stronger role models and as a result, they are able to increase creative performance in their direct reports [48, 49]. Open leadership behaviours send the message that unorthodox and unconventional ideas and behaviours are not only accepted but also encouraged. The successful implementation of a new process, product, service, or method of delivery often involves internal organisational change. In particular, executives need to consider the skills required by those staff implementing the change. Where necessary, transition planning should be conducted to identify, consider, and have solutions for, the changes required in structures, skills and systems. The role of the executive in the implementation stage is to ensure that transition plans are developed to progress the project, involve all key stakeholders (both positive and negative), and communicate with all audience groups so that they are informed to the appropriate level. As the change plan is rolled-out, the role of the executive is to monitor the achievement of key milestones and smooth the way to remove any barriers to implementation. Although it may seem counterintuitive, it is in large organisations which are continuously searching for improvement—both exploratory and exploitative—that some of the greatest breakthroughs in processes, systems, and technologies have been made. These organisations have a stable product but continue to look for even better ways to do what they do more effectively and efficiently. Much of the drive to innovate can be attributed to the qualities and characteristics of the executive driving the innovation agenda as it is they who set the tone and model the behaviours that they want from all staff. The characteristics of a successful innovation leader include expertise in the designated area, creativity, the ability to carry out transformational leadership behaviours, planning, sense-making, and social skills.

Application to Coaching Organisational learning is captured by the enculturation of individual learnings at the systemic, organisational level. Coaching to facilitate organisational learning follows the ©AIPC Organisational COACHing model outlined in Chap. 15. The coach’s role is to encourage ‘innovative thinking’ in the executive to initially

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stimulate individual learning and then later, assist them discover the most appropriate ways to translate that into systemic learning. There are a number of strategies that the executive may use to transfer and embed individual learning into collective learning such as role modelling, evoking innovative practice, and initiating opportunities for change.

Role Modelling The most influential way that executives can promote organisational learning is by role modelling implementing their own individual learnings from engaging in professional development activities into their everyday work practices. Attendance at professional development events sends a clear signal to their direct reports of the importance of keeping up-to-date with their expert powerbase (although for many executives, there will come a time when their powerbase changes from ‘expert’ to ‘manager’). In addition, the executive may become an active member of a professional association which supports their key expert or interest area and provides networking opportunities. Connections made through these professional avenues are invaluable in not only reinforcing current industry relationships but also in forging potential mutually supportive, strategic, knowledge-based or partnership relationships that may later be of considerable benefit to the executive and their organisation.

Innovation Second, having role modelled their commitment to their own professional development, the executive may generate organisational learning by demonstrating support for innovation and new ways of thinking. During coaching, they may surface a number of potential opportunities for organisational learning such as implementing a revised production procedure or designing a completely new product based on the latest technology. The coach’s role is to assist the executive evaluate each possibility for its potential gain and risk, using the most appropriate decision-making process. Coaching conversations assist the executive evaluate the usefulness of each idea and eliminate those that do not appear viable or aligned with organisational goals. The outcome identifies the ideas to support and those to discard. The coach can then work with the executive to prioritise the most promising idea, fine-tune it, and prepare a risk-benefit analysis to present to the senior executive team. Once a decision has been made to proceed, the executive shifts their focus to communicating the outcome to their team and other organisational members. During the implementation process, the coach works with the executive to identify ways that they can best provide leadership, direction, guidance and support to their team.

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Change Initiatives The third way that executives can generate organisational learning is by identifying potential change opportunities in their area of responsibility and also possibly in other areas which may go beyond their authority but support organisational objectives. For example, executives may identify ways for organisational processes or systems to become more efficient, thereby saving the organisation time, money and resources. These new ways of ‘doing’ may be more effective in achieving the organisation’s objectives and better contribute to meeting stakeholder needs. The coach first encourages the executive to assess the degree of alignment of the potential change with the organisation’s values, philosophy and strategic objectives. Then, the coach asks the executive to think about ways that employees may actively participate in the change process. Together, they identify and analyse potential barriers to the change and determine strategies to address identified challenges during the implementation phase. Ongoing discussion and review of implementation progress identifies ongoing areas of concern which coaching conversations can be instrumental in resolving to facilitate progress. In summary, executives who demonstrate commitment to their own learning and professional development serve as role models for others to also embrace new opportunities for learning. During coaching, executives identify ways in which their individual learnings may be translated into organisational learnings, for example, by undertaking change projects in their area of responsibility that have significant benefits to the organisation and supporting innovation in all its forms.

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Chapter 20

Coaching for Transformational, Cultural Change

This chapter introduces coaching as a vehicle for transformational, cultural culture. It reviews research into organisational culture and details ways that coaching, when applied consistently throughout the organisation, can be used to communicate, operationalise and monitor transformations which change the culture of the entire organisation. Culture refers to the deep structure, normative beliefs, and shared behavioural expectations within an organisation which reflect, in large part, the values and behaviours of the senior executive team. Organisational culture informally coordinates and controls behaviours, actions, and decision-making across the organisation. To implement transformational change, executives set the direction from the top within a strategic framework and engage the people below. They focus simultaneously on the hard (structure and systems) and soft (culture and people) issues. They plan for innovation and encourage experimentation and the use of ‘risk-free’ zones. Incentives reinforce the changes rather than drive them. Organisations which invest resources into making coaching a strategic priority during a transformation and cultural change program reap the benefits by transitioning more smoothly and quickly to their desired future. The expertise of executive coaches acting as consultants is used as a resource to assist senior executives map-out and plan the transformation. The chapter outlines the way that coaching for transformational cultural change is conceptualised, the motivations for transformational cultural change, the individuals who are the recipients of coaching for transformational cultural change, and how it is delivered in an organisational setting.

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Theoretical Foundations Traditional behavioural psychology research informs the need for behaviours associated with organisational and cultural values to be consistently enacted during a transformation process. Cognitive behavioural psychology addresses the importance of executives and leaders conceptualising coaching as a highly effective way of maximising individual potential, building collective learning, and retaining talented staff. Social psychology research indicates the importance of socialising the new cultural norms throughout the organisation. Positive psychology research reinforces that individuals will adopt change that is aligned with their personal values and beliefs. The motivation for coaching for transformational, cultural change is for executives and all employees to model the behaviours consistent with the core values and beliefs of the organisation. The recipients of coaching for transformational cultural change are CEOs and senior executives responsible for transforming the organisation through coaching to achieve cultural change. Coaching for transformational, cultural change is typically delivered by eternal executive coaches, often in conjunction with an internal Coaching Champion who may be a senior executive or transformational HR professional.

Traditional Psychology Contributions Interest in the delivery of coaching within organisations was initially practitioner led. The importance of organisational culture first appeared in the seminal book, In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America’s Best-Run Companies [1]. The message was simple: for organisations to succeed, they need to develop a strong organisational culture. The message provoked companies out of their complacency to uncover and promote shared mental models, values-in-action and concomitant behaviours to achieve competitive advantage [2]. A strong organisational culture was seen as a way to re-assert company dominance over Japanese counterparts who had embraced Total Quality Management (TQM) [3, 4]. The revised view of management techniques post-TQM was that, in a VUCA world, loose not tight organisational controls achieved organisational objectives, and shared values encouraged autonomy and entrepreneurship [1]. Consequently, coaching has emerged over the past two decades as a way of developing an organisational culture focused on success through empowering people. Academic interest in the role of coaching to develop organisational culture has arisen intermittently since the late 1990s, mainly within the field of executive coaching, focused on evaluating its effectiveness [5–13] and establishing the return on investment from coaching [14–19]. Support for the delivery of coaching in organisations was provided by the establishment of coaching practice standards by professional associations such as the ICF and APA which developed their own rules, rituals, and competencies based on ethical and legal standards of professionalism

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[20–22]. Coaching as a professional practice and field of expertise expanded from an intervention to develop individual leaders into opportunities for ‘in-the-moment team coaching, group coaching, coach mentoring … and other coaching-based approaches … [to effect] comprehensive change initiatives’ [23]. As coaching-­ based initiatives influence, leverage, and change company cultures, organisational leaders are increasingly encouraged to enable enhanced work engagement of all employees, facilitate organisational learning, and manage cultural change agendas through coaching [24, 25]. Organisational culture has been defined as ‘a pattern of basic assumptions— invented, discovered or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with the problems of external adaptation and internal integration—that has worked well enough to be considered valid and therefore to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think and feel in relation to these problems’ [26, 27]. Culture refers to the deep structure, normative beliefs, and shared behavioural expectations within an organisation which reflect, in large part, the values and behaviours of the senior executive team. Hence, to change the culture, organisations may need to change their CEO. Even then, entrenched values (values-in-action, i.e. behaviours) [28] are often more visible than espoused values (the ones on the website). Because culture becomes so deeply engrained in an organisation, it is hard to move and harder even to define. It takes courage on the part of the CEO and senior leadership team to ‘turn the ship around’, and when it does, there are often causalities at middle-to-upper management levels. Culture works to informally coordinate and control behaviours, actions, and decision-making within organisations. It reflects not just the written or explicit rules of the organisation but the implicit, unwritten, subconscious, intangible assumptions and beliefs which shape organisational behaviour as observed in all facets of day-to-day operations. Organisations need to be impacted at the level of artefacts, values and beliefs, and assumptions, for transformational, cultural change to occur [26, 29]. Artefacts are the signs and symbols by which the organisation visibly conveys its intentions to the world. These can take the form of framed statements of the mission and vision, portraits of the founders, or models of the organisation’s products/ services, objects or logos which typify the business. Advertising campaigns include images and statements of intent in flyers, brochures, billboards, television advertisements, and organisation videos which reinforce key messages, promote a positive impression of the organisation, and encourage sales. Such brand awareness tends to raise the public opinion and reputation of the organisation, provided no untoward press coverage has occurred. Stories handed down from employee to employee, possibly across generations, constitute the cultural glue that holds the organisation together. It is partially for this reason that changing the culture of an organisation is so very difficult to effect. Values and beliefs are the primary or dominant accepted ways of relating to, and interacting with, others internal and external to the organisation. Core values are not easily recognised in manifest ways outside of the organisation, but internally they are recognised by aligned behaviours. Although they may be overtly discussed and

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espoused (e.g. in organisational advertising), there is often a disconnect between the stated values and what actually happens in reality—the ‘values in-action’ [28]. It is often a matter of ‘do as I say’ rather than ‘do as I do’. Assumptions are the external view of culture that gives an organisation its distinct personality and outward appearance. They represent the ‘taken-for-granted’ [29], deep-seated views of the organisation. Holding a contrary position to these views is almost unthinkable. Assumptions are often only revealed through the stories that are told, the rituals that are conducted, and the rewards that are given to those who represent the best exemplars of these values. Because culture influences what the organisation views as being useful or important information, certain aspects of organisational culture can actually impede strategic thinking and planning. Culture dictates what knowledge belongs to all organisational members and what belongs to certain individuals or groups. Cultural norms dictate how and what types of knowledge are transferred in given situations, upwards and sideways. Culture dictates the extent to which information from the external environment is selected, interpreted, and distributed throughout the organisation. If trust is low or if the culture places individual knowledge ahead of organisational knowledge, distribution of knowledge will take longer to effect, if at all.

Positive Psychology Contributions The contemporary view of coaching is that it is a vehicle for delivering system-wide behavioural and cultural change [30, 31]. Various definitions of a coaching culture have been proposed since interest in this phenomenon began around 2005, based on what it does and how it exists. However, there is no definitive agreement on what a coaching culture is. What is known is that a coaching culture is driven by the ‘principles, beliefs, and mindsets’ [32] of individuals in the organisation. Employees who adopt a coaching mindset share a common philosophy and objectives characterised by high levels of involvement, consistency, adaptability, and organisational dedication [33, 34]. In a coaching culture, ‘coaching behavior motivates people, increases job satisfaction and morale, and strengthens bonds between individuals’ [35]. Contemporary definitions of a coaching culture have highlighted its ambiguity and complexity [32, 36–39]. Clutterbuck and Megginson’s view is that coaching cultures are characterised by ‘a commitment to grow the organisation alongside a parallel commitment to grow the people in the organisation’ [38]. Passmore and Jastrzebska believe that ‘a coaching culture is one where coaching, [and] the use of reflective and provocative questions, is used consistently by all employees and by key partners, to help develop understanding, insight and personal responsibility for those responsible in delivering the organisational outcomes... [They continue.] While it is not the only way which the organisation leads and manages its employees or works with its partners, it is the primary leadership, development and learning style used in the organisation’ [40].

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Hawkins is of the opinion that a coaching culture exists when ‘a coaching approach is a key aspect of how the leaders, managers, and staff engage and develop all their people and engage their stakeholders, in ways that create increased individual, team and organisational performance and shared value for all stakeholders’ [39]. This definition describes the activities that are undertaken in a coaching culture but not how it develops. A composite definition of a coaching culture from a review of the literature is that ‘a coaching culture exists within an organisation when it has embedded a coaching approach as part of its strategic plans in a transparent way. Coaching cultures should motivate individuals and facilitate cooperation, collaboration and connection within the organisation and with its external stakeholders’ [36]. This definition encompasses a higher-order agenda for the development of a coaching culture within and without the organisation. Their most recent definition of a coaching culture extends Clutterbuck and Megginson’s earlier work which now firmly positions coaching within a workplace environment: ‘A coaching culture is one where the principles, beliefs, and mindsets driving people’s behaviour in the workplace are deeply rooted in the discipline of coaching’ [32]. It also alludes to the emergence of coaching as a discipline in its own right. Based on her research findings, the author proposes the following definition of a coaching culture: A coaching culture is one in which coaching occurs naturally and organically as the way to transform relationships, conduct business transactions, and achieve cultural change.

Transformational Cultural Change Through Coaching A number of studies have focused on how coaching drives cultural change [41, 42] and retains talent in a complex, diverse, and global business environment [23]. From their review of the research into organisational culture over the past 30  years, researchers have identified five dominant models of culture used by organisation scholars: culture as values, stories, frames, categories and toolkits [43]. The term culture has been used to indicate how values guide and constrain people in organisations [26], weave stories to obtain resources [44], or discriminately use tools to meet needs and interests [45, 46]. The coaching as values model represents the shared understanding of what coaching is about and the philosophy that underpins the coaching process. The coaching as stories model represents the narrative and conversation that transacts between the coach and coachee as the coaching unfolds. The coaching as frames model represents the coaching intervention that assists coachee’s reframe their view of the world by identifying limiting beliefs and unblocking barriers to efforts to move forward. The coaching as categories frame allows the coachee to make sense of their situation and focus on how to take action. The coaching as toolkits model provides the coach with the skills to coach non-judgmentally and professionally, remaining centred on the coachee and the coachee’s needs, and guiding the coachee to take action. Of these five dominant models, culture as toolkits most aptly represents the model typically used as a starting point to develop a coaching culture as it

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is the one most usually associated with coordinating and taking action, helping people reach agreements, and promoting change [36]. Repertoires of actions are the resources (or toolkit) that actors use to make meaning of their work [47]. The coaching as toolkits model of organisational culture explains how actors use cultural repertoires in practice (i.e. the various skills, knowledge and resources that employees can draw upon to solve everyday problems) [48]. Repertoires of action bring together habits, styles, skills and symbols [43] and operationalise the mental models, strategies and actions that individual’s work from (e.g. how to manage their workload, how to be a good leader, how to coach). These repertoires are backed up by skills, habits and styles that are translatable into practice [49]. Repertoires of action have been related to constructs such as cultural repertoires [48, 50], cultural capital [51], and theories of practice [52]. Developing coaching competencies in order to coach others to peak performance is an essential component of a leader’s behavioural repertoire [21, 36]. However it cannot be assumed that leaders know how to coach. Rather, they may need to be trained in coaching skills to guide and facilitate self-reflection and learning. The use of cultural toolkits has been empirically verified in studies including justification for different life events [53], conferring worth to social standing [54], and drawing social boundaries and establishing identities [50]. Employees use personal cultural resources [55] and socio-cultural values [56] within their toolkit to make sense of specific work situations and events. Shared toolkits have been empirically associated with the coordination of team efforts in product innovation [57], evaluating products at the field level [58], and work practices in organisations [59– 64]. Thus, the culture as toolkits model of organisational culture suggests that introducing a coaching culture into an organisation consists of sharing the values associated with coaching together with the cultural norms associated with coaching (e.g. coaching ethics) as well as the skills and knowledge required to enable managers and leaders to coach confidently and consistently (i.e. training them in how to coach and the development of a coaching toolkit). Formal, structured, long-term coaching programs based on this dominant model of organisational cultural change are effective in aligning behaviour with organisational priorities, cascading the programs down the organisation through training, following-up with coaching, and appointing an internal coaching team [65]. These strategies incorporate coaching behaviour as a job performance competency and link it to systems for advancement, rewards and incentives. Establishing the infrastructure for coaching has been empirically validated as a positive and supportive approach to coaching culture development [39, 66]. Coaching practice, applied consistently throughout the organisation, achieves system-wide behavioural and cultural change [67–69], provides the basis for collective learning to occur [70, 71], and a coaching culture to be developed [38, 39, 72]. A coaching culture grows when coaching is integrated into the very fabric of the organisation (Fig. 20.1).

Application to Coaching

295

Fig. 20.1 Coaching culture

Application to Coaching Coaching an executive for transformational cultural change is a specialist skill which involves a mix of coaching and consulting. Strategic leaders typically have their own executive coach to guide and support them when they make the difficult decisions in relation to organisational strategy, structure, systems, and staff and/or to successfully navigate conflict or relationship issues among their team or with their direct reports. They demonstrate personal commitment to coaching by role modelling the development of their own capabilities as a recipient of coaching. Executives who are coached share a common understanding of what coaching means and how it can benefit them and others. They typically informally coach their direct reports and others as the need arises. If they value coaching and the benefits they have derived from having their own personal coach, they will appreciate the value that coaching can bring to all employees in the organisation. Before committing resources, organisations need to determine the purpose for introducing a coaching culture [36]. Is it to develop the capacity of leaders? Is it to improve employee performance? Is it to encourage innovation? Research has linked the development of a coaching culture with all these outcomes [73]. Some organisations view the development of a coaching culture as an opportunity to create a more positive and supportive work environment for personal and organisational flourishing [74], while others see it as an opportunity to engage in ‘more candor, less denial, richer communication, conscious development of talent’ [75], resulting in disciplined leaders who show compassion for people. The organisational transformation process starts with the senior executive team making a commitment to displaying the organisation’s values-in-action in their everyday behaviour and incorporating a coaching approach as ‘a key aspect of how the leaders, managers and staff engage and develop all their people and engage their stakeholders …[to] create increased individual, team and organisational performance and shared value for all stakeholders’ [39]. An example is Deloitte which

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replaced their annual performance appraisals with 4–6 weekly coaching conversations [76]. For coaching to become a truly valuable tool for organisational leaders, especially during a transformation process, a commitment has to be made at the most senior level and resources allocated to support the coaching initiative. Coaching has to be identified as a strategic priority within the organisational and cultural change initiative. Role modelling by executives who have been coached sends a powerful message about the acceptance and indeed, desirability, of coaching being conducted throughout the organisation. The steps in a transformational cultural change program are depicted in Fig. 20.2 [77]. In summary, before investing resources into a coaching initiative to transform and change the culture of an organisation, executives need to define the purpose for coaching, the anticipated benefits, and how to measure them. As the coaching

Fig. 20.2  Eight steps to transformational cultural change through coaching Note: This blueprint for cultural change through coaching is explained in “Coaching Culture” to be published by Springer in 2022.

References

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initiative is rolled-out across the entire organisation, leaders are trained across all levels so they can coach their direct reports in formal, scheduled coaching sessions. In addition, all employees are trained in coaching skills to communicate the value of coaching and show them how to conduct coaching, feedback and corridor conversations with peers. The return on investment from training leaders as coaches and employees in coaching skills needs to be progressively measured to determine the effectiveness of these strategies in the transformational, cultural change program.

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Index

A Action-planning, 147, 148 Active listening, 85 Adult learning principles, 130 Adult learning theories, 128, 129 Age-old method, 140 AIPC COACH model, 6, 108, 110–112 AIPC Organisational COACHing model, 8, 201, 207, 209–216, 234, 251, 252, 271 assessment and feedback, 211 baseline data collection, 212 beginning the coaching, 214 hard and soft data, 212 identify the coachee’s coaching, 213 profiling, 211 conducting coaching program, 214 contracting and preparation, 210 evaluation of coaching outcomes, 215 formative evaluation, 215 multi-rater assessment tool, 216 summative evaluation, 215 Andragogy theory, 129 Authentic happiness, 33 B Behavioural change, 3–7, 45, 46, 53, 54 Behavioural psychology, 12, 14 Behavioural theories, 20, 140–142 Benefits of coaching for individuals, 68, 69 for organisations, 71 for teams, 70 Boundaryless career, 184 Build rapport, 83

C Career decision-making, 193, 194 Career development, 5, 7 Career development, coaching for, 182 assessment and feedback, 196 career ambiguity, 192 career goal-setting, 192–194 career identity, 189, 190 career stages, 183, 184 career theories, 184–187 career transition, 194, 195 de-identification, 190, 196 life stages, 182, 183 multiple selves, 190, 191 possible and provisional selves, 191, 192 Career Development Plan (CDP), 196, 197 Career goal-setting, 192, 193 Career identity, 189, 190 Career stages, 183, 184 Career transition, 194, 195 Chaos theory, 186 Classical conditioning, 13 Closed questions, 86 Coaches practice mindfulness, 41 Coaching for behavioural change theoretical foundations, 139 difference between mentoring and, 47–49 disorienting dilemmas, 133, 134 educational underpinnings of, 54 executive coaching, 55 goal-setting and action-planning, 147, 148 importance, 2 leadership coaching, 57 management underpinnings of, 55, 56 managerial coaching, 56

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 S. Knowles, Positive Psychology Coaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88995-1

301

302 Coaching (cont.) meaning-making, 134 peer coaching, 57 positive psychology contributions, 120, 131, 160 critical self-reflection, 131, 132 personal transformation, 132 reflective practice, 121 relational depth, 121 resilience, 162, 163 self-esteem, 161, 162 strengths, 160, 161 positive psychology research, 144, 145 solution-focused, 145, 146 values and beliefs, 145, 146 potential, 163 psychological underpinnings of, 53, 54 self-directed learning, 133 self-efficacy, 148, 149 self-regulation, 163, 164 team coaching, 57 theoretical foundations, 117, 118, 153 traditional psychology contributions, 118, 154 adult learning principles, 130 adult learning theories, 128, 129 communication, 158, 159 individual and personality psychology, 154, 155 insight, 119, 120 interpersonal skills, 158 needs, wants and drives, 157 personality theories, 155, 156 relationships, 159 self-actualisation, 158 self-awareness, 118, 119 self-reflection, 119 Coaching as a meta-process, 91 Coaching culture, 1, 292–295 Coaching for career development, 182 assessment and feedback, 196 career ambiguity, 192 career goal-setting, 192–194 career identity, 189, 190 career stages, 183, 184 career theories, 184–187 career transition, 194, 195 de-identification, 190, 196 life stages, 182, 183 multiple selves, 190, 191 possible and provisional selves, 191, 192 Coaching fundamentals, 3, 6, 7 Coaching leadership style, 2, 8, 239, 240, 248–250, 252, 253, 282

Index Coaching needs, 67 Coaching partnership, 93 Coaching practice application, 108 new client, engaging, 108–112 positive psychology contributions, 103 coaching relationship, 103, 104 directing style, 105 email coaching, 107–108 facilitation style, 104 guiding style, 104, 105 in-person coaching, 105, 106 motivating style, 105 coaching styles, 104 telephone coaching, 106–108 virtual coaching, 106 second and subsequent coaching sessions, 113 theoretical foundations, 102 traditional psychology contributions, 102 Coaching problem, 91, 96 Coaching process application to coaching, 94, 95 client intimacy, 95 maintaining a coaching presence, 96 positive psychological contributions, 92, 93 setting ground rules and boundaries, 96, 97 theoretical foundations, 92 traditional psychological contributions, 92 trust establishment, 95 Coaching skills, 91 active listening, 85 closed questions, 86 definition, 79 open questions, 86 positive psychology contributions powerful questions, 84 powerful questions, 87 reflective listening, 85, 86 summaries, 88, 89 theoretical foundations, 80 traditional psychology contributions language models, 80 listening skills, 82 motivational interviewing, 81 non-directive counselling skills, 81 process vs. content coaching skills, 83 questioning skills, 82 summarising skills, 83 Coaching Skills Self-Efficacy Scale (CSSES), 161 Coaching for professional development, 168 traditional professional development activities, design of, 170, 171

Index traditional research, 168 design and delivery principles, 175 educational research, 169 high-quality design, 173, 174 job-embedded training, 171, 172 observation and feedback, 173 personal attributes and skills, 175, 176 post-training, 176 psychological research, 168, 169 skills and competencies, 169, 170 to support delivery, 172 Cognitive behaviour theory (CBT), 142 Cognitive psychology, 14, 15, 22, 182 Cognitive therapeutic approaches, 53 Command-and-control practices, 8 Communication, 158, 159 Compassion, 156 Competencies, 94, 169, 170 Competency-based professional development, 171 Conditioned response, 13 Conditioned stimulus, 13 Contemporary coaches, 4, 7, 8, 40 Content-oriented coaching skills, 83 Content-oriented professional development, 7 Contingency-based model maturity, 242 path–goal theory, 242 situational leadership, 242 Critical self-reflection, 7, 16, 24, 38, 46, 52, 80, 83–85, 102, 104, 117–123, 127, 129, 131, 132, 134, 170, 173–176, 248, 294 Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly, 32, 37, 40 D Deep-structure learning, 131 De-identification, 190, 196 Developmental intervention, 47 Developmental psychology, 15, 16 Discipline, 52 Distortion, 18 Double-loop learning, 128, 129, 132 Dreyfus model, 168 Dual processing, 120 Dyadic coaching, 70, 102 E Educational research, 169 Email coaching, 107–108 Employee engagement, 249

303 cultural diversity, 250 ethical management, 250 organisational justice, 249 positive leaders, 249 Psychological contract, 249 self-determination theory, 249 Employment contract, 188 Ethical Principles and Code of Ethics, 94 Executive coaching, 8, 55, 256, 260, 261, 265–267, 270, 271 Executive development, 3–5, 8, 259 coaching AIPC Organisational COACHing model, 201, 207, 209–216, 271 executive leadership, 272 intra- and inter-personal effectiveness, 271 power and influence, 273, 274 strategic decisions, 273 cognitive behavioural psychology, 260 decision-making, 263 normative decision model, 264 root–branch typology, 264 positive psychology, 265 executive coaching, 266 executive competencies, 268–270 strategic leadership, 267 talent management, 270 positive psychology research, 260 power in organisations, 261 expert power, 261 organisational politics, 262 personal interaction, 263 senior executive team, 260 Experiential learning, 128, 173 Exploitative innovation, 282 Exploratory innovation, 282 F Financial planning, 93 Flourish, 32, 35, 37 Freewill, 14 G Gestalt techniques, 123 Globalization, 189 Goal neglect, 193 Goal-oriented coaching, 147, 148 Goal-setting, Reality checking, Options and Wrap Up (GROW) model, 92 GROW model of coaching, 2, 292

Index

304 H Happiness, 3, 31–33, 35–37, 41 Hierarchy of Needs, 17 Homelessness, 93 Human happiness, 35 Human Resource Development (HRD), 1 Human Resource Management (HRM), 45, 52 Humanistic psychology, 16–20, 22, 26, 102 I Incongruent individual, 18 Individual benefits from coaching, 69 Individual potential, 7, 8 Individual psychology, 154, 155 In-person coaching, 105, 106 Insight, 3–6 Instrumental conditioning, see Operant conditioning Intangible benefits of coaching, 67–69, 71, 73 Intelligent careers, 185 International Coaching Federation (ICF), 1 Interpersonal and team relationships, 45, 55 Interpersonal skills, 79, 158 J Job-embedded training, 171, 172 Job satisfaction, 45, 55 K Kaleidoscope career theory, 185 Kinaesthetic technique, 123 Kirkpatrick model, 215 L Laissez-faire managers, 241 Language models, 80 Leader as Coach programs, 203, 207, 250 Leadership coaching, 57 Leadership development, 8, 55 coaching for, 240 informal coaching coaching conversations, 252 corridor conversations, 253 feedback conversations, 252 positive psychology contributions, 246 coaching leadership style, 248 emotional intelligence, 247 employee engagement, 249

managers and leaders, 250 theoretical basis, 239 traditional psychology contributions, 240–245 behavioural theories, 241 contingency-based model (see contingency-based model) emergence of leadership, 244 management and leadership responsibilities, 245 traits theories, 241 transforming leadership, 245 Learn and grow, 149, 185 Learned helplessness, 33 Learning and growth, 3, 4, 6, 40, 57, 127–134, 176, 253, 267 Learning, transfer of, 170 Life stages, 182, 183 Life Styles Inventory (LSI), 156 Limiting beliefs, 45, 54 Line managers, 70 Listening skills, 82 Locus of control, 156 M Management theory, 55 Manager as Coach programs, 8, 103, 207, 239, 250 Managerial coaching, 56 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, 17, 157 McClelland’s motivations, 225 Meaning-making, 31, 33, 35, 134 Measuring the benefits of coaching, 72 Mental model, 36, 37 Mentoring, 92 difference between coaching and, 47, 48 MetrixGlobal, 73, 74 Mindful Attention Awareness Scale, 39 Mindfulness, 38, 39, 123, 124 Mindset theory, 54 Monetary and ‘people’ benefits, 75 Monetary benefits, 73 Motivation, 32, 45, 46, 53, 54, 56, 57 Motivational Interviewing (MI), 81 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), 17, 155 N Needs and wants, 19 Non-directive counselling skills, 81 Normative Decision Model, 264–265

Index O Open questions, 86 Optimism/pessimism, 33, 34, 36 Organisational benefits from coaching, 71 Organisational coaching, 201, 204 AIPC Organisational COACHing Model (see AIPC Organisational COACHing Model) clients, 206 coachee, 205 HR professionals, 207 ©AIPC COACH model, 207 coach–coachee match, 207–208 external coaches, 208 traditional HR professional, 207 transformational HR professional, 207 OD environments, 203, 204 partnership principles, 206 sponsors, 206 theoretical foundations, 202 Organisational culture, 9, 290, 291 Organisational learning, 3–5, 8, 9, 71, 214, 279, 291 coaching AIPC Organisational COACHing model, 201, 207, 209–216, 234, 251, 252, 271, 283 change initiatives, 285 innovation, 284 role modelling, 284 positive psychology, 281 goal-oriented approach, 282 innovation, 282, 283 traditional psychology, 280 double-loop learning, 128, 129, 132, 281 collective learning, 281 single-loop learning, 128, 129, 131, 281 triple-loop learning, 281 P Peer coaching, 57 People benefits, 74 Performance improvement, 3–5, 8 coaching AIPC Organisational COACHing model, 201, 207, 209–216, 234, 251, 252, 271 contracting, 233–234 data collection, 234 formative and summative evaluation, 235

305 pure coaching, 233 cognitive behavioural psychology techniques, 221 positive psychology, 230 positive organisational behaviour, 232 positive scholarship, 232 positive work environment, 230 psychological capital, 231 self-efficacy, 222 traditional psychology carrot-and-stick approach, 222 categories and indicators of stress, 229 extrinsic motivation, 223 individual motivators, 223 intrinsic motivation, 223 Job Characteristics Model, 226 job dissatisfaction, 228 McClelland’s theory, 224 Motivator-Hygiene theory, 227 n-ach person, 224 n-affil person, 224 n-pow person, 224 people factors, 226 performance theory, 225 PERMA, 33, 35 Personal attributes, 175, 176 Personal development, 1, 7 Personal identity, 189 Personal transformation, 132 Personality psychology, 22, 154, 155 Personality theories, 19, 20, 22, 25, 155, 156 Pessimism vs. optimism, 33 Portfolio career theory, 186 Positive emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, Achievement (PERMA), 33 Positive organisational scholarship, 37 Positive psychology, 103, 131, 140, 144, 145 authentic happiness, 34, 35 coaching relationship, 103, 104 critical self-reflection, 131, 132 definition, 31 directing style, 105 email coaching, 107–108 emergence, 3 facilitation style, 104 flow experience, 32 guiding style, 104, 105 in-person coaching, 105, 106 learned helplessness, 33, 34 mental model, 36, 41 mindfulness, 38, 39, 41, 42 mindset, 37, 38, 41 motivating style, 105

Index

306 Positive psychology (cont.) optimism/pessimism, 34 personal transformation, 132 philosophy of positive psychology coaching, 39, 40 principles, 40 reflective practice, 121 relational depth, 121 resilience, 162, 163 self-esteem, 161, 162 solution-focused, 145 strengths, 160, 161 coaching styles, 104 telephone coaching, 106–108 values and beliefs, 145, 146 virtual coaching, 106 Positive psychology coaching, 2–5, 7, 39, 40 Positive psychology contributions, 120, 160 Positive psychology research, 102, 117 Positive scholarship, 37 Positive work environment, 8 Possible selves, 191, 192 Power-distance relationship, 48 Powerful questions, 84, 87 Principle of reinforcement, 14 Process-oriented coaching skill, 79, 83, 85 Profession, 52 Professional development, 1, 2, 7 Professional development, coaching for, 168 design and delivery principles, 175 educational research, 169 high-quality design, 173, 174 job-embedded training, 171, 172 observation and feedback, 173 personal attributes and skills, 175, 176 post-training, 176 psychological research, 168, 169 skills and competencies, 169, 170 to support delivery, 172 traditional professional development activities, design of, 170, 171 traditional research, 168 transfer of learning, 170, 171, 174, 175 Professional identity, 190 Professional responsibility, 94 Provisional selves, 191, 192 Psychodynamic theories, 20 Psychological capital, 37 Psychological distress, 93 Psychological research, 168, 169 Psychological wellness, 35 Psychology applications, 12 definition, 11

Q Questioning skills, 82 R Rational emotive behaviour therapy, 15 Reflective listening, 85 Reflective practice, 121–123 Relationships traditional psychology, 159 Resilience, 162, 163 Return on investment (ROI), 4 monetary and people benefits, 74, 75 monetary benefits, 73 people benefits, 74 Root–Branch typology, 264 S Self-actualisation, 158 Self-awareness, 3–6 traditional psychology, 118, 119 Self-concept, 18 Self-concordance, 193 Self-determination theory, 35, 188, 193 Self-directed learning, 133 Self-efficacy, 45, 53, 54, 143, 148, 149 Self-esteem, 161, 162 Self-knowledge, 163 Self-reflection traditional psychology, 119 Self-regulation, 163, 164 Self-system, 143 Seligman, Martin, 31, 32 Side-by-side coaching, 172 Single-loop learning, 128, 129, 131 Skill development, 169, 170 Skinner Box, 14 Social integration, 158 Social psychology, 23, 140 Social psychology research, 102 Social psychology theories, 20 Soft skills, 79 Solution-focused approach, 145, 146 Stimulus-response, 12, 13, 21, 23 Strategic executives, 269 creative innovative thinking, 270 critical analytical ability, 268 ethical and moral judgment, 270 strategic decision-making, 269 strategic thinking, 268 Strategic leadership, 267 advanced systems, 267 financial viability, 267

Index Strength-based assessments, 160 Strengths, 32, 35–37, 160, 161 Strengths Self-Efficacy scale (SSES), 161 Summaries, 88 Summarising skills, 83 Supervisory coaching, 172 T Tangible benefits, 6, 67, 69, 70 Team coaching, 57 Telephone coaching, 106–108 Therapeutic psychological interventions, 3 Total Quality Management (TQM), 290 Traditional “tell me” feedback approaches, 80 Traditional personality psychology, 7 Traditional psychology, 102 behavioural theories, 12, 14, 140–142 cognitive behaviour theory, 142 cognitive theories, 14, 15 developmental theories, 15, 16, 22, 24, 139, 144 fields of research which inform coaching, 13 humanistic psychology, 16–18, 142 insight, 119, 120 personality theories, 19, 20, 144 psychodynamic and educational underpinnings, 23–27 self-awareness, 118, 119 self-reflection, 119 social cognitive theory, 143, 144 social psychology theories, 20, 21 Traditional psychology contributions, 154 communication, 158, 159 individual and personality psychology, 154, 155 interpersonal skills, 158 needs, wants and drives, 157 personality theories, 155, 156 relationships, 159 self-actualisation, 158 Traditional research coaching for professional development, 170, 174, 175

307 educational research, 169 psychological research, 168–169 skills and competencies, 169, 170 Trait theories, 19 Transformational cultural change, 3–6 coaching formal, structured, long-term coaching programs, 294 frames model, 293 organisational transformation process, 295 steps, 296 stories model, 293 strategic leaders, 295 toolkits model, 293, 294 values model, 293 coaching culture, 292 traditional psychology, 290 artefacts, 291 assumptions, 292 culture, 291 values and beliefs, 291 Transformative learning theory, 129 Trusting relationship, 79 Type theories, 20 U Unconditional positive regard, 18, 19, 22, 80, 81, 84, 156 Unconditioned response, 12 US Manchester Consulting Group, 73 V Values driven protean career, 185 Values-Sort Card exercise, 146 Virtual coaching, 106 Volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous (VUCA) environments, 2 W Work performance, 45, 55 Workforce Study, 74